Organic farming consultor - Projects - Ifes

FORECOLOGIAORGANIC FARMING CONSULTORES/03/B/F/PP-149080This project has been funded with supportfrom the European Commission. Thispublication [communication] reflects theviews only of the author, and theCommission cannot be held responsible forany use which may be made of theinformation contained therein.

INDEXINTRODUCTION 31. MANAGEMENT COMPETENCES 41.1. To manage the conversion from conventional to organic 41.1.a. Regulation of organic farming 41.1.b. International standards 121.1.c. Conversion management planning 161.1.d. Energy balance of the farm 171.2. The food chain Traceability 181.2.a. Laws on food traceability 191.2.b. Certification of the food chain traceability 201.2.c. Control on GMOs 211.3. Quality, Typical, Social and Environmental certifications 241.3.a. Quality certification 241.3.b. Typical certification 251.3.c. Social and environmental certification 271.4. Multifunctionality 311.4.a. Agrotourism 311.4.b. Landscape management 331.4.c. Didactic farms 342. COMMERCIAL COMPETENCES 352.1. Marketing strategies 362.1.a. Organic Food sale channels 372.1.b. Organic farming and Territorial marketing 412.2. Marketing and new technologies 422.3. Labelling 442.3.a. International legislation on the labelling of organic food 442.3.b. Fair-trade labelling 453. PRODUCTION COMPETENCES 473.1. Principles of organic agriculture 473.1.a. Holistic production management system 473.1.b. Principles of health, ecology, fairness, care 473.2. Soil fertility management 483.2.a. Soil fertility 483.2.b. Composting and biomass recycling 483.2.c. Crop rotation, green manure and intercropping 493.2.d. Authorized fertilizers 503.3. Pest defense management 553.3.a. Prevention 563.3.b. Biological control 563.3.c. Weed control 583.3.d. Authorized products 643.4. Food production and processing 713.4.a. Vegetable productions 713.4.b. Animal husbandry 803.4.c. Food preservation and processing 98MINI-DICTIONARY OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE 103INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS 111

INTRODUCTIONThis handbook intends to provide main knowledge concerning skills related to the organicagriculture area. To be useful in a relevant way for every rural operator, the book contexthas been enlarged to the various aspects related to the rural activities organic agricultureoriented. So, it includes at the same time precious inputs at technical, managing,commercial level.The “organic agriculture consultant”, the professional figure to which this book is devoted,can become a leading professional figure in the area of eco-sustainable rural development.This professional figure will have to be basically aimed at the change over andmaintenance of organic agriculture method, being also able to provide qualifiedconsultancy to the farmers involved in vegetable productions, breeding and agriculturalprocesses. The mentioned “Consultant”, will have a thorough, well-targeted knowledgeabout environmental, rural and marketing matters. He will be able to follow in the best wayan appropriate fulfilment by the farmers of rules and laws at local and international level,which are more and more in evolution.In particular, from the point of view of production competences, the organic agricultureConsultant will be able to give every necessary qualified technical help to the farmersaimed at starting up the re-conversion, managing also further activities of the farms. To dothat, he will follow the main guidelines arising from technical rules in the area ofadministration and management, as well as from the current compulsory legislation, givinginformation on the application of it, within the farm’s context. He will analyze also everyissue arising from the activities currently carried out in the farm, also by means of someinterviews to the responsible of farming activities.From the point of view of commercial competences, the organic agriculture Consultantwill be able to give business advice to the farmers for the achievement of the best organicproduct marketing. The Consultant will know the techniques of analysis of the market, thefood sale channels, the selection of suppliers and supplies, the marketing regulation, theterritorial marketing and the marketing communication on the territory. The Consultant willknow as well the new technologies for the innovative marketing of the organic products (ecommerce,web-marketing, e-mail marketing). He will have furthermore a deep knowledgeof international law on the labeling of the organic products.Last but not least, he will have management competences, being able to manage in ecosustainableway the agriculture productions. The organic agriculture Consultant will beable to balance environmental safeguard and farmer’s revenue. He will know theecosystem where the farm is located and the relationship between living organisms. Hewill be conscious that the organic farming can be considered as a closed farming system,which preferably use local resources. He will give advice to minimize the inputs (resourcesand energy invested) and the losses of them, not only at farm level but also on regionallevel. Thanks to his advice, the farmer will be able to follow in the right way the guidelinesconcerning the matters of different typology of agro-industry certification.As a matter of fact, the organic agriculture Consultant will have to become a 360 degreesprofessional figure, able to give appropriate advice to the organic farms. That will becarried into effect both from a technical and administrative point of view. So, he will directhis skills at the same time to optimize organic methods on the farm and to respect naturaland juridical order, thanks to his knowledge of rules governing different aspects of ruralactivities.3

1. MANAGEMENT COMPETENCES1.1. To manage the conversion from conventional to organic1.1.a. Regulation of organic farmingOrganic farming represents a holistic approach to rural sustainable development.The European model of agriculture reflects the multifunctional role farming plays inthe richness and diversity of landscapes, food products and cultural and naturalheritage. “The 2003 and 2004 CAP reforms represent a major step forward inimproving the competitiveness and sustainable development of farming activity inthe EU and setting the framework for future reforms. Successive reforms havecontributed to the competitiveness of European agriculture by reducing pricesupport guarantees and encouraging structural adjustment. The introduction ofdecoupled direct payments encourages farmers to respond to market signalsgenerated by consumer demand rather than by quantity-related policy incentives.The inclusion of environmental, food safety and animal health and welfarestandards in cross-compliance reinforces consumer confidence and increases theenvironmental sustainability of farming” 1 .The framework set up by European Commission in the area of organic productiongives a wide range of economic opportunities to the producers, providing also theintegration of environmental protection in the agriculture, promoting and managingquality and safety for food productions.In particular, the Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91 foresees in detail how to manageorganic farming products in the Member States. This Regulation has beenmodified a number of times. A “consolidated text” has been collected by the Officefor Official Publications of the European Communities and has been published onthe official website 2 .It is worth underlining that the norms concerning organic products are founded ona system with a voluntary basis, so the organic agriculture logo, may also be usedin conjunction with logos appointed at national public or private level, to identifyorganic products.To label a product as organic, it has to totally conform to the provisions of thementioned Regulation, which provides minimum rules governing the production,processing and import of organic products, including inspection procedures,labelling and marketing, for the whole of Europe. This label can then only be usedby producers whose systems and products have been found on inspection able tosatisfy EU regulations requirements.The logo for organic products has been established since 2000 at E.U. level, and itcan be used throughout the whole E.U. area. This logo may only be used if organicproducts reach a minimum level of 95 percent of the ingredients and if they havebeen processed, packaged and labelled in the EU or in foreign Countries with anequivalent inspection system.1 Council Decision (2006/144/EC) of 20 February 2006 on “Community strategic guidelines for ruraldevelopment (programming period 2007 to 2013)”, in Official Journal of the European Union L 55/20,25.2.2006.2 http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex .4

(Figure 1: European logo for organic products)Following the basic EU principle of subsidiarity, each European Country isresponsible for the effective enforcement and monitoring of inspection system.Applications, supervision and sanctions are held at local levels. Each Country hasthe responsibility to implement the basic rules of E.U. Regulations within itsnational context. Organic foods imported into the EU from third Countries musthave been produced, processed and certified in accordance with equivalentstandards.A consolidated text of Community rules has been collected by the Office for OfficialPublications of the European Communities, published on the official website 3 .The European Commission adopted a proposal for a new regulation on organicproduction 4 : the current rules will be replaced by simpler, more transparent ones.They will define objectives and principles for organic production, clarify labellingrules and regulate imports. On March 27, 2006 over 90 stakeholders from elevendifferent EU countries participated at the public conference “Organic farming:Ready for the next Decade?” The delegates discussed the Commission’sproposal on the Revision of the Organic Regulation with the Austrian Presidency,the European Commission and the European Parliament. The event was the firstopportunity for stakeholders to discuss the proposal at European level.It is proposed that the new regulation will apply from 1 st January 2009, but that thenew rules on imports will come into force on 1 st January 2007.The E.U. rules foresee that each Member State have to set up its own inspectionsystem operating by means of designated inspection Authorities supervisinginspection bodies (which have to meet the requirements of international qualitystandards EN 45011 or ISO 65).3 http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex.4 Brussels, 21.12.2005, COM(2005)671 final(http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2005/com2005_0671en01.pdf).5

Table 1: List of accredited Certification bodies in the Countries involved in the projectLIST OF BODIES OR PUBLIC AUTHORITIES IN CHARGE OF INSPECTION PROVIDED FOR INARTICLE 15 OF REGULATION (EEC) No 2092/91(Extract of information No. 2005/C16/01 in Official Journal of the European Union 20.01.2005)−−−−−−−−−Asociacion Comite Andaluz de AgriculturaEcologica (C.A.A.E.)Cortijo de Cuarto, s/nApartado de correos 11107E-41080 BELLAVISTA (Sevilla)Tel.: +34 954 689 390Fax: +34 954 680 435E-mail: certi@caae.esInternet: http://www.caae.esSOHISCERT SA (Organismo privado autorizado)C/ Alcalde Fernandez Heredia, no 20E-41710 Utrera (Sevilla)Tel.: +34 955 86 80 51, +34 902 195 463Fax: +34 955 86 81 37E-mail: sohiscert@sohiscert.comInternet: http://www.sohiscert.comEntidad certificadora de alimentos de EspanaC/ Estudio no 33E-28023 Aravaca (Madrid)Tel.: +34 91 357 12 00Fax: +34 91 307 15 44E-mail: ecal-e@ecal-e.comAGROCOLOR, S.L.Ctra. De Ronda, no 11E-04004 ALMERIATel.: +34 950 280 380Fax: +34 950 281 331E-mail: agrocolor@agrocolor.esInternet: http://www.agrocolor.comComite de Agricultura Ecologica de laComunidad ValencianaCami de la Marjal, s/n Edificio C.I.D.E.E-46470 Albal (Valencia)Tel.: +34 961 22 05 60Fax: +34 961 22 05 61E-mail: caecv@cae-cv.comInternet: http://www.cae-cv.comConsejo Catalan de la Produccion AgrariaEcologicaC/ Sabino de Arana, 22-24E-08028 BarcelonaTel.: +34 93 409 11 22Fax: +34 93 409 11 23E-mail: ccpae@ccpae.orgConsejo Balear de la Produccion AgrariaEcologicaC/ Celleters, 25 (Edif. Centro BIT)E-07300 INCA (Mallorca)Tel./Fax: +34 971 88 70 14E-mail: info@cbpae.orgInternet: http://www.cbpae.orgConsejo de Agricultura Ecologica de Castilla yLeonC/Pio del Rio Hortega, 1 - 5 AE-47014 ValladolidTel.: +34 983/343855Tel./Fax: +34 983/34 26 40E-mail: caecyl@nemo.esConsejo de la Produccion Agraria Ecologica deNavarraAvda - San Jorge, 81SPAIN−−−−−−−−−Comite de Agricultura Ecologica de laComunidad de MadridC/ Bravo Murillo, 101E-28020 MadridTel.: +34 91 535 30 99Fax: +34 91 553 85 74E-mail: esmaae@terra.eshttp://www.caem.esConsejo Regulador de la Agricultura Ecologicade CanariasC/Valentin Sanz, 4, 3oE-38003 Santa Cruz de TenerifeTel.: +34 922 47 59 81/47 59 82/47 59 83Fax: +34 922 47 59 80E-mail: juanjose.trianamarrero@gobiernodecanarias.orgConsejo de Agricultura Ecologica de la Regionde MurciaAvda del Rio Segura, 7E-30002 MurciaTel.: +34 968 355488Fax: +34 968 223307E-mail: caermurcia@caermurcia.orgInternet: http://www.caermurcia.orgConsejo de la Produccion Agraria Ecologica delPrincipado de AsturiasAvda. Prudencio Gonzalez, 81E-33424 Posada de Llanera (Asturias)Tel./Fax: +34 985 77 35 58E-mail: copae@copaeastur.orgDireccion de Politica e Industria AgroalimentariaDepartamento de Agricultura y PescaC/Donosti - San Sebastian, 1E-01010 Vitoria - GasteizTel.: +34 945 01 97 06Fax: +34 945 01 97 01E-mail: j-ortuzar@ej-gv.esConsejo Regulador Agroalimentario Ecologicode ExtremaduraC/ Padre Tomas, 4, 1aE-06011 BadajozTel.: +34 924 01 08 60Fax: +34 924 01 08 47E-mail: craex@eco.juntaex.esComite Extremeno de la Produccion AgrariaEcologicaAvda. Portugal, s/nE-06800 Merida (Badajoz)Tel.: +34 924 00 22 74Fax: +34 924 00 21 26E-mail: cepae@aym.juntaex.eshttp://aym.juntaex.es/organizacion/explotaciones/cepae/Consejo Regulador de la Agricultura Ecologicade GaliciaApdo de correos 55E-27400 Monforte de Lemos (Lugo)Tel.: +34 982 405300Fax: +34 982 416530E-mail: craega@arrakis.esInternet: http://www.craega.esInstituto de Calidad de La Rioja Consejeria deAgricultura y Desarrollo Economico6

EntreplantaE-31012 Pamplona - IrunaTel.: +34 948-17 83 32Fax: +34 948-25 15 33E-mail: cpaen@cpaen.orgInternet: http://www.cpaen.org− Comite Aragones de Agricultura Ecologica -Edificio CentrorigenCtra. Cogullada, 65 - MercazaragozaE-50014 ZaragozaTel.: +34 976 47 57 78Fax: +34 976 47 58 17E-mail: caaearagon@arrakis.esInternet: http://www.caaearagon.com−−−−Entitad certificadora de alimentos de Espana SA(ECAL, SA)C/Miguel Yuste, 16-5a planta28037 MADRIDTel.: +34 913 046 051Fax: +34 93 13 275 028E-mail: a-teso@ecal-e.comBCS Oko - Garantie GmbH - BCS EspanaC/Sant Andreu, 5708490 - TORDERA (Barcelona)Tel.: +34 93 765 03 80Fax: +34 93 764 17 84E-mail: esanchez@canricastell.netSOHISCERT, SA (Organismo privado aut.)C/ Alcalde Fernandez Heredia, 20E-41710 Utrera (Sevilla)Tel.: +34 95 586 80 51, +34 902 195 463Fax: + 34 95 586 81 37E-mail: sohiscert@sohiscert.comInternet: http://www.sohiscert.comECAL PLUS, SAC/ des Estudio, 3328023 MADRIDTel.: +34 917 402 660Fax: +34 917 402 661E-mail: ecalplus@ecalplus.comInternet: http://www.ecalplus.com−−−Avda de la Paz, 8-10E-26071 Logrono (La Rioja)Tel.: +34 941 29 16 00Fax: +34 941 29 16 02E-mail: agricultura.ecologica@larioja.orgInternet: http://www.larioja.org/agriculturaConsejo Regulador de la Agricultura Ecologicade CantabriaC/Heroes Dos de Mayo, s/nE-39600 Muriedas-Camargo (Cantabria)Tel./Fax: +34 942 26 23 76E-mail: odeca@odeca.esSOHISCERT, SA (Organismo privado autorizado)C/ Alcalde Fernandez Heredia, 20E-41710 Utrera (Sevilla)Tel.: +34 95 586 80 51Fax: +34 95 586 81 37E-mail: sohiscert@sohiscert.comInternet: http://www.sohiscert.comDelegacion en Toledo:C/ Italia, 11345005 ToledoTel.: 925 28 04 68Fax: 925 28 02 02E-mail: sohicert@sohicert.comServicios de Inspeccion y certificacion S.L.C/ Ciudad, 13-1oE-41710 Utrera (Sevilla)Tel.: +34 95 586 80 51Fax: +34 95 586 81 37E-mail: sohiscert@sohiscert.comInternet: http://www.sohiscert.comDelegacion en Toledo:C/ Italia, 11345005 ToledoTel.: 925 28 04 68Fax: 925 28 02 02E-mail: sohicert@sohicert.comITALY−−ICEA - Istituto per la Certificazione Etica eAmbientaleStrada Maggiore, 29I-40125 BolognaTel.: +39 051/272986Fax: +39 051/232011E-mail: icea@icea.infoInternet: www.icea.infoSuolo & Salute srlVia Paolo Borsellino, 12/BI-61032 Fano (PU)Tel./Fax: +39 0721/830373E-mail: info@suoloesalute.itInternet: www.suoloesalute.it−−Consorzio Controllo Prodotti Biologici - CCPBvia Jacopo Barozzi 8I-40126 BolognaTel.: +39 051/254688-6089811Fax: +39 051/254842E-mail: ccpb@ccpb.itInternet: www.ccpb.itCODEX srlVia Duca degli Abruzzi, 41I-95048 Scordia (Ct)Tel.: +39 095-650634/716Fax: +39 095-650356E-mail: codex@lcodexsrl.itInternet: www.codexsrl.it−−IMC srl Istituto Mediterraneo di CertificazioneVia Carlo Pisacane, 32I-60019 Senigallia (AN)Tel.: +39 0717928725/7930179Fax: +39 071/7910043E-mail: imcert@imcert.itInternet: www.imcert.itBioagricert srlVia dei Macabraccia, 8I-40033 Casalecchio Di Reno (BO)Tel.: +39 051562158Fax: +39 051564294E-mail: info@bioagricert.orgInternet: www.bioagricert.org−−Q.C. & I. International Services sasVilla PariginiLocalita BascianoI-55035 Monteriggioni (Si)Tel.:+39 (0)577/327234Fax: +39 (0)577/329907E-mail: lettera@qci.itInternet: www.qci.itEcocert Italia srlCorso delle Province 60I-95127 CataniaTel.: +39 095/442746 - 433071Fax: +39 095/505094E-mail: info.ecocert@ecocertitalia.itInternet: www.ecocertitalia.it7

−−−−−−−Q.C. & I. . Gesellschaft fur kontrolle undzertifizierung von QualitatssicherungssystemenGmbHMechtildisstrasse 9D-50678-KOLNTel.: +49(0) 221 943 92-09Fax: +49(0) 221 943 92-11E-mail: qci.koeln@qci.deInternet: www.qci.deBIKO TIROL - Verband Kontrollservice TirolBrixnerstrasse 1A-6020 INNSBRUCKTel.: +43 512/5929337Fax: +43 512/5929212E-mail: biko@lk-tirol.atInternet: www.kontrollservice-tirol.atABC Fratelli Bartolomeovia Cirillo n.21I-70020 Toritto (BA)Tel./Fax: +39 0803839578E-mail: abc.italia@libero.itANCCP S.r.lvia Rombon 11I-20134 MILANOTel.: +39 022104071Fax: +39 02 210407218E-mail: anccp@anccp.itInternet: www.anccp.itSidel S.p.a.via Larga n.34/2I-40138 BOLOGNATel.: +39 022104071Fax: +39 051 6012227http://www.sidelitalia.itICS - Control System Insurance srlViale Ombrone, 5I-58100 GrossetoTel.: +39 0564417987Fax: +39 0564410465E-mail: info@bioics.comInternet: www.bioics.comCertiquality - Istituto di certificazione dellaqualitàVia Gaetano Giardino 4 (P.za Diaz)I-20123 MilanoTel.: +39 02806917.1Fax: +39 0286465295E-mail: certiquality@certiquality.itInternet: www.certiquality.it−−−−−−BIOS srlVia Monte Grappa 37/CI-36063 Marostica (Vi)Tel.: +39 0424/471125Fax: +39 0424/476947E-mail: info@certbios.itInternet: www.certbios.itEco System International Certificazioni srlVia Monte San Michele 49I-73100 LecceTel.: +39 0832318433Fax: +39 0832-311589E-mail: info@ecosystem-srl.comInternet: www.ecosystem-srl.comBIOZOO srlVia Chironi 907100 SASSARITel.: +39 079-276537Fax: +39 1782247626E-mail: info@biozoo.orgInternet: www.biozoo.orgABCERT - AliconBioCert GmbHMartinstrasse 42-44D-73728 EsslingenTel.: +49 (0) 711/351792-0Fax: +49 (0) 711/351792-200E-mail: info@abcert.deInternet: www.abcert.deINAC - International Nutrition and AgricultureCertificationIn der Kammerliethe 1D-37213 WitzenhausenTel.: +49 (0) 5542/91 14 00Fax: +49 (0) 5542/91 14 01E-mail: inac@inac-certification.comInternet: www.inac-certification.comIMO - Institut fur MarktokologieObere Laube 51/53D-78409 KonstanzTel.: +49 (0) 7531/81301-0Fax: +49 (0) 7531/81301-29E-mail: imod@imo.chInternet: www.imo-control.netGERMANY−−−BCS Oko-Garantie GmbHControl System Peter GroschCimbernstr. 21D-90402 NurnbergTel.: +49 (0)911/424390Fax: +49 (0)911/492239E-mail: info@bcs-oeko.dehttp://bcs-oeko.deLacon GmbH (Privatinstitut furQualitatssicherung und Zertifizierungokologisch erzeugter Lebensmittel)Weingartenstrase 15D-77654 OffenburgTel.: +49 (0)781/55802Fax: +49 (0)781/55812E-mail: lacon@lacon-institut.comhttp://lacon-institut.comIMOInstitut fur Marktokologie GmbH−−−Certification Services International CSI GmbHFlughafendamm 9aD-28199 BremenTel.: +49 (0)421/5977322/594770Fax: +49 (0)421/594771E-Mail: info@csicert.comhttp://www. csicert.comKontrollstelle fur okologischen Landbau GmbHDorfstrasse 11D-07646 TissaTel.: +49 (0)36428/62743Fax: +49 (0)36428/62743E-Mail: kontrollstelle@t-online.deFachverein fur Oko-Kontrolle e.V.Karl-Liebknecht Str 26D-19395 KarowTel.: +49 (0)38738/70755Fax: +49 (0)38738/707568

−−−−−−−Obere Laube 51/53D-78462 KonstanzTel.: +49 (0)7531/915273Fax: +49 (0)7531/915274E-mail: imod@imo.chhttp://www.imo.chABCert GmbHMartinstrase 42 - 44D-73728 EsslingenTel.: +49 (0)711/3517920Fax: +49 (0)711/35179220E-mail: info@abcert.dehttp://www.abcert.dePrufverein Verarbeitung OkologischeLandbauprodukte e.V.Vorholzstr. 36D- 76137 KarlsruheTel.: +49(0)721/3523920Fax: +49(0)721/3523909E-mail: kontakt@pruefverein.dehttp://www. pruefverein.deEG-Kontrollstelle KielKiel LandwirschaftskammerSchleswig-HolsteinHolstenstrasse 106-108D-24103 KielTel.: +49 (0)431/9797315Fax: +49 (0)431/9797130E-mail: eg-kontrollstelle.kiel@lksh.dehttp://www.lwk-sh.deAGRECO R.F. GODERZ GmbHMundener Strasse 19D-37218 WitzenhausenTel.: +49 (0)5542/4044Fax: +49 (0)5542/6540E-mail: agreco@t-online.deQC&I Gesellschaft fur Kontrolle undZertifizierung vonQualitatssicherungssystemen mbHMechtildisstr. 9D-50678 KolnTel.:+49 (0)221/9439209 or 0221/9439210Fax: +49 (0)221/9439211E-mail: qci.koeln@qci.dehttp://www.qci.deGrunstempel e.V.EU Kontrollstelle fur okologische Erzeugung undVerarbeitung landwirtschaftlicher ProdukteWindmuhlenbreite 25dD-39164 WanzlebenTel.: +49 (0)39209/46696Fax: +49 (0)39209/46696E-Mail: Gruenstempel@web.deKontrollverein okologischer Landbau e.V.Vorholzstr. 36D-76137 KarlsruheTel.: +49 (0)7231/105940Fax: +49 (0)7231/353078E-Mail: kontakt@kontrollverein.dehttp://www.kontrollverein.de−−−−−−−−E-Mail: info@fachverein.dehttp://www.fachverein.deÖKOP Zertifizierungs GmbHSchlesische Strase 17 dD-94315 StraubingTel.: +49 (0)9421/703075Fax: +49 (0)09421/703075E-Mail: oekop@t-online.dehttp://www.oekop.deGfRS Gesellschaft fur Ressourcenschutz mbHPrinzenstrasse 437073 GottingenTel.: +49 (0)551/58657Fax: +49 (0)551/58774E-mail: postmaster@gfrs.deInternet: www.gfrs.deAgro-Oko-Consult Berlin GmbHRhinstrasse 137D-10315 BerlinTel.: +49 (0)30/54782352Fax: +49 (0)30/54782354E-Mail: aoec@aoec.dehttp://www.aoec.deArs Probata GmbHGustav-Adolf-Str. 143D-13086 BerlinTel.: +49 (0)30/4716092Fax: +49 (0)30/4717921E-Mail: ars-probata@ars-probata.dehttp://www.ars-probata.deQAL Gesellschaft fur Qualitatssicherung in derAgrar- und Lebensmittelwirtschaft mbHAm Branden 6bD-85256 VierkirchenTel.: +49 (0)8139/9368-30Fax: +49 (0)8139/9368-57E-Mail: info@qal-gmbh.dehttp://www.qal-gmbh.deLAB Landwirtschaftliche Beratung derAgrarverbande BrandenburgSiedler-Str. 3aD-03058 Gros-GaglowTel./Fax: +49 (0)355/541466/541465E-Mail: labgmbh.cottbus@t-online.deTUV Management Service GmbHRidlerstrase 57D-80339 MunchenTel.: +49 (0)89/51901909Fax: +49 (0)89/51901915E-Mail: info@vitacert.dehttp://www.tuev-sued.de/management_servicesRWTUV Systems GmbH OkokontrollstelleLangemarckstrase 20D-45141 EssenTel.: +49 (0)201/8253404Fax: +49 (0)201/8253290E-Mail: oekokontrollstelle@rwtuev.dehttp://www.rwtuev.de−INAC GmbH International Nutrition andAgriculture CertificationIn der Kammersliethe 1D-37213 WitzenhausenTel.: +49 (0)5542/911400Fax: +49 (0)5542/911401E-Mail: inacgmbh@aol.comhttp://www.inac-certification.comAUSTRIA− Gesellschaft zur Kontrolle der Echtheit − Salzburger Landwirtschaftliche Kontrolle GmbH9

−−−biologischer Produkte G.m.b.HAustria Bio Garantie, ABGKönigsbrunnerstraße 8A-2202 EnzersfeldTel. +43 22 62 67 22 12Fax +43 22 62 67 41 43E-mail: nw@aabg.atInternet: www.abg.atBIOS - Biokontrollservice OsterreichFeyregg 39A-4552 WartbergTel.: +43 7587 7178Fax:+43 7587 7178-11E-mail: office@bios-kontrolle.atInternet: www.bios-kontrolle.atLACONPrivatinstitut fur Qualitatssicherung undZertifizierung okologischerzeugter Lebensmittel GmbHArnreit 13A - 4122 ArnreitTel.: +43 72 82 77 11Fax: +43 72 82 77 11-4http://www.lacon-institut.comGfRS Gesellschaft fur Ressourcenschutz mbHPrinzenstrase 4D-37073 GottingenTel.: +49 551 58657Fax: +49 551 58774http://www.gfrs.de−−−(SLK)Maria-Cebotari-Strasse 3A- 5020 SalzburgTel.: +43 662 649 483Fax: +43 662 649 483 19http://www.slk.atBIKO, Verband KontrollserviceTirolBrixnerstasse 1A-6020 InnsbruckTel.: +43 512 5929-337Fax: +43 512 5929-212LVALebensmittelversuchsanstaltBlaasstrasse 29A-1190 WienTel.: +43 1 368 85 55-0Fax: +43 1 368 85 55-20http://www.lva.co.atSGS Austria Controll - Co. GmbHJohannesgasse 14A-1015 WienTel.: +43 1 512 25 67-0Fax: +43 1 512 25 67-9PORTUGAL−SOCERT-PORTUGAL - Certificacao Ecologica,LdaRua Alexandre Herculano, 68 - 1 EsqE-2520 PenicheTel.: +351 262 785117Fax: +351 262 787171E-mail: socert@mail.telepac.pt−Certiplanet, Certificacao da Agricultura, Florestae Pescas, Unipessoal, Lda.Av. do Porto de Pescas, Lote C . 15, 1o C2520 . 208 PenicheTel.: 262 789 005Fax: 262 789 005E-mail: serrador@mail.telepac.pt−SATIVA, DESENVOLVIMENTO RURAL, LdaAv. Visconde Valmor, 11 - 3o1000-289 LISBOATel.: +351 21 799 11 00Fax: +351 21 799 11 19E-mail: sativa@sativa.ptSWEDEN−KRAVBox 1940S-751 49 UppsalaTel.: +46 18 10 02 90Fax: +46 18 10 03 66E-mail: info@krav.sehttp://www.krav.seAny operator, who produces, prepares or imports goods produced in accordancewith organic methods have to “notify” his activity to the competent Authority of theMember State in which this activity is held. The inspection scheme requires theproducer have to draw up a full description of his production unit, identifyingstorage premises, harvesting areas, and packaging premises. Once this report hasbeen drawn up, the producer has to notify the inspection Body each year itsschedule of production. The certification system consists in auditing and approvingthe production process management implemented by the operator wishing toobtain organic products, followed by constant monitoring of process conformity andanalysis of samples taken either on production/processing sites or from the10

market. The purpose of this certification framework, through initial assessment andsubsequent monitoring, is to give customers an independent, trustworthy qualityassurance, certifying productions following the requirements of current legislationconcerning products from organic farming.The certification bodies’ activity is financed by the inspection fees which theoperators are requested to pay. These fees are related to the size and typology ofthe business as well as of the number and specializations of production units. Inany case, the criteria followed ensure the coverage of costs incurred for controland certification activities. But certification costs should not refer only to the feesthat farmers pay to be certified. Certification standards and procedures entailchanges for the different managerial levels involved in the supply chain.Implications on costs and on managerial skills needed by farmers depend much onthe certification scheme.A relevant characteristic of the system governing organic agriculture from theadministrative point of view, is the wide range of commitments foreseen for theproducers, such as the documentation to be set up and the submission to periodicinspection by accredited certification Bodies. In order to achieve the certification ofproducts obtained with organic methods, it is compulsory to follow the followingprocedure.1) Sending of notification of production by organic method. It has to besubmitted to the Authority and certification Body appointed at national level.The contents of the documentation submitted have to be updated when thereare changes in the production activities, or in presence of managing matterssuch as acquisitions, divestments or variations in the possessor’s title.2) First document evaluation. The certification Body has to carry out a firstassessment on the requested documents coming from the farmer. If there is anegative evaluation (i.e. incompleteness or inadequacy of sent documents),the operator will be requested to give additional documentation within aperemptory fixed time, to be respected not to be excluded from the organicproduction system.3) Starting inspection visit. The technicians appointed by the accredited controlBody have to verify that the whole organization and management of theproduction processes can be considered as adequate, and coherent with thesector norms. They also have the task of guiding the farmer and helping in theachievement of established commitments.4) Admittance into the Control System. The Certification Commissionevaluates the farmer’s documents and the inspection visit report.Consequently, it decides whether to admit his farm into the organic productionsystem.5) Statement of Conformity. This further step is aimed at specifying the positiveassessment, the typology of the production, the number of registration into theRegister of controlled operators and the date of beginning and end ofattestation validity.6) Annual Production Plan. This document has to be notified to the CertificationBody by the production unit Responsible, within the 31st of January each year.Any substantial change in crops, acreage or estimated production, which mayoccur after the sending of the Annual Production Plan, has to be notified tothe Certification body.11

