Next Article in Journal
Plant Natural Sources of the Endocannabinoid (E)-β-Caryophyllene: A Systematic Quantitative Analysis of Published Literature
Next Article in Special Issue
Targeting Platelet in Atherosclerosis Plaque Formation: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives
Previous Article in Journal
Advanced Bioluminescence System for In Vivo Imaging with Brighter and Red-Shifted Light Emission
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
IJMS
Volume 21
Issue 18
10.3390/ijms21186539
ijms-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Standardization and Validation of Fluorescence-Based Quantitative Assay to Study Human Platelet Adhesion to Extracellular-Matrix in a 384-Well Plate

by
Augusto Martins Lima
1,2,*,
Damian S. Saint Auguste
1,3,
François Cuenot
1,
Ana C. Martins Cavaco
4,
Tom Lachkar
1,
Cindy Marie Elodie Khawand
1,
Rodrigo A. Fraga-Silva
1 and
Nikolaos Stergiopulos
1
1
Laboratory of Hemodynamics and Cardiovascular Technology (LHTC), Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
2
Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Station 09, MED 3.2924, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
3
Laboratory for Orthopaedic Technology, Institute for Biomechanics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
4
Luis Costa Lab, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21(18), 6539; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186539
Submission received: 13 August 2020 / Revised: 31 August 2020 / Accepted: 3 September 2020 / Published: 7 September 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanisms and Therapeutics of Platelet Thrombus Formation 2020)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Platelets play a crucial role in the immunological response and are involved in the pathological settings of vascular diseases, and their adhesion to the extracellular matrix is important to bring leukocytes close to the endothelial cells and to form and stabilize the thrombus. Currently there are several methods to study platelet adhesion; however, the optimal parameters to perform the assay vary among studies, which hinders their comparison and reproducibility. Here, a standardization and validation of a fluorescence-based quantitative adhesion assay to study platelet-ECM interaction in a high-throughput screening format is proposed. Our study confirms that fluorescence-based quantitative assays can be effectively used to detect platelet adhesion, in which BCECF-AM presents the highest sensitivity in comparison to other dyes.

1. Introduction

Platelet adhesion is a crucial step in bleeding control and in the thrombosis process. Although circulating platelets show no interaction between them, neither with the internal surface of normal vessels, platelets promptly adhere to exposed extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins upon vascular injury or in pathological settings [1]. Therefore, the balance between hemostasis and thrombosis depends on platelet-ECM interaction: inefficient adhesion leads to bleeding, whereas excessive adhesion followed by platelet activation can prompt thrombus formation [2]. Upon endothelial cell damage, depending on the depth of the injury, platelets come into contact with different ECM constituents [2]. Interestingly, platelets can also adhere to damaged endothelial cells [3], although ECM is their main adhesive substrate. Interaction with ECM leads to platelet rapid activation and prothrombotic factors release, which recruit additional platelets from the bloodstream and promotes platelet aggregation. Platelet adhesion is an initial and crucial step of the coagulation cascade which prevents posttraumatic blood loss [4]. However, uncontrolled thrombus formation can lead to vascular occlusion, ischemia, and if located in coronary and cerebral arteries, myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke, respectively [5,6,7]. Furthermore, platelet adhesion might also influence atherosclerotic plaque progression and stability during the development of atherosclerosis [6].
Vessels are lined by endothelium, and beneath this layer rests the basement membrane, which contains type IV collagen, laminins, nidogens, and perlecan [8]. While the predominant isoforms in vascular basement membranes are nidogen 2 and laminins-411 and -511, in the interstitium surrounding the vessels, fibrillar collagen types I, III, and V are the most prominent [9]. Other adhesive proteins, such as von Willebrand factor (vWF), fibronectin, vitronectin, and fibrinogen, are present in plasma and in platelet α-granules [10]. For instance, fibrinogen and vitronectin although not synthesized by vascular cells, are potentially relevant thrombogenic substrates as they immobilize onto ECM at sites of injury, being incorporated in the thrombus [11]. Thrombogenic substrates encountered by platelets are determined by the injury degree and depend on the vessel type, influencing platelet adhesion efficiency [10]. Damage to the endothelial layer exposes type IV collagen, laminins, vWF, and fibronectins, whereas more extensive injuries reaching the smooth muscle layer or interstitial ECM expose fibrillar collagens, elastin and microfibrils [2,12]. Furthermore, platelets adhesion capacity to ECM proteins varies, which might also influence the adhesion strength and efficiency [10].
Platelet adhesion to ECM proteins is facilitated by the synergistic function of several platelet receptors, which are essential for the initial adhesion and the subsequent platelet activation and aggregation [6]. The main signals triggered during platelet activation in response to ECM proteins arise from receptors such as glycoprotein (GP) VI, together with integrin α2β1, both mainly binding to collagen [6,13]. Full platelet activation is further facilitated by the transient interaction between platelet-specific GPIbα and vWF [6,13]. Following platelet adhesion and activation, aggregation is enabled by integrin αIIbβ3, which changes its ligand binding properties and acquires the ability to bind soluble adhesive proteins, including fibrinogen and vWF [6]. Gene-targeted mouse models were crucial in understanding the relative function of the different platelet receptors. It confirms the importance of adhesion receptors such as GPIbα or integrin αIIbβ3 in thrombus formation, whereas the function of receptors, such as GPVI, seems to be regulated by the severity of injury, type of vessel injured, and generated signaling pathways [14]. Overall the thrombus is stabilized by platelets interacting with collagen present in the vessel ECM during adhesion, and by fibrinogen/fibrin bound-activated platelets during aggregation [6].
Vascular diseases are some of the major clinical problems in the developed world [5,15], and given the relevance of platelets in these pathologies, the understanding of platelets adhesion to the ECM is an important topic of research. Furthermore, new evidences highlight platelet adhesive properties as central to a variety of pathophysiological processes such as inflammation [16], immune-mediated host defense [17], and cancer metastasis [18].
Several methodologies to measure platelet adhesion have been described [4,19,20]; however, there is no standard test, which impairs comparison of results from different studies, contributing to the lack of reproducibility in science. Increasing recognition of the inability to replicate the majority of fundamental, biomedical, and preclinical research findings presented in high-profile journals, emphasizes the problem of irreproducibility [21]. Therefore, in the present work a standardization and validation of a fluorescence-based quantitative adhesion assay to study platelet-ECM interaction using a 384-well plate is proposed.

2. Results

2.1. Assay Optimization

2.1.1. Assay Linearity

Assay linearity was calculated by measuring the adhesion to plastic of different concentrations of BCECF-stained human washed platelets. In the proposed assay, the fluorescence signal increased in a platelet concentration-dependent manner (fluorescent units: 2 × 104 = 16,013 ± 2,736; 4 × 104 = 26,115 ± 5,442; 8 × 104 = 56,809 ± 12,000; 1.6 × 105 = 104,408 ± 20,797—R2 = 0.9971, Figure 1A). In addition, 4 × 104/µL was the minimal platelet concentration necessary to detect significant changes in platelet adhesion to collagen-I (fluorescent units: BSA = 4671 ± 627 vs. Col-I = 18,175 ± 4642) and no statistical differences were found among the groups with platelet concentration of 2 × 104/µL (fluorescent units: BSA = 4588 ± 636 vs. Col-I = 10,667 ± 5213, Figure 1B). The optimal concentration of BCECF-AM was also tested by measuring the platelet adhesion to collagen-I. As shown in the Figure 1C, the fluorescence signal was significantly increased on adherent platelets stained with 4 µg/mL (fluorescent units: BSA = 5146 ± 669 vs. Col-I = 20,464 ± 5817) and 8 µg/mL (fluorescent units: BSA = 7472 ± 1064 vs. Col-I = 23,361 ± 5291) of BCECF-AM. Interestingly, at high concentrations of BCECF-AM (16 µg/mL), there was no statistical difference between platelet adhesion to collagen-I compared to non-coated wells (fluorescent units: BSA = 8590 ± 2653 vs. Col-I = 19,069 ± 5560). These results demonstrate the feasibility of platelet adhesion measurement using BCECF-AM and confirm that platelet and BCECF-AM concentrations are important parameters to detect statistical differences between platelet adhesion to ECM-coated and non-coated wells.

2.1.2. Non-Specific Binding Blocking

BSA has been widely used to prevent the non-specific binding of cells to different surfaces, including polystyrene, assuring the specificity of cell adhesion to the ECM. However, the BSA concentration varies largely between experimental protocols, as well as the type of plate used. Therefore, we tested the optimal BSA concentration to prevent non-specific binding using 3 different microplates (Figure 2). In this experimental setup, the following microplates were used: (1) Invitrogen™ (44-2404-21) has the MaxiSorp® technology with a highly charged polystyrene surface with high affinity for molecules with polar or hydrophilic groups; (2) Greiner Bio-one (655180) and (3) Corning (353072) have polystyrene surface wells treated with plasma gas, which increases hydrophobicity. To block non-specific platelet binding to the wells surface, different BSA concentrations were used (0.00075 to 4%—BSA) and all concentrations reduced significantly the platelet adhesion to the plastic of the Invitrogen™ (44-2404-21) plate with the MaxiSorp® technology. Furthermore, 0.03% BSA had the best blocking effect compared to all other BSA concentrations (fluorescent units: 0% BSA = 30,404 ± 4713 vs. 0.03% BSA = 6184 ± 400). Surprisingly, although there was a decreasing tendency of platelet adhesion to plastic at 0.03% BSA concentration, no statistical difference was found in neither BSA concentrations used to block Greiner Bio-one (655180) or Corning (353072) plates. These results clearly show that BSA low concentrations inhibit platelet adhesion to plastic of Invitrogen™ (44-2404-21) plate with the MaxiSorp® technology.