7) Plan of yearly Processing. This document has to indicate all the productsthat the Operator intends to process in his farm, in third parties’ units or onbehalf of third parties, in accordance with the regulations managing organicproduction.8) Product Certificate and Label Printing Authorization. The printingauthorization for the official label of a product arising from organic agriculture,can be requested by any Operator who has been accepted into the Inspectionsystem.The operator submitted to the inspection will have to observe the provisions ofnational and community regulations concerning organic farming, to supply thedocumentation required by the inspection system, to give the certificationinspection staff access to production sites, to mandatory records and to supportingdocumentation (e.g. invoices, VAT registers, etc.). The operator will also have tomake available to inspection staff all the products and materials of crop/livestockorigin and all ingredients of agricultural and non-agricultural origin for analysis asmay be required and will have to notify them of any substantial change.The EU supports organic farms with the Agro-environmental measures,previously Council Regulation (EEC) No. 2078/1992, after then Council Regulation(EEC) no.1257/1999. In 2003, agro-environmental programmes supported nearlyhalf of all organic land area in EU-15. The number of organic and in-conversionholdings supported were about 86.000 and represented about 64% of total organicholdings 5 . The Regulation stipulates that farmers shall undertake the commitmentfor a minimum of 5 years and provides aid in relation to the area and the type ofcrop concerned in the undertaking. The upper limits of co-grantable funds whichare granted on annual basis, vary from 600 €/ha for annual crops to 900 €/ha forspecialised perennial crops. and to 450 €/ha for other land uses under RegulationNo.1257/1999 and are significantly higher than under Regulation No. 2078/1992.1.1.b. International standardsThe International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is aprivate association established in 1972 to encourage organic agriculture and trade.With about 700 members, representing national associations, certifiers, tradersand processors, IFOAM is the largest and most influential umbrella organization ofits type. We have to consider that the “organic” word still does not mean the samething all around the world, because at international level organic food productionand processing standards are not harmonized across countries.The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements in the “BasicStandards” defines the way how organic products have to be grown, produced,processed and handled. They are presented as general principles,recommendations, and they reflect the current state of organic production andprocessing methods, providing a framework for certification bodies and standardsettingorganizations worldwide. They are particularly concerned with preventingthe use of national standards as trade barriers 6 .5 European Commission Report (G2 EW – JK D(2005) “Organic farming in the European Union – Facts andFigures”, Bruxelles, 3 th November 2005.6 The IFOAM Norms are available on IFOAM website: www.ifoam.org .12

IFOAM supports the development of regional standards as consistent with theobjectives of the IFOAM Basic Standards. International and regional standardshave a chance to be harmonized through this approval process.(Figure 2: IFOAM logo)Harmonised guidelines on agriculture production have also been provided by theUnited Nations Organizations F.A.O. (Food and Agriculture Organisation) andW.H.O. (World Health Organization). FAO and WHO guidelines are usefulrecourses for establishing sets of rules for public providers and makers, wishing todevelop regulations in this area. In particular, the Codex Alimentarius Commission,a joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Program, began in 1991 (with participation ofobserver organizations such as IFOAM and the E.U. Institutions) to elaboratedGuidelines for the production, processing, labelling and marketing of organicallyproduced food. The requirements in these Codex Guidelines are in line withIFOAM Basic Standards and the EU Regulation for Organic Food. The tradeguidelines on organic food consider and treasure several existing norms and rulesoperating in various Countries (with EU rules taking a lead role). These guidelinesdefine the nature of organic food production and prevent claims that could misleadconsumers about the quality of the product or the way it was produced. This Codexdocument constitutes a relevant base for the harmonization of international rules,in order to build up consumer trust. It will be important for equivalent judgmentsunder the rules of WTO. The Codex Guidelines for organically produced food willbe regularly reviewed at least every four years based on given Codex procedures 7 .It is worth noting that national regulations as well as national logos for organicproducts have been carried out by several EU countries; it is not unusual that thiskind of regulation occurred long before the EU regulation on organic productioncame into force. In some European countries, farmer’s associations had alreadyformulated their private standards and labelling schemes long before national andEuropean regulations came into force.The mentioned quality labels and brands (for example in the UK, Italy, Denmark,Austria, Hungary, Sweden and Switzerland), are usually well trusted byconsumers.To be awarded the private labels for organic products, it is necessary that all of theforeign operators (producers, processors and traders) not only fulfil therequirements set out in EU Regulation or other national regulations, but alsocomply with the respective private label standards. Those private labels undertakean additional verification of compliance and certification.Some European Inspection Bodies with accreditation by the Ministries ofAgriculture of the USA and Japan, can offer valid and recognized certifications tothe European organic operators wishing to export products to these countries.7 Further information about Codex Alimentarius is available via the homepage: www.codexalimentarius.net.There is also a special homepage on organic agriculture at the FAO Homepage: www.fao.org/organicag/.13

Such certifications are: NOP 8 - National Organic Programme (Table 2) for the USAarea and JAS 9 - Japanese Agricultural Standard (Table 3), for the Japan area.The International Organic Accreditation Service (IOAS) is a non-profit independentorganisation registered in Delaware, USA which offers international oversight oforganic certification, through a voluntary accreditation process for certificationbodies active in the field of organic agriculture 10 .The IOAS implements the IFOAM Accreditation Programme which is an industrybased global guarantee of organic integrity, unburdened by national barriers andimplemented by one body which has no other interests.Table 2: The USA National Organic Programme (NOP)The USA National Organic Program (NOP) was fully implemented on Oct. 21, 2002,under the direction of the Agricultural Marketing Service, an arm of the United StatesDepartment of Agriculture (USDA). The NOP is a federal law that requires all organicfood products to meet the same standards and be certified under the samecertification process.Background on the National Organic ProgramThe NOP developed national organic standards and established an organic certification program based onrecommendations of the 15-member National Organic Standards Board (NOSB). The NOSB is appointed by theSecretary of Agriculture and is comprised of representatives from the following categories: farmer/grower;handler/processor; retailer; consumer/public interest; environmentalist; scientist; and certifying agent. In addition toconsidering NOSB recommendations, USDA reviewed State, private and foreign organic certification programs to helpformulate these regulations. The NOP regulations are flexible enough to accommodate the wide range of operationsand products grown and raised in every region of the United States.What’s in the NOP regulations?The regulations prohibit the use of genetic engineering, ionizing radiation, and sewage sludge in organic productionand handling. As a general rule, all natural (non-synthetic) substances are allowed in organic production and allsynthetic substances are prohibited. The National List of Allowed Synthetic and Prohibited Non-Synthetic Substances,a section in the regulations, contains the specific exceptions to the rule.Production and handling standards address organic crop production, wild crop harvesting, organic livestockmanagement, and processing and handling of organic agricultural products. Organic crops are raised without usingmost conventional pesticides, petroleum-based fertilizers, or sewage sludge-based fertilizers. Animals raised on anorganic operation must be fed organic feed and given access to the outdoors. They are given no antibiotics or growthhormones.Labelling standards are based on the percentage of organic ingredients in a product.− Products labeled "100 percent organic" must contain only organically produced ingredients. They may displaythe USDA Organic seal.− Products labeled "organic" must consist of at least 95 percent organically produced ingredients. may display theUSDA Organic seal.− Processed products that contain at least 70 percent organic ingredients can use the phrase "made with organicingredients" and list up to three of the organic ingredients or food groups on the principal display panel. Forexample, soup made with at least 70 percent organic ingredients and only organic vegetables may be labeledeither "made with organic peas, potatoes, and carrots," or "made with organic vegetables." The USDA sealcannot be used anywhere on the package.− Processed products that contain less than 70 percent organic ingredients cannot use the term “organic” otherthan to identify the specific ingredients that are organically produced in the ingredients statement.Certification standards establish the requirements that organic production and handling operations must meet tobecome accredited by USDA-accredited certifying agents. The information that an applicant must submit to thecertifying agent includes the applicant’s organic system plan. This plan describes (among other things) practices andsubstances used in production, record keeping procedures, and practices to prevent commingling of organic and nonorganicproducts. The certification standards also address on-site inspections.Farms and handling operations that sell less than $5,000 a year in organic agricultural products are exempt fromcertification. They may label their products organic if they abide by the standards, but they cannot display the USDAOrganic Seal. Retail operations, such as grocery stores and restaurants, do not have to be certified.Accreditation standards establish the requirements an applicant must meet in order to become a USDAaccreditedcertifying agent. The standards are designed to ensure that all organic certifying agents act consistently8 http://www.ams.usda.gov/nop/indexIE.htm9 http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/e_label/index.htm10 http://www.ioas.org14

and impartially. Successful applicants will employ experienced personnel, demonstrate their expertise in certifyingorganic producers and handlers, and prevent conflicts of interest and maintain strict confidentiality.Imported agricultural products may be sold in the United States if they are certified by USDA-accreditedcertifying agents. USDA has accredited certifying agents in several foreign countries, and has applications fromseveral more. In lieu of USDA accreditation, a foreign certifying agent may receive recognition when USDA hasdetermined, upon the request of a foreign government, that the foreign certifying agent's government is able to assessand accredit certifying agents as meeting the requirements of the USDA National Organic Program.Table 3: JAS - Japanese Agricultural StandardThe JAS Standards for Organic Agricultural Products and Organic Agricultural Processed Foodswere established in 2000 on the basis with the Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing ofOrganically Produced Foods which was adopted by the Codex Alimentarius Commission.The Organic JAS System has been further developed with the additions of the JAS Standards for Organic LivestockProducts, Organic Livestock Processed Foods, Organic Livestock Feeds which took effect in November 2005.The Certified Business Entities certified by Registered Japanese Certifying Bodies or Registered Overseas CertifyingBodies that they product or manufacture organic foods or feeds in accordance with the Organic JAS Standards for theproducts are able to attach JAS marks to their products.JAS regulations for organic products require that, beginning on 1 April 2001 (extended to 2002), all products labelledas organic must be certified by a Japanese certification organization (RCO) or a foreign one (RFCO), registered at theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF), and display the JAS logo and the name of the authorizedcertification body in the label.Only registered bodies are entitled to authorize operators to display the JAS logo in their labels.The JAS logo as a quality mark was introduced in order to protect the Japanese market and consumers.This system has officially recognized the equivalence of European regulations, with the exception of a product allowedby Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91 for the foliar treatment of apple trees (Annex II B): calcium chloride.In short, equivalence means that certification criteria and reference production/processing/packaging standards foroperators wishing to export their organic products to Japan under the JAS mark, are the same as those adopted in theEuropean Community according to Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91.However, JAS regulations show some differences. For example, they do not cover alcoholic beverages and productsof animal origin (beekeeping products included).The norms require that only the processing (labelling) and marketing operations be controlled by a Japanese or foreigncertification body recognized by MAFF.However, in observance of the Community control regime, both producers and final sellers must ensure that also thesuppliers’ ingredients and the sub-contractors’ raw materials are certified in accordance with Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91.Compared with Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91, JAS labelling regulations present the following differences:- If the finished product contains both organic and in-conversion ingredients, the label must clearly show which areorganic and which in conversion. Instead, the EU does not permit the use of in-conversion raw materials for thepreparation of multi-ingredient products.- The label must always display the JAS mark. If the JAS mark is not displayed, the label must not show statementsas: organic, organic product, 100% organic, foreign organic, X % organic, or any other statement referring to theorganic farming method.- If the finished product does not have the JAS mark, but its ingredients have, it will be possible to write, for example,“salad containing vegetables from organic farming” or “ketchup made with organically grown tomatoes”.The task of the Product Grading responsible person is to decide which batches or lots of products really comply withthe organic farming method pursuant to JAS norms and which do not, for any reason whatsoever.The presence of such a responsible person is highly desirable also to meet the requirements of Reg. (EEC) No.2091/92, since the last amendment to Annex III, which specifies the minimum control requisites, states that theoperator is obliged to advise the certification body of any doubt which may arise concerning product compliance andsuspend the marketing of the product until its compliance is ascertained.15

1.1.c. Conversion management planningThe Community rules governing organic farming requires any farm wishing toadopt organic methods to comply with a conversion phase lasting two years forannual herbaceous crops and three years for perennial crops. The Inspection Bodycan lengthen or shorten this period, based on the history of the farm supported bydocumentation. In no case it may conversion in less than one year.From a technical point of view, conversion is the period when a holding, formerlymanaged with conventional methods, lays the foundations for a correct andprofitable application of organic farming methods. Therefore, we can define as“bureaucratic conversion” the one that doesn’t allow products to be marketed asfrom organic farming, and “agronomic conversion” the one aiming at optimizingorganic methods on the farm, from a technical point of view.The operator, and the advisor assisting him, must carefully assess potentials anddrawbacks of the holding, in order to define times and modes for “agronomicconversion”. The Regulation contemplates the possibility for a farm to convert onlyone portion of its agricultural area, but it prohibits parallel production, that isgrowing the same crop varieties and rearing the same animal species with differentmethods.The purpose of a “conversion plan” is to guide operators in the conversion periodtowards the goals to be achieved. A conversion plan conveys a “picture” of theholding, analyzing and cross-examining all acquired data, with the objective ofdefining the technical solutions to adopte.When organizing the work, discussing with operators and advisors or definingactions, it is essential to underline that organic farming is a method and not justreplacing the chemical fertilizers and active principles used up to that moment withthe natural substances. If this concept is not well understood, failure is most likelyto occur.Converting a farm to organic farming means above all to improve the organicfertility of the soil and the equilibrium of the ecosystem on the farm.In a conversion plan the following items have to be carefully evaluated:− Chronology of the field, collecting exhaustive information about agronomicpractices, problems and yields is a relevant task for the organic farmer;− State of the soil: will be relevant in the step tests for a good fertilizing plan;− Social-environmental situation: an operator tackling conversion should knowthe environment where the holding is located and should know of any otherorganic holdings in the area. In this way he would be able to exchangeinformation and receive useful hints and would not feel like a pioneer. Heshould also gather information about points of sale or agents that sell outputsor supply services of interest to organic farmers and he should becomeacquainted with traders who may buy his products. It is also useful for thegrowers who are not self-reliant to know third-party operators or processors inthe area due to their equipment, expertise and willingness to perform anyoperations that may be needed.− Operator’s awareness and know-how. These elements play a key role in thedefinition of times and methods for introducing innovations on the farm and16

provide the technical support that is needed. The operator’s motivation is adetermining factor for success, obviously, if an operator is not persuaded with,or has not fully “digested”, a proposed initiative, this initiative is not likely tosucceed. This is also true for the persons in charge of operations, especiallyoutside the farm such as third-party processors, who tend to pursue their owninterests rather than that of the farm.− Equipment present on the farm and willingness to invest. The time requiredfor implementing agronomic options depends not only on the operator’sconviction, as stated above, but also on the availability of the necessary inputsand equipment on the farm and in the territory. The operator’s willingness toinvest money on the farm also has an influence on implementation times.Expert advisors will certainly suggest temporary alternative solutions that onthe one hand will convince the operator that the operations are practicable andare worth investing in, and on the other hand will not excessively delayimportant technical decisions.− Constraints. Some restraints of organizational or environmental nature mayheavily affect technical options and may require even more carefulconsideration on actions to be taken to attain objectives. The ones mostfrequently found are: environmental and political restraints, motorways orpollution sources in the vicinity, no services available in the area; no premiumsawarded by Regional Plans.All the information gathered, after due consideration, will help the operator todefine a conversion plan that will include the technical solutions that he considersmore appropriate for his holding.A conversion plan is also useful to highlight the fact that in organic farming noaction is an end in itself, but always serves multifarious purposes. The actions willbe effective only if the equilibrium of the soil and eco-system is respected.1.1.d. Energy balance of the farmThe energy balance of the farm is very important for the evaluation of its impact onthe climatic change (emission of greenhouse gases) and on the consumption offossil energies. The aim is to quantify the non-renewable energy need to make aproduct, to quantify the energy contained in this product and to check its energyefficiency. This analysis applied to agriculture allows:- taking inventory of mobilized energy to treat the stations of energyconsumption on a hierarchical basis;- measuring energy efficiency of the production system.This analysis is generally done at farm level and means that account of energyflows (inputs & outputs) must be taken.A lot of link exist between farming practices, greenhouse effect and fossil energyconsumption. For example Increasing surfaces in permanent meadows we cansave energy (less mechanization – lower fossil fuel consumption) and reducegreenhouse gas emission.The management of the environmental impact of agriculture requires knowledge offundamental agronomic principles and a global approach to the exploitation ofenvironment.A good tool for the Organic agriculture consultant is the “DIALECTE” system: aspecific method for the agro-environmental diagnostic, implemented in France by17

Solagro 11 . It consists of a survey questionnaire (intended to collect essentiallyquantitative data); a spreadsheet (for determining the agro-environmentalindicators); a mark and graphical representation of the impacts of the farm onenvironment. One of the main objectives of agro-environmental diagnostic is theconsultancy for farmers (or groups of farmers) who have already chosen to takethe environment into account in their decision-making procedures. Therefore, theyhave a need for a tool to enable them to evaluate the impact of agriculturalsystems and practices. The DIALECTE method may be used on the one hand tointroduce changes in practices and systems aimed at the protection of theenvironment and, on the other hand, to organise monitoring in order to check andto evaluate the improvements introduced.1.2. The food chain TraceabilityFirst of all it is necessary to premise that for “food chain” we intend the whole of theorganizations (or food business operators) with the relative material flows related to thetraining, distribution, marketing and supply of the food. The term of chain individualizes,in this context, all the activities and the flows that have critical importance for thecharacteristics of the product (Norm 12 UNI 10939:2001). To make effective the “Systemof traceability” it has to be used a “food chain agreement”, that will be the agreementthat a head-subject of the chain can have with the other “rings” of the chain, to definethe responsibilities and the specificities of the first subjects of the semifinishedproducts and of the material flows.In such agreement one can define the Body which have to coordinate the food chainand it will manage the system of traceability of the product, the formalities andresponsibility for the data management and of all documentation, which have to beidentified in and among the involved organizations.The traceability of chain food involves all the data “from the field to the fork”, with thepurpose to understand the productive and qualitative variables, the behaviour of theproduct during its maintenance, the control of the costs of production, the insideresponsibilities (operating) and external (clients and suppliers).Such mass of information must have managed through real “informative systems offood chain” with various points of access (to the public, to the sanitary authority and theorganisms of certification, to the technical persons responsible and the businessmanagement) in a perspective of a precise wish of transparency, to consolidate therelationship of trust with all the operators of the productive and distributive chain andwith the final consumer.In order to reach this aim, the principal documents to set up are:a) The technical Disciplinary (or manual) of traceability, whose principle is to writeall that one does (… and then to do - of course - what is written!) to guaranteethe traceability of the chain.b) The Document System, which is composed of operational procedures, technicalprocedures, job instructions and documents that the single firm of the foodchain have to adopt to guarantee the correct operation of the trace system.c) The draft of Certification, which points out the rules through which the regulatoryagency and the operators of chain have to interact among themselves and toguarantee the conformity of the product to the norm of reference.11www.solagro.org12 This norm has been issued by UNI – Unification National Body of Italy (www.uni.it).18

d) The Flow Chart, represents the scheme where the various phases of productionare outlined. It also highlights the phases in which traceability is more likely to belost. It is therefore the document that describes the history of the product unit(understood as the smallest lot which is the closest to the single selling unit).e) The Plan of Controls, which is the document that orders type and formality of theoperations to effect for the verification of the specifications of the product duringthe productive cycle (collecting samples, chemical analysis, laboratories, etc..).Such verifications are normally conducted both from the firm head of food chainand from a third corporate body, in the case of certification. Naturally for theagro-organic food chain, the activity carried out by Agencies of control andcertification, authorized by the single national Authorities in conformity with theReg. (EEC) No. 2092/91 is essential. These Organisms operate on the base ofspecialized operational manuals highly planned in such a way to guarantee thecontrol of the complete food chain in all of its phases.1.2.a. Laws on food traceabilityWe can distinguish four principal normative typologies concerning the traceabilityin the agro-food sector:1. the community compulsory laws (regulations),2. the community guideline laws (green book, white book),3. the voluntary laws elaborated by the standards organizations,4. the national norms.Being these last simple realizations of community rules or expression of particularlocal demands, in the present treatment we will exclusively look after theinternational norms (compulsory, guidelines, voluntary).Following the Commission's Green Paper on food law, the EU has published the“White Paper on Food Safety”, setting out over 80 different actions that envisagetarget to be reached in next few years, linked the food safety “from farm to table.”A new legal framework will be proposed. This will cover the whole of the foodchain, including animal feed production, establishing a high level of consumerhealth protection and clearly attribute primary responsibility for safe foodproduction to industry, producers and suppliers. Appropriate official controls atboth national and European level will be established. The ability to trace productsthrough the whole food chain will be a key issue. The ability to take rapid, effective,safeguard measures in response to health emergencies throughout the food chainwill be an important element.After two years from publication of White Paper, it‘s been approved by theEuropean Parliament and the Council of 28 January 2002 the Regulation (EC) n.178/2002 laying down the general principles and requirements of food law,establishing the European Food Safety Authority and laying down proceduresrelated to the food safety. This law defines besides, to the point 15 of the art. 3 thesame concept of traceability, agreement “… the ability to trace and follow a food,feed, food-producing animal or substance intended to be, or expected to beincorporated into a food or feed, through all stages of production, processing anddistribution”. The art. 18 disposes the “traceability of food, feed, food-producinganimals, and any other substance intended to be, or expected to be, incorporatedinto a food or feed, as established at all stages of production, processing anddistribution”. In the same article it also is established that food and feed business19

operators shall be able to identify any person from whom they have been suppliedwith food and the other firms to which their products have been supplied. To thisend, such operators shall have systems and procedures which allow thisinformation to be made available to the competent authorities on demand. Food orfeed which is placed on the market or is likely to be placed on the market in theCommunity must be adequately labelled or identified to facilitate its traceability,through relevant documentation or information in accordance with the relevantrequirements of more specific provisions.1.2.b. Certification of the food chain traceabilityThe certification of conformity is “the action through which a third independent partdeclares that, with reasonable reliability, a determined product or service isconforming to a specific norm and it satisfies the specified requisite”. Thisdefinition puts in evidence the essential and necessary elements of the process ofcertification: qualifications to be proved and an organism of independent,competent and impartial certification. The standard UNI 10939:2001 “System oftraceability in the agro-industrial food chains – general principles for the planningand the realization”, is a framework norm that defines the principles and specifiesthe requisite for the realization of a system of traceability food chain traceability, inall the cases in which one wishes to document the history of a product and thespecific responsibilities. This norm doesn't intend to impose the uniformity of thesystems of traceability: the definition of the ampleness and the depth of the agroindustrialchain is left in charge of the head Body which intervenes in therealization of the product for the enterprise. Furthermore, the inside formalities oftraceability of the product, passing from the raw materials to the semi-finished, aredefined in the circle of the single chain operation of his/her own abilities, attitudesand technological development. For every product it is therefore the relative chainthat establishes extension and formality of the traceability, taking to reference therequisite of the line drives UNI 10939:2001 and formalizing them in the Disciplinaryone of food chain that becomes so the reference for the operations of control andcertification.The certification of the traceability of food chain attests that it is guaranteed anddocumented the traceability of the product along all the phases of its elaboration,according to the rules foreseen by the Disciplinary of reference (predisposed bythe firm following the standard UNI 10939:2001).A particular scheme of certification, adopted by some corporate body even beforethe issue of the norm UNI 10939, it is the Certification of Controlled food chain.This attests, in accord with the Disciplinary Technician of reference, that isguaranteed and documented the traceability of the product along all the phases ofelaboration, and that the characteristics hygienic sanitary of the product managedalong the whole food chain. Accordingly to the Certification of the chaintraceability it shows also the history of a product and the specific responsibilitiesthrough the identification and the recording of the material flows and theorganizations that compete to the formation, marketing and supply of the product,the Certification of controlled food chain, and the requisite of the traceability, itguarantees also the planning and the realization coordinated of the safety hygienicsanitary on the whole chain. Objective principal of these types of certification isthat to give greater transparency to the relationship between productive systemand consumer: in this way the chain traceability and the check of the chain canbe, over that technical tool of control, a tool of reassurance and trust. Other finality20

concerns the safety: the dangers and the relative critical points of control areindividualized and managed by every firm of the food chain (agricultural firm,transport, transformation, distribution). In case of risk and damage for theconsumers' health, the control of the food chain and the traceability that shouldallow the identification and the isolation of the firms to risk, without involving in thesuspicion and in restrictive provisions a whole compartment. The agro-industrysector is therefore more and more stimulated by the today's tendencies anddemands of the markets and the consumer to sufficiently operate in a context ofharmonic food chain and coordinated: only on the base of planned actions andcoordinates it will be in fact possible to furnish the guarantees and the quality thatfor these are waited to the consumer, in food safety theme.The European Union, by means of the approval of the Regulation No. 178/2002,makes compulsory the adoption of a traceability food system, beginning fromJanuary 2005.Traceability and transparency can become therefore fundamental tools ofmarketing, above all for the organic agriculture productions that have an Europeansystem of control and certification since 1991, controlled by community andnational norms.1.2.c. Control on GMOsIn farming man has always realized crossings between crops to improve thefeatures and the adaptability of them to the territory. By means of the geneticengineering, in the last decades, instead it has started something of different, thatexceeds the natural boundary arriving to stir genes belonging totally differentorganisms, that also cannot have some genetic type of relations. Thanks to thisgenetic manipulation one obtain organisms with their own features: they are nowknown GMOs, (defined by art. 2 of the DIR. 2001/18/CE) 13 .Dealing today with GMOs and of Genetic Engineering asks for social, economical,politic, last but not least, ethics reflection. There are not many available studies onthe argument and the big part of these researches are carried out by the corporateproducing GMOs. The utilization of the GMOs is promoted like the way to cover toresolve the problem of the hunger in the Developing Countries, thanks to thehigher productivity of transgenic plants. However it is clear, nowadays, that theproblem is not the scarcity of food, so like a lot of economists (among which theNobel prize Amartya Sen) make observe, the problem of the hunger in the world isnot a problem of production, but of distribution and of poverty.The independent scientific studies really show that no one of the benefits attributedto the GM cultivations can be verified. Instead, it appears in all there gravity, theserious damages, derived from these practices, and their repercussions on thehuman health, on the safety of the environment, on the respect of the peoples andtheir values, and of course on the farmers, more and more depending onherbicides and pesticides, with unsustainable costs of production. Problemsspreading of the genetic engineering in these countries can only contribute toincrease the insecurity of food. In fact it is cause of the loss of the biodiversity,13 DIRECTIVE 2001/18/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 12 March 2001on deliberate release into the environment of genetically modified organism and repealing CouncilDirective 90/220/EEC. To the art. 2 defines the GMO like “an organism, with the exception of humanbeing, in which genetic material has been altered in a way that doesn’t occur naturally by mating and /ornatural recombination” (europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/ oj/dat/2001/l_106/l_10620010417en00010038.pdf).21

oth because it is based on the increase of mono-cultivation productions, andbecause more and more it is utilized a technology called "terminator 14 " thatdisables genetically the seed making it incapable to germinate (the seeds aresterile and cannot be re-used for new crops). They are new shapes ofdependence, monopolies that tend to strengthen more and more the position ofmultinational enterprises; in fact, peasants are obliged to the payment of theroyalties recognized for the patent rights on the seeds, and then because of thesterility of the GM seeds, they are forced to buy year after year, without being ableto self-reproducing them 15 . “The resources of the poor is stolen with violenceacross new and shrewd means like biodiversity and the native knowledge patent”asserts Vandana Shiva 16 and continues: “The knowledge of the poor istransformed in property of the large global industries, and arrives at the point inwhich the poor should pay for seeds and medicines that they elaborated and usedto provide their necessity of food and medical cares”. For this protests are raisingagainst the GMOs, demanding that the genes of human beings, animals or plantsrepresent basic elements of an universal inheritance no marketable that cannotbecome presumed industrial inventions. In synthesis the environmental risks mostrecognized are:• the transmission of the “new gene” from the modified plant to plant of the samespecies or similar across the spread of the pollen;• the transfer of the “new gene” to the micro organisms of the ground;• the loss of the biodiversity due to the spread and utilization of few transgenicseeds all over the world with consequent disappearing of species now existing;• the increase of the utilization pesticides linked to new tolerance features goadedgenetically in plants;• the selection of resistance insects to the character introduced in the plantgenetically modified.For these reasons standards IFOAM (International Federation of OrganicAgriculture Movements) establish the categorical exclusion, of the GMOs and of allproducts containing GMOs, from the whole Biological productive system. Therisks for the organic agriculture to be contaminated by transgenic application canpresent themselves in different moments of the production, both for pollencontamination and for the transportation of the seeds by insects or by wind. Astudy done by the Soil Association 17 collects the experiences of the northAmericans farmers and emphasizes one of the largest problems, caused from theuse of GMO, consists in the spread contamination of the agricultural area and feedsector. It was verified at all levels of the chain feed, from the production of theseeds to the production of the food. Where the GM cultivations were marketed,14 To the beginnings of April 2006, in Brazil, has reunited the Convention for the Biological Variety, thatadopted a “world moratorium for the experimentation and commercialization of Terminator”.15 The patent right is damaging enormously the small farmers, also those that never used seeds GM: onethinks about the case of Percy Schmeiser, the Canadian farmer that, accused to have violated theMonsanto’s patent using illegally colza GMO without paying the seeds, he was then condemned from theSupreme Court Canadian to the payment of a fine of $400.000, although he was genetic victim ofpollution. It is a shock sentence aiming to cancel the right of the farmers and that, above all, recognizes tothe multinational the right to demand the payment of their royalties also when the GMOs arrive in thefields of the peasants accidentally.16 www.vshiva.net17 www.soilassociation.org22

the contamination arrived to a such level that became very difficult to find seedselectors lines GMOs free.The American Authority devoted to the certification of organic agriculture declaredthat the GM contamination of corn, colza and soybean now is so extended that,according to them, for the North America farmers is not more possible to produceGM-free seeds. Even the corporates admitted that the absolute purity genetic isunreachable today. This shows how it is difficult to accept the coexistence of twotypes of cultivations and how is even more difficult to protect the consumers thatchoose to do not consume GMOs products or its by-products. To this purpose theEuropean Parliament produced a specific normative to establish the Europeansystem of traceability and of labelling of the GMOs. The normative in object is theN.1830/2003 18 that to the art. 1 fixes the target “to provides a framework for thetraceability of the products consisting of or containing GMO with the objectivesfacilitating accurate labelling, monitoring the effects on the environment and,where appropriate, on the health...” “…so as to ensure that accurate information isavailable to operators and consumers to enable them to exercise their freedom ofchoice in an effective manner”, so as in the fourth considering it affirms“..Requirements for food and feed produced from GMOs should be similar in orderto avoid discontinuity of information in cases of change in end use”. The system oftraceability will allow to follow, step by step, the handling of the GMO productsacross the productive and distributive chain and more it will allow the withdrawal ofproducts from the market, in case one establishes unforeseen harmful effects forthe health of the man, animals or for the environment. The normative foresees thatsector operators have to transmit and preserve information concerning productsfor a period of five years after each transaction. Other obligation expected is toshow on the label of the products, pre-packaged and not, containing GMO thewording “This product contains genetically modified organisms” or “This productcontains genetically modified [name of the organism(s)]”. The thing that leavesuncertain of this law is the fact that it doesn’t provide the same obligations forthose products in which tracks of GMO is not superior proportions of 0,9% arecontained, as long as this presence is accidental or technically inevitable. TheEuropean Commission gives to members States, in accordance with the principleof subsidiary, the obligation to state and carry out the measures of management ofthe coexistence across the Recommendation 2003/556/CE 19 that fixes orientationsfor the elaboration of appropriate national strategies. This does not convince thebiological movement, sure about necessity of the zero tolerance, that sees in thewill of the Commission to equalize the presence of tolerance of threshold of GMOsin the biological products to that expected for the conventional one, a manner toput in practice the difficult coexistence and avoid that every biological farmercontaminated can run back in tribunal and ask the damages caused from decertificationof products because of contamination, according to the communitarianprinciples “who pollutes pay”. Even more disarming is been the recent decision ofthe Commission do not elaborate a European normative on the coexistence18 REGULATION (EC) N. 1830/2003 OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 22September 2003 concerning the traceability and labelling of genetically modified organisms and thetraceability of food and feed product produced from genetically modified organisms and amendingDirective 2001/18/EC (europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2003/l_268/l_26820031018en00240028.pdf).19 COMMISSSION RECCOMANDATION (2003/556/EC) of 23 July 2003 on guidelines for the developmentof national strategies and best practices to ensure the coexistence of genetically modified crops withconventional and organic farming(europa.eu.int/eur-lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2003/l_189/l_18920030729en00360047.pdf).23