2.1.3. Optimal ECM Protein Concentration to Perform Platelet Adhesion Assay

Platelet adhesion is an important function in response to vascular damage and several ECM proteins are involved in this event, depending on the type and depth of the injury. In order to test the BCECF-AM-based assay capability to measure platelet adhesion, several ECM proteins were tested at different concentrations: fibrinogen, fibronectin, non-fibrillar and fibrillar collagen-I, collagen-III, collagen-IV, laminin-411, laminin-511, CRP, and vitronectin (Figure 3). Platelet adhesion was significantly increased on wells coated with fibrinogen, followed by laminin-511, laminin-411, non-fibrillar collagen-I and collagen-IV, in a concentration-dependent manner. Interestingly, at high concentrations, platelet adhesion to fibrinogen was markedly impaired. Platelet adhesion was also detected on fibronectin, fibrillar collagen-I and CRP, only at one specific concentration (fibronectin: 20 µg/mL; fibrillar collagen-I: 64 µg/mL and CRP: 10 µg/mL). No statistical difference on platelet adhesion was detected on wells coated with collagen-III or vitronectin. Altogether these results show the BCEFC-AM-based assay capability to detect human platelet adhesion to the most relevant ECM proteins in vessel damage and thrombus formation.

2.2. Assay Validation

2.2.1. Comparison between BCECF-AM vs. Calcein-AM and Its Variations

In order to validate the assay, BCECF-AM-based assay was compared to two other labelling techniques: Calcein-AM (Figure 4) and Sudan Black B (SBB (Supplementary Figure S1). Platelets were pre-stained as previously described by several authors, using Calcein-AM (see Table 1) or SBB [19]. In contrast, the experimental protocol employing BCECF-AM stains the already adherent platelets. For this experimental setup, all techniques were performed with the same platelet, collagen-I and BSA concentrations. In addition, two different approaches were used to detect the platelet adhesion signal: Non-lysed vs. lysed platelets. Surprisingly, only the BCECF-AM technique was capable to detect platelet adhesion with statistical differences between non-coated vs. collagen-I-coated wells (fluorescent units: non-coated wells = 4114 ± 537 vs. 4 µg/mL collagen-I-coated wells = 38,114 ± 8061), while for Calcein-AM (Figure 4) no statistical differences were observed between both conditions. In addition, a more robust delta value of the fluorescence signal for the measurements was observed for the non-lysed BCECF-AM labeled platelets. This experiment clearly shows that BCECF-AM is a more accurate technique to measure platelet adhesion compared to Calcein-AM. Interestingly, although a significant difference between non-coated vs. collagen-coated wells was observed when platelets were stained with SBB, platelet aggregates were detected on non-coated wells (supplementary Figure S1).
TC-I 15, a potent α2β1 integrin inhibitor, was used to test the assay’s ability to test different platelet receptor inhibitors and their effect on platelet adhesion. As shown in Figure 5, platelet adhesion on collagen-I-coated wells was markedly reduced by TC-I 15 in a concentration-dependent manner. TC-I 15, at a concentration of 1µM, inhibited significantly platelet adhesion to collagen-I (fluorescent units: non-treated platelets = 22,390 ± 5277 vs. TC-I 15 treated platelets, 1 µM = 6633 ± 815) and the dendritic shape with spiky membrane extensions, typically caused by adhesion to collagen-I, was abolished. Taken together, these results demonstrate the relevance of the assay in detecting platelet adhesion inhibition in pharmacological tests.

2.2.2. Z′-Factor Calculation in a 384-Well Plate

Platelet adhesion to fibrinogen was studied to validate the assay in a 384-well plate. The adhesion response was compared to the results obtained using a 96-well plate. The same fibrinogen, BSA and platelet concentration was used in both plates with a lower final volume for 384-well plate compared to 96-well plate (see Standard Operating Procedure supplemental material). As it is shown on Figure 6, platelet adhesion to fibrinogen on 384-well plate increases in a concentration-dependent manner. The maximal response was obtained at 4 mg/mL of fibrinogen, and the response was significantly increased compared to BSA coated-wells (concentrations 0.25 mg/mL to 8 mg/mL) (Figure 6A). Similarly to the 96-well plate, platelet adhesion was impaired when high concentration of fibrinogen was used (8 mg/mL). Although the maximal response varied between both plates (fluorescent units: 384-well plate, 4 mg/mL fibrinogen = 231,032 ± 12,022 vs. 96-well plate, 2 mg/mL fibrinogen = 60,411 ± 11326), the pattern of platelet adhesion response was clearly similar, validating the assay also to a 384-well plate.
The Z′-factor, a statistical parameter that considers the window and variance around high and low assay signals, was used to measure the quality of the assay. Importantly, the Z′-factor ranges −∞ to 1 and an assay with a score greater than 0.5 is considered robust and appropriate to high-throughput screening [22]. To examine this, fibrinogen (1 mg/mL) diluted in water was added to half of the 384-well microplate (176 wells—right side). In the other half, water was added (176 wells—left side). After blocking the wells with BSA, platelet adhesion was measured using BCECF-AM. As shown on Figure 6B, using a platelet concentration of 8 × 104/µL, an optimal Z′-factor value (<0.5) was attained with a 384-well plate (fluorescent units: non-coated wells = mean 17,819 ± SD 4293 vs. fibrinogen-coated wells, 1 mg/mL = mean 196,492 ± SD 14170).