etween the genetically modified cultivations and the conventional and biologicalagriculture, that pushed the movement of the farmers to present, in occasion of theSummit of Vienna 2005 dedicated to the biotech, titled "The freedom of choice", aDeclaration for an OGM free Europe.Different the applications introduced in the document:• to guarantee to the consumers and growers the right to GMO free foods andagricultures;• to promote the development of whole GMO free regions;• the precedence of the agriculture not transgenic on the most doubtful productionwith GMO• to individualize and pursue the persons responsible of the contaminations, bothmanufacturing or simple consumers of GMOs.The hope is that the Commission will agree to the petitions presented, consideringthat in the EU 25, a region on three asks that its territory would be GMO free. InJanuary 2006, 172 regions and more of 3400 local European authorities werealready declared GMO free areas. They did it thanks to regional laws ordeclarations that express the will of their citizens to hold the GMO outside ownterritory. But with the present European legislation, the local authorities cannotpursue the declared objectives, although, being more near the worries of thecitizens, they should have the last word as regards 20 . “It is a matter of democracy- said Rough Anschober, minister for the environment and the protection of theconsumers of the High Austria - because 90% of the European citizens do notwant to know consuming GMO products”.1.3. Quality, Typical, Social and Environmental certificationsThe consumer’s request about the quality and typicality of the products, alimentarysafety, environmental impact of the production and social responsibility towards worker,pushed, more and more, private and government Bodies setting appropriate standardsto respect. That led to the creation of “guarantee mark” – the so called certificationthatagro-industrial firms can utilize to demonstrate to community their adhesion to therequested values and demands.In this chapter we try to give a vision of main certification systems that, giving answersto consumers needs, allows firms, that meets these obligations, to obtain properadvantages. In fact, a management transparent of the social and environmental aspectis a sign of right general management and global good will of enterprise, it contributesto reduce investment financial risk allowing companies, that operates in sustainableway, to secure itself right profits, thanks to thorough marketing politic.1.3.a. Quality certificationThe quality of products 21 and of services, its continuous correspondence to rulesand specific technologies are today strategic requirements essential for theachievement and the maintenance of greater contributions of market. The20 www.gmofree-europe.org21 The long-awaited certification of product that a product or a service answer to the requisitioned anddescribed from a normative document of reference. The certification of product has therefore like muchreference documents normative how many are the products or services object of the certification.24

definition of a System of Management for the quality 22 and its certification inconformity to the Rules ISO 9001 represent success factors indispensable and arelevant requirement in a global scenery characterized from a high level ofcompetition.The Systems of Management for the quality are modern tools that agree with thebusinesses needs and have to be in line with the relevant national andinternational rules (ISO 9000). The conformity of the System of Management forthe business quality with such rules leads to a better guarantee on the capacity ofthe business to satisfy the requirements of quality. The certification in conformityto the Rules ISO 9000 arising from a third authority independent recognized tonational level and international become indispensable to the businesses to be ableto earn the trust of the customers and of the market.The application of a system of quality according to the rule ISO 9001\2000 to anorganic business results to be a passage of natural evolution in the businessorganization, in fact the business already adopts an organizational frame based onofficial documents respecting the principles of the rule of reference necessary tocertify a system of quality, that is ISO 9001\2000. The will to manage at level ofexcellence a service in a continuous enhancement, could show trough theimplementation of a system of Management Integrated Quality/Environment andSafety. A system integrated favours besides the maximization of the efficiency ofthe dedicated service, avoiding useless superimpositions and diseconomy.Moreover the implementation of a System Integrated is favoured from the commonroot of the rules ISO 9000 and ISO 14001.So, the natural evolution in the organization of a organic business is to start with asystem of quality according to the rule ISO 9001\2000, and then to adopt Systemsof Management Integrated Quality – Environment and furthermore to orientateitself to the Ethical Certification, beyond that to certify the typicalness of theproducts.1.3.b. Typical certificationSince the reform of the Common Agricultural Policy, quality policy has beenplaying an increasingly prominent role. The number of regional and specialityproducts other than wine and spirits for which names are registered under EUquality schemes now stands at 727 and continues to grow. In order to improve andmake the registration process more efficient, the new regulations 23 simplifyprocedures and clarify the role of Member States.The brands of quality (PDO, PGI, TSG) are collective brands allowing to identify atypical product obtained by the companies with well defined productive andenvironmental characteristics and submitted to a control system. In order to obtaina collective brand are necessary rigorous disciplinary prescriptions. The products22 The certification of product allows to affix on the preparation of the same product, the brand of conformity,that includes the logo of the organism of certification. It is it together of the organizational structure, of theprocedures and of the necessary resources to define and to achieve the business objectives of quality.The management for the quality is responsibility of all of the executive levels and its accomplishmentinvolves all the personal one. The methods and the tools used, to verify the qualitative standard, I am theGuarantee of the Quality and the Control of the Quality (all the activity and the technical procedures -operating carried out to ensure itself that a product or a service I respect the qualitative standard).23 Council Regulation (EC) No. 510/2006 of 20 March 2006 on the protection of geographical indications anddesignations of origin for agricultural products and foodstuffs and Council Regulation (EC) No. 509/2006 of20 March 2006 on agricultural products and foodstuffs as traditional specialities guaranteed.25

with collective brand are controlled and certified by an Organism of control thatguarantees the conformity.PDO - Protected Designation of Origin is the name of a Region, a specific place,than serves to designate the agricultural and food-products (with exclusion ofthose made with liquor) original of such area, whose qualities are tied togeographic ambient, comprehensive of natural and human factors, and whosetransformation and elaboration take place in the delimited geographic area(Regulation EEC n. 2081/92).Figure 3: PDO logoPGI - Protected Geographical Indication is the name of a Region, a determinateplace, than serves to designate original products of such area, of which onedetermined quality, the reputation or an other characteristic can be attributed to thegeographic origin and whose production and/or transformation and/or elaborationtake place in the delimited area (Regulation EEC No. 2081/92).Figure 4: PGI logoTSG - Traditional Speciality Guaranteed or Attestation of Guaranteed Specificity(AS) is the collective brand that designates an agricultural and food-product thathas some characteristics (specificities) that clearly distinguish it from otherproducts or analogous aliments pertaining to the same category (Regulation EECNo. 2082/92). A product TSG is not tied to a specific territory of origin but to a26

composition, to a traditional production method for which whichever Europeanproducer that respect the previewed prescription can use such brand.Figure 5: TSG logoEurope, however, has allocated new resources to promote the participation offarmers to certification systems and to implement new information and promotionalcampaigns aimed at the public and promoted by consumer associations.Legislation grants greater control power to the consortia for the protection andvalorisation of products. In addition, production tends to be considered as aneconomic, cultural, and national heritage and, as such, is protected byinternational agreements on intellectual property rights.The spreading of an European food style, the valorisation of typical products inlarge-scale distribution, the creation of tourist food routes, the introduction ofeducational events to train youths on food education, on links between food andthe territory, and on label information are, in all respects, some of the main aims ofthe action plans to support a world-unique sector.1.3.c. Social and environmental certificationSocial 24 and environmental 25 certification of the firms is a practice more and morediffuse. It tries to meet firms’ requirements to demonstrate the engagementaccepted towards customers, shareholders and community.The main characteristic of the myriad of certification that exist today is thevoluntary base, it means the firms freely decide to respect some issues, setting bygovernment and non governmental Bodies, that indicates process and/or productstandards to follow.24 In this ambit, particular importance has assumed SAI’s initiative (Social Accountability International ),international organization that defines worldwide standard – norms SA 8000 – fit to highlight the socialresponsibility of companies, www.sa-intl.org .25 In environmental ambit, the ISO 14000 standards are specific for environmental management, they arerecognized to international level, developed by ISO (International Organization for Standardization)international committees, www.iso.ch . Similar to it, but different for a lot of aspects, is EMAS Eco-Management and Audit Scheme. This system, defined by Reg. (CE) n. 761/2001, member States of U.E.and those ones of European Economic space adheres to,http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/emas/index_en.htm .27

There are a lot of reference organizations in which process of certification isimplemented, to have a whole vision reading table 5.Several organizations among these constituted the International Social andEnvironmental Accreditation and Labelling (ISEAL 26 ) Alliance. The ISEALAlliance 27 supports credible standards and conformity assessment by developingcapacity building tools to strengthen members’ activities and by promoting crediblevoluntary social and environmental certification as a legitimate policy instrument inglobal trade and development. ISEAL members have developed internationalstandards that are definitive reference in their respective fields. The standard focuson fair-trade, ornamental fish, forest management, organic agriculture, wild capturemarine and freshwater fisheries, social accountability, and sustainable agriculture.For her party, the ISEAL Alliance issued the Code of Good Practice for SettingSocial and Environmental standards 28 , providing a benchmark to assist standardsettingorganizations to improve how they develop social and environmentalstandards, harmonizing their processes.ISEAL members have two core functions: setting standards and verifyingcompliance with those standards.The standard is the core element of most members’ programs. These standardsshare the following characteristics:• They have been established on the basis of a genuine need;• They are voluntary, private sector initiatives that do not act as technicalbarriers to trade;• Each of them focus on best social and environmental production practices intheir respective fields;• They are developed and updated through a process of broad stakeholderconsultation;• They take into account the ecological, cultural, and economic realities of theparts of the world in which they operate;• They are process and production method (PPM) standards that assess howa product was produced rather than characteristics of the product itself;• They incorporate both performance and management-based elements toimprove management practices as well as long-term sustainability;• There is a culture of continuous improvement to accommodate evolving bestpractices and improve stakeholder participation.To ensure that standards are applied in a meaningful way, ISEAL membersverify compliance with the standards through certification or accreditation. ISEALmembers’ certification and accreditation programs have the following elementsin common:26 They differentiate full members: Fairtrade Labelling Organizations, Forest Stewardship Council,International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, Marine Aquarium Council, MarineStewardship Council, Rainforest Alliance, Social Accountability International; form associate member:Chemonics International, Global Ecolabelling Network, Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy.27 www.isealalliance.org .28 For the complete version of the Code see:http://www.isealalliance.org/documents/pdf/P005_PD4_Jan06.pdf.28

• Certification and accreditation services aim to comply with internationallyaccepted criteria for operating procedures. These criteria are ISO/IEC Guide61 and 17011 for accreditation organizations and ISO/IEC Guides 62 or 65for certification organizations;• Certification assessments are undertaken by an independent third party thathas no vested interest in the outcome;• Certification is open to any applicant that fits within the product range andgeographic scope of the certification program;• Accreditation is open to all certification organizations that meet objective andtransparent operating criteria set out by the accreditation program;• Certification and accreditation decision-making is objective and transparent;• Member organizations have management structures that safeguardimpartiality, effectively isolating their certification or accreditation decisionsfrom other activities;• Member organizations facilitate trade through the delivery of trulyinternational accreditation programs that are operating globally.It’s important to point out that, the Codex, in the part concerning procedures for thedevelopment of standards, highlights that final standards shall be available at aslow a cost as possible, and provisions should be made to assist parties withlegitimate financial constraints to obtain the relevant documents.Procedures, it says, shall be in place to enable hard copies of notices, standardsand other related materials to be made available upon request at as low a cost aspossible, and covering only reasonable administrative costs. In the part concerningthe effectiveness, relevance and international harmonization it points out it’simportant for the standard setting organization to take into account local andregional differences in technological capacity, economic, social and ecologicalrealities, and, where relevant, traditional knowledge.In the part concerning participation in the standards development process it givesparticular attention should be paid to the needs of developing countries and smalland medium-sized enterprises. It should be guaranteed trough the provision, bystandards-setting organization, in their financial planning, of funds to enableparticipation of disadvantaged groups that will be directly affected by theimplementation of the standard. However, given that this is not always possible itshould look to other means by which to facilitate their participation, ensuring thatdeveloping country stakeholders can make their comments from afar, and notifyingorganizations or mechanisms that spread information about standards. Theseprovisions in the Code highlight the fundamental will, expressed by organizations,to develop inclusive processes taking in mind the different access possibilities ofinterested subjects, to make really participative the standardization andharmonization process of productive system.29

Table 4: International Social and Environmental reference OrganisationsAccountAbility is an international, no-profit, professional institute dedicated to the promotion ofsocial, ethical and overall organizational accountability. It promotes sustainable developmenttrough the creation of a credible assurance standard and under lying accountability framework 29 .British Standard Institute is one branch of the BSI Group, it provides standard covering everyaspect of the modern economy from protection of intellectual property to technical specificationsfor personal protective equipment 30 .Commercio Justo Mexico A.C. (C.J.M.) is mission is the promotion of fair trade for the productsof small Mexican producers, setting standard for fairly traded 31 .Certified Organic Association of British Columbia (COBAC) is a membership-basedorganisation whose members all provide organic certification within the province of BritishColumbia, Canada. The BC Certified Organic Program has adopted the Principles of OrganicFarming as determined by the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements(IFOAM) 32 .European Environmental Citizens Organisation for Standardization (ECOS) promotes theintegration of environmental aspects in voluntary technical standards published by the EuropeanStandard Organisation CEN (European Commission for Standardisation), CENELEC (EuropeanCommittee for Electrothecnical Standardization) and ETSI (European TelecommunicationStandard Institute).Fair-trade Labelling Organisations International (FLO) is the worldwide Fair-trade standardsettingand certification organisation 33 .Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is an international non-profit organization, it supportsenvironmentally appropriate, socially beneficial, and economically viable management of theworld’s forests. FSC accredited certification bodies are required to evaluate all forests aiming forcertification accordino to the FSC Principles and Criteria for Forest Stewardship 34 .Forest Stewardship Council of Canada (FSC Canada) is a FSC national imitative responsiblefor developing regional standards and recommending them for endorsement by FSCInternational 35 .Global Ecolabelling Network (GEN) is a non-profit association of thir-party7 that improves,promotes , and develops the “ecolabelling” of product and services 36 .Green Seal is a non-profit association that strives to achieve a healthier and cleaner environmentdy identifying and promoting products and services that cause less toxic pollution and waste,conserve resources and habitus, and minimize global warming and zone depletion 37 .Green-e Renewable Energy Certification Program, which is administrated by the non-profitCenter for Resource Solutions (CRS), is the leading renewable energy certification andverification programme in the U.S. 38 .International Federation of Organic Agriculture movements (IFOAM) is an umbrellaorganization of the organic agriculture movement, its goal is the worldwide adoption ofecologically, socially and economically sound systems that are based on the Principles of29 AA1000 Assurance Standard provides the guide lines for the drawing up of assurance. It is the first nonproprietary,open-source Assurance standard that covers the full range of an organization’s sustainabilityperformance, www.accountability.org.uk30 www.bsi-global.com31 www.comerciojusto.com.mx32 www.certifiedorganic.bc.ca33 www.fairtrade.net.34 www.fscoax.org.35 www.fsccanada.org.36 www.gen.gr.jp.37 www.greenseal.org.38 www.resource-solutions.org.30

Organic Agriculture, it are outlined in the IFOAM Basic Standard (IBS), that together with theIFOAM Accreditation Criteria for Bodies Certifying Organic Production and Processing (IAC)constitute the IFOAM Norms. The Norms are the basis for IFOAM’s Organic GuaranteeSystem 39 .International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a network of the national standardsinstitutes, it’s the bigger developer of technical standards 40 .Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) is a non-profit organization, its mission is to conserve coralreefs and other marine ecosystems by creating standards and certification for those engaged inthe collection and care of ornamental marine life. The Core Standards are accompanied by BestPractice Guidance documents that provide advice to industry operators on how they might beable to comply with standards 41 .Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is a non-profit organization, it has developed anenvironmental standard for sustainable and well-managed fisheries and uses a product label toreward environmentally responsible fishery management and practices 42 .Social Accountability International (SAI) is a non-profit organization dedicated to thedevelopment, implementation and oversight of voluntary social accountability standards. Itdevelops the SA8000 43 .Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN) is a coalition of non-profit conservation groups thatworks with the Sustainable Agriculture Program of the Rainforest Alliance. The SAN uses thesame general standards but adapts the very specific and detailed indicators to respectiveCountries 44 .Worldwilde Responsible Appareal Production (WRAP) is a non-profit corporation dedicated tothe promotion and certification of lawful , humane and ethical manufacturing throughout theworld. The Worldwide Responsible Apparel Production Principles are core standard forproduction facilities participating in the worldwide Responsible Apparel Production CertificationProgram 45 .1.4. Multifunctionality1.4.a. AgrotourismAmong the various forms of rural tourism, agro-tourism enables farmers toincrease the value of their production and estate as well as to achieve adiversification of their activities.The holiday on farms in fact contributes to the improvement of the advantagesarising from agriculture for the protection of the environment. Furthermore, forfarmers the holiday farm can really link the investments which have been madewith a serious management of the environment for the benefit of the wholecommunity. The target of this activity, the “consumer” of rural tourism, in general isattracted by the many different farm and rural landscapes, by fauna and flora. Theconservation of all these elements represents an essential condition in order topreserve the tourist attractions of rural areas which often involve more expensiveor less profitable farm activities. Until today, we have to consider that agro-tourismstill makes up a very small part of both rural tourism; however, it can offeropportunities in areas with disadvantages or anyway far from usual touristic flows;39 www.ifoam.org.40 www.iso.ch.41 www.aquariumcouncil.org.42 www.msc.org.43 www.sa-intl.org.44 www.rainforest-alliance.org/programs/cap/index.html.45 www.wrapapparel.org.31

one can consider that from the point of view of added value for the farm, thetourism on the farm is a typical activity which allows relevant revenues through thedirect sale of agricultural products and the generation of revenue from occupationof otherwise empty farm buildings. It will be a basic task for the agro-tourismmanager to preview the basic prerequisites for its success, such as: study of thelevel and profitability of the investments required, professionalism inaccommodation provision, integration into local and national marketing andpromotion networks, and development of new tourism activities on the farm orthrough networking with other structures.The organic farms can have a relevant role in the sector of the ecological orientedagro-tourism. We would underline the work of the Italian Association for theOrganic Agriculture (AIAB), which has created a disciplinary for the ecologicalagro-tourisms and an innovative system for their certification and classification,that it essentially founded on obligatory requisite (necessary least criterions toutilize the mark AIAB) and optional requisite (necessary for the determination ofthe class of worth expressed by a number of daisy wheel that goes from 1 to 5).Figure 6: organic holiday farms logo and classificationEvery agro-touristic firm member of the circuit AIAB, is checked by the inspectorsthat verify the degree of correspondence of it to the individualized in thedisciplinary AIAB. The “class of worth” is submitted to an annual updating and it iscalculated following the arithmetic average of the scores attributed in each of thefollowing thematic Areas defined in the disciplinary: Productive Activity Area (greater scores to the organic farms that producetypical products or included in the garrisons “Slow Food”); Naturalistic and Didactic Services Area (greater scores to the agro-tourismsthat also proposed didactic-demonstrative laboratories on the ecologicalfarming among the offered services, naturalistic-didactic path adequatelysignalled, museums of the country civilization, visits in protected Areas,observation of the fauna); Protection of the environment and of the Natural resources Area (greaterscores to the firms that pay attention to the maintenance of the landscape andthe biodiversity both vegetable and animal, i.e. reducing production ofrestaurant waste, or preserving mountain pastures); Receptive Structures Area (greater scores to the well integrated agro-tourismsin the territory, built according to the rules of the bio-housebuilding, limiting the32

est possible the electromagnetic, acoustic and arising from lights pollution,and the use of not of renewable energetic sources ); Receptive Services Area (greater scores to the agro-tourisms that facilitate theaccess to the handicapped people and foresee spaces common from to turn tolibrary, info-point on the local uses, etc.); Relationships with the Territory Area (greater scores to the agro-tourisms that,online with the other realities of the territory, they promote cultural activitylinked to the territory, informative initiatives, courses of typical craftsmanship); Touristic Services Area (greater scores to the agro-tourisms that foresee theaccompaniment of the guests, also foreigners, to the discovery of the territory,activities for paths to be crossed by foot, horse, bicycle); Refreshment and Sale of Product Area (greater scores to the agro-tourismsthat privilege the search, the study and the diffusion of the local food cultureand the regional typical kitchen, with points of sale on the farm); Transport Area (greater scores to agro-tourisms organizing collective system oftransport for their customers, limiting inside traffic and setting out pedestrianand bike paths).1.4.b. Landscape managementHuman activities have brought original natural environments to a progressivedisappearance. The consequence of this is the deterioration of the environmentalquality of the territory and the diminution of its biodiversity. In agricultural territory,this simplification of the ecosystems has led to increasing problems in themanagement of productive activities (i.e. the use of external inputs in the farm’sproductive cycle).Plant-eating insects, crop pests, all have natural predators (insects or microorganisms),which through their action provide biological control of the pestpopulations (e.g. ladybirds eat greenfly and scale insects). However, nowadays,the natural habitat of these predators is being destroyed (hedges, groves, etc.)and today only a small population survives, which is unable to perform effectivebiological control.With the organic farming normally we reintroduce the ecosystem’s complexity. Thesystematic approach is considered optimum when the farm combines: diversifiedplant crops with good rotation; production levels in line with the territorial norms,livestock, natural elements and good land management. These combinations ofproduction provide optimum returns from the available natural resources andnatural regulation processes.The modern concept of landscape stems from that originated in geography but isdrawn directly from ecological sciences and is even more complex. Landscape isnow conceived as a concrete ecosystem, or rather as a set of ecosystems of aspatial section of the biosphere. Landscape is the whole of physical, biotic andhuman elements that compose the physiognomic features of terrestrial surface.This concept, which has a strong ecological value, has modified the originalobjectives and tools of territorial planning.Agricultural landscape planning is of great importance for the ecology of the wholeterritory because, due to its characteristic features, this territory as an artificial neoecosystemis still moderately permeable to the migrations of many living species.33

In order to achieve a correct territorial planning, it is first necessary to conduct ananalysis of physical, biotic, human, ecological elements. Only after the evaluationof the analysis results we can start with the territorial interventions:• Protection of residual natural elements.• Rebuilding of functional neo-ecosystems (the creation of hedgerows, rows oftrees, grass strips and any other permanent vegetative form in the agriculturallandscape is indicated by the term “ecological infrastructure” and is of greatimportance for the prevention of damages due to weather conditions and croppests).• Reduction of limiting factors for wild fauna population.• Improvement of the environmental quality of the territory.1.4.c. Didactic farmsIn the last years several organic farms have been offering educational activities toschool children or other groups.Three types of organic didactic farms can be identified:− open farms (where farmers offer on-farm tours to visitors, explaining theenvironmental rationale behind production activities);− educational farms (visitors are involved in production and processing activities);− school farms (green weeks are offered to engage visitors in educationalactivities, both on-farm and in neighbouring farms and education curriculacover agriculture, nature conservation and cultural issues).The network 46 of educational farms allows exchange of experience, commonpromotion, adherence to common basic requirements (a quality chart is signed byparticipating farmers) and development of common didactic tools (e.g. posters,leaflets).Figure 7: visit to an organic farm46 In Italy a network of educational farms is managed by A.I.A.B. Association:http://www.aiab.it/nuovosito/biofattorie/34

2. COMMERCIAL COMPETENCESThe market is made by consumers who are, in general, fickle and react emotively toinformation they receive from the media, as in the recent past when food scandals havecertainly contributed to the increased demand for organic food.By the end of 2002, organic farming in Europe accounted for 5.8 million hectares on190.000 holdings. This represents 4% of European agricultural land area, with 10% ormore in some countries, and an annual retail market currently valued at more than € 11billion. Germany was the largest national market in Europe with a share of about 30% ofthe total EU market volume (3.5 bio €), national markets with organic products sales ofmore than one billion Euro are in the United Kingdom (1.6 bio €), Italy (1.4 bio €) andFrance (1.2 bio €). Denmark ranks first with an average consumer spending per capita ofmore than 60 €, followed by Sweden (45 €), Austria (41 €) and Germany (about 40 €). Inmany other EU countries average consumer spending for organic products was over 20 €:Belgium (29 €), the Netherlands (26 €), France (25 €), the United Kingdom and Italy (24€) 47 .This trend has developed for a number of reasons:• loss of trust in non-organic food products after a long line of food scares;• desire to avoid pesticide residues in food;• desire to eat food produced without the use of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs);• demand for the highest possible standards of animal welfare;• demand for environmental protection and enhancement;• desire to protect the environment from GMO contamination;• confidence in the external inspection programme and legal standards for productioncovering all organic production and processing.• health and safety of farm and food workers worldwide.The main proposals of the European Commission in the European Action Plan for OrganicFood and Farming 48 concentrate on “an information-led development of the organic foodmarket, by increasing consumer awareness, providing more information and promotion toconsumers and operators, stimulating the use of the EU logo, including on importedproducts, providing more transparency on different standards, and improving theavailability of production, supply and demand statistics as policy and marketing tools”.The first action line of the Plan concerned the organic food market: “… introducedamendments in Council Regulation (EC) No 2826/2000 (internal market promotion) whichwould give the Commission greater possibilities for direct action in order to organiseinformation and promotion campaigns on organic farming. That will be possible bylaunching a multi-annual EU-wide information and promotion campaign over several yearsto inform consumers, public institutions canteens, schools and other key actors in the foodchain about the merits of organic farming, especially its environmental benefits, and toincrease consumer awareness and recognition of organic products, including recognitionof the EU logo. Furthermore, by launching tailored information and promoting campaignsto well-defined types of consumers such as the occasional consumer and public canteens.Increase Commission cooperation efforts with Member States and professionalorganisations in order to develop a strategy for the campaigns”.47 Commission Européenne - Direction Générale De L'agriculture Et Du Développement Rural, Report« Organic farming in the European Union – Facts and Figures», Bruxelles, 2005.48 COM(2004)415 final - Brussels, 10.06.2004.35

2.1. Marketing strategiesLow prices for agricultural products and the increased distribution costs, also found inthe organic sector, are leading farm operators to find ways to maintain their economicviability 49 . Only a small part of the final price of an organic product paid by theconsumer goes to the producer. The remaining part is shared in the passages fromproducer to dealer and retailer. Thus the opportunity to put consumers into directcontact with farmers represents a considerable advantage for both parties, in terms ofcosts, mutual knowledge and cultural growth. The creation of this prospect is anessential step to improve organic farming as an agricultural innovative and sustainablemodel.The participation to sector fairs is basic for the organic farmer, to display his products,conclude commercial agreements. In the following table you can find the features ofmain organic fairs: Biofach in Germany and Sana in Italy.Table 5: BIOFACH, the World Organic Trade FairNuremberg (GERMANY), FebruaryBioFach, the World Organic Trade Fair, is distinguished by its vigour, internationality and innovative power. It brings togetherapproximately 2,100 exhibitors - two thirds from abroad - and more than 37,000 trade visitors from over 110 countries of theworld to Nuremberg every year in February. BioFach under the patronage of IFOAM (International Federation of OrganicAgriculture Movements) applies strict admission criteria to guarantee the constantly high quality of the products on display.BioFach is present on four continents with its own events in Japan, the United States, South Africa and China. The long-termdevelopment of a new overseas sales market for organic products is both a tremendous opportunity and an enormous challengefor many companies. A number of conditions must be fulfilled for a successful entry to an organic niche market in a foreigncountry. Every country has very individual requirements as far as trade structures, guidelines, legislation and consumerbehaviour are concerned. A company wanting to gain a rapid foothold with its products abroad is best advised to obtaininformation about the specific requirements in the country itself. A presentation at an exhibition in the country offers excellentopportunities for this. The international exhibition professionals from Nürnberg Global Fairs know the markets, have experienceand offer the relevant equipment. Nürnberg Global Fairs is responsible for the organization on behalf of the Federal Ministry forFood, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMELV) and with the support of the Association of the German Trade Fair Industry(AUMA). The established concept offers exhibitors solutions to all organizational and technical matters connected with exhibitingat these events. Companies interested in entering the organic markets of Asia, North America and South America should applyearly to make sure of a place in the German pavilion, as there is a big demand.----http://www.biofach.deTrade fair activity (source: NürnbergMesse)49 Cristina Grandi (IFOAM Liaison Office to FAO), Alternative Markets for Organic Product, Proceedings ofInternational roundtable “Organic Agriculture and Market Linkages”, organized by FAO and IFOAM, Rome,November 2005.36

Table 6: SANA International Exhibition of Natural ProductsBologna (ITALY), SeptemberSANA, the International Exhibition of Natural Products - NUTRITION, HEALTH, ENVIRONMENT is one of the main events forthe whole natural world:• 85,000 sq. m. exhibiting space• 16 halls• 1,600 exhibitors, including 400 coming from 45 countries of Europe, U.S.A,, Asia, Oceania, Africa• 70,000 visitors – including 50,000 operators• 3.500 trade professionals• 70 congresses• 900 journalists.The macro-area of Nutrition, historical root of the exhibition, takes up 7 halls devoted to organic and typical certified products.Here you will find the manufacturers of all Italian Regions and the official delegations of several foreign countries, from “A” likeArgentina to “U” like Uganda, passing through Austria, Brasil, Germany, Tunisia, ecc..The six halls devoted to Health, include all products, technologies and instruments necessary to reach a holistic well-being in anatural way: from herbal and phytotherapic products to natural cosmetics, from non conventional medicines to wellness centres.Living in a “natural way” means to pay attention to the environment one is living and working in, to the clothes to be weared andto the environmental impact of all products and instruments of common use. The technologies and products for eco-sustainablebuilding, the ecological furniture and natural yarns find in the SANA Environment area their perfect setting.SANA, always carefully pursuing the development of ecological education, has created, in co-operation with Bologna Fiere, thefirst exhibition hall fully dedicated to playing and to the environment-friendly education: SANALANDIA. Inside a true garden,areas are provided to play freely or to perform specific activities (laboratories for recycling, drawing, and sculpture, where allworks made by the children were on display throughout the term of the Exhibition). Readings and shows on ecological topics tookplace within a specially built theatre, and inside special wooden huts, associations and company sponsors offered organic foodtasting sessions and toys made with environment-friendly materials.SANA , apart from being an indefeasible trade and business event, has got a very strong cultural valence.Every year the events calendar hosts year dozens of congresses, workshops, and round-table discussions, attracting thousandsof trade professionals from Italy and abroad, and the public.To that may be added several special events, exhibit-events placing under the spotlight new “eco-trends” and emerging sectors.The availability of a complete showcase of quality products, the cultural value of the show and the themes of topical interestattract each year hundreds of Italian and foreign journalists. These provide for spreading the messages of SANA and all availableinformation on natural products through newspapers, magazines, radio, TV, and the Internet.SANA has always strived to bring the consumers and Institutions closer to the noveltiesand qualities of organic and environment-friendly products, implementing – throughthousands of exhibitors and the attendance of hundreds of journalists and opinionleaders – global themes and a communication power that helped introduce andestablish organic products on the national and international market. Producers, theirassociations, and large-scale distribution groups now need to implement all thenecessary strategies to complete the process of expansion and establishment oforganic products in consumption behaviours, aware that the success of the natural andsustainable market will go hand in hand with the achievement of an environmental,production, and consumption balance based on quality products that can be properlyidentified, appreciated, and selected in efficient distribution channels, to providemaximum security, a comprehensive product range, and competitive prices to promote contacts with production sites andcompetitive prices.---http://www.sana.it2.1.a. Organic Food sale channelsIn the organic sector, trade has been discussed for a long time. Originally thediscussion was whether it was right to enter the supermarkets with organic food.Today much of the discussion is about local markets, public canteens (schools,hospitals, etc.), fair trade.37

There is growing demand from the catering and foodservice sector: The number ofrestaurant, cafés and bars serving organic food is rising. National governments arealso encouraging the use of organic foods in public institutions. A growing numberof schools are using organic ingredients in their meals. For example, at the end of2001, 340 were the Italian municipalities, especially in northern and central Italy,which specified organic food as a prerequisite in their calls for tenders for schoolcatering. In some regions economic incentives have been provided in order topromote organic catering for schools. However, in both public and privatecatering, the approach to organic food must be supported by adequateinformation to users, children and parents.There are specific Standards that gives Municipalities, schools, public bodies andmanagers of cafeterias and canteens in general (restaurants and self-servicerestaurants included) a tool to improve the quality of the catering service. Some ofthe points covered by Standard, conformity to which is verified by certification bodyin its inspection and certification activity, are:• Raw materials (organic raw materials, preferably with IFOAM-accreditedcertification, of local origin or from fair trade).• Type and management of service (traditional cuisine is preferred;centralized management is allowed, provided it is not far from the dininghalls).• Tableware, linen and packaging materials (plastic materials are prohibited;glass, metal, terracotta are preferred; paper and cardboard are allowed incertain cases).• Cleansing products (biodegradable products with low environmental impactand, if possible, certified, e.g. ECOLABEL).• Waste management (at least, separate collection of paper, cardboard,glass, plastic; organic waste composting, when possible).• Information/Training (clear information to users, and consequently tofamilies; adequate training of staff).Public authorities are major consumers in Europe, spending some 16 % of theEU’s Gross Domestic Product (which is a sum equivalent to half the GDP ofGermany). By using their purchasing power to opt for goods and services that alsorespect the environment they can make an important contribution towardssustainable development.Green purchasing can also be considered as an example able to influence themarket-place. By promoting green procurement, public authorities can provideindustry with real incentives for developing green technologies. In some product,works and service sectors the impact can be particularly significant, as publicpurchasers command a large share of the market.The European Commission designed a handbook 50 on environmental publicprocurement to help public authorities launch a green purchasing policysuccessfully. It explains the possibilities offered by European Community law in apractical way, and looks at simple and effective solutions that can be used in50 Commission of the European Communities, Handbook on environmental public procurement, Brussels, 18.8.2004 –SEC(2004) 1050.38

the profit, direct relation with consumers, new farmer’s role, distribution of localproducts/varieties.There are different options for direct sale:• “farmers in town”: local markets, purchase groups, promotional events;• “citizens in farms”: farm gate market, holiday farm, etc..Direct marketing and farmers markets are very important in rural areas, particularlyin conjunction with tourism on farms and local restaurants.Figure 9: example of farm gate market – organic farm “Vannulo” - ItalyFigure 10: example of “farmers in town”40

Multiple retail outlets, can shift more product than health food or organic stores,and they are an important point of contact with organic products for manyconsumers. Some supermarket also have actively supported initiatives to developthe supply of organic products. The number of organic supermarkets continues toexpand.A recent trend can be recognized towards the creation of "organic supermarkets",with a full range of products and more than 300 m² of floor space. The strength ofthis distribution channel lies in the fact that it combines the convenience ofordinary supermarkets with the advantages of natural food stores (specialized inthe organic sector and more detailed consumer information).However some consumers prefer other outlets, for a closer contact with producersand shorter marketing channels (with more advantages for the farmer too). Inconsideration of the requirements of European Regulations, the verifications ofsurveillance Authorities and, most of all, the consumers’ growing demand forguarantees, it is advisable that all retailers selling loose organic products and, inparticular, fruit and vegetables, be subject to a specifically authorized inspectionand certification body. The European Regulation No. 392/2004 of 24 February2004, amending Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91, lays down specific provisions onthat matter, to be observed by all Member States as from 2005. So, thecertification bodies has developed appropriate procedures for inspecting theseactivities and certifying compliance to rules and regulations. These procedurestake into account:• the particular characteristics of the activity;• the information supplied to consumers by the retailer;• the retailer’s assurance that the products are really from organic farming;• the necessity to guarantee the consumers and boost their confidence incertified products.All this is verified by Inspectors, who give an assurance that records are correctlykept and the quality of products meets law and consumers’ requirements.Besides reassuring consumers, certification is a guarantee for retailers againstmismanagement and unfair competition. Moreover, the sampling and testingactivity provided by certification procedures also for the points of sale, takes careof a long neglected link in the chain.2.1.b. Organic farming and Territorial marketingOrganic agriculture is a potential contributor to local and regional economic growthand diversification, improvements in local identity and marketability, thuscontributing to the revitalization of rural communities and cities.The organic agriculture experience is a concrete indication of the possibility to joindevelopment and resources preservation, taking care of the environment as wellas the citizens’ health. For example in Italy there is a network, named Bio-Towns 54 , open to all the local administrations that have already invested inpolicies supporting organic, that from productive method becomes culturalproposal, linked to the territory. From the conversion of the farm to the conversionof the territory seen globally, involving new economical activities, predisposing“area projects”, building organic districts, also involving several productive sectors.54 www.cittadelbio.it41

The introduction of organic food in the school catering is going to be one of thefirst fields which the Bio-Towns network will start working on, together with anengagement on food education and consumption education topics.The network promote too the “Rural Bio-District”, that isn’t a new administrativebody, but rather a co-ordinating body with the aim to attract, and co-ordinate newinvestment. It is a broad participatory programming instrument between public andprivate stake-holders that are involved in the local productive system and thatachieve stronger bargaining power with respect to issues concerning organicagriculture, rural tourism, handcraft, small industry.2.2. Marketing and new technologiesThe organic food supply chain is a typical consumer driven sector, becauseusually organic consumers are demanding more transparency and fairnessacross all segments of the organic supply chain. A recurrent type of slogan is: buylocal, organic and fair made 55 .Traceability and transparency are fundamental marketing tools for organicproductions. The European Union, by means of the approval of the RegulationNo. 178/2002, makes compulsory the adoption of a traceability food system,beginning from January 2005. The marketing of the agro-industry “traced” productis characterized by the distribution of the informative contents gotten during thetraceability processes, efficiently communicating the traceability data and anyother information on the product at a low cost. Thus, all the information picked upby the informative systems of the producers is available for the consumer (inaddition to the producer and the distributor). All of this adds value to the finalproduct and it allows to open new perspectives in the field of the marketing.The potentialities are enormous, considering the image and value of a completelytransparent and documented product.The technological tool used for the fruition of the service can be founded on theuse of an Internet portal navigable through a browser, able to inform theconsumer and to make him/her aware of the product that s/he is about topurchase. It basically gives the consumer the perception of entering "virtually"inside the firm and gaining insight on who realized the product that will put on thetable.55 Nadia El-Hage Scialabba (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations), Global Trends inOrganic Agriculture Markets and Countries’ demand for FAO assistance, Proceedings of Internationalroundtable “Organic Agriculture and Market Linkages”, organized by FAO and IFOAM, Rome, November2005.42

Figure 11: example of internet portal on traceability of organic foodIn the traditional agriculture, before industrialization, the trust of the consumer wasbased on the direct contact with the producer. When purchasing food a citizenknew from where it originated and often, who had produced it. Globalization of thefood market has put physical and mental distance between producers andconsumers which has created a state of worry amongst consumers. Suchdistance can be compensated through the traceability tool.Marketing is also changed over the years. The 20 th century was characterised bythe success of mass production, with the aim of selling the same product to themost possible consumers. The new century is that of the customized,individualized, “just-for-you” products, which can be produced in large quantities,i.e. cheaply, but in individual version and with the help of new technologies. Thecurrent trend is the one-to-one marketing, which aims to sell the a lot of variedproducts for one consumer, one household.The use of Internet becomes general in the contact between business partners(B2B = business-to-business), in procurement and logistics. Thus precisionmarketing is personalization (mass customisation, dynamic pricing) of productsand services. The objective being to satisfy individual demands, at lowerindividual prices originating from the volume advantages of mass production (i.e.with E-commerce).The outputs of these alternative markets allow both the reduction of consumerprices and the increase of farmer’s incomes. It also gives the consumers thepossibility of knowing where and how the products are grown.There is clearly a qualitative difference between various forms of direct marketingsystems and the sale to an anonymous mass-market. Direct contact withconsumers has a tremendous value, and consumers buying directly from thefarmers have a stronger link to the land, care more and understand the farmingsystem better.43

Figure 12: example of E-commerce: www.eurorganicshop.com2.3. Labelling2.3.a. International legislation on the labelling of organic foodLabelling and advertising may refer to organic production method only for theproduct comply with the community rules, moreover the operator must be subjectto the inspection measures laid down in the regulations and the name / codenumber of the inspection body must be indicated.How organic food is labelled is closely controlled by law. Consumers can buyorganic food safe conscious that product labelling is checked before the food goeson sale. Checking is the job of the organic certification body, an organisation thatexists to ensure that organic farmers and producers follow the rules in producingtheir organic products. The certifying Bodies are controlled by the government toensure they do their job effectively.Labelling and advertising of food product may bear indications referring to organicproduction methods in the sale description only where at least 95% of theingredients of agricultural origin are organic. Food products mat thus contain up to5% ingredients produced by conventional methods as long as those ingredientsare not available on the Community organic market (part C of annex VI toRegulation EEC N. 2092/91 lists the ingredients concerned).Food products with an organic content of 70% to 95% may bear indicationsreferring to organic methods only in the list of ingredients, but not in the salesdescription. Indication may not be more prominent than other indications in the listof ingredients. The percentage of ingredients of organic origin must be specified.44

Where the ingredients of organic origin represent less than 70% of the content of aproduct, the labelling and advertising may not bear any reference to organicproduction methods.In the conversion period (two years for annual herbaceous crops and a three yearsfor perennial crops) the indication “Product under conversion to organic farming”may be used, on condition that a conversion period of at least twelve months hasbeen complied with before the harvest.Regulation (EC) No. 331/2000 established the European logo for organicproductions. The logo is not compulsory. Producers use it on a voluntary basis,when their products fulfil the required conditions. The logo and indication ofinspection may be used only for certain products covered by Regulation (EEC) No.2092/91, which meet all the following conditions:• at least 95% of the ingredients have been produced by organic methods;• the products have been subject to the inspection arrangements laid down in theRegulation throughout the production and preparation process; this means thatthe operators involved in the agricultural production, processing, packaging andlabelling of the product must all be subject to the inspection scheme;• the products are sold directly by the producer or preparer in sealed packaging, orplaced on the market as pre-packaged foodstuffs;• the products show on the labelling the name and/or business name of theproducer, preparer or vendor, together with the name or code number of theinspection authority or body.Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91 also provides for certain conditions to governadvertising of organic products. The purpose of these rules is to guarantee thatadvertising will not compromise the effects of the rules intended to ensuretransparent labelling.Organic food companies are very limited in law as to the claims they can make ontheir labels. The EU organic legislation states that "no claim may be made on thelabel that suggests to the purchaser that the (indication that the product is organic)constitutes a guarantee of superior organoleptic, nutritional or salubrious quality".In other words claims that organic food are tastier, better for you or superior inquality are not permitted. Terms such as "GM-free" and "Pesticide-free” are alsodiscouraged - whilst organic food undoubtedly offers consumers their very bestchance of avoiding GM or pesticides in these days of genetic pollution it is a verybrave organic producer who makes such unequivocal claims. Preferred arestatements such as "organic standards prohibit GM techniques and reliance on theroutine use of artificial pesticides and fertilisers".The European Court of Justice has ruled in two judgements dated 14.7.2005 thatthe term "bio" is protected as an indication of organic agriculture in all communitylanguages. In the past, there had been repeated contraventions of the term "bio" inparticular in Spain, where it was also allowed for other production methods.2.3.b. Fair-trade labellingFair Trade is a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect,that seeks greater equity in international trade.The success of Fair Trade in recent years (in Europe the net retail value for all FairTrade products was of 660.000.000 € for the year 2004) can be attribute to the45

developments which have taken place within Fair-trade labelling, allowing manycommercial companies to become new Fair-trade partners. The Fair-trade labelguarantees that a particular product conforms to the development ofdisadvantaged producers and workers.Figure 13: Fair-trade logoFour multinational Fair-trade organisations are currently active in Europe:− “FLO” - Fair Trade Labelling Organizations International,− “IFAT” - International Fair Trade Association,− “EFTA” - European Fair Trade Association,− “NEWS!” - Network of European Worldshops.The worldwide umbrella organisation FLO is made up of two organisations: FLO-Cert, one of the biggest certification organisations that focus on social andenvironmental issues. It regularly inspect and certifies about 420 producerorganisations in 50, and FLO e.V., a multi-stakeholder association involving 20member organisations (or “National Initiatives”). It develops and reviews standardsand assist producers in gaining and maintaining certification in order to capitalizeon market opportunities.IFAT is a global association of nearly 300 organizations in over 60 countries;members are producer co-operatives, associations, export marketing companies,importers, retailers, national and regional Fair Trade networks and Fair TradeSupport Organisation.EFTA is an association of 11 importing organisations in 9 countries.NEWS! is a network of 15 national associations of worldshops, representing about2.400 shops in thirteen countries.Since 1996, cooperation between these four international networks has developedconsiderably. Under the acronym FINE (standing for the first letters of Flo, Ifat,News! and Efta) representatives hold regular meetings to coordinate their work.FINE is particularly involved in developing an integrated monitoring system for thewhole Fair Trade movement and in advocacy work at the international level.Fair-trade products reach the end consumer in many ways but most significantlythrough the worldshops (about 2.800 in EU25), and the supermarkets (Fair Tradeproducts are available in about 57.000 supermarkets in EU25).46

3. PRODUCTION COMPETENCES3.1. Principles of organic agriculture3.1.a. Holistic production management systemAccording to the definition of the Codex Alimentarius, "Organic Agriculture is aholistic production management system which promotes and enhances agroecosystemhealth, including biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biologicalactivity, the organic production methods prioritize the use of managementpractices over the use of off-farm inputs, taking into account that regionalconditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished by using, wherepossible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed to usingsynthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system."3.1.b Principles of health, ecology, fairness, careAfter an intense participatory process, in September 2005 the IFOAM GeneralAssembly of Adelaide - Australia - approved the new (revised) Principles ofOrganic Agriculture 56 . These Principles are the root from which organic agriculturegrows and develops.Table 7: Principles of organic agriculture by IFOAMPrinciple of healthOrganic Agriculture should sustain and enhance the health of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one andindivisible.This principle points out that the health of individuals and communities cannot be separated from the health ofecosystems - healthy soils produce healthy crops that foster the health of animals and people. Health is the wholenessand integrity of living systems. It is not simply the absence of illness, but the maintenance of physical, mental, social andecological well-being. Immunity, resilience and regeneration are key characteristics of health. The role of organicagriculture, whether in farming, processing, distribution, or consumption, is to sustain and enhance the health ofecosystems and organisms from the smallest in the soil to human beings. In particular, organic agriculture is intended toproduce high quality, nutritious food that contributes to preventive health care and well-being. In view of this it shouldavoid the use of fertilizers, pesticides, animal drugs and food additives that may have adverse health effects.Principle of ecologyOrganic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles, work with them, emulate them and helpsustain them.This principle roots organic agriculture within living ecological systems. It states that production is to be based onecological processes, and recycling. Nourishment and well-being are achieved through the ecology of the specificproduction environment. For example, in the case of crops this is the living soil; for animals it is the farm ecosystem; forfish and marine organisms, the aquatic environment. Organic farming, pastoral and wild harvest systems should fit thecycles and ecological balances in nature. These cycles are universal but their operation is site-specific. Organicmanagement must be adapted to local conditions, ecology, culture and scale. Inputs should be reduced by reuse,recycling and efficient management of materials and energy in order to maintain and improve environmental quality andconserve resources. Organic agriculture should attain ecological balance through the design of farming systems,establishment of habitats and maintenance of genetic and agricultural diversity. Those who produce, process, trade, orconsume organic products should protect and benefit the common environment including landscapes, climate, habitats,biodiversity, air and water.Principle of fairnessOrganic Agriculture should build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to the common environment and lifeopportunities.Fairness is characterized by equity, respect, justice and stewardship of the shared world, both among people and in theirrelations to other living beings. This principle emphasizes that those involved in organic agriculture should conducthuman relationships in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels and to all parties - farmers, workers, processors,distributors, traders and consumers. Organic agriculture should provide everyone involved with a good quality of life, andcontribute to food sovereignty and reduction of poverty. It aims to produce a sufficient supply of good quality food andother products. This principle insists that animals should be provided with the conditions and opportunities of life thataccord with their physiology, natural behaviour and well-being. Natural and environmental resources that are used forproduction and consumption should be managed in a way that is socially and ecologically just and should be held in trust56 The IFOAM norms for Organic Production and processing, Ed. IFOAM, Bonn, 2005 (www.ifoam.org).47

for future generations. Fairness requires systems of production, distribution and trade that are open and equitable andaccount for real environmental and social costs.Principle of careOrganic Agriculture should be managed in a precautionary and responsible manner to protect the health and well-beingof current and future generations and the environment.Organic agriculture is a living and dynamic system that responds to internal and external demands and conditions.Practitioners of organic agriculture can enhance efficiency and increase productivity, but this should not be at the risk ofjeopardizing health and well-being. Consequently, new technologies need to be assessed and existing methodsreviewed. Given the incomplete understanding of ecosystems and agriculture, care must be taken. This principle statesthat precaution and responsibility are the key concerns in management, development and technology choices in organicagriculture. Science is necessary to ensure that organic agriculture is healthy, safe and ecologically sound. However,scientific knowledge alone is not sufficient. Practical experience, accumulated wisdom and traditional and indigenousknowledge offer valid solutions, tested by time. Organic agriculture should prevent significant risks by adoptingappropriate technologies and rejecting unpredictable ones, such as genetic engineering. Decisions should reflect thevalues and needs of all who might be affected, through transparent and participatory processes.______* The IFOAM norms for Organic Production and processing, Ed. IFOAM, Bonn, 2005 (www.ifoam.org).3.2. Soil fertility management“The maintenance of the fertility of the soil is the first condition of any permanentsystem of agriculture”; with this words, in the nineteen forties, the famous EnglishAgronomist Sir Albert Howard 57 laid the foundations of the organic agriculture method.3.2.a. Soil fertilitySoil fertility is the capacity of the soil to sustain plant production on long term and itmust be maintained and where possible improved.Organic farming severely prohibits the use of artificial chemical fertilisers. Externalinputs are replaced with specific management practices that maintain and increaselong-term soil fertility.Understanding the dynamics and characteristics of soil organic matter is thus offundamental importance because organic matter together with water and oxygenavailability (at root system level) determine the availability of nutrients to cultivatedplants.The fertility and the biological activity of the soil must be maintained or increased,in the first instance, by:a) cultivation of legumes, green manures or deep-rooting plants in an appropriatemulti-annual rotation programme;b) incorporation of livestock manure from organic livestock production to a limit of170 kg N/ha/year;c) incorporation of other organic material from organic farms, complying to therules of the EU Organic Regulations.3.2.b. Composting and biomass recyclingOrganic farmers use on-farm recycling (composting) of biomass to supply nutrientsto plants. Farms that use chemically intensive farming methods have largelyabandoned traditional and natural methods of nutrient recycling, resulting in thedegradation of the soil and increasing the susceptibility of plants to pests anddiseases.57 Sir Albert Howard, An Agricultural Testament, Oxford University Press, 194048

“The potential of composting to turn on-farm waste materials into a farm resourcemakes it an attractive proposition. Composting offers several benefits such asenhanced soil fertility and soil health – thereby increased agricultural productivity,improved soil biodiversity, reduced ecological risks and a better environment” 58 .During composting, raw organic materials are transformed into large moleculehumus matter. Results vary due to ripening conditions and initial material used(Materials of animal and/or vegetal origin) and by creatures living in the pile. In thestages of decomposition, different microbes and higher animal species take part inthe given processes.In the first mesophilic stage, heat rises, pH increases and the role of fungi andmacroorganisms becomes significant.In the second thermophilic stage, the more readily degradable substance arerapidly consumed; the temperature reaches its maximum of 60-70°C, thermophilicbacterium replace fungi, and pH becomes alkaline as ammonia is liberated fromthe proteins. When reaction speed and consequent temperature decrease set inas only the more resistant materials remain, the heap then enters the third phase,cooling down. In that moment the thermophilic fungi return to the heap todecompose cellulose and other large molecules. These stages continue for a fewweeks.Maturation, the longest and final stage, requires months. Alongside fungi andbacterium, the number of actynomicetes grows to play a key role in producinghumus or humic acids. Macroorganism also return to the pile and contribute toforming readily-available nitrogen and fungi, in turn making nutrients available tothe organic bind. At the end of the process the result is mature compost withtypical earthy smell produced by the large amount of inhabiting actinomycetes.During compost ripening, continuous aeration must be provided because, incontrast to ripening farmyard manure, this is based only on aerobic process.3.2.c. Crop rotation, green manure and intercroppingWith “rotation” the plants are grown in a defined sequence in the same plot ofland, returning to the starting point in a determined time (two, three, four, five,…years). The aim is to keep the soil sustainable, to keep a balance in theconditions of the soil and control the weeds that occur in the field.The green-manuring practice consists of sowing seeds of a single species or ofmixtures of herbaceous species, without aiming on the collection of the products,but on the incorporation of the green biomass into the soil, in order to improve ormaintain its fertility and introduce nutrients for the subsequent crop. This practiceis quite simple and gives impressive results. Moreover, it is almost the onlychoice for those farms that do not keep livestock and perennial grass crops inrotation, since it brings beneficial effects to the chemical-physical characteristicsof the soil and can produce great quantities of nitrogen at relatively low costs.The most common example of the green-manuring technique is sowing winterlegume cover crops, e.g. field bean, and then incorporating them into the soil.However, it is possible to utilize also Gramineae, Cruciferae and otherherbaceous species as cover crops.58 R.V. Misra and R. N. Roy, On-farm composting methods, FAO, Rome, 2002 (www.fao.org).49

The interest in this technique is not just limited to its fertilizing function (which isnevertheless the most important) but extends to the manifold effects that a covercrop with the selected herbaceous species produces in relation to the protectionof the soil, the improvement of its structure, pest and weed control and, lastly, theprotection of water bearing strata.In short, the main functions of cover crops are as follows: improvement of thechemical-physical structure of the soil (grassroots, with their remarkable system,work through the soil, thus increasing its porosity and improving its water holdingcapacity), protection of soil from erosion, protection of water bearing strata,Increased availability of nutrients, stimulus for microbial activity, weed control,biocide action (Plants are able to produce defence systems through biologicallyactive natural molecules), contribution to humic balance.In modern farming, green manure is certainly a technique to be recommended. Ifit is not to be neglected in conventional farming, it is almost indispensable inorganic farming not only for the innumerable advantages it offers but alsobecause, being a resource of the holding itself, it helps to make the holding moreself-reliant.Intercropping is the growth of two or more crops in proximity in the same fieldduring a growing season to promote interaction between them. Available growthresources, such as light, water and nutrients are more completely absorbed andconverted to crop biomass by the intercrop as a result of differences in competitiveability for growth factors between intercrop components. The more efficientutilization of growth resources leads to yield advantages and increased stabilitycompared to sole cropping. Furthermore, the multifunctional profile ofintercropping allows it to play many other roles in the agroecosystem, such asresilience to perturbations, protection of plants of individual crop species from theirhost-specific predators and disease organisms, greater competition towardsweeds, improved product quality and reduced negative impact of arable crops onthe environment.For example, “Grain legumes, such as peas, in combination with cerealscomplement each other in animal feeds; legumes supplying protein and cerealsproviding carbohydrate. Intercropping allows the simultaneous cultivation of grainlegumes and cereals; they can be harvested together in a mixture and useddirectly as fodder or they can be separated for individual use” 59 .3.2.d. Authorized fertilizersOrganic farming aims at reducing to the minimum any use of extra-farm inputs(exceptionally and under the Inspection body’s control) and at the same timerefuses to use any substance obtained by chemical synthesis process.To have a clear definition of products that can be used in organic farming, theCommission listed in Annex IIA of Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91 all raw substances thatcan exclusively be used. In addition, the mode of use and further conditions aresupplied in the text of the Regulation and in Annex I.The Organic Agriculture Consultant must know that, in particular in Mediterraneancontext, organic farms very often face the need to use extra-farm fertilizers,59 Julia Kinane and Michael Lyngkjær, Biosystems Dept., Risø, in Darcof eNews (Danish Research Centrefor Organic Farming), www.darcof.dk.50

ecause climatic conditions often induce a fast mineralization of soil organicmatter and organic animal husbandry is not very common.Table 8: Extract of Annex II A of Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91 (Fertilizers and soil conditioners)Fertiliser or Soil ConditionerNameDescription; compositionalrequirement; conditions for useFarmyard manureDried farmyard manure & dehydrated poultrymanureComposted animal excrements, includingpoultry manure and composted farmyardmanureLiquid animal excrements (slurry, urine, etc)Mushroom culture wastesExcreta of worms (vermicompost) and insectsGuanoProducts or by-products of animal origin asbelow:1. Blood meal2. Hoof meal3. Horn meal4. Bone meal5. Fish meal6. Meat meal7. Feather, hair8. Wool9. Fur (see condition)10. Hair11. Dairy productsBulky animal manures, excrements; composted, liquidProduct comprising a mixture of animal excrements and vegetable matter(animal bedding)Need recognised by inspection body or Authority.Indication of animal speciesComing from extensive husbandry and only in the sense of Article 6(5) ofReg EEC No 2328/91, as last amended by Reg (EC) No 3669/93Need recognised by inspection body or AuthorityIndication of animal speciesComing from extensive husbandry and only in the sense of Article 6(5) ofReg EEC No 2328/91Need recognised by inspection body or Authority.Indication of the animal species.Factory farming origin forbidden.Use after controlled fermentation and/or appropriate dilution.Need recognised by inspection body or Authority.Indication of animal speciesFactory farming origin forbiddenThe initial composition of the substrate must be limited to products of thepresent listHigh nutrient content animal based fertilisersNeed recognised by inspection body or AuthorityNeed recognised by inspection body or authorityPlant based fertilisers and soil conditionersComposted or fermented household wasteComposted or fermented mixture of vegetablematterFur: Maximum concentration in mg/kg of dry matter of Chromium (VI):0*LODProduct obtained from source separated household waste, which hasbeen submitted to composting or to anaerobic fermentation for biogasproductionProduct obtained from mixtures of vegetable matter, which have beensubmitted to composting or to anaerobic fermentation for biogasproduction.Need recognised by inspection body or AuthorityPeatProducts/by-products of plant origin forfertilisers (e.g. oilseed cake, cocoa husks,malt culms, etc)Use limited to horticulture (market gardening, floriculture, arboriculture,nursery)51

Seaweeds and seaweed productsSawdust and wood chipsComposted barkWood ashClays (e.g. perlite, vermiculite, etc)Soft ground rock phosphateAluminium calcium phosphateBasic slagCrude potassium salt (e.g. kainit, sylvinite,etc)Potassium sulphate, containing magnesiumsaltStillage and stillage extractCalcium carbonate of natural origin (e.g.chalk, marl, ground limestone, Bretonameliorant, phosphate chalk)Magnesium and calcium carbonate of naturalorigin (e.g. magnesian chalk, groundmagnesium, limestone, etc)Magnesium sulphate (e.g. kieserite)Calcium chloride solutionCalcium sulphate (gypsum)Industrial lime from sugar productionElemental sulphurTrace elementsSodium chlorideStone mealAs far as directly obtained by: physical processes including dehydration,freezing and grinding; extraction with water or aqueous acid and /oralkaline solution; fermentationNeed recognised by inspection body or AuthorityFrom wood not chemically treated after fellingFrom wood not chemically treated after fellingFrom wood not chemically treated after fellingMineral based fertilisers and soil conditionersProduct as specified by Directive 76/116/EEC, as amended by Directive89/284/EECCadmium content less than or equal to 90mg.kg of P2O5Product as specified by Directive 76/116/EEC, as amended by Directive89/284/EECCadmium content less than or equal to 90mg.kg of P2O5Use limited to basic soils (pH>7.5)Need recognised by inspection body or AuthorityNeed recognised by inspection body or AuthorityProduct obtained from crude potassium salt by a physical extractionprocess, and containing possibly also magnesium salts.Need recognised by inspection body or AuthorityAmmonium stillage excludedOnly of natural originNeed recognised by inspection body or authorityNeed recognised by inspection body or authorityProduct as specified by Directive 76/116/EEC, as amended by Directive89/284/EECOnly of natural originNeed recognised by inspection body or authorityProduct as specified by Directive 76/116/EEC, as amended by Directive89/284/EECNeed recognised by inspection body or authorityTrace elements included in Directive 89/530/EEC amended by Directive89/284/EECOnly mined salt3.2.d. Soil tillageTillage has several functions: it prepares the soil to the seed; reduces the apparentdensity of soil; allows the input of several materials in the ground; increases theefficiency of fertilizers and weeds control.Soils under conventional (intensive) agricultural systems, with intensive tillagepractices, have lost quality. The solution is the reduction of the intensity of tillage.Especially in a Mediterranean climate and in areas where erosion anddesertification are a treacherous danger, the choice of the most suitable cultivationsystem with regard to machines, methods and times is fundamental to preservethe soil. It is also highly important in order to reach a good but sustainableproduction level that means producing now without negatively affecting itsproduction capacity in the future. Soil tillage techniques are closely related to croprotation and manuring schedule.Cultivation can be carried out with tools classified in three main groups:- Tilters: they cut the soil in regular portions which are more or less completelyturned over, bringing to light soil strata which were before at a certain depth.52

The use of plough, especially in organic farming, should be reduced to theminimum (e.g. after crops which compact the soil or increase weed pressure).- Rippers: they provoke cuts in the cultivation profile, conferring it clodiness andsoftness, without interfering with the stratigraphy.- Mixers: they break up the soil into small clods, inducing the mixing of thecultivated strata.The tools which, with without doubt, are frequently found on organic farms are thegrubbers - which work at a depth of 30 cm –and the rolling harrows, which work ata depth of about 15 cm and mix the topsoil.Figure 14: GrubberFigure 15: Rolling harrow in actionThe procedure of grubbing is a classical preparatory procedure. It has two mainfunctions:- it reduces the clodiness and the hollowness of the soil, operating below thesurface, so as to make its profile more uniform and able to maintain afavourable ratio between its liquid and gaseous phases;- it brings the roots and the weeds rhizomes to the surface, so that they arebetter exposed to the action of air and sun.This procedure, usually carried out at the end of winter, gives the soil a stratum ofgood sponginess. There are a broad range of grubbers on sale, but almost alwaysthey are fundamentally tools with a series of arms, more or less curved, rigid orelastic, held together by a frame and often with a spade at the lower end. Thesearms and the relative spades are thrust in the ground and carry on the abovementioned action when the tool is dragged.Vibrocultors instead, operate through a bar with a square or cylindrical section,dragged on the surface of the soil. The rotation of this bar, furnished with discsand blades, brings to surface the coarsest clods and breaks them; it also brings indeeper layers the finest part of soil.Figure 16: Vibrocultor53

Another procedure typical of organic farms is harrowing, which is normallypreparatory, but can sometimes be carried out as an intervention with the cropunder way. The aims of harrowing are manifold:- refining of the clods for the definitive preparation of the seed bed;- replacement of ploughing;- destruction of weeds;- burying of crops residues, of fertilisers or some types of green manure.As a consequence of the manifold aims of harrowing, and due to the variability ofsoil and weather conditions, there are numerous types of harrows so as to meetthe farmer's requirements.Disc harrows, for example, are useful for the first cutting up of clods and theburying of crops residues; rototiller and chain harrows, are useful to control weedsin horticulture and in arable land, to break up any superficial crust formed throughrains or sprinkling and, in case of necessity, to aerate the soil and to increase, as aconsequence, the mineralization in the ground.Another useful and advisable tool for organic agriculture is the digger. It is not avery heavy machine and it does not require great power to work. It is able to turnthe soil at a steady depth, incorporating the organic matter present on the surfaceand it does not produce a cultivation pan.Figure 17: DiggerA type of cultivation just as useful and utilized in organic farms is earthing up. Thiscultivation consists of piling a certain quantity of soil at the base of the cultivatedplants, utilising a hoeing-machine or, more frequently, through the use of ridgersfurnished with a double mouldboard. Its goals are manifold and vary according tocrops. The main ones are: combating weeds, protection from frost; preventingtubers from turning green and protection against the attack of potato late blight;whitening of the products to be sold (fennel, celery, chicory, etc.).A characteristic and essential tool for every farm is the cutter. The cutting up ofcrops residues, as well as that of the biomass produced by a grass meadow fromgreen manure, actually facilitates the procedures of incorporation into the soil and54

the breaking up of the incorporated mass, thanks to a greater surface in contactwith the ground and with the terricolous micro-organisms.The organic agriculture consultant must know the different types of cultivation too.• Two-layer cultivation - It is a cultivation technique which permits to work at thesame time with two different action modes: deep soil opening without turning,and topsoil turning over. A first splitting of the soil is carried out through rippertools, then the turning over of the topsoil through a light ploughing or through aclod breaker. The same result can be attained with just one procedure, andwith a considerable saving in time, with the subsoil mixing plough, a ploughfurnished also with chisel teeth, which operate deep into the soil (at least 50cm). The shape and the slant of the chisel teeth influence the shape of theclods and the power needed for traction. The straight tooth requires a greaterpower compared to the curved or bent tooth, but limits the movement of clodsand, if present, of rocks. This kind of cultivation is on the one hand very fastand allows a considerable saving in time; on the other hand its limitations arethe costs and the great power required for its execution, amortizable only forlarge areas.• Superficial cultivation - It is carried out with multi-furrow ploughs when thereare residues to be buried or with cultivators or grubbers, at a depth of 25-30cm, with scarce or finely cut crops residues. Ploughing, even though it assuresa better incorporation of crops residues, requires a greater number ofprocedures for the necessary refinement. Depth being equal, the interventionwith rippers is faster and more convenient from a consumption viewpoint, alsofor the next refinement procedures, but it requires a good power from thetractor. For the turning of the topsoil a procedure with the clod breaker isnecessary, while for the refinement a rolling harrow or the use of combinedtools are required. If there are many crop residues not fully incorporated duringthe first procedure, it is better to make use of tools with teeth arranged onmany rows leaving wide room with respect to the ground surface, in order toavoid engulfing the tool.• Minimum cultivation - The choice to cultivate the soil digging no more than 10-15 cm, is due to the need not to compact the soil to induce cultivation panformation, which hinder root development and indices asphyxia. In loose soilsthe plough is replaced by spring loaded tine cultivators or with a clod breaker towhich harrows with a rotary bladed harrow, capable of preparing the seed bed,are combined. In heavy soils it is necessary to make use of machines capableof penetrating the soil and cause a first mouldering and then to utilise a clodbreaker or a rotary cultivator. In some cases this can be attained by makinguse of disc harrows only, if they have a heavy weight and disk have a widediameter, to assure the burying of crops residues. Generally speaking, toolweight and the discs size must increase proportionally to the heaviness of thesoil. The use of disc can be interchanged, every three or four years, with a twolayercultivation or with ripper tools at depths deeper than usual.Time of intervention: It is important to start the cultivation when the soil istempering, when it is neither too dry nor too humid and it can be cultivated with theleast effort, producing the best technical result.3.3. Pest management55