3. Discussion

Adhesion to different substrates is an important step in physiological and pathological processes involving platelets. Events such as thrombosis depend on platelet adhesion to the exposed vessel ECM. Methods assessing platelet adhesion, allow the study of platelet’s capacity to adhere to different ECM proteins, and also investigate adhesion inhibitors, pathophysiological processes as inflammation, immune-mediated host defense, and cancer metastasis. Several methods have been described and widely used, employing different platelet adhesion detection methods. In the present study, we selected two methods to further characterize and compare, employing either BCECF-AM or Calcein-AM. Our work, by standardizing the method, is relevant mainly in the contexts of scientific reproducibility and decision making, regarding the selection of submaximal concentrations of adhesion inhibitors.
The selected cell-permeable dyes to be investigated in the present work, BCECF-AM and Calcein-AM, were previously used with similar purposes and the original articles employing these methods were gathered in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. Although experiments employing SBB were also performed, our experiments hinted that this dye is not suitable to stain platelets, since it leads to platelet aggregation, when no substrate was added to the wells (non-coated conditions).
Table
Table 1. Previous studies using Calcein-AM to measure platelet adhesion.
Table 1. Previous studies using Calcein-AM to measure platelet adhesion.
YearType of PlateECM ConcentrationBlocking BSAPlatelet ConcentrationDye ConcentrationType of MeasurementRef.
2000MicroFLUOR 96-well
(Dynatech)		Collagen (2 μg/well) or CRP (1.5 μg/well)5%N/APre-labeled platelets with 2 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[23]
2000Microfluor 96-well
(Dynatech) 		Collagen (2 μg/well) or Convulxin (1.5 μg/well)N/AN/APre-labeled platelets Calcein-AMPlate reader without lysing platelets[24]
200296-well
(N/A)		Vitronectin
(5 μg/mL) or Fibrinogen (10 μg/mL)		3%100,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2.5 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader after lysing platelets[25]
2003Tissue culture 96-well
(Costar)		D100 or D98 Fibrinogen fragments (20 μg/mL)1%100,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 10 μM Calcein-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[26]
2004MaxiSorp 96-well
(Invitrogen™)		N/A2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets withn 2 μM Calcein-AM at 37 °C, 60 minMicroscopy[27]
200696-well
(Greiner)		Fibronectin (5 μg/well)N/AN/APre-labeled platelets with 5 μM Calcein-AM, 60 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[28]
200696-well
(N/A)		Fibronectin (5 µg/well) or Collagen-III (1 µg/well)N/A1000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 5 μM Calcein-AM, 60 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[29]
2008384-well
(Corning no. 3711)		Fibrinogen (50 μg/mL)0.35%250,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 7 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[30]
2010Immulon 4HBX 96-well
(ThermoLabsystems)		Fibrinogen (0.1 to 50 μg/mL)1%100,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 10 μM Calcein-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[31]
2010Microfluor 96-well
(ThermoLabsystems)		Collagen (2 μg/well)2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with Calcein-AMPlate reader without lysing platelets[32]
2010Immulon-2HB 96-well
(Dynex Technologies)		Laminin-511 or Collagen (5 to 200 μg/mL)3%100,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 4 μM Calcein-AMPlate reader without lysing platelets[33]
2010Microfluor 96-well
(ThermoLabsystems)		Fibrillar Collagen (1 μg/well)2%N/APre-labeled platelets with 2 μM Calcein-AM, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[34]
2011Microfluor 2 high-affinity 96-well
(Thermo Electron Co)		Fibronectin (1 μg/mL), Fibrinogen (100 μg/mL) or Collagen-I (2 μg/mL)2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[35]
201196-well
(N/A)		Fibrinogen (concentration not mentioned)0.35%200/μLPre-labeled platelets with 7 μM Calcein-AM Plate reader without lysing platelets[36]
2011Polystyrene 96-well
(Nunc)		Fibrinogen (10 μg/mL)N/A200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 7 μM Calcein-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[37]
2012Microfluor 96-well
(ThermoLabsystems)		Collagen (1 μg/well)2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[38]
201296-well
(N/A)		Fibrinogen (50 μg/mL)1%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2.5 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 15 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[39]
201396-well
(N/A)		Collagen (40 μg/mL)5%N/APre-labeled platelets with 2.5 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 15 minPlate reader after lysing platelets[40]
2013Microfluor 96-well plates
(ThermoLabsystems)		Collagen-I (20 μg/mL) 2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[41]
2014Tissue culture 96-well
(Costa) 		Fragment D98 (10 μg/mL)1%100,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 10 μM Calcein-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[42]
2015Microfluor 96-well
(Thermo Labsystems)		Collagen (1 μg/well) or Fibrinogen (50 μg/well)2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2 μM Calcein-AM at RT, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[43]
201696-well
(N/A)		Fibrinogen (50 μg/mL)5%500,000/wellPre-labeled platelets with 7 μM Calcein-AMPlate reader without lysing platelets[44]
201696-well
(Corning)		Collagen (100 μg/mL)1%N/APre-labeled platelets with 10 ng/mL Calcein for 30min 37CPlate reader without lysing platelets[45]
201796-well
(Greiner Bio-one, 655096)		Fibrinogen or Fibrinogen fragment D98 (10 μg/mL)0.35%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 7 uM Calcein for 30min RTPlate reader without lysing platelets[46]
202096-well
(N/A)		Collagen (20 μg/mL)2%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 4 μM Calcein-AM at 37 °C, 60 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[47]
Table
Table 2. Previous studies using BCECF-AM to measure platelet adhesion.
Table 2. Previous studies using BCECF-AM to measure platelet adhesion.
YearType of PlateECM ConcentrationBlocking BSAPlatelet ConcentrationDye ConcentrationType of MeasurementRef.
199696-well
(N/A)		Collagen (100 μg/mL)0.35%300,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 2 μM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[48]
199796-well
(Falcon)		Collagen-I or Fibrinogen
(100 μg/mL)		0.0005%375,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 6 mM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader after lysing platelets[49]
199796-well
(Costar)		Fibronectin or Vitronectin (0.05 to 1.5 μg/well)0.50%300,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 5 μM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 40 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[50]
199796-well
(Costar)		Fibronectin, Vitronectin, vWF, laminin (1 μg/well) or collagen-IV
(5 μg/well)		0.50%300,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 5 μM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 40 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[51]
199896-well
(N/A)		Fibrinogen (0.01, 0.1 and 2 μg/well)N/A400,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 12 μM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[52]
199996-well
(Immulon-2)		Fibrinogen (1 ng to 2 μg/well)N/A 4,000,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 6 μM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 30 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[53]
199996-well
(Costar)		Fibronectin, Vitronectin, vWF or Laminin (120 μg/mL)0.50%300,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with 5 μM BCECF-AM at 37 °C, 40 minPlate reader without lysing platelets[54]
200896-well
(N/A)		Collagen or Fibrinogen
(50 μg/mL)		1%N/APre-labeled platelets with BCECF-AM for 40 min (temperature and concentration N/A)Microscopy[55]
201096-well
(N/A)		Collagen or Fibrinogen(50 μg/mL)1%N/APre-labeled platelets with BCECF-AM for 30 min (temperature and concentration N/A)Plate reader without lysing platelets[56]
201896-well
(N/A)		Collagen (10 μg/mL)0.5% or 0.05% N/APos-labelling platelets with 12 μM BCECF-AM (incubation time and temperature N/A) Plate reader after lysing platelets[57]
201996-well
(N/A)		Fibrinogen
(100 μg/mL)		5%200,000/μLPre-labeled platelets with BCECF-AM at 37 °C for 30 min (concentration N/A)Plate reader after lysing platelets[58]
Both BCECF-AM and Calcein-AM are hydrophobic acetoxymethyl ester (AM) derivatives and they are both excited (485 nm) and emit (530 nm) at identic wavelengths [59]. The addiction of AM that makes them membrane permeable [60]. BCECF-AM structure derives from carboxyfluorescein, with two extra carboxylate groups [60] and is sensitive to pH [61], while Calcein is a polyanionic fluorescein derivative that bears six negative charges and two positive charges at pH 7 [62] and is practically pH-insensitive [61].
Calcein-AM and BCECF-AM are nonfluorescent in their native form and can be loaded into the cell as the charge-neutral, membrane-soluble form. Once in the cytosol, these probes are modified by nonspecific endogenous esterases upon cleavage of ester groups [63,64]. The cleaved probe is fluorescent and negatively charged, and for this reason less permeable to the plasma membrane, thereby being retained inside the cell [64]. Multicharged molecules such as BCECF and Calcein have typically cell retention times greater than 2 h at 37 °C [64]. Generation of toxic photoproducts derived from BCECF, as well as products of the deesterification reaction, namely, acetate and formaldehyde, have been previously reported [65]. Evidences also point Calcein-AM as being toxic to and pumped out of several cell lines [62]. On the other hand, studies showed that BCECF is not toxic under certain conditions, as for example in vitro fertilized mouse eggs [66] or brainstem cells [67]. One can argue that the toxicity observed is dependent on the dye concentration and on the cell type studied.
Table 1 and Table 2 gather 13 and 25 studies performed over the years staining platelets with Calcein or BCECF, respectively. What is striking about these studies is the variability regarding the methodological settings. The tables highlight the following settings: type of plate; ECM protein, blocking agent (BSA) and dye concentrations; number of platelets and which type of measure was employed to detect the ECM-adherent platelets. Although not stated in all studies, the plates were acquired from varied companies. According to our observations, the ideal concentration of BSA for a successful inhibition of platelet adhesion depends on plate type used. The BSA titration studies revealed that all concentrations between 0.00075% and 4% BSA significantly reduced platelet adhesion to Invitrogen™plates. Surprisingly, the same range of BSA concentrations failed to inhibit platelet adhesion to the surface of Greiner Bio-One (781186) one or Falcon (353072) plates, which were some of the plate brands used in studies ofTable 1 and Table 2. This could lead to a non-specific platelet adhesion.
The appropriate platelet concentration was also investigated, considering the feasibility of the test and the number of adherent platelets. A minimum of 4 × 104 platelets/µL should be used, since no statistical difference was observed when a lower concentration of 2 × 104 platelets/µL was used. A titration assay ranging from 4 × 104 to 1.6 × 106 platelets/µL showed platelet adhesion linearity with a regression of 0.9971 and a concentration of 8 × 104 platelets/µL was considered ideal for a reproducible assay, since it had a lower standard deviation, compared to higher concentrations, maintaining a measurable fluorescence signal. Furthermore, this number of platelets requires less blood, which also increases the feasibility of the assay for high-throughput screening.
Different ECM proteins constitute substrates for platelets adhesion, being collagen, fibrinogen, fibronectin, vitronectin, vWF, and laminin some of the proteins used in previous adhesion studies (Table 1 and Table 2). In our experiment, we tested a panel of different ECM protein coatings, and titrated the best concentration for that particular protein, by platelet staining with BCECF. Interestingly, substrates such as fibrinogen presented the highest number of adherent platelets, reaching the maximal adhesion at 2 mg/mL, being the plasmatic concentration of this protein between 2–4 mg/mL [68], which is an important factor for platelet activation. The same seems to happen in the context of adhesion. However, most of the previous assays employed fibrinogen in a concentration ranging 50–100 µg/mL, which might not be the concentration leading to the maximal platelet adhesion. This supports the need of a standardized protocol to measure platelet adhesion. On the other hand, the least adhesive substrate seems to be vitronectin, which failed to induce significant platelet adhesion in our study. The adhesion to collagen type III did not reach statistical differences, although an increased adhesion tendency could be observed. Regarding one of the most commonly used protein to study platelets adhesion, collagen-I, in low concentrations, as used in some of the studies, failed to trigger platelet adhesion in a statistically significant manner, which was only reached with concentrations of 2–8 µg/mL or 64 µg/mL for non-fibrilar or fibrilar collagen I, respectively. Interestingly, laminins-411 and -511 at concentrations ranging 7.5–15 µg/mL, and 10 and 15 µg/mL, respectively, are also more potent substrates for platelet adhesion, compared to other tested substrates. Altogether, the discrepancies in the concentration range of ECM protein coatings between studies reinforce the need for standardized protocols, as here proposed, which contributes for the reproducibility of results. Most importantly, our experiments in which adherent platelets to collagen-I were stained with either BCECF-AM or Calcein-AM, highlighted that BECF-AM, although it presented higher standard deviation values, did reach statically significant differences. Using BCECF-AM, the number of adherent platelets detected was much higher than when platelets were pre-stained with Calcein-AM. Calcein-AM staining of platelets failed to reach significant detectable differences between platelets adhesion to collagen-I coated or non-coated surfaces.
Regarding the dye fluorescence detection method employed can be either by analyzing the cells under a fluorescence microscope or by quantitatively measuring the fluorescence, using a fluorescence plate reader. An advantage of this assay is that both analysis can be performed. The fluorescence measure using a plate reader assures that the quantitative analysis of the fluorescence-based assay is reliable. Furthermore, our studies demonstrate that microscopic analysis can be posteriorly performed, allowing the analysis not only the fluorescence but also the cell morphology, and understand if platelets spread more or less in a given substrate. Importantly, in order to avoid photo bleaching, microscopy should be performed after the fluorescence quantitative measurement in the plate reader. To further test the method’s sensitivity, a collagen-I adhesion inhibitor, which blocks the integrin α2β1, successfully decreased the adhesion of platelets, which was detected by BCECF-AM staining.
Lastly, and in order to validate the assay quality, the Z′-factor was calculated. An optimal Z′-factor value (higher than 0.5) was attained employing the following experimental settings: Plate coated with 1 mg/mL of fibrinogen, as it led to maximal platelet adhesion; blocking agent BSA in a concentration of 0.03%; platelets in a concentration of 8 × 104/µL in 10 µL incubated for 1 h at 37 °C, and stained with 4 µg/mL BCECF-AM in 20 µL for 30 min at 37 °C. This analysis is important, as it states the robustness of the assay, which might contribute for a more reproducible assay. This is an essential aspect, as reproducibility is a major problem in science. In addition, the Z-Factor value assures the compatibility of the assay with a high-throughput screening format.
The present assay is performed in a 2D setting; however, in an updated version of the assay, 3D matrix gels could be potentially applied to assess platelet adhesion under near-physiological conditions. The current available technology does not allow the evaluation of platelet adhesion under shear stress conditions in a high-throughput screening format, which constitutes a limitation to the study. Therefore, this assay cannot be applied to study shear-stress dependent receptors, such as GPIb and its interaction with vWF.