In organic agriculture, there are three main principles of phytosanitary protection ofcrops: a) fertility and health of the soil, b) agricultural practices and c) timing of theintervention. Good knowledge of the fields and of the soil characteristics, the weatherconditions and seasons, which affect the farm, are also important and necessarytechnical devices. At least once a week, the organic farmer must physically be in hisfields and he must observe crops.3.3.a. PreventionControl of the principal cultural adversities is based on prevention, through correctagricultural practices. Prevention of the principal cryptogrammic diseases andharmful insects begins, first of all, with a good crop rotation system and a correctand balanced fertilization, on a healthy soil, adequately supplied with organicmatter.The first phase of prevention consists of choosing the species, varieties orrootstocks that are most suitable to the climate and general agricultural conditionsof the farm. It is evidently best to choose local varieties, which usually have agreater intrinsic resistance to the principal pathogens and pests in the region.Particular attention must then be payed to the availability of healthy propagationmaterial, since most pathogens develop through the use of infected seeds orseedlings. To avoid this risk, the seeds can be disinfested by immersing them for10 minutes in a 1% copper sulphate solution. It is also possible to dress the seedsby mixing them with copper carbonate.A good organic fertility and a good presence of macro and micro nutrients allowsthe plants to be less exposed to stress, which is one of the main factors thatpredispose plants to fungal attack.Soil cultivation greatly influences the incidence of plant diseases, for examples,superficial ploughing exposes weed roots to air, destroying them, and uncoversnumerous pests, exposing them to their predators (birds), summer soil cultivationhelps eliminate the elaterid population and reduce the presence of nematodes,removal of crop residues helps interrupt the life cycle of certain pests.In organic farms, rotation is the crucial factor for the control of weeds and soilbornephytopathogens, including nematodes. The goal of rotation is to avoid to"tire" the soil and impede the specialization of diseases and parasites in the crops.It is demonstrated that monoculture causes an increase of cryptogamic diseases,the control of which is extremely difficult, both with mechanical and natural means.An agro-ecosystem, with hedges, wooden areas, canals and grassland, ensures agood biodiversity in all components of life, from microorganisms to mammals,which rotate around the cultivated field. Greater biodiversity means a higherpresence of useful entomofauna, with parasitic and predator insects, and greatercompetition among soil microorganisms. Cases of parasitism with fungi andbacteria are also present.3.3.b. Biological controlAll animals or plants have natural enemies (predators, parasites, pathogens orcompetitors), which help prevent their uncontrolled proliferation. Naturalpopulations of predators (e.g. lady beetles, lace-wings, syrphid flies, preyingmantids, wasps, predaceous mites) and parasites (e.g. tachinid flies, nematodes)are valuable in reducing infestations of pests. Usually, however, some level of pestinfestation must be tolerated to attract and maintain natural enemy populations.56

Biological control uses precisely these “natural enemies” to maintainphytophagous pests’ populations within acceptable limits and, consequently,increase the number of species in the agro-ecosystem, which becomes morecomplex and stable.Types of biological control agents• Entomophagous insects. Entomophagous insects are the major agents usedin biological control. They are classed as either predators or parasitoids, eachwith completely different characteristics, which contribute to their effectivenessas biological control agents. Predators are organisms which attack and feed ona number of individuals of the pest. Some of them are predators during theirentire life cycle (phytoseids, mirids, coccinelids, antocorids), while others onlyin the larval stage. Predators are further divided in: specialist predators, whichlive on one or on a small number of species, generalist predators orpolyphagous, which can live on several species. The polyphagous species areconsidered less suitable than monophagous species, because they are lesslikely to concentrate feeding on the pest species in the presence of anabundant alternative prey species. However, in general, predators have theadvantage over parasitoids in that each individual consumes a number of preyduring their lifetime and, unlike parasitoids, the immature stages are alsoactively searching for and consuming prey pest species. Among the mostcommon predators of insect pests are beetles, predatory bugs, crysopids andthe syrphid larvae. Parasitoids are parasitic during their immature stages, whenthe larvae develop within (endoparasite) or on (ectoparasite) their host. As aresult the host is killed. Individual parasitoids consume only one host duringtheir development to produce adults, which are free-living and usually feed onpollen, nectar, honeydew or sometimes on the body fluids of their host. As agroup, parasitoids belong to Hymenoptera and Diptera and exhibit a widerange of hosts specialties and habits. The host-specific parasitoids areconsidered most suitable for use in biological control.• Pathogens. True parasites, such as parasitic nematodes, differ fromparasitoids in that they do not kill their host, they only weaken and debilitatethem. Despite this, they have proved useful control agents, to the extent thatthere now exist a number of commercial companies involved in the culture andsale of nematodes for the control of garden and horticultural pests. The mostfrequently used nematodes in biological control are of the genera Steinernema(Neoaplectana) and Heterorhabditis. These can efficiently control larvae ofOthiorrhinchus sulcatus and of sciarids diptera. They operate by contact, asthey are able to infect the host through the cuticle or other natural openings,and their harmful action on insects is strictly related to the symbiosis theyentertain with bacteria belonging to the genera Xenorhabdus. Once thesebacteria are released inside the host, they provoke its death by septicaemia.The nematodes’ activity is strongly related to the sensitivity to drying out and toUV rays, which in turn are strongly recommended for the containment ofterrestrial insects.• Parasitic pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi) will often kill their host outrightand then liberate millions of spores or 'resting stages' which are dispersed toinfect other host individuals. Their relative pathogenicity, speed of action andease with which some of them can be cultured have ensured their use both foraugmentation and inundative releases. Pathogens may also act as biocontrol57

agents through competitive exclusion or the production of antibiotics. Thisgroup, known as antagonists, are particularly useful in the biological control ofplant pathogens. Fungi pathogenic on insects, mites and other fungi arecharacterized by the ability to actively penetrate the arthropod’s body throughthe cuticle or other natural openings. Therefore, they operate by contact andcan infect phytophagous insects regardless of their feeding habits or age,causing their death through the action of the mycelium or of other toxinsproduced. The most famous and diffused pathogenic microorganism is Bacillusthuringiensis. It is an aerobic, spore-forming bacterium, of which various strainsare available (kurstaki, aizawai, israeliensis and tenebrionis). These strainsdiffer in the specificity of their activity on lepidopterous larvae (the first twostrains with some specific activities), on the larvae of some mosquitos (thethird) and on Leptinotarsa decemlineata larvae (the last one). Duringsporulation, the microorganism produces a toxin that interacts with theglycoproteins of the insect’s intestinal cells, blocking the muscles of thedigestive apparatus and interrupting the nutritional process. In commercialproducts, usually only the toxin which acts exclusively through ingestion, ispresent. To be effective, it is therefore necessary that the insect feeds for sometime on the surface of the plant that has been treated.The selectivity of Bacillusthuringiensis is very elevated and it is fully effective when it is used in the firstlarval stages. Many higly specific entomopathogenic viruses are known, whichgenerally infect the insect when it is in its larval stage and act throughingestion. Their action is not immediate, so the infected insects are still able tofeed for some time, causing further damages. The most commonly used virusis the granulosis virus, active on Cydia pomonella. However, othermicroorganisms, active on different species of phytophagous insects, are alsoavailable. Competitors are organisms which compete with the pathogenicagent for the colonization of a part of the plant. They do not, however, damagethe plant. Competitors are usually fungi which compete with other fungi. Insome cases, like for instance in that of the chestnut-tree canker (Endothiaparasitica), they are hypovirulent strains of the same parasitic fungus.• vertebrate biological control agents. Although, in general, vertebrates aretoo polyphagous for use in biological control, they have on a number ofoccasions been found useful as a means of pest control.• Other biological control methods, which can be considered, are those based onthe use of pheromones (mass capture traps, sexual confusion) and SterileInsect Technique. SIT Control has had very satisfactory results, but it can beused only on a vast scale and in the presence of very particular environmentalconditions. The goal is to impede reproduction of the infesting species, byintroducing in the environment an adequate number of individuals turnedsterile. For this technique to be successfully applied, the following conditionsmust be satisfied: the initial population density to be controlled must berelatively small; the species must mate only once; the population must beincluded in its totality; this condition exists with treatments on a very vast scaleor in the case of circumscribed and isolated environments (islands forexample).3.3.c. Weed controlIn traditional agronomy, “weed” refers to any herbaceous species, which differsfrom the growing crop, and “weed control", indicates any method aimed at theelimination of weeds from the crop. These definitions are obviously not very58

suitable to organic farming, which ascribes an important role to the agroecosystemand therefore to biodiversity. This approach leads to the belief that wild flora is notonly a “menace” to the growing crop, but that it has also a specific role in therelationship between the plants and the external environment (soil, other plants,other organisms). In organic farming, therefore, the expressions “wild vegetation”and “management of the wild vegetation” are used rather than “weed” and “weedcontrol”, respectively. In this way, emphasis is placed more on the agronomicmeasures to be taken than on the interventions of direct control.The role of wild flora - Wild plants compete with the crop for water, light andnutrients. They can also cause pollution of the output, contribute to create andmaintain a humid micro-climate, ideal for the development of many pests, and theyare often intermediate hosts for various plant parasites. On the other hand, theyare a shelter for useful insects and a “food alternative” for harmful insects. Theyprevent soil erosion, improve the structure of the soil, take away some nutrients inexcess from the leaching and, in the case of leguminous plants, they contribute tothe enrichment of the soil through nitrogen fixation.It is important to keep in mind that the composition of wild flora can provide usefulinformation on the physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, since differentspecies are indicative of the reaction of the soil, its texture and richness innutrients or the presence of cultivation pan. A correct management of wildvegetation should reduce its potential harmfulness to the minimum, attempting atthe same time to maximize its positive aspects. This means learning to accept thepresence of some weeds in the cultivated field. This is strongly tied to thethresholds of damage or intervention, that is the quantity of wild plants underwhich level the crop is not damaged and control interventions are not necessary.The definition of the threshold varies in function of the species considered, thecrop, and the individual situation of the farm.The possible interventions for a correct management of wild plants are various, butthe fundamental concept for a valid control is that the crop must be:• Well settled;• Able to vigorously compete with the wild flora;• Able to rapidly cover the soil.It is indeed demonstrated that once the crop has covered the row, both theappearance of the seeds and the growth of the wild seedlings are greatly reduced.Because of this, the species, which will have most problems, are those, whichhave a slow germination. For these species, when possible, it is best to transplantthan to sow. For this reason, all of the agronomic measures destined to accelerategermination (sinking of seeds, irrigation, coverage with spin bonded fabric, etc.)have a positive effect on the control of weeds.Crops do not necessarily need to be kept free of weeds for their entire growthcycle. However, when they are immature and most susceptible, they must not facecompetition from weeds. After this time, weeds may grow without damaging thecrop. The sensitivity period varies for different crops based on how quickly theygrow. In general, it is sufficient to control weeds until the end of the first half of thegrowing cycle.The methods for the management of wild vegetation can be divided into indirectand direct. Both are aimed at limiting the number of wild plants or change the59

agro-ecosystem’s equilibrium in favour of the crop and of wild flora with lesscompetitive characteristics.Among the preventive (indirect) methods, crop rotation is the most important. Thesingle-crop succession or high turnover rotations, with time, create the conditionsfor uncontrolled proliferation of wild flora. On the contrary, correct and sufficiently“large” rotations, although not resolvent, allow a better control of wild plants, whichdo not have the possibility of adoption or selection and of which the cycles aredisturbed by crop management (cultivation, harvesting time and competitivenessof the main crop, different from year to year).Another preventive method is false seedbed. This consists in the normalpreparation of the seedbed and a possible irrigation (in the lack of precipitation)without, however, the normally following distribution of seed. In this way, thegermination of the propagation organs of the “weeds” is encouraged before thecrop is in the field. When wild flora has reached the stage of the cotyledons or ofthe first true leaves, surface tillage is run in order to eliminate weed plantlets.During this operation any mixing of soil strata should be avoided, in order toprevent seeds from lower strata to come to surface and become potential weeds.For this reason, the second tillage can be substituted by flame weeding.It is also important to limit the stock of seeds present on the field and theconsequent proliferation of non desired species, avoiding the use of contaminatedseeds and using, for fertilization, only natural manure and mature slurry manure. Asufficiently long period of maturation allows destroying the germination power ofthe seeds that exist in these fertilizers.In the management of weeds, cover crops have proven effective. This methodconsists in planting a crop, not necessarily for harvesting it, during the monthswhen the soil usually remains bare. In this way, the proliferation and disseminationof the weed is impeded during the period when other crops are growing. Moreover,it is possible to use the capacity of some plants (e.g. rye) to reduce thegermination of the remaining seeds of weeds in the soil, through the production ofallelopathic substances.Cover crops have a positive effect not only on the control of wild plants, but alsoon the recycling of nutrients, the reduction of soil erosion, the increase of thecontent of organic matter and, in the case of legumes, on the content of nitrogen inthe soil.Once the cover crops have been mowed they can be ploughed in or used asgreen mulching. In the latter case, there is a reduction of the appearance ofweeds, less evaporation of the soil, which remains fresher during the summermonths, and a slow nutrient release.Similar effects can be obtained using other mulching materials, like plastic films(black polythene, especially of a low density), biodegradable plastic materialsbased on corn starch (mater-bi), products based on cellulose or cellulose andpeat, and vegetable mulching (straw or chopped wood).60

Figure 18: different mulchesPolythene film is the most frequently used material because of its convenience ofsetting, mechanical resistance, heat-holding capacity, moderate prematuring effectand, naturally, the good control of the spontaneous plants. The disadvantages ofthis material are disposal difficulties after utilization and the restriction or limitationof its use imposed by some product specifications.Biodegradable plastic and cellulose-based materials resolve the disposal problem,but they are not always durable enough to ensure in time a sufficient effect on thecontrol of wild plants. Moreover, they are subject to frequent breaking (paperespecially).Vegetable materials improve the physical and chemical characteristics of the soiland, according to some authors, contain the number of plant parasites. Thismethod, however, does not have prematuring effects and it is more costly.Table 9: Types of mulch available on the marketPRODUCT MATERIAL USAGE ADVANTAGES (+) AND DISADVANTAGES (-)ManyTerraStarPaperCelluloseNon-competitive vegetablesthat must be clean whenharvested such as lettucesand fennelGranules to be spread onseeded or non-competitiveplants (at the 3-leaf stage)Mater-Bi Amidon + Comparable to paper; also+ Biodegradable+ Effectively smothers weeds+ clean, dry harvest- Tears easily during implementation- Disintegrates too quickly on the edges+ Biodegradable+ Effectively smothers weeds (>4 months)+ Adjustable dosage+ Easy to spread- Costly+ Biodegradable61

iodegradableplasticcan be used for gherkins+ Inexpensive and lightweight+ Does not tear easily- Strict planting requirements and difficult to applyManyPolyethylenesheetsNon-competitive vegetablesthat must be clean whenharvested such as lettucesand fennel as well asgherkins, zucchini andgreenhouse crops+ Easy to apply+ Effectively smothers weeds+ clean harvest+ Inexpensive- Not environmentally sound- Must be removed at the end of the growingseason, but the process is difficult- Costs for disposal or recyclingSource: FIBL, 2005Among the direct methods for the management of wild plants, the most importantis soil cultivation.The equipment used must have the following common characteristics:• Regulation of spontaneous plants, both on the inter rows and near the rows,without damaging the crop;• Polyvalence, that is effectiveness with regard to plants which have differentmodes of propagation;• Capacity to combine the action on the plant with that of breaking the rind andpromoting aeration of the soil;• Capacity to contain the time of intervention and the costs of management;Equipment with fixed parts (Howard-harrow, chain harrow and weeding machine),with trailed rotary parts (rotary bladed weeding machine) or with p.t.o. drivenrotary parts (brush, multiple inter row cultivator and rotary bladed harrow) areemployed.Figure 19: example of weed brushFor small plots or under particular conditions, manual tools are to be taken intoconsideration. The importance of these is quite limited in extensive cultivation, butthey are usable in horticulture, in small family farms or in glasshouses.62

The possibility of combining the action of various equipments, to act upon theirregulation and to modify the shape of the working parts (assembling different typesof utensils) allows for a large range of solutions. In order to identify the one that ismost suitable to the individual farm, the following factors must be taken intoaccount: the type of crop on which the intervention will be executed; the amplitudeof the areas to be treated; the degree and type of infestation; the stage ofdevelopment of the adventive flora and of the crop; the physical characteristics ofthe soil and its content of water; the necessity to intervene both on the row and onthe inter row.Flame weeding, that is the control of wild plants by means of heat, is an issue thatmust be treated separately. The exposure of plants to high temperatures provokesa thermal choc in the vegetable tissues, and thus disorganization of the cellularmembranes, protein denaturation, inactivation of the enzymes and, altogether, anirreversible deterioration of the functionality of the plant, which dies within twothreedays.Thus, even if exposed to direct fire, the plant is not subjected to combustion, butrather to a “boiling” of its tissues, immediately highlighted by the change in colourof the vegetable and by the flaccid and translucent appearance of the leaves. Theefficiency of flame weeding depends on numerous factors. The presence ofvillosity on the leaves or their succulence reduces effectiveness of the intervention,just as do the presence of cuticles or protective strata. Rhizome plants or plantsthat have other underground propagation organs can be damaged in their aerialparts but not in their hypogeal ones, which guarantee their survival. Possibleirregularities of the soil, deviating the flame, can modify the efficiency of thetreatment, as does an excess of humidity around the plants that are to be treated.Yet, the factor which most influences the effectiveness of flame weeding iscertainly the stage of development of the treated plants. The later the interventionis executed, the less efficient it will be, because of the greater resistance to heat ofthe “adult” plant.The best stage for flame weeding interventions generally corresponds to thesecond-fourth leaf of the vegetable to be treated.On herbaceous crops, weed flaming can be used pre-sowing or pre-emergence,exploiting the different times of germination of spontaneous plants and of the crop.The possibility of post-emergence interventions is linked to the greater or lowersensitivity of the crop to heat, and often the use of defence screens is necessary.The most frequently used equipments are the free-flame ones, LGP-fueled.Infrared, microwave, electrical or steam-generated appliances are less frequentlyused. It is, however, a rather costly technique, especially if extended to the entirecultivated area, thus it is advisable to couple it with traditional mechanicalinterventions.Equipment - Usually, p.t.o.-driven machines are more effective against perennialspecies, but they are contra-indicated in badly or not very structured soils,because they tend to make worse the structure even more.On light soils, which tend to compaction, good results are obtained with the chainharrow, as long as the plants to be eliminated are not too developed. The greatesteffectiveness of intervention is obtained at the stage of the cotyledonary leaves63

and on non-stoloniferous species (which, on the contrary, could be profit from theuse of these machineries).Chain harrows have proven particularly suitable for weed control in fall-wintercereals. A treatment at the end of the winter significantly reduces the presence ofweeds, encourages tillering and accelerates the mineralization process of theorganic matter, contributing to the nitrogen nutrition of the plants.The brushes are suitable for soils of different textures, because they do not formcultivation pan. The best conditions of use are obtained on soils that are not wetbut not yet dry (because of possible excessive dustiness) and on plants that are attheir very first vegetative stages. The rooting out action of the brushes is indeedquite mild and it is effective only on plants, which have a superficial radicalapparatus. If the wild flora has already reached an advanced stage ofdevelopment it will be damaging and devitalising, but not definitive.In the presence of both annual and perennial species and on hard soils, the bestresults are obtained with the fixed bladed weeding machine.The rotary hoe (rotating wheels machine), on the other hand, is ideal for thecontrol of annual weeds; in case of compacted soils, it must be combined with ablade to crush wheels tracks.It is important to consider that the wild flora control is fully effective only when thechoice of the most suitable equipment is coupled with its careful regulation andwith timely interventions.3.3.d. Authorized productsThe Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91 examines in the Annex IA the correctapproaches to plant protection, which consist first of all in adequate agronomicpractices: “Pests, diseases and weeds shall be controlled by a combination of thefollowing measures: choice of appropriate species and varieties, appropriaterotation programme, mechanical cultivation procedures, protection of naturalenemies of pests through provisions favourable to them (e.g. hedges, nestingsites, release of predators), flame weeding. Only in cases of immediate threat tothe crop may recourse be had to products referred to in annex IIB.For this reason, most of the substances listed need to be recognized by theinspection Authority. The list is not satisfactory for producers in all member statesand not all of the inputs available in organic agriculture are listed. For this reason,the Commission constantly reviews the annexes.64

Table 10: Extract of Annex II B of Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91 (authorized products for plant protection)ISubstances of crop or animal originNameAzadirachtin extracted from Azadirachta indica. (Neem tree)Description; compositionalrequirements; conditions for useInsecticide.Requires the inspection body or inspection authority’s recognition.(*) Bees wax Pruning agent.GelatineInsecticide.(*) Hydrolysed proteins Attractant.Only in authorized applications in combination with other appropriateproducts of this Annex II, part B.LecithinFungicide.Plant oils (e.g. mint oil, pine oil, caraway oil).Insecticide, acaricide, fungicide and sprout inhibitor.Pyrethrins extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Insecticide.Quassia extracted from Quassia amaraInsecticide, repellent.Rotenone extracted from Derris spp. and Lonchocarpus spp.and Terphrosia spp.Insecticide.Requires the inspection body or inspection authority’s recognition.(*) In certain Member States the products marked with (*) are not considered as plant protection products and are not subject to the provisionsof the plant protection products legislation.II Microorganisms used for biological pest controlNameMicroorganisms (bacteria , viruses and fungi), e.g. Bacillusthuringensis, Granulosis virus, etc.(1) O.J. No L 117, 8.5. 1990, p 15.Description; compositionalrequirements; conditions for useOnly non genetically modified products, according to Directive 90/220/EEC (1).III Substances to be used only in traps and/or dispensersGeneral conditions:the traps and/or dispensers must prevent penetration of the substances in the environment and prevent their contact with the crops.- the traps must be collected after use and disposed of safelyNameDescription; compositionalrequirements; conditions for use(*) Diammonium phosphate Attractant.Only in traps.MetaldehydeMolluscicide.Only in traps containing a repellent against higher animal species.Only up to 31 March 2006.PheromonesInsecticide, attractant.In traps and dispensers.Pyrethroids (only deltamethrin or lambdacyhalothrin) Insecticide.Only in traps with specific attractants.Only against Batrocera oleae and Ceratitis capitata wied.Need recognition from the inspection body or inspection authority.(*) In certain Member States the products marked with (*) are not considered as plant protection products and are not subject to the provisionsof the plant protection products legislation.IIIa Preparations for surface-spreading on cultivated plantsNameDescription, compositional requirements,conditions for useIron (III) orthophosphateMolluscicide.IV. Other traditional organic farming substancesNameDescription; compositional requirements;conditions for use65

Copper in the form of copper hydroxide, copperoxychloride, (tribasic) copper sulphate, cuprous oxideFungicide.Until 31 December 2005 up to a maximum of 8 kg copper/hectare/year, andfrom 1 January 2006 up to 6 kg copper/hectare/year, without prejudice to amore limited quantity if laid down under the specific terms of the generallegislation on plant protection products in the Member State where theproduct is to be used.For perennial crops, Member States may, by derogation to the previousparagraph, provide that the maximum levels apply as follows:- the total maximum quantity used from[..](*) March 2002 until 31 December2006 shall not exceed 38 kg copper/ha;- from 1 January 2007, the maximum quantity which may be used eachyear per ha shall be calculated by subtracting the quantities actually usedin the 4 preceding years from, respectively, 36, 34, 32 and 30 kg copperfor the years 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 and following years.Requires the inspection body or inspection authority’s recognition.(*) Ethylene Degreening bananas.Fatty acid potassium salt (soft soap)Insecticide.(*) Potassium allum (Kalinite) Prevention of ripening of bananas.Lime sulphur (Calcium polysulphide)Fungicide, insecticide, acaricide.Only for winter treatments in fruit trees, olive trees and vines.Requires the inspection body or inspection authority’s recognition.Paraffin oilInsecticide, acaricide.Mineral oilsInsecticide, fungicide.Only in fruit trees, vines, olive trees and tropical crops (e.g. bananas).Requires the inspection body or inspection authority’s recognition.Potassium permanganateFungicide, bactericide.Only in fruit trees, olive trees and vines.(*) Quartz sand Repellent.SulphurFungicide, acaricide, repellent.DESCRIPTION OF MAIN PRODUCTS AGAINST INSECTS AND MITES• AZADIRACHTIN is extracted from the asiatic tree Azadirachta indica, or“Neem tree”, is used as an insecticide. It acts through ingestion and operatesas an antagonist of the ecdysone hormone, impeding the insect to molt. It isnot active on eggs and adults and on certain insects operates as anantifeedant. Azadirachtin has a wide range of activity, including Homoptera,Lepidoptera, Diptera, Coleoptera and others, mites included. It also has ademonstrated effect against fungi and bacteria. Used in horticulture, fruit trees,nursery and ornamental plants. Practically non-toxic to vertebrates, can bephytotoxic at high doses. Dose and compatibility: Largely depends on theformulas, approximately 25-50 g/ha of Azadirachtin. It can be used incombination with Pyrethrins, virus, Bt, soft soaps.• PLANT OILS (Mint oil, pine oil, caraway oil), are a mixture of naturalsubstances derived from various parts of plants such as flowers, seeds andfruits. They mostly contain oleic and linoleic acids. Traditionally, plant andmineral oils were used as fungicides and as pesticide carriers, improvingdistribution and duration. Plant oils are used as insecticides, provokingasphyxia in the insects and their eggs. They also act as repellents. Activeagainst aphids, Coccidae, Diaspididae and mites. Field of application:viticulture, fruit trees, horticulture. Low toxicity to mammals. Plant oils are notspecific and may cause loss of antagonist insects at high dosage. Dose andcompatibility: usually 200-300 ml/hl as additive , 1-3 g/hl as insecticide. Plantoils can be mixed with most organic farming preparations.• PYRETHRINS (Extract from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium), are naturalinsecticides derived from plants of the genus Crysanthemum, cultivated mainlyin Kenya, Tanzania and Tasmania. Flowers are collected after flowering, thendried and milled. The active compounds are a mixture of 6 molecules known66

as Pyrethrins, which are photosensitive and rapidly oxidized, if exposed to airand light. To increase their stability, some formulas contain substances whichact as stabilisers (i.e. PPBO piperonilbutoxyd). Pyrethrins operate as contactinsecticides. They attack the nervous system, paralysing the insects in a fewseconds (knockdown effect). Depending on the dose that has been used,death can follow. Some insects eventually metabolise the Pyrethrins andrecover. Because of this, Pyrethrins can be activated with PPBO, whichinhibits detoxification of the active compound, improving the efficiency of thetreatment. Pyrethrins are effective against a wide range of insects (Homoptera,Lepidoptera, Diptera Coleoptera, etc.), and relatively active against mites. Fieldof application: horticulture, ornamental plants, and for the conservation offoodstuffs. Low toxicity to mammals, but highly toxic to fish, reptiles andamphibians. Pyrethrins are non-selective insecticides and, therefore, they canbe harmful to bees and to other beneficial insects. They are not phytotoxic.Dose: usually 70-100 ml/hl.• QUASSIA (Extract from Quassia amara), It is a natural insecticide derivedfrom the Quassia amara tree, indigenous to Suriname, and from Picrasmaexcelsa (Jamaican Quassia). The active compounds are quassin andneoquassin. Quassia is used as a repellent for dogs and cats. It is also amedicinal plant. Quassia operates on the nervous system, both throughcontact and ingestion. Its activity is relatively weak, due to its limitedpersistence. On locusts it has a phagodeterrent effect. Active against aphidsand sawflies. Field of application: horticulture, fruit trees, viticulture, silviculture,ornamental plants. Low toxicity.• ROTENONE (Extract from Derris spp., Lonchocarpus spp. and Tephrosiaspp.). Rotenone is an alkaloid, first isolated in 1895. It is extracted from theroots of some tropical plants of the Leguminosae family: Derris elliptica, Derrisspp., Lonchocarpus utilis, Tephrosia spp. Rotenone rapidly decomposes uponexposure to light and air. Its persistence is therefore limited to 2-3 days insummer and 5-6 in spring. The active compound is more toxic throughinhalation than ingestion. The degree of powder fineness is very important todetermine the level of toxicity. Rotenone can be stabilised with phosphoric acidand acts through contact and ingestion, inhibiting the mitochondrial electrontransport. Rotenone has a wide range of activities: aphids, thrips, Lepidoptera,Diptera, Coleoptera, etc It is also relatively active against mites. Field ofapplication: horticulture, fruit trees, ornamental plants, mosquitoes and flies. Itis also used in veterinary medicine against Hypoderma flies. Rotenone has lowtoxicity to mammals, while it is extremely toxic to fish. It is a non selectiveinsecticide and is not harmful to bees. Dose and compatibility: generally 100g/ha of active compound in horticulture. The waiting periods is 10 days.Rotenone is not compatible with alkaline substances.• GRANULOSIS VIRUS (CpGV), this virus was first isolated in Mexico in aCydia pomonella larva. CpGV is used against the Cydia pomonella of applesand seems to be effective also against some other Lepidoptera. CpGVoperates through ingestion. For this reason it has to be applied on larvae ofCydia at the right time. Ultraviolet rays can inactivate the virus, therefore it isrecommended to spray the compound around dusk or early morning. This virusis specific for 6 species of Tortricidae, the most important being Cydiapomonella. Field of application: apple, pear and walnut trees. Toxicity: strictly67

specific compound, harmless to other insects. It is not phytotoxic. Dose andcompatibility: must not be mixed with other alkaline-sensitive substances.• BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS. In organic farming, it is the most widely usedbacterial preparation. The bacterium occurs naturally in the soil and itsinsecticide properties are known since the 1960s. There are many varieties ofBt and it is used in many fields. During sporulation, the bacterium producestoxins (the most important is the delta-endotoxin) which represent the activecompound of the formula. Pro-toxins are activated in the insect’s intestine andbecome lethal., The preparation is selective and harmless to vertebrates whichhave an acid reaction in the intestine. Bt is active only through ingestion. Forthis reason, it is sprayed on harmful insects during the larva stage, when theyare feeding on the surface and they are exposed.. Once the toxin is released inthe intestine, the entire digestive tract is paralysed and the insect is unable tofeed. Death occurs in a matter of hours or three days at most. The differentvarieties of Bt are specific to certain families or species of insects: Bacillusthuringiensis var kurstaki is active against many species of Lepidoptera;Bacillus t. var tenebrionis is active against some species of Coleoptera (e.g.potato beetle); Bacillus t. var israelensis is active against mosquitoes. Field ofapplication: horticulture, viticulture, fruit and olive trees, ornamental plants,silviculture. Non toxic to vertebrates. It is highly specific and not dangerous toother insects. It is not phytotoxic. Dose and compatibility: highly depends onthe formulas, generally from 0,5 to 2 kg/ha of the commercial preparations. Itmust not be mixed with alkaline fertilisers or crop protectants.• FATTY ACID POTASSIUM SALT (Soft soap). This product, also known aspotassium soft soap (or Marseille soap) is obtained by mixing vegetal oils withalkaline substances such as soda and potassium hydroxide. Aside from beingwidely used as a detergent, this product is also used in agriculture as aninsecticide. One of its important properties is that it’s completelybiodegradable (it is metabolised by bacteria in the soil). Potassium salt is usedas an insecticide, additive for other crop protectants and also against fungi andweeds. Mixed with other insecticides such as rotenone and Pyrethrins, itimproves the adherence and persistence of the solution. Soft soap acts as adirect contact insecticide, damaging the insects’ cuticle with soft tegument; it isalso used for washing away honeydew and the waxy excreta of certain aphids.Soft soap is used against phytophagous insects, with soft exoskeletons, suchas aphids, thrips and aleurodids. It is also active against mites. Field ofapplication: apple, pear, peach, grapevine, aromatic herbs, vegetables andornamental plants. No toxicity is known to vertebrates and pollinatorinsects.Dose and compatibility: dosage of soft soap mixed with otherinsecticides is around 300 g/hl, used alone: 1000 g/hl. This product should notbe used in hard water.• LIME SULPHUR (CALCIUM POLYSULPHIDE) is used as an insecticide andfungicide. Barium polysulphate is also used in agriculture, but it is forbidden inorganic cultivations. The active compound is sulphur in different forms. As aninsecticide it acts through direct contact, due to the causticity of thepreparation. It is also efficient in partially melting cochineal shields. Asecondary action of this insecticide is asphyxia. Polysulphide is also active asa fungicide because of the presence of sulphur. Range of action: Insects -Diaspididae (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus, Diaspis pentagona and D. leperii).Active also against the eggs of mites. Crop protection: against oidium, peach68

lister canker and other diseases. Field of application: Citrus, peach, apple,pear, apricot, cherry, grapevine and olive tree. The substance is irritating if it isinhaled and if it comes to direct contact with eyes and skin. Polysulphides arealso toxic to some predatory mites. Due to their alkalinity, they can bephytotoxic, inducing burns in the vegetative organs. For this reason they arepreferably used during winter. Dose and compatibility: For winter treatmentsthe following dosage is suggested: drupaceous 16 – 17 kg/hl; apple & pears20-22 kg/hl. Calcium polysulphide is highly corrosive to the gear used forspraying. Thus, it should be thoroughly washed after using.• MINERAL OILS (White, paraffin, petroleum oils) have been used since the endof nineteenth century. They are derived from the fractional distillation of petrolat high temperatures, hydrogenation and final extraction with solvents.Extraction conditions highly influence the composition and agronomic impact ofmineral oils. Mineral oils act essentially through asphyxia, suffocating theinsects and their eggs. They are also active as repellents for feeding or eggdeposition. Mineral oils are active through direct contact mostly against smallinsects, such as Diaspididae, Coccidae , aphids, psylla and mites. They can beactive against oidium and weeds (due to their phytotoxicity). Field ofapplication: fruit trees, horticulture, ornamental plants and nursery. Very low tomammals, they can cause problems to other insects when sprayed. Dose andcompatibility: 1-3 kg/hl as insecticide, and 200-300 ml/hl as additive. Waitingperiod 15-20 days. Not compatible with sulphur.• SUBSTANCES USED IN TRAPS− PHEROMONES - are compounds produced by insects, and used forchemical communication among individuals of the same species. Theyaffect behaviours such as aggregation, sexual interaction and alarm calls.They can be artificially produced in the laboratory and serve differentpurposes in agriculture, such as monitoring and pest control, being usedas attractants in traps together with insecticides. Monitoring: pheromonesare added in traps to attract and investigate the presence of insects in thefield (suitable for lepidoptera). Mass trapping: the objective is to avoidmating, capturing the males of a specific species in a trap which has beenbaited with an approved insecticide (only some pyrethroids for organicagriculture): Suitable for Lepidoptera and Diptera, like olive fly. Sexualconfusion: the objective is to avoid mating, spraying large quantities ofpheromones in order to confuse the males of a specific species.− DIAMMONIUM PHOSPHATE - This fertilizer is used as a bait for masstrapping of fruit and olive flies. Adult flies are attracted by the ammoniumodor.− METALDEHYDE is used in agriculture against molluscs. It operates onthe nervous system, after ingestion. The product has to be placed aroundthe field which requires protection from snails and slugs. Field ofapplication: horticulture and flowers, in the open field or in glasshouses.Metaldehyde is toxic to humans and mammals. It is not toxic to fish andpollinator insects if distributed in pellets. It is harmless to plants. Dose: 5-15 kg/ha.− HYDROLYSED PROTEINS - are used as attractants only in combinationwith insecticides. They are used to control olive and Mediterranean flies,during the adult phase, when they need proteins for their diet. Used as an69

attractant compound. The insects are killed by the pesticide mixed withproteins. In organic agriculture is allowed only if it is used in traps withbio-pesticides and certain pyrethroids. Range of action: Bactrocera oleae,Ceratitis capitata, Ragholetis cerasi. Field of application: used in olive,citrus and cherry tree.H.P. do not have an impact on the environment.Possible drawbacks are related to the type of insecticide with which theyare combined. Dose: solution at 1%.− PYRETHROIDS (only deltamethrin or lambda-cyhalothrin) - These are agroup of synthetic pesticides, similar to the natural pesticide Pyrethrins.These molecules are stable to light (Pyrethrins are not) and soluble inorganic solvents. For this reason, they are much more persistent thantheir natural relatives. Pyrethroids operate through contact and ingestion,killing the insect in a few minutes. Their use in organic agriculture ispermitted only in traps against olive and Mediterranean flies (Batroceraoleae and Ceratitis capitata). A wide range of insects are sensitive toPyrethroids such as Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Diptera, locusts,grasshoppers and ticks. Field of application: Fruit and olive trees.Toxicity: relatively low to mammals, but high to fish and pollinators.DESCRIPTION OF MAIN PRODUCTS AGAINST CRYPTOGAMIC DISEASES• COPPER - Copper-based products are widely used for their fungicide andbactericide properties. A wide range of copper-based formulas are used inagriculture: copper sulphate, hydroxide, oxychloride and cuprous oxide. Theactive compound of these formulas is copper ion (Cu ++ ). Copper is activethrough direct contact, inducing denaturation of enzymes and proteins of thecell membrane. It also inhibits spore germination. The persistence andefficiency of the treatment depends on the solubility and adhesiveness of theused product. On adhesiveness, the most widely used formulas are classifiedas follows: sulphate > hydroxide > oxychloride > carbonate. In order toincrease adherence, bentonite can be added to the copper product. Asregards solubility, the different products are classified in the following manner:oxychloride and carbonate > hydroxide > sulphate. Copper is effective againsta wide range of fungal diseases such as: peronospora, peach blister and otherfungal diseases. It is relatively active also against bacteriosis. Copper can bephytotoxic if distributed in the wrong climate conditions (cold

disinfectant. The active compound is potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 ).Potassium permanganate operates through contact, oxidizing all organicmaterials. Its effect is rapid but its persistence is weak. It is used as afungicide, bactericide and against molluscs. It is used for the protection ofplants against oidium, fusarium (Cucurbitacae family), peronospora, verticillium(Solanaceae family) and Phomopsis cane and leaf spot of grapevine. Field ofapplication: horticulture, viticulture, fruit trees. The concentrated product iscaustic. No information on its selectivity is available. It is highly phytotoxic andit is not advisable to spray green vegetation with more than 300 g/hl. Dose andcompatibility: Winter treatments (fruits and grapevine): 1-2 kg/hl; GrapevinePhomopsis cane and leaf spot 750 g/hl at sprouting; oidium: 100-300 g/hl;fusarium: 500 g/hl (soil treatment). Potassium permanganate should not bemixed with organic substances (rotenone, Bt, etc), because of itscorrosiveness.• SULPHUR is widely used as a fungicide because of its limited environmentalimpact, its low cost and its polyvalence. Sulphur is a compound extracted inquarries, or obtained from the separation of sulphur hydrogenate from naturalgas during the purification process. Sulphur is a fungicide with a secondaryaction against mites. Because of its liposolubility, it can penetrate inside thefungal cells, dehydrating them. Sulphur is active against oidium in almost allcrops, fusarium, sclerotinia, grapevine excoriosis, rust, alternaria and otherfungal diseases. Field of application: grapevine, stone fruits, apple and pear,olive, hazelnut, citrus, horticulture, potatoes, cereals, flowers. Sulphur is nottoxic to mammals, while it is toxic to certain insects (such as Hymenoptera). Itis irritant for the eyes, therefore, caution should be exercised when spraying.In organic farming sulphur should be used without Selenium. Phytotoxicity:very fine sulphur products can be harmful to plants at high temperature.Powder sulphur is less phytotoxic. Dose and compatibility: dosage depends onthe type of sulphur. Indicatively, for powder sulphur: in 25 (sublimated)-40(raw) g/hl; for wetable sulphur: colloidal S. 100-200 g/hl, micronized S. 200-500 g/hl. Sulphur is not compatible with mineral oils and crop protectants withalkaline reaction.• LECITHIN - The term lecithin generally designs a group of phospholipids.These compounds are extracted principally from soyabean, but also fromsunflower, rapeseed, and eggs. Lecithin is widely used in the food processingindustry as an emulsifier, stabiliser and antioxidant. Lecithin is a fungicide thatoperates through direct contact. Its activity seems to be related to the inhibitionof spore germination. Range of action: Oidium. Field of application: Cucumber,apple tree, ornamental plants. Not toxic to humans, insects or plants. Doseand compatibility: Depends on the formulation. Lecithin can be mixed with themajority of products used in organic agriculture.3.4. Food production and processing3.4.a. Vegetable productionsOrganic farming can only be successful if the plants needs are fulfilled by theenvironment. In this case the harmony of the suitable plant and of the environmentensures the healthy crop that can resist the attacks of pests in a better way. Cropharmony promotes the biological association meaning its enrichment and71

stabilization. From the environmental factors the following are determinant: soilconditions, precipitation and temperature conditions, the conditions influencingmicroclimate and the specific characteristics of the living environment.Soil cultivation influences the condition of the crop. Good soil quality bears greatadvantages, bad soil quality possibly leads to irrecoverable disadvantages. Forrapid and uniform germination, the cultivated plant needs properly moistconditions, a well-compacted fine earth and a uniform soil surface. Thegermination has to be rapid and uniform as the seedlings are vulnerable andtherefore attacked by pests easily in this period of time. Speed in developmentand uniformity help for the formation of a healthy crop. Over these indirectadvantages the soil cultivation can have direct plant protection impacts too. Theaim is the balanced supply of the plants resulting in strong, resistant crops.Organic farming uses natural substances for nutrient supply. Manure, greenmanure and compost are the main source of nutrients, but they are not directlysupplied to the plant but pass through the nutrient-serving systems of the soil. Toachieve this, the nutrients are delivered in a lager proportion bound in organicmatter respectively in water insoluble form. Its consequence is an active bioassociationrich in species is forming in the soil in which the damaging agentsquickly lose their virulence to the effect of the so-called “antipathogenic potential”and the microbiological antagonism becomes also an important factor.Another plant protection advantage of the “nutrition trough the soil” is the plantscontrol of their nutrient intake, which is actively with their root discharges. On thecontrary at the direct plant nutrition where the nutrients supplied in water solubleform, especially N, get with the transpiration circulation often in excessiveproportion and quantity into the plant tissues, loosening them, which is favourableto the occurrence and multiplication of the parasites.In organic farming the monoculture is out of question, but it can have harmful plantprotection consequences also in the intensive farming, even in the case of speciesrelatively well tolerating monoculture, like maize.Choice of variety. In the organic farming the nutrients are often not continuouslyavailable in the quantity required by many modern varieties and hybrids selectedfor chemicalzed conditions. When choosing the variety this has definitely to beconsidered, as the lack of nutrient supply, the plant’s stopping short leads todelayed development and weakness of the plant and therefore can cause severedamages.The varieties, hybrids favourable from plant protection point of view, beingresistant or tolerant, can be used as in conventional farming, there are no specialecological farming specifications, only the full prohibition of use of geneticallymodified organisms.Resistant is the variety, which does not get the disease in the presence of thevirulent and aggressive pathogen of the given plant species even if theenvironmental conditions are favourable for the development of pathogens. Thefull resistance is quite rare, appears mostly as a result of hybridisation breeding(vertical or race-specific resistance). We consider the so-called horizontal (nonrace-specific) resistance to be of very high value. This means that the pathogenhas optimal conditions for development and spreading, but only very weaksymptoms of the disease appear (less and/or smaller spore-bed, weakersporulation, slower spreading). This kind of resistance is also called fieldresistance, dirty resistance, moderate resistance etc..In the interest of successful plant production, the issues of use of variety and seedare treated with special care in the agriculture of the European Union, not only in72

the conventional but also in the organic farming. The basic principles are the samein both forms of farming, but in organic farming additional special professional andlegal knowledge is necessary: for example the propagation material should alsooriginate from organic farming. During production, processing of ecologicalpropagation material, no traditional treatment agents (synthetic plant protectionmaterials, hormones) may be used for decreasing of seed diseases, nor forstimulation of shooting, only materials (e.g. plant extracts) and methods (e.g. hotwater soaking) permitted in the stipulation system of organic farming.To make easier access to marketed organic propagation material, based on theRegulation (EC) No. 1452/2003 all EU member states had to establish a databaseof ecological propagation material available to everyone, which database containsthe seed quantities available in the given time. This database is operated by theseed control organs of the member states or by the organisations controllingorganic farming.The propagation material is the basis of plant production, deposit of the next cropand of the crop quality. Good crop and good quality can only be achieved withexcellent quality seed. In the organic plant production, the quality of seed – purity,germination, state of health – is of increased importance. With sowing of highgermination faculty seed free of weed seeds a uniform shooting, rapid developingcrop can be obtained. Rapid growing of crop is a basic condition of successfulweed control. In addition to germination and purity, the state of health of the seedis an also important factor. With sowing of healthy seed a lot of plant protectionproblems can be prevented, the shooting can be made safer, which is decreasingthe later necessity of protection against weeds and diseases. In conventionalproduction the seed is protected with synthetic treatment agents against thedifferent diseases and pests.In the organic plant production, the most important criterion of plant protection isthe prevention, which is applied already prior to sowing. Therefore, in ecologicalfarming it’s also highly recommended to sow qualified, sealed seed in the interestof safe crop.EXAMPLES OF ORGANIC CROP PRODUCTIONAs an example, here you can find some technical guidelines to be followed in theorganic farming of some relevant vegetable species.− Pea (Pisum sativum L.), in the rotation it is incompatible with itself. Where it isproduced without interruption, soil exhaustion arises. It should not be sown inthe same parcel more frequently than 4 to 5 years. Pea is normally producedbetween two cereals. Pea is followed by a winter crop as it is one of the bestpreceding crops for winter crops. Pea is yielding very quick returns for organicmanuring. On soils poor in nitrogen a half portion of fresh (raw) manure can bealso directly applied under the pea, in return it will give high yield. On good soil,under the effect of manure, the pea is growing too luxuriant and is poorlysetting seeds. Thus on soil rich in nitrogen a manuring two – three years earliersuits the best to it.− Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Beans are less demanding on light than pea.They tolerate the half shade well (therefore it was possible to produce beansas intercrop of maize). On soils poor in humus manure can be applied directlyto the crop, on soils of better quality beans should be cultivated two-threeyears after the last manuring.73

− Horse bean (Vicia faba L.), It is insusceptible as precedent crop and so makesan excellent precedent crop for winter wheat. There are two main reasons forgrowing this crop: as a component of a rotation based on cereals, as greenmanure where soils have been degraded in organic and physical fertility. Croprotations which include Horse bean are more productive and profitable thanthose in which legume phases are excluded. The benefits arise because:• yields and quality of cereal grain are usually higher after Horse bean;• Nitrogen fixation in the root system of the Horse bean makes more soil Navailable to the next crop, reducing the need for fertiliser-N and in somecases adding to soil organic N. Up to 40% of the N in Vicia faba crop isunderground;• Levels of soil-borne diseases (like crown rot) and pest (like root lesionnematode) of wheat are reduced by growing Vicia faba as a breack crop;• Growers claim that soil tilth is improved after Horse bean.− Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), from the many species belonging to the genuswheat (Triticum) only a few species are grown worldwide. The most widespreadwheat species is T. AESTIVUM, which is commonly grown in the northern part ofthe temperate zone. T. DURUM (hard grain wheat) is partly replacing commonwheat in the warmer regions of the temperate zone. T. SPELTA (spelt) – alsoknow as T. aestivum ssp. spelta – is younger than common wheat. Its origin isAlpine and the plant is invaluable in ecological farming. After sowing wintercereals, seeds are covered with light seed harrow. In general it is morefavourable if the crop enters the winter “rumpled” and not entirely evenly. Thiskind of soil surface can better hold the snow and reduces the danger of lifting byfrost. The use of a ring roller on winter crops is also often advantageous;especially if the seedbed is improperly settled and if the autumn is dry. Inorganic farming systems wheat is grown in rotation with pasture or legumephases. Organic wheat is harvested in the same manner as conventional wheat.Care needs to be taken to ensure that the harvest sample is as clean aspossible of weed seeds and other material, as penalties apply for foreignmaterial in cereal grain. Harvesting equipment that can collect weed seedsthrough the seconds bin allows for more flexibility in the harvesting process andbetter weed management. Wheat grain should be harvested at or below thereceival limits for moisture; this is usually 12.5% for wheat. Seed cleaningservices are available but these will reduce the gross margin of the organic crop.Organic wheat prices vary considerably depending on the market and the quality(protein content, screenings, grain size, variety).− Rye (Secale cereale L.). After wheat, rye is our second important bread graincrop.Among the cereals, rye tolerates the best itself. On shifting sand, on theso-called “evergreen farm” rye is produced for years without interruption. Thischaracteristic is due to that the weeds can less keep up with its rapid and richgrowing, it is suppressing them, and rye is less susceptible to diseases andparasites. In areas where other crops than rye produce too, the rye, as part ofrotation, produces considerably better yield. As rye is sown earlier than wheatand requires settled soil too, it is of utmost importance the precedent crop to beearly harvested. On sandy soil, the most frequent precedent crops for rye arecrimson clover, lupine, autumn mixture with hairy vetch, Vigna sinensis, kidneyvetch, early potato and tobacco. Stubble seed, autumn forage mixture or springsowing crop can follow the rye.74

− Barley (Hordeum ssp. L.) is an important raw material for breweries and maltproducers. The straw of spring barley can be used as fodder for cattle, horsesand sheep. From barley, the winter varieties give higher yields in general.Inserting winter barley into rotation needs extra care. The greatest problem of itsproduction is securing a good precedent crop. As it is sown early, winter barleycan follow only an early harvested precedent crop. Particularly required is aprecedent crop economical with soil water, as no abundant precipitation can beexpected up to the time of sowing. Thus the best precedent crops for wheat arealso best for winter barley. Spring barley is incompatible with itself, mainlybecause it fosters weed growth and is susceptible to weed damage. The bestbet is to produce it after manured root crop and spring barley can also be sownafter an indirectly manured root crop. The best precedent crop for malting barleyis sugar beet. Sugar beet is sown in well-prepared soil and intercultivation isdone with great care, so the soil remains clean and ripe. Another benefit of thesugar beet is that it does not leave the soil abundant in nitrogen, which isfavourable to the quality of malting barley. Thus sugar beet production andmalting barley production coexist well within crop rotation. Spring barley shouldbe sown after winter cereal only out of necessity; barley should not be sownafter legumes. Feed barley is very often the cover crop for red clover, alfalfa,sainfoin or their grass mixture.− Oat (Avena sativa L.) is mainly beneficial in rearing and breeding animals. Itsfodder value is mainly due to exploitable protein, starch and fat content. The oatis not sensitive to precedent crops, but should not be sown after itself. It can besown into ploughed up alfalfa or grassland, but is most frequently sown followingmaize. In turn, maize, potato or any spring crop can follow oat.− Maize (Zea mays L.). The grain crop of maize is very rich in starch (the starchvalue is approximately 80), containing considerable quantities of fat and sugar; itis therefore the most important fattening feed. The protein content is low (about8 %), the largest part of protein is zein from amino acids and contains traceamounts of lysine and tryptophan. Maize is fed to hogs, beef cattle, cows, youngcattle, sheep and horses. In poultry husbandry (i.e. egg production andcramming) maize is also indispensable. Maize is easily put into the rotationbecause it is not exigent on its precedent crop. Of sole Importance is theautumn deep ploughing done after harvesting the precedent crop. For theefficacy of the soil’s organic matter and plant nutrients, the manure must beconveyed and mixed into the soil during summer or early autumn so that themanure can mature together with the soil until sowing. If possible even themanuring of maize should not wait until spring. When manuring underneathmaize is made necessity in spring, a harmful effect can be experienced. In dryyears particularly a large difference exists between the yield of maize manuredin autumn and in spring. Mature manure distributed in spring can performrelatively well only in a rainy year in loose soil.− Alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) is a high-value roughage plant, as it bringsexcellent yield, is reach in proteins, tolerates aridity outstandingly and has safeproduction. The value of alfalfa is increased by the fact that it gets most of itsnitrogen demand from the air its luxuriant root system considerably enrichesorganic matter content, thus making it a soil-improving crop. Alfalfa isincompatible with itself and therefore should not be in the same parcel for morethan 4 to 5 years to avoid soil fatigue. In spring sowing, a previous crop foralfalfa should be a livestock manured hoed plant. This is the best way of75

providing the soil most suitable for the needs of alfalfa, free of weeds and rich innutrients. If alfalfa is sown at the end of summer, it may follow only an earlyharvested previous crop. In this case the previous crop would most likely be acereal. Good wheat previous crops harvested in early summer are also ideal foralfalfa.− Red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), is similar to the alfalfa; it is a valuablestringy, perennial papilionaceae fodder plant and is produced mainly in rainyareas. Red clover is useful in the production of hay but has a major role in greenforage. Its production is important in areas with soil inadequate for alfalfacultivation. In areas where alfalfa production is profitable, red clover is producedonly to diversify fodder production slightly. The average yield of red clover, 3-4tons of hay per hectare, is lower then that of the alfalfa. Red clover is usuallycultivated separately but can be associated with perennial grasses or perennialpapilionaceae, e.g. bird’s foot trefoil). In the former, the soil improvement isgreater, producing a full yield even into the third year. Otherwise, the culturemust be ceased in the second year, with the advantage of soil fertility increasepredomination over a larger area. When the agricultural systems were changed,red clover became an important component of the crop rotation systems. Redclover was also a part of the famous ’Norkfolk System’ (manured beet, springbarley, red clover, wheat). It is easy to fit red clover into the sequence of plantbecause the plantation is usually successful in suitable areas and we can definethe date of the breaking in advance. Commonly, red clover is broken in thesecond year because it rarifies in the third year and then cannot be mowedwithout especially favourable conditions. Excellent forecrops for red clover aredeep-ploughed and well-maintained sugar beet or mangel-wurzel. If red clover issown between two cereals, than the forecrop of red clover is a cereal. After redclover, autumn wheat is usually sown. Red clover as a forecrop of autumnwheat is only a good choice if a special soil cultivation system is employed.Otherwise, a plant which is sown in spring, e.g. maize, would be a better choice.− Cabbage (Brassica Oleraceae, L.). The Cruciferae family, also known asBrassicaceae, is composed of more than 300 varieties and 3000 species.Brassica has approximately 40 species. Brassicae are species rich in minerals,and some nutritionists cite evidence of an inverse correlation between theincidence of some kinds of cancer and their consumption: Some glucosinolates,secondary Cruciferae metabilites involved in a characteristic aroma of theseplants, prevent the onset of cancer. Brassicae make up the main vegetablecrops worldwide, in terms of area, production volume and consumption. Theyconstitute an important crop group in different regions of the globe. EasternEurope (Russia, Poland, Rumania, and Ukraine), Eastern Asia (China, Japan,and South Korea) and the USA are important producers of different cabbages’varieties. The production of broccoli is greatest in the USA (particularly inCalifornia) and Italy. Cauliflower production is led by China and India, with largeamounts also produced in France, Italy, the UK and the USA. Associated Crops:alternate the cabbages lines with leeks or celeries’. Sow lettuces in the middle ofthe cabbages.− Carrot (Daucus carota L.) is a biennial crop grown for the thickened root, itproduces in its first growing season. During the first year, it accumulates itsnutritional supply in the roots and it brings flowers during the second year. Thecarrot prefers light soils capable of maintaining humidity levels. The plantdoesn’t resist to soil acidity. It also requires some composting supplies76

(30kg/100m 2 ). Organic carrots are relatively difficult to grow compared to manyother vegetables. Carrots require specialised machinery for sowing, weedingand harvesting, and usually need some hand weeding to avoid yield losses dueto competition from weeds. All these elements add to their cost of production.They do, however, reward growers who overcome the difficulties and producegood, high quality crops. Alternate carrots rows with onions or leeks.− Tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum MILL.), prefers well-drained deep soil with astraight texture or sandy/clayish soils. The nutrient requirements for tomato arevery high. It requires composting (30 kg/100 m 2 ). Green manuring is very usefulfor the control of pests and diseases (it is also advisable for protected crops).Alternate rows of tomatoes with rows of cabbage, beans or celery. Whensowing, add plants such as nasturtium or mustard within rows.− Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is well-adapted to different climates and seasons,differing with the characteristics of each cultivar. Sow lettuces in margins orbetween rows of crops with long life-cycle such as tomato, cabbage orstrawberry. Leaf lettuce is the easiest to produce but highly perishable whenharvested. Romaine and head lettuce are later maturing. Lettuce should bemarketed as soon as possible after harvest. Tipburn resistant varieties shouldbe grown. Lettuce is prone to various diseases including Sclerotinia (whitemold). Using raised beds and rotating fields with grain crops may be helpful.− Onion (Allium Cepa L.), it is one of the oldest crops in the world. Before settingonion crop, at least 30 tones/ha of well-rotted manure or compost can beploughed in. Interplanting carrots with onions (or garlic, or leek) seems to have arepelling effect on carrot fly (Psila rosae).− Garlic (Allium sativum L.). It is a biannual plant, belonging to the Liliaceaefamily. In ordinary conditions, it is sown as an annual crop in order to harvest itand as biennial to conserve its seeds. There are three varieties of garlic: white,purple and pink. It requires small amounts of fertilizers.− Cucurbitaceae - Vegetable marrow (Cucurbita pepo convar pepo provar.oblonga), Zucchini (Cucurbita pepo convar giromontiina), Patisson (Cucurbitapepo convar. Patissoniana). Most of the 850 species belonging to this family aretermophilous and heliophylous plant that prefers a warm climate, with amoderate demand for water. It needs a soil temperature of 12 °C to germinate;the optimal temperature for setting fruits is 25–28 °C. They do not have specialdemands for soil quality. When the general soil conditions are acceptable, it canbe grown at all field sites. Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima convar maxima) Thepumpkin is called a “bush” if its vines are short (60-80cm) or “climbing” if 3-5 mlong. It has large leaves that can be waxy and some varieties have dense leafhairs. Pumpkins are insect-pollinated and require bees for pollination.Inadequate pollination results in poor fruit shape and excessive blossom drop.ORGANIC FRUIT GROWINGThe selection of the site of the plantation is very important. The orchard should befar enough from polluting sources, i.e. conventional orchards, high traffic roads orindustrial emittors. It is very important that pollution of spaying pesticides andherbicides from the neighbouring orchards or fields should not drift to theorganically managed plantation. Industial or agricultural factories should beoutside of the safe distance recommended by the Inspector organisation of thecountry. It is also a demand that the heavy metal content of the cultivated soil not77

to be over the limit determined by the Enviromental Protection Authorities.Orchards have a long life-span, the selection of fruit species and cultivars suitablefor the location on one hand and the market on the other hand, is very important.In organic orchard management the interrow or floor of the orchards should becovered for nine months of a year. The purpose of soil covering is preventing soilerosion on slopy territories. The floor or inter-row areas of perennial fruit plantingsmay be managed in a variety of ways, ranging from clean cultivation to variouscombinations of cover crops, and organic or geotextile mulches. In terms ofcontrolling erosion at least, a system which results in a full or close-to-full groundcoverage is best.“In addition, an orchard filled with natural spaces provides an aestheticallypleasing landscape and helps the farm and its products gain custmers’acceptance. The habitat and natural spaces listed below encourage biodiversityand can be easily integrated into an orchard or around its outskirts” 60 .− Ruderal areas are gravel pits, rock piles or piles of rubble with few nutrientsthat have been partially colonized by pioneer plants. Some paths can also beclassified as ruderal areas.− Species-rich inter-rows, mixtures of glasses and other plants, alternatelymowed to form rows, can increase plant and pollinator diversity. This strategyis primarily suited for low-traffic orchards (ston fruit or small fruit).− Sandwich System, on both sides of the tree, the soil is cultivated and remainsopen. However, the middle strip is covered in small plants or grasses. Theearly blooming flowers there draw pollinating insects right under the fruit trees.− Artificial Shelters, are inexpensive structures designed to attract particularlyrare or useful animals to the orchard (Birdhouses, heaps of branches, stones,etc.).− Standard trees and isolated trees enrich both the environment and thelandscape.− Hedges are barriers consisting of tightly clustered native trees or shrubs and atleast one grassy strip larger than three meters wide (two strips are preferable).− Extensive grasslands are not treated with fertilizer and are mowed 1 to 2 timesper year.− Wildflower strips (with wild indigenous plant life) , encourages the population ofpollinators which in turn significantly reduces the aphid population.60 Organic Fruit Growing, Technical guide, FIBL/OACC, 2005 (www.fibl.org).78

Figure 20: example of orchard development (source FIBL, 2005)Organically managed nurseries are not available presently in all EU countries, butbecause of the conversion time it is an often applied practice that growers buy thepropagation material from conventionally managed nursery. After establishment, ittakes 3 years to convert the plantation to an organically managed orchard. Duringthis time the purchased conventional propagation material also will be convertedto organic due to the organic management of the orchard. Resistant cultivars are avery important with regard to disease management.In the fruit growing harvested fruits, having a high water content remove relativelyfew nutrients from the soil, compared to other crops. Therefore, a significantamount of the fertility needs of fruit crops can be met through cover cropmanagement and organic mulches in systems which use them, and by theapplication of lime and other slow-release rock powders at the pre-plant stage.During plantation establishment a reasonable amount (40-80t/ha) of organicfertilisers are needed, the origin of organic manure should be the result of organicanimal production. Still, supplementary fertilization is often required for optimumgrowth and production.A good organic weed management plan should present a minimum erosion risk,provide a "platform" for the movement of farm equipment, not impact adversely onpest management or soil fertility, while minimizing weed competition for water andnutrients.The long-term nature of fruit orchards may allow pests to built up considerablepopulations over time. Conversely, it is also possible for such stable agriculturalenvironments to sustain populations of beneficial organisms and to keep abalance in the favour of healthy plants.79

Maintaining the plant in general health and good vigour is important in pestmanagement. For fruit plants, good condition is more applicable to indirect pests(those pests that feed on foliage, stems, etc.) than to direct pests (pests that feedon the fruit). For instance, an apparently healthy apple tree may set a good crop offruit, yet lose it all to apple moth Cydia pomonella. On the other hand, the sametree might suffer significant defoliation by caterpillars early in the season; yet, if itis in good vigour, it can compensate and recover back quickly–still producing amarketable crop that year.Biological control refers to the use of living organisms to control the population of apest. Examples of beneficial arthropods that have been used to control pests infruit crops include the predatory mites Phytoseiulus persimilis and Metaseiulusoccidentalis, which attack spider mites; lady beetles and green lacewings whichfeed on aphids; and Trichogramma wasps, which parasitize the eggs of severalpests including codling moth.The management of cover crops and adjacent vegetation, like hedges as theuseful insect refugia to attract and sustain native populations of beneficial insectsis a good solution. Selection of the proper natural enemy for a target pest is veryimportant. Distinguish between short-term application of natural animals and longtermintroduction of beneficial insects.Many diseases of fruit crops are specific to the species and variety of fruit,because of the relatively soft nature and high sugar content of most mature ornearly mature fruits, fruit rots are common diseases. The organic way of minimizethe chances of fruit rots is to provide good air circulation and sunlight penetrationinto the interior plant canopy. Sunlight and circulating air help to dry leaf and fruitsurfaces, thereby limiting fungal and bacterial infections. In tree crops, this wouldmean proper pruning and training techniques. For all fruit crops, site that allows forgood air circulation should be chosen.Other cultural aids in minimizing disease can include maintaining plants in goodhealth and vigour, removal and/or destruction of pruning from the planting site,removing of infected plants, removal of alternate hosts or inoculums sources forthe disease organisms.3.4.b. Animal husbandryThe role of animal husbandry is strategic and essential in organic farming, basedon the principle of a close link between the animals and the soil. The need for alink with the soil requires animals to have free access to outside areas forexercise, and also implies that their feed should be organic and preferablyproduced on the farm. This sector is very strictly regulated by provisions on animalwelfare and veterinary care. Moreover, it is important to rediscover the main role ofpasture and of the respect for the physiologic and behavioural requirements of theanimals.The organic management of animal husbandry must allow and aim at areinforcement of the health and endurance of the animals, so as to reduce the useof allopathic medicinal treatments, preferring homeopathic or phytotherapeutictreatments.All the detailed rules are laid down in Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91 as amendedby Regulation (EC) No. 1804/1999 and by Regulation (EC) No. 2277/2003.Generally, all livestock on one and the same organic farm must be kept inaccordance with the rules of Regulation. However, parallel production80