4. Materials and Methods

4.1. Materials

The following microplates were used in this study: Nunc MaxiSorp™ 96-well clear flat-bottom (44-2404-21, Invitrogen™, Carlsbad, CA, USA), Falcon® 96-well clear flat-bottom tissue culture (TC)-treated (Corning, 353072, Corning, NY, USA), Greiner Bio-One 96-well clear flat-bottom (Greiner Bio-One, 655180, Kremsmünster, Austria) and Greiner Bio-One 384-well clear flat-bottom (Greiner Bio-One, 781186). Prostaglandin E1 (Sigma, P7527, St. Louis, MO, USA) was used for washed platelet preparation. Microplate wells were coated with the following ECM proteins: Fibrinogen (Sigma, F8630), fibronectin (Sigma, F4759), non-fibrillar collagen type-I (Sigma, C7661), fibrillar collagen type-I (möLab, 0203009, Langenfeld, Germany), collagen type-III (Sigma, C4407), collagen type-IV (Sigma, C7521), laminin-411 (BioLamina, LN411-02, Sundbyberg, Sweden), laminin-511 (BioLamina, LN511-02), and vitronectin (Sigma, 5051). Collagen-related peptide (CRP), also used for coating, was purchased from University of Cambridge. BSA (Sigma, A7906) was used to block the non-specific binding to the wells. The following dyes were used to detect platelet adhesion: BCECF-AM (Sigma, B8806), Calcein-AM (Sigma, 17783) and Sudan Black B (Sigma, 199664). TC-I 15, an α2β1 integrin inhibitor was obtained from R&D Systems (4527, Minneapolis, MN, USA). The following equipment was used in this study: Plate reader (PerkinElmer, Victor X3) and microscope (Nikon Eclipse Ti2).

4.2. Washed Platelet Preparation

Washed platelets were prepared as previously described [57]. Human blood was collected from healthy volunteers, who had not been medicated in the previous 10 days, using a 10 mL tube (SARSTEDT, S-Monovette, Nümbrecht, Germany), maintaining a 6:1 ratio of whole blood to ACD (117 mM sodium citrate, 78 mM citric acid and 282 mM dextrose). Platelet-rich plasma (PRP) was obtained by two centrifugation steps at 500× g for 15 min at room temperature. Aliquots of PRP (1 mL) were distributed in 2 mL centrifuge tubes containing 22.5 μM prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) and centrifuged at 10,000× g for 30 s. The platelet pellet was resuspended in magnesium- and calcium-free tyrode buffer at pH 6.2 (17 μM PGE1, 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 3 mM NaH2PO4, 10 mM hepes, 1.25 mM NaHCO3, and 5.6 mM dextrose), and this procedure was repeated once more. Finally, platelets were resuspended in tyrode buffer, pH 7.4, in absence of PGE1 but containing 2 mM CaCl2 and 1 mM MgCl2. All participants provided informed consent in accordance with the Helsinki Declaration and all protocols were approved by the Swiss ethics committee (project-ID 2017–00732, date of approval 23.05.2017, Commission cantonale d’éthique de la recherche sur l’être humain).

4.3. Study Design

4.3.1. 96-Well Plate and BCECF-AM

ECM proteins were added to a 96-well plate in different concentrations (50 μL/well) followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. The plate content was discarded, and the wells were washed 3 times with distillated water (100 μL/well). Next, different concentrations of BSA were added to the well to block non-specific binding of platelets. After 1 h incubation at 37 °C, the wells coated with ECM proteins and blocked with BSA were washed 3 times with distilled water (100 μL/well). Immediately after, 50 μL of different concentration of platelets were added and incubated for 1 h at 37 °C. Non-bond platelets were washed with tyrode buffer, pH 7.4 (100 μL/well), and adherent platelets were stained with different concentrations of BCECF-AM diluted in tyrode buffer, pH 7.4 (50 μL/well), for 30 min at 37 °C. Next, the BCECF-AM excess was removed by washing the plate 3 times with tyrode buffer, pH 7.4 (100 μL/well). Fluorescent signal of BCECF-AM was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer) with the parameters shown in Table 3. Fluorescent signal of BCECF-AM was also measured after lysing adhered platelets. For that, lysis buffer (0.1% SDS in 30 mM Tris pH 8.8) was added after washing the excess of BCECF-AM. For microscopy purposes, images from non-lysed platelets were acquired using a fluorescence microscope. Figure 7 schematically represents the study design using BCECF-AM.

4.3.2. 96-Well Plate and Calcein-AM

For the experiment using Calcein-AM, platelets were pre-stained following the protocol previous published by several authors (see Table 1). Briefly, PRP obtained by centrifugation of the whole blood was incubated with Calcein-AM (2 µg/mL) for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, washed stained-platelets were obtained after a series of washing steps as described in the Section 4.2. Adhesion of pre-stained platelets was measured as the platelets stained with BCECF-AM in a 96-well plate. Fluorescence signal of Calcein-AM was measured using a plate reader with the parameters shown in Table 3. Fluorescent signal of Calcein-AM was also measured after lysing adherent platelets. For that, lysis buffer (0.1% SDS in 30 mM Tris pH 8.8) was added to adherent platelets.

4.3.3. 384-Well Plate and BCECF-AM

Fibrinogen was added to a 384-well plate in different concentrations (0.03 to 8 mg/mL—20 μL/well), followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. The content of the plate was discarded, and the wells were washed 3 times with distilled water (20 μL/well). Next, BSA 0.03% was added to the wells to block non-specific binding of platelets. After 1 h incubation at 37 °C, the wells coated with fibrinogen and blocked with BSA were washed 3 times with distilled water (20 μL/well). Immediately after, platelets (8 × 104/µL in 10 µL) were added and incubated for 1 h at 37 °C. Non-adherent platelets were washed away with tyrode buffer, pH 7.4 (20 μL/well), and adhered platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM diluted in tyrode buffer, pH 7.4 (4 µg/mL, 20 μL/well), for 30 min at 37 °C. Next, the excess of BCECF-AM was washed 3 times with tyrode buffer, pH 7.4 (20 μL/well). BCECF-AM fluorescence signal was measured using a plate reader with the parameters as shown in Table 3. For microscopy purposes, images from non-lysed platelets were acquired using a fluorescent microscope.

4.4. Data Analysis

To validate the assay, fibrinogen (1 mg/mL) was added to half of the 384-well microplate (176 wells—right side). In the other half, water was added (176 wells—left side). As a control, platelet adhesion on plastic was measured in the first and last columns. The following formula was used to calculate the Z′-factor value, as described in a previous publication [22].
Z ′ factor = 1 − 3 SD   of   max   response + 3 SD   of   min   response mean   of   max   response − mean   of   min   response
Unless otherwise stated, triplicates were performed in every experiment using platelets from four different donors. The data are expressed as mean ± standard error of mean (SEM). Each measurement represents the average of two wells within the same condition. Statistical differences among groups were analyzed by one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Dunnett’s test. T-test was used to determine whether there was a difference in collagen-coated and non-coated wells for assay linearity of platelet adhesion in a 96-well plate. Two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test was used to determine the difference between BCECF-AM and Calcein-AM techniques. Probability value (p) < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. GraphPad Prism 6.0 (San Diego, CA, USA) was used to perform the statistical analysis.