(conventional – organic) is not prohibited but the non-organic livestock may bekept on the same holding provided that they are clearly separated. Buildings andparcels have to be different for organic and non-organic animals and the specieshave to be different. It means you may not keep organic and non-organic milkingcows in the same unit, but you can have organic milking cows and non-organicmilking goats if the separation is strict enough. This parallel system may only bekept for a limited period each year. If the certified pasture of organic livestock wasused for non-organic one as well, these animals have to fit the requirement ofcoming from extensive farming conditions. The detailed conditions of extensivefarming are laid down in Regulation (EC) No. 950/97. The key point of thisdefinition is animal density may not higher than 2 LU (livestock unit) per hectare.Additionally non-organic livestock density on the pasture must not be higher than itis laid down in regulation corresponding to 170 kg of nitrogen per year andhectare, so the same as organic or below. Organic and non-organic animals arenot permitted to be on the pasture at the same time. The farmer must ask forpermission and all these circumstances have to be controlled by the inspectionbody.Second derogation from this principle, certified organic animals may be grazed oncommon land, if these fields were not treated with any products other than thoseallowed for organic farming practice listed in regulation, for at least three years,which can be clearly documented and controlled. If this field was used for nonorganicanimals as well these have to fulfil the previously mentioned requirementsof density and extensity. All the products coming from these animals may not becertified as organic even if the livestock are organic with the exception of reportand permission of inspection body. Key point as mentioned before: the separationhad strictly to be kept in accordance to regulation.There are not detailed rules for choosing breeds. So, It is preferred to use thelocal breeds, adapted to local conditions, because they can better produce underorganic farming conditions. They have much higher biological diversity thanhybrids, they are traditionally selected for free-range conditions therefore it isexpected less hygienic or veterinary problems with a well-established production.The extensive, traditionally used autochthonous races will not be used in factoryfarming because of their less production capacity and feed requirements. Becauseof the difference between organic and non-organic kept races, the identificationcan be easier which can be advantageous on the market. Organic labels arepreferred by the customers.Livestock must be fed on organically produced feeding stuffs generally. Thefeeding process and the feed itself has to have warrant quality production andanimal welfare rather than maximising production.Transhumance practice regions (animal movement among grazing areas inmountains) must be allocated by Member States if it was necessary.Feeding should be natural; therefore the young mammals must be fed by naturalwhole milk, preferably maternal milk. All mammals must be fed on natural milk fora minimum period, depending on the species, which is usually significantly longerthan in conventional farming and artificial milk is not accepted. This minimumperiod given to three months for bovines (including bubalus and bison species)and equidae, 45 days for sheep and goats and 40 days for pigs.Because of the feeding habit of herbivores they should be kept as long as possibleon pastures if the weather conditions do not harm the animals’ health (or pastures81

quality). This period can be decreased by permission of inspection body if thepasture conditions could not give adequate feed quantity or quality in extreme hotor dry or cold periods of a year. Second consequence of herbivore type digestionis to provide at least 60% of the dry matter in daily rations roughage, fresh or driedfodder, or silage. In the early phase of lactation some top cows need moreconcentrated feed the keep kilter and produce milk therefore the inspectionauthority or body can permit a reduction to 50% for these animals not longer thanthree month.When forage production is lost, in particular as a result of exceptional weatherconditions, the competent authorities can authorise for a limited period and inrelation to a specific area, a higher percentage of conventional feeding stuffs. Inthis case inspection body has to give derogation for the individual farmers of thecertain region if they applied for it.Feeding poultry or pigs has to give nutrients in specific form of their need. Itmeans you must provide at least 65% cereals in the daily feed of poultry in thefattening stage. But to keep their digestive system in proper state you should addenough roughage, fresh or dried fodder, or silage for pigs and poultry daily.To prepare perfect silage you should use perfect quality certified raw materialinstead of using additives or processing aids. In case of poor quality or poorlyfermentable crops you can use processing aids only from the accepted materialslist of the regulation.Conventional feed stuff of agricultural origin can be used for animal feeding only iflisted in regulation, and only if they are produced or prepared without the use ofchemical solvents.Feed materials from animal origin (whether conventionally or organicallyproduced) can only be used if they are listed in the regulations. It means that it isprohibited to use meat and meat products but it is allowed to use fish or othermarine animals, their products and by-products, or milk and milk products.Generally all the nutritional requirements of the animals have to be satisfied bynatural feed, mainly by grazing. In case of lack of minerals etc. vitamins, provitamins,nutritional additives can be used to satisfy nutritional requirements ofanimals but only if these stuffs are listed in the regulation. Artificial vitamins can beused if they are chemically well-defined substances with similar effect like those ofnatural ones.Same rules are laid down for enzymes, microorganisms, binders, anti-cakingagents and coagulants. None of the antibiotics, coccidiostatics, medicinalsubstances, growth promoters or any other substance intended to stimulategrowth or production can be used in animal feeding. All the feed must be free ofany synthetic medical agents.The full-scale prohibition of GMO organisms or GMO organism origin feed stuffs isvalid for whole feeding procedure. None of these material can be used for directfeeding or silage additives, or conservation aids.All the management practice should be natural. Reproduction of organicallyreared livestock should be based on natural methods but artificial insemination ispermitted. Any other forms of artificial reproduction methods involvingbiotechnology or special biotechnical elements e.g. embryo transfers or hormoneregulated ovulation etc. are prohibited. Artificial insemination can reduce risk of82

veneral disease born infections so it is a prevention method. During theinsemination no artificial additives or aids should be used.Rearing animals in organic farming conditions means a natural way of husbandryso none of the factory farming procedures is allowed. It is strictly forbidden to givepain for livestock, therefore operations such as:• attaching elastic bands to the tails of sheep (incredible pain, not natural),• tail-docking (not natural, usually used in factory pig management to reducestress and non adequate circumstances based cannibalism),• cutting of teeth (not necessary, in slow growing races not usual),• trimming of beaks and dehorning (not natural, cause pain and stress,dehorning is usually used in factory poultry management to reduce stress andnon adequate circumstances based cannibalism, dehorning used in intensivecow management to reduce the high animal density based injury problems)must not be carried out systematically in organic farming. That means youshould not use these techniques without preliminary permission of theinspection body.Some of these operations may be authorised by the inspection body, for reasonsof safety (for example dehorning in young animals but only in individual cases) orif this operation can improve the health, welfare or hygiene of the livestock. Thenecessary operations must be carried out at the most appropriate age by qualifiedpersonnel and any suffering to the animals must be reduced to a minimum.Physical castration is allowed in order to maintain the quality of products andtraditional production practices (meat-type pigs, bullocks, capons, etc. where thesexual hormone secretion could block meat production) but only under theconditions set out above.Because of the natural rearing requirements keeping livestock tethered isforbidden, but the inspection body, can authorise it only for a limited period of timeand only for individual animals if it was necessary for safety or welfare (animal orhuman) reasons, such tethering is used for some veterinary treatments but onlyfor the necessary period.Because of the high costs of new farming system cattle can be tethered inbuildings if these were completed before 24 August 2000. In this case you mustprovide regular exercise and fulfil the requirements of animal welfare and tendercare. The building has to be comfortably littered and give enough room for naturalneeds. The inspection body can authorise the management till 31 December2010. after applying.Cattle in small holdings can be tethered if it is not possible to keep the cattle inappropriate groups. Inspection body can give permission if it is provided they haveat least twice a week access to pastures, open-air runs or exercise areas. Thisderogation can apply to holdings, which meet the requirements of rules concerningorganic production of livestock effective until 24 August 2000.Livestock has to be kept in groups, where the adequate size must depend on theirstage of development (age) and the behavioural needs of the species. Rearingmales separately is allowed for safety and management plan reasons.The keeping of livestock in conditions, or on a diet, which may encourageanaemia, is prohibited. Animals should get to open air and natural light. Pasture or83

oughage feed stuffs shall be completed with all the necessary regulationapproved nutrition additives if it is necessary e.g. iron for piglets.Transportation should be minimised, It is preferred to transport product instead ofanimals. If you have to move your livestock it has to be carried out so as to limitthe stress. This rule applies to loading and unloading as well. Any type of injuryhas to be avoided. It is prohibited to use any type of electrical stimulation to coercethe animals. The use of any allopathic tranquilliser, prior to and during transport, isprohibited. You can use the loading and unloading from dark to light method,luring feed etc. Transport vehicle should be clean, and give enough protectionfrom wind, cold etc. During long transportation watering is necessary. All theserules are have to be kept during the transport to slaughter house as well, wherethe handling should provide reduced stress situation.Identification rules should be in harmony of general rules of previous regulations,so the animals and all the livestock products are to be identified at all stages oftheir production, preparation, transport and marketing. Animals have to get theirown distinct identification number as young as possible. Poultry do not have to beidentified individually but groupwise.The total amount of manure, applied on the holding may not exceed 170 kg ofnitrogen per year/hectare of total agricultural area used.Number of animals has to be in close connection with the size of the area wheremanure can be placed; in this way environment pollution can be avoided in a greatextent. Where necessary, the total stocking density was listed in the regulationshall be reduced to avoid exceeding the limit expressed above. This reduction canbe made because of:• soil characteristic• application of other nitrogen fertilisers to the land• the nitrogen supply to the crops from the soil• specific crop farming with lower nitrogen requirementor any other problems so the table is just a guideline with the maximum densityfigures.Total applicable density for animals was not listed in regulation shall be calculatedon the basis of their manure quantity and composition to avoid over manuringeffect. If the locally competent inspection or Authority body has own detailedregulation for those animals it has to be applied. This organisation can give stricterlimitation for the density, which has to be kept.However this rule states that the maximum number of chicken is 580 per ha andyear, which means you can have not more than 5800 chicken per ha and year, ifyou have only 10 hectares of your unit. But it is possible to establish cooperationwith other farms and enterprises, which comply with the provisions of organicregulations, therefore manure from organic production is needed but they do nothave their own livestock. In this case the maximum limit of 170 kg of nitrogen frommanure per ha and year of UAA, has to be calculated on the basis of all of theorganic-production units involved in this cooperation.Storage facilities for livestock manure must be of a capacity to prevent thepollution of water by direct discharge, or by run-off and infiltration of the soil. Thiscapacity shall be higher than the possible manure amount during the winter or any84

other insufficient period for application. The storage has to be built in a way toprevent nitrogen leaching using solid e.g. concrete or packed soil bottom andliquid collection system.Free range areas and livestock housing. General principles state, that rearinganimals have to be natural and pasture based or open. Housing has to be createto:• give protection on pasture (shelters)• give protection during bad climate condition periods (e.g. cold winter)• provide adequate circumstances for fattening for limited period, depending thespecies• provide safe circumstances at the end of pregnancy• protect young mammals at early life stage• protect poultry from predators (e.g. night)In any case housing conditions for livestock must meet the livestock's biologicaland ethological needs (e.g. appropriate freedom of movement and comfort). Forexample it is necessary to provide dry and direct sun protected littered area forcows to ruminate this area has to be wide enough to provide free place for eachcow.Housing (and free-range areas) must provide easy access to feeding andwatering. Construction has to provide insulation, heating and ventilation of thebuilding for:• faultless air circulation• reduced dust level• appropriate temperature• proper relative air humidity• natural gas concentrationThe building must not block natural ventilation and light to enter, so that nowindowhousing is not accepted.Free-range, open-air exercise areas, or open-air runs must, if necessary, providesufficient protection against rain, wind, sun and extreme temperatures, dependingon the local weather conditions and the breed concerned. These requirements canbe fulfilled by adequate number of trees, hedges or straw bale structures,temporary shelters etc. as well. Housing for livestock can be omitted in areas withappropriate climatic conditions to enable animals to live outdoors.85

Figure 22: open-air exercise areas for PigsStocking densities and the avoidance of over grazing - The stocking density inbuildings is well described in regulation. The table for each mentioned speciesgive figures so as to provide comfort and well being of the animals.86

Table 11: Extract of Annex VII of Reg. (EEC) No. 2092/91Maximum number of animals per haClass or speciesMaximum number of animals per haEquivalent to 170 Kg N/ha/yearEquines over six months old 2Calves for fattening 5Other bovine animals less than one year hold 5Male bovine animals from one to less than two years old 3,3Female bovine animals from one to less than two years old 3,3Male bovine animals two years old or over 2Breeding heifers 2,5Heifers for fattening 2,5Dairy cows 2Cull dairy cows 2Other cows 2,5Female breeding rabbits 100Ewes 13,3Goats 13,3Piglets 74Breeding sows 6,5Pigs for fattening 14Other pigs 14Table chickens 580Laying hens 23087

Table 12: Minimum surface areas indoors and outdoors and other characteristics of housing in the differentspecies and types of production (Extract Annex VIII Regulation EEC No. 2092/91).1. BOVINES, OVINE AND PIGSBreeding and fatteningbovine and equidaeIndoors area(net area available to animals)Live weight minimum(Kg)up to 100up to 200up to 350over 350M 2 /head1,52,54,05 with a minimum of1 m 2 /100 KgOutdoors area(exercise area,excluding pasturage)M 2 /head1,11,933,7 with a minimum of0,75 m 2 /100 KgDairy cows 6 4,5Bulls for breeding 10 30Sheep and goats1,5 sheep/goat0,35 lamb/kid2,52,5 with 0,5 perlamb/kidFarrowing sows withpiglets up to 40 days7,5 sow 2,5Fattening pigs up to 50up to 85up to 110Pigletsover 40 days and upto 30 kgBrood pigs0,81,11,30,60,810,6 0,42,5 female 1,96,0 male 8,02. POULTRYIndoors area(net area available to animals)No. animals/m 2 cmpearch/animalnestLaying hens 6 18 8 laying hensper nest or incase ofcommon nest120 m 2 /birdFattening poultry (infixed housing)Fattening poultry (inmobile housing)10 with amaximum of21 kg liveweight/m216(*) inmobile poultryhouses with amaximum of30 kg liveweight/m220 (forguinea fowlonly)Outdoors area(m 2 of area available inrotation/head)M 2 /head4, provided that thelimit of 170 kg ofN/ha/year is notexceeded4 broilers and guineafowl4,5 ducks10 turkey15 geeseIn all the speciesmentioned above thelimit of 170 kg ofN/ha/year is notexceeded2,5, provided that thelimit of 170 kg ofN/ha/year is notexceeded(*) Only in the case of mobile houses not exceeding 150 m2 floor space which remain open at night.88

All these limitations depend not only on the species but the breed and the age ofthe animals as well. Buildings have to provide outlet to open air runs. The existingconstruction has to be reconstructed to ensure this requirement when it isnecessary. The optimum density can provide the requested animals' welfare whenit provides:• sufficient space to stand naturally• lie down easily• turn round• groom themselves• assume all natural postures• make all natural movements such as stretching and wing flapping.The minimum surface areas for indoor housing and outdoor exercise areas, andother characteristics of housing for different species and categories of animals, arelaid down in regulation.Regulation of animal management - The stocking density on any open areasmust be low enough to prevent poaching of the soil and over grazing ofvegetation. This rule has to be applied to exercise areas and runs as well.Prevention is essential in health conditions. To fulfil this requirement all thehousing, and equipments must be accurately cleaned and disinfected to preventcross-infection and the build-up of disease carrying organisms. Only the productslisted in regulation can be used for such cleaning and disinfection of livestockbuildings and installations. Faeces, urine and uneaten or spilt food must beremoved as often as necessary to minimise smell and to avoid attracting insects orrodents. Only the products listed in regulation can be used for the eradication ofinsects and other pests in buildings and other installations where livestock is kept.However you can get detailed lists of promoted products approved by localinspection bodies called white list you always have to keep the philosophy of theregulation.• Mammals - General rules state the need of mammals to get easily to pastureor an open-air exercise area or an open-air run. It may be partially covered,and livestock must be able to use those areas whenever the physiologicalcondition of the animal, the weather conditions and the state of the groundpermit. Animals can keep away from pasture when competent authority Bodyhas local regulations relating to specific animal health problems. Herbivoresmust have access to pasture whenever conditions allow. This rule has also tobe applied to bulls over one year old. They must have access to pasture or anopen-air exercise area or an open-air run when it is possible safely. In caseswhere herbivores have access to pasture during the grazing period and thewinter-housing system gives sufficient freedom to the animals, they can bekept in-door. Special life stages e.g. pregnancy or at the final fattening phaseof cattle, pigs and sheep for meat production may take place indoors. Duringthis time the housing has to provide all necessary demands of livestock and itmust not be longer than one fifth of their lifetime and in any case for amaximum period of three months. Where the climate conditions and breedcharacteristic allow and there are not any health risks all above mentionedspecies can reared out-door till the end of fattening. Livestock housing musthave smooth, but not slippery floors. At least half of the total floor area must be89

solid, that is, not of slatted or of grid construction. Metal wire constructions orcages are not allowed. The laying or rest area must provide sufficient size onsolid construction part, which is not slatted, comfortable, clean and dry mainlyby littering. The litter must comprise straw or other suitable natural material.The litter may be improved and enriched with any mineral product authorisedfor use as a fertiliser in organic farming in accordance with organic regulations.The housing of calves in individual boxes is forbidden after the age of oneweek. Small groups have to be created providing necessary weather protectionand open area for each by buildings/shelters. Sows must be kept in groups,except in the last stages of pregnancy and during the suckling period buttogether with own piglets. Where the local conditions (e.g. climate, breed) allowsows and piglets can be kept in groups on pasture. Piglets may not be kept onflat decks or in piglet cages. Exercise areas must permit dunging and rootingby the animals. For the purposes of rooting different substrates can be used.• Poultry - General rules state that poultry must be reared in open-rangeconditions and cannot be kept in cages. Water fowl species must have accessto stream, natural or built pond or lake whenever the weather conditions permitin order to respect animal welfare requirements or hygienic conditions. Poultrycan be reared in housing but with the following minimum conditions:• at least one-third of the floor shall be solid, i.e. not of slatted or of gridconstruction, and covered with a litter material such as straw, woodshavings, sand or turf;• in poultry houses for laying hens, a sufficiently large part of the floor areaavailable to the hens must be available for the collection of bird droppings;• perches of a size and number commensurate with the size of the group andof the birds as laid down in regulation;• exit/entry pop-holes of a size adequate for the birds, and these pop-holesmust have a combined length of at least 4 m/100 m² of the house available tothe birds;• each poultry house has limited size to keep the animals in it; see the detailsin regulation.The total usable area of poultry houses for meat production on any singleproduction unit, must not exceed 1600 m². Laying intensity cannot beimproved by permanent or extreme light programme. However in the case oflaying hens natural light may be supplemented by artificial means to provide amaximum of 16 hours light per day with a continuous nocturnal rest periodwithout artificial light of at least eight hours. Poultry must have access to anopen-air run whenever the weather conditions permit and, whenever possiblemust have such access for at least one third of their life. These open-air runsmust be mainly covered with vegetation be provided with protective facilities,and permit animals to have easy access to adequate numbers of drinking andfeeding troughs. Large runs without trees or other protecting facilities cannotgive enough safety for poultry, so they will over graze and manure the areasclose to buildings, where the available free room cannot provide to behavenatural unstressed.90

Figure 22: example of open-air runFor health reasons, buildings must be totally emptied of livestock betweeneach batch of poultry reared. The buildings and fittings are to be cleaned anddisinfected during this time. In addition, when the rearing of each batch ofpoultry has been completed, runs must be left empty to allow vegetation togrow back, and for health reasons. Soil tillage is allowed to prepare runs forsowing where it is necessary to establish new grass based vegetation. Theserequirements shall not apply to small numbers of poultry which are not kept inruns and which are free to roam, throughout the day.General derogation on the housing of livestockBuildings were constructed before 24 August 1999 may exceed the stockingdensity limitations laid down in regulation. Authority or inspection bodies cangive permission till 31 December 2010 when applied for if the housing fulfilledthe previous requirements of inspection. In any other cases density has to bereduced to limitations or the buildings has to reconstruct. The farmer has topresent a plan to the inspection authority or body and describe the way thehousing will be rebuilt to fulfil the regulation requirements till 31 December2010.Animal welfare and veterinary treatmentAnimal-health management should mainly be based on prevention, by measuressuch as:• appropriate selection of breeds and strains;• balanced high-quality diet;• favourable environment;• regards rearing density;• livestock housing;• husbandry practices.91

The preventive use of chemically-synthetisised allopathic medicinal products is notpermitted in organic farming.Disease prevention in organic livestock production should be based on thefollowing principles:• selection of appropriate breeds or strains of animals adapted to localconditions, usually autochthonous races;• application of animal husbandry practices appropriate to species requirements,encouraging strong resistance to disease and the prevention of infections.Typically this means open-air rearing as much as possible;• use of high quality feed together with regular exercise and access to pasture,with the effect of encouraging the animal’s natural immunological ;• ensuring an appropriate density of livestock, thus avoiding overstocking andany resulting animal health problems, usually by reducing stress.If, despite all of the above mentioned preventive measures, an animal becomessick or injured, it must be treated immediately, if necessary in isolation, and insuitable housing.Treatment must be as natural as possible, but the main principle is to heal theinjured animal completely without suffering. The use of medicinal products inorganic farming shall comply with the following principles:• any products may used if listed in regulation, unlisted products are not allowed;• use phytotherapeutic, homeopathic products or trace elements listed inregulation, rather than chemically-synthesised allopathic medicinal products orantibiotics, if effective for the given species and treatable condition;• if the aforementioned products are ineffective, and treatment is necessary toalleviate stress in the animal or as life-saving measure, chemically-synthesisedallopathic veterinary medicinal products or antibiotics may be used;• any use of synthesized medical product must be ordered by a veterinarian,whose inspection of treatment is necessary;• use of chemically synthesised allopathic medicinal products or antibiotics forpreventive treatments is prohibited;• use of substances to stimulate growth or production is prohibited (includingantibiotics, coccidiostatics and other artificial aids);• any use of hormones or similar substances to control reproduction (e.g.induction or synchronisation of oestrus), or for other purposes, is prohibited,but hormones may be used to an individual animal, as a form of therapeutictreatment with the aforementioned conditions;• all compulsory veterinary treatments must be done if the unit is located in adiseased area. When a disease has been recognised use of immunologicalveterinary products must also be authorised.Whenever veterinary medicinal products are used strict documentation has to beprovided as follows:• type of product (including an indication of active pharmacological substancesinvolved);• detailed diagnosis;• posology;• method of administration;• duration of the treatment;• legal withdrawal period.92

All this information must be declared to the inspection body before the livestock orlivestock products are marketed as organically produced. Treated Livestock mustbe clearly identified, individually in the case of large animals; individually or bybatch, in poultry and small animals.The withdrawal period between the last administration of an allopathic productunder normal conditions of use and the production of organically producedfoodstuffs from such animals must be 48 hours or twice the legal withdrawalperiod.The livestock must restart its conversion period if more than two courses of anyallopathic treatment (except the compulsory vaccinations or treatments mentionedbefore) have been administered within a year. The same consequence resultsafter more than one course of treatment if the productive life of the given animal orgroup is less than twelve months.Animal healthPrevention is the most important aspect of veterinary work. Animals living onorganic farms in optimum conditions have strong immune systems and, while therules of hygiene and protection against epizootics are adhered to, these animalsare not prone to illness, resulting in infrequent occurrence of disease. A generalrule in organic farming is that animals and their environment should only beprotected against strictly pathogenic agents; in facultative pathogenic agents, abalanced relation between agent and host animal must be fostered. To emphasizeagain: all routine treatments are forbidden along with all therapeutic materials thataccumulate in the organism. In the area of activities related to animal health,become familiar with the diseases that most frequently appear in the givenconditions and develop an effective prevention strategy (e.g. grazing schedule,restructuring of stables and yards). A population free of infectious disease shouldbe striven for. If any sign of illness in an animal is noted, the animal must beisolated. If these methods do not prove to be successful antibiotic treatments orsurgical interventions are allowed to save the life of the animal. In antibiotictherapy, double the prescribed period of delay.Cosmetic operations and various mutilations/amputations are forbidden in organicanimal husbandry. Some interventions are allowed for safety reasons (e.g. pollingof young animals) or to contribute to animals’ well-being, temperament or hygiene.According to the regulations in force, castration is also allowed, enabling theproduction of some conventional products (e.g. meat-type pig, ox, capon). Theseinterventions should be done by a skilled professional, in the way least torturousfor the animals.During transport one should take care to reduce the stress to a minimum inaccordance with animal protection acts. No electronic devices are allowed whendriving animals to and from the means of transport. Allopathic sedatives are strictlyforbidden before or during transportation.93

Figure 23: relaxed moment for Buffalos in organic farm“Alternative therapies” refers to methods not (or rarely) used in modern Westernmedicine. A lexicon published in Switzerland contains a partial list of some 278alternative therapies. It should be noted, however, that no scientific proof for theefficacy of the majority exists. Alternative therapies have gained popularity inhuman medicine in recent years and more and more “thinking differently” hasappeared among veterinarians as well. Main reasons include the virtual nonexistenceof secondary effects and delay; no chemicals accumulate within theorganism; and treatments are environment- and resource-friendly.− Acupuncture. Currently, this therapy of Chinese origin more than onethousand years old is mainly used with small animals, but the number of goodpractice examples in healing large animals is also increasing. The first reliablesource mentioning acupuncture treatment for animals goes back toapproximately 900 BC in China, reaching Europe and America only in the lastcentury. The word “acupuncture” is of Latin origin (acus meaning “needle” andpungere meaning “stitch”) and refers to stimulus-therapeutic prevention andhealing therapy. Stimulation of pressure points in the body can be done byneedles, heat, laser, electricity or injection of salt solution. According totraditional Chinese medicine theory, the living organism is an open energeticsystem in which the loss of energy leads to disease. A disease is a result ofimbalance in the organism; the aim of treatment is to reestablish this balance.Many people worldwide have dealt with the physiological and pharmacologicaleffects of the therapy and treatments. More and more prove that there aremore filaments at these points, electronic resistance of the skin is greater, andits CO 2 dissemination is more intensive. Acupuncture is mostly used foranesthetic purposes. Numerous literary data is available about successfulveterinary treatments in case of allergies, epilepsy, cartilage problems, colic inhorses, bovine reproductive difficulties, mastitis, prevention of diarrheicdiseases in pigs and brooding problems in hens. Acupuncture cannot beapplied in case of infectious disease or in cases requiring surgical intervention.− Phytotherapy. The use of herbs in medical therapy goes back to prehistorictimes. Knowledge regarding herbs has continuously grown over time. They areknown as medicaments, as raw materials in pharmaceuticals and tea. Though94

the herbs are not used as magic potions, they contain valuable agents that canheal effectively if used properly. In addition to the wild plants, there arecultivated ones as well. Commerce and science refers to the collected anddried parts of herbs that contain agents as drugs. Numerous drugs maycontain agents with different but not contradictory effects, so a single drug maybe used in case of more diseases. Among the most well-known agents,alkaloids are compounds of alkaline reaction containing nitrogen that can befound in herbs in the form of salt. We know alkaloids of sedative, anestheticand stimulating effect, e.g. ergot of rye (Claviceps purpurea), henbane leaf(Hyoscyamus niger), cocoa seed, coffee seed, opium poppy, belladonna root.Crystal compounds that contain sugar but no nitrogen are glycosides. Theyhave effects on the heart, function as laxatives, expectorants and diuretics, e.g.mistletoe (Viscum album), rhubarb root, ginseng root, linden flower, springrestharrow (Ononis spinosa). Saponins are also glycoside-like substances thatenhance phlegm production, secretion of the respiratory tract, the stomach andthe bowels helping the absorption of other agents, e.g. liquorice, annualmercury, thornapple, marigold, soapwort, chickweed. Bitter essences, e.g.milfoil, common centaury, dandelion, wild chicory, are organic compoundseffective as appetizers, laxatives, affecting liver and bile. Teas made of drugscontaining tannic acid, e.g. burdock, cherry leaf, nut-tree leaf, chestnut-treeleaf, common comfrey stem and leaf, are used to heal the stomach andintestinal catarrhs, bleeding inflammation of the bowels, scouring, wet-packingand fomenting inflamed mucous membranes. Ethereal or aromatic oils, e.g.anise, bay leaf, peppermint, lemon balm, fennel, chamomile, valerian,rosemary, are fluids of characteristic odour produced by steam distillation thathave healing powers (e.g. appetizer, diuretic, vermifugal) and bactericideeffect. Many researchers are examining the effects of fodder supplements andyield stimulators made on the basis of natural agents such as herbs andethereal oils. Such products are successfully applied with more animal speciestoday. The aim of these research programmes is to reduce the application ofsynthetic products and finally eliminate them fully form the veterinary practice.These alternative solutions improve meat quality, as it can be producedcontaining no drug residues, higher water-bearing capacity, moreadvantageous protein-fat ratio and superior taste.− Ayurvedic therapy (ayush meaning “life,” veda meaning “knowledge”). Thismethod has a 5000-year past in India, going back to Vedic traditions andserving as a basis for numerous therapies that have emerged in the course oftime. Combining ancient wisdom and modern scientific achievement, herbalimmune regulators have attracted the attention of scientists for severaldecades worldwide. Immunity regulation is an activity comprising moredisciplines wherein ayurvedic therapy has opened new perspectives.International scientific journals speak of about 65 natural herbal immuneregulators, 36 from India. Products made of these herbs provide new,alternative possibilities for strengthening the immunity of animals. Ayurvedahas dealt with veterinary therapies for more then one hundred years using theherbs and minerals of India. Success has been proven in healing certainchronic diseases of the metabolism, lack of immunity, skin diseases andallergies. The products, recommended above all for poultry in order to preventcommon diseases resulting form the keeping technology, are available inHungary as well. They strengthen the immune system, reduce stress in case ofvaccination, medical treatments, weather changes, transportation, assist in95

ecovery after illness and improve feed conversion rate. An anti-toxic liverprotecting formula also exists. Experiments proved the effectiveness of theproducts as natural hatching and growth stimulators in laying hens andbroilers.− Lactic acid producing bacteria. Organic veterinary care esteems thoseprobiotics containing reproductive bacteria which produce lactic acid. It isknown that with larger animal populations, the most frequently emergingdiseases are those of the digestive tract wherein proliferation ofenteropathogens – either after antibiotic treatment or due to weakenedimmunity – causes inflammation of intestines or death. Most lactic acid bacteriahave a bio-regulating quality, i.e. they are able to maintain the balance in thebowels, as through acidification they prevent the proliferation of pathogens andare able to quickly reestablish balance.− Homeopathy is a word compound of Greek origin (homois meaning “alike,”pathos meaning “suffering”). Theory and practice of homeopathic therapy weresystematized by Hahnemann at the beginning of the nineteenth century.During therapy, the agent is administered in a solution prepared bypotentialization with makes the healthy organism react with symptoms similarto those of the ill patient. Its essence is in the smooth recovery of theorganism’s disturbed biological equilibrium by activating protectivemechanisms contrarily to modern allopathic treatments that focus on thesymptoms or on causes that might lead to the appearance of symptoms. Inmedicine, in a wider sense, homeopathy could be applied as supplementarytherapy, as the healing information that homeopathic medicines carry is onlyable to regulate the organism’s improper or disturbed functioning if unhinderedby a mechanical obstacle, i.e. organs are able to function and the organism isvital enough to react to the homeopathic agent. Homeopathy includes morethan 2000 basic healing substances. Most are herbal agents, while some aremineral or animal products. In the process of potentialization, the dynamicinformation contained in the substance becomes activated, as homeopathicmedicines are substances that store information. This information can betransmitted to the organism through potentialization. The healing effect ishence not the quality of the substance itself but of the specific energy releasedin the process of shaking. 80-90% of diseases in the veterinary practice can becured with homeopathic methods, and the number of trained veterinarians whoemploy it is gradually growing. Homeopathic therapy can be used in ecologicalfarming as well and beyond the treatment of individual animals, can beextended to the entire population. In this case, the population is treated as asingle unit to provide a basis for finding the proper medicine corresponding tothe symptoms.− Physiotherapy. Just as in human medicine, physiotherapy has been acceptedin veterinary practice for some time, on a surgeon’s recommendation for bothlarge and small animals. Many people expect results in physiotherapy onlyfrom the application of “wondrous machines,” but specialists clearly emphasizethat various treatments with various devices give satisfactory therapeuticresults only if applied together as supplementary or post-treatment with activerehabilitation training, i.e. controlled muscle exercises. Physiotherapy isrecommended mainly in muscle or skeletal disorders. These may be injuries oftraumatic origin in the muscles, joints, spina, ilium and other bones (e.g.bruises, sprains, fractures, strains, ruptures, cramps, partial or total paralyses96

esulting from nervous disorder). It can also be effective in curing wounds,abscesses, haematomas and edemas. Depending on the sort of functionaldisorder, different therapeutic methods are suggested in ecological farming,including heat therapy, compression therapy, ultrasound therapy (i.e. highsound frequency and mechanical vibration), massage and passive moving.Numerous techniques exist, though the effects are similar. Various mechanicaleffects lead to biochemical changes in cells and tissues. General effects ofphysiotherapeutic treatments include enhancement of blood and lymphcirculation; stimulation of intracellular and tissue metabolism (as vasodilators orvasoconstrictors if needed); analgesic effects; enhancement of the healing ofedemas, haeamtomas and fibrin; reduction in the healing time. Application isregularly recommended after surgical intervention. The efficacy of thetreatment can be strengthened by the application of various creams,embrocations or packs made of herbs or algae. Physiotherapy is notrecommended for seriously weakened organisms and in cases of acuteinfectious disease. Some treatments cannot be applied to animals with young.97