5. Conclusions

Our studies importantly highlight the potential advantages and disadvantages of different methodological approaches to detect platelet adhesion by measuring fluorescent dyes. As an essential step of the thrombus formation process, platelet adhesion can be studied in vitro. An advantage of the proposed in vitro assay is its versatility, as different ECM proteins representative of the ECM of the healthy or injured vessel can be studied, and their individual effect on platelet adhesion pin-pointed. Furthermore, drug discovery to identify new adhesion inhibitors can also be performed, and murine, human platelets or platelets from patients with platelet-related pathologies can be studied for their adhesive capacities. Lastly, the development of a high-throughput assay, which is both fast and inexpensive, is of extreme interest for drug development. The standardization of a methodological approach that can fulfill all these criteria, and that can be employed by both researchers, drug developers and clinicians, to analyze platelet adhesion in a reproducible and comparable way, is essential. In the present work, we optimized and standardized a high-throughput method able to measure quantitatively platelet adhesion to different substrates, allowing also morphological characterization of the adherent platelets. The methodological approach is detailed in the standard operating procedure (SOP) present in the supplemental material.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary Materials can be found at https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/21/18/6539/s1.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M.L. and N.S.; methodology, A.M.L.; validation, D.S.S.A., F.C., T.L. and C.M.E.K.; formal analysis, A.M.L., A.C.M.C. and R.A.F.-S.; investigation, D.S.S.A., F.C., T.L. and C.M.E.K.; writing—Original draft preparation, A.M.L., A.C.M.C. and R.A.F.-S.; writing—Review and editing, A.M.L., A.C.M.C. and R.A.F.-S.; visualization, A.M.L.; supervision, A.M.L. and N.S.; project administration, A.M.L.; funding acquisition, A.M.L. and N.S.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work was supported by the Novartis Foundation for medical-biological Research.

Acknowledgments

We thank Point santé and Discovery Learning Labs from EPFL for the technical support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

Abbreviations

AMAcetoxymethyl
BCECF2′,7′-Bis-(2-Carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)-Carboxyfluorescein
BSABovine Serum Albumin
CRPCollagen-Related Peptide
ECMExtracellular Matrix
FbgFibrinogen
N/ANot Available
pProbability value
PGE1Prostaglandin E1
RTRoom Temperature
PRPPlatelet-Rich Plasma
PPPPlatelet-Poor Plasma
SEMStandard Error of the Mean
SBBSudan Black B
SDStandard Deviation
SOPStandard Operating Procedure
FIFluorescence Intensity

References

  1. Ruggeri, Z.M.; Mendolicchio, G.L. Adhesion mechanisms in platelet function. Circ. Res. 2007, 100, 1673–1685. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Bergmeier, W.; Hynes, R.O. Extracellular matrix proteins in hemostasis and thrombosis. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2012, 4. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  3. Frenette, P.S.; Denis, C.V.; Weiss, L.; Jurk, K.; Subbarao, S.; Kehrel, B.; Hartwig, J.H.; Vestweber, D.; Wagner, D.D. P-Selectin Glycoprotein Ligand 1 (Psgl-1) Is Expressed on Platelets and Can Mediate Platelet–Endothelial Interactions in Vivo. J. Exp. Med. 2000, 191, 1413–1422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Eriksson, A.C.; Whiss, P.A. Measurement of adhesion of human platelets in plasma to protein surfaces in microplates. J. Pharmacol. Toxicol. Methods 2005, 52, 356–365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  5. Varga-Szabo, D.; Pleines, I.; Nieswandt, B. Cell adhesion mechanisms in platelets. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2008, 28, 403–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  6. Ruggeri, Z.M. Platelets in atherothrombosis. Nat. Med. 2002, 8, 1227–1234. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Stoll, G.; Kleinschnitz, C.; Nieswandt, B. Molecular mechanisms of thrombus formation in ischemic stroke: Novel insights and targets for treatment. Blood 2008, 112, 3555–3562. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Yurchenco, P.D. Basement membranes: Cell scaffoldings and signaling platforms. Cold Spring Harb. Perspect. Biol. 2011, 3. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Voss, B.; Rauterberg, J. Localization of collagen types I, III, IV and V, fibronectin and laminin in human arteries by the indirect immunofluorescence method. Pathol. Res. Pract. 1986, 181, 568–575. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Polanowska-Grabowska, R.; Simon, C.G.; Gear, A.R. Platelet adhesion to collagen type I, collagen type IV, von Willebrand factor, fibronectin, laminin and fibrinogen: Rapid kinetics under shear. Thromb. Haemost. 1999, 81, 118–123. [Google Scholar]
  11. Colman, R.W. Hemostasis and Thrombosis: Basic Principles and Clinical Practice; Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Philadelphia, PA, USA, 2006. [Google Scholar]
  12. Martins Lima, A.; Martins Cavaco, A.C.; Fraga-Silva, R.A.; Eble, J.A.; Stergiopulos, N. From Patients to Platelets and Back Again: Pharmacological Approaches to Glycoprotein VI, a Thrilling Antithrombotic Target with Minor Bleeding Risks. Thromb. Haemost. 2019. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  13. Stefanini, L.; Bergmeier, W. Negative regulators of platelet activation and adhesion. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2018, 16, 220–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Denis, C.V.; Wagner, D.D. Platelet adhesion receptors and their ligands in mouse models of thrombosis. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2007, 27, 728–739. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  15. Massberg, S.; Schürzinger, K.; Lorenz, M.; Konrad, I.; Schulz, C.; Plesnila, N.; Kennerknecht, E.; Rudelius, M.; Sauer, S.; Braun, S.; et al. Platelet adhesion via glycoprotein IIb integrin is critical for atheroprogression and focal cerebral ischemia: An in vivo study in mice lacking glycoprotein IIb. Circulation 2005, 112, 1180–1188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. Gawaz, M. Platelets and Inflammation. Platelet Funct. 2005, 115–147. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Li, Z.; Yang, F.; Dunn, S.; Gross, A.K.; Smyth, S.S. Platelets as immune mediators: Their role in host defense responses and sepsis. Thromb Res. 2011, 127, 184–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  18. Li, N. Platelets in cancer metastasis: To help the “villain” to do evil. Int. J. Cancer 2016, 138, 2078–2087. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Xu, X.-X.; Gao, X.-H.; Pan, R.; Lu, D.; Dai, Y. A simple adhesion assay for studying interactions between platelets and endothelial cells in vitro. Cytotechnology 2010, 62, 17–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Chiba, M.; Malik, S.W.; Specks, U. Microtiter plate immunoassay for the evaluation of platelet adhesion to fibronectin. J. Immunol. Methods 1996, 191, 55–63. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Begley, C.G.; Ioannidis, J.P.A. Reproducibility in science: Improving the standard for basic and preclinical research. Circ. Res. 2015, 116, 116–126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  22. Zhang, J.H.; Chung, T.D.Y.; Oldenburg, K.R. A Simple Statistical Parameter for Use in Evaluation and Validation of High Throughput Screening Assays. J. Biomol. Screen 1999, 4, 67–73. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Francischetti, I.M.; Chiang, T.M.; Guimarães, J.A.; Bon, C. Role of the recombinant non-integrin platelet collagen receptor P65 on platelet activation induced by convulxin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2000, 270, 932–935. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Francischetti, I.M.B.; Ribeiro, J.M.C.; Champagne, D.; Andersen, J. Purification, Cloning, Expression, and Mechanism of Action of a Novel Platelet Aggregation Inhibitor from the Salivary Gland of the Blood-sucking Bug, Rhodnius prolixus. J. Biol. Chem. 2000, 275, 12639–12650. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  25. Chavakis, T.; Boeckel, N.; Santoso, S.; Voss, R.; Isordia-Salas, I.; Pixley, R.A.; Morgenstern, E.; Colman, R.W.; Preissner, K.T. Inhibition of platelet adhesion and aggregation by a defined region (Gly-486-Lys-502) of high molecular weight kininogen. J. Biol. Chem. 2002, 277, 23157–23164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Podolnikova, N.P.; Yakubenko, V.P.; Volkov, G.L.; Plow, E.F.; Ugarova, T.P. Identification of a novel binding site for platelet integrins alpha IIb beta 3 (GPIIbIIIa) and alpha 5 beta 1 in the gamma C-domain of fibrinogen. J. Biol. Chem. 2003, 278, 32251–32258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  27. Stevens, J.M. Platelet Adhesion Assays Performed Under Static Conditions. In Platelets and Megakaryocytes: Volume 1: Functional Assays; Gibbins, J.M., Mahaut-Smith, M.P., Eds.; Methods In Molecular BiologyTM; Humana Press: Totowa, NJ, USA, 2004; pp. 145–151. ISBN 978-1-59259-782-6. [Google Scholar]
  28. Dai, E.; Viswanathan, K.; Sun, Y.M.; Li, X.; Liu, L.Y.; Togonu-Bickersteth, B.; Richardson, J.; Macaulay, C.; Nash, P.; Turner, P.; et al. Identification of Myxomaviral Serpin Reactive Site Loop Sequences That Regulate Innate Immune Responses. J. Biol. Chem. 2006, 281, 8041–8050. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Viswanathan, K.; Liu, L.; Vaziri, S.; Dai, E.; Richardson, J.; Togonu-Bickersteth, B.; Vatsya, P.; Christov, A.; Lucas, A.R. Myxoma viral serpin, Serp-1, a unique interceptor of coagulation and innate immune pathways. Thromb. Haemost. 2006, 95, 499–510. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Blue, R.; Murcia, M.; Karan, C.; Jirousková, M.; Coller, B.S. Application of high-throughput screening to identify a novel alphaIIb-specific small- molecule inhibitor of alphaIIbbeta3-mediated platelet interaction with fibrinogen. Blood 2008, 111, 1248–1256. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Podolnikova, N.P.; Yermolenko, I.S.; Fuhrmann, A.; Lishko, V.K.; Magonov, S.; Bowen, B.; Enderlein, J.; Podolnikov, A.V.; Ros, R.; Ugarova, T.P. Control of Integrin αIIbβ3 Outside-In Signaling and Platelet Adhesion by Sensing the Physical Properties of Fibrin(ogen) Substrates. Biochemistry 2010, 49, 68–77. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  32. Assumpção, T.C.F.; Alvarenga, P.H.; Ribeiro, J.M.C.; Andersen, J.F.; Francischetti, I.M.B. Dipetalodipin, a Novel Multifunctional Salivary Lipocalin That Inhibits Platelet Aggregation, Vasoconstriction, and Angiogenesis through Unique Binding Specificity for TXA2, PGF2α, and 15(S)-HETE. J. Biol. Chem. 2010, 285, 39001–39012. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  33. Crockett, J.; Newman, D.K.; Newman, P.J. PECAM-1 functions as a negative regulator of laminin-induced platelet activation. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2010, 8, 1584–1593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  34. Calvo, E.; Tokumasu, F.; Mizurini, D.M.; McPhie, P.; Narum, D.L.; Ribeiro, J.M.C.; Monteiro, R.Q.; Francischetti, I.M.B. Aegyptin displays high-affinity for the von Willebrand factor binding site (RGQOGVMGF) in collagen and inhibits carotid thrombus formation in vivo. FEBS J. 2010, 277, 413–427. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  35. Ma, D.; Xu, X.; An, S.; Liu, H.; Yang, X.; Andersen, J.F.; Wang, Y.; Tokumasu, F.; Ribeiro, J.M.C.; Francischetti, I.M.B.; et al. A novel family of RGD-containing disintegrins (Tablysin-15) from the salivary gland of the horsefly Tabanus yao targets αIIbβ3 or αVβ3 and inhibits platelet aggregation and angiogenesis. Thromb. Haemost. 2011, 105, 1032–1045. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  36. Hausmann, J.; Kamtekar, S.; Christodoulou, E.; Day, J.E.; Wu, T.; Fulkerson, Z.; Albers, H.M.H.G.; van Meeteren, L.A.; Houben, A.J.S.; van Zeijl, L.; et al. Structural basis of substrate discrimination and integrin binding by autotaxin. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 2011, 18, 198–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  37. Fulkerson, Z.; Wu, T.; Sunkara, M.; Kooi, C.V.; Morris, A.J.; Smyth, S.S. Binding of Autotaxin to Integrins Localizes Lysophosphatidic Acid Production to Platelets and Mammalian Cells. J. Biol. Chem. 2011, 286, 34654–34663. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  38. Ma, D.; Assumpção, T.C.F.; Li, Y.; Andersen, J.F.; Ribeiro, J.; Francischetti, I.M.B. Triplatin, a platelet aggregation inhibitor from the salivary gland of the triatomine vector of Chagas disease, binds to TXA(2) but does not interact with glycoprotein PVI. Thromb. Haemost. 2012, 107, 111–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Sachs, U.J.; Bakchoul, T.; Eva, O.; Giptner, A.; Bein, G.; Aster, R.H.; Gitter, M.; Peterson, J.; Santoso, S. A point mutation in the EGF-4 domain of β(3) integrin is responsible for the formation of the Sec(a) platelet alloantigen and affects receptor function. Thromb. Haemost. 2012, 107, 80–87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  40. Kim, K.; Lim, K.-M.; Shin, H.-J.; Seo, D.-B.; Noh, J.-Y.; Kang, S.; Chung, H.Y.; Shin, S.; Chung, J.-H.; Bae, O.-N. Inhibitory effects of black soybean on platelet activation mediated through its active component of adenosine. Thromb. Res. 2013, 131, 254–261. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Assumpcao, T.C.F.; Ma, D.; Schwarz, A.; Reiter, K.; Santana, J.M.; Andersen, J.F.; Ribeiro, J.M.; Nardone, G.; Yu, L.L.; Francischetti, I.M.B. Salivary antigen-5/CAP family members are Cu2+-dependent antioxidant enzymes which scavenge O2- and inhibit collagen-induced platelet aggregation and neutrophil oxidative burst. J. Biol. Chem. 2013, jbc.M113.466995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  42. Podolnikova, N.P.; Yakovlev, S.; Yakubenko, V.P.; Wang, X.; Gorkun, O.V.; Ugarova, T.P. The Interaction of Integrin αIIbβ3 with Fibrin Occurs through Multiple Binding Sites in the αIIb β-Propeller Domain. J. Biol. Chem. 2014, 289, 2371–2383. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  43. Ma, D.; Francischetti, I.M.B.; Ribeiro, J.M.C.; Andersen, J.F. The structure of hookworm platelet inhibitor (HPI), a CAP superfamily member from Ancylostoma caninum. Acta Crystallogr. F Struct. Biol. Commun. 2015, 71, 643–649. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  44. Huang, Y.; Joshi, S.; Xiang, B.; Kanaho, Y.; Li, Z.; Bouchard, B.A.; Moncman, C.L.; Whiteheart, S.W. Arf6 controls platelet spreading and clot retraction via integrin αIIbβ3 trafficking. Blood 2016, 127, 1459–1467. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  45. Newburg, D.S.; Tanritanir, A.C.; Chakrabarti, S. Lactodifucotetraose, a human milk oligosaccharide, attenuates platelet function and inflammatory cytokine release. J. Thromb. Thromb. 2016, 42, 46–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  46. Zafar, H.; Shang, Y.; Li, J.; David, G.A.; Fernandez, J.P.; Molina, H.; Filizola, M.; Coller, B.S. αIIbβ3 binding to a fibrinogen fragment lacking the γ-chain dodecapeptide is activation dependent and EDTA inducible. Blood Adv. 2017, 1, 417–428. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  47. Venturini, W.; Olate-Briones, A.; Valenzuela, C.; Méndez, D.; Fuentes, E.; Cayo, A.; Mancilla, D.; Segovia, R.; Brown, N.E.; Moore-Carrasco, R. Platelet Activation Is Triggered by Factors Secreted by Senescent Endothelial HMEC-1 Cells In Vitro. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 3287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Wu, C.C.; Ko, F.N.; Huang, T.F.; Teng, C.M. Mechanisms-regulated platelet spreading after initial platelet contact with collagen. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 1996, 220, 388–393. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Liu, C.Z.; Huang, T.F. Crovidisin, a collagen-binding protein isolated from snake venom of Crotalus viridis, prevents platelet-collagen interaction. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 1997, 337, 291–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Sheu, J.B.; Ko, W.C.; Hung, W.C.; Peng, H.C.; Huang, T.F. Interaction of thrombin-activated platelets with extracellular matrices (fibronectin and vitronectin): Comparison of the activity of Arg-Gly-Asp-containing venom peptides and monoclonal antibodies against glycoprotein IIb/IIIa complex. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 1997, 49, 78–84. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Sheu, J.R.; Yen, M.H.; Hung, W.C.; Lee, Y.M.; Su, C.H.; Huang, T.F. Triflavin inhibits platelet-induced vasoconstriction in de-endothelialized aorta. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 1997, 17, 3461–3468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Leng, L.; Kashiwagi, H.; Ren, X.D.; Shattil, S.J. RhoA and the function of platelet integrin alphaIIbbeta3. Blood 1998, 91, 4206–4215. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Law, D.A.; Nannizzi-Alaimo, L.; Ministri, K.; Hughes, P.E.; Forsyth, J.; Turner, M.; Shattil, S.J.; Ginsberg, M.H.; Tybulewicz, V.L.; Phillips, D.R. Genetic and pharmacological analyses of Syk function in alphaIIbbeta3 signaling in platelets. Blood 1999, 93, 2645–2652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Sheu, J.R.; Hung, W.C.; Wu, C.H.; Ma, M.C.; Kan, Y.C.; Lin, C.H.; Lin, M.S.; Luk, H.N.; Yen, M.H. Reduction in lipopolysaccharide-induced thrombocytopenia by triflavin in a rat model of septicemia. Circulation 1999, 99, 3056–3062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  55. Hsu, C.C.; Wu, W.B.; Huang, T.F. A snake venom metalloproteinase, kistomin, cleaves platelet glycoprotein VI and impairs platelet functions. J. Thromb. Haemost. 2008, 6, 1578–1585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Tseng, Y.-L.; Chiang, M.-L.; Huang, T.-F.; Su, K.-P.; Lane, H.-Y.; Lai, Y.-C. A selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, citalopram, inhibits collagen-induced platelet aggregation and activation. Thromb. Res. 2010, 126, 517–523. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  57. Lima, A.M.; Wegner, S.V.; Martins Cavaco, A.C.; Estevão-Costa, M.I.; Sanz-Soler, R.; Niland, S.; Nosov, G.; Klingauf, J.; Spatz, J.P.; Eble, J.A. The spatial molecular pattern of integrin recognition sites and their immobilization to colloidal nanobeads determine α2β1 integrin-dependent platelet activation. Biomaterials 2018, 167, 107–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Tseng, Y.-L.; Braun, A.; Chang, J.P.-C.; Chiang, M.-L.; Tseng, C.-Y.; Chen, W. Micromolar concentrations of citalopram or escitalopram inhibit glycoprotein VI-mediated and integrin αIIbβ3-mediated signaling in human platelets. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 2019, 364, 106–113. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry—3rd Edition. Academic Press, 2016. Available online: https://www.elsevier.com/books/encyclopedia-of-spectroscopy-and-spectrometry/lindon/978-0-12-803224-4 (accessed on 5 September 2020).
  60. Gdovin, M.J.; Zamora, D.A.; Ravindran, C.R.M.; Leiter, J.C. Optical recording of intracellular pH in respiratory chemoreceptors. Ethn. Dis. 2010, 20, S1-33–S1-38. [Google Scholar]
  61. Homolya, L.; Holló, Z.; Germann, U.A.; Pastan, I.; Gottesman, M.M.; Sarkadi, B. Fluorescent cellular indicators are extruded by the multidrug resistance protein. J. Biol. Chem. 1993, 268, 21493–21496. [Google Scholar]
  62. Ramirez, C.N.; Antczak, C.; Djaballah, H. Cell viability assessment: Toward content-rich platforms. Expert Opin. Drug Discov. 2010, 5, 223–233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  63. Nolte, M.A.; Kraal, G.; Mebius, R.E. Effects of fluorescent and nonfluorescent tracing methods on lymphocyte migration in vivo. Cytometry A 2004, 61, 35–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Membrane Fusion Technique, Part B, Volume 221—1st Edition. Available online: https://www.elsevier.com/books/membrane-fusion-technique-part-b/abelson/978-0-12-182122-7 (accessed on 5 September 2020).