3.4.c. Food preservation and processingAccording to the Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91, the preparation of an organicproduct is defined as: all types of operations for conservation and/ortransformation done to organic products (including slaughtering and cutting ofanimal products) as well as the conditioning and alterations related to theecological production presentation introduced in fresh, conserved and/ortransformed food labels.Community rules strike a balance between consumer demand for products thatare as natural as possible, the need for a sufficiently wide choice of foodpresented under the “organic” label and the technological constraints ofprocessing. Consequently, while Regulation (EEC) No. 2092/91 does not totallyexclude ingredients of non-agricultural origin (food additives, flavourings, waterand salt, micro-organism preparations and minerals), it strictly limits their use; thesame applies to processing aids essential to the preparation of foodstuffs fromagricultural products of organic origin.Figure 24: the organic production of mozzarella cheese foresees a relevant use of water.98

Parts A and B of Annex VI to Regulation contain lists of the substances authorisedin the processing of organic products. In addiction to these restrictions, Article 5prohibits the use of genetically modified organisms and treatments involving theuse of ionising radiation. Moreover, in order to prevent fraud, an ingredientobtained according to organic methods may not be present together with the sameingredient obtained according to conventional methods.In this chapter some processes used to conserve this kind of food according tocommunity rules will be explained.• Cooling methods. All that can be obtained by the correct use of coolingtechniques has its basis in three main principles:1. Use in high-quality products because its use won’t improve deficient rawmaterial;2. Use as quickly as possible, because avoiding decomposition of products isimportant;3. Leave the process uninterrupted until the product’s ultimate use.• Refrigeration means keeping food at low temperatures, but higher than thefreezing point. Refrigeration takes place in a single step concerning the initialcooling of food and its maintenance. Products stay in these conditions during alength of time shorter or longer depending on the food’s characteristic. Thisprocess is used as a mean of basic or temporary conservation method untilanother conservation method can be applied. The advantages of this methodare interrelated with the minimization of the adverse effects on taste, on itstexture and nutritive properties; refrigeration also delays chemical andenzymatic reactions and reduces the microbial growth rhythm.• Freezing consists of placing food below the freezing point. As opposed tocooling, the freezing of water in food is done by units and these units differfrom those that conserve food during freezing. The freezing of food is done intwo steps: the freezing process and the subsequent maintenance stage. Thispoint is linked with several factors, for instance, the fact that the energy neededfor the conversion of water to ice is higher than maintaining product in thecooling stage. The short period of time required makes freezing convenient.Freezing becomes an efficient method when used to control decomposition.On the other hand, freezing can bring undesirable modifications to some food.Fruit and vegetables, for example, take on a different texture in thawing as aresult of the death of some tissues. However, some products tolerate freezingperfectly: Meat reveals less modification and sometimes does not differ fromfresh when given adequate freezing, storage and thawing.• Heat treatments. This technique is based on the use of temperature to stopthe development of microorganisms. The application of heat in food has theability to destroy the microbial flora but can also influence food quality in anegative way, and organoleptical modifications such as changes in colour andtaste may occur. Of fundamental importance is detailed knowledge about thethermal resistance of microorganisms and sensitivity of food to heat. Bearingthis information in mind, it becomes possible to establish values to the binomialtime/temperature to optimise the efficacy of the applied treatment. The use ofcontrolled heat treatment in food should be adjusted to the variety of products,to obtain good results and minimize undesirable effects.99

• Blanching: fruit or vegetables are dipped into boiling water or treated withvapour for short time. Food should be cooled immediately thereafter to avoidmodification of tissues and loss of quality. Usually this thermal procedure isapplied to fruit and vegetables before freezing. The primary aims ofdehydration and canning are the removal of gases from tissues, enzymaticinactivation, the external disinfection of food, colour fixation and the preheatingof food for subsequent stages of conservation.• Pasteurisation is a thermal method that destroys part of microorganisms infoodstuff, eliminating vegetative forms but not spore forms. The requiredapparatuses are named pasteurizers. Pasteurized food has limited viability andshould be combined with other methods, such as cooling to inhibit the growthof living microorganisms or hermetic packaging to avoid recontamination.Using this processing method, the extrinsic and intrinsic characteristics of foodwill be almost sealed; thus the preservation of taste, colour, nutrition andtexture is assured. The end product can be appreciated by consumers inbasically its natural conditions but will have a short period of consumption.• Sterilization: food is subjected to high temperatures aiming at the destructionof all microorganisms within, including all methods of resistance (for thermalresistantspores) and enzymes to assure conservation. Food submitted to thisthermal processing method should be heated in hermetically sealedreceptacles. The apparatuses used to carry out this process are namedsterilizers. Sterilized food can be stored for long periods of time at roomtemperature. This processing method produces effects on food quality,normally reducing nutritive values and changing organoleptical characteristics.• Drying refers to the removal of available water inside food. During food dryingwater is taken to the exterior, where water extraction simultaneously occurs.Through this method microorganisms are unable to develop and multiply, as nowater is available for them, trapped as it is inside the food in solute form andpart of the inner cell’s structure. Drying is a complex process of transference ofheat and mass that depends on external variables such as temperature,humidity, velocity of draughts and variables related to the specific food we wantto dry such as exterior characteristics, structure, chemical composition, weightand shape. The main purpose of air in this process is the transference of heatto food, causing vaporization of water. At the same time, air acts as a means oftransport for water vapour released from the product undergoing the dryingprocess.• Acidification: aims at avoiding the development of microorganismsresponsible for food decomposition. This conservation method is based on thepower of microbial fermentation, which has its basis in the pH decrease, andcan be done in a natural or an artificial way. Microorganisms used infermentation processes are generally yeasts or bacteria. They should be ableto develop quickly, producing enzymes that will be essential to chemicalmechanisms. Several types of fermentation are used but most important arethe alcoholic, lactic and acetic methods. If food is conserved with acid, acetic,lactic, citric or propionic acid can be used.• Sugar and salt usages. These chemical processing methods are based onthe water in the available product through the addition of sugar or salt. Addingsugar retains water, increases osmotic pressure, and slows microbial growth,but does not destroy microorganisms. Salt has the following functions:100

Dehydration, in which because of the osmotic pressure is caused, and thewater in food is released; conservation; and regulation of the fermentationprocess. Salt is also a mineral required by humans. The use of salt can bedone by using layers of salt alternated with layers of food. A second use iscalled brining, wherein food is immersed in a saline solution and the salt isabsorbed by the food.• Packaging of food has several functions during the product’s life-cycle: Itoffers protection from damage that may occur during transportation, storageand handling in stores or at the site of consumption. Packaging should delay oravoid the decomposition of food due to interaction with oxygen; it should alsoprotect food from light and microorganisms. Packaging should assure food’scomposition, nutritive value and microbial quality, allowing conservation andreducing nutritive loss during handling and transportation. Packaging allowsaccess in all seasons of the year to products that can come from different partsof the world. Packaging should be compatible with the product, assuring itsintegrity while not adding any sort of taste, aroma or toxic soluble substances.Packaging should carry information, giving the consumer through labeling theinformation about the product, its conservation and conditions of use. It shouldallow use of the product in a functional way without loss. On the other hand,packaging should be as light as possible in order to avoid wasting raw materialor energy and should also be recoverable, recyclable and reusable. Whenselecting a kind of package, bear in mind the food’s sensitivity, thecharacteristics of packaging material and the time of commercialisation.101

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MINI-DICTIONARY OF ORGANIC AGRICULTUREAACUPUNCTURE, therapy of Chinese origin, used in organic agriculture for veterinarytreatments in case of allergies, cartilage problems, colic in horses, bovine reproductivedifficulties, mastitis, prevention of diarrheic diseases in pigs and brooding problems inhens.AGROECOLOGY, study of the interrelationships of living organisms with each otherand with their environment in an agricultural system.AGRO-ECOSYSTEM, a dynamic association of crops, pastures, livestock, other floraand fauna, atmosphere, soils, and water. Agro-ecosystems are contained within largerlandscapes that include uncultivated land, drainage networks, rural communities, andwildlife.AUDIT is a systematic and functionally independent examination to determine whetheractivities and related results comply with planned objectives.AYURVEDIC THERAPY, utilization of products made of natural herbs and minerals forstrengthening the immunity of animals.AZADIRACHTIN, is extracted from the Asiatic tree Azadirachta indica, or “Neem tree”,is used as an insecticide.BBACILLUS THURINGIENSIS, in organic farming, it is the most widely used bacterialpreparation (active against many species of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera mosquitoes, etc.).BIO-DYNAMIC FARMING, Based on a series of lectures given by Austrian philosopherRudolf Steiner in 1924, Bio-dynamics is a method of agriculture which seeks to activelywork with the health-giving forces of nature. It is the oldest non-chemical agriculturalmovement, predating the organic agriculture movement by some twenty years and hasnow spread throughout the world.BIODIVERSITY, agricultural biodiversity encompasses the variety and variability ofanimals, plants and microorganisms necessary to sustain key functions of the agroecosystem,its structure, processes of, and support of food production and foodsecurity (FAO definition).BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY, is an important indicator of the decomposition of soil organicmatter within the soil. High biological activity promotes metabolism between soil andplants and is an essential part of sustainable plant production and fertilizermanagement.BIOLOGICAL CONTROL, uses “natural enemies” to maintain phytophagous pests’populations within acceptable limits and, consequently, increase the number of speciesin the agro-ecosystem, which becomes more complex and stable. All animals or plantshave natural enemies (predators, parasites, pathogens or competitors), which help103

prevent their uncontrolled proliferation. Natural populations of predators (e.g. ladybeetles, lace-wings, syrphid flies, preying mantids, wasps, predaceous mites) andparasites (e.g. tachinid flies, nematodes) are valuable in reducing infestations of pests.Usually, however, some level of pest infestation must be tolerated to attract andmaintain natural enemy populations.BIO-TOWNS, Network of public Administrations that have already invested in policiessupporting organic (www.cittadelbio.it).BSE, Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy.BUFFER ZONE, a clearly defined and identifiable boundary area bordering an organicproduction site that is established to limit application of, or contact with, prohibitedsubstances from an adjacent area (IFOAM definition).CCAP, Common Agricultural Policy.CERTIFICATION BODY, is the body that conducts organic control and certification.COMPOSTING, on-farm recycling of biomass. During composting raw organicmaterials are transformed into large-molecule humus matter.CONSERVATION TILLAGE is a term that covers a broad range of soil tillage systemsthat leave residue cover on the soil surface, substantially reducing the effects of soilerosion from wind and water. These practices minimize nutrient loss, decreased waterstorage capacity, crop damage, and decreased farmability.CONTAMINATION, pollution of organic product or land; or contact with any materialthat would render the product unsuitable for organic certification (IFOAM definition).CONVENTIONAL AGRICULTURE, an industrialized agricultural system characterizedby mechanization, monocultures, and the use of synthetic inputs such as chemicalfertilizers and pesticides, with an emphasis on maximizing productivity and profitability.Industrialized agriculture has become “conventional” only within the last 60 or so years(since World War II).CONVERSION PERIOD, the Community rules governing organic farming requires anyfarm wishing to adopt organic methods to comply with a conversion phase of two yearsfor annual herbaceous crops and a three years for perennial crops.COVER CROPS, consists in planting a crop, not necessarily for harvesting it, duringthe months when the soil usually remains bare. In this way, the proliferation anddissemination of the weed is impeded.DDECOMPOSERS, organisms that feed primarily on dead organic material, breaking itdown into humus.DIDACTIC FARM, farm offering educational activities to school children or other group.E104

ECOSYSTEM, is a natural system that is formed by dynamic interactions betweenbiotic and non-biotic elements in a defined area. Biotic elements include plants, insects(pests, natural enemies, decomposers), microbes and other living organisms, and nonbioticelements comprise weather components such as temperature, relative humidity,wind, sunshine, rain and soil.ENERGY BALANCE OF THE FARM, analysis of the consumption of energyand its effectiveness in order to evaluate its impact on climate change (i.e.emission of greenhouse gases) and to reduce consumption of fossil fuel. ENTOMOPHAGOUS INSECTS, are the major agents used in biologicalcontrol. They are classed as either predators or parasitoids, each withcompletely different characteristics, which contribute to their effectiveness asbiological control agents. Predators are organisms which attack and feed on anumber of individuals of the pest. Some of them are predators during theirentire life cycle (phytoseids, mirids, coccinelids, antocorids), while others onlyin the larval stage. Parasitoids are parasitic during their immature stages, whenthe larvae develop within (endoparasite) or on (ectoparasite) their host. As aresult the host is killed. EROSION, soil erosion by wind and water is a world problem (Pimental, 1995).It is assumed that erosion is the main cause of soil degradation around theworld (Oldeman, 1994). The effect of soil erosion occur on eroded fields (onsiteeffects: loss of fertile topsoil, changes soil water dynamics, nutrient status,soil organic matter characteristics, soil organisms and soil depth) anddownstream (off-site effects: undesired nutrient, pesticide and sediment inputsto surface waters). Organic farming systems are characterized by a lower soilerosion than conventional farming systems.FFAIR TRADE, trading partnership, based on equity, dialogue, transparency andrespect.FARMYARD MANURE, consists of solid and fluid animal excreta and beddingmaterial.FODDER CROPS, Includes alfalfa, barley, clover, corn and sorghum and any othercrops in which the whole plant is used to feed cattle, sheep and other ruminants.FLAME WEEDING, it is a weed control method; the exposure of wild plants to hightemperature provokes a thermal choc in the vegetable tissues and an irreversibledeterioration of the functionality of the plant, which dies within two-three days. Themost frequently used equipments are the free-flame ones, LGP fueled.GGENETIC ENGINEERING is a set of techniques from molecular biology (such asrecombinant DNA) by which the genetic material of plants, animals, micro-organisms,cells and other biological units are altered in ways or with results that could not beobtained by methods of natural mating and reproduction or natural recombination.Techniques of genetic modification include, but are not limited to: recombinant DNA,cell fusion, micro and macro injection, encapsulation, gene deletion and doubling.105

Genetically engineered organisms do not include organisms resulting from techniquessuch as conjugation, transduction and natural hybridization (IFOAM definition).GRANULOSIS VIRUS, is used against the Cydia pomonella of apples and seems to beeffective also against some other Lepidoptera. Field of application: apple, pear andwalnut trees.GREEN-MANURING, practice consists of sowing seeds of a single species or ofmixtures of herbaceous species, without aiming on the collection of the products, buton the incorporation of the green biomass into the soil.GMO, genetically modified/engineered organism.HHACCP (Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points) is the systematic application ofgood practice to the prevention of food safety problems and hence production of safefood.HOLISTIC MANAGEMENT is a decision-making process that enables people to makedecisions that satisfy immediate needs without jeopardizing their future well-being, orthe well-being of future generations. This decision-making process helps peopleidentify their most deeply held values which helps to create clarity in vision andcommitment in action. Using that vision to help them create a long-term picture towardwhich they will progress, people can then use a simple testing process to ensure thatthe decisions they make will be economically, environmentally, and sociallysustainable.HOMEOPATHY, therapy systematized by Hahnemann at the beginning of thenineteenth century, its essence is in the smooth recovery of the organism ‘s disturbedbiological equilibriumby activating protective mechanisms.HUMUS, Well-decomposed organic matter which is resistant to further decompositionand which may persist for hundreds of years. Humus holds on to some nutrients,storing them for slow release to plants.IIFOAM, International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements.INTERCROPPING, the growth of two or more crops in proximity in the same field.ISEAL, International Social and Environmental Accreditation and Labelling Alliance,supports credible standards and conformity assessment by developing capacitybuilding tools to strengthen members’ activities and by promoting credible voluntarysocial and environmental certification as a legitimate policy instrument in global tradeand development.ISOFAR, The International Society of Organic Agriculture Research, promotes andsupports research in all areas of Organic Agriculture.L106

LIME SULPHUR (CALCIUM POLYSULPHIDE) is used as an insecticide andfungicide. Crop protection: against oidium, peach blister canker and other diseases.Field of application: Citrus, peach, apple, pear, apricot, cherry, grapevine and olivetree.LOGO, Regulation (EC) No. 331/2000 established the European logo for organicproductions.LOW INPUT FARMING SYSTEMS seek to optimize the management and use ofinternal production inputs (i.e. on-farm resources)... and to minimize the use ofproduction inputs (i.e. off-farm resources), such as purchased fertilizers and pesticides,wherever and whenever feasible and practicable, to lower production costs, to avoidpollution of surface and groundwater, to reduce pesticide residues in food, to reduce afarmer's overall risk, and to increase both short- and long-term farm profitability.LU, Livestock Unit.MMINERAL OILS act essentially through asphyxia, suffocating the insects and theireggs. They are also active as repellents for feeding or egg deposition. Mineral oils areactive through direct contact mostly against small insects, such as Diaspididae,Coccidae , aphids, psylla and mites. They can be active against oidium and weeds(due to their phytotoxicity). Field of application: fruit trees, horticulture, ornamentalplants and nursery.MULCHING, the practice of spreading organic materials - such as straw, compost, orwood chips - over otherwise bare soil between and among crop plants. Mulching helpsto conserve moisture, suppress weeds, and build soil organic matter.MULTIFUNCTIONALITY. Mid-Term Review (MTR) has deeply changed CommonAgricultural Policy. The "Fischler reform" is inserted on the so-called EuropeanAgricultural Model, whose nature can be effectively synthesized by Multifunctionality:the series of contributions that the agricultural sector can bring to the community'seconomic, environmental and social welfare (as a matter of fact, this principles consistsin supporting rural holiday activities, didactic farms, environmental enhancement …).NNATURAL FARMING reflects the experiences and philosophy of Japanese farmerMasanobu Fukuoka. His books The One-Straw Revolution: An Introduction to NaturalFarming (Emmaus: Rodale Press, 1978) and The Natural Way of Farming: The Theoryand Practice of Green Philosophy (Tokyo; New York: Japan Publications, 1985)describe what he calls "do-nothing farming" and a lifetime of nature study. His farmingmethod involves no tillage, no fertilizer, no pesticides, no weeding, no pruning, andremarkably little labor. He accomplishes all this (and high yields) by careful timing of hisseeding and careful combinations of plants (polyculture). In short, Fukuoka has broughtthe practical art of working with nature to a high level of refinement.OORGANIC AGRICULTURE, “… is a holistic production management system whichpromotes and enhances agro-ecosystem health, including biodiversity, biologicalcycles and soil biological activity, the organic production methods emphasize the use of107

management practices in preference to the use of off-farm inputs, taking into accountthat regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This is accomplished byusing, where possible, agronomic, biological and mechanical methods, as opposed tousing synthetic materials, to fulfil any specific function within the system." (Definition ofthe Codex Alimentarius).PPARALLEL PRODUCTION, any production where the same unit is growing, breeding,handling or processing the same products in both a certified organic system and a noncertifiedor non-organic system. A situation with “organic” and “in conversion”production of the same product is also parallel production (IFOAM definition). Parallelproduction is a special instance of split production.PARASITIC PATHOGENS (bacteria, viruses, fungi), used in biological control, willoften kill their host outright and then liberate millions of spores or 'resting stages' whichare dispersed to infect other host individuals. The most famous and diffusedpathogenic microorganism is Bacillus Thuringiensis. Other commonly used virus is theGranulosis virus, active on Cydia pomonella. However, other microorganisms, activeon different species of phytophagous insects, are also available.PDO, Protected Designation of Origin.PERMACULTURE (PERMANENT AGRICULTURE): movement started in Australia in1975. The basic idea was developed by Bill Mollison; “the term permaculture describesan integrated, continuously, successively developing system that is based on theecological network of relations between plants and animals useful for the humanbeing” (Mollison, 1978).PGI, Protected Geographical Indication.PHEROMONES are compounds produced by insects, and used for chemicalcommunication among individuals of the same species. They affect behaviours such asaggregation, sexual interaction and alarm calls. They can be artificially produced in thelaboratory and serve different purposes in agriculture, such as monitoring and pestcontrol, being used as attractants in traps together with insecticides.PLANT OILS, are a mixture of natural substances derived from various parts of plantsuch as flowers, seeds and fruits. They are used as insecticides, provoking asphyxia inthe insects and their eggs. They also act as repellents.PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE, principle that states that when an activity raisesthreats of harm to the environment or human health, precautionary measures shouldbe taken even if some cause-and-effect relationships are not fully establishedscientifically.PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIC AGRICULTURE, adopted by the IFOAM GeneralAssembly of Adelaide, September 2006: Healt (Organic Agriculture should sustain andenhance the healt of soil, plant, animal, human and planet as one and indivisible),Ecology (Organic Agriculture should be based on living ecological systems and cycles,work with them, emulate them and help sustain them), Fairness ( Organic Agricultureshould build on relationships that ensure fairness with regard to common environmentand life opportunities), Care (Organic Agriculture should be managed in aprecautionary and responsible manner to protect the healt and well-being of currentand future generations and the environment).108

PYRETHRINS, extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, are naturalinsecticides.QQUASSIA, It is a natural insecticide derived from the Quassia amara tree, indigenousto Suriname, and from Picrasma excelsa (Jamaican Quassia). On locusts it has aphagodeterrent effect. Active against aphids and sawflies. Field of application:horticulture, fruit trees, viticulture, silviculture, ornamental plants.ROTENONE, it is a natural insecticide extracted from the roots of some tropical plantsof the Leguminosae family: Derris elliptica, Derris spp., Lonchocarpus utilis, Tephrosiaspp. Rotenone has a wide range of activities: aphids, thrips, Lepidoptera, Diptera,Coleoptera, etc It is also relatively active against mites. Field of application:horticulture, fruit trees, ornamental plants, mosquitoes and flies. It is also used inveterinary medicine against Hypoderma flies.RRESISTANCE, the process of insects adapting to a pesticide over a period of time,making the pesticide less and less effective, and requiring larger and strongerapplications of the pesticide to achieve the same result.ROTATION, the plants are grown in a defined sequence in the same plot of land.SSYNTHETIC, manufactured by chemical and industrial processes. May includeproducts not found in nature, or simulation of products from natural sources (but notextracted from natural raw materials).SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT, “The maintenance of the fertility of the soil is thefirst condition of any permanent system of agriculture”; with this words, in the nineteenforties, the famous English Agronomist Sir Albert Howard laid the foundations of theorganic agriculture method. Soil fertility is the capacity of the soil to sustain plantproduction on long term.SOIL ORGANIC MATTER, has three parts: living organisms, fresh residues, and welldecomposedresidues (the living, the dead, and the very dead). Fresh residues are aprimary source of food for living organisms. Decomposition of fresh residues releasesnutrients needed by plants. Well-decomposed matter, also called “humus,” holds on tosome nutrients, storing them for slow release to plants.SOIL TILLAGE, the objective is the creation of an appropriate physical soil state bymechanical interventions, which provide optimal conditions for the plants.SPLIT PRODUCTION, where only part of the farm or processing unit is certified asorganic. The remainder of the property can be non organic, in conversion or organicbut not certified. (IFOAM definition). Also see “parallel production”.SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE, referring to an agricultural system that is ecologicallysound, economically viable, and socially just; a system capable of maintainingproductivity indefinitely.109

TTERRITORIAL MARKETING, oorganic agriculture is a potential contributor to localand regional economic growth and diversification, improvements in local identity andmarketability, thus contributing to the revitalization of rural communities.TILTH, the physical structure of soil as it influences plant growth. A soil with good tilthis porous, allowing water to infiltrate easily, and permitting roots to grow withoutobstruction.TRACEABILITY, refers trace and follow a food, feed, food-producing animal orsubstance intended to be, or expected to be incorporated into a food or feed, throughall stages of production, processing and distribution, “from farm to the table”.TSG, Traditional Speciality Guaranteed.UUAA, Utilised Agricultural Area.VVERMICOMPOST, mixture of partially decomposed organic waste, bedding, and wormcastings (excretions). Contains recognizable fragments of plant, food, or worm beddingmaterial, as well as cocoons, worms, and associated organisms.WWHO, World Health Organization.WWOOF, Willing Workers On Organic Farms, is a world wide exchange network wherebed, board and practical experience are given in return for work. Stays of varied lengthare possible. WWOF provides excellent opportunities for organic training, changing to arural life, cultural exchange and being part of the organic movement (www.wwoof.org).110

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS1. DESCRIPTION OF THE PERSONAL COMPUTER (PC).The Personal Computer (PC) consists by the hardware, the visible elements, and thesoftware, the computer programmes. In each computer, the hardware and softwareelements will be different.The hardware is composed by:- The CPU (Central Processing Unit).- The peripherals, elements connected with the CPU, used to enter and visualizethe data. The most common and standard are the mouse, the screen and thekeyboard.With all these elements, the CPU may start to work, after plugging it in. We’ll have tocheck that the PC is plugged to the electric current, and switch on the power. From thismoment, the PC starts to recognise all its element and starts working.1.1. Most used peripheralsScreen. The screen allows to see what the computer is processing. Generally, thescreen is plugged to the electricity with a different wire than the CPU. The quality of theimage in the screen depends on its size (measured in inches), the resolution and thegraphic card.Keyboard. It is very similar to a typewriter, but includes some keys with specificfunctions (Ctrl, Esc, Alt, F1, F2…).Mouse. This device transmit the hand movements to the cursor in the screen, withdifferent shapes (an arrow, a hand…). It has two buttons (some models have a thirdbutton or a wheel). They uses are:• Left button: It is the most used, and has three main functions:- Choose: you click on the left button once.- Activate: you make a double click, very quick.- Move: you place the arrow (cursor) over an element and keep the buttonpressed down, whole we move the mouse over the table or mouse pad. To letthe moved element in its destination place, we’ll just stop pressing the button.111

• Right button: It generally gives an access to information or other functions of theprogramme with which we are working.Storage units. These devices allow to store data coming from other computers, orstore our own data so it will not take place in the hard disk. There are several of them:• Diskette drive. Allows to read and save data on small files.• Compact Disc (CD) Drive, for reading and recording. The storage capacity of aCD is much higher than the capacity of a diskette.• Digital Versatile Disc (DVD). This storage device may be used to save data,and big files, such as films with a high quality of image and sound. DVD aresimilar to CDs, but have a storage capacity seven times bigger than a CD.Printer. This peripheral allows to print on paper the works done with the computer. Themost used are the ink jet printer and laser printer. There are black and white and colourprinters. In each case, the toners (devices storing the ink) are different and specific foreach model of printer.With these five peripherals (Screen, keyboard, mouse, storage units and printer) wehave a complete PC post. But we can have another peripherals, for specific functions:loudspeakers, headphones, joystick, optical pen, tactile screen, scanner, digitalcamera, webcam, modem, infra-red devices…In most of the peripherals we are going to find two wires: one connecting it to the CPUand the other to the electricity. Some peripherals, as the mouse or the keyboard do nothave to be plugged to the electricity.1.2. Operating system: functions and commands.Together with the “hardware”, the CPU and the peripherals, computers need otherelements, that are not visible. This is software, the most “intellectual” part of a PC, for ittells the computer what it has to do.We can consider three kind of software:• The operating system, an interface, allowing the user to use and work with theresources of the computer. It interfaces between the software and thehardware.• The programmes and applications, which are used to do what we indicate to thecomputer, using the peripherals. Each programme is specialised in one task: byinstance, text editors, design programmes, games…• The programming languages, are the basis on which programmes andoperating systems are build. Generally, PC users do not need to know theselanguages.1.3. Office Automation Programmes and applications.112

In order to use a PC, we need to have the adequate programmes installed. Eachsoftware programme is created to fulfil specific tasks. To choose the programme, youhave got to control the operating system with which it works. Generally, to fulfil themost common tasks, a PC will need to have installed programmes for the followingtasks:• Text processing, it is, writing documents. The best known programme is MSWord.• Calculate. The data sheets, such as Excel, are used for mathematicaloperations and graphics.• Order information. The Data bases software, such as Access, allows to order,store and manage information we created.• Internet navigating. A navigator (Explorer or Netscape, by instance) and an e-mail server (Outlook, Mozilla) will be required.There are other interesting software, such as those used to edit images, video andmusic in digital format, and to play (most of the software in the computer shops aregames). There are software specifically designed for one concrete purpose, such asdetect viruses (antivirus), to make translations or to reduce (compress) the size of thefiles.1.4. File managementIn a PC, information is stored in the hard disk or in the memory. To access it, it has tobe organised, in files. The files are grouped in directories, or folders, so they are easyto find. All the files have a name and a extension. The name is chosen normally by theuser, and the extension depends on the programme in which the file has been created.113

The name of the file and its extension are separated by a dot (by instance,“document.doc”).The most usual extensions are:doc Word text file mp3 Sound fileXls Excel data sheet mpg Video filedbf, mbd Data base tif, jpg Image fileppt Power point presentation (slide) exe Program file2. INTERNETInternet is a network of connected computers, all over the world, in a global andworldwide “web”. Connections are made through telephone wire, cable, optical fibre orsatellite. To access Internet you will need four elements: a communication system(modem), connected to a communication channel (generally, the telephone line), aserver and the adequate programme. The server will supply you with the following datato connect to the Internet:- A telephone number that our modem will dial to establish the communication. Ifwe install ADSL, the system will be different.- An user’s name, that identify us in the Internet.- A password to access the net.- A DNS server address.- A connection protocol, it means all the steps to follow to connect.With these elements we can create a connexion to Internet. In most cases, it is enoughto call the server, that will guide us in the process. Nowadays, a lot of companiesprovide this information service freely.As for the programmes used for navigating, the most common are Netscape andExplorer. From any navigator you can access to any kind of information in Internet.114

When we enter Internet, we get to the information placed in a site, usually theinformation of a company or organisation, that has gathered information on a specificissue.To get to a site, we have to write the name in a blank space in the navigator. Theaddress of Internet have usually a name composed by “www. name of the main page.country or kind of organisation code” (by instance, www.ifes.es, or www.yahoo.com).In a web site, we can move from one page to another (like in a book), by clicking withthe mouse in the hiperlinks, giving access to other information. It is easy to find anhiperlink, for, when you move the cursor over it, this changes it shape, from an arrow toa hand with its forefinger marking it.Internet is mainly used for looking for information, but you can use it, too, to goshopping, take part in auctions, book tickets for the cinema and the theatre, manageyour bank account… On the same hand, you can find tools for “person to person”communication. These are the e-mail (electronic mail), the news groups and chats.Searching in internet: search engines and portals.Search engines are one of the most used tools in Internet. It is easy to use. The userjust have to write the words related with what he is looking for, and click on the “search”button, or use the “enter” key in the keyboard. The result of the search will show in alist of web addresses or links. The most used search engines are: Google, Yahoo,Altavista and Lycos.E-mailE-mail is one of the most important, known and used services in Internet, for itsquickness and effectiveness. To use it you will need a modem, a telephone line (toaccess Internet), an e-mail server and an e-mail address. Each computer has anaddress in the Web, through a server. With this elements you may create an e-mailaccount.The e-mail address is unique for each user, and has a fixed structure. The first part isfor the name of the user (johndoe), followed by an “at” symbol (@), and the name ofthe domain covering all the users of a server, either a company or organisation (yahoo)and, after a dot, an acronym of the country, the kind of organisation, etc (.com). In thisexample, the address would be, then:johndoe@yahoo.comWhen someone writes and sends an e-mail to this address, it will be stored. To read it,we just have to select our e-mail programme and connect to Internet. We click on the“received mail” icon, and the e-mail server will send us this message.On the same hand, if we want to send a message, once the e-mail programme isstarted, we will write the address of the person who is going to receive it, in the blankbox “Mail to”. We write the text and make click in the “Send” icon.There are two kinds of e-mail accounts: some are linked to the computer we usuallyuse, but we can access from any other computer only if we enter all the data. There areother, called “Internet accounts”, where we have to access to a web site (by instance,www.yahoo.com) write our e-mail address (johndoe@yahoo.com) and a password thatwe previously chose. This way we can consult the e-mail from any computer. Normally,the first kind of e-mail account have more storage capacity, but those “Internetaccounts” are easier to use, mostly if we do not have a computer of our own.115

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Escola Superior AgráriaInstituto Politécnico de Viana do Castelo

Organic farming consultor - Projects - Ifes

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