  65. Gan, B.S.; Krump, E.; Shrode, L.D.; Grinstein, S. Loading pyranine via purinergic receptors or hypotonic stress for measurement of cytosolic pH by imaging. Am. J. Physiol. 1998, 275, C1158–C1166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Phillips, K.P.; Zhou, W.L.; Baltz, J.M. Fluorophore toxicity in mouse eggs and zygotes. Zygote 1998, 6, 113–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  67. Gdovin, M.J.; Zamora, D.A.; Ravindran, C.R.M.; Costanzo, M.C.; Leiter, J.C. Employing a pH Sensitive Fluorophore to Measure Intracellular pH in the In Vitro Brainstem Preparation of Rana catesbeiana. Open Zool. J. 2010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  68. Oswald, M.W.; Hunt, H.H.; Lazarchick, J. Normal range of plasma fibrinogen. Am. J. Med. Technol. 1983, 49, 57–59. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  69. Ozkan, P.; Mutharasan, R. A rapid method for measuring intracellular pH using BCECF-AM. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 2002, 1572, 143–148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Ijms 21 06539 g001 550
Figure 1. Platelet adhesion assay linearity in a 96-well plate. 96-well microplates were coated with collagen-I (8 µg/mL in 50 µL) or incubated with distillated water for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), different concentrations of human washed platelets (2 × 104 to 1.6 × 105/µL in 100µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (0.25 to 16 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). (A) Assay linearity (R2 = 0.9971) was calculated by measuring the fluorescence signal of different platelet concentrations adhered to plastic. (B) The optimum platelet concentration to obtain statistical differences between non-coated (white bars) and collagen-I-coated wells (grey bars) was assessed by using different platelet concentrations. Δ represents delta: (Col-I+BSA) − (BSA). (C) The optimal concentration of BCECF-AM was assessed by comparing the fluorescence signal of adherent platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100µL) on non-coated wells (white bars) and collagen-I-coated wells (grey bars). Plastic was used as positive control (black bars). Δ represents delta (Col-I+BSA) − (BSA). Fluorescence intensity of collagen-coated surfaces blocked with BSA was compared to BSA alone for each experimental group by t-test (* p < 0.05, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Figure 1. Platelet adhesion assay linearity in a 96-well plate. 96-well microplates were coated with collagen-I (8 µg/mL in 50 µL) or incubated with distillated water for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), different concentrations of human washed platelets (2 × 104 to 1.6 × 105/µL in 100µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (0.25 to 16 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). (A) Assay linearity (R2 = 0.9971) was calculated by measuring the fluorescence signal of different platelet concentrations adhered to plastic. (B) The optimum platelet concentration to obtain statistical differences between non-coated (white bars) and collagen-I-coated wells (grey bars) was assessed by using different platelet concentrations. Δ represents delta: (Col-I+BSA) − (BSA). (C) The optimal concentration of BCECF-AM was assessed by comparing the fluorescence signal of adherent platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100µL) on non-coated wells (white bars) and collagen-I-coated wells (grey bars). Plastic was used as positive control (black bars). Δ represents delta (Col-I+BSA) − (BSA). Fluorescence intensity of collagen-coated surfaces blocked with BSA was compared to BSA alone for each experimental group by t-test (* p < 0.05, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Ijms 21 06539 g001
Ijms 21 06539 g002 550
Figure 2. BSA blocking on different types of 96-well plates. BSA was used to prevent non-specific adhesion of platelets to the plastic. To find the optimum conditions, 3 types of 96-well plates (Invitrogen™—442404; Greiner Bio-one—655,180 and Falcon—353072) were blocked with different concentrations of BSA (0.00075 to 4% in 50 µL) for 1 hour at 37 °C. Next, human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100 µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Values were compared to the control condition—without BSA—by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (**** p < 0.0001, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Figure 2. BSA blocking on different types of 96-well plates. BSA was used to prevent non-specific adhesion of platelets to the plastic. To find the optimum conditions, 3 types of 96-well plates (Invitrogen™—442404; Greiner Bio-one—655,180 and Falcon—353072) were blocked with different concentrations of BSA (0.00075 to 4% in 50 µL) for 1 hour at 37 °C. Next, human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100 µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Values were compared to the control condition—without BSA—by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (**** p < 0.0001, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Ijms 21 06539 g002
Ijms 21 06539 g003 550
Figure 3. Platelet adhesion on different ECM proteins measured by BCECF-AM. Coating of 96-well microplates with ECM proteins (50 µL) was performed for 1 h at 37 °C. Different proteins and concentrations of ECM were used: fibrinogen (0.06 to 8 mg/mL); fibronectin (0.3 to 40 µg/mL); non-fibrillar collagen-I (0.06 to 8 µg/mL); fibrillar collagen-I (0.06 to 8 µg/mL); collagen-III (0.5 to 64 µg/mL); collagen-IV (0.125 to 16 µg/mL); laminin-411 (2.5 to 15 µg/mL); laminin-511 (2.5 to 15 µg/mL); collagen-related peptide (CRP) (0.15 to 20 µg/mL); vitronectin (0.15 to 20 µg/mL). In the wells without coating distillated water was added during the coating incubation time. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA) and images were taken using a fluorescence microscopy (Eclipse Ti2, Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) with a 20× objective (scale bar 10 µM). Values were compared with the non-coated control condition by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.0001, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Figure 3. Platelet adhesion on different ECM proteins measured by BCECF-AM. Coating of 96-well microplates with ECM proteins (50 µL) was performed for 1 h at 37 °C. Different proteins and concentrations of ECM were used: fibrinogen (0.06 to 8 mg/mL); fibronectin (0.3 to 40 µg/mL); non-fibrillar collagen-I (0.06 to 8 µg/mL); fibrillar collagen-I (0.06 to 8 µg/mL); collagen-III (0.5 to 64 µg/mL); collagen-IV (0.125 to 16 µg/mL); laminin-411 (2.5 to 15 µg/mL); laminin-511 (2.5 to 15 µg/mL); collagen-related peptide (CRP) (0.15 to 20 µg/mL); vitronectin (0.15 to 20 µg/mL). In the wells without coating distillated water was added during the coating incubation time. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA) and images were taken using a fluorescence microscopy (Eclipse Ti2, Nikon, Tokyo, Japan) with a 20× objective (scale bar 10 µM). Values were compared with the non-coated control condition by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.0001, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Ijms 21 06539 g003
Ijms 21 06539 g004 550
Figure 4. Platelet adhesion detection using different techniques: BCECF-AM vs. Calcein-AM. Coating of 96-well microplates with collagen-I (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) or distillated water were performed for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100 µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed. For the BCECF-AM experimental group, adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. After washing the excess of BCECF-AM, fluorescence intensity was measured using plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). In an independent experimental condition, the signal of BCECF-AM was measured after lysing the adhered platelets with lysis buffer. For the experiment using Calcein, AM (2 µg/mL), platelets were pre-stained following the protocol previous described by several authors (see Table 1). Briefly, PRP obtained by centrifugation of the whole blood was incubated with Calcein-AM (2 µg/mL) for 1 h at 37 °C. Platelets were then washed as described in the Section 4.2. Fluorescence intensity was measured using plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Δ represents delta: (Col-I) − (non-coated). Values were compared with the control condition with BSA only (non-coated), by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test (** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Figure 4. Platelet adhesion detection using different techniques: BCECF-AM vs. Calcein-AM. Coating of 96-well microplates with collagen-I (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) or distillated water were performed for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100 µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed. For the BCECF-AM experimental group, adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. After washing the excess of BCECF-AM, fluorescence intensity was measured using plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). In an independent experimental condition, the signal of BCECF-AM was measured after lysing the adhered platelets with lysis buffer. For the experiment using Calcein, AM (2 µg/mL), platelets were pre-stained following the protocol previous described by several authors (see Table 1). Briefly, PRP obtained by centrifugation of the whole blood was incubated with Calcein-AM (2 µg/mL) for 1 h at 37 °C. Platelets were then washed as described in the Section 4.2. Fluorescence intensity was measured using plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Δ represents delta: (Col-I) − (non-coated). Values were compared with the control condition with BSA only (non-coated), by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s post hoc test (** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4).
Ijms 21 06539 g004
Ijms 21 06539 g005 550
Figure 5. Sensitivity of the optimized assay to detect platelet adhesion inhibition. Coating of 96-well microplates with collagen-I (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) or distillated water was performed for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100µL) containing different concentrations of TC-I 15, an α2β1 integrin inhibitor, were added to the coated wells, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer). Values were compared to the control group without TC-I 15 by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4). Images were acquired with a fluorescence microscopy (Eclipse Ti2, Nikon, Waltham, MA, USA) with a 20x objective (scale bar 10 µM).
Figure 5. Sensitivity of the optimized assay to detect platelet adhesion inhibition. Coating of 96-well microplates with collagen-I (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) or distillated water was performed for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 100µL) containing different concentrations of TC-I 15, an α2β1 integrin inhibitor, were added to the coated wells, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 50 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer). Values were compared to the control group without TC-I 15 by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, data are mean ± SEM; n = 4). Images were acquired with a fluorescence microscopy (Eclipse Ti2, Nikon, Waltham, MA, USA) with a 20x objective (scale bar 10 µM).
Ijms 21 06539 g005
Ijms 21 06539 g006 550
Figure 6. Z′-factor calculation to validate the platelet adhesion assay in a 384-well microplate. (A) Platelet adhesion similarity between 96- and 384-well microplates. Coating of 384-well microplate with different concentrations of fibrinogen (Fbg 0.03 to 8 mg/mL in 20 µL), or incubation with distillated water, were performed for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 10µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 20 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Values were compared with the control condition (non-coated plastic) by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.000,1 values presented as SEM resulting from duplicate average of four independent experiments). Images were acquired using a fluorescence microscopy (Eclipse Ti2, Nikon) with a 20x objective. (B) Z′-factor calculation to validate the platelet adhesion assay. In a 384-well microplate, 20 µL of water were added to half of the microplate (176 wells—left side). In the other half, fibrinogen (1 mg/mL) diluted in water was added (176 wells—right side). After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 10 µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 20 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. As a control, platelet adhesion on plastic was measured in the first and last columns. Δ represents delta: (Fibrinogen) − (non-coated). Fluorescence intensity (F.I.) was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). The data of the graphs showing the Z′-factor were calculated using the equation previously published by Zhang et al. [22].
Figure 6. Z′-factor calculation to validate the platelet adhesion assay in a 384-well microplate. (A) Platelet adhesion similarity between 96- and 384-well microplates. Coating of 384-well microplate with different concentrations of fibrinogen (Fbg 0.03 to 8 mg/mL in 20 µL), or incubation with distillated water, were performed for 1 h at 37 °C. After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 10µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 20 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. Fluorescence intensity was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). Values were compared with the control condition (non-coated plastic) by one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett’s post hoc test (* p < 0.05, *** p < 0.001, **** p < 0.000,1 values presented as SEM resulting from duplicate average of four independent experiments). Images were acquired using a fluorescence microscopy (Eclipse Ti2, Nikon) with a 20x objective. (B) Z′-factor calculation to validate the platelet adhesion assay. In a 384-well microplate, 20 µL of water were added to half of the microplate (176 wells—left side). In the other half, fibrinogen (1 mg/mL) diluted in water was added (176 wells—right side). After blocking the wells with BSA (0.03%), human washed platelets (8 × 104/µL in 10 µL) were added, followed by incubation for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, non-adherent platelets were removed, and adherent platelets were incubated with BCECF-AM (4 µg/mL in 20 µL) for 30 min at 37 °C. As a control, platelet adhesion on plastic was measured in the first and last columns. Δ represents delta: (Fibrinogen) − (non-coated). Fluorescence intensity (F.I.) was measured using a plate reader (VictorX, PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA). The data of the graphs showing the Z′-factor were calculated using the equation previously published by Zhang et al. [22].
Ijms 21 06539 g006
Ijms 21 06539 g007 550
Figure 7. Schematic representation of the study design using BCECF-AM. Extracellular matrix proteins were employed to coat 96- or 384-well microplates, followed by BSA blocking, both incubated for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, human washed platelets were added into wells (A). and incubated for 90 min at 37 °C (B). Non-adherent platelets were washed away with tyrode buffer, and adherent platelets were incubated with diluted BCECF-AM for 30 min at 37 °C. The excess of BCECF-AM was removed by washing the plate 3 times with tyrode buffer (C). Non-fluorescent BCECF-AM is permeable to the platelet membrane. Once inside the platelet, intracellular esterases cleave the ester bond, releasing BCECF, which is the fluorescent form of the molecule. In addition, the cleavage of lipophilic blocking groups by esterases, leads to a charged form of BCECF, which leaks out of cells more slowly than BCECF-AM [69]. Rectangular boxes represent ECM and BSA coating(D).
Figure 7. Schematic representation of the study design using BCECF-AM. Extracellular matrix proteins were employed to coat 96- or 384-well microplates, followed by BSA blocking, both incubated for 1 h at 37 °C. Next, human washed platelets were added into wells (A). and incubated for 90 min at 37 °C (B). Non-adherent platelets were washed away with tyrode buffer, and adherent platelets were incubated with diluted BCECF-AM for 30 min at 37 °C. The excess of BCECF-AM was removed by washing the plate 3 times with tyrode buffer (C). Non-fluorescent BCECF-AM is permeable to the platelet membrane. Once inside the platelet, intracellular esterases cleave the ester bond, releasing BCECF, which is the fluorescent form of the molecule. In addition, the cleavage of lipophilic blocking groups by esterases, leads to a charged form of BCECF, which leaks out of cells more slowly than BCECF-AM [69]. Rectangular boxes represent ECM and BSA coating(D).
Ijms 21 06539 g007
Table
Table 3. Plate reader parameters for BCECF-AM and Calcein-AM.
Table 3. Plate reader parameters for BCECF-AM and Calcein-AM.
DyeBCECF-AM and Calcein-AM
SignalFluorescence
Excitation:485 nm
Emission:535 nm
Measurement time:0.1 s
Lamp energy (CW):15000
Emission side:Above
Temperature:22 °C

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Martins Lima, A.; Saint Auguste, D.S.; Cuenot, F.; Martins Cavaco, A.C.; Lachkar, T.; Khawand, C.M.E.; Fraga-Silva, R.A.; Stergiopulos, N. Standardization and Validation of Fluorescence-Based Quantitative Assay to Study Human Platelet Adhesion to Extracellular-Matrix in a 384-Well Plate. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 6539. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186539

AMA Style

Martins Lima A, Saint Auguste DS, Cuenot F, Martins Cavaco AC, Lachkar T, Khawand CME, Fraga-Silva RA, Stergiopulos N. Standardization and Validation of Fluorescence-Based Quantitative Assay to Study Human Platelet Adhesion to Extracellular-Matrix in a 384-Well Plate. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020; 21(18):6539. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186539

Chicago/Turabian Style

Martins Lima, Augusto, Damian S. Saint Auguste, François Cuenot, Ana C. Martins Cavaco, Tom Lachkar, Cindy Marie Elodie Khawand, Rodrigo A. Fraga-Silva, and Nikolaos Stergiopulos. 2020. "Standardization and Validation of Fluorescence-Based Quantitative Assay to Study Human Platelet Adhesion to Extracellular-Matrix in a 384-Well Plate" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 21, no. 18: 6539. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms21186539

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop