A grammar of the Homeric dialect - Wilbourhall.org
A grammar of the Homeric dialect - Wilbourhall.org
A grammar of the Homeric dialect - Wilbourhall.org
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JS I LIBRARY
HOMERIC GRAMMAR<br />
D. B. MONRO<br />
LIBRARY
HENRY FROWDE<br />
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE<br />
AMEN CORNER, E.G.
A GRAMMAR<br />
OF THE<br />
HOMERIC DIALECT<br />
BY<br />
D. B. MONRO, M.A.<br />
PROVOST OP ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD<br />
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED<br />
L'objet de cette science est de rechercher dans 1'esprit de 1'homme<br />
la cause de la transformation des idioines<br />
M. BREAI<br />
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS<br />
1891<br />
[ All rights reserved]
PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS<br />
BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY
DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY<br />
OF THE REV.<br />
JAMES EIDDELL<br />
LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OF BALLIOL
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.<br />
IT may be said, without fear <strong>of</strong> giving <strong>of</strong>fence, that a new<br />
Grammar <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> <strong>dialect</strong> is sorely wanted. The<br />
admirable Griechische Formenlehre <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> late H. L. Ahrens<br />
is now just thirty years old, and is confined, as its title indicates,<br />
to <strong>the</strong> inflexions. Not only has <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> discovery<br />
been going on since Ahrens wrote (and with hardly less<br />
rapidity than in <strong>the</strong> first years <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new science), but <strong>the</strong><br />
historical method has been carried into <strong>the</strong> field <strong>of</strong> syntax.<br />
And apart from ' comparative philology,' <strong>the</strong> researches <strong>of</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r students have<br />
Bekker, Cobet, La Roche, and many<br />
brought toge<strong>the</strong>r a wealth <strong>of</strong> material that only needs careful<br />
analysis and arrangement to make it accessible to <strong>the</strong> general<br />
body <strong>of</strong> learners.<br />
The plan <strong>of</strong> this book has sufficient novelty to call for some<br />
explanation. I have not attempted to write a Comparative<br />
Grammar, or even a Grammar that would deserve <strong>the</strong> epi<strong>the</strong>t<br />
'<br />
'<br />
historical : but I have kept in view two principles <strong>of</strong> arrangement<br />
which belong to <strong>the</strong> historical or genetic method. These<br />
are, that <strong>grammar</strong> should proceed from <strong>the</strong> simple to <strong>the</strong> complex<br />
types <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sentence, and that <strong>the</strong> form and <strong>the</strong> meaning<br />
should as far as possible be treated toge<strong>the</strong>r. Now <strong>the</strong><br />
simplest possible Sentence apart from mere exclamations<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> a Verb, or word containing in itself <strong>the</strong> two elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> all rational utterance, a Subject and a Predicate.<br />
We begin, <strong>the</strong>refore, by analysing <strong>the</strong> Verb, and classifying<br />
<strong>the</strong> Person and Number <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
(i) <strong>the</strong> Endings, which express<br />
Subject ( 1-7), and serve also to distinguish <strong>the</strong> ' Middle ' or<br />
Reflexive use ( 8),<br />
and (2) <strong>the</strong> modifications <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem<br />
which yield <strong>the</strong> several Tenses and Moods. These modifications,<br />
we at once perceive, are more numerous than <strong>the</strong> meanings<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y serve to express, and we have <strong>the</strong>refore to
viii<br />
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.<br />
choose between classifying according to i. e.<br />
formation according<br />
to <strong>the</strong> process by which each Tense-Stem and Mood-<br />
Stem is derived from <strong>the</strong> simple Verb-Stem or Ko.ot, and <strong>the</strong><br />
ordinary classification according to meaning (Present, Future,<br />
Perfect, Aorist, &c.). The former course seemed preferable<br />
because it answers to <strong>the</strong> historical order. The problem<br />
is to<br />
find how pre-existing forms common to Greek and Sanscrit,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>refore part <strong>of</strong> an original<br />
*<br />
Indo-European ' <strong>grammar</strong><br />
were adapted to <strong>the</strong> specifically Greek system <strong>of</strong> Tense-meanings.<br />
I have <strong>the</strong>refore taken <strong>the</strong> different formations in turn,<br />
beginning with <strong>the</strong> simplest ( 9-20, 22-27, 29-69, 79~&3)><br />
and introducing an account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> each as soon as<br />
possible ( 21, 28, 70-78). This part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject naturally<br />
includes <strong>the</strong> .accentuation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb<br />
( 87-89)-<br />
The next great division <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject is concerned with <strong>the</strong><br />
first enlargement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sentence. A word may be added<br />
which taken by itself says nothing contains no Subject and<br />
Predicate but which combines with ^and qualifies <strong>the</strong> primitive<br />
one-word Sentence. The elements which may ga<strong>the</strong>r<br />
in this way round <strong>the</strong> basis or nucleus formed by <strong>the</strong> Verb<br />
are ultimately <strong>of</strong> two kinds, Nouns and Pronouns ;<br />
and <strong>the</strong><br />
relations in which <strong>the</strong>y may stand to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb are also tw<strong>of</strong>old.<br />
A Noun or Pronoun may stand as a Subject limiting<br />
or explaining <strong>the</strong> Subject already contained in <strong>the</strong> Person-<br />
Ending or may qualify <strong>the</strong> Predicate given by <strong>the</strong> Stem <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb. These relations are shown by <strong>the</strong> Ending, which<br />
again may be ei<strong>the</strong>r a Case-Ending or an adverbial Ending.<br />
We begin accordingly by an account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Declensions, supplemented<br />
by a list <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief groups <strong>of</strong> Adverbs (Chapter V).<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Stems <strong>of</strong> Nouns<br />
When we pass from <strong>the</strong> Endings<br />
and Pronouns, we find that <strong>the</strong>y are essentially different. A<br />
'<br />
Nominal Stem 5 consists in general <strong>of</strong> two parts, (i) a predicative<br />
part, usually identical with a Verb-Stem, and (2) a<br />
Suffix. Each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two elements, again, may be complex.<br />
The addition <strong>of</strong> a fur<strong>the</strong>r Suffix yields a fresh Stem, with a<br />
corresponding derivative meaning and thus we have <strong>the</strong> distinction<br />
between Primitive or Verbal and Secondary or De-<br />
;<br />
nominative Nouns. The Suffixes employed in <strong>the</strong>se two
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.<br />
IX<br />
classes are generally distinct, and deserve a more careful<br />
enumeration than is usually given in elementary <strong>grammar</strong>s.<br />
The predicative part, again, may be enlarged by a second<br />
Nominal Stem, prefixed to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, and qualifying it nearly<br />
as a Case-form or Adverb qualifies <strong>the</strong> Verb. The Compounds<br />
thus formed are <strong>of</strong> especial interest for <strong>the</strong> poetical <strong>dialect</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Homer. The analysis which I have given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief forms<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y present must be taken to be provisional only, as<br />
<strong>the</strong> subject is still full <strong>of</strong> doubt. With respect to <strong>the</strong> meaning<br />
I have attempted no complete classification. It is always<br />
unsafe to insist on distinctions which may be clear to us, but<br />
only because we mark <strong>the</strong>m by distinct forms <strong>of</strong> expression.<br />
The chapter on <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> Nouns should perhaps<br />
have been followed by one on <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> Pronouns.<br />
The material for such a chapter, however, lies for <strong>the</strong> most<br />
part beyond <strong>the</strong> scope <strong>of</strong> a <strong>grammar</strong>. It is represented in this<br />
book by a section on Heteroclite Pronouns ( 108), which<br />
notices some traces <strong>of</strong> composite Pronominal Stems, and in<br />
some degree by ano<strong>the</strong>r on <strong>the</strong> Numerals ( 130).<br />
When we come to examine <strong>the</strong> syntactical use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cases,<br />
we find ourselves sometimes dealing with sentences which<br />
contain at least two members besides <strong>the</strong> Verb. Along with<br />
<strong>the</strong> constructions which may be called ' adverbial ' (using <strong>the</strong><br />
term Adverb in a wide sense, to include all words directly<br />
construed with <strong>the</strong> Verb), we have <strong>the</strong> constructions in which<br />
<strong>the</strong> governing word is a Noun or Preposition. And in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
again we must distinguish between <strong>the</strong> government <strong>of</strong> a Case<br />
apparently by a Noun or Preposition, really by <strong>the</strong> combined<br />
result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Noun or Preposition and <strong>the</strong> Verb, and <strong>the</strong> true<br />
government by a Noun alone, <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong> dependent Genitive<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Adjective are <strong>the</strong> main types. These distinctions,<br />
however, though <strong>of</strong> great importance in reference to <strong>the</strong> development<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> Cases, cannot well be followed exclusively<br />
in <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> treatment. I have <strong>the</strong>refore taken <strong>the</strong><br />
Cases in succession, and along with <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> chief points<br />
which have to be noticed regarding <strong>the</strong> { concords ' <strong>of</strong> Gender<br />
( 166-168) and Number ( 169-173).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Infinitive and Participle (Chapter X) we have <strong>the</strong><br />
first step from <strong>the</strong> simple to <strong>the</strong> complex Sentence.<br />
The pre-
X<br />
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.<br />
dicative element in <strong>the</strong> Verbal Noun is treated syntactically<br />
like <strong>the</strong> same element in a true or * finite ' Verb ;<br />
that is to<br />
say, it takes ' adverbial ' constructions. Thus while retaining<br />
<strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> a Noun it becomes <strong>the</strong> nucleus <strong>of</strong> a new<br />
imperfect Sentence, without a grammatical Subject properly<br />
so called (though <strong>the</strong> Infinitive in Greek acquired a quasi-<br />
Subject in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusative before and it), standing<br />
to <strong>the</strong> main Sentence as an adverb or adjective.<br />
While <strong>the</strong> Infinitival and Participial Clauses may thus be<br />
described as Nouns which have expanded into dependent<br />
Sentences, <strong>the</strong> true Subordinate Clause shows <strong>the</strong> opposite<br />
process. In many instances, especially in <strong>Homeric</strong> syntax,<br />
we can trace <strong>the</strong> steps by which originally independent<br />
Sentences have come to stand in an adverbial or adjectival<br />
relation. The change is generally brought about, as we shall<br />
see, by means <strong>of</strong> Pronouns, or Adverbs formed from Pronominal<br />
stems. Hence it is convenient that <strong>the</strong> account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronouns (Chapter XI) should hold <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> an<br />
introduction to <strong>the</strong> part in which we have to do with <strong>the</strong><br />
relations <strong>of</strong> Clauses to each o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
The next chapter, however, does not treat directly <strong>of</strong> subordinate<br />
Clauses, but <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Moods in <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
seemed best to bring <strong>the</strong>se uses into immediate connexion<br />
with <strong>the</strong> uses which are found in simple Sentences. In this<br />
way <strong>the</strong> original character <strong>of</strong> Subordinate Clauses comes into a<br />
clearer light. If anything remains to be said <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m, it finds<br />
its place in <strong>the</strong> account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Particles (Chapter XIII) in<br />
;<br />
which also we examine <strong>the</strong> relations <strong>of</strong> independent Sentences,<br />
so far at least as <strong>the</strong>se are expressed by grammatical forms.<br />
The last chapter contains a discussion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Metre <strong>of</strong><br />
Homer (Chapter XIV), and <strong>of</strong> some points <strong>of</strong> 'phonology'<br />
which (for us at least) are ultimately metrical questions.<br />
Chief among <strong>the</strong>se is <strong>the</strong> famous question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Digamma.<br />
I have endeavoured to state <strong>the</strong> main issues which have been<br />
raised on this subject as fully as possible<br />
: but without much<br />
hope <strong>of</strong> bringing <strong>the</strong>m to a satisfactory decision.<br />
A book <strong>of</strong> this kind is necessarily to a great extent a<br />
compilation, and from sources so numerous that it is scarcely<br />
possible to make a sufficient acknowledgment <strong>of</strong> indebted-<br />
It
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.<br />
XI<br />
ness. The earlier chapters are mainly founded on <strong>the</strong> great<br />
work <strong>of</strong> G. Curtius on <strong>the</strong> Greek Verb. More recent writers<br />
have cleared up some difficulties, especially in <strong>the</strong> phonology.<br />
I have learned very much from M. de Saussure's<br />
Mtmoire sur le systeme primitif des voyelles, and from several<br />
articles by K. Brugmann and Joh. Schmidt, especially <strong>the</strong> last.<br />
I would mention also, as valuable on single points, <strong>the</strong> papers<br />
<strong>of</strong> J. Paech (Vratisl. 1861) and H. Stier (Curt. Stud. II)<br />
on <strong>the</strong><br />
Subjunctive, B. Mangold<br />
on <strong>the</strong> 'diectasis' <strong>of</strong> Verbs in -a&><br />
(Curt. Stud. VI), F. D. Allen on <strong>the</strong> same subject (Trans, <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> American Phil. Assoc. 1873), Leskien on o-crin <strong>the</strong> Fut. and<br />
Aor. (Curt. Stud. II),<br />
and K. Koch on <strong>the</strong> Augment (Brunsvici<br />
1868). On <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> Nominal Composition I<br />
may name<br />
a paper by W. Clemm in Curt. Stud. VII, which gives references<br />
to <strong>the</strong> earlier literature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject, and one by F. Stolz<br />
(Klagenfurt 1874). On <strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Personal Pronouns<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a valuable dissertation by P. Cauer (Curt. Stud. VII) :<br />
on <strong>the</strong> Numerals by Joh. Baunack (K. Z. :<br />
XXV) on <strong>the</strong> Comparative<br />
and Superlative by Fr. Weihrich (De Gradibus, &c.<br />
Gissae 1869). Going on to <strong>the</strong> syntax <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cases, I would<br />
place first <strong>the</strong> dissertation <strong>of</strong> B. Delbruck, Ablativ Localis<br />
Instrumental, &c. (Berlin 1867), and next <strong>the</strong> excellent work<br />
<strong>of</strong> Hubschmann, Zur Casuslehre (Mlinchen 1875). On <strong>the</strong><br />
Accusative I have obtained <strong>the</strong><br />
greatest help from La Roche,<br />
Der Accusativ im Homer (Wien 1861): on <strong>the</strong> Dual from<br />
Bieber, De Duali Numero (Jena 1864). On <strong>the</strong> Prepositions<br />
I have used <strong>the</strong> papers <strong>of</strong> C. A. J. H<strong>of</strong>fmann (Luneburg 1857-<br />
60, Clausthal 1858-59), T. Mommsen (see 221), Giseke, Die<br />
allmdliche Entstehung der Gesdnge der Ilias (Gottingen 1853),<br />
La Roche, especially on VTTO<br />
(Wien 1861) and CTH (in <strong>the</strong> Z.f.<br />
ost. Gymn.), Rau on -napd (Curt. Stud. Ill),<br />
and <strong>the</strong> articles in<br />
Ebeling's Lexicon. On this part <strong>of</strong> syntax <strong>the</strong> fourth volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> Delbruck's Forschungen is especially instructive. Of <strong>the</strong><br />
literature on <strong>the</strong> Infinitive I would mention J. Jolly's Geschichte<br />
des Infinitivs im Indogermanischen (Miinchen 1873), a^so a<br />
paper by Albrecht (Curt. Stud. IV), and a note in Max<br />
Mliller's Chips from a German Workshop (IV. p. 49 The<br />
ff.).<br />
use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Participle has been admirably treated by Classen,<br />
in his Beobachtungen uber den homerischen Sprachgebrauch
xii<br />
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.<br />
(Frankfurt 1867).<br />
A paper by Jolly in <strong>the</strong> collection <strong>of</strong><br />
Sprachwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Leipzig 1874)<br />
On <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronouns <strong>the</strong> chief source<br />
is also<br />
suggestive.<br />
is a dissertation by E. Windisch in Curt. Stud. II. On <strong>the</strong><br />
Article almost everything will be found in H. Foerstemann's<br />
Bemerkungen uber den Gebrauch des Artikels bei Homer (Magdeburg<br />
1861). The controversy on <strong>the</strong> Reflexive Pronoun is<br />
referred to in 255. On <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Moods,<br />
besides Delbriick's great work, I would mention Jolly's<br />
monograph entitled Ein Kapitel vergleichender Syntax (Munchen<br />
1872), and L. Lange's elaborate papers on et (Leipzig<br />
1872-73). It is to be regretted that <strong>the</strong>y have not yet been<br />
carried to <strong>the</strong> point <strong>of</strong> forming a complete book on <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ei. For <strong>the</strong> general <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses is <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> very highest<br />
value. Regarding <strong>the</strong> cognate question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> av and<br />
KW <strong>the</strong> main principles have been laid down by Delbriick.<br />
It is worth while to mention that <strong>the</strong>y were clearly stated<br />
as long ago as 1832, in a paper in <strong>the</strong> Philological Museum<br />
(Vol. I. p. 96), written in opposition to <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>n reigning<br />
method <strong>of</strong> Hermann. For <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Particles little has been<br />
done by <strong>Homeric</strong> students since Nagelsbach and Hartung.<br />
I have cited three valuable papers; on re by Wentzel, on<br />
7} (rje) by Praetorius, and on jj by A. R. Vierke. I would<br />
add here a paper on <strong>the</strong> syntax <strong>of</strong> Causal Sentences in<br />
Homer, by E. Pfudel (Liegnitz 1871). On all syntactical<br />
matters use has been made <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> abundant stores <strong>of</strong> Kiihner's<br />
Ausfuhrliche Grammatik. And it is impossible to say too<br />
much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> guidance and inspiration (as I may almost call<br />
which it) I have derived from <strong>the</strong> Digest <strong>of</strong> Platonic Idioms<br />
left behind by <strong>the</strong> lamented friend to whose memory I have<br />
ventured to dedicate this book.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> collateral subjects <strong>of</strong> Metre I have pr<strong>of</strong>ited most by<br />
Hartel's Homerische Studien, La Roche, Homerische Untersuchungen<br />
(Leipzig 1869), Knb's, De digammo <strong>Homeric</strong>o<br />
(Upsaliae 1872-79), and Tudeer, De <strong>dialect</strong>orum Graecarum<br />
digammo (Helsingforsiae 1879).<br />
OXFORD, July 18, 1882.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.<br />
THE rapid progress <strong>of</strong> linguistic science during<br />
<strong>the</strong> nine<br />
years that have passed since this Grammar was first published<br />
has necessitated considerable alteration and enlargement in a<br />
new edition. Much has been discovered in <strong>the</strong> interval ;<br />
much<br />
that was <strong>the</strong>n new and speculative has been accepted on all<br />
sides ;<br />
and much has been done in sifting<br />
and combining <strong>the</strong><br />
results attained. The Morphologischen Untersuchungen <strong>of</strong><br />
Osth<strong>of</strong>f and Brugmann have been followed by Brugmann's<br />
admirable summary <strong>of</strong> Greek <strong>grammar</strong> (in Iwan Muller's<br />
Handbuch), and his comprehensive Grundriss der vergleichenden<br />
Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Of three<br />
portions <strong>of</strong> this work that have already appeared (Strassburg<br />
1886-90-91), <strong>the</strong> last (treating chiefly <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Declensions)<br />
came too late to be <strong>of</strong> service to <strong>the</strong> present book. The part<br />
which deals with <strong>the</strong> Verb has not yet been published<br />
: and <strong>the</strong><br />
volume on Comparative Syntax, promised by Delbruck <strong>the</strong><br />
first complete work on this part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject is also still to<br />
come.<br />
It will doubtless be a worthy sequel to <strong>the</strong> Altindische<br />
Syntax, which now forms <strong>the</strong> fifth volume <strong>of</strong> his Syntaktische<br />
Forschungen. Among o<strong>the</strong>r books which have appeared since<br />
<strong>the</strong> publication <strong>of</strong> this Grammar, or which were not sufficiently<br />
made use <strong>of</strong> for <strong>the</strong> first edition, I would mention Joh.<br />
Schmidt's Pluralbildungen der indogermanischen Neutra<br />
(Weimar 1889), G. Meyer's Griechische Grammatik (second<br />
edition, Leipzig 1886), <strong>the</strong> new edition <strong>of</strong> Mr. Goodwin's<br />
Moods and Tenses (London 1889), <strong>the</strong> treatises in Schanz's<br />
series <strong>of</strong> Beitrdge zur historischen Syntax der griechischeri<br />
Sprache, Aug. Tick's two books (see Appendix F), articles by<br />
Wackernagel, Frb'hde and o<strong>the</strong>rs in Kuhrts Zeitschrift and<br />
1<br />
Bezzenberger<br />
s Beitrdge, <strong>the</strong> long series <strong>of</strong> papers by Aug.
XIV<br />
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.<br />
Nauck collected<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Melanges gre'co-romains (St. Petersburg<br />
1855-88) a book not <strong>of</strong>ten seen in this country,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> dissertations <strong>of</strong> J. van Leeuwen in <strong>the</strong> Mnemosyne.<br />
The two writers last mentioned are chiefly concerned with<br />
<strong>the</strong> restoration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> text to its original or prehistoric<br />
form. Their method, which is philological ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than linguistic, may lead to some fur<strong>the</strong>r results when <strong>the</strong><br />
numerous MSS. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad have been examined and have<br />
furnished us with an adequate apparatus criticus.<br />
Although very much has been re-written, <strong>the</strong> numbering <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sections has been retained, with a few exceptions so that<br />
;<br />
<strong>the</strong> references made to <strong>the</strong> first edition will generally still hold<br />
The new sections are distinguished by an asterisk.<br />
enumerate <strong>the</strong> points on which new<br />
good.<br />
I will not attempt to<br />
matter has been added, or former views recalled or modified.<br />
The increase in <strong>the</strong> size <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> book is largely due to <strong>the</strong> fuller<br />
treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> morphology. Additions bearing on questions<br />
<strong>of</strong> syntax will be found in 238, 248, 267, 270*, 362, 365.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> whole I have become more sceptical about <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ories<br />
which seek to explain <strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subordinate Clause<br />
from parataxis, or <strong>the</strong> mere juxta-position <strong>of</strong> independent<br />
clauses. In general it may be admitted that <strong>the</strong> complex<br />
arose in <strong>the</strong> first instance by <strong>the</strong> amalgamation <strong>of</strong> simpler<br />
elements : but we must beware <strong>of</strong> leaving out <strong>of</strong> sight <strong>the</strong><br />
effect <strong>of</strong> * contamination ' in extending syntactical types once<br />
created. The neglect <strong>of</strong> this consideration is in reality<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r and more insidious form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> error from which<br />
recent writers on morphology have delivered us, viz. that<br />
<strong>of</strong> explaining grammatical forms as <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> direct<br />
amalgamation <strong>of</strong> a stem with a suffix or ending, without<br />
duly allowing for <strong>the</strong> working <strong>of</strong> analogy.<br />
OXFORD, March 21, 1891.
CHAPTER I. The Person-Endings.<br />
PAGE<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
1. Sentences Subject and Predicate . . . i<br />
2. Stem and Endings<br />
. . . . . i<br />
3.<br />
The Person-Endings<br />
. . . . . i<br />
4. Thematic Vowel .2<br />
Non-Thematic forms . .<br />
5. Table <strong>of</strong> . .<br />
Person-Endings<br />
. . .2<br />
6. Influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ending on <strong>the</strong> Stem . . .6<br />
7.<br />
The forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 3 Plural . . . .8<br />
8. Meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle -9<br />
. . . .<br />
CHAPTER II.<br />
The Tenses.<br />
Verb-Stem Tense- Stem . . . . .10<br />
9.<br />
10. Formation <strong>of</strong> Tense-Stems . . . . .11<br />
IT. The Simple Non-Thematic Present . . . .12<br />
12. Variation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem Examples<br />
. . .12<br />
13. The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist . . .<br />
14<br />
14. Meta<strong>the</strong>sis . . . . . . 15<br />
15. Aorists in -a and -KCI . . . . .16<br />
1 6. The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present . .<br />
17. The Presents with -v] (-vd) and -vu . . .<br />
1 8. Thematic forms . . . .<br />
.<br />
17<br />
.18<br />
.18<br />
19. Non-Thematic Contracted Verbs Presents .20<br />
. .<br />
20. Aorists . . .22<br />
21. Meaning <strong>of</strong> Non-Thematic Tenses .22<br />
. .<br />
22. The Perfect . . . . . . .22<br />
23. Reduplication .26<br />
. . . . .<br />
24. The forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 3 Plural . . . .<br />
27<br />
25. Long and Short Stems . . . .28<br />
26. The Perfect Participle<br />
. . .28<br />
27. Thematic forms . . . .<br />
-30<br />
28. Meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Perfect . . . . 31<br />
29. The Simple Thematic Present . . .<br />
.32<br />
30. With Short Stem 33<br />
31. The Thematic Aorist . . . , . .<br />
-34<br />
32. Remarks . . . . .<br />
-36<br />
33. Doubtful forms . . . .<br />
-37<br />
34. Thematic Aorists in Homer . . .<br />
-38
XVI<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
PAGE<br />
35. The Eeduplicated Thematic Present . . .<br />
-39<br />
36. The Reduplicated Aorist (Thematic) . . . .39<br />
37. Aorists in -a . . . . . . .40<br />
38. Tense- Stems formed by a Suffix . . . .40<br />
39. The Aorist in -
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
xvil<br />
CHAPTER III. The Moods.<br />
PAGE<br />
79. The Moods Infinitive and . .<br />
Participle .67<br />
80. The Subjunctive Non-Thematic Tense- Stems . . 68<br />
8 1. Contraction . . . .<br />
.69<br />
82. Thematic Tense-Stems . , . .<br />
-7<br />
83. The Optative<br />
. . . ...<br />
.<br />
.<br />
.72<br />
.<br />
-73<br />
-74<br />
84. The Verbal Nouns . ...<br />
85. The Infinitive >.' ... .<br />
86. The Participle<br />
. . . .<br />
-75<br />
CHAPTER IV.<br />
Accentuation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb.<br />
87. General rule <strong>of</strong> accentuation <strong>of</strong> Verbs . .<br />
-75<br />
88. Accent in Composition<br />
. . .<br />
76<br />
89. The Infinitive and Participle<br />
. .<br />
-77<br />
CHAPTER V.<br />
Wouns and Pronouns.<br />
90. Nominal and Pronominal Steins . . .<br />
78<br />
91. Declensions . . . . . . -78<br />
92. The Vocative. . . . . -79<br />
93. The . . . . .<br />
Case-Endings 79<br />
94. Stems in -t, -u and -
xviii<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
PAGE<br />
117. Secondary Suffixes . . . . . .no<br />
1 1 8. Compound Suffixes . . . . .in<br />
1 1 8*. Suffixes <strong>of</strong> different periods<br />
. . .in<br />
119. Gender . . . . . .112<br />
120. Denominative Verbs . . .<br />
.113<br />
121. Comparison <strong>of</strong> Adjectives<br />
. . . . .114<br />
122. Meaning <strong>of</strong> Comparatives and Superlatives<br />
. 116<br />
123. Composition . . . . . . .116<br />
124. Form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Prefixed Stem . . .<br />
117<br />
125. Form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Second Stem . . . .120<br />
.122<br />
1 26. Meaning <strong>of</strong> . .<br />
Compounds<br />
.<br />
127. Stems compounded with Prepositions<br />
.<br />
.123<br />
128. Accentuation <strong>of</strong> Compounds<br />
. .<br />
.124<br />
129. Proper Names . . . .<br />
.124<br />
130. Numerals . . . . . -125<br />
CHAPTER VII.<br />
Use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cases.<br />
131. Eelation <strong>of</strong> Nouns and Pronouns to <strong>the</strong> Verb .<br />
.127<br />
132. The Accusative Internal and External Object<br />
. .128<br />
133. Neuter Pronouns . , . . .129<br />
134. Neuter Adjectives . . . . .129<br />
T 35- Cognate Accusatives . . . .129<br />
136. O<strong>the</strong>r Adverbial Accusatives . .<br />
.130<br />
137. Accusative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> part affected . . 131<br />
.<br />
138. <strong>of</strong> Time and Space<br />
. .<br />
.132<br />
139. ,,<br />
with Nouns .... 132<br />
140. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> External Object<br />
. . .<br />
133<br />
135<br />
143. The ' true ' Dative . . . . .<br />
135<br />
144. The Instrumental Dative . .. . 137<br />
145. The Locatival Dative . . .<br />
.139<br />
140<br />
141. Double Accusatives . . . . 134<br />
142. The Dative .......<br />
146. The Genitive . . ....<br />
147. The Genitive with Nouns . . .<br />
.141<br />
148. in <strong>the</strong> Predicate . .<br />
.142<br />
149. <strong>of</strong> Place . . .<br />
.143<br />
150. <strong>of</strong> Time . . .<br />
.143<br />
151. The quasi- Partitive Genitive . .<br />
144<br />
149<br />
156. Ablative . . . . . .<br />
149<br />
152. The Ablatival Genitive . . . .<br />
147<br />
153. The Genitive <strong>of</strong> Price . . .<br />
.148<br />
154. The Case-Ending<br />
.....<br />
-t(v)<br />
. . . .<br />
.148<br />
155. Instrumental<br />
157. Locative . ...<br />
.<br />
. .<br />
150<br />
158. Dative and Genitive . . , .150<br />
159. Forms in -Oev and -cos The Ending -0v . . .<br />
151<br />
160. The Ending -ws . . . .<br />
.152
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
xix<br />
PAGE<br />
161. The Nominative Impersonal Verbs . .<br />
.152<br />
162. Nominative in <strong>the</strong> Predicate . . .<br />
153<br />
163. Interjectional Nominative . . . .<br />
155<br />
164. The Vocative . . . . . . 155<br />
165. Substantive and Adjective . ., . . .<br />
156<br />
1 66. Gender <strong>of</strong> Adjectives . . .<br />
.157<br />
167. Pronouns . . .<br />
158<br />
- . . .158<br />
-<br />
1 68. Implied Predication . .<br />
CHAPTER VIII.<br />
Use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Numbers.<br />
169. Collective Nouns . . . . . .158<br />
'170. Distributive use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> . . .<br />
Singular .159<br />
171. Plural <strong>of</strong> Things<br />
. . . . . . 160<br />
172. Neuter Plural with Singular Verb . .160<br />
173. The Dual . . . . . . .161<br />
CHAPTER IX.<br />
The Prepositions.<br />
174. Definition . . . . . . -163<br />
175. Adverbial use <strong>of</strong> Prepositions<br />
. . . .<br />
163<br />
176. Tmesis . . . . . . .163<br />
177. Ellipse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb . . . . .164<br />
178. Use with Oblique Cases . . . . .<br />
165<br />
179. Use with<br />
.......<br />
<strong>the</strong> Genitive . . . .166<br />
'<br />
1 80. Accentuation Anastrophe ' <strong>of</strong> Prepositions<br />
. .166<br />
1 80*. Apocope 169<br />
181. dft^i<br />
. . . . .0 . . .<br />
170<br />
182. afjupi with <strong>the</strong> Dative . . .<br />
.171<br />
183. Accusative . . . .<br />
171<br />
184. ,, Genitive . .<br />
.172<br />
185. vcpi ... . . . . .<br />
.172<br />
1 8 6. 7T6/H with <strong>the</strong> Dative . . . .<br />
173<br />
187. ,, ,,<br />
Accusative . . . .<br />
174<br />
1 88. Genitive . . . .<br />
174<br />
189. irapa .... ... 175<br />
190. irapa with <strong>the</strong> Dative * : . . . .<br />
175<br />
191. Accusative . .- / .176<br />
192. ,,<br />
Genitive . . / .176<br />
. .<br />
193. jierti .177<br />
194. (if TO. with <strong>the</strong> Dative . . . 177<br />
195. ,,<br />
Accusative . . .<br />
.178<br />
196. ,, ,,<br />
Genitive .- 178<br />
197. km . . . * . . .179<br />
198.<br />
7rt with <strong>the</strong> Dative . . . .<br />
179<br />
199. Accusative . . . .180<br />
200. Genitive . . . .181
xx<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
201. V7T($s), irori . . . . . .184<br />
206. irpori with <strong>the</strong> Dative . . .<br />
.184<br />
207. Accusative . . .<br />
.184<br />
208. Genitive . . .<br />
.184<br />
209. ova with <strong>the</strong> Dat. with <strong>the</strong> Gen. . . .185<br />
210. ova. with <strong>the</strong> Accusative . . .<br />
.185<br />
211. Kara . . . . . . . 186<br />
212. Kara with <strong>the</strong> Accusative . . . .186<br />
213. Genitive . . .<br />
.187<br />
214. Sid . . . . . . .187<br />
215. Sia with <strong>the</strong> Accusative . . .<br />
216. Genitive . . .<br />
.187<br />
.188<br />
188<br />
218. vrrep with <strong>the</strong> Accusative . . . .188<br />
219. ,,<br />
Genitive .... 188<br />
220. \vi (Iv)<br />
. , . . . . .<br />
189<br />
189<br />
190<br />
223. If ... 190<br />
19!<br />
192<br />
227. Double . . . .<br />
Prepositions .192<br />
217. virtp ........<br />
221. avv, vv .......<br />
222. tlS ........<br />
224. anu ........<br />
225. irp6<br />
......... 191<br />
226. dvri<br />
228. Improper Prepositions<br />
. . . . .<br />
193<br />
229. <strong>Homeric</strong> and Attic uses . . . . 194<br />
CHAPTER X.<br />
The Verbal Nouns.<br />
230. Nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verbal Nouns . . .<br />
-195<br />
231. The Infinitive original meaning . . . .196-<br />
232. Infinitive with Nouns . . .<br />
.198<br />
2 33- with Impersonal Verbs . . .<br />
198<br />
234. as <strong>the</strong> Subject .... 199<br />
235. with Relatives . . . .201<br />
2 36. with npiv and irapos<br />
. . .201<br />
237. Accusative with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive . . .201<br />
238. Tenses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive . . .<br />
.203<br />
239. Dative with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive.... 204<br />
240. Predicative Nouns Attraction . .<br />
,204<br />
241. Infinitive used as an Imperative<br />
. . . 206<br />
242. Origin and History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive . .<br />
207
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
XXI<br />
PAGE<br />
243. The Participle uses . . . . .<br />
209<br />
244. Tenses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> .<br />
Participle<br />
, . .211<br />
245. Implied Predication . < . . .212<br />
The Genitive Absolute . . . .212<br />
, 246.<br />
246*. The Verbal Adjectives<br />
. . .<br />
.214<br />
CHAPTEB XI.<br />
Use <strong>of</strong> Pronouns.<br />
247. Subordinate Clauses Deictic and Anaphoric Pronouns .<br />
215<br />
248. Interrogative Pronouns . . . .<br />
.215<br />
.216<br />
249. oSe, ToaocrSe, rotoaSe,
'<br />
xxii<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
oircas.... PAGE<br />
284. Relatival Adverbs . . . . .260<br />
285. us,<br />
.260<br />
261<br />
. . . . .<br />
287. oQpa .262<br />
288. eojs,<br />
els o . 262<br />
289. ore, ... oirore .<br />
263<br />
. . .<br />
290. VT, %HOS .265<br />
291. Clauses with el, &c. 265<br />
292. Conditional Protasis .... 265<br />
293. Final Clauses with et 267<br />
294. Object Clauses with et . .<br />
.267<br />
295. The Subjunctive with us el . . .268<br />
296. eTret with <strong>the</strong> Subj...... 268<br />
286. 'iva ......<br />
297. -npiv<br />
.<br />
269<br />
298. The Subjunctive after Secondary Tenses . .270<br />
299. The Optative in Simple Sentences . . .<br />
.271<br />
300. With K(v or ay . . . .<br />
273<br />
301. The Optative in Subordinate Clauses . .<br />
.275<br />
302. Clauses with i?e j^e . . .<br />
-275<br />
303. Clauses with fJL-fj<br />
. . .<br />
.276<br />
304. Relative Clauses Final and .<br />
Object .276<br />
305. Conditional . .<br />
.278<br />
306. Relatival Adverbs o>s, OTTWS, Iva. . .<br />
-279<br />
. . . .<br />
307. eoas, oQpa .281<br />
308. ore, oTTore .....<br />
282<br />
309. eim . . . . . . . 283<br />
310. irpiv . . . . . . .283<br />
311. el Conditional Protasis . . . .284<br />
312. et Optative <strong>of</strong> Wish . . . .285<br />
313. ei Kev Conditional Protasis . . .285<br />
i<br />
314. Final and Object Clauses . . . 286<br />
315. History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunctive and Optative-<br />
Uses in Independent Clauses<br />
......<br />
. .<br />
.287<br />
316. ,,<br />
Subordinate Clauses . .<br />
.287<br />
317. Original meaning<br />
289<br />
318. Conditional Protasis with et . .<br />
.290<br />
319. Final Clauses with et . . . .291<br />
320.<br />
t 8'<br />
aye<br />
. . . . .<br />
.291<br />
321. Conclusion ......<br />
292<br />
322. <strong>Homeric</strong> and Attic Uses 293<br />
323. The Indicative Modal Uses .... 293<br />
324. Conditional Apodosis<br />
. . . .<br />
294<br />
324*. Ellipse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Apodosis .... 295<br />
325. Past Tense by Assimilation . . .<br />
296<br />
326. Future Indicative ..... 296<br />
327. The Imperative 298<br />
328. Prohibition...... 299
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
xxill<br />
CHAPTER XIII.<br />
The Particles.<br />
PAGE<br />
329. Classification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Particles . . . . 299<br />
330. /cat . . . . . . . . 300<br />
331. re . . . . . . . .301<br />
332. re in general statement . . .<br />
301<br />
333- Se . . . . . 304<br />
334. 5e <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Apodosis ..... 305<br />
335. Enclitic 8e . . . . . . 307<br />
336-7. dAAa, avrap, arap, av, avr(, e/Mnjs .... 308<br />
338. ^ 308<br />
339. TIT), fTTft-fi .309<br />
340. , 3 .31<br />
. . .<br />
341. Dependent Interrogative .311<br />
342-5. fjidv, HTJV, fj.ev . . . . .<br />
.312<br />
346. rot . 315<br />
. .<br />
347-8. apa, -yap 316<br />
349-352. ovv, 817, vv,<br />
. .<br />
erjv 319<br />
-<br />
353- p 320<br />
354. 76 .. .<br />
321<br />
355. ov, u.i\<br />
distinction <strong>of</strong> usage -322<br />
. . . .<br />
356. ovoe, ^U, ovfeis 323<br />
. .<br />
357. Double negatives<br />
. . . .<br />
.323<br />
358. Uses <strong>of</strong> /; Indicative .... 324<br />
359. ov and \ii]<br />
in Conditional Clauses . . .<br />
325<br />
360. ov with ....... <strong>the</strong> Infinitive and .<br />
Participle .326<br />
361. M ,, 326<br />
362. Kfv and dV 327<br />
363. Summary <strong>of</strong> uses difference <strong>of</strong> av and Kei> . 331<br />
364. Original meaning <strong>of</strong> av and itev . . . 334<br />
Order <strong>of</strong> Particles and Enclitic Pronouns . . -335<br />
365.<br />
CHAPTER XIV.<br />
Metre and Quantity.<br />
...... 366. The Hexameter 338<br />
367. Diaeresis and Caesura -338<br />
. . .<br />
368. Spondaic verses . . 34<br />
369. Quantity <strong>of</strong> Syllables<br />
. . . . .<br />
34 1<br />
370. Position -34 . . . . . 2<br />
371. Leng<strong>the</strong>ning before />, X, /*, v, cr, 5 . . .<br />
344<br />
372. Origin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> . . .<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ning 345<br />
373. Final -t <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat. Sing. .... 346<br />
374. Final -a <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Neut. Plur. . . . 347<br />
375. Short Syllables ending in a Consonant . . 347<br />
376. Elision, &c. . . 349<br />
377. Crasis *<br />
. . .<br />
35<br />
378. Synizesis<br />
. . . . 35 1<br />
378*. Contraction . . . . 35 1
xxiv<br />
TABLE OF CONTENTS.<br />
PAGE<br />
379. Hiatus 355<br />
380. Long vowels before Hiatus . . -355<br />
381. Shortening <strong>of</strong> diphthongs before Hiatus . .<br />
356<br />
382. Hiatus after short . . -<br />
syllables 357<br />
383. Doubtful Syllables<br />
.....<br />
. . . . .<br />
-357<br />
384. Doubtful vowels 358<br />
385. Doubling <strong>of</strong> ...... consonants . . 360<br />
. .<br />
386. Metrical licence 360<br />
387. Vocatives 360<br />
388. The . . . .<br />
Digamma .361<br />
389. Nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> evidence from metre . .361<br />
390. Words with initial f 363<br />
391. Words with initial af (<br />
e<br />
f ) .370<br />
. . .<br />
392. f inferred from metre only<br />
. . .<br />
371<br />
393. Loss <strong>of</strong> p , esp. before o,<br />
w . . .<br />
.372<br />
394-5. Initial 5f, fp, &c. 374<br />
not initial 375<br />
397. Loss <strong>of</strong> initial a and ..... i . . . . . 376<br />
398. Traces <strong>of</strong> f Summary 376<br />
399. Theories <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Digamma 376<br />
400. Hypo<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> alternative forms -377<br />
. .<br />
396. f .....<br />
401. Explanation from fixed phrases, &c. . . 377<br />
402. Hiatus, &c., as a survival -378<br />
. . .<br />
403. Explanation from <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> .<br />
f -379<br />
404-5. f in o<strong>the</strong>r Greek <strong>dialect</strong>s in Ionic -379<br />
. .<br />
APPENDIX C. On 77<br />
and et in Homer .... 384<br />
F. Pick's <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> <strong>dialect</strong> . 386<br />
.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r Notes and Corrections ....<br />
INDEX I. <strong>Homeric</strong> Forms .....<br />
396<br />
403<br />
II. Subjects<br />
. . . . . .<br />
424<br />
III. Chief passages referred to . . .<br />
.431<br />
ERRATA.<br />
Page 70, line 6, for yvus read yvws<br />
,, 83, ,, 23, for /eprjotvTos read ttpvoevros<br />
,, 93, ,, 30, for OrjprjOi read OvprjOi<br />
149, 38, before 18. 305 imert II.<br />
,, 185, i, for II. read Od.<br />
olos read olos<br />
,, 223, ,, 32, for<br />
,, 245, ,, 36, for three read two, and dele 16. 131.,<br />
259, ,, 12, for govering read governing<br />
22. 280 read 16. 61<br />
,, 309, ,, 12, for<br />
,, 329, ,, 10, for
HOMEHIC GRAMMAR<br />
CHAPTER I.<br />
INTRODUCTORY.<br />
THE PERSON-ENDINGS.<br />
ALL 1.] language <strong>of</strong> which <strong>grammar</strong> takes cognisance consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> SENTENCES. The simplest complete Sentence expresses <strong>the</strong><br />
combination <strong>of</strong> a SUBJECT that about which we speak (or think);<br />
and a PREDICATE that which we say (or think) about <strong>the</strong><br />
Subject. On <strong>the</strong> sentences which are (apparently or really) without<br />
a Subject, see 161, 163.<br />
2.] In Greek (and generally in languages whose structure<br />
resembles that <strong>of</strong> Greek) every Verb is a complete Sentence,<br />
consisting <strong>of</strong> two parts, <strong>the</strong> Stem, which expresses <strong>the</strong> Predicate,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Ending, which expresses <strong>the</strong> Subject. Thus CO--TI he<br />
(or it) is,
2 THE VERB. [4-<br />
4.] The fur<strong>the</strong>r modifications which <strong>the</strong> Endings undergo<br />
depend chiefly upon <strong>the</strong> final letter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem.<br />
In certain forms <strong>the</strong> Ending is preceded by O or E : that is<br />
to say, O before <strong>the</strong> nasals fx, K, and E before o<strong>the</strong>r letters e. ; g.<br />
nr7rrO-fAj>, TUTrrE-re, TVTtrO-vTi (older and Dor. form <strong>of</strong> TVTTTOVO-L).<br />
We shall call this <strong>the</strong> Thematic Vowel,* and <strong>the</strong> Stems which<br />
contain it Thematic Stems. The term will naturally include <strong>the</strong><br />
corresponding Subjunctives, in which <strong>the</strong> final letter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem<br />
varies in <strong>the</strong> same way between and as YJ<br />
u>, Tuirrw-jxeK, Tu'imi-Te, &c.<br />
and <strong>the</strong> I Sing, in -. These long vowels doubtless represent a<br />
primitive contraction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Thematic vowel with some o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
element : but <strong>the</strong> exact process can hardly be determined.<br />
The forms which do not contain this variable e <strong>of</strong> o are called<br />
Non-Thematic. Among <strong>the</strong>se, again, we have to distinguish a<br />
group <strong>of</strong> Tenses with Stems ending in -d, viz. <strong>the</strong> Perfect, <strong>the</strong><br />
First Aorist, and some forms peculiar to <strong>the</strong> Ionic Dialect, as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Plpf<br />
.<br />
(e. g. 7]6ea / knew],<br />
<strong>the</strong> .<br />
Impf rja I was, rfia I went. In<br />
<strong>the</strong>se Stems <strong>the</strong> -a changes in <strong>the</strong> 3 Sing, to -e^.f<br />
The distinction between Thematic and Non-Thematic applies in strictness<br />
only to forms, but may generally be extended to Tenses and Moods. Thus <strong>the</strong><br />
are Non-<br />
Pres. and Impf. <strong>of</strong> TVTTTCU are Thematic, <strong>the</strong> same Tenses <strong>of</strong> tyr^i<br />
Thematic. In every Verb <strong>the</strong> Future is Thematic, <strong>the</strong> Optative is Non-Thematic,<br />
&c. But <strong>the</strong> distinction does not apply to ' Verbs ' (in <strong>the</strong> collective sense <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> term), because almost every Verb is made up <strong>of</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> both kinds.<br />
5.] In <strong>the</strong> following Table <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Person-Endings found in<br />
Homer <strong>the</strong> Endings distinguished by larger type are those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Non-Thematic Tenses. The Endings in smaller type are, first,<br />
those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forms with -a, and, under <strong>the</strong>m again, those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Thematic forms. In <strong>the</strong> Dual and Plural (except <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur.)<br />
<strong>the</strong> Endings are <strong>the</strong> same throughout.<br />
* This vowel has also been termed <strong>the</strong> ' Connecting ' or 'Auxiliary' Vowel<br />
names given on <strong>the</strong> supposition that it is originally euphonic, inserted in<br />
order to allow <strong>the</strong> Stem and <strong>the</strong> Ending to be distinctly heard in pronunciation.<br />
The name ' Thematic ' implies a different <strong>the</strong>ory, viz. that it serves to form a<br />
'<br />
Theme ' from a simpler element or ' Boot/ as \y- from <strong>the</strong> Boot \( 7- see<br />
;<br />
Curt. Chron. p. 40. On this <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>the</strong> Stem \ey-e, \ty-o is originally <strong>the</strong> same<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Theme or Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Noun \6yo-s. See <strong>the</strong> remarks <strong>of</strong> Brugmann,<br />
Grundriss, ii. 8, n. I.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> former edition <strong>the</strong> -co <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> I Sing, was explained as -o-ju (Sanscr.<br />
d-mi). It is now generally thought that -
5-]<br />
PERSON-ENDINGS.<br />
,<br />
O b<br />
b ?<br />
o ^> b b<br />
b ^t<br />
*?
4 PERSON-ENDINGS. [5-<br />
Remarks on <strong>the</strong> Table <strong>of</strong> Person-Endings.<br />
1 Sing. On <strong>the</strong> Subj. in -w-fu see 82, and on <strong>the</strong> Optatives<br />
which take -ju in <strong>the</strong> I Sing, see 83.<br />
2 Sing. The original<br />
-o-i remains only in Icr-o-i thou art.<br />
The form ets (or enclitic ds) is read in nine places, but <strong>the</strong>re is only one<br />
(Od. 17. 388) in which <strong>the</strong> metre does not allow eW to be read instead.<br />
Probably, <strong>the</strong>refore, lo-crC is <strong>the</strong> genuine <strong>Homeric</strong> form. The Attic e? is not<br />
found in Homer.<br />
The Ending<br />
-o-0a occurs in <strong>the</strong> Pf. ota0a thou hiowest (oi8as in<br />
Od. I. 337, is a very doubtful reading), Plpf. fjbr](r0a (Od. 19.<br />
93), <strong>the</strong> Impf. and rfar0a erjo-fla thou wast, e
5-] PERSON-ENDINGS. 5<br />
suffer Hyphaeresis (cp. 105, 4),<br />
and drop one e ;<br />
as /owfleat (Od.<br />
2. 202), aTTo-ai/oeo, e/cAeo. But we find also /wtfetat (Od. 8. 180),<br />
velai (Od. 1 1. 114., 12. 141) where it is possible to substitute<br />
<strong>the</strong> uncontracted /uud&ai, z>eeai -and atSeto (II. 24. 503).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Imper. <strong>the</strong> Ending<br />
-0i is common in Non-Thematic<br />
Tenses :<br />
t-0i, o-rrj-fli, KXv-6i, KexXv-Oi, e.ara-0t, opvv-Oi, (f)dvrj-6i<br />
(II. 18.^198), btia>-0L (Od. 3. 380), ^7uVAr7-0 t (II. 23. 311). We<br />
find -s in 0e-?, 8o-s, Trpot-s (Trpo- 117^1),<br />
and <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>matic vi-cnr-s<br />
tell (cp. Attic o-^e-j).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> forms iffrrj (II. 21. 313), SatVt) (II. 9. 70), SfiKvv (Hes. Th. 526), <strong>the</strong> long<br />
final vowel probably comes by analogy from <strong>the</strong> Pres. and Impf. Singular<br />
forms (by <strong>the</strong> ' proportion ' Impf. e\ef-$, e\tye Imper. : \eye : : iffrr]*, lartj :<br />
forr)}. For <strong>the</strong> forms Ka6-i),<br />
in which<br />
<strong>the</strong> phonetic change <strong>of</strong> -TI to -a(rt, loraori, rt^etcrt, bibova-i, {tvyvva-i (not TiOt-acrt, &c v as in<br />
Attic).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> accent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se forms, see 87, 2.<br />
The Perfect Act. has -do-t and -ao-i. The latter occurs only<br />
twice in Homer, Tre^K-ao-t (Od. 7. 114), AeXoyxao-iz; (Od. n.<br />
304) for o<strong>the</strong>r examples in Ionic see Curt. Verb. ii. 166. In<br />
;<br />
<strong>the</strong>se forms <strong>the</strong> a belongs to <strong>the</strong> Ending, since -ao-i is for -an,<br />
which corresponds to <strong>the</strong> -m <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Doric Qa-vrC, Xtyo-vn (as<br />
-arai in <strong>the</strong> Mid. to -rrai).<br />
The forms with -dai belong to two<br />
essentially distinct groups; see 7.<br />
The secondary -w (for -avr)<br />
is found in all Aorists which form<br />
<strong>the</strong> i Sing, in -a. It may also be traced in <strong>the</strong> Impf. <strong>of</strong> et/xt,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> form j\v (Hes. Th. 321, 825), for ^av (Sanscr. asan).<br />
Non-Thematic -v occurs in <strong>the</strong> forms !
6 PERSON-ENDINGSDUAL. [6.<br />
The Imper. Endings -ro>o-ai>,<br />
-o-O&ffav are post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
1 Dual. -jJieOo^ occurs only once, in Tre/nSwjuiefloz^ II. 23. 485.<br />
Elmsley (on Ar. Ach. 733) maintained that this form was a<br />
fiction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>grammar</strong>ians. It is defended by G. Curtius Verb.<br />
( I. 97 and <strong>the</strong>re seems no valid reason for f.), rejecting it.<br />
2 and 3 Dual. In <strong>the</strong> Historical Tenses, according to <strong>the</strong><br />
ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians,,<br />
<strong>the</strong> regular Endings are<br />
2, Dual Act. -TOV, Mid. -.<br />
3<br />
"rt<br />
\<br />
v i<br />
'aQl \<br />
y -<br />
This scheme, however, is open to some doubt for<br />
;<br />
(1) Homer has three instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 3 Dual Impf. in -TOV, where <strong>the</strong> metre<br />
does not admit <strong>of</strong> -rrjv, viz. Stowe-rop (II. 10. 363), CTCI/X^-TOI/ (II. 13. 345),<br />
Xa(f>vffff6Tov (II. 18. 583). Three o<strong>the</strong>rs in -o-0ov occur as various readings,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> metre admits <strong>of</strong> ei<strong>the</strong>r -aOov or -oQrjv, viz. dtyiKe-aOov, read by some<br />
ancient critics (probably Zenodotus) in II. 13. 613 : Oup-qffae-crOov, <strong>the</strong> reading<br />
<strong>of</strong> A. (<strong>the</strong> Cod. Venetus) and Eust. in II. 16. 218: -nkri-aQov, a marginal<br />
variant <strong>of</strong> A. in II. 23. 506.<br />
(2) Three forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2 Dual in -TTJV were read in <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Zenodotus,<br />
viz. K(Hi.k-Tt\v (II.<br />
8. 448), \a0f-Trjv (II. 10. 545), -^eeXc-rrji/ (II. u. 782).<br />
Aristarchus read Ka^t-rov, \dfie-Tov, rjOeke-rov. The metre gives no help to a<br />
decision.<br />
(3) In Attic <strong>the</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 2 Dual in -TTJV, - is found in eorcoz/ I. (II. 338) and<br />
Ko/xemoy (II. 8. 109). As to eorojz; in Od. I.<br />
273, where it is<br />
usually taken as a Plural, see 1 73.<br />
Variation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem.<br />
6.] In Thematic Stems it is plain that <strong>the</strong> Ending influences<br />
only <strong>the</strong> final e(o), leaving <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem unaffected.<br />
Non-Thematic forms, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, are liable to variations<br />
in quantity which affect <strong>the</strong> main vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem. These<br />
variations are governed by <strong>the</strong> general rule that when <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
two forms <strong>of</strong> a Stem <strong>the</strong> longer is found with <strong>the</strong> Endings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>
6.]<br />
VARIATION OF STEM. 7<br />
Sing. Indie. Act.^ <strong>the</strong> shorter with all o<strong>the</strong>r Endings,<br />
viz. those <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Dual and Plural, <strong>the</strong> Imperative, and <strong>the</strong> Middle. Thus :<br />
(i) a, e, o interchange with <strong>the</strong> corresponding long vowels<br />
d (in Ionic r]), rj, w ;<br />
as
8 THIRD PERSON PLURAL.<br />
[7.<br />
Thus we have an apparent interchange <strong>of</strong> two<br />
veo), f-irf-v-ov (4>v-, cp.
8.]<br />
MIDDLE VOICE. 9<br />
answering to -aw. The corresponding1 Mid. -o-arai is found in<br />
Doric (yeypa^arai, Tab. Heracl. i.<br />
131, in C. I. 5774).<br />
The contraction in lo-racri, TcOvaai is evidently due to <strong>the</strong> impossibility <strong>of</strong><br />
4(rr
IO THE TENSES.<br />
[9.<br />
(4) The Reciprocal use ; apeifioiievos taking his turn ;<br />
to tell over (in talk) ; d/oeV/ceo-flai to maJce friends with vvo-arojjievtov<br />
(II. 14. 26) as <strong>the</strong>y pierced each o<strong>the</strong>r ; eptibecrOov (II. 33.<br />
735)jpush each o<strong>the</strong>r \ strive. Hence <strong>the</strong> Middle form <strong>of</strong><br />
Fr. se battre and its equivalents, aycoznbjuia6,<br />
(5) The Passive use, as exe-rcu is possessed, e/SA^-ro ftvzs struck,<br />
o w#s bound, eK-TreTro-rat z's drunk up. This is not a very<br />
common use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle. It may be illustrated from <strong>the</strong><br />
similar use <strong>of</strong> some Reflexive Verbs in French, as *<br />
'<br />
je<br />
me trouve<br />
1 am found,<br />
*il se mange ' it is eaten.<br />
The Middle is ra<strong>the</strong>r more common in Homer than in later<br />
Greek. For example, in <strong>the</strong> class <strong>of</strong> Verbs <strong>of</strong> feeling and thinking<br />
we may add <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> fyapai, yaw/mat, eA8o//at, lATrojutat, 060-<br />
//ai, oro/xcu, orevo/uku, K^apovro,<br />
dbva-acrOai.. And <strong>the</strong> use is extended<br />
to Verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
seeing and hearing, as 6pw-/xat (Aor. t8e'-o-0ai),<br />
aKOvo-jxai (used as well as 6/)
10.]<br />
THE TENSES. II<br />
This we shall call <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem. A Verb-Stem not derived from<br />
more primitive elements is called a Root.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> different forms belonging to any one TENSE are<br />
which we shall call <strong>the</strong> Tense-Stem.<br />
based upon a common part,<br />
This part may be <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem or it ; may contain<br />
an additional element, as 8t- in 5i-8o-juez;, 8t-8o-tV^ &c.<br />
5 ;<br />
-T, -TO in TVTT-T-T, TV7T-TO-fJiV, <br />
/ will be writing and 0a ypcn//^<br />
I will write, related to each o<strong>the</strong>r as ey/>a$oz><br />
and ypa\j/a.<br />
10.] Formation <strong>of</strong> Tense-Stems. Leaving out <strong>of</strong> sight <strong>the</strong><br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> several Tenses, and looking to <strong>the</strong> mode <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
formation, we may distinguish <strong>the</strong> following groups :<br />
(i)<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem serving as Tense-Stem<br />
The Simple Non-Thematic Present, as fa-pi.<br />
The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist, as t-pr]-v.<br />
The Aorist in -a, as e-
12 TENSES. [ll.<br />
(2) With Tense-Stem enlarged from Verb-Stem<br />
The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present, as ri-Or]-^.<br />
The Present in -nq-jju<br />
and -yu-ju, as a-Kib-vrj-^i, beiK-vv-fjn,.<br />
The Perfect.<br />
(3)<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Thematic Vowel<br />
The ordinary Thematic Present, as A.eyo>.<br />
The Present with short Stem, as ayco.<br />
The Simple Thematic Aorist, as e-Aa/3-o-z;.<br />
(4) With Reduplication (Thematic)<br />
The Thematic Reduplicated Present, as yt-yv-0-fj.ai.<br />
The Thematic Reduplicated Aorist, as ij-y-dy-o-v.<br />
(5) With o<strong>the</strong>r Suffixes (Non-Thematic)<br />
The Aorist in -ad, and in - (Aor. II Pass.).<br />
The Aorist in -0Tj-i> (Aor.<br />
I Pass.).<br />
(6) With o<strong>the</strong>r Suffixes (Thematic)<br />
The Present in -TW (T-Class <strong>of</strong> Curtius).<br />
The Present in -vw (Nasal Class).<br />
The Present in -cncco, and <strong>the</strong> Iterative forms.<br />
The Present in -w (I-Class).<br />
The Future in -o-w, -(, Part. (f>ds.
12.]<br />
NON-THEMATIC PRESENT. 13<br />
Mid. 2 Plur. a-jueyoy.<br />
And similarly<br />
Pres. et-jut, el-o-Oa, et-o-t, 3 Du. -roi>, Plur. i-^ez;, t-re, tacrt.<br />
Impf. 3 Du. t-rrjv, 3 Plur. frrazj, Imper. l-Qi, I-TO), t-re, Inf.<br />
t-juerat (once and teVai.<br />
t),<br />
The i Sing, rfia does not represent <strong>the</strong> original form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Impf., which<br />
would be TJa (for ^a, Sanscr. dyam). Hence fjfawith <strong>the</strong> 3 Sing. f^i and 3 Plur.<br />
fjtcrav, -rjo-av must be formed like rjSea and o<strong>the</strong>r Pluperfects in -co, ( 68, 2) ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original tjea, rjecrav being changed to i under <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> i-pev,<br />
&c. (Wackernagel, J. Z. xxv. 266). For -
14 TENSES. [13.<br />
corruption or misreading.<br />
The facts certainly give much countenance to this<br />
view, which has been adopted by Curtius (Stud. i. 2, 292) and Nauck. It<br />
can hardly be accidental that out <strong>of</strong> 54 places in which rjv occurs in <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>sis<br />
or second half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> foot, <strong>the</strong>re are 50 in which it is followed by a vowel, as<br />
II. 2. 77 NCO-TOJ/) os pa IlvAoiO dvag rjv r/ftaOoevTOS.<br />
Od. 17. 208 8' ajjL(f)l dp' alyetpwv vScLTOTpttyecw r\v d\ffos.<br />
Moreover, out <strong>of</strong> 72 instances <strong>of</strong> ITJV <strong>the</strong>re are 63 in which it is followed by<br />
a consonant (including f).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, in 26 places TJV occurs in <strong>the</strong><br />
first half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> foot, and in 2 places it ends <strong>the</strong> line (in <strong>the</strong> phrase ou5' dpa ircas<br />
or cev,<br />
and it is not<br />
rjv) easy to correct many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se so as to admit TJCV ;<br />
Again, fy and V nave sme support in <strong>the</strong> 2 Sing, forms ^aOa, ^a$a. (For<br />
e?7n, in Hes. Th. 875), and <strong>the</strong><br />
Opt. Kixe-irj may find. The vowel is also long in epiJ-ro protected,<br />
Inf. pv-crOai, ;<br />
and in all forms <strong>of</strong> Ketjuai, ^juat, orcv/xat.<br />
A similar Non-<strong>the</strong>matic inflexion, in which <strong>the</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Stem is long except before -IT and -i, appears in <strong>the</strong> j^Eolic<br />
conjugation <strong>of</strong> verbs in -ju, as ye'Aai-j/t / laugh, aivr\-\ki<br />
I praise<br />
(Hes. Op. 681), (/Arj-ju Hove (i<br />
Plur. (j)i\rj-^v, 3 Plur.<br />
Part. ^>tX?;-jULe^os), crdco-jut<br />
I save. See 19.<br />
13.] The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist. This term includes<br />
<strong>the</strong> ( Second Aorists/ such as -(3r]-v e-o-r?;-^ &c., and also those<br />
so-called First Aorists in which <strong>the</strong> -d <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> i Sing. Active is<br />
added directly to <strong>the</strong> Verb-stem, as in e-xev-a.<br />
Variation <strong>of</strong> quantity<br />
is rare in <strong>the</strong> Active, but <strong>the</strong> Stem is<br />
usually shortened in <strong>the</strong> Middle. The chief forms are : e-fa-v<br />
I went, 3 Du. (3d-rr]v (but also f-firjrriv), 3 Plur. virtp-fid-a-av,<br />
Imper. /merd-/3rj^t, Inf. /3rj-/xef at : Z-VT*]-V I stood, Du. OTTJ-TT/Z^<br />
Plur. e-o"n7-fxei>, e-o-rrj-re, l-oTrj-o-ay, Imper.
I4-]<br />
NON-THEMATIC AORIST. 15<br />
(Hes. Op. 98), 3 Du. Kara-TTT^-T^v cowered, Mid. e-Trra-ro flew:<br />
e-or|3T)<br />
was quenched ; e-rXt]-^ / endured, Plur. e-rArj-fxei^ e-rArj-re,<br />
Imper. rA?j-rco, rArj-re ; e-yi/w-i/<br />
7 yfoztfw, 3 Du. yvto-rrjv, 3 Plur.<br />
-yvo)-(rav ; eir-e-irXw-s
T6 TENSES. [15.<br />
as pv-a-OaL<br />
to shield (Fpv-), pv-ros drawn (Ftpv-, Fpv-), rpv-a> (cp.<br />
is <strong>of</strong><br />
rp-Tj-, root Hence it<br />
tar). is probable that <strong>the</strong> long vowel 1<br />
<strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> a suffix, by which a new verbal stem is formed from<br />
<strong>the</strong> primitive stem or * root/ This vowel usually does not vary<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Person-endings, but is long in all forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tense.<br />
It cannot be an accident, however, that <strong>the</strong> same Stems appear<br />
also as disyllables with a short final vowel :<br />
KaA.-e<br />
raA-a, 7reA-a,
1 6.]<br />
NON-THEMATIC TENSES. T;<br />
i8-juer.<br />
The 3 Sing, in -e(i>),<br />
follows <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Thematic<br />
conjugation (ex eve like eAeye).<br />
The three Aoristsin -icd, e-0r;/ca I put, e-rj/ca I sent forth, e-oa)Ka<br />
I gave, are inflected as follows :<br />
1 Sing. -6r]Ka I Plur. e-0e-/xez><br />
2 e-flq/ca-s- 2 Du. e-0e-roz> 2 e-0e-re<br />
Imper. 0e'-y, #e'-ra>, Plur. 0e'-re, Qi-vrav.<br />
Inf. Oe-fjievaL, Oe-pev, Oelvai, Part, 0eis, Oe-vros, &c.<br />
Mid. t-Qt-wv &c. with 6e- as stem throughout.<br />
Thus 6r]K.a-, 77*01-, SCOKCI- alternate with 0e-, e-, So- as long and<br />
short Stems respectively. The only forms in Homer which do<br />
not conform to this scheme are <strong>the</strong> I Plur. eV-?j/ca-/iezj (Od. 12.<br />
401), and <strong>the</strong> 3 Sing. Mid. OrjKa-ro (II.<br />
10. 31., 14. 187, also<br />
Hes. Th. 175).<br />
The primitive 3 Plur. e-oo-*> occurs in Hes. Th.<br />
30, and in Doric : e-Oe-v only on inscriptions (C. L 29).<br />
The <strong>Homeric</strong> forms with <strong>the</strong> stem I- do not take <strong>the</strong> augment :<br />
in Attic we have (e. g.) et-juezj et-re (for e-e-jmev e-e-re).<br />
In respect <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> -a <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem <strong>the</strong> 2 Sing. e-tfrjKa-j is<br />
formed like e-xeva-?, and <strong>the</strong> occasional examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> type<br />
-6rjKa-}JLv, e-flrj/ca-ro are parallel to e-ytva-nev, e-xem-ro. That<br />
is to say, <strong>the</strong> -a comes from e-0?)Ka, c-OrjKa-v. The relation <strong>of</strong><br />
e-0?7Ka-//,ez>, z-OrJKa-To to !-0e-//ez>, e-0e-ro, is complicated by <strong>the</strong><br />
use <strong>of</strong> a new Verb-Stem (flrj-Kinstead<br />
<strong>of</strong> #17-).<br />
Thus it is <strong>the</strong><br />
same as <strong>the</strong> relation <strong>of</strong> eomJKa-/xez> to e'ora-juei> ( 22).<br />
The Aorist tfveiKa (without augment eVeiKa) shows no variation<br />
<strong>of</strong> stem ; I Plur. eveiKa-^v, 3 Plur. TJVLKCL-V and ViKa-v, Imper.<br />
eW/ca-re, Mid. 3 Plur. ^ei/ca-zro.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> Aorist etTra see 37.<br />
16.]<br />
The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present. These<br />
Presents are formed by Reduplication, usually <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> initial<br />
consonant with t; riOrj-cri puts, 8t6o)-^t I give, ITJ-O-I (for 0-60-17-0-1?)<br />
sends, laraa-i<br />
(o-i-o-ra-) <strong>the</strong>y set, m/UTrAao-t <strong>the</strong>y fill (<strong>the</strong> ja<br />
is<br />
euphonic it is dropped after in : //, l^-TrtTrAry-^t), bibr] bound,<br />
j3i(3a-s striding with Attic<br />
; Reduplication, 6vivr}--0i<br />
(Od. 3. 380)*, and <strong>the</strong> Inf. rt^ij-juerat (II. 23. 83, 247) and Part.<br />
* The variation is perhaps less regular in <strong>the</strong> Imper.; cp.<br />
Sanscr. <strong>the</strong> 3 Sing. Imper. has <strong>the</strong> strong Stem.<br />
C<br />
K\v-0i. In
1 8 TENSES. [17.<br />
10. 34). Also in bifn-^ai I seek (for<br />
(II.<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Verb answering to Attic C^-rew.<br />
tiqjjit<br />
is now generally connected with Lat. sero (for si-so, cp. 'iffrrjfjii sisto).<br />
Earlier scholars (as Bopp) derived it from <strong>the</strong> root yd (Lat. ja-c-io\ Possibly<br />
it represents both and ai-cnrjfu (sa-) I-IKIJAI (?/-). In meaning<br />
it is much nearer<br />
to jacio than to sero.<br />
17.] Present Stems in -nrj (-m) and ->u. The Tense-Stems<br />
<strong>of</strong> this class which may be called <strong>the</strong> Non-Thematic Nasal<br />
class form <strong>the</strong> Present-Stem from <strong>the</strong> Verb- Stem by <strong>the</strong><br />
Suffixes -vv -vr], (which with Heavy Endings regularly become<br />
-I'd,<br />
-vv).<br />
The Presents with -nrj (-/&) are nearly all peculiar to Homer,<br />
I<br />
bajj,-vr]-fjLL subdue, nlp-vr] mixed, nep-va-s selling, o-Kib-va-Tai is<br />
scattered, mA-i/a-rat comes near, y^ap-va-rai fights. Note I for e in<br />
Ktp-,
1 8.]<br />
THEMATIC FORMS. 19<br />
ebibovs, ebibov Imper. bibov (Od. : 3. 58).<br />
Examples occur also in <strong>the</strong> Pres. Indie,; ba^va (3 Sing. Act.)<br />
in Od. ii. 221 (with v. 1.<br />
bd^var)-, bapvq (2' Sing. Mid.) in<br />
II. 14. 199 (with v. 1. bafjiva, for bapva-ai) ; ai/-teis (II. 5. 880),<br />
pfO-ieis (II. 6. 523, Od. 4. 372), ptd-iel (II. 10. 121), Ti0ei (II. 13.<br />
732), 7rap-rt0et (Od. I. 192), for which <strong>the</strong> MSS. usually have<br />
azn'eis, &c. : SiSois (II. 9. 164), 61801 (II. 9. 519, Od. 4. 237). So<br />
for vpolci in II. 2. 752 we should read<br />
Add <strong>the</strong> Part, fiifiuvra (II. 3. 22, cp. 13. 807., 16. 609), Fern.<br />
/3i/3wo-a (Od. 1 1 . 539) ; for which Bekk. writes /3i/3ayra, /B<br />
Editors differ in <strong>the</strong>ir manner <strong>of</strong> dealing with <strong>the</strong>se forms. Bekker in his<br />
second edition (1858) restored <strong>the</strong> 2 Sing. Pres. rldijs, i'rjs, 5i8 Taw-awn, TOLVV-OVTO (four times),<br />
* In considering this and similar questions it should be remembered (i)<br />
that we do not know when <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> poems were first written down ;<br />
(2) that we do not know <strong>of</strong> any systematic attention having been paid to<br />
spelling, accentuation, &c. before <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Alexandrian <strong>grammar</strong>ians ;<br />
(3) that <strong>the</strong> tendency <strong>of</strong> oral recitation must have been to substitute later for<br />
earlier forms, unless <strong>the</strong> metre stood in <strong>the</strong> way ; (4) that this modernising<br />
process went on in different parts <strong>of</strong> Greece, and <strong>the</strong>refore need not represent<br />
<strong>the</strong> exclusive influence <strong>of</strong> any one <strong>dialect</strong> ; (5) that <strong>the</strong> older Ionic alphabet<br />
confused e, t, t]<br />
and o, ou, w.<br />
C 2
20 TENSES. [19.<br />
Tavv-iv (II. 17. 391), aria* (II. 4. 56, but may be Fut.).<br />
As to<br />
v-rj (2 Sing-. Subj. Mid.) see 80.<br />
Also, <strong>the</strong> Verb pvo^ai protect, save, is for <strong>the</strong> most part Non-<br />
Thematic (Zpv-o-o, epu-ro, 3 Plur. pv-aro, Inf. p-o-0at), but partly<br />
-. S<br />
Thematic (pue-rat, pve-ro, pvo-vTai, &c.),<br />
see n. And <strong>the</strong><br />
Aor. e-nXv-ov is Thematic, except <strong>the</strong> Imper. K.\.v-Qi, KXv-rt.<br />
It should be observed that in all <strong>the</strong> foregoing cases <strong>the</strong> Thematic form is<br />
obtained by combining <strong>the</strong>matic endings with <strong>the</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem.<br />
In o<strong>the</strong>r cases <strong>the</strong> original final vowel is lost, as i've(i/) for e-icix 7 8to> for<br />
],<br />
ilfrj-ftatj<br />
and <strong>the</strong> like.<br />
19.]<br />
Won - Thematic Contracted Verbs. The following<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> forms are usually regarded as instances <strong>of</strong> 'irregular<br />
Contraction ' <strong>of</strong> Verbs in -aco, -eco, -oco :<br />
(-aw) :<br />
(jvvavTf]-Tif]v met, crvXr^-Trji' spoiled, Trpocravbrj-Trjv spoke to,<br />
$oiTr\-Ti]v went about, /a-rj scraped, apri-^evai to pray, yor/-//,Jai to<br />
bewail, -neivri-pevai to hunger, drj-o-Oai to milk.<br />
(-ew) : a7ri\Yi-Tr]v threatened, o/xaprrj-r^y met, KaXrj-fjLtvai to call,<br />
iTv6ri-jjivaL to mourn, Tro^-juerai to regret, (^ikri-^vai to love, cf)opf]-<br />
fjLtvai, (j)op7J-vai to carry, aAir?]-juero9 sinning, re/)o-?}-juerat to get<br />
dry (<br />
4^).<br />
<strong>of</strong> o-ao'co<br />
(-ow) o-aco 3 Sing. Impf. and also 2 Sing. Imper :<br />
I keep safe.<br />
These forms cannot be explained by <strong>the</strong> ordinary contraction<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Thematic e or o e. :<br />
g. ^oirr]-Tr]v cannot come from *(/>ot-<br />
Taerrjv, fyoprj-vai from "<br />
5f<br />
*op*4-vai, aXiTr]-^vot\iT]v, -oirjv (for<br />
which however in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> verbs in<br />
-ew we expect -eirjy, as in KL\LT]V and ^Eolic ^lAetr;).<br />
These facts seem to show that <strong>the</strong> formation now in question<br />
is <strong>of</strong> high antiquity, and Curtius even maintained that it was<br />
older than <strong>the</strong> ordinary conjugation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verbs in -aw, -ew, -ow.
1 9.]<br />
NON-THEMATIC CONTRACTED VERBS. 21<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se verbs, as he pointed out, <strong>the</strong>re is evidence to show that<br />
<strong>the</strong> vowel before <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>matic ending was originally long (e. g.<br />
in <strong>Homeric</strong> 8n/raa>y, TTivd is for older beiKvvjju and<br />
:<br />
<strong>the</strong>se again may be explained by contraction from -dt^juu, -^trj/ou,<br />
-oHrj/xt, <strong>the</strong> Greek representatives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sanscrit -aydmi. The<br />
Latin amo, doceo, PI. amdmus, docemus, would fall into this<br />
scheme, if we suppose that <strong>the</strong>y belong to <strong>the</strong> stage at which <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>matic endings had not extended beyond <strong>the</strong> I Sing.<br />
Against this <strong>the</strong>ory it is urged by Bruginann (M. U. i. 86)<br />
that <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>matic conjugation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se verbs is found also in<br />
Sanscrit, Zend, Slavo-Lithuanian and Germanic all which members<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indo-European<br />
if family, Curtius is right, must have<br />
recast <strong>the</strong>ir derivative verbs on <strong>the</strong> same <strong>the</strong>matic model. It is<br />
more probable <strong>the</strong>refore that <strong>the</strong>se verbs were originally <strong>the</strong>matic,<br />
and according to <strong>the</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> base appeared as verbs in<br />
-aoo (as z>tKa-o)), -eco (as Tr<strong>of</strong>le-o)), or -oco (as drji'o-co).<br />
On this<br />
assumption, again, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> forms now in question may be<br />
variously explained. Where we find rj<br />
for ee or ae, as in<br />
(f)i\rilJLV(u, yori^tvai (instead <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ei, d required by <strong>the</strong> ordinary<br />
we rules), may suppose, with Wackernagel (K. Z. xxvii. 84), that<br />
<strong>the</strong> contraction belongs to an earlier (pre-Hellenic) period. The<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> such a period is<br />
proved (e. g.) by <strong>the</strong> temporal<br />
augment, as in ??(cr)a for an original e-eo-a. Then <strong>the</strong> participles<br />
aAinj/xez/o?,
22 TENSES. [2O.<br />
Similarly, again, <strong>the</strong> *<br />
analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verbs in -ju/ and especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> those tenses which do not vary <strong>the</strong> quantity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stem (as<br />
KI'XIMU, arj/u, 77X77-7-0, tyvav) has affected <strong>the</strong> derivative verbs, and<br />
has thus produced <strong>the</strong> non-<strong>the</strong>matic forms in question fyiXrmtvai<br />
like drjjuewu, aXiTri^vos like KIXWCVOS, and so on. The forms<br />
riflrJ-juezxH (II. 23. 83, 247), nOri-^vov (II. 10. 34) are probably<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same group <strong>of</strong> Verbs. A similar<br />
process explains <strong>the</strong> ^Eolic conjugation <strong>of</strong> verbs in -juu (ye'Acujut,<br />
^uAry/xt, SoKtV^M ^ne difference 1 )' being that in JEolic it was carried<br />
much fur<strong>the</strong>r. In Homer we have nothing answering to <strong>the</strong><br />
I Sing. (f)i\r]fjLi f <strong>the</strong> I Plur. ,<br />
<strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. (/uAeto-t, or <strong>the</strong><br />
corresponding Imperfect forms.<br />
We cannot be sure, however, that all <strong>the</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> this type which<br />
appeared in <strong>the</strong> original text <strong>of</strong> Homer have been preserved. Wackernagel<br />
has observed that nearly all <strong>the</strong> words now in question are forms which<br />
would be unfamiliar in <strong>the</strong> Greece <strong>of</strong> classical times. The list is made up<br />
chiefly <strong>of</strong> duals (irpoaavbrjTrjv, (poirrjTrjv, &c.) and Infinitives in -fifvai. It is not<br />
improbable (e.g.) that <strong>the</strong> familiar form TrpoaTjvba has supplanted an original<br />
Non-Thematic irp<strong>of</strong>f^vSr}.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand in II. n. 638 km 5' aiyeiov Kvr\<br />
rvpov <strong>the</strong> metre points ra<strong>the</strong>r to <strong>the</strong> uncontracted Kvde.<br />
20.] Aorists. Of <strong>the</strong> Aorist Stems noticed in 13, several<br />
are probably derived from Nouns, and do not differ in formation<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Presents discussed in <strong>the</strong> preceding section : e. g. e-yrjpu<br />
(yfjpa-s), /3tw-ro) (/3io-s), 7r-e7rAo)-s (77X00-9), ah&-vai, perhaps<br />
cnr-6vr)-To. Regarding <strong>the</strong> Passive Aorists, see 42-44.<br />
21.] Meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Non-Thematic Pres. and Aor. The<br />
Presents formed by Reduplication, and by <strong>the</strong> Suffixes -vv\ and<br />
-w, are nearly always Transitive or ( Causative ' in meaning, as<br />
torq-ju, (TKid-pq-juij op-vv-^i whereas <strong>the</strong> simpler Verbs, whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
:<br />
Present or Aorist, are usually Intransitive, as eo-rrj-z;, $ o-/3 77.<br />
Regarding <strong>the</strong> Tense-meaning, it is enough to point out here<br />
that <strong>the</strong> difference <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Present and Aorist is not given by <strong>the</strong><br />
form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tense : thus <strong>the</strong> Impf. e-ffrrj-v<br />
is <strong>the</strong> same in formation<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Aor. e-Sr-z;<br />
e-crn-zj.<br />
The Perfect.<br />
22.] The Perfect-Stem is formed by Reduplication, and is<br />
liable to vary with <strong>the</strong> Person-Endings ( 6).<br />
This variation is<br />
<strong>the</strong> rule in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Perfect. In Attic it survives in a few<br />
forms only; it is regular in otda and e'o-rrjKa.<br />
The weak form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem is <strong>the</strong> same (except for <strong>the</strong> Reduplication)<br />
as in <strong>the</strong> Tenses already discussed. The long Stem<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten different, showing a predilection for <strong>the</strong> O-form.<br />
The variation appears in <strong>the</strong> interchange <strong>of</strong>
22.] THE PERFECT.<br />
(1) tj (d) and a: as re07JA.-et bloomed, Part. Fern.<br />
apr/pe is fitting ', dpap-ina; A.eA.rjK-ws', A.eA.aK-wa yelling,<br />
jxe/xa/c-tua bleating', AeAaorat (AeAa0-rai, ArJ^-co)<br />
^#s f<strong>org</strong>otten,<br />
aKct)(-juez;os sharpened, Tre^a^-rat /to appeared; o-eVijTre<br />
w rotten<br />
(
24 TENSES. [22.<br />
(5) eu and u : Tre^evy-ws having escaped, Mid.<br />
raL are made, 3 Sing. reruK-rat ;<br />
KKevOe hides (Aor.<br />
efeuy-joievoi joined ((vy-6v). O<strong>the</strong>r weak Stems :<br />
ntyv-Tai,<br />
rat ( 15), TTtTTVcr-iJiai (TTV^-),<br />
KKkv-6i listen.<br />
ou interchanging with u is much less common :<br />
eiA?]A.oi>0a<br />
/ am<br />
come (\v9-), perhaps btbovir-oTos (cp. KTVTT-OS).<br />
u appears in jLte'juwke (Aor. /Ae), f3ej3pv^v roars, as in <strong>the</strong> Pres.<br />
(6) op (po),<br />
o\ and dp (pd),<br />
dX (for r, /, 6, 5) : bi-f^dopas #?^<br />
destroyed (
2,2,.]<br />
THE PERFECT.<br />
'<br />
25<br />
When <strong>the</strong> Stem ends in a vowel, certain forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pf. Act.<br />
1<br />
take K, thus filling <strong>the</strong> hiatus which would o<strong>the</strong>rwise be made<br />
between <strong>the</strong> Stem and <strong>the</strong> :<br />
Ending as in ZO-TYJ-K-CLS, 8ei'8oi-K-a,<br />
TeOapa-ij-K-da-L. The Perfects <strong>of</strong> this type including those <strong>of</strong><br />
which no forms with K are actually found may be divided again<br />
into<br />
(a) Perfects with variable root-vowel : eorr/Ka I stand, i Plur.<br />
t(TTa-fjiv ;<br />
8et8otKa I fear, I Plur. 8ei8t-^ei> ; Tre^uKe, 3 Plur. Ttetyvd(Ti:<br />
fiefirjKa, Inf. /3e/3a-/xez; ; T0vr]Ka} Imper. rtOva-Qi<br />
Imper. rerXa-Qi. Add also jue/ow-Ke is closed (<strong>of</strong> a wound),<br />
is sunk in, though <strong>the</strong> short form is not found.<br />
(b) Perfects with invariable long vowel, especially t]<br />
and w<br />
(discussed in 14) : /Se/SA^-K-et struck, Mid. j3e'j3A.rj-rai (cp. fvjut-<br />
(3Xrj-Tr]v, /SArj-jueroj) ; KCKfjirj-K-as art weary, 7^7T\r]-fjLvos brought<br />
near, KK\r]-fjLaL, eiprj-rcu, fjLfjivr]-fjLaL, rerjur^-jaeVoj ; /3e/3pco-K-a)j<br />
having eaten (Fut. Mid. /3/3p&>-o-ercu), ju4t/3Aa>-/c-e is gone, TreTrpwpiws<br />
fated.<br />
Similarly, from disyllabic Stems, 8e8ar/-K (Aor. -bdr]-v) has<br />
learned (Od. 8. 134), rer^x^-Ke (Od. 10. 88), and <strong>the</strong> Participles<br />
To this class belong <strong>the</strong> Perfects <strong>of</strong> derivative Verbs in -aw,<br />
-ew, -ow, -uw, as ^J3ir]-K-V (II. IO. 145, 172., 16. 22), V7i-epvr]^v-<br />
K<br />
(II. 22. 49lX b$L7TVYI-Kl (Od. 1 7. 359), T0ap(Tri-K-d(TL (II. 9.<br />
420, 687) : KKOT7]-ora, KKOpr]-oTa, aK-d^rj-fjLai, aX-aXri-^ai, oXa-<br />
\VKTf] -)U,at.<br />
(II. 10. 252, with v. 1. irapa;x cw CI ') ig formed as if from *Trap-oixe&,<br />
.<br />
dS-rj-K-oTes (Od. 12. 281, and four times in II. 10) means displeased, disgusted,<br />
and should probably be written daSrjKoTes, from daSe'cu (for d-o/a5-ecw).<br />
The Subj. {XTJKTJO-I (Od. 21. 36), Opt. Ixjicoi (H. Apoll. 165) point to a Pf.<br />
Pres. I\T]-KQ}.<br />
A Perfect in -0a<br />
may be recognised in eypriyop-Oaa-L keep<br />
(TO)<br />
awake 10. (II. 419) perhaps in <strong>the</strong> Opt. : /3e/3/ow0ois (II. 4. 35).<br />
In general <strong>the</strong> Perfects <strong>of</strong> derivative Verbs are formed with an<br />
It is a confirmation <strong>of</strong> this view that <strong>the</strong> Stem with -KO, is in <strong>the</strong> same form<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Present Stems with a suffixed K, 7, 9 ( 45), or
26 THE PERFECT.<br />
[23.<br />
/<br />
invariable Stem : as MKopvO-fjievos, 7re 7roAto--ro, oSwSixr-rat, KZKOVI-<br />
But no such Perfects are used in <strong>the</strong> Active.<br />
IJLGVOS.<br />
23.] The Reduplication takes <strong>the</strong> following forms :<br />
An (1) initial consonant is repeated with e. This is <strong>the</strong><br />
general rule we need : only notice <strong>the</strong> Perfects in which an<br />
original consonant has been lost, viz. :<br />
A labial semi-vowel (F)<br />
in e-eA-//eVos cooped in (for fe-feA-<br />
Hevos), tlpvarai (Ftpv-) are drawn up, etAv-ro (feAu-, volvo\<br />
e-opya (Ftpy-ov), e-oA-Tra, eotKa, Mid. ?;IK-TO (unless this<br />
comes from eta-Kco).<br />
A sibilant<br />
(o-)<br />
in f-arqjca (for ^o-e-oTrjKa), e-ep-jueVos strung<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r (Lat. sero).<br />
But <strong>the</strong> o- is retained in o-eVrjTre.<br />
when <strong>the</strong><br />
(2) Stems beginning with two consonants (except<br />
second is p X or<br />
fA v],<br />
or with , usually prefix e :<br />
only as 6i-e-<br />
(frOopas, e-$0iaro, e-Krrjo-flai (but KeKrrjjucu, Hes. Op. 437), e-<br />
feuy/u.eVat.<br />
But we find 7re-7m}co?, ire-irTavrai. And in eorr/Ka<br />
<strong>the</strong> rough breathing represents original o--.<br />
The group vF has been lost in c-aScus (ei<strong>the</strong>r o-e-o-FaSvs or<br />
e-o-fdScos) pleasing, and iu>6a, eco^a (Lat. sue-sco].<br />
The group 8f has <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>the</strong> vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
reduplication in 6t8otKa, 8et5t-)u,r, &c., which represent original<br />
be-SFoi-KCi, be-bFl-iJiev, &c.<br />
Initial p, which generally stands for Fp (sometimes ap), gives<br />
epp-_, as in tpprjKrai (Fprjy-), epptfcorat. Sometimes etp-_,<br />
as eip>;rcu<br />
(Fpv}-, cp. ver-bum), and dpvarai (pvo^at, Fpv- protect).<br />
One Stem<br />
reduplicates p, viz. pe-puTroojuieW, from pvTroco.<br />
Similarly we have e/xjuope, Mid. etftap-rat (o-jj.ap-) } and eWirrai<br />
We must distinguish between (i) phonetic loss, as <strong>of</strong>
24-]<br />
REDUPLICATION. 2/<br />
(4) Temporal Augment (see 67) : e. g. ty-ijir-Tai<br />
(5) In a few cases <strong>the</strong>re is no Reduplication :<br />
0180, for Folba, Sanscr. veda.<br />
are shut in (Ftpy-), Plpf. Zp^-aTo and (with augment)<br />
eo--ro and<br />
t/xai / am clo<strong>the</strong>d with (feo--), tv-crai, Plpf. eV-o-o,<br />
(with augment) e-eo--m, Du. tcr-Q^v, 3 Plur. eiaro, Part. etjuteVos.<br />
Reduplication is not to be found in <strong>the</strong> et <strong>of</strong> et/^ai,, el/zeroj,<br />
since <strong>the</strong>se are for Fta-pai, fea^e'ros (as etjua for FO-JJLO).<br />
The<br />
3 Sing. Pf. occurs once in Homer, in Od. IT. 191, where <strong>the</strong> best<br />
MSS. have rja-Tai, o<strong>the</strong>rs eto-reu and etrat. The true form is<br />
probably e'orcu,, preserved in an oracle in Hdt. I. 47 (cp. eWcu).<br />
apfyiayma (II. 2. 316) crying around can hardly be divided<br />
apfy-iayma, since <strong>the</strong> Stem tax- nas initial f ( 390). But a<br />
Stem fr/x- (Frjxri cry],<br />
weak form fax-* without Reduplication<br />
would give <strong>the</strong> Fern. Part. Fd^vla, whence a^i-ayma.<br />
These examples make it doubtful whe<strong>the</strong>r initial F was originally<br />
reduplicated in <strong>the</strong> Pf. stem. In Sanscr. <strong>the</strong> roots which<br />
begin with va (answering to Gr. fe-) take u-, as uvdca (vac-, Gr.<br />
fW-). Thus <strong>the</strong> fe- <strong>of</strong> FeToiKa, F e/"eAju,eVos, &c. may be later, due<br />
to <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Perfects.<br />
Se'x-arai await (II. 12. 147), Plpf. e-de'y/^ (Od. 9- 513., 12.<br />
230), Part, beyptvos (II. 2. 794., 9. 191., 18. 524., Od. 20.385),<br />
with <strong>the</strong> same Pf. meaning that we have in 8e6eyjmat (await) not<br />
receive, 28) : while in o<strong>the</strong>r places l-Sexm, &c. are no less<br />
clearly Aorists. It seems that we must recognise<br />
a Pf. form<br />
*e'yjotai (Buttm. G. G. ii. 149., Curt. Verb. ii. 144), probably<br />
older than 5e8eyjuat.<br />
(6) The Reduplication in Sei-5e'x-oVat <strong>the</strong>y welcome, seems to be<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> e Intensive ' forms, as in :<br />
8a-6iVKo/*cu see 61. The<br />
form belongs to btiK-vvfju, not Sex-ojuai (see Veitch).<br />
24.]<br />
In <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur.<br />
1. The long Stem with -a) are stretched out,
28 THE PERFECT.<br />
[2-5.<br />
welcome<br />
-, KKpv(p-araL (Hes. Op. 386). The aspirated forms <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Act., such as eiAr^a, KeKo
26.] PARTICIPLE. 29<br />
weak Stem, but <strong>the</strong>re are exceptions in Homer, due partly to<br />
<strong>the</strong> F <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Masc. and Neut. Suffix (-fcos, -ina, -fos), partly to<br />
<strong>the</strong> general tendency to adopt <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sing. Indie, as <strong>the</strong><br />
Stem. Thus <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Pf. Part, is intermediate between <strong>the</strong><br />
primitive formation with <strong>the</strong> weak Stem (as in Sanscrit), and <strong>the</strong><br />
nearly uniform long Stem <strong>of</strong> Attic. In particular<br />
1. When <strong>the</strong> Ending -us (-o'ro?) follows a vowel, one or both<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> concurrent vowels may be long : /ote/xa-ore, ^ejua-core (both<br />
for /xejud-fo're).<br />
So yeya-wraj ; /3e/3a-x??-K-a>9<br />
(II. 17. 748), 5e8ar]-/c-or? (Od. 2. 61), d8r/-/c-ores (II.<br />
10. 98,<br />
312, 399, 471., Od. 12. 281), and /3e/3pco-K-coy (II. 22. 94., Od.<br />
22. 403). These instances are hardly sufficient to prove that<br />
<strong>the</strong> form is <strong>Homeric</strong>, since we might read reri^coj, deSaTyoYe?,<br />
&c. (like /cexap>?w9, /cos<br />
is supported<br />
by Attic /3e/3p
30 THE PERFECT.<br />
[27.<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> refl^-coj)<br />
is not earlier than Theognis. Similarly<br />
yeyor-co? for yeyacos first appears in H. Merc. 17.<br />
5. The form ne^vC-ores flying (only in II. 20 and 21), seems<br />
to be formed from <strong>the</strong> noun $i;a, without <strong>the</strong> intervention <strong>of</strong><br />
any Tense- Stem. This account will apply also to<br />
KCKOTT-CUS (II. 13. 60), from KOTT-OS striking.<br />
8e8oim-oT09 (II. 23. 679) having fallen with a thud. (The<br />
regular form would be 8e8ov:r?7-co?, or ra<strong>the</strong>r perhaps ey 5 ovirr] -co?,<br />
cp. -ybovTrr]-(rav.)<br />
dpY)-jAeVos, in which <strong>the</strong> a <strong>of</strong> ap-rj<br />
is retained, against analogy.<br />
It is in favour <strong>of</strong> this view that many Denominative Verbs<br />
form <strong>the</strong> Pf. Part, without <strong>the</strong> corresponding Indicative, as<br />
KeKOTY)-ws and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs given above ( 22, 9).<br />
That is to say,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Participle is treated as a derivative Adjective, which may<br />
be formed independently <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> corresponding verb.<br />
27.] Thematic Perfects. By this term we understand <strong>the</strong><br />
forms which arise when a Perfect is inflected like a Present in -w.<br />
This change took place universally in Syracusan Doric, occasionally<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>dialect</strong>s. The chief <strong>Homeric</strong> instances are<br />
as follows :<br />
aywya : 3 Sing, aucoyet,<br />
which has a Present sense in several<br />
places (though more commonly it is a Plpf Dual<br />
.), av&ye-rov ;<br />
also yvtoyov, avo&yov, circoye, Opt. aucoyoijut, Imper. d^coye-rco,<br />
dvcoye-re. Such a form as ijvtoyov may be regarded ei<strong>the</strong>r as<br />
a <strong>the</strong>matic Plpf. <strong>of</strong> az;o>ya, or as .<br />
Impf <strong>of</strong> a new <strong>the</strong>matic Pres.<br />
dycoyco. This remark applies also to <strong>the</strong> next three cases.<br />
yeyum : eyeyowe, Inf. ycyaW-jtxei; (also yeyuviv or yeyoweiz;,<br />
II. 12.337).<br />
(only in <strong>the</strong> Part.) ^TrXrjyov and : TienXrjyov, Inf.<br />
,<br />
Mid. TreTrArjye-ro. Similarly<br />
ws (Part.)<br />
:<br />
ejue'/xr/Kou.<br />
(us : Plur. KK\riyovTs (II. 12. 125., 1 6. 430., 17. 756,<br />
759)5 perhaps TCTpiyoi/Tcs ( 26, i),<br />
and iceKo-iro^ 1. (v.<br />
for<br />
'<br />
/ce/co7rcoy,<br />
II. 13. 60., Od. 1 8. 335).<br />
(xc/jL^jjiai <strong>the</strong> Opt. : jue/owe'toro (II. 23. 361) is apparently obtained<br />
by transference <strong>of</strong> quantity from a <strong>the</strong>matic<br />
but we may read //e'juz^ro, 3 Sing, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> regular Opt.<br />
(II. 24. 745)'<br />
F r this, again, some MSS. have juejuiWju,?^, as<br />
if from */xe/uz>o-^cu.<br />
The 2 Sing. Ind. ^/jivy (II. 15* i&) also<br />
points to jutjuro/i/,at, but we may read /ae/ui^' (i. e. /ute/jtz^ai).<br />
fj^jjipXc-Tai (II. 19. 343) and (xe^pXe-To (jmeA-co) may be variously<br />
explained. Perhaps juejueA-, <strong>the</strong> short Stem answering to<br />
became by meta<strong>the</strong>sis /xe/xAe-, /jie/x/3Ae- :<br />
cp. ijfjippoTov for<br />
opwpe-rai (Od. 19. 377, 524, Subj. 6pu>pr)-raL II. 13. 2/l).<br />
&I!]&-TCU (v. 1. in Od. 22. 56, see 25, 3).<br />
We may add <strong>the</strong>
28.]<br />
MEANING. 31<br />
Pluperfects Sci'Sie feared, forivoQev (II.<br />
n. 266), t-n-tvT\v<strong>of</strong>ev (II. 2.<br />
219., 10. 134) : perhaps also <strong>the</strong> Optatives in -oiju, -015, &c. viz.<br />
/3e/3pco0-ots (II. 4. 35), /3e/3A?JK(H (II. 8. 270), irefavyoi (II. 2J.<br />
609), tATJKOi (H. Apoll. 165); see 83.<br />
28.] Meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Perfect. The Perfect denotes a lasting<br />
condition or attitude (e'is).<br />
If we compare <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> any<br />
Perfect with that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> corresponding Aorist or Present, we<br />
shall usually find that <strong>the</strong> Perfect denotes a permanent state, <strong>the</strong><br />
Aor. or Pres. an action which brings about or constitutes that<br />
state. Thus, 5aio> I kindle, btbrjt Hazes, or (better)<br />
is ablaze ;<br />
KV& hid, KKV0 has in hiding ; op-vv-Tai bestirs himself, opcope is<br />
astir; wAe-ro was lost, oAcoAe is undone; tfpape<br />
made to Jit,<br />
apt]pe fits (Intrans.) ; rapao-o-co I disturb, rerprj^et was in disorder ;<br />
/xetpo-juat / divide, ef/ujuope has for his share ; pvopai I save, shelter,<br />
eipv-arcu keep safe ; TV^ I make, re-ri>/c-rat is by making (not<br />
has been made) ; e$v grew, iretyvKt is by growth.<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> so-called Perfecta praesentia, /Se/fy/ca, eorrjKa, ytyr]Qa,<br />
fjL^vrjfjiai, TteiroiOa, ola, lotKa, KCKT^fiat, &c., are merely <strong>the</strong><br />
commonest instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> rule.<br />
Note <strong>the</strong> large number <strong>of</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Perfects denoting attitude,<br />
temper, &c. Besides those already mentioned we have TrapfjLfjLJ3\MK<br />
is posted beside, bebopKt is gazing, epptye shudders, r^rrjKa<br />
I am wasting, /ote/mvKe is closed (<strong>of</strong> wounds), SebaKpvo-at, art in<br />
tears, 8e'Seo be in waiting, opcope'xaro were on <strong>the</strong> stretch, TreTror??-<br />
arat are on <strong>the</strong> wing, KK/xr]Ka / am weary, 7rpo/3e'/3oi>A.a<br />
/ prefer,<br />
SetSta I fear, eoATra / hope, r^Orjira I am in amazement, rerA?7/ca-9<br />
thou hast heart, irtTrvvTaL has his senses, 8i8e'x-arat welcome (in<br />
<strong>the</strong> attitude <strong>of</strong> holding out <strong>the</strong> hand, while buKoYe bent toge<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
KKOTr)(&s in wrath, rertrycoj vexed, aSrjKws' disgusted, jue/x7]Aco9 in<br />
thought, TT
32 TENSES. [29.<br />
(In later Greek this use seems to be confined to <strong>the</strong> Middle :<br />
7re$ o'/3 0-0e do not be in T] alarm, Trerraucro keep silence?)<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Perfects which can be rendered by<br />
have is comparatively small. The chief instances in <strong>the</strong> Active are,<br />
eopya-s tliou Jiast done, 0770)770, / have seen, AeAoi77e has left,<br />
TTtirao-Oe<br />
ye have suffered, eT]8-co?, /3e/3pa)/c-cos having eaten <strong>the</strong>y are<br />
somewhat commoner in <strong>the</strong> Middle. Yet in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
Perfects (and probably in <strong>the</strong> Perfect <strong>of</strong> every period <strong>of</strong> Greek)<br />
we always find some continuing result implied. There is<br />
nothing<br />
in Greek like <strong>the</strong> Latin idiom fuit Ilium (<br />
= Ilium is no longer},<br />
vixi (<br />
= 1 have done with living}, &c.<br />
The Intransitive meaning1<br />
prevails in <strong>the</strong> Perfect, so that <strong>the</strong><br />
Act. is hardly distinguishable from <strong>the</strong> Mid. : cp. re'reu^e an
30.]<br />
THEMATIC PRESENT. 33<br />
The forms with ci for c,<br />
as Qd-eiv, TrXet'ew, w&av,<br />
(for Ot-tiv, &c.) should probably be written with eu,<br />
7rXev~etz>, &c. See Appendix C.<br />
(4) ep (pc) : 8epK-o-jutat 7 behold, rep-Trety<br />
fo rejoice, -zrep^ero<br />
w##<br />
sacked, eepyet confines, repo-erat<br />
34 TENSES. [31.<br />
Note that ypao><br />
is not found in Homer except in <strong>the</strong> Aor.<br />
The forms p6\erai (II.<br />
n. 319), l|36\ovTO (Od. i. 234), |36\(r06 (Od. 16. 387)<br />
were restored by Wolf : see Buttmann's Lexil. s, v.<br />
The form pXa/krai (II. 19. 82, 166, Od. 13. 34) occurs in gnomic passages<br />
only, where an Aorist would be equally in place ( 78, 2).<br />
opovrcu (Od. 14. 104), opovro (Od. 3. 471) occur in <strong>the</strong> phrase eirl V dvepes<br />
laflAoi opovrai, where cirt opovrai seems to be = 'act as firiovpot,' 'are in charge.'<br />
dto) only occurs as a Pres. in <strong>the</strong> phrase OVK = ai'eis ; have you not heard ?<br />
Elsewhere aiov is used as an Aorist (Schulze, K. Z. xxix. 249).<br />
A Pres. 8pv4>w cannot be inferred with certainty from <strong>the</strong> Opt. aTrotipvoi<br />
(II. 23. 187., 24. 21), which may be an Aorist.<br />
The forms apx", ayX** are difficult because original apx-, a-yx- would shorten<br />
<strong>the</strong> vowel (before a semi-vowel and mute), and consequently <strong>the</strong> Stem, would<br />
be indistinguishable from original apx-, ayx-- Tna* in apX'" tne Stem is weak<br />
may be inferred from <strong>the</strong> Nouns apx- 6s, dpx-t| ( 109) <strong>the</strong> 0-form may be<br />
:<br />
found in opxapos, <strong>the</strong> strong form possibly in epx-<strong>of</strong>jiai. Again a-yx-" may be<br />
identified with Sanscr. dh-ati (for ngh-atf)<br />
: <strong>the</strong> strong form being eyx- in<br />
67X' 6^US (De Saussure, Mem. p. 276 ff.).<br />
31.]<br />
The Thematic Aorist. The Verb-Stem is in <strong>the</strong> weak<br />
form we :<br />
may distinguish <strong>the</strong> following groups :<br />
(i) With d as Stem vowel (<strong>the</strong> strong Stem with (r/xriyco) parted, av-<br />
-Kpayov cried aloud (Attic Pf. KeKpaya), apero gained, aArjrat<br />
(Subj.) shall leap, e-xpae assailed (xp^u-), barren (Subj.)<br />
shall be<br />
burned (8au-), ^>ae shone (au-, cp. Trt^avo-KO)), Aae seized, pinned<br />
(Xdu-, cp. aTro-Aavco), ^A^ero was healed, ri\^>ov (Opt. ^A^>ot) earned,<br />
met (Part. avT-6p,vos).<br />
The forms de (Od. 14. 502) and XAe, Part, \cuuv (Od. 19. 229, 230) are placed<br />
here provisionally. Each occurs once, in a context which does not decide<br />
between Aor. and Impf.<br />
The existence <strong>of</strong> an Aor. -fax-ov has been made probable by W. Schulze<br />
(K. Z. xxix. 230). He shows that <strong>the</strong> form taxov, generally taken as <strong>the</strong> Impf.<br />
<strong>of</strong> lax" ( 35), is an Aor. in meaning, and constantly occurs after elision<br />
, tirl 5' taxov, fir-iaxov). Consequently we can always read /"&X OV<br />
km 8% , fax 01 '* Im-fax ") or<br />
><br />
with augment va\ov (cp.<br />
euaSe for<br />
f-faSc). In II. 20. 62 KOI ?axc would be read Kal (vaxf. The alternative is to<br />
suppose that l-flfaxov became etaxov by loss <strong>of</strong> f and contraction (Wackernagel,<br />
K. Z. xxv. 279) but contraction in such a case :<br />
is very rare in Homer,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Aor. meaning <strong>of</strong> taxov has to be accounted for. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand<br />
if we accept Schulze's view we have still to admit a Pres. (or Aor. ?) Participle<br />
(2) With e (strong YJ) : tOav doing as he is wont (cp. 77^-05 for<br />
31.]<br />
THEMATIC AORIST. 35<br />
The forms ^SovTo, &c. are generally referred to a Verb /'8o-//cu : but<br />
no such Present is found, and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Moods Subj. Opt. Imper. and<br />
Inf. always admit <strong>the</strong> Aor. meaning. As to c0oov see 243, i. If an Aor.<br />
it should be accented 19wv.<br />
(3) With i 1<br />
(strong<br />
ei) : e-o-rt^-oz^ (orei'xco) marched, e-ni<br />
^<br />
inia-Qai to come to, AireVdcu to entreat, ^piTre (epetTro)) fell<br />
down, TJptK (epeiKco) was torn, fi^irtv <strong>of</strong>fended (Mid. dA-ireo-flai),<br />
aiov heard, 8te feared (%Fi-), OLOV ran, e-/aoz> moved, l-moy drank,<br />
oW0e dipped, KpUe cracked.<br />
With 01, aWfytvov burning, atSero felt shame ( 32, 2);<br />
eXpaio-jue Bailed ( 32, 3).<br />
8Cov I ran (II. 22. 251) is not to be connected with 8ie feared,<br />
but with<br />
(v-5ie-aav, Sif-vrai chase, <strong>of</strong> which we have <strong>the</strong> Thematic Subj. Stcu/on, Opt.<br />
StotTo, Inf. SicaOat. That <strong>the</strong>y are Aorists appears (e.g.) from II. 16. 246 k-nti<br />
K SirjTcu when he shall have chased.<br />
Ktov is probably an Aor., since *#u does not occur. The accentuation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Part. KUUV is in favour <strong>of</strong> this, but not decisively (cp. \&v, luv).<br />
(4) With u (strong eu) : KV0 hid, fyvyov fled, TV\Z hit upon,<br />
TTv06^r]v I heard tell, torvyovfelt disgust, ^KTVTTC sounded, rjpvye dellowed,<br />
7JX.v6ov I came, ZK\VOV heard, a/u-Trzwe recovered breath.<br />
With CM, ave shouted, avy (Subj.) kindle, tTt-avpetv to gain from,<br />
enjoy.<br />
With eu, tvpe found.<br />
K\vov is clearly an Aor. in Homer. The Pres. K\VO>, which occurs in<br />
Hesiod (Op. 726 ou yap roi ye K\vov. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand op, oX only<br />
appear before a vowel.<br />
(6) With d (strong w, CJA)<br />
: c-TtaO-ov (irevd-os) suffered, paQ-ov<br />
learned, Zhaxov obtained as share, e^aSe (Fut. x^tcrojutat) contained,<br />
to bite, bdrjraL shall learn (Sao--, strong form *8eya-, cp.<br />
;, 36, 5).<br />
D 2
36 TENSES. [32.<br />
o.v, ajx (before a vowel) : Z-KTCLV-OV Jellied, t-Oave died, t-Kap-ov<br />
wearied, rajute cut (cp. f-ba^-r], 42).<br />
ey appears in ytv-ivQai to become.<br />
(7) With loss <strong>of</strong> e : e- for o-e'x-co), ecnrero /
33-]<br />
THEMATIC AORIST. 37<br />
48, 51).<br />
We may identify this au- with u in Sanscr. u-noti calls.<br />
The d- is a distinct syllable<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Aor. av-o-e, cp. dvrrj.<br />
auT) (Od. 5' 490? v. 1. avoi) makes good sense as an Aor., expressing<br />
<strong>the</strong> act <strong>of</strong> kindling. The Stem is weak (auo--<br />
= Sanscr.<br />
ush- in ush-ds, ^Eol. cwcos);<br />
<strong>the</strong> strong form appears in e#<br />
Lat. uro.<br />
7r-avpiv exhibits <strong>the</strong> Thematic form answering<br />
to aTTaTTo-vpas<br />
( 13).<br />
aXe-ero,, found only in II. 5. 417, is clearly an Aor.<br />
dX- occurs in ri\(j)ov, Opt. a\(j)OL, with Aor. meaning.<br />
drr- in ^i/rero, (rvv-avTeo-Orjv, Inf. dvrecrdai, Part.<br />
always with clear Aor. meaning. Accordingly arreo-0cu in II. 15.<br />
698 (<strong>the</strong> only place where it occurs) was accented by Tyrannic<br />
The a- <strong>of</strong> al0-, aua--, &c. is discussed by De Saussure along with that <strong>of</strong> dpx-,<br />
dyx- in a passage quoted above ( 30 note). He regards it as 'pro<strong>the</strong>tic/ so<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Stems in which it appears are generally in "<strong>the</strong> weak form. The -fc<strong>of</strong><br />
au- may answer to ei<strong>the</strong>r fe or ev in <strong>the</strong> strong form ;<br />
thus avS-rj<br />
:<br />
= av<br />
o\taOt<br />
and 6\iffO-dvca, also in Attic alaO-caOai and alaO-dvonm. The last is interesting<br />
as <strong>the</strong> only post-<strong>Homeric</strong> Second Aorist which is used in good Attic prose.<br />
3.<br />
A few Thematic Aorists seem to be formed from <strong>the</strong> Stems<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nouns <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> O-declension. Thus expense availed is generally<br />
derived from XP<br />
7 ? "^? useful (Curt. Verb. ii. 13). So, according<br />
to Curtius, 0pfjie-T warm ye, 0p/u,e-ro grew warm, from flep/zo's ;<br />
oTrAe-o-^at (II. 19. 172., 23. 159) to get ready, from oTrAor (oTrAe-co);<br />
yoov (II. 6. 500) bewailed, from yo'os (yo-aa>); ajmapr-etz; to miss,<br />
from d-/xap-ro- without part in.<br />
Some at least <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se instances may be o<strong>the</strong>rwise explained. For oirXeo-Oai<br />
we may read oirXctcrOai (<strong>the</strong> uncontracted 6n\erOai is impossible in <strong>the</strong><br />
hexameter), yoov in II. 6. 500 at plv crt faov yoov "Enropa K. r. \. makes better<br />
sense as an Impf.<br />
: Tick reads y6ar, 3 Plur. <strong>of</strong> an ' ^Eolic ' y6r] jwt. Possibly y6ov<br />
is for y6fov by hyphaeresis ( 105, 4).<br />
33.] In several cases it is difficult to say whe<strong>the</strong>r loss <strong>of</strong> c is<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> an Aor. Stem, or is merely phonetic, due to
38 TENSES. [34.<br />
*<br />
5<br />
syncope. Thus we have ayepozro, Part, aypo/xez/ot<br />
:<br />
o>(/>eXov<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Attic ox^Xoy owed : TreXco and <strong>the</strong> syncopated forms<br />
TrXero, Part. eTrf/rXo/xez/oy, &c. (not eTrcXez;, eTre'Xero, &c.<br />
in Homer).<br />
d-yepovTo were assembled, Inf. ayepeaOai (so accented in MSS.) imply a Pres.<br />
aytpca but <strong>the</strong> Part, ayp-opfvoi seems to be an Aor. The e is only lost in<br />
;<br />
<strong>the</strong> Part., whereas in <strong>the</strong> undoubted Aor. Zyp-cro <strong>the</strong> form fyep- never occurs<br />
(Opt. ZypoiTO, Inf. 7/>e6Xov ought ( = would that} bears a different sense from <strong>the</strong> Aor. &\ov,<br />
but is indistinguishable from <strong>the</strong> Impf. &q>e\\ov (Od. 8. 312 TOJ ^ yeivaaOai<br />
o^eAXov, so II. 7. 390., 24. 764, Od. 14. 68., 18. 401). Hence u(pc\ov is probably<br />
an older form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Imperfect which has survived in this particular<br />
use.<br />
e-rrXcv, eirXe-TO, &c. must be Aorists, since<br />
(1) 7r\To occurs in <strong>the</strong> 'gnomic' use, e.g.<br />
II. 2.<br />
480 iyuT6 jSovs a-ye\7](l>i fjity' foxos TT\CTO iravrwv<br />
and so in II. 24. 94, Od. 7. 217. This use is not found with <strong>the</strong> Impf.<br />
(2) lirXcro with <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> a Present can only be explained as an Aor.<br />
= <strong>the</strong> English Pf., has turned out, has come to be, (and so is) see : 78, and cp. II.<br />
12. 271 vvv 677A.6TO epyov airavToiv now it has become : with ano<strong>the</strong>r Aor. similarly<br />
used, II. 15. 227 TroAu KepSiov ZirXfro, on viroeigev it is better that he has yielded:<br />
also II. 6. 434., 7. 31., 8. 552., 14. 337., 19. 57, Od. 20. 304, &c.<br />
The Part, occurs in firi-rr\6iJ.vov troy (Od.) and 7re/H-7rA.o/iei/cwi> tviavruv, with<br />
much <strong>the</strong> same force as <strong>the</strong> Pres. Part, in <strong>the</strong> equivalent phrase irfpireXXo-<br />
H&'
36.] REDUPLICATED PRESENT AND AORIST. 39<br />
35.] The Reduplicated Thematic Present. This formation<br />
appears in a few instances only :<br />
/u'-/xz/-ere await (jxei>-o>).<br />
ifet sits,<br />
holds, for *o-t-cr)(-t, from *<br />
for *o-t-o-8-et, from (re8-.<br />
ytyverair becomes (yev-).<br />
TiKTO), for rt-TK-o), from rex-.<br />
vfoo[j,ai<br />
/ ^0, j?a##, for zn-rtr-ojuat, or zn-zxr-fco-jucu, from yeo-- :<br />
related to veo/xat ( 29, 6) as to-xco to ex made to f<strong>org</strong>et, AeAa/3eV0ai to seize, KeKabvv<br />
severing, KCKCLOOVTO yielded, neyapovro rejoiced, a/x-Tre-TraXcoz; brandishing<br />
on high, reraywz; grasping, ijy-ay-ov led, e-?J7rae deceived,<br />
ripape fitted, ^Ka^e vexed.<br />
(2) t :<br />
7re7ri0-ot/ixei> may persuade, 7re0i8eV0at to spare.<br />
(3) " : TZTVK-OVTO made for <strong>the</strong>mselves, TTZTTI/OOITO may hear ly<br />
report, KeKvOaxn shall hide.<br />
(4) ap (pa), a\, X : rerap-Tr-ero was pleased, 7re'$pa8e showed forth,<br />
aX-aAKe warded <strong>of</strong>f, e-Ke'-K\-ero shouted (KZ\-).<br />
(5) a, v (for CK) : AeXdx~^T (Subj.) make to share, 8e'8a> taught<br />
(cp. 31, 5); !-7re--e slew (cp. W-^a-rai is slain).<br />
(6) Loss <strong>of</strong> c :<br />
l-re-r/ute found, caught (re/x- ?); tti-nov said (perhaps<br />
for e-fe-feTr-oz;)* ; also eo-Trero followed, if it is taken to be<br />
for o-0"7T-ro.<br />
* The difficulty in <strong>the</strong> way <strong>of</strong> this explanation is that in <strong>the</strong> old Attic<br />
inscriptions which distinguish <strong>the</strong> original diphthong et (written El) from <strong>the</strong><br />
sound arising from contraction or ' compensatory ' leng<strong>the</strong>ning (written E),<br />
<strong>the</strong> word eirre is always written with El (Cauer in Curt. Stud. viii. 257). In<br />
Sanscr. <strong>the</strong> corresponding form is avocam, for a-va-vac-am (vac becoming we).<br />
Answering to this we expect in Greek eevirov (Vogrinz, Gr. d. horn. Dial. p. 123).
40 TENSES. [37.<br />
The forms which point to *a-o"ir-TO, viz. eatrcavrai (Od. 12. 349),<br />
(Od. 19. 579., 21. 77), ffireff6< (II. 12. 350, 363), fair<strong>of</strong>Jifvcs (II. 10. 246., 12.395.,<br />
13. 570), can be easily altered (e.g. by writing o>a o-irot|XT]v for a/ )<br />
checked, and rivtirairc (evmrf)<br />
rebuked.<br />
These Aorists are exclusively <strong>Homeric</strong>, except rjyayov and<br />
eeiirov (Attic et-nw). They are mostly Transitive or Causative in<br />
meaning ; compare -Xa\o-v I got for my share, with XeAa^o-v /<br />
made to share; aprjpe is fitting, with r/pape made to jit, &c.<br />
The Inf. SeBaa-aOai (Od. 16. 316)<br />
is not to be connected with <strong>the</strong> Perf. Part.<br />
8e8a-ws, but is for ScSaeaflat, Inf. Mid. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Eeduplicated Aorist SeSaev taught.<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> sense is to have oneself taught.<br />
37.] Aorists in -a. Besides <strong>the</strong> usual forms <strong>of</strong> 1-eiTro-u we (et-<br />
TTO-V) find a 2 Sing. ei7ra-s (II. I. 106, 108), or e-enra-s (II. 24.<br />
379), 2 Plur. e^Tra-re (Od. 3. 427). Answering to <strong>the</strong> Attic<br />
tfveyKov Homer has rjveiKa, Opt evclka-t, &c. : but Inf. ez/etK-/x,ez;<br />
(II. 19. 194). In <strong>the</strong>se two cases <strong>the</strong> form in -ov is probably<br />
older.<br />
Tenses with Suffix ^Non-Thematic).<br />
38.]<br />
The Tense-Stems which remain to be discussed are<br />
formed (like <strong>the</strong> Presents in -z^jui and -vvpi) by means <strong>of</strong> a<br />
characteristic Suffix. Of <strong>the</strong>se Tense-Stems three are Non-<br />
Thematic, viz. those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aorists formed by <strong>the</strong> Suffixes -aa,<br />
-T),<br />
and -Orj.<br />
It is important to notice <strong>the</strong> difference between <strong>the</strong>se formations and <strong>the</strong><br />
Perfect and Aorist Stems which take -/fa. The Suffix -a in such cases is not<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tense-Stem. It is only found as a rule with certain<br />
Person-Endings.<br />
39.] The Aorist in -
39-]<br />
AORIST IN -2A. 41<br />
acu<br />
', eVay, e$-eWa-ro (16- for *o--) ;<br />
e-0Aa(re and 0Aao--o-,<br />
(ntacra-To, e-8a, -oa>, -u&> usually form <strong>the</strong> Aor.<br />
with a long vowel (in -rycra, -axra, -Do-a).<br />
But <strong>the</strong> Verbs in -w<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten form <strong>the</strong> Aor. in -etra-a, -eo-a ;<br />
not only <strong>the</strong> Verbs derived<br />
from Noun-Stems in -ea, such as reXeco, ^eiKt'co, aKr/8eco, but also<br />
several Verbs derived from Masc. Nouns in -o-s; e.g. e/copeV-o-aro<br />
w^ satiated (PL KeKoprj-jute^oy), KoreV-craro w TT--TL\a (reA-), -(f)i\a-To<br />
ryyetpa (eyep-), yr\pa-To (x a />-)*-<br />
A few Stems retain cr :<br />
Sip-era,<br />
ap-a-at, d-Tro-ep-cre, !-Kep-(re, KVp-cra-s, 0vp-(ra), IX-o-a-z;, KeA-rrat,<br />
KeWat. This is <strong>the</strong> rule when p or A <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem is followed by<br />
a dental, as in l-Trepcre (for e-7rep0-(re), ^/utepcre (d/xep5o>).<br />
But v<br />
* The form tjpa-TO,<br />
which is usually taken to be an Aor. <strong>of</strong> ap-vv-nm, may<br />
stand to dptaOai as I-TTTU-TO to irreaOai, uva-ro to ovo-pai, Sic-vrat<br />
however Cobet, Msc. Grit. p. 400).<br />
to Sie-aOai (see
42 TENSES. [40.<br />
before 8 is lost in e-5-0-a) : cp. TreiVojueu for<br />
is later.<br />
o^ai, &c. The form /ceWai (II. 23. 337)<br />
The Verb-Stem o^eX- makes an Aor. Opt. o^e'XXcie<br />
: see 53.<br />
40.] Primitive Aorists with Suffix -
41.] AORIST IN -SE(O). 43<br />
sionally on inscriptions in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>dialect</strong>s (Meyer, G. G. p. 468);<br />
but that is very slight ground for admitting<br />
it in Homer. In<br />
any case it is later than -ec, and due to <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Person-Endings *.<br />
The <strong>Homeric</strong>r forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. also pre-suppose a Stem without final a :<br />
e.g. <strong>the</strong> Subj. /3i7 points to an Indie. *t-firja-p.v ( 80). The existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> such Indicatives in an earlier period <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language is proved by <strong>the</strong> Sanscrit<br />
Aorists with 8, many <strong>of</strong> which join <strong>the</strong> Person-Endings directly to <strong>the</strong><br />
Stem, without an ' auxiliary' a (except in <strong>the</strong> i Sing, and 3 Plur.) ; e. g. <strong>the</strong><br />
~Rootji gives ajaish-am, 3 Sing, ajais (for a-jai-s-f), I Plur. ajaish-ma, &c.<br />
Upon this stage <strong>of</strong> inflexion Joh. Schmidt has based a very probable<br />
explanation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. Ending -<br />
ill), ol
44 PASSIVE AORISTS. [42.<br />
42.] The Aorist in -v\-v. The Stem <strong>of</strong> this Tense is formed<br />
by suffixing TJ<br />
to <strong>the</strong> weak form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem. This ij<br />
becomes e in <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. (-ev<br />
for original -C^T), <strong>the</strong> Opt. and <strong>the</strong><br />
Part. (i.<br />
e. before i and VT).<br />
The Person-Endings are those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Active, but <strong>the</strong> meaning is ei<strong>the</strong>r Intransitive or Passive : e. g.<br />
e-xap-f? rejoiced, e-Scb? was taught, e-tydv-rj appeared, rpdty-rj was<br />
nurtured, Z-dk-rj shrank (Stem feA-), St-e-r/ixay-e-y parted asunder,<br />
e-Tray-r/, e-da/x-r?, e-ay-r?, -(B\a(3-v, l-piy-i), TdpTr-rj-^v and (with<br />
Meta<strong>the</strong>sis) rpaTr-rj-o/xez; (rep-Tr-co), &c.<br />
The Stem is<br />
long in e-TrArjy-?? (cp. l-TreTrAr/y-oi^ and<br />
TrXryy-?]),<br />
once in eayrj (a<br />
in II. II. 559)*. The Inf. repo-rj-juez/at (repcn^ac),<br />
which occurs in II. i6 519, Od. 6. 98, need not be an Aorist :<br />
see <strong>the</strong> similar forms in 19. The Part, ava-ppo^v (Od. n.<br />
586) is not connected with ava-fieppo^v ( 25); see Buttmann,<br />
Lexil.<br />
There is evidently a close relation between <strong>the</strong>se ' Passive ' Aorists and <strong>the</strong><br />
forms discussed in 14 (such as -^\rj-v, t-Trrrj-v, e-rA^, c-triS?;),<br />
and we can<br />
hardly doubt that <strong>the</strong>y are nothing more than an extension by analogy <strong>of</strong> that<br />
older type (see Brugmann, M. U. i. 71). The chief difference is that (as in- <strong>the</strong><br />
Thematic Aorist) <strong>the</strong> Stem is usually disyllabic, retaining <strong>the</strong> short vowel <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> root : thus we have l-8a/7, but b^rj- in Se-S/xTy-Tat, &c.<br />
The Aorists with Stems in a and to ( 19) are parallel to <strong>the</strong> Aorists in -TJ.<br />
Thus Y^pa-vai, {3iw-vai, a\w-vai only differ in <strong>the</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vowel from<br />
8afj-v as well<br />
43.] The Aorist in -Qi)-v. The Stem <strong>of</strong> this Tense is formed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Suffix -Or].<br />
The Person-Endings are <strong>the</strong> same as those <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Aorist in -77,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> meaning<br />
is Reflexive or Passive.<br />
In later Greek <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem is<br />
mostly in <strong>the</strong> strong form,<br />
as e-8?Jx-077-z>5 e-Act^-^v, t-^vy^-Q^v but this does not seem to<br />
;<br />
have been <strong>the</strong> original rule e. :<br />
g. Homer has e-rv^-Orj was made,<br />
Attic t-Ttvx-Or]. So we find <strong>the</strong> weak Stem in Kar-e-Kra-0ez;<br />
e-ora-<br />
(KTV-), ra-6r] (TV-), rap.<br />
44.] Meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Passive Aorists. The Aorist in -TJ<br />
appears to have originally had an Intransitive sense, <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong><br />
Passive sense was a growth or adaptation. This transition is<br />
* In <strong>the</strong> former edition Bekker's reading ia.yr\ (Pf. Subj ,) was given as <strong>the</strong><br />
probable correction for this passage. But <strong>the</strong> sense required is ra<strong>the</strong>r that <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Aor. were (i. e. had been) broken than <strong>the</strong> Pf. are in a broken state. Cp.<br />
Hes. Op. 534 ov T' f-nl vwra taye whose back is broken down, i. e. bowed. As to <strong>the</strong><br />
a <strong>of</strong> 60x777 see 67, 3.
45-] THEMATIC PRESENT WITH SUFFIX. 45<br />
seen (e.g.]<br />
in e\apy] rejoiced, eSarj learned, pvrj flowed, e<br />
appeared. In <strong>the</strong>se instances <strong>the</strong> Passive grows out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Intransitive meaning (as in <strong>the</strong> Middle forms it grows out o<br />
<strong>the</strong> ReflexiveTneaning). Similar transitions <strong>of</strong> meaning may be<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Perfect ( 38, fin.),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Aorist (eV/Sr;<br />
was quenched),<br />
and even in <strong>the</strong> Present, as eKTUTrreiv to be driven out, Ketrai is<br />
laid down (as<br />
Pf. Mid. <strong>of</strong> nflrjjuii),<br />
and TTCIO-XCO<br />
itself.<br />
The Aorist in -bt\-v is <strong>of</strong>ten indistinguishable in meaning<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Aor. Middle. There appears to be ground for distinguishing<br />
it from <strong>the</strong> Aor. in -t\v as originally reflexive ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than intransitive (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxx. 305.) In many cases<br />
Middle forms are used in Homer interchangeably with those<br />
in -fa\-v<br />
: thus we find dacraro and aacrOrj, atSero r)8e(raro and<br />
aibea-0r]T, ai^acrOai and aiyQr]vai, Swrjcraro and ^vvacrOt], KopeVo-aro<br />
and Kopea-Orjv, ^vr\).<br />
These suffixes may be compared with o<strong>the</strong>r elements used in<br />
<strong>the</strong> same way, but not always confined to <strong>the</strong> Present ;<br />
as K in<br />
oA.e'-K(> / destroy, e/w-Kco<br />
/ restrain, 8ic>-Ka> I chase, y m Tjurj-ya)<br />
I cut, x in vr)-x-pfv
46 T-CLASS NASAL CLASS. [46.<br />
fipl-Oo-v were heavy, vXfj-Otv was full, epe-0e provoke,<br />
blazes, pivv-Qti diminishes, fyQivv-Oti. wastes, pya-0V kept <strong>of</strong>f,<br />
6aXe-6o-vTs blooming, /uer-e-Kia-0oz> moved after, rjpe-0o-vTai<br />
&c. These<br />
flutter, riytpe-Oo-vTo were assembled (ayep-, in dyeipa)),,<br />
elements were called by Curtius Root-Determinatives (Chron. p.<br />
22 ff .)<br />
<strong>the</strong> name implying that <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> suffixes<br />
modifying or ' determining' <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> a simple Hoot. But<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir origin and primitive significance are quite unknown (Brugmann,<br />
Grundriss, ii. 8, n. 2).<br />
46.] The T-Class. The suffix -re (o) is usually found with a<br />
Verb-Stem ending in a labial mute (TT, /3, ),<br />
as ZVLTT-TC rebuke<br />
(IvlTt-rf), \a\tTT-Ti annoys, dorpaTr-rei lightens, o-Kerr-reo look out,<br />
KAeTT-re, KOTT-re, TVTT-T, (--{JLCLpTT-TC ', aTJTO) (d
49-]<br />
ITERATIVE CLASS. 47<br />
in mjut-TrA-ayerai (II. 9. 679), la-)(dvu> (for ^cri-cr^-ava^, tfarco (for<br />
The class <strong>of</strong> Verbs in -vu is derived from <strong>the</strong> Non-<strong>the</strong>matic<br />
Verbs in -w-. Sometimes, as has been noticed -i>u<br />
( 18), takes<br />
<strong>the</strong> Thematic c or o after it, as in dju-z/vco for o^vv-^i ;<br />
but in<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r cases, especially when -w follows a vowel,<br />
u. becomes F and<br />
is lost. Thus &-vu- gives avva 1 accomplish, and. also averai (d)<br />
draws to a close : so Tivv-rai punishes and TLVO>, (frOivv- (in tyOwv-<br />
0co) and (j)0Lva).<br />
The vowel <strong>of</strong> ava>, (frOdva, rtvu>, (frdiva) is long- in<br />
Homer, short in Attic (cp. <strong>Homeric</strong> fety-o? for feV-foj, Attic<br />
dv-os) whereas in KAu>a>, ; K/nVco (for /cAi^-to), it is<br />
/cpiz;-ia>)<br />
always long. Note also that -ye(o)<br />
for -vFe(o)<br />
is confined to <strong>the</strong><br />
Present, while <strong>the</strong> v <strong>of</strong> KAtz>o>, &c. appears in o<strong>the</strong>r Tenses<br />
(Solmsen, K. Z. xxix. 78).<br />
eXauVw has been explained as *e\a-yu-a>, but <strong>the</strong>re is no parallel<br />
for epen<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> u.<br />
The d <strong>of</strong> IKCU/O), Ki%av(a points to -av-Fw, but <strong>the</strong> forms have<br />
not been satisfactorily explained.<br />
48.] Stems formed by -crKe(o),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Iterative class <strong>of</strong> Curtius.<br />
(1) Without Reduplication, as /3a-(nce go, (36-a-KeL feeds, (fxi-o-Kt<br />
said, tAa-cnco-zmu propitiate, ^XaorKouo-t flit about, 6vfj--(TKe-/ Jc6z; to go before (/3A.a>- for juAco-).<br />
(2) With Reduplication, jut-/u^?}-o-Ke-rat is reminded, Ki-K^rj-a-Ktv<br />
called, yt-yrco-crKa) 1 know, iri-(j)av-(TK showed.<br />
Stems ending in a consonant sometimes insert i,<br />
as a7r-a
48 PRESENT. [50.<br />
not occur. It may be regarded as a link between <strong>the</strong> two groups <strong>of</strong> Stems<br />
with -one.<br />
in <strong>the</strong><br />
It is remarkable that in <strong>the</strong> Latin Verbs in -sco we may distinguish<br />
same way between <strong>the</strong> regular Inceptives, such as lique-sco, puer-a-sco, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Presents, such as pa-sco, pro-fic-iscor, in which <strong>the</strong> Inceptive meaning<br />
is hardly, or not at all, perceptible. Originally, no doubt, <strong>the</strong>re was a single<br />
group <strong>of</strong> derivative Stems in ).<br />
c. With assimilation, in -XXw (for -A-tco), -o-crw (for -K-tco, -T-too),<br />
and -la (for -8-tco, -y-to>).<br />
d.<br />
By compensatory leng<strong>the</strong>ning in -eiyw, -eipw, -iixo, -Gf-ta), -i5z/-ta>, -vp-to)).<br />
That <strong>the</strong> ei <strong>of</strong> -iva),<br />
-etpo) is not a true diphthong (and <strong>the</strong>refore not due to epen<strong>the</strong>sis)<br />
is shown by <strong>the</strong> corresponding Doric -rjuco, -rjpco.<br />
e. In -aw, -ea>, -oa>, -aua>, -euw, -ouw (for -a-tco, &c.).<br />
a. Verbs in -ia>, &c.<br />
51.] The Verbs in which <strong>the</strong> original becomes t i,<br />
thus forming<br />
-tco, -atco, -etco, -utco, are almost confined to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
<strong>dialect</strong>. The chief examples are as follows :<br />
(1) -i&> 0-0 Ui : eats, Ibiov I sweated, pr\vie le angry, juiao-rte whip,<br />
ava-KrjKi gushed forth, KOVIO-VTZS raisin?/ dust. In <strong>the</strong>se verbs<br />
(except perhaps <strong>the</strong> first two) <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem ends in i,<br />
so that<br />
(e. g.) KOVIO-VTZS is for Koi^t-to-^res ; so probably rtco / honour,<br />
I waste (j)6ia> away, for rt-tco, ^t-to). The i <strong>the</strong>refore is naturally<br />
long, but may be shortened before a vowel hence it is ;<br />
usually<br />
doubtful in quantity.<br />
(2) -aw usually with loss <strong>of</strong> a or : F, vaiovcn dwell (Aor. vav-cra,<br />
vav-Qri), juaiWflai to feel ones way (Fut.<br />
AtXcueat<br />
jaacr-o-erat),<br />
desirest (At-Xaa--);<br />
Kata> (for Kaf-tco, cp. Aor. Krja for e-K^f-a),<br />
KXatco (for KAaf-ta)),<br />
Sate kindled (bdv-), vaiov swam (cp.,vav-s),<br />
yaiaiv rejoicing (yav-pos, Lat. gau-deo] ; /ce'pcue mix, dyatojuevo?<br />
indignant<br />
(cp. -Kpaa--ora} ^yao--o-aro, but <strong>the</strong> o- in <strong>the</strong>se words is<br />
not original, 39, 2) ; perhaps also
53-]<br />
/-CLASS. 49<br />
(3) -iw : TrvOi-Tov (probably for TrevOccr-ic-Tov) mourn,<br />
fighting, olv<strong>of</strong>lapeicw drunken, reAeio-z> brought to pass,<br />
splitting, aKm-fjievoL being healed, veiKeirj-o-i shall quarrel,<br />
shrink, fyweia> (Hes.).<br />
When <strong>the</strong> diphthongs at,<br />
ei come before a vowel <strong>the</strong>re is a<br />
tendency to drop <strong>the</strong> i ;<br />
as aya-io-pai, 2 Plur. ayda-o-de (for dya-<br />
-o-#e, 55) ; Kepa-ia), Plur. 2, Kepaa-o-0e ; re'Ae-io-z;, also re'Ae-o-z; ;<br />
valov swam, also yd-et, va-ovcri; perhaps also Sdryrai shall be<br />
destroyed (root Sat- see<br />
; Schulze, K. Z. xxix. p. 258). Where<br />
this tendency does not show itself, as in iraia), -Trraia), creta), it<br />
will usually be found that <strong>the</strong> diphthong belongs to <strong>the</strong> whole<br />
Verb, not merely to <strong>the</strong> Present Stem.<br />
So perhaps Ipci.av drove (Part. t\acav\ eicXcov<br />
broke : unless <strong>the</strong>se forms are obtained by simple change from <strong>the</strong> Non-<br />
Thematic (pa-pai, &c. ( 18).<br />
For <strong>the</strong> Presents in -eta; from -e^w (Otica, irXtio), &c.), see 29, 3.<br />
(4) -uia> ornate had to : wife (for O7n;o--t are <strong>of</strong> this Class (original -mco),<br />
as<br />
vd) (Aeolic ),<br />
0vco (t6viv Hesych.), Xvco, bva, I0va>, YITTUCO,<br />
dtCvco. The vowel is doubtful, but only because it comes before<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r vowel (as<br />
was noticed in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Verbs in -io>).<br />
lOtico<br />
generally has but v in t; eir-UKiovo-i<br />
; (II. 18. 175), which ought to be so<br />
divided, not em-Gttovo-i. It is a Denominative from lOvs (0) aim*<br />
The Verbs in -cuw, -ouw are probably also <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> I-Class (for<br />
-evict, -OVL(*>). For, as Curtius points out (Verb. i. 360), <strong>the</strong>y<br />
are chiefly Denominatives, and it is contrary to analogy to form<br />
a Verb by suffixing <strong>the</strong> Thematic e (o)<br />
to a Noun-Stem.<br />
b.<br />
Epen<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
<strong>of</strong> i.<br />
62.] It will suffice to give a few examples :<br />
ai, aiv, /SatVo) (/3aju-ta>), and with reduplication,<br />
-pw : atpco, (TKacpa), a, /xap/xatpa), KapKaipco,<br />
atpco (for ap-ioi) is distinct from acipco, which by contraction would become<br />
apoj : cp. det'Scy, qSca (Brugmann, K. Z. xxvii. 196).<br />
This Class includes also <strong>the</strong> numerous Denominatives in -an>,<br />
:<br />
-atpw see 1 20. The Stem is in <strong>the</strong> weak form.<br />
c. Assimilation <strong>of</strong> t.<br />
53.] Examples : -XXw : aAAo-juai, /3aAAa>, TraXXco, o-reXAa), reAXco;<br />
from Nouns, dyyeAXco, vavri\Xo^ai ;<br />
with Reduplication taXXco,<br />
artrciAAco I rear, tend, cp. araXXco I cherish.<br />
Epen<strong>the</strong>sis (instead <strong>of</strong> Assimilation) is found in 6iXo> I owe.<br />
-o-aw :<br />
oWo-/xcu (OK-), -TreVo-a) (TTCK-),<br />
eAta-cra)<br />
^-), XtVo-o-jixat (Atr-), Kopvcro-a) (nopvO-), Trrcocro-a) (TTTCOK-).<br />
E
50 /-CLASS. [54<br />
,w : for -8to) in /cXvfco, in ab-/<br />
i, rpio ;<br />
with reduplication, /uu/zmo> 7 loiter , /3i/3df&> / c?^e<br />
:Xt^o) 7 ^a^e ^ quiver (II. I. 530)*.<br />
(for -ep-tw), in etpo>, Ketpco, /utetpo/xat, Tretpco, o-Tretpco, retpw,<br />
, dyetpa), detpco, eyeipco, #etpa).<br />
-IKW (for -IK-IW),<br />
in K\iv(t), Kpiva), opivw.<br />
-u^w (for -ui>-jta>),<br />
in TrXwa), ZVTVVW.<br />
-opw (for -up-j,w), in Kvpco, /uvpojuat, (j>vpa>,<br />
e. Verbs in -aa>, -ea), -oco.<br />
55.] Assimilation. This term is applied to certain forms <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Verbs in -aco, in which, instead <strong>of</strong> contraction, we find<br />
assimilation <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> two concurrent vowels to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, as opo'w<br />
for 6pdc), opdas for opdetj.<br />
The chief varieties are as follows :<br />
() Forms with simple Assimilation, <strong>the</strong> vowel being long<br />
f}fido-VTS<br />
(b)<br />
pvaq (% Sing. Mid.).<br />
With shortening <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first vowel<br />
opdco gives opdco<br />
edrj-s<br />
taq-s<br />
Cp. btbda-o-Oai from e8ae'-a-0at ( 35) and dyda-o-^e from dyde-<br />
(T0 ;<br />
Fut. eAoco, Kpe/uda)<br />
from eAaco, Kpejutdco.<br />
(
55-] ASSIMILATION. 51<br />
(d) With leng<strong>the</strong>ned second vowel (<strong>the</strong> first being also long),<br />
in very few forms bpdowi, gives<br />
jJiVOLVaL<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r isolated examples are : juepotw^o-t (II. 15. 82) ; aXoo><br />
(Od. 5. 377), 2 Sing. Imper. <strong>of</strong> dXaojuat (for dXaeo dXaou);<br />
KtKpdavTCLL, Kprjrjvai, Kpaiaiva) J (fradvdrj (for (j>a^v-Or]J<br />
troaxri<br />
;<br />
(Subj.), o-oci)?, cro'(i><br />
(Opt., cp. 83), o-dWres Similar<br />
(o-ao'a>).<br />
phenomena may be seen in , but is not yet uttered in one breath with it.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> forms opoWre?, opo'coo-t,<br />
&c. he pointed out that <strong>the</strong> long<br />
vowel is never wanted for <strong>the</strong> metre, and accordingly he wished<br />
to read opo'oure?, opoovan, &c. To this last proposal exception<br />
was taken by Gr. Curtius (Erlauterungen,, p. 96),<br />
who made <strong>the</strong><br />
counter-supposition that, as <strong>the</strong> a <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se Verbs was originally<br />
long, <strong>the</strong> successive steps might be opaovrey, opwovres and<br />
(by meta<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> quantity) opoWres. The stage -wo- is<br />
exemplified in nvtoopevos.<br />
2. The main objection to this <strong>the</strong>ory lies in <strong>the</strong> circumstance<br />
*<br />
that <strong>the</strong> forms opoo), opdas and <strong>the</strong> like are exclusively Epic/<br />
that is to say, <strong>the</strong>y are confined to Homer, Hesiod, and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
direct imitators. If <strong>the</strong>y had been created by any natural<br />
development <strong>of</strong> Greek sounds, we should expect to find <strong>the</strong>m<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>dialect</strong>s. But nei<strong>the</strong>r in Ionic nor elsewhere is <strong>the</strong>re<br />
any trace <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir existence in living speech. It must be<br />
admitted, too, that nei<strong>the</strong>r Meyer nor Curtius has given a<br />
satisfactory account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> long vowel in opo'coo-i, opoWro,<br />
opoWres, &c. A form opo'oirej, as Curtius pointed out, would<br />
give opovvres, not opwz/res. And if <strong>the</strong>re has been meta<strong>the</strong>sis<br />
<strong>of</strong> quantity, why do we never find opo'cojuei; for opdo^v, or opddre<br />
for opoiere?<br />
3.<br />
An entirely different <strong>the</strong>ory was put forward by<br />
J. Wack-
53 /-CLASS. [55-<br />
ernagel (Bezz. Beitr. iv. 259). The true <strong>Homeric</strong> forms, in his<br />
view, are <strong>the</strong> original uncontracted opao), opaeis, &c. and <strong>the</strong>se have<br />
passed into <strong>the</strong> opo'co, opdqs, &c. <strong>of</strong> our Homer by a process <strong>of</strong><br />
textual corruption consisting <strong>of</strong> two stages<br />
:<br />
(i) contraction,<br />
according to <strong>the</strong> ordinary rules <strong>of</strong> Attic, into opw, opas, &c.<br />
which would obviously give forms <strong>of</strong> different metrical value<br />
from <strong>the</strong> original words, and <strong>the</strong>n (2)<br />
restoration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> metre<br />
by a kind <strong>of</strong> ' distraction ' (in <strong>the</strong> old sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> term), i.e.<br />
<strong>the</strong> insertion <strong>of</strong> a short vowel before <strong>the</strong> new contracted -w, -as,<br />
&c. Thus o^x opaei? first became o^x opas, and <strong>the</strong>n metri<br />
gratia ov^ opdqs*.<br />
4. Paradoxical as this may seem, <strong>the</strong>re can be little doubt<br />
that it is substantially right. The forms in question, as Wackernagel<br />
justly argues, are not a genuine growth <strong>of</strong> language.<br />
They are <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> literary tradition, that is to say, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
modernising process which <strong>the</strong> language <strong>of</strong> Homer must have<br />
undergone in <strong>the</strong> long period which elapsed before <strong>the</strong> poems<br />
were cared for by scholars. The nature <strong>of</strong> this process is<br />
excellently described and illustrated in his dissertation. In<br />
many cases, too, he shows that when <strong>the</strong> later form <strong>of</strong> a word<br />
ceased to fit <strong>the</strong> metre, some fur<strong>the</strong>r change was made by<br />
which <strong>the</strong> metrical defect was cured, or at least disguised.<br />
Corruption <strong>of</strong> this latter kind may <strong>of</strong>ten be traced in <strong>the</strong><br />
various readings <strong>of</strong> MSS.<br />
But must we suppose that optxo, &c. went through <strong>the</strong> two<br />
changes which Wackernagel postulates ?<br />
5. The case is unique, not only from <strong>the</strong> large number <strong>of</strong><br />
forms involved, and <strong>the</strong> singularly thorough and systematic way<br />
in which <strong>the</strong>y have been introduced into <strong>the</strong> text, but also from<br />
<strong>the</strong> circumstance which he has himself so well pointed out,<br />
viz. <strong>the</strong>ir unreal conventional stamp. They are hardly more<br />
'<br />
modern<br />
'<br />
in <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> being familiar through contemporary<br />
speech than <strong>the</strong> forms which <strong>the</strong>y have displaced. Wackernagel<br />
has shown how ecos and recos supplanted <strong>the</strong> original rjos<br />
and rrjos, even where <strong>the</strong> result was absolute ruin to <strong>the</strong> verse ;<br />
as in Od. 19. 367, where nearly all <strong>the</strong> MSS. have eW ucoio.<br />
Similarly <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> old Gen. in -oo ( 98) has produced<br />
<strong>the</strong> forms Ato'Aou, 'I^trov, 'lAiou, &c. scanned . These<br />
examples, however, prove too much; for if such unmetrical<br />
forms could remain in <strong>the</strong> text without fur<strong>the</strong>r change, why<br />
do we never find <strong>the</strong> slightest trace <strong>of</strong> an unmetrical 6p
55-] ASSIMILATION. 53<br />
have been retained. The instances are, z/aterdia), -dei (Hes. Th.<br />
775)5 -aov, -aozrra, t)Adei, -doixn, dotStaet, -dova-a, 6/xoorixaj<br />
yoaet/xev, -doiez;, Kpabdwv, cAdcou, iXaozrat, rryA.e^aoj'ray ;<br />
with a, dyajmcujudei, Treivdav, -dovra, bitydav. (The forms which<br />
have lost a F, as Ade, de, \paov, do not concern us now.) A<br />
third variety is exhibited by <strong>the</strong> form mierdoxraz; (-err/?, -077, -, opdcis to 6/xxo, opdas<br />
except through <strong>the</strong> contracted 6p, opas were <strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> ordinary speech, while<br />
opdco, opdeis were only known from <strong>the</strong> recitation <strong>of</strong> epic poetry.<br />
Under such conditions it is surely possible that <strong>the</strong> poetical<br />
forms were partially assimilated to <strong>the</strong> colloquial forms that<br />
opdco, opdeis were changed into 6po'o>, opdas by <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> familiar 6p8e we may read /mrjSfc rpomieo-0e<br />
o'/3oy6e.<br />
The verb Trcordo^at only occurs once (II.<br />
12.
54 /-CLASS. [56.<br />
287 Ai0oi TTWT&VTO fla/xetai), while <strong>the</strong> form Trorao/xat is well<br />
attested. In <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r cases <strong>the</strong> restoration is<br />
supported by<br />
etymology (rpoTrao) from rpoTnj, &c.), and by <strong>the</strong> considerable<br />
traces <strong>of</strong> rpoTraco, rpo^a^, a-rpo^dco in our manuscripts (see Leaf on<br />
II. 15. 666). The process must have been that (e.g.] original<br />
rpoTrdecrOe became r/>o7racr0e (which is also found in MSS.),<br />
and <strong>the</strong>n<br />
10. In <strong>the</strong> Impf. Act. assimilation is<br />
unknown, mainly<br />
because <strong>the</strong> metre generally allows contraction. We find<br />
however (i)<br />
several uncontracted forms, viz. ovrae (Od. 22. 356),<br />
irepaov (II. 1 6. 367), v\aov (Od. 16. 5), Kareovaaoz; (Od. 12. 436) :<br />
)(paT, fxpaov (for fypaFT Z\paFov) do not belong to this<br />
head. Also (2)<br />
some verbs show <strong>the</strong> New Ionic -eo- for -ao- }<br />
viz. ojnoKAeo^, ojuiOKAeojuiei', -Troreo^rat, /xeiW^eoz;, r/irreoz;, r<br />
For
57-]<br />
CONTRACTION SYNIZESIS. 55<br />
2. Verbs in -eo><br />
rarely contract -eo or -ew, except in <strong>the</strong><br />
Participle (-ivjuero? for -eojue^oj). This rule is confirmed from<br />
New Ionic inscriptions (Erman, Curt. Stud. v.<br />
292), as well<br />
as <strong>the</strong> MSS. <strong>of</strong> Herodotus. For eu in TTOL^V^V (II. 9. 495),<br />
O^tvvro (II. 7. 444), o^XevvTai (II. 21. 261), eyeyoWw (Od. 9. 47,<br />
&c.) and a few similar forms we should write -eo (see 57).<br />
The contraction <strong>of</strong> -ce, -ei is established by <strong>the</strong> large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> instances * in which it is required by <strong>the</strong> metre. Moreover<br />
it is not merely a license, necessary for <strong>the</strong> sake <strong>of</strong> admitting<br />
certain forms into <strong>the</strong> hexameter (such as rap/3 eij, z>etKetz>,<br />
reAeiTai, T/yeta-flcu, o-^apayei, e(/uAei, olvo\6fi). Among <strong>the</strong><br />
instances <strong>of</strong> contraction in <strong>the</strong> last foot we find 29 <strong>of</strong> -ei for -ee<br />
(as -^oXos 6c piv aypio? and 16 i?/>t), <strong>of</strong> -ei for -eei (as naC jute<br />
y\VKvs Ifjitpos cupei); also <strong>the</strong> forms
56 /-CLASS. [58.<br />
Meaning <strong>of</strong> Verbs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> I- Class.<br />
58.] Verbs in -cw are mainly Intransitive, whe<strong>the</strong>r formed<br />
from Adjectives, as aTrtcrreo) / am unbelieving, or abstract Nouns,<br />
as fjio-^O^M<br />
I labour. But <strong>the</strong>re is also a group <strong>of</strong> Causatives in<br />
-eo), as co, dAv(TKa^a) ;<br />
LI, ra-vvd), retVco, rtratVco ; re^x 00 ? Tuyxdz/co, ri-rv-0-KO-jmai ;<br />
It may be conjectured that <strong>the</strong>se different forms originally expressed corresponding<br />
shades <strong>of</strong> meaning. In some cases a more specific meaning may<br />
still be traced e. ; g. 4>danc(i> I allege (i. e. feeep saying, or perhaps n/ to say) has<br />
something <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iterative force (cp. tirrao-K fte kept flinging about) which in
63.] FUTURE. 57<br />
0VT) 1 stay waiting, Ttraivco I stretch is to be compared with that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Intensive Verbs. The Perfect, too, may be regarded as a refined and<br />
generalised kind <strong>of</strong> Intensive ; cp. <strong>the</strong> forms \\-r]Ka, KCKpaya, p.|xvKa, &c.<br />
with Kapicaipco, 6XoXv, &c.<br />
Future in<br />
63.] The Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future is formed by suffixing -cre(o)<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem (in <strong>the</strong> strong form) ;<br />
as $?7-(rei, a>-<br />
eK-Trepcro) (irep0-^ Treicrojuai (irekO-), xe&rerai (x^S-), eojucu<br />
SSeiK-), Sex-)' et-o-o/xai (eT-|iu).<br />
The Stem e
58 TENSES. [64.<br />
Fut. or Aor. Subj.<br />
:<br />
yoiwao-o/xai (II. I. 427), oiracra-o^v (II. 24.<br />
I 53)> tvvd(ra> (Od. 4. 408), Aryio-o-o/xat (Od. 23. 357), cpvo-a-erai<br />
(II. 10. 44), dAeo-o) (Od. 13. 399), apeo-o-o'/xetfa. There remain :<br />
ap/ceVei (II. 21. 131 in Od. 16. 261 we should read apK.tarrj),<br />
atSeVerai (II. 22. 124., 24. 208), (Wcrcrerai (II. 9. 55), ycu>W(Trcu<br />
(II. 14. 504), dAeWeis (II. 12. 250), oAeWei (Od. 2. 49), and a<br />
few forms <strong>of</strong> derivative Verbs in -ao, -i&, viz. at'xjutdo-o-oixri<br />
(II. 4. 324), Oav^acra-^Tai 1<br />
(II.<br />
8.<br />
467), e^oTrAuro-oixri (Od.<br />
6. 69), aimao-eis (Od. 22. 28).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> whole it would appear<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Futures with o-o- (or o- representing original v j a
66.] FUTURE. 59<br />
<strong>the</strong> accent ot <strong>the</strong> Futures KOJUU-W, aeiK6-o>, KTepi-ovo-i, dyAai-eio-0at<br />
points to contamination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forms in -.<br />
According to some ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians <strong>the</strong> Fut. <strong>of</strong> dvvoj, kpvoi, &c. should<br />
be written dvvu>, kpvu, &c. ;<br />
see Schol. II. u. 454., 20. 452. This form in -aw<br />
is found in Attic (n\cvaov/jiai, &c. : see however Ku<strong>the</strong>rford's New Phrynichus,<br />
pp. 91-95) ;<br />
it answers to <strong>the</strong> Doric Fut. in -, Ocuaojxcu ; K\ai'cu, K\auaojji.ai ; ^euya}., <br />
dei'ow, aetcrojjuu ; Kara-ccua), Kara-KcJcr<strong>of</strong>MU j 6aup,aa>j Oau/xdcrcreTat.
60 TENSES. [67.<br />
With <strong>the</strong>se are usually reckoned <strong>the</strong> Verbs in which <strong>the</strong> Pres.<br />
is <strong>of</strong> a different formation, as 6p.oGfi.cu Treaeoi>T), j3^(rojxat (/3au>co), icap-emu (Kajutrco<br />
ireiaojjiat (7rao-)(co) :<br />
also <strong>the</strong> Futures to which no Pres. corresponds,<br />
as eurojuicu (oi6"a), Setcrojxai (6"ei'6ta), ovj/ojiai (OTT-).<br />
It may help to explain <strong>the</strong>se cases if we consider that <strong>the</strong> Fut.<br />
Act. is apt to have a Transitive sense, as in OTTJO-CO, /3?jo-co, ^wo-co,<br />
Hence <strong>the</strong>re was a tendency to have recourse to <strong>the</strong> Middle<br />
whenever a distinctly intransitive sense was wanted.<br />
Historical Tenses <strong>the</strong> Augment.<br />
67.] The Augment takes two forms, <strong>the</strong> Syllabic and <strong>the</strong><br />
Temporal.<br />
The Syllabic Augment<br />
is <strong>the</strong> prefix I-, and is used for Stems<br />
beginning with a consonant. The Temporal Augment is a<br />
simple leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> initial vowel <strong>of</strong> a Stem, <strong>the</strong> vowels a<br />
and becoming r/ ;<br />
as fyo-v (ayo-), r/Aa-o-a-z; (eAa-), ue-ro (t/ce-),<br />
o)p-ro (op-), ^ATyAa-ro (Pf. eArjAa-rai), fjveov (atz/eco), wxtro (O'LXOjxat).<br />
So <strong>the</strong> Impf. rja<br />
/ went (Sanscr. dyam} y<br />
from <strong>the</strong> stem<br />
t (6t-/xt)<br />
: as to <strong>the</strong> form rfia see 12.<br />
Many seeming exceptions are due to <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original<br />
initial consonants, F, ((repw-).<br />
In<br />
<strong>the</strong>se cases <strong>the</strong> a passed into <strong>the</strong> rough breathing, which was<br />
<strong>the</strong>n thrown back on <strong>the</strong> Augment but : etxor has <strong>the</strong> smooth<br />
breathing owing to <strong>the</strong> following \. Also eta (eaco<br />
for<br />
t<br />
(or y) perhaps in Ka<br />
77 (for e-ir]Ka) and, with contraction,<br />
(e-e-jue^), and irap-eidr] (-e-e^r;).<br />
But see 16.<br />
Several <strong>Homeric</strong> forms have been supposed to point to a Syllabic Augment<br />
TJ- (instead <strong>of</strong> -).<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
i^i'a I went has been already explained (<br />
1 2).<br />
As to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs we have to note as follows :<br />
(i) i]eipev (II. 10. 499) is not from ei'pco to join toge<strong>the</strong>r (Lat. sero\ but from<br />
oei'pw : for, as Cobet has shown (Misc. Crit. p. 326), deipcu is a technical word in<br />
<strong>the</strong> sense required (cp. II. 15. 680 ffwacipfrai 'iirnovs, also <strong>the</strong> words vvcapis, for<br />
vv-aop-is, and nap-rjopos).
68.]<br />
AUGMENT. 6l<br />
(2) In several words (as usually written) <strong>the</strong> initial vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem is<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ned after t-f- : et|v8av (for f-'favSavf}, e-covoxoci (foivoxoeaj), dv-e-cpycv,<br />
av-e-q>g (di/a-forycw), also e-a.yi\ (^ay-vvfjLi), with d in one place (II. n. 559),<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Plpf. forms twAim (eo\7ra, feA.7r-), ceopyei (eopya, fepy-}, WKt (eota,<br />
ft*-). In some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong>re may be merely confusion with <strong>the</strong> later use <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> :<br />
Temporal Augment &. g. liyi/Sai/e is doubtless due to <strong>the</strong> Attic rjvSave, a<br />
form which arose after <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> f. Hence recent editors write tavSave,<br />
(oivo\6(i, avzoiyov, also t6\irei, lop-yet, eoiKfi.<br />
(3) A different explanation is required for tbyi] (a), supported as it is by<br />
Attic Iwpcov (ppaoj) and laXcov (a in aX&vai, &c.)*. These point to an Augment<br />
TJ-, <strong>the</strong> combinations ijfo, t\fa. passing into ecu, ea (as in QaatXecas, -ed for -rjfos,<br />
-t]fo.\<br />
Such an Augment is also found in iqciSTjs, TjeiBet (Plpf. <strong>of</strong> o?5a), and<br />
Tjurice.<br />
There is much probability in <strong>the</strong> suggestion <strong>of</strong> G. Meyer (G. G. p. 423)<br />
that this T|- is a Temporal Augment obtained from <strong>the</strong> pro<strong>the</strong>tic I- so <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
found before f : e.g. in -ei0dfj,evos (f6i8-).<br />
Thus 4]unce would be <strong>the</strong> augmented<br />
form <strong>of</strong> HffK
62 TENSE MEANING.<br />
[69-<br />
With <strong>the</strong>se may be placed <strong>the</strong> Thematic forms l-yeya>i>e (II.<br />
14. 469), az/ooyo-jj, aycoye, -7T7rXr;yo-^, TreTrATJye-ro, ejue/^KOz;, in<br />
Hesiod eVe^Tj/coz;<br />
: see 27.<br />
3. By Composition, with <strong>the</strong> Augment and <strong>the</strong> Suffix -ea<br />
(probably for -ecra), joined to <strong>the</strong> longer form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem e. :<br />
g.<br />
-re#TJ7r-ea, ireTroitfea, Tj^coy-ea. The 3 Sing, usually has -ee(i>)<br />
contracted -ei(i'),<br />
as e-TreTroiflei, TT^wyeiz;, SeSTJet, riprjpti, ^e/3rJKet.<br />
The Plur. occurs only once in Homer, in eouc-e (II. 13. 102) :<br />
<strong>the</strong> Dual never.<br />
To this group belongs ?j5ea I knew ^<br />
2 Sing. 77616779 (for e-fetSeaj),<br />
also rjbrja-Oa, 3 Sing. TjeiSei, r/8ei (or,<br />
as Aristarchus read, 7761877,<br />
77877).<br />
As to <strong>the</strong> augment TJ- see 67. In respect <strong>of</strong> form 77860,<br />
is a Sigmatic Aorist, standing for e-fctdeo-a, Sanscr. dvedisham,<br />
and is only a Pluperfect because it is used as <strong>the</strong> past tense<br />
answering to 0180, (M. U. iii. p. 16).<br />
69.] Loss <strong>of</strong> Augment. The Augment is so <strong>of</strong>ten dropped in<br />
Homer that <strong>the</strong> augmented and <strong>the</strong> unaugmented forms are<br />
almost equally numerous. It has been observed however * that<br />
<strong>the</strong> forms without <strong>the</strong> Augment are comparatively rare in <strong>the</strong><br />
speeches, <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> augmented to unaugmented forms<br />
(excluding speeches which mainly consist <strong>of</strong> narrative matter)<br />
being about jo to 3, whereas in narrative it is about 5 to 7.<br />
It<br />
would appear <strong>the</strong>refore that <strong>the</strong> Augment is chiefly omitted<br />
where <strong>the</strong> context shows that past time is meant ;<br />
and this is<br />
confirmed by <strong>the</strong> remarkable fact that <strong>the</strong> Iteratives, which are<br />
only used as Historical Tenses, do not take <strong>the</strong> Augment.<br />
The only clear instance <strong>of</strong> an Iterative form with <strong>the</strong> Augm. is e-f<br />
KOVTO (Od. 20. 7). On <strong>the</strong> forms e-tyaatco-v, c-^aa/ff see 49.<br />
Meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Present and Aorist Stems.<br />
70.] The forms which contain <strong>the</strong> Present Stem (<strong>the</strong> Present<br />
and Imperfect Indie., with <strong>the</strong> Moods <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Present)<br />
denote progressive action (incipient, continued, repeated, &c.),<br />
as<br />
opposed to a single fact or event.<br />
It is easy to understand why a language which distinguished <strong>the</strong>se two<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> action should have no Aorist for present time *<br />
(,*J3fjp,i,, \df3c.), &c.).<br />
The present is not a space <strong>of</strong> time, but a point ;<br />
what is present <strong>the</strong>refore is<br />
not (generally speaking) a whole action or event, but <strong>the</strong> fact that it is in<br />
course <strong>of</strong> happening. So in English we usually say, not I write now, but I am<br />
uniting now. The mere effort <strong>of</strong> regarding an action as in present time almost<br />
obliges us to give it a progressive character.<br />
The forms tljxi, eijxt, ^jit, ayu>, Ypdo>, &c., in which <strong>the</strong> Stem has <strong>the</strong> form<br />
generally found only in Aorists ( u, 30"), may be regarded as surviving<br />
* Konrad Koch, De Augmento apud Homerum omisso, Brunswick, 1868.
71.]<br />
IMPERFECT. 63<br />
instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' Present Aorist,' i.e. <strong>of</strong> a Present not conveying <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong><br />
progress. We may compare <strong>the</strong> English use <strong>of</strong> I am, I go (now archaic in <strong>the</strong><br />
sense <strong>of</strong> I am going], I say (says he), &c. In <strong>the</strong>se cases <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a distinctly<br />
progressive form has not been felt to be necessary.<br />
A past action may usually be regarded, if we choose, as a<br />
single fact, irrespective <strong>of</strong> its duration (e/Sao-tAevo-ez; err? Tpi&Kovra<br />
he reigned, not he continued reigning}. But an action which is<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as contemporary with some o<strong>the</strong>r event is almost<br />
necessarily regarded as progressive. Accordingly, answering to<br />
<strong>the</strong> Present / am writing (now),<br />
we have <strong>the</strong> Past Tense 1 was<br />
writing (when he came).<br />
It follows from what has been said that a Pres. or Impf .<br />
may<br />
be used ei<strong>the</strong>r (i) because <strong>the</strong> action intended is essentially<br />
progressive, or (2) because <strong>the</strong> time is fixed by reference (a) to<br />
<strong>the</strong> moment <strong>of</strong> speaking, or (ft)<br />
to a point <strong>of</strong> time in <strong>the</strong> past.<br />
E.g. 8iSo>/xt may mean ei<strong>the</strong>r / seek to give, 1 <strong>of</strong>fer, or / am giving;<br />
toibov ei<strong>the</strong>r he <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
or he was giving. In <strong>the</strong> second <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
uses <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> progress is only relative, arising from <strong>the</strong><br />
relation <strong>of</strong> time under which <strong>the</strong> action is<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> *.<br />
From 71.] <strong>the</strong> relative notion <strong>of</strong> progress or continuance is<br />
derived <strong>the</strong> general rule that <strong>the</strong> Impf. is used <strong>of</strong> a subordinate<br />
action or circumstance: II. 8. 87 o$p' 6 yfyvv aTrerajuye roc/)/)'<br />
"EKTopos
64 TENSE MEANING.<br />
[72.<br />
72.] Essentially progressive action (incomplete or continuous)<br />
is exemplified<br />
(1) In <strong>the</strong> Verbs which form <strong>the</strong> Aor. from a different Verb-<br />
Stem :<br />
opdo) I watch (Lat. tueor, whereas tlbov means / descried)<br />
Aeyco 1 relate, set forth (but elirov I said) ; 0epo) / carry (but<br />
tfvtyKov I brought) ;<br />
so rpe^co, tpyo^ai (expressing different kinds<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion).<br />
(2) In o<strong>the</strong>r Verbs <strong>of</strong> motion, esp. fiaiva and urrryjuu, as II. 21.<br />
13 i(TTif]<br />
be /ze'ya Ku/xa raise up a great wave, and <strong>of</strong>ten in <strong>the</strong><br />
3<br />
M<br />
1<br />
id., as II. 2. 473 *v ^8i(j> Ivravro were drawn up in <strong>the</strong> plain,<br />
came and stood beside, &c.<br />
Note i. We should read torao-av (not rras urrao-av ine? 'Axatwf which <strong>the</strong> Greeks had planted ; see 73.<br />
Od. 3.<br />
1 80 TfTparov ^fjiap fr/v or' tv 'Apye'i vrjas fi'aas<br />
IvSfi'Seo) erapoi . . . to-rao-av (see Ameis a. Z.).<br />
8. 435 at 8e \otTpoxoov rpiiroS' ta-rao-av<br />
, , ~ Bekk. ,<br />
La Eoche.<br />
lo. 307 avritea XafAirTTjpas rpeis icrracrav )<br />
2. The Verb dyw is <strong>of</strong>ten so used : II. i. 367 rfjv 8e 8if-rrpa.e<strong>of</strong>j.ev re /fat r\yo\nev<br />
fvOa.Se = -navro. ; II. 7. 363 KTrjp.ara 5* oaa' dy<strong>of</strong>ji^v <strong>the</strong> treasures which I brought<br />
( have brought) ; II. 9. 664 rrjv A.fcr/3oOv 3\yc<br />
whom he had brought. In this<br />
Verb, however, <strong>the</strong> Aorist meaning appears distinctly in <strong>the</strong> Participle ;<br />
II. 6. 87 r/ Se ^vvdyovcra 76patas assembling ( = having assembled) j II. i. 311 flffev<br />
ay
7
66 TENSES. [77.<br />
ing), but completion with reference to (i. e. usually before) <strong>the</strong><br />
time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Verb.<br />
77.] The Participle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aor. is sometimes used to express<br />
exact coincidence with <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Verb : as (Sfj<br />
8e<br />
aka(ra went with a spring, ^f^vcra^vrj Trpocrrjvba spoke a lie, aXro<br />
XaOtov leaped unseen, Here a Pres. Part, would imply that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
was a distinct subordinate action : <strong>the</strong> Aor. expresses something<br />
that coincides with, or is<br />
part <strong>of</strong>, <strong>the</strong> main action.<br />
This is especially found with Verbs expressing <strong>the</strong> manner<br />
(tone, gesture, &c.) with which a thing is said or done II. 6. 54<br />
:<br />
ojuto/cArjo-as tiros rjvba shouted <strong>the</strong> words ; II. 8.<br />
219 TtonrvixravTi<br />
Oo&s orpvvai 'AXCUOVS to make hot haste in stirring up <strong>the</strong> Greeks ;<br />
II. 13. 597 xeipa Trapa/cpejuaa-as : II. 10. 139., 16. 474., 17. 334.,<br />
20. 161, Od. 2. 422., 17. 330 (cp. (frevytiv napavdaavTi Arist.<br />
Eth. Nic. 4. 3. 15).<br />
78.] The Aor. sometimes appears to be used <strong>of</strong> present time.<br />
(i)<br />
As in<br />
II. 14. 95 vvv 8e (TV tovocrafjiriv Trdy\v typtvas olov eetTre?.<br />
The Aor. here expresses a culminating point, reached in <strong>the</strong> immediate<br />
past, or ra<strong>the</strong>r at <strong>the</strong> moment <strong>of</strong> speaking : I have been<br />
brought to <strong>the</strong> i.<br />
point <strong>of</strong> blaming, e. / blame.<br />
II. 20. 306 r/6rj . . fyOript has now come to hate.<br />
II. 3. 4^5 T s G ^ ^<br />
cLTT\dr^p(^ cos vvv eK'TrayA.'
79-1 AORIST MEANING. 67<br />
speaker puts himself at <strong>the</strong> (future) point <strong>of</strong> time given by <strong>the</strong><br />
context, and uses <strong>the</strong> Tense which <strong>the</strong>n becomes appropriate.<br />
(2) Again<br />
When an assertion is made irrespective <strong>of</strong> time, <strong>the</strong> Pres. or<br />
Aor. is used <strong>the</strong> Pres. for continuous and <strong>the</strong> Aor. for single or<br />
momentary action. Hence <strong>the</strong> use<br />
In similes, as II. 3. 23 wore AeW t\apT] as a lion is gladdened<br />
(but in v. 25 /careo-fliei goes on devouring) : II. 4. 75 olov 6* dorepa<br />
. .<br />
rjK TOV 8e re iroXXol CLTTO o-TTivOfjpes teurai.<br />
The only examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Impf. in a simile are II. 15. 274.,<br />
495> m <strong>the</strong> phrase ovb' apa . . ai(n^6v fjv, where it is virtually<br />
a Present.<br />
Also in ' gnomic ' passages, reflexions, general sayings, &c. :<br />
II. T. 218 6s K Oeols eTTtTret^rat pa\a r ZK\VOV avrov.<br />
9. 320 KarOav' OJJL&S 6 T aepyoj avrip, 6 re 7roAA.a eopycoj.<br />
These uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aor. are very common in Homer.<br />
The Impf. may possibly be found in a gnomic passage, II. 13. 730-732<br />
dAAo; fjilv yap 4'5o6 Oebs TroXf^-fjia tpya<br />
d\\q> 8' fv crrjOeffffi TiOfi voov evpvoira Zevs,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> MS. reading TiOsi may be defended as an Impf. marking subordination<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Aor. cScoice :<br />
cp. <strong>the</strong> examples in 71. 2.<br />
Much light has been thrown upon <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aorist by <strong>the</strong> comparison<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> use in Sanscrit (Delbruck, 8. F. ii, and A. S. p. 280). If <strong>the</strong><br />
result has not been to determine <strong>the</strong> original force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aorist, it has at<br />
least shown that <strong>the</strong> question cannot be settled from <strong>the</strong> material furnished<br />
by Greek alone. The use which predominates in Greek, <strong>the</strong> historical use to<br />
assert <strong>the</strong> happening <strong>of</strong> a single event in <strong>the</strong> past, is almost unknown to <strong>the</strong><br />
earliest Sanscrit. In <strong>the</strong> Veda <strong>the</strong> Aor. is employed, as <strong>of</strong>ten in Homer ( 74^<br />
<strong>of</strong> what has happened in <strong>the</strong> immediate past. In <strong>the</strong> early Sanscrit prose (<strong>the</strong><br />
Brahmanas) <strong>the</strong> Aor. is used <strong>of</strong> what has happened to <strong>the</strong> speaker himself.<br />
It is worth noticing that <strong>the</strong>se uses, in which <strong>the</strong> Aor. answers approximately<br />
to <strong>the</strong> English Pf. with have, are found in later Greek in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verbs<br />
whose Pf. retains its original meaning. As Mr. Gildersleeve '<br />
puts it,<br />
when<br />
<strong>the</strong> Perfect is used as a Present, <strong>the</strong> Aorist is used as a Perfect. So e/cTr)aafj.rjv<br />
I have gained possession <strong>of</strong>, ic4r^fuu I possess' (Am. Journ. <strong>of</strong> Phil. iv. 429). Hence,<br />
if <strong>the</strong> Greek Perfect is originally a kind <strong>of</strong> present, <strong>the</strong>re is a presumption<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Aor. was originally akin in meaning to our Perfect. On this view <strong>the</strong><br />
ordinary historical Aor. is a derivative use.<br />
CHAPTER III.<br />
THE MOODS.<br />
79.]<br />
The Moods <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb (properly so called) are <strong>the</strong><br />
Subjunctive) <strong>the</strong> Optative, and <strong>the</strong> Imperative. It is convenient<br />
however to rank <strong>the</strong> two Verbal Nouns, <strong>the</strong> Infinitive<br />
and <strong>the</strong>
68 MOODS.<br />
[80.<br />
Participle, along with <strong>the</strong>m. The meanings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Moods and<br />
Verbal Nouns cannot well be discussed until we come to <strong>the</strong><br />
chapters dealing with Complex Sentences.<br />
The Subjunctive.<br />
80.]<br />
N on-Thematic Tense-Stems usually form <strong>the</strong> Subj. by<br />
taking <strong>the</strong> Thematic Vowel, with <strong>the</strong> Primary Endings ; except<br />
that when <strong>the</strong> Thematic Vowel enters into a diphthong, or is followed<br />
by two consonants, it becomes or w instead <strong>of</strong> or o.<br />
TJ<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> scheme is<br />
Sing. Dual. Plur.<br />
Act. Mid. Ad. Mid. Ad. Mid.<br />
-0)<br />
-o/xat<br />
-77S -eat -ere -r/crtfe<br />
-OXTL^vJ<br />
-toVTCLl.<br />
The long t\<br />
or a>, it will be seen, comes in place <strong>of</strong> or o<br />
wlierever it can do so without disturbing <strong>the</strong> metre. Examples :<br />
Strong Aorists : t-), virp-(3ri-r], ^r\-o^v (or<br />
e-oTT], Subj. (TTrj-rjs, (rrri-r}, 0r?7-eroz>, oT^-Ojuey, 0T/]-co(rt<br />
e-yi/co,<br />
Subj. yz;co-a),<br />
e-6u, Subj. bv co, bv-,<br />
e-/3A.77-ro,<br />
-(J>OL-TO,<br />
Subj.<br />
Subj.<br />
aA-ro, Subj. aA-erat :<br />
Stem Or]-, Subj. ^et-co (or 07J-eo), Oi'i-ys, dd-optv (or<br />
Stem ?/-, Subj. e(^-et-co, az/-rj-r/ :<br />
Stem 6r7-ju, Subj. ^-77 ':<br />
KlX^-^t, Subj. KIX^-O), KLXi-OlJ,V (or<br />
so pi-<strong>of</strong>jiv as if from ^"e/orj-jui.<br />
Passive Aorists :<br />
e-Sd^, Subj. 5a/uet-o),<br />
so 5aet-a), aAco-oo, a\(&-r], (ra7r?y-r/, i^ai<br />
For baLvvy, i Sing. Subj. Mid. (Od.<br />
8.'<br />
243., 19. 328), we<br />
may read dcuwe',<br />
i. . 8atw-e-at.<br />
Perfects :<br />
Trtiroida, Subj. TreTro 1^-97?, 7TiroiO-o^v : eppiye, Subj.<br />
e/>pty-rycrt : jB^fB^Kf, Subj. TTpo-(3priK-ri so : k(rrr\K.-ri, ap?jp-?y, jue/xrJA-?/,<br />
d/VcoA-r/, opcop-7/, /3e/3pux"?7 a^so : tA?JKr/(n (Od. 21. 365.) unless we<br />
assume a Pres. tArj/co) ( 45).<br />
Pf. Mid. TTpoa-apripeTaL (Hes. Op. 431).<br />
,<br />
Subj. et'6eco, et6f/9, et6r} 5 et8o/xer, etdere,
8l.] SUBJUNCTIVE. 69<br />
For 6iSo, &c., Tyrannic wrote i8&>, ei'S^s, ciSt), ctSwcrt (Schol. Od. i. 174),<br />
uniform with efSo/uei/,<br />
ei'Sere. Both forms may be accounted for : eiBeco is<br />
Subj. <strong>of</strong> l-fet'Sea ( 68) ei'8a> with <strong>the</strong> Plur.<br />
;<br />
eiS-o-fifv, fi'S-e-re, is Subj. <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Non-Thematic *f6iS-|ti, Sanscr. ved-wi (If. 7. iii. 18). The form ISeu, read by<br />
most MSS. in II. 14. 235, is a mere error for eiStco.<br />
Aorists in -ad :<br />
i-)3ij
70 MOODS.<br />
[82.<br />
Traces <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> Subj. are found in <strong>the</strong> Greek <strong>dialect</strong>s :<br />
bvvd-fJiaL (for 8wo>/icu), naO-tord-Tai, 7rpo-Ti6r]VTi, &c. (Meyer, G. G.<br />
p. 502). In Homer it<br />
may be recognised in <strong>the</strong> 3 Sing, forms<br />
Qyviv (Od. I. 1 68), (f)6fi(n (II. 23. 805), fja-L (II. 15. 359), |ue0-ir/(ri<br />
(II. 13. 234), 8o>o-t ; perhaps in 6?, b&fjiev, SGxri, '7repi-8a>ju,e0oi>,<br />
e7u-8a>jute0a ; yuws, yv&jJLtv, yv&vi ; irL-(3fJTov, TrcLprjOfjrov, &c.<br />
which are usually regarded as contracted from <strong>the</strong> regular<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> 8o>o>, 8co?7?, Scooter, &c. and in fc/pq-rai, eTU-or^rai<br />
( 87, 3)-<br />
How <strong>the</strong>n did <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong>
82.] SUBJUNCTIVE. 71<br />
(II. 3. 353). The 2 Sing, sometimes takes -o-Oa;<br />
enr-?]cr$a, 7rtr/(r$a, &c.<br />
The Subj. in -cop,t<br />
had almost disappeared at one time from <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong><br />
Homer, having been generally corrupted into -oiju, sometimes -wp,ai. It was<br />
restored by Wolf, chiefly on <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians. Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> best MSS. (especially Ven. A) have occasionally preserved it.<br />
It is interesting to observe <strong>the</strong> agreement in form between <strong>the</strong> Thematic<br />
Indie, and <strong>the</strong> Non-Thematic Subj. e. ; g. Indie, dyw and Subj. yvw-co, in<br />
contrast to Subj. e0e\cw-/<br />
:<br />
just as ayo-pfv and yvw-opev agree in contrast to<br />
aya-pev.<br />
A few forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aorist in -
72 MOODS. [83.<br />
The<br />
Optative.<br />
83.] The Optative Stem is formed from <strong>the</strong> Tense Stem by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Suffix IYJ<br />
or i,<br />
as 8180- ir)-v, TV\O-I-TO.<br />
i. Non-Thematic Tenses (except <strong>the</strong> Aorist in -crd)<br />
take u]<br />
before Light Endings, i before Heavy Endings; as et^-z; (for<br />
: once -<br />
viz. a-Ta-if](rav (II. 17. 733).<br />
The i is lost in bvr] (Od. 9. 377., 18. 348., 20. 286, for bv-trj) 9<br />
cK-bvfJiev, \\VTO (Od.<br />
1 8.<br />
238 La Roche), baivvro (II. 24. 665),<br />
datzw-aro (Od.<br />
1 8. 248), 0tro, aTro-^dijmqz* (for 0i-t-ro, cbro-<br />
2. In Thematic Tenses <strong>the</strong> scheme <strong>of</strong> Endins is :<br />
Sing. Dual. Plur.<br />
1. -oi/n Mid. -<br />
Mid.<br />
Mid. -<br />
3. -ot -otro -OLTYJV<br />
-oa.ro.<br />
2. -CHS -CHO -OITOV<br />
-otre<br />
3. The Aorist in -
84.]<br />
VERBAL NOUNS. 73<br />
The so-called 'JEolic'Opt. <strong>of</strong> Contracted Verbs (-(prj-v,-onj-v)<br />
appears in i\otrj (Od. 4. 692) and Qopoir] (Od. 9. 320).<br />
In II. 14. 241 most authorities give eirurxoujs as an Opt. (rS> feev ciriax ^] 5<br />
Xtirapovs -noSas tikanivafav. Three <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief MSS. (A. B. C.) have emcrxoics,<br />
and this was quoted by Herodian, apparently as <strong>the</strong> only reading known to<br />
him (see Ludwich, A.H.T. i. 374). The Syr. palimpsest has Imcrxoias. All<br />
three forms are anomalous ; fmaxoiijs finds a parallel in dyayoirjv (Sappho)<br />
and one or two o<strong>the</strong>r forms, but can hardly be <strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
The forms crows (II. 9. 681), crow (II. 9. 424) are so written by modern<br />
editors. Most MSS. have O-OTJS, cr6r|.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> former place we learn that Ar.<br />
doubted between craws and crows (or creeps, for <strong>the</strong> accent here is conjectural).<br />
The ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians apparently took both forms as Opt. (which suits<br />
<strong>the</strong> sense, 304, a).<br />
Some wrote craws, craw (or crows, crow), deriving <strong>the</strong>m<br />
directly from craow : o<strong>the</strong>rs crows, crow, from crww or crow. It is not difficult to<br />
restore <strong>the</strong> uncontracted craoois, craooi, or, if <strong>the</strong> Subj. is preferred, craoTjs,<br />
craoTj (so Nauck).<br />
For <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. in -oi-v Bekker finds one instance <strong>of</strong> -ot-v, viz. in Od. 20.<br />
382, where <strong>the</strong> common text has<br />
TOVS fivovs kv VTJI iro\vK\.r]i8i @a\6vTfs<br />
fs 2iKc\ovs ireftif/ufifv<br />
oOw Kt rot aiov a\(j>oi,<br />
for which he would read a\c|>oiv. The I Sing, in -oi-v (instead<br />
anomalous -ou-jxt)<br />
was not unknown in Attic (Bekker, H. B. p. 1 1 1 if) *.<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
irapa-c{>0a-iTr)-cri (II. 10. 346), with Primary instead <strong>of</strong> Secondary Ending, is<br />
perhaps a pseudo-archaic form, made on <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunctives in<br />
The<br />
Verbal Nouns.<br />
84.] Infinitives and Participles are not properly speaking<br />
Verbs since <strong>the</strong>y do not contain a Subject and Predicate but<br />
Nouns : <strong>the</strong> Infinitive is a kind <strong>of</strong> Substantive and <strong>the</strong> Participle<br />
an Adjective. In certain respects however <strong>the</strong>y belong<br />
4<br />
to <strong>the</strong> scheme <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb :<br />
1.<br />
They answer in form and meaning to <strong>the</strong> Tense Stems;<br />
each Tense Stem has in general an Infinitive and a Participle<br />
formed from it.<br />
2.<br />
They are distinguished as Active and Middle (or Passive)<br />
in sense.<br />
3. They are construed with <strong>the</strong> same oblique cases <strong>of</strong> Nouns;<br />
and <strong>the</strong> same Adverbs and Adverbial phrases, as <strong>the</strong> corresponding<br />
Verbs.<br />
* It must not be supposed, however, that <strong>the</strong> i Sing, and <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. in<br />
-otv are primitive forms. The termination -ow was originally impossible in<br />
Greek (as -em and -om are in Sanscrit) ;<br />
we should expect -otcf, -oiav (Sanscr.<br />
-eyam, -eyus). Hence -OI-JJLV probably made its way into Greek in place <strong>of</strong><br />
*-oia, as -crai-p,i in <strong>the</strong> Aor. in place <strong>of</strong> -cmS (see Brugmann, in Curt. Stud. ix.<br />
313). The 3 Plur. form diroTtvotdv is found in <strong>the</strong> Eleian <strong>dialect</strong>.
74 INFINITIVE. [85.<br />
85.]<br />
The Infinitive Active is formed<br />
(i) In Non-Thematic Tenses (except <strong>the</strong> Aor. in -o-a) by <strong>the</strong><br />
Suffixes -jAeycu, -flee, -eixu, -yea.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong>se -jjiemi is <strong>the</strong> most usual, as 0e-/zei>ctt, yrco-juez/at, fxiyrjjuemi,<br />
tb-fJLevai, TeQva-pevai, fevy-zw-jueyat occurs :<br />
-jxei/<br />
after short<br />
vowels, as t-juez;, do-jutez>, rcOvd-^v, op-vv-ptv also in<br />
; ejujuez> (five<br />
times, but always where we may write ejutjuez/), t6-/xez;(Il. 11.719),<br />
and ^tvy-vv-^tv (II. 16. 145),<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> long<br />
u is irregular.<br />
The full Suffix -eVai only occurs in t-eVat but<br />
;<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are many<br />
vowel or<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r Infinitives in -mi, all <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m containing a long<br />
diphthong in which an e may be supposed to have been absorbed ;<br />
as bovvcu (for So-eWi, see Max Miiller, Chips, iv. 56), Oelvcu,<br />
(TTrjvai, firjvciLj bvvcu, yv&vai) aXoivai, /3tai, afjvai, (poprj-vai,<br />
bibovvai (II. 24. 425). The original form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Suffix seems to<br />
have been -<br />
From t/tt (, cfttvcu, ffJifv,<br />
and eFi/at. Of <strong>the</strong>se<br />
eleven, fpfv are irregular ; <strong>the</strong>y follow <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> Offifvai, &c. Cp. <strong>the</strong><br />
I Plur. efiv (Soph. El. 21). From cf-/it<br />
are formed "1-jj.fvcu, t-pfv, and i-4vcu.<br />
In one place (II. 20. 365) ipcvcu is scanned with I perhaps in imitation <strong>of</strong><br />
e/i/icvat (Solmsen, K. Z. xxix. 72).<br />
The common Attic Present Infinitives Iffrd-vai, TtOt-vai, 8i56-vai, 8eiK-vv-vai,<br />
&c., as well as <strong>the</strong> Perfect Infinitives in -eVcu, are entirely unknown in<br />
Homer.<br />
(2) In Thematic Tenses by -e-pecai, -c'-pei', -cii/ ;<br />
as etV-<br />
The Ending<br />
-e-cii/<br />
only occurs in <strong>the</strong> Thematic Aor., and is<br />
anomalous ; compare j3a\--iv (Stem fiaXt-) and fid\\-iv (Stem<br />
/3aAAe-).<br />
The original ending was doubtless -itv : thus-<br />
Stern (3a\-, Inf. fia\4-V, contr. (3aXeiv.<br />
/3aA.Ae-, j8(iAXe-er, ,, f3d\\iv.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Aor. <strong>the</strong> metre usually allows us to restore -CCK (see<br />
Renner, Curt. Stud. i. 2. p. 33).<br />
It is possible that <strong>the</strong> forms (3a\f-eiv, &c., are genuine, since -cev might pass<br />
into -6iv from <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pres. Inf. in -civ, just as in <strong>the</strong> Rhodian<br />
<strong>dialect</strong> -ejjiev<br />
became -fp,eiv.<br />
Leo Meyer (Vergl. Gr. ii. 284) proposed to read<br />
@a\-fj,fv, &c. But, as Renner points out <strong>the</strong> (I. c.), change from -ecv to -ceiv is<br />
very much slighter, indeed is a mere matter <strong>of</strong> spelling. Original /SaXe^ev,<br />
&c. would probably have been retained.<br />
(3) The Aor. in -ad forms -aai, as OTTJ-CT-CU.<br />
(4) The Inf. Middle is formed by -a0cu : (3\r)-a-9ai, 7re
87.] PARTICIPLE. 75<br />
(Sanscr. vid-man-e). Similarly bovvai is bo-Fev-ai (dd-vdn-e) { for<br />
giving/ Probably <strong>the</strong> Infinitives in -o-tu and -<br />
and -tv (-eu>) originally differed in meaning from<br />
those in -^evai, -evai, &c. In Greek, however, <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Inf. as a Case-form is lost, so that <strong>the</strong> different forms are all<br />
construed in exactly <strong>the</strong> same way.<br />
86.] The Participle. The Aorist, <strong>the</strong> Present, and <strong>the</strong> Future<br />
Tense Stems form <strong>the</strong> Active Participle by <strong>the</strong> Suffix -IT- : thus<br />
we have, Non-Thematic vra-vr-, TiOt-vT- ;<br />
Thematic paXo-vr-,<br />
(TTrj-ao-vr-, &c.<br />
The vowel before vr is<br />
always short, as yvo-vr-, juiye-ir-.<br />
The Perfect Stem takes -or or -oo- (originally -For, -Fov), Fern,<br />
-uid (for -vv-ia, <strong>the</strong> -uo- originally a weak form for The<br />
-foo-).<br />
Middle Participle is formed by -JAC^CS, which in <strong>the</strong> Perfect is<br />
accented -jmeVos.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> Verbal Adjectives in -ro-j, see 114. The Verbal in<br />
is<br />
post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
CHAPTER IV.<br />
ACCENTUATION OF<br />
THE VERB.<br />
87.] The general rule is that <strong>the</strong> accent is thrown back as far<br />
as possible ;<br />
and <strong>the</strong> chief departures from this rule are found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Infinitives and Participles, which are in reality Nouns. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb properly so called <strong>the</strong> following exceptions<br />
have to be noted :<br />
I. elfu and T]jjit.<br />
The 2 Sing. Imper. a-0i is oxytone.<br />
The disyllabic forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pres. Indicative, efyu, eoW, C^TJJUI',<br />
(fyrja-i, &c., are enclitic, and, when <strong>the</strong>y do not lose <strong>the</strong> accent<br />
altoge<strong>the</strong>r, are oxytone but eort is accented in <strong>the</strong> ;<br />
ordinary way<br />
when it occurs at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> a sentence, or after certain<br />
words (OVK, KCU, wj).<br />
Such was <strong>the</strong> commonly accepted account ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians<br />
were not agreed as to <strong>the</strong> enclitic character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dual and Plural forms (on<br />
CO-TOY see Charax 1151 ;<br />
on 4>ap,V, ar, 4>aat, ibid. ;<br />
on eo-jjuv, lore, clcri, Eust.<br />
1457, 48). Again, one <strong>grammar</strong>ian denies that T]|A<br />
was ever enclitic<br />
(Charax 1152) ; ano<strong>the</strong>r holds that it should be written TJIU, at least in such<br />
instances as (prj/jii yap ovv Karavevaat, KT\. (Tyrannic ap. Eust. 1613, 18). In<br />
all likelihood <strong>the</strong> original forms were, Sing. Icm, $T\\LI, Plur. eo-fxev, ajxv,<br />
and IOTI are not properly oxytone, but are<br />
and we may suppose that Tj[xC<br />
unaccented forms made oxytone as enclitics (wgvvOij<br />
8ia T^V<br />
ttrovaav avrots
76 ACCENT.<br />
[88.<br />
Apoll. Synt.). The Sanscrit Verbs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same kind follow <strong>the</strong> rule<br />
<strong>of</strong> accenting <strong>the</strong> Stem in <strong>the</strong> Sing., <strong>the</strong> Ending in <strong>the</strong> Dual and Plur. and<br />
;<br />
this must be connected with <strong>the</strong> difference <strong>of</strong> quantity between strong and<br />
weak Sterns (6). See Benfey, Vedica und Linguistica, pp. 90 ff.<br />
The 2 Sing, els is enclitic, though <strong>the</strong> corresponding Attic<br />
form et is<br />
not; but see 5- As to $779 <strong>the</strong>re is a contradiction;<br />
it is not enclitic according to Arc. 142, 8, but enclitic according<br />
to rest on<br />
to Schol. A. II. 17. 147 both notices being supposed<br />
<strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong> Herodian (ed. Lentz, i. 553, 4 and ii.<br />
105, 5).<br />
2. The 3 Plur. to-rao-t, ri#eia-t, 8i8ocri, btiKvvo-i, are properispomena<br />
(Herodian, i. 459, ed. Lentz).<br />
This can hardly have been <strong>the</strong> original accentuation, since <strong>the</strong>y are not<br />
contracted forms, but represent iVra-i/Tt, c.<br />
Probably it comes from <strong>the</strong><br />
Attic Iffrdai (contracted from lara-aai, cp. rtOe-affi, &c.). The Doric forms are<br />
written rtfleWt, &c. by Eustath. Od. 1557, 45 ;<br />
but we do not know that this<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> usage <strong>of</strong> any living <strong>dialect</strong>.<br />
3. Subjunctives such as (fravfj, Sacojueu are circumflexed, as<br />
being contracted forms (for (f>avrm, 6a?jojuz>).<br />
On ei8eco, etSrjs,<br />
flbfi, etdecocrt see 80.<br />
Optatives in which -IT]- becomes -i- before Heavy Endings are<br />
accented on <strong>the</strong> i<br />
throughout, as 8iaK/ny0etre, Sajueiez/.<br />
But Middle forms to which <strong>the</strong>re is no corresponding Active<br />
follow <strong>the</strong> general rule :<br />
bvv[j.ai, bvvrjai. (so Herodian, but<br />
Tyrannio wrote bw&fjiai, bvvijai, Schol. II. 6. 229), Kepuvrai (II.<br />
4. 260), eTuoTTfrai ( 280); eTuarairo, OVCLLO, OVOLTO.<br />
4. The Imperatives eiTre, eA0, are oxytone (and so in Attic<br />
cvpt, i8e, Aa/3e). Similarly Tyrannio wrote mfle'o-tfe, Aa/3eV0e<br />
(Schol. V. II. 1 8. 266) ep. <strong>the</strong> Attic /3aAo, &c.<br />
;<br />
The rule in Sanscrit is that <strong>the</strong> Verb loses <strong>the</strong> accent, except in subordinate<br />
clauses, or when it begins <strong>the</strong> sentence. Hence <strong>the</strong> verbs ijxi and ^TJ^I in<br />
fact retain <strong>the</strong> original accentuation, which was doubtless that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indo-<br />
European language. The Imperatives c'ure, X0, c., are evidently words that<br />
would <strong>of</strong>ten be used to begin a sentence.<br />
The ordinary accent <strong>of</strong> a Greek verb, <strong>the</strong> so-called ' recessive ' accent, represents<br />
<strong>the</strong> original enclitic condition. The Opt. for ({XUTJV, example, is originally<br />
oxytone. On <strong>the</strong> Sanscrit rules it loses its accent, and we should have (e. g.)<br />
tYw-avr)v. But owing to <strong>the</strong> Greek rhythmical law this is impossible.<br />
Accordingly <strong>the</strong> accent goes back as far as <strong>the</strong> Greek rules will allow, and<br />
we have eyvj-fpairjv.<br />
5. The final -ai <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Endings -JACU, -erai, -rai, -rrai, and <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Inf. is treated as short. These are all cases in which -at<br />
represents <strong>the</strong> original final sound <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word. But <strong>the</strong> -at <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Opt., which is for original -air, counts as long.<br />
88.] Accent in Composition. Unaugmeiited forms <strong>of</strong> Compound<br />
Verbs are accented as though <strong>the</strong> Verb were an enclitic
89.]<br />
ACCENT. 77<br />
following <strong>the</strong> Preposition : hence (rvv-zyjov, 7r/>o'-e?, 7rapa-0e5,<br />
Kirai, cLTTo-o-^vraL. If <strong>the</strong> final syllable <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Preposition is<br />
lost by elision or apocope <strong>the</strong> accent falls on <strong>the</strong> first syllable;<br />
hence {/(^-eAKe, Kdr-9av.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> accent falls if possible upon <strong>the</strong> :<br />
Augment hence<br />
TTpoa--^av, 7r-c(rxov, e7r-?jA0e. In o<strong>the</strong>r words, <strong>the</strong> Augment is<br />
treated in accentuation as a Preposition.<br />
The form lo-rat keeps <strong>the</strong> accent (7701/0- eo-rcu, &c.); perhaps<br />
because it is formed by syncope from eo-erai.<br />
The Subj. (vfjL-pXrjTCLL (Od. 7. 204) ought to be properispomenon,<br />
if it is a contracted form; cp. /SA^erai (Od. 17. 47 2 )-<br />
The <strong>grammar</strong>ians however wrote a^o-Oao^ai (in spite <strong>of</strong> cbr<strong>of</strong>leiojuai,<br />
II. 1 8. 409) and 8id-0co//,at (Herodian, i. 469, 7, ed. Lentz).<br />
We have to recognise in such cases <strong>the</strong> encroachment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
common Thematic type, though we may doubt whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong><br />
change reaches back to <strong>the</strong> earliest form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Homer.<br />
According to Herodian, <strong>the</strong> 2 Sing. Imperative tvi-o-ires is paroxytone, but<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Imperative form vi-crire, and <strong>the</strong> Indie, forms tvi-o-ire-s, tvicnrf, are<br />
proparoxytone see Schol. on II. ; 24. 388. That is to say, <strong>the</strong> Imper.<br />
evi-o-irc-s is regular, <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs are accented as if compounds <strong>of</strong> icrirco.<br />
The Imperative lirwrxe in Hes. Scut. 446 may be divided ir-tffx<br />
f or Im-axe,<br />
and in <strong>the</strong> latter case we may write iTnVx 6 (with <strong>the</strong> MSS.), or irtax f like<br />
><br />
<strong>the</strong> cviffne <strong>of</strong> Herodian.<br />
The MSS. vary between (Imper.) evio-ircs and Ivtcrire : in <strong>the</strong> two places <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Iliad (n. 186., 14. 470) <strong>the</strong> Venetus has IVIO-TTCS : on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand in <strong>the</strong><br />
only <strong>Homeric</strong> passage in which <strong>the</strong> metre gives any help (Od. 4. 642) it is<br />
decisive for vi
78 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. [90.<br />
The Part, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pf. Middle is paroxytone. But aKax^eros<br />
follows anayycrQai.<br />
In Composition <strong>the</strong> Infinitive and Participle retain <strong>the</strong> accent<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> simple word ;<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r words,, <strong>the</strong>y do not become enclitic.<br />
Hence we have Impf . (rvv-tyjovj but Neut. Part. ?, &c.<br />
The Stems now in question belong to two great classes,, those<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nouns and <strong>of</strong> Pronouns, called Nominal and Pronominal Stems<br />
respectively.<br />
The term ' Noun ' includes Substantives and Adjectives.<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r ' parts <strong>of</strong> speech' Adverbs, Prepositions,<br />
Conjunctions may ultimately be resolved into Case-forms or<br />
Adverbial forms ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> Nouns or Pronouns.<br />
The distinction between Nouns and Pronouns brings before us in a new<br />
form <strong>the</strong> fundamental anti<strong>the</strong>sis involved in <strong>the</strong> division <strong>of</strong> a Verb into a<br />
Stem which 'predicates/ and a Person-Ending which marks <strong>the</strong> Subject.<br />
A Noun ei<strong>the</strong>r denotes a single object or group <strong>of</strong> objects (L e. when it is a<br />
'proper name'), or denotes objects through <strong>the</strong>ir permanent attributes, as<br />
belonging to a class whereas a Pronoun denotes an<br />
; object by its local<br />
position, or momentary relation to something else, as ' this ' or ' that/ ' here '<br />
or ' <strong>the</strong>re/ ' same ' or < o<strong>the</strong>r/ This contrast is shortly expressed by saying<br />
that Nominal Stems are Predicative, and Pronominal Stems Demonstrative ; <strong>the</strong><br />
former name or describe, <strong>the</strong> latter only 'point out' what is intended.<br />
Accordingly, Nominal Stems are in general ei<strong>the</strong>r identical with, or formed<br />
from, <strong>the</strong> Stems <strong>of</strong> Verbs : Pronouns are found to contain <strong>the</strong> same elements<br />
as those which furnish <strong>the</strong> Person-Endings <strong>of</strong> Verbs. The simplest forms<br />
obtained by analysis are thus <strong>of</strong> two kinds. They were first clearly distinguished<br />
by Bopp, and called by him Verbal and Pronominal Roots respectively<br />
(Vergl-Gr. 105).<br />
The Cases.<br />
91.] Declensions. The main distinction is that between <strong>the</strong><br />
Consonantal Declension (including<br />
that <strong>of</strong> Stems in -i and -u),
93-]<br />
CASE-ENDINGS. 79<br />
which forms <strong>the</strong> Genitive in -o<br />
In II. i. 86 KaAxai/ (Voc.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kd\x. as )<br />
was rea(^<br />
by Aristarchus,<br />
KdX^a by Zenodotus. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand in II. 12. 231 Ar.<br />
read YlovXybdpa, but Zen. IlovXvbdfjiav. The form Aao6djua in<br />
Od. 8. 141 probably has <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong> Aristarchus.<br />
Stems in -o form <strong>the</strong> Voc. in -e, as $t'Ae tKvpe. Some Stems<br />
in -0(77) shorten <strong>the</strong> final vowel, as VVJJL^CL, Voc. <strong>of</strong> vv^rj, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Masc. oT>/3 : -01 a.<br />
: :<br />
Y\ :<br />
The words <strong>of</strong> address, TraTTTra, arra, rerra, /otata, may be ranked<br />
as Vocatives. So ?7$ete, as to which see <strong>the</strong> note on 96.<br />
93.] Case-Endings. These are given in <strong>the</strong> following Table.<br />
The Endings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Consonantal Declension are in larger type<br />
:<br />
<strong>the</strong> two Vowel Declensions <strong>of</strong> Nouns are numbered (i), (2),<br />
and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pronominal Declension (3).<br />
Sing. Dual. Plur.<br />
Nom. -9 -e -69,<br />
(1) -o-s, Neut. -o-v -co -ot<br />
(2) -a(j), -ta ; -TJ-S -a -at<br />
Ace. -z/<br />
?<br />
-a. -e -a?,<br />
Neut. -a,<br />
Neut -a<br />
Gen. -o? -066V<br />
-co<br />
-CD? (for -o-vs)<br />
!i) 2) -a -ay (-a-z^s)<br />
-oto, -oo, -OD -oitr -a>i;<br />
-r;9; -do, -eco -aajj^, -ecoy<br />
-to, -eo, -eu -t(z^) -etcoz;, -ecoz;<br />
Dat. -6 -OUV<br />
-O"i(v} y<br />
-<br />
(i) -a)<br />
(Loc. -ot)<br />
-our<br />
-otcrt(i;), -ots<br />
f<br />
aj<br />
-ry (Loc.<br />
-at ?) -??
80 DECLENSION. [94.<br />
94.] Stems ending in i, u, and o- are liable to lose <strong>the</strong> final<br />
letter before <strong>the</strong> Case-Endings which begin with a vowel.<br />
1. Stems in -t]u, -eu : e. g.<br />
w\v-s, Gen. vr]-6s (for vtjF-os), rarely ^e-o'?. The e arises by<br />
shortening from i] ;<br />
so z/ees, veo>v, vtecra-i, yea? all less common<br />
than <strong>the</strong> corresponding forms with TJ-, vijes, vr]&v, vritvvi, v?ias.<br />
The forms VTJV-S, vyv-ai are irregular, since original an before a consonant<br />
would appear in Greek as av (cp. Zcvs for original dyeus}. Hence <strong>the</strong> true<br />
Greek form is preserved in <strong>the</strong> Instrum. va-4>iv ( 104) and <strong>the</strong> Compounds<br />
vavffi-tcXvTos, Nauo-i-tfaa, &c. The <strong>of</strong> TJ vrjv-s and vrjv-ai is taken by analogy from<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Cases.<br />
|3ao-iXeu-s, Gen. j3acri\rj-os {but Dat. Plur. j8aoiXev-(n),<br />
nrjXeu-s, Gen. TlrjXrj-os and n^Xe-oj. In oblique Cases <strong>of</strong><br />
Stems in -eu <strong>the</strong> e seems to be nearly confined to proper names ;<br />
cp. Tudeos TuSe'i Tv8ea, 'Ar/oe'o? 'Arpei, rja-ea, Nr]Xea, &c.<br />
On Zeuj, /3oi;s see 106, 2.<br />
2. Stems in -i and -u form <strong>the</strong> same Cases in two ways<br />
:<br />
(1) Retaining <strong>the</strong> Stem- vowel, as KOVI-S KoVt-o?, Ilapt-s<br />
riapt-o?, l\vs l\vos, IxOv-s l%6v-S, av-s arv-6s, cru-t, (rv-e?.<br />
It is probable that this form <strong>of</strong> declension was originally<br />
confined to monosyllables.<br />
(2) Inserting e and dropping i or u as TroVt-?, Dat. : iroo-e-i",<br />
acrrv acrre-os, irfj^v-s Tr^x.e-09, TTO\V-S TroA.e-0?. Here <strong>the</strong><br />
Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oblique Cases ends in -ei, -eu : hence Gen.<br />
-eos for -et-os, -ef-o?, &c.<br />
forms several <strong>of</strong> its Cases in three ways :<br />
(1) Gen. 7roOu-oj, Dat. 770X1 (for jroAi-i, 99),<br />
Plur. Nom.<br />
Gen. iroXi-tov, Dat. iroXl-ecrcri, Ace. 7roAt-as and<br />
7ro'Ai-es,<br />
zroXis ( 100).<br />
(2) Gen. -rro'Aeoj (so Bekk. reads in II. 2. 8u v 21. 567,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> scanning<br />
v^<br />
cp. -TroAev? in Theognis), Dat.<br />
TToAei, -n-roAefc (II. 17. 152, perhaps should be TJTO'AU, cp.<br />
<strong>the</strong> Cyprian form TrroAt^t).<br />
(3) Gen. Tro'Arj-o?, Dat. iroAr;-t, Plur. Nom. Tro'A^-es, Ace.<br />
The stem TroAry- which furnishes <strong>the</strong> last <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se three forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> inflexion has been traced by Joh. Schmidt (K. Z. xxvii. p. 287)<br />
to a primitive Locative in -TJ (cp. Sanscr. agni, Loc. agnd), to<br />
which <strong>the</strong> ordinary Loc. -t was suffixed. From this new Loc.<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Cases were <strong>the</strong>n formed TTO'ATJ-I<br />
by analogy.<br />
The Nouns in -a (from -ia) answer to <strong>the</strong> original Stems in<br />
-I, as Ibvia, for lbvo--La, Sanscr. vidush-l.<br />
qij-s or lij-s good makes Gen. et]-os, perhaps by transference <strong>of</strong> quantity for<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r Adjectives in -iis form --os, --i, &c.<br />
fjf-os.<br />
3. Stems in -e
96.] SINGULAR. 8l<br />
95.] Original d as <strong>the</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem becomes T) ;<br />
except (i) after e, ei, a, as in Bed, and <strong>the</strong> proper names 'Epjueias,<br />
,<br />
Auyeiaj, NaucrtKaa, 'Peta (Ar. on II. 14. 203), 3>aa (II. 7.<br />
135, Od. 15. 297), and (2)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Gen. in -do and -awi>.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r exceptions to <strong>the</strong> scheme given above will be best<br />
treated under <strong>the</strong> separate Cases.<br />
96.] Nominative Singular. The final -s is retained after<br />
vowels and mutes, but lost with Stems ending in p, as Trarrjp, //^oro)/).<br />
Stems ending in v ei<strong>the</strong>r (i) take final -s (with loss <strong>of</strong> v), as<br />
eis (for h-s), Ois Ace. 6iv-a, /xe'Aas Gen. peXav-os, or (2) do not<br />
take -s,<br />
but leng<strong>the</strong>n a preceding vowel, as yfl&v Gen. -^Oov-os,<br />
TIQI\M\V Gen. 7T(n/xez/-os. So with Stems in -vr : bovs Gen. bovr-os,<br />
but Ibtov.<br />
Originally it seems that all monosyllables took -s<br />
and all o<strong>the</strong>rs -v (J. Schmidt, K. Z. xxvii. 392).<br />
If so, \6
82 DECLENSION. [97.<br />
The form eupvoira also appears as an Ace., and has accordingly been explained<br />
from a Nona, evpv-o^. It is improbable however that it is a different<br />
word from <strong>the</strong> Nom. Voc. evpvoira. Probably <strong>the</strong> fact that it had <strong>the</strong> appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> an Ace. <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> numerous Compounds in led to an extension<br />
-oif/<br />
<strong>of</strong> use *.<br />
97.] Accusative Sing. The Ending<br />
-a is found after consonants<br />
and <strong>the</strong> diphthongs rju, cu ;<br />
as vrjv-s vfja (for vrjva, vr]Fa),<br />
(3a(TL\v-s /Sao-tXrjaj TuSev-s Tu8ea f. O<strong>the</strong>rwise <strong>the</strong> Ace. takes -v ;<br />
e. g. TTO'A.I-Z;, lyOv-v, (Bov-v.<br />
But eupu-s makes cupea in <strong>the</strong> phrases evpea TTOVTOV,<br />
<strong>the</strong> common form being eupu-i>.<br />
The original Ending is -m, which becomes -v after a vowel and -a (for m}<br />
after a consonant. The preference for o after rjv, ev is due to <strong>the</strong> semiconsonantal<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> v in <strong>the</strong>se combinations.<br />
We may compare <strong>the</strong><br />
Aorists Ktja (for IKTJV-CI), ex va (also x ea )><br />
& c -><br />
an(l on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand e8v-v,<br />
fV-V.<br />
Several Stems form <strong>the</strong> Ace. in -w and also in -iSa :<br />
epi8a and<br />
i-piv (Od.), (f)v\o7nba (Od. n. 313) and cfrvXoiTLv, y\auK(o7rt8a<br />
(II. 8. 373) and y\avK&iriv (Od. I. 156), avd\Ktba and avaXK.iv<br />
(Od. 3. 375)5 oinba and o-mv, Kvirpiba and Kvirpiv ; Oovpiv^Ipw,<br />
av\LV) QCTLV. Cp. also \dpL-v (for ^dpiT-a), and Kopv-v (for<br />
KopvO-a), found in <strong>the</strong> line II. 13. 131 (=16. 315),<br />
do-ms ap' d(T7rt5' epetSe, Kopvs Kopvv, avepa 8* avrip.<br />
In Attic <strong>the</strong>re are many more such forms ; opvw, &c.<br />
Note that no oxytones form <strong>the</strong> Ace. in -w.<br />
The Accusatives Ja-qv (Od. 12. 313), "ApTjv, Mcy-qv are probably formed<br />
directly from <strong>the</strong> Nom. C ai 7<br />
y > "Apys, Me7?;j, on <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> Masc. Nouns in<br />
-TJ-S.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand Z-qv (Zeus), (3uiv (jSoGs), are very ancient forms,<br />
answering to <strong>the</strong> Sanscr. dydm, gam (Joh. Schmidt in K. Z. xxv. 17) : see<br />
106, 2.<br />
A final 8 is lost in <strong>the</strong> Neut. Pronouns o, TO, TOVTO, Ktlvo, a\Xo<br />
(Lat. id, is-tud, illucl, aliud), and in r( (Lat. quid) : perhaps also<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Personal Pronouns, Ace. Sing. c//e (ju.e),
99-]<br />
SINGULAR. 83<br />
98.] Genitive Singular. The Stems in -o form <strong>the</strong> Gen. in<br />
-oio, -oo, -ou. Of <strong>the</strong>se forms only -oio and -ou are read in <strong>the</strong><br />
existing- text <strong>of</strong> Homer; but <strong>the</strong>re are sufficient traces <strong>of</strong> -oo,<br />
and indeed several places where it is called for by <strong>the</strong> metre.<br />
Thus we must read<br />
II. 2. 5*8 fte'e? 'l^uro<br />
i5- 66 (=21. 104) 'IXtoo<br />
22. 313 dypioo, TTpocrOzv de KT\.<br />
Od. IO. 36 8d)pa Trap' Aio'Aoo<br />
60 (3fjv ets Aio'Aoo K\VTCL Sahara.<br />
II. 9. 440, &c. ojuouoo TjroAe'juioio (for ojuouov<br />
2. 32^ oo /cAeo? OVTTOT dAetrat ) /<br />
\<br />
r\A ' * > f (f r ooi; )-<br />
Ud. I.<br />
7O 00 ^<br />
KpCLTOS (TK jJ,yi(rTOV )<br />
II. 2. 73 1 'AflncAqvfoq 8vo TratSe.<br />
15. 554 aV\l/tOO KTCLJJulvOLO.<br />
5. 21 a8eA
84 DECLENSION. [99*.<br />
The Dat. <strong>of</strong> Neuters in -as was commonly written -a ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong><br />
a is long1<br />
anomalous, and -at is now read by La Roche from good<br />
MSS. (in o-e'Aat, /cepat).<br />
The forms in -a appear to have become<br />
established in later Greek (Hdn. II, 316, 10, ed. Lentz).<br />
Stems in -i, Gen. -1-09, form <strong>the</strong> Dat. in -t, as KO'ZH, /oirjrt,<br />
fjida-TL, Kvrjo-Ti, ert, re/xecrcrt (with v. 1. z;e//,eo-
102.] PLURAL. 85<br />
Stems in -u, Gen. -eos, have only -eas in Homer :<br />
except<br />
7roAs, read by Zenodotus in II. 2. 4, perhaps in o<strong>the</strong>r places (II. i.<br />
559-> I 3- 734-, i5- 66 20.<br />
-> 313., 2,1. 59, 131, Od. 3. 262., 4.1 70),<br />
where <strong>the</strong> MSS. have -rroAe'as or TroAeis.<br />
The MS. <strong>of</strong> Schol. A in II. 2.<br />
4 gives iroXels as read by Zen., but <strong>the</strong> context<br />
shows that <strong>the</strong> true reading <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scholium is iroXvs. But <strong>the</strong>re is no trace<br />
<strong>of</strong> this form in any <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r places.<br />
The Personal Pronouns have ^/xeas (once rj^as), v^as, o-^eas<br />
(once creeds encl., II. 5. 567), as well as ajtx/xe, #/a,//,e, o-(/>e.<br />
The<br />
forms in -as are later, <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> adding <strong>the</strong> common ending <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Ace, Plur. : see on <strong>the</strong> Ace. Sing.<br />
101.] Genitive Plural. Stems in -ci(v])<br />
and -d form <strong>the</strong> Gen.<br />
Plur. in -au^, less<br />
commonly -ewy. The -ea)z> is generally scanned<br />
and after a vowel is written -,<br />
as KAi(ri-, irapei-Qv,<br />
SKCU-WZJ v(f)aXi-Qv}<br />
(cp. <strong>the</strong> Gen. Sing, in -do, -ew).<br />
The Pronominal Stems rjfAc-, UJJLC-, a(J>e- form ^eicoz/ and T^jtieW,<br />
and vfjiecov, ox^etW ox^ecoz; (encl.) and ax^wz;.<br />
These forms are plausibly explained by supposing that originally<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gen. was in -eto, as in <strong>the</strong> Singular. Then<br />
were assimilated to <strong>the</strong> Gen. Plur. in -
86 DECLENSION. [103.<br />
Case, and <strong>the</strong>n combined with o<strong>the</strong>r Stems; hence<br />
o-u-eo-at, &c. Thus forms like eTre-eo-at (for e7reo--eKD7rerd<br />
(II. 8. 42): but Fern. Trpo^cweWe, TrA^yez^re (<strong>of</strong> two goddesses, II.<br />
8. 378, 455);<br />
The Genitive and Dative Ending in all Nouns is -ouV, as<br />
7To5-otti;, faiT-ouv. The contracted form -oik and <strong>the</strong> Fern, -cu^<br />
do not occur. The Personal Pronouns have :<br />
i. Nom. Ace. v&'i, vv (v&'iv<br />
II. 16. 99, aQwiv Od. 23. 52?);<br />
Gen. Dat. vQ'iv.<br />
2. Nom. Ace. o-^wt, or^w; Gen. Dat. a
105.] CONTRACTION, &C. 87<br />
vav-(f)iv, (vyo-^i, /3i??-), Lat. si-6i. These are relics <strong>of</strong> an original<br />
Instrumental Case.<br />
105.] Contraction, &c. The loss <strong>of</strong> i, u and o- between vowels<br />
94) does not generally lead to contraction in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
ialect : note that<br />
S!J<br />
1. The Dat. Sing, <strong>of</strong> Stems in -e, cp. II. 7. 153 Odpve'i o>).<br />
17. 647 ev Se ai Kal oktcraov (read ev $ae'i).<br />
2 3- 5 J 5 ^ rt TX<br />
t<br />
7 e (read ov ra\d ye).<br />
^3. 639 7rA?j0ei (read -nXrjOvl).<br />
Also o5et, Dat. <strong>of</strong> oi!6aj (II. 5/734., 8. 385., 14. 467., 17. 92.,<br />
23. 719., 24. 527), for which read ov5at or ovba ( 99).<br />
2. The combinations -ea, -eo, -cw are <strong>of</strong>ten scanned as one<br />
syllable by < Synizesis/ as foot (II. I. 18), o-aKea (II. 4. 113),<br />
(II. 7. 207, &c.) ; so with <strong>the</strong> Pronouns ^/xeas, vjuteas, (T{as.<br />
In II. i. 1 8 u//"<br />
/<br />
A"" ^6 i Sorey 'O\vfjuria d&paT' Zxovrfs <strong>the</strong> word Ocoi is not<br />
certain, since 'Q\vp.ina Swftar' 6X OVTS ^G lords <strong>of</strong> Olympus is used as a Substantive,<br />
and 0e <strong>of</strong> is <strong>the</strong>refore unnecessary (Fick, Ilias p. 75).<br />
3. The Gen. Sing, has -eus for -e-os in a few words ;<br />
Odpo-fvs, Otpevs, OdiJiptvs chiefly aira etpqjue'va. It is probably<br />
better to write -cos and admit Synizesis.<br />
On -eu in [j.v, rev, tv, TV see 378*.<br />
4. Nouns with Stems in -eeo- (as KAe'o?, 6eos) and some Nouns<br />
in -ds are liable to ' Hyphaeresis/ or dropping a vowel before<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r vowel : as KAe'a (for KAee-a), and so bv(TK\ta, d/cAe'a,<br />
aKAe-e? ; vr)\r}S, lAjXA", i/qAea (Neut. Sing. z/rjAees) ; ^eo^Sri?, ^eovSea<br />
(for Oeo-bFris god-fearing), vnepbta (II. 17. 330); yepa, 6e7ra, Kepa,<br />
Kpea, (r
88 DECLENSION. [106.<br />
9. 334, Od. 4. 66). Kp4a occurs in <strong>the</strong> phrase Kpea ISfiei/cu, and in one or two<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r places before a vowel ;<br />
but more frequently it is followed by a consonant,<br />
and is to be scanned icpcS or icpca (necessarily so in Od. 9. 347, where it ends<br />
<strong>the</strong> line). Possibly <strong>the</strong> a is shortened by <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ordinary Neut.<br />
Plur. forms in -a (Meyer, G. G. p. 348). Or, as is now maintained by Joh.<br />
Schmidt (Pluralb. p. 321 ff.), Kpta, ffpa, &c. are stems in -a, originally distinct<br />
from <strong>the</strong> corresponding stems in -So-, and are <strong>the</strong>refore properly Singular, but<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> being used in a collective sense. On this view fcpta meant flesh,<br />
icpeaa pieces <strong>of</strong> flesh: cp. prjpa and fjirjpoi ( 99*). Schmidt does not admit<br />
hyphaeresis in most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se words, holding that it<br />
only occurred when three<br />
vowels came toge<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> oldest Greek: so that (e.g.}<br />
we may have 5tct<br />
for 8fefa (5fetff-a), but not Aea for KXefea.<br />
5. There are also several contracted forms from Stems in -ceowhich<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer some difficulty<br />
:<br />
d/cA^eis (II. 12. 316), d/cAetws (Od. I.<br />
2,41., 14. 371), eikAeiois (II. 22. no), eikAeias (II. 10. 281, Od.<br />
21. 331; al. eikArjas), aycLKXjjos (dyaKAetos Hesych.), Harpo/cAr/os,<br />
<<br />
UarpoKAfja, 'HpctKArjos, 'HpaKArJa, HpaK\rj'C ) BatfvKA^a, A60/cA??os,<br />
AiOKA?ja ; faxpritls, a\peiG>v (also a\pr]&v Hesych.) ;<br />
Setovs (II.<br />
IO. 376** 15* 4) ) "^Lovs t ?,<br />
Dat. TJO'I,<br />
Ace. f]6a (see 368); at8a>y, Dat. albo'C, Ace. alboa: tfyws, Ace.<br />
ibpoa (II. 10. 574)-<br />
-Bu"t <strong>the</strong> Genitive in -ovs (rjovs, ArfTovs, &c.)<br />
is required by <strong>the</strong> metre in several places. Naturally <strong>the</strong><br />
contraction <strong>of</strong> oo was earlier than that <strong>of</strong> two unlike sounds, as<br />
01, oa. See L. Meyer, Decl. 23.<br />
106.] Variation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem. The phonetic influence <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Ending on <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem, which plays so large a part<br />
in <strong>the</strong> inflexion <strong>of</strong> Non-Thematic Tenses, was originally no less<br />
important in <strong>the</strong> Nouns. In Sanscrit a Nominal Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
consonantal Declension appears in general in at least two forms,
106] STEM VARIATION. 89<br />
a ' strong 3 and a 'weak' form; <strong>the</strong> strong form being- used in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Nom. and Ace. Sing, and Dual and <strong>the</strong> Nom. Plur., <strong>the</strong><br />
weak form in o<strong>the</strong>r Cases. The weak form, again, may have<br />
two degrees, which are <strong>the</strong>n called <strong>the</strong> ' weak ' or ' middle ' and<br />
<strong>the</strong> ' weakest ' form. A few traces <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se variations remain<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Greek Declension :<br />
1. In <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong> relationship, 7rar?jp, pjrr}/), &c. and in avrip.<br />
Thus we find Nom. iron-rip,<br />
Ace. mirep-a, but Gen. irarp-os (irarep-os<br />
only Od. II. 500), Dat. narp-L (sixty times in Homer, Trare'p-t<br />
thrice) ; PITTJP, Ace. jutryrepa (only), Gen. and Dat. jurjrp-o's, /uqrp-f,<br />
less<br />
commonly firjrep-os, /xTjrep-t. &vr\p uses avtp- and avdp- (for<br />
avp-) almost promiscuously ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> latter is also seen in <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
PL avSpa-a-i (for avbp-
90 DECLENSION. [107.<br />
to Nouns<br />
107.] Heteroclite Nouns. This term is applicable that employ distinct Stems. The chief variations are<br />
1. Between <strong>the</strong> vowel Declension (Stems in -o and -a, -77)<br />
and<br />
<strong>the</strong> corresponding consonantal forms :<br />
bLTTTV^O-S ',<br />
ACC. biTTTV)(-a.<br />
pir]po-s ;<br />
Plur. epiTjp-e?, epfyp-ay.<br />
(avbpaTTobo-v post-Horn.) ; Dat. Plur. avbpaTrob-eo-an.<br />
a\Ki] ;<br />
Dat. aA/c-i.<br />
va-y.ivTf]<br />
Dat.<br />
', va-^lv-i.<br />
l&Kij ;<br />
Ace. tok-a.<br />
'Aibrj-s, Gen. 5 Ai8a-o ;<br />
also "AiS-o?, Dat. "Ai8-i.<br />
(or z^) may<br />
be a Neut. Sing.<br />
:<br />
cp. ^Eolic oTTTrara
107.]<br />
HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 9!<br />
ovbas, ov$-os, &c. : so K
93 DECLENSION. [108.<br />
The declension <strong>of</strong> J-pcos, -yeXcos<br />
and i8pu>s in Homer is open to some doubt ;<br />
it is clear however that <strong>the</strong> Stems in -r are post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
Nom. epos occurs in II. 14. 315, Ace. fpov in <strong>the</strong> phrase e Zpov tvro put away<br />
desire, Dat. Jlpcp<br />
in Od. 18. 212 ;<br />
Nom. epcas is read in II. 3. 442., 14. 294, but<br />
<strong>the</strong> metre allows epos in both places, cpur-a occurs first in H. Merc. 449.<br />
Nom. -ycXws occurs in II. i. 599, Od. 8. 326, 343, 344: in <strong>the</strong> two last<br />
passages (in <strong>the</strong> Song <strong>of</strong> Demodocus) <strong>the</strong> metre is ra<strong>the</strong>r against -ycXos. The<br />
Dat. ycXcp occurs in Od. 18. 100 (most MSS. -ycXco) ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ace. -y^Xov or -yeA" in<br />
Od. 1 8. 350., 20. 346 (MSS. ye\Q}v, y\ov, and ye\a}). Thus <strong>the</strong> word may be<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r yA.o-s (Gen. -ou) or "y*Xo>s, Ace. ytXco (for yt\u>-a or y*Xo-a)<br />
:<br />
cp. aiSw<br />
for aidoa. The Stem ye\<strong>of</strong>f- appears in yeXoios, cp. aidoios, ij<strong>of</strong>os.<br />
From ISpus we have Ace. IdpSi ;<br />
but this must be read I8p6a in one place<br />
(II. 10. 574 fSpcD TroAAoV at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line), and always maybe so read.<br />
The Dat. is ISpy (II. 17. 385, 745), possibly to be written ISpoi. Hence I8pws is<br />
probably like XP^S -<br />
Two o<strong>the</strong>r Case-forms <strong>of</strong> this type are Ixw (H. 5. 416), Ace. <strong>of</strong> ix&P, and<br />
KVK6LW (II.) or KVKO> (Od.), Ace. <strong>of</strong> KVKthv. Cp. also auo (Aesch. fr. 413), Ace.<br />
<strong>of</strong> ai&v.<br />
The history <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong>se instances is very similar. The original Stem ended<br />
with a spirant (commonly o-), <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> which in <strong>the</strong> oblique Cases caused<br />
hiatus (-oos, -01, -oa, &c.)<br />
: <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong>se forms were replaced by adopting Stems<br />
in -T and -v. Cp. 114*, 6-8.<br />
1O8.] Heteroclite Pronouns. The following points remain<br />
to be noticed :<br />
1. The stems CJAC (jxe)<br />
and ee, e do not form a Nom. Sing.<br />
It is evident that <strong>the</strong> original Nom. coalesced at a very early period with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb, becoming <strong>the</strong> ending -|xi ; just as <strong>the</strong> French je has<br />
ceased to be used except in a fixed place before <strong>the</strong> Verb, so that it is hardly<br />
a separate word.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Plural also <strong>the</strong> Nom. was not originally formed from <strong>the</strong> same Stems<br />
as <strong>the</strong> oblique Cases. Both a/i/ze-s, vfj.fj.e-s<br />
and i7/ie-es, u/xe-cs are comparatively<br />
late, and due to <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nominal declension (Meyer, G. G. p. 388).<br />
2. The Interrogative and Indefinite rts is declined from three<br />
Stems_, viz.<br />
(1) TI-, giving Neut. ri (for also <strong>the</strong> Plur. Neut. traceable<br />
rt'6),<br />
in aa-a-a (for a TLO).<br />
The Indef. aoxra occurs in Od. 19. 318 6777:01'<br />
aoraa, where it would be better to write oTTTrotd Va-a (for ria).<br />
(2) re-, giving Gen. re'o, rev (cp. e/xeo, &c.), Dat. reo), rw 1 (II.<br />
6.<br />
227, H. Apoll. 170).<br />
Gen. reW (eo>)_,<br />
Dat. in 6-reotcrt (eot), II. 15. 491.<br />
(3) rw ~> &i vin Ace. ff riv-a, Dat. (very rarely) riv-i, Plur. Nom.<br />
(only in <strong>the</strong> Od.).<br />
have been originally a derivative, introduced to mean head when rtepas had<br />
come to be limited to <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> horn. From it again Kaprj-aros, &c. were obtained<br />
by analogy.
109.]<br />
ADVERBS. 93<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Compound OO--TLS <strong>the</strong> first part is sometimes declined as<br />
09, rjf, o, sometimes undeclined, giving- o-rtj, o-rev, &c. The Neut.<br />
Plur. is once O-TIV-CL 22. (II. 450), usually oVo-a.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> forms with TT, -mr (as o'rrt, 077770) we have s) to recognise<br />
<strong>the</strong> original Neuter 08 (Sanscr. yad ).<br />
Thus 08 rt becomes or rt<br />
(not oo-rt, since rt is a distinct word, not a Suffix).<br />
In orreo,<br />
which occurs in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (i. 124., 17. 121., 22. 377), 68- is<br />
indeclinable (cp. o-ru), and so in OTTTTCO?, 0777700-09, 677710109, &c.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> assimilation we may compare Kab 8e, KQITT trfbiov, &c. (for<br />
Kar 8e Kar<br />
3.<br />
The Article is declined from two Stems :<br />
6-, Fern, a-, which gives 6, f), ot, at :<br />
perhaps also cos thus,<br />
is distinct from <strong>the</strong> Relatival o>? as.<br />
if it<br />
TO-, Fern. rd-, which gives <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Cases, and second forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nom. Plur. rot, rat : also <strong>the</strong> Adverb rws thus.<br />
The Compound o-8e uses <strong>the</strong> Stem o- for <strong>the</strong> forms o-8e, 17-86,<br />
ot-8e, at-8e, and <strong>the</strong> Adverb (II.<br />
10. 462<br />
and Od.).<br />
The -8e is enclitic : hence <strong>the</strong> accent, ?J-8e,<br />
not ^8e.<br />
Strictly, <strong>the</strong>refore, it should be written o 8e, rj 8e, &c.<br />
The forms tyavTov, vtavrov, &c. are post- <strong>Homeric</strong>. The earliest<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> a Compound <strong>of</strong> this kind is <strong>the</strong> word !aur?j, in Hes.<br />
Th. 216.<br />
Adverbial Suffixes.<br />
109.] The Suffixes employed<br />
in Homer to form Adverbs are<br />
as follows :<br />
-0t expresses <strong>the</strong> place where : <strong>the</strong> chief instances are from<br />
Pronouns and Prepositions, ro'-0i, o-0t, iro-0i, av-di, avro-di, Ktl-Qi<br />
(e/cet-0t only Od. 17. 10), lre'pw-01, eKao-ro-^t, aAXo-^t, e'/cro-tft,<br />
e^8o-^t, a7ro-7rpo-^t, tyo-Qi, tyyv-Oi ;<br />
from Nouns, veto-^t, 6ripr]-0i,<br />
(Od. 14. 352), ot/co-01, jiS>-di, ovpavo-6i, Krypo'-^t; 'IXto'-^t, KopivOo-<br />
Oi, 'A/3v8o'-0t. Note that Ket is not found in Homer.<br />
-6a place ; ev-6a, tvrav-Qa, vTrai-Oa (cp.<br />
also 8ry^a, y^ivvvQa).<br />
-0e(i') place, from Prepositions ;<br />
/<br />
7rpo cr-^e(r),<br />
and oTrt-<br />
O7rto--#e(z>)<br />
-0ei/ jt?^^
94 DECLENSION. [lIO.<br />
-TOS place ; h-ros, IK-TO?. Originally, perhaps, it expressed<br />
<strong>the</strong> place whence, as Lat. caeli-tus, divini-tus.<br />
--us, in OLV-TIS back, again (Attic av-Qis).<br />
-ere place whi<strong>the</strong>r ; Tro-o-e, oTTTro'-o-e, Ket-cre, erepco-cre, d/ut^ore/oo)-<br />
(T, 6/xo-o-e.<br />
From Nouns, iravro-a-e, KVK\O-(T.<br />
-c|>i(f), -4)19, in v6(T-a ?m?^7, lit. meanwhile (II. 8. 58).'<br />
-Xt, in ??-x l where (lit. which way, Lat. ^).<br />
-X a ?<br />
with Numerals; 6t-xa #w0 wtf^s, Tpi-yjn, irlvra-xa,
110.] ADVERBS. 95<br />
confirmed by <strong>the</strong> forms a, OTTO, d\\q, itavra on Doric inscriptions (Ahrens,<br />
ii. 369). In Homer however <strong>the</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong> irdvrr) (or -77) is frequently<br />
shortened before ano<strong>the</strong>r vowel, which is rarely done in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> final -T)<br />
( 380). It is not unlikely <strong>the</strong>refore that <strong>the</strong> original Instrum. Fern. -TJ<br />
took<br />
iota subscr. from <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat. Fern, in -TJ.<br />
There were also Doric<br />
adverbs <strong>of</strong> place in -TJ<br />
or ^ (7717 TTOKO., l/carf/^, see Ahrens, ii. 362, Brugmann,<br />
M. V. ii. 244), in which is <strong>of</strong> course<br />
t\<br />
pan-Hellenic but Ionic<br />
; 7777, &c. are<br />
connected by <strong>the</strong> meaning with <strong>the</strong> Doric forms in -a. Cp. also XdOpij (-77)<br />
with Attic XaOpa (or -a). The form itavr-rj is an extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ending -TJ<br />
to <strong>the</strong> consonantal declension (as with <strong>the</strong> adverbs in -cos).<br />
-i, -i time, manner ; avro-vv\-i (or -t)<br />
that very night, II. 8.<br />
197; Tpi-, Kar-co, Trporep-co {fur<strong>the</strong>r on), e/caoWp-a), eKao-rar-a> {far<strong>the</strong>r^<br />
far<strong>the</strong>st^), dcro-orep-a) nearer.<br />
Two o<strong>the</strong>rs are Adverbs <strong>of</strong> manner, &-b, OVT-M (for which<br />
is only written when a vowel follows in <strong>the</strong> same sentence).
96 DECLENSION. [lIO.<br />
The ending -cos has long been considered to be <strong>the</strong> Greek form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
original Ablatival -6t (Lat. -od) <strong>of</strong> o- stems In Greek, however, a final -d<br />
would disappear (as in aAAo, Lat. aliu-d, &c.) and consequently <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory<br />
applies only to <strong>the</strong> forms without -s, viz. cD8e and ovrca. The difficulty was<br />
met by Curtius (Curt. Stud. x. 219) with <strong>the</strong> suggestion that -T would pass into<br />
-s before a dental or cr : e. g. ovrcas
III.] ACCENT. 97<br />
avrrjv (avTiov, tvavTiov, &c.) opposite, itaXiv backwards, brjpov long,<br />
(T^b(j\v hand to hand, a^abi^v openly, aitpiarriv without purchase;<br />
perhaps also ay\t near, in/a al<strong>of</strong>t, ia>).<br />
The<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> this -s is obscure. Brugmann (K. Z. xxiv. 74) connects<br />
it with <strong>the</strong> -s <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Prepositions ef, w\ry d/x
98 DECLENSION. [lI2.<br />
The second group consists <strong>of</strong><br />
(i) Nouns with monosyllabic Stem, as TTOUS, 1708-0'?, irob-'i,<br />
TOS-WV, TTOCTvl', KUWI>, KVV-OS, KVV-i, KVV-&V, KlKTi; 6rjp,<br />
Orjp-i, 077p-, O-rjp-a-L.<br />
(3) The words iranr/p, /^TT}/), dvydr^p, avrjp, yavrrip Gen.<br />
;<br />
Trarp-oj, /xrjrp-o'?, fluyarp-o'j, avbp-os, yaa-rp-os &c.<br />
The accent <strong>of</strong> ^rrjp and Ovydrrjp is anomalous : cp. <strong>the</strong> Accusatives<br />
fj-rjTtp-a, 6vyarep-a. Probably <strong>the</strong> Nom. Sing, was<br />
originally oxytone. The change <strong>of</strong> accentuation may be explained<br />
by supposing that <strong>the</strong> Nom. was influenced by <strong>the</strong> accent<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Vocative that in fact <strong>the</strong> Voc. pro tanto took <strong>the</strong> place<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nom. (cp. 96).<br />
It is evident that <strong>the</strong> Voc. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se words<br />
would be especially familiar to <strong>the</strong> ear.<br />
The Dat. ending -eom never takes <strong>the</strong> accent ;<br />
hence Tro'5-ecro-t,<br />
r?5-eo-o-t, avSp-ta-a-i, K.vv-(r
IT3-] NOUN FORMATION. 99<br />
CHAPTER VI.<br />
FORMATION OF NOUNS.<br />
113.]<br />
Nominal Stems. Some Nouns are formed with Stems<br />
identical with Verb-Stems ; Trrv^-es folds (TTTT^O-O-CO for -Tiri^-to)),<br />
o-n'x-e? ranks (o-reixco, e-o-rt^-oi;), A.o' flame (ojAeyo)), Trrok-a<br />
cowering (777-77 o-o-co, -7rraK-o^), 8co house, for 8a>//, cp. Sa- (dm) in<br />
6), pa>y-a? clefts,<br />
openings (pr\y-vv^i), 0a>? jackal (0ea>),<br />
O7r-a tw'00 (Ft*-), pt, 6p(,<br />
2r?j. In <strong>the</strong>se Nouns <strong>the</strong> Stem is usually ei<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> weak<br />
form or in <strong>the</strong> O-form ( 38).<br />
Originally <strong>the</strong> Stem was long (and accented) in <strong>the</strong> Nom. and Ace., weak<br />
(with <strong>the</strong> accent on <strong>the</strong> Case-Ending) in <strong>the</strong> Gen. and Dat. Instances <strong>of</strong> this<br />
variation have been given in 106 ; cp. 114*.<br />
Commonly however a Nominal Stem is formed from a Verb-<br />
Stem by means <strong>of</strong> one or more Suffixes, which we may call<br />
Nominal Suffixes. These are <strong>of</strong> two kinds :<br />
j. Primary, by which Nouns are formed from Verb-Stems ;<br />
as -o in ay-o'-s leader, -TI in (a-rt-s saying. Nouns so formed<br />
are called Primitive (sometimes Verbal : but this term is better<br />
known in a more restricted sense, 84).<br />
2. Secondary, by which Nouns are formed from o<strong>the</strong>r Nouns ;<br />
-eu in iTTTr-ev-j horseman. These Nouns<br />
as -10 in Si/ca-io-s- just,<br />
are called Denominative.<br />
The Suffixes which mark <strong>the</strong> Feminine Gender might be<br />
classified as Secondary thus<br />
;<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stem KaXrj- might be said to<br />
be formed by a fresh suffix from KaXo-, <strong>the</strong> Stem S/^reipa- (for<br />
bfjLT]-Tp-La) from 8/0177 -rep-, &c. But it is more convenient to<br />
treat <strong>the</strong> Feminine Endings as mere inflexions, along with<br />
<strong>the</strong> corresponding Masc. forms.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> same way we might treat Suffixes like -rpo (in Irj-rpo-s<br />
healer, apo-Tpo-v plough) as compounded <strong>of</strong> -TTJP or -Tp (tTj-TTJp<br />
healer, apo-TTJp ploughman), and a secondary -o. Practically,<br />
however, -rpo is a single Primary Suffix : and this applies also<br />
to -fjii/o (in ptXt-^vo-v dart), which might be resolved into fxo + ev + o,<br />
and to many similar cases. H 2
100 NOUN FORMATION. [114.<br />
Primitive Noiins.<br />
114.] Primary Suffixes. The form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem in<br />
Primitive Nouns is liable to <strong>the</strong> same variations as in <strong>the</strong> Tenses<br />
(38).<br />
It will be seen that <strong>the</strong>se variations are connected with<br />
<strong>the</strong> accent ;<br />
but this part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject will be best treated<br />
separately ( 115).<br />
The chief Primary Suffixes are as follows :<br />
-0, Fern, -a, -77 ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem taking- three forms<br />
(i) The weak form; as ay-6-s leader, vy-6-v yoke, $vy-r\<br />
flight: with reduplication, layj\ (Fi-Fa^-^) cry, I-OTO-S (ora-) web.<br />
(3) The O-form ;<br />
as TOK-O-S (re/c-) <strong>of</strong>fspring, dpcoy-o-j (ap7?y-a))<br />
er, (nrovb-r) ((nrv$-u>) libation, 'noT-r] flight, por] flow.<br />
(3) Attic reduplication as<br />
; ay-coy-rj leading, OLKCO/CTJ point, 80)877<br />
"*~"<br />
sight, d8co8rj smell.<br />
as o>.<br />
The radical vowel appears<br />
-i : as rp6(j)-L (rpe$-co) thick, Tpoir-i-s keel <strong>of</strong> a ship,<br />
understanding (with <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem in <strong>the</strong> O-form).<br />
-ia : seldom with Stems <strong>of</strong> clearly Verbal meaning, as in (frvfr<br />
(tyvy-ia) flight,
II4-] PRIMARY SUFFIXES. IOI<br />
Note however that in Homer <strong>the</strong> Substantive is 0dpo-os (for which dpaaos<br />
occurs only once, II. 14. 416), <strong>the</strong> Adj. always flpao-us ;<br />
so that a distinction <strong>of</strong><br />
quantity is kept up in place <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original distinction between * Oepffos and<br />
Opaavs. On Olpaos as <strong>the</strong> original Greek form see Osth<strong>of</strong>f, M. U. ii. 49.<br />
t and o appear in <strong>the</strong>se Stems as in <strong>the</strong> Present tense ( 29) :<br />
e.g. ply-os cold, \l/v-^-os warmth, Kvb-os glory.<br />
-wcr, -oo-; in ^cos (Sanscr. ush-ds) dawn, albas shame, and in<br />
<strong>the</strong> older declension <strong>of</strong> ye'AoK, 16/50)9, ol&v, t'xwp ( 107 ad fin.).<br />
The Stem is probably in <strong>the</strong> weak form ;<br />
see 30.<br />
-a, -w, -ov, -wi> : e. g. Tep-rjv, Gen. -V-os (retpco) s<strong>of</strong>t, apa--r]v<br />
male, av^-r\v neck ; ire-ir-ov (Voc.) tender one, apriy-ov-es defenders,<br />
TKTO)v, ',<br />
7Tpi-KTiovs ayK-tov, Gen. -&V-OS eluow, ayvv, aWojv.<br />
Fern, -aim (-az^-ta),<br />
in Xeat^a imitated :<br />
by way <strong>of</strong> sarcasm in<br />
et-aiva 8. (II. 5).<br />
-IT, -on-, in Participles, and in a few Substantives, as bpaK-u>v<br />
a serpent, lit. <strong>the</strong> ' staring ' animal (8epK-o/xdt), Ttv-av, ytpw.<br />
-ar, in oblique Cases <strong>of</strong> Neuter Nouns as (vba>p), vbar-os, &c.<br />
The a <strong>of</strong> this Suffix represents <strong>the</strong> weak form <strong>of</strong> a nasal syllable ;<br />
see 38, and 1 14*, 8, c.<br />
-O.VT, notably in Compounds, as aK.a^as, abacas, Tro\vT\as.<br />
-a.v, in rd\as, fxeAas : perhaps originally Stems in -avr, which<br />
have followed <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> -ei>, -ov (Meyer, G. G. p. 304).<br />
-6Q, -wp) -ap; as arjp (aF-^p) air, alO-r]p (aW-u>) bright sky,<br />
ba-rip husband's bro<strong>the</strong>r (levir) ; e'A-cop booty, vb-ap water ; /ua/c-ap<br />
great (II.<br />
II. 68), eap spring.<br />
-op in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> aop sivord, ^rop breast is perhaps only <strong>the</strong><br />
^Eolic form <strong>of</strong> -ap (-r).<br />
As to <strong>the</strong> Nom. and Ace. Neut. forms<br />
in -wp see 114*, 8, d.<br />
-CO, -k is very rare in Greek as a Primary Suffix : B<br />
ragman n<br />
gives epetV-ta ruins and (post-Horn.) ay-tos, orrvy-ios, o-^ay-iov,<br />
irdy-ios.<br />
We may add ra^-ir] dispenser, irev-ir] 'poverty<br />
: also bios<br />
(biF-io-s) bright, irefos (7re8-)<br />
on foot, Kpab-trj (nyp<br />
for Kr/p-8) heart,<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> Stem is a Root-Noun.<br />
The word d-oo-cnr)-Tif|p helper pre-supposes a Stem ocro-o- for aoK-io-, answering<br />
to Latin soc-iu-s (seq-, Gr. ITT-).<br />
In aAAos (al-ius}, peaaos (medius), 8ei6s <strong>the</strong> Suffix appears to give <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong><br />
a Comparative : see Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 63, p. 125.
102 NOUN FORMATION. [114.<br />
-iodr, -too-, -ur : <strong>the</strong> Comparative Suffix, as TrXeco (7rXe-too--a)<br />
TrXeio-Tos (7rXe-ia--ros)<br />
: see 114*, J.<br />
-Fo : Kivo$ (Ktv-Fos) empty, ovXos (oX-fos) whole, Xai-os Icterus,<br />
6p96s ard-uus.<br />
-F*v, -Fov, -Fuv, -Fv :<br />
iriaivfat, alvv age, life (Loc. attv, see 99),<br />
a-TTip(t>v (d-Trep-Ftov, cp. TTtipaivo) for Trep-f^-tco) -Ftv appears in<br />
:<br />
<strong>the</strong> Inf. in -tv-ai, as dbtvai for Fib-Fev-cu, ( 84).<br />
-fwo-, -for, Fern, -met; in <strong>the</strong> Pf. Part., and in <strong>the</strong> Nouns<br />
6py-via fathom, apir-via storm-wind, ay-tna street.<br />
-Fap ',<br />
as map (for Ttl-Fap) fatness, oveiap (6vr]-Fap ?) help, et8ap<br />
(eb-Fap) food, etA.ap shelter, &c. ; -fep in Tueipa, Fern, <strong>of</strong> Tiiavfat.<br />
The ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians noticed that <strong>the</strong> Stem before -a/> is<br />
long (Herodian ii. 769 ed. Lentz).<br />
-JUiO ',<br />
with <strong>the</strong> O-form, as TTOT-JUO-S (irer-) fall, Kop-jmo<br />
torc/, oX-juo-j (^eX-)<br />
rolling stone, pcox-j^os (/5r?y-) ^?^%.<br />
-jxi ;<br />
in (j)TJ-iJiL-s report, bvva-fja-s power.<br />
-\tiv in priy-fuv beach on which <strong>the</strong> waves break, Dat. v<br />
also Nom. vo-^ivr].<br />
fght :<br />
-jj.6^, -fA.o^ -jjiwi' ; TTvO-fjLrjV (Gen. -/iez/-os) base, avr-priv breath,<br />
\L[jLrjv haven, TTOL^V shepherd, 8et-/xo)z; (-JJLOV-OS) fearing, fjivrj-jJiav<br />
mindful, r\-^v shooter, rep-paw end, Orj-p&v-a (Ace.) a heap.<br />
Also <strong>the</strong> Infinitives in -jxey-ai (Dat.) and -jxek (Loc.)<br />
: see 84.<br />
-fjiar as<br />
; 8et-jua, Gen. -/xar-o?, /mr, orojua ^^^ &c.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong>se Suffixes -^v and -JJLCIT go with <strong>the</strong> strong form <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Stem, -y.w with <strong>the</strong> weak form.<br />
With -o, -YJ<br />
are formed -fxei/o (in Participles), and -jj^o, -\LVT\,<br />
as<br />
(3t\-iJivo-v a dart, Xi-^vn] a marsh ;<br />
-jxyd (-pv-ia), in ptpi-^va care.<br />
fiwp ;<br />
as TK-fj.ap and roc-juuop device ; -p*po, in t-j<br />
-Z^O, -o^o ;<br />
as 8et-ro-s fearful, TIT^-VOS flyina, T^-VTJ art, TTOI-VTI<br />
atonement ; o\-avo-?v handle, bpeiravr] sic&le, Tpvir-avov auger, o-re'
114.]<br />
PRIMARY SUFFIXES. 103<br />
-ex, -IJT : Acc. apy-er-a white (II. 21. 127), also apyfjra (II. 8.<br />
133), Dat. dpye'rt and dpyrjri (II. II. 818), KeX-^s, AeJQ-rjs.<br />
-7*0 ;<br />
found with Stems<br />
(1) In <strong>the</strong> O-form, as KGI-TO-?, KOL-TY] (/cet-^cu) /air, (j)6p-ro-v<br />
burden, VOCT-TO-S going,, return (pco/mat<br />
for<br />
rc)<br />
thunder.<br />
(2) In <strong>the</strong> weak form, as o-ra-ro-s stalled, bpa-To-s flayed ;<br />
aK-T?j beach; 6e/c-r?]-s beggar, irapai-fia-Trj-s.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> -TO to form Superlatives and Ordinal Numerals<br />
see 121 and 130.<br />
-T6, -o-i j generally with <strong>the</strong> weak Stem, as
104 NOUN FORMATION. [U4*-<br />
Similarly from Verb-Stems with <strong>the</strong> suffix -T we have Aat-r-fta<br />
gulf (cp. XCLL-JJLOS throat), av-r-pri breath, also dv-r-jju^v (root av-),<br />
p-r-fji6s oar, e-e-r-/z?j injunction.<br />
114*. Variation <strong>of</strong> Suffixes.<br />
1.<br />
Primary Suffixes were originally liable to variation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> kind already noticed ( 106).<br />
From <strong>the</strong> Sanscrit declension,<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> variation is preserved with singular fidelity, it<br />
appears that a Suffix in general has three different forms or<br />
degrees <strong>of</strong> quantity, called by Sanscrit <strong>grammar</strong>ians <strong>the</strong> strong,<br />
<strong>the</strong> middle, and <strong>the</strong> weakeit form. Just as in <strong>the</strong> declension <strong>of</strong><br />
dyaus, Gr. Zevj, we find (T) dyau- in <strong>the</strong> Nom., (2) dyau- in <strong>the</strong><br />
Loc. dyav-i (Lat.<br />
Jovi for diev-i),<br />
and (3) div- or diu- in o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
'<br />
Cases, so in dd-ta 'giver we have (i)<br />
-tar- in <strong>the</strong> Ace. dd-tdr-am,<br />
(2) -far- in <strong>the</strong> Loc. dd-tdr-i, and (3)<br />
-tr- in <strong>the</strong> Dat. dd-tr-e,<br />
Instrum. dd-tr-a.<br />
Similarly we have <strong>the</strong> series -dr, -dr, -r ; -man, -man, -mn ;<br />
-van, -van, -vn ; -an, -an, -n, &c. : <strong>the</strong> rule being that <strong>the</strong> first<br />
or strong form contains a long vowel, which in <strong>the</strong> second is<br />
short, and in <strong>the</strong> third disappears altoge<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> combinations -va, -ia <strong>the</strong> a is lost and <strong>the</strong> semivowel<br />
becomes a vowel, thus giving -u, -i.<br />
2. In Greek we find <strong>the</strong> same Suffixes as in Sanscrit, with <strong>the</strong><br />
fur<strong>the</strong>r distinction that <strong>the</strong> vowel may be tj<br />
or , -pov, -\w\v, -per, -pv<br />
(-jua, -fJiav) ; -wa, -op-os, <strong>the</strong> second in 6a>-ra)/>, -rop-os,<br />
to <strong>the</strong> exclusion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original ^/xrjo-rp-o's, *Sa>rp-o'j, &c. The<br />
*<br />
weakest ' form, however, <strong>of</strong>ten appears in derivatives e. ; g.<br />
TrotjueV-05, iroifjiv-r] : dci/xwz;, 8ei/xoz;-o9, Sei/xatrco (for -pav-iut,<br />
:<br />
Ofpdirtov, Fern. Ocpatrv-rj, also Otpa-naiva (for -TTV-LO) :<br />
larp-os : vbu>p, vbp-o$ : re'K-/u, (-fxw^ -Fw), -wp 5 (-Twp), &c.<br />
to -T^, -JJ-TJI/, -Fi]v, -T)p, -TT)p, &c. has been <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> much<br />
controversy. It is generally agreed<br />
that <strong>the</strong> difference is not<br />
original, but arises in each case by differentiation from a single
JI4*.]<br />
VARIATION OF SUFFIXES.<br />
form. Probably it is due to shifting <strong>of</strong> accent, <strong>the</strong> Suffixes with<br />
T] being generally accented, while those with w are found in<br />
barytone words. Thus we have <strong>the</strong> pairs orr\p<br />
and 6&>ro>p,<br />
pj]Ti]p and prjrcop, fiorrjpts and /3corope?, Trarrjp but ^parcop, also<br />
Lat. sor-or (Sanscr. svdsa). In composition, too, <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong><br />
accent is regularly accompanied by <strong>the</strong> change from tj, e to w, o :<br />
Trarrjp, /^rpo-Trarcop ; ^//.rjrijp, Trav-bafJidraip ; avrip, v-^voop ; v, &c. Many exceptions, however, remain unexplained.<br />
4. The Nouns <strong>of</strong> Relationship (<strong>the</strong> group Trar^p &c.) with one<br />
or two similarly inflected words (aorrjp, yaorTJp)<br />
are distinguished<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Nouns <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Agent in -rr]p (-ro>p) by <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
shorter form -rep in <strong>the</strong> Accusative: 7rarep-a, Sanscr. pitdr-am^,<br />
but 6orr;p-a, Sanscr. ddtar-am. Similarly among Stems in -n<br />
apcrrjv, apatv-a answer to Sanscr. vfsh-a, vrshan-am (instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> -dn-am). This peculiarity has been explained as <strong>the</strong> result<br />
<strong>of</strong> an original difference <strong>of</strong> quantity. That is to say, <strong>the</strong> form<br />
pitar (Gr. irarep-) has been taken to be <strong>the</strong> strong Stem, because<br />
it is <strong>the</strong> Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ace. If so, <strong>the</strong> TJ<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nom. has to<br />
be explained as due to <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> -yjp <strong>of</strong> 8or?jp, &c.<br />
But this view cannot well be reconciled with <strong>the</strong> fact that<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stem pitar- occurs not only in <strong>the</strong> Ace. pitdram but also<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Loc. pitdr-i. The Loc. is a Case which regularly takes<br />
<strong>the</strong> middle Stem; cp. ddtar-am, Loc. ddtdr-i, dcmdn-am, Loc.<br />
dgman-i. Hence we must recognise a group <strong>of</strong> Stems in -r and<br />
-n forming <strong>the</strong> Ace. with <strong>the</strong> middle form. Thus <strong>the</strong> original<br />
declension would be (e. g.}, Strong form, Nom. Tra-rrjp,<br />
Middle<br />
form, Ace. -jra-rep-a, Loc. 7ra-rep-t, Voc. ira-rep, Weakest form,<br />
Gen. Tra-rp-os.<br />
The cause <strong>of</strong> this difference in <strong>the</strong> treatment<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusative has still to be found *.<br />
5. The Stems in -ant, -mant, -vant } (Gr. -ovr, &c.) interchange<br />
with shorter forms in -at, -mat, -vat, Gr. -ar, -jmaT, -Far.<br />
In Greek <strong>the</strong> Suffix -OVT is used to form <strong>the</strong> Part. Pres,, as<br />
tpovT-a. The chief trace <strong>of</strong> -ar is <strong>the</strong> Doric eWo-a (e
106 NOUN FORMATION. [lI4*.<br />
-v(T-ia) seem to represent <strong>the</strong> original gradation ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> T <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Masc. and Neut. oblique cases is peculiar to Greek,, as <strong>the</strong><br />
nasal to Sanscrit. If we suppose a primitive declension (e. g.)<br />
Fi$-Fu>s, Ace. Fib-F^xr-a, Gen. Ftb-vcros, &c. this might become<br />
Ace. Fib-F6ar-a, Gen. Fi$-F6cr-os, &c. (by <strong>the</strong> same levelling which<br />
we have in bu>-T(*>p,<br />
Ace. 6co-rop-a, Gen. 8a>-rop-os), <strong>the</strong>n Ace.<br />
Fti-Fo-a, Gen. Fib-Fo-os &c. At this stage <strong>the</strong> endings -oY-oj,<br />
-o'r-a &c. may have been introduced through analogy perhaps<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pres. Part. However this<br />
may be, this is one <strong>of</strong> several<br />
instances in Nominal Declension <strong>of</strong> T creeping in to form a Stem<br />
for <strong>the</strong> oblique Cases.<br />
7. A Suffix which originally was closely parallel to <strong>the</strong> -fco?<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pf . is to be seen in <strong>the</strong> -Iw or -IWK <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Comparative ;<br />
Sanscr. -yams, -yas, (-is),<br />
Greek -wv, -toy, -to- (in -LCT-TOS).<br />
Here<br />
<strong>the</strong> v,<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sanscr. nasal, is as difficult to explain<br />
as <strong>the</strong> T <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pf . However <strong>the</strong> older endings -o-a, -o-cs (for<br />
-oa-a, -OCT-CS) are preserved in <strong>the</strong> Ace. Sing. Masc. and Nom.<br />
and Ace. Plur. Neut. (d/xetVco for a^iv-ocr-a), and <strong>the</strong> Nom.<br />
Plur. (afjiivovs } &c.). In <strong>the</strong> Latin -ior, -ior-is, &c. <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
trace <strong>of</strong> a nasal. We may compare <strong>the</strong> variation in atcor,<br />
KVKZUV (107 ad Jin}*.<br />
8. Heteroclite forms occur when different Suffixes are brought<br />
into a single declension. In particular<br />
(a) Suffixes ending in -v interchange with Suffixes in -p.<br />
Thus we find TTIODV, Gen. KIOV-OS fat, but Fern. irUipa (irl-Fep-ia)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Neut. Substantive iriap fatness. Also xeijutou,<br />
but<br />
XLfjip-Los. (Cp. <strong>the</strong> ~La,t. femur, femin-is, &nd.jec-ur, jecin-or-is,<br />
which is for an older jecin-is.)<br />
(#) Similarly along with TJWS we have yep-Los at dawn, and <strong>the</strong><br />
Adv. ripi (Sanscr.<br />
ushas and ushdr).<br />
(e) Final T is introduced in <strong>the</strong> Suffix; as in fjira-T-os (for<br />
f)irv-T-os, cp. <strong>the</strong> Sanscr. yakrt, Gen. yakn-as, and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
*<br />
The suffixes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pf. Part. Act. and <strong>the</strong> Comparative have lately been<br />
<strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> much controversy: see Brugmann, K. Z, xxiv. 79 ff., Grundr.<br />
!35j "36, pp. 403, 417 Joh.<br />
; Schmidt, K. Z. xxvi. 341 ff., 378 ff., Pluralb. p.<br />
157 ; Collitz, Bezz. Beitr. x. 25, 63. The chief difficulty lies in <strong>the</strong> nasal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Sanscrit strong Cases. Such a gradation as -vons (or -vens), -ves, -us, or -ions,<br />
-ios (or ies), -is, is unexampled. Joh. Schmidt takes <strong>the</strong> nasalised forms<br />
(Sanscr. -vdms-, -lams') as his point <strong>of</strong> departure, but has been unable to explain<br />
-is to <strong>the</strong> satisfaction <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r scholars. Those who assume a<br />
-vas, -ias, -us,<br />
primitive -vos, -ids have hi<strong>the</strong>rto been equally unsuccessful in accounting for<br />
The explanation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> r <strong>of</strong> -OT-OS, &c. is<br />
Sanscr. -vams, -iams and Greek -J.GOV.<br />
also difficult, but <strong>the</strong>re it is at least certain that it is <strong>of</strong> secondary origin. It<br />
is to be noted that <strong>the</strong> traces <strong>of</strong> -uxr in <strong>the</strong> Comparative are confined to strong<br />
Cases, as Ace. Sing. -o
1 15.]<br />
ACCENT. 107<br />
Neuters in -ap, -wp, Gen. -dr-os, as Tretpap, -arc? (for Trep-fap,<br />
-Fv-T-o$) :<br />
also in Neuters in -pd, Gen. -jadr-os (for -fxy-T-os).<br />
(d) It is probable that <strong>the</strong> Neuters in -wp viz. #co/>, e'Acop,<br />
n-e'Awp, eeAScop, reK/jia>p, vvKTup (Ace. used adverbially) were<br />
originally Collective or Abstract nouns (Joh. Schmidt, Pluralb.<br />
p. 193).<br />
On this view waters tfScop (Germ, gewdsser) is properly<br />
a different word from <strong>the</strong> stem *vba or *vbap which we infer<br />
from <strong>the</strong> oblique Cases :<br />
is<br />
re'/c/xcop originally a Collective or<br />
Abstract from re/cjuap<br />
: and similarly e'Acop, eeAScop, Tre'Aoop, vvnTap<br />
(cp. vvKTp-is), which only occur in <strong>the</strong> Nom. Ace., are nouns<br />
formed like xei/zcoz; (xei//a),<br />
atScos (atSeo--<br />
in aiSeojutat, av-aibris),<br />
ye'Ao)? (yeAao-- in yeAaco), &c. When #5cop, &c. were brought into<br />
use as Nominatives answering to Neuter oblique Cases, <strong>the</strong>y<br />
naturally followed <strong>the</strong>se in respect <strong>of</strong> gender. Cp.<br />
1 10 (adfin.).<br />
115.] Accentuation. The accent is <strong>of</strong>ten connected with <strong>the</strong><br />
form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Suffix, and sometimes varies with <strong>the</strong> meaning.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> rules that can be given on this subject are only<br />
partial.<br />
1. Stems in -o are generally oxytone when <strong>the</strong>y denote an<br />
agent, barytone when <strong>the</strong>y denote <strong>the</strong> thing done ; e. g. (^opo-s<br />
bearer, but $o'po-s that which is brought ; dyo-j leader, dpcoyo-s<br />
helper, O-KOTT-OS watcher, rpo^o-s nurse, TOKO-S <strong>of</strong>fspring.<br />
But<br />
ro/xo-s pasture, Aotyo-s pestilence (perhaps thought <strong>of</strong> as an<br />
agent, '<br />
destroyer'').<br />
2. Stems in -rj<br />
are generally oxytone, but <strong>the</strong>re are many<br />
exceptions (as 8tK-r;, jutax.-^).<br />
3. Most stems in -18, and all in -a8, are oxytone. But those<br />
which admit an Ace. in -iv are all barytone.<br />
4. Adjectives in -u-s are oxytone; except Ofj\-v-s arid <strong>the</strong><br />
isolated Fern. 0aAeia. Substantives in -u-s are mostly oxytone ;<br />
but see 116, 4.<br />
5. Neuters with Stems in -eo- (Nom. Ace. -05) are barytone,<br />
but Adjectives in -rjs,<br />
and Fern. Nouns in -&>s,<br />
Gen. -oos, are<br />
oxytone.<br />
6. Nouns in -rjp<br />
and -t\v<br />
are oxytone, except juTJrryp, Bvyar-qp<br />
(but see HI, 2), aparjv, Ttpr)v.<br />
Nouns in -wp and -WK are mostly barytone, but <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
many exceptions, esp. <strong>the</strong> Abstract Nouns in -8wf, <strong>the</strong> Substantives<br />
in as -jAwy, baLTv^v, fjyefjLtov, Kr^e/xwz;,<br />
and most Nouns<br />
in -w, Gen. -iovos as<br />
} ayvv, dy/ccoz;, )(eiju(oi>, reAajuwr.<br />
7. Stems in -TO with <strong>the</strong> O-form are barytone, with <strong>the</strong> weak<br />
form oxytone e. ; g. KOI-TO-J, VOO--TO-S, but ora-ro'-s, &c.<br />
8. Stems in are -TT] mostly oxytone. Accordingly <strong>the</strong> Prim-
I08 NOUN FORMATION. [ll6.<br />
itive Masculines in -rrj-s, which are Nouns <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Agent, can<br />
generally be distinguished from <strong>the</strong> Denominatives in -TTJS<br />
( 117) : e. g. ayoprjrris a speaker, but vavrris a ship-man.<br />
9. Abstract Nouns in -TI, -at are barytone in -TU ; oxytone.<br />
It will be seen that, roughly speaking, when <strong>the</strong> Verbal Stem is in <strong>the</strong><br />
weak form, <strong>the</strong> Suffix is accented, and vice versa : also that words with an<br />
active meaning (applicable to a personal agenf) are oxytone, those with a<br />
passive meaning (expressing <strong>the</strong> thing done) are barytone.<br />
116.] Gender. The Gender <strong>of</strong> Nouns is determined in most<br />
cases by <strong>the</strong> Suffix. The following rules do not apply to Compounds,<br />
as to which see 125.<br />
1 . Stems in -o are Masc. or Neut., with some exceptions, as<br />
obos, arapiros, KeAeuflos, vrjaos, (frrjyos, aju/TreAo?, vocros, ratypos,<br />
\lsf)(pos, 0-77080?, \l/dij,a8os, pa/35o?, SOKO'J, pivos, TT/OO'-XOOJ.<br />
In<br />
<strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> gender seems to be due to <strong>the</strong> meaning.<br />
K\VTOS is used as a Fern, in II. 2.<br />
742 K\VTOS 'iTTTroSa/^eta. In<br />
Od. 4. 406 TriKpbv a-JTOTrveiovo-ai, . . objjnjv<br />
it is best to take<br />
TTLKpov as an adverb, not with 68ju?jy<br />
:<br />
cp.<br />
II. 6. 182.<br />
FIvAo? has <strong>the</strong> two epi<strong>the</strong>ts fffjLaOoeis<br />
and TjyaOer],<br />
and is probably<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore <strong>of</strong> both Genders.<br />
2. Stems in -TJ (for -a) are mainly Fern. ;<br />
but<br />
Stems in<br />
-TTJ denoting an agent are Masc., as SeK-rrj-s a<br />
beggar, alyj^r)-Tr\-s a warrior. Also, iropKrj-s <strong>the</strong> ring <strong>of</strong> a spear,<br />
Tr]-s comrade, rajuu?]-s dispenser, verjvirj-s a youth, perhaps ayyeA-<br />
117-9<br />
a messenger ; also <strong>the</strong> proper names Bo/>ea-?, 'Ep/xeuz-s,<br />
Alvfta-$, A^yeta-9, Tet/oecrta-?, 'Ay^to-?]-?, 'Afity-s.<br />
The Masc. Nouns in -as, -r]s are probably formed originally<br />
from Feminine abstract or collective Nouns in -a, -TJ.<br />
The first<br />
step is <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word as a concrete : cp. Od. 22. 209<br />
6/^A.iKtT) 8e /xot eo-o-t thou art one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same age (6/xrpuf) with me ;<br />
II. 12. 213 brjjjiov<br />
eovra leing one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> common people. So in<br />
Latin magistrates, potestas (Juv.<br />
10. ico), optio : English a<br />
relation (<br />
= a, relative).<br />
The next step is <strong>the</strong> change to <strong>the</strong> Masc.,<br />
which leads to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Endings -TJS,<br />
Gen. -ao on <strong>the</strong><br />
analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Masc. -05, Gen. -oio. We may compare Fr.<br />
un trompette bearer <strong>of</strong> a trumpet, Italian il podesta <strong>the</strong> magistrate,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> meaning is marked by <strong>the</strong> gender only.<br />
So errj-s is probably from a word crfe-rrj kindred, from<br />
vtrjvirj-s<br />
a Fern, verfvirj youth, ayyt\(-r\-
II 6.]<br />
GENDER. 109<br />
3. Stems in -ia, -IS, -a8 are Fern. ;<br />
also most Stems in -t.<br />
But IJLCLV-TI-S<br />
is Masc., and some Adjectives 'ib-pi-s, rp6(j)-i-s,<br />
fvvt-s are <strong>of</strong> all genders.<br />
Mase. Nouns in -o sometimes form a Fern, in -i, -18, -u8 : as<br />
0ovpo-s, Fern. 6ovpi-s (Ace. Oovpi-v, Gen. 6ovpib-os) ; (/>op-To-s<br />
burden,
110 NOUN FORMATION.<br />
[117.<br />
Denominative Nouns.<br />
117.] Secondary Suffixes. The following are <strong>the</strong> chief<br />
Secondary or ( Denominative ' Suffixes. (Note that -o and -t\<br />
<strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Primitive Stem disappear before Secondary Suffixes beginning<br />
with a vowel*.)<br />
-O, -"i;<br />
as 5ljca-to-?/tffj ap/iou-irj a joining) apQ^-io-s friendly,<br />
aiSoio-s (for aZSor-io-s) reverenced, yeXouo-s (probably to be<br />
written yeAw-io-s) laughable, &P-LO-S in season, 0-0^-177 skill,<br />
(TKOTT-iT? watch, dvayKa-ir] necessity.<br />
-LO, -eo (chiefly used to denote material, especially <strong>the</strong><br />
animal which furnishes <strong>the</strong> material <strong>of</strong> a thing) ; e. g. ftnr-eto-s,<br />
ravp-io-$, aly-Lo-s, (36-io-s and /3o-eo-?, K.vv-tr], \d\K.~fio-s and<br />
~)(dh.K-to-$, Kvdv-zo-s, bovpdr-zo-s, ^)A.oy-eo-j, r]yd6-o-s (from<br />
aya06-s), 8cu6aA-eo-?, &c. These must be distinguished from <strong>the</strong><br />
Adjectives in which eio stands for O--LO, as re'Aeto-s (for<br />
to-s), ovtibtio-s, 'Apyeto-s.<br />
-eL' j<br />
iirir-ev-s horseman, apivT-ev-s one who does lent, xa<br />
Lp-v-s, von-tv-s, "2^Lv9-v-s, &c.<br />
all from Nouns in -o.<br />
-LOT], -ia8r| ; in patronymics, as 'Arpe-tSrj-s, Or; A rj-'Cabrj-s,<br />
'Ao-KX?;7rt-a6r]-s. Cp. <strong>the</strong> compound -18-109 ( 118).<br />
-DO, -po ;<br />
as \Lyv-po- $ shrill, bvo-cp6s dark ; y^iya-po-v.<br />
-IfJUO ',<br />
aoib-ifjio-s matter <strong>of</strong> song, pop-ipo-sfated, &c.<br />
-VO, -IKO ;<br />
as (frauvos (^aecr-) shining, p(3evvos (epe^Seo--) ^af/?:,<br />
epavvos lovely ;<br />
-Ii'oj<br />
-7JVO ;<br />
riy-Lvo-s oaken, tlap-ivo-s <strong>of</strong> spring, &c.<br />
oTTcop-tro? <strong>of</strong> autumn, dy)(ioT-iz>os.<br />
7TT-riv6s flying (TTT-(T-).<br />
-CTVVO, -aunrj ; yrjOo-o-vvo-s joyful ; linro-aijvr) horsemanship, &c.<br />
"6Z^T (for -FZVT), Fern, -eo-o-a ; vAr/-ez;r-a, Fem. -uA.7?-ea-0--a<br />
wooded, bLVTj-evT-afull <strong>of</strong> eddies, Aeipto-err-a /i/fo ^^ ^7y, &c.<br />
-^/CO ; only found in opav-iK.6-s orphan, vapOtv-iKri virgin, and<br />
a few Adjectives from proper names, as<br />
Tpco-tKo-s, 'A)(at-tKo-9,<br />
ITeXao-y-tKo-s. In <strong>the</strong>se words it is evident that <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
approach to <strong>the</strong> later meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Suffix.<br />
* This is probably not <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> an ' elision/ but analogous to <strong>the</strong> weakening<br />
<strong>of</strong> a Suffix (cp. 114, i). Thus <strong>the</strong> Stem <strong>of</strong>
II 8*.] SECONDARY SUFFIXES. Ill<br />
',<br />
-T7) vav-Trj-s, i7T77o-ra, r<strong>of</strong>o-ra (Voc.), dypo-rai,<br />
Kopvvi]-rr]-s, vTrr]vij-Tr]-s, TroAiTJ-r?;-? and TroAi-rry-s, 6bi-rrj-s.<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se are perhaps Primitive e. g. : al^rj-rri-s may<br />
an obsolete *al)yjida)<br />
to wield <strong>the</strong> spear<br />
: see 120.<br />
Some<br />
come from<br />
-T7]T<br />
',<br />
(friXo-TriT-a love, brj'io-TrJT-a battle.<br />
', (j>opiJLiy<br />
a lyre, a-vpiy^ a reed-pipe, o-aAmyf a trumpet,<br />
Aeuyy-es pebbles, o-rpo^aAtyl eddy, pa0ajuuyy-es drops.<br />
The I <strong>of</strong> -iB-rj, -ijxo, -tvo, -IKO was probably not part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original Suffix, but<br />
was <strong>the</strong> final vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem. We may ei<strong>the</strong>r suppose that (e. gr.) fj.6p-i-/j.os<br />
was formed directly from a Stem p.op-i (cp. poipa for pop-ia), or that it followed<br />
<strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> aA/a-/uos,
NOUN FORMATION.<br />
[119.<br />
<strong>the</strong> language with which we are concerned, and those which only<br />
survive in words handed from an earlier period. Thus in Homer<br />
<strong>the</strong> oldest and simplest Suffixes, as -o, -t, -u, -e, -jxa, -TY]p, -Tpo-i>, -ai-s,<br />
-TU-S, and <strong>the</strong> Denominatives in -to-s, -epo-s, -i^o-s, -rrj-s, &c. are<br />
felt as derivatives, and consequently <strong>the</strong>ir number can be indefinitely<br />
increased by new coinage. Again <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a Suffix<br />
may be restricted to some purpose which represents only part <strong>of</strong><br />
its original usage. Thus -n\ ceased, as we have seen, to form<br />
abstract Nouns, but was largely used to form Masculine Nouns<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Agent. So too <strong>the</strong> Suffix -So, -Srj survived in two isolated<br />
uses, (i) in Adverbs in -8o-i>, -^-v and in (2) Patronymics.<br />
Compare in Latin <strong>the</strong> older use <strong>of</strong> -tus in <strong>the</strong> adjectives cautus,<br />
certus, &c. with <strong>the</strong> living use in amd-tns, &c. Sometimes too a<br />
Suffix dies out in its original form, but enters into some combination<br />
which remains in vigour. Thus -vo survives in <strong>the</strong> form<br />
-tfo, and in -ei^o (-eo--ro).<br />
The distinction <strong>of</strong> Primary and Secondary Suffixes is evidently<br />
one which grew up by degrees, as <strong>the</strong> several forms came to be<br />
limited to different uses. In this limitation and assignment <strong>of</strong><br />
functions it is probable that <strong>the</strong> original meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Suffix<br />
seldom had any direct influence*. The difference between <strong>the</strong><br />
Suffixes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two great classes is<br />
mainly one <strong>of</strong> period. The<br />
elements which go to form <strong>the</strong>m are ultimately much <strong>the</strong> same,<br />
but <strong>the</strong> Primary Suffixes represent on <strong>the</strong> whole earlier strata <strong>of</strong><br />
formation.<br />
119.] Gender. The rules previously given ( 116) apply to<br />
Denominative Nouns; <strong>the</strong> exceptions are few. Note II. 18.<br />
222 ova yja.\K.tov (\aXK.tr]v Zenod.), 19. 88 aypiov ar^v (<strong>the</strong><br />
passage is probably corrupt, since it appears that <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
form <strong>of</strong> CLTY] is <strong>the</strong> uncontracted darry, aFArr)), 20. 299 = Od.<br />
( 5.<br />
410) aAos TToAtoto, Od. 3. 82 TTprjis<br />
. .<br />
6?j/j,to9, 4. 442 oAowraroy<br />
68ju?7, 23. 233 CLO'irdo'Los yfj (al. d
120.] DENOMINATIVE FORMS. 113<br />
12O.] Denominative Verbs. Some apparent anomalies in <strong>the</strong><br />
Denominative Verbs may be explained by <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> an intermediate<br />
step <strong>of</strong> formation. Thus, <strong>the</strong>re are many Verbs in -euw<br />
not formed from Nouns in -eu-s, as (3ov\V(t> (/3oi>A-?j),<br />
(ayoprj), Or]pV(a so<br />
(6t]p) ; that, instead <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> three stages<br />
v<strong>of</strong>jio-s, Denom. Noun vo^-ev-s, Denom. Verb vo^-tv-co<br />
a/HOTO-9, apL(JT-V-$ ,, ,, apl(TT-V-(O<br />
<strong>the</strong> language goes directly from any Noun to a Verb in -euw.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> Verbs in -taw ( 60) presuppose Nouns in -ITJ,<br />
which are seldom found in use :<br />
S^pido-pai. (cp. bfjpi-s<br />
from which<br />
an intermediate brjpi-rj might be formed), pjnaoj (cp. //rjri-s),<br />
KV$i6o)v, aoibidovcra, e8/no'a)zrro, /^ei8toa)z>, OaXTTiocov, (f)Vcri6a>VT$,<br />
, oify-po-s<br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb were passed over, we should appear to have a Denominative<br />
Noun in -po-s. Again,<br />
if <strong>the</strong> Primitive Noun in<br />
-i]<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Verb in -ao> were both wanting, we should practically<br />
have <strong>the</strong> Compound Suffix -rj-po : and this accordingly is<br />
<strong>the</strong> case (e. g.}<br />
in aty-rjpo-s (atya) swift, Ov-r]Xri (0v-a>),<br />
i<br />
In this way are formed <strong>the</strong> peculiar <strong>Homeric</strong> -wpr],<br />
-wXr], which<br />
are used virtually as Primary Suffixes (forming abstract Nouns) ;<br />
eATT-coprj hope, 6a\7T-u>pTJ comfort, aXecop?} (dXef) escape, repTr-coX?}<br />
delight, (^etS-ooArj sparing, Travcr-coArj ceasing. Note that <strong>the</strong> difference<br />
between -a^prj<br />
and -coArj is euphonic ; -copr] is found only<br />
when <strong>the</strong>re is a preceding X in <strong>the</strong> Stem.<br />
The Verb- Stem in Denominative Verbs is not always <strong>the</strong><br />
same as that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Noun from which it is formed : in particular<br />
i. Verbs in -ew, -ou leng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong> final -o <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Noun-Stem<br />
to -77<br />
and -to ;<br />
as
114 NOUN FORMATION. [l2I.<br />
o{ST]-<strong>of</strong>ir)-aa, ire- (/xaX-a), aa-tX-^a>r, d/xetVcoz;, /SeAr-ioz;, Aa>toz;,<br />
(3pabi(Dv (Hes.).<br />
The Stem is properly in <strong>the</strong> strong form, as in Kpeio-o-av (but<br />
Kpar-vs, KapT-io-Tos) j but it is assimilated to <strong>the</strong> Positive in<br />
7rc(r(ra)z>, ppacra-tov, y\.VK.i&v.<br />
In Oaa-rrav, eXaa-o-coz/ <strong>the</strong> a points to<br />
forms *6ayy^-i(i>Vy *eAayx-ta>z^ in which <strong>the</strong> nasal <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original<br />
, *eXeyx-to)z; was retained, but <strong>the</strong> e<br />
changed into d.<br />
The Superlative -IOTO is used in <strong>the</strong> same way ;<br />
we have :<br />
&K-KTTO-S<br />
ft><br />
s, otKr-tcrro-s otKr-o-s), jjurf<br />
(3d6-LCTTO-s ((BaO-v-s), pTJ-to-ro-s (peta, for prj'i-a), fytp-icrTO-s (ep-a));<br />
also, answering to Comparatives given above, ato-x-ioro-s,<br />
Tra^-io-TO-?, rd\-KTTa y Kapr-tcrro-s, KCLK-KTTO-S, /xey-toro-s, /x,aA.-taTa,<br />
ay)(-to-ra, rJK-i(TTO-$, ap-toro-s, Kep8-t(rro-s, pi'y-iara,<br />
aAy-toro-s, TrAe-to-ro-s :<br />
4<br />
finally <strong>the</strong> anomalous Trpoa<br />
The Suffix -toy has taken <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> -100-<br />
( 107, 7); <strong>the</strong><br />
weakest ' form may be traced in -IO--TOS. The middle form -iea
I2I-] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 115<br />
perhaps appears in <strong>the</strong> two Comparatives -rrAe'ej more n. (II. 395,<br />
Ace. -rrAe'as II. 2. 129) and \tpeia worse (Ace. Sing, and Neut.<br />
Plur., also Dat. Sing. \tprji, Nom. Plur. \tpr)s). Original<br />
TrAeees (for 7rAe-te
Il6<br />
COMPOSITION.<br />
later forms like Karw-repo-s, ai'co-raro-s, &e. ;<br />
so probably in Tra\airepos<br />
and virep-repos. On <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> vTr^p-repos we can<br />
explain 6i>^p-repos (op. V7rep-0e : eWp-06, &c.).<br />
The form yepatrepos,<br />
again, may be suggested by TroAafrepos, through <strong>the</strong><br />
relation yepeuJs<br />
: TraAaios and <strong>the</strong> likeness <strong>of</strong> meaning (Meyer,<br />
G. G. p. 372). The words defi-rtpos, dpiorepo'y are formed like<br />
Comparatives. but aiv distinguished by <strong>the</strong>ir aivont.<br />
The Suffix -repo is combined witli <strong>the</strong> Suffix -IOK in acrcro-<br />
(Adv.) nearer, ^Tr-cKroiJrepot drawing on, \ipo-Tpo-s and<br />
-Tpo, -TSro aiv combinations <strong>of</strong> -TO (in Tpt-ro-s, &c.) with <strong>the</strong> Suffixes -po<br />
and -Sro respectively. The tendency to accumulate Suffixes <strong>of</strong> comparison is<br />
soon in 4v-^p-T-Te/>os (-raros), do-Tpo-s, &c. ; 7/fx^-repo-s is not wor^ belonging<br />
to its, but belonging to us (not you). So in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Comparatives<br />
:<br />
dypo'-repo-s o/" Me? country (opp. to <strong>the</strong> town).<br />
124-] PREFIXED STEM. 1 17<br />
that while a Verb cannot be compounded with any prefix except<br />
a Preposition, a Nominal Stem may be compounded with any<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r Nominal Stem, <strong>the</strong> first or prefixed Stem serving to limit<br />
or qualify <strong>the</strong> notion expressed by <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
The <strong>Homeric</strong> language contains very many Compounds formed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> simple placing toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> two Nominal Stems : as TtroXl-<br />
TropOo-s sacker <strong>of</strong> cities, pobo-baKrv\o-s rose-jingered, reAe
Il8 COMPOSITION. [124.<br />
The result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se changes is to make o <strong>the</strong> ' connecting vowel ' in <strong>the</strong><br />
great majority <strong>of</strong> Compounds. In later Greek this form prevails almost<br />
exclusively.<br />
I. Stems in -t :<br />
The Compounds which contain <strong>the</strong>se stems are mostly <strong>of</strong> an<br />
archaic stamp :<br />
dpyi-Trod-es- with swift (or white)feet, apyi-ooovr-es<br />
white-too<strong>the</strong>d, dpyi-Kepawo-s = with bright lightning, repTU-Kepawo-s<br />
hurling thunderbolts (repTrco rpeTro),<br />
Lat. t<strong>org</strong>ueo), eiAi-7ro8-e?<br />
trailing (?)<br />
<strong>the</strong> feet (<strong>of</strong> oxen),<br />
aAi-TrAoo-s washed by <strong>the</strong> sea, also<br />
aAi-av}?, aAt-Trop^upoj, 'AAi'-apro?, 'AXi-favoi, 'AAi-flepo^s (cp.<br />
aAi-evs fisherman), atyi-/3oro-? fed on by goats, atyi-An//- deserted by<br />
goats, ya\i-v <strong>of</strong> light mind, bat-pa>v warlike (or prudent),<br />
dAei-KaKo-y defender against ill, Xa^t-K^Srj? f<strong>org</strong>etting care, TTVKL-<br />
with shrewd<br />
/utT/Srj? counsel, /caAAi-ywaiK-a with beautiful women<br />
(cp. KaAAt-joios), Kvbi-avtipa glorifying men (cp. Kv8t-oW); with <strong>the</strong><br />
Proper Names, Al0i-OTT-s, Ueipi-Ooo-s, 'AAKt-z/oo-s, 'AAKi-/ute'8a>i><br />
(cp. av-a\Ki-s), and <strong>the</strong> words beginning with apt- and epi-.<br />
The meaning <strong>of</strong> several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se words is very uncertain,<br />
owing to <strong>the</strong> merely ornamental and conventional way in<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y are used in <strong>Homeric</strong> poetry. It seems to follow<br />
that <strong>the</strong>y are survivals from an earlier period, one in which<br />
<strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> Stems in -t was probably greater than in <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
times.<br />
Loss <strong>of</strong> o<br />
may be recognised in aprt-Tro? (<br />
= apnos TOVS -rroSas),<br />
fei-8a)pos grain giving (feia), Kparai-yvaXos<br />
<strong>of</strong> strong pieces, Arjtcf)o(3os,<br />
perhaps also /oiiai-
1 24.]<br />
PREFIXED STEM. 119<br />
But in many cases new Stems<br />
Tp\j/L-s, TtXri-nnros with 7rAr/i-?.<br />
have been formed under <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sigmatic Aorist, with<br />
a difference <strong>of</strong> quantity, as in tyva-i-foo-s life-giving<br />
Ai5o-6-<br />
($i;o-t-s),<br />
H\rjs, (frOlo-i-fjLJBpoTO-s. Compare also ra/jtes with T/UTJO-I-?,<br />
neKn-OTpaTO-s with TTICTTL-S, &C.<br />
The group <strong>of</strong> Compounds<br />
is also to be noticed for <strong>the</strong> distinctly<br />
Ferial or participial meaning given by <strong>the</strong> first part <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> word ; cp. <strong>the</strong> next group, and 1 26.<br />
d. Stems in -e :<br />
These are nearly all Verbal, both in form and meaning :<br />
eA/e-<br />
Xtrcoz/-es trailing <strong>the</strong> chiton, fj.V-bri'lo-s withstanding foemen (so<br />
/ue^e-xappj-?, /ut^e-TrroAejuto-s, Mei>e-Aao-s, Mevc-orOtvs, &c.) : ex e'~<br />
0viJ,o-s restraining passion, eyt-typav possessingjudgment, ex^-Trev/ces<br />
carrying sharpness, 'Exe-TrcoAo-y, 'Exe-z/rjo?, 'Exe-KArjs ; dye-Aeirj<br />
driving spoil, ap^t-KaKo-s beginning mischief, ayyj.-ij.ayo-s fighting<br />
close, Aexe-Troiij with beds <strong>of</strong> grass : '<br />
Apxe-Aoxo-s, epe-KAos, MeAeaypo-s<br />
; c^e/oe-otKos carrying his house (<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> snail in Hes.), eype-<br />
Kvboijjios stirring tumult : also e is<br />
(if elided) x/feuS-ayyeAo-?<br />
bringing false news, aW-oty fiery, nia-y-a.yK.Gia. <strong>the</strong> meeting-place <strong>of</strong><br />
glens, dAeaz;e^os keeping <strong>of</strong>f wind, 'AXe-avopos.<br />
Stems in -ae ; aKepo-e-Ko/utry-s<br />
w/^ unsworn hair, riepo-e-^oVeta.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Stems in -e<br />
may evidently be placed raXa-, in raAa-<br />
with (f)p(*>v enduring mind, raAa-epyo-? enduring in work, Ta\avpivos<br />
(for Ta\a-Fpwo-s) bearing a shield <strong>of</strong> hide, raAa-Trei^rj? bearing<br />
sorrow, raAa-Tretptoj bearing trial ; and T\YJ- in TArj-Tro'Aejuos &c. :<br />
also TO.W-, in raz/v-yAcoo-o-os<br />
w^^ outstretched tongue, long-tongued,<br />
Tavv-(f)v\\os long-leaved^ rai^u-yAwxt^es long-notched (arrows), and<br />
^pu- in 'Epw-Aaoj, defender <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> host.<br />
e. Stems in -v :<br />
a for n appears in OVOHO.-K.\VTOS <strong>of</strong> famous name, Kwa-jjivia for<br />
Kva.-yt.via on <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> Kvv-a.<br />
f. Case-forms :<br />
Nom. Ace. in Numerals, as ei/-6e/ca, bvu-btKa.<br />
The Dative is probably to be recognised in apYfi-fyaTo-s slain in<br />
war (and so 'Aprjt-floo-?, 'Aprjt'-AuKo-s), Trupt-ryK?]? sharpened by fire<br />
(irvpi-KavarTo-s, riupi-^Aeye^a)^), du-Trcr?}? falling in <strong>the</strong> sky ; <strong>the</strong><br />
Dat. Plur. in KTypetrcri-^opiyro-s brought by <strong>the</strong> fates, dpeo"t-rpo^)o-j<br />
nursed in mountains, eyxeo"t-joto>po-y great with spears, evreo-t-epyo-s<br />
working in harness, Ttiyt(Ti-T:\r\Ta (Voc.) drawing near to (assailing]<br />
walls, Nawt-Kaa, Mrydeo-i-KaoTrj, liatn-Qir], Xcpo-t-Sa/xas ;<br />
a<br />
Locative form in yanai-evvr}? sleeping on <strong>the</strong> ground, 6601-<br />
Tropo-s a wayfarer, \opoi-rvnir] figuring in <strong>the</strong> dance, ITvAoiytvris<br />
born at Pylus, TraAat-^aro-s <strong>of</strong> ancient fame, and perhaps<br />
(to express manner) in i0at-yez>?js duly born, 6Aoot-rpoxo-s rolling.<br />
Cp. e/x-TTvpt-^rjrrys made to stand over <strong>the</strong> i.<br />
fire,<br />
e. a kettle.
120 COMPOSITION.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dative may have been suggested by <strong>the</strong> Stems in -i and --) usually take u>>> (oi>-) in Composition : as<br />
priv (Gen. pei>-o's)<br />
forms Trpo-typtov, Gen. vpo-typov-os<br />
: and
1 25.]<br />
SECOND STEM. 121<br />
Neuters in -fxa<br />
form Compounds in -pay, Gen. -jutoy-os, as avcu/xor-es<br />
(al/jia) bloodless. Cp. aireipoDV boundless (irelpap, 7repau>o)).<br />
So too Trarrip, ju,rjr?]p, avr\p, &c. form -wp (Gen. -op-os), as jurjrpo-<br />
4. Some Stems take a final -T, as d-/3Ar/-r-a (Ace. Sing-.) ^#-<br />
thrown, d-Kju,?7-r-es umvearied ; so e7n-/3A?js, d-8ju?]9, a-y^coj.<br />
5. In Adjectives <strong>the</strong> Suffix is <strong>of</strong>ten replaced by one ending in<br />
0#0 fa<strong>the</strong>r, (3ap(3apo-(f)(t)vo-s with strange voice<br />
1<br />
-o ;<br />
as o-Trarpo-s" 0/<br />
(from (frtovr)), \pv(T-T}XaK.aTo-s with golden distaff (^Aa/ccm/), bv
122 COMPOSITION.<br />
e\u(6)- come,<br />
dyep- assemble, ojut-rjyep-ees', $i>//,-T7yep-ecou (<br />
= OVJJLOV dyeipo)i>).<br />
cpiS- strive, afji(f)-ripL(TTos striven about.<br />
So TTob-rivjjLOs, v-u>vv[j.os (TTokv-tovvjjLOs, &c.),<br />
ev-r](t>vr)$ (from atyevos wealth}, y<strong>of</strong>tx/A-wzwf, 77e/ui77-&>/3oAoz',<br />
dz;-<br />
Tf/ceaTo?, di'-coioTos, epi-ovzn/s (oVa- help), v77-a>peia (opos), 8i-?]KoViot<br />
and rpi-T)KoVioi (e/caroV).<br />
Similar leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
is found, but less frequently, in <strong>the</strong> first<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Compound; o>Aeo-i-Kap7709, T^Atro-jutryroj, 'ilpei-0wa.<br />
Also in o<strong>the</strong>r derivatives, as ^yejuo'-eu, rjvop-er), rrjAetfo'coo-a (0aAe'0co)<br />
3<br />
(dyep-).<br />
126.] Meaning <strong>of</strong> Compounds. The general rule is that <strong>the</strong><br />
prefixed Stem limits or qualifies <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r : as<br />
a>//,o-yepa)z; hale old man, S^juto-yepcoy /r/r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people, rpi-yepojz;<br />
(Aesch.) thrice aged ; t7nro'-6a/uio-s<br />
tamer <strong>of</strong> horses, LTTTTO-POTO-S<br />
pastured by horses, ITTTTO'-KOJUIOS with plume <strong>of</strong> horse-hair, 177770-<br />
Ke'A.et>0os making way with horses ; /3a^v-5i^rjets deep-eddying.<br />
The prefixed Stem may evidently express very different relations<br />
that <strong>of</strong> an Adjective, as wjuto-yepcoz/, (3a6v-ivrjs, or a<br />
Genitive, as 6r//xo-yepcoz;, t7777o-KOjuto9, or an Object, as 177770-6 ajuo?,<br />
or an Adverb <strong>of</strong> manner or place or instrument, as o/x-rjyepe'es,<br />
?)epo-0otrt?, &c. and various attempts have been made to<br />
classify Compounds according to <strong>the</strong>se relations. Such attempts<br />
are usually unsatisfactory unless <strong>the</strong> differences <strong>of</strong> meaning upon<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y are based are accompanied by differences <strong>of</strong> grammatical<br />
form.<br />
In respect <strong>of</strong> form an important distinction is made by <strong>the</strong><br />
fact that in <strong>the</strong> second part <strong>of</strong> many Compounds a Substantive<br />
acquires <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> an Adjective without <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a new<br />
Suffix e. g. po8o-5aKri>Ao-5, literally rose-finger, means not a rosy<br />
finger, but having rosy fingers ; so t7777o'-KOju,o9<br />
with a horse-plume,<br />
i7777io-)(a inj-s with horse's mane (as a plume), (3a6v-bivr]-s (<br />
= {3a6v-<br />
Stz^rj-etj), &c. Such Compounds are called by Curtius Attributive.<br />
The formation is analogous to <strong>the</strong> turning <strong>of</strong> abstract into concrete<br />
Nouns by a mere change <strong>of</strong> Gender (instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> a Suffix),<br />
1 16. Thus bio-yvris (= blov yeVos ZXMV) is to $lov yeVos as<br />
\//-eu5rjjfalse to \^e8o? falsehood.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> meanings which may be conveyed by a Stem in<br />
a Compound, note <strong>the</strong> poetical use to express comparison: as<br />
deAAo'-77os storm-foot,<br />
i. e. with feet (swift) as <strong>the</strong> storm, /uieAt-yrjpu-s<br />
honey-voiced, poSo-dd/cruAo-s, Kvv-a>7n-s, &c. So too 7rob-^v[JLo-s<br />
like <strong>the</strong> wind in feet, Ovpo-Xecov like a lion in spirit.<br />
The order <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two Stems may be almost indifferent ;<br />
i. e. it<br />
may be indifferent which <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two notions is treated as qualifying<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r; e.g. irob-toKrjs swift <strong>of</strong> foot ( = &KV$ rovs irobas)
I27-]<br />
MEANING OF COMPOUNDS. 123<br />
is <strong>the</strong> same in practical effect as WKV-TTOVS swift-foot, with swift<br />
feet (oo/cets irobas X (t)V )'<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Compounds called by Curtius i. e. Objective,<br />
where <strong>the</strong><br />
relation between <strong>the</strong> two parts is that <strong>of</strong> governing and<br />
governed word, <strong>the</strong> general rule requires that <strong>the</strong> governed word<br />
should come first, as in linTo-ba^o-s horse-taming. This order<br />
appears to be reversed in certain cases in which <strong>the</strong> first Stem<br />
has <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> a Verb. The Stems so used are<br />
1. Stems in -e ( 124, d\ as<br />
2. Stems in -ai ( 124,
124 NOUN FORMATION. [128.<br />
sometimes obtained directly from Compound Verbs :<br />
from eW)(a>5 not from e<br />
and o^os.<br />
e.g.<br />
2. The Preposition governs,<br />
i. e. <strong>the</strong> Compound is equivalent<br />
to a Preposition governing- a Noun ; ev-vv^-io-s in <strong>the</strong> night,<br />
K.ara-\Q6v-Lo-s under-ground., a^o-Ov^-io-s displeasing (lit. awat/<br />
from <strong>the</strong> mind\ &c. also<br />
; (but less commonly) without a<br />
Secondary Suffix, as ey- KetyaXo-s brain (lit.<br />
within <strong>the</strong> head),<br />
tirapovpo-s<br />
attached to <strong>the</strong> soil.<br />
The placing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Preposition before <strong>the</strong> governed Stem is a<br />
departure from <strong>the</strong> general rule stated above. It may be held,<br />
however, that <strong>the</strong> Preposition serves (in<br />
some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se Compounds<br />
at least) as <strong>the</strong> limiting or qualifying member <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
word. Compare VI>X-LO-S by night^ CV-VV^-LO-S within <strong>the</strong> night :<br />
it is evident that <strong>the</strong> \v limits <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> VV^LOS in essentially<br />
<strong>the</strong> same way as nav- in 7rav-vv%-(.o-s all <strong>the</strong> night. So KaraxQov-io-s<br />
is nearly equivalent to yj)6v-io-s <strong>the</strong> Preposition<br />
;<br />
merely makes it clear in what sense <strong>the</strong> Suffix -10 is to be<br />
'<br />
'<br />
understood belonging to <strong>the</strong> earth by being under it.<br />
128.] Accentuation, The Accent generally falls on <strong>the</strong> last<br />
syllable <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> prefixed Stem, or if that is impossible, <strong>the</strong>n as<br />
far back as possible ;<br />
1<br />
^pva-o-Opovos, deAAo-Troj, eTr-TJparo-s (eparo-s),<br />
alv-aptrrj-s (dper??), &c. The chief exceptions are <strong>the</strong> following:<br />
i. When <strong>the</strong> second Stem ends in -o and has <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong><br />
an Active Participle, it is oxytone, or, if <strong>the</strong> penult is short,<br />
paroxytone ; as v-tyoppo-s, Srj/xto-epyo'-j, Too-7r-6-s,<br />
&c. (as if from /So-oty, yXavK-w\ls, &c.).<br />
129.] Proper Names in Greek are generally Compounds;<br />
<strong>the</strong> exceptions are chiefly<br />
names <strong>of</strong> gods, as ZCT;?, "Hpr;, 'A^TJz^,<br />
&c., and <strong>of</strong> certain heroes, as Ilapi?, npta/xoj. Alas, TeOKpos, &c.
130.] PROPER NAMES NUMERALS. 125<br />
Note that <strong>the</strong> gods whose names are Compound, as Ai<br />
Ar]-fjn]Tr]p, Ylepa--epe-/cA.oj, for Tlarpo-KX^s, 4>epe-KAerys,<br />
20ve-\os for 20ei>e'-Aao-?, Atyi-o-0os for AlyL-a-0vr]s, MevecrOevs<br />
for Mtve-a-Oevrjs ; cp. Evpvpftrjs (Od. 9. 509), patronymic <strong>of</strong><br />
Evpu/zeScoy. In <strong>the</strong>se names <strong>the</strong> shorter form has (or<br />
had<br />
originally) <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> a { nick-name/ or pet name.<br />
In general; however, <strong>the</strong> ' pet ' name is formed by dropping<br />
one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two Stems altoge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
: <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Stem taking a<br />
Suffix in its place"*.<br />
Thus we have in Homer <strong>the</strong> names<br />
in -TO-S, as r/ EKa-ros (for eKarry-/3oXos), Evpv-Tos (Evpv-jSdrrjs,<br />
TZvpv-a\o$, &c.), "I
126 NOUN FORMATION. [130.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> number 1 2 we find <strong>the</strong> three forms 8vo>8eKa, 6a>8eKa, and<br />
bvoKaf<strong>of</strong>Ka ;<br />
also <strong>the</strong> Ordinals bvafteKaros and (rarely)<br />
dcoSe/caros.<br />
3. Besides reo-orap-cs <strong>the</strong>re is a form iria-vp-ts, applied to horses<br />
in II. 15. 680 and 23. 171, to o<strong>the</strong>r objects in II. 24. 233 and<br />
three times in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (5. 70., 16. 249., 22. in).<br />
The Stem rerpa- appears in <strong>the</strong> Dat. rerpa-o-t, also in <strong>the</strong><br />
Ordinal (rerpa-ros and rerap-ro?), and most derivatives, as<br />
TTpd-KL$ } Trpa-^0d, rerpd-^aAos four-crested, &c. (but cp. reo~crapafioios<br />
worth four oxen) also with loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first : syllable in<br />
rpa-Trefa.<br />
The variation in <strong>the</strong> Stem <strong>of</strong> this Numeral has been fully discussed by Joh.<br />
Schmidt (JT. Z. xxv. p. 47 ff.).<br />
He shows that <strong>the</strong> Stem had three forms (114*).<br />
The strong form is seen in Sanscr. catvdras, which would lead us to expect<br />
Greek *TTfo>/>es (hence perhaps Dor. T tropes) ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> weakest in <strong>the</strong> Sanscr.<br />
Ordinal turiya, for ktur-iya, in which <strong>the</strong> shortening affects both syllables, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> first is consequently lost. This weakest Stem appears in rpv-^>a\fia a fourridged<br />
helmet, and is not derived from <strong>the</strong> form rcrpa-. It probably fell into<br />
disuse owing to its unlikeness to Ttcro-apes ; accordingly it has only survived<br />
in words in which <strong>the</strong> meaning ' four ' had ceased to be felt.<br />
The form iriavpfs may be akin to Lesbian ireaffvpfs or irtffvpes,<br />
but <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
decisive ground for regarding it as JEolic.<br />
4. OKTCO, like bva, is a Dual in form. The primitive ending<br />
-wu (Sanscr. ashtau) may be traced in oy8oo? (oySc<strong>of</strong>-os, oyScooj,<br />
Lat. octdvus).<br />
5. Under eiWa note <strong>the</strong> varieties eva-ros and etm-ro? ninth ^<br />
probably for e^fa-ros; so etra-Kis, cU-nugcr, etm-eres; also tvv-<br />
(for ezW-rjjmap), ez/ue'-copo? <strong>of</strong> nine seasons, tvvr\K.ovTa (for tvvtcp.<br />
rpi-TJ/cozmz, &c.) and VvrjKovTa <strong>the</strong> last a form difficult<br />
to explain.<br />
The numbers above ten are generally denoted by Compounds<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind called Copulative (Sanscr. dvandva) : 8uo>-8eKa two and<br />
ten.<br />
The analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Numerals ending in -d (e^rra, 8e'/ca, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stems rerpa-, etm-) has led to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong>
131.]<br />
ADVERBIAL WORDS. 127<br />
CHAPTER VII.<br />
USE OF THE CASES.<br />
Introductory.<br />
131.] The Case-Endings and Adverbial Endings serve (as has<br />
been said in 90) to show <strong>the</strong> relation in which <strong>the</strong> words to<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y are suffixed (Nouns, Pronouns, Adverbs, &c.) stand<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Verb <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sentence.<br />
This relation may be <strong>of</strong> three kinds :<br />
1. The Noun or Pronoun may express <strong>the</strong> Subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Verb : or ra<strong>the</strong>r (since a Subject is already given by <strong>the</strong> Person-<br />
Ending) it may qualify or define <strong>the</strong> Subject so given. E. g. in<br />
<strong>the</strong> sentence fiaa-iXevs 5t8co-o-t <strong>the</strong>-king Tie-gives /Bao-tAetfs explains<br />
<strong>the</strong> Subject given by <strong>the</strong> Ending -o-i.<br />
2. The Noun &c. may qualify <strong>the</strong> Predicate given by <strong>the</strong><br />
Stem <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb. E.g. in ravra didco-cn, e/ixot 8i8o)-cri, KaA
128 USE OF CASES. '[132,<br />
one <strong>the</strong> Ace. nva is<br />
governed by <strong>the</strong> phrase KCLKCI :<br />
pe'fet in rUv<br />
la-a TK(T(TL honoured like his children <strong>the</strong> Dat. re/ceo-o-t is<br />
governed<br />
by riev laa.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> new Case-form or Adverb so c governed ' by a<br />
Verb and Noun may belong in sense to <strong>the</strong> Noun. Thus in<br />
<strong>the</strong> sentence /otey' Ifo^o? eTrAero he is greatly eminent, since Ifo^os<br />
expresses <strong>the</strong> meaning which //,eya is intended to qualify, we<br />
may consider that practically jue'ya<br />
is construed with !OXG?<br />
alone. Evidently a qualification <strong>of</strong> this kind will generally<br />
apply only to an Adjective * (just as <strong>the</strong> degrees <strong>of</strong> comparison<br />
are essentially adjectival). In this way<br />
it comes about that an<br />
Adverb may in general be used to qualify an Adjective and<br />
;<br />
that very many Adjectives and Adverbs 'govern' <strong>the</strong> same Cases<br />
as <strong>the</strong> Verbs which correspond to <strong>the</strong>m in meaning. E.g. in<br />
i etKeAos aXK.r]v <strong>the</strong> Adj. euceAos takes <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong><br />
a Verb meaning<br />
to be like.<br />
In a strictly scientific treatment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cases <strong>the</strong> various constructions<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Verb should come before <strong>the</strong> constructions with Nouns and Prepositions.<br />
Such a treatment, however, would have <strong>the</strong> inconvenience <strong>of</strong><br />
frequently separating uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same Case which are intimately connected.<br />
E. g, <strong>the</strong> construction dA/ycf rrjv K(j>a\r]v (2) cannot well be separated from <strong>the</strong><br />
extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same construction in fjteyas carl TO aSifia (3). The Nominative,<br />
too, is used not only as <strong>the</strong> Subject, but also as <strong>the</strong> Predicate, or part <strong>of</strong><br />
it. It will be best <strong>the</strong>refore to take <strong>the</strong> several Cases in succession, and to<br />
begin with <strong>the</strong> ' oblique ' Cases.<br />
The Accusative.<br />
132.] Internal and External Object. The uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusative<br />
have been divided into those in which <strong>the</strong> Ace. repeats,<br />
with more or less modification, <strong>the</strong> meaning given by <strong>the</strong> Verb,<br />
and those in which <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb is limited or directed<br />
by an c Object ' wholly distinct from it. E. g. in <strong>the</strong> sentence<br />
\KO$ 6 jute OVTCKT, lit. <strong>the</strong> wound which he wounded me, o ('AKOS)<br />
qualifies ovracre by a word which expresses to some extent <strong>the</strong><br />
same thing as <strong>the</strong> Verb ovracre : whereas jme qualifies<br />
it in a<br />
different way. As <strong>the</strong> latter kind <strong>of</strong> Ace. had been known as<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> EXTERNAL OBJECT, so <strong>the</strong> former has more<br />
recently been termed <strong>the</strong> Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> INTERNAL OBJECT. We<br />
shall take first <strong>the</strong> different uses which fall under <strong>the</strong> description<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Internal Object/<br />
The foundation <strong>of</strong> this division (as Delbriick observes, Synt.<br />
Forsch. iv. p. 29)<br />
is <strong>the</strong> circumstance that all Accusatives which<br />
* In later Greek Adverbs are constantly used to qualify substantives : as<br />
u dd Pamtevs, 6 irplv xpwos, &c. But this use only becomes possible when we<br />
have <strong>the</strong> Article to show how <strong>the</strong> Adverb is to be understood.
I35-] ACCUSATIVE. 129<br />
do not express <strong>the</strong> external Object <strong>of</strong> an action may be explained<br />
in nearly <strong>the</strong> same way. The real difficulty arises when we<br />
try to find a principle which will explain <strong>the</strong>se different Accusatives<br />
and at <strong>the</strong> same time exclude <strong>the</strong> relations expressed<br />
by o<strong>the</strong>r Cases or Adverbial forms. No such principle can be<br />
laid down. The fact seems to be that <strong>the</strong> Accusative originally<br />
had a very wide '<br />
Adverbial ' use, which was encroached upon by<br />
<strong>the</strong> more specific uses <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Cases. The different constructions<br />
included under <strong>the</strong> ' Internal Object ' have all <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong><br />
fragments <strong>of</strong> an earlier more elastic usage.<br />
133.] Neuter Pronouns may be used in <strong>the</strong> Accusative ' adverbially/<br />
to define <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb as II. i. 289 a<br />
:<br />
i. e.<br />
TLV ov 7Tia-eor0ai 6ia> in which 1 think that some one will not obey ;<br />
II. 14. 249 aAAo 7rivv(r(rv gave ano<strong>the</strong>r lesson ; Od. 23. 24 TOVTO<br />
ovria-ei will do this benefit; Od. 10. 75<br />
ro'6' LK&VCLS comest as thou<br />
dost; II. 5. 827 pjre (TV y "Aprja TO ye 8et'8i0i fear not Ares as to<br />
this ; Tobt x<br />
e an 9r y at this; ra8e juaiz/erai does <strong>the</strong>se mad<br />
things (<br />
= is mad with <strong>the</strong>se acts).<br />
This use includes <strong>the</strong> Adverbial rt<br />
why ? (e. g. TL rjAfle? in regard<br />
to what have you come?=wh&t means your coming?) : TO<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore ( 262, 3), o, OTL because, that ( 269) : rt in any way,<br />
ovbtv not at all, a/xcpa, abiva, fiapv, /3ape'a, 6v, rap^ea, VTrep/xopa, hbe&a, ox.a,<br />
*X a ><br />
an(^ man y more.<br />
In general <strong>the</strong>re is no difference perceptible between <strong>the</strong> Neut.<br />
Sing, and Neut. Plur. But compare TVT06v for a little space,<br />
and TVT0a Kedo-at split into little pieces (Od. 12. 388).<br />
Note <strong>the</strong> combination <strong>of</strong> Pronoun and Adjective in TO irpuTov,<br />
TCL Trpwra, ro TPLTOV, TO TTapTov also in TCL aAAa in o<strong>the</strong>r respects.<br />
:<br />
This construction is<br />
very common in Homer, and may almost<br />
be said to be <strong>the</strong> usual <strong>Homeric</strong> mode <strong>of</strong> forming an Adverb.<br />
It has been already observed that Adverbs in -ws are comparatively<br />
rare in Homer (<br />
no).<br />
135.] Cognate Accusative. This term denotes that <strong>the</strong> Verb
130 USE OF CASES. [136.<br />
is construed with a Substantive in <strong>the</strong> Ace. <strong>of</strong> ' cognate ' form,<br />
or at least <strong>of</strong> equivalent meaning.<br />
A Cognate Ace. is generally used to introduce <strong>the</strong> Adjective<br />
or Pronoun which really qualifies or defines <strong>the</strong> predication contained<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Verb: e.g. airprjKTov -Tro'Aejuou TToXejjLifciv to wage a<br />
war without result (cp. <strong>the</strong> adverbial use <strong>of</strong> a Neut. Adj. in<br />
aXXrjKTov TToAejuu'Cetz; to war without ceasing] ; 05 KCV apio-ryv (3ovXr]v<br />
povXtva-rj who shall give <strong>the</strong> lest counsel ( = apicrra (BovXevcrrj) ;<br />
e^>tA.t TravTotrjv /3ij(rao-0e, eA/cos o jue (Bporos ovracrtVy VTTOO-^CTLS rjv ircp VTre-<br />
&C.<br />
136.] O<strong>the</strong>r Adverbial Accusatives. The following uses<br />
may be placed here as more or less analogous to <strong>the</strong> Cognate<br />
Accusative :<br />
(1) Substantives expressing a particular sphere or kind <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
action denoted by <strong>the</strong> Verb as<br />
:<br />
II. 6. 292 rjyayz ^ibovtifjOev . . rrjv obbv rjv 'EAez^y Trep a^ryyaye<br />
<strong>the</strong> voyage on which he brought lack Helen: (cp.<br />
Od. 6. 164<br />
yXOov yap KCU Keure . . Tr)v obbv fj 877 KrA.) ; so obbv ot>(cr^at,<br />
obbv rjyrja-aa-daL<br />
to lead on <strong>the</strong> way ; and again efeo-uyz; eXOelv<br />
to go on an expedition (and in Od. 21. 20 teo-ir]v TroXXrjv obov<br />
yXdev went a long way on an expedition)^ ayycXirjv cXOovra going on<br />
a message ; fiovXas eapyu*v ayaOas taking <strong>the</strong> lead in good<br />
counsels ; Od. 8. 23 a0Xovs . . TOVS . .<br />
CTretpTJo-ayr' 'Obvcrfjos ',<br />
Od. 19. 393 ovXrjV rr]v TTOTC JJLLV crvs rjXaa-. So baivvvra yapov<br />
holding a wedding-feast, baivv rd(pov gave a funeral feast (whereas<br />
<strong>the</strong> cognate bair-qv baivvjjievovs means holding an ordinary feast)<br />
vvdyiJiv "Aprja let us join battle, e/n8a pr^yvvvro fiapelav broke in<br />
grievous strife.<br />
So probably we should explain II. I. 31 \\LQV Ae'xos avrLoaxrav,<br />
like II. 15. 33 (^Ao'rr;? re KCU e^^ rjv ^iyrjs (cp. Pind. N. I. 67<br />
orav 0eot . .<br />
yiyavTevo-iv payav avTiafavi). Also Od. 6. 259 otyp*<br />
av jjLv K aypovs tojuteu Kat epy' avOpunrutv so long as our way is<br />
through "fields and tillage <strong>of</strong> 'men = , aypovs obbv v dypoty.<br />
Note that this construction is chiefly applied to <strong>the</strong> familiar<br />
spheres <strong>of</strong> action battle, council, feasting. &c.<br />
(2) Abstract Nouns expressing an attribute <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> action.<br />
II. 9. 115 ov TL \l/evbo$ jjias aras KareAefas with no falsehood
I37-] ACCUSATIVE. 131<br />
hast thou recounted my folly : Od. 7. 297<br />
ravra rot . .<br />
So bc^as (in phrases like 8e//a? irvpos<br />
like fire),<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Adverbs<br />
,<br />
abrjv, Xirjv, with many o<strong>the</strong>rs (see no), are originally <strong>the</strong><br />
Accusatives <strong>of</strong> Abstract Nouns.<br />
Add <strong>the</strong> poetical expressions such as irvp o(/>0aAjus<br />
with look <strong>of</strong>fire, jmeyea Tr^eto^re? breathing martial fury.<br />
The phrase irvp 5e8o/>/i>s is a boldness <strong>of</strong> language (compared e. g. with Stivbv<br />
Septc<strong>of</strong>jievoi} analogous to that which we observed in Compounds such as deAAoiros<br />
with storm- (like) feet, as compared with wKv-noScs, &c. ;<br />
see 126.<br />
(3) The words epyov, CTTO?, ^v0os, with Pronouns, are used<br />
nearly as <strong>the</strong> Neuter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same Pronouns as<br />
:<br />
II. = I.<br />
294 TTCLV Zpyov vTreifojuiai I shall yield in every matter (nav<br />
epyoi> 7razrra) : 5. 757 ^ v<br />
vcpforifr) Apt ra6e Kaprepa tpya (constr.<br />
like ro5e x^ )f C P- 9- 374-<br />
Od. 3. 243 en-OS- aAAo /ixeraAArjo-at to ask ano<strong>the</strong>r question.<br />
II- 5- 7 I 5 tf P' aA.60i^ roz; pvQov VTI^O-T^^V our promise was idle.<br />
(4) Words expressing <strong>the</strong> sum or result <strong>of</strong> an action are put<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Ace. ;<br />
as II. 4. 207 ffia\v . . rw /xez; KXeoj a/xjut 8e itivQos ;<br />
24- 735 P l^et %ipbs eAcay 0,770 irvpyov Xvypov okeOpov : Od. 6. 184-<br />
So TTOIZ;?^ m compensation, irp<strong>of</strong>fraa-iv on <strong>the</strong> pretence, MK\r]
133 USE OF CASES. [138.<br />
<strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb to a part or attribute <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> subject<br />
: as<br />
KCLfJiveL x^P a ^s hand is weary, irvpl ^Ipas<br />
eotKe his hands are as<br />
fire, (3X.i]To KvrjiJL-qv was wounded in <strong>the</strong> shin, aAAaW Treptet/n voov I<br />
am beyond o<strong>the</strong>rs in understanding ; fypiva re'pTrer'<br />
aKovwv was<br />
pleased at heart listening ; ov Xrjye juteWs ceased not in his fury ;<br />
yevos 6' r\v eK Trora/xoto in descent he was from <strong>the</strong> river, yevtT]v<br />
ewKet (II. 14. 474) was like in descent, i. e. bore ' a family likeness<br />
' -,<br />
aOavcLTycn befjias KOL et8os eptfetz;<br />
to rival <strong>the</strong> immortals in<br />
form and feature. See 141.<br />
These uses differ from o<strong>the</strong>r Accusatives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sphere <strong>of</strong> an<br />
action in <strong>the</strong> distinctly concrete nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words employed.<br />
The Ace. does not express <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb, or an attribute<br />
<strong>of</strong> it, but merely denotes a thing by reference to which it is<br />
limited or characterised. Thus in Ko^et X e Va ^ne ^cc. limits<br />
'<br />
<strong>the</strong> action Kapvei feels hand-weariness/ The relation is local<br />
or instrumental, though not so expressed. The<br />
(<br />
meaning in or<br />
with <strong>the</strong> hand ' is conveyed, because it is <strong>the</strong> only one possible<br />
<strong>the</strong> only way in which <strong>the</strong> notion hand can qualify <strong>the</strong> notion<br />
weariness.<br />
The ' Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> part affected/ or 'Ace. <strong>of</strong> reference/ is<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> Greek : hence it is called Accusative Graecus by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Latin <strong>grammar</strong>ians. It is unknown, or nearly so, in<br />
Sanscrit. We cannot infer, however, that it originated with <strong>the</strong><br />
Greeks, especially as it is found in Zend (Delbriick, Synt.<br />
Forsch. iv. 33) but it may have been extended in Greek. The<br />
:<br />
alternative Case is generally <strong>the</strong> Instrumental: cp. II. 3. 194<br />
cvpvrepos w/xoto-ti; tde a-repvoKriv tdeVflat, but a. 478 ojutjmara /cat<br />
Kt &c.<br />
138.] Accusative <strong>of</strong> Time and Space. The word expressing<br />
duration <strong>of</strong> time is<br />
put in <strong>the</strong> Ace., as tva /x,rji>a jueWz; waiting a<br />
month, xeijuta ei>'8ei sleeps through <strong>the</strong> winter } Tpls avd^acrOai yeW<br />
avbp&v to reign for three generations <strong>of</strong> men.<br />
The Accusative <strong>of</strong> Space expresses <strong>the</strong> extent <strong>of</strong> an action, as<br />
II. 23. 529 AetVero bovpbs was 6po>rjz> a spear's throw behind.<br />
These Accusatives are to be compared with <strong>the</strong> Neuter Adjectives<br />
<strong>of</strong> quantity, as TIO\V, oXlyov, rvrOov, rocrov, &c.<br />
139.]<br />
Accusative with Nouns. The chief uses are :<br />
(1) Neut. Adjectives, as /xey' efoxos greatly surpassing.<br />
(2) Cognate Accusative, as II. 15. 641 afjLLva)v iravTOias dperas<br />
better in every kind <strong>of</strong> excellence. This is rare in Homer.<br />
(3) Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' part affected ' ; o^ara KCLL K(j>a\r)v ueAos like<br />
in eyes and head, (cp. xetpas eotKe), fiorjv ayaOos good in shouting,
140.] ACCUSATIVE. 133<br />
yevos /ca/cos- /cat avaXms a coward by right <strong>of</strong> descent. With a Substantive<br />
:<br />
xi/od? r al)yj.r]TrjV eju6i>at.<br />
140.] Accusative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> External Object. Under this head<br />
it is unnecessary to do more than notice one or two points :<br />
(1) The ceremonial words anap^a, /carapxo//,ai, &c. are construed<br />
according to <strong>the</strong> acquired meaning<br />
: as rpi\as airap^iv to<br />
cut <strong>of</strong>f hair as a preliminary, cp. Od. 3. 445 (with<br />
<strong>the</strong> note in<br />
Riddell and Merry's edition).<br />
So II. 24. 710 TOV . . rtAAecrflrjz;<br />
mourned him by tearing <strong>the</strong>ir hair: and op/ua Ttpveiv to make a<br />
treaty (by slaying a victim).<br />
(2) The Verbs euror, avbda), &c. may take an Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> person<br />
spoken to: II. 5. 170 eVo? re \LIV avriov rjvba: II. 13. 725<br />
UovXvbdfjias Opavvv "E/cropa cnre. Cp. II. 9. 59., 17. 651, Od. 4.<br />
155. But this construction is rare with <strong>the</strong> simple Verbs : it is<br />
found passim with Compounds (Trpocrr^Sa, TrpocreetTre, &c.).<br />
(3) An Ace. may be used <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> person about whom something<br />
is told, known , thought, &c.<br />
(a) If a person or a thing is treated as <strong>the</strong> thing said, known,<br />
&c. (not merely spoken or known about]<br />
: as II. I.<br />
90 ovb* rjv<br />
'Aya^fjivova enrr/? not even if you say Agamem,non (cp. ovvo^a<br />
ei7Tiz>) ; 3. 192 eur' aye /uot /cat rovbc tell me this man too. So<br />
with oi8a when it means only to know what a thing is : as II. 6.<br />
150 <strong>of</strong>yp ei) t6r/s T^ereprju ytver\v, -rroAAot 8e JJLLV avbpzs Ivacriv :<br />
and with ^l^v^^ai, as II. 9. 527 ro5e<br />
/ote/u,^ryjoiat epyov ; II.<br />
23.<br />
361 a>? //ejutrewro bpojjiovs<br />
that he might remember <strong>the</strong> courses<br />
(i.e. remember how many <strong>the</strong>re wr ere) ; II. 6. 222 Tu8ea 8' ov<br />
/xe'/uwr^at (<strong>of</strong> remembering his existence).<br />
The Ace. implies<br />
that <strong>the</strong> person<br />
is <strong>the</strong> whole fact remembered. But with a Gen.<br />
means I remember something about, I bethink myself<br />
(b) If <strong>the</strong> real Object <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb is a fact expressed by a<br />
limiting word or clause as II. 2. 81 tyevbos K.V :
134 USE OF CASES. [141.<br />
imply reaching a point), but is comparatively rare with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
simple Verbs, such as et/uti, Ip^o/jiai, vtopai, ayo>, ^yeojmat.<br />
The<br />
words so used with <strong>the</strong>se Verbs are mostly Nouns 1<br />
denoting house<br />
0), II. 7. 363, &c. ; Sopor, Od. 7. 22, II. 22. 482; olitov, Od. 14.<br />
167), city (Od. Od. 6. 114., 15. 82), rc^fe land (II. 7. 335., 15. 706):<br />
cp. also II. I. 322 p^(T0ov K.Xi(r'n]v 6. ; 37 vvdyov(ra yepataj<br />
21. 40 Arjfjivov TTpao-(rV, Od, 4. 478 AlyvTTTOio vbu>p eA0r/s.<br />
Compound Verbs esp. with <strong>the</strong> Prepositions ei ?, cm, Trpo's,<br />
irapa usually take an Ace. <strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
There is no reason to infer from <strong>the</strong>se and similar instances that <strong>the</strong><br />
Accusative is originally <strong>the</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> terminus ad t quern. It is natural that a<br />
Verb <strong>of</strong> motion should be denned or qualified by a Noun expressing place, and<br />
that such a Noun should generally denote <strong>the</strong> place<br />
to which <strong>the</strong> motion is<br />
directed. But this is not necessary. The Ace. is used with Verbs denoting<br />
motion from, as favyv, vo
I43-] DATIVE. 135<br />
The notion ' doing ' given by pe'o> is so vague that an Ace. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> person would be :<br />
ambiguous but <strong>the</strong> more definite notions<br />
<strong>of</strong> doing evil, &c. become susceptible <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> construction. So<br />
with etTrety, as Od. I.<br />
303 tva ris ere ev enrr; may speak well <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>e :<br />
cp. II. 6. 479.<br />
A similar account is to be given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' Accusative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Whole and Part/ which is very common in Homer; e.g. TOV<br />
/3aXe him he smote on KvrjfJirjv <strong>the</strong> shin, ere (frvyzv epKos OOOVTMV has<br />
escaped you over <strong>the</strong> fence <strong>of</strong> teeth. The second Ace. has been<br />
-L
136 USE OF CASES. [143.<br />
II. 12. 374 TTLyojjivoLa-L b' VKOVTO <strong>the</strong>y came for <strong>the</strong>m when hard<br />
pressed, i. e. <strong>the</strong>ir was coming1 (what such a thing- is)<br />
to hard<br />
pressed men. So 11. 14. 108 cjuol 8e Kv ao-juteVo) eir; it would be<br />
for me when welcoming it, i. e. would be what I welcome : Od. 1 1 .<br />
115 OV K fJLOl a^VVfJ^Vid KT\.<br />
The Dat. with Verbs <strong>of</strong> giving, showing, telling (a fact), praying,<br />
helping favouring being angry, &c., and <strong>the</strong> corresponding<br />
, pleasing, ,<br />
Adjectives (^tAos, ex^po's, &c.), is evidently <strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
The so-called Dativus<br />
(<br />
commodi, Ethical Dative/ &c. need hot<br />
be separated from <strong>the</strong> general usage. Note however that<br />
1. The Dative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Personal Pronouns is very <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
where we should have a Possessive agreeing with a Noun in <strong>the</strong><br />
Clause; as II. I. 104 cWe 8e ot irvpl eucrrjy his eyes were like fire ;<br />
Od. 2. 5 MTpi jutot {j,i"r](TT7Jpes cTrexpaoz; <strong>the</strong> suitors have assailed<br />
my mo<strong>the</strong>r ; so II. i. 55, 150, 188, 200, &c.<br />
2. Sexojjiai with <strong>the</strong> Dat. means to take as a favour: II. 15. 87<br />
e'juiort dcjcro de-Trots accepted <strong>the</strong> cup from Themis (as a compliment);<br />
or to take as an attendant does, II. 2. 186., 13. 710., 17.<br />
207, Od. 15. 282. For <strong>the</strong> Gen. see 152.<br />
3. dKouw with <strong>the</strong> Dat. means to hear favourably ; II. 16. 515<br />
CLKOVZLV avpi Krjb<strong>of</strong>jLevu' and so K.\.vQL /uoi in prayers (II. 5. H5><br />
Od. 2. 262). See 151, d.<br />
4. The Dat. with Verbs meaning- to give commands (/ceAewo,<br />
(Trjjjiaivu), &c.), and to lead <strong>the</strong> way (apx&), ?yyeo/zai, rjye^ovev^ is<br />
apparently <strong>the</strong> true Dat. But this does not apply to Verbs<br />
meaning to have power, to be king (as K/>are'o>, dvaa-ora)) : e.g. avavcre/aei;<br />
'Apyetoto-t probably means to be king among <strong>the</strong> Argives<br />
(Loc.). See 145 (7, a).<br />
5. The c Dat. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Agent ' with Passive Verbs seems to be a<br />
special application <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> true Dat.; ..
I44-] INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE. 137<br />
In this respect Latin <strong>of</strong>fers a marked contrast ; cp. .<strong>the</strong> various uses,<br />
especially <strong>of</strong> abstract Substantives, explained by Mr. Roby under <strong>the</strong> headings<br />
'indirect object' (1143, n. n), 'work contemplated' (1156), 'predicative<br />
dative' (11580".). The source <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> difference evidently is that <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
is not liable, as in Greek, to be confounded with <strong>the</strong> Loc. and Instrum.<br />
It will be seen however that <strong>the</strong> Greek Infinitive is in fact <strong>the</strong> Dat. <strong>of</strong> an<br />
abstract Substantive.<br />
144.] The Instrumental Dative. The so-called Instrumental<br />
Case appears to have been employed to express whatever accompanies<br />
or shares in an action not :<br />
only <strong>the</strong> instrument or cause,<br />
but any attendant object or circumstance. Hence it covers <strong>the</strong><br />
'<br />
ground <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Datives <strong>of</strong> circumstance/ f manner/ &c.<br />
The Dat. <strong>of</strong> circumstance &c. is common with abstract or semiabstract<br />
words : as rixV<br />
w^ ^oise (<br />
K^a "/7^ aAaArjrw, hoity, &c.) ;<br />
criyrj, o-ia)7r7j ;<br />
albol with reverence (Od. 8. 172); avdyKy, (3irj }<br />
cnrovbfj : KaKrj with alcrrj evil fortune ; eiol<br />
KaAeorrai<br />
things because <strong>of</strong> which men live well and are called opulent. So <strong>of</strong><br />
an almost personal agent, Od. 14. 299 rj 6' efleeu Bope'rj avepa <strong>the</strong><br />
ship coursed on with (driven by) <strong>the</strong> North wind.<br />
The c comitative ' or ' sociative ' sense is chiefly found in <strong>the</strong><br />
Plural, which denotes attendants, surroundings, adjuncts, &c. ; II.<br />
1 8. 506 Tola-iv 7TLT rj'L(T(Tov<br />
with <strong>the</strong>se (<strong>the</strong> sceptres) <strong>the</strong>y started<br />
up ; Od. 4. 8 l-mtoHTi KOI ap}j,a(ri TrejUTre sent with horses and chariots<br />
(cp. 4. 533) Od. u. 161 ;<br />
vrji re Kai erapoto-t with a ship and com-<br />
rades; ; II. 12. 28 KVfjiao-L TT^fjiTT let ffo<br />
with <strong>the</strong> waves ; II. 2. 818<br />
jme/xaores eyxet^at ardent with <strong>the</strong>ir spears; II. 6. 243 feo-rrj?<br />
al6ovo"r)(TL T^rvy^vov built with smooth porticoes (cp. Od. 9. 185,<br />
&c.) II. : 2. 148 em r bends rjfj.vL a
.<br />
138 USE OF CASES. [144.<br />
(without <strong>the</strong>ir losing hold) : Od. 14. 77 Slpp avTols o/3eXotcrt hot<br />
with <strong>the</strong> spits as <strong>the</strong>y were*.<br />
The Dative with Verbs meaning<br />
to be with, to follow, to join,<br />
to agree with, to be like, &c., and again with <strong>the</strong> Prepositions vvv<br />
and dfjia,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> various Pronouns and Adjectives meaning<br />
<strong>the</strong><br />
same, equal, like, &c., is generally Instrumental.<br />
The Dat. with Verbs meaning to fight, strive, &c. may be <strong>the</strong><br />
Instrumental or (more probably) <strong>the</strong> true Dat. Words meaning<br />
to trust &c. probably take an Instrumental Dat. <strong>of</strong>. <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>of</strong><br />
trust, a true Dat. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> person trusted or obeyed : cp. <strong>the</strong> Lat.<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> confidere with a Dat. or Abl.<br />
With Verbs meaning to be phased <strong>the</strong> Dat. is doubtless Instrumental<br />
: as II. 21. 45 TpircTO oto-t C\ouri had pleasure with his<br />
friends (so Od. 14. 245). This is still more clear in II. 5. 682<br />
yapri ft apa ol TrpocrtoVrt and II. 23. 55^ xaipav 'AzmA.o'x<br />
on KT\.<br />
'<br />
rejoiced at <strong>the</strong> fact (<strong>of</strong> his coming, &c.)/<br />
The Instrum. is used in Sanscrit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> space over which action<br />
extends. The nearest approach to this in Greek is <strong>the</strong> Dat. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> way by which : cp. <strong>the</strong> Adverbs f l} rr\, rgbe, irjj, OTH/, Travrr).<br />
But see 158, note.<br />
The Dat. is probably Instrumental (not Locative) in Od. i. 197<br />
KCLTpVKraL ev/oe'i TToVrw (by, not on, <strong>the</strong> sea). Also with 6e'x.ojuiai,<br />
&c v as II. 6. .<br />
136 vTTtotfaro KO^TT^, Od. 1 6. 70 VTroSefojiat otKa>.<br />
In later Greek de'xo/xcu<br />
is construed with OIKO>, Tro'Aei, &c. without<br />
a Preposition.<br />
Note <strong>the</strong> occasional use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Instrumental Dat. with Verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> buying, as II. 7. 475 olvi&vro aAAoi plv xA.K
1 45-]<br />
LOCATIVAL DATIVE. 139<br />
also with a Verb <strong>of</strong> e cognate 9<br />
meaning, as Oavov otKrtora> Oavdrto<br />
(Od. II. 412), peov vban (Od. 5. 70).<br />
145.] The Locatival Dative. The Dative without a Preposition<br />
denoting <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> an action is much commoner in Homer<br />
than in later Greek, though already restricted to a comparatively<br />
narrow range. It is used<br />
(1) Of towns and countries: lAica eto-t are in Ilios, , ^^pirj,<br />
Kv6rtpoLa-i, 77/377, KPTJTT?, "Apyei, 'EAAa5t, &c. So too y At8i.<br />
(2) Of <strong>the</strong> great divisions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, <strong>the</strong> chief spheres <strong>of</strong><br />
action, &c., as alOepi, ovpav>, ovpecri, dyp
140 USE OF CASES. [146.<br />
The Dat. after <strong>the</strong> Prepositions 4i>, em, impel, JAT
147-]<br />
GENITIVE. 141<br />
<strong>the</strong> predicate given by a Verb. The Genitive is originally <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> third group ;<br />
and properly qualifies a Noun. Hence <strong>the</strong> Ablative and Genitive uses are<br />
generally distinguished partly in meaning, partly in grammatical structure.<br />
But <strong>the</strong>y are not always distinguished by <strong>the</strong> structure, since (i) <strong>the</strong> Ablative<br />
(like <strong>the</strong> Ace. and Dat.) may be construed with an Adjective, and (2) <strong>the</strong> true<br />
Gen. may be predicative (like an Adj.), and thus apparently construed with<br />
a Verb. To give a single example<br />
: Otwv yovos kari might be =<br />
(<strong>the</strong>oretically)<br />
he is <strong>of</strong>fspring from-gods (Abl.), and on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand OeoJv feyovf may be = /ie<br />
<strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong>-gods (Gen., see 148).<br />
147.] The Genitive with Nouns. The manner in which a<br />
Genitive serves to define or qualify <strong>the</strong> { governing- ' Noun may<br />
be very various. E. g. Tpvcov xo^os may mean anger <strong>of</strong> (i. e. felt<br />
by) <strong>the</strong> Trojans, or (as in II. 6. 335) anger at <strong>the</strong> Trojans, or anger<br />
on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Trojans (as in II. 15. 138 \6\ov vios erjos means<br />
anger about <strong>the</strong> death <strong>of</strong> his son).<br />
Compare also<br />
pKos TroXe/xoto a bulwark in (or against) war.<br />
UpKos obovrcDv <strong>the</strong> fence (made) <strong>of</strong> teeth.<br />
repas juepo'moy avOpuHrcav a sign to men.<br />
XdOprj AaoptbovTos with secrecyfrom Laomedon.<br />
atKovros with fiirj<br />
force used to one unwilling.<br />
Kv/xara iravroLutv avt^tov <strong>the</strong> waves raised by all winds.<br />
o/u,(|>aA.oi Kaaxrirepoto bosses made <strong>of</strong> tin.<br />
'\\iov TTTo\i0pov <strong>the</strong> town <strong>of</strong> Ilios.<br />
'0't'A.ryos<br />
Ta\vs Alas swift Ajax son <strong>of</strong> Oileus.<br />
baifjioviz ^eivtov unaccountable stranger !<br />
VOJJLOS v\rj$ pasture ground in <strong>the</strong> wood.<br />
VOCTTOS yair]s 3>air\K.u>v return to <strong>the</strong> land <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Phaeacians.<br />
virotyios aAAcoj; suspected by o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
e-nwrpo^oj av0pu>T7(j)v going about among men.<br />
a(j)Vibs PLOTOLO rich in substance.<br />
lOvs Aio/u?}8eos straight for Diomede.<br />
The different uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Genitive <strong>of</strong>ten answer to <strong>the</strong> different<br />
meanings given by <strong>the</strong> Suffixes which serve to form<br />
Adjectives from Nouns ( 117). Compare, for instance, II. 2. 54<br />
Neorope'rj Trapa vrjt HvXoiytveos fiao-iXrjos by <strong>the</strong> ship <strong>of</strong> Nestor<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pylian king ; II. 6. 180 Qtiov yez'os ot>6' avOptoirav <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fspring<br />
<strong>of</strong> gods, not <strong>of</strong> men ; r<strong>of</strong>ov atyo'j (II. 4. 105) a bow <strong>of</strong> goat's horn,<br />
but dcTKos atyetos a bag <strong>of</strong> goatskin ; 'Ot'A.T/os ra-^vs Ataj and Atas<br />
'OtXtciaryy ; TeAajuiajzno? vios <strong>the</strong> son <strong>of</strong> Telamon ; and so in <strong>the</strong><br />
Pronouns, ejueto TioQr] (II. 6. 362), but 077 iroOfj (II. 19. 321).<br />
These uses have been classified as Objective and Subjective, Possessive,<br />
Partitive, Material, &c. In many cases however <strong>the</strong> variety <strong>of</strong> relations<br />
expressed by <strong>the</strong> Gen. eludes this kind <strong>of</strong> analysis. Such classifications,<br />
moreover, are apt to lead us into <strong>the</strong> fallacy <strong>of</strong> thinking that relations which<br />
are distinct to us, because expressed by different language, were distinctly<br />
<strong>the</strong> fallacy, in<br />
conceived by those who expressed <strong>the</strong>m all in <strong>the</strong> same way ;<br />
is
142 USE OF CASES. [148.<br />
short, <strong>of</strong> supposing <strong>the</strong> distinctions <strong>of</strong> thought to be prior to <strong>the</strong> language<br />
which embodies <strong>the</strong>m.<br />
The relation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Genitive to <strong>the</strong> governing Noun is in many ways<br />
analogous to <strong>the</strong> relation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusative to <strong>the</strong> Verb, and also to that<br />
which subsists between <strong>the</strong> first part <strong>of</strong> a Compound Noun and <strong>the</strong> second.<br />
that <strong>of</strong> a defining or qualifying word to<br />
In each <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se cases <strong>the</strong> relation is<br />
<strong>the</strong> notion defined or qualified, and it is one which may be <strong>of</strong> various kinds,<br />
as may be suggested by particular combinations <strong>of</strong> meaning.<br />
Notice, as especially frequent<br />
in Homer<br />
(1) <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a Gen. after Nouns meaning grief, anger, &c.,<br />
to express <strong>the</strong> object or cause <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> feeling<br />
: as a^os- jjvioyoLO grief<br />
for <strong>the</strong> chariot-driver (II. 8. 124, 316, &c.), axoy crtQev (II. 4. 169) ;<br />
obvvrj 'Hpa/cXr/os (II. 15- 25) j irtvOos iraibbs a/no^Qi^ivoio (II. 1 8.<br />
88); Kriot' fy&v trapuv (II. 22. 2J2, Od. ii. 382); and so in <strong>the</strong><br />
much-disputed phrase 'EAeVjjs o/ojurjjuara re arova^ds re (II. 2. 356,<br />
590), which can only mean efforts and groans about Helen.<br />
(2) <strong>the</strong> ' '<br />
partitive<br />
use after rts (Interrog.) and TIS (Indef.),<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten with several words interposed<br />
: as II. 1 . 8 TLS r ap o-<br />
Oe&v KT\. ; II. I. 88 ov TLS ejuteu f&vros . . x W a * CTroicret<br />
rcoz> AavaQv no one shall . . .<br />
<strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> Greeks.<br />
The partitive Gen. is also seen in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> phrases 8ta<br />
Otdav bright one among goddesses, dia yvvaiK&v, daijuuwe fctvtov,<br />
TrdvTMv apibiKTov avop&v (II. 14. 320) where <strong>the</strong> governing<br />
:<br />
word implies some kind <strong>of</strong> distinction or eminence. So when<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a contrast, as<br />
II. II. 761 TravTS ' ev^eroco^ro 0e Ati Neoropt r' avbp&v.<br />
148.] Genitive in <strong>the</strong> Predicate. Among <strong>the</strong> various uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gen. in construction with a Verb <strong>the</strong> first to be noticed<br />
are those in which <strong>the</strong> Case evidently retains its attributive or<br />
adjectival character. This use is rare in Homer examples : are,<br />
ets ayaOolo thou art <strong>of</strong> good blood, eTrotryo-ez^<br />
O-CIKOJ aloXov<br />
ravpav farpe^eW made a shield seven hides thick, <strong>of</strong><br />
(hides <strong>of</strong>) goodly bulls. In classifying <strong>the</strong> Greek uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Gen. <strong>the</strong> chief object is to separate constructions <strong>of</strong> this kind (in<br />
which <strong>the</strong> Case is ultimately <strong>the</strong> adjectival or ' true '<br />
Gen.) from<br />
those in which it represents an Ablative, and <strong>the</strong>refore is essen-<br />
akin to <strong>the</strong> Adverbs.<br />
tially<br />
* Pr<strong>of</strong>. Max Miiller (Lectures, I, p. 103) shows how <strong>the</strong> Genitive Ending -oio<br />
(for -o-o-j-o) may be explained as a Suffix <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same kind as those which<br />
form Adjectives from Nouns. If his hypo<strong>the</strong>sis is admitted, <strong>the</strong> Genitive is<br />
simply ' an Adjective without Gender,' in respect <strong>of</strong>form as well as use. And<br />
even if <strong>the</strong> identification on which he chiefly relies (<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Case-ending -sya<br />
and Suffix -tya with <strong>the</strong> Pronoun eyas, syd, tyad) should be thought open to<br />
question, <strong>the</strong>re can be little doubt that <strong>the</strong> Case is originally ' adnominal ' or<br />
adjectival in character.
150.] GENITIVE. 143<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gen. is singularly common in Latin: see Roby, 1282.<br />
The reason for this difference between Greek and Latin evidently is that in<br />
Latin <strong>the</strong> Gen. is not confounded with <strong>the</strong> Abl. The same explanation has<br />
been given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> free use which Latin makes <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> predicative Dative<br />
( 143, note}.<br />
149.] Genitive <strong>of</strong> Place. A Gen. expresses a vague -local<br />
relation (within,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> sphere <strong>of</strong>, &c.),<br />
in <strong>the</strong> following uses :<br />
(1) After a negative<br />
II. 17. 372 vtcfros b' ov (paiveTo 770,0-77? yatrjs OVT opeW.<br />
Od. 3. 251 r\ ov/c'Apyeos jjev 'A^auKov. Cp. 14. 98., 21. 109.<br />
(2) When two sides or alternative places<br />
II. 9. 219 avrbs 6' avriov l&v ^Obvo-afjos 0etoto<br />
are contrasted<br />
roi^ou TOV erepoto. Cp. 24. 59 8<br />
Od. I. 23 AWioiras, rol bixQa SeScuarat, ecrxarot avbp&v,<br />
oi IJLZV bvffOfjievov 'Tirtpiovos, ol 8' aviovros,<br />
and so perhaps Od. 12. 27 r)<br />
oAos TJ CTT! yijs,<br />
and Od. 4. 678 av\rjs<br />
KTOS v in <strong>the</strong> court outside (cp. 9. 239).<br />
(3) With Verbs <strong>of</strong> motion, to express <strong>the</strong> space within which<br />
<strong>the</strong> motion takes place, as II. 2. 785 dteTrprjcrow TreStoto made<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir way over <strong>the</strong> plain : so lav Tro/Ve'os irebioLo, t'Trrrco<br />
TreSi'oto, Trebioio io)Ke^ KOVLOVTZS irebiOLO, &c. 10. ; 353 e<br />
veiolo (3a6ir]s TTTIKTOV aporpov<br />
:<br />
24. 264 Iva Trp^ora-cojuez; 6oto, cp.<br />
Od. 2. 404., 3. 476. This use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gen. is almost confined to<br />
set phrases ; accordingly it is only found with <strong>the</strong> Gen. in -oio<br />
When an Ace. <strong>of</strong> quantity and<br />
(<strong>the</strong> archaic form).<br />
The difference <strong>of</strong> meaning between this Genitive and <strong>the</strong><br />
Accusative <strong>of</strong> Space ( 138) seems to be that <strong>the</strong> Ace. measures<br />
<strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb, whereas <strong>the</strong> Gen. only gives a local relation<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> action stands.<br />
a Gen. are both used, <strong>the</strong> Ace. <strong>of</strong>ten seems to govern <strong>the</strong> Gen. ;<br />
e. g. 6/uuA.ou TTO\\OV TT\6(6v advancing far in <strong>the</strong> throng, Trapef eA-<br />
Otiv irebioLo rvrOov to go a short space <strong>of</strong>plain beyond. So with<br />
Adverbs : tvOa KOL ZvO* Wv&e fJ'CL^rj<br />
irebioio :<br />
abrjv eAaorat TroAe/xoto ;<br />
and with a negative<br />
: OVK "Apyeos ^v ^e was nowhere in Argos.<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> Gen. has a partitive character.<br />
15O.] Genitive <strong>of</strong> Time. This Gen. expresses a period <strong>of</strong><br />
time to which <strong>the</strong> action belongs, without implying anything as<br />
to its duration; e.g.<br />
Od. 14. 161 Tovb' avrov XvitdfiavTos eAevo-erai he will come (sometime<br />
in) this very year. So II. 5. 523 z^e/uur/? in calm wea<strong>the</strong>r ;<br />
8.<br />
470 fiovs in <strong>the</strong> morning ; n. 691 r&v vpoTtpwv ereW informer<br />
years ; 22. 27 o-n-wprjs eto-t goes in autumn.<br />
It appears from <strong>the</strong> corresponding construction in Sanscr. and
144 USE OF CASES. [151.<br />
Zend that this is <strong>the</strong> true Genitive (Delbruck, Synt. ForscJi. iv.<br />
P- 45)-<br />
For <strong>the</strong> c Gen. Absolute ' which is akin to <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>of</strong> time<br />
see 246.<br />
151.]<br />
The quasi-partitive Genitive. Under this term we<br />
may include a number <strong>of</strong> constructions in which <strong>the</strong> Gen. is<br />
used (in preference to some o<strong>the</strong>r Case) because <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Verb does not affect <strong>the</strong> person or thing- in a sufficiently direct<br />
and unqualified<br />
:<br />
way e. g. in Acoroio
151.] GENITIVE. 145<br />
The Gen. in this group <strong>of</strong> uses is probably akin to <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> space within which action takes place, 149. Compare, for<br />
example, epeuraro yairjs with te TOL\OV TOV ere'pou, passages<br />
given under <strong>the</strong> same head by Kuhner ( 418, 8, a).<br />
Or it<br />
may<br />
be Ablatival :<br />
cp. TTpvfjivr]0v Ad/3e, 159.<br />
With (V) Verbs meaning to touch, to hit (an object aimed at),<br />
reach (a person),<br />
to put in or on (a chariot, ship, wall, &c.), with<br />
<strong>the</strong> derivative meanings, to attain to, get a place or share in, &c. ;<br />
as aXXri\(*)v C^LKOVTO got at each o<strong>the</strong>r ; ri^e yap p ajjiddoio paOtir/s<br />
he happened to fall in deep sand ; so venpovs irvpKa'ifjs eirtvrivcov<br />
heaped <strong>the</strong> corpses on <strong>the</strong> funeral pile ; so metaphorically,<br />
K.OLK.&V<br />
fTnf3a(TK^V to bring into mischief; avriaav TroAe/xoto to join in<br />
war, avnotov l/caro^/S^s (but II. I.<br />
31 (JLOV Ae^oj avriouLxrav because<br />
Ae^os is'<strong>the</strong> whole object, cp.<br />
136, i).<br />
With (c)<br />
Verbs meaning to aim at, strive after, desire, care for,<br />
complain <strong>of</strong>, grieve for, be angry about, &c. ;<br />
as Alavros CLKOVTHTG<br />
threw a dart at Ajax, ov Tratbos dpearo held out his arms for his<br />
child, o-KOTre'Acou e-TTtjuateo feel for <strong>the</strong> rocks (but e-Trejutatero LTTTTOVS<br />
touched up <strong>the</strong> eTreiyo/xeyos1<br />
horses), "Aprjos hasting to (eager for)<br />
battle, T>V ov n ovb' joterarpe-Trrj dAeyifeu <strong>the</strong>se you do not regard or<br />
heed, KVK\(*)TTOS Kexo'Awrat is enraged on behalf <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cyclops ; and<br />
many similar instances.<br />
Kuhner ( 416, Anm. 9) quotes II. 5. 582 xW^V ayK&va<br />
TVX&V fjLcaov as a use <strong>of</strong> rvy\ava) with <strong>the</strong> Ace. But it is possible<br />
to construe ayK&va with /3aAe in <strong>the</strong> earlier part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence.<br />
Si)<br />
With Verbs meaning to hear, perceive, know <strong>of</strong>, remember,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gen. expressing<br />
<strong>the</strong> like ;<br />
(1) <strong>the</strong> person from whom sound comes ;<br />
(2) <strong>the</strong> person about whom something is heard, known, &c.<br />
(3) <strong>the</strong> sound heard (but <strong>the</strong> Ace. is more usual).<br />
The particular thing heard or known is <strong>of</strong>ten indicated by a<br />
Participle agreeing with <strong>the</strong> Genitive : e. g.<br />
II. I. 257 e ' ox/xSi'z; ra Traira TrvOoiaro ^apva^voi'iv { if <strong>the</strong>y<br />
heard <strong>of</strong> all this fighting on your part\<br />
II. 4. 357 ws yuo) ytooiitvoio (<br />
= &>s eyva avrov on<br />
Od. 2. 220 t 8e K TtOvri&Tos aK.ovcra> : so 4. 728, &c.<br />
The Verb oI8a, when it means to know about, to be skilled in,<br />
takes a Gen., as II. n. 657 ovbe TL ote nevOeos knows nothing <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> sorrow. So Od. 21. 56 ^opjottyyoj eTrto-rdjute^os KCU doiSrys<br />
: II.<br />
16. 811 bubavKoiJitvos TroAe/moto.<br />
So fjiejjivT)jjLai<br />
takes a Gen. when it means I bethink myself <strong>of</strong> ,<br />
am affected by <strong>the</strong> memory (II. 2. 686, Od. 15. 23)<br />
: see 140,<br />
4, a. Cp. Lat. memini with <strong>the</strong> Gen. or Ace., perhaps with a<br />
similar difference <strong>of</strong> meaning (Roby, 1332).<br />
L<br />
to
146 USE OF CASES. [151.<br />
(e) The Gen. <strong>of</strong> material, &c. The construction so termed is<br />
found with Verbs that imply <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a material (especially<br />
one <strong>of</strong> indefinite quantity),<br />
a stock drawn upon, &c. E.g.<br />
II. l.<br />
470 KOVpOL juei> Kprjrrjpas tTrto-rtyavTo TTOTOIO filed up <strong>the</strong><br />
cups to <strong>the</strong> brim with liquor ; 9. 214 7ra
152] ABLATIVAL GENITIVE. 147<br />
o-Y]|jLaiVw : II. 14. 85 (TTparov a\\ov a-rjfjiaiveiv : so riyov^ai, &c.<br />
OejjLurreuw Od. : 9. 1 14 0fJLL(TTVL 8e ocao-ros iratbav 778' a\6^a)v.<br />
It is probable, from <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> Sanscrit, that this is <strong>the</strong><br />
true Gen. ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> original force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Case is obscure.<br />
152.] The Ablatival Genitive. The Ablative expressed <strong>the</strong><br />
object (person, place, or thing) from which separation takes<br />
place, and is represented by <strong>the</strong> Gen. in various uses as<br />
:<br />
avtbv noXifjs aAo's rose from <strong>the</strong> grey sea.<br />
K\vdov gave wayfrom <strong>the</strong> path.<br />
/xax 7 ?? were stayed from <strong>the</strong> fight.<br />
eepyei pvlav keeps <strong>of</strong>f a fly from her child.<br />
8ia>Kro oto So'jototo<br />
was chased from his house.<br />
KaKo'rrjros eAixraz; delivered from ill.<br />
areju/3o'/xei>o9 fcrjs defrauded <strong>of</strong> a share.<br />
7rai8o? ede^aro received from her son.<br />
TTL0(v -fi^vcra-^To otvos wine was drawn from, casks.<br />
behind Antilochus.<br />
*Az;TiAo'xoio AetTrero was left<br />
yovv yovvbs a/zet/Scoz; exchanging knee past knee (=putting <strong>the</strong>m<br />
in front by turns).<br />
7 beginfrom (a point),<br />
II. 9. 97, Od. 21. 142.<br />
I miss, lose, fail in.<br />
ct)<br />
Tputas a/xwe vt&v keep <strong>of</strong>f<br />
<strong>the</strong> Trojansfrom <strong>the</strong> ships:<br />
so with<br />
va), TrvvOdv<strong>of</strong>jiai,
348 USE OF CASES. [153.<br />
X fxe tpa>v, &c.), but only with Verbs which imply<br />
separation or distance from a point, or which are compounded with<br />
Prepositions such as e, OTTO', &c.<br />
Later poets seem to be more free in this respect (probably because <strong>the</strong>y<br />
treated <strong>the</strong> usage as an archaism, adopted as being poetical) : e. g. Soph. 0. T.<br />
142 ftaPpcav 'iffraaOf, Ant. 418 xO v s ddpas, Phil. 630 rea-s d-yovra, &c. Fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
extensions are, <strong>the</strong> use for <strong>the</strong> place from which something is seen, as Soph.<br />
El. 78, 324, and for <strong>the</strong> agent, Eur. Or. 497, El. 123.<br />
153.] Gen. <strong>of</strong> Price. Verbs meaning to change places with<br />
take an Ablatival Gen., as yovv yovvos CL^L^U^V (quoted<br />
in <strong>the</strong><br />
last section)<br />
: hence <strong>the</strong> constructions<br />
II. 6.<br />
235 re^x/ afjLifi \pva-a xa\Kuoz> exchanged armour,<br />
golden (passing in exchange] for bronze.<br />
II. I. ill XpvoTj&os ayAa' airowa ... 6eao-#at to accept a splendid<br />
ransom for Chryseis ; so Od. n. 327 77 \pvo-ov ^tAou avopbs<br />
e8ea,TO who took gold for (to betray)<br />
her husband.<br />
II. n. 1 06 eAucre^ aTToivcov released for a ransom.<br />
Hence we may explain <strong>the</strong> construction with Verbs meaning<br />
to value at, set <strong>of</strong>f against (a price) ; as II. 23. 649 TI/XT/S rjs re' jtx'<br />
TtrifjifjcrOai so with <strong>the</strong> Adjectives cbraftoy, &c.<br />
;<br />
It is possible however that a word expressing value or price may be construed<br />
as a Gen. with a Noun. As we can say reject 4aTo^j3oia armour worth<br />
a hundred oxen, we might have rtvx^a (Karov &owv (as in Attic prose, e. g. Se/ca<br />
JJLVUJV \(apiov a plot worth ten minae) ; cp. <strong>the</strong> Latin magni emere, magnifacere, &c.<br />
Case-forms<br />
154.] The Case-Ending -4>i(0<br />
is found in a number <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> forms which appear to be construed indifferently as<br />
Datives or Genitives. It will be shown, however, that <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
ground for believing <strong>the</strong>se forms to have been used for <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
only in <strong>the</strong> instrumental and locatival senses (<strong>the</strong> latter being<br />
comparatively rare), and for <strong>the</strong> Gen. only in <strong>the</strong> ablatival<br />
sense. They formed, <strong>the</strong>refore, a * mixed Case/ composed <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
same elements as <strong>the</strong> Latin Ablative, viz. <strong>the</strong> original Instr.<br />
Abl. and Loc.<br />
In respect <strong>of</strong> usage <strong>the</strong>se forms are archaic that is to : say,<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are confined for <strong>the</strong> most part to lines and phrases <strong>of</strong> a<br />
in
156.] FORMS IN -*I(N). 149<br />
fixed conventional type. In several instances <strong>the</strong> survival is<br />
evidently due to <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> metre thus : 8aKpu6i TT\ija-0v were filled with tears (II. 17. 696,, &c.).<br />
In <strong>the</strong> ' comitative ' use, avroivw oyta-fyLv chariot and all, nr-<br />
TIOKTIV KOL oxeo-Qiv with horses and chariot (II. 12. 1 14, Od. 4. 533);<br />
with Prepositions, aju' ?)ot aivoi*,vr]($>iv,<br />
crvv linroKTiv Kai O^O-^LV<br />
(<strong>of</strong>ten in <strong>the</strong> Iliad), also Trap o%ea-(j)iv (construed with Verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
rest, II. 5. 28, 794., 8. 565., 12. 91., 15. 3)<br />
unless d^o-(f)Lv<br />
is a<br />
Loc. ( 157); with words expressing agreement, likeness, &c., as<br />
ira\diJ.r](f)LV dprj/oet fitted his hand, Qt<strong>of</strong>yiv JUTJOTCO/) ardAairos (II. 7.<br />
366, &c.).<br />
With Verbs <strong>of</strong> trusting ; II. 4. 303 iinroa-vvrj<br />
re Kal<br />
; so dyAair^t (II. 6. 510), /3tr](/)t (several times).<br />
156.] Ablative. Forms used as Ablatival Genitives are<br />
II. 2. 794 vavfyiv atyopfjiriOtltv start from <strong>the</strong> ships.<br />
13. 700 vav
1.50 USE OF CASES. [157.<br />
down from:<br />
KCIT o/oeo-^t (II. 4. 452.,<br />
1 1. 493).<br />
under : VTT oyjtcrfyi (II. 23. 7),<br />
VTTO<br />
vy6$w (II. 24. 576).<br />
With this use <strong>of</strong> -t<br />
we may compare <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dative with ! and diro,<br />
which is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> peculiarities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Arcadian and Cyprian <strong>dialect</strong>s<br />
(Meister, ii. 119, 296). The parallel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Latin Abl. has been noticed.<br />
157.] Locative. This use is found in several clear instances,<br />
as well as o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> an indecisive kind :<br />
II. 19. 323 ^6ir](f)L in Phthia ;<br />
AeAetTrro was<br />
II. 13. 168 KXivirifyi<br />
left in <strong>the</strong> tent ; Qvp^iv out <strong>of</strong> doors, for is (Od. 9. 238., 22. 220);<br />
Kt(j)a^rj(j)Lv 0rjK put on <strong>the</strong> head (II. 10. 30, 257* 261 ; cp. 496,<br />
Od. 20. 94); II. ii. 474 s et re 8a$oiz;ot 07/pes opta-fyiv : 19. 376<br />
TO 8e Kaierai v\l/oO' optvfyiv<br />
: 22. 139 T^re /apKos Sptovfup /crA. ;<br />
22. 189 a>s 8' ore vtflpbv opeo-^u KVWJ; KrA. ; II. 2. 480 ?}i;re<br />
dye'Arjc/H /xey' eo)(os eTrAero Tiavrav 1 6. 487 : aye'A?7
1 59-]<br />
FORMS IN -0EN AND -112.<br />
151<br />
(5) Certain uses with Prepositions; viz. em in II. 13. 308 r)<br />
cirl b*(t(tyiv . . TI<br />
eV api(TTp6(f)Lv towards right or Left ; irpoaOe in<br />
II. 5. 107 itpfotf tirnotiv Koi oxto-Qiv : Sid through, in 8ta 5e OTTJ-<br />
0(T(f)Lv (?Xaa-(Tv (II. 5- 4 1 * &c.), also 10. 185<br />
The first four <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se references evidently do not prove much. The first<br />
would be a clear instance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> true Gen. if we could be sure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text : but<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is some probability in favour <strong>of</strong> 'IXCoo ( 98), proposed by Leo Meyer<br />
as an Instr. : hot<br />
(Ded. p. 35). In II. 21. 367 we may perhaps take pi-rjQi<br />
breath vexed him through (by reason <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ) might <strong>of</strong> Hephaestus.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> use with cm may be locatival, with irpoaOe ablatival (as with<br />
irpo). The uses with Sid are more important, because <strong>the</strong>y are not isolated,<br />
but form a distinct group. It is improbable that did through should take an<br />
ablatival Gen. or a Locative. The Sanscrit Instr. is used <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> space or time<br />
over which an action extends (Delbriick, A. S. :<br />
88) and so <strong>the</strong> Abl. in Latin<br />
(Roby, 1176, 1189). This use appears in Greek as <strong>the</strong> Dat. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> way by<br />
which, and perhaps in <strong>the</strong> phrases irfpuovri TW 0e/>et, &c. It may be thought<br />
possible that 81' opecrt<br />
and 5
USE OF CASES. [160.<br />
from, defend, surpass, or with <strong>the</strong> corresponding Adjectives and<br />
Adverbs. Hence it cannot be held to be equivalent to an Ablative<br />
( 152), and probably differed from <strong>the</strong> Abl. in expressing<br />
motion from ra<strong>the</strong>r than separation.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> Pronominal forms fyeOtv, vtQtv, eOev<br />
are freely construed<br />
(1) as Ablatives: Trpb tOev, virtp vtQev, avtv ZfjitOtv ;<br />
and with<br />
a Comparative,<br />
II. I. 114 ov kQtv eort ^epeiW, &c. Cp. also II.<br />
9. 419 /xaAa yap 0tv . . X^LP<br />
a ^ v Wp^tf)(
162.]<br />
NOMINATIVE. 153<br />
'<br />
'<br />
notion <strong>the</strong> case/ <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> things/ &c.* Verbs used with<br />
a vague unexpressed Subject <strong>of</strong> this kind are called IMPERSONAL.<br />
The vague Subject may be a Plural, as II. 16. 128 OVKZTL (J)VKTGL<br />
TTtXovTat <strong>the</strong> case no longer allows <strong>of</strong> flight, Od. 2. tcra<br />
203<br />
eo-o-erat<br />
things will be even.<br />
A Neuter Pronoun used as <strong>the</strong> Subject sometimes gives a<br />
vague meaning, not far removed from that <strong>of</strong> an Impersonal<br />
Verb; e.g. II. I. 564 et 8' OVTM TOVT eort if this is so (cp. OVTMS<br />
eon' it is so) ; v coming forth by night, tvbov -navvv^LOi<br />
slept all night, x0 L os tfa wen *' yesterday.<br />
Such Adjectives seem to answer most nearly to <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>of</strong><br />
time within which, but may also express duration, as ^aurj^pLos<br />
and Travvv)(Los.<br />
2. In describing <strong>the</strong> attitude, manner, position, &c. in which an<br />
action is done : as -naXivopcros a-nivrr) stood <strong>of</strong>f<br />
with a start lackwards,<br />
VTTTLOS o$8et ZptiarOr) was dashed face upwards on <strong>the</strong> ground ;<br />
so Trefo? eiA.?jAoi>0a, \afipbs e7raiyifa>j>, Ttp<strong>of</strong>ypw rerXr^/cas (cp. Trpo-<br />
poyea)j), djuer/ooe' 77179 eKoAwa^ &c.<br />
3.<br />
The Pronouns o8e and Ketz^oj are sometimes used instead <strong>of</strong><br />
Adverbs <strong>of</strong> place II. :<br />
5. 604 KOL vvv ot irdpa KZLVOS "Aprjs now too<br />
yonder is Ares at his side ; 10. 434 0p?ji'Kes ot6 5 airdvtvOt here are<br />
<strong>the</strong> Thracians apart; Od. 6. 276 n's 5' 68e Navo-tKcia eTrerat So<br />
;<br />
OVTOS in II. JO. 82 rts 8' OVTOS KrA..<br />
4. With Verbs meaning to 6e, to become, to appear, to be made,<br />
called, thought, &c. ;<br />
as /ca/moroi rpdtyev <strong>the</strong>y were nurtured <strong>the</strong><br />
mightiest, (i.<br />
e. to be <strong>the</strong> mightiest) ; et(ra>7rot tytvovro vtGtv <strong>the</strong>y<br />
came to be in front <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ships: rjbe aplarr] (ftaivero fiov\r) this appeared<br />
<strong>the</strong> best counsel.<br />
In all such cases <strong>the</strong> Nominative which goes with <strong>the</strong> Verb not only qualifies<br />
<strong>the</strong> notion given by <strong>the</strong> Verb-Stem, but also becomes itself a Predicate (t. e.<br />
<strong>the</strong> assertion <strong>of</strong> an attribute). E. g. /cdpriaroi rpa^ev implies that <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
KapTwrroi. A Noun so used is called a SECONDARY Predicate.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> eljju as <strong>the</strong> ' logical copula ' is merely a special or ' singular ' case<br />
* See Kiddell's Digest, 95-100: Sigwart, Impersonalien.
154 USE OF CASES. [162.<br />
<strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> sentence. The Verb has <strong>the</strong>n little or no meaning <strong>of</strong> its own,<br />
but serves to mark <strong>the</strong> following Noun as a Predicate. The final stage <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> development is reached when <strong>the</strong> Verb is omitted as being superfluous.<br />
5. With Impersonal or half-Impersonal Verbs meaning to be,<br />
&c. ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> Predicate being<br />
(a) a Neuter Adjective ;<br />
as juo'po-i/xoz;<br />
ecm it is fated ; ye/xeo--<br />
arrjrov Be* KV eiT? it would be worthy <strong>of</strong> indignation ; ov rot aeiKe's it<br />
is not unmeet for <strong>the</strong>e :<br />
with a Pronominal Subject, to-OXbv yap TO<br />
TeTVKTaL it is a good thing.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Plural, OVK^TL (frvKTa tf&oprat <strong>the</strong>re is no more escaping ;<br />
cp. Aoiyia epya ra8' eWerai this will be a pestilent business.<br />
In one or 'two instances <strong>the</strong> Adverbial form in -ws is used in<br />
suck 1 was<br />
phrases <strong>of</strong> this kind : II. n. 762 o>? eW et TTOT eW ye<br />
if I was ; II. 9. 55 r KovpTJreo-ort /caK
164.] VOCATIVE. 155<br />
163.] Interjectional Nominative. The Nom. is not unfrequently<br />
used in Homer without any regular construction, as a<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> exclamation :<br />
e.g.<br />
II. 5- 4O5 aoi *<br />
cirl<br />
TOVTOV avfJKe Oca yXavK&TTis 'AOrivr),<br />
vrjTTios, ov8e TO oi6e KT\. fool ! he knows not fyc.<br />
Similarly o-xerAios cruel! bvo-fjLopos <strong>the</strong> unhappy one! (Od. 20.<br />
194) : and so II. i. 231 br]fjLoj36pos pacnkevs I Cp. <strong>the</strong> inter jectional<br />
use <strong>of</strong> albas shame ! (II. 5. 787., 13. 95., 16. 422).<br />
A similar account may be given <strong>of</strong> one or two passages in<br />
which commentators generally suppose<br />
'<br />
anacoluthon ' : viz.<br />
II. 10. 436 rov 877 KaAAioTovs fonrovs Ibov ?)5e<br />
AevKorepoi ^LOVOS, deiLv 6 GLV^OKTIV<br />
whiter than snow <strong>the</strong>y are ! &c. ;<br />
and so in <strong>the</strong> equally abrupt<br />
II.<br />
10. 547 ctiVwy aKTiv(T(nv eouores ?]eAioio.<br />
2.<br />
353 a
156 ADJECTIVES. [165.<br />
The Nominative is <strong>of</strong>ten used for <strong>the</strong> Voc., especially,<br />
it would<br />
seem, in order to avoid <strong>the</strong> repetition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Voc. ; e.g. II. 4.<br />
189
1 66.] ADJECTIVES. 157<br />
expresses quality in <strong>the</strong> same way as an Adjective. E. g. <strong>the</strong> definition does<br />
not enable us to distinguish /xax^T^s from naxhpaw.<br />
It is evident that <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a Nominative in <strong>the</strong> Predicate as /SatriAtvs tan<br />
he is king<br />
is strictly speaking an adjectival use.<br />
The corresponding distinction in <strong>the</strong> Pronouns does not need<br />
much explanation. The Personal Pronouns are essentially Substantives<br />
(being incapable <strong>of</strong> serving as limiting or descriptive<br />
words) <strong>the</strong> Possessive Pronouns are ; essentially Adjectives. The<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs admit <strong>of</strong> both uses; e.g. OVTO$ this one, and avr]p ovros (in<br />
Attic 6 avrjp ovros)<br />
this man.<br />
166.1 Gender <strong>of</strong> Adjectives. In a few cases <strong>the</strong> Gender <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Adjective is independent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Substantive with which it<br />
is construed.<br />
i. When a person<br />
is described by a word which properly<br />
denotes a thing (viz.<br />
a Neuter, as TGKVOV, re'/coj, &c., or an<br />
<strong>the</strong> concord <strong>of</strong> Gender is not<br />
abstract Noun, /3i'r] Hpiapoio, &c.),<br />
always observed. Thus we have $iAe TZK.VOV (but L\ov TC'KOS,<br />
again<br />
/ce(/>aA?j) ;<br />
II. n. 690 \6uv yap p eKa/oorre (3ir) 'HpaKArjeirj ( = Heracles).<br />
Od. I J.<br />
90 f)\$<br />
6"' eTrt \l/vxn rj{3aiov Tetpeo-iao<br />
In such cases <strong>grammar</strong>ians speak <strong>of</strong> a '<br />
construction according<br />
to <strong>the</strong> meaning' (Kara The term<br />
(ri/vea-iv). is unobjectionable,<br />
provided that we remember that constructions according to <strong>the</strong><br />
meaning are generally older than those in which meaning is<br />
overridden by idiom or grammatical analogy.<br />
2. Where an Adjective refers to more than one Noun, it follows<br />
<strong>the</strong> most prominent<br />
: or (if<br />
this is at all doubtful) <strong>the</strong> Masc.<br />
is used <strong>of</strong> persons ,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Neut. <strong>of</strong> things: e.g.<br />
II. 2.<br />
136 al 5e TTOV ^jmerepai r' aAo)(ot /cat vrjina TZKVCL<br />
rjaT<br />
tvl jueydpots -TrortSey^ei'at<br />
because <strong>the</strong> wives are chiefly thought <strong>of</strong> :<br />
but<br />
II. 18. 5^4 Tefyos ^v p aXo^oi re ^uAat Kai W^TTLO. re/era<br />
pvar e^eo-raoVes, /xera 5' ai/epes ovs e^e y^pa?<br />
because <strong>the</strong> boys and old men are also in <strong>the</strong> speaker's mind.<br />
Od. 13. 435 ^M^t 6e ^iv paKOs aAAo KCLKOV /SaAez; ?)e ^tr
USE OF THE NUMBERS.<br />
[167.<br />
167.] Gender <strong>of</strong> Pronouns. A substantival Pronoun denoting<br />
a person may retain its proper Gender although <strong>the</strong><br />
antecedent is a Neuter, or an abstract word ;<br />
as II. 22. 87
170.] SINGULAR. 159<br />
binations such as - ojuuAo? are repTro'/meyot only found when <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
some pause between <strong>the</strong> words ;<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rwise <strong>the</strong> Genitive would be<br />
used (construed<br />
as in Tpwcoz; Kare8v 8e7ras afji(f)LKVTTX\ov (TTTLoravTs Trapa vfjas l(rav irdXiv.<br />
Even<br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb is made Sing, in II. 16. 264 ot 8' &\KL{JLOV r\rop exoz/res<br />
7rpoV(ra> Tras Trererat KO! a/xwet oto-t rocecnn : but this is a slight<br />
boldness <strong>of</strong> expression.<br />
at 8'<br />
On <strong>the</strong> same principle we may explain <strong>the</strong> Sing, in Od. 4. 300<br />
Ivav ec joteyapoio baos jotera xepo"iz> tyovcrai (<br />
= each with a torch<br />
in her hands)', II. 13. 783 rerujujue'ya) Kara x e *-P<br />
a (^^ <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two)<br />
wounded in <strong>the</strong> hand ; II. 3. 235 ovs Ktv v yvoir)v Kat T ovvo^a<br />
IJLvdrjcraiiJirjv.<br />
So in II. 17. 260 r 8' aAAaif rts Kez; . . owo/xar'<br />
etTrot we should doubtless read ovvo^a (fetTrot).<br />
Similarly <strong>the</strong> Dual is used <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong> pairs :<br />
II. 16. 370 'TroAA.oi 8' kv rafypto epixrapjutare? a>Kees linrot.<br />
a^avr GV TTptoTij) pVjJLto XLTTOV a/)/xar' avaKT(t)V<br />
Avhere <strong>the</strong> Dual aavT (like <strong>the</strong> Sing, /ou/xcp)<br />
refers to one chariot.<br />
Probably, too, we should read ap/xa avanTav e. (i. FCLVCLKTUV).<br />
So<br />
II. 23- 3^ ^ ^' ^a 7r^ rf 1' S'<br />
6^)' tTTTrottV juaartyas aeipav, Od. 2O.<br />
348 o(T(re 8' apa (r^ecoy baKpvo<br />
. . VTI'<br />
yxo? f]fjiTpoio before <strong>the</strong> spear <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> us. The distributive<br />
TLS is equivalent to a Plural.<br />
Hence a peculiar vague use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Plural, as II. 3. 49 wov<br />
avbp&v alwr]Td(Dv <strong>the</strong> bride <strong>of</strong> some warrior's son (lit. daughter-in-
l6o USE OF THE NUMBERS. [171.<br />
law <strong>of</strong> tvarriors, i.e. <strong>of</strong> this or that warrior); 4. 142<br />
fJLjJLVai, tTTTTCOr (v.<br />
1.<br />
J/TTTKp) 2T. 499 j vX.tfKT^fO'<br />
(less directly personal than aA.o'x).<br />
171.] Plural <strong>of</strong> Things. The Plural form is not confined in<br />
Greek (or indeed in any language) to <strong>the</strong> expression <strong>of</strong> '<br />
plurality '<br />
in <strong>the</strong> strict sense, i. e. to denote a group composed <strong>of</strong> distinct<br />
individuals, but is <strong>of</strong>ten used (esp. in Homer) <strong>of</strong> objects which<br />
it is more logical to think <strong>of</strong> in <strong>the</strong> Singular. Many words,<br />
too, are used both in <strong>the</strong> Sing, and <strong>the</strong> Plur., with little or no<br />
difference <strong>of</strong> meaning.<br />
Notice especially <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Plural in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong><br />
(1) Objects consisting <strong>of</strong> :<br />
parts rooz> and roa low and arrows:<br />
o)(oj and o-^ea, ap//a and apjuara a chariot : 8c5juta, jueyapou a hall or<br />
room, 8&>juara, jueyapa a house : X&rpo? and Ae'/crpa a bed.<br />
irv\aL a gate is only used in <strong>the</strong> Plur. ; Ovpr]<br />
is used as well as<br />
Ovpai, but only <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> door <strong>of</strong> a room (0d\a}JLo$).<br />
(2) Natural objects <strong>of</strong> undefined extent : \/mjua0o? and x/rajua#oi<br />
(as we say sands), aAe? (once aAs) salt, Kovirj and KOVIOLI dust, nvpos<br />
and irvpoL wheat, p&Opov and p&Qpa, KV/ZO, (in a collective sense)<br />
and Kv^ara, baKpv and baKpva, Kpea (seldom Kpeas) meat, o-apKe?<br />
(once Smg.)fles//.<br />
(3) Parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> body V&TOV : (or i;5ro? <strong>the</strong> Nom. Sing, does<br />
not occur in Homer) and V&TCL, crrrjOos and (more commonly)<br />
or?70ea, TrpocrtoTrov and TrporrtoTra <strong>the</strong> countenance, and (f)prjv (f>pV$.<br />
(4) Abstract words :<br />
XeXao-juiei'o? iinrocrvvaav f<strong>org</strong>etting horsemanship,<br />
TTo8coKt?7(rt Tre-TTot^d)? trusting to speed <strong>of</strong> foot, avaX^irjcn<br />
6a/xeVr? overcome by want <strong>of</strong> prowess, TroAutSpetr/o-t vooio through<br />
cunning <strong>of</strong> understanding : so aravOaXiai, a^)pa8tat, ayr}vopiai, a
I73-]<br />
NEUTER PLURAL DUAL. l6l<br />
generally be found that <strong>the</strong> word is really Plural in meaning<br />
e. that it calls (?'. up <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> distinct units).<br />
Thus it is<br />
used with<br />
Nouns denoting agents as e#z>ea ; applied to <strong>the</strong> men <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
army (II. 3. 91, 464), to birds (II. 2. 459)><br />
to swine<br />
(Od. 14. 73) ; so with QvX.' avOpunwv (Od. 15. 409).<br />
Distinctly plural parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> body: Trre/oa, x ^ a > ovara,<br />
jue'Aea so irebiXa :<br />
(<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> shoes <strong>of</strong> Hermes).<br />
Numerals: btKa oro'/xara (II. 2. 489), ovara reWapa (II. II.<br />
634), reVcrapa o"epju,ara (Od. 4. 437)^ atTroAta ez/Ka iravra<br />
(Od. 14. 103); so with irdvTa and TroAAd (II. II. 574., 15.<br />
714., 17. 760, Od. 4. 437,, 794., 9. 222., 12. 411), and when<br />
<strong>the</strong> context shows that distinct things are meant as II. : 5.<br />
656 r&v fj^v bovpara (<strong>the</strong> spears <strong>of</strong> two warriors), 13. 135<br />
A. few instances occur in fixed phrases, which may represent<br />
an earlier syntax; \VVTO 8e yvla (but also X.VTO yovvaTa),<br />
epya yevovTo, &c. Note especially <strong>the</strong> lines ending with.<br />
(TO, re Trrepa vrjval 77e'Aoz;rat, 6Ye T r/juara juta/cpa irtXovT<br />
77e'Aoi;ra6, &c.).<br />
The exceptions to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Sing, are fewest with Pronouns<br />
and Adjectives<br />
: doubtless on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir want <strong>of</strong> a<br />
distinct Plural meaning (see <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> last section).<br />
173.] The Dual is chiefly used (i) <strong>of</strong> two objects thought <strong>of</strong><br />
as a distinct pair,<br />
and (2)<br />
when <strong>the</strong> Numeral 8vo> is used.<br />
I. Thus we have <strong>the</strong> natural pairs x W > ^X<br />
jotrjpo), oVde, oc^OaXjjuO) and (in <strong>the</strong> Gen. Dat.)<br />
'<br />
ftvovrt, w/za>,<br />
Trobol'iv, /3\(f)dpouv<br />
:<br />
(rra0ju,o> door-posts ; 177-770) <strong>the</strong> horses <strong>of</strong> a chariot, /3o'e a yoke <strong>of</strong> oxen^<br />
apv a pair <strong>of</strong> lambs (for sacrifice); bovpe (in II. 13. 241., 16. 139<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two spears usually carried, but bvo bovpe is more common) ;<br />
77ora//d) (II. 5. 773) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two rivers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Troad, and so Kpovvu<br />
(II. 22. 147). So <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two warriors in a chariot (II. 5. 244,<br />
272, 568), two wrestlers (II. 23. 707), two dancers (Od. 8. 37 8),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Sirens (Od. 12. 52, &c.); <strong>the</strong> 'ArpetSa and Alavre.<br />
The Numeral is generally added in speaking <strong>of</strong> two wild<br />
animals (Ofjpe<br />
6" wo, AeWre o"wo_, &c,) : Kairpa)<br />
1<br />
(II.<br />
1.<br />
324) and<br />
AeWre 1 6. (II. 75^) are hardly exceptions, since <strong>the</strong> context shows<br />
that two are meant. Also aterco (Od. 2. 146) <strong>of</strong> two eagles sent<br />
as an omen, and yvne (Od. n. 578) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vultures that devoured<br />
Tityos.<br />
The Dual in II. 8.<br />
185191 (where Hector calls to four horses<br />
by name) might be defended, because two is <strong>the</strong> regular number ;<br />
but probably v. 185 is spurious. In II. 23. 413, again, at K'<br />
ai70KT]d?jo-az>re (/>e/>a>/xe0a \tipov<br />
atQXov <strong>the</strong> Dual is used because<br />
M
162 USE OF THE NUMBERS. [173.<br />
it is <strong>the</strong> horses that are chiefly<br />
in <strong>the</strong> driver's mind, although he<br />
associates himself with <strong>the</strong>m. In II. 9. 182-195 <strong>the</strong> Dual refers<br />
to <strong>the</strong> two envoys, Phoenix being overlooked.<br />
Again, when two agents have been mentioned toge<strong>the</strong>r, or<br />
are represented as acting toge<strong>the</strong>r in any way, <strong>the</strong> Dual may<br />
be used: as II. I.<br />
531 ro> y o>? fiovhevn-avre (<strong>of</strong> Thetis and<br />
Achilles), 16. 823 (<strong>of</strong> a lion and boar fighting), Od. 3. 128., 13.<br />
372, &c. Similarly, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meeting <strong>of</strong> two rivers, II. 4. 453<br />
ey jjLL(rydyKiav orv[j,(Bd\\TOV <strong>of</strong>ipijjiov vbutp (cp. 5- 774)-<br />
The Dual Pronouns v&'i and o-&u are used with comparative<br />
regularity: see II. i. 257, 336, 574., 5. 34, 287, 718, &c. This<br />
usage may be a matter <strong>of</strong> traditional courtesy. Hence perhaps<br />
<strong>the</strong> scrupulous use where <strong>the</strong> First Person Dual is meant II. ; 4.<br />
407 ayayovtf Diomede and 8.<br />
(' I') 109 OepairovTe our attendants;<br />
;<br />
II. 313 TL 7ra66vT XfXda-fJL^da KrA. 12. j 323 co ireirov el . . (f>vyovTt<br />
;<br />
Od. 3.<br />
128 eva Ovpbv ZX. OVT ('Ulysses and I').<br />
In Od. 2.<br />
78 for a7raLTiovTs eW should be read a-nairifyvQ' rjos, since<br />
Telemachus <strong>the</strong>re is speaking <strong>of</strong> his mo<strong>the</strong>r and himself. So with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Second Person, II. 1.216 (A<strong>the</strong>ne and Here), 322 (<strong>the</strong> heralds),<br />
3- 379-j 7- 279-<br />
In II. 3. 278 KCU ol virevepOf KapovTas dv0p
176.] PREPOSITIONS. 163<br />
CHAPTER IX.<br />
THE PREPOSITIONS.<br />
Introductory,<br />
174.] Prepositions are words expressing some local relation,<br />
and capable <strong>of</strong> being used as prefixes in forming Compound<br />
Verbs. The Prepositions are also used in construction with<br />
oblique Cases <strong>of</strong> Nouns and Pronouns.<br />
The Adverbs that are construed with oblique Cases, but do<br />
not enter into composition with Verbs, are called Improper<br />
Prepositions.<br />
The list <strong>of</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Prepositions is <strong>the</strong> same (with perhaps<br />
one exception, see 226) as that <strong>of</strong> later classical Greek. In<br />
<strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> Prepositions, however, <strong>the</strong>re are some marked differences<br />
between <strong>the</strong> two periods ( 229).<br />
There are no ' Inseparable ' Prepositions in Greek: see however<br />
221.<br />
175.] Adverbial use. In post-<strong>Homeric</strong> Greek it is a rule<br />
(subject to a few exceptions only) that a Preposition must ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
(i) enter into Composition with a Verb or (2) be followed immediately<br />
by and * govern ' a Noun or Pronoun in an oblique<br />
Case. But in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> language <strong>the</strong> limitation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Prepositions<br />
to <strong>the</strong>se two uses is still far from being established. A<br />
Preposition may not only be separated from <strong>the</strong> Case-form which<br />
it governs (a licence sometimes found in later writers), but may<br />
stand as a distinct word without governing any Case. In o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
words, it may be placed in <strong>the</strong> sentence with <strong>the</strong> freedom <strong>of</strong> an<br />
Adverb :<br />
e.g. d/x
164 PREPOSITIONS. [177.<br />
which it qualifies, thus<br />
1<br />
including all 'adverbial' uses, but is<br />
more properly restricted to a particular group <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se uses, viz.<br />
those in which <strong>the</strong> meaning is <strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> Preposition and<br />
Verb have in Composition : e. g.<br />
ot Kara fBovs 'Tirepiovos 'HeA.toto ijcrOiov<br />
who ate up (Kar?7)<br />
<strong>the</strong> oxen <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sun.<br />
ovs TTOT<br />
5<br />
a-TT<br />
AlvLav kXo^v which I took from (d
178.] TMESIS USE WITH CASES. 165<br />
178.] Use with oblique Cases. Prepositions are frequently<br />
used in Greek with <strong>the</strong> Accusative, <strong>the</strong> locatival and instrumental<br />
Dative, and <strong>the</strong> ablatival Genitive ;<br />
much less commonly<br />
(if at with <strong>the</strong> true Genitive.<br />
all)<br />
It may be shown (chiefly by comparison with Sanscrit) that<br />
<strong>the</strong> government <strong>of</strong> Cases by Prepositions belongs to a later stage<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language than <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> Prepositions with Verbs. In <strong>the</strong><br />
first instance <strong>the</strong> Case was construed directly with <strong>the</strong> Verb, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> Preposition did no more than qualify <strong>the</strong> Verbal meaning.<br />
E.g. in such a sentence as et? Tpotr/y ?fA0e <strong>the</strong> Ace. Tpoirjy<br />
originally went with fj\0. If however <strong>the</strong> construction Tpbirjv<br />
ceased to be usual ??/\.0e except with ei?, <strong>the</strong> Preposition would be<br />
felt to be necessary for <strong>the</strong> Ace.,<br />
i. e. would * govern ' it.<br />
In Homer we find many instances <strong>of</strong> a transitional character,<br />
in which a Case-form which appears to be governed by a Preposition<br />
may equally well be construed directly with <strong>the</strong> Verb,<br />
may be, in meaning by <strong>the</strong> Preposition.<br />
modified, it<br />
Thus we have djuuf>i<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Dat. in <strong>the</strong> recurring form<br />
5<br />
djm0t 6' a/o w/xot(7tp /3aA.ero fi$o?,<br />
but <strong>the</strong> Preposition is not necessary for <strong>the</strong> Case, as we see from<br />
'<br />
its absence in ro'f &{jLoi,i must be taken with I-nw, as in II. n. 776 o-(/>
166 PREPOSITIONS. [179.<br />
primarily construed with Verbs, and that consequently <strong>the</strong> construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se Cases with Nouns and (we may now add)<br />
Prepositions is always <strong>of</strong> a derivative kind.<br />
Use with <strong>the</strong> Genitive. Where <strong>the</strong> Genitive with a<br />
179.]<br />
Preposition is not ablatival, it may usually be explained in two<br />
ways, between which it is not always easy to choose :<br />
(1) It may be derived from one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses with Verbs discussed<br />
in 149-151. E.g. <strong>the</strong> Genitive in<br />
os T tiviv bia bovpos which goes through <strong>the</strong> wood<br />
is probably <strong>the</strong> Genitive <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> space within which motion takes<br />
place. For elcnv 5m bovpos has <strong>the</strong> same relation to Tredioto<br />
biu>Kiv and TreSioio biaTtprio-cTtLv, that r\\0tv ei? Tp<strong>of</strong>yv has to<br />
Tpoirjv TjXOfv and Tpoirjv ef
l8o.] ACCENTUATION. 167<br />
Cases, <strong>the</strong> general assumption made by <strong>the</strong> Greek <strong>grammar</strong>ians<br />
is that all Prepositions are oxytone. They do not recognise <strong>the</strong><br />
modern distinction according to which lv, els, and e are unaccented.<br />
This distinction rests entirely on <strong>the</strong> practice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
manuscripts (Chandler, p. 254), and apparently arises from <strong>the</strong><br />
accident <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> smooth breathing and accent falling on <strong>the</strong> same<br />
letter (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxix. 137).<br />
Disyllabic Prepositions, however, are liable in certain cases<br />
to become barytone. The exact determination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se cases was<br />
a matter <strong>of</strong> much difficulty with <strong>the</strong> ancients, and unfortunately<br />
we cannot now determine how far <strong>the</strong>ir dicta rest upon observation<br />
<strong>of</strong> usage, and how far upon analogy and o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>oretical<br />
considerations. The chief points <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> accepted doctrine are :<br />
(1) The disyllabic Prepositions, except d/>t(|)t, dvru, avd, and<br />
6id (except<br />
also <strong>the</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>ical forms Karat, viral, Trapai, aTrai,<br />
virtip, Trport), are liable to ( '<br />
Anastrophe that is to<br />
;<br />
say,<br />
when<br />
placed immediately after <strong>the</strong> Verb or <strong>the</strong> Case-form to which<br />
<strong>the</strong>y belong, <strong>the</strong>y throw back <strong>the</strong> accent as<br />
; Aovo-rj airo (<br />
= airo-<br />
\ova-rj), )^v Kara, w ITU, j^ax?7 tvt, Zecfrvpov VTTO, &c. Some held<br />
that <strong>the</strong> insertion <strong>of</strong> 8e before <strong>the</strong> Preposition did not prevent<br />
Anastrophe, and accordingly wrote So-e 6' OTTO, &c.<br />
(2) Also, according to some, if <strong>the</strong> Prep, stands at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong><br />
a verse, or before a full stop (Schol.<br />
A on II. 5. 283).<br />
(3) Also, when it is equivalent to a Compound Verb ( 177) ;<br />
as ezn, errt, Trepi, irdpa (for eu-eori, &c.).<br />
So am (for avavTriQi)<br />
;<br />
although avd according to most authorities was not liable to<br />
Anastrophe. Some wrote Trdpa yap 0eoi etVt /cat rj^Civ (II. 3. 440),<br />
on <strong>the</strong> ground that in Trdp-eco-t <strong>the</strong> accent is on <strong>the</strong> syllable Trap-.<br />
(4) Two Prepositions are barytone in <strong>the</strong> adverbial use,<br />
airo when it is = aTioQev at a distance, and<br />
exceedingly.<br />
irepi when it is = Trepto-o-ws<br />
To which some added VTTO (as rpo/xeet 5' VTTO yvia, &c.).<br />
(5) Monosyllabic Prepositions when placed after <strong>the</strong> governed<br />
word take <strong>the</strong> acute accent (as an equivalent for Anastrophe) ;<br />
but only when <strong>the</strong>y come at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line. Some however<br />
accented Od. 3. 137<br />
KaAecrcrajue^a) ayopi]v es Trarra? 'A)(atouj.<br />
Most Prepositions,<br />
as appears from <strong>the</strong> Sanscrit accent, are<br />
originally barytone, and <strong>the</strong> so-called Anastrophe is really <strong>the</strong><br />
retention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> accent in certain cases in which <strong>the</strong> Preposition<br />
is emphatic, or has a comparatively independent place in <strong>the</strong><br />
sentence. Just as <strong>the</strong>re is an orthotone eort and an enclitic eon<br />
( ^7, i), so <strong>the</strong>re is an orthotone Trept and a 'proclitic' Trept,<br />
written Trepl before a governed Noun, but in reality unaccented.
1 68 PREPOSITIONS. [180.<br />
This view will serve to explain one or two minor peculiarities<br />
<strong>of</strong> Greek usage. Thus (i)<br />
it is <strong>the</strong> rule that when <strong>the</strong> last<br />
syllable <strong>of</strong> a Preposition is elided before a Case-form, <strong>the</strong> accent<br />
is not thrown back. This is intelligible on <strong>the</strong> ground that <strong>the</strong><br />
Preposition is in fact without accent and <strong>the</strong><br />
;<br />
same account will<br />
apply to <strong>the</strong> same peculiarity in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> ctAAa and nvd. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, (a)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> elision before a Verb (as<br />
v-naye)<br />
<strong>the</strong> accent is retracted, because <strong>the</strong> Preposition is <strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
accented word.* Again, (3) <strong>the</strong> general rule <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> JEolic<br />
<strong>dialect</strong>, that all oxytones become barytone, does not extend to<br />
Prepositions, because <strong>the</strong>y are not real oxytones.<br />
The word en (Sanscr. is dti)<br />
a Preposition which happens to<br />
have survived (with <strong>the</strong> original accent)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> adverbial use<br />
only<br />
= :<br />
cp. Trpo'j besides.<br />
One or two suggestions may be added in reference to <strong>the</strong><br />
Prepositions which are<br />
generally said to be incapable <strong>of</strong><br />
Anastrophe :<br />
dw was thought by some to be capable <strong>of</strong> Anastrophe, and<br />
this view is supported by <strong>the</strong> adverbial use ava up /<br />
dfi
l8o*.]<br />
ACCENTUATION. 169<br />
as wept 6et5ta, we'pt Travruv oi6e, &c. But in Subordinate Clauses<br />
<strong>the</strong> accent is on <strong>the</strong> Verb, and <strong>the</strong> Preposition commonly forms<br />
one word with it, as in weptei'8ta. If <strong>the</strong> Preposition is separated<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Verb,, both are accented. In classical Greek two<br />
changes have taken place: (i) <strong>the</strong> Preposition and Verb are<br />
inseparable, and (2) <strong>the</strong> accent is placed almost uniformly according<br />
to <strong>the</strong> ' '<br />
law <strong>of</strong> three syllables<br />
: if it<br />
( 88) falls on <strong>the</strong><br />
Preposition, as in
170 PREPOSITIONS. [181.<br />
Thus we find<br />
Trapd and IT dp :<br />
avd, av, a/x, (/Soo/xouri, fyovov) :<br />
Kara, tab (6e), Ka/3-(/3aAe), Kar-(0ai>e), Kap (poor),<br />
Kay (yovv), KCIK (KecjbaArjs), KaA-(AtTre), Kcbr<br />
Kajut-(/xoznr}),<br />
l, TTpOS (for TTpOr-), Cp. TTOTt,<br />
ip (for vWpt), i/Trep :<br />
ein, eii> (elvi), eV :<br />
This phenomenon appears to be connected with <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong><br />
accent which <strong>the</strong> Preposition suffers when closely connected with<br />
a Verb or Case-form. That is to say, from <strong>the</strong> adverbial forms<br />
irdpa, TTPOTL, Kara, hi, ava (or dvd), &c. were formed in <strong>the</strong> first<br />
instance <strong>the</strong> unaccented Trap, Trpos, /car or Ka, tv, av. Then <strong>the</strong><br />
pairs irdpa and Trap, &c. were used promiscuously. Finally one<br />
form was adopted as normal.<br />
181.] The Preposition means on loth<br />
dfxt sides, or (if<br />
<strong>the</strong><br />
notion <strong>of</strong> two sides is not prominent) all round. It is doubtless<br />
connected with CLJJL^M both.<br />
The adverbial use is common; e.g. with a Verb understood,<br />
Od. 6. 392 tv de Kprjvr) vdti, apfyl 8e Aei/uwz;<br />
and around is a<br />
meadow.<br />
It is especially used in reference to <strong>the</strong> two sides <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> body :<br />
II. 5. 310 a/x$fc 8e oo-de KeAaiurj vv exaAvx^e black night covered<br />
his eyes on both sides (i.e.<br />
both eyes);<br />
II. 10. 535 a/^i KTVTTOS<br />
ovara /3aAAet<br />
: II. 1 8. 414<br />
5'<br />
o-Tro'yya) d^l TrpoVcoTra Kal a/x^)(o<br />
Xetp' aTt<strong>of</strong>jiopyvv Od. 2. 153 : Trapetas ajou^H re tpas Od. : 9. 389<br />
Trayra 6e ot Kal /3Ae'ap' djuqbt d^pva? KrA.<br />
So II. 6. 117 d/x(/u 6e /ouy vfyvpa TUTTTC KOL avytva Sepjua KcAat^oV<br />
//^ shield smote him on <strong>the</strong> ankles on both sides and on <strong>the</strong> neck.<br />
Here &p$l is generally taken to mean above and beneath ; wrongly,<br />
as <strong>the</strong> passages quoted above show.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> djxt<br />
is extended to <strong>the</strong> internal <strong>org</strong>ans, esp. <strong>the</strong><br />
midriff (c/;peVes) regarded as <strong>the</strong> seat <strong>of</strong> feeling :<br />
as<br />
II. 3. 442 ov yap 7TW Trore ^
183.] 'AM*I. 171<br />
273, H. Ven. 243 ;<br />
Mimnerm. I. 7 $peWs d/mc^t Ka/cat retpovo-t<br />
Hence read<br />
II. I.<br />
103<br />
and similarly in II. 17. 83, 499, 573.<br />
182.] The Dative with is a natural extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
djjii<br />
ordinary locatival Dative <strong>the</strong> Preposition being adverbial, and<br />
not always needed to govern <strong>the</strong> Case. Compare<br />
(e. g.}<br />
II. I. 45 ro'' &{jLOLcriv tyjuv (Loc. Dat., 145, 3).<br />
J<br />
2O. 150 dju^t 6"' ap appj]KTOv VtXr]V &HOKTIV tcravro.<br />
527 d/,t(/>' &fjLOL(riv e'xet<br />
his shoulders,<br />
i. e. across his shoulders.<br />
(TOKO? to s/W^ 0w 0^ Vfe* on<br />
In a metaphorical sense &p$l is applied to <strong>the</strong> object about<br />
which two parties contend : as II. 3. 70 d/x^>' 'EAeVrj KCU<br />
nayjeaQai : so <strong>of</strong> a negotiation, II. 13. 382<br />
we shall agree about <strong>the</strong> marriage ; II. 7. 408<br />
as to <strong>the</strong> question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead; II. 16. 647<br />
^p^pifcov. Cp. <strong>the</strong> use with -Trept ( 186). So too<br />
in Sanscrit <strong>the</strong> Loc. is used with Verbs oi-fghting to express <strong>the</strong><br />
object over which <strong>the</strong> fighting is.<br />
It is a fur<strong>the</strong>r extension <strong>of</strong> this use when djAt<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
is construed with Verbs meaning to speak, think, &c., as Od. 4.<br />
1<br />
151 cLfjiff) 'OSva-rj'C This<br />
fjLvOtojjiriv. last variety (in<br />
which <strong>the</strong><br />
notion <strong>of</strong> two sides disappears)<br />
is confined to <strong>the</strong> Odyssey : cp. 5.<br />
287., 14. 338, 364.<br />
A true Dative may follow but cannot be said to be<br />
d|jii,<br />
governed by it; e.g. in II. 14.420 a^fyl 6e ot fipayje Ti>\ta his<br />
arms rattled about him <strong>the</strong> Dat. is ' ethical/ as in II. 13. 439<br />
pr/fey 8e ot a^tyl \LrQva. So in II. 4. 431 d//,
J72 PREPOSITIONS. [184.<br />
(2) <strong>of</strong> attendants or followers ;<br />
as II. 2. 445 a^ ot 6' 'Arpeuora<br />
. . Qvvov <strong>the</strong>y bustled about Agamemnon.<br />
The description about (a person] does not exclude <strong>the</strong> person<br />
who is <strong>the</strong> centre <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> group ; e.g. in II. 4. 294 (Agamemnon<br />
found Nestor)<br />
oiis trapovs a-TtXXovra . . afJL
1 86.] 'AM*I, HEPI.<br />
173<br />
186.] The Dative with irept (as with aju^t)<br />
is Locatival;<br />
as II. I.<br />
303 epco?io-et TTpl bovpi will gush over (lit. round upon) <strong>the</strong><br />
xpear ; 2.<br />
389 TTfpl 8' eyx^t X e 'P a Ka/oteirai his hand will be weary<br />
with holding <strong>the</strong> spear ; 2,. 416 yj.T&va. Tre/n orrjtfeo-o-i baiai to tear<br />
<strong>the</strong> chiton about (round on)<br />
<strong>the</strong> breast. Also <strong>of</strong> an object <strong>of</strong> contention,<br />
over; as II. 16. 568 ircpl TrcuSt . . TTOVOS eir; <strong>the</strong> toil (<strong>of</strong><br />
battle) might be over his son, cp. II. 17. 4, 133, Od. 5. 310 : and<br />
in a derivative sense, Od. 2. 245 juax^'o-aa-0ai Tiept am /^/^<br />
flfowtf a feast.<br />
1. It is a question which meaning is to be given to ircpC in<br />
II. 5. 566 irepl yap 8ie iroiuevi \awv (so 9. 433., II. 586).<br />
IO. 240 eSfiffev 8e irepl<br />
avQ> Mevf\da>.<br />
17. 242 <strong>of</strong>fffov efj.p KeovTa, Thuc. I. 60 SeStorcs trepl KT\. ;<br />
also by <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> with<br />
dp,i<br />
<strong>the</strong> Dat. (<br />
182) in nearly <strong>the</strong> same meaning.<br />
2. Much difficulty has been felt about <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> irepi in a group <strong>of</strong> phrases<br />
<strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong> following are <strong>the</strong> chief instances :<br />
II. 4. 53 ras biairfpffaij or' av rot direx^OJVTaL ir*pl ffrjpi (cp. 4. 4^, &c.).<br />
Od. 6. 158 Kfivos 5' av irepl Krjpi fj-aKapraros eoxov d\\cav.<br />
II. 21. 65 TTfpl 8' fjOe\e 6vu> (so 24. 236).<br />
22. 70 d\vaaovTfs TTfpl 0vjji>.<br />
Od. 14. 146 irepl yap ft' ecpiXet Kal KrjSero QvjJiSt.<br />
II. 1 6. 157 roiaiv re trfpl typealv dcfrrfros d\Kr].<br />
Od. 14. 433 irepl yap (pptalv aiffipa ySrj.<br />
In all <strong>the</strong>se places <strong>the</strong> Dative may be construed as a Locative (although<br />
without K-rjpt irepi is only found in II. 9. 117): <strong>the</strong> only question is whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>the</strong> Preposition is to be taken in <strong>the</strong> literal local sense round, all over, or in <strong>the</strong><br />
derivative sense exceedingly. In favour <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> latter it may be said that <strong>the</strong><br />
same combinations <strong>of</strong> Preposition and Verb are found without a Dat. such as<br />
K-qpi or OVJJLW, where accordingly irepi must mean exceedingly ; compare<br />
II. 13. 430 rr)v irepl Krjpi Q&rjffe irarrip<br />
Od. 8. 63 TOV irfpl MoiJa' l^tA^o-e<br />
Od. 14. 433 irepl yap
174 PREPOSITIONS. [187.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side, <strong>the</strong> representation <strong>of</strong> a feeling as something surrounding<br />
or covering <strong>the</strong> heart, midriff, &c. is common in Homer. Thus we have<br />
II. II. 89 airov re ^Xvittpoio Trept (ppevas fyepos alpeT.<br />
Od. 9. 362 liret Kv/cXcana ircpl
190.] KEPI, IIAPA. 175<br />
l<br />
\ffvxys as when life is at stake ; and <strong>of</strong> doubt, II. 20. 17 ?J rt<br />
t<br />
Tpcocou KCU 'Axatair //epjutrjptfeis.<br />
The use with Verbs <strong>of</strong> anger<br />
Siudfear is closely akin; II. 9. 449 TraAAa/ado? Trepi ^wo-aro; 17.<br />
240 VCKVOS Trept 6et6ta (unless<br />
we read irepiyj&oraro, TrepiSeiTua).<br />
The weapons <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> contest are said to be fought over in Od. 8.<br />
225 tpl&OTKOV TTept TO^toV ;<br />
SO II. I5' 284 OTTTTOre KOVpOL pi(TO-tiaV<br />
iTpl ivuQdov.<br />
And this is also applied to <strong>the</strong> quarrel itself, II. 16.<br />
476 (Tvvirr]v ep,8o? Trept Ovfji<strong>of</strong>BopoLO (cp. 2O. 253)-<br />
Under this head will come <strong>the</strong> Gen. in II. 23. 485 77)1770809<br />
7rpib&fji0ov let us wager a tripod, Od. 23. 78 e/me'0; irept8d)(ro//at<br />
avrfjs / wz7/ e'es irdpa.<br />
(2) aside; as II. II. 233 Trapat 8e ot erpaTrer' !yx.s Me spear<br />
was turned to his side (instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> striking him).<br />
(3) hence figuratively, irapd // ^ira(f) cozened me ( aside,' away<br />
from my aim : and so TrapTT7ri6tov changing <strong>the</strong> mind by persuasion,<br />
TiapeiTTcoy talking over, &c. ; also, with a different<br />
metaphor, wrongly.<br />
(4) past, with Verbs <strong>of</strong> motion, as ep^o/^at, eA.awa>, &c.<br />
190.] With <strong>the</strong> Dative irapd means beside, in <strong>the</strong> company <strong>of</strong>,<br />
near. It is applied in Homer to both persons and things<br />
(whereas in later Greek <strong>the</strong> Dat. with irapd is almost wholly
176 PREPOSITIONS. [191.<br />
confined to persons) ;<br />
thus we have Trapa vr\i, Trap a vrjva-i (very<br />
frequently), Trap' ap/xaort, Trapa /Sco/xa), Trap TTOO-, Trapa ora0ju, 6"e OTTJOW<br />
Trap' pLVov. Similarly <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> place near which a weapon has<br />
struck, as II. 5. 146 /cArj'iSa Trap' apov TrArjfe struck <strong>the</strong> collar-bone<br />
by <strong>the</strong> shoulder.<br />
(2) <strong>of</strong> motion or extent alongside <strong>of</strong> a thing (esp. a coast, a<br />
river, a wall, II. I.<br />
&c.) 34 ; /3r} 8' d/ceW Trapa diva went along<br />
<strong>the</strong> shore ; Od. 9. 46 TroAXa 8e jzr)A.a lcr(/>abzj Trapa 0u;a sacrificed<br />
many sheep along <strong>the</strong> shore ; II. 2. 522 Trap Trora/oioz;<br />
Zvaiov dwelt by <strong>the</strong> side <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> river ; II. 3. 272 Trap ueos<br />
KoiAeoy acopro ^^^ beside <strong>the</strong> sword-scabbard.<br />
(3) <strong>of</strong> motion past a place; as II. u. 166, 167 ot 6e Trap' "IXou<br />
(r^a . . Trap' pii>ov tcra-evovro <strong>the</strong>y sped past <strong>the</strong> tomb <strong>of</strong> Ilus,<br />
past <strong>the</strong> fig-tree ; II. 6. 42 Trapa rpo^ov ^Kv\ia-0r] rolled out<br />
past <strong>the</strong> wheel ; II. 16. 312 ovra Qoavra (rrepvov yv^v^Oevra<br />
Trap' aa-niba passing <strong>the</strong> shield (implied motion, ovra=.thrust<br />
at and struck).<br />
The derivative meaning- beyond<br />
= in excess<br />
(<br />
<strong>of</strong>) is only found in Homer in <strong>the</strong> phrases Trap bvvafjuv (II.<br />
13. 787) and Trapa poipav (Od. 14. 509): but cp. <strong>the</strong> Adj.<br />
TrapatVtos against fate.<br />
192.] With a Genitive -n-apd properly means sideways from,<br />
aside from. As with <strong>the</strong> Dative, it is used <strong>of</strong> things as well as<br />
persons (whereas in later Greek it is practically<br />
restricted to<br />
persons).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand it is confined in Homer to <strong>the</strong> local<br />
sense ;<br />
thus it is found with Verbs meaning to go, bring, take, &c.<br />
not (as afterwards) with aKova), navOdva, olba, or <strong>the</strong> like. An<br />
apparent exception is<br />
II. II. 794 t 8e nva (ppecrlv fj
1 94.] IIAPA, META.<br />
be seen in Emped. 144 0eo Trdpa pvQov aKovaas, Xenophanes 3. i<br />
afipoa-vvas Se juafloWe? dz/'ox^eAeas Trapa Avb&v.<br />
The original meaning sideways or at <strong>the</strong> side from<br />
is visible in<br />
some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses with a Gen. denoting a thing:<br />
as II. 4. 468 Trap'<br />
ao-iTibos efe0?/ appeared beyond (outside <strong>the</strong> shelter <strong>of</strong>) <strong>the</strong><br />
shield: so probably II. 4. 500 vibv Ilpidjuioio voBov /3aAe . . Trap'<br />
fanrcov a>Ketda>zj struck him (aiming) JP#^ ^ chariot. So too a<br />
sword is drawn Trapd jjLr/pov sideways from <strong>the</strong> thigh. The same<br />
meaning lies at <strong>the</strong> root <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> frequent use <strong>of</strong> irapd in reference<br />
to <strong>the</strong> act <strong>of</strong> passing from one person to ano<strong>the</strong>r (as<br />
in Trapa8i8co/u<br />
and Trapa8e'xojitai),<br />
hence <strong>of</strong> gifts, messages, &c.<br />
It is usual to regard irapA with <strong>the</strong> Gen. as meaning from <strong>the</strong> side <strong>of</strong>, from<br />
beside, de chez. But this is contrary to <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> a prepositional phrase.<br />
The Case-ending and <strong>the</strong> Stem must form a single notion, which <strong>the</strong> Preposition<br />
<strong>the</strong>n modifies ;<br />
hence (e. g.) irapa prjpov means beside from-<strong>the</strong>-thigh, not<br />
from beside-<strong>the</strong>-lhigh. This is especially clear where <strong>the</strong> Preposition is joined to<br />
a Verb ;<br />
Od. 19. 187 irapair\ay^aaa MaXawv drivitig-aside from- Maleae : and in<br />
II. 4. 97 TOV KCV Srj irtifMrpuTa wop' ayXad bwpa (pepoio<br />
<strong>the</strong> rhythm connects Trapd with
178 PREPOSITIONS. [195.<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is a sarcastic force lie <strong>the</strong>re with <strong>the</strong> fish for company.<br />
Cp. also <strong>the</strong> phrase Od. 5. 224 //era /cat rode rotcrt yeyeV0a> & tfto<br />
fo as one among <strong>the</strong>m. The expression in II. 15. 118 /xe0' atfxart<br />
Kat is Koviyari equivalent to a Collective (<br />
Noun, <strong>the</strong> crowd<br />
<strong>of</strong> wounded and fallen/ So II. 21. 503 /utera o-rpo$aAiyyi KOVLTIS,<br />
a somewhat bolder phrase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same kind.<br />
The Dat. with (xerd is locatival (whereas with ??AiKas<br />
eTrXev a/oio-ros (so Od. 16. 419). And with a Singular in II. 18.<br />
552 8payjotara /uer' oyjuoz; TTLTTTOV <strong>the</strong> hand/ills <strong>of</strong> corn fell<br />
middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> furrow (between <strong>the</strong> ridges).<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r meaning we may distinguish <strong>the</strong> varieties<br />
in <strong>the</strong><br />
(1) after, following ; II. 13. 513 cTraffcu /me0' kbv fitXos following<br />
his weapon, Od. 2. 406 /uer' tx^ta /3atz;e ^eoto.<br />
(2) after, in order to find (with a Verb <strong>of</strong> motion), as jmer' e//<br />
o/" me, Od. I. 184 es<br />
(3)<br />
^ succession to, next to; TOV 8e /oiera KrX. ^ a/^r him<br />
fyc. ; II. 8.<br />
289 Trpwra) rot fxer' e/xe irpeorfiri'iov kv x^pt ^ri
198.] META, "EIII.<br />
179<br />
write jjicTaTraXXfyeyos and construe <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m casting lots in turn I was<br />
chosen. But <strong>the</strong> last two indicate that <strong>the</strong> use had crept into<br />
colloquial language as early as <strong>the</strong> Odyssey, taking <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong><br />
auv or 3/jia<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Dative. See 221.<br />
197.] The Preposition em means over, upon ; sometimes after<br />
(as we speak <strong>of</strong> following upon) with, at (i. e. close upon)<br />
in<br />
;<br />
addition, besides, esp. <strong>of</strong> an addition made to correspond with or<br />
complete something else ; also,, attached to, as an inseparable incident<br />
or condition <strong>of</strong> a person or thing and<br />
; conversely, on <strong>the</strong><br />
condition, in <strong>the</strong> circumstances, &c.<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se meanings in <strong>the</strong> adverbial use are<br />
II. i. 462 em 8' aWoTTa olvov Aei/3e poured wine over (<strong>the</strong> meat).<br />
13. 799 Trpb \kiv r aAA', avrap en' aAAa in front behind.<br />
Od. i.<br />
273 Oeol '<br />
em juaprvpot iorav <strong>the</strong> gods le witnesses <strong>the</strong>reto.<br />
5. 443 7r ' o-KeVay r\v av^oio <strong>the</strong>re was <strong>the</strong>reto (<strong>the</strong> place<br />
w&sfurnwked with) a shelter from <strong>the</strong> wind.<br />
II. 1 8.<br />
529 KTclvov 8' em fj,T]\o(3oTr]pas killed <strong>the</strong> shepherds with<br />
<strong>the</strong> sheep.<br />
i.<br />
233 em jue'yaz> op/coy o/xoujuiat<br />
I will swear in confirmation.<br />
With a Verb understood, em = is present, is in <strong>the</strong> case, as Od. 2.<br />
58 ov yap eV dz/rjp ^er*? is no man (for <strong>the</strong> purpose) ; II. i.<br />
515 ov<br />
rot TTL beos <strong>the</strong>re is no fear with 01 for you (as part <strong>of</strong> your circumstances)<br />
; 21. no eTrt rot KCU e/xot Odvaros death is<br />
II.<br />
my<br />
lot too<br />
(cp. 6. 357 oto-tu em Zei;s 0r/Ke KO.KOV popov).<br />
It is very much used in Composition. Note <strong>the</strong> meaning over<br />
in eTrt-TrXe'o) fo &<br />
oi'^-r, also eTr-otxojutat<br />
^ ^70 o^er, review, em-<br />
-TrcoAe'ojutat, eTr-aXao/xat (II. 17. 650 fxax. 1 ? 8* ^wi -Trao-a (j>adv6r] <strong>the</strong> fight<br />
was lighted up all over} ; besides, in e7rt-8i'8coju,t, &c. ;<br />
^o (<strong>of</strong> bringing<br />
aid, joining, &c.) in e7r-ap?jya> 5 eTr-aXe'^oo, eTr-apaptcrKco, e-TraAAaa-cra),<br />
&c. ; j^br, in e7n-KA.G>06o j^ ^t?m /br (so as to attach to) ;<br />
hence <strong>of</strong> assent, eTrt-^evco, em-rA^at, em-etKO) (with a general<br />
affirmative meaning, on as opposed to <strong>of</strong>f, for as opposed to<br />
198.] With <strong>the</strong> Dative em has <strong>the</strong> same group <strong>of</strong> meanings ;<br />
note especially<br />
(1) em vr]V(TL ly <strong>the</strong> ships, eV oeo-o-t with <strong>the</strong> sheep (<strong>of</strong> a shepherd),<br />
em Kreareo-o-t with (in charge <strong>of</strong>) <strong>the</strong> possessions ; II. 4.<br />
with (on <strong>the</strong><br />
235 tm \lfVO(T(rtv ea-crer' apooyo's<br />
w^ ^
l8o PREPOSITIONS. [199.<br />
(3) Od. 17. 454 OVK apa
aoi.] "Em, Tno. 181<br />
4. The instances in which extent (without motion) is implied<br />
are chiefly found in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (2. 370, &c.). Examples from<br />
<strong>the</strong> Iliad are :<br />
9. 506 tyOdvti 5e' re iravav eV alav she is beforehand<br />
all <strong>the</strong> world over (so 23. 742) 10. :<br />
213 KAe'os eir; Trdvras eV<br />
avOptoirovs, 24. 2O2, 535- It wiU be seen that <strong>the</strong>y are from<br />
books 9, 10, 23, 24.<br />
Notice also <strong>the</strong> use with Neuters expressing quantity ; as II. 5.<br />
772 TOCTUOV TTL 0p(^(TKov(TL to such a distance <strong>the</strong>y bound ; also e^ri<br />
TroAAoV a long way,<br />
eirl Icra to an equal extent ; and esp. <strong>the</strong> common<br />
phrase ocrov T em, see II. 2. 616, &c.<br />
5. Of time: II. 2.<br />
299 jueiVar' em \povov wait for (lit. over) a<br />
time ; Od. 7. 288 e!oz> jravvv^LOL /cat eV ?5 'iTnrtov, firl dpovov, CTT' ovbov, eVl Tivpyov, CTT'<br />
dyKo>z;oj,<br />
beside ships, em vrj&v on board ships.<br />
7il jueAirj? (epeto-^et?).<br />
Thus CTTI vijva-i means on or<br />
(3) with Verbs <strong>of</strong> motion, upon (<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> terminus ad quern), as<br />
II. 3. 293 KartOrjKtv irl x^ouo's j<br />
so Bearing down on, as II.<br />
3. 6 TreVoyrat eTr' 'llKearoto poaaiv : II. 5- 7^^ ^pOTpeirovro jute-<br />
Aat^awz; eTrt vr]&v: Od. 3. 171 z>eoi//,0a z;7](rou eTTt tyvptrjs<br />
taking <strong>the</strong> course by <strong>the</strong> island Psyria. So perhaps<br />
II. 7. 195<br />
(e#xe' vjJLftwv (keeping <strong>the</strong> words) to yourselves.<br />
(4) <strong>of</strong> ^W; eV clpyvris (II. 2. 797, &c.) em ; Trporepojz; d^pw-<br />
TTO>I> (II. 5. 637, &c.). Cp. <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>of</strong> Time, 150.<br />
In later prose <strong>the</strong> Gen. is<br />
very common, and <strong>the</strong> uses become<br />
indistinguishable from those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
201.] The Preposition UTTO (also UTTCU') usually means beneath^<br />
as in II. 2. 95 virb Se arTevayi&TO yala <strong>the</strong> earth groaned beneath<br />
(<strong>the</strong>ir tread).<br />
The original sense, however, seems to have been<br />
upwards, as in <strong>the</strong> Superlative vir-aros uppermost (cp. v\jfL al<strong>of</strong>i,<br />
facing upwards). On this view we can understand why
1 82 PREPOSITIONS. [202.<br />
uiro is not applied (like icard) to express downward motion.<br />
Hence, too, it is especially used <strong>of</strong> supporting a tiling 1 ,<br />
as II. i.<br />
486 VTTO 5' epjixara /xa/cpa ravvao-av : and on <strong>the</strong> same principle it<br />
expresses resistance to a motion (whereas Kara implies yielding,<br />
going with <strong>the</strong> stream &c.) ;<br />
as II. 5- 55 v & to"rpo//ai (<br />
= Att. aTro/cpt^ojutat),<br />
VTTO-<br />
/3dAAa> / take up (a speaker), vir-aKovto I hear in reply, i. e. show<br />
that I hear (by answering or obeying).<br />
So too <strong>the</strong> Compounds u-opw, uir-6\|uos, uiro-Spa, &c. do not<br />
express looking down, but looking upwards from under ; even in<br />
it is<br />
II. 3. 217 (TTaa-Kcv viral d~e t &c. ;<br />
so II. 16. 333<br />
was warmed by (<strong>the</strong> blood).<br />
202.] With <strong>the</strong> Dative UTTO is very common in <strong>the</strong> simple local<br />
meaning, under. It is sometimes found with Verbs <strong>of</strong> motion,<br />
as Od. 4. 297 btjJivi VTT' alOovorrj Otpfvai ;<br />
and even when motion<br />
from is intended, in II. 18. 244 eAtxraz> v(f)' ap/ix,acrtzj a>Keas nr7rot>y.<br />
In this case however we have to consider that apjuarow is metrically<br />
impossible.<br />
The derived sense under <strong>the</strong> charge or power<br />
is found in such<br />
uses as II. 5. 231 vcj)' rjvtox^ (<strong>of</strong> horses), 6. 139 Zev? yap<br />
ot VTTO<br />
(TKt]7rTp(f eSa/jiao-o-e, 6. 171 Ot&v VTT' ajjiVfjiovi<br />
:<br />
Tro^irfl also, with <strong>the</strong><br />
notion <strong>of</strong> an effect produced (where <strong>the</strong> Gen. would <strong>the</strong>refore be<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r more natural),<br />
VTTO \cpa-i (ba^rjvai, Qavteiv, &c.), VTTO doupt<br />
(rvTrets, &c.); II. 13. 667 vovcrto vV dpyaXery Od. (f)Oia-0aL, 4. 295<br />
virvto viro yAvKepo) rapTrce)/x0a : and <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong> persons, as II. 5. 93<br />
VTTO Tvbdbrj irvKLval KXoveovTO<br />
203.] The Accusative is used with UTTO (i)<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion to a<br />
point under, as<br />
II. 2. 2i6 VTTO *I\LOV tfXOe came under (<strong>the</strong> walls <strong>of</strong>) Troy.<br />
17. 309 TOV /3dA.' VTTO K\r]lba /xeVryz; (so <strong>of</strong>ten with Verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
striking, &c.).<br />
Also (2)<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion passing under, and hence <strong>of</strong> extent under :<br />
Od.<br />
15. 349 e ' 7rov ^rt Ctooww VTT' avyas 976X1010 i. e. anywhere that <strong>the</strong><br />
sun shines (cp.<br />
VTT' 770)<br />
T r}eXto^ re an equivalent phrase).<br />
II. 2.<br />
603 ot 5' %yov 'ApKabirjv VTTO K.v\\rjvr)s opoj.<br />
3. 371 yx e be i*iv Tro\VK(TTo$ t/xds avaXriv it-no Setprjz; (i.e.<br />
passing under <strong>the</strong> throat).
204.]<br />
"rno. 183<br />
In one or two places it is applied to time : II. 16. 202 irdvO' VTTO<br />
fji^viOfjiov all <strong>the</strong> time that my anger lasted ; so perhaps<br />
II. 22. 102<br />
vvyO' VTTO Trjvb' d\oi]v (but night is <strong>of</strong>ten regarded as a space <strong>of</strong><br />
darkness).<br />
204.]<br />
The Genitive with UTTO is found in two or three distinct<br />
uses :<br />
(i) with <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> separation from : as II. 17. 235 veKpov VTT<br />
Atazrros tpvtiv from under Ajax ; Od. 9. 463 VTT' dpveiov<br />
so II. 19. 17 oWe btivbv VTTO /3A.ez> &>s et cr<br />
In this use <strong>the</strong> Gen. is ablatival, cp. 152. Originally u-n-o<br />
with an Abl. probably meant upwards from<br />
: see 192.<br />
(2) <strong>of</strong> place under i<br />
with contact (especially <strong>of</strong><br />
a surface] ;<br />
as<br />
II. 8. 14 VTTO yQovos eort fitpeOpov.<br />
Od. 5- 346<br />
To'8e K/)rj8ejuiz>oz> vita oreproto Tavvo-crai.<br />
II. I.<br />
501 Seftreprj 8' ap VTT ai'Oepe&vos eAoSo-a taking hold <strong>of</strong><br />
him under <strong>the</strong> chin.<br />
4 I O6 VTTO (TTtpVOlO TV^O'aS.<br />
16. 375 faffi<br />
8' aeXAa iJ,VOS rj<br />
V ae'flAco<br />
176 /cat V TToXejuta) brjicav VTTO OvfjLOpa'ia-Tttov,<br />
under <strong>the</strong> stress <strong>of</strong> an enemy (so 18. 220);<br />
II. 23. 86 VT /ne . . riyayev vfjiercpovb' avbpoKTaa-iqs VTTO Xvyprjs<br />
by reason <strong>of</strong> a homicide (committed by me).<br />
As a sound is said to be over or about (Trepi, a/x^)t)<br />
<strong>the</strong> person<br />
hearing, so he is under <strong>the</strong> sound hence :<br />
with a half metaphorical<br />
meaning II. 15. 275 T&v * & v/no t'aX^ s tydvrj Xiy. So<br />
(e.g.)<br />
<strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r accompaniments, as II. 18. 492 ba'tbtov VTTO<br />
by <strong>the</strong> light <strong>of</strong> blazing torches.
1<br />
84 PREPOSITIONS.<br />
irpOTi.<br />
205.] The Preposition irpori (irpos, iron) expresses attitude or<br />
direction towards an object. It is found in <strong>the</strong> adverbial use;<br />
Od. 5 255 upas 8' apa TrrjbaXiov Trotrjo-aro he made a rudder to be<br />
put to (<strong>the</strong> raft)-, hence commonly in addition, besides a use<br />
which remained in later Greek.<br />
It is a question whe<strong>the</strong>r irprt payjEvOai to fight with a man in opposition to a god ; also<br />
addressing (persons), with Verbs <strong>of</strong> speaking, &c. in one<br />
; place<br />
<strong>of</strong> time, Od. 17. 191 Trort eWepa towards evening.<br />
Note that <strong>the</strong> literal local sense appears in all <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
uses <strong>of</strong> irpori with <strong>the</strong> Ace. : <strong>the</strong> metaphorical uses, viz. in respect<br />
<strong>of</strong>, for <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong>, in proportion to, according to, &c., are later.<br />
208.] With <strong>the</strong> Genitive irpOS z>oYou i. e. not at or facing <strong>the</strong><br />
north and south, but more generally, in <strong>the</strong> direction fixed by<br />
north and south ; II. 10. 428-430 irpos pev aXos . .<br />
Trpo? &v^pr]s :<br />
II. 22. 198 Trort Trro'Atoj in <strong>the</strong> direction <strong>of</strong> Troy; Od. 8. 29 ?Je 7jy>os<br />
rj<br />
cnrpiu>v avOpvircov (=.from east or west).<br />
Among derived senses we may distinguish<br />
(1) at <strong>the</strong> hand <strong>of</strong>, from (persons),<br />
as II. I. 160<br />
irpbs Tpwcov, II. 831<br />
ra o~e Trport fyavL<br />
(2) on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong>, by <strong>the</strong> will <strong>of</strong>, as II. I. 239<br />
ot re<br />
Trpds Atoy elpvarai who uphold judgments on behalf <strong>of</strong> Zeus ;<br />
II. 6. 456 vrpos aAArjy to-roz; v^atW? at ano<strong>the</strong>r's bidding:<br />
and, perhaps in a metaphorical sense, Od. 6. 207 TT/>OS yap<br />
Atos daiv airavTes fetz/ot re TTT^OL re.
210.] IIPOTI, 'ANA. 185<br />
(3) before, ~by (in oaths and entreaties) ; as II. 13. 324<br />
Trarpo? yovva&pai I entreat in <strong>the</strong> name <strong>of</strong> thy fa<strong>the</strong>r. The<br />
Preposition here implies that <strong>the</strong> god or person sworn by is<br />
made a party to <strong>the</strong> act ; cp. Od. 11.66 vvv 8e ere T&V oiuOtv<br />
yovva^o^ai ov Trapeovrav, irpos r ako^ov KOI irarpos KrA. on <strong>the</strong><br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> absent ones I entreat fyc.<br />
It will be seen that irp. So di>a-/3aAAo) to put <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
di>< is seldom used with <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>the</strong> ; meaning is up on (a<br />
height <strong>of</strong> some V(T^ kind), as II. 1. 15 XP ava wfiitrpy*<br />
raised on a<br />
golden staff; 15. 152 ava Tapyapw; so 8. 441., 14. 352., 18. 177.,<br />
Od. ii. 128., 23. 275., 24. 8. This use is occasionally found in<br />
Pindar (Ol. 8. 67, Pyth. i. 10), and lyric parts <strong>of</strong> tragedy, but is<br />
not Attic.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Genitive dw is only used in three places in <strong>the</strong><br />
Odyssey (2. 416., 9. 177., 15. 284), and only <strong>of</strong> going on board<br />
a ship (ava vrjos /3atVa>).<br />
The meaning up from is only found in<br />
Composition avebv :<br />
TroAtf/s dAos, &c.<br />
210.] With <strong>the</strong> Accusative &vd means up along, up through,<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion or extent : az^a aoru, aju Ttebiov, ava 8w/xara, av 65oV, av<br />
*EAAd8a, &c. ; II. 5- 74 av> obovras VTTO y\G>cr
1 86 PREPOSITIONS. [211.<br />
The use with collective Nouns, as av o^ikov through <strong>the</strong> press,<br />
^GL\f]v ava, afj. (frovov av VCKVCLS, &c. seems to be peculiar to <strong>the</strong><br />
Iliad.<br />
The use in II. 14. 80 d^A CU'KTO,<br />
may be explained ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong><br />
time or <strong>of</strong> space: cp.<br />
UTTO I/UKTO, ( 203), 8td vuura ( 215).<br />
The meaning up on, up<br />
to (<strong>of</strong> motion) may be traced in II. 10.<br />
466 6rJKv ava fjLVpLKrjv : Od. 22. 176 KIOZ/ av v\l/rjXriv pv(rai draw<br />
(<strong>the</strong> cord] up to a high pillar ; perhaps in <strong>the</strong> phrase dvd 0' ap^ara<br />
TroiKiA' tfiaivov (Od. 3. 492, &c.).<br />
KttTct.<br />
211.]<br />
The Preposition Kara (by Apocope icdS, &c.) means<br />
down, and is parallel in most uses to avd. It is never purely<br />
adverbial (KCLTM being used instead, cp. aw), but is common in<br />
Tmesis, as II. I. 436 Kara 8e irpvfjLVTJo-L ebrja-av, 19. 334 Kara Tra/u,-<br />
Trav TtOvajjitv, &c., and in Composition. Besides <strong>the</strong> primary<br />
sense (seen<br />
in Kar-dyco / bring down, Kara-vVM 1 nod downwards,<br />
i. e. in assent, &c.)<br />
it <strong>of</strong>ten has <strong>the</strong> meaning all over, as Kara-izwo><br />
/ clo<strong>the</strong>, Kar ax too I pour over ; hence completely, as Kara Trdvra<br />
fyayslv to eat all up, Kara-KretVco I kill outright: also in <strong>the</strong> place,<br />
as before, as KaraA.ei7rco / leave where it was, &c.<br />
Kara is not used with <strong>the</strong> Dative. If such a use ever existed<br />
it was superseded by<br />
UTTO (just<br />
as avd with <strong>the</strong> Dat. gave way to<br />
em). The possibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> combination may be seen from <strong>the</strong><br />
phrases Kar avToOi, nar av0i.<br />
212.] With <strong>the</strong> Accusative icard means down along, down<br />
through, as Kara poov down stream ; cp. II. 16. 349 ava arj/xa Kat<br />
Kara ptvas (<strong>of</strong> blood).<br />
But it is very <strong>of</strong>ten used (like av a) <strong>of</strong><br />
motion that is not upward or downward, except from some<br />
arbitrary point <strong>of</strong> view as<br />
;<br />
Ka0' obov along <strong>the</strong> way, Kara TtroXiv<br />
through <strong>the</strong> city, &c. : again, Kara Qpeva Kat Kara 6v^6v in mind<br />
and spirit.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r varieties <strong>of</strong> use are :<br />
(1) with collective Nouns (chiefly in <strong>the</strong> Iliad), as Kara orparoV<br />
through <strong>the</strong> camp, -Tro'Ae/ioy Kara, Kara K\OVOV, &c.<br />
(2) with Plurals (less common), as Kar 5 avrovs going among<br />
<strong>the</strong>m, Kar' av9pu>Trovs aXa\it](TOai.<br />
(3) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> character or general description <strong>of</strong> an action, as Kara<br />
(dA.aA.77cr0e) on a piece <strong>of</strong> business, rjX.0ov Kara XP e/os ><br />
i. Kara Xrjiba (all in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey).<br />
(4) to express place ; esp. <strong>of</strong> wounds, e. g. Kar' about a>juoz> (somewhere<br />
on)<br />
<strong>the</strong> shoulder. Cp. II. I. 484 IK.OVTO Kara o-rparov<br />
arrived opposite (within <strong>the</strong> space adjoining)<br />
<strong>the</strong> camp j Od.<br />
3. 441 TTora/^oto Kara o-ro'juta tfe vtav.
2 1 5.] KATA, AIA. 187<br />
(5) to express agreement (from <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> falling in wifJi), in<br />
<strong>the</strong> phrases Kara 0i>juoi>,<br />
Kara Koarfjiov, Kara nolpav, Kar J alcrav.<br />
(6) distributively as II. 2. 99 : tpr\rvQtv 8e Ka0' e5pas in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
several seats ; and so in 2.<br />
362 Kpiv avbpas Kara Aa Kara<br />
(7) Kara (7/ioj> like <strong>the</strong> Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' part<br />
affected.'<br />
213.] With <strong>the</strong> G-enitive xard has two chief meanings :<br />
(1) down from ; as Kar' ovpavov down from heaven, KaO 1 ITTTTCOZ;<br />
aXro leaped from <strong>the</strong> chariot. This Genitive is clearly ablatival<br />
in origin.<br />
(2) down on (in, over, &c.) as II. : 3. 217 Kara xOovbs o/x/xara<br />
fixing his eyes on <strong>the</strong> ground ; Kara 5' dv K^VT<br />
a mist was shed over his eyes j Kara yairjs<br />
down in <strong>the</strong><br />
earth.<br />
Comparing <strong>the</strong> similar uses <strong>of</strong> em ( 200), uiro ( 204, 2),<br />
and<br />
208)^ we can hardly doubt that <strong>the</strong> Gen. in this latter<br />
group is originally akin to <strong>the</strong> Genitives <strong>of</strong> Place ( 149).<br />
214.] The Preposition Sid seems to mean properly apart, in<br />
twain. It is not used freely as an Adverb ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> original<br />
sense appears in <strong>the</strong> combinations biairpo, bia^-Kepts,<br />
and in<br />
Tmesis and Composition, as Sia-o-rrjmt to stand apart ; 8ta-rajutz;a><br />
/ cut asunder ; bia KTTJCTLV bartovro divided <strong>the</strong> possession. From<br />
<strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> going through it means thoroughly^ as in dia-7rep0co<br />
/ sack utterly.<br />
In several Compounds, as 6ia-rajuro>, 6i-aipao } 8ta-8a7rra), <strong>the</strong><br />
notion <strong>of</strong> division is given by <strong>the</strong> Preposition to <strong>the</strong> Verb; e.g.<br />
I separate by cutting, &c.<br />
215.] The Accusative with Sid is <strong>of</strong>ten used to denote <strong>the</strong><br />
space through which motion takes place as<br />
:<br />
II. I. 600 8ta Swjuara 7roi7rwoz>ra bustling through <strong>the</strong> palace (so<br />
ia (TTreo?, 8ta /3rjo-o-as, 8ta /ocoTTTJia, &c.).<br />
14. 91 jjivOov ov ov Kev avrip ye 8ta crro/jia TrajJLTTav ayotro<br />
( = with which a man would not sully his mouth : cp. ava<br />
oro/xa, 2io).<br />
Od. 9. 400 wKeoy v o-7rr}eo-(rt bi aKptaj dwelt in caves about<br />
(scattered through] <strong>the</strong> headlands.
188 PREPOSITIONS. [2l6.<br />
So II. 2. 40 bia Kparepa? va-fjitvas lasting through hard fyhts :<br />
and bia VVKTCL (chiefly<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey, and books 10 and 24 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Iliad).<br />
This use is distinctively <strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
Sometimes also Sid with <strong>the</strong><br />
Ace. is used in Homer to express cause or agency ; as II. I.<br />
73 fjv<br />
bia ^avro(Tvvr]v (Calchas led <strong>the</strong> army) by virtue <strong>of</strong> his soothsaying ;<br />
Od. 8.<br />
520 bia '<br />
^eydOvfjiov Mr\vf]v (to conquer) by <strong>the</strong> help <strong>of</strong><br />
A<strong>the</strong>ne ; so II. jo. 497.*, 15. 41, 71, Od. 8. 82., n. 276, 282,<br />
43 7 v T 3- I 2i v I 9- I 54> 5 2 3-<br />
These places do not show <strong>the</strong><br />
later distinction between by means <strong>of</strong> and by reason <strong>of</strong>.<br />
216.] The Genitive with 8id implies passing through something<br />
in order to get beyond it; esp. getting through some<br />
obstacle: as<br />
II. 4. 135 bia l&v ap fooarrjpos eAryAaro.<br />
So <strong>of</strong> a gate, II. 3. 263 bia SKOUOW fyov tWou? : and <strong>of</strong> lower and<br />
upper air, &c. bi T^'po? aWtp iKavtv, bi alOepos ovpavbv txe,<br />
Trtbiovbz bia v(j>z &c. <strong>of</strong><br />
making way through <strong>the</strong> press.<br />
The Ace. is used where we expect this Gen. in II. 7. 247 ef 8e<br />
bia irrvxas J?A0e went through six folds : but this may be partly<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> metrical impossibility <strong>of</strong> TTTUXW^. Conversely, in II.<br />
10. 185 oy re Ka0' v\rjv tpxnTai bi opeo-^t <strong>the</strong> Ace. would be right,<br />
and op
221.] AIA, "rilEP, ENI, 2TN. 189<br />
1<br />
ing ) over <strong>the</strong> sides <strong>of</strong> a ship: II. 23. 327 ocrov r opyvi virep atrys a<br />
fathom s length above ground.<br />
Metaphorically it means over so as to protect, hence In defence<br />
<strong>of</strong>, on behalf <strong>of</strong>; as II. 7* 449 TCL^OS TL\i(rv. So II. 6. 524 00' virep<br />
(Tdv al(j-\ aKovo) when I listen to reproaches on your account (<strong>of</strong><br />
which I bear <strong>the</strong> brunt).<br />
But Hes. Op. 217 due?] 8' virep vfipws<br />
icryei justice rises (prevails)<br />
over insolence.<br />
In respect <strong>of</strong> form uirep (for virepi, Sanscr. updri)<br />
is a Comparative<br />
<strong>of</strong> uiro ; cp. <strong>the</strong> Superlative viraros, and <strong>the</strong> Lat. superus,<br />
summus. Hence <strong>the</strong> Gen. is ablatival, like <strong>the</strong> Gen. with words<br />
<strong>of</strong> comparison ; see 152.<br />
ivL<br />
220.] The Preposition ivl means (also etci, tlv, iv) within, In ;<br />
it is used adverbially (as<br />
II. 5. 740 ez> 8 J e/ns, tv 6' aA*?} &c.), in<br />
Tmesis (as eV r'<br />
apa ol 0u x et PO> an(^ w^n a (locatival) Dative.<br />
Notice, as departures from <strong>the</strong> strict local sense, <strong>the</strong> uses<br />
(1) with Plurals denoting persons ( = ^ra among), as h viuv<br />
(II. 9. 121, 528 V 10. 445), V TTCLO-L (Od. 2. 194., 16.378), 0>t<br />
o-(f)i(ri (II. 23. 703).<br />
(2) with abstract words (rare in <strong>the</strong> Iliad) ; tv navreo-cri -TJWOKTI<br />
(II. 10. 245, 279), tv iravTta-ff epyoto-t (II. 23. 671), ez> aAyeo-t<br />
(II. 24. 568) ; Qa\iri tvi (II. 9. 143, 285), Iv vr\-niir\ (II. 9.<br />
491) ; ev ^lAorryrt ;<br />
v ^oiprj aright (II. 19. 186), aia-rj tv apyaXtT]<br />
(II. 22. 6l), tv Kapos aia-rj (II. 9. 378) ; ev 6e Ifj n/xrj<br />
(II. 9. 319).<br />
These two uses are nearly confined in <strong>the</strong> Iliad to books 9, 10,<br />
23, 24-<br />
221.] The Preposition ow (or uV)<br />
means in company with.<br />
It is not used as a pure Adverb, but is found in Tmesis, as II. i.<br />
579 avv 8' balra fjiJiiv rapd^rj and disturb (o-wrapao-o-co) our feast.<br />
It is used with an Instrumental Dative ( 144).<br />
To express equally with, or at <strong>the</strong> same time as, Homer uses Sjuia<br />
with a Dat. ;<br />
while ow commonly means attended by, with <strong>the</strong><br />
help <strong>of</strong>, &c. Hence vvv cWeo-t with armour on, vvv VTJVO-L in ships,<br />
on oath, crvv 'Ad^vrj aided by A<strong>the</strong>ne : so II. 4. 161 crvv re<br />
<strong>the</strong>y pay with a great price.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> o-vv with <strong>the</strong> Dative has been recently shown by Tycho Momrnsen<br />
to be confined, generally speaking, to poetry. The Attic prose writers (with<br />
<strong>the</strong> singular exception <strong>of</strong> Xenophon) use with jjierd <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>the</strong><br />
; practice <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> poets varies, from Homer, who hardly ever uses jjierd<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Gen., down<br />
to Euripides, who uses it about half as <strong>of</strong>ten as o-viv. It is evident that in
190 PREPOSITIONS.<br />
post-<strong>Homeric</strong> times \ier& with <strong>the</strong> Gen. became established in <strong>the</strong> ordinary<br />
colloquial language, while Aiojm?j8eos ap/xara ft^rrjv.<br />
The motion is sometimes implied: as II. 15. 275 ^<br />
hold back from fighting (going] out <strong>of</strong> range: cp. 16. '<br />
122,<br />
678., 18. 152.<br />
So <strong>of</strong> direction: II. 14. 153 "Hprj 6' etVetde . . o-raa' If OvXvp-<br />
1:010 stood and looked from Olympus; Od. 21. 420 (drew <strong>the</strong><br />
bow) avrodev e/c btypoLo KaQriptvosfrom <strong>the</strong> chair as he sat ; II. 19.<br />
375 or' av K TTOVTOIO o-e'Xas vavTyo-i (fravrirj<br />
when a meteor appears<br />
to sailors at sea (seeing<br />
it from <strong>the</strong> sea)<br />
: <strong>of</strong> choosing out <strong>of</strong>, II. 15.<br />
680 e/c TroAeW iria-vpas crv^aeiperat LTTTTOVS, and similarly^ II. 18.<br />
431 ocro-' e/xot eK naa-ttov Kpovioys Zevs aAye' e'ScoKe to me (taken<br />
from, hence) more than all.<br />
e is also used <strong>of</strong> an agent as <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> action ;<br />
as II. 5. 384<br />
rA%iez> ef avop&v have endured at <strong>the</strong> hands <strong>of</strong> men . . ; cp. II. 22.<br />
280, Od. 7. 70., 9. 512: also II. 24. 617 0&v e/c K7J8ea<br />
endures heaven-sent troubles, and Hes. Theog. 94 eK yap Movo-a<br />
az^Spes aot8ot eaom The meaning
225-]<br />
EI 2, 'EB, 'AHO, HPO. 191<br />
consequence <strong>of</strong> (a thing) occurs in II. 9. 566 e apeW ^rjTpbs MXO-<br />
Aa>jueW, and in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (3. 135., 5. 468, &c.).<br />
Of time: CK roi<strong>of</strong>rom that time, e<br />
apxfc from <strong>the</strong> first (Od. I.<br />
1 88, &c.),<br />
K veorrjros (II. 14. 86).<br />
With an abstract word, II. 10. 107 e* \6Xov dpyaAeoio jueraorpe\//-T7<br />
fyiKov Tyrop.<br />
Note also : II. 10. 68 TrarpoOtv K -yevfijs<br />
ovondfav calling <strong>the</strong>m by <strong>the</strong> fa<strong>the</strong>r s name according to family ; II.<br />
9. 343 (486) K dv^ov from <strong>the</strong> heart, heartily (but II. 23. 595 ft<br />
to fall away from a persons favour).<br />
Ovpov Treo-eeiz><br />
dTT.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Genitive diro generally expresses motion away from,<br />
not implying previous place within <strong>the</strong> object (whereas e| means<br />
proceeding from}. It is also used <strong>of</strong> position, as II. 8. 16 oa-ov<br />
will be <strong>the</strong><br />
ovpavos eor' OTTO yairjs as far as heaven is from earth Od. I. 49<br />
(j>L\d)v airo 7r?7/xara -rracrxei suffers woes far from his friends j metaphorically,<br />
II. i. 562 aTro Ovpov /uaXAoy e//ot eo^ou you<br />
more out <strong>of</strong> favour with me; aito bo^s away from expectation.<br />
This Gen. is clearly ablatival. irpo.<br />
225.] The Preposition irpo means forward, in front. It is<br />
seldom used as an Adverb; II. 13. 799 npb ^v T aAA', KT\. II. 16.<br />
;<br />
1 88 efayaye Trpo ^oaxrSe brought forth to <strong>the</strong> light: and <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
II. I.<br />
/o Trpo T tovTa <strong>the</strong> past. In one or two o<strong>the</strong>r instances we<br />
may recognise ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> free adverbial use or Tmesis II. I. 195<br />
:<br />
r<br />
Trpo yap rJK, I. 442 Trpo \ eTrejix^e, Od. l. 37 Trpo ot enro/zer.<br />
Traces <strong>of</strong> a use <strong>of</strong> Trpo with <strong>the</strong> Locative may be seen in <strong>the</strong><br />
phrases ovpavoOi Trpo in <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong> heaven, '\\i66i Trpo in front <strong>of</strong><br />
Troy, and (perhaps in <strong>the</strong> temporal sense) 77(0^1 Trpo' before dawn.<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se cases <strong>the</strong> meaning is to <strong>the</strong> front in, hence 'immediately<br />
before.
192 PREPOSITIONS. [226.<br />
With a Genitive, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, irpo<br />
means in front with<br />
respect to, in advance <strong>of</strong>; hence, in a more or less metaphorical<br />
sense, in defence <strong>of</strong>, as II. 8. 57 ^po TZ vafoav KOL irpb yvvaiK&v.<br />
The Case is here <strong>the</strong> ablatival Gen. (as with virep<br />
and words <strong>of</strong><br />
comparison).<br />
But in II. 4. 382 irpb obov lytvovro <strong>the</strong> Gen. is partitive, got<br />
forward on <strong>the</strong> way ; and so perhaps II. 16. 667 TT/OO o'/3oio forward<br />
in <strong>the</strong> flight,<br />
i. e.<br />
having betaken <strong>the</strong>mselves to flight (so<br />
Diintzer a. I.].<br />
The temporal sense is rare in Homer; Od. 15. 524., 17. 476<br />
irpb ydfjLOLo before marriage ; II. 10. 224 KCU re Trpo 6 rov eWrjo-e<br />
one thinks <strong>of</strong> a thing before ano<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
drri.<br />
226.] The only certain Compound with dm in Homer appears<br />
to be avTi- meet and dz>rirope'o> pierce may<br />
be derived from <strong>the</strong> Nouns dz/ri-/3oAo?, dz>ri-ropos-<br />
: also in II. 8.<br />
163 we may read yvvaiKos ap } avrl re'ri>o, not dvrereYufo (cp.<br />
Od.<br />
8. 54^ CLVT! Ka(nyvTt]Tov feii/os 0' iKcrrjs re and in Od.<br />
re'ru/crai), 22.<br />
74 for avTio"(r0 (hold up against) avr' to-xeo-^e (i. e. avra tcr^ecr^e,<br />
cp. Od. I. 334 avTU TtapeLaajv a"^<strong>of</strong>jLevr] Xnrapa Kpr^Sejura).<br />
&vn also resembles <strong>the</strong> Improper Prepositions (esp. <strong>the</strong> Adverbs<br />
aura, CLVTLOV, &c.) in being used with <strong>the</strong> Gen., but not with <strong>the</strong><br />
Dat. or Ace. It means in place <strong>of</strong>, hence in <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong>,<br />
to: as II. 2,1. 75 a<br />
Double Prepositions.<br />
227.] It is characteristic <strong>of</strong> Homer to form a species <strong>of</strong> compound<br />
by combining two Prepositions. We have<br />
dfi,
228.]<br />
IMPROPER PREPOSITIONS. 193<br />
In all <strong>the</strong>se instances <strong>the</strong> and construction are meaning1<br />
mainly<br />
determined by <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two Prepositions (so that e. g. impel<br />
is used nearly as irapd, 8ie' and Sia-rrpo as Sid, &c.).<br />
The second<br />
does little more than add some emphasis.<br />
The treble Preposition ttireKirpo is found in Composition : v-rrffcnpoOea}, vircrtirpopecu,<br />
&c. The sense is represented by dividing <strong>the</strong> words viretc-TrpoOeci}, &c.<br />
A curious variety is found in <strong>the</strong> Compound -npo-irponvXivSo^fvos rolling forward<br />
where before, a second irpo is added to give emphasis to <strong>the</strong> first.<br />
Improper Prepositions.<br />
228.] The term ' Improper Preposition' may be applied to<br />
are some <strong>of</strong><br />
any Adverb used to govern a Case. The following<br />
<strong>the</strong> most important words <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind :<br />
Used with a Genitive :<br />
ayy^i near, close to, eyyv&i,, eyyus near,<br />
avra, avriov, &c. facing, Trp6 was supposed to govern<br />
an Accusative in one<br />
place in Homer, viz. Od. 17. 218 o>? atet TOV o^olov ayet 0eo? a>s<br />
TOV <strong>of</strong>jiolov.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> true construction is (as<br />
Mr. Ridgeway has<br />
pointed out) o>? o>? as God brings like as he brings like, i. e. deals<br />
with a man as he dealt with his like (see<br />
Journal <strong>of</strong> Philology ,<br />
vol. xvii. p. 113).<br />
Note <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> Compounds formed by one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se words following a<br />
Preposition : tv-avra, fta-avra, dv-avra, KO.T-a.VTa., irdp-avTa, tv-avTiov,<br />
O
194 PREPOSITIONS. [229.<br />
avriov :<br />
cfA-irp<strong>of</strong>fOeV) irpo-napoiOfj fj.fT-6irioOev, air-ai'fvdfv, air-are pOev, di<br />
viT-evepOe, Kar-avriKpv. Cp. dV-5iX> Si-afJLtrepes, Kar-avruOt, &c. These are not<br />
true Compounds ((ruvOera), but are formed by irapaSeoas, or mere juxtaposition<br />
: i. e, <strong>the</strong>y do not consist <strong>of</strong> two members, <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong> first is wholly<br />
employed in limiting or qualifying <strong>the</strong> second, but <strong>of</strong> two adverbial words<br />
qualifying <strong>the</strong> same Verb. Thus <strong>the</strong>y are essentially akin to <strong>the</strong> combinations<br />
formed by a Preposition and its Case : see 178.<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> and Attic uses <strong>of</strong> Prepositions.<br />
229.] The development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language between <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
and <strong>the</strong> Attic period is especially shown in <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> Prepositions.<br />
It may be convenient here to bring toge<strong>the</strong>r some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
chief points.<br />
i . Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Prepositions, but esp. djj,i_, irepi, impd, em, uu
230.] INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 195<br />
t with <strong>the</strong> Ace. = about ><br />
nearly (<strong>of</strong> time and number) ; also =<br />
in relation to:<br />
concerning',<br />
irapd with <strong>the</strong> Dat. = in <strong>the</strong> opinion <strong>of</strong>; with <strong>the</strong> Ace. = during<br />
<strong>the</strong> continuance <strong>of</strong>; also compared with :<br />
card with <strong>the</strong> Ace. = answering to ; also during <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> :<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Gen. = about \ against :<br />
Im with <strong>the</strong> Dat. = in <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong>:<br />
with many phrases in which <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Preposition is<br />
vague, such as 81' opyrjj, ava Kparos, irpos (3tav t e/c TOV eju.$avovs,<br />
&c.<br />
6. There are slight but perceptible differences between <strong>the</strong><br />
usage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad and that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odyssey ( 182, 188, 196, 199,<br />
215). Some uses, again, are peculiar to one or two books <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Iliad, esp. 9, 10, 23, 24 : see 199 (4), 220, 223 (fin.).<br />
CHAPTER X.<br />
THE VERBAL NOUNS.<br />
Introductory.<br />
230.] The preceding chapters deal with <strong>the</strong> Simple Sentence :<br />
that is to say, <strong>the</strong> Sentence which consists <strong>of</strong> a single Verb, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> subordinate or qualifying words (Case-forms, Adverbs, Prepositions)<br />
( 131).<br />
We have now to consider<br />
how this type is enlarged by means <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verbal Nouns.<br />
The Infinitive and Participle, as has been explained ( 84),<br />
are in fact Nouns : <strong>the</strong> Infinitive is an abstract Noun denoting<br />
<strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb, <strong>the</strong> Participle a concrete Noun expressing<br />
that action as an attribute. They are termed ' Verbal ' because<br />
<strong>the</strong>y suggest or imply a predication, such as a finite Verb expresses<br />
(e. g. p^Tai ayav avrovs implies <strong>the</strong> assertion ayei CIVTOVS),<br />
and because <strong>the</strong> words which depend upon or qualify <strong>the</strong>m are<br />
construed with <strong>the</strong>m as with Verbs (ayav avrovs, not ayav avr&v<br />
bringer <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m).<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong>y have <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> subordinate<br />
Verbs, ' governed ' by <strong>the</strong> finite Verb <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence, and<br />
serving at <strong>the</strong> same time as centres <strong>of</strong> dependent Clauses.<br />
The distinction between Infinitives and o<strong>the</strong>r abstract Substantives, and<br />
again between Participles and o<strong>the</strong>r primitive Adjectives, was probably not<br />
always so clearly drawn as it is in Greek. The Infinitives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oldest<br />
Sanscrit hardly form a distinct group <strong>of</strong> words ; <strong>the</strong>y are abstract Nouns <strong>of</strong><br />
various formation, used in several different Cases, and would hardly have<br />
O 2
196 INFINITIVE. [231.<br />
been classed apart from o<strong>the</strong>r Case-forms if <strong>the</strong>y had not been recognised as<br />
<strong>the</strong> precursors <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> later more developed Infinitive. The Participles, too,<br />
are variously formed in Sanscrit, and moreover <strong>the</strong>y are not <strong>the</strong> only Nouns<br />
with which <strong>the</strong> construction is l adverbial ' instead <strong>of</strong> being ' adnominal.'<br />
The peculiarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verbal Nouns in point <strong>of</strong> meaning may be said to<br />
consist in <strong>the</strong> temporary and accidental character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> actions or attributes<br />
which <strong>the</strong>y express. Thus irpdrTeiv and irpa^at suggest a particular doing,<br />
momentary or progressive, at or during a time fixed by <strong>the</strong> context whereas<br />
;<br />
irpais means doing, irrespective <strong>of</strong> time ; irpaKTup one who does, generally or<br />
permanently, a doer; and so in o<strong>the</strong>r cases. The distinction is especially<br />
important for Homer. In <strong>the</strong> later language <strong>the</strong>re are uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive<br />
and Participle in which <strong>the</strong>y lose <strong>the</strong> Verbal element, and have <strong>the</strong> character<br />
<strong>of</strong> ,ordinary Nouns ; e. g. TO irpdrTfiv is nearly equivalent to 7r/>ot?, ol irpaTTovrts<br />
to irpaKTOpts, &c.<br />
The Infinitive.<br />
231.] Form and original meaning. The Greek Infinitive<br />
is a Case-form usually <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>of</strong> an abstract Verbal<br />
Noun (nomen actionis).<br />
As a Dative it expresses an action to<br />
which that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> governing Verb is directed, or for which it<br />
takes place,<br />
viz. a purpose, effect, bearing, &c. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> main<br />
action. Thus 86jjiei>-ai to give, being <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>of</strong> a Stem SO-JAC^<br />
giving, means ' to or for giving,' hence in order to give, so as to<br />
give, &c. But owing to <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> all o<strong>the</strong>r uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dative<br />
in Greek ( 143), and <strong>the</strong> consequent isolation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive,<br />
its<br />
meaning has been somewhat extended. For <strong>the</strong> same reason<br />
<strong>the</strong> Infinitives derived from o<strong>the</strong>r Cases ( 85) are no longer used<br />
with different meaning, but are retained merely as alternative<br />
forms.<br />
The Dative meaning evidently accounts for <strong>the</strong> common constructions<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive with Verbs expressing wish, command,<br />
power, expectation, beginning, and <strong>the</strong> like as e0e'Aco bo^vai lit.<br />
:<br />
I am willing for giving, ^vva^ai i8eeiy 1 have power for seeing, &c.<br />
In Homer it<br />
may be said to be <strong>the</strong> usual meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infini-<br />
such as<br />
tive. It is found in a great many simple phrases,<br />
fvWqicc nax.or0aL urged toge<strong>the</strong>r to fight (so that <strong>the</strong>y fought),<br />
bos ayeiv give for leading away (to be led away), ot8e vorjo-ai,<br />
knows<br />
(has sense) to perceive, (3rj b y ttvai stepped to go (<br />
= took his way,<br />
cp. yovvar ercojua (f)vyefJLvai) ; TT/ooerjKe irvOlcrdaL, TTC^TTC ve
231.] INFINITIVE. 197<br />
Od. 4. 634 5e efxe XP ^ ytyveran. avrrjs "HAi5' e? fvpv^opov 5ia/3rjjoierai<br />
/ have need <strong>of</strong> it for crossing over to Elis.<br />
The notion <strong>of</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong>ten passes into that <strong>of</strong> adaptation,<br />
possibility, necessity, &c. ; e. g.<br />
II. 6. 227 -TroAAol IJLV yap e/xoi Tpcoes . . KTWiv<br />
Trojansfor me to kill (whom I may kill)-, cp. 9.<br />
<strong>the</strong>re are many<br />
688 etVt KCH<br />
ot8e ra' ctTre/xe^<br />
^^ #00 fl/ 1^ ^f
198 INFINITIVE. [232.<br />
eiTrare 5'<br />
i7reii> to speak to <strong>the</strong> intent that, to bid, as OcL 3. 427<br />
to-a) 8juta)?jo-tz><br />
. . TrevecrOai. O<strong>the</strong>r examples are given in 238.<br />
In this use, as was observed by Mr. Eiddell (Dig. 83), <strong>the</strong> ' dictative<br />
force' <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> thinking right, advising, &c. comes through <strong>the</strong><br />
Infinitive to <strong>the</strong> governing Verb, not vice versa. The same remark holds <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> use with &TTI it is possible, lit. it is (a case) for (something to happen).<br />
232.] Infinitive with Nouns, &c. It will be useful to bring<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r instances in which <strong>the</strong> Infinitive depends upon some<br />
qualifying word Preposition, Adverb, Adjective, &c. construed<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Verb :<br />
II. i. 258 pt'vcpl fj-tv /SovXqy Aava&v ircpl 6"' ecrre id\(r6ai excel<br />
<strong>the</strong>m in fighting.<br />
I.<br />
589 apya\os yap 'OA.u/xTuos' ai>rt
234-] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT, &C. 199<br />
It is very common with a negative : OVK eo-ri, ov mo? 2oz>,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> like.<br />
With an abstract Noun as<br />
(5)<br />
:<br />
II. 14. 80 ov yap TLS re/xea-ij (hvyetiv K.OLK.OV <strong>the</strong>re is no wrong<br />
in escaping<br />
ill.<br />
Od. 5. 345 6'0i rot /xotp' eoriz; dAveu where it is thy fate to fyc.<br />
II. 330 dAAa KCU u>prj evbtiv <strong>the</strong>re is a time for fyo.<br />
So with o2 fiacri-<br />
\VfjiV to be a king is not a lad thing. This construction however<br />
is not consistent with <strong>the</strong> original character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive.<br />
It is '<br />
plain that lortz; evbciv can never have meant sleeping is/<br />
but ' <strong>the</strong>re is (room &c.) for sleeping ' : and so apyaXtov ecrrt<br />
dtcrOai is<br />
originally, and in Homer, it (<strong>the</strong> case, state <strong>of</strong> tilings, fyc.)<br />
is hard m view <strong>of</strong> making. It is only in later Greek that we have<br />
<strong>the</strong> form apyaXtov<br />
crrl TO dtvQai, in which Ota-Oai is an indeclinable<br />
Neuter Noun.<br />
The process by which <strong>the</strong> Infinitive, from being a mere word
-<br />
200 INFINITIVE. [234.<br />
<strong>of</strong> limitation, comes to be in sense <strong>the</strong> Subject or Object<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
principal Clause, can be traced in sentences <strong>of</strong> various forms :<br />
(1) With a personal Subject; e.g. in<br />
II. 5- 75O Trjs eTTtreYpaTmu /aeyas ovpavbs Ov^vfjuros re<br />
rjfjicv avcLKXlvai TTVKLVOV vetyos rjb' e-jnOelvai<br />
<strong>the</strong> meaning ' to <strong>the</strong>m is entrusted <strong>the</strong> opening and shutting <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> thick cloud <strong>of</strong> heaven/ is expressed by saying 'to <strong>the</strong>m<br />
heaven is entrusted for opening and shutting <strong>the</strong> cloud/ So<br />
II. T. 107 aid TOI TO, KCIK' eort petrt fjiavTtvta-Oai.<br />
4. 345 ^vOa tA' oTrraAe'a Kpe'a e'Sjueyai.<br />
Meaning you love to prophesy tvils (to eat roast flesh, fyc.).<br />
(2) The Impersonal form (apyaAeW ecm) only differs from <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> vagueness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subject, which makes it easier for<br />
<strong>the</strong> Infinitive to become <strong>the</strong> Subject in sense, while it is still<br />
grammatically a word limiting <strong>the</strong> vague unexpressed Subject.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> a Neuter Pronoun as Subject (e.g. TO ye<br />
<strong>the</strong> thing is good, to listen] may be regarded as a link<br />
between <strong>the</strong> personal and impersonal forms <strong>of</strong> expression<br />
:<br />
cp.<br />
161 (note),<br />
also 258.<br />
(3) Similarly an Infinitive following <strong>the</strong> Object <strong>of</strong> a Verb may<br />
become <strong>the</strong> logical Object ;<br />
as<br />
II. 4. 347 ?? juteVere Tpwas cr\tov eA0e/meF ; do ye wait for <strong>the</strong><br />
Trojans for <strong>the</strong>ir coming on ? i. e. for <strong>the</strong> coming on <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Trojans.<br />
14. 342 r/ Hp?7, jurjre Oe&v TO ye ei'8i0i //,?jre<br />
nv &vbp&v ctyeo-0ai<br />
do not fear any one <strong>of</strong> gods or <strong>of</strong> men for <strong>the</strong>ir being about to<br />
see, i. e. that any one will see : cp. Od. 22. 39, 40.<br />
A fur<strong>the</strong>r development <strong>of</strong> this use leads, as we shall see, to <strong>the</strong><br />
'<br />
Accusative with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive/<br />
(4) Again, <strong>the</strong> Infinitive sometimes takes <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> a vague<br />
unexpressed Object.<br />
Thus ote ror/o-oi means knows (enough)<br />
to<br />
perceive: <strong>the</strong> full construction being such as we have in II. 2. 213<br />
09 p eVea (j)p(rlv i](Tiv a/coo^a re TroAAa re fjbL . . ept^juez^at who<br />
knew (had<br />
a store <strong>of</strong>) words wherewith to wrangle. So too 8i6co^t<br />
with an Infinitive is originally construed as Od. 8. 44 rw yap pa<br />
0eo9 Trept bG)Kv CLOIOTJV T^pifftP<br />
: II. II. 2O TOV Trore ot Kivvprjs Sw/ce<br />
^tivrjiov tlvai ;<br />
<strong>the</strong>nce it comes to mean ' to give (such<br />
a state <strong>of</strong><br />
things) that some event shall happen/ i. e. to grant <strong>the</strong> happening ;<br />
as 86? rtVacrflai grant that I may punish. In such a passage as II.<br />
3. 3^2 Tov ^^s aiTO(j)OL^Lvov bvvai KrA. we may take TOV with 5os<br />
or as an Ace. with <strong>the</strong> Inf. bvvai.<br />
A Neuter Pronoun, too, may serve as a vague Object, explained<br />
by an Infinitive; e.g. II. 5. 6656 TO JJL^V<br />
ov rts eTr<br />
crar' . .<br />
ttpv
237-] WITH RELATIVES WITH HPIN. 2OI<br />
(5) The Infinitive may also be equivalent in sense to <strong>the</strong> Genitive<br />
depending on a Noun; as<br />
II. 7- 49 V "/UP TIS ei8o> VKV(6V KaTaT0VT](dT(i)V<br />
yiyVtT 7Tl K OdvtiKTL TTVpOS ^i\l(T(ri^V<br />
&>KCL<br />
i. e. <strong>the</strong>re is no grudging about <strong>the</strong> appeasing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dead.<br />
Hence is developed an idiomatic use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Genitive parallel to<br />
that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusativus de quo: see Shilleto on Thuc. i. 61, i.<br />
With Relatives. It is remarkable that <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
235.]<br />
Infinitive with obs, s re only occurs twice : II. 9. 42 eTreVcrvrai<br />
cos re v(T0ai is eager to return, and Od. 17. 20 ov -yap<br />
em<br />
(TTaO[jLol(TL fJLevtiv TL rrjAtKOs eijut, cos r' eTTtreiAajuero) TH^eV^at.<br />
. .<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r instances are: Od. 2,1.<br />
173 rotor olov re such<br />
e'ju,ei>ai<br />
a one as to be ; Od. 5. 484 ocro-ov re . . epixrflai so far as to skelter ;<br />
Od. 19. 1 60 av7]p otos re juaAto~ra OIKOU K?]6ecr$aij 21. 117 otos r' .<br />
236.] With irptV and irdpos. This use is common in Homer :<br />
as II. T.<br />
98 TTpiV y ttTro Trarpt tXa) 8o'/>tez/at before <strong>the</strong>y give back to<br />
LI. 573 Trapos xpoa \VKOV eTrcwpeiV before touching <strong>the</strong><br />
her fa<strong>the</strong>r ;<br />
The tense is nearly always <strong>the</strong> Aorist <strong>the</strong> :<br />
exceptions are, Od.<br />
19. 475 Kplv a/^a0dao-0at (a verb which has no Aorist),<br />
1 8.<br />
245 Trapes bopiroLo jme'deo-flat. Perhaps however /utedecr^at<br />
Aorist : see 31, 2.<br />
and II.<br />
is an<br />
irpti/<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Indicative first appears in H. Apoll. 357 irpiv ye<br />
01 Ibv tyrJKtv. For <strong>the</strong> use with <strong>the</strong> Subj. see 297.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> this singularly isolated construction must evidently be sought<br />
in <strong>the</strong> period when <strong>the</strong> Infinitive was an abstract Noun ;<br />
so that (e. g.} irplv<br />
86fj*vai meant before <strong>the</strong> giving. The difficulty is that a word like irpiv would<br />
be construed with <strong>the</strong> Ablative, not <strong>the</strong> Dative : as in fact we find Ablatives<br />
used as Infinitives in Sanscrit with purd 'before ' (,Whitney, 983). It may<br />
be conjectured that <strong>the</strong> Dative Infinitive in Greek was substituted in this<br />
construction for an Ablative. Such a substitution might take place when<br />
<strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive as a Case-form had become obscured.<br />
It is held by Sturm (Geschichtliche Entwickelung der Constructionen mit irpii',<br />
p. 15) that <strong>the</strong> Inf. has <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> limitation: e.g. irplv ovraaai 'before in<br />
respect to wounding/ before <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> wounding. But on this view <strong>the</strong><br />
sense would ra<strong>the</strong>r be 'too soon to wound.' It is better to say, with Mr.<br />
Goodwin ( 623"!, that irpiv is :<br />
'quasi-prepositional' and if so <strong>the</strong> Infinitive<br />
had ceased to be felt as a Dative when <strong>the</strong> use arose.<br />
The restriction to <strong>the</strong> Aor. Inf. may date from <strong>the</strong> time when Infinitives<br />
or Case-forms on <strong>the</strong> way to become Infinitives ( 242) were chiefly formed<br />
from <strong>the</strong> same Stem as <strong>the</strong> Aorist. Cp. <strong>the</strong> Aor. Participles which are without<br />
Tense-meaning ( 243, i).<br />
237.] Accusative with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive. Along with <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive as an abstract Noun ;<br />
we find in Homer <strong>the</strong>
202 INFINITIVE. [237.<br />
later use by which it is in sense <strong>the</strong> Verb <strong>of</strong> a dependent Clause,<br />
<strong>the</strong> Subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Clause being in <strong>the</strong> Accusative.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ace. with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive we may distinguish<br />
<strong>the</strong> following varieties or stages <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> idiom :<br />
1 . The Ace. has a grammatical construction with <strong>the</strong> governing<br />
Verb :<br />
e.g.<br />
II. I.<br />
313 \aovs 8' 'Arpdbrjs aTTO\v^aivcr9aL cbcoye Agamemnon<br />
ordered <strong>the</strong> people to purify <strong>the</strong>mselves = that ( <strong>the</strong>y should<br />
purify).<br />
5. 601 olov 6r) Oav^a^o^v "EnTopa blov a2)(M r ? T1 ? z; r' fy-ewt KrA.<br />
(for being a ivarrior, how he was a warrior}.<br />
This might be called <strong>the</strong> natural Ace. with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive.<br />
2. The Ace. has not a sufficient construction with <strong>the</strong> Verb<br />
alone, but may be used if it is accompanied by an Infinitive <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> thing or fact: e.g.<br />
/3ovAo/i/,' eyo) Xabv cr&v ejutfxerat<br />
/ wish <strong>the</strong> people to be safe (<strong>the</strong><br />
safety <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people).<br />
OVVK CLKOV(T<br />
Tip(rOaL TpcSaj because he heard <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Trojans<br />
being hard pressed.<br />
no ov uejueo-ifoju' 'Axcuoifj dd^aXdav wherefore<br />
I do not think it a<br />
shame in <strong>the</strong> Greeks to chafe.<br />
In this construction <strong>the</strong> logical Object<br />
is <strong>the</strong> fact or action<br />
given by <strong>the</strong> Infinitive, to which <strong>the</strong> Ace. furnishes a Subject or<br />
agent, and thus turns it from an abstract Noun to a predication<br />
(so that e.g. reipeo-flai T/xSas is virtually =. or 6 ereipoyro Tpwej).<br />
It is found with Verbs that usually take only a '<br />
Cognate Ace/<br />
(Neuter Pronoun, &c.),<br />
as 4>?]/xt, eiTroy, aKovo), TrvvQavopai. oi8a, duo,<br />
&c. Thus<br />
238.]<br />
ACCUSATIVE WITH INFINITIVE. 203<br />
This may be called <strong>the</strong> purely idiomatic Ace. with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive.<br />
It has evidently been formed on <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> older<br />
varieties.<br />
238.] Tenses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive. So long as <strong>the</strong> Infinitive is<br />
merely a Verbal Noun, it does not express anything about <strong>the</strong><br />
time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> action as past, present, or future. But when it is<br />
virtually a predication, <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> time comes in ;<br />
e.g.<br />
II. 5- 659 aAA' olov TLVCL ao-t (3ir]V 'HpaKArje^u<br />
e/z/xerai what (' <strong>the</strong>y say he was ') : cp. Od. 8. 181.<br />
14. 454 ov [Jiav avr dfo) . . aXwv 77778?}am aK.ovra,<br />
dAAa ris 'ApyeiW Ko'juio-e \pot.<br />
The Future Infinitive is used with c^jut, duo, eA7ro/*at, vina-yvto-<br />
HaL, and o<strong>the</strong>r Verbs o/Aisvjuit implying expectation we promise ; also<br />
with /ixe'AAco<br />
when it means to be about to.<br />
When <strong>the</strong> Inf. expresses, not simple expectation as to <strong>the</strong><br />
future, but fitness, obligation, necessity, or <strong>the</strong> like ( 231, 2), <strong>the</strong><br />
Aorist or Present is used. Thus II. 13. 262 ov yap duo TroXe/^ifet^<br />
means, not ' I do not think I shall fight/ but I do not think Jit,<br />
I<br />
have no mind, to fyht ; so II. 3. 98 oeo> peo-t rtjur/o-ao-flat<br />
(understand] that I should honour <strong>the</strong>e (<br />
1.<br />
purpose to honour<br />
<strong>the</strong>e) : 24. 5^ voi
204 INFINITIVE. [239.<br />
281. So Od. 13. 173 os TIo(Tibaa)v t(f)a(TK ayavavQai who said<br />
that Poseidon was moved to indignation (<br />
= 6<br />
In several places <strong>the</strong> reading is uncertain, <strong>the</strong> Fut. being<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same<br />
metrical value as <strong>the</strong> Aor. or <strong>the</strong> Pres. (-ecrOcu and -ao-0ai, -i^ctv and -i^eiv.<br />
In such cases <strong>the</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians and <strong>the</strong> MSS. is<br />
&c.).<br />
usually indecisive, and we are justified in writing <strong>the</strong> Fut. throughout, according<br />
to <strong>the</strong> general rule. Thus<br />
II. 3. 28
ATTRACTION.<br />
240.] 205<br />
may have a Predicative Accusative, in agreement with its (expressed<br />
or understood) Subject as II. 4. 341 : aty&'iv pev r eTreot/ce<br />
fjLtra TTptoTOicriv copras kcrra^v it becomes you that you should stand<br />
among <strong>the</strong> foremost ; II. 8. 192 rrj? vvv KA.eos ovpavov uet Traa-av<br />
Xpvcreirjv ejueuat whose fame reaches heaven that it is all gold.<br />
Or <strong>the</strong> words which enter in this way into an Infinitival Clause<br />
may follow <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Clause, and thus be<br />
put in <strong>the</strong> Nom. or Dat. as<br />
;<br />
II. I.<br />
76 KCU fjiOL ojuoo-o-oz;, 77 ^iv ju,ot Trpotypav . . ap?jfiu<br />
12. 337 ov TTW? ot erjv {3a>cravTL yeyawelv.<br />
Here Trpo^pcoz;<br />
is said to be 'attracted'' into <strong>the</strong> Nom. (agreeing<br />
with <strong>the</strong> subject <strong>of</strong> o/xoo-o-ou),<br />
and pvcravn into <strong>the</strong> Dat. (agreeing<br />
with ot).<br />
The difference <strong>of</strong> meaning given by <strong>the</strong> two constructions is<br />
generally to be observed in Homer, at least in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Dative. A Noun or Participle is<br />
put in <strong>the</strong> Ace. if it is closely<br />
connected with <strong>the</strong> Inf., so as to become an essential part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
predication whereas a Dat. construed with <strong>the</strong> :<br />
principal Clause<br />
expresses something prior to <strong>the</strong> Inf. (ei<strong>the</strong>r a condition or a<br />
reason).<br />
Thus<br />
II. i.<br />
541 alet rot $i\ov evrlv 6jueC OTTO vo;jT KCU avTu> (13. 46., 15. 604).*<br />
II. 15. 496 ov ot aetKes ajuvuo/xeVa) trepl Trdrprjs reOvafJiev<br />
to die when fghting for his country.<br />
So II. 5. 253., 13. 96., 20. 356., 21. 185., 22. 72.<br />
There are some exceptions, however, if our texts are to be<br />
trusted ;<br />
i. e. <strong>the</strong>re are places where a word which belongs to <strong>the</strong><br />
predication is put in <strong>the</strong> Dat. owing to a preceding Dat. : e. g.<br />
II. 15. TI7 ct Tre'p /mot Kat fjLolpa AIOJ -rrA^yeVrt Kpavv<br />
Ki(rdai 6[jiov VKV
'<br />
*<br />
206 INFINITIVE. [241.<br />
This seems to be always <strong>the</strong> case when <strong>the</strong>re are two successive<br />
Participles, <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong> which is properly in <strong>the</strong> Dat. as<br />
:<br />
II. 12. 410 apyaXtov 8e [JLOI eori KOL t(0tjuto> Trep<br />
jjiovvto p?7a//,eV a>s eTTtreXAa).<br />
3. 459 ^OT, KCU TL^J]V aTTOTlVe[JiV.<br />
Od. 4. 415 KCU TOT 7766^' V[UV fJL\T(D KttpTO? T (3if] T,<br />
avOi 8' exetv KrA.. (cp. v. 419, 422 f.).<br />
Or after a Future, to express what <strong>the</strong> person addressed is to do<br />
as his part in a set <strong>of</strong> acts :<br />
II. 22. 259 VKp6v A.yjcaio'ia'iv 8o> TTCL\IV, &s e &v pe^ety.<br />
Od. 4. 408 Vvd(T(ti ^LT]S' (TV b' V KplVCLvQai, tTCLlpOVS.<br />
So after a clause which leads up to a command; II. u. 788<br />
aAA.' ev ol (f)d(T0aL (Achilles<br />
is <strong>the</strong> mightier) but do you advise him<br />
well: 17. 691., 20. 335. Cp. also, II. 10. 65 aWi ptveiv (answer<br />
to <strong>the</strong> question am I to remain here?): 5. 124 Qapvtav vvv . .<br />
^dx(r6ai (in answer to a prayer) without fear now you may fght.<br />
The use for <strong>the</strong> Third Person is rare : in a command, II. 6.<br />
8692 etTre 6' eTretra ju^rept
242.] ORIGIN OF THE INFINITIVE. 207<br />
II. 2. 4*2 Zei5 Kvbi(TT, /xeytore, KeA.atzt(/)ej, alOcpi vaiwv,<br />
JXT) TT/HZJ<br />
7r'<br />
r]tkiov bvvai, KT\. (cp. 3. 285., 7. 179).<br />
Od. 17. 354 Zei) aVa, Trj\fjLaxov /xot ez> avopdviv o\(3ioi> tlvai.<br />
An Infinitive <strong>of</strong> wish is used with <strong>the</strong> Subject in <strong>the</strong> Nom.,<br />
once <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Second Person, and once <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> First Person :<br />
Od. 7. 311 at yap Ze re -TrdVep Kat 'AOrjvair) Kat "AiroXXov<br />
rotos ea>u otos efrat, ra re (frpovewv a T ey&> Trep,<br />
TratSa r' e/xr)z; e^e/xev Kat e/xo? yafjifipos<br />
KC<br />
it yap . . otoj N?)ptKOi> etAoy . . rotos e<br />
\ > /<br />
Kat afjivvtiv.<br />
The force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive in all <strong>the</strong>se uses seems to be that <strong>of</strong><br />
an indirect Imperative. The command is given as something<br />
following on an expressed or implied state <strong>of</strong> things. Thus we<br />
may connect <strong>the</strong> idiom with <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive to imply<br />
fitness, obligation, &c. ( 231); compare etcrt Kat ot6e rad' etVejue^<br />
<strong>the</strong>se are here to say this with Kat 8e ay etTre/xeuat it is your part to<br />
say. There is a similar use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive in Sanscrit, with<br />
ellipse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verb to be (Delbriick, A. S. p. 15 : Whitney, 982,<br />
It should be noticed, however, that o<strong>the</strong>r languages have developed a use <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Infinitive in commands, to which this explanation does not apply : as<br />
Germ, schritt fahren ! In <strong>the</strong>se cases we may recognise a general tendency<br />
towards <strong>the</strong> impersonal form. It is very probable that <strong>the</strong> ordinary 2 Sing.<br />
Imper. \4ye represents an original use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Tense-stem without any Personending<br />
(Paul, Principien, p. 108).<br />
242.] Origin and history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive. That <strong>the</strong> Greek<br />
Infinitive was originally <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>of</strong> an abstract Noun is<br />
proved by comparison with Sanscrit. *<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Veda and Brahmana<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> verbal nouns, nomina actionis, in various <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>ir cases, are used in constructions which assimilate <strong>the</strong>m to<br />
<strong>the</strong> infinitive <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r languages although, were it not for <strong>the</strong>se<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r later and more developed and pronounced infinitives, <strong>the</strong><br />
constructions in question might pass as ordinary case-constructions<br />
<strong>of</strong> a somewhat peculiar kind' (Whitney, 969). In <strong>the</strong><br />
Veda <strong>the</strong>se Infinitives, or Case-forms on <strong>the</strong> way to become<br />
Infinitives (werdende Infinitive, Delbr.), are mostly Datives, expressing<br />
end or purpose, and several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m are identical in<br />
formation with Greek Infinitives ;<br />
as ddvane BoOmi (boFevai,),<br />
vidmane fiSfAemi, -dhyai -aBai,* -ase -
208 INFINITIVE. [242.<br />
quently <strong>the</strong>se forms stand quite apart from <strong>the</strong> Case-system,<br />
and have ceased to be felt as real Case-forms. Thus <strong>the</strong> Greek<br />
Infinitive is a survival, both in form and in construction, from a<br />
period when <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>of</strong> purpose or consequence was one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ordinary idioms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language. In Latin, again, this<br />
Dative is common enough, and <strong>of</strong>ten answers in meaning to <strong>the</strong><br />
Greek Infinitive; compare (e.g.] co/>ry ta-rlv evfeiv with munitioni<br />
tempws relinquere (Roby, 1156), a^vveiv eiVi KOI aAAoi with<br />
auxilio esse, &c. The retention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> construction in Latin is<br />
connected, on <strong>the</strong> one hand with <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> Latin Dative<br />
is a 'true Dative/ on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand with <strong>the</strong> comparatively<br />
small use that is made in Latin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive <strong>of</strong> purpose.<br />
Similarly in classical Sanscrit <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>of</strong> purpose &c. is extremely<br />
common, but <strong>the</strong> Dative Infinitives have gone entirely<br />
out <strong>of</strong> use (Whitney, 287 and 986) a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> * struggle<br />
for existence ' which precisely reverses <strong>the</strong> state <strong>of</strong> things in<br />
Greek.<br />
The growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dative <strong>of</strong> purpose into a distinct subordinate<br />
Clause was favoured by <strong>the</strong> habit <strong>of</strong> placing it at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
sentence, after <strong>the</strong> Verb, so that it had <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> an<br />
addition or afterthought. This was <strong>the</strong> rule in Vedic Sanscrit<br />
(see Delbriick, A. S. p. 25).<br />
It may be traced in Greek, not<br />
merely in collocations like epcSt fcvvtrjKf fjia^crOai, &c., but even<br />
in such forms as<br />
II. 5* 639 4AX* olov TLVOL (fraa-i ftirjv<br />
coeval (what <strong>the</strong>y call him as to being),<br />
where <strong>the</strong> Inf. appears to be added epexegetically after a slight<br />
pause : cp. II. 2. 249., 17. 27., 21. 463, 57, Od. i.<br />
233, 377.,<br />
6. 43., 17. 416.<br />
The development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitival Clause which we find in<br />
Greek and Latin may be traced chiefly under two heads ; (i) <strong>the</strong><br />
construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' Accusative with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive/ by which<br />
<strong>the</strong> predication <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive was provided with an expressed<br />
Subject ( 237) and : (2) <strong>the</strong> system <strong>of</strong> Tenses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive,<br />
which was gradually completed by <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> newjftn/w,<br />
esp. <strong>the</strong> Future Infinitive, peculiar to Greek, and by <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Present Infinitive as equivalent in meaning to <strong>the</strong> Present<br />
and Imperfect Indicative. In <strong>the</strong> post- <strong>Homeric</strong> language <strong>the</strong><br />
Infinitive came to be used as an equivalent, not only for <strong>the</strong><br />
Indicative, but also for o<strong>the</strong>r Moods.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive as an indeclinable Noun is subsequent<br />
it became possible with <strong>the</strong> later use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Article.<br />
to Homer ;<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conditions, however, out <strong>of</strong> which it<br />
grew may be<br />
traced in <strong>Homeric</strong> language. The first <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se was <strong>the</strong> complete<br />
separation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive from <strong>the</strong> Case-system; so that it<br />
'
243-] PARTICIPLE. 209<br />
ceased to be felt as a Case-form, and could be used in parallel<br />
construction to <strong>the</strong> Nom. or Ace. : as<br />
II. 2. 453 os miserable, ovrjuevos happy IK^VOS secundus, acr^vos<br />
,<br />
glad, CKG>V willing, 0(*>v (better t06v, since it is an Aor. in form,<br />
31, i) according to wont, TrepmX<strong>of</strong>jLtvos (in <strong>the</strong> phrase<br />
jueVcou cviavT&v <strong>the</strong> revolving years) ;<br />
also <strong>the</strong> Substantival<br />
rulers, TtvovTes muscles, a^i(3ovTs rafters, aWovva a portico,<br />
a serpent, ytpav, ^ova-a. The word Kpeiwv ruler retains a trace <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb in cvpv K/oetW widely ruling. Cp. also <strong>the</strong> compounds<br />
2. Much more frequently, <strong>the</strong> Participle qualifies or forms<br />
part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> predication ( 162) : e.g. in such combinations as<br />
diao-njrrjz; eptVa^re parted having quarrelled<br />
V(f)poi>())v ayoprjcraTo spoke with good thought<br />
<strong>the</strong> Participle has <strong>the</strong> same construction as <strong>the</strong> Adjective in<br />
naXivopa-os ch-eWrj, or Trpotypav reYArj/cas ( 162, 2). Thus it<br />
serves to express a predication which <strong>the</strong> speaker wishes to subordinate<br />
in some way to that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> governing Verb.<br />
The Participle may express different relations : attendant cirp
210 PARTICIPLE.<br />
cumstance or manner (as<br />
in <strong>the</strong> examples quoted) ; cause, as II. 1 1 .<br />
313 TL iraOovre XeXda-fjLcOa 6ovpibos aA.*?}? ; opposition, as <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
with Kai and &c. irep, (Goodwin, 832-846).<br />
3. Finally, a Participle construed in ' Apposition ' to a Noun<br />
in an oblique Case may imply a predication ( 168);<br />
as Kairv6v<br />
a7ro0p(p(TKovTa v<strong>of</strong>jcrai to descry <strong>the</strong> smoke rising (i.<br />
e. when it rises,<br />
or that it rises, &c.).<br />
Note that<br />
(a)<br />
A Participle <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong>ten has <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> a distinct<br />
Clause, coming at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> a sentence, and after a metrical<br />
pause : as<br />
II. 4. 420 btivbv 8' fipa\ \aXKbs m o-rrjOco-orLV CLVCLKTOS<br />
opvvfjievov (as he roused himself).<br />
Od. 23. 205 &? (fraTo, TTJS b' avrov XVTO yovvara KOI QiXov ryrop<br />
tricar' avayvovcrrjs (when she recognised <strong>the</strong> token).<br />
Not (b) unfrequently <strong>the</strong> word with which <strong>the</strong> Participle should<br />
be construed is understood :<br />
especially when it is a Partitive or<br />
quasi-Partitive Gen. ( 147, 151) :<br />
II. 2. 153 avrrj 8' ovpavbv IKCV cn/cade UjueWz/ a cry rose to<br />
heaven (<strong>of</strong> men) eager to return home : so II. 1 2.<br />
339., 13. 291, 49 8 -> !5- 68 9-<br />
5. 162 iropTios rj /3o6s vXoyov Kara poa-KOfjLevdwv a heifer or<br />
cow (<strong>of</strong> those)<br />
that are feeding in a thicket.<br />
5. 665 TO /xei> ov TIS y<br />
7T(f)pd(TaT ovb' fvorjvt jur/poO e^-epvcrat<br />
bopv fjii\ivov, o(f)p' TTL/3aLTj, (TTrtvbovTtov no one<br />
. . .<br />
(<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m) in <strong>the</strong>ir haste : cp. 15. 450<br />
ov rts tpVKaKtv LC^VMV ircp.<br />
1 8. 246 opO&v 8' OTaoT(t>v ayopri ytver an assembly<br />
Od. 17. 489 Trj\fjLa\o$ 8'<br />
upstanding (<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m standing up).<br />
\v \L\V Kpabirj peya irevOos aefe<br />
TO ot<br />
was held<br />
fiXrjfjitvov (for his having been wounded).<br />
So with <strong>the</strong> Dative ; II. 12. 374 eTmyo/xeroto-i 8' LKOVTO came as a<br />
relief (to <strong>the</strong>m) when <strong>the</strong>y were hard pressed ; Od. 5. 152 Karet/3ero<br />
8e yXvitvs aiotv vocrrov d8vpojuter(o.<br />
(c) The Subject thus understood may<br />
be indefinite :<br />
II. 2.<br />
291 -TToVoj eortz; avnqQtvTa veea-dai (see 233).<br />
6. 267 o8e 777] (TTL<br />
K\CLlV(f)L KpOVLMVL<br />
at/^art KOL XvOpa f n r noi\ay^vov ev)(eraacr0at<br />
for one who is bespattered . . to pray.<br />
13. 787 Ta/> ovvajJiiv 8' OVK eort Kat kcrcrv^vov iioX^i^iv.<br />
So II. 2. 234., 14. 63, Od. 2. 311 : cp. <strong>the</strong> phrase ovovre ytycave<br />
/3o?JGras as far as a man makes himself heard by shouting.<br />
(d) The Participle is sometimes found in a different Case from
244-] TENSES. 211<br />
a preceding Pronoun with which it<br />
Thus we have<br />
might<br />
have been construed.<br />
II.<br />
14. 25 AttKC<br />
(construed with xpoi instead <strong>of</strong> i).<br />
1 6. 531 OTTL OL 0)K 7]KOV(T fJLtyaS 0OS va[JiVOLO<br />
(with TJKouo-e instead <strong>of</strong> ol).<br />
Od. 9. 256 s e$a0' 5 fifuv ft avre KareKAao-flrj v (so<br />
II. 3. 301, Od. 6. 157.., 9. 458).<br />
II. 2O. 413 TOV /3aAe . . . V&TCL irapa'LO'O'ovTOS<br />
in <strong>the</strong> lack as he darted past.<br />
wounded him . . .<br />
Od. 4. 646 rj ere fiir) acKOvros airrjvpa.<br />
II.<br />
10. 187 &s T&V vijbviJios VTTVOS curb y3Ae^)apo6tV<br />
VVKTO, (^V\a(T(TOjJiVOL(TL KCLKrjV<br />
I SO II. I<br />
Od. 17. 555 jueraAA^o-at ri e Ov^bs<br />
afjioi
212 PARTICIPLE. [245.<br />
245.] Implied Predication. Where <strong>the</strong> Participle is predicative,<br />
we <strong>of</strong>ten find <strong>the</strong> Noun or Pronoun taking- <strong>the</strong> place in<br />
<strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole Participial Clause : as II. 17. i ovb*<br />
\aO' 'Arpeos vlbv riarpoKAos Tpwecrcrt dajueis that Patroclus had<br />
fallen : Od. 5- 6 /meAe yap ot eooz; ev 6&>//ao-t vv^rjs<br />
it troubled her<br />
that he was : fyc.<br />
II. 6. 191 ytyz^cocrKe fleow yoVoi' 7]iii><br />
eozrra knew<br />
him for <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> a god: Od. 10. 419 o-ot y^v vovrricravTi<br />
^apr]^v we were gladdened by thy return: II. 13. 417 a^oj yeVer'<br />
vanvoio <strong>the</strong>re was vexation at his boasting : II. 5. 682., 14. 504.,<br />
17- .53 8 ; SH, 18. 337,&c.<br />
We have here <strong>the</strong> idiom already observed in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Infinitive ( 237) by which <strong>the</strong> weight <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meaningis<br />
shifted<br />
from <strong>the</strong> grammatical Subject, Object, &c. to a limiting or<br />
qualifying word. Note especially that<br />
i . The Aor. Participle may be used in this way to express a<br />
fact which coincides in time with <strong>the</strong> Verb <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence : as<br />
II. 6. 284 ei K&VOV ye tSoijuu KareAtfoW "A'ibos eicrco. So especially<br />
when <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fact is <strong>the</strong> important point, as Is r)t\iov<br />
KarabvvTa till sun-set: II.<br />
13. 38 jAtvoitv voo-T^cravra avatara<br />
should aivait <strong>the</strong> master s return : 13. 545<br />
i>a<br />
2. With Verbs <strong>of</strong> saying, hearing, knowing, &a, also <strong>of</strong> rejoicing<br />
and grieving, <strong>the</strong> Ace. with a Participle is used like <strong>the</strong> Ace. with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Inf. (both being evidently applications <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusativus de<br />
quo, 140, 3, b) : e.g.<br />
II. 7 129 TOVS vvv et 7TTto(T(rovTa$ yep<br />
f/<br />
E/cropt iravras<br />
if he were to hear <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir shrinking.<br />
Od. 4. 732<br />
et<br />
yap eya> TrvOo^v ravrr]v obbv bppalvovTa.<br />
23. 2 deorTTOiV?? epeovcra fyiXov TTOO-LV Zvbbv tovra.<br />
II. 1 . 1 24 OV$i TL TTOV lbfJiV (uW/jjia KLjJ,Va 770 AAtt.<br />
Od. 7* 2il ovs TLvas vfjitls to-re /oiaAtcrr' o^ovTas oi(vv><br />
axioixyai<br />
II. 8.<br />
378 rj vSti . . yr]d^crL Trpo^ai^etVa will rejoice at our appearing.<br />
13. 353 7Jx^ TO 7 a P P a Tpcoo-ti; ba^va^vovs he was vexed at<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir being subdued by <strong>the</strong> Trojans.<br />
A fur<strong>the</strong>r extension, analogous to <strong>the</strong> Ace. with <strong>the</strong> Inf. after<br />
Impersonal Verbs, may perhaps be seen in Od. 6. 193 8>v eTre'otx'<br />
IK^TTIV raAaTretptoy avTiavavTa which it is Jit that a suppliant should<br />
meet with.<br />
246.] Genitive Absolute. This is a form <strong>of</strong> implied predication,<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> Noun or Pronoun has no regular construction<br />
with <strong>the</strong> governing Verb. The Participial Clause expresses
246.] GENITIVE ABSOLUTE. 213<br />
<strong>the</strong> time or circumstances in which <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Verb takes<br />
place :<br />
II. i. 88 ov TIS tfjLv &VTOS KT\. no one, while lam living shall tyc.<br />
2. 551 TrepireAAo^eVcoz/ tviavr&v as years go round.<br />
5. 203 avbp&v etAo/*eVo>z> where men are crowded ; so avbp&v<br />
AiKju&>jjro>i>, avbp&v Tpev, -TroAAoSv \KOVTMV, &c.<br />
Od. i.<br />
390 KCU Kev TOVT efleAotjuu ALOS ye bibovros a/oecr#at that too<br />
I would be willing to obtain if Zeus gave it.<br />
The Subject<br />
is understood in Od. 4. 19 {JLoXirijs ^dp^ovros when<br />
<strong>the</strong> singer began <strong>the</strong> music.<br />
The Aorist Participle is less common in Homer than <strong>the</strong> Present,<br />
especially in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey: <strong>the</strong> instances are, II. 8. 164,<br />
468., 9. 426., 10. 246, 356-, ii. 59" I 3- 409-> J 4- 522., 16. 306.,<br />
19. 62, 75., 21. 290, 437., 22. 47, 288, 383, Od. 14. 475., 24.<br />
88, 535 (Classen, Beob. p. 180 ff.j.<br />
The * Genitive Absolute ' must have begun as an extension <strong>of</strong><br />
one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ordinary uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gen. ;<br />
most probably <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gen.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Time ( 150). For, ^eAtou aviovros within <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> suns<br />
rising is a Gen. like rjovs in <strong>the</strong> morning, VVKTOS by night, &c., and<br />
answers, as a phrase denoting time, to arf i?eA.lcp<br />
KarabvvTi at sunset,<br />
cs f\i\iov KaTabvvra up to sun-set, &c. So we may compare<br />
rovb' avrov XvitdfiavTos eAewerat he will come within this year with<br />
o-*0v v6ab'<br />
r\<br />
eoVro? eAevo-erat he will come within your being here ;<br />
and again TrepireAAojueVcoz; tviavr&v in <strong>the</strong> years as <strong>the</strong>y go round,<br />
with rS)v irpoTpa)v erecoz> in <strong>the</strong> former years.<br />
The transition may<br />
be seen in eapos viov ivrapevoio in <strong>the</strong> spring when it is beginning.<br />
Compare also <strong>the</strong> phrases brtiyophtov avipav, Bopeao Treo-oWos,<br />
&c. with vr]Vnir]s in calm wea<strong>the</strong>r, &c.<br />
The circumstance that <strong>the</strong> Ablative is <strong>the</strong> ' Absolute ' Case in Latin is far<br />
from proving that <strong>the</strong> Greek Gen. in this use is Ablatival. In Sanscrit <strong>the</strong><br />
Case used in this way is <strong>the</strong> Locative, occasionally <strong>the</strong> Genitive : and <strong>the</strong><br />
Latin Abl. Absolute may represent a Locative <strong>of</strong> time at which, or an Instrumental<br />
<strong>of</strong> circumstance ( 144). The hypo<strong>the</strong>sis that such Participial Clauses in<br />
Greek expressed space <strong>of</strong> time within which (ra<strong>the</strong>r than point <strong>of</strong> time, or circumstance)<br />
is borne out by <strong>the</strong> interesting fact, noticed above, that in Homer<br />
this construction is chiefly found with <strong>the</strong> Participle which implies continuance,<br />
viz. <strong>the</strong> Present : whereas in Latin <strong>the</strong> Abl. Abs. is commonest<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Perfect Participle.<br />
An approach to a ' Dative Absolute ' may<br />
II. 8. 487 Tpaxrlv \ikv<br />
12. 374 eireiy<strong>of</strong>tfvoiffi<br />
5' IKOVTO.<br />
'<br />
afKOvaiv eSy
214 VERBAL ADJECTIVES. [246*.<br />
246.*] The Verbal Adjectives. The formations to which this<br />
term is applied resemble <strong>the</strong> Participles in some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
characteristics.<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> Nouns are used as Participles or ' Gerundives<br />
' in <strong>the</strong> cognate languages, such as <strong>the</strong> Latin forms in<br />
-tu-s, <strong>the</strong> Sanscr. in -ta-s, -na-s, -ya-s, -tavya-s, &c. Of <strong>the</strong> corresponding<br />
Greek forms <strong>the</strong> Verbal in -TO-S is <strong>the</strong> most important,<br />
and approaches most nearly to <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> a Participle.* It<br />
is used mainly in two senses :<br />
(1) To express <strong>the</strong> state corresponding to or brought about by<br />
<strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> a Verb : TVK-TOS made, Kpv-xTos secret, K^V-TOS heard<br />
about, famed, ora-ro's standing (in a stall), r/\r/-ros enduring (II. 24.<br />
49), dyaTrrj-To's object <strong>of</strong> love, e/oTre-roV creeping thing, fyv-rov growth,<br />
plant, TTIVV-TOS wise. So with a- priv., a-K\avros unweeping, a-<br />
Traoros fasting, CL-TTVO-TOS not having news, also <strong>of</strong> whom <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
news, a-TTioros faithless, &c. The force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
words is intransitive ra<strong>the</strong>r than passive, and <strong>the</strong>y have no<br />
reference to time as past or present. Compare <strong>the</strong> Latin aptus,<br />
cautus, certus, catus, falsus, scUus, &c. We may note that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is a similar (but more complete) divergence <strong>of</strong> use between <strong>the</strong><br />
Sanscr. Participles in -na-s and <strong>the</strong> Greek Adjectives in -vo-s, as<br />
arvy-vos.<br />
(2) To express possibility, as KT^-TOS that can be acquired,<br />
that can be taken as plunder (II. 9. 406), prjKros vulnerable<br />
(II. 13. 323), aju-/3a-ro's approachable. This meaning- is chiefly<br />
found in Compounds with d- priv. : as CL-\V-TOS that cannot be<br />
loosed, appr]KTos, a-VK.ros, a-Aaaros, d-Ki'xrjTos, a-o-pearos, a-T\r)Tos,<br />
a-0i-ros, &c. : and in o<strong>the</strong>r negative expressions, as OVK ovo-<br />
^aorros, OVKT ovocrra, OVK.&T avKT&$, ov TL v^
248.]<br />
PRONOUNS. 215<br />
CHAPTER XL<br />
USES OF THE PRONOUNS.<br />
247.] The preceding chapter has dealt with <strong>the</strong> two grammatical<br />
forms under which a Noun, by acquiring a verbal or<br />
predicative character, is developed into a kind <strong>of</strong> subordinate<br />
Clause. "We have now to consider <strong>the</strong> Subordinate Clause properly<br />
so called that is to : say, <strong>the</strong> Clause which contains a true<br />
(finite) Verb, but stands to ano<strong>the</strong>r Clause in <strong>the</strong> relation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
dependent word. E.g. in <strong>the</strong> Sentence Aevo-o-ere yap TO ye iravres<br />
o (AOL yepas epyerai a^y y e see that my prize goes elsewhere, <strong>the</strong><br />
Clause o fjiOL yepas epx rat a^V stands in <strong>the</strong> relation <strong>of</strong> Object<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Verb <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Clause.<br />
As <strong>the</strong> grammatical structure <strong>of</strong> Subordinate Clauses is shown<br />
in general by means <strong>of</strong> Pronouns, or Conjunctions formed from<br />
Pronominal Stems, it will be proper to begin with an account<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> meaning and use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different words <strong>of</strong> this class.<br />
The Greek Grammarians divided <strong>the</strong> Pronouns (aprcozw/uat)<br />
into btLKTiKai ' pointing/ and ava^opiKai 'referring-' or ' repeating/<br />
These words have given us, through <strong>the</strong> Roman <strong>grammar</strong>ians,<br />
<strong>the</strong> modern terms Demonstrative and Relative ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong> meaning,<br />
as <strong>of</strong>ten happens in such cases, has undergone a considerable<br />
change. A Deictic Pronoun it will be convenient to adopt<br />
<strong>the</strong> Greek words is one that marks an object by its position in<br />
respect to <strong>the</strong> speaker : /, thou, this (here), yonder, &c. an Anaphoric<br />
Pronoun is one that denotes an object already mentioned<br />
'<br />
;<br />
or o<strong>the</strong>rwise known, <strong>the</strong> term thus including many Demonstratives<br />
' (that same man, <strong>the</strong> man, &c.), as well as <strong>the</strong> ' Relative.'<br />
In we all, <strong>the</strong>refore, may distinguish three kinds <strong>of</strong> Pronouns :<br />
1. DEICTIC, in <strong>the</strong> original sense.<br />
2. ANAPHORIC, i. e. referring to a Noun, but Demonstrative (in<br />
<strong>the</strong> modern sense).<br />
3. RELATIVE, in <strong>the</strong> modern sense.<br />
This however, it should be observed, is a classification <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> Pronouns,<br />
not <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words or Stems <strong>the</strong>mselves for <strong>the</strong> same Pronoun :<br />
may be<br />
Deictic or Anaphoric, Demonstrative or Kelative, according to <strong>the</strong> context. It<br />
is probable, indeed, that all Pronouns are originally Deictic, and become<br />
Anaphoric in <strong>the</strong> course <strong>of</strong> usage.<br />
248.] Interrogative Pronouns. The Interrogatives used in<br />
Homer are rts ( 108), iroYepos, TTO'OTOS, irolos, TTT/, TTWS, TTOU, -rro'tft,
24.<br />
$16 PRONOUNS. [249.<br />
, TTo're, TroVe. The form TTOO-OS only occurs in <strong>the</strong> compound<br />
(II. 24. 657)-<br />
The Pronoun TIS is used both as a Substantive and as an<br />
Adjective. The adjectival use is chiefly found in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey<br />
(e.g. I. 225 Tt
*OAE, KEINOS, O'TTOS.<br />
21 J<br />
is <strong>the</strong> wife <strong>of</strong> Hector ; Od. I. 76 ^jutet? oi8e Trtpifypa&ntQa let us<br />
here consider ( 162,, 2): I. 226 OVK tpavos ra8e y eort wto I see<br />
here is not a club-feast. It is especially applied to a person or<br />
thing to which <strong>the</strong> speaker turns for <strong>the</strong> first time, as<br />
II. 3. 192 etTr' aye /mot KOL roV8e, (f)L\ov re/cos, os rts 06' eor.<br />
Hence <strong>the</strong> use to denote what is about to be mentioned <strong>the</strong> new<br />
as opposed to <strong>the</strong> known. This is an approach to an Anaphoric<br />
use, in so far as it expresses not local nearness, but <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong><br />
an object in <strong>the</strong> speaker's thought. So in<br />
II. 7- 35^ otcrda KOL a\.\ov jJivOov afjitivova roOde v<strong>of</strong>jffai<br />
<strong>the</strong> speech<br />
is <strong>the</strong> present one, opposed to a better one which<br />
should have been made.<br />
The derivatives roo-oaSe, roioo-Se, yonder he is in <strong>the</strong> chamber.<br />
5. 604 /cat vvv 01 7ra/>a Keiuos *Apr]s <strong>the</strong>re is Ares at his side.<br />
So <strong>of</strong> an absent object<br />
: as Od. 2. 351 KCWOV OLO^YJ rov Kd^opov<br />
thinking <strong>of</strong> that (absent} one, <strong>the</strong> unhappy.<br />
Hence in an Anaphoric use, icetyos distinguishes what is past or<br />
done with) in contrast to a new object or state <strong>of</strong> things<br />
:<br />
II.<br />
2.<br />
330 KWOS rw? ayoptve he (on that former occasion), Sfc.<br />
3. 440 vvv jueu yap Mez^Aaos ZviKrjorev crvv<br />
Kelvov 8' avTis eyca.<br />
Od. I. 46 Kat \irjv Ketvo? ye eoi/coYi Ketrat<br />
aXXd juot dju,(/>' 'Obvcrrji KT\.<br />
Here KCI^OS marks <strong>the</strong> contrast with which <strong>the</strong> speaker turns to<br />
a new case. The literal sense <strong>of</strong> local distance is transferred to<br />
remoteness in time, or in <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> thought.<br />
Deictic in<br />
251.] The Pronoun OUTOS is not unfrequently<br />
Homer, expressing an object that is present to <strong>the</strong> speaker, but<br />
not near him, or connected with him. Hence it is chiefly used<br />
(like iste in Latin) <strong>of</strong> what belongs to or concerns <strong>the</strong> person<br />
spoken to, or else in a hostile or contemptuous tone. Instances<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> former use are :<br />
II. 7' HO a^paivcis, MereXae 8ior/)e$es, ov5e' rl ere \pr\<br />
Tavrr)s a(j)po (as you are).
2l8 PRONOUNS. [252.<br />
Again, ovros is regularly used <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enemy<br />
as<br />
;<br />
II. 5- 257<br />
TOVTO) b' ov irdXiv CLVTLS airoia-CTov co/cees LTTTTOL.<br />
2,2,.<br />
38 /Ut?7 fJLOL jUUjLlZ;e,
253.]<br />
ATTO5 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 219<br />
(2) To express without change, <strong>the</strong> same as before;<br />
II. 12. 225 ^ KO(TjU6) Trapa vav(j)iv eAewojuefl* avra KeAevfla.<br />
Od. 8. 107 ^ ??px e r( ? .<br />
The unemphatic use, as it<br />
may be called,<br />
(3)<br />
in which it is an<br />
rding linary Anaphoric Pronoun <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Third Person (Eng. he, she,<br />
In this<br />
it).<br />
use <strong>the</strong> Pronoun cannot stand at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong><br />
a Clause (<strong>the</strong> emphatic position),<br />
or in <strong>the</strong> Nominative an<br />
unemphasised Subject being sufficiently expressed by <strong>the</strong> Person-<br />
Ending <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb. The use is derived from that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
emphatic auros in <strong>the</strong> same way that in old-fashioned English<br />
<strong>the</strong> same ' <strong>of</strong>ten denotes merely <strong>the</strong> person or thing just mentioned<br />
'<br />
: and as in German derselbe and der ndmliche are used<br />
without any emphasis on <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong><br />
sameness.<br />
(4) The Reflexive use <strong>of</strong> avros is very rare Od. : 4. 247 aAAw 6'<br />
avrov (/>6orl KaraKpvirr^v ryi'o-Ke,<br />
and perhaps<br />
II. 20. 55 %v ouroij<br />
6s<br />
epia ptfyvvvTo ftapelav (among <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong>re, in heaven itself).<br />
II. 9. 342 rrjv avrov
220 PRONOUNS. [254.<br />
II. 17. 407, Od. 7. 217, &c. Compare<br />
Subordinate Clauses, as<br />
also <strong>the</strong> similar use in<br />
II. II. 439 yv& ' 'OSwei'S o ot ov n reXo? KaraKaipLov r)\@ev.<br />
The strictly Reflexive use is commoner in <strong>the</strong> Iliad than in <strong>the</strong><br />
Odyssey. Excluding* Infinitival and Subordinate Clauses, <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are 43 examples in <strong>the</strong> Iliad, against 1 8 in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey. Note<br />
that <strong>the</strong> use is<br />
mainly preserved in fixed combinations (diro e'o,<br />
TTpOTl Ot, &C.).<br />
(2) The Anaphoric (non-Reflexive) use is very much commoner.<br />
In this use which is doubtless derived from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r by loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original emphasis <strong>the</strong> Pronoun is enclitic : whereas in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Reflexive use it is orthotone.<br />
Accentuation. According to <strong>the</strong> ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians this Pronoun is<br />
orthotone (i)<br />
when used in a reflexive sense, when (2) preceded by a Preposition,<br />
and (3) when followed by a Case-form <strong>of</strong> avros in agreement with<br />
it. The first and second rules, as we have seen, practically coincide : and <strong>the</strong><br />
third is not borne out by <strong>the</strong> usage <strong>of</strong> Homer. In such places as Od. 2. 33<br />
(We ot aura) Zeus ayaBov TeAeaete, II. 6. 91 /cat ot iro\v (f>i\Ta.Tos airy, Od. 8. 396<br />
Evpva\os Se 4 avrbv ('Odvffffta) dpfaaaffOo}, add II. 24. 292, Od. 4. 66, 667., 6. 277<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pronoun is evidently unemphatic, and is accordingly allowed to be enclitic<br />
by good ancient authorities. This is amply confirmed by <strong>the</strong> instances <strong>of</strong> |*tv<br />
atirov (II. 21. 245, 318, Od. 3. 19, 237, &c.), and <strong>the</strong> parallel use <strong>of</strong> auros with<br />
<strong>the</strong> enclitic \ioi, rot, &c.<br />
In one instance, viz.<br />
Od. 4. 244 auToV fuv irXrj'yfiffiv dcitceXiriffi Sapaffffas<br />
it would seem that p,iv<br />
has a reflexive sense. The reading, however, is not<br />
certain, some ancient authorities giving atrrdv jtlv or avirov jjiev.<br />
254.1 The Possessive eos, os is nearly always Reflexive. Occasionally<br />
it refers to a prominent word in <strong>the</strong> same Sentence<br />
which is not grammatically <strong>the</strong> Subject<br />
: as<br />
II. 6. 500 at (Joz> a><br />
yoov "'EKTOpa zvl<br />
Od. 9. 369 OVTLV eyw vvfjiaTov e'8o/xat /xera ot?<br />
Cp. II. 16. 800., 22. 404, Od. 4. 643., ii. 282., 23. 153. And<br />
it is occasionally used in a Subordinate Clause to refer to <strong>the</strong><br />
Subject, or a prominent word, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Principal Clause :<br />
Od. 4. 618 Kopcv 8e e at8tjuo? rjpus<br />
a(Ti\vs, ##' 16s 6o/<br />
II.<br />
poorijowra (cp. 4. 74 1 )-<br />
IO. 256 TuSetSr/ ^ev Sake ju,ei>e7JTo'A.eju,o?<br />
(fraa-yavov a/x^r^Ke?, TO 5* tbv Trapa vrfi<br />
1 6. 753 ^/3A.ryro TTpoj (TTrjOos, kri re wXeo-ev<br />
/xtz;<br />
It will be seen that where eos<br />
does not refer to <strong>the</strong> grammatical<br />
Subject it is generally emphatic : e. g. in <strong>the</strong> line last quoted, 4r)<br />
d\K?} his own prowess, not that <strong>of</strong> an enemy. This indicates <strong>the</strong>
255-] ^02. 221<br />
original force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronoun, which was to confine <strong>the</strong> reference<br />
emphatically to a person or thing just mentioned.<br />
255.] Use <strong>of</strong> 46s, os as a general Reflexive Pronoun. It has<br />
been a matter <strong>of</strong> dispute with <strong>Homeric</strong> scholars, both ancient and<br />
modern, whe<strong>the</strong>r 46s (os)<br />
was confined to <strong>the</strong> Third Person<br />
Singular (Ms own) or could be used as a Reflexive <strong>of</strong> any Number<br />
and Person (own in general my own, thy own, <strong>the</strong>ir own, &c.).*<br />
The question is principally one <strong>of</strong> textual criticism, and depends<br />
in <strong>the</strong> last resort on <strong>the</strong> comparative weight to be assigned to <strong>the</strong><br />
authority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two great Alexandrian <strong>grammar</strong>ians, Zenodotus<br />
and Aristarchus. It is connected with ano<strong>the</strong>r question, <strong>of</strong> less<br />
importance for Homer, viz. whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> forms Io x ot,<br />
I are confined<br />
to <strong>the</strong> Singular, and those beginning with z> (BacnX^Mv<br />
rtjurj 8' K Aio's cart, $tA.et 8e e jurjriera Zevj,<br />
and so <strong>the</strong> first line is quoted by Aristotle (Rhet. 2. 2). Aristarchus<br />
read bioTpetyeos pacnXijos. However, admitting Zenodotus<br />
to be right, I need not be a Plural. The change from Plural to<br />
Singular is not unusual in passages <strong>of</strong> a gnomic character, e.g.<br />
Od. 4- 691 T/<br />
T eori biKr] 0i(tiv /3acrtA.77*<br />
aAAoz> K<br />
c^daiprjcTL (Bpor&v, a\\ov Ke (4X0177.<br />
(2) Again, <strong>the</strong> ' general ' Reflexive use, if it exists in Homer,<br />
is confined to <strong>the</strong> Adjective 46s, os. The only contrary instance<br />
is II. 10. 398 (Dolon tells Ulysses that he has been sent by<br />
Hector to find out)<br />
rj (f)vXd(rcrovTaL vf]s Goal ws TO irdpos Trep,<br />
77 tfbr] \eip(T(nv ix^ ^/xerepr/a-t ba^VTfS<br />
(J)VLV povXtvoiTe juera (rtytfTiv, ov5' e^eAotre KT\.<br />
So <strong>the</strong> MSS., but Ar. read fiovXevovcri, tQeXovvi, making Dolon<br />
repeat <strong>the</strong> exact words <strong>of</strong> Hector (11. 309-311) ; and this reading,<br />
which gives o-^tVt its usual sense, is clearly right. The Optative<br />
is not defensible (esp.<br />
after <strong>the</strong> Indie. ^vXaa-o-ovrai),<br />
and was<br />
probably introduced by some one who thought that Dolon, speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greeks to Ulysses, must use <strong>the</strong> Second Person Plural.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> Third Person is more correct ;<br />
for Ulysses<br />
is not one <strong>of</strong><br />
* The question was first scientifically discussed by Miklosich, in a paper<br />
read to <strong>the</strong> Vienna Academy (I, 1848, p. 119 ff.).<br />
He was followed on <strong>the</strong><br />
same side by Brugmann (Ein Problem der homerischen Texfkritik und der vergkichenden<br />
Sprachwissenschaft, Leipzig, 1876).
222 PRONOUNS. [255.<br />
<strong>the</strong> Greeks who can be supposed to be c<br />
consulting among <strong>the</strong>mselves/<br />
The form I is found as a Plural in Horn. H. Ven. 267. In<br />
later Epic poets <strong>the</strong> Substantival eto, &c. are used as Reflexives<br />
<strong>of</strong> any Person or Number : see Theocritus 27. 44, Apollonius<br />
Rhodius i. 893., 2. 635, 1278., 3. 99 (Brugmann, Probl. p. 80).<br />
But <strong>the</strong> use is exclusively post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
(3) The case is different with <strong>the</strong> Adjective. We find forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> 46s read (os) by Zenodotus in a number <strong>of</strong> places in which our<br />
MSS. and editions following <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong> Aristarchus have<br />
substituted o<strong>the</strong>r words. Thus in<br />
II. 3 244 &s (f)aTo, TOVS<br />
'<br />
rjbr]<br />
KCLT^V s and 0-65. Thus<br />
II. 14. 221 on (f)p(rl (rfj
255-] "E^. 223<br />
Od. 13. 320 (where <strong>the</strong>re is some reason to suspect an interpolation),<br />
and<br />
Od. 9. 38 ov rot eyw ye<br />
rjs yair]s bvvafJLai yAuKepwrepoz/ aAAo IbecrOai.<br />
But <strong>the</strong>re is no reason to take ^s o<strong>the</strong>rwise than in v.<br />
34 &? ovbev<br />
yXvKiov rjs Trarpibos ovbe TOKYJO^V yiy^ercu nothing is sweeter than a<br />
man's own country, fyc.<br />
The reference <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronoun is to a<br />
re ot 6
224 PRONOUNS. [256.<br />
Bragmann has himself given<br />
excellent instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> extension<br />
to <strong>the</strong> First and Second Person <strong>of</strong> a Reflexive Pronoun originally<br />
confined to <strong>the</strong> Third (Probl. pp. 1 19 In <strong>the</strong><br />
ff.). present case it<br />
is significant that <strong>the</strong> generalised use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> substantival forms<br />
Io, &c. is clearly post-<strong>Homeric</strong>. If eos is (os)<br />
sometimes used in<br />
Homer, as well as afterwards, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> First and Second Persons,<br />
it is natural to see in this <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> an extension <strong>of</strong> usage.<br />
The case is different with <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Stem sva for <strong>the</strong> Plural.<br />
That use, as we see from <strong>the</strong> Latin se and suus, was <strong>the</strong> original<br />
one. It is noteworthy that this undoubtedly primitive use is precisely<br />
<strong>the</strong> one <strong>of</strong> which <strong>the</strong>re is least trace in Homer.<br />
6 ^ TO.<br />
256.] The Article 6 TO<br />
rj may be defined as a purely Anaphoric<br />
Pronoun, conveying some degree <strong>of</strong> emphasis. It differs<br />
from o6e OVTOS and eKet^o? in <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> Deictic meaning :<br />
for while it usually marks some contrast between objects, it does<br />
not distinguish <strong>the</strong>m as near or far, present or absent, &c. On<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand it is distinguished from <strong>the</strong> non-Reflexive use <strong>of</strong><br />
avros and co by greater emphasis.<br />
Three chief uses <strong>of</strong> 6 f\<br />
TO<br />
may be distinguished :<br />
1. The use as an independent Pronoun; 6 rj<br />
TO lie she it.<br />
This may be called <strong>the</strong> SUBSTANTIVAL use : it embraces<br />
<strong>the</strong> great majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> instances in Homer.<br />
2. The use as an ' Article ' in <strong>the</strong> later sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> term,<br />
i. e.<br />
with a Noun following. This may be called <strong>the</strong> ATTRI-<br />
BUTIVE use.<br />
3.<br />
The use as a Relative.<br />
257.]<br />
The Substantival Article. This use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Article is<br />
very much <strong>the</strong> commonest in Homer, and it is also <strong>the</strong> use from<br />
which <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs may be easily derived.<br />
The Substantival Article ei<strong>the</strong>r (i)<br />
is<br />
simply ' resumptive/<br />
recalling a person or thing already mentioned, as 6 yap for he,<br />
TOV pa him I say, avrbs KCU TOV o&pa <strong>the</strong> man and his gifts: or<br />
(2) marks a contrast, as 6 8e but <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
The following points <strong>of</strong> usage are to be noticed :<br />
I . The most frequent we may almost say <strong>the</strong> regular place<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Article is at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> a Clause, followed<br />
by fjieV, Be, yap, apa, or preceded by auTdtp, dXXd, rj TOI, or<br />
an equivalent Particle. Hence <strong>the</strong> familiar combinations<br />
6 juo;, 6 8e, 6 yap, KCU yap 6, avrap 6, rot r\ 6, TOV pa, aAAa<br />
TOV, &c. <strong>of</strong> which it is needless to give instances.<br />
The later Substantival use with piv and 8e is a surviving frag-
257-] THE SUBSTANTIVAL ARTICLE. 225<br />
ment <strong>of</strong> this group <strong>of</strong> uses. A few o<strong>the</strong>rs are found in Attic<br />
poets, as 6 yap (Aesch. Sept. 17, Soph. El. 45, O. T. 1082).<br />
The use to contrast indefinite persons or things (6 juez> 6 6"e=<br />
one ano<strong>the</strong>r, ot [L\V ot be = $ome<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs) is not very common in<br />
Homer.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Article with an adversative Particle (6e, avrap,<br />
a\Xd) generally marks a change <strong>of</strong> Subject 6 8e but <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, &c.<br />
:<br />
But this is not always <strong>the</strong> case: e.g. II. 4. 491 rov ptv a\j.apB\<br />
6 8e AevKov . . .<br />
/3e/3ArJKet him he missed^ but smote Leucus (so II.<br />
8. 119, 126, 302., II. 80, II.<br />
&c.) I.<br />
496 0e'rts 6' ov A?j0er'<br />
;<br />
e^erjueW TTCLLOOS tov, dXA.' rj y dueSiWro KT\. : cp. II. 5- 321.,<br />
6. 1 68, Od. i. 4, &c. The Article in all such cases evidently<br />
expresses a contrast not however between two : persons, but between<br />
two characters in which <strong>the</strong> same person<br />
is<br />
thought <strong>of</strong>.<br />
This last use in which <strong>the</strong> Article is pleonastic, according to<br />
Attic notions occurs in Herodotus, as 5. 120 ra JJLZV irporepov<br />
ot Rapes (3ov^vovTO juier?7/cai>, ot e CLVTIS TroAe/xetz; e^ap^r}? apreovTo.<br />
We may compare<br />
it with <strong>the</strong> pleonastic use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronoun in<br />
II. ii. 131 fwypet 'Arpeo? vU, (TV ft afta 5e^at airoiva,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> inserting au is to oppose <strong>the</strong> two acts denoted<br />
by wy/ t an(i Se^at avoiva.<br />
2. The Article is frequent in Disjunctive sentences :<br />
II. 12. 240 et T 7rt 6e^t" i(ti(ri Trpoj 770) r r}Xidv re,<br />
et T ZTT<br />
dpiarepa rot ye KrX. (or else to left}.<br />
Od. 2. 132 Ca>et o y r/ riQv^tv.<br />
Here also it serves to contrast <strong>the</strong> alternative things said<br />
<strong>the</strong> same Subject.<br />
about<br />
3. The principle <strong>of</strong> contrast <strong>of</strong>ten leads to <strong>the</strong> placing <strong>of</strong> two<br />
Articles toge<strong>the</strong>r<br />
: II. 21. 602 rjos 6 TOV TreStoio 6tco/cero,<br />
10. 224 Kai re Trpo 6 TOV v6r](Ttv.<br />
So an Article and a<br />
Personal Pronoun, tv 8e av roto-t (II. 13. 829, &c.); cp.<br />
II. 8.<br />
53^ ffcro/ykii et Ke 6 /m' Tu8et8r]? /cparepo? Ato/X7j6r^j<br />
Trap vrj&v Trpos ret^oj aTiwo'erat, rj<br />
Kv eya> TOV.<br />
Note that when <strong>the</strong> second <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two is in <strong>the</strong> Nom., it<br />
usually takes y e : hence rou o ye, TTJ p ' ot ye, &c.<br />
4. The Article <strong>of</strong>ten stands for <strong>the</strong> object to be denned by a<br />
following Relative Clause, e.g.<br />
II. 9. 615 Ka\6v rot crvv e/xot TOV Kqbeiv os K* e/ute K^by.<br />
I.<br />
272 rwr ot vvv ySporot eto-t &c.<br />
The use is to be classed as Anaphoric ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> intention <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
something about <strong>the</strong> object is equivalent to a previous mention.<br />
So in Latin <strong>the</strong> Anaphoric is is used to introduce qui.<br />
Q
|<br />
229, and <strong>the</strong> like :<br />
II. 1 5- 207 ecrOXbv KOL TO re'rvKrat or' ayyeAos atort/xa et6"?j.<br />
Od. 9. 442 ro 6e vrjinos OVK i'6r](rev<br />
00? ot /crA.<br />
II. 3. 308 Zei>s IJLCV TTOV TO ye ot6e . . . OTTTrorepa) /crA.<br />
So II. 14. 191., 20. 466., 23. 545. It may<br />
independent sentence, as<br />
Od. 4. 655 dAAa TO 0ai>juaa>' tbov v6abe MeVropa blov,<br />
even introduce an<br />
5. The uses in which <strong>the</strong> Article is least e.<br />
emphatic does<br />
(i.<br />
not begin <strong>the</strong> Clause, or express a contrast) appear to be<br />
(a) after Prepositions : esp. in <strong>the</strong> Dat. Plur. after jxe-ni, iraprf,<br />
irpori, ow, Iv, fifia as II. T. 348 : 77 6' de'/covo-' ajua roto-t yvvrj Kiev.<br />
This is to be connected with <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong> forms eo, ot, O-
259-]<br />
THE ATTRIBUTIVE ARTICLE. 227<br />
And where <strong>the</strong> Neut. TO is followed by an epexegetic Infinitive :<br />
Od. I.<br />
37 TTi TO ye Ka\bv dKOue/uev eortz; aoibov.<br />
II. 17. 406 7Tt ovbe ro eATrero -Tra/utTraz;,<br />
Kirep(Tiv TiToXitOpov avev 0V.<br />
In all <strong>the</strong>se cases <strong>the</strong> combination <strong>of</strong> Article and Noun is not<br />
sufficiently close to constitute an Attributive use but<br />
; <strong>the</strong>y serve<br />
to show how such a use is developed.<br />
be classified as follows :<br />
The Attributive uses in Homer may<br />
1. Uses with connecting Particles, where some contrast is made<br />
in passing to <strong>the</strong> new sentence or clause.<br />
2. Uses with certain Adjectives that imply contrast.<br />
3. Uses to mark a person or thing as definite.<br />
259.] Article <strong>of</strong> Contrast with connecting Particles. The<br />
uses that fall under this head, though not very numerous, are<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> Homer. The following are <strong>the</strong> chief :<br />
(a) The Article with an adversative 8e, aurdp, &c. is not unfrequently<br />
used to bring out <strong>the</strong> contrast in which <strong>the</strong> Noun<br />
stands to something already mentioned : e. g.<br />
II. 2. 217 4>o\Kos fr]v, xcoAo? frcpov 7ro'8a, r 6e ot oWe (II. 13. 616), &c.<br />
II. 22. 405 &$ T v l^v KCKoVtro Kaprj aVar, fj<br />
be vv ^Trjp KrX.<br />
lut on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand his mo<strong>the</strong>r fyc.<br />
II. J.<br />
382 rJKt $' ITT' 'A/>yeuH/xara 0ir], /crA.<br />
(c) The corresponding use with copulative<br />
and illative Particles,<br />
Kat, re, ^8e, /cat yap, is much less common : cp.<br />
'<br />
II. 1.<br />
339 TTpos re Ot&v /xaKapcou Trpos re 6vrjT&v avdp&TttoV<br />
Kat irpbs TOV jSao-tA^os a^rjveos.<br />
1$. 36 ta-ra) vvv roe yata Kat ovpavbs tvpvs virepOev,<br />
Kat ro KaTL(36jJivov 2n;yos v8co/o (cp.<br />
18, 486).
228 PRONOUNS. [260.<br />
Od. 22. 103 8co(ro) 6e arvfltoTrj |<br />
/cat TKoA.a> aA.A.a.<br />
II. 14. 53 ovbe yap f] Tlpo^d^oio bdpap KrX.<br />
The Article singles out its Noun as <strong>the</strong> special object intended,<br />
or turns to it with fresh emphasis. So with an Infinitive, Od.<br />
20. 52 ai'ir) Kal TO
2.61.]<br />
THE ATTRIBUTIVE ARTICLE. 229<br />
3. 138 r(3 8e K6 viKr\(ravTi (/u'Ar; KK\^arr] O.KOITLS<br />
(<strong>the</strong> conqueror being one <strong>of</strong> two definite persons).<br />
So j] irXrjOvs (II. 2. 278., 15. 305) <strong>the</strong> many (in<br />
contrast to a<br />
single man, or to <strong>the</strong> few) TO xdi^ov : (II. 13. 745) TOV 8etw<br />
;<br />
ILTTTTOV (II. 23. 336)<br />
;<br />
Ata? 6 juteya? <strong>the</strong> greater Ajax<br />
: 0eoi>? . . rovs<br />
vKOTaprapiovs (II. 14. 279) <strong>the</strong> gods <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lower world: oVa/cre? ot<br />
VOL (Od. 14. 61) masters <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> younger generation: l^Ovcn rots<br />
oAtyotcrt (Od. 12. 252) <strong>the</strong> smaller kinds <strong>of</strong>fish.<br />
So<br />
II. 1 .<br />
700? fl^ TOL T tovTO. rd T ecra-o'ju,z>a irpo r ovra.<br />
The use to contrast indefinite individuals (one ano<strong>the</strong>r) is rare<br />
in Homer : II. 23. 325 rbv irpov^ovra<br />
8o/cevet waits on <strong>the</strong> one in<br />
advance: II. 16. 53 oTrrrore bri TOV ojjiolov avyp e^eArjcrtz; d/xepo-at :<br />
II. 9. 320 KarOav 1<br />
ojucSs o r' aepyo? ain)p o re -TroAAa eopycos Od.<br />
:<br />
17. 21 8 a>s del roi> ojutotov ayet ^eo? a>s roz^ o^olov.<br />
(/") Patronymics and geographical epi<strong>the</strong>ts:
PRONOUNS.<br />
[26r.<br />
II. 13. 53 y p o y 6 Xvo-o-tobris KT\., where 6 Xvo-orubrjs <strong>the</strong> madman<br />
is used as a single term, in Apposition to o ye. This use<br />
which is characteristic <strong>of</strong> Homer may be regarded<br />
as a relic<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Deictic force <strong>of</strong> 6 ^ TO. It answers to <strong>the</strong> later use <strong>of</strong><br />
OUTOS, Latin iste.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Article to show that <strong>the</strong> Noun denotes a<br />
3.<br />
known person or thing <strong>the</strong> defining Article <strong>of</strong> later Greek is<br />
rare in Homer. It is found in <strong>the</strong> Iliad<br />
(a) with :<br />
ye'po>z;, yepaio's, ava, rjpais<br />
where however <strong>the</strong><br />
Pronoun is <strong>the</strong> important word, <strong>the</strong> Nonn being subjoined as a<br />
'<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> title: roto avaKros = 'o his lordship (cp.<br />
<strong>the</strong> German<br />
allerhochst derselbe). Accordingly, when <strong>the</strong> name is added <strong>the</strong><br />
Art. is generally not used ; as yepaw tTTTnjAara Urjhevs (not 6<br />
ye'pcoz/).<br />
() with eVo? and pvOos, in certain phrases, as irolov rbv pvOov<br />
eenrej; In <strong>the</strong>se cases <strong>the</strong> Noun is <strong>of</strong> vague meaning, adding<br />
little to <strong>the</strong> Article :<br />
cp. eTret TOV fjivOov a/covcre with eTrei TO y'<br />
a/cowe. So in <strong>the</strong> formula o/xocreV Te TeAe^Tr/crez; Te TOV opKov }<br />
perhaps with a touch <strong>of</strong> ceremonial verbiage.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Odyssey<br />
it occurs with several o<strong>the</strong>r Nouns : 6 et^oj<br />
(passim) ; 77 vrjo-os Od. 5. 55., 9. 146., 12. 201, 276, 403, &c. ;<br />
Ta<br />
/xTJAa Od. 9. 464., 1 1. 4, 20 : 6 juo'xAos<br />
Od. 9. 375, 378<br />
: TO rogov Od.<br />
21. 113, 305. The o<strong>the</strong>r examples in <strong>the</strong> Iliad are chiefly found<br />
in books x, xxiii, xxiv : see II. 10. 97, 277) 3 2I > 3 22 > 33^<br />
4^ 5<br />
497., 23. 75, 257, 465., 24. 388, 8or, also 2. 80., 7. 412., 20. 147.<br />
We may perhaps add a few uses with words <strong>of</strong> relationship<br />
:<br />
II. II. 142 vvv \v ST) TOU TTarpos aeiKe'a TtVeTe \u>j3r]v.<br />
But here <strong>the</strong> Art. is resumptive with emphasis : (if ye<br />
are sons<br />
<strong>of</strong> Antimachus) ye shall now pay for his, your fa<strong>the</strong>r s> outrage.<br />
II. 19. 322 0^8* et KV TOV TTCLTpOS CL7TO(p9LfJLVOLO TTvOoijJiriV<br />
not even if I heard <strong>of</strong> such a one as my fa<strong>the</strong>r being<br />
dead : Od.<br />
2.<br />
134 K yap TOV TtcLTpbs KCLKCL Titivo[ks av pn<br />
TQV Tratba KTA. : Od.<br />
ll. 492 aAA' aye /xot TOV iraibbs KTA. Od. 8. 195 KCH K dAaos Tot<br />
:<br />
. . TO oTJjuta: Od. 18. 380 ovb* dv //ot TTJV yavTtp KT\. : Od. 19.<br />
535 &\)C aye /uot TOI; ovzipov KT\. : II. I. 167 o-ot TO ye'/oa? TroAv<br />
fjLifov. Hence <strong>the</strong> Art. in <strong>the</strong>se places has much <strong>the</strong> same
262.]<br />
THE ARTICLE AS A RELATIVE. 23!<br />
function as with a Possessive (jutot<br />
rov Traiba = Tov e/utov TratSa) ;<br />
it<br />
reinforces <strong>the</strong> Pronoun which conveys <strong>the</strong> idea <strong>of</strong> possession.<br />
This account does not apply to TTJS tvvfjs (II. 9. 133, 275., 19.<br />
176), and rfjs apery? (Od. 2. 206). But here <strong>the</strong> Art. is probably<br />
substantival :<br />
rrjs VVTJ her couch^ r?}? aper?} her perfection. In<br />
23. 75 KO.L IJLOL 86s TT]v x W a <strong>the</strong> Art. *s quite anomalous.<br />
262.] The Article as a Relative. The Article at <strong>the</strong> beginning-<br />
<strong>of</strong> a clause may <strong>of</strong>ten be translated ei<strong>the</strong>r as a Demonstrative<br />
or as a Relative. It has <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> a Relative when<br />
<strong>the</strong> clause which it introduces is distinctly subordinate or paren<strong>the</strong>tical<br />
:<br />
as<br />
II. I.<br />
36 'ATToAAooin dvaKTL, rbv rjiJKOfjLOs Te'Ke ATJTCO<br />
Apollo son <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fair-haired Leto.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> 6 rj<br />
TO as a Relative is less common in Homer than<br />
that <strong>of</strong> 09 rjf o, and is restricted in general to clauses which refer<br />
to a definite antecedent. Thus in <strong>the</strong> line just quoted <strong>the</strong> clause<br />
rov rivKonos Tece A^rw does not define Apollo,<br />
i. e. does not show<br />
who is meant by <strong>the</strong> name ;<br />
it assumes that a definite person is<br />
meant, and adds something fur<strong>the</strong>r about him.<br />
From this principle it evidently follows that<br />
(1) The Art. when used as a Relative must follow <strong>the</strong> Noun or<br />
Pronoun to which it refers ;<br />
whereas a Relative Clause <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
precedes.<br />
The only exceptions are<br />
II. I.<br />
125 AAa ra juez;<br />
TroAtW ee7rpa00juez>, ra Se'Saarai.<br />
Od. 4. 349 (=17. 140) dAAa ra jueV /xot eeiTre . . r&v KrA.<br />
We may perhaps read aAAa 0' a juey ( 332).<br />
(2)<br />
The Art. cannot stand as correlative to a Demonstrative<br />
we must have (i.e. TO o that which^ not TO Hence in<br />
TO).<br />
II. 7- 452 TOV 5' TTl\.r]0t/3o? 'ATTo'AAo)^ KTA.<br />
Toi; TO are not meant as correlatives : <strong>the</strong> sense is and will f<strong>org</strong>et<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
(a wall) which But<br />
fyc.<br />
some MSS. have o T eyco. So<br />
Od. 13. 263 (rrjs A?7t8o9) TTJS etz/CK* eyo> iraOov ciAyea 0uju,tA' eo-^e TCL TTOV 0eos Iv (frptcrl drJKev,<br />
19. 573 TOI;? TrcAeKeas TOI;? KTA. (perhaps also Od. 9. 334).<br />
(3) The Art. is not used in epexegetic clauses, as II. 2. 338<br />
l?, OtS OV TL fji\l KTA., II. 5^ 63 CLp^KCLKOVSy<br />
at 7Ta(TL KaKOV<br />
KTA., II. 15. 5^^ AafMTer&tySj o^ Aa/xTroj tyeivaro.<br />
Instances at variance with <strong>the</strong> general principle are to be<br />
found in II. 5- 747 ^P^coz; roivlv TC KOTeo-o-eTat (olo-iv<br />
T in some<br />
MSS.), II. 9. 592 K?]8e' oV* av0p(t)TroLO"L TreAet T
233 PRONOUNS. [263.<br />
355, &c. It is probable however that <strong>the</strong> text is sometimes at<br />
fault, <strong>the</strong> Art. having been substituted for os, especially in order<br />
to avoid hiatus :<br />
e.g.<br />
II. 17- 145 ^os ^v ^ttouri rot 'IA.to) (Xaots o*<br />
Od. 1 6. 263 &6\u> rot TOVTO) y ^ira^vvTope TOVS<br />
(where ovs is not excluded by <strong>the</strong> hiatus, 382).<br />
As <strong>the</strong> Art. usually adds some new circumstance about a<br />
known antecedent, it sometimes has <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> representing a<br />
fact as unexpected: as II. i.<br />
392 Tr\v juot boarav vies 'Axai&v<br />
whom <strong>the</strong> Greeks<br />
(jBriseis) gave me (<br />
= although <strong>the</strong> Greeks had<br />
given her to me) Od. 16. 19 povvov : rrjAuyeroy, r
264.] HOMERIC AND ATTIC ARTICLE. 233<br />
fining Article <strong>of</strong> modern languages, and <strong>of</strong> Attic Greek, we<br />
naturally import it into Homer whenever it is not made impos-<br />
<strong>the</strong> context. But even when a <strong>Homeric</strong> use falls under<br />
sible by<br />
<strong>the</strong> general head <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' defining Article'' ( 261),<br />
<strong>the</strong> effect is<br />
perceptibly different from that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ' Definite Article ' properly<br />
so called. In Homer <strong>the</strong> Article indicates, not that a person or<br />
thing is a known or definite one, but that it is presented<br />
to us in<br />
an anti<strong>the</strong>sis or contrast. Objects so contrasted are usually<br />
definite, in <strong>the</strong> sense that <strong>the</strong>y are already known or suggested<br />
by <strong>the</strong> context : and hence <strong>the</strong> readiness with which <strong>the</strong> later<br />
defining sense can be applied to passages in Homer. Thus avrap<br />
o y 7Jpo)s can usually be translated but <strong>the</strong> hero (before mentioned),<br />
as though 6 distinguished him from o<strong>the</strong>r heroes. But when we<br />
find that aurap 6 in Homer constantly means but Jie, or but <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r ,<br />
and that it<br />
may be followed by an epexegetic Noun (as<br />
avrap 6 (3ovv I4pvapirr]$6va blov<br />
not <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, but o<strong>the</strong>rs as well, certain o<strong>the</strong>rs.<br />
II. 5- 672 TJ Trpore/xo Atos vlov epiyboviroio 6"ia>Koi,<br />
77 o ye Ttov irXtovtov AVKLMV aTro Qvpbv eAoiro<br />
or should take <strong>the</strong> lives <strong>of</strong> more Lydans instead. Here ot TT\OVS<br />
does not mean ' <strong>the</strong> greater number/ but ' a greater number/ in<br />
contrast to <strong>the</strong> one person mentioned.<br />
II. 22. 162 ws 5' OT aeOXotyopoi 7re/)t repjmara fJLu>vv^S iTnroi<br />
piu(f)a jj,d\a TP^UKTL' TO /uteya Ketrat ae#Aoz><br />
and <strong>the</strong>re a great prize lies ready. So Od. 20. 242 avrap o . .<br />
opvLs but a bird. The same thing is shown by T&V<br />
fjivrjo-Trjpcov<br />
pw KT\. ( 259, It is evident that TWK<br />
b).<br />
is used, not because<br />
<strong>the</strong> suitors are definite persons, but because a contrast is made<br />
by jjieK.<br />
The same remark applies to <strong>the</strong> use with Adjectives ( 260),<br />
especially to <strong>the</strong> use by which <strong>the</strong>y are turned into Substantives,<br />
as TO Kpyyvov,<br />
TO. KaKa. In Homer ra KUKCL is said because in<br />
<strong>the</strong> particular context KaKa evils are opposed to good. In Attic<br />
ra KaKa or TO Kattov implies that evils form a class <strong>of</strong> things,<br />
distinguished from all o<strong>the</strong>r things.<br />
This again<br />
is a difference,
234 PRONOUNS. [265.<br />
which does not come out in translating Homer, and is <strong>the</strong>refore<br />
apt to be overlooked.<br />
The use with Cardinal Numerals ( 260, is
266.]<br />
THE RELATIVE. 235<br />
<strong>the</strong> Correlation ws ws as so. A single<br />
s tlirtov, &c. :<br />
cp. <strong>the</strong> Latin guae quum diosisset, &c. The<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r instances in which we have to translate cos as a Demonstrative<br />
are rare :<br />
e.g. II. 3. 339 &s ' avr&s and in like manner,<br />
Among Demonstrative uses <strong>of</strong> os it is usual to count <strong>the</strong> use<br />
with ydp, as os yap, o>s yap, %va yap. This however is an error,<br />
arising from <strong>the</strong> occasional use <strong>of</strong> yap where it cannot be translated<br />
for: see 348, 3.<br />
Some commentators find a Demonstrative os in<br />
Od. 4. 388 rov y' (i TTcas av Svvaio \oxf}ffafj.fvos XzXafitadai,<br />
os Ktv TOI fiTrgaw u86v KT\.<br />
Here however <strong>the</strong> clause os KW rot KT\. is not <strong>the</strong> Apodosis, but a Relative<br />
Clause expressing purpose. The peculiarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> passage is 7 merely that <strong>the</strong><br />
Apodosis is left to be understood : if you can seize him, (do so), that he may tell<br />
you &c. :<br />
cp. Od. 5. if., 10. 539.<br />
These idioms are usually regarded as <strong>the</strong> remains <strong>of</strong> an earlier<br />
use <strong>of</strong> os in <strong>the</strong> simple Anaphoric sense. The growth <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Relative out <strong>of</strong> a Demonstrative has been already exemplified in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Article ( 262). But <strong>the</strong> Relatival use <strong>of</strong> os is so ancient<br />
that any attempt to trace its growth from an earlier syntax must<br />
be <strong>of</strong> very uncertain value.<br />
266.] os re, os ns. The simple os may be used in any kind <strong>of</strong><br />
Relative Clause, although in certain cases ( 262) <strong>the</strong> Article is<br />
preferred. Thus we have<br />
II. 4. 196 ov ris di'o-rewas Zj3a\v (a particular fact).<br />
I.<br />
403 bv B/oia/oeow KaAe'ouo-i (a constant, characteristic fact).<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se two places <strong>the</strong> Art. might be put in place <strong>of</strong> os but<br />
:<br />
not in<br />
II. 2. 205 els j3ao-L\vs, o> e8o>Ke (a characteristic fact, defining).<br />
I. 21 8 09 K 0eots TTL77idr]TaL (definition <strong>of</strong> a class).<br />
So os is used to convey a reason (which implies a general cause<br />
or tendency)<br />
: as Od. i.<br />
348 Zevs amos os re 6t8coo-tz/ KT\. ; cp.<br />
II. 2. 275., 5. 650., 8. 34.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> Relative is meant to refer to an indefinite number <strong>of</strong><br />
individuals falling under a common description, os TIS is generally<br />
used, = wtio being any one, whoever.<br />
again, <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause generalises by making us think,<br />
If,<br />
not so much <strong>of</strong> all possible individuals in a class, as <strong>of</strong> different<br />
times and circumstances, in o<strong>the</strong>r words, if it lays stress on <strong>the</strong><br />
general and permanent element in facts os re is used e. : g.<br />
II. I.<br />
279 oTK/77iro{5)(os /3ar7tAev?, w re Zevs Kvbos eSco/ce to whom<br />
as king, to whom in every such case.
236 PRONOUNS. [267.<br />
II. 4. 361 ra yap eioi3 os r vpv pe'ei (cp. 5. 876).<br />
9. 117 avrjp ov re Zei>s Krjpi ^uAr/o-r?.<br />
Od. 7. 74 ola-iv T ev (frpoveyai <strong>the</strong>y to whom she is well inclined.<br />
Thus os re is constantly used in comparisons: as II. 3. 6 1 (-TreAeKVs)<br />
os r' etcrty 6ta bovpbs vif avepos os pa re re^ry z/7jtoi/ eKra/jwrjo-t.<br />
SO WS T, o6t T, oOey T, OT T eVOtt T, iVtt T OOX>S T, OlOS T.<br />
I !<br />
Od. 12. 22 8to~0ai>ees, ore r' aAAoi a^ra^ ^r/crKOixr' avOpc&TTOi.<br />
19. 179 Kwoa-o's, juteyaXr] TroA-ts, ey^a re MtVcos KrA.<br />
Thus Homer has ^e Relatives, viz. os^ os re, os rts, 6, o re, each<br />
with a distinct use :<br />
Attic retains only os and os rts.*<br />
267.] Correlative Clauses. I. We have first to distinguish<br />
between <strong>the</strong> simple structure in which <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause only<br />
qualifies a Noun or Pronoun in <strong>the</strong> Principal Clause, as<br />
T&V ol vvv (Bporoi et<br />
oBi Trep KrA. in <strong>the</strong> plain where fyc.<br />
and <strong>the</strong> parallel structure, in which <strong>the</strong> Relative is an Adverb <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> same form as <strong>the</strong> Antecedent ;<br />
as<br />
robs 8e & aTT\6ripu> o>s vvv eWayA' e^)tAr](ra.<br />
T<strong>of</strong>ypa 6' irl Tpweo-crt rt^et Kparos, op<br />
rrj 'L^v fj Kev brj s e^uAr/o-a implies rws cos e' av is equivalent to ro^pa o$p' av, &c.<br />
In this way, <strong>the</strong>n, it came about that cos (lit. in which manner]<br />
means in <strong>the</strong> manner in which: and so o
267.]<br />
RELATIVE CLAUSES. 237<br />
2. The omission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> antecedent from <strong>the</strong> governing clause<br />
leads to various idiomatic uses :<br />
The (a) Relative Clause comes to be equivalent<br />
or Pronoun in any Case which <strong>the</strong> governing clause may<br />
require thus<br />
:<br />
to a Noun<br />
II. 5. 481 ra T ee'ASerai os K eiriScuTjs which (he)<br />
desires who<br />
is in need.<br />
I.<br />
230 bS>p* anooLipti&Qai os ris crzOev avriov elirrj to take<br />
away gifts (from him, from any one) who fyc.<br />
7. 401 yvcarbv 8e KCU 6s /maAa vrfinos <strong>the</strong> twelfth morn (from <strong>the</strong> time] when fyc.<br />
So in II. 2. 303<br />
'<br />
\QiCa re /cat<br />
TrpoD'if ore means f/y or ^o (from <strong>the</strong> time] that.<br />
Hence too <strong>the</strong> forms ets ore to <strong>the</strong> time that, irpiv y ore before <strong>the</strong><br />
time when.<br />
Similarly with 061 where, as faavov 60 1 <strong>the</strong>y came (to <strong>the</strong> place)<br />
where.<br />
(c) With a Verb <strong>of</strong> saying or knowing<br />
<strong>the</strong> Relative Clause<br />
has apparently <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> a dependent question<br />
:<br />
II. 2. 365 yvuxry evret^ os & fiytpovtov KOKO'S, os re' w Xa&v,<br />
rib' os K (T0\6s eryo-t<br />
you will recognise (yiyvu>o-K(a, not ot8a) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> leaders him wJio is<br />
a weakling, and who <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people, ami again him who shall be<br />
(found to be] brave.<br />
So II.<br />
13. 278., 21. 609, Od. 3. 185., 17. 363 compare <strong>the</strong><br />
:<br />
form with <strong>the</strong> antecedent expressed<br />
II. 23. 498<br />
ro're 8e yvuHrearQe exacrros<br />
ITTTTOVS 'A/>yeW, o\ 8ei/repoi ot re irdpoiOtv.<br />
The construction is <strong>the</strong> same with a Verb which implies<br />
knowing, finding out, or <strong>the</strong> like :<br />
KAr^po) vvv 7re7rdAa0'0e 8ta/x7repes os Ke<br />
cast lots (to find him] whose portion it shall be.
238 PRONOUNS. [267.<br />
The 3. suppressed antecedent, again, may have no clear or<br />
grammatical construction :<br />
found when <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause ex-<br />
(a) This is especially<br />
presses a reason, as<br />
Od. 4. 6 II atjutaro's ets dyafloto, (fri\ov re/co?, <strong>of</strong> ayopeveis<br />
lit.<br />
you are <strong>of</strong> good Hood (seeing <strong>the</strong> things) such as you speak, i.e.<br />
as I see by <strong>the</strong> manner <strong>of</strong> things that you speak.<br />
II. 14. 95 vvv 8e (rev a)VO(rdfjir]V Tiayyv (frptvas olov eet7T?<br />
/ blame your thought, because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> thing you have said.<br />
Od. 2.<br />
239 vvv 6' aAAo> brjjji(f z>juiea-ib/xat, olov cnraz/res<br />
970-0' avp, TLS Ke (T CT aXXos 'A^ai&v Tapfiri(rLv,<br />
olov 8r)<br />
Mev\aov vTrerpecra? j<br />
who would fear you any more, seeing <strong>the</strong> way you shrank before<br />
Menelaus ?<br />
Od. 15. 212 otoS KLVOV OvjJLOS VTTtpfiLOS, OV (T<br />
[JLeOrj(Tl.<br />
II. 1 6. 1 7 TI^ y 'Apyetcoz/ dAo^vpeat ws oAeKoi/rat.<br />
Od. 10. 326 ^au/ua // exet a>s KrA.. I wonder at <strong>the</strong> way that fyc.<br />
This is <strong>the</strong> idiom generally described by saying that otos is put<br />
for ort TOLOVTOS, ws for ort oi^rcos, and so on. So when os introduces<br />
a reason ( 266) we might say that it is for ort OVTOS (e.g.<br />
Zevs CLITLOS os re 5t8o)n-t = ort OVTOS bfatHn).<br />
The peculiarity, how-<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Relative can have<br />
ever, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> clauses now in question is<br />
no grammatical Antecedent, that is to say, that <strong>the</strong> Correlative<br />
which it implies as an Antecedent has no regular construction<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Principal Clause.<br />
(b) This is also found after Verbs <strong>of</strong> knowing, &c. <strong>the</strong> Relative<br />
Clause expressing <strong>the</strong> Object or thing known : as<br />
II. 2. 409 fjb yap Kara Ov^bv abeXtyeov o>? 7roz;etro<br />
he knew <strong>of</strong> his bro<strong>the</strong>r (as<br />
to <strong>the</strong> manner)<br />
in which he laboured.<br />
24. 419 6f]ol6 KV . . olov p(TT^LS KfLTaL.<br />
Od. 7. 327 et8rja-ei? oo-crov . . a/norai vrjes ejucu.<br />
This is evidently an extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> form yz^o-rj os Ka/co's (supra,<br />
2 c),<br />
with <strong>the</strong> difference that <strong>the</strong> suppressed Correlative in <strong>the</strong><br />
Principal Clause is without a regular construction.<br />
Sometimes (c) <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause is used without any-<br />
Principal Clause, as an exclamation :<br />
e.g.<br />
II. 7. 455 TTOTTOL, 'Evvoo-iyai' evpvcrOevts, olov eetTres.<br />
Od. i.<br />
32 o> TTOTTOL, olov 8?] vv 6eovs (3porol amoWrcu.<br />
II. 5- ^Ol a>
267.] RELATIVE CLAUSES. 239<br />
how we wondered at Hector ! The want <strong>of</strong> a construction has<br />
much <strong>the</strong> same effect as with <strong>the</strong> exclamatory use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Nominative<br />
( 163). Similarly<br />
Od. 4.<br />
240 Trdvra jj^v OVK &v eyw fJLvOrjo'OfJLaL<br />
OCTO~Ol 'Qbv(T(T7]0$ TakCL(TLee KT/V.<br />
I will not tell <strong>of</strong> all his feats : but (just to mention) what a feat<br />
t/iis was that he did fyc.<br />
So Od. 4. 269., n. 517 ; cp. also II.<br />
5. 638 dAA' olov TWO. fyacri /crA. (Just to instance) <strong>the</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> man<br />
that <strong>the</strong>y tell fyc.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> explanation now given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se Eelative Clauses is right, it is<br />
evidently incorrect to accent and punctuate as is done by editors (e. g. in )<br />
II. 6. 1 08
240 PRONOUNS. [268.<br />
This ' Inverse Attraction } may be placed with <strong>the</strong> forms in<br />
which <strong>the</strong> Antecedent is<br />
wanting, because it can only arise when<br />
<strong>the</strong> original construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Antecedent (e'A.Kcoju,ey vrjas ocrai )<br />
has been f<strong>org</strong>otten.<br />
5. Again, <strong>the</strong> Correlative structure is liable to an extension,<br />
<strong>the</strong> characteristic <strong>of</strong> which is that <strong>the</strong> Relatival Adverb has no<br />
proper construction in its own clause.<br />
This may be most clearly seen in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> out/eKo, (i.<br />
VKa)for which reason : e.g.<br />
II. I. no a>? $rj<br />
TOV& eW/ca a(j)LV /ci]/3o'A.o? aAyea rev;(et,<br />
OVVZK eya><br />
. . OVK efleAov KrA.<br />
e. ov<br />
Apollo causes sorrow for this reason, that I would not Here<br />
fyc.<br />
we cannot translate OVVCKOL for which reason : <strong>the</strong> reason does not<br />
precede, but is given by <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause. That is, <strong>the</strong> first<br />
VK.a is rational ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> second is logically unmeaning. Hence <strong>the</strong><br />
ovvKa can only be due to <strong>the</strong> correlation : as it is usually expressed,<br />
ovveKa is attracted to <strong>the</strong> antecedent rowe/ca. Then<br />
since ovvKa comes to imply a correlative rowe/co, <strong>the</strong> antecedent<br />
rovvKa is omitted, and <strong>the</strong> relatival ovvtKa by<br />
itself comes to<br />
meanjfor <strong>the</strong> reason that, because.<br />
The process may be traced more or less distinctly in all <strong>the</strong><br />
Relatival Adverbs. Thus ws (in which manner] comes to mean in<br />
such manner that : and so ctypa for so long that, Iva. (lit. where) to<br />
<strong>the</strong> end that. Also, as will be shown presently, o,<br />
on and o re are<br />
Adverbial Accusatives, meaning literally in which respect, hence<br />
in respect that, because :<br />
cp. eiTretz; o TL e^craro to say for what he<br />
was angered with ^wcraro on he was angered- for (<strong>the</strong> reason}<br />
that. The qualifying force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Adverb is transferred from its<br />
own clause to <strong>the</strong> Verb <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Governing Clause.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> same principle e* TOV ore from<br />
<strong>the</strong> time when becomes<br />
e ou (for<br />
K TOV ov<br />
: and ets TO ore becomes els o to <strong>the</strong> time<br />
that.<br />
)<br />
268.] OUMCKO. This Conjunction (which may<br />
be treated as a<br />
single word) is used in two ways :<br />
(a) to assign a cause or reason :<br />
(I)<br />
to connect <strong>the</strong> fact expressed in <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause with<br />
a Verb <strong>of</strong> saying, knowing, &c.<br />
The second <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se uses is evidently derived from <strong>the</strong> first by a<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> degeneration, or loss <strong>of</strong> meaning. The fact told or<br />
known is originally given as <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> saying or knowing.<br />
The transition may be seen in<br />
Od. 7- 2/99 ^'j ^ TOL [JLV TOVTO y Vai(TlfJLOV OVK VOrj(T<br />
tf,<br />
ovvKa or' ov TI /xer' aju
269.] 'O, C OTI, 'O TE. 241<br />
my daughter did not judge aright in this, because she did not fyc.,<br />
more simply, in this, that she did not Sfc. Again<br />
Od. 5- 215 olba KOL avTos<br />
TrdvTa /jtciA',<br />
OVVZKCL
242 PRONOUNS.<br />
,<br />
[269.<br />
(1) o in respect that, because may be exemplified by<br />
II. 1 6. 835 Tpcotn (tA.07rroA.e/xoto-t //,ra,7rpe7rco, o o-tyiv afjivva)<br />
ripap avayKaiov (for that I keep <strong>of</strong>f}.<br />
Od. I.<br />
382 Tr]\jjia\ov Oav^afov o 0ap(raA.ea)j dyo'peue.<br />
So II. 9. 534 Od. (xcocrajueV??), 19. 543., 21. 289 (OVK ayairqs o).<br />
The use to state a consequence as a ground <strong>of</strong> inference (like<br />
that <strong>of</strong> ovWa in II. 9. 505, 268) occurs in<br />
Od. 4. 206 TOLOV yap /cat irarpo's, o /cat TTtirvvfJitva /3afeis<br />
for you are <strong>of</strong> a wise fa<strong>the</strong>r, (as I know) because you speak wisely :<br />
so Od. 18. 392, and probably also<br />
II. 21. 150 rt? TroOev et? avbp&v, o /xeu ^rXrjs dzmos eA.0etz; ;<br />
269.]<br />
f<br />
O, 'OTI, 'O TE.<br />
243<br />
causes you many evils? So II. 10. 142., 21. 488., 24. 240, Od.<br />
14. 367., 22. 36.<br />
The transition to <strong>the</strong> meaning that may be seen in<br />
II. 2. 255 50"tti 6vf&tcrKa) 6' ort j/,oi irpotypav KareVewe Kpoviav I know that Sfc.<br />
Cp. II. I. 536 ovbf fJLLv"Hpr] riyvoirja-cv Ibovv on ol /crA. : 24. 563<br />
Kat 5e ere yiyvva-KO) . . orri Oe&v TLS a? ??ye.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> on = that is commoner in <strong>the</strong> Iliad than in <strong>the</strong><br />
Odyssey (where ws and ouycica partly supply <strong>the</strong> place, see 268).<br />
(3) The form o re (so written by Bekker to distinguish it<br />
from ore is<br />
when) found in Homer with <strong>the</strong> same varieties <strong>of</strong><br />
meaning as o and 6. Thus we have = o re because in<br />
II. l.<br />
244 \(t)6fjivos o T apiOTov 'A)(cu<br />
ovbv erto-a?<br />
angry because Sec. II. 6.<br />
; 126., 16. 59> Od. 8. 78. So<br />
Od. 5- 35^ &> M ot ^7^5 M 7 T ? LS M ot ixf^cLLvrjo'Lv<br />
bokov avT<br />
aOavaTtoV, o re jue (T^eStrj? aTrojSrjvai d^coyet<br />
i. e. <strong>the</strong>re is a snare in this bidding me to get <strong>of</strong>f <strong>the</strong> raft. So<br />
probably II. I. 518 77 brj Aotyta epy* o re tf KrA. w *V a pestilent<br />
thing that you fyc. II. ; 19. 57 ^ aP TL T *<br />
afjL(f)OTpoL(nv apaov<br />
eTrXero o re KrX. : and <strong>the</strong> exclamatory use ( 267, 3, in II. 16.<br />
c)<br />
433 & M ot ^ywr, o re KrA. alas for me that Sec.<br />
Again, o re is = as I know because, in<br />
II. 4 31 baifjiovirfy TL vv ere riptajLtoj Uptdnxoto re 7rcues<br />
rocrcra Kaxa peov(nv, o r* dcr7rep)(es fxe^eat^eis<br />
^
244 PRONOUNS. [270.<br />
by all <strong>the</strong> gods. So II. 8. 251 &oz>0' o T ap KrA. saw that fyc. ;<br />
and with. II. ytyz^coo-KO), 5- 23 1 &c -<br />
;<br />
The existence <strong>of</strong> a distinct 5 TC with <strong>the</strong> meaning because or<br />
that depends upon its being shown that in places such as those<br />
now quoted <strong>the</strong> word cannot be ei<strong>the</strong>r cm that or ore when. The<br />
latter explanation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> reading ore (or 6Y) is <strong>of</strong>ten admissible,<br />
<strong>of</strong> elision.<br />
e.g. in II. 14. 7 1 a J?^ *V I JL y^-P T ^a ^ ^^ ^re C<br />
> P' -^ I 5-<br />
207 ZcrOXbv KOL TO TCTVKTCLL or . . etSrj, and instances in Attic, as<br />
Soph. O. T. 1133 KCLToibev KrA. he knows well<br />
?]/x,o9 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time<br />
when fyc.,<br />
Eur. Troad. 70 018' VVLK Alas etAKe. But <strong>the</strong> supposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> a distinct o re is supported by a sufficient number <strong>of</strong> examples<br />
in Homer, e.g. II. 5. 331 yiy^coovccoi; o r' ava\Kis ZT]V Ocos,<br />
and generally by <strong>the</strong> complete correspondence <strong>of</strong> meaning thus<br />
obtained between o, 6, and o re. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand it is extremely<br />
improbable that <strong>the</strong> t <strong>of</strong> on was ever capable<br />
In this respect cm that stands on <strong>the</strong> same footing as TI and on.<br />
Moreover, <strong>the</strong> adverbial use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se words, which gives <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong><br />
character <strong>of</strong> Conjunctions, is only a slight extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ordinary<br />
Ace. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Internal Object ( 133). Hence if <strong>the</strong> Neut. <strong>of</strong> os<br />
and 05 TIS is used in this way, it is difficult to see any reason why<br />
<strong>the</strong> Neut. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> equally familiar os TC should be excluded. The<br />
ancient authorities and <strong>the</strong> MSS. vary in some places between<br />
ore and cm (as<br />
in II. 14. 71, 72., 16. 35, Od. 13. 129), and on<br />
such a point we have no good external authority.<br />
270.1 o, cm, o re as Conjunctions. In a few instances it is<br />
impossible to explain <strong>the</strong>se Relatives by supplying an Accusative<br />
TO in <strong>the</strong> principal Clause. Thus in<br />
Od. 2O. 333 vvv 6' TI^T] ro'Se 877X01;, o r ov/ceri roVri/xo's eari<br />
<strong>the</strong> Antecedent is a Pronoun in <strong>the</strong> Nom. Similarly in<br />
II. 5. 349 r] o^x. dXis OTTI yvvalKas avd\mas ^TrepOTrevet? ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> principal Clause is Impersonal, and <strong>the</strong> Antecedent might be<br />
a Nom. it (is<br />
not enough) or Gen. (is<br />
<strong>the</strong>re not enough in this), but<br />
hardly an Accusative. Again in<br />
II. 8. 362 ov8e TL T&V fi^Furqrat, o ot /otaAa TroAAaKis KrA..<br />
17. 207 T&V iroivriv, o rot KrA. (as amends for <strong>the</strong> fact that)<br />
<strong>the</strong> Relative Clause serves as a Genitive: cp. Od. n. 540 yrjtfoa-uvrj<br />
o ot KrA., 12. . .<br />
374 ayyeAo? r)\6tv o ot KrA.<br />
Add II. 9. 493 r" fypw&tw o f*ot KrA., 23. 545 T^ 4 > P ov ^(tiV 0/n *<br />
KrA. : and also Od. 2. 1 16 ra povtov
271.]<br />
ORATIO OBL1QUA. 245<br />
It may be worth while pointing out <strong>the</strong> parallel between this extension <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Kelative Clause and <strong>the</strong> development which has been observed in <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive ( 234). In <strong>the</strong> first instance <strong>the</strong> Clause serves as epexegesis<br />
<strong>of</strong> an Ace. with a Verb <strong>of</strong> saying, knowing, feeling, &c. ( 237, 2) : fir) SeiSiOi riva<br />
fyeaOai fear not any one, for being likely to see ; Tapfirjffas (TO) 6 ayx 1 v&yr) ftt\os<br />
fearing (this},<br />
that <strong>the</strong> spear stuck near him. Then <strong>the</strong> Ace. is used without<br />
reference to <strong>the</strong> construction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Verb and consequently <strong>the</strong><br />
dependent Clause may stand to it as logical Subject<br />
: ov n ve^effffijTov fiaffiXfja<br />
dirapeffffaaOat for a king to make his peace is no shame ; oi>x a\is on rjirfpoireveis is<br />
(<strong>the</strong> fact) that you deceive not enough; where <strong>the</strong> Clause in both cases serves as a<br />
Nom. Finally <strong>the</strong> Clause is used as an indeclinable Noun <strong>of</strong> any Case : rwv<br />
He^rjrai b KT\. remembers this, that &c. ;<br />
to which corresponds <strong>the</strong> so-called<br />
'<br />
articular Infinitive,' or Inf. with <strong>the</strong> Article as a Substantive.<br />
The three forms o, o T, OTI do not differ perceptibly in meaning. Hence<br />
<strong>the</strong> reduction in Attic to <strong>the</strong> single on is no real loss.<br />
270*.] Indirect Discourse. Clauses introduced by o (o re,<br />
on), ws, oui/eica after Verbs <strong>of</strong> saying and knowing are evidently <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> oratio obliqua, or indirect quotation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong><br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r person.<br />
The <strong>Homeric</strong> language has no forms <strong>of</strong> Syntax peculiar to<br />
Indirect Discourse (such as <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Opt. or Pres. Indie.<br />
after a Secondary Tense). Every assertion is made from <strong>the</strong><br />
speaker's own point <strong>of</strong> view consequently what was present to<br />
:<br />
<strong>the</strong> person quoted must be treated as now past. Accordingly <strong>the</strong><br />
Present Tense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oratio directa becomes <strong>the</strong> Impf., <strong>the</strong> Pf.<br />
becomes <strong>the</strong> Plpf<br />
. The Future is thrown into past time by <strong>the</strong><br />
help <strong>of</strong> as in ovbe TO f/,e'AA.o>, 77817 o ov 7rei(reo-0cu ejuteAAezJ he knew<br />
not that he would not be persuaded. The only exception to this is<br />
Od. 13. 340 7J8e'<br />
6 z^ooTTJo-ei? / knew that you will (i.e. would)<br />
return. For an instance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Opt. with ws after a Verb <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
see 306, 2 and : cp. <strong>the</strong> Dependent Question, 248.<br />
The Clauses now in question are commoner after Verbs <strong>of</strong> knowing,<br />
hearing, remembering, &c. than after Verbs <strong>of</strong> saying.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong><br />
former kind <strong>the</strong>re are about 70 in Homer ;<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> latter, which<br />
may be counted as examples <strong>of</strong> true Indirect Discourse, <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
16. Of <strong>the</strong>se, again, only three are in <strong>the</strong> Iliad (i 6. 131., 17.<br />
654., 22. 439). This confirms <strong>the</strong> view that <strong>the</strong>se Clauses are<br />
originally causal, <strong>the</strong> meaning that being derived from <strong>the</strong> meaning<br />
because ( 268).<br />
If we confine ourselves to o (o re)<br />
and ort<br />
<strong>the</strong> proportion is still more striking, since out <strong>of</strong> more than 50<br />
instances <strong>the</strong>re are only four with a Verb <strong>of</strong> saying *.<br />
271.] Form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause. It is characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Relative Clause that <strong>the</strong> Verb to be is <strong>of</strong>ten omitted : as<br />
II. 8. 524 fJLvOos 8' 6s juey vvv vytrjs, eiprj/oteVos e'oro),<br />
* The figures are taken from Schmitt (Unsprung des Substantivsatses'), but i<br />
clude instances <strong>of</strong> o r which he refers to ore when.
246 PRONOUNS. [271.<br />
and so 6Vo-ot 9 A\aioi t ot Trep apto-rot, 77<br />
rts apt'orr?, os r' atrtos 09 re<br />
Kal ov/a, &c. Hence we should write in II. n. 535., 20. 500<br />
avrvycs at Trept bitypov, in II. 21. 353 tx^es ^ Ka ivas. So<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Adverbs ;<br />
as Od. TO. 176 op' er 1^7 1 0or) (Bp&cris re TioVts<br />
re 50<br />
long as <strong>the</strong>re is food and drink in <strong>the</strong> ship.<br />
'<br />
i . This ellipse leads to a peculiar Attraction '<br />
into <strong>the</strong> Case <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Antecedent, found chiefly with ooros re, as<br />
Od. JO. 113 rr]v 8e yvvciiKa \ tvpov ocrrjv r opeos Kopvcfrriv,<br />
which is equivalent to roa-rjv oVrj eo-rt Kopvtyri ; and so ovov re,<br />
Od. 9. 322, 325., JO. 167, 517., I J. 25 ;<br />
also oUv re, Od. 19. 233.<br />
The only instance in <strong>the</strong> Iliad is somewhat different :<br />
II. I. 262 ov yap TTOJ TOLOVS t6oz> . . olov RtipiOoov KT\.<br />
The later Attraction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Relative into <strong>the</strong> Case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Antecedent is not found in Homer. Kiihner gives as an example<br />
II. 5. 265 rrjs yap rot ye^erjs fjs Tpau Trep e^puoVa Zei/j O>K. But<br />
<strong>the</strong>re <strong>the</strong> Gen. is '<br />
partitive <strong>the</strong> brood from which Zeus gave '<br />
:<br />
( 151 e).<br />
So II. 23. 649 ( 153).<br />
2. Ano<strong>the</strong>r effect <strong>of</strong> this omission may be found in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong><br />
double Relatival forms, especially ws ore as when (it is) ; which<br />
again may be used without any Verb following :<br />
e.g.<br />
II. 13. 471 aAA' ejuez/ a>s ore rts (TVS ovp <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind to defend (Od. 2. 60),<br />
IJitvcLv ert r?]AtKos <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> agefor remaining (Od. 17. 20);<br />
(2) <strong>the</strong> Correlative form, such as II. 5. 483 rotoy olov K ?]e<br />
(j)poiv 'Axaiot r\<br />
KZV ayoitv: II. 7. 231 ^juets 5' d^lv rotot ot av<br />
Thus (e.g.]<br />
Od. 21. 172 rotor otoV re . . pvrrjpa /3to<br />
/cat oto-rw^ combines <strong>the</strong> forms rotoz; ejute^at <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind to be and<br />
rotor ows re (eo-rt) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind that In o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
(is).<br />
words, <strong>the</strong> con-
272.]<br />
FORMS OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 247<br />
struction <strong>of</strong> rotos is transferred to <strong>the</strong> Correlatives rotos otos.<br />
Then rotos is omitted, and we get otos with <strong>the</strong> Inf. The same<br />
be said <strong>of</strong>
248 MOODS. [273.<br />
relates to a particular fact : as II. 4. 442 77<br />
r oXiyr] JJLZV<br />
Kopvcra-zrai . . rj crfyiv KOI rare KT\. ; 5- 545 'AA^etou, os r evpv /5eet<br />
Tlv\{(av bia yair]s, os reVer' 'OpviXoxov : and in <strong>the</strong> reverse order,<br />
II. 1 8.<br />
52O 01 6' ore 5r/ p IKCLVOV O&L cr(f)i(nv eu
^<br />
273-] KINDS OF SENTENCE. 249<br />
2. Prohibitive Clauses (^r\<br />
= lest).<br />
3. Relative Clauses proper (introduced by os).<br />
4. Clauses introduced by a Relatival Adverb (o>s, o#i, o0ei>, ore,<br />
eo>s, o$/oa, &c. ;<br />
also HvOa,<br />
r<br />
(va, and e<br />
5. Clauses introduced by el if.<br />
This classification is based upon <strong>the</strong> grammatical form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Clause. If we look to <strong>the</strong> relation in point <strong>of</strong> meaning between<br />
<strong>the</strong> two Clauses <strong>of</strong> a Complex Sentence, we find that subordinate<br />
Clauses fall into a wholly different set <strong>of</strong> groups. Thus <strong>the</strong>re<br />
are<br />
(1) Clauses expressing cause or reason: as<br />
II. 2. 274 vvv 8e ro'8e jue'y' apioroy kv 'Apyeioia-LV epefez/,<br />
fas TOV Xt<strong>of</strong>irjTTJpa e7recr/3oAoz; t^X* a "ypa(^v.<br />
And clauses like II. 4. 157 o5? o-' tfiaXov Tpoies #ww?0 ^ Trojans<br />
have thus shot at you ; 6. 166 olov aKova-e at hearing such a thing<br />
26<br />
( 7, 3)<br />
: as well as in <strong>the</strong> regular Causal use <strong>of</strong> o, on, o re<br />
( 269), and <strong>of</strong>t/eica.<br />
(2) Clauses expressing <strong>the</strong> Object <strong>of</strong> Verbs <strong>of</strong> saying, knowing ',<br />
thinking, &c. (i. e. <strong>the</strong> fact or thing said, &c.) : as<br />
II. 2. 365 yvto(TT\<br />
1<br />
eVeifl' os &<br />
fjyejjiovtov KOTO'S, oj re vv Xa&v.<br />
Od. 6. 141 6 5e ^p^-ripi^v 'OStxro-evj . . |<br />
^ KrA.<br />
II. 1 8.<br />
125 yvoiev 8* o>s 8^ brjpbv eyo> TroXe/xoto TreTravjuat.<br />
601 TretpTJo-erai at Ke Oeya-iv (tries if<br />
it will rim).<br />
(3) Clauses expressing condition or limitation ; which may be<br />
introduced<br />
By 05 : as r ot z;w (Bporoi e^o-t ^ tf^0 mortals now living : os K<br />
fTTibevri ? >^(? 2#y0 ^ m ww/^ : os KC ^eots eTriTret^^rat<br />
^^/^
250 MOODS. [273.<br />
By e
2 75-] SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 251<br />
The Subjunctive<br />
in Principal Clauses.<br />
274.] The Subjunctive in a Simple Sentence, or in <strong>the</strong> Principal<br />
Clause <strong>of</strong> a Complex Sentence, may be said in general<br />
to express ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> will <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker or his sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> necessity<br />
<strong>of</strong> a future event. Like <strong>the</strong> English must and shall, by<br />
which it<br />
may usually be rendered, it is intermediate in meaning<br />
between an Imperative and a Future. Sometimes (as<br />
in toptv<br />
let us go, or in Prohibitions with pj) it is virtually Imperative;<br />
sometimes it is an emphatic or passionate Future. These<br />
varieties <strong>of</strong> use will be best understood if<br />
treated with reference<br />
to <strong>the</strong> different kinds <strong>of</strong> sentence Affirmative, Interrogative,<br />
Negative, Prohibitive, &c. in which <strong>the</strong>y occur.<br />
275.] In Affirmative sentences <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. depends<br />
in great measure on <strong>the</strong> Person used.<br />
(a) In <strong>the</strong> First Person <strong>the</strong> Subj. supplies <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> an<br />
Imperative, so far as such a thing is conceivable: that is, it<br />
expresses what <strong>the</strong> speaker resolves or insists upon doing ; e. g.<br />
II. 9. 121 VyClV 8' V 7rdvTCT(TL TTeptKAura (Sp' OVOfJiriVd)<br />
(where <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong> gifts immediately follows).<br />
Od. 2. 222 a-rjfjid<br />
re ot yjE.v(& Kat em Krepea Krepetfco<br />
3<br />
TroAAa fjidX 6Vo*a eotKe, Kat avept, jx^re'pa Swcrco<br />
(<strong>the</strong> Subj. expresses <strong>the</strong> decisive action to be<br />
taken by Telemachus, viz. to acknowledge his<br />
fa<strong>the</strong>r's death : <strong>the</strong> Fut. 6o>a-a> expresses what<br />
would follow as a matter <strong>of</strong> course).<br />
12. 383 8u0"ojucu ets 'AtSao Kat V VKVZju' TOVTOV KT\.<br />
avpa<br />
450 8ei;re, o"wo jtxot e7reo-0ozj, t8co// ortz;' epya reVuKrat.<br />
So after <strong>the</strong> phrases dXV aye, el 8' aye, as Od. 6. 126 dAA' ay' eya>y<br />
avrbs 7reipr7O"Ojutat 7]8e tdw/xat: 9* 37<br />
' ^'<br />
^7 e rot Ka^ VO
252 SUBJUNCTIVE. [275.<br />
II. 14. 235 TTciOtv, eyo><br />
8e' KC rot et8e'o><br />
<strong>of</strong>oy, flftd / will feel thankfulness.<br />
16. 129 overdo re^x. ea Oao-a-ov, eyo> Se Ke Aaoy ayetpa).<br />
Od. 17. 4^7<br />
r( ? ^ XP*) b<strong>of</strong>jievai, Kat Acotozj ?}e Tre/)<br />
aAAot<br />
CTLTOV ey&) 8e Ke (re KAetco KrA.<br />
So too II. J. 183 TJ\V fJifv . . Tre'/^to, eyco 8e K' ayco B/no-^tda I will<br />
send her (as required),<br />
fl?z6? ^
277-] PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 253<br />
II. 18. 308 ^vBri KrX. am I to remain here, or am I to run fyc. ;<br />
Od. 15. .509 Trfj yap eya>, ^>tAe TCKVOV, too ; reu ba^af? I'KCO/^CU KrA.<br />
where am I to go ? to whose house Od. fyc. : 5. 465 & jutot eya>, rt
254 SUBJUNCTIVE. [278.<br />
TL vv /xot juT/Ktorra yeznjrat ; what am I to suffer<br />
? what is to<br />
become <strong>of</strong> me ? And rhetorically, with an implied negation<br />
II. 1 8. 188 7T
280.] PROHIBITION SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 255<br />
probable, however, that in such cases <strong>the</strong> Clause with p,T|<br />
has acquired a subordinate<br />
character, serving as Object to <strong>the</strong> Verb (thing feared) see 281.<br />
;<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> Clauses now in question are <strong>of</strong>ten explained by<br />
supposing an ellipse <strong>of</strong> a Verb <strong>of</strong> fearing<br />
:<br />
^ pcri for 8t8o> /) /5effl.<br />
This is open<br />
to <strong>the</strong> objection that it separates Clauses which are essentially similar. For<br />
A") P*V I witt n t have ^m ao (hence I fear he may do} is identical in form with<br />
A"7 P*v s I wul n(>t have you do. In this case, <strong>the</strong>n, we have <strong>the</strong> simple Sentence<br />
fjtr)<br />
into which it entered.<br />
Thus in II.<br />
per), as well as <strong>the</strong> Compound SeiSca pr) pegy,<br />
Similar questions may arise regarding Final Clauses with JATJ.<br />
i.<br />
586-7 TfrXaOi, prjrep /j.rj,<br />
. .<br />
fj.rj ffe . . idcupai we may translate endure, mo<strong>the</strong>r ;<br />
let me not see you &c., or (bringing <strong>the</strong> two Clauses more closely toge<strong>the</strong>r) endure,<br />
lest I see you &c. So in II. 8. 522, Od. 13. 208. No clear line can be drawn<br />
between independent and subordinate Clauses : for <strong>the</strong> complex Sentence has<br />
been formed gradually, by <strong>the</strong> agglutination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> simple Clauses.<br />
The combination ^ ou prohibition <strong>of</strong> a negative<br />
is extremely<br />
rare in Homer. In II. 5. 2$3 jur) ro> juez; SeiVavre /xarr;-<br />
(rerov ovb' eOtXrjrov, and II. 1 6. 128 JUIT/ 8r) vrjas e/Vcoo-t KOI OVKTL<br />
VKTCL 7T\u>vTai, <strong>the</strong> Particles are in distinct Clauses. It occurs<br />
in a Final Clause, II. i. 28 ^r\ vv rot ov xpa^M?? KT\., II. 24. 569 :<br />
and after SetSw in II. 10. 39 8et8o> ov<br />
jut^ rts rot KT\.<br />
The Subj. in this use does not take KGV or $.v,<br />
<strong>the</strong> prohibition<br />
being always regarded as unconditional.<br />
It is well known that <strong>the</strong> Present Subj. is not used as an Imperative<br />
<strong>of</strong> Prohibition (with p]).<br />
The rule is absolute in<br />
Homer for <strong>the</strong> Second Person.<br />
The Third Person is occasionally<br />
used when fear (not command) is expressed ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> instances are,<br />
Od. 5. 356 (quoted above); 15. 19 jtxrj<br />
v6 n . .<br />
(/xfp^rat 16. ; 87 ^<br />
IJLIV KeprojueWtzj. The restriction does not apply to <strong>the</strong> First<br />
Person Plur., as II. 13. 292 jury/cert ravra Aeya>/xe0a. We shall<br />
see that a corresponding rule forbids or restricts <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ^<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Aorist Imperative ( 327).<br />
279.] <strong>Homeric</strong> and Attic uses. In Attic <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Subj. in independent Clauses is ei<strong>the</strong>r Hortatory, or Deliberative,<br />
or Prohibitive. Thus <strong>the</strong> use with av ( 275, #), <strong>the</strong> use in Affirmation<br />
( 275, and 1), <strong>the</strong> Negative uses (276) do not survive.<br />
The Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses.<br />
280.] Clauses with T|e ife. Doubt or deliberation between<br />
alternative courses <strong>of</strong> action is expressed by Clauses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> form<br />
rje (TJ) rfe (rj)<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Subj., dependent on a Verb such as<br />
(Jbjuai, fjLp^j]pif(ti, &c., or an equivalent phrase<br />
: e. g.<br />
II. 4' 14- fl^eis Se (j)pa(&jJL0' OTTCOS eorat rae f/oya,<br />
97 /5' CLVTIS 7roAejuoi> re K.OLK.OV Kal fyvXoinv alvrjv<br />
opcro^v, r) (piXoTrjTa /xer' d/x,
256 SUBJUNCTIVE. [28l.<br />
This form is<br />
also found (but rarely) expressing, not <strong>the</strong> speaker's<br />
own deliberation, but that <strong>of</strong> a third person<br />
:<br />
Od. 1 6. 73 jJ-rjTpl 8' tfjifj bfya dvfjibs tvl (f)p(rl /xepju^/H^et,<br />
T)<br />
avrov nap* e/xot re }j.evr)<br />
KOL 8
282.] RELATIVE CLAUSES FINAL. 257<br />
Such a Clause may be Object to a Verb <strong>of</strong> knowing, $
358 SUBJUNCTIVE. [283.<br />
So II. 1 8.<br />
467 TrapeWerai ota ris . . QavpaorveTai (unless<br />
this is<br />
Fut.) also <strong>the</strong> :<br />
Object Clause II. 5* 33 ^apvao-d', oTTTrorepoio-i narr/p<br />
Zeus KVOOS to ope'fr? fight (out <strong>the</strong> issue)<br />
to which <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two Zeus<br />
shall give victory (i.<br />
e. till one or o<strong>the</strong>r wins). The want <strong>of</strong> KCI/ or<br />
ai> is<br />
owing to <strong>the</strong> vagueness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> future event contemplated,<br />
i. e. <strong>the</strong> wish to exclude reference to a particular occasion.<br />
The Relative is sometimes used with <strong>the</strong> Subj. after a Negative<br />
principal Clause where <strong>the</strong>re is necessarily no actual<br />
purpose :<br />
Od. 6. 2O I OVK f-o-O* OVTOS avrjp<br />
. . os Kei> . .<br />
ucrjrcu (v. I. IKOLTO).<br />
II. 23. 345 OVK. eo-0' os Ke' (T e'Aryo-t KrA.<br />
and without Key, II. 21. 103 vvv ft OVK eV0' os ris Oavarov ^vyy<br />
(v. 1. (frvyoi).<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se places <strong>the</strong> construction evidently follows<br />
that <strong>of</strong> ou and OUK &v with <strong>the</strong> Subj. in Simple sentences (OVK<br />
= eo-0' 6s ov fyvyri TL s O<strong>the</strong>rwise we should have <strong>the</strong> uy?7). Opt.<br />
'<br />
( 34, 6).<br />
The Subj. is quite anomalous in<br />
Od. 2. 42 cure TIV' dyye\ir]V arparov ZicXvov cpx<strong>of</strong>Jievoio,<br />
TJV x vfjuv ffa
283.] RELATIVE CLAUSESCONDITIONAL. 259<br />
Where <strong>the</strong> principal Verb refers to <strong>the</strong> future, and K.W or ai> is<br />
not used, <strong>the</strong> intention is to make <strong>the</strong> reference quite general<br />
and sweeping ; e.g.<br />
Od. 2O. 334 dAA3 aye n-rj<br />
ra8e JUUJT/H Trapefb'juiez'oy<br />
'<br />
6s TLS apicrTos avrjp KCLL TrXetora<br />
Forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 3 Sing. Plqpf. are sometimes given by <strong>the</strong> MSS. and older<br />
editions in Clauses <strong>of</strong> this kind : as ire(J>tiKei (II. 4. 483), !
260 SUBJUNCTIVE. [284.<br />
Od. 2O. 294<br />
ov yap KaXbv aren&fiv ovSe Sttcatov<br />
geivovs TrjXffAaxov, os Kfv raSe 5a;^a0' 'iKTjrat.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> Number we seem to pass from a general description to a<br />
particular instance. So in Od. 15. 345, 422, and perhaps in II. 3. 279., 6. 228.,<br />
16. 621, Od. 7. 33 : see 362, 6.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> &v in <strong>the</strong> Clauses <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
(
286.]<br />
'fls, 'onns, 'INA. 261<br />
1<br />
Regarding<br />
K.W and fa observe that in Final and Object Clauses<br />
after ws <strong>the</strong> Subj. with KCK is <strong>the</strong> commonest, occurring 32 times,<br />
while <strong>the</strong> Subj. with ay and <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. occur each 8 times.<br />
After OTTWS, which has a more indefinite meaning (in some suck<br />
manner that), <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. occurs 7 times, <strong>the</strong> Subj.. with *.tv<br />
twice (Od. i. 296., 4. 545> both Object clauses).<br />
(3) In Conditional or limiting Clauses :<br />
(a) After a Present <strong>the</strong> Subj. is pure in <strong>the</strong> phrase OTTO)? efl^Arjcri<br />
as he pleases (Od. i. 349., 6. 189). In II. 16. 83 77ei0eo 5' wsYoi<br />
eyo> fjivOov re'Aos ei> <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. indicates that 0eio><br />
is really an unconditional expression <strong>of</strong> will: ' listen to me I<br />
will tell<br />
you ' :<br />
cp. <strong>the</strong> independent sentences such as II. 6. 340<br />
7TLIJiLVOV, dpr/id TV\. a Mto ( 275' fl )'<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> ws and s 8e Aeo>i> \v poval Oopav e avyjzva ay KT\.<br />
II. 67 ot 8' 'A^cuot,<br />
vfja KOL eatrous f<br />
eperas, iva daa'crov tK?]at<br />
<strong>the</strong> meaning is ' I undertake that <strong>the</strong> Achaeans will do this for<br />
you/ Exceptions (out <strong>of</strong> about 80 instances) are : II. i. 203 77<br />
Iva vfipiv 1877 is it that you may see fyc. : II. 9. 99., 12. 435-. 24- 43><br />
Od. 8. 580.', 10. 24., 13. 327.<br />
An Object Clause with fra is perhaps to be recognised in<br />
Od. 3. 327 ^i(T(T
262 SUBJUNCTIVE. [287.<br />
The line may be an incorrect repetition<br />
if <strong>the</strong> reading1<br />
is right.<br />
<strong>of</strong> 3. 19.<br />
The pure Subj. only<br />
is used with wa, except in Od. 12. 156 tva<br />
eiSo're? TJ<br />
KC OavtDjJLtv f)<br />
Ktv dXeua/xerot Odvarov Kal Krjpa tyvyoipev,<br />
where two alternatives are given by <strong>the</strong> correlative TJ<br />
w<br />
cp. 275, b. But some MSS. have TJC 0az;a>juez>.<br />
rj<br />
KCK :<br />
As Mr. Gildersleeve points out (Am. Jour, <strong>of</strong> Phil. iv. 425) tva is <strong>the</strong> only<br />
purely final Particle, i. e. <strong>the</strong> only one which does not limit <strong>the</strong> purpose by <strong>the</strong><br />
notion <strong>of</strong> time (opa, ecus) or manner (us, OTTOJS-).<br />
Hence Clauses with tva do not<br />
take KCV or av, because <strong>the</strong> purpose as such is unconditional.<br />
287.] 3pa is sometimes Final, sometimes Conditional.<br />
(1) In Final Clauses o(f>pa ei<strong>the</strong>r retains a distinctly temporal<br />
force meaning so long till, till <strong>the</strong> time when, or passes into <strong>the</strong><br />
general meaning<br />
to <strong>the</strong> end that. Thus we have<br />
(#) o$pa.<br />
= until (as shall be),<br />
used with Key or o.v,<br />
as<br />
II. I. 59 Totypa 5' em TpoWo-i ri'0et /cparo?, otyp' av '<br />
vlov fjLov Tio'coo'Lv, o^eAAcoo'ti' re e<br />
22. 192 avixyevdov ^eet e/ot7re8or, otypa Kv<br />
With this meaning <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. is found in II. I. 82 exet KOTOV<br />
oQpa reAeVo-ry he keeps his anger until he accomplishes it a general<br />
reflexion: also in II. 12. 281 (in a simile).<br />
(b)<br />
Key or o.v.<br />
o^pa = to <strong>the</strong> end that, used with <strong>the</strong> pure Subj., rarely with<br />
The transition to this meaning may be seen in<br />
II. 6. 258 aX\a /xeV, otypa Ke rot juteAt^^ea olvov e^etKO)<br />
stay till I bring (<br />
= giving me time to bring}.<br />
(2) Clauses with opa may be classed as Conditional when it<br />
means so long as e. ', g.<br />
II. 4. 345 tvOa (f)C\' d'nraA.e'a Kpe'a efyxe^ai . . otyp' efle'Arjroz;.<br />
Od. 2. 123 Totypa -yap ovv fiiorov re reor Ka^ Krri//ar' eSoz^rat,<br />
otypa K Kivrj TOVTOV XV voov.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> KCI/ or Q.V in <strong>the</strong>se Clauses is governed by <strong>the</strong> same<br />
rule as with 05, viz. it is used when <strong>the</strong> reference is to <strong>the</strong> future,<br />
and is not expressly meant to be general (as II. 23. 47 otypa<br />
{cooto-t As to<br />
jxereuo). <strong>the</strong> form otyp av ptv Kv, see 363, 4.<br />
In II. 6. 112 aveps core, tyiXoi, ju^o-ao-^e Oovpibos dAK^?,<br />
otyp av eya> /3?ia) (cp. 8. 375., 17. 186, Od. 13. 412., 19. 17) <strong>the</strong><br />
Clause seems to mean until I go, i. e. long enough for me to go.<br />
Delbruck however counts <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> otypa in II. 6. 112, &c. as<br />
Conditional (Synt. Forsch. i. p. 170).<br />
288.] Iws (rjos) and els o, used with <strong>the</strong> Subj., always take w.<br />
The meaning until ><br />
with implied purpose, is <strong>the</strong> usual one : as
289.] '0*PA, 'EH2, 'OTE, 'OHOTE. 263<br />
II. 3. 290 avrap eyo> KCU eVetra jutax^ojmat etVe/ca<br />
avOi fjievtov, rjos KG re'Aos TroAe'/zoio Ki^tia.<br />
9. 48 Z;OH 6' eya> S^eVeAc's re jixax^o'/^efl' etj o KC<br />
'IAlOt> V<br />
The Conditional meaning is only found in <strong>the</strong> recurring expression<br />
eis o K avrfjir) ev o-rTJflecro-t jueVrj KCU /xot
264 SUBJUNCTIVE. [289.<br />
II. 15. 207 e, or' ay rtya KrA. and Od. 13.<br />
roo-0ey 8e r' ayev 8eo-)utoto jute'yoixrt yijes edo-o-eAjuot, or' ay oppov<br />
jmeVpoy tKcoyrat (in contrast to those outside).<br />
But cp. <strong>the</strong> remark<br />
as to or' ai> in <strong>the</strong> last note.<br />
(2) "When <strong>the</strong>re is a change from Plural to Singular :<br />
II. 9. 501 Aio-o-o/xeyot, ore Ke'y rts U7rep^3ri?] Kat
.<br />
292.]<br />
CLAUSES WITH El. 265<br />
Od. II. 21 8 dAA' avrr] 81/07 eort fiporutv, ore rt's Ke<br />
This last instance is doubtful, since <strong>the</strong> order ore T(S Ke is not<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> ( 365).<br />
We should probably read ore ris re.<br />
290.] cure, rjfjios.<br />
The word cure is only<br />
once found with a<br />
pure Subj., viz. Od. 7. 202 (in a general assertion)<br />
: CUT' &v occurs<br />
after a Future (II.<br />
i. 242., 19. 158), and an Imperative (II. 2. 34);<br />
also in one or two places where <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> &v is more difficult to<br />
explain, viz. II. 2. 227 (read eSre TrroXieOpov Od. e'Acojuez;), I. 192.,<br />
17. 320, 323., 1 8. 194. The combination cure KeV is not found.<br />
The pure Subj. with ifjaos<br />
occurs in one place<br />
Od. 4. 400 quos 8*<br />
1<br />
^e'Atos<br />
jueVou ovpavbv dju$t/3e/3 77/07<br />
where <strong>the</strong> reference is general, ' each midday/<br />
The Subjunctive with el, fyc.<br />
291.] Clauses with el. The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Particle el (or at), in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Clauses with which we have now to do, is to make an assumption<br />
or supposition. In most cases (i) this assumption<br />
is made<br />
in order to assert a consequence (ti<br />
= if)<br />
: in o<strong>the</strong>r words, it is a<br />
condition. But (2) an assumption may also be made in order to<br />
express end : efytt at Ke . . iri'flrjrat<br />
/ go suppose he shall listen<br />
'<br />
I go in order that if he will listen (he may do '<br />
so) accordingly<br />
:<br />
<strong>the</strong> Clause may be virtually a Final Clause. Again (3) with<br />
certain Verbs an assumption may be <strong>the</strong> Object e. : g. TLS ot8' et<br />
Kev . .<br />
optvQ) who knows suppose I shall rouse = who knows whe<strong>the</strong>r<br />
I shall rouse. We shall take <strong>the</strong>se three groups <strong>of</strong> Clauses in<br />
order.<br />
<strong>of</strong> in-<br />
292.] Conditional Protasis with The el. chief point<br />
terest under this head is <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> *ev or av. The rules will be<br />
found to be essentially <strong>the</strong> same as those already laid down for<br />
<strong>the</strong> corresponding Clauses with <strong>the</strong> Relative ( 283, and <strong>the</strong><br />
b]<br />
Relatival Adverbs (see esp. 289, b]<br />
and to be even more uniform<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
}<br />
application.<br />
(a) The pure Subj. is used in general sayings,<br />
II. I. 80 Kpeio-a-tov yap (3a(nX.vs ore x&} avr]p<br />
TreVot^e Kat et jue'ya j^etKos oprjraL.
266 SUBJUNCTIVE. [292,<br />
II. II. Il6 rj 8' et Tre'p<br />
re rvyTi *rA. (so II. 4. 261., 9. 48 1 .,<br />
10. 225., 16. 263., 21. 576., 22. 191, Od. 1. 188.,<br />
7. 204., 12. 96., 14. 373.<br />
If <strong>the</strong> principal Verb is a Future (or implies reference to <strong>the</strong><br />
future), <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. with el indicates that <strong>the</strong> supposed occasion<br />
is indefinite, one that happens repeatedly, or at any time,<br />
or may not happen at all; so II. I. 340 et Trore 8r) avre XP L^ fytw<br />
yeV^rat KrA. ; 12. 245 % ^ P y a P T ' $AAot ye 7repiKretzJO)ju,e0a<br />
TTCLVTZS<br />
KrA.; Od. I. 204 oi>5' et Tre'p re ort8?7pea 8ecrjutar' export. This form<br />
is naturally employed by a speaker who does not wish to imply<br />
that <strong>the</strong> occasion will actually arise : thus in<br />
II. 12. 223 &s 97/xets et Tre'p re irvXas /cat ret^os<br />
prj^<strong>of</strong>jieOa (T0eVet joteyaAa), et^cocrt 8' '<br />
ov KOO"//(J) Trapa vav(f)Lv eA.evo"o/x,e^' avra<br />
Polydamas is<br />
1<br />
interpreting an omen which he wishes to remain<br />
unfulfilled. Similarly II. 5. 248 et y ovv : II.<br />
erepos ye ^yr/crt<br />
22.<br />
86 et Trep yap ere KaTaKTavy, ov K aAeytfco<br />
^coo/xeVr;?, 0118' et Ke ra z/etara Tretpa^' tKryat<br />
= 1 do not care for you, (and shall not) even if Sfc.<br />
Instances <strong>of</strong> KC^ or &v in a sentence <strong>of</strong> general meaning are<br />
II. 3. 25 /x,aAa yap re Kareo-^tet, et ai> a^roz;<br />
-rrep<br />
o-euavrai, KrA. (etraw<br />
m ^6 ca^ when<br />
, 363, I, &).<br />
11. 391 ^ T aAAco? ^TT' e/xeto, Kat et K' oX'iyov Trep<br />
<strong>of</strong>u /Se'Aos.-TreAerat.<br />
12. 302 et Trep yap )(' evprjcn Trap' avTO(f)L KrA.
294-]<br />
CLAUSES WITH EL 267<br />
Od. II. 158 roz; ov TTCOS lVrt Treprjo-at<br />
TT^OV OVT , TjV fJLT^<br />
TIS f\TJ evepyea vfja.<br />
But with i Ke <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> same doubt as with os K<br />
( 283), and<br />
eiret KC ( 296).<br />
As to ty, which occurs in a general saying in II.<br />
i. 1 66 and Od. n. 159, see 362.<br />
293.] Final Clauses with ei. After a principal Verb expressive<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker's will (an Imperative, or First Person), a Final<br />
Clause may be introduced by ei K.CV or r\v : as<br />
II. 8. 282 /3aAA' oimos et KeV TL (f)6a)s kavaoicri ye'z^at.<br />
II. 791 TCLVT<br />
enrots 'A)(tA?jt batypovL tt Ke TTidrjraL.<br />
Od. 4. 34 btvp' iKo'/xefl' at Ke 7ro0t Zet>? . .<br />
navvy KrA.<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> using el (instead <strong>of</strong> o>s or IW) is ta express some<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> uncertainty. The end aimed at is represented as a<br />
opposition, instead <strong>of</strong> being a direct purpose.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> existing text <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. occurs only in II. 14. 165<br />
apCcTTr) (f)CLLVTO /3ovA.TJ fkOflv . . L TTCOS t/XljOatTO . . T,<br />
al Ke ra-<br />
Xiora VCKVV irl vija o-aworr/ and ot8a in <strong>the</strong> phrase rts otd' et Kez^<br />
:<br />
who knows lut (II. 15. 403., 16. 860, Od. 2. 332), and ov JJLCLV ot5'<br />
et' (II. 15. 16).
268 SUBJUNCTIVE. [295.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Accusative* de quo ( 140, 3) should be noticed;<br />
especially after olSa, anticipating <strong>the</strong> Clause with el as<br />
:<br />
II. 8.<br />
535 aupioz/ f)v aperrjv dtaetVerat et K'<br />
meaning ' he will know as to his prowess whe<strong>the</strong>r it will enable<br />
him to withstand my spear/ So Od. 22. 6 a-Koirbv a\\ov . . eto-o-<br />
/mai at Ke rvxt<strong>of</strong>ju (cp. 140, 3, #).<br />
In one place <strong>the</strong> Clause with el serves as explanation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Neuter Pronoun in <strong>the</strong> Nominative:<br />
II. 2O. 435 AA' 77 rot /u,ei> Tavra Oe&v Iv yovvaa-i Ketrat,<br />
et Ke' (re \eip6rep6s Trep ecoy aTro Qvpov<br />
295.] The Subj. with ws et occurs in a single place only, viz.<br />
II. 9. 481 Kat jote c/>tA.?7o-'<br />
ws et re Trarrjp 6i> 7rai8a (^tA.?jo-7y.<br />
Here <strong>the</strong> assumption<br />
et . .<br />
iA?j(n7 is made for <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
comparison. Thus <strong>the</strong> meaning is nearly <strong>the</strong> same as with ws<br />
ore ( 289, 2), and <strong>the</strong> Clause is essentially Conditional.<br />
296.] eirei with <strong>the</strong> Subj. The use <strong>of</strong> eiret implies that <strong>the</strong><br />
action is prior in time to <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principal Clause;<br />
hence Clauses with eirei properly fall under <strong>the</strong> definition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Conditional Clause.<br />
A pure Subj. after eirei is found in four places, one a gnomic<br />
passage, Od. 20. 86 eiret ap phefyap' djuK^tKaAifyn? (sleep makes men<br />
f<strong>org</strong>et everything] when it has spread over <strong>the</strong>ir eyelids ; <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
three in viz. II. jr. 15. 363, 680. In II. 16. 453<br />
<strong>the</strong> best brj TOV ye Ann? ^v\r\ re Kat alvv,<br />
similes,<br />
MSS. give<br />
478.,<br />
avrap erret<br />
Tre'jotTretj; {JLLV KT\., o<strong>the</strong>rs c^rjv 6?}.<br />
The pure Subj. implies that<br />
<strong>the</strong> command is meant to be general in form :<br />
cp. 292, a.<br />
icei> or OLV is invariably used when <strong>the</strong> principal Verb is future.<br />
It is also found after a Present, and even in similes : e. g.<br />
II. 2. 474 TOVS 6' cos T at7ro'A.ta TrAare" aly&v atTroAot aySpej<br />
peta 8taKpt^o)(7tr, eiret Ke z/o/xw joityecoo-tr.<br />
SoeW R (K),<br />
II. 7. 410., 9. 324-, 21. 575, Od. 8. 554., ii.<br />
221., 24. 7 : and eir^, II. 6. 489., 19. 223, Od. 8. 553., 10. 411.,<br />
IT. 192., 14. 130., 19. 206,515. In II. i. 168 should perhaps<br />
be read eTret KeKajutco (instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> eTret Ke Ka/^co),<br />
and so II. 7. 5<br />
eTret KeKCtyuoo-t,<br />
and II. 17. 657 eTret ap Ke/cajmr/o-t.<br />
Regarding eirei *e(v) in this use <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> same question as<br />
with os Ke ( 283).<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> 10 instances <strong>the</strong>re is only one in<br />
which <strong>the</strong> form icec appears, viz. II. 21. 575 ^Tret KZV vkay^bv<br />
aKovcrrj, and <strong>the</strong>re Zenodotus read KvvvXayjjibv,<br />
which is strongly<br />
supported by <strong>the</strong> metre ( 367, Thus <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>the</strong> same<br />
2).<br />
reason as before for supposing that KC is <strong>of</strong>ten merely a corrup-
297-]<br />
'EIIEI IIPIN. 269<br />
tion <strong>of</strong> re. The use <strong>of</strong> eirei re is sufficiently<br />
established in Homer<br />
( 332).<br />
The form lirf\v is<br />
open to doubt on o<strong>the</strong>r grounds, which it<br />
will be better to discuss in connexion with o<strong>the</strong>r uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Particle w ( 362).<br />
297.] irpiV with <strong>the</strong> Subj. In general, as we have seen ( 236),<br />
upiV is construed with an Infinitive. If, however, <strong>the</strong> event is<br />
insisted upon as a condition, <strong>the</strong> principal Verb being an Imperative<br />
or emphatic Future, <strong>the</strong> Subj. may be used ;<br />
as<br />
II. 1 8.<br />
134 aXXa (TV juez> ntf mo Karabvcreo jutwAoz/ "Apr]os<br />
do not enter <strong>the</strong> battle<br />
irpiv y ejute bevp' eXOovvav ev o^OaX/jLolo-iv Ibrjat,<br />
before you see me coming hi<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Od. IO. 174 $&oi, ov -yap irplv Kara8i;<br />
ai/ with <strong>the</strong> Subj. is post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
It is evident that a conditional Clause <strong>of</strong> this kind can only<br />
occur after a negative principal Clause.<br />
'<br />
Do not do this before<br />
I come ' makes my coming into a condition, and a condition<br />
which may or may not be realised : but ' do this before I come '<br />
is merely a way <strong>of</strong> fixing <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> doing.<br />
This construction is usually explained from Parataxis : thus it is held that<br />
in II. 24. 551 ovSf fjuv dvarffffis irplv KO.I KGLKOV d\\o iraOriaOa stands for<br />
ouSc JJLIV dvffTrjfffis' irplv ftal KO.KOV aAAo Trd6r)ffOa,<br />
you will not raise him, sooner shall you suffer passing into ' you will not raise him<br />
before you suffer.' So Sturm (p. 26), and Goodwin ( 624). But (i) this use<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. in a Principal clause without KCV or dv, whe<strong>the</strong>r as a Future<br />
( 275, &) or as an Imperative, is not <strong>Homeric</strong>, and <strong>the</strong>refore cannot be used<br />
to explain a use which is only beginning in Homer. And (2) <strong>the</strong> change<br />
from you will not raise, you will suffer before you do to you will not raise before you suffer<br />
is not an easy one : it involves shifting irptv as an Adverb from one clause to<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r. Above all (3)<br />
it is probable that <strong>the</strong> new construction <strong>of</strong> irpCv with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Subj. was directly modelled on <strong>the</strong> existing use witn <strong>the</strong> Inf. : that is to<br />
say, irplv ndOyo'Oa simply took <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> irplv<br />
iradclv when a more definite<br />
conditional force was wanted. This is confirmed by <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> later<br />
change to <strong>the</strong> Indie. thus in Aesch. P. V. 479 : irpiv y' 70; atyiaiv c'Set^a is used<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> irplv l/^ 5?cu because <strong>the</strong> poet wishes to make <strong>the</strong> assertion 4'8eia.<br />
So with <strong>the</strong> transition from <strong>the</strong> Inf. to <strong>the</strong> Indie, after axrre (Goodwin, 585):<br />
<strong>the</strong> finite mood is not a survival <strong>of</strong> parataxis, but is used when <strong>the</strong> Infinitive<br />
is not sufficiently positive.
270 SUBJUNCTIVE. [298.<br />
298.] Subjunctive after a Secondary Tense. The rule in<br />
Homer is that <strong>the</strong> Subj. is not used in a Subordinate Clause to<br />
express & past purpose, condition, &c.<br />
be used however<br />
It may<br />
(i) when <strong>the</strong> governing Verb is a ' gnomic ' Aorist :<br />
II. I. 2l8 09 K 0eOlS lTLTTL0r)TaL {JLaXci T K\VOV aVTOV.<br />
Od. 2O. 85 o yap r' eTre'A^o-ez; airavToiv<br />
eV0Aa>i> rjbe K.CLK.&V, erret ap p^etyap<br />
Or an Aor. used to express a general denial, as<br />
3<br />
afjL(j)<br />
Od. IO. 327 ovbe yap ovbz ns aAAos avqp ra8e at o^pa 0eoto<br />
(=19. 296) eK bpvbs vx/UKo'juoto Aioj (3ov\r)v TraKOV(rri,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> Subj. was read by Aristarchus, <strong>the</strong> Opt. eTraKovcrat by<br />
Aristophanes and Herodian. Again in<br />
Od. 10. 65 ? ptv (T eV8uKe'a>s aTreTre/utTrojuey, o$p' av tKT/at<br />
<strong>the</strong> best MSS. have tKTjat, but o<strong>the</strong>rs have o$p av IKOIO and<br />
See also II. 15. 23, Od. 15. 300., 22. 98 and : cp.<br />
II.<br />
5' 5^7 M TL "naOoL, /oteya 8e o-^ay aTroox^rjAete<br />
I 5- 59^ fyfiaXoi . . 0e'rt8os 8' efatVtoz; aprjv<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se places <strong>the</strong> MSS. generally have Tratfr/, e/x/SaArj<br />
: but <strong>the</strong><br />
Opt. in <strong>the</strong> clause following has led <strong>the</strong> editors to adopt irdOoi,<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r places where <strong>the</strong> Subj. is contrary to <strong>the</strong> rule now laid<br />
down are II. 13. 649., 14. 165., 16. 650 (see La R.)., 19. 354.,<br />
24. 586, Od. 9. 102., 10. 24., 16. 369., 17. 60., 22. 467. In all
299-]<br />
OPTATIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 271<br />
<strong>the</strong> Opt. may be substituted without affecting- <strong>the</strong> metre ;<br />
and<br />
when we consider <strong>the</strong> number <strong>of</strong> places where <strong>the</strong> MSS. vary<br />
between Subj. and Opt. forms, we can hardly doubt that it would<br />
generally be right to make <strong>the</strong> change.<br />
The <strong>Homeric</strong> rule is observed by Plato (see Riddell, Dig.<br />
90, 91), but not by Attic writers in general.<br />
The Optative in Simple Sentences.<br />
299.] The uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Optative in Simple Sentences range<br />
from <strong>the</strong> expression <strong>of</strong> a wish on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker to <strong>the</strong><br />
expression <strong>of</strong> mere supposition, or admission <strong>of</strong> possibility.<br />
Without KCK or &v <strong>the</strong> Optative may express<br />
(a) Simple wish or prayer : as<br />
II. I. 42 TLO-ZLCLV Aa^aol e^a baKpva crolcri /3e'Ae(ro-i.<br />
Od. i .<br />
403 jotrj yap 6 y eA0oi KrA. never may he come fyc.<br />
Regarding <strong>the</strong> Opt. <strong>of</strong> wish with ct or at, ei0e, cu0e, &c. see 311.<br />
A<br />
(#) gentle or deferential Imperative, conveying advice, suggestion,<br />
or <strong>the</strong> like as<br />
:<br />
II. 4* 17 e ^ ^' a^ irtos ro8e Tracrt fyiXov /cat f)bv yeVotro,<br />
rot 77 jjiv oiKtOLTO TTo'Ai? TIpidfjiOLO KrA.<br />
( = 2 presume <strong>the</strong> city is to remain inhabited}.<br />
Od. 4. 735 aAAa ? orpripwj AoAiou KaAetme yepovra<br />
(as we say, would some one call fyc.).<br />
1 8. 141 T
272 OPTATIVE. [299.<br />
(d) Concession or acquiescence :<br />
II. 21. 359 Arjy' eptSos, Tpwas 8e Kat avruca bios 'AxtAAevs<br />
aoreos efeAdVete (cease strife}<br />
and I consent that fyc.}.<br />
Od. 1. 402 KT^ara 8' a^ro? e^ots Kat 8a>ju,ao-t<br />
2. 232 aAA' atet xaAeTro'j r3 etr] Kat atcrvAa pefot<br />
(rolcriv avacraois.<br />
(i. e. ^
300.] WITH KEN OR 'AN. 273<br />
Od. 14. 122, o> ye'poy, ov TLS KC'LVOV avrjp a\a\riiJLVos<br />
dyye'AAo)z> Treureie yvvaiKa re KCU fyiXov viov.<br />
So in <strong>the</strong> Relative clauses, II. 5. 303 (= 20. 386) o ov bvo y<br />
avbpe eA0e'jLiez>.<br />
And<br />
in one or two interrogative clauses, with implied negation<br />
: II.<br />
II. 838 TT6>5 T ap eoi rd5e epya j<br />
Od. 5. 100 TLS b' av tuvv biabpapoi<br />
(since we should probably read rt? be fe/ccoz;).<br />
In such<br />
case <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> Key or av marks <strong>the</strong> negation as sweeping<br />
and unconditional. We should compare <strong>the</strong> corresponding<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ou with <strong>the</strong> pure Subj., which differs in <strong>the</strong><br />
degree <strong>of</strong> confidence expressed : ovbe t8o)jotat<br />
7 am sure I shall<br />
never see, ov iraOoifju I suppose I shall never suffer.<br />
300.] With K.W or av <strong>the</strong> Optative does not express wish (which<br />
is essentially unconditional), or even direct willingness on <strong>the</strong> part<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker, but only willingness to admit a consequence<br />
: hence<br />
expectation in view <strong>of</strong> particular circumstances : e. g.<br />
II. T. 100 rore KCV IJLLV tAacro-ajueuoi ireTriOoifJiev<br />
<strong>the</strong>n we may expect to appease him and gain grace,<br />
The character <strong>of</strong> a Clause <strong>of</strong> this kind depends chiefly on <strong>the</strong><br />
manner in which <strong>the</strong> condition is indicated. The following are<br />
<strong>the</strong> main points to be observed :<br />
(a) An Opt. with KCI/ or w <strong>of</strong>ten follows an independent Clause<br />
with a Future, Imperative, &c. :<br />
II. 23. 1 08 &s tpeovo-LV, ejutot<br />
be TOT av TroXv Ktpbiov et?/<br />
KT\.<br />
Od. 10. 269 ^evyco/xe^'<br />
ert yap KV aXvfaLfjiev KUKOV rjnap.<br />
II. 3. 4lO'Ket(re 8' eya>y O^K etjuu, ye/xeo-a-^ro^ 5e Ktv etr;.<br />
Or (^) <strong>the</strong> preceding Clause may contain a wish :<br />
II. 7. 157 et0'<br />
Cp. II. 4. 93 (where <strong>the</strong> preceding Opt. is a gentle The Imper.).<br />
(c) case supposed may be in past time, so that <strong>the</strong> Optative<br />
expresses what would have followed on an event which<br />
did not occur e. :<br />
g.<br />
II. 5- 3 11 Ka-t w KV tvQ' d.7roAotro ava avbp&v<br />
tt fjir]<br />
ap' 6v votive KrA.<br />
^^- 5- 73 evOa K eTretra Kat aOavaTos Trcp<br />
So II. 2. 81., 3. 220., 4. 223, 429, 539-. 5- 85, 3n> 3 88 -.<br />
^- 5 8 - 5<br />
13. 127, 343-, i5- 697-, 17- 70. 3 66 . 39 8 '<br />
Od<br />
-<br />
7- 293-; 13. 86.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Optative<br />
is confined to Homer, and is chiefly<br />
found in <strong>the</strong> Iliad.<br />
A somewhat similar idiom occurs in Herodotus ; e. g. Hdt. i . 2 firjffav<br />
8' av<br />
ovrot KpfjTts Hhese may have been Cretans' ( = probably were), 7. 180 raxa 8'<br />
T
274 OPTATIVE. [300.<br />
av TI Kal rov ovv6fMTos firavpoiro. But <strong>the</strong>re <strong>the</strong> meaning is different not<br />
would have happened = did ( not), but would be found to have happened (if<br />
we knew<br />
more).<br />
(d) The case supposed may be vague or imaginary :<br />
II. 8.<br />
143 avrjp 8e Kv ov n Atos voov eipvo-o-atro,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> emphatic avr\p suggests a condition : if a man, he<br />
cannot fyc.; cp. Od. 4. 78., 23. 125, also<br />
Od. 12. I O2 7rXr)(rLov aXXri\(tiV' Kai KCV 6 > iotoTeuo~eias<br />
one may (on occasion arising}<br />
shoot an arrow across.<br />
9. 131 ov fjiv yap TI KttK?} ye, $epot 6e KCV wpta TrdVra.<br />
It is natural that an admission that something may happen<br />
should generally be made more or less in view <strong>of</strong> circumstances,<br />
given or supposed. Hence <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> KI> or &v with an Opt. <strong>of</strong><br />
this force became <strong>the</strong> prevailing use, and exceptions are rare,<br />
even in Homer.<br />
The principal clause or Apodosis <strong>of</strong> an ordinary Complex Conditional<br />
Sentence belongs to this head. It is erroneous, however,<br />
to regard <strong>the</strong> varieties now explained as complex sentences<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Protasis understood. In this, as in some o<strong>the</strong>r cases,<br />
<strong>the</strong> complex is to be explained from <strong>the</strong> simple, not vice versa.<br />
In some instances <strong>the</strong> Opt. with KCI><br />
appears to be concessive<br />
(expressing willingness). Delbriick (8ynt. Forsch. I. p. 200) gives<br />
as examples<br />
II. 22. 252 VVV aVTC fJL<br />
orrrifjLfvaL avria o-eib* e'A.oi/xi KCV rj KZV<br />
Od. 8.<br />
570 ra 8e Kev Oebs r)<br />
TI K are'AeoT' efy, aSs ot tyiXov e-TrAero<br />
To which may be added Od. 14. 183 ij<br />
KCV 0X0117 ? K vyoi KT\.<br />
(but II. 13. 486 is different). Possibly <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> *ev in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
places is due to <strong>the</strong> opposition made between <strong>the</strong> two alternatives<br />
:<br />
cp. 285, 3, 3, 286, and 289, 2, b.<br />
II. 24. 618 dXA.' aye 8r/ Kal v&'i fx,e8c6jue0a, 6te yepate,<br />
(rirov eTretra K*V aure tyiXov Traioa K\aioi
303.]<br />
DEPENDENT DELIBERATIVE USE. 275<br />
14. 155 irplv 6e KC, Kal fj,dXa irep Kexp??|u&>os,<br />
ov TL<br />
So Od. 2. 219., 4. 347., 12. 387., 15. 313, 449., 18. 166., 19. 579.,<br />
20. 326., 21. 113, 193, II. 9. 417., 24. 664.<br />
(/3) Negative Clauses, with <strong>the</strong> Second Person :<br />
II. 14. 126 raj OVK av jute<br />
. .<br />
(f>avTS \<br />
/ ?0 ft# ^m> yo^ w^/ (/ expect you not to) fyc.<br />
fJivOov drt/xrjo-atrc<br />
Od. 2O. 135 OVK av JJLLV vvV) TZKVOV, avairiov atrtowo.<br />
So II. 2. 250 ra> OVK av (3a(ri\.fjas ava OTOJU.' e^00 ^ ayopeuot? is to be<br />
understood as ironical courtesy (you will not if you are advised ty<br />
me). This, again, when turned into a question yields ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />
form <strong>of</strong> polite Imperative; as II. 3. 52 OVK av 8r) jueiVetas will you<br />
not await? So II. 5. 32, 456., 10. 204, Od. 6. 57., 7. 22.<br />
The fact that ou is <strong>the</strong> negative Particle in all <strong>the</strong>se instances<br />
shows that <strong>the</strong> Optative<br />
is<br />
grammatically more akin to a Future<br />
than to an expression <strong>of</strong> wish. So far as wish is intended, <strong>the</strong><br />
use is a rhetorical one, implying what it does not directly express,<br />
like <strong>the</strong> similar use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future Indicative in Attic.<br />
It will be seen that, except in one or two rare <strong>Homeric</strong> uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> pure Opt., <strong>the</strong> usage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Opt. in independent Sentences<br />
is nearly <strong>the</strong> same in Homer as in later Greek.<br />
Optative<br />
in Subordinate Clauses.<br />
301.] The classification which has been followed in discussing<br />
<strong>the</strong> Subordinate Clauses with <strong>the</strong> Subjunctive will also be <strong>the</strong><br />
most convenient in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Optative. Indeed <strong>the</strong>re is so<br />
close a parallelism between <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two Moods that<br />
little is now left to do except to take clauses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> several types<br />
already analysed, and show in each case <strong>the</strong> difference which<br />
determines <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> one Mood ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
The reason for using an Optative will generally be found in<br />
<strong>the</strong> circumstance that <strong>the</strong> governing Verb is incompatible with<br />
a subordinate clause expressing ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> will or <strong>the</strong> assured<br />
expectation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker. If <strong>the</strong> occasion to which <strong>the</strong> whole<br />
sentence refers is past, or is a mere possibility) or an imaginary<br />
case, <strong>the</strong>se two meanings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunctive are generally out <strong>of</strong><br />
place and we can only have <strong>the</strong> Mood which expresses a wish,<br />
or an admission <strong>of</strong> possibility. Hence it is a general rule to<br />
which however we have found important exceptions ( 298)<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Optative must be used when <strong>the</strong> principal Verb is an<br />
Optative, or one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Secondary Tenses.<br />
302.] Clauses with rj^ rje. The Optative in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
examples is generally to be explained as <strong>the</strong> translation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Subjunctive into oratio obliqua ; that is to say, it expresses a<br />
doubt or deliberation thrown back into <strong>the</strong> past.<br />
T 2
276 OPTATIVE. [303.<br />
Thus (a)<br />
we have past deliberation in<br />
II. 1 6. 713 o"te yap 176 juaxotro Kara K\OVOV CLVTLS eAaWa?,<br />
77<br />
Xaovs s retxo? ojuoKAr/oretez; aX^vai<br />
he debated should he fight tyc.,<br />
or should he call to <strong>the</strong> people fyc. :<br />
so II. i. 189., 5. 671, Od. 4. 117., 6. 141., 10. 50, &c.<br />
Past doubt is less common <strong>the</strong> examples are<br />
(b)<br />
:<br />
Od. 4. 789 6pfj,aivov(r' r\ ot Odvarov (frvyoi<br />
wo? aj<br />
ri<br />
o y VTIO fJLVY](TTr]p(TLV VTrepcfriaXoiO'<br />
15. 304 o-u^wreco ireip^ri^v<br />
r\ \LIV er' ep5uKca>? c^tAeot /uetrat re<br />
avrov vl , 17 drpwete -7roA.tz;6<br />
Ulysses tried <strong>the</strong> swineherd whe<strong>the</strong>r would he still be hospitable<br />
and bid him stay, or fyc.<br />
In this use we once find Key KCI/ ;<br />
viz. Od. 15. 300 6p//,aiVa>z> ^<br />
KW aXoirj (La Roche reads<br />
KCV Qavarov (frvyoi 77<br />
303.] Clauses with jx^.<br />
These are <strong>of</strong> two kinds, answering<br />
to <strong>the</strong> similar Clauses with <strong>the</strong> Subj. ( 281) :<br />
(1) Final Clauses : a single example<br />
will suffice :<br />
II. 5. 845 bvv "A'ibos Kvverjv JUT} jur t6ot o(3pLfjios "Aprjs<br />
(so that) Ares should not see, her.<br />
(2) Object Clauses, with Verbs <strong>of</strong> thinking, &c. :<br />
II.<br />
21. 516 fjiCfjipXeTO y&p ot retxo? eiJd^roto TroAryos,<br />
/mr)<br />
Aavaol Treporetaz^ (his<br />
care was that)<br />
<strong>the</strong> Greeks<br />
should not fyc.<br />
: so Od. 16. 179., 19. 390.<br />
Od. 21. 394 7rLpu>iJLvos vOa Kal i-vOa<br />
JUT) Kpa tTTf? e8oiei> CLTTOLXO^VOLO CLVCLKTOS<br />
to see that worms should not have eaten it.<br />
So in <strong>the</strong> common use with Verbs <strong>of</strong> fearing: as II. 18. 34<br />
3et8te yap /XT) Aatjuoz> eTrajuijo-eie lie feared lest fyc.<br />
But in<br />
II. 9. ^44 raur' atVais 8et8otKa Kara
304.] RELATIVE CLAUSES FINAL. 277<br />
speaker's present point <strong>of</strong> view, not subordinated to <strong>the</strong> point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view fixed by <strong>the</strong> governing- Verb. Thus in<br />
Od. 4. 698 dAAa TTO\V /xetfoV re Kat dpyaAecore/ooy $AAo<br />
^vr]O'TrjpS (f>pdovTai, b reAeVete jar)<br />
Kpoviwv<br />
we have an independent paren<strong>the</strong>tical wish : and in<br />
II. 3 234 vvv 5' aXXovs /utez> TTCLVTCLS 6pG> . . ovs KV eii yv<strong>of</strong>yv KrA.<br />
5* 33 ( = 2O. 286) f^ya Hpyov, b ov bvo y avbpe
378 OPTATIVE. [305.<br />
Od. 5'<br />
1<br />
240 ava TrdAat, TrepuojAa, ra ot TrAcooie^ eAa^pws<br />
dry^ such as would float.<br />
(3) After Verbs that express asking or finding out <strong>the</strong> Clause<br />
acquires <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> a dependent Interrogative, and so <strong>of</strong> an<br />
Object Clause :<br />
Od. 9. 331 avTap TOvs aXXovs KArjpo) TremiAdcrflat avcayov<br />
6s Tts ToAjuuj(retei> KTA. (for <strong>the</strong> man) who should Sfc.<br />
II. 3. 316 KArjpOVS TIOXXOV . . OTTTTOTfpOS CL(f)Lrj<br />
<strong>the</strong>y cast lots for which <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two should throw.<br />
14. 507 (=16". 283) TTaTTTrjvev 8e eKaoros oirr\ (f>vyoi.<br />
So II. 6. 177., 10. 503, Od. 9. 88., 10. 101, no., 19. 464. As<br />
to <strong>the</strong> form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause see 267, z, c.<br />
The Dependent Interrogative properly so called is rare in<br />
Homer :<br />
!! 5- ^5 Tvo'eto'rjzj 5' OVK av yvoirjs -Trorepoto-t<br />
Od. 15. 4^3 etpwra brj liretra ris etr; Kat iroOcv<br />
17. 368 dXA?]Aous T epeorro rts 117<br />
Kat noOev<br />
It is evidently akin to <strong>the</strong> Optatives with which<br />
ij TJ express<br />
past doubt ( 302, 5) rts : efy w^o ^^ should be comes to mean who<br />
he should prove to lie.<br />
Cp. <strong>the</strong> Subj. in <strong>the</strong> corresponding Clauses<br />
relating to present time ( 280).<br />
Relative Clauses Conditional. When <strong>the</strong> event to<br />
305.]<br />
which <strong>the</strong> condition attaches is matter <strong>of</strong> wish or mere expectation,<br />
or is in past time, <strong>the</strong> condition is generally expressed by<br />
<strong>the</strong> Optative. Hence we find <strong>the</strong> Optative<br />
(a) With an Optative <strong>of</strong> wish in <strong>the</strong> principal Clause :<br />
II.<br />
3. 299 oTnro'repot Trporepot vTrep op/cta TrrjfjirjveLav,<br />
306.]<br />
RELATIVE CLAUSES CONDITIONAL. 279<br />
After a Present or<br />
(
280 OPTATIVE. [306.<br />
indicate that <strong>the</strong> consequence is not immediate or certain (<strong>the</strong><br />
governing Verb having a present or future meaning), or (b]<br />
because <strong>the</strong> governing Verb is an Opt., or (c) a Secondary Tense.<br />
Thus we have <strong>the</strong> Opt.<br />
(a) After a Present, &c. in <strong>the</strong> principal Clause; especially<br />
when <strong>the</strong> Clause bears a negative meaning (so that <strong>the</strong> occasion<br />
is necessarily imaginary) :<br />
II. I,<br />
343 ou8e TL olb v<strong>of</strong>jvai a/xa TrpoVo-a) KOI OTTiVcra),<br />
oTr-TTCos ol irapa invert (TOOL ^a^oivro 'Amatol.<br />
(juaxeWro however is not a good <strong>Homeric</strong> form, and makes an<br />
intolerable hiatus : read probably payjiovTai, cp. 326, 3).<br />
Od. 2,, 52<br />
ot TTCLTpOS }JLV S OIK.OV a7TppLya(TL V(rOat,<br />
'Ittapiov, (ws K' avros ee6^coa-atro Ovyarpa.<br />
But also after an affirmative Clause :<br />
Od. 23. 134 rjyL(rd(ti (f)L\OTTaLyiJ,ovos op^Q^olo,<br />
ws K.ZV TLS aiT7 ydfjiov ejUjuevai ZKTOS CLK.OVU>V<br />
= so that any one who happens to hear may think fyc.<br />
13. 156 aAA' epeco ^tv (yav Iva et8ores 17 Ke Oava^^v<br />
?/ KV aAeva/xerot QCLVCLTOV Kat Krjpa (j)vyoifJLv<br />
(<strong>the</strong> Opt. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> less emphatic alternative, 275, 1}-<br />
17. 249 TOV TTOT tytov Im vr]bs eiioWAjuoio<br />
a fa) TTJ\' 'I^aK7]s,<br />
f(va JJLOL (Biorov noXvv<br />
(irore indicates a distant occasion).<br />
13. 401 Kvvf
307.] '&2, e onn2, f iNA, 'Ens, 'O*PA. 281<br />
(quoted above), II. 19. 331,, Od. 17. 362; and in <strong>the</strong> combinations<br />
ws o^ TIS (Od. 15. 538), s exo'juu?*' o$/>' efe/xeVetez; dmo-o-o)<br />
until it should vomit forth again(Q 12. 428. ,20.80).<br />
Od. 23. 151 ipvorOai fjitya Swjua 8iaju/77epe5 ^os IKOITO<br />
till he should come (so 5. 386., 9. 376).<br />
It is indistinct, or lost, in <strong>the</strong> ordinary use <strong>of</strong> ocj)pa, as<br />
II. 6. 170 Setfai 6' ^wyct o> 77e^0e/oterp?/a-aijut Xdpvfifiiv<br />
to <strong>the</strong> end that 1 should measure again fyc.<br />
and with Is in Od. 4. 799 77e/x77e 8e \iiv<br />
. .<br />
rjos TlriveXoTreiav<br />
77auo-te KXavQpoio, and o<strong>the</strong>r places in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (5. 386., 6.<br />
80., 19. 367).<br />
The corresponding form <strong>of</strong> Object Clause with <strong>the</strong>se Conjunctions<br />
may be traced in one instance <strong>of</strong> each, viz. II. 4. 465 AeAt??-<br />
juiepos<br />
o
382 OPTATIVE. [308.<br />
With Iws and opa <strong>the</strong> Opt. is :<br />
nearly always pure but we<br />
have op'<br />
ai/ in Od. 17. 298 (until),<br />
:<br />
24. 334 and ws KCI/ in<br />
Od. 2.<br />
77 T0(f)pa yap av Kara acrrv 7rori7m;cr(roi/xe0a juv$a><br />
XprifjiaT aTTaLTiovT$, eW K' OLTTO Trayra S<strong>of</strong>leir/,<br />
where <strong>the</strong>re is a stress on <strong>the</strong> particular time contemplated. So<br />
II. 15. 69 e/c rou 8' oV rot erreira 7raA.uoiz/ Trapa vr]&v<br />
altv eya> Tevyoipi 8taju,7repe?, ei? o K' 'Amatol<br />
v<br />
IA.toy at? e'Aotev (<strong>the</strong> only instance with els o).<br />
The similar uses <strong>of</strong> fore, ax/n, jue'xpt are post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
The chief instance <strong>of</strong> 6pa with an Opt. following a Fut. or Subj. is II. 7.<br />
339 TTuAas norfa<strong>of</strong>jiev . . 6
310.] 'OTE, 'OHOTE, 'EIIEI, HPIN. 283<br />
21. 265 6Wd/a 8' 6pju?}<br />
may be accounted for by <strong>the</strong> change from <strong>the</strong><br />
Plural to <strong>the</strong> Singular<br />
:<br />
cp. 283, I, c.<br />
(2) After a Past Tense <strong>of</strong> a Verb <strong>of</strong> waiting 6tr6re with <strong>the</strong><br />
Aorist Opt. forms a kind <strong>of</strong> Object Clause as ; II. 7. 415 TrortSeyfjivoi<br />
OTTTTOT' ap' eA.0oi waiting for (<strong>the</strong> time) when he should come ;<br />
so II. 9. 191., 1 8. 524, and (after jueWres) 4. 334. Cp. 289 (i).<br />
309.] Clauses with eW. The few examples <strong>of</strong> this use show<br />
<strong>the</strong> same varieties as with ore. Thus, (a)<br />
after ano<strong>the</strong>r Opt.<br />
II. 9. 304 vvv yap %' "EKro// e'Aois, eTret &v /utaAa rot<br />
&00L.<br />
24. 226 CLVTLKCL<br />
yap jue KaraKre^etez^ 'A)(iAAevs<br />
ayKas eAoW ejuoz; viov, e7T7)z> yo'ov ef epoz;<br />
Od. 4. 222 6? ro Kara/3po<br />
/feter, CTT^ Kpr)rfjpi /iztyetr;, KrA.<br />
(#) After a Present, in <strong>the</strong> statement <strong>of</strong> a supposed consequence<br />
Od. 24. 254<br />
TOLovTto 8e eWas, eiret Aovcratro dyot re,<br />
evSe'/uevat (wc^ ow^ 5 wo^^ *fed^ after<br />
that fyc.).<br />
(c) After a Past tense, in <strong>the</strong> iterative sense :<br />
II. 24. 14 dAA' o y eirel C^fez> KrA., Od. 2. 105 (=19. 150.,<br />
24. 140) eTn)z> baibas TtapaQtiTo (v.l. eTret).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> w is intelligible in <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se passages (II. 9.<br />
304), since it refers to an event in <strong>the</strong> immediate future;<br />
perhaps also in 11.24. 227, after an Opt. <strong>of</strong> concession. But as<br />
to <strong>the</strong> form eTrf\v see 362.<br />
310.] irpiv. The peculiar way <strong>of</strong> expressing a condition by a<br />
Negative followed by irpiv ( 297) is transferred to <strong>the</strong> past, <strong>the</strong><br />
Subj. becoming an Opt., in one passage<br />
II. 2,1. 580 OVK e0eAe*> $evyeiz> nplv 7ret/>?}o-air'<br />
'
384 OPTATIVE. [311.<br />
The Optative with el, tyc.<br />
311.] Optative with el Conditional Protasis. The Clause<br />
with el expresses a supposition, made in order to lead up to <strong>the</strong><br />
Clause which expresses <strong>the</strong> expected consequence<br />
: as<br />
Od. i.<br />
163 ei Kttvov y 'IBdKrjvfa lootaro voorr^cravTa,<br />
irdvres K dprjoraiar eAa^porepot TTobas etzw /crA.<br />
r<br />
1<br />
II. 7. 1^9 TOVS vvv et Trrcoo-a-oiTas v(j)' 'E/cropt TTCLVTCLS d/cowat,<br />
-TroAAa Kv aOavdroKri (/>t'Aas<br />
ava )(eTpaj deipat.<br />
The Clause with el<br />
may follow <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, as<br />
II. 2,2. 2,0 rj<br />
(T hv Tio-aifjiriv, et jutot bvvajjiis ye Trapetr;.<br />
The apodosis is generally given by <strong>the</strong> Opt. with Key, as in <strong>the</strong><br />
examples quoted : but we may have <strong>the</strong> Subj. with KCK, <strong>the</strong><br />
Future, or <strong>the</strong> Present. In such cases <strong>the</strong>re is some change <strong>of</strong><br />
tone between Protasis and Apodosis<br />
: as II. n. 386<br />
et jueu brj<br />
avripiov arvv T^V^CTL ^^tp^^eti]?, OVK. av rot j(/>a6ran
313-] CLAUSES WITH El. 285<br />
312.] Optative with el Wish. The Conditional Protasis,<br />
when used without an Apodosis, becomes a form <strong>of</strong> expressing<br />
!! ^5' 569 'AzmA.ox' ov<br />
5<br />
TLS o-eto aAAos '<br />
uewrepos1<br />
OVT TTOCrlv Od(T(T(JL>V OVT* aA-KiJUOJ 0)9 (TV<br />
et TLVOL TTOV Tpcocov td\iJLVos avbpa<br />
So II. 10. in., 1 6. 559., 24. 74. More frequently a wish is introduced<br />
by el ydp or at yap, as in<br />
at yap, Ze re Trarep KOL *A0r]vair] KOL "AiroXXov, KT\.<br />
Such a wish is sometimes used as a form <strong>of</strong> asseveration, as<br />
II. 1 8. 464 at yap \*.iv Oavdroio bvcrrj^os a>8e bvvaijJLrjv<br />
v6cr(f)LV aTTOKpv\lfaL, ore jutti^ {Jiopos alvbs LK.GLVOI,<br />
a>$ ol<br />
Ti>\a KaXa TrapeVa-erat<br />
i. e. fair arms shall be his as surely as I wish I could save him<br />
from death : so II. 8. 538, Od. 9. 523 and : ironically<br />
Od. 21. 402 at yap 8r) TOO-CTOVTOV ovr/a-ios avTidoriV,<br />
O)J OVTOS TTOT<br />
TOVTO bvVT)(TTaL tVTOLVVG'aa'Ocil.<br />
Here also we must place <strong>the</strong> wishes expressed by<br />
eifle or ai6e,<br />
which have generally <strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> hopeless regret : as et0' o>s<br />
^o>ot/xt KrA. It may be noted that in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey wish is not<br />
expressed by el except in <strong>the</strong> combinations ct ydp and cl'Oe.<br />
A wish is <strong>of</strong>ten followed by a Clause expressing an expected<br />
consequence <strong>of</strong> its fulfilment as<br />
;<br />
II. 2. 3/1 at yap, Ze re -rrarep . .<br />
rep Ke rax' rffjivcreie Tro'Ais Dptajuoto avaKTos*<br />
Od. 7. 331 Zeu Trarep, at^' ocra etTre re/\evr^a-ete^ airavra<br />
'A\KLVOOS' TOV fJiCV<br />
KV eTTt tibo)pOV CLpOVpCLV<br />
avfizvrov K\tos etr/.<br />
So we should probably punctuate<br />
II. 13. 485 et yap o/^AtKirj ye y^voi^Oa r(58 J<br />
em<br />
at\l/d<br />
Kv TJ
286 OPTATIVE. [314.<br />
II. 23. 591 tinrov 8e rot avrbs<br />
Swo-ft), TTJV ap<strong>of</strong>JLrjv' el KCL vv KV OLKoOev aAAo<br />
jueifoy eTratr^o-etas, acfrap<br />
Ke rot CLVTIKO. bovvat,<br />
/3ovAotjur?z> if (after that) you demand more fyc.<br />
Od. 2. 76 & x' fyiets ye c^dyotre, rd)('<br />
ai> Trore /cat n'
316.] SUMMARY OF USES. 287<br />
So in <strong>the</strong> only example <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind found in <strong>the</strong> Iliad :<br />
II. II. 792 rts '<br />
016' et Ktv ot (rvv baifjiovi OVJJLOV opivais ;<br />
The pure Optative<br />
is used in all <strong>the</strong> places quoted, except <strong>the</strong><br />
two in which el *ev follows otSc (II.<br />
n. 793, Od. 14. 119). In<br />
<strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong> structure is <strong>the</strong> same as in <strong>the</strong> corresponding1<br />
independent<br />
Clauses ( 300). That is to say, <strong>the</strong> phrase ris olbcv et is<br />
treated as a mere ' perhaps ' (Lat. nescio an).<br />
An Opt. in a Final Clause depending upon a Subj. is perhaps to be found<br />
in Od. 5. 471<br />
i 5^ icev . .<br />
yearaSpafleu et pe peedr; (so all MSS. : peQrjri Bekk.). Cp.<br />
293-<br />
History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunctive and Optative.<br />
315.] Uses in Independent Clauses. The uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj.<br />
and Opt. in independent Clauses have been shown to fall in each<br />
case into two main groups. In one set <strong>of</strong> meanings <strong>the</strong> Mood<br />
expresses desire on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker ; to this belong <strong>the</strong> Subj.<br />
<strong>of</strong> commdnd and prohibition, and <strong>the</strong> Opt. <strong>of</strong> wish. In <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>the</strong> Mood is a kind <strong>of</strong> Future; <strong>the</strong> Subj. being an emphatic or<br />
confident Future (like our Future with shall),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Opt. a s<strong>of</strong>tened<br />
Future, expressing expectation, or mere admission <strong>of</strong><br />
possibility<br />
(<strong>the</strong> English may or should).<br />
These two sets <strong>of</strong> meanings may be called <strong>the</strong> ' quasi-Imperative/<br />
and <strong>the</strong> ' quasi-Future/ We must remember however that<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are not always clearly separable, but are connected by transitional<br />
or intermediate uses : such as (e.g.] <strong>the</strong> Subj. which expresses<br />
necessity ( 277), and <strong>the</strong> Opt. <strong>of</strong> concession ( 399, d).<br />
316.] Uses in Subordinate Clauses. Passing over for <strong>the</strong><br />
present <strong>the</strong> question whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> quasi-Imperative or <strong>the</strong> quasi-<br />
Future use is to be regarded in each case as representing <strong>the</strong><br />
original meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mood, we proceed to consider <strong>the</strong> uses in<br />
Subordinate Clauses. Here <strong>the</strong> main distinction is that between<br />
1<br />
Final ' and 'Conditional/ if <strong>the</strong>se terms are used with some<br />
latitude :<br />
especially if we rank with <strong>the</strong> Final Clauses not only<br />
those which distinctly express <strong>the</strong> end or purpose <strong>of</strong> an action,<br />
but also all Clauses which are referred to <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> governing<br />
Verb. It is true that this distinction does not always apply;<br />
e.g. to <strong>the</strong> Subj. in<br />
Aava&v oX<strong>of</strong>yvpoptQ' alwrjTatoV,<br />
01 KCV 8r) KCLKOV olrov ava7r\r](ravT$ oAcoyreu'<br />
or to <strong>the</strong> Opt. in<br />
dA.Aa 7ToA.ii jxetfoz; . .<br />
(ppdfrvrai, o reXeVete jur)<br />
Kpoviaw*
288 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. [316.<br />
For <strong>the</strong>re <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause is in sense a paren<strong>the</strong>sis, and is<br />
construed accordingly as an independent Sentence. Again, in<br />
eVcrerai ij^ap 6V av TTOT' dAwA?] /crA.<br />
8ei'8te<br />
yap /utr) Xai^ov aTror/xTJa-ete KrA..<br />
and generally in Object Clauses, <strong>the</strong> Subordinate Clause does not<br />
express end ; but <strong>the</strong> time from which it is regarded as spoken is<br />
fixed by <strong>the</strong> governing Verb, in <strong>the</strong> same way that <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> a<br />
true Final Clause is fixed by <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> which it gives <strong>the</strong> end.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> present purpose, accordingly, <strong>the</strong>re are two kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
Clause to be considered, (i) Final and Object Clauses, and (2)<br />
Conditional Clauses.<br />
Eegarding <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunctive and Optative in<br />
Final Clauses <strong>the</strong>re can be little doubt. The Subj. in most<br />
instances follows ei<strong>the</strong>r a First Person (Present or Future),<br />
or an<br />
Imperative that is to say, it expresses <strong>the</strong> immediate purpose<br />
:<br />
with which <strong>the</strong> speaker announces his own action, or commands<br />
<strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs. Hence, by a natural transference, it comes<br />
to express <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r person (viz. <strong>the</strong> Subject <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Principal Clause). Similarly <strong>the</strong> Opt., whe<strong>the</strong>r as <strong>the</strong> Mood <strong>of</strong><br />
wish or <strong>of</strong> expectation, comes to express a wish or expectation not<br />
now felt, but spoken<br />
<strong>of</strong>. Again, by virtue <strong>of</strong> its character as a<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tened or less confident Future, it naturally expresses a purpose<br />
that does not lie within <strong>the</strong> speaker's own sphere <strong>of</strong> action or<br />
direct influence.<br />
It should be noticed, too, that <strong>the</strong> relation which we imply by<br />
<strong>the</strong> term ( Final Clause y may exist without grammatical Subordination,<br />
i. e. without a Particle such as Iva or o>? to introduce<br />
<strong>the</strong> clause. Thus in II. 6. 340 aAA' aye vvv tTiipeivov apri'ia rev^ta<br />
$va> <strong>the</strong> meaning would not be altered by saying ^-ni^ivov Iva bva>.<br />
So in II. 1 8. 121-125 vvv 8e KAe'o? apoi^v KCU . . o-Tova\ijo-ai<br />
(j)irjv, yvoitv & o>s 6r) br]pov eyo> TroAe'juioio Trerrau/xai<br />
: <strong>the</strong> last wish<br />
is evidently also <strong>the</strong> result hoped for from <strong>the</strong> fulfilment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
preceding wishes (so that yvoizv<br />
= b &s yvottv).<br />
In Conditional Clauses, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong> condition or<br />
supposition is not subordinated to <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> governing<br />
Verb, but is made from <strong>the</strong> present point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker.<br />
The question arises : What is <strong>the</strong> original force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. and<br />
Opt. in this use ?<br />
In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. we naturally look to <strong>the</strong> quasi-Imperative<br />
use. It is common to use <strong>the</strong> Imperative as a way <strong>of</strong><br />
stating a *<br />
*<br />
supposition as when we<br />
; say let it be so/ meaning<br />
if<br />
it is so ' (cp. Latin eras petito, daUtur). This view is confirmed<br />
by <strong>the</strong> fact that negative Conditional Clauses take jx^,<br />
not ou :<br />
that is to say, <strong>the</strong>y are felt to be akin to prohibition ra<strong>the</strong>r than<br />
denial. Thus 6s fir) e'A.0?7 literally<br />
means not ( who will not come '
317.] ORIGINAL MEANING. 289<br />
(6? OVK av eA0ry), but e who shall not come/ i. e. whom we are not<br />
to suppose coming.<br />
Similarly we may understand <strong>the</strong> Opt. in <strong>the</strong>se Clauses as <strong>the</strong><br />
(<br />
Mood <strong>of</strong> concession ; admitting this to be so ' : and so in a negative<br />
sentence, 6? ^ whom e'Aflot<br />
'<br />
I agree to suppose not coming/<br />
For <strong>the</strong> choice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mood does not depend on <strong>the</strong> greater or less<br />
probability <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> supposition being true,, but on <strong>the</strong> tone in which<br />
it is made on <strong>the</strong> degree <strong>of</strong> vividness, as Mr. Goodwin says, with<br />
which it is expressed (Moods and Tenses } 455).<br />
It may be objected that on this view we ought to have et ov,<br />
not et JUT},<br />
whenever <strong>the</strong> Verb is in <strong>the</strong> Indicative. But <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
no difficulty in supposing that u.rj<br />
was extended to <strong>the</strong> Indicative<br />
on <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Clauses with <strong>the</strong> Subj. and Opt. ; just as<br />
ju,r) &(j)\ov is an extension from <strong>the</strong> common use <strong>of</strong> in<br />
u.rj<br />
wishes.<br />
And this is strongly supported by <strong>the</strong> circumstance that in fact<br />
et ou with <strong>the</strong> Indicative occurs several times in Homer :<br />
II. 15' 162 et 8e (JLOL<br />
OVK erreeoV eTrtTreto-erat /crA. (so 178).<br />
2O. T2Q et 6' 'A^tAeus ov TCLVTCL 0&v e/c Trewerat 6fjL(j)rj$.<br />
24. 296 et 8e rot ov Swcret ov ayyeXov /crA.<br />
Od. 2. 274 et 6' ov Keivov y eo-at yovos /crA.<br />
See also II. 4. 160, Od. 12. 382., 13. 143. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> very few examples <strong>of</strong> et ou with a Subj., <strong>the</strong> ou goes<br />
closely with <strong>the</strong> Verb, viz. II. 3. 289 (OVK etfe'Aojo-iz/), 20. 139<br />
(OVK<br />
On <strong>the</strong><br />
ei
290 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. [318.<br />
proper, <strong>the</strong> Injunctive, <strong>the</strong> Subj., and <strong>the</strong> Optative<br />
: in Greek <strong>the</strong> Imper., <strong>the</strong><br />
Subj. and certain uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future. The reason <strong>of</strong> this is evident. Variety<br />
in <strong>the</strong> expression <strong>of</strong> will and wish is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first needs <strong>of</strong> human society.<br />
The form which has been appropriated to express command is unsuitable to<br />
courteous request, still more unsuitable to humble entreaty. Accordingly o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
forms are used, precisely because <strong>the</strong>y are not Imperatives. In time <strong>the</strong>se<br />
acquire a quasi-Imperative character, and fresh forms are resorted to as <strong>the</strong><br />
same want <strong>of</strong> a non- Imperative mode <strong>of</strong> expression is again perceived.<br />
The (c) use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Secondary Endings in <strong>the</strong> Optative points to <strong>the</strong> conclusion<br />
that in its origin it was a Mood <strong>of</strong> past time. The tendency to use<br />
a past Tense in wishes, and in some kinds <strong>of</strong> suppositions, may be amply<br />
illustrated from English and o<strong>the</strong>r modern languages.<br />
(c?)<br />
The uses with ou go far to show that <strong>the</strong> quasi-Future sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Subj. and Opt. is at least as primitive as <strong>the</strong> quasi-Imperative sense. If <strong>the</strong><br />
strong negation ou yevrjrat is derived by gradual change <strong>of</strong> meaning from a<br />
prohibition, <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> ou is difficult to explain.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. as an Imper. may be compared to <strong>the</strong> Attic use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
(e)<br />
'<br />
Future in a 'jussive<br />
sense, and in Final Clauses to express purpose (Goodwin,<br />
P- 373)- The change from an expression <strong>of</strong> will to one <strong>of</strong> expectation is one<br />
to which it would be much more difficult to find a parallel.<br />
318.] Conditional Protasis with. el. The derivations that have been proposed<br />
for <strong>the</strong> Particle el or at are too uncertain to furnish ground for any<br />
<strong>the</strong>ory as to <strong>the</strong> manner in which <strong>the</strong> Conditional Protasis may have been<br />
formed. The question arises for us on <strong>the</strong> passages in which el with <strong>the</strong> Opt.<br />
is used to express a wish. Thus in el' TIS KaXecreie I pray some one to call we may<br />
take <strong>the</strong> Clause as Conditional, with a suppressed Apodosis (/caAcDs av ex 01 *<br />
<strong>the</strong> like). Or we may follow L. Lange in holding that <strong>the</strong> Clause is not<br />
Subordinate at all, <strong>the</strong> Particle el<br />
being originally a kind <strong>of</strong> affirmative<br />
Interjection, used to introduce expressions <strong>of</strong> wish and supposition ;<br />
and we<br />
can thus explain <strong>the</strong> ordinary Complex Conditional Sentence as made up <strong>of</strong><br />
two originally independent Clauses, viz. (i) a wish or supposition, introduced<br />
by el, and (2)<br />
an assertion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> consequence to be expected from its being<br />
realised. On this <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>the</strong> Clause <strong>of</strong> Wish introduced by<br />
el is not an incomplete<br />
Sentence, derived from a Complex Sentence by omission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Apodosis, but is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> elements from which <strong>the</strong> Complex Sentence was<br />
itself developed.<br />
The latter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se views has a priori <strong>the</strong> advantage <strong>of</strong> deriving <strong>the</strong> complex<br />
from <strong>the</strong> simple<br />
: and it has some apparent support in <strong>Homeric</strong> usage.<br />
We find in Homer<br />
(1) Wish, standing alone :<br />
us diroXoiTO Kol a\\os cms Toiavra yc peoi.<br />
(2) Wish followed by an independent Clause expressing expectation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
consequence : Od. 15. 180 OVTQ) vvv Zeus Qfirj, epiyfioviros irovis "Hprjs'<br />
T> KV rot teal KeiOi Oeu d>s ci>xfToa>fJ.rjv.<br />
II. 13. 55 ff)'iv S' wdf OeSiv TIS \vl
320.] EI-CLAUSES. 291<br />
(3) Wish, with el, el Yap, eI0e, &c., but without 'Apodosis<br />
'<br />
II. 4. 189 at yap 8?) OVTCDS eirj, Mei/eAae.<br />
II. 670 (10' At $0(&M/ii, St (lir) /tot CjUTreSos KT\.<br />
fir],<br />
(4) Wish, with el, el yip, ei0e, &c., followed by a Clause <strong>of</strong> Consequence<br />
:<br />
II. 7. 157 ei0' cbs r}@ajoifjii, (tirj de /tot c/xwcSos fir)'<br />
Ti\as ova xfipas detpai.<br />
The similarity in <strong>the</strong>se examples is manifest. The type in <strong>the</strong> first four<br />
sets consists <strong>of</strong> a Clause <strong>of</strong> Wish, ei<strong>the</strong>r alone (i and 3) or followed by a Clause<br />
<strong>of</strong> Consequence (2 and 4). Again, (5) only differs from (4) in punctuation,<br />
so to speak <strong>the</strong> two Clauses are taken : toge<strong>the</strong>r, and thus <strong>the</strong> el- Clause is<br />
no longer an independent supposition, but is one made with a view to <strong>the</strong><br />
consequence expressed in <strong>the</strong> Clause with KV. And this, it is contended, was<br />
<strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> a gradual process, such as we find whenever parataxis passes<br />
into hypotaxis.<br />
:<br />
319.] Final Clauses with el. An argument for Lange's view <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original<br />
force <strong>of</strong> el is found in <strong>the</strong> use in Final Clauses, such as ef/tt ei ice iriOrjrat.<br />
The<br />
meaning here is essentially different from that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Conditional sentence<br />
I go if he listens ; and on <strong>the</strong> ordinary hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, that el originally expressed<br />
a condition, it is difficult to account for <strong>the</strong> two uses. But if el is a mere<br />
interjection, introducing wish or supposition, it is intelligible that <strong>the</strong> Clause<br />
should be Conditional or Final, as <strong>the</strong> context may determine.<br />
320.] The formula el 8' dye, with <strong>the</strong> varieties el 8' d-yer* (II. 22. 381) and<br />
el 8e (II. 9. 46, 262), is <strong>of</strong>ten used in Homer to introduce an Imperative or<br />
Subjunctive ( 275). It has generally been supposed to be elliptical, standing<br />
for 6t 8' *0t\cis aye, or <strong>the</strong> like. And el 8' e06\eis is actually found with<br />
an Imperative in a few places<br />
: II. 19. 142 6t 8* e06\6is trnpfivov, Od. 16. 82., 17.<br />
2 77 ( C P- 3- 3 2 4)' I* J1^ been pointed out, however, by Lange, in his<br />
dissertation on this question,* that el 8' eOeAeis is only found where it<br />
introduces a distinct second alternative. Thus in Od. 16. 82 <strong>the</strong> context is :<br />
'<br />
I will send <strong>the</strong> stranger wherever he desires ;<br />
or if you choose (ef 8' 106 A.6ts)<br />
take him into your house.' So Od. 3. 323 dAA* 'iOi vvv avv vrjt<br />
. . et 8' efle'Xets<br />
Trefos KT\. But with el 8' aye this is not <strong>the</strong> case. We find it at <strong>the</strong> beginning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a speech ;<br />
as<br />
II. 6. 376 6t 8' dye /tot, 8/xcoat, vrji^fprea fJivOrjffaaOe.<br />
Od. 2. 178 3) yepov, et 8' 0176 vvv /zavreueo KT\. : so II. 16. 697., 17. 685,<br />
Od. 12. 112., 22. 391., 23. 35.<br />
Or in <strong>the</strong> Apodosis <strong>of</strong> a Conditional sentence, as<br />
Od. 4. 831 6t p.lv 5r) 06os eo-o-t, fc<strong>of</strong>o re e/e\vfs avSrjs,<br />
fl 8'<br />
dye /lot KT\. : so II. 22. 379-381.<br />
Or to express an appeal which is consequent upon something just said :<br />
as<br />
II. I. 301 rwv OVK dv n Depots dve\ojv dfteovros !/*efo'<br />
et 8'<br />
076 pfjv ireiprjffai (ay, come now and try} : cp. II. 8. 18.<br />
* De formula <strong>Homeric</strong>a el 8' dye commentatio, Lipsiae 1873.<br />
U 2
292 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. [321.<br />
II. I. 523 e/zot 8e tee ravra (j.eXrjffeTa.1 <strong>of</strong>ypa.<br />
el<br />
8'<br />
dye rot Kpa\r] Karavevao^ai (so come, I will nod my head).<br />
23. 579 ft 8' ay 1 eywv avros StKaffoj, KO!I p ov rivd ^>rjp.i<br />
d\\ov etn-n\rieiv Aava&v Weia yap earac<br />
'AvriXox') el 8' dye Sevpo . . opvvQi KT\.<br />
come I will be judge myself . . so come, Antilochus, take this oath :<br />
see also Od. i. 271., 9. 37., 21. 217., 24. 336.<br />
Hence, Lange argues, it is probable that el does not express condition, but has<br />
an interjectional character (cp. Latin eia age] and if so it may be <strong>the</strong> same<br />
:<br />
with <strong>the</strong> use in Clauses expressing wish.<br />
321.] Conclusion. Notwithstanding <strong>the</strong>se arguments,<br />
<strong>the</strong> common explanation<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> el-Clause <strong>of</strong> wish (as primarily a Clause <strong>of</strong> supposition)<br />
seems to be <strong>the</strong> more probable one.* For<br />
(1) The uses <strong>of</strong> el present a marked correspondence with those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Kelative and its derivatives. Note especially <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ore p.rf<br />
as almost<br />
exactly = d firj.<br />
(2)<br />
The analogy etra : el :: eiretra : eiret makes it likely that el was<br />
originally temporal. The fact that tlra is not <strong>Homeric</strong> takes something from<br />
<strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> this argument.<br />
(3) The use <strong>of</strong> alternative forms <strong>of</strong> wish, and <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> some form <strong>of</strong><br />
supposition to express wish, are phenomena which can be exemplified from<br />
many languages : cp. <strong>the</strong> Latin o si, German wenn, wenn nur, &c. And ellipse<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> apodosis occurs with el-clauses <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r kinds ;<br />
see 324.*<br />
(4) The el-clause, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> supposition or <strong>of</strong> wish, is specifically Greek,<br />
whereas <strong>the</strong> chief meanings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Optative wish, concession, supposition<br />
are much older, being common to Greek and Sanscrit. Hence <strong>the</strong> el-clause<br />
was formed at a time when <strong>the</strong> Opt. <strong>of</strong> wish had long been established in<br />
use. The presumption surely is that <strong>the</strong> el-clause, when it came to be used<br />
as a form <strong>of</strong> wish, was a new way <strong>of</strong> expressing wish. It would probably<br />
be adopted at first as a less direct form, suited for wishes couched in a<br />
different tone (as f'iOe is confined to hopeless wish).<br />
(5) The only use <strong>of</strong> el not obviously expressive <strong>of</strong> supposition is that which<br />
is seen in <strong>the</strong> isolated phrase d 8' dye, <strong>of</strong> which Lange has given an exceedingly<br />
probable analysis. Possibly however <strong>the</strong> el <strong>of</strong> d 8'<br />
dye is not <strong>the</strong> same<br />
word as el if, but an interjection, like eltv and Latin eia. We may go fur<strong>the</strong>r,<br />
and point out that <strong>the</strong> 5e <strong>of</strong> el 8' 0176 has been shown by Lange himself<br />
to be out <strong>of</strong> place, hence <strong>the</strong> true form may be el' dye, like Latin eia age.<br />
It may be observed, in conclusion, that <strong>the</strong> question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> el-clause is<br />
quite distinct from <strong>the</strong> question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Optative.<br />
It is possible to combine Lange's <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> el with Delbriick's earlier view<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Optative as originally <strong>the</strong> Mood <strong>of</strong> wish,f but Lange himself does not<br />
do so. He regards <strong>the</strong> el-clause <strong>of</strong> supposition (Fallsetsung) as developed<br />
independently <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> el-clause <strong>of</strong> wish. His main <strong>the</strong>sis is that el does not<br />
* This is also <strong>the</strong> conclusion maintained by Mr. Goodwin, who discusses<br />
<strong>the</strong> question very fully in <strong>the</strong> new edition <strong>of</strong> his Moods and Tenses (pp. 376 ff.).<br />
f This view was proposed in Delbriick's Syntaktische Forschungen (vol.<br />
i. p. 13),<br />
but is withdrawn in his recent work (Altindische Syntax, 172).
3*3-] INDICATIVE. 293<br />
imply a correlative particle, or an apodosis (na\ws av e'xot or <strong>the</strong> like), so that<br />
<strong>the</strong> two meanings <strong>of</strong> et 761/017-0 suppose it happened and would that it happened<br />
belong to originally distinct meanings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Opt. ycvoiro. That is to say, <strong>the</strong><br />
development <strong>of</strong> i ^/with various Moods Opt., Subj., Indie. was parallel to<br />
an entirely distinct development <strong>of</strong> interjectional el with <strong>the</strong> Opt. <strong>of</strong> wish.<br />
322.] <strong>Homeric</strong> and Attic uses. The main difference between Homer and<br />
later writers in regard to <strong>the</strong> Moods may be said to be that <strong>the</strong> later uses are<br />
much more restricted. Thus <strong>the</strong> Subj. is used by Homer in Principal Clauses<br />
<strong>of</strong> every kind Affirmative and Negative, as well as Prohibitive, Interrogative,<br />
&c. In Attic it is confined to <strong>the</strong> Prohibitive use with /;, and <strong>the</strong> idiomatic<br />
'<br />
Hortatory ' and ' Deliberative ' uses.<br />
Again, in Subordinate Clauses <strong>the</strong> important <strong>Homeric</strong> distinction between<br />
<strong>the</strong> 'pure' Subj. and <strong>the</strong> Subj. with dv or KCV is almost wholly lost in Attic.<br />
In Clauses <strong>of</strong> Conditional meaning, whe<strong>the</strong>r Relatival, Temporal, or introduced<br />
by i, <strong>the</strong> Subj. with civ has become <strong>the</strong> only generally allowable construction<br />
<strong>the</strong> :<br />
pure Subj. being confined to a few instances in poetry. With<br />
<strong>the</strong> Optative, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, an equal uniformity has been attained by<br />
<strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> use with civ or KV. In short, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> four distinct <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
constructions<br />
1. os \0T) (ore f\0ri, et eAfl?/, &c.)<br />
2. os civ (or os KV) eXO-Q (or av tX6ri, eav e'Aflfl, &c.)<br />
3. os eXOoi (ore e'A0ot, et eA0ot, &c.)<br />
4. os S.V (or os KCV)
294 INDICATIVE. [324.<br />
where <strong>the</strong>re need be no implication ei<strong>the</strong>r for or against <strong>the</strong> truth<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> supposition thus made. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong> Indicative may be<br />
used in certain cases in a Conditional Apodosis, expressing an<br />
imaginary consequence. Again, it may be used in Final and<br />
Object Clauses referring to <strong>the</strong> past or to <strong>the</strong> future. All such<br />
uses, in which <strong>the</strong> Indicative does not assert, may be called<br />
Modal Uses.<br />
The tendency <strong>of</strong> language appears to be to extend <strong>the</strong> Modal Uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Indicative, and consequently to diminish <strong>the</strong> range <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Moods. It<br />
is found possible, and more convenient, to show <strong>the</strong> modal character <strong>of</strong><br />
a Clause by means <strong>of</strong> Particles, or from <strong>the</strong> drift <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> context, without<br />
a distinct Verbal form. It will be seen, on comparing <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> and Attic<br />
usage, that <strong>the</strong> Indicative has encroached in several points upon <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Moods.<br />
324.] Conditional Clauses (Apodosis). The Secondary Tenses<br />
or Tenses <strong>of</strong> past time (Aor. Impf. and Plupf.), are used with K*V<br />
or o,v to express a supposed consequence<br />
: as<br />
II. 4. 420 beivov 8'<br />
(3paxe xaA.Kos em a-ryOto-a-iv CLVCLKTOS<br />
fear would have seized even <strong>the</strong> stout-hearted.<br />
This way <strong>of</strong> speaking <strong>of</strong> a conditional event ordinarily implies<br />
that <strong>the</strong> condition on which it<br />
depended was not fulfilled. For<br />
if (e.g.] <strong>the</strong> assertion rj\Qw he came is true, we can hardly ever<br />
have occasion to limit it<br />
by saying j\\Q^v av he came in that case.<br />
Hence a Past Tense with KCV or fa naturally came to be used<br />
where <strong>the</strong> event in question had not happened, owing to <strong>the</strong><br />
non-fulfilment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> condition.<br />
The rule does not apply to events that occur repeatedly, or on no particular<br />
occasion ;<br />
for <strong>the</strong>re is no contradiction in saying <strong>of</strong> such an event tha't it<br />
happened when a condition was fulfilled. Hence <strong>the</strong> use in <strong>the</strong> iterative sense<br />
(as Hdt. 3. 119 K\aifffK av teal odvpefftcero, Thuc. 7. 71 ti rives iSoiev . .<br />
dve6dpcrrjadv<br />
re av rA.). This use, however, is not <strong>Homeric</strong>. In Od. 2. 104 evQa KV<br />
finariri /j.ev vcpaivea/ecv has slender authority, most MSS. reading =v0a KCU.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r supposed instance is<br />
Od. 18. 263 iirncav T' uKvnoScav eiriPrjTopas, o'i ue rd\t.ara<br />
fKpivav fte-ya V?KOS KT\.,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> commentators (Fasi, Ameis, Merry) take eicpivav as a ' gnomic '<br />
Aorist. The words as <strong>the</strong>y stand can only mean who < would most speedily<br />
have decided mighty strife' (so Goodwin,<br />
:<br />
244) but this does not suit <strong>the</strong><br />
context. The difficulty is best met by reading ot T : cp. 283, b.<br />
An exceptional use <strong>of</strong> a different kind is<br />
Od. 4. 546 r) yap piv faov ye K^ota-i, r\ Kf<br />
Here KCV marks <strong>the</strong> alternative ( 283, n. 2) : ei<strong>the</strong>r you will find him alive or (in<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r case) Orestes has kilkd him (i.<br />
e. must have kitted him}. Thrown into
324-*] CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 295<br />
a Conditional form <strong>the</strong> sentence would be :<br />
<strong>the</strong>n Orestes has killed him.' So with an Infinitive<br />
'if you do not find him alive,<br />
II. 22. 108 /J.ol Sc TOT' av iro\v ttfpSiov fir)<br />
dvrrjv ^ 'Axi\7ja KaTaKTeivavra vfeaOai<br />
i\k KCV avrai 6\ff6ai fi'>K\iws irpb ITU AT/OS.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Protasis Kv with <strong>the</strong> Indicative occurs only once, viz. II. 23. 526 et<br />
8e K' en irpoTepoj ycvero 8p6fj,os (see Leaf's note a. Z.).<br />
This may be compared<br />
with <strong>the</strong> occasional use <strong>of</strong> KCV with el and an Opt. ( 313). The rarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
use with an Indie, need not be felt as a difficulty<br />
:<br />
cp. <strong>the</strong> oracle in Hdt. i.<br />
1<br />
74 Zevs yap K' ZOrj/ct vrjaov ei K' eftovkfro, also Erinna, fr. 4, 4, and Ar. Lys.<br />
1098 (Hartung, ii. p. 240).<br />
In later Greek <strong>the</strong> Imperfect with a><br />
may express ei<strong>the</strong>r a<br />
continuous action which would have occurred at some past time,<br />
or an action (continuous or momentary) which would have been<br />
occurring at <strong>the</strong> moment <strong>of</strong> speaking. The latter <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se uses,<br />
as Mr. Goodwin points out is ( 435), not <strong>Homeric</strong>. He sees<br />
an approach to it in II. 24, 220 ei \v yap rts ^ aXXos K\vev<br />
were it<br />
any one else who lade me. Ano<strong>the</strong>r may be found in Od.<br />
2O. 307 KCU Ke rot avrl yapoio irar^p rdcjiov aju^eTroyetro vOdb (if<br />
had struck <strong>the</strong> stranger] your fa<strong>the</strong>r would have had to busy<br />
here with your burial in place <strong>of</strong> wedding : cp. also Od. 4.<br />
178 KCU KC ddfjC vOdb' OVT$ fJLLa-y6}Ji0' ,<br />
ovoc Ktv ^/oie'aj<br />
aAAc<br />
The Impf. without av or KCI/ may express what ought to have<br />
been, if <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> fitness, obligation, &c. is given by <strong>the</strong><br />
Verb or Predicate. Thus we have Od. 20. 331 ntpbiov riev it<br />
would have been better. So in Attic with exp^ ^ et and<br />
j<br />
similar<br />
words.<br />
The Opt. with &v or Key, as we have seen is ( 300, not unf<br />
requently used in Homer with <strong>the</strong> same meaning as <strong>the</strong> Aor.<br />
or Impf. with a.v has in later Greek. This is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> points<br />
c),<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indicative gained on that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Optative.<br />
324.*] Ellipse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Apodosis. We may notice here <strong>the</strong><br />
cases in which el with an Indie, or Subj. is not followed<br />
by a corresponding Clause expressing <strong>the</strong> consequence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
supposition made. This occurs<br />
When (a) two alternative suppositions are made, <strong>the</strong> second<br />
being <strong>the</strong> one upon which <strong>the</strong> speaker wishes to dwell : as II. I.<br />
135 t ptv buxrovcTL yeptts . et 8e Ke . JUIT/ Swoxriz;, eyo> 8e KV avrbs<br />
e'Aco/xat if <strong>the</strong>y give (<strong>the</strong>re is nothing to be said), but if not, &c.<br />
When (b) <strong>the</strong> consequence is sufficiently implied in <strong>the</strong> et-<br />
Clause : as II. 6. 150 et 8' e^eXet? KCU ravra barmtvai, if you wish<br />
to be told this (I<br />
will do so)<br />
: II. 7. 375<br />
at K' e^eAcoo-t Trawa
396 INDICATIVE. [325.<br />
if <strong>the</strong>y wish to cease (let <strong>the</strong>m): Od. 2,1. 260 drdp TreAe'/ceds ye KCU<br />
et K' el&jjLtv cLTravras eoTajueu : II. 19. 147.5 2O. 213., 21. 487, Od.<br />
4. 388., 15. 80.<br />
When (c) <strong>the</strong> speaker prefers to suggest <strong>the</strong> consequence in an<br />
indirect :<br />
way as II. I.<br />
580 et Trep yap K' etfe'ArjCT-tz; 'OXv^inos dorepo-<br />
7<br />
^ wishes<br />
Trrjrrjs e eSeW oTU
326.] FUTURE. 297<br />
II. I.<br />
522 dAAa (TV per vvv O.VTLS cnr6(rTL\ \M\ TL<br />
"Hpij* jjiol 8e K TavTa /u,eA?jo-erai (to me, as my part}.<br />
4. 76 Kai K ris a>5' epe'ei<br />
W^ castf #z^ will say.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> Kei/ is chiefly found after 8e, as II. i. 139., 6. 260., 8.<br />
419., 14. 267, &c. : and in Relative Clauses, as II. 12. 226., 17.<br />
241., 22. 70, Od. 5. 36., 8. 318., 16. 438: perhaps with ore, II.<br />
2O. 335 ore KZV
298 IMPERATIVE. [327.<br />
i,<br />
where <strong>the</strong> Verb may be a Future, as in <strong>the</strong> places now quoted, or a<br />
Subj., according to <strong>the</strong> commoner <strong>Homeric</strong> construction. So in II. 10. 44, 282.,<br />
17. 144.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Future in Final Clauses is probably later than that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Subjunctive. In general, as we have seen, <strong>the</strong> Subj. is akin to <strong>the</strong> Imperative,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>refore expresses <strong>the</strong> speaker's purpose directly, by its own force ;<br />
whereas <strong>the</strong> Fut. Ind. properly expresses sequence. Thus Oe\yei us XdOrjTai<br />
literally means charms ' so that he shall f<strong>org</strong>et ' :<br />
OeXyei OTTOJS X-qa^rai ' charms<br />
so that he will f<strong>org</strong>et/ The same conclusion seems to follow from <strong>the</strong> rule<br />
that SITUS and 6pa may be used with a Future, but not ws or*va (Goodwin,<br />
324). For ws in <strong>the</strong> manner that fits a direct purpose better than omos in<br />
some such manner that, or 6pa till <strong>the</strong> time that. It would seem probable, <strong>the</strong>n,<br />
that in Final Clauses <strong>the</strong> Future is a less emphatic and positive expression <strong>of</strong><br />
end. Thus when Achilles prays (II. 16. 242), embolden him ' so that Hector<br />
will know/ <strong>the</strong> Future conveys a shade <strong>of</strong> indifference, as though Hector's<br />
knowledge were <strong>the</strong> natural consequence ra<strong>the</strong>r than <strong>the</strong> direct object.<br />
And so in II. I. 175 01 /ce /xe TifjLr/ffovfft who will (I presume) honour me.<br />
5. In Clauses with el <strong>the</strong> Future is chiefly used <strong>of</strong> events regarded<br />
as necessary, or as determined by some power independent<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> speaker<br />
: as<br />
II. 14. 6 1 ^juets 6e
329-] PARTICLES. 299<br />
328.] Prohibition. The Aorist Imperative is very rarely used<br />
with : JJITJ examples are<br />
II. 4. 41O TO) [M] fJLOL TTCLTpaS TT()0' OjUOlT] 7^060 TtjUTJ<br />
(so Od. 24. 248 av 8e JUT) oz;<br />
x'^ tvQto<br />
1 8. 134 (TV /ley jxri 770) Karabvcrto /u,(oAoz> "Aprjos.<br />
Od. 1 6. 301 //,rj<br />
rt? eTretr' 'O6vo-rjos aKOU(rara).<br />
II. 1 6. 200 /ur) AeAa0e'(70co.<br />
For <strong>the</strong> rule which is <strong>the</strong> complement <strong>of</strong> this one, forbidding <strong>the</strong><br />
use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Present Subj. with /j^, see 278^.<br />
Regarding <strong>the</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> this curious idiom a very probable conjecture has<br />
been made by Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 120). In <strong>the</strong> Veda it has been<br />
shown by Grassmann that <strong>the</strong> prohibitive Particle md is never found with<br />
<strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Imperative proper, but only with <strong>the</strong> so-called<br />
'<br />
spurious<br />
Conjunctive ' or ' Injunctive/ Hence it may be inferred that <strong>the</strong> Imperative<br />
was only used originally in positive commands, not in prohibitions. Again,<br />
it<br />
appears that in Sanscrit <strong>the</strong> Imperative is nearly confined to <strong>the</strong> Present<br />
Tense : and in Greek <strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> First Aor. Imper. (K\tyov, Mid. /cAt'^m)<br />
are certainly <strong>of</strong> late origin. The fine distinction which is made, in <strong>the</strong><br />
Imperative as well as in o<strong>the</strong>r Moods, between <strong>the</strong> continuous action<br />
expressed by <strong>the</strong> Present Stem and <strong>the</strong> momentary action expressed by <strong>the</strong><br />
Aorist belongs to <strong>the</strong> specific development <strong>of</strong> Greek. Accordingly Delbriick<br />
suggests that <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Imperative to express prohibition took<br />
place at a time when <strong>the</strong> Aorist Imperative had not come into general use :<br />
and hence it was only carried into <strong>the</strong> Present Tense. In o<strong>the</strong>r words, <strong>the</strong><br />
form \ir\ KXIirre came into use in pre-historic Greek as an extension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
positive K\irT, and superseded JAT| K\ITTTIS but : [ni\ K\I}/T)S kept its ground,<br />
because <strong>the</strong> form K\&|/OV did not <strong>the</strong>n exist. This account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> idiom seems<br />
much more probable than any attempt to explain it on psychological grounds.<br />
CHAPTER XIII.<br />
THE PARTICLES.<br />
329.] Under <strong>the</strong> term Particles it is convenient to group<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r a number <strong>of</strong> words that are mainly used to show <strong>the</strong><br />
relations between o<strong>the</strong>r words, and between Clauses. In respect<br />
<strong>of</strong> this <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>the</strong>y are akin to <strong>the</strong> various syllables or letters used<br />
as Endings and with <strong>the</strong>m go to constitute what are called <strong>the</strong><br />
:<br />
'formal elements ' <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language, in contradistinction to <strong>the</strong><br />
roots or stems which compose<br />
its ' matter/<br />
The Particles which connect successive Clauses in any way<br />
form <strong>the</strong> Conjunctions. As such <strong>the</strong>y may be distinguished,<br />
according to <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> connexion which <strong>the</strong>y indicate,
300 PARTICLES. [330.<br />
as Copulative (KCU, re, Y|8e', &c.), Adversative (8^, clXXd, aurdp), Disjunctive<br />
Conditional<br />
(rj r\), (el, cV, Illative<br />
KCI/),<br />
(apa, 817, out/),<br />
Causal (Y?7<br />
spoke and <strong>the</strong>reupon fyc. : and (2) a streng<strong>the</strong>ning or emphasising<br />
Particle meaning also, even, just : as<br />
II. I. 63 r)<br />
KCU dvtipoTTokov or even a dream-prophet.<br />
3. 176 TO KCU KAcuovcra rerr^Ka which is <strong>the</strong> very reason that<br />
I am wasted with weeping.<br />
It is especially used with words that imply comparison, increase<br />
as KCU aAAos<br />
or diminution, extension <strong>of</strong> time or <strong>the</strong> reverse, &c. ;<br />
ano<strong>the</strong>r (not<br />
this only),<br />
KCU avro's himself (as well as o<strong>the</strong>rs) KCU<br />
:<br />
TrdAcu long ago (not merely now), KCU avOis ano<strong>the</strong>r time (if not<br />
now), KCU fxaXa, KCU Airjy (in a high degree, not merely in an<br />
ordinary degree) so with Comparatives, KCU : /xetfou, KCU /nytoz;,<br />
&c. Both terms <strong>of</strong> a comparison may be streng<strong>the</strong>ned in this<br />
way; as<br />
II. I. 8 1 ei Trep yap re \faov ye ica! avTTJ^ap KaraTre'^r;,<br />
dAAa re KCU /^eroVto-#ei> KrA.<br />
Notice, too, <strong>the</strong> use at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> an Apodosis, esp. with<br />
Adverbs <strong>of</strong> time, as<br />
II. I. 477 fines 5' 77ptyeVeta fyavr] pooooa,KTV\o$ T^COJ,<br />
KCU TOT 1TLT KrA.<br />
KCU precedes <strong>the</strong> word which it emphasises, but is sometimes<br />
separated from it by o<strong>the</strong>r Particles, enclitic Pronouns, &c. : as<br />
II. I.<br />
213 KCU Trore' rot Tpls roWa (not merely compensation but)<br />
three times as much: 2. 292 KCU yap TLS eW 0' prjva a man<br />
/xeVcoz;<br />
^vho stays even one month. So 7. 281 KCU t6/xez> airavTes (<br />
= icr/xez;<br />
KCU mitres).<br />
KCU el and el KCU. The combination KCU el indicates that <strong>the</strong>
332.] KAI, TE. 301<br />
whole condition is an extreme one : even on <strong>the</strong> supposition that .<br />
But with <strong>the</strong> order el KCU <strong>the</strong> KCU emphasises particular words : et<br />
Kal judAo, Kaprepos eo-ri even if he is (I will go so far as to say)<br />
very strong. Hence ei KCU usually implies that <strong>the</strong> supposition is<br />
more or less true.<br />
331.]<br />
distinguish ;<br />
re.<br />
The enclitic re has two main uses which it is essential to<br />
besides one or two special uses <strong>of</strong> less importance.<br />
(a) As a Conjunction re connects clauses and single words.<br />
It is especially used when a new fact or new object is to take<br />
its place pari passu with "what has been already said : KVVZO-O-LV<br />
oico^oio-i re Tracrt to dogs and birds as well: at TTCLCTL KaKov Tpweo-o-i<br />
ytvovro ol T avTtp which were a bane to all <strong>the</strong> Trojans, and to<br />
himself (equally). This meaning is given still more distinctly<br />
by <strong>the</strong> Correlative re re thus we have <strong>the</strong> : pairs avbp&v re flewr<br />
re, brjjjLos re Tro'Ais re, KAayyf/ T e^o-Trrj re, &c. and <strong>the</strong> pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
Clauses expressing simultaneous action, such as<br />
&\lr T avX(aprja-v} (*>xpos re \LIV etAe mipeia?.<br />
Hence re re sometimes marks that two things are mutually<br />
dependent: oXiyov re va.<br />
As to <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> re <strong>the</strong> general rule is that it follows <strong>the</strong><br />
first word in <strong>the</strong> Clause. Hence when standing<br />
first in <strong>the</strong> pair<br />
T re it does not always follow <strong>the</strong> word which it couples e. : g.<br />
II. 6. 317 tyyuOi re ripiajuoio KCU "E/cropos near both Priam and<br />
Hector ; II. 5- $78 crot T tTwrelQovTai Kal de8pjjuecr0a e'/caoros (cp.<br />
2. 136, 198., 4. 505., 7. 294-5).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> TC as a Particle <strong>of</strong> transition (to begin a fresh sentence after a<br />
pause) is not <strong>Homeric</strong>, though common in later Greek. This may indicate<br />
that <strong>the</strong> use as a connecting Particle was originally confined to <strong>the</strong> Correlative<br />
re re (Delbriick, Synt. Forsch, iv. p. 145).<br />
332.] (fj)<br />
In its o<strong>the</strong>r use which is distinctively <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
re serves to mark an assertion as general or indefinite.<br />
Hence it<br />
is found in gnomic passages :<br />
as<br />
II. I. 21 8 09 Ke 0eot? eTriTrei^rat, jutaAa r' HK\VOV avrov.<br />
9. 509 rbv 8e /oie'y' &vj](rav /cat r' K\vov<br />
Od. 6. 185 /xaAiara 8e' r' K\vov avroi.
302 PARTICLES. [332.<br />
II. 1 6. 688 dAA' atet re Aio? Kp euro-coy voos rj irep avp&v.<br />
19. 221 al\lfd re (frvXainbos WAerat Ko'pos (cp. Od. I. 392).<br />
Hes.Th. 87 al\l/a re Kat /xeya vet/cos eTrtcrrajuieVa)? KareVaixre.<br />
So in many short maxims, such as pcxOev be re ^rJTrtos ey^co<br />
orpeTrrot 8e' re Kat 0eot aurot. In similes it is very common, and<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten repeated in <strong>the</strong> successive Clauses; e.g.<br />
II. 4. 482 6 5* eV Koviyori ^a/xat TreVez^ atyetpos etajtxey?) e'Aeos /uteyaAoto Tre^VKr/<br />
Aetrj, drdp T^ ot 6'fot eV aKporarr/ TT(j)vacrL'<br />
rrjv fJLv & apiJiaTOTrr]ybs avrjp aWavi o-t8?jpa><br />
efeVaju,^ o' -Trao-tz; 8e 'naprfiov atjaart<br />
Kat T'<br />
ayeXrjbbv lacnv airb Kprjvr<br />
Xa\lsovTS yAa)(rcr?7(rtr apairjoriv j<br />
aKpov, epefyo/^evot (frovov at/ixaros*<br />
ei^ 8e re<br />
(TTri0(Tiv arpojao? eo-rt, Trepto-rei^erat 5e re yao-r?7p.<br />
So where <strong>the</strong> meaning is frequentative :<br />
Od. 4. I O2 aAAore fxe'u<br />
re yoa> typeva re'pTrojuiat (cp. 5. 55-? I3< ^4)<br />
II. 19. 86 Ka re /xe vciKetea-Kov (20. 28, Od. 5. 33 1, &c.).<br />
So II. I.<br />
521 retKet Kat re /me (^Tjo-t KrA. aa^ ^y^ (habitually) that<br />
I fyc.<br />
:<br />
cp. 9. 410., 17. 174, Od. i. 215., 4- 3 8 7-> IO 33v - 17- 2 5-<br />
Hence it is used <strong>of</strong> names, as II. I. 403 avbpts 6e re TTCLVTS (K<br />
ovo-t), 2. 814., 5. 306, &c. <strong>of</strong> characteristic<br />
; attributes, as<br />
II. 2.<br />
453 ^' 7 e n^^eio) (rvjUjmtVyerat . .<br />
dAAa re /xtz^ KaOvKtpOcv eTTtppeet ?}i;r' eAator.<br />
5. 340 t^wp, oto? Trep re joeet juaKapeo-o-t ^eotcrt.<br />
And generally <strong>of</strong> any fixed condition <strong>of</strong> things, as II. 4. 247<br />
re v^es etpwrr' virpv}j,voL : 5- 477 ^ "^^P r' cTTtKOUpot e^eijuer : 15.<br />
187 rpet? yap r' eK Kporov etjutez^ d6eA0eot (a fact <strong>of</strong> permanent<br />
be laid<br />
significance) 22. 116 ^ r' e-TrAero retKeos dpx^. It may :<br />
down as a general rule that re in <strong>the</strong> combinations ju,eV re, 6e re,<br />
Kat re. yap re, dAAd re, and <strong>the</strong> like, is not a Conjunction, and<br />
does not affect <strong>the</strong> meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Conjunction which it follows.<br />
In a Conditional sentence <strong>of</strong> gnomic character <strong>the</strong> re is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used in both members, as<br />
II. I. 8 1 et Trep ydp re -^oXov ye Kat avTtjfJiap KareTre'x/aj,<br />
dAAd re Kat /uteroVto-flez/ e^et KOTOV.<br />
The use with <strong>the</strong> Article and <strong>the</strong> different forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Relative<br />
has been already discussed in <strong>the</strong> chapter on <strong>the</strong> Pronouns<br />
(see 263, 266). It was <strong>the</strong>re pointed out that re is used when<br />
<strong>the</strong> Clause serves to describe a class, as
332.]<br />
TE. 303<br />
aypta iravra, ra re rpeet ovpccriv v\.rj.<br />
peta b' dptyycoros yovos avepos to re Kpovt&V KT\.<br />
or to express a permanent characteristic, as<br />
y?jpas KOL Oavaros, ra T ITT' avOpwiroLorL Tre'/Voi/rat.<br />
Xo'Aos, os r' 8e T eacre<br />
(Read ovb' er' with <strong>the</strong> Lipsiensis, and so in II. 21. 596).<br />
* The account now given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> re was suggested (in substance) by<br />
Dr. Wentzel, whose dissertation (Ueber den Gebrauch der Partikel TC bei Homer,<br />
Glogau, 1847) appears to have been overlooked by subsequent writers.
34 PARTICLES. [333.<br />
at 6e T avv0v<br />
II. 23. 474<br />
(Read<br />
at 5' er' with <strong>the</strong> Townleianus).<br />
Similarly we should read ou8' IT' in II. 15. 709., 17. 42., 21. 248.,<br />
22. 300., 23. 622, 730., 24. 52, Od. 12. 198. In such a matter<br />
manuscript authority is evidently <strong>of</strong> no weight, and it will be<br />
found that <strong>the</strong> MSS. <strong>of</strong>ten have 8e T' where <strong>the</strong> editors have<br />
already corrected 8' IT' (e.g. in II. I. 573., 2. 344., 12. 106, Od.<br />
2. 115., ii. 380., 21. 1 86., 24. 401). In II. ii. 767 <strong>the</strong> editions<br />
have v&'C 8e T Zvbov, but all MSS. v&'C 8e evbov so :<br />
perhaps we<br />
may correct II. 21. 456 v&'C 8e r' ax^oppot K[OJJ.V. Perhaps In<br />
should be restored in II. 16. 836 o-e 6e r' ey0d8e yuTre? j&ovrot,<br />
Od. 15. 428 TTtpaa-av 8e Te 8ep' dyccyorrcg.<br />
Two isolated Epic uses remain to be noticed :<br />
(1) After an Interrogative in <strong>the</strong> combination T' apa, T' ap as<br />
:<br />
II. I. 8 Tts T ap o-(|>a)e<br />
0&v ept8t wlf}icc /oid^eo-flai ;<br />
1 8. 1 88 TTWS T' ap' to) juera fji&Xov ; (so TTT) r' ap II. 13. 307).<br />
Od. I.<br />
346 i^iJTep e/xry, rt r apa
334-] AE. 305<br />
vovcrov ava (rrparbv Spcre KCLKTJV, oktKOvro 8e Aaoi,<br />
ovvKa KrA.<br />
Here a prose writer would say 6\0piav, or wore airoXXva-Qai rbv<br />
AaoV, or v<br />
ayK&va TV^MV pea-ov.<br />
I. e. ( struck him as lie was turning- <strong>the</strong> horses/<br />
8^ is nearly always <strong>the</strong> second word in <strong>the</strong> Clause. It is occasionally<br />
put after (i) a Preposition and Case-form, as ITT' avr&v<br />
b' wfjioOerrjo-aVj or (3)<br />
an Article and Numeral, as rrj Senary<br />
8' KrA.:<br />
but not after o<strong>the</strong>r combinations. Hence K
306 PARTICLES. [334.<br />
Philoctetes is opposed as commander to <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong> Methone,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> whole statement is opposed to <strong>the</strong> previously mentioned<br />
peoples with <strong>the</strong>ir commanders. So in a period composed <strong>of</strong> two<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> correlated Clauses, as<br />
II. I.<br />
135 oM-' *i P*v bu>(rovcn ye'pas . .<br />
ei 8e Ke jut,?; b&ocrut, eya> 8e' Kev avrbs eAcojuat.<br />
p. 5& os jueV T aiSeVerat Kovpas Aios aa- epyoi; early eiTrety (Kiiliner, 5.33;<br />
It has<br />
2).<br />
been regarded as <strong>the</strong> key to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> usage now<br />
in question<br />
: * but this would compel us in many cases to give<br />
different explanations <strong>of</strong> uses to which <strong>the</strong> same explanation is<br />
evidently applicable. For instance, in <strong>the</strong> four lines last quoted,<br />
if we account for <strong>the</strong> 8^ <strong>of</strong> AtVo-oyrat 8'<br />
apa KT\. as a repetition <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> 8^ <strong>of</strong> its protasis 6s 8e' K' KT\., how do we treat <strong>the</strong> 8^ <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
first apodosis (TOV 8e KrA.)?<br />
The two forms are essentially<br />
similar.<br />
as a survival<br />
2. The 8e <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Apodosis is commonly regarded<br />
from a period in which <strong>the</strong> Relative Clause or Conditional Protasis<br />
was not yet subordinate, so that <strong>the</strong> Apodosis, if it followed<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, still needed or at least admitted <strong>of</strong> a connecting<br />
Particle. Such an explanation<br />
is attractive because it presents<br />
us with a case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> general law according to which <strong>the</strong> complex<br />
sentence or period is formed by <strong>the</strong> welding toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> originally<br />
distinct simple sentences.! It is to be observed, however, that<br />
<strong>the</strong> phenomenon in question is not necessarily more than a particular<br />
use <strong>of</strong> 8e. The survival may be, not <strong>of</strong> a paratactic form<br />
<strong>of</strong> sentence, but only <strong>of</strong> a use <strong>of</strong> 8e where it is not a Conjunction.<br />
Such a use has been already seen in <strong>the</strong> Particle Kai.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> correlation dAA.' ore 8r) Kai ro're 8rj<br />
we need find nothing<br />
* So in <strong>the</strong> first edition <strong>of</strong> this book, following <strong>the</strong> discussion <strong>of</strong> Nagelsbach<br />
in his Anmerkungen zur Bias (p. 261 and p. 271, ed. 1834). The Excursus on<br />
<strong>the</strong> subject was omitted in later editions. For <strong>the</strong> view adopted in <strong>the</strong> text<br />
<strong>the</strong> author is indebted almost wholly to Dr. R. Nieberding, Ueber die parataktische<br />
Anknupfung des Nachsatses in hypotctktischen Satzgefugen, insbesondere bei Homer,<br />
Gross-Grlogau, 1882.<br />
t On <strong>the</strong> danger <strong>of</strong> explaining <strong>the</strong> Syntax <strong>of</strong> complex sentences by<br />
recourse to a supposed survival <strong>of</strong> paratactic structure <strong>the</strong>re is a timely warning<br />
given by Brugmann, Gr. Gr. 203.
3350 AE. 307<br />
more than <strong>the</strong> ordinary use <strong>of</strong> icat with <strong>the</strong> also, even meaning1<br />
;<br />
that is to say, it emphasises <strong>the</strong> sequence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> apodosis, just as<br />
it <strong>of</strong>ten emphasises single words or phrases. Similarly 8e may<br />
have been used to mark <strong>the</strong> adversative character <strong>of</strong> an apodosis.<br />
3. These points may be illustrated by <strong>the</strong> parallel between KCU<br />
also, even and ou8e or =<br />
\utfi<br />
not even, also not. In this use 8^ is<br />
clearly not a Conjunction, but merely serves to mark <strong>the</strong> natural<br />
opposition between <strong>the</strong> negative and some preceding affirmation<br />
(expressed or implied). Thus it is closely akin to <strong>the</strong> use in<br />
apodosis, <strong>the</strong> difference being only that it belongs to a single<br />
word ra<strong>the</strong>r than a Clause.<br />
4. It is a confirmation <strong>of</strong> this view that among <strong>the</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> 8e<br />
in <strong>the</strong> apodosis we never find one in which <strong>the</strong> protasis is introduced<br />
by <strong>the</strong> corresponding jjieV.*<br />
Where this is apparently <strong>the</strong><br />
case it will be found that <strong>the</strong> jj-eV<br />
refers forward, not to <strong>the</strong> 8^ <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> immediate apodosis, but to a new sentence with 8^ or some<br />
equivalent Particle :<br />
e.g.<br />
II. 2. 1 88 ov Ttva jjiV pao-iXija KCLL<br />
308 PARTICLES. [336.<br />
It seems likely that <strong>the</strong> -Be <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two uses is originally <strong>the</strong> same. The<br />
force in both cases is that <strong>of</strong> a local Adverb. Whe<strong>the</strong>r it is to be identified<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Conjunction 8e is a fur<strong>the</strong>r question.<br />
dXXd, auTctp, drdp, au, aure.<br />
336.] The remaining Adversative Particles do not need much<br />
explanation.<br />
dXXd and aurdp are used (like 8^)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> apodosis, especially<br />
after a Clause with et irep<br />
: as<br />
II. I. 81 ? TTtp y&p re . . aAAo* re (cp. 8. 153., 19. 164).<br />
2"2.<br />
390 et 8e OavovTutv Trep . . avrap eyco KrA.<br />
aurdp and drdp express a slighter opposition than a'XXd, and<br />
accordingly are <strong>of</strong>ten used as Particles <strong>of</strong> transition ; e.g. in such<br />
formulae as A s ot i**v<br />
. .<br />
avrap KrA. similar use <strong>of</strong> dXXd may<br />
be seen with Imperatives as dAA'<br />
; WL, dAA' aye /xot ro'Se enre, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> like. It is evident that <strong>the</strong> stronger Adversative is chosen<br />
where greater liveliness <strong>of</strong> tone is to be conveyed.<br />
337.] au and aure (again, on <strong>the</strong> contrary] have nearly <strong>the</strong> same<br />
force as aurdp, but do not begin <strong>the</strong> sentence : hence vvv a.v, TLS<br />
5' av, TiiiT avT, &c. : and so in correspondence to ^ev or 77 rot,<br />
as II. 4. 237 T&V rot . .<br />
rj fjfjiels avre KT\. They also serve to<br />
mark <strong>the</strong> apodosis <strong>of</strong> a Relative or Conditional Clause, as II. 4.<br />
321 et roVe Kovpos ea, vvv avre jixe yijpas oTrafet. Thus <strong>the</strong>y have<br />
<strong>the</strong> two chief uses <strong>of</strong> 8<br />
Originally, doubtless, au meant backwards, but in Homer this<br />
sense is only found in <strong>the</strong> form aurts though perhaps<br />
it sur-<br />
:<br />
vives in <strong>the</strong> sacrificial word avepva-av.<br />
The form ojjiws is later, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> word being C/ATUJS.<br />
o(xcos is usually read in II. 12. 393 opus 5' ov X-fjOero xa/V* 7 ??,<br />
and Od. n. 565<br />
fvOa x <strong>of</strong>JMs -npoaeQrjv. In both places however <strong>the</strong> Scholia indicate that <strong>the</strong><br />
word was anciently circumflexed by some authorities.<br />
338.] The Particle rf at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> a sentence gives it<br />
<strong>the</strong> character <strong>of</strong> a strong affirmation<br />
:<br />
II. i. 240 77 TTor' 'AxiAA?jos irodrj tferat be sure that one day fyc.<br />
So, with an ironical tone,<br />
II. I. 229 TtoXv X&LOV eort Kara 77 (rrparov evpvv 'A^atcar<br />
6
339-] 'AAAA, ATTAP, 'ATAP, AT, 'H.<br />
309<br />
15. 54 3 eA.7re.<br />
7. 393 ov (})r](nv bu>(TW 77 yJr}v Tpwes ye Ke'Aoirat ( 344).<br />
II. 362 ef aS vvv e^vyes Oavarov, KVOV' 77 re rot ay^t<br />
??A0 KctKoV (so<br />
18. 13).<br />
22. 280 77<br />
rot e(/)r?y ye (<br />
= though I did think ; so 22. 280).<br />
The question whe<strong>the</strong>r f\ (or can be used f\) to introduce a Dependent Interrogative<br />
depends upon a few passages. Bekker favours TJ<br />
in this use, and<br />
reads accordingly, e. g. II. I. 83 av 5e Qpdffai % /*e ffauffcis. The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
editors recognise it in three or four places :<br />
II. 8. ill efcreTCu ^ KOI ejjiov 56 pv paii/erai KT\.<br />
Od. 13. 415 uxfTO irevff<strong>of</strong>JLevos f^ercL abv K\eos, ij irov er' 6075.<br />
16. 137 dA.\' 0176 /-tot<br />
r68e etV^ KOI arpCKfcas Ka.Ta\fov,<br />
^ Kai Aaeprr; avrrjv 6Sov dyye\os 'iXQca,<br />
19. 325 TTOJS yap efjifv ffv, *iv, Sarjffeai, n<br />
ij yvvaiKuv<br />
a\\dcav irepictfu ;<br />
In all <strong>the</strong>se places, however, <strong>the</strong>re is manuscript support for el, and so La<br />
Roche reads in <strong>the</strong> two last. For <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> el with <strong>the</strong> Subj. see 294, with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Opt. 314. It is difficult to derive <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> r\<br />
which Bekker supposes<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong> emphatic or from <strong>the</strong> TJ, disjunctive or rje T\ (Horn. Bl. p. 59).<br />
In any case <strong>the</strong>re is no sufficient ground for deserting <strong>the</strong> MSS.<br />
rf is <strong>of</strong>ten combined more or less closely with o<strong>the</strong>r Particles :<br />
as T Te ( 332, 2), rf p&v, &C. ( 343-5). *f T0t ( or ^roi),<br />
r)Sr] (for<br />
and <strong>the</strong> 17 6?j), correlative Tjfjiei' rjSe. In <strong>the</strong>se combinations if<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>ns <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Particle. Note that<br />
rjficV rjSe are used <strong>of</strong> slightly opposed things, especially when<br />
alternation is implied as<br />
:<br />
Od. 2. 68 AiWo/x,at fjfjLtv Zrjvds 'OXvjutTrtou 976^ ejuito-ro?,<br />
rj T avbp&v ayopas ij/xe^ Avet T}O KOtBiffl"<br />
l<br />
i. e. assembles and dissolves again in turn ' (Lat. turn turn).<br />
Cp. II. 8. 395 rj^v avaKXlvai . . ?}5' tTtiQtivai and so II. : 7. 301,<br />
Od. i. 97., 8. 383, and probably II. 6. 149 i7/xez><br />
310 PARTICLES. [340.<br />
forms raj (or rtrj)<br />
and eTretrj,<br />
which are evidently rt, e^ret with a<br />
suffix -T)<br />
<strong>of</strong> an affirmative or emphasising kind.<br />
The ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians seem generally to have considered<br />
this T]<br />
as a distinct word. They lay down <strong>the</strong> rule that after<br />
eTret it is circumflexed, after rt oxytone. The form eTret is rj<br />
supported by <strong>the</strong> fact that it is chiefly found in <strong>the</strong> combination<br />
lire! if<br />
iroXu KT\. (II. I. 169., 4. 56, 307, &C.)<br />
also with pxXa ; (II.<br />
I. 156 eVel r] /xdAa TroAAa /xerafi) KrA., Od. IO. 465 eTret r) /xaXa<br />
TroAAa Tre'Trao-0e, cp. 7] /xaXa, II. 17. 34), and KCU (II. 20. 437, Od.<br />
1 6. 443).<br />
The case <strong>of</strong> rt is different. There is no ground for writing<br />
rt rj (like<br />
eTret rj).<br />
The form ri rj,<br />
which is adopted by <strong>the</strong> most<br />
recent editors on <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancients, is not satisfactory.<br />
If this 7;<br />
was originally <strong>the</strong> affirmative <strong>the</strong> 77, change <strong>of</strong> accent<br />
would indicate that it had lost its character as a separate word.<br />
And this is confirmed by <strong>the</strong> combination rt r)<br />
8e
Kt0'<br />
341.] 'HE, TL<br />
311<br />
1 would say a word ; or shall I keep it to myself? (so perhaps II.<br />
14. 190).<br />
One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> members <strong>of</strong> a disjunctive<br />
Disjunctive:<br />
e.g.<br />
question may be itself<br />
II. 6. 377 TIT) e/3r/ '<br />
Avbp<strong>of</strong>jidx 1 ! XcVKcSAevoj e/c jueyapoto ;<br />
976 7777 S ya\6o)v TI<br />
77 S 'A6rjvaLr]s e<br />
Here 77 dvaTtpuv <strong>of</strong>fers an alternative for yctAoW, but <strong>the</strong> main<br />
question is between <strong>the</strong>se two alternatives on one side and es<br />
'AOr]vaLr)s /crA. on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Most editors <strong>of</strong> Homer recognise an interrogative use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
form vje,<br />
but erroneously."* The questions in which rje is found<br />
are all disjunctive, so that we must write rje ufe (II.<br />
6. 378., 13.<br />
251-, 15- 735-, 16. 12, 13, 17, Od. i. 408., i. 30., ii. 399). In<br />
Od. 13. 233 TLS yrj ; TLS rives bfjfJios ; avepes Zyyeydaa-LV ;<br />
77 itov TLS vrjorvv tvbtitXos, rje'<br />
TLS d/crr/<br />
\<br />
KrA..<br />
rf TTOU means surely methinks : <strong>the</strong> sense being, ' what land is this ?<br />
It must be some island or else promontory/ Hence we should<br />
read -rje<br />
in <strong>the</strong> last clause, not ife (as Ameis, &c.).<br />
rj<br />
or r\<br />
= than is found after Comparatives ;<br />
also after Verbs<br />
implying comparison, as ftovXo^aL I prefer, (pOava) I come sooner.<br />
The correlative fj<br />
re<br />
r\ re appears in three places, viz. II. 9.<br />
276 77 T avbp&v T] T yvvaLK&v (where it seems to be~r)/xeV ?78e),<br />
II. 410 77 T} tfi\r]T i]<br />
T e/3aA' aXXov, and 17. 42 r\ r a\K7Js r\<br />
T<br />
(f)6(3oLo (where however Aristarchus read T|8' ^8e).<br />
The single<br />
r\<br />
re occurs with <strong>the</strong> meaning, or in II. 19. 148 77 T x^^v irapa<br />
(Toi : and with <strong>the</strong> meaning than in Od. 16. 216 ( 332). Considering<br />
<strong>the</strong> general difficulty <strong>of</strong> deciding between el and in<br />
r\<br />
<strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Homer, we cannot regard <strong>the</strong> form TJ<br />
re as resting on<br />
good evidence :<br />
see <strong>the</strong> next section.<br />
341.] Dependent Interrogative Clauses. A Disjunctive<br />
question after a Verb <strong>of</strong> asking^ saying^ knowing, &c. is generally<br />
expressed by <strong>the</strong> Correlatives T|C (r\) ife as<br />
(if) :<br />
Od. l.<br />
174 Kat /xot TOVT ayoptvaov tTrjTVfjiov, otyp'<br />
v et8tXot Kat jJiLvaT eTU yj)6vov, otypa ba&fjiev,<br />
7) ere6z> KdAx? jbta^re^erat, 7/e Kat OVKL.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r examples have been given in <strong>the</strong> account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunc-<br />
* This has been well shown by Dr. Praetorius, in a dissertation to which I<br />
am largely indebted (Der homerische Gebrauch wn rj (i)e) in Fragesatzen, Cassel,<br />
1873). The rule as to <strong>the</strong> accentuation in a disjunctive question rests upon<br />
<strong>the</strong> unanimous testimony <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians, and is now generally<br />
adopted. The MSS. and <strong>the</strong> older editors give TJC or t] only.
fwei<br />
312 PARTICLES. [342.<br />
tive ( 280) and <strong>the</strong> Optative ( 302). In general it will be seen<br />
that <strong>the</strong>se Dependent Clauses are <strong>the</strong> same in form as <strong>the</strong> corresponding<br />
direct questions.<br />
In a very few instances <strong>the</strong> first member <strong>of</strong> a sentence <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind is without yje (TJ)<br />
: as<br />
Od. 4. 109 ovbe TL 6 ft)//ez><br />
| y rj Te6vr]K (4. 837., II. 464).<br />
So II. IO. 544 etTr' aye . . OTTTTCOJ rowS' 'LTTTTOVS Aa/3eroz> 5<br />
KarabvvTS<br />
o^iXov Tp&>a>z;, TI<br />
TLS cra>e Tropes KT\., Od. 4. 643.<br />
The combination el<br />
rfe<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten found in <strong>the</strong><br />
(if)<br />
MSS. <strong>of</strong><br />
Homer; see II. 2. 367., 8. 532, Od. 4. 28, 712, 789., 16. 238,<br />
36o._, 17. 308., 1 8. 265., 24. 217. La Roche (following Bekker)<br />
reads r\ ife (if)<br />
in all <strong>the</strong>se places.<br />
The common texts have in one place ei T<br />
-Jje,<br />
II. 2.<br />
349 yvwfievai et re ^eGSos vrroax^ffis fje<br />
teal ovni.<br />
In this instance, if <strong>the</strong> reading is right, <strong>the</strong>re is a slight irregularity : <strong>the</strong><br />
speaker beginning as if he meant to use et T ei T, and changing to <strong>the</strong><br />
familiar rf<br />
KOA. OVK'I, But <strong>the</strong> best MSS. have ct TC t re.<br />
A change <strong>of</strong> construction may also be seen in Od. 24. 235-8 pepnrjpif . .<br />
Kv&aai /cat irepKpvvat,<br />
. .<br />
^ TT/JWT' egepeocro he debated about embracing &c., or should he<br />
first ask &c.<br />
342.] The three words JKXK, jx^, jxeV agree so nearly in meaning<br />
and usage that <strong>the</strong>y are to be regarded as etymologically connected,<br />
if not merely varieties <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same original form. The<br />
two former (with <strong>the</strong> long a, rj) express strong affirmation = (<br />
surely, indeed, &c.).<br />
The shorter form jmeV is also originally a<br />
Particle <strong>of</strong> affirmation, but has acquired derivative uses <strong>of</strong> which<br />
<strong>the</strong> chief are :<br />
(i) <strong>the</strong> concessive use, preparing us for a Clause<br />
with an Adversative 8e, avrap, a\kd, &c. : and (2) <strong>the</strong> use in <strong>the</strong><br />
second <strong>of</strong> two Clauses with <strong>the</strong> meaning yet, never<strong>the</strong>less.<br />
Taking <strong>the</strong> generally received text <strong>of</strong> Homer, we find that jxdv occurs 24<br />
times, and that <strong>the</strong>re are only two places in which it is not followed by<br />
a vowel. The exceptions are, II. 5. 895 d\\' ov pav a' ert fypov av^o^ai d\yi<br />
ixpvra, where jxav may be due to <strong>the</strong> parallel II. 17. 41 dAA' ov pav en Srjpw<br />
airtiprjTos irovos e'orcu, and II. 5. 765 dypei pav ol (i. e. poi) Ziropaov KT\, (cp. II.<br />
7. 459 dypei fjiav or' av rA.). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand JAT|V,<br />
which occurs 10 times,<br />
is followed by a consonant in every place except II. 19. 45 /rat p.ty 01 TOT* 7'<br />
els ayopfjv laav. These facts have not yet been satisfactorily explained.<br />
Bekker in his second edition (1858) wrote |XT|V throughout for and jxav, sought<br />
to distinguish and<br />
JJLTJV jxev as far as <strong>the</strong> metre allowed according to Attic<br />
usage (H. B. pp. 34, 62). Cobet on <strong>the</strong> contrary proposed to restore p,V for<br />
p,T|v (Misc. Grit. p. 365), and so far as <strong>the</strong>se two forms are concerned his view<br />
is probable enough. But how are we to explain <strong>the</strong> peculiar facts as to fjiav<br />
We ?<br />
can hardly account for it except as a genuine <strong>Homeric</strong> form, and such<br />
a form must have been used before consonants as well as vowels.<br />
If so, we
345-]<br />
MAN<br />
><br />
can only suppose that an original jxdv was changed into \ntv<br />
whenever it came<br />
before a consonant, and preserved when <strong>the</strong> metre made this corruption<br />
impossible.<br />
It is to be observed also that jjidv<br />
and \i-f\v<br />
are almost confined to <strong>the</strong><br />
Iliad, in which \iav occurs 22 times and jjify 7 times. In <strong>the</strong> Odyssey jjidv is<br />
found twice, viz. in u. 344., 17. 470, and frqv three times, in u. 582, 593., 16.<br />
440 = ( 11. 23. 410). It appears <strong>the</strong>n that \ntv is <strong>the</strong> only form which really<br />
belongs to <strong>the</strong> language <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odyssey. Consequently <strong>the</strong> substitution<br />
<strong>of</strong> jtv for (xdv in <strong>the</strong> Iliad niay have taken place very early. The change<br />
<strong>of</strong> [xv to \LT\V probably belongs to <strong>the</strong> later period when |XT|V<br />
had been<br />
established in Ionic and Attic prose.<br />
343.] pdv has an affirmative and generally a hortatory or<br />
interjectional force: as in aypei JJL&V nay come! (II. 5. 765., 7.<br />
459), and r\ par, ov pav, used when a speech begins in a tone <strong>of</strong><br />
surprise, triumph, or <strong>the</strong> like as<br />
;<br />
II. 2.<br />
370 r] pax avr ayopy viKas, yepov, was 'Axai.<br />
12. 318 ov JJLCLV aKXr/et? AvKiyv Kara Koipaveovcnv<br />
T^eYe/xn/Sao-iAT/ej (cp.4. 512., 13. 414-, H-454, &c.).<br />
An approach to <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> an emphatic yet appears in<br />
II. 8. 373 lorai nav OT ai> avrz (f)(,\r)v y\avK(>TTLba eurrj'<br />
and in dAA' ov pkv (II. 5. 895., 17. 41, 418, &c.) ; /XT) p&v (II. 8.<br />
512., 15. 476., 22. 304).<br />
344.] firji> with a hortatory force occurs in II. i. 302 t 8' aye<br />
WV TTtiprja-ai come, do but try.<br />
The combination ij pr\v<br />
is affirmative<br />
(ra<strong>the</strong>r than merely concessive), not so much admitting as<br />
insisting upon an objection or reply II. 2. 291 KCU : r] jur)z;<br />
770^0?<br />
eo-rt it is true enough that <strong>the</strong>re is toil: 7. 393 r] p,r]v Tpwes ye<br />
KcXovrai I assure you that <strong>the</strong> Trojans bid him:<br />
9. 57 r] JUT)Z><br />
KOI veos<br />
eo-o-t we must remember that you are young. In K
3H PARTICLES. [345-<br />
streng<strong>the</strong>ns a purely affirmative 17,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>re is no sense <strong>of</strong> contrast.<br />
The adversative use may be perceived, as with <strong>the</strong> simple<br />
Vf ( 338) and r\ \w\v, when a speaker insists on his assertion as<br />
true along with or in spite <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r facts: e.g. in Od. 10. 64<br />
770)9<br />
"'<br />
??A0eS, 'Obv(TV j TLS TOL KttKOS \pa SaijUUWP 5 *J M^ && 8?) Ka0apw fla^aro) 0,716 OvfJibv e\otfjLi]v KrA. (cp. JUT) judu).<br />
Denial insisted upon in view <strong>of</strong> some state <strong>of</strong> things is expressed<br />
by ou jieV, as II. 4. 372 ov /otez;<br />
TuSet y' ^o?^ shrink ?) surely Tydeus did not.<br />
The form KCU peV answers closely to <strong>the</strong> Attic Kat /LMJV,<br />
which is<br />
used to call attention to a fact, especially as <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>of</strong> an<br />
argument; as II. 18. 362 Kat \i\v 81} TTOV rt? /ute'AAei fiporbs KT\. a<br />
mortal, remember, will accomplish his will: (much more a great<br />
goddess): II. i. 269 Kat ptv rolviv eya> jae^ojottAeoz; (^^5^ w^f^ <strong>the</strong><br />
mightiest <strong>of</strong> men) : yes, and I was <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir fellowship. Sometimes<br />
<strong>the</strong> fact is first indicated, <strong>the</strong>n dwelt upon in a fresh clause with<br />
cat fxeV<br />
: II. 9. 497 o-rpeTrrot 8e re Kat ^eot avrot, . . Kat jute^ roi/s<br />
tfue'eo-o-t KrX. even gods may be moved . .<br />
<strong>the</strong>y are indeed turned from<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir anger by sacrifice fyc.: cp. 24. 488, Od. 7. 325., 14. 85.<br />
in <strong>the</strong> narrative is reached : as II. 6.<br />
Similarly when a new point<br />
194 Kat jueV ot AvKiot re'juei>os rdjutoz; yes and (besides what <strong>the</strong> king<br />
gave) <strong>the</strong> Lycian people made him a re/ute^o? (cp.<br />
6. 27., 23. i74-><br />
24. 732).<br />
The adversative sense but yet, but surely is chiefly found<br />
after a negative, /xeV being used ei<strong>the</strong>r alone or in combination<br />
with an adversative Conjunction (dAAa, drcip)<br />
: as<br />
II. I. 602 SaCvvvT, ovbt TL Ovpos eSe^ero 8atros et'crr/s<br />
ov IAV (o'p//tyyos nor yet <strong>the</strong> phorminx.<br />
2. 73 v$ ptv ovb' ot avapyjoi ecrav, iroOtov ye i*tv ap\6v.<br />
Od. 15* 405 ov TL TTpiTT^rjdrjs Atr/f TOVOV, aAA' ayadrj jueV.<br />
II. 6. 123 ov [Jiv yap TTOT oTrcoTra . . drdp juez^ vvv ye KrA.<br />
Also after a question<br />
II. 15. 203 77 TL fxeraoTpe'^ets ; orpeTrrat /^eV re v.<br />
With <strong>the</strong> Article jxeV is sometimes used to bring in a<br />
paren<strong>the</strong>sis, which may be simply affirmative,<br />
opposition :<br />
II. I.<br />
234 val /ud ro8e o-KrjirTpov, TO /uer<br />
or indicate some<br />
ov Trore
346.] MEN, TOI. 315<br />
oovs v(TL (=by this sceptrej<br />
even as it shall<br />
never 8fc.).<br />
5. 892 juryrpoy rot [JLtvos k&riv adcr^TOV, OVK<br />
''Hprjs, rrjv IJLCV ey&> 0-7701)67} bdfJLvr]^ e<br />
she is indeed one whom I can hardly tame.<br />
Cp. II. 10. 440.,, 15. 40., 16. 141. A less emphatic use (merely<br />
to bring out a new point in <strong>the</strong> is<br />
story) not uncommon : as II.<br />
2. IOI !0T?7 CTKTJTTTpOV fytoV, TO fJiV KrA. I<br />
Cp. II. l8. 84, I$I. f 1$.<br />
328, 808, Od. 9. 320, 321. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, <strong>the</strong> interposed statement<br />
may have a double reference, a corresponding Clause with 6e or<br />
avrdp serving to resume <strong>the</strong> narrative as<br />
:<br />
II. 8.<br />
25^ aAAa TroAv Trpwros Tpcocoz; e'Aer avopa Kopvorr/z;,<br />
'<br />
3>pabjJiovLbr]V Aye'Aaoz;* 6 jmez;
316 PARTICLES. [347-<br />
It has sometimes been thought that rot is originally<br />
<strong>the</strong> same as <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
<strong>of</strong> (TV, meaning ' I tell you ' or <strong>the</strong> like. The orthotone roiyap (or rot -ydip,<br />
as some MSS. read) is difficult to explain on this view. It has also been<br />
explained as <strong>the</strong> Locative <strong>of</strong> TO : cp. <strong>the</strong> Dat. ra> = in that case, <strong>the</strong>refore. Or it<br />
may be from <strong>the</strong> same stem as rts and T (as Kiihner holds, 507)<br />
:<br />
cp. irov<br />
(8:7 TTOI;)<br />
= somehow, <strong>the</strong>nce surely. But <strong>the</strong> Loc. <strong>of</strong> this stem exists already<br />
in <strong>the</strong> form TTOI whi<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Spa,<br />
yap.<br />
347.] The Adverb apa properly means fittingly, accordingly<br />
(root ap- to The forms<br />
fit}. ap and pa seem to be varieties produced<br />
by difference <strong>of</strong> stress, answering to <strong>the</strong> different values<br />
which <strong>the</strong> Particle may have in <strong>the</strong> sentence. Of <strong>the</strong>se ap retains<br />
its accent, but pa, <strong>the</strong> shortest form, is enclitic.<br />
The ordinary place <strong>of</strong> apa is at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> a Clause<br />
which expresses what is consequent upon something already said.<br />
But occasionally it follows a Participle in <strong>the</strong> same Clause, as in<br />
<strong>the</strong> formula 77<br />
rot o y &s eiTrwv /car' ap' efero (cp. II. 2,. 310., 5-<br />
748).<br />
_<br />
It is to be observed, however, that apa may indicate a reason<br />
(as well as a consequence) that is to :<br />
say, we may go back from<br />
a fact to <strong>the</strong> antecedent which falls in with and so explains<br />
it.<br />
E.g. II. l. 429 xto<strong>of</strong>jitvov Kara Qv^ov kv&voio yvvaLKos, rrjv pa . .<br />
whom aTrrivptov (and this was <strong>the</strong> reason <strong>of</strong> his anger] <strong>the</strong>y had taken<br />
away. So in <strong>the</strong> combinations os pa, eirei pa, on pa, ouj/eic'<br />
apa =<br />
because (and this is <strong>the</strong> explanation)<br />
: also in yrai//,i>?]OT/>?js -7T/)o/3e/3oiAa.<br />
apa is also found in <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong> two correlative Clauses, as<br />
el T' ap' o y 19(0) A??s e7njme'jui(erai et 0' e /career] s.<br />
&s ayay a>s y*r\T ap rts toy ju?jr' ap re z^orjo-r/.<br />
The parallel form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence enables us to regard <strong>the</strong> first<br />
Clause, by anticipation, as falling in with and completing <strong>the</strong><br />
second.<br />
The Attic Spa is unknown to Homer. Whe<strong>the</strong>r it is identical with apa<br />
seems doubtful. It is worth while noticing that &pa answers in usage to <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> combination ^ a (is it <strong>the</strong>n ?).<br />
348.] The Causal Particle yap is originally a compound <strong>of</strong> yc<br />
and apa, but <strong>the</strong> two elements have so completely united into a<br />
new whole that <strong>the</strong> fresh combination yap pa is found in Homer.<br />
yelp serves to indicate that <strong>the</strong> Clause in which it is used is a<br />
reason or explanation, usually <strong>of</strong> something just mentioned or<br />
suggested : as rpe
348.] 'APA, TAP.<br />
317<br />
apa more commonly (though not always) indicates <strong>the</strong> sequence<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> facts <strong>the</strong>mselves.<br />
Compare <strong>the</strong> double use <strong>of</strong> o, ort, o re (i) to express a cause, (2) to express<br />
a consequent used as an argument (cp. roiov yap KOL Trarpos, o teal ireirvvueva<br />
@deis, and o<strong>the</strong>r examples in 269). To understand <strong>the</strong> ordinary use <strong>of</strong> yap<br />
we have only to suppose that when a speaker was going back upon an<br />
antecedent fact, he generally used <strong>the</strong> combination ye &pa (y ap, yap), ra<strong>the</strong>r<br />
than <strong>the</strong> simple apa. The principle <strong>of</strong> this usage is that a causal relation<br />
may be indicated by a distinction <strong>of</strong> emphasis, such as y would express (as<br />
indeed -y*<br />
alone sometimes has a distinctly causal force).<br />
As subordinate or exceptional uses, we have to note <strong>the</strong> following<br />
:<br />
1. The use <strong>of</strong> yap to introduce a mere explanation, which<br />
became very common in Attic (e.g. Thuc. I. 8 naprvpLov 8e*<br />
A?}Aoi> Y^P *rA.) and may be traced back to Homer. Thus<br />
II. 8. 147 dAAa ro'8' alvbv a^os Kpabirjv KOL Ovfjiov IKCLV^L'<br />
"EtKTMp yap TTOre (^TJO-ft KT\.<br />
This idiom by which <strong>the</strong> Clause with yap becomes a kind <strong>of</strong> Object-Clause,<br />
in apposition to a Pronoun may be compared with <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> on and ouvexa<br />
with <strong>the</strong> meaning that, instead <strong>of</strong> because: see 268, 269. In both cases <strong>the</strong><br />
language does not clearly distinguish between <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>of</strong> a fact (which is<br />
properly a separate and prior fact), and a mere analysis, or statement <strong>of</strong><br />
circumstances in which a fact consists.<br />
2. The inversion (as<br />
it<br />
may be regarded) by<br />
with Y^P precedes <strong>the</strong> fact explained ;<br />
as<br />
which <strong>the</strong> Clause<br />
II. 2. 802 "EKTop, crol 6e fxaAtor' eTrire'AAojueu a>8e ye peac<br />
m>AAot yap Kara O.O-TV /xeya IT/na^ou<br />
a<br />
aAArj 6' aAAcoi; yAoocnra<br />
/<br />
7roAuo"7repecoi><br />
Tolcriv e/caoros avr]p a-^/oiatz/era) (II. 13. 736., 23.<br />
890, Od. I. 337., 9. 319., 10. 174, 190, 226,<br />
383., II. 69., 12. 154, 208, 320, &c.).<br />
Here <strong>the</strong> speaker begins by stating something that leads up to<br />
his main point. Sometimes, especially when <strong>the</strong> reason is stated<br />
at some length, <strong>the</strong> main point is marked as an inference by TW<br />
so, <strong>the</strong>refore:<br />
II.<br />
as<br />
7. 3^8 TroAAol yap reQvacri KCLpr]<br />
T&V vvv at/ma KeAatz;oz> . .<br />
331 T(5 ere xp^? TroAefxoz; juez> a/ot' r\ol Travcrai '<br />
So II. 13. 228., 15. 739., 17. 221, 338., 23. 607; <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
instance in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey.<br />
When <strong>the</strong> Clause with ydp precedes, it<br />
may be opposed to <strong>the</strong><br />
preceding context hence <strong>the</strong> yap may be combined with adversative<br />
Conjunctions, :<br />
as<br />
II. 12. 326 vvv 8' ejuTrrjs yap KT/pes eeoTa Qavaroio . .<br />
lo^v KT\. (cp. II. 7. 73., 17. 338., 24- 223).
31 8 PARTICLES. [348.<br />
Od. 14. 355 AAA 1 oi)<br />
yap vfyiv l^atVero Kepbiov elvai,<br />
fx,ateo-#at Trporepco' rot jua> irdXiv avns (-<br />
vrjos eVi y\acf)vpfjs (cp. Od. 19. 591).<br />
dXXa<br />
ydtp also occurs without a subsequent Clause :<br />
Od. IO. 2OI K\CLIOV 6e Atyeoos, OaXepbv Kara<br />
dAA' ov yap TLS Trprj^ts eytyz^ero<br />
Here it has <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> f but be that as it<br />
may/ f but <strong>the</strong> truth<br />
is ' (Riddell, Dig. 147). That is,<br />
dXXa yap meets what has<br />
preceded not by a simple opposition, but by one which consists in<br />
going back to a reason for <strong>the</strong> opposite which may be enough<br />
:<br />
to convey <strong>the</strong> speaker's meaning.<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se uses <strong>of</strong> yap <strong>the</strong> peculiarity<br />
is more logical than grammatical.<br />
The yap (or<br />
ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> apa contained in it)<br />
indicates<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Clause gives a reason or explanation, which <strong>the</strong> speaker<br />
chooses to mention before <strong>the</strong> consequent or thing to be explained.<br />
The use only strikes us because <strong>the</strong> English for<br />
is restricted to<br />
causal clauses placed in <strong>the</strong> more natural order.<br />
With 8e yap and dXXa ydp it is incorrect (as Riddell shows,<br />
1. c.)<br />
to treat <strong>the</strong> Clause with yap as a paren<strong>the</strong>sis (writing e.g.<br />
vvv 6' IJUTT^S yap /crA.).<br />
The Clause so introduced is<br />
always in<br />
opposition to <strong>the</strong> preceding context, so that <strong>the</strong> 8e or dXXd has its<br />
full force.<br />
3. After <strong>the</strong> Relative 6's, rj, o : as<br />
II. 12. 344 afJL(f)OTpu> fj.ev juaAAozr 6 yap K o\ apLa-rov airavTaw<br />
etrj (so II. 23. 9, Od. 34. 190).<br />
Od. I. 286 (Meue'Aaos) os yap bevraros 7?A0ez> (cp. 17. 172).<br />
So with &>s ydp=:for t/ius, and Va ydp (II. 10. 127).<br />
These are generally regarded as instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original use <strong>of</strong><br />
05 as a Demonstrative ( 265). But it is only <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> yap that<br />
is peculiar; or ra<strong>the</strong>r, this is only ano<strong>the</strong>r case in which yap is<br />
not translated layfor. It will be seen that 6s yap may always be<br />
replaced by 6s apa without changing <strong>the</strong> sense.<br />
4. In abrupt questions, and expressions <strong>of</strong> surprise<br />
: as<br />
II. I. 123 TTCOS yap rot Oto&ovcri yepas ^yaOvfjLOL 'A)(aiot ;<br />
why, how are <strong>the</strong> Greeks to give you a prize /<br />
1 8. 182 'I/H Ota, rt? yap
350.] TAP, OTN, AH, NY, 0HN. 319<br />
<strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> 8^ and r apa in questions, > in Homer does not properly express inference, or even<br />
consequence (like apa).<br />
Its use is to affirm something with reference<br />
to o<strong>the</strong>r facts, already mentioned or known ;<br />
hence it<br />
may<br />
generally be represented by a phrase such as after all, be this as it<br />
may, &c. E.g.<br />
II.<br />
2.<br />
350 (^THU yap ovv for 1 do declare that fyc.<br />
Od. II. 350 fetz/oj 8e rA^ra), fjidXa irep VOO-TOLO xcm^coz/,<br />
l/u/m}? ovv<br />
7TL{jilvaL ts avpiov (never<strong>the</strong>less to wait].<br />
Like apa, it is used to emphasise correlative Clauses, but only<br />
with <strong>the</strong> negative oure OUTC and j^re jj^re<br />
: as<br />
Od. 6. 192 ovr ovv fo-Orjros 8ev??o-eai OVT rev aXXov.<br />
II. 16. 97 at yap. . jurjre TLS ovvTpuxtw . . jur/re rts 'Apyeuoy, KT\.<br />
(so II. 8. 7., 17. 20., 20. 7, Od. i. 414., 2. 200.,<br />
ii. 200., 16. 302., 17. 401).<br />
The combination y'<br />
oSi/<br />
(not to be written yovv in Homer)<br />
occurs only twice, with <strong>the</strong> meaning in any case :<br />
II. 5- 258 et y ovv Tpos ye (frvyyo-i, if one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two does<br />
(after all) escape.<br />
1 6.<br />
30 M^) ^/^ 7 ovv OVTOS ye XajBoi \6Xos<br />
(cp. 19. 94 Kara 5' ovv erepo^ ye 7re8r/(re^).<br />
As an emphatic Particle <strong>of</strong> transition ovv is found in pev ouk (II.<br />
9. 550, and several times in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey), much more frequently<br />
in <strong>the</strong> combinations lire! oui>, d>s ouc. In <strong>the</strong>se an approach to <strong>the</strong><br />
illative force may perhaps be observed.<br />
350.] 817 is<br />
properly a temporal Particle, meaning now, at<br />
length (Lat. jam) : hence it implies arriving at a result, as e o<br />
8r) ra 7rp
efoTTtVa)<br />
320 PARTICLES. [351.<br />
so as to form one syllable, it is sometimes written 8', and so is<br />
liable to be confused with Se. This occurs especially in <strong>the</strong> combinations<br />
8rj a.v, 8fj auTos, STJ OUTWS : as II. I.<br />
131 JU.T) 6r) ovrcds, 340<br />
et Trore 8r) avre, 10. 385 TT?) dr) o#ro>s, 2O. 22O 6s 8rj affrveioTaros<br />
/crA.. So in el 8' aye <strong>the</strong> sense generally requires 8rj : see 321.<br />
Note that Sfjra, Sr^Gei/ (cognate or derivative forms) are post-<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> ;<br />
as also are <strong>the</strong> combinations Srjirou, KTpOV OVK O\(.yOV 7Tp.<br />
II. 2.<br />
236 OtKCtSe 7Tp (TVV VV]V(T\ Vt&\J*tQa.<br />
(<br />
let us have nothing short <strong>of</strong> return home}.<br />
8.<br />
452 crQ&'iv 5e irpiv irep Tp6fj,os eAAa/3e ^aibi^a yvla<br />
even beforehand trembling seized your knees.<br />
13. 72 apiyvaiTOL 8e OOL 7Tp gods, surely, are easily known.<br />
Od. 4. 34<br />
at K TToOi Zev?<br />
| Trep irava-rj oivos.
354-]<br />
nE P, TE. 321<br />
So with Relatives, os Trep <strong>the</strong> very one who, cos ecrerat Trep (Attic<br />
COCTTrep Kttt (TTGii)jUSt dS it Will be, OTf Tlp JUSt wkeU. AlsO et Trep<br />
even if,<br />
and ^e' Trep or r; Trep<br />
ev^ ^/to.<br />
Usually, however, Trep implies a sense <strong>of</strong> opposition ;<br />
i. e. it<br />
emphasises something as true in spite <strong>of</strong> a preceding assertion :<br />
as ov TL bvvrjcr(u a^vv^vos Trep thou wilt not be able, however much<br />
vexed, TroAe'es Trep eoVres many as <strong>the</strong>y are, TTLVOVTCL Trep IJUTT^S even<br />
though drinking, &c. ;<br />
and with Substantives, II. 20. 65 rd re<br />
^^ o-Tvytova-i 0eot Trep w^'
322 PARTICLES. [355-<br />
taken away what you gave (where we should ra<strong>the</strong>r emphasise<br />
8oVres) : Od. 4. 193 ov rot e'ycoye re'pTro// obvp<strong>of</strong>jitvos . . z>e/jteo-
357-] or, MH. 323<br />
The general use <strong>of</strong> ou is to deny <strong>the</strong> predication to which it is<br />
attached (while /XT} forbids or deprecates}. In some instances,<br />
however, ou does not merely negative <strong>the</strong> Verb, but expresses <strong>the</strong><br />
opposite meaning : ov (frrjfju is not / do not say, but / deny, refuse ;<br />
OVK l Krepas ovbtv<br />
6/xotoy, and perhaps II. 22. 513 ovbtv
324 PARTICLES. [358.<br />
ov K rts ovbt tboLTO, ovbe Oe&v [AaKapav<br />
: II. 6. 58 fJ^rjb^<br />
yaorept fJLrjrrjp Kovpov kovra
359-]<br />
lest she have persuaded <strong>the</strong>e (i. e. prove to have persuaded) cp. Od. 21. 395<br />
fjir) Kepa lires !8oiej> lest worms should (be found to) have eaten ( 303, i). Cp. Matth.<br />
xvi. 5 irf\d6ovTo aprovs XafieTv <strong>the</strong>y found that <strong>the</strong>y had f<strong>org</strong>otten (Field's Otium<br />
Noroicense, Pt. 3, p. 7).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Past Indicative after Verbs <strong>of</strong> fearing is closely parallel to <strong>the</strong><br />
use in Final Clauses, noticed in 325. While <strong>the</strong> Clause, as an expression <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> speaker's mind about an event his fear or his purpose should have<br />
a Subj. or Opt., <strong>the</strong> sense that <strong>the</strong> happening <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> event is matter <strong>of</strong> past<br />
fact causes <strong>the</strong> Indicative to be preferred. Cp. <strong>the</strong> Modal uses noticed in<br />
324-326, and <strong>the</strong> remark in 323 as to <strong>the</strong> tendency in favour <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Indicative.<br />
The essence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se idioms is <strong>the</strong> combination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> imperative<br />
tone shown in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ^ with <strong>the</strong> Mood proper to a<br />
simple assertion. The tendency to resort to <strong>the</strong> form oi prohibition<br />
in order to express strong or passionate denial<br />
may be<br />
seen in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> p] with <strong>the</strong> Optative in deprecating a supposition<br />
( 299, e), and <strong>of</strong> fjnq with <strong>the</strong> Subj. in oaths, as Od. 12.<br />
300., 18. 56.<br />
359.] Conditional Clauses. The rule which prescribes ^ as<br />
<strong>the</strong> negative Particle to be used in every Clause <strong>of</strong> Conditional<br />
meaning does not hold universally. In Homer<br />
When (a) <strong>the</strong> Verb is a Subjunctive or Optative<br />
is jjnq<br />
used :<br />
<strong>the</strong> very few exceptions being confined to OVK etfe'Aoj (II. 3. 289.,<br />
which are treated almost as<br />
15. 492) and OVK eao> (II. 20. 139),<br />
Compounds ( 355). Cp. <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> OVK e0e'Aco in Final Clauses,<br />
as II. 5- 233 jurj . . juarrjo-erou ovb' efle'Arjroz; KrA.<br />
With (b) <strong>the</strong> Relatives 09, GO-OS, &c. when <strong>the</strong> Verb is an<br />
Indicative ou is generally used as<br />
;<br />
II. 2. 143 Tracrt /utera r n\t]0vv, 6Vot ov fiovXrjs TTaKovo~av.<br />
Od. 3. 348 cos re' rev TJ irapa TiapTtav avtiiJiovos rj Tremx/ 30^<br />
to ov TL yXaivai KrA. (a general description).<br />
II. 2.<br />
338 vrjTHaxois, ot? ov TL KrA. jute'Aei (so 7. 236., 18. 363).<br />
The only clear instance <strong>of</strong> u-rj is II. 2. 301 eore 8e irdvres pdpTvpoi,<br />
ovs /AT) K?7pes (Bav davdroio tyepovcrai, where <strong>the</strong> speaker wishes to<br />
make an exception to what he has just said. In Od. 5. 489 o> /mr)<br />
Trdpa ytLTovts aAAot we may supply ei<strong>the</strong>r eto-t or ecoo-t : <strong>the</strong> latter<br />
is found in <strong>the</strong> similar cases Od. 4. 164., 23. 118. But Hesiod<br />
uses [AT)<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Indie.; see Theog. 387, Op. 225.<br />
With cl and <strong>the</strong> Indicative ou is used when <strong>the</strong> Clause<br />
(c)<br />
with el precedes <strong>the</strong> Principal Clause as<br />
:<br />
II. 4. 1 60 et Tre/o ydp re KCH CLVTLK.' 'OAv/zTTios OVK ere'Aecro-ej<br />
and similarly in II. 9. 435., 15. 213, Od. 19. 85, and <strong>the</strong> (eight)<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r places quoted in 316. But when <strong>the</strong> Clause with el follows<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, ^ is used, as in <strong>the</strong> sentences <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> form<br />
II. 2. 155 eV0a Key . . VOCTTOS trvyQ-t) \<br />
et JUT)<br />
KrA.
326 PARTICLES. [360.<br />
The only instance in which this rule fails seems to be<br />
Od. 9. 410 et jJLV brj fjirf TLS tre /3tae rat olov eoVra,<br />
I'ova-ov y ov TTOOS com Atos /xeydAou dAeao-0at.<br />
Here w ns may be used ra<strong>the</strong>r than ou ns in order to bring out<br />
more clearly <strong>the</strong> misunderstanding <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> OUTIS <strong>of</strong> Polyphemus.<br />
This curious law was pointed out by A. R. Vierke, in a valuable dissertation<br />
De fxf] particulae cum indicative conjunctae usu antiquiore (Lipsiae, 1876). With<br />
regard to <strong>the</strong> ground <strong>of</strong> it,<br />
we may observe that a Clause with el in most cases<br />
order. When it is<br />
precedes <strong>the</strong> apodosis and this is ; probably <strong>the</strong> original<br />
inverted it may be that <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> u/f|<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> ou has a prohibitive character,<br />
as though <strong>the</strong> condition were added as an afterthought, in bar <strong>of</strong> what has<br />
been already said. In any case <strong>the</strong> inversion throws an emphasis on <strong>the</strong><br />
Clause, which would account for <strong>the</strong> preference for p,T| ;<br />
see 358.<br />
360.] Infinitive and Participle. It appears from comparison<br />
with <strong>the</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> negation in <strong>the</strong> oldest Sanscrit that <strong>the</strong> negative<br />
Particles were originally used only with finite Verbs. The<br />
negation <strong>of</strong> a Noun was expressed by forming<br />
it into a Compound<br />
with <strong>the</strong> prefix an- or a- (Greek d^-, d-)<br />
and <strong>the</strong> Infinitives<br />
and Participles were treated in this respect as Nouns. The<br />
:<br />
first exception to this rule in Greek was probably <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> ou'<br />
:<br />
with <strong>the</strong> Participle a use which is well established in Homer.<br />
ou with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive is used in Homer (as<br />
in Attic) after<br />
Verbs <strong>of</strong> saying, thinking, knowing, &c. ( 237);<br />
as in II. 16. 61<br />
r]<br />
rot e$r?z> ye ov Trplv /xrjznfyxoz; KaraTTavo-^fv KT\. : Od. 5- 34 2<br />
e uot OVK<br />
This use however is to be compared with that noticed above ( 355), in<br />
which an ov which belongs in sense to <strong>the</strong> Infinitive is placed before <strong>the</strong><br />
governing Verb ;<br />
as ou rov efjiov ^okov,<br />
dAAa // eatrat.<br />
An Infinitive which stands as Object <strong>of</strong> a Verb <strong>of</strong> saying, &c.<br />
takes \ir\<br />
when it expresses command or wish : as II. 3. 434 TTCIV-<br />
362.] MH, KEN, 'AN. 327<br />
I. 37 eTret iTpo ol enroll; T/^et? ju?jr'<br />
/crA. &?
328 PARTICLES. [362.<br />
<strong>the</strong> Iliad and 157 times in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey. Thus <strong>the</strong> proportion<br />
is more than 3:1, and is not materially different in <strong>the</strong> two<br />
poems.<br />
It is part <strong>of</strong> Tick's well known <strong>the</strong>ory that &v was unknown<br />
in <strong>the</strong> original <strong>Homeric</strong> <strong>dialect</strong> (see Appendix F) and a systematic<br />
attempt to restore <strong>the</strong> exclusive use <strong>of</strong> KCI/ in Homer has<br />
:<br />
been made by a Dutch scholar, J. van Leeuwen,* who has proposed<br />
more or less satisfactory emendations <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> places in<br />
which oV now appears. It is impossible to deny <strong>the</strong> soundness<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> principles on which he bases his enquiry. When <strong>the</strong><br />
poems were chiefly known through oral recitation <strong>the</strong>re must<br />
have been a constant tendency to modernise <strong>the</strong> language. With<br />
Attic and Ionic reciters that tendency must have led to oV<br />
creeping into <strong>the</strong> text, sometimes in place <strong>of</strong> Key, sometimes<br />
where <strong>the</strong> pure Subj. or Opt. was required by <strong>Homeric</strong> usage.<br />
Evidence <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong> corruption has been preserved, as Van<br />
Leeuwen points out, in <strong>the</strong> variae lectiones <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancient critics.<br />
Thus in II. I. 168 eVei Ke Ka/xco<br />
is now read on <strong>the</strong> authority <strong>of</strong><br />
Aristarchus ;<br />
but Zirrjv KeKa/oico and eTrrjz/<br />
Ke Kajuco were also ancient<br />
readings, and tnriv is found in all our MSS. Similarly in II. 7.<br />
5 Aristarchus read k^d Ke Kajouoo-tu, and <strong>the</strong> MSS. are divided<br />
between eTret Ke and l-rtfy Ke (or tirrjv KeK.).<br />
There is a similar<br />
variation between <strong>the</strong> forms fy and ei ice<br />
(or<br />
at ice)<br />
in <strong>the</strong> phrases<br />
at K te&rjo-Oa, ai K efle'Arjo-t, &c. Thus in II. 4. 353 (<br />
= 9. 359)<br />
<strong>the</strong> MSS. nearly all have<br />
ox/^eat rjv e0c'A.7?o-0a<br />
KOL al KV rot ra<br />
but al K' efle'ATjo-fla,<br />
which gives a better rhetorical effect, is found<br />
in II. 8. 471 Jtyeat at K' e0e'A?7o-0a (so all MSS., r}v e0. as a v. I. in<br />
A), also in II. 13. 260., 18. 457, Od. 3. 92, &c. Similarly in<br />
II. 1 6.<br />
453 ^7I> ' ^*) T v 7 e AtTrry <strong>the</strong> v. I. kn-^v is given by good<br />
MSS. (D, G, L, and as a variant in A). And <strong>the</strong> line II. n.<br />
797 MupjutSoVtoZJ, aL Key rt (^ocos Aavaolcri, yzvr\ai is repeated in<br />
II. 1 6.<br />
39 with <strong>the</strong> variation r\v irou for ai K>. In such cases we<br />
can see <strong>the</strong> intrusion <strong>of</strong> o> actually in process.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> omission <strong>of</strong> oV may be required by <strong>the</strong> metre, or by<br />
<strong>the</strong> indefinite character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sentence ( 283) : e.g. in II. 15. 209<br />
OTTTTOT' av io-6}jLopov efle'Arjo-t<br />
both <strong>the</strong>se reasons point to oTnrore<br />
Fio-ojjiopov KrA. So in II. 2. 228 &i> TiToXieOpov read<br />
eSr"1 e'Aoo/mez;<br />
VT TTT., and in Od. n. 17 ovO' OTTOT hv o-retx^(rt<br />
read ovO' oTrore<br />
(ore Ke, which Van Leeuwen proposes in <strong>the</strong>se two places,<br />
is not<br />
admissible, since <strong>the</strong> reference is<br />
general).<br />
Several reasons combine to make it probable that <strong>the</strong> forms r\v<br />
* De particularum KCV et av apud Homerum usu (Mnemosyne, xv. p. 75). The<br />
statistics given above are taken from this valuable dissertation.
362.]<br />
'AN IN HOMER. 329<br />
and are lirl]v post-<strong>Homeric</strong>. The contraction <strong>of</strong> el av, eirel &v is<br />
contrary to <strong>Homeric</strong> analogies ( 378*), and could hardly have<br />
taken place until o.v became much commoner than it is in Homer.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> usage with regard to <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Particles<br />
excludes <strong>the</strong> combinations r\v be, r\v Trep, r\v yap for which<br />
Homer would have ei 5' &v, ei Trep av, ei yap av ( 365). Again,<br />
r\v cannot properly be used in a general statement or simile, and<br />
whenever it is so used <strong>the</strong> metre allows it to be changed into el :<br />
e.g. in II. I. 166 drap TJV TTOTC bao-fjibs iKrjrat Od. : 5. 120 r\v ris<br />
re $'du\v Tj-otTJo-er' aKOLTyv (rj<br />
ris re in several MSS.) Od.n. 159<br />
:<br />
rjv M TLS ex?? wepyta rfa Od. ' 12. 288 rfv TTCOS efcnrforjs eAflrj II.<br />
:<br />
2O. 172 nva<br />
-tjv TTecfrvrj (in a Similar simile). arguments apply<br />
with even greater force to ltrl\v.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong> 48 instances <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
1 8 in general sentences, and several o<strong>the</strong>rs (II. 4. 239., 16. 95,<br />
Od. 3. 45., 4. 412., 5. 348., .11. 119-. 15; 3 21. 159) in whicl1<br />
<strong>the</strong> reference to <strong>the</strong> future is so indefinite that eiret with a pure<br />
Subj. is admissible. It cannot be accidental that in <strong>the</strong>se places,<br />
with one exception (Od. n. 192), irf]v is followed by a consonant,<br />
so that en-ei can be restored without any metrical difficulty.<br />
On<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, in 13 places in which em^ is followed by a vowel<br />
<strong>the</strong> reference is to a definite future event, and accordingly we<br />
may read liret K'. In <strong>the</strong> combination eirrjv 8??,<br />
which occurs<br />
seven times, we should probably read eTret 8?j,<br />
or in some places<br />
eTret KZV (as<br />
in Od. n. 221).<br />
The form l-neti&v occurs once, in a<br />
simile (II. 13. 285)<br />
: hence we should read eirel SYJ (not eTret Kez>,<br />
as Bekker and Nauck, or at KZV as Menrad).<br />
The distinction between general statements and those which refer to an<br />
actual future occurrence has hardly been sufficiently attended to in <strong>the</strong> conjectures<br />
proposed by Van Leeuwen and o<strong>the</strong>rs. Thus in Od. 5. 121 fy ris re<br />
i\ov iroirjatT' aKoirrfv (in a general reflexion) Van Leeuwen would read at KK'V<br />
ris re : and in Od. 12. 288 fy TTOJS f^amvrjs eXOij he proposes ai KC irov. So in<br />
II. 6. 489, Od. 8. 553 tirty ra wpura yevrjrai (<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> lot <strong>of</strong> man) he bids us read<br />
eirci K. If any change is wanted beyond putting lirci for <strong>the</strong> most<br />
4irf|i',<br />
probable would be circt T : see 332. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand he would put irt<br />
for 6TTT|v in such places as Od. I. 293 avrap enty 81) ravra. Te\VT7]ffris re KOI Zpgrjs<br />
(cp. Od. 5. 363., 1 8. 269), where a definite future occasion is implied, and<br />
consequently im K*V (which he reads in Od. 4. 414) would be more <strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
read eTret e TroAeos<br />
In Od. 6. 262 avrap ITTTJV TTO\IOS cTrtjS^oynei/ we should perhaps<br />
(-)<br />
:<br />
see 94, 2.<br />
In a few places <strong>the</strong> true reading may be t or eim with <strong>the</strong> :<br />
Opt. as Od. 8.<br />
511 alaa yap fy diroXeaOcu, tTrfjV iro\is dp.(piKa\vif/r} (tirel . . ap,iKa\v\f/ai, as in II.<br />
19. 208 we should read ewei Tiffa.ifj.eOa) : Od. 21. 237 ( = 383) fjv<br />
5e ns . . ditovffr}<br />
Hr] n 6vpae irpo0\waKtv (et 5e' rts . . d.Kovffcu') II. : 15. 504., 17. 245., 22. 55, 487.<br />
The form or' dv occurs in our text in 29 places, and in 22 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong> metre<br />
admits ore K' which Van Leeuwen (x')> accordingly would restore. The<br />
mischief however must lie deeper. Of <strong>the</strong> 22 places <strong>the</strong>re are 13 in which<br />
or' av appears in <strong>the</strong> leading clause <strong>of</strong> a simile (us 8' or' av and in three<br />
),
330 PARTICLES.<br />
o<strong>the</strong>rs (II. 2. 397, Od. n. 18., 13. 101) <strong>the</strong> sense is general so that ore '<br />
is<br />
:<br />
admissible in six only (II. 7. 335, 459., 8. 373, 475, Od. 2. 374., 4. 477). It<br />
cannot be an accident that <strong>the</strong>re are so many cases <strong>of</strong> oV dV where <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
usage requires <strong>the</strong> pure Subj., and no similar cases <strong>of</strong> ore KCV : but for that<br />
very reason we cannot correct <strong>the</strong>m by reading ore '. Meanwhile no better<br />
solution has been proposed, and we must be content to note <strong>the</strong> 16 places as<br />
in all probability corrupt or spurious.<br />
It is one thing,, however, to find that &v has encroached upon<br />
Key in Homer, and ano<strong>the</strong>r thing to show that <strong>the</strong>re are no uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> ay which belong to <strong>the</strong> primitive <strong>Homeric</strong> language.<br />
The restoration <strong>of</strong> Ke(y) is generally regarded as especially easy<br />
in <strong>the</strong> combination OUK ay, for which ou Key can always be written<br />
without affecting ei<strong>the</strong>r sense or metre. The change, however,<br />
is<br />
open to objections which have not been sufficiently considered.<br />
It will be found that OVK av occurs 61 times in <strong>the</strong> ordinary text<br />
<strong>of</strong> Homer : while ou Key occurs 9 times, and ou KC 7 times. Now<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forms Key and KC <strong>the</strong> first occurs in <strong>the</strong> Iliad 272 times, <strong>the</strong><br />
second 222 times. Hence, according to <strong>the</strong> general laws <strong>of</strong><br />
probability, ou Key and ou Ke may be expected to occur in <strong>the</strong> same<br />
proportion and in <strong>the</strong> ordinary text this is <strong>the</strong> case But<br />
:<br />
(9 : 7).<br />
if<br />
every OUK oV were changed into ou Key, <strong>the</strong>re would be 7<br />
instances <strong>of</strong> ou Key against 7 <strong>of</strong> ou KC. This clearly could not be<br />
accidental : hence it follows that OUK ay must be retained in all or<br />
nearly all <strong>the</strong> passages where it now stands.* And if OUK ay is<br />
right, we may infer that <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r instances <strong>of</strong> oV with a negative<br />
22 in number are equally unassailable.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r group <strong>of</strong> instances in which ay is evidently primitive<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> dactylic combinations 05 irep &v, rf irep ay,<br />
et irep ay.<br />
Van Leeuwen would write os K &c.<br />
7re/>, ;<br />
but in Homer irep<br />
usually comes immediately after <strong>the</strong> Relative or el,<br />
and before Key<br />
( 365)- Similarly ou8e yap ay (II. 24. 566) and Topa yap ay (Od.<br />
2. 77) cannot be changed into ov8e Ke yap, rotypa K since <strong>the</strong><br />
-yap,<br />
order ydp Key is invariable in Homer. In <strong>the</strong>se uses, accordingly,<br />
ay<br />
may be defended by an argument which was inapplicable to<br />
to Key.<br />
OUK ay, viz. <strong>the</strong> impossibility <strong>of</strong> making <strong>the</strong> change<br />
The same may be said <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forms in which ay occurs under<br />
<strong>the</strong> ictus <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verse, preceded by a short monosyllable (w<br />
as ),<br />
II. I.<br />
205 fjs VTipo7fXirj(ri, ra)(' &v 7rore OVJJLOV oAeVa-r?.<br />
Od. 2. 76 et x.' iV 6 '- 5 7 e
363.] KEN, 'AN.<br />
331<br />
II. 4. 164 eao-erat ^ap or' av TTOT' KT\. (cp. I. 519., 4- 53v><br />
6. 448., 9. 101).<br />
8. 406 o(f)p' clbfi yXavK&iTLS or av w irarpl //a^rai ( 420).<br />
So xai av and TOT' ai> (see <strong>the</strong> instances, 363, 2, c), au 8' ai> (II. 6.<br />
329), os ay (Od. 21. 294, cp. Od. 4. 204., 18. 27, II. 7. 231). In<br />
this group, as in <strong>the</strong> last, we have to do with recurring- forms,<br />
sufficiently numerous to constitute a type> with a fixed rhythm,<br />
as well as a certain tone and style.<br />
The combination <strong>of</strong> av and *ev in <strong>the</strong> same Clause is found in<br />
a very few places, and is probably not <strong>Homeric</strong>. In four places<br />
(II. ii. 187, 202, Od. 5. 361., 6. 259) we have o$p av pev K*V<br />
KT\., where <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> av is anomalous ( 365). For OVT av KV<br />
(II. 13. 127) we should probably read OVT dp KZV, and so in Od. 9.<br />
334 TOVS dp K (or ra<strong>the</strong>r ovs ap *e) KOI rjQtXov avrbs eAeV0ai (cp.<br />
II. 7. 182 ov ap' jjOtXov avToi). In Od. 1 8.<br />
318 TJV irtp yap KC<br />
should be et Tre/o yap KC (supra).<br />
363.] Uses <strong>of</strong> KZV and av. It will be convenient, by way <strong>of</strong><br />
supplement to what has been said in <strong>the</strong> chapter on <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Moods, (i) to bring toge<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> chief exceptions to <strong>the</strong><br />
general rule for <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> K.CV or av in Subordinate Clauses and<br />
;<br />
(2) to consider whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong>re are any differences <strong>of</strong> meaning or<br />
usage between <strong>the</strong> two Particles.<br />
I . In Final Clauses which refer to what is still future, <strong>the</strong> use<br />
<strong>of</strong> KCP or av prevails ( 282, 285, 288, 293, 304). But with<br />
certain Conjunctions (especially wy, ows, f lva, ocfrpa) <strong>the</strong>re are<br />
many exceptions see 285-289, 306-307. When <strong>the</strong> : purpose<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> is not an actual one, but ei<strong>the</strong>r past or imaginary, <strong>the</strong><br />
Verb is generally ' pure.'<br />
In Conditional Clauses <strong>the</strong> Subj. and Opt. generally take KW<br />
or av when <strong>the</strong> governing Verb is in <strong>the</strong> Future, or in a Mood<br />
which implies a future occasion (Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative<br />
with Key or av).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand in similes, maxims,<br />
and references to frequent or indefinite occasions, <strong>the</strong> Particle is<br />
not used. But<br />
(a) Sometimes <strong>the</strong> pure Subj.<br />
is used after a Future in order<br />
to show that <strong>the</strong> speaker avoids referring to a particular occasion :<br />
cp. 11. 21. HI o-
332 PARTICLES. [363.<br />
real exceptions will generally be found where a Clause is added<br />
to restrict or qualify a general supposition already made :<br />
II. 3. 25 juaAa yap re KCtrecrfliet, et irp av avTov<br />
o-euctiVTCLL (even in <strong>the</strong> case when fyc.).<br />
Od. 21. 293 olvos ere rpooet fxeAir]^?, 6s re Kai d'AAovs<br />
/3AdWet, 6s av \j,iv \ avov e'A?? (in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> him<br />
who takes it greedily).<br />
So II. 6. 225., 9. 501, 524., 20. 166, Od. 15. 344., 19. 332<br />
( 289, 292, 296). In <strong>the</strong>se places we see <strong>the</strong> tendency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
language to extend <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> icei/ or civ beyond its original limits,<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r words, to state indefinite cases as if <strong>the</strong>y were definite<br />
a tendency which in later Greek made <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> av universal in<br />
such Clauses, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> event intended was definite or not.<br />
The change is analogous to <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indicative in a general Conditional<br />
protasis ; when, as Mr. Goodwin '<br />
expresses it,<br />
<strong>the</strong> speaker refers to one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> cases in which an event may occur as if it were <strong>the</strong> only one that is,<br />
'<br />
he states <strong>the</strong> general supposition as if it were particular (Moods and Tenses,<br />
467). The loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> use <strong>of</strong> TC,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> New Ionic use <strong>of</strong> 6 TJ<br />
TO<br />
as a Eelative with indefinite as well as definite antecedents, are examples <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> same kind.<br />
2. Up to this point <strong>the</strong> Particles Key and have been treated<br />
as practically equivalent. There are however some differences <strong>of</strong><br />
usage which remain to be pointed out.<br />
(a) In Negative Clauses <strong>the</strong>re is a marked V<br />
preference for<br />
In <strong>the</strong> ordinary text <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad oV is found with a negative 53<br />
times (nearly a third <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole number <strong>of</strong> Key is<br />
instances),<br />
similarly used 33 times (about one-twentieth). The difference is<br />
especially to be noticed in <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. as a kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> Future ( 275, 276). In affirmative clauses <strong>of</strong> this type KCJ/<br />
is frequent, civ very rare in negative clauses : ai> is<br />
only found.<br />
(b)<br />
Sentence :<br />
Kk is <strong>of</strong>ten used in two or more successive Clauses <strong>of</strong> a<br />
e.g. in both protasis and apodosis, as<br />
II. I.<br />
324 ei 8e' Ke JUT) btoyo-Lv, eyo> 8e Kez; avrbs eXco/zat /crA.<br />
In Disjunctive Sentences, as<br />
II. 1 8.<br />
308
363.] KEN, 'AN. 333<br />
av, on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, is especially used in <strong>the</strong> second <strong>of</strong> two<br />
parallel<br />
or connected Clauses as<br />
:<br />
II. 19. 2,2,8 aAAa xprj TOV y&v KaTaOa,TTTiv os K ddv^(Ti . .<br />
oVcrot 8' av iroAejuioto Trept orvyepoto Anrcoyrat KrA.<br />
Od. 19. 329 os jutey aiTrjvrjS avros cr?<br />
KOI aTTtjvla et8f)<br />
. .<br />
6s 8' av afjiVfjiMV avrbs cry KrA.<br />
So II. 21. 553 ei ptv KV . . et 8 s &^ KrA.; II. 3. 288 ff. et<br />
ptv Ktv<br />
el g e ' Ke e 8' &,, (<strong>the</strong> last an alternative to <strong>the</strong> second).<br />
The only instance <strong>of</strong> av in two parallel Clauses is<br />
Od. II. 17 ov6' OTTOT av o-ret'x^o-t Trpos ovpavbv aa-Tpovra<br />
ov6' or av a\^ CTTI<br />
yalav KrA.<br />
and <strong>the</strong>re we oug-ht to read oTiore ore^o-i, according to <strong>the</strong><br />
regular <strong>Homeric</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subj. in general statements ( 289,<br />
2,).<br />
(c)<br />
There are several indications <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> av as a more<br />
emphatic Particle than **v. Thus <strong>the</strong> combination rj T av surely<br />
in that case occurs 7 times in <strong>the</strong> Iliad, TJ<br />
re KC^ only twice.<br />
Compare <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> K
334 PARTICLES. [364.<br />
in <strong>the</strong> orthotone and adversative 8e',<br />
which stands to re and <strong>the</strong><br />
correlated re re somewhat as we have supposed<br />
civ to stand to<br />
Key and Key<br />
Key.<br />
364.] Original meaning <strong>of</strong> dv and KCV. The identity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek dv with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Latin and Gothic an has been maintained with much force and ingenuity<br />
by Pr<strong>of</strong>. Leo Meyer. The following are some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief points established<br />
by his dissertation.*<br />
1. The Latin an is used by <strong>the</strong> older poets in <strong>the</strong> second member <strong>of</strong> a<br />
disjunctive question, ei<strong>the</strong>r direct, as egone an ille injurie facimus ? or indirect,<br />
as utrum scapulae plus an callus calli habeat nescio (both from Naevius). The use<br />
in single questions is a derivative one, and properly implies that <strong>the</strong> question<br />
is put as an alternative as<br />
:<br />
Plaut. Asin. 5. i, 10 credam istuc, si te esse hilarum videro. AR. An tu<br />
me tristem putas ? do you <strong>the</strong>n think me (<strong>the</strong> opposite, viz.} sad ?<br />
Amph. 3. 3, 8 derides qui scis haec dudum me dixisse per jocum. SO. an<br />
illut joculo dixisti ? equidem serio ac vero ratus.<br />
In <strong>the</strong>se places f we see how an comes to mean <strong>the</strong>n on <strong>the</strong> contrary, <strong>the</strong>n in <strong>the</strong><br />
o<strong>the</strong>r case, &c. So in Naevius, eho an vicimus ? what <strong>the</strong>n, have we conquered ?<br />
2. In Gothic, again, an is used in questions <strong>of</strong> an adversative character :<br />
as in Luke x. 29 an hvas ist mis nehvundja (' he willing to justify himself, said x :<br />
and who is my neighbour ? ' John xviii. 37 an nuh thiudans is thu l art thou a<br />
king <strong>the</strong>n ? '<br />
3. These instances exhibit a close similarity between <strong>the</strong> Latin and <strong>the</strong><br />
Gothic an, and suggest <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> a Disjunctive Particle (or, or else}<br />
coming to express recourse to a second alternative (if not, <strong>the</strong>n \ and so<br />
acquiring <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek dv. This supposition, as Leo Meyer goes on<br />
to show, is confirmed by <strong>the</strong> Gothic aiththau and thau, which are employed<br />
(i) as Disjunctive Particles, or, or else, and (2) to render <strong>the</strong> Greek av, chiefly<br />
in <strong>the</strong> use with <strong>the</strong> Past Indicative. Thus we have, as examples <strong>of</strong> aiththau<br />
Matth. v. 36 ni magt ain tagl hveit aiththau svart gataujan thou canst not<br />
make one hair white or black.<br />
Matth. ix. 1 7 aiththau distaurnand balgeis (nei<strong>the</strong>r do men put new wine into<br />
old bottles} else <strong>the</strong> bottles break.<br />
John xiv. 2 niba veseina, aiththau qvethjau if it were not so, I would have toll<br />
you [= it is not so, else I would have told you].<br />
John xiv. 7 ith kun<strong>the</strong>deith mik, aiththau kun<strong>the</strong>deith &c. if ye had known<br />
me, ye should have known &c.<br />
Similarly thau is used (i)' to translate $ in double questions, as in Matth.<br />
xxvii. 17 whom will ye that I release unto you, Barabbas or (thau) Jesus'? and<br />
after a Comparative = ( than) frequently also : (2) in a Conditional Apodosis,<br />
esp. to translate dv With Past Tenses, as<br />
Luke vii. 39 sa ith vesi praufetus ufkun<strong>the</strong>di thau this man, if fie were a<br />
prophet, would have known.<br />
* 'AN im Griechischen, Lateinischen und Gothischen, Berlin 1880. The parallel<br />
between <strong>the</strong> Greek dv and <strong>the</strong> Gothic thau and aiththau was pointed out by<br />
Hartung (Partikeln, ii. p. 227).<br />
[ Taken from Draeger's H-istorische Syntax, i. p. 321, where many o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
examples will be found.
""<br />
365.] KEN, 'AN' ORDER OF PARTICLES. 335<br />
Sometimes also with <strong>the</strong> Present (where <strong>the</strong>re is no dv in <strong>the</strong> Greek), <strong>the</strong><br />
meaning being that <strong>of</strong> a solemn or emphatic Future :<br />
Mark xi. 26 ith jabai jus ni afletith, ni thau . . afletith if ye do not f<strong>org</strong>ive<br />
nei<strong>the</strong>r will . . f<strong>org</strong>ive (oi5e . . atyrjafi).<br />
Matth. v. 20 ni thau qvimith (except your righteousness shall exceed (fee.) ye shall<br />
in no case enter &c. (ov /) etaeA^rc).<br />
This use evidently answers to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Kev or dv with <strong>the</strong> Subj. and Fut.<br />
Ind. : ni thau qvimith = OVK av e^drjre, ni thau afletith = ovd' av d
336 PARTICLES. [365.<br />
2. f*eV<br />
and 8e, also re in its use as a connecting word, come<br />
before o<strong>the</strong>r Particles. Hence we have ot 8e 8?} et 8e' KCV eyo><br />
8e' Ke rot et 8' az> ov ^kv yap o#re Ke ovr' apa, &c.<br />
fxeV may be placed later when it emphasises a particular word, or<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a clause, especially in view <strong>of</strong> a following clause with 8e,<br />
as II. 9. 300 et 8e' rot 'Arpeto^s /xez; d7rrJx^ ero < 8' aXXovs Trep<br />
KrA., Od. 4. 23.,<br />
ii. 385., 18. 67, &c. ;<br />
and in such collocations<br />
as trot 8' TI<br />
rot jueu eyo> KrA., eV0' ?J<br />
rot rot)? jueu KrA. Cp. also<br />
Od. 15. 405 ov TL TreptTrArjfl?)? \ir]v T0(rov, ctAA* ayaOj] piv.<br />
The form o(p' av JJLZV KZV is probably corrupt, see 362 ad fin.<br />
3. Of <strong>the</strong> remaining Particles y^P comes first : as 77 yap Ke<br />
rt? yap Ke et Trep yap Ke ro$pa yap av a>? yap vv rot, &c.<br />
Among <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Particles note <strong>the</strong> sequences Kat vv KZV e apa<br />
8rj oTTTToVe Kv brf rj pa vv rt? rot vv. But apa<br />
is sometimes<br />
put later in <strong>the</strong> clause, as cos etTrcoz; Kar' ap' e^ero, cp. II. 5. 748<br />
r/<br />
Hp77 o"e juao^rtyt 6oG>s eTTt/xater' ap I'TITTOU?.<br />
re in its generalising use comes after o<strong>the</strong>r Particles : hence 5e<br />
re fj.v re yap re dAAa re 6' apa re os pa re OVT ap re<br />
ov vv re.<br />
4. The Indefinite ns and <strong>the</strong> corresponding Adverbs, irou, TTWS,<br />
&c. follow <strong>the</strong> Particles. Hence we have ore Ke'z> rt?<br />
TTW, irore,<br />
at KeV TTCOJ 6V av Trore ov pa rts by TTOV vv TTOV TTOV rt<br />
r? o~e,<br />
&C.<br />
But T follows TIS ( 332), as in Kat yap rt? re, os rts re. And<br />
sometimes os ns is treated as a single word, as in ov nva pev (II.<br />
2. 188), os TIS 8e (II. 15. 743), 6s Tls Ke (II. io. 44, Od. 3. 355).<br />
t<br />
Similarly we find ei TTOTC in <strong>the</strong> combination et<br />
<strong>the</strong> more regular et 817 Trore.<br />
Trore by, as well as<br />
Kat OVK e0e'A.a)z> rtj<br />
TIS sometimes comes later, as II. 4. 300 o
AtyuTrroVSe<br />
ORDER. 337<br />
a line which has <strong>the</strong> bucolic caesura : II. 3. 368 ovb' e/3aAoV \LIV<br />
(v. 1. ovb' edajuao-o-a), 5- 104 et ereo'z; //e, 7- 79 otypa irvpos /-xe, II.<br />
380 0)9 ov rev e/x/xei'at vto'9.<br />
The second half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line is treated as a fresh beginning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sentence.<br />
Without assuming that <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> usage as to <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> Particles and<br />
Enclitics is invariable, we may point out that in several places where <strong>the</strong>se<br />
rules are violated <strong>the</strong> text is doubtful on o<strong>the</strong>r grounds. Thus<br />
II- 3- J<br />
73 &s o
338 METRE. [366.<br />
II. 5. 273 el TOVTU KC Xafioinfv KT\. For KC (without meaning here) read -ye.<br />
II. 14. 403 ITTCI TfTpairro irpbs I6v ol. The sense seems to require irpbs Wvv<br />
in <strong>the</strong> direction <strong>of</strong> his aim, cp. irdaav CTT' Wvv for every aim, av' Wvv straight onwards<br />
(ii. 21. 303, od. 8.377).<br />
II. 24. 53 JUT) . . vefnffffr]0cafj.v ol TjfAfis. Read-^o/icr, omitting ot.<br />
A less strict usage may be traced in <strong>the</strong> loth book <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad : cp. 1. 44<br />
77 rt's 6P, 242 et plv 5f; erapov 76 K\fvfTe JJL aiirbv tXtadai, 280 vvv avrf paXiara.<br />
fj. (pi\ai, 344 dAA.' JcD/xei/ niv, 453 OVKCT' Zireira av Trrjf^d TTOT' effO'eai. The subject,<br />
however, needs more detailed investigation.<br />
CHAPTER XIV.<br />
METRE AND QUANTITY.<br />
The Hexameter.<br />
366.] The verse in which <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> poems are composed<br />
<strong>the</strong> heroic hexameter consists <strong>of</strong> six feet, <strong>of</strong> equal length, each <strong>of</strong><br />
which again<br />
is divided into two equal parts, viz. an accented<br />
part or arsis (on which <strong>the</strong> rhythmical beat or ictus and an<br />
falls),<br />
unaccented part or <strong>the</strong>sis. In each foot <strong>the</strong> arsis consists <strong>of</strong> one<br />
long syllable, <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> one long or two short syllables ;<br />
except <strong>the</strong> last <strong>the</strong>sis, which consists <strong>of</strong> one syllable, ei<strong>the</strong>r long<br />
or short.<br />
The fifth <strong>the</strong>sis nearly always consists <strong>of</strong> two short syllables,<br />
thus producing <strong>the</strong> characteristic w w ^ which marks <strong>the</strong><br />
end <strong>of</strong> each hexameter.<br />
The last foot is probably to be regarded as a little shorter than<br />
<strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>rs, <strong>the</strong> time being<br />
filled<br />
up by <strong>the</strong> pause at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> verse. The effect <strong>of</strong> this shortening is heightened by <strong>the</strong><br />
take <strong>the</strong><br />
dactyl in <strong>the</strong> fifth place, since <strong>the</strong> two short syllables<br />
full time <strong>of</strong> half a foot.<br />
367.] Diaeresis and Caesura. Besides <strong>the</strong> recognised stops<br />
or pauses which mark <strong>the</strong> separation <strong>of</strong> sentences and clauses<br />
<strong>the</strong>re is in general a slight pause or break <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> voice between<br />
successive words in <strong>the</strong> same clause, sufficient to affect <strong>the</strong><br />
rhythm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verse. Hence <strong>the</strong> rules regarding<br />
Caesura.<br />
By Diaeresis is meant <strong>the</strong> coincidence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> division between<br />
words with <strong>the</strong> division into feet. The commonest place <strong>of</strong><br />
diaeresis in <strong>the</strong> hexameter is after <strong>the</strong> fourth foot :<br />
yptowv avrovs 8e eXcupta<br />
This is called <strong>the</strong> Bucolic Diaeresis.<br />
JJiaeresis and<br />
as
irjArfiaSeo)<br />
367.]<br />
THE HEXAMETER. 339<br />
Caesura (ro^rf)<br />
occurs when <strong>the</strong> pause between two words falls<br />
within a foot, so as to 'cut' it into two parts. The caesura<br />
which separates <strong>the</strong> arsis from <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>sis (so<br />
as to divide <strong>the</strong><br />
foot equally) is called <strong>the</strong> strong or masculine caesura : that<br />
which falls between <strong>the</strong> two short syllables <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>sis is called<br />
<strong>the</strong> weak or feminine or trochaic caesura.<br />
The chief points to be observed regarding caesura in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> hexameter are as follows :<br />
j . There is nearly always a caesura in <strong>the</strong> third foot. Of <strong>the</strong><br />
two caesuras <strong>the</strong> more frequent in this place is <strong>the</strong> trochaic (TO/XT/<br />
Kara rpirov Tpoyaiov),<br />
as<br />
avbpa IJLOL f-vvtrre Movva<br />
\<br />
TToXvTpOTrov bs jmaAa iroXXd.<br />
The strong caesura, or ' caesura after <strong>the</strong> fifth half-foot ' (TO/XT)<br />
),<br />
is ra<strong>the</strong>r less common : as<br />
&(.$, $ed,<br />
| 'A^iAr/os.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> first book <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad, which contains 611 lines, <strong>the</strong><br />
trochaic caesura <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> third foot occurs in 356, and <strong>the</strong> corresponding<br />
strong caesura in 247.*<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, <strong>the</strong>re must be no diaeresis after <strong>the</strong> third<br />
foot ;<br />
and in <strong>the</strong> few cases in which <strong>the</strong> third foot lies<br />
wholly in<br />
one word <strong>the</strong>re is<br />
always a strong caesura in <strong>the</strong> fourth foot<br />
o? K OO'L$ eTrnret^rat fjidXa T ZK\.VOV CLVTOV<br />
H/37] T rfbt rio(rei5acozJ Kal ITaXAa? 'AOrjvr].<br />
r/<br />
The division between an enclitic and <strong>the</strong> preceding word is<br />
not sufficient for <strong>the</strong> caesura in <strong>the</strong> third foot : hence in Od. 10.<br />
58 we should read<br />
avrap eTret crtroio r' |<br />
e7rao~(rcijue0' 778<br />
not crtroto re iraa-a-dfjitO' (as<br />
La Roche).<br />
The remaining exceptions to <strong>the</strong>se rules are<br />
II. I. 179 otKad' luv avv vrjvai re ays Kal aots<br />
which is an adaptation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> (probably conventional) form avv vrji T' e/*y Kal<br />
e/j.ois erdpoiai (1. 183). We may help <strong>the</strong> rhythm by taking vrjvai re ays closely<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r, so as to avoid <strong>the</strong> break in <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line.<br />
II. 3. 205 rjSrj yap Kal devpo iror' ij\v9e Sios 'OSvaaevs.<br />
II. 10. 453 OVKGT' firetTO. av irrj^d TTOT' eaaeai 'Apyeioiai.<br />
Where TTOT?, as an enclitic, is in an unusual place in <strong>the</strong> sentence ( 365, 4),<br />
but it is<br />
perhaps in '<br />
reality an emphatic one day.' Similarly, in<br />
II. 3. 220 (f>airjs Kf ^CLKOTOV re nv' (upevai dtypovd r* avrcus,<br />
nva may be slightly emphatic. Or should we read rbv fj./j.fvai ?<br />
II. 15.<br />
1 8 ^ ov ore fJ.ffJ.vy r' Itf/ae/xo; vtyoOev, etc re iroSouv.<br />
but possibly <strong>the</strong> peculiar rhythm is intentional,<br />
We may read ore re Kpefjua<br />
:<br />
as being adapted to <strong>the</strong> sense.<br />
* In this calculation no lines are reckoned twice, short monosyllables being<br />
taken ei<strong>the</strong>r with <strong>the</strong> preceding or <strong>the</strong> following word, according to <strong>the</strong> sense.<br />
Z 2,
yajueWerat<br />
pax<br />
w<br />
340 METRE. [368.<br />
2. Trochaic caesura <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> fourth foot is very rare, and is only<br />
found under certain conditions, viz.<br />
(1) when <strong>the</strong> caesura is preceded by an enclitic or short monosyllable<br />
(such as jieV, 8e' } &c.) ; as<br />
as<br />
Kat KV TOVT<br />
0eAoijuu Ato? ye 8i8oVros aptarQai.<br />
(2) when <strong>the</strong> line ends with a word <strong>of</strong> four or five syllables;<br />
avrap 6 (JLOVVOS erjv pera TreWe /cao-iyi^jrrjo-t.<br />
TroAAa 8'<br />
ap i-vOa KOL evO' Wvve 1 ! ir&loio.<br />
\<br />
The commonest form <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong><br />
caesura (especially<br />
in <strong>the</strong><br />
Iliad) is that in which <strong>the</strong>se two alleviations are both present ;<br />
as<br />
&pcrlr aKpiTopvOc, \iyvs Trep eo)z/ dyoprjr?}?.<br />
The first fifteen books <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad contain eleven instances <strong>of</strong><br />
trochaic caesura in <strong>the</strong> fourth foot, <strong>of</strong> which seven are <strong>of</strong> this<br />
form.<br />
In II.<br />
9. 394 <strong>the</strong> MSS. give<br />
HrjXtvs 6r\v eVeira jbtot yvvaiKa CLVTOS.<br />
\<br />
But we should doubtless read, with Aristarchus,<br />
yvvalna ye /uacro-erat airo?.<br />
Similarly we should probably read ra 8e' ^ OVK apa peXXov ovr\(riv<br />
(II. 5. 205, &a), instead <strong>of</strong> e/uteXXoi; : and conversely 0aAepr/ 8'<br />
fjnaivTO ^aiTJ] (II. 17. 439), and patyal 8' eXeXvvro ipavTuiv (Od.<br />
22. 1 86),<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> jutaiVero, AeAwro. In Od. 5. 272 we may<br />
treat 6\ff<br />
bvovra as one word in rhythm. But it is not easy to<br />
account for <strong>the</strong> rhythm in Od. 12. 47 eirt 8' ovar dXetx/rat eratpcoy.<br />
The result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se rules evidently is that <strong>the</strong>re are two chief<br />
breaks or pauses in <strong>the</strong> verse <strong>the</strong> caesura in <strong>the</strong> third foot, and<br />
<strong>the</strong> diaeresis between <strong>the</strong> fourth and fifth and that <strong>the</strong> forbidden<br />
divisions are <strong>the</strong> diaeresis and caesura which lie nearest to<br />
Thus<br />
<strong>the</strong>se pauses.<br />
Best caesura \> - --<br />
Worst diaeresis J^J .Jw \> w --<br />
Again<br />
Best diaeresis TTOTrot, &c.<br />
Hence <strong>the</strong> occasional hiatus in this place, as II. 2. 209 fixil> *> s<br />
KrA.., II. I. 333 avrap 6 eyvoo ycnv tvi pe
ty/foiou<br />
369.] QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 341<br />
place occurs most commonly in verses which end with a word <strong>of</strong><br />
four or more syllables, as<br />
orejut-juar' fycav V ^pcrlv<br />
v<br />
Apei 8e<br />
vr]v, crrtpvov I<br />
It is also found with words <strong>of</strong> three long syllables, as<br />
And once or twice when <strong>the</strong> last word is a monosyllable<br />
: as<br />
uco/xr/o-cu (3&v (II. J. 238), ecrnj/ca /met? (II. 19. 117).<br />
A spondee in <strong>the</strong> fifth place ought not to end with a word.<br />
Hence we should correct <strong>the</strong> endings -f]5><br />
blav &c. by reading T|6a,<br />
and 87/juoi> $77^1? (Od. 14. 239), by restoring <strong>the</strong> archaic 677^00. In<br />
Od. 1 2. 64 <strong>the</strong> words Xts irtrpr] at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line are scanned<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> three long syllables are very seldom found before <strong>the</strong><br />
Bucolic diaeresis. Examples are :<br />
II. 13* 7 J 3 ^ yo-P "0 l ffTC&tfl | vcrfAivr] | jj,ifAV (f)i\ov Krjp.<br />
Od. 10. 492 V^X?? XP r (TO Ji<br />
l i<br />
^vovs<br />
I |<br />
Tetpeo-tao.<br />
The rarity <strong>of</strong> verses with this rhythm may be judged from <strong>the</strong><br />
fact that it is never found with <strong>the</strong> oblique cases <strong>of</strong> avOpto-nos<br />
(avOpdvwv &c.), although <strong>the</strong>se occur about 150 times, and in<br />
every o<strong>the</strong>r place in <strong>the</strong> verse or with :<br />
a\\ri\(Dv &c., which occur<br />
about 100 times.<br />
Syllabic Quantity Position.<br />
369.] The quantity <strong>of</strong> a syllable that is to say, <strong>the</strong> time<br />
which it takes in pronunciation may be determined ei<strong>the</strong>r by<br />
<strong>the</strong> length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vowel (or vowels) which it contains, or by <strong>the</strong><br />
character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> consonants which separate it from <strong>the</strong> next<br />
vowel sound.<br />
In ancient technical language, <strong>the</strong> vowel may be<br />
long by its own nature ($?Jo-ei),<br />
or by its position (0eVei).<br />
The assumptions that all long syllables are equal, and that a<br />
long syllable is equal in quantity to two short syllables, are not<br />
strictly true <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural quantity in ordinary pronunciation.<br />
Since every consonant takes some time to pronounce, it is evident<br />
that <strong>the</strong> first syllables <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words otyis, ocppvs, o//,^^, opflpos<br />
are different in length; and so again are <strong>the</strong> first syllables <strong>of</strong><br />
Mlro?, &rpvvov. Again, <strong>the</strong> diphthongs rj, T)U, &c. are longer than<br />
<strong>the</strong> single vowels TJ, w, &c., and also longer than <strong>the</strong> diphthongs<br />
6i, cu, 01, ou. In short, <strong>the</strong> poetical ( quantities ' must not be supposed<br />
to answer exactly to <strong>the</strong> natural or inherent length <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
syllables. The poetical or metrical value is founded upon <strong>the</strong><br />
natural length, but is <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> a sort <strong>of</strong> compromise, by<br />
which minor varieties <strong>of</strong> quantity are neglected, and <strong>the</strong> syllables<br />
<strong>the</strong>reby adapted to <strong>the</strong> demands <strong>of</strong> a simple rhythm.^
342 METRE. [370.<br />
It has been shown, however, that <strong>the</strong> general rule <strong>of</strong> Position rests upon a<br />
t<br />
sound physiological basis. The insertion <strong>of</strong> a consonant may be regarded as<br />
equivalent in respect <strong>of</strong> time to <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> a short vowel into a long one/<br />
(Briicke, Die physiologischen Grundlagen der neuhochdeutschen Verskunst, p. 70 ;<br />
quoted by Hartel).<br />
370. ]<br />
Position. The general rule is that when a short vowel<br />
is followed by two consonants <strong>the</strong> syllable is long.<br />
Regarding this rule it is to be observed that<br />
(1) Exceptions are almost wholly confined to combinations <strong>of</strong><br />
a Mute (esp.<br />
a tennis) with a following Liquid. But even with<br />
<strong>the</strong>se combinations <strong>the</strong> general rule is observed in <strong>the</strong> great<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> instances.<br />
(2) Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> exceptions are found with words which could<br />
not o<strong>the</strong>rwise be brought into <strong>the</strong> hexameter such as :<br />
'A^poStrr/,<br />
\\fjL(j)i.Tpv(Dv, ppor&v, rpdirefa, Trpoo-r^Sa, &c.<br />
(3) The remaining exceptions are nearly all instances in which<br />
<strong>the</strong> vowel is separated by Diaeresis from <strong>the</strong> following consonants<br />
: as II. 1 8. 122 /cat TLVCL T/oootaScoi;, 24. 795 KOL rd ye<br />
The chief exceptions in Homer are as follows * :<br />
rp : in 'ApcpiTpvcav, erpdtyrjv (II. 23. 84 but see <strong>the</strong> note on 42 in <strong>the</strong><br />
Appendix, p. 390), Terparevithov (II. 24. 324), (papeTprjs (II. 8. 323), 'Orpwrevs<br />
(II. 20. 383-4) and in<br />
; d\\6rpios (unless we scan -tos, -tov, &c.).<br />
Before rpcnrf^a, Tpicuva, rpirrj (rpirjuovTa, &c.), r pairdopey (rpatrovTo, npo-TpairtaOat,<br />
&c.), Tpdyovs, rpoirois, rptfyti (Od. 5. 422., 13. 410), rpotpov (Od. 19. 489),<br />
rpffiov (Od. II. 527).<br />
Before a diaeresis, KO.I TIVO, Tpca'idSav (II. 18. 122).<br />
irp : in d\Xoirp6aa\\os (II. 5. 831) ;<br />
before irpocnjvSa, irpoaojirov, rrpo'i'Krrjs, ttp6oca,<br />
and o<strong>the</strong>r Compounds <strong>of</strong> irpo and irpos (irpoKfifjifva, Trp<strong>of</strong>fatgas, &c.) ; also before<br />
7iy>oy dAA^Aous, itpb aoreos, and one or two similar phrases (cp. II. 13. 799.,<br />
17. 726).<br />
Before Ilpm/uS^s (II.), irpiv (II.<br />
i. 97 ovS* o 76 irpiv KT\., cp. 19. 313, Od. 14.<br />
334., 17. 597) ; npwTOS (Od. 3. 320., 17. 275), irpoatpdaeai (Od. 23. 106).<br />
Kp: in SaKpvoiffi (Od. 18. 173), SaftpvirXweiv (Od. 19. 122), Iveicpvifse (Od. 5. 488),<br />
KfKpvfj.fj.tva (Od. 23. no).<br />
Before Kpovtav, Kpovov irais, Kparaiu, Kparaits, Kpdros fttya (II. 20. 121). Kpdveia,<br />
Kpv(pr)86v, KpaSaivu, Kpa.TtvTa.ojv, Kpfwv.<br />
Add II. II. 697 ei'AcTO Kpivdfjievos ;<br />
Od. 8. 92 /caret Kpa.ro. (K&K w/)ara?), 12. 99<br />
06 T6 KpdTl.<br />
Pp : in PpoTos and its derivatives, as dfipoTr], dfJKpifipoTos : also before fipaxtw.<br />
8p : in dfj.(pi-5pv(pr]s (II. 2. 700), and before SpdKcuv, A.pvas, Spopovs. Also 11.<br />
ii. 69 TO. 8e SpdynaTa (unless we read Sdpy^aTa, as Hartel suggests).<br />
0p : in d\Xo-Opoos (Od. i. 183, &c.), and before Opovcav, &c. and Qpaatiduv.<br />
Also in II. 5. 462 rjyrjTOpt QprjKcuv.<br />
*<br />
They are enumerated by La Roche, Homerische Untersuchungen, pp. 1-41,<br />
with his usual care and completeness.
37-] POSITION. 343<br />
p : in 'AQpo&in) : and Od. 15. 444 rjp.iv 5' eni-^paffffer' oktOpov. Cp. Hes. Op.<br />
655 irpoiretppaS^va.<br />
Xp : before xP e '<br />
os or XP* 035 (Od. 8. 353) : and in II. 23. 186 po56fvn 8 xpi fv ><br />
II. 24. 795 Kal TO. ye xP va ' l7 J<br />
v ><br />
T\ : in 6po?, ZdnvvOos,<br />
fiporos, with its compounds, &c. No exceptions are found before<br />
yp, y\3
344 METRE. [371.<br />
The plea on which a short vowel is allowed before<br />
may be extended, as Fick points out (Bezz. Beitr. xiv. 316), to some forms <strong>of</strong><br />
atfiSvrjui now written without <strong>the</strong> cr, viz. KedaaOev (II. 15. 657), KfSaffOfvres, &c.<br />
Metrical necessity, however, would not justify <strong>the</strong> same license with a/ciSvarai<br />
(emKiSvarai II. 2. 85O r c.), e-ffieiSvaTo, e-ffttzSaaae (for which lavceSacre is available).<br />
Neglect <strong>of</strong> Position is perceptibly commoner in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey than in <strong>the</strong><br />
Iliad. Apart from cases in which <strong>the</strong> necessities <strong>of</strong> metre can be pleaded*<br />
viz. proper names and words beginning with w -, it will be found that <strong>the</strong><br />
proportion <strong>of</strong> examples is about 3:1. It will be seen, too, that some marked<br />
instances occur in Books 23 and 24 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad. In Hesibd and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
Hymns <strong>the</strong> rule is still more lax. Thus in Hesiod a vowel is allowed to be<br />
short before KV (Op. 567, Fr. 95), and -irv<br />
(Theog. 319). In <strong>the</strong> scanty<br />
fragments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Cyclic poets we find "ntirpcarai (Cypria), irdrpt (Little Iliad),<br />
'A-yx" KXVTOV KT\. (ibid.}, a//3ea (Iliupersis).<br />
371.1 Leng<strong>the</strong>ning before p, X, jut, v, a, 8. There are various<br />
words beginning with one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se letters (<strong>the</strong> liquids p, X, p, v,<br />
<strong>the</strong> spirant , Aiyvj, Aiapo?, AiTrapo?, At?, Xairapri,<br />
Xotyos, and occasionally in a few o<strong>the</strong>rs but not : (e.g.) in<br />
such frequently occurring words as AVKIOJ, Ae'xo?, Aetmo.<br />
fi, in jueyaj, fjLtyapov, .juioipa, /zaAaKo?, /jte'Aoj, juieAtrj, /maorif, poOos :<br />
but not (e.g.) juax.ojucu, jote'ro?, jue'Xa?, /xa/cap, fjivQos.<br />
in v, vcvpri, ue'^oy, i>i
373-] LENGTHENING BEFORE LIQUIDS. 345<br />
s re VL()a$,<br />
KaAin/fe, ore crevatro, ov TL jmaAa 8771;,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> like.<br />
crvv e ve-<br />
These facts lead us to connect <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning now in question<br />
with <strong>the</strong> peculiar doubling <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> initial consonant which we<br />
see in Compounds, as aTro-ppiVrco, v-ppoos, a-ppr]KTos, rpi-AAii(f)o$, e7n-o-p, &c.), or <strong>the</strong> Adverb Srju.<br />
The same may<br />
be said <strong>of</strong> paKos, priyw^i^ pvo^ai, prjros, pnrra), piov, also /u,a\aKoj,<br />
jueAirj, vi(j)ds. Leng<strong>the</strong>ning is also <strong>the</strong> rule, subject<br />
to few<br />
exceptions, with AtVo-o//at, Ao^o?, vtcfros, vtvpri, ptvos, poos, pafibos,<br />
/oi'fa,<br />
and some o<strong>the</strong>rs (La Roche, H. U. pp. 47 ff.).<br />
372.] Origin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning.* The most probable account<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> matter is that most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> roots or stems affected originally<br />
began with two consonants, one <strong>of</strong> which was lost by phonetic<br />
decay. Thus initial p may stand for fp (as<br />
in Fpriy-vvfja), or ap<br />
(as *o-peo)^ Sanscrit sravdmi) : Ai? is probably for XFis (with a<br />
weaker Stem than <strong>the</strong> form seen in AeT-coy)<br />
: vvos is for crvvos<br />
(Sanscr. snus/id) : vify-as goes back to a root sneibh, (Goth, snaivs,<br />
snow) : jjiolpa is probably from a root smer : (reA/a,a is for a^cAjita<br />
(Curt. s. v.) and 8ei- in : det-z/o's &c. is for Sfet- (cp.<br />
Sei'-Souta for<br />
be-bFoiKo).<br />
It is not indeed necessary to maintain that in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
cases <strong>the</strong> lost consonant was pronounced at <strong>the</strong> time when <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> poems were composed. We have only to suppose that<br />
fa& particular combination in question had established itself in <strong>the</strong><br />
usage <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language before <strong>the</strong> two consonants were reduced<br />
by phonetic decay to one. Thus we may ei<strong>the</strong>r suppose (e.g^)<br />
that Kara poov in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Homer was still<br />
pronounced Kara<br />
o-pooy, or that certain combinations Kara-o-peco, eu-a-pooj, Kara<br />
crpoov, &c. passed into Kara-ppeco, eu-ppoo?, Kara ppoov (or Kara<br />
poov). There are several instances in which a second form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
word appears in combinations <strong>of</strong> a fixed type. Thus we have<br />
*<br />
On this subject <strong>the</strong> chief sources <strong>of</strong> information are, La Roche, Homerische<br />
Untersuchungen (pp. 49-65) ; Hartel, Homerische Studien (Pt. i. pp. 1-55) ;<br />
and<br />
Knos, De Digammo <strong>Homeric</strong>o Quaestiones (Pt. iii.<br />
225 ff.).
34$ METRE. [373.<br />
<strong>the</strong> form -nroAis, in TTOTI TJTO'AIO?, 'A^iAAT/a TTToXiiropdov, &c. :<br />
Trro'Aejucos, in jue'ya TjroAe'juioio /utejutryXco?,<br />
am TrroAe/uioio yet/wpas.<br />
Similarly a primitive y5o{m>? survives in tpi-yboviTos (also epie-ySovTnjfre:<br />
and yz;oos in d-y^oeco. Cp. also <strong>the</strong> pairs<br />
and juu/cpdj, o-Kibvapai. and Kibva^ai, (TVS and 9, w and<br />
It is at least conceivable that in <strong>the</strong> same way <strong>the</strong> poet <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Iliad said polpav and also Kara o-jutotpai> 5 juetSiacoi; but iAoo-^ci^s,<br />
at <strong>the</strong> 8r)i> 171; beginning <strong>of</strong> a line, but jmdAa Sfrjy at <strong>the</strong><br />
end : and so in o<strong>the</strong>r cases.<br />
It is true that <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> words now in question<br />
which can be proved to have originally had an initial double<br />
consonant is not very great. Of <strong>the</strong> liquids, <strong>the</strong> method is most<br />
successful with initial p,<br />
which can nearly always be traced back<br />
to vr or sr. And among <strong>the</strong> words with initial v a fair proportion<br />
can be shown to have begun originally with ov (vtvpri, vvos,<br />
vi(f)as, z>eo>, vv^r]). The difficulty is partly met by <strong>the</strong> fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
supposition that <strong>the</strong> habit <strong>of</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning before initial liquids<br />
was extended by analogy, from <strong>the</strong> stems in which it was<br />
originally due to a double consonant to o<strong>the</strong>rs in which it had<br />
no such etymological ground. This supposition is certainly well<br />
founded in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> p, before which leng<strong>the</strong>ning became <strong>the</strong><br />
rule.<br />
373.] Final i <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat. Sing. The final i <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat.<br />
(Loc.) Sing, is so frequently long that it may be regarded as a<br />
'<br />
doubtful vowel/ The examples are especially found in lines<br />
and phrases <strong>of</strong> a fixed or archaic type<br />
:<br />
17 pa, Kat V 5eu>(i> cra/cel' lAao-' oj3pi[Jiov eyxs*<br />
ov TTOV Ait jue'AAei vTTfp^vfL (frihov etz>ai (thrice in <strong>the</strong> II.).<br />
TO rptrov avff vbari (Od. 1O. 520., II. 28).<br />
avrov Trap vrft re JJL^VCLV (Od. 9. 194., IO. 444).<br />
TJXvOov etKoo-rw ere'i es KrA. (6 times in <strong>the</strong> Od.).<br />
So in Auuri 8e /xdAtora, 'Obvcroiji 8e /xaAto-ra, &c. and <strong>the</strong> fixed<br />
epi<strong>the</strong>t Att
375-] SHORT FINAL SYLLABLES. 347<br />
irartpi, ffdfcei, erfi. Hence it is probable that <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning dates from <strong>the</strong><br />
Indo-European language, and is not due in <strong>the</strong> first instance to <strong>the</strong> requirements<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hexameter. But in such a case as 'OSvaarji it may be that <strong>the</strong><br />
Greek poet treats it as a license, which he takes advantage <strong>of</strong> in order to avoid<br />
<strong>the</strong> impossible quantities v w (cp. oi^vpurepos for <strong>the</strong> unmetrical oi<br />
374.] Final a. The metrical considerations which lead us to<br />
recognise -I in <strong>the</strong> Dat. Sing, might be urged, though with less<br />
force, in favour <strong>of</strong> an original -d as <strong>the</strong> ending <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Neut.<br />
Plur. We have<br />
II. 5. 745 (<br />
= 8.<br />
389) S 5' oxea Krat.<br />
24- 7 oTToa'a roAvTreixre.<br />
Od. 9. 109 arrTrapra Kal avr\pora.<br />
12. 396 oTrraAe'a re Kat a>/>ta.<br />
14. 343 pooyaA.e'a, ra Kat avro'j.<br />
23. 225 apt^)pa6ea Kare'Aefaj.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se instances, however, <strong>the</strong> final a is<br />
preceded by <strong>the</strong> vowel e, from which it was originally separated<br />
by a spirant (o;(e-(r~a, Tropc^vpe-t-a). Cp. II. I. 45 aju^r/pe^e'a re<br />
(frapcTpriv, 5- 576 rTvAat/oieVea eAerrjzJ, 5- 827 "Aprja TO ye, 14. 329<br />
flepo-^d TtavTutv, Od. I. 40 ex yap 'OpeVrao rtVt?. As two successive<br />
vowels are <strong>of</strong>ten found to interchange <strong>the</strong>ir quantity<br />
(fiaorikrja, /Sao-tAe'd), so perhaps, even when <strong>the</strong> first vowel retains<br />
its metrical value, <strong>the</strong>re may be a slight transference' <strong>of</strong><br />
quantity, sufficient to allow <strong>the</strong> final vowel, when reinforced by<br />
<strong>the</strong> ictus, to count as a long syllable. Cp. 375, 3.<br />
The scanning la (in II. 4. 321 et roVe Kovpos ea vvv KrA., cp.<br />
5. 887, Od. 14. 352) may be explained by transference <strong>of</strong> quantity,<br />
from rfa.<br />
375.] Short syllables ending in a consonant are also occasionally<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ned in arsis, although <strong>the</strong> next word begins with<br />
a vowel : as<br />
ovre TTOT' es TroAejuto^ a/xa Aaw<br />
aW oc^eAes ayovos r e/xerat KrA.<br />
Xepo-tz> VTr3 'Apyetooy (^^tjite^os tv 7rarp^8t yat'r/.<br />
The circumstances under which this metrical leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
is<br />
generally found differ remarkably, as has been recently
348 METRE.<br />
[375.<br />
shown,* from those which prevail where short final vowels are<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ned before an initial consonant. In those cases, as we<br />
saw (<br />
371), <strong>the</strong> rule is that <strong>the</strong> two words are closely connected,<br />
usually in a set phrase or piece <strong>of</strong> epic commonplace. In <strong>the</strong><br />
examples now in question <strong>the</strong> words are <strong>of</strong>ten separated by <strong>the</strong><br />
punctuation and where this is not <strong>the</strong> case it will : usually be<br />
found that <strong>the</strong>re is a slight pause. In half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> instances <strong>the</strong><br />
words are separated by <strong>the</strong> pen<strong>the</strong>mimeral caesura, which always<br />
marks a pause in <strong>the</strong> rhythm. Fur<strong>the</strong>r, this leng<strong>the</strong>ning is<br />
only found in <strong>the</strong> syllable with <strong>the</strong> ictus. The explanation,<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore, must be sought ei<strong>the</strong>r in <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ictus, or in<br />
<strong>the</strong> pause (which necessarily adds something to <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> a<br />
preceding syllable),<br />
or in <strong>the</strong> combination <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se two causes.<br />
In some instances, however, a different account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> matter<br />
has to be given<br />
: in particular<br />
(1) With ? existed in <strong>Homeric</strong> times : but <strong>the</strong> habit <strong>of</strong> treating<br />
a preceding syllable as long by Position survived in <strong>the</strong> group<br />
<strong>of</strong> phrases. O<strong>the</strong>rs explain this
376.] ELISION. 349<br />
In Homer<br />
vowel, as in <strong>the</strong> Attic forms pavikta, 'AxiAAe'co?, &c.<br />
that <strong>the</strong> second <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two vowels borrows some<br />
we may suppose<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> quantity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r, so that with <strong>the</strong> help <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ictus it<br />
Actual leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> second<br />
can form <strong>the</strong> arsis <strong>of</strong> a foot.<br />
vowel may be seen in Homer in <strong>the</strong> form a7r-7Ja>pos' hanging loose<br />
(cp. /zer-TJopos and <strong>the</strong> later /xer-oopo?) also in bva-arj^v (Gen. Plur.<br />
<strong>of</strong> bvcrarjs).<br />
(4) In <strong>the</strong> Ending -ou> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dual, as &potiv (II. 13. 51 1., 16.<br />
560, Od. 6. 219), twouVt a-TaOfjLOuv also in : v&'Cv, crcfr&'iv.<br />
We<br />
may compare <strong>the</strong> doubtful i <strong>of</strong> fjiuv, vjuv, and <strong>the</strong> two forms <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Dat. Plur. in Latin (-Ms, -Ms). Similarly <strong>the</strong>re are traces<br />
<strong>of</strong> t in fiic (II. 5. 385., 6. 501 10.<br />
., 347., ii. 376, &c.).<br />
In <strong>the</strong><br />
case <strong>of</strong> -oi'if and -one <strong>the</strong> account given under <strong>the</strong> last head<br />
would apply.<br />
In a few places it appears as though <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. <strong>of</strong> Secondary Tenses in -v<br />
(for -VT) were allowed to be long: as fyav diriovres (Od. 9. 413), KO! tcvveov<br />
dyaira6}tevoi (Od. 17. 35, &c.), &c. This is confined (curiously enough) to <strong>the</strong><br />
Odyssey and <strong>the</strong> Catalogue <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ships. In <strong>the</strong> latter it occurs seven times :<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey eleven times, in <strong>the</strong> rest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad once (7. 206).<br />
Elision, Crasis, fyc.<br />
376.] A final vowel cut <strong>of</strong>f before a word beginning with a<br />
vowel is said to suffer Elision (eK0A.i\/as)<br />
: as jj.vpC 'Amatols aXyz'<br />
eflr/Ke.<br />
Whe<strong>the</strong>r an elided vowel was entirely silent, or merely<br />
slurred over in such a way that it did not form a distinct syllable,<br />
is a question which can hardly be determined.<br />
The vowels that are generally liable to elision are a, e, o, i.<br />
But<br />
is not elided,<br />
(1) The o <strong>of</strong> 6, TO, irpo<br />
Final -o is not elided in <strong>the</strong> Gen. endings -ou>, -do, and very<br />
rarely in <strong>the</strong> Pronouns e/xeio, &c. This however may be merely<br />
because <strong>the</strong> later forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se endings, viz. -ou, -ew, -eu, took<br />
<strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> -oi'(o), -d'(o), -*i'(o)<br />
when a vowel followed. In <strong>the</strong><br />
case <strong>of</strong> ao this supposition is borne out by <strong>the</strong> fact that -eu is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten found before a vowel, as nrjArjiadeo) 'AxtArjo? (/. ITr;A.r]ta6a')<br />
:<br />
and by <strong>the</strong> rarity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> contraction <strong>of</strong> eo to eu ( 378*). There<br />
is less to be said for elision <strong>of</strong> -o in <strong>the</strong> ending -oio. That ending<br />
in Homer is archaic ( 149), <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong> presumption is against<br />
emendations which increase <strong>the</strong> frequency <strong>of</strong> its occurrence. And<br />
<strong>the</strong> cases <strong>of</strong> -ou remaining long before hiatus are not exceptionally<br />
common (Hartel, H. S. ii. 6).<br />
(2) The t <strong>of</strong> TI, irept is not elided in Homer; regarding on see<br />
269. But irepi is elided in Hesiod : as Trepotxerat, Trept'axe.<br />
(3) The -t <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat. Sing, is rarely elided; but see 105, T.<br />
Exceptions are to be seen in II. 4. 259 778' tv 8ai0' ore KrA. ; 5. 5
350 METRE. [377.<br />
acrre'p' O7ra>piz>(3 KrA. ; II. 3. 349., IO. 277., 12. 88., 16. 385., 17.<br />
45, 324., 23. 693., 24. 26, Od. 5. 62, 398., 10. 106., 13. 35., 15.<br />
364., 19. 480. The i <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dat. Plur. is <strong>of</strong>ten elided in <strong>the</strong><br />
First and Second Declensions, and in <strong>the</strong> forms in -ao-t <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Third Declension. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, elision is very rare in <strong>the</strong><br />
forms in -ai<br />
OVK efleAovo-rj; 13. 481 KCL{ p oto> afjLVvtrt (so Od. 4. 367); 17. IOO<br />
TO) n' ov TLS VfjLo-^arTai : also II. I. 1 7o., 9. 673., 13. 544v 2 3-<br />
310, 579, Od. i. 60, 347., 23. 21 (Cobet, Misc. Grit. p. 345).<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r instances may be recovered by conjecture : thus in II. 3.<br />
173 o>s <strong>of</strong>atev Odvaros /ixot<br />
abeiv should probably be eAez><br />
OdvciTos abeew ( 365) and in ; II. 24. 757 vvv be /xot epo-TJets<br />
Van<br />
Leeuwen reads vvv dt p eepo-?]et9.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enclitic ol ('fot)<br />
elision involved <strong>the</strong> disappearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronoun from <strong>the</strong> later text. In II. 6. 289 = (<br />
Od. 15. 105)<br />
1-vO' eAe
378*.] SYNIZESIS CONTRACTION. 351<br />
metre we cannot but suspect that <strong>the</strong> spelling with Crasis may<br />
be due to later usage. The forms jcd/cei^o?, KaKeure, &c. (for<br />
KOI Ktlvos, &c.) are certainly wrong, as CKZIVOS is not <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
form.<br />
378.] Synizesis is <strong>the</strong> term used when <strong>the</strong> two coalescing<br />
vowels are written in full, but ' 3<br />
sink toge<strong>the</strong>r (vvviavu>}<br />
into<br />
one syllable<br />
in pronunciation.<br />
The Particle<br />
r\<br />
unites with <strong>the</strong> initial vowel <strong>of</strong> a following<br />
vowel, especially with av, CLVTOS and OVTMS ( 350) ;<br />
also with<br />
'Amjudxoio (II.<br />
II. 138), d^eioYaros (II. 2O. 23OJ, dyprjv (Od.<br />
12. 330). ^<br />
Synizesis is also found with if, in <strong>the</strong> combination 77 oi>x (II. 5-<br />
439, &c.), ri tls 6 Kev (II. 5. 466), ri efafyevat, (Od. 4. 682) ; with<br />
eirei ou (Od. 4. 352, &c.) ;<br />
with JAY)<br />
aXXoi (Od. 4. 165); and in<br />
II. 17. 89 do-/3e'oT(i)- ovb' vlbv \a0ev 'Arpeoj: where we may<br />
perhaps read da-/3eW'<br />
ovb' via Xa0' 'Arpeoj.<br />
18. 458 wet /x(5 &KV[jL6p
352 METRE. [37 8 *-<br />
I. Contraction is most readily admitted between similar<br />
sounds, or when <strong>the</strong> second is <strong>of</strong> hig'her vowel pitch, i. e. higher<br />
in <strong>the</strong> scale o, w, a, YJ,<br />
c. Thus we have many instances with<br />
<strong>the</strong> combinations ee, oo, ae, oe ;<br />
few with ea, aw, ao, still fewer<br />
With W, 0.<br />
2,. In most cases in which contraction is freely admitted we<br />
find that <strong>the</strong> sound which originally separated <strong>the</strong> vowels was<br />
<strong>the</strong> semi-vowel t or y. In case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> or it is<br />
comparatively<br />
rare ;<br />
with F it is probably not <strong>Homeric</strong> at all ( 396).<br />
Hence (e. g.) although it is common with <strong>the</strong> combinations ee,<br />
eel in most Verbs in -eo> ( 56), it is not found in x^ (x 6^"^)<br />
and is extremely rare in rpea> (rpeo--a), see 29, 6).<br />
But it is<br />
admitted with loss <strong>of</strong> from stems in -co-, as<br />
(a) On <strong>the</strong>se principles we should expect <strong>the</strong> 2 Sing, endings -eat, -co, -rjai,<br />
-ao (for -fffat, &c. )<br />
to remain uncontraeted ;<br />
and this view is borne out on <strong>the</strong><br />
whole by <strong>the</strong> very careful investigation made by J. van Leeuwen. Omitting<br />
<strong>the</strong> Verbs in -cuo and -ecu we find that <strong>the</strong>re are about 522 occurrences <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />
endings, and that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se 434 present uncontracted forms : while in 66<br />
instances <strong>the</strong> contracted syllable comes before a vowel, so that it can be<br />
written with elision <strong>of</strong> -01 or -o (e.g. II. 3. 138 KtitXijat O.KOITIS, for KK\r) for fipa-to. The metre requires aiStTo, cupeo, eA.eo,<br />
iTwXfai ;<br />
for ireipa it allows ireipdcu (becoming irfipa.' in II. 24. 390, 433, Od. 4.<br />
545). The isolated form o/^cu (Od. 14. 343) for opa-eat should perhaps be<br />
opdai or upda. If <strong>the</strong> ending is in its original form it belongs to <strong>the</strong> Non-<br />
Thematic conjugation ( 19) ano<strong>the</strong>r example may be found in : oprjro (or<br />
oprjro}, read by Zenodotus in II. i. 56,<br />
(c) In <strong>the</strong> Future in -eo> (for -etrca) contraction is less frequent than in <strong>the</strong><br />
Present <strong>of</strong> Verbs in -ea> (-(tea or -etricy).<br />
Forms such as 6\e?Tcu, Ka^eirat, paxfirai,<br />
dfjLeirai, KOfjiiw, KTfpiw, KTepiovai, evidently could not o<strong>the</strong>rwise come into <strong>the</strong><br />
verse. In II. 17. 451 atywiv 8' kv fovvtaat (3a\w we may read /3aA
378*0 CONTRACTION. 353<br />
II. 4. 161 eK re Kal 6\f;e re\ei we should take re\ei as a Present. The remaining<br />
exceptions are, KreveT in II. 15. 65, 68 (probably an interpolation), KaraKrevei<br />
in II. 23. 412, and eK(paveiin II. 19. 104.<br />
(d) Similarly in <strong>the</strong> declension <strong>of</strong> stems in -e
354 METRE. [378*.<br />
always be atieav :<br />
art] (afarrf) may be written darij except in II. 19. 8S<br />
typeali' en(3a\ov dypiov aTrjv (where <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> dypiov as a Fern, is also anomalous,<br />
119). In II. 3. 100., 6. 356., 24. 28 (where arys comes at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> line)<br />
<strong>the</strong> better reading is apx^s. KotXos may be KOI\OS (cp. Lat. cavus], except<br />
in Od. 22. 385. elSov (e-^tSov) may be ZiSov, except in four places (II. n. 112.,<br />
19. 292, Od. 10. 194., ii. 162). iroXtas (Ace. Plur. <strong>of</strong> iro\vs) is not uncommon,<br />
but should probably be TTO\VS ( 100) : iroXlyv occurs once (II. 16. 655). O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
instances with Nouns in -vs and -cvs are rare (Nauck, Mel. gr.-rom. iii. 219;<br />
Menrad, p. 60). The Fern, in -eta is not contracted from -e/7ct,<br />
-ei'ct but comes<br />
directly from -efta. So otos, olwv for <strong>of</strong>i-os, bfi-wv (cp. Sfffcri for 6i-e, o ( 393 \<br />
On <strong>the</strong> whole <strong>the</strong>y are too few and isolated to be <strong>of</strong> weight against <strong>the</strong><br />
general usage <strong>of</strong> Homer.<br />
The general result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enquiry seems to be that <strong>the</strong> harshness<br />
<strong>of</strong> a synizesis or a contraction is a matter admitting <strong>of</strong><br />
many degrees. With some combinations <strong>of</strong> vowels contraction<br />
is hardly avoided, with o<strong>the</strong>rs it is only resorted to in case <strong>of</strong><br />
necessity. We have already seen that <strong>the</strong> rules as to leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
by Position ( 370) are <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same elastic character. And as <strong>the</strong>re<br />
is hardly any rule <strong>of</strong> Position that may not be overborne by <strong>the</strong><br />
desire <strong>of</strong> bringing certain words into <strong>the</strong> verse,<br />
so <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
contraction that may not be excused by a sufficiently cogent<br />
metrical necessity. Thus <strong>the</strong> synizesis in such words as 4 Irrrtata ;<br />
AlyuiTTLovs, xpvcrtoLai stands on <strong>the</strong> same footing as <strong>the</strong> neglect<br />
<strong>of</strong> Position with SnaiJiavbpos or (TKeirapvov<br />
: and again <strong>the</strong> synizesis<br />
in rejuez^ea, acri^eaj, or <strong>the</strong> contraction in 'novtviJi.tvos, a^^)i-<br />
(3a\V(jiai is like <strong>the</strong> shortening <strong>of</strong> a vowel before irpoo-rjvba,<br />
or <strong>the</strong> purely metrical leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> a short vowel ( 386).<br />
On <strong>the</strong> same principles harshness <strong>of</strong> metre may be tolerated<br />
for <strong>the</strong> sake <strong>of</strong> a familiar phrase<br />
:<br />
e.g. <strong>the</strong> hiatus a
3 8 -]<br />
HIATUS. 355<br />
II. 13. 22 (afyQiTov ael in II. 2. 46, 186., 14. 238). So when <strong>the</strong><br />
formula /cat fj.iv $(*>vr\(ras eVea KT\. is used <strong>of</strong> a goddess (II. 15.<br />
35, 89) it becomes Kai }JLLV (/xouTJo-ao-a eVea. Again <strong>the</strong> harsh<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ning in juiepoTres avtipovnoi (II.<br />
18. 288, at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
line) is due to <strong>the</strong> familiar Hiatus.<br />
379.] Hiatus is a term which is used by writers on metre in<br />
more than one sense. It will be convenient here to apply<br />
it to<br />
every case in which a word ending with a vowel or diphthong is<br />
followed by a word beginning with a vowel, and <strong>the</strong> two vowelsounds<br />
are not merged toge<strong>the</strong>r (as by elision, crasis, &c.)<br />
so as<br />
to form one syllable for <strong>the</strong> metre.<br />
It would be more scientific, perhaps, to understand <strong>the</strong> word<br />
Hiatus as implying that <strong>the</strong> two vowels are separated by a<br />
break or stoppage <strong>of</strong> vocal sound, so that <strong>the</strong> second begins with<br />
ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> rough or <strong>the</strong> smooth ' breathing/ Thus it would be<br />
opposed to every form <strong>of</strong> diphthong (including synizesis\ <strong>the</strong><br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> which is that <strong>the</strong> two vowels are slurred<br />
toge<strong>the</strong>r, by shifting <strong>the</strong> position <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>org</strong>ans without any<br />
perceptible interruption <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> current <strong>of</strong> breath. This definition,,<br />
however, might exclude <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> a long vowel or diphthong<br />
shortened before an initial vowel (as TTJV b' eyo> ov y<br />
where <strong>the</strong><br />
final o> seems to be partly merged in <strong>the</strong> following ou). Again<br />
when a final i or u comes before a vowel without suffering<br />
elision, it is probable that <strong>the</strong> corresponding ' semi-vowel = '<br />
our<br />
(<br />
y or w) is developed from <strong>the</strong> vowel-sound, and prevents complete<br />
hiatus.<br />
380.] Long vowels before Hiatus. The general rule is that<br />
a long final vowel or diphthong coming before a vowel forms a<br />
short syllable in <strong>the</strong> metre. This shortening is very common in<br />
Homer: cp. II. I. 299 o#re o-ot ovre ro> aAA.o>, ercet /crA., where<br />
it occurs in three successive feet.<br />
But <strong>the</strong> natural quantity may be retained before hiatus when<br />
<strong>the</strong> vowel is in <strong>the</strong> arsis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> foot, as 'ArpefSry 'Aya/ute'jutyozn, 6s K<br />
enrol OTL KT\. And in a few instances a long vowel or diphthong<br />
is allowed to remain long in <strong>the</strong>sis, as II. 1 .<br />
39 ^fjuvOev' et -rror*'<br />
rot KrA.<br />
The readiness with which long syllables are allowed before<br />
hiatus varies with <strong>the</strong> several long vowels and diphthongs;<br />
partly also it depends on <strong>the</strong> pauses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sense.<br />
The long diphthongs (as <strong>the</strong>y may be called),<br />
viz. YJ<br />
and w,<br />
are <strong>the</strong> most capable <strong>of</strong> resisting <strong>the</strong> shortening influence <strong>of</strong><br />
hiatus ;<br />
next to <strong>the</strong>m are eu and ou, and <strong>the</strong> long vowels KJ<br />
and<br />
w : while ei, 01 and ai are at <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> scale. A<br />
A a 2
356 METRE. [381.<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> this may be gained by observing how <strong>of</strong>ten each <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong>se terminations is<br />
long before a vowel, and comparing <strong>the</strong><br />
number with <strong>the</strong> total number <strong>of</strong> times that <strong>the</strong> same termination<br />
occurs. Thus it appears that out <strong>of</strong> every 100 instances<br />
<strong>of</strong> final u, it is long before hiatus about 23 times. Similarly<br />
final -YJ is<br />
long 19 times, -eu 6-7 times, -ou 6 times, -i\ 5-7<br />
times, -o> 4 times, -ei r8 times, -01 i'6 times, and -s ore KrA., Od. 1 1 .<br />
1 88 aypo>, ovde KrA. ;<br />
or after <strong>the</strong> fourth foot (in <strong>the</strong> Bucolic<br />
diaeresis).<br />
381.] Shortening <strong>of</strong> diphthongs before Hiatus. Regarding<br />
<strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> process by which a diphthong before hiatus was<br />
reduced to <strong>the</strong> time or metrical value <strong>of</strong> a short syllable two<br />
probable views have been maintained.<br />
I . Curtius holds that whenever long syllables are shortened by<br />
<strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> hiatus something <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> Elision takes<br />
place. Thus rj<br />
and w lose <strong>the</strong> second half <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vowel sound,<br />
while at, ei,<br />
01 lose <strong>the</strong> t. In support <strong>of</strong> this he points to <strong>the</strong><br />
facts <strong>of</strong> Crasis : thus KCU eyco in becoming Kayo> may be supposed<br />
to pass through <strong>the</strong> stage<br />
KCI eyoo.<br />
2.<br />
According to an older view, which has been revived and<br />
defended with great ingenuity by Hartel,* <strong>the</strong> i or u in a<br />
diphthong is turned into <strong>the</strong> corresponding spirant so that<br />
; /cat<br />
eyco becomes Ka-t-eyco,<br />
and CK HvXov eA0o)ZJ becomes K YIvXo-F-<br />
It is certainly<br />
in favour <strong>of</strong> this latter supposition that it does<br />
not oblige us to suppose <strong>the</strong> frequent elision <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two vowels<br />
which in general are <strong>the</strong> least liable to be elided. The explanation<br />
however is not a complete one. It does not account for <strong>the</strong><br />
shortening <strong>of</strong> and<br />
YJ w, which on <strong>the</strong> principle assumed by H artel<br />
would become T)*, on. On <strong>the</strong> whole it seems most probable that<br />
<strong>the</strong> shortening in question was effected, for diphthongs as well as<br />
for simple long vowels, by a process in which ancient <strong>grammar</strong>ians<br />
would have recognised ra<strong>the</strong>r ' Synizesis ' viz. <strong>the</strong><br />
slurring <strong>of</strong> vowels toge<strong>the</strong>r without complete loss <strong>of</strong> any sound<br />
* Ilomerische Studien, iii. pp. 7 ff
383.] HIATUS DOUBTFUL SYLLABLES. 357<br />
than ei<strong>the</strong>r Elision or Contraction. And this conclusion is supported<br />
by <strong>the</strong> general tendencies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ionic <strong>dialect</strong>, which was<br />
especially tolerant <strong>of</strong> hiatus, and allowed numerous combinations<br />
<strong>of</strong> vowels, such as ca, eo, ew, coi, to have <strong>the</strong> value ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> one<br />
syllable or two.*<br />
382.] Hiatus after short syllables. The vowels which are<br />
not liable to elision may generally stand before hiatus : thus<br />
we find fao-rrjpi aprjpori ( 376, 3), irpb 68oi5, irpb 'A^atwz;, avrap 6<br />
ejutjote/utacos, krapoio evrjtos, and <strong>the</strong> like.<br />
Hiatus is also tolerated occasionally in <strong>the</strong> pauses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verse :<br />
(i)<br />
In <strong>the</strong> trochaic caesura <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> third foot : as<br />
II. I.<br />
569 Kat p aKOV(ra KaOrj&To, ^TTiyvd^acra KT\.<br />
Od. 3. 175 T(JLVLVt 0(f)pa TOL\L(TT<br />
(3)<br />
In <strong>the</strong> Bucolic diaeresis : as<br />
II. 8. 66 o
358 METRE. [384-<br />
Under <strong>the</strong> heading <strong>of</strong> ' doubtful vowels '<br />
should be classed, not<br />
only <strong>the</strong> words in which <strong>the</strong> same letter may stand ei<strong>the</strong>r for a<br />
long- or a short vowel, as "Aprjs, durjp,<br />
but also those in which <strong>the</strong><br />
change is shown by <strong>the</strong> i.<br />
spelling, e. in which a short vowel<br />
interchanges with a long vowel or diphthong as vos and :<br />
vrjos,<br />
OVOIMCL and owo/ma, &c. And with <strong>the</strong>se variations, again, we<br />
may place, as at least kindred phenomena, <strong>the</strong> doubtful syllables<br />
which arise from <strong>the</strong> interchange <strong>of</strong> single and double consonants<br />
: 'Obvo-a-evs and 'OSvo-ev?, 'AxiAAev? and 'A)(iA.e7;9.<br />
As<br />
we speak <strong>of</strong> doubtful vowels, <strong>the</strong>se might similarly be called<br />
'<br />
doubtful consonants/<br />
In all such words <strong>the</strong> variation <strong>of</strong> quantity may ei<strong>the</strong>r mean<br />
that <strong>the</strong>re were two distinct forms between which <strong>the</strong> poet had<br />
a choice, or that <strong>the</strong> quantity as it existed in <strong>the</strong> spoken language<br />
was in fact intermediate. The former case would usually arise<br />
when a vowel or syllable which had come to be short in <strong>the</strong><br />
spoken language was allowed to retain its older quantity as a<br />
poetical archaism. In <strong>the</strong> latter case <strong>the</strong> poet could give <strong>the</strong><br />
syllable ei<strong>the</strong>r metrical value or<br />
; (as<br />
in so many instances) he<br />
might treat <strong>the</strong> syllable as ordinarily short, but capable <strong>of</strong> being<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ned by <strong>the</strong> ictus, or by <strong>the</strong> pauses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verse.<br />
384.] Doubtful vowels appear to rise chiefly in two ways:<br />
(i)<br />
vowel : viz.<br />
By <strong>the</strong> shortening <strong>of</strong> a long vowel or diphthong before a<br />
a, in tAaos (a in II. i. 583, a in II. 9. 639., 19. 178).<br />
t),<br />
in <strong>the</strong> oblique cases <strong>of</strong> vrjvs (except <strong>the</strong> Dat. vrj't)<br />
and <strong>of</strong><br />
several Nouns in -eus, as IlrjATJos, UrjXtos<br />
: <strong>the</strong> forms rjfarcu<br />
and earat (rj^ai): dqbjry and d^erj ( 80); rjvs and tvs,<br />
\rfioToi and XcfrmJ (II. 9. 408)<br />
; perhaps also in prjiKes,<br />
677109, rfia, which shorten v\<br />
when <strong>the</strong> case-ending is naturally<br />
long (0pT}fjca>p, 7710)1;, ?)uoi>, &c. scanned w w ,<br />
unless we<br />
suppose contraction or synizesis).<br />
t, in leposj Kovirj, Xir\v : Comparatives in -iw : Patronymics, as<br />
Kpoviav : to/zez;, fy/xi (d^tei, &c.), tatro), and Verbs in -iw, as<br />
ruo, duo<br />
(51, i) probably also in <strong>the</strong> abstract Nouns in<br />
:<br />
-ir],<br />
<strong>the</strong> i<br />
being treated as long in vTrepoTrAtr/, TrpoOv^irj,<br />
i>7roeti7, ari/u?;, aKO/^toTtry.<br />
u, in Verbs in -uw (51, 4).<br />
cj, in Tjfpcoos (<br />
w ^ in Od. 6. 303) : T^O), leg. rjpa'i (II. 7. 453).<br />
ai, in act for atet, e/uTrcuos (<br />
w w in Od. 20. 379), and <strong>the</strong> Compound<br />
^afjiaievvaL, x a f JLCLLevv^ s ' a^so Verbs in -
384.] DOUBTFUL VOWELS. 359<br />
in i, coKe'a, /Safo'rjj (for co/ceia, (3a0Lr]s) Adjectives in : -eioy, as<br />
d \d\Kios and )(aAKoy peia and pea : : TrAetoj;, &c. and<br />
7rAe'oi>es :<br />
/3eto/xai and fito^ai ( 80), and many Verbs in<br />
-*> ( 5i, 3)-<br />
01, in oAoo's and dAoio's ;<br />
also olos (^ ^), as in II. 13. 275 otd'<br />
cu,<br />
dperV olos ea- XP*~)<br />
See Appendix C.<br />
Sometimes ei has taken <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> eu before ano<strong>the</strong>r vowel,<br />
as in <strong>the</strong> Verbs 0o, wveo), TrAeco, x e/co ^Aeco<br />
? ( 29, 3).<br />
also in<br />
Aet<strong>of</strong>o-t, Dat. Plur. <strong>of</strong> Xecoi; (Aei^oz;<br />
or AeFay), and perhaps in <strong>the</strong><br />
Pf. euo#a (cp.<br />
veOa>K Hesych.), doiKvlai (II. 18. 418). Similarly<br />
a may stand for au, as (^dea ^# ($at>-), dijp (cp. avpa) and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
derivatives <strong>of</strong> aFrjfju (dAta?}?, d/cp-d?js), deVa/xei' w^ ^ej!?^ (tawco),<br />
aacrafjiriv (aFary), and probably juie^aorej, dt'ozj, detSw, v A't'8oj. We<br />
even find 01 for ou (from <strong>of</strong>),<br />
in otereas for d-fereas o/" /^ a^<br />
(II. 2. 765), Trvoirj for Trr<strong>of</strong>rj : cp. ot'ey (- w ^ in Od. 9. 42.5).<br />
T] for eu may perhaps be seen in ?)et8r]y, 7]et8et (e-fetSea?, -ee) :<br />
but see <strong>the</strong> explanation suggested in 67, 3.<br />
Interchange <strong>of</strong> quantity is occasionally found : oWo^ez;,<br />
Krecojmer, (/>^eo)/oiey for o-r?]o/xey, &c. ( 80) : ecoj and reco? (if <strong>the</strong>se<br />
forms are <strong>Homeric</strong>) for ^oj and rrjos.<br />
So <strong>the</strong> Gen. ending -eo>,<br />
for -do (-rjo).<br />
(2) By compensatory leng<strong>the</strong>ning, <strong>of</strong><br />
e to ei, in etz;o? (gevFos) but ^67, /cetro'j and KCVOS, irelpap and<br />
Tiepas (aTretpeVtoj), eimros, etreKa.<br />
o to ou, JJLOVVOS (but fj,ov(i)6ti$<br />
II. II. 470)<br />
; oupoy ( watcher] but<br />
op-da) : ovpea and opos (dpfos ?).<br />
a in Trape'xfl (Trap-o-exa)),<br />
Od. 19. 1 13 ; u in crvvexes, H. 12. 26.<br />
Under this head we should place double forms arising by Epen<strong>the</strong>sis,<br />
as e'rapoj<br />
and Iratpo? (for rap-tos)<br />
:<br />
z^t,<br />
e/^ and etz\<br />
But aTrepeiVios boundless should be d7rep?ja-tos,<br />
from ^Trepi] (ir^prjv).<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r variations, <strong>of</strong> which no general account can be given,<br />
are seen in "Aprjs, avr\p, djudw / reap (d generally in <strong>the</strong> simple<br />
Verb, d in <strong>the</strong> compounds) ;
360 METRE.<br />
[385.<br />
being- long without <strong>the</strong> help <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ictus are, apr\, aX&vai (<br />
with a in II. 5- 4^7)> Trph') i^ds, TT leaver KM.<br />
385.] Double consonants, causing doubtful syllables: chiefly<br />
in <strong>the</strong> First Aorist o-o-, ( 39, and i), Dat. Plur. ( 102) also<br />
;<br />
y<br />
Obv(raVs. So for<br />
ocro-os, jueVo-os, re/meo-traco (where O-CT=:TI),<br />
to-curt (<br />
-- w) we should write to-o-aa-t (for id-o-ao-t, 7, 3).<br />
XX, in 'AxtAAevs.<br />
KK, in TreAeKKw = (KK K/: ?) ; cp. Tre'AeKUj.<br />
As to inr and TT, in o-n-Trcos, orrt, &c. see 108, 2.<br />
386.] Metrical licence. In a few cases <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> a vowel as<br />
long appears to be merely due to <strong>the</strong> necessities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> metre.<br />
Such are :<br />
a in aOdvaros, aKajuiaros, cnroz/e'eo^ai, a-jroSuojuat, ayopaao-0e.<br />
e in fTTLTovos (Od. 12. 423), (etyvplr] (Od. 7. 119).<br />
i in IIptajuudT]?, 8ta (in<br />
e re.
389-] DIGAMMA. 361<br />
The reason may be found (as Hartel thinks*) in <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Vocative as an interruption <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natural flow <strong>of</strong> a sentence.<br />
It is very possible, however, that <strong>the</strong> Nominative ought to be<br />
read in <strong>the</strong>se places<br />
: see 164.<br />
The Digamma.<br />
388.] In seeking to arrive at general conclusions as to <strong>the</strong><br />
rules and structure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> hexameter, it was necessary<br />
to leave out <strong>of</strong> sight all <strong>the</strong> words whose metrical form is<br />
uncertain on account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> possible or probable loss <strong>of</strong> an<br />
initial consonant. It is time to return to this disturbing<br />
element <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enquiry.<br />
The scholars who first wrote on this subject had few materials<br />
for <strong>the</strong>ir investigations outside <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> poems. To <strong>the</strong>m,<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore, <strong>the</strong> ' Digamma ' was little more than a symbol <strong>the</strong><br />
unknown cause <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> metrical anomalies. In <strong>the</strong> present<br />
state <strong>of</strong> etymological knowledge <strong>the</strong> order <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enquiry<br />
has been to a great extent reversed. It is known in most cases<br />
which <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original sounds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indo-European languages<br />
have been lost in Greek, and where in each word <strong>the</strong> loss has<br />
taken place. Hence we now come to Homer with this knowledge<br />
already in our possession. Instead <strong>of</strong> asking what sounds<br />
are wanting, we have only to ask whe<strong>the</strong>r certain sounds, <strong>of</strong><br />
whose former existence we have no doubt, were still living at<br />
<strong>the</strong> time when <strong>the</strong> poems were composed, and how far <strong>the</strong>y can<br />
be traced in <strong>the</strong>ir effect on <strong>the</strong> versification.<br />
389.] Nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> evidence from metre. The questions<br />
which are suggested by <strong>the</strong> discovery in Homer <strong>of</strong> traces <strong>of</strong> a<br />
lost ' Digamma ' cannot be answered without some reference to<br />
<strong>the</strong> very exceptional circumstances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text.<br />
Whatever may be <strong>the</strong> date at which writing was first used<br />
in Greece for literary purposes, <strong>the</strong>re can be no doubt that <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> poems were chiefly<br />
known for some centuries through<br />
<strong>the</strong> medium <strong>of</strong> oral recitation, and that it was not till <strong>the</strong> time<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Alexandrian <strong>grammar</strong>ians that adequate materials were<br />
brought toge<strong>the</strong>r for <strong>the</strong> study and correction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text.<br />
Accordingly when <strong>the</strong>se scholars began to collect and compare<br />
<strong>the</strong> manuscripts <strong>of</strong> Homer, <strong>the</strong>y found <strong>the</strong>mselves engaged in a<br />
problem <strong>of</strong> great complexity. The various readings, to judge<br />
from <strong>the</strong> brief notices <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m preserved in <strong>the</strong> Sctiolia, were<br />
very numerous; and <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong> a kind which must be<br />
attributed to failure <strong>of</strong> memory, or <strong>the</strong> licence <strong>of</strong> oral recita-<br />
And <strong>the</strong> amount <strong>of</strong><br />
tion, ra<strong>the</strong>r than to errors <strong>of</strong> transcription.<br />
* Homerische Studien, i. p. 64.
362 METRE. [389.<br />
interpolation must have been considerable, if <strong>the</strong>re was any ground<br />
for <strong>the</strong> suspicions so <strong>of</strong>ten expressed by <strong>the</strong> ancient critics.<br />
It follows from <strong>the</strong>se circumstances that an attempt to restore<br />
<strong>the</strong> lost F throughout <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Homer cannot be expected to<br />
succeed. Such an attempt necessarily proceeds on <strong>the</strong> assumption<br />
that <strong>the</strong> text which we have is sound as far as it goes, or<br />
that it is so nearly right that we can recover <strong>the</strong> original by<br />
conjecture. With an imperfect text <strong>the</strong> process can only be<br />
approximate. We may be satisfied if <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> failure<br />
is not greater than <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text would lead us to<br />
expect.<br />
The loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F-sound, moreover, must have been itself a<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> textual corruption. It led to irregularities<br />
<strong>of</strong> metre,<br />
especially to frequent hiatus, and <strong>the</strong>re would be a constant<br />
tendency to cure <strong>the</strong>se defects by some slight change. The<br />
insertion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> v ^^KVCTTIKOV was almost a matter <strong>of</strong> course<br />
(see however 391). The numerous alternative forms used in<br />
<strong>the</strong> poetical language, and <strong>the</strong> abundance <strong>of</strong> short Particles such<br />
as ye, T, pa, &c. made it easy to disguise <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> F in many<br />
places. We cannot be surprised, <strong>the</strong>refore, if we have <strong>of</strong>ten to<br />
make <strong>the</strong> reverse changes.<br />
A few instances will serve to show <strong>the</strong> existence in pre-Alexandrian times<br />
<strong>of</strong> corruption arising from <strong>the</strong> tendency to repair defects <strong>of</strong> metre.<br />
In II. 9. 73 <strong>the</strong> MSS. have iroXeco-o-t 8' dvdoxreis, Aristarchus read -rroXIcrtv<br />
ydp dvdoro-ets. Both are evidently derived from iroXeonv 84 dvdoro-cis (i e.<br />
favdcro-cis), corrected in two different ways.<br />
In II. 13. 107 <strong>the</strong> MSS. have vvv 8' ?Ka06v, <strong>the</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> Aristarchus : but<br />
Zenodotus And Aristophanes had vvv 84 ?icas e. (t. f6as).<br />
In II. 9. 88 <strong>the</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> Aristarchus was rCOcvro 84 Sopira eiccurros : o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
ancient sources had Sopirov (<strong>the</strong> reading <strong>of</strong> most MSS.).<br />
In II. 14. 235 Treaty, 70; <strong>of</strong> nk roi elSto? xP tJ/ ?7M aTa Trovra, <strong>the</strong> order x^P tv<br />
elS&o was preferred by Aristarchus.<br />
Two very similar instances are<br />
II. 5. 787 K&K e\tyx fa ><br />
' 5os bmroi (Ar. 6\6YXs).<br />
9. 128 yvvaiKas apvpova tpya I8vias (Ar. dpA>p,ovas).<br />
In Od. 5. 34 jjfjari K fiK<strong>of</strong>fTu . . i'fcoiTo <strong>the</strong> common ' ' texts <strong>of</strong> Alexandrian<br />
times (at Koivorepai) omitted <strong>the</strong> K',<br />
which is not necessary, and may have<br />
been inserted in imitation <strong>of</strong> tee jjffiart rpirary KT\. (II. 9. 363).<br />
In Od. i. no ol plv dp' olvov Zfjuayov some MSS. omit dp'.<br />
So in Od. 3. 472<br />
most MSS. have olvov olvoxoevvres (vulg. tvoivo\.}.<br />
In Od. 2. 331., 8. 174., 13. 125 <strong>the</strong> e <strong>of</strong> avre is elided before a word with f.<br />
But in each case <strong>the</strong>re is MS. authority for reading av.<br />
In Od. 8. 526 <strong>the</strong> MSS. are divided between aatralpovr' eaioovaa and aairaipovra<br />
ISovaa.<br />
It should be observed that <strong>the</strong> argument from <strong>the</strong>se instances is equally<br />
good, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> readings ascribed to Zenodotus, Aristarchus, &c. are<br />
conjectures made by <strong>the</strong>m, or were derived (as is more probable) from older<br />
sources. They equally serve to illustrate <strong>the</strong> process by which traces <strong>of</strong> an
39-] INITIAL DIGAMMA. 363<br />
original f were liable to be gradually effaced.<br />
And it is not likely that <strong>the</strong>re<br />
was any deliberate attempt to emend Homer on metrical grounds. It is<br />
enough to suppose that <strong>the</strong> metre helped to determine <strong>the</strong> preference given<br />
(consciously or unconsciously) to one or o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> existing variants.<br />
Words with initial F. The former existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F in<br />
390.] a given <strong>Homeric</strong> word may be inferred ei<strong>the</strong>r from its appearance<br />
in some o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>dialect</strong> <strong>of</strong> Greek, or (where this kind <strong>of</strong><br />
evidence fails)<br />
from <strong>the</strong> corresponding forms in <strong>the</strong> cognate<br />
languages. Thus an original feiicoo-i is supported by <strong>the</strong> forms<br />
FiKari. and feucart on Doric and Boeotian inscriptions, by <strong>the</strong><br />
Laconian /3eiKcm (given by Hesychius), and again by Latin<br />
viginti, Sanscrit vimc^ati, &c. : an original feWepos by <strong>the</strong> form<br />
fee-Trap too on a Locrian z; inscription, as well as by Latin vesper :<br />
original /nSeli/, Folba, &c. by ficrropes on inscriptions, yolba and<br />
yo(.bri^.i in Hesychius (erroneously so written, as Ahrens showed,<br />
for Folba and Fcib^i), and also by Latin video, Sanscrit vedmi<br />
t<br />
veda, Engl. wit, &c. We do not, however, propose to discuss <strong>the</strong><br />
external evidence, as it<br />
may be called, by which <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> an<br />
initial F is proved, but only to consider <strong>the</strong> degree and manner<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> former existence <strong>of</strong> such a letter can be shown to<br />
have affected <strong>the</strong> versification <strong>of</strong> Homer. For this purpose it<br />
will be enough to give a list <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief words in question, and<br />
in a few cases a statement, by way <strong>of</strong> specimen, <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
attempts made to restore <strong>the</strong> F to <strong>the</strong> text.*<br />
The initial F is to be traced by <strong>the</strong> hiatus in II. 5. 161 ef<br />
av^va arj, II. 8. 403 Kara 0' a/o/xara afco (similar phrases in<br />
8. 417., 23. 341, 467); less decisively by <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
final -iv <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> preceding word in II. 4. 214 -nakiv aytv ots oy/coi.<br />
The evidence against an initial consonant is<br />
very slight. In Od.<br />
19. 539 rcao-i xar av\ivas ?yfe we should read avytv eae (Bekk.),<br />
understanding <strong>the</strong> Singular distributively ( 170). In II. 23.<br />
392 for iTnreiozj 8e ot ^fe may be read unretoV ot lafe.<br />
* The first systematic attempt to restore <strong>the</strong> digamma was made by Heyne<br />
in his edition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad (1802). It was based upon Bentley's manuscript<br />
annotations, <strong>of</strong> which Heyne had <strong>the</strong> use. The first text with restored F was<br />
published by Payne Knight (1820). Much was done by <strong>the</strong> thorough and<br />
methodical Quaestiones <strong>Homeric</strong>ae <strong>of</strong> C. A. J. H<strong>of</strong>fmann (Clausthal, 1842-48).<br />
The was again printed in <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Bekker's second edition (Bonn, 1858'.<br />
The light <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> comparative method was brought to bear upon it by Leskien<br />
(Rationem quam I. Bekker in restituendo digammo secutus est examinavit Dr. A.<br />
Leskien, Lipsiae, 1866). The most complete treatise on <strong>the</strong> subject is that <strong>of</strong><br />
Knos (Upsaliae, 1872). The most important contributions, in addition to<br />
those mentioned, have been made by Leo Meyer (K. Z. xviii. 49), and by W.<br />
Hartel (Horn. Stud. iii). Most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conjectures given in this chapter come<br />
from one or o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se sources.
364 METRE. [390.<br />
ava (avacrcra., avdcrcrtivj.<br />
The words <strong>of</strong> this group occur in Homer about 300 times, and<br />
in about 80 instances <strong>the</strong>y are preceded by a final short vowel<br />
which would ordinarily be elided. This calculation does not<br />
include <strong>the</strong> phrase t <strong>of</strong> det/ces dvaffffepfv<br />
possibly interpolated).<br />
'<br />
Apyeioiffiv (a verse which is<br />
20. 67 Ivavro. TloaeiSdowos dvattros (in <strong>the</strong> probably spurious 0eo/zax).<br />
24. 449, 452 iroirjaav dvafcri.<br />
Od. 14. 40 dvri&fov ydp dvaKTos KT\,<br />
395 et ^tev KW voarrja^ dVa.<br />
438 /cuSatj/e 5e ^u^oi' dvafcros.<br />
24. 30 ^s<br />
api/a (a/ore?, &c.).<br />
7<br />
The y is<br />
supported by three instances <strong>of</strong> hiatus, viz. II. 4. 158<br />
cujua re apv&v, 4. 435 oira apv&v, 8. 131 rjvrz apvts and by <strong>the</strong><br />
:<br />
metrical length given to <strong>the</strong> preceding syllable in II. 3. 103 6s<br />
btypov apvas, 16. 352 \VKOL dpvea-a-L.<br />
The passages which need correction are<br />
II. 3. 103 oarer* 8' apv' (<strong>the</strong> 8e is better omitted).<br />
119 178' dpv' trc&evev (read I8e apv').<br />
22. 263 ouSc XVKOI T KO.L dpvcs (omit re).<br />
Od. 4. 86 iVo T' dpves afyap nepaol reXfOovai (omit T').<br />
9. 226 epityovs T /cal dpvas.<br />
* For a complete analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> examples in <strong>the</strong> Iliad see Dawes, Miscellanea<br />
Critica, Sect. IV.
39-] INITIAL DIGAMMA. 365<br />
Note, however, that <strong>the</strong> evidence for f is confined to <strong>the</strong> Iliad, and that<br />
<strong>the</strong> derivative dpveios shows no trace <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
aoru.<br />
The presence <strong>of</strong> an initial consonant is shown by hiatus in<br />
nearly 80 places. In two places <strong>the</strong> text is uncertain II. :<br />
24.<br />
320 virep aoreoj (but 8ta aoreo? in <strong>the</strong> Bankes papyrus, and<br />
several MSS.), Od. 3. 260 ems aoreos v<br />
(eicas Apyeos in most MSS.).<br />
Two passages admit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> easiest correction :<br />
II. 3. 140 dvSpos re irporepoio KOI dffreos (read irpcmpov).<br />
15. 455 rovs pev o y' '&aTvv6f*a> (omit 76 or /-leV).<br />
Two remain, viz.<br />
II. JI. 733 dfupiffTavTO 87)<br />
aarv (ajA^o-rav Bekk.).<br />
18. 274 VVKTO. nev civ dyoprj aBevos e^o/ief darv 8e irvpyoi (I^cre Bekk.).<br />
The changes made by Bekker in <strong>the</strong>se places are not improbable, but are<br />
hardly so obvious as to exclude o<strong>the</strong>r hypo<strong>the</strong>ses.<br />
Hiatus is found in II. 8.<br />
307 vorir\a-i re elapLvfjcn,<br />
and a short<br />
final syllable is leng<strong>the</strong>ned in Od. 19. 519 atibyoriv eapos. In <strong>the</strong><br />
phrase &py h elapivfj<br />
we should doubtless omit <strong>the</strong> lv }<br />
as in<br />
Od. 5. 485 &pij xet/xepfy (Bentl.).<br />
The F appears in ava CIKOCTL (Od. 9. 209), and <strong>the</strong> combination<br />
KOL etKoo-t (which occurs 9 times, including <strong>the</strong> compounds with<br />
In II. ii. 25 x/w<strong>of</strong>o KOI f/LK<strong>of</strong>fi :<br />
readxpvo-ov and in <strong>the</strong> combination re ai<br />
(in three places) omit T. In <strong>the</strong> recurring rjXvOov C'IKOOTW erfi KT\.<br />
Bekker reads -TjAOov CCIKOO-TO) (Cobet well compares Od. 23. 102 e\0oi<br />
/frA..).<br />
On Od. 5. 34 Tjfiari K dtc<strong>of</strong>fTw KT\. see 389.<br />
Two instances <strong>of</strong> hiatus indicate F, in II.<br />
many places in which <strong>the</strong> word is<br />
preceded<br />
%K(Dv, Kaprei<br />
24. 100, 718^ besides<br />
by a Dat. Sing., as<br />
Two places may be easily corrected : II. 4. 509 ^5' (iKfre (read /XT)<br />
with asyndeton, as Od. 24. 54 iffxfcre' 'Ap-yeiot, ^ ^c^ere), and 12. 48 TTJ r<br />
ciKovffi (omit T). In Od. 12. 117 for 6eoi
366 METRE. [390.<br />
it in 3 places, but twice rejects F (Od. 9. 321., n. 363), The<br />
adjective eticeXos or iiceXos usually needs an initial consonant (except<br />
II. 19. 282, Od. 3i. 207).<br />
It seems probable that this is <strong>the</strong> same word as CIKCO to yield.<br />
The notion <strong>of</strong><br />
giving way easily passes into that <strong>of</strong> suiting or fitting, hence conforming to,<br />
resembling.<br />
KWy, eKTJTl, IlOrjXog.<br />
Hiatus indicating F is found in 22 places (not reckoning ov TL<br />
kt&v II. 8. 81, &c.).<br />
In Od. 4. 649 for avros ete&v we may read avros cywv (cp. Od. 2. 133, where<br />
both <strong>the</strong>se forms are found in good MSS.). In Od. 17. 478 ceOi' tKT)\os two<br />
MSS. have eo-0' e. (i. jfo-flc).<br />
The remaining exceptions are ;<br />
with CKWV, II. 23.<br />
434, 585, Od. 5. 100 (where we may read ris KC, or perhaps<br />
ris 8c enwv . .<br />
SiaSpapoi ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> Opt. without dv being used as in negative Clauses, 299 /):<br />
with eKTjXos, II. 8. 512, Od. 2. 311 (IvtypaivfaO* ivKyXov Bekk.).<br />
CK(XS, eKttTOS, &C.<br />
Traces <strong>of</strong> F are to be seen in <strong>the</strong> hiatus vvv 6e e/cas- (II. 5. 791.,<br />
13. 107), aAAa exas (Od. 15. 33), ovbe e/c?]/3oAuu (II. 5. 54): and<br />
in <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning in 'ATro'AAco^o? ZKCLTOIO (II. 7. 83., 20. 295),<br />
eiJTrAo/cajuos' 'E/caju,?^?], &c.<br />
The exceptions are, II. i. 21, 438., 17. 333., 20. 422., 22. 15,<br />
302, Od. 7. 321 mostly admitting <strong>of</strong> easy correction.<br />
The original F <strong>of</strong> this word (recently found on a Locrian<br />
inscription, see Curt. Stud. ii. 441 is traced ff.) by means <strong>of</strong><br />
hiatus in 115 places. The adverse instances, however, are about<br />
50 in number, and <strong>the</strong> proportion that can be removed by<br />
emendation is not so large as in most cases L. (see Meyer, K. Z.<br />
viii. 1 6 6. About a fourth <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> exceptions appear in <strong>the</strong> recurring<br />
phrase fj,evos KOL Ov^ov CKCLO-TOV.<br />
The form ItcdrepOe shows slight traces <strong>of</strong> initial p in Od. 6. 19 ffraBfjioiiv<br />
tfcarcpOe, 1 1. 578 yvire 8e fji.iv tfcaTepQe, 22. 181 r
39-] INITIAL DIGAMMA. 367<br />
clXuw.<br />
Before eXto-o-w hiatus is found in four places, and <strong>the</strong> recurring<br />
phrases KOL eAi/ca? (3ovs and eiAtVoSas eAt/cas {3ov$ point in<br />
<strong>the</strong> same direction. The only exceptions are Od. 12. 355 /3ooWa-Kovd'<br />
e'AiKes KrA., and II. 18. 401 yva^iiTas<br />
6' eAtica?.<br />
It is probable that in many places <strong>the</strong> forms lAeAt/cTo, lAcA/;^, &c. are old<br />
errors for tftXiKro, cff\ixOr), &c. : see Dawes, Misc. Grit. 177 : also Heyne on<br />
II. i. 530.<br />
Traces <strong>of</strong> f in clXtico should perhaps be recognised in Od. 5. 403 (epevyoufvov,<br />
eiAvro) and 15. 479 aaiccaiv tiXvptvoi : cp. IL 20. 492 \6ya eikvQafa. In II. 18.<br />
522 'i&vr ei'AujueVot it is easy to read lov (as Bekker). The Aor. Part. \vo-0is<br />
has no f : but it may be from a different Verb-stem (see Buttm. Lexil. s. v.<br />
fl\voi).<br />
eXirw (eoATra).<br />
The initial F <strong>of</strong> this word is<br />
proved by 10 instances <strong>of</strong> hiatus<br />
(including KOL eArn'Sos, Od. 16. 101., 19. 84).<br />
The Perfect toXira<br />
also shows traces <strong>of</strong> F in <strong>the</strong> reduplicated syllable, viz. in Od. 2.<br />
*75-> 3- 375-, 5- 379-<br />
In II. 8. 526 fvx<strong>of</strong>jtai fkir6fj,(vos should be cux /*' leA7ro/iej/oj (H<strong>of</strong>fm.) or<br />
perhaps (as Zenodotus read) cXii-opai eix^fJtcvos.<br />
In four places feXirco can be<br />
restored by very slight corrections :<br />
II. 15. 701 Tpualv<br />
8' 6A.7T6TO (Tpwcrl B Heyne).<br />
1 8. 194 a\\a /cal CLVTOS '65', \ir<strong>of</strong>j.' (avros leATro/i' Heyne).<br />
Od. 2. 91 (=13. 380) navras t*.tv p" lAwet (omit ').<br />
Two o<strong>the</strong>rs are less easy ; II. 15. 539 7ro\e'/zze ptvow, Zn 5' I\TTCTO (pevcav S' en<br />
l\7T6To Bentl.), and II. 24. 491 4m -r Z\irfTcu (teal eATrcrat Bentl.).<br />
The passages which tell against fe'foXira are II. 20. 186 xa^ f s 5e a' ?<br />
apa ol dirovTi, &c. The exceptions number about 35.
368 METRE. [390.<br />
Of <strong>the</strong>se exceptions 10 are found in <strong>the</strong> recurring line otyp'<br />
eiirca ra /*e 6vfj.bs<br />
cvl ffrrjOeffffi Kf\fvfi. It has been suggested as possible that iira> has here<br />
taken <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> an older tirco (f iru), or eo-irto (cp. eo-TrcTf).<br />
This supposition<br />
would <strong>of</strong> course explain o<strong>the</strong>r instances <strong>of</strong> neglected f, as II. i. 64., n. 791,<br />
Od. i. 10, 37, &c.<br />
ep8o>, epyov, &C.<br />
The Verb ep8w is preceded by hiatus in two clear instances, II.<br />
14. 261, Od. 15. 360. In II. 9. 540 TTO'AA' Ip8eo-Kz; <strong>the</strong>re is an<br />
ancient v. I. eppe^ev. In II. 10. 503 OTL KVVTCLTOV epSot we may<br />
read Kucrara. But <strong>the</strong>re are several instances on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (viz. i. 393., 5. 342, 360., 6. 258., 7. 303., 8. 490.,<br />
ii. 80).<br />
The reduplicated form eopya (for FtFopya) is preceded by hiatus<br />
in 7 places. Instances on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side are, II. 3. 351 6 /xe Trpo-<br />
Tpos KO.K eopye (where <strong>the</strong> Aor. epefez; is more <strong>Homeric</strong>, cp. 28),<br />
2/1.<br />
399 ocraa // eopya? (ocrcra eopya? Ambr.J, 22. 347 ^ P py a $<br />
(here also jue may be omitted), Od. 22. 318 ovbev eopycos (read ou<br />
Tl i<br />
C P- 356).<br />
The Noun epyo^j with its derivative epydfo/xai, occurs in Homer<br />
about 250 times, and <strong>the</strong> F is required to prevent hiatus in about<br />
165 places. There are about 18 instances against F.<br />
el'pw, epe'w.<br />
The F <strong>of</strong> eipw is required by hiatus in <strong>the</strong> three places where<br />
it occurs, viz. Od. 2. 162., n. 137., 13. 7; that <strong>of</strong> epe'w by<br />
about 50 instances <strong>of</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning (such as dAA.' e/c rot epeco, cfc<br />
Trore rts epeet,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> like), against which are to be set three<br />
instances <strong>of</strong> elision (II. 4. 176., 23. 787, Od. 12. 156).<br />
i, ijj.a,<br />
The F is shown by hiatus in more than 80 places, including<br />
<strong>the</strong> instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Perfect Mid. (etjutai, eWat, &c., see 23, 5).<br />
The contrary instances are <strong>of</strong> no weight. The superfluous p<br />
may be omitted in eiret p eo-cravro (three places), and r similarly<br />
in Od. 14. 510., 24. 67. This leaves II. 3. 57, Od. 6. 83., 7. 259.<br />
The F (which<br />
is inferred from Lat. vomo) may be restored by<br />
reading efe'jueo-o-e for a7re/>teo-o- (II. 14. 437) and al^a<br />
possibly Ftnav (L. Meyer), for at// e/xeco^ (II. 15. n).<br />
Icrirepos.<br />
Hiatus occurs in six places, after <strong>the</strong> Prepositions TTOTL (Od. 17.<br />
191) and em. There are no instances against F.<br />
TOS.<br />
The F is<br />
supported by <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> preceding<br />
syllable in five places, such as II. 24. 765 eeiKoo-roz> Iros
39-] INITIAL DIGAMMA. 569<br />
In <strong>the</strong> only adverse instance, II. 2.<br />
328 TOO-O-CLVT erect, we may<br />
read and scan roa-a-avra erect, as in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> eVea (snprn).<br />
The F in ta^co<br />
and iayji is chiefly indicated by 23<br />
instances <strong>of</strong><br />
a peculiar hiatus, viz. after a naturally short final vowel in arsis ;<br />
as 77<br />
5e jueya ld\ov/>,<br />
>,<br />
&c.<br />
ioi><br />
(toeis,<br />
The F is supported by hiatus in Od. 4. 135., 9. 426, and is<br />
nowhere inadmissible.<br />
19, tos K tot 10-779 (II.<br />
1 1. 705, Od. 9. 42, 549) <strong>the</strong><br />
form 10-77?<br />
should perhaps be changed to ai'o-rjs share. Or we may<br />
<strong>the</strong> ^Eolic form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
recognise<br />
p. 20).<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r places are easily corrected.<br />
B b<br />
word, viz. taaa (Fick, Odyssee,
370 METRE. [391.<br />
ITUS, ITCTJ.<br />
The F is shown by hiatus (II. 4. 486, Od. 10. 510). The<br />
Particle re<br />
may be left out before KOL treat in II. 21. 35-<br />
OIKOS.<br />
The F is required in 105 places by hiatus, in 14 by <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a short syllable. About* 25 places are adverse.<br />
The F is required by hiatus in nearly 100 places.<br />
places are about 20 (including <strong>the</strong> names Olvevs and<br />
The adverse<br />
<strong>of</strong> initial<br />
391.] Words with initial y ' F.'<br />
1 6.<br />
545 jurj a-nb rev^e' eXcovrat, read JUT}<br />
'F' (Cobet, Misc.<br />
Crit. 265).<br />
Od. 5. 135 ij6e tyaa-KOV S^eiv adavarov, read 778^ ' F.'<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> restoration <strong>of</strong> ^(ot) will be found in 376.*<br />
* The whole subject is fully treated by J. van Leeuwen, Mnemos. xiii. 188 ff.<br />
from whom <strong>the</strong>se emendations are taken.
393-] INITIAL 7- FOR s<br />
o(f)\v OCLVCLTOS JJLOL<br />
abelv (read o>9 //,' o(/>eAez> 0ai>aros aSeetz;, see<br />
365) and 6 places with ^8v?, two <strong>of</strong> which (II. 4. 131, Od. 19.<br />
510) may be easily emended. The Substantive rjSos occurs<br />
chiefly in <strong>the</strong> phrase ecro-ercu r?oj, where lorat may perhaps be<br />
read.<br />
2009,<br />
The F is indicated by <strong>the</strong> hiatus Kara ?/0ea (Od. 14. 411). In<br />
T ijOea KOL vo^ov tirnwv (II. 6. 5 LI., 15. 268) <strong>the</strong> re is better<br />
omitted. The Pf. etwOa or ewQa probably had no initial F, since<br />
a/ 7 - would give in reduplication o-co-f- or eaf- (not afea/ 7 -).<br />
eicupog.<br />
The only place bearing on <strong>the</strong> question before us is II. 3. 172<br />
where <strong>the</strong> metre points to an initial consonant.<br />
j<br />
The F<br />
may be traced by hiatus in II. 5. 270 r&v ol If /crA.., by<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ning in II. 24. 604, Od. 10. 6. Adverse instances are II.<br />
23. 741, Od. 3. 115, 415., 14. 20.<br />
Trj9.<br />
The F appears from hiatus in seven places, and can always be<br />
restored. The word is probably formed from <strong>the</strong> pronominal<br />
stem o-Fe- (so that it is=zmus e suis).<br />
392.] F inferred from metre. A few words may be added<br />
here which in all probability had initial f, though <strong>the</strong> traces <strong>of</strong><br />
it in <strong>the</strong> metre are not supported by independent evidence.<br />
dpatos.<br />
The hiatus in three places indicates <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> a consonant.<br />
eO^os (perhaps akin to e0o?, ^6os).<br />
Hiatus precedes in 12 places, and <strong>the</strong>re is only one instance<br />
on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side, viz. II. n. 724 ra 8'<br />
(where erre'ppee is better, see 172).<br />
cTrepjoeoy tdvea Trefwz;<br />
epuo), e'ppco.<br />
Hiatus is found before epuw to draw in 14 places (not counting<br />
r<br />
those which are indecisive, such as fi0os ov epvo-ora^vo^, or ITT'<br />
riTTtipoio<br />
17 places. There are 17 instances against F, one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> strongest<br />
being II. I. 141 = vija ptXaivav fpva-a-o^ev (<br />
Od. 8. 34., 16. 348).<br />
epvo-a-av), and preceding short syllables are leng<strong>the</strong>ned in<br />
The Verb pvopai to protect is unconnected with<br />
pva>.<br />
The Verb eppw (probably Lat. verro) shows hiatus in <strong>the</strong> phrase<br />
(II. 8. 239., 9. 364) ; cp. aTro-e/xre,<br />
B b 2
3/2 METRE. [393.<br />
The word occurs six times (counting<br />
<strong>the</strong> proper name *Hz/o\//-),<br />
and except in one place (where it begins <strong>the</strong> line) always requires<br />
an initial consonant.<br />
^pain<br />
<strong>the</strong> phrase em fjpa (f)piv<br />
:<br />
to cfioose or<br />
referred to <strong>the</strong> root var meaning<br />
The only instance <strong>of</strong> this word (II. 23. 126 /ze'ya rjptov)<br />
is in<br />
favour <strong>of</strong> initial F.<br />
An initial consonant is shown by hiatus in 23 places (6 8e<br />
tero,<br />
iepcvav, &c.) : <strong>the</strong>re are four adverse places, viz. II. 18. 501,<br />
Od. 2. 327., 10. 246., 14. 142. It is not connected with irj/u,<br />
but is to be referred to root vi, meaning to aim at, wish (L.<br />
Meyer, Bezz. Beitr. i. 301).<br />
"lXios.<br />
An initial consonant is indicated in about 50 places <strong>the</strong><br />
;<br />
number <strong>of</strong> adverse instances is 14. The derivation <strong>of</strong> this important<br />
word is unknown.<br />
9 9<br />
lpos, lpis.<br />
These words may be connected with etpo> to tell. If so, <strong>the</strong> F<br />
<strong>of</strong> *lpis is to be traced in &Kea 9 Ipi$ (19 times), &s e(ar', 2>pro Se<br />
T<br />
'I/ns (three times), /3acr/c' i0i, Tpt KrA. ;<br />
that <strong>of</strong> *lpos, Od. 18. 73,<br />
334 (but not always, see w. 38, 56, 233).<br />
393.] Loss <strong>of</strong> F in Homer. The chief instances in which loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> an original F can be shown to have taken place in <strong>the</strong> language<br />
<strong>of</strong> Homer fall under <strong>the</strong> following rule :<br />
When <strong>the</strong> original<br />
initial F is followed by <strong>the</strong> vowels o,<br />
<strong>the</strong> diphthong ou, it produces no effect on <strong>the</strong> metre <strong>of</strong> Homer.<br />
The following are words to which this rule will apply * :<br />
6pdci>, oupos (and avpws) a watcher ; op, &c.<br />
opos mountain (cp. Bopeaj), and 6p06s upright, which may be<br />
from <strong>the</strong> same root (cp. <strong>the</strong> Laconian "Aprejuu? BupOia). There<br />
is only one instance <strong>of</strong> hiatus (viz. Od. 3. 290 to-a opta-a-iv)-<br />
opru| (Sanscr. vartakas a quail) appears<br />
which does not admit F (Od. 5. 123).<br />
in <strong>the</strong> name<br />
'<br />
* See an article by Leo Meyer, K. Z. xxiii. pp. 49 ff.
393-] LOSS OF EIGAMMA. 373<br />
chariot (Lat. veho)-, oxXos (lit. movement, tossing),<br />
to disturb (cp. 6%kevs and Lat. vectis) ; 6x0&> (Lat. vehe-mens).<br />
A trace <strong>of</strong> F appears in <strong>the</strong> form a-vvo^os (II. 14. 465).<br />
o\|/, oWa, 6fxai 6m KaArj, &c. ;<br />
while <strong>the</strong>re are three undoubtedly<br />
adverse places (II.<br />
n. 137., 21. 98, Od. 5. 61). In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong><br />
opfyri <strong>the</strong> evidence is clear against F ;<br />
in oWa it is indecisive.<br />
oupa^os (Sanscr. vanmas).<br />
ouXcu coarsely ground barley, connected with <strong>the</strong> root feX-,<br />
meaning to roll, &c. Nei<strong>the</strong>r this word nor, <strong>the</strong> derivative<br />
ovXoyyrai admits F.<br />
ouXajjios crowd, press <strong>of</strong> battle, shows traces <strong>of</strong> initial F in II. 20.<br />
379 e8vcrero ovKapov avbp&v and <strong>the</strong> phrase ava ovXapdv avbp&v<br />
(II. 4. 251, 273., 20. 113).<br />
It does not occur except in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
places.<br />
OUTCIW, wreiXii wound: cp. CL-OVTOS unwounded, and <strong>the</strong> form<br />
in Hesychius.<br />
w6ew (u>0ov, eo)o-a),<br />
root vadh to<br />
beat.<br />
&vo
374 METRE. [394.<br />
and v were afterwards identical in sound, and that in <strong>the</strong> modern language<br />
both are = i.<br />
Words with initial v are not found in Homer with p but we cannot in<br />
;<br />
this case speak <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> p <strong>the</strong> combination fv having been originally<br />
impossible.<br />
The remaining instances in which loss <strong>of</strong> F may be assumed<br />
in <strong>Homeric</strong> words are few, and for <strong>the</strong> most part open to<br />
question.<br />
e\Kco, root valk or vlak (Knb's, following Curtius) f is perhaps seen in<br />
:<br />
icard uXica (II. 13. 707., Od. 1 8. 375). This account <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word separates<br />
it from Lat. sulcus.<br />
IXeiv, iXup, possibly to be connected with Lat. vollur <strong>the</strong> bird <strong>of</strong> prey.<br />
instances <strong>of</strong> hiatus before eXcop are hardly enough to prove p.<br />
\os, from which <strong>the</strong> name Velia is said by Dionysius Hal. (Arch. i. 20)<br />
to be derived, has no p in Homer (II.<br />
2. 584, 594., 20. 221, Od. 14. 474).<br />
The p <strong>of</strong> this word is also wanting in <strong>the</strong> Cyprian <strong>dialect</strong> (Deecke and<br />
Siegismund, Curt. Stud. vii. 249).<br />
*HXis, 'HXetos is without p in Homer : /"aX-ffCot<br />
is <strong>the</strong> form found on Elean<br />
and Laconian inscriptions.<br />
?|Xos (Lat. vallus) rejects p in II. n. 29 tv 84 oi 77X01 <strong>the</strong> two o<strong>the</strong>r : places<br />
where it occurs prove nothing.<br />
ISiw, ISpws (root svid} <strong>the</strong> :<br />
a-p<br />
is lost in Homer.<br />
IKCO, iKvtojjiai : <strong>the</strong> derivation from <strong>the</strong> root viq is quite uncertain.<br />
loTtt) (Lat. Vesta) : <strong>the</strong> forms av-ferios, 40-ecmos show that <strong>the</strong> p<br />
The<br />
is lost in<br />
Homer (as also in <strong>the</strong> Laconian, Locrian, and Boeotian <strong>dialect</strong>s, see 404).<br />
394.] Initial S/7 . This combination is to be recognised in<br />
two groups <strong>of</strong> words :<br />
Sfei- (Sfi-),<br />
eScura (so Ar.), Seos, SeiwSs, SciXos, &C.<br />
A short vowel is frequently leng<strong>the</strong>ned before <strong>the</strong>se words, as<br />
II. I.<br />
515 v TOL ^7rt S 'Q?J II- II - 37 7rc P' ** Aei/xos re
396.] 8F-, Fp-, MEDIAL F. 375<br />
395.] Initial fp, &c. The metrical value <strong>of</strong> an initial p<br />
which represents Fp differs in <strong>the</strong> several words. It has always<br />
<strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> a double consonant in priyvv^i, purrou, pa/coj, pv- (in<br />
pvros, &c.), pi]- (in pyros, and pr\Tr\p), nearly always in pwos<br />
(except Od. 5. 281), pi(a (Od. 9. 390). But leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
is<br />
optional in ptfa, piyeo), peta thus we have eppefa and epefa :<br />
(in<br />
27<br />
I'TTTTOI<br />
places); 6e pea (II. 8. 179), but evOa K. peta KrA. ;<br />
but ppiyj](Tavt a>? fyaro piyi^crev be KrA. As to p- standing for<br />
an older o-p-,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r letters which (X, p, v) leng<strong>the</strong>n a<br />
preceding short vowel, see 371.<br />
396.] F not initial. The metrical tests by which initial F<br />
is discovered generally fail us when <strong>the</strong> sound occurs in <strong>the</strong><br />
middle <strong>of</strong> a word. Loss <strong>of</strong> F may be shown ei<strong>the</strong>r (i) by <strong>the</strong><br />
contraction or synizesis<br />
<strong>of</strong> two vowels originally separated by<br />
it, or (3) by <strong>the</strong> shortening <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first <strong>of</strong> two such vowels. We<br />
have seen that <strong>the</strong> instances <strong>of</strong> contraction and synizesis are<br />
too rare or doubtful to prove much ( 378*, 4).<br />
The cases in<br />
which hiatus is indicated by <strong>the</strong> shortening <strong>of</strong> a vowel are somewhat<br />
more important. In <strong>the</strong> declension <strong>of</strong> nrjus <strong>the</strong> forms veos,<br />
re'ey, z/ewz;, pc'eo-cri, veas ( 94, i) cannot be derived phonetically<br />
from vr]F6s, &c., unless we suppose loss <strong>of</strong> F to have taken place.<br />
The same applies to <strong>the</strong> double forms <strong>of</strong> Nouns in -eus, as Hrj^ijos<br />
and IlTjAeos, &c. Unless <strong>the</strong> short vowel is explained on some<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r hypo<strong>the</strong>sis (e.g. by variation in <strong>the</strong> stem, as in Ztvs and<br />
(3ovs, 106, 2),<br />
we must suppose that F had ceased to be sounded<br />
in <strong>the</strong> middle <strong>of</strong> a word. The loss <strong>of</strong> F would also explain <strong>the</strong><br />
meta<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> quantity in ews for fjos in Od. 2. 79 (see 171, i),<br />
TEWS for TT/oj in II. 19. 189 avQi reW e7retyo/j,^os (where G. Hermann<br />
read avrov II. TTJOS), 24. 658, Od. 18, 190 but : this, as<br />
<strong>the</strong>se instances show, is even rarer than synizesis in <strong>the</strong>se<br />
words, and is almost certainly post-<strong>Homeric</strong>.<br />
Compound Verbs usually recognize f, as airo-cnrwv, 8ia.-enreiJ.fv, also with<br />
apocope irap-diTttjv (d), &c. Exceptions are: dir-enTe^ev (Od. I. 91), dn-enrovTOS<br />
(II. 19. 75), 8i-eiiT (II. 10. 425), irap-einri (II. I. 555) : Kar-eipvarai (Od. 8. 151.,<br />
14. 332., 19. 289) ff-i8fffK : }
3/6 METRE. [397.<br />
anovpas ( 13), aKovrj. It is very possible that many more such<br />
forms were to be found in <strong>the</strong> original text: cp. 384,<br />
I.<br />
397.] Loss <strong>of</strong> initial and The o- traces <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se sounds<br />
i (;/).<br />
in <strong>the</strong> metre <strong>of</strong> Homer are chiefly <strong>of</strong> interest for <strong>the</strong> purpose<br />
<strong>of</strong> comparison with <strong>the</strong> facts relating to F.<br />
be seen in a few cases <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
The effects <strong>of</strong> initial os (Lat. salio), a<br />
(Lat. safy, aju(|H-e7roi' (Lat. sequor), Kara-i(T)(ercu (t^X 60<br />
and <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning in napiyj] (Od. 19. 113) and vvvt^s (Od. 9.<br />
74). Hiatus is also found twice before v^rj (II. 14. 285, Od. 5.<br />
257), once before VTTVOS (Od. 10. 68), and 18 times before eos<br />
(mostly in <strong>the</strong> principal caesura). These instances however are<br />
too few to prove anything.<br />
Initial t or y is chiefly traced in <strong>the</strong> Adverb ws, which when<br />
used after <strong>the</strong> Noun to which it refers is allowed to leng<strong>the</strong>n <strong>the</strong><br />
final syllable<br />
: as 6tbs be noticed that in<br />
many places a short final vowel in arsis is leng<strong>the</strong>ned before<br />
<strong>the</strong> F : see especially <strong>the</strong> instances given under I'o ( 390), and<br />
Idxw ( 389).* On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand <strong>the</strong>re are 617 places where<br />
<strong>the</strong> F is neglected. Short vowels suffer Elision before it in 324<br />
places: it fails to* leng<strong>the</strong>n by Position after ano<strong>the</strong>r consonant<br />
in 215 places and long vowels or diphthongs are shortened<br />
:<br />
before it in 78 places. Also <strong>the</strong> power to leng<strong>the</strong>n by Position<br />
is confined, except in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> enclitic eo, ot, to leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
<strong>of</strong> syllables which have <strong>the</strong> ictus.<br />
399.] Theories <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F. The main question which arises on<br />
<strong>the</strong>se facts evidently is : How can <strong>the</strong> great number <strong>of</strong> passages<br />
* A short vowel is also leng<strong>the</strong>ned with ictus before eiros (Od. 10. 246^,<br />
epav (Od. 14. 411), and in <strong>the</strong> Compounds a-no-fnrwv (II. 19. 35)<br />
and UTTOeporj,<br />
ano-epaae (II. 21. 283, 329).
401.] THEORIES OF THE DIGAMMA. 377<br />
in which <strong>the</strong> F affects <strong>the</strong> metre o Homer be reconciled with<br />
<strong>the</strong> not inconsiderable number <strong>of</strong> passages in which it is neglected?<br />
The scholars who first became aware <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> traces <strong>of</strong> a lost<br />
letter in Homer assumed that in <strong>the</strong> original form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> poems<br />
this letter, or at least <strong>the</strong> consonantal sound for which it afterwards<br />
stood, was consistently used that it was in fact one <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> ordinary sounds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> language and<br />
; accordingly <strong>the</strong>y<br />
directed <strong>the</strong>ir efforts to restoring it to <strong>the</strong> text. This was <strong>the</strong><br />
principle on which Bentley made his famous series <strong>of</strong> emendations<br />
: and which was carried out by Bekker in his edition<br />
<strong>of</strong> 1858. Of late years, however, different views <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> matter<br />
have been taken. Leskien seems to have been <strong>the</strong> first to<br />
maintain that <strong>the</strong> passages which do not admit F are not<br />
necessarily corrupt or spurious, but are to be regarded<br />
as evidence<br />
<strong>of</strong> an original fluctuation in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sound. His<br />
view is adopted and defended by Curtius (Grundz. p. 56; 5^ ec^)'<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. Hartel has more recently put forward a <strong>the</strong>ory which<br />
agrees with that <strong>of</strong> Curtius in treating <strong>the</strong> apparent neglect <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> F as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> original condition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> text. But he<br />
ascribes this neglect, not to irregularity<br />
in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sound,<br />
but to <strong>the</strong> intermediate half-vowel character <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> sound itself.<br />
400.] If we are not satisfied that <strong>the</strong> F had <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong> an<br />
ordinary consonant at <strong>the</strong> time when <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> poems were<br />
produced (or when <strong>the</strong>y received <strong>the</strong>ir present form), we may<br />
explain <strong>the</strong> influence which it has on <strong>the</strong> metre in several ways.<br />
Hypo<strong>the</strong>sis <strong>of</strong> alternative forms. We may suppose that<br />
each word that originally had initial F was known to <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
times in two forms, an older form with <strong>the</strong> F confined perhaps<br />
to <strong>the</strong> archaic or poetical style and a later in which F was no<br />
longer heard. Just as <strong>the</strong> poet could say ei<strong>the</strong>r o-Gs or us, ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
TroXis or iTToXis, ei<strong>the</strong>r reXeWai or reXeom, so he may have had <strong>the</strong><br />
choice between F&va% and fiwxf, 'Fififo and TJSu's,<br />
&c.<br />
In order to test <strong>the</strong> probability <strong>of</strong> this hypo<strong>the</strong>sis, let us take<br />
a few common words <strong>of</strong> different metrical form, and which show<br />
no trace <strong>of</strong> F, <strong>the</strong> words "Apyjs, apioros, ey^os, fyiap, ojuXos, 60aXjJios,<br />
u'Swp, faros. These words, with <strong>the</strong>ir immediate derivatives,<br />
occur in <strong>the</strong> Iliad 1022 times ;<br />
and <strong>the</strong> places that would not<br />
admit an initial consonant number 684, or just two-thirds <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
whole. Again, take some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> commonest words with F, ai>a,<br />
d'oTu, e'pyoi/, OIKOS, and <strong>the</strong> Aorist lbe.lv. These occur in <strong>the</strong> Iliad<br />
685 times, and <strong>the</strong> exceptions are hardly 50, or about onefourteenth.<br />
Compared with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r proportion this surely<br />
proves that <strong>the</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F in <strong>the</strong>se words was not<br />
arbitrary, but was <strong>the</strong> rule in <strong>Homeric</strong> verse.<br />
401.] Explanation from fixed phrases, &c. The traces <strong>of</strong> F
378 METRE. [402.<br />
may also be ascribed to <strong>the</strong> conventional phrases <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> early<br />
epic style.<br />
The word aoru, for example, is found very frequently<br />
in <strong>the</strong> combinations irporl aaru, d^d aoru, Kara aoru, &c. ;<br />
but <strong>the</strong>se<br />
do not prove <strong>the</strong> pronunciation fdoru for <strong>Homeric</strong> times any<br />
more than (e. g.} eirieiiois proves an Attic ImfeiKYJs. Such phrases,<br />
it<br />
may be said, were handed on ready-made, with a fixed metrical<br />
value, and served as models for fresh combinations, in which <strong>the</strong><br />
hiatus was retained as part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> familiar rhythm.<br />
This explanation is inadequate, for <strong>the</strong> following reasons :<br />
(1)<br />
The instances <strong>of</strong> F are not confined to <strong>the</strong> commonest<br />
words, or to frequently recurring phrases. Thus it is found in<br />
lov a violet, ITUS <strong>the</strong> felloe <strong>of</strong> a wheel, treYj<br />
a willow, apyes lambs.<br />
And it is used (generally speaking)<br />
in all <strong>the</strong> different forms <strong>of</strong><br />
each Verb or Noun, whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> common occurrence or not (ibeiv<br />
as well as ISeW, freo-i as well as i? and ufu, &c.).<br />
The o<strong>the</strong>r cases in which tradition can be shown to have<br />
(2)<br />
had <strong>the</strong> effect <strong>of</strong> retaining older phrases and combinations are<br />
not really parallel. In <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> Hymns <strong>the</strong> F can be clearly<br />
traced : but <strong>the</strong> proportion <strong>of</strong> instances which do not admit F is<br />
markedly different. Taking <strong>the</strong> words already used as examples,<br />
viz. wag, aoru, IpyoK, oticog, ISeii',<br />
we find <strong>the</strong>m in <strong>the</strong> Hymns 152<br />
times, while <strong>the</strong> F is neglected in 36 places, or nearly one-fourth<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole. Again if we look at <strong>the</strong> words which begin with<br />
o, as ouXafjios, &c.<br />
ov|/, ( 393), we find similar conditions. The<br />
traces <strong>of</strong> F are undoubted, but do not predominate as with orag or<br />
aoru. O<strong>the</strong>r examples may be seen in <strong>the</strong> traces <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> double<br />
consonants, o-p, o-X, cn>, Fp discussed in 371. Compare <strong>the</strong> free<br />
use <strong>of</strong> alternate forms, as epcga and eppega, irpo-pew and emppe'w,<br />
with <strong>the</strong> almost invariable recognition <strong>of</strong> 8f in 8eos, Seuras, &c.<br />
We seem to be able to draw a broad distinction between <strong>the</strong><br />
predominating influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F in Homer and <strong>the</strong> arbitrary<br />
or occasional influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> older forms in o<strong>the</strong>r cases. And<br />
<strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>r cases, we may conclude, give us a measure <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
force <strong>of</strong> tradition in such matters, while in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> F <strong>the</strong> effect is due to its retention as a living sound.<br />
(3)<br />
A fur<strong>the</strong>r argument in favour <strong>of</strong> F as a real sound in<br />
Homer has been derived from <strong>the</strong> places in which Vc,<br />
cf01 suffer<br />
elision ( 391) ; see Leafs note on II. 24. 154. The argument<br />
has much force, and would be conclusive if we could assume that<br />
an elided vowel was not sounded at all.<br />
402.] Hiatus &c. as a survival. Ano<strong>the</strong>r supposition, akin<br />
to <strong>the</strong> last discussed, is that in <strong>the</strong> words which originally had<br />
initial F <strong>the</strong> ordinary effects <strong>of</strong> an initial consonant remained<br />
after <strong>the</strong> sound itself was no longer heard. Such a phenomenon<br />
would be by no means without parallel in language. In French,
404.] THEORIES OF THE DIGAMMA. 379<br />
for instance, elision is not allowed before certain words beginning<br />
with //,<br />
as le heros, la hauteur, though <strong>the</strong> h is no longer pronounced.<br />
Similarly, <strong>the</strong>n, it may be held that <strong>the</strong> facts <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> metre only prove <strong>the</strong> habit or rule <strong>of</strong> treating certain<br />
words as if <strong>the</strong>y began with F.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r side it<br />
may be urged that <strong>the</strong> h <strong>of</strong> heros, hauteur,<br />
&c. is only traced in one way, viz. by hiatus, and that only in<br />
a small number <strong>of</strong> combinations ;<br />
whereas <strong>the</strong> F not only protects<br />
hiatus, but also makes Position. Moreover <strong>the</strong> retention <strong>of</strong> a<br />
traditional usage <strong>of</strong> this kind is very much easier in an age <strong>of</strong><br />
education. Anomalies which would naturally disappear in a few<br />
years are kept alive by being taught to successive generations <strong>of</strong><br />
children. It seems difficult to believe that tha F would have<br />
kept its present place in <strong>the</strong> memory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> poets unless it were<br />
familiar, ei<strong>the</strong>r to <strong>the</strong> ear as a present sound, or to <strong>the</strong> eye as a<br />
letter in <strong>the</strong> written text.<br />
403.] Explanation from <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F. The <strong>the</strong>ory<br />
recently advanced by Pr<strong>of</strong>. Hartel is one to which it is difficult<br />
to do justice in a short statement. The careful re-examination<br />
which he has made <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> metrical facts has convinced him that<br />
<strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F is not occasional or arbitrary, but in <strong>the</strong><br />
strictest sense universal in Homer. He does not however regard<br />
<strong>the</strong> passages in which <strong>the</strong> F appears to be neglected as corrupt or<br />
<strong>the</strong>m on <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ory that <strong>the</strong> F in Homer<br />
spurious, but explains<br />
has not <strong>the</strong> full value <strong>of</strong> an ordinary consonant :<br />
comparing it,<br />
for instance, not with <strong>the</strong> initial V <strong>of</strong> Latin, but with <strong>the</strong> sound<br />
which that letter has in <strong>the</strong> combination QV,<br />
Kartells chief argument<br />
is that hiatus after short vowels is <strong>the</strong><br />
most common <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> metrical facts pointing to a lost F, and<br />
especially that it is much commoner than leng<strong>the</strong>ning by Position,<br />
<strong>the</strong> numbers being 2995 and 359 respectively. But <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong><br />
this argument depends in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> each word on <strong>the</strong> metrical<br />
form : thus before a word <strong>of</strong> iambic form <strong>the</strong> syllable must be<br />
short, hence we may find hiatus, but not leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
: before an<br />
anapaest <strong>the</strong> reverse holds good. If (using<br />
Kartells list)<br />
we<br />
take <strong>the</strong> instances in which F is followed in <strong>the</strong> verse by two<br />
short syllables <strong>the</strong> words being ayei>, SXts, eapos, IXixcs (with<br />
eAt/c 0)776?, &c.), CTTOS, Ipuw, eras, taxT?<br />
'fiiov we shall find that <strong>the</strong>y<br />
number 415, and <strong>the</strong> F makes Position in 98. But this is not<br />
materially different from <strong>the</strong> proportion which will be found to<br />
obtain in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> any common word <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> same metrical form<br />
(such as<br />
404.] F in o<strong>the</strong>r Greek <strong>dialect</strong>s. It seems desirable here to<br />
say something <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Digamma which are found on<br />
<strong>the</strong> older inscriptions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> chief Doric and ^Eolic <strong>dialect</strong>s.
380 METRE. [404.<br />
The forms preserved on <strong>the</strong>se inscriptions do not indeed prove<br />
anything directly as to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> digamma. We cannot<br />
infer from <strong>the</strong>m, for instance, that <strong>the</strong> symbol F was ever used<br />
in any written copies <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> poems, or that <strong>the</strong> sound which it<br />
represented in o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>dialect</strong>s was known to <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> language.<br />
But <strong>the</strong>y may serve by way <strong>of</strong> analogy to direct our conjectures<br />
on <strong>the</strong>se questions.<br />
The most striking examples <strong>of</strong> F are found on <strong>the</strong> inscriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> Corinth and its colony Corcyra (as FtKdfia, FioXaFos, FL^LTOS,<br />
Afeiznaj, Atfay, HtvF&v, Eez'fdpeo?, opFos, TAao-iafo, &c.).<br />
With<br />
<strong>the</strong>se may be placed <strong>the</strong> Argive inscriptions (in one <strong>of</strong> which<br />
occurs Aift), and <strong>the</strong> few Laconian inscriptions. In <strong>the</strong> older<br />
monuments <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se <strong>dialect</strong>s initial F is never wanting; but<br />
omission in <strong>the</strong> body <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word is occasionally found, as in<br />
Aat(/>o/3os and UoXv^va (on <strong>the</strong> same Corinthian vase), and<br />
several names ending in -K\rjs (for -/cAeTrjs),<br />
and -Act? (for -XaFos).<br />
The scanty Phocian inscriptions yield <strong>the</strong> important forms fe,<br />
alFct, K\eFo$, with no early examples <strong>of</strong> omission ;<br />
and <strong>the</strong> little<br />
known Pamphylian <strong>dialect</strong> is equally constant, so far as it has<br />
been made out. The Locrian <strong>dialect</strong> shows more decided indications<br />
<strong>of</strong> falling <strong>of</strong>f in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> digamma. On <strong>the</strong> inscriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> that <strong>dialect</strong> (discussed by Pr<strong>of</strong>. Allen in Curt. Stud. iii.<br />
207 ff.)<br />
we find it in /Wro's, F^KOOTOS, FK&V, F/ros, feo-Trdpcos,<br />
Folitos and its<br />
compounds (lirtFoiKOS, &c.), also in Kcmufet,<br />
FeFabrjKora but not in : 8a/xia>pyos, vos, Zvvta, 'Qir&vTios (for<br />
original 'OiroFtvTios).<br />
The only initial F which is<br />
wanting is<br />
in <strong>the</strong> word tori'at<br />
(we may compare <strong>the</strong> Laconian and <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
e^e'orio?). Similarly in <strong>the</strong> older Elean inscriptions initial F is<br />
regular (Fapyov, Feiros, Fpdrpa, &c.) and we have also<br />
; 'Epfaotoi<br />
(people <strong>of</strong> Heraea /), efepeiJ (prob. an Infinitive), but fez/os, AID'S<br />
without F. In <strong>the</strong> great inscription <strong>of</strong> Gortyn initial F appears<br />
in F6$ (sum), Fiv (<br />
= 'Fol), FtKaaros, FtKarcpos, Fdpat, Fepyaa-ia,<br />
FfjjjLa (et/xa), fenrat, FOLKZVS, Fotvos, FL^ari, Fe^rjKOvra, and is only<br />
lost in o>z;a, wvaco (before w, 393).<br />
The F is also found in<br />
Compounds, as ZvFoiKfi, Trpo^eiTrarco, SuodeKafert'e?, and in <strong>the</strong><br />
body <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word Fia-F<strong>of</strong>jioipos,<br />
but disappears between vowels, as<br />
in Aaco (Gen. <strong>of</strong> Aaos a stone), aid, Ttcubiov, <strong>the</strong> oblique Cases <strong>of</strong><br />
Nouns in -us and -eus (we'es, fotKea, bpopees, and <strong>the</strong> contracted<br />
words ara (dfdrr/)<br />
&c.),<br />
and as (for<br />
a/ : os,<br />
= ea)s).<br />
It is also lost<br />
before p, as in aTropprjOevTi.*<br />
A somewhat later stage in <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> F is well exemplified by<br />
<strong>the</strong> numerous Boeotian inscriptions. In <strong>the</strong>se <strong>the</strong> general rule is<br />
that initial F is retained : <strong>the</strong> only word from which it is regularly<br />
absent is ZKCLOTOS. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand <strong>the</strong> only instances <strong>of</strong><br />
* Baunack, Die Inschrift von Gortyn, pp. 37-39, 68.
404.] DIGAMMA IN THE DIALECTS. 381<br />
F in <strong>the</strong> body <strong>of</strong> a word are, <strong>the</strong> compound<br />
and a ere'es), group <strong>of</strong> derivatives <strong>of</strong> aetSw (avXaFvbos, rpaya-<br />
Fvbos, &c.).<br />
The same rule applies to <strong>the</strong> Arcadian inscriptions,<br />
which however are too few to be <strong>of</strong> importance. The fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />
progress <strong>of</strong> decay may be seen in <strong>the</strong> Doric <strong>dialect</strong> <strong>of</strong> Heraclea,<br />
<strong>of</strong> which a specimen remains in <strong>the</strong> well known Tabulae lleracleenses<br />
(<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 4th cent.).<br />
We <strong>the</strong>re find Fe, feros, Fibios, FLKCITL<br />
and <strong>the</strong> compound ey-f^Ar^iWri = ( e-eiAr705*?}j). In<br />
<strong>the</strong>se forms <strong>the</strong> F is vocalised ; cp. <strong>Homeric</strong> avia^os ( = a-Fia)(os),<br />
evade, raXavpivos.<br />
It is necessary here to notice a group <strong>of</strong> uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F in which<br />
it seems to have been developed from a neighbouring vowel (u or<br />
The vowel<br />
o).<br />
usually precedes, as in Laconian edTJd<strong>of</strong>as, ebr/boFe,<br />
Corcyrean apio-TtvFovTa, Boeotian EvFapa, fiaKtvFai, Cyprian<br />
EvF\6u>v, EvFayopa), Kareo-Keufao-e : but we also find TAao-to/o<br />
(Corcyr.), rikyaFos (Cypr.), Ti^oxapiFos (Cypr.), Fori (Locr.).<br />
So perhaps <strong>the</strong> Boeotian avXaFvbos, rpayaFvbos, &c. (see above).<br />
With <strong>the</strong> former instances we might compare Italian Genova,<br />
Padova (for Genua, Padua) with <strong>the</strong> latter <strong>the</strong> n <strong>of</strong> Italian<br />
;<br />
uomO) uopo, <strong>the</strong> w <strong>of</strong> whole, <strong>the</strong> provincial English wuts for oats,<br />
&c. With fort we should compare <strong>the</strong> form Na/^aKrios, also<br />
Locrian. Both are exceptional, and indeed must be considered<br />
as mere errors<br />
*<br />
: but <strong>the</strong>y help to show how near F was to a<br />
pure vowel sound. It is evident that this redundant F, growing<br />
* The ordinary form NaviraKTOs occurs on <strong>the</strong> inscription 19 times, <strong>the</strong><br />
form with Naf - only once. Similarly against <strong>the</strong> single instance <strong>of</strong> fort are<br />
to be set 2 instances <strong>of</strong> on, and 5 o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Relative os, in <strong>the</strong> older<br />
Locrian inscription. See Allen in Curt. Stud. iii. p. 252 ; Brugmann, ibid. iv.<br />
p. 133, n. 57 : Tudeer, De digammo, p. 45.
383 METRE. [405.<br />
out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> vowel u or o, is a parallel phenomenon to <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> F<br />
before <strong>the</strong>se vowels which was noticed above as a characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Homer ( 393).<br />
405.] F in Ionic. There remains <strong>the</strong> interesting question<br />
whe<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F in Ionic can be traced in<br />
inscriptions.<br />
The evidence appears to be as follows (Tudeer,<br />
De dig ammo &c. pp. 5 ff.)<br />
:<br />
(1) The form APTTO (=avrov) on a Naxian inscription <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 6th century B.C. But, as has been pointed out,*<br />
<strong>the</strong> F <strong>of</strong> dfuros indicates at most a special way <strong>of</strong> pronouncing<br />
<strong>the</strong> u, and is to be compared with <strong>the</strong> erroneous Ndf-ircuc-ros noticed<br />
above.<br />
(2) The name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> city <strong>of</strong> Velia, which was founded by<br />
exiles from Phocaea (feXea marshes ; but see 393).<br />
(3) The forms flO, TAPTfONES, OfATIES all proper names<br />
on vases found in Magna Graecia, and supposed to have come<br />
from Chalcis in Euboea, or one <strong>of</strong> its Italian colonies.<br />
It is inferred by Tudeer (1. c.)<br />
that <strong>the</strong> F must have been a<br />
sound in <strong>the</strong> Ionic <strong>dialect</strong> <strong>of</strong> Euboea at <strong>the</strong> time when <strong>the</strong><br />
living<br />
colonies <strong>of</strong> Chalcis were sent to Magna Graecia, i. e. probably in<br />
<strong>the</strong> 8th century B.C. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand, since <strong>the</strong>re is no<br />
example on <strong>the</strong> inscriptions <strong>of</strong> Euboea itself, <strong>the</strong> sound does not<br />
seem to have survived <strong>the</strong>re down to <strong>the</strong> date <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earliest<br />
examples <strong>of</strong> writing, viz. <strong>the</strong> 6th century B, c. Hence Tudeer<br />
<strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> F in Ionic Euboea at some time between <strong>the</strong><br />
puts<br />
8th and <strong>the</strong> 6th centuries.<br />
It has been recently pointed out by P. Kretschmer (K. Z. xxxi.<br />
285) that <strong>the</strong> Ionic change <strong>of</strong> a to cannot be<br />
T] placed very early.<br />
The name MTJOOL underwent <strong>the</strong> change,<br />
<strong>the</strong> original a appears<br />
in <strong>the</strong> form Ma5ot on <strong>the</strong> monument <strong>of</strong> Idalion and <strong>the</strong> Medes<br />
must <strong>the</strong>refore have become known to <strong>the</strong> lonians before it was<br />
completed. The Persian names which reached Ionia later<br />
Adpetosv, MiOpibaT^s, &c. retain <strong>the</strong>ir a. Similarly <strong>the</strong> old<br />
Carian MtXaros became <strong>the</strong> Ionic Micros. Hence <strong>the</strong> Ionic r]<br />
is later than <strong>the</strong> contact <strong>of</strong> lonians with <strong>the</strong> nations <strong>of</strong> Asia<br />
Minor. Now <strong>the</strong> anomalous TJ<br />
after p in <strong>the</strong> Attic Koprj<br />
and Sepry<br />
is to be explained from <strong>the</strong> older forms KopFt], bfyFjf (cp. Kopprj<br />
from Ko'ptrr?). Consequently <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> F in Attic must be later<br />
than <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> a to tj,<br />
and a fortiori later than <strong>the</strong> Ionian<br />
migration. This inference is confirmed by <strong>the</strong> o <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Comparatives<br />
KtvoTepos and ore^oYepoy, pointing as it does to <strong>the</strong> forms<br />
* By Brugmann, Curt. Stud. iv. p. 132, n. 55, and Tudeer, p. 7.
405.] DIGAMMA IN IONIC. 383<br />
KvF6$, a-TvF6s (since <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> e,<br />
as in Ionic KCIPO;,<br />
oreivos, never took place in Attic).<br />
The former use <strong>of</strong> F as a letter in all Greek alphabets<br />
is shown<br />
by its use as a numeral, and also by <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first<br />
non-Phoenician letter, T. The addition <strong>of</strong> T, which was <strong>the</strong><br />
earliest made,, and perhaps contemporaneous with <strong>the</strong> introduction<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> alphabet, shows that <strong>the</strong> Greeks felt <strong>the</strong> need <strong>of</strong> a vowel<br />
distinct from <strong>the</strong> labial spirant Vau. O<strong>the</strong>rwise <strong>the</strong> Phoenician<br />
Vau would have served for <strong>the</strong> vowel u, just as <strong>the</strong> Yod was<br />
taken for <strong>the</strong> vowel i. And as <strong>the</strong>re is no Greek alphabet without<br />
T, it follows that <strong>the</strong> consonant F was equally universal."*<br />
Combining <strong>the</strong>se inferences with <strong>the</strong> independent evidence<br />
furnished by <strong>the</strong> metre, we may arrive at some^ approximate<br />
conclusions regarding <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong> F in <strong>the</strong> Ionic <strong>of</strong> Homer.<br />
(a) Initial F had <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong> a consonant, except before o or<br />
w ( 393)-<br />
(&) bF was retained, not only at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> a word<br />
( 394), but also in i-bFticra, 8e'8f ta, &c. : we can hardly suppose<br />
compensatory leng<strong>the</strong>ning in <strong>the</strong>se forms.<br />
(0) F between vowels is more doubtful ( 396). Since initial F<br />
was lost as early as Homer before o or w, it probably vanished<br />
before most Case-endings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Second Declension, and before<br />
<strong>the</strong> -05, -cui/ <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Third Declension. Thus for XaFds, &c. we<br />
should have Aaos, AaoS, &c. (but F possibly in Aafoi, Aafourt)<br />
:<br />
and again f]bv$, rjbcos, fibeFi, &c., UrjXtvs, IT^Arjos, Tlrj \fjFi, &c.<br />
Then o<strong>the</strong>r Cases might follow <strong>the</strong> analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gen. Sing,<br />
and Plur v and so drop <strong>the</strong> F altoge<strong>the</strong>r. However this<br />
may be,<br />
it is clear that F between vowels was generally lost much<br />
earlier than F at <strong>the</strong> beginning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> word Italian<br />
(cp. amai for<br />
amavij &c.).<br />
The absence <strong>of</strong> contraction proves little, as we see<br />
from <strong>the</strong> Attic x^* *X ea > *X 6 &c - At <strong>the</strong> same time we<br />
><br />
occasionally find a partial survival <strong>of</strong> F in a vocalised form,<br />
making a diphthong with <strong>the</strong> preceding vowel ( 396).<br />
*<br />
As <strong>the</strong> Vau is written V on <strong>the</strong> Moabite Stone, it has been suggested that<br />
it was <strong>the</strong> source <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Greek T. It seems not improbable that <strong>the</strong> letters f<br />
and T were at first only two forms <strong>of</strong> Vau, appropriated in course <strong>of</strong> time to<br />
<strong>the</strong> consonant f and vowel v, just as our u and v come from <strong>the</strong> two uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latin V. If this is so, <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> T at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>n alphabet is<br />
significant, as showing <strong>the</strong> importance attached to <strong>the</strong> original order <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
letters. See Koberts, Greek Epigraphy, n :<br />
Taylor, The Alphabet, ii. p. 82.
APPENDIX.*<br />
C. On t\<br />
and ei in Homer,<br />
THIS seems <strong>the</strong> most convenient place for a<br />
short statement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
question as to <strong>the</strong> spelling <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Subjunctives formed from Stems in<br />
and <strong>of</strong> some o<strong>the</strong>r forms about which similar doubts have arisen.<br />
-T),<br />
1. In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Stems in which -r\ represents an older -a <strong>the</strong><br />
MSS. usually have ei before o, w, but v\<br />
before e, tj.<br />
Thus in <strong>the</strong><br />
Subj. <strong>of</strong> ffirjv, CO-TTJV we find /3eio>, crreicocri, &C., but Pfos, orqerov, &C.<br />
There are one or two exceptions: KaTa^o^v once in A (II. 10. 97),<br />
cinprjopcv in good MSS. <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odyssey (6. 262., 10. 334). Aristarchus<br />
however wrote TrfptoT^ooo-' in II. 17. 95 (where all <strong>the</strong> MSS. have<br />
and pri<strong>of</strong>uu in II. 22. 431 (where <strong>the</strong> MSS. have ei<strong>the</strong>r<br />
or fiiopai)<br />
: from which it<br />
may be inferred that he wrote in rj<br />
all similar forms.<br />
2. In <strong>the</strong> Subjunctives from Stems in -YJ (<strong>the</strong> short Stem ending in<br />
-e), <strong>the</strong> MSS. always have ci before o, w, and usually before<br />
, TJ.<br />
Thus we find 0eio>, faigs, fair), and less commonly Qfas, tfifo, &c. But<br />
Aristarchus wrote Byns, 0fiy, &c., and so in all similar cases, da/uqi?,<br />
0-0777777,<br />
&c. As to foi& } Safttuv, &c., no express statement <strong>of</strong> his opinion<br />
has been preserved. If we may argue from this silence, we should<br />
infer that <strong>the</strong> question had not arisen,<br />
and <strong>the</strong>refore that with <strong>the</strong>se<br />
Stems <strong>the</strong> spelling -eio, -eio^v, &c. was anciently universal.<br />
3. The spelling with ci appears in some forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aor. 6*7701 (for<br />
fKrjva, see 15), esp. Kfiop-fv, KfiavTfs, Keiavro, fceta/iej/ot, KaK-Kftai ;<br />
also in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Pf. Part. Tetfi/eieos 1 ,<br />
and <strong>the</strong> 3 Plur. forms flarai, flaro, aKaxeiarn.<br />
Aristarchus certainly wrote eioja, retivrjus<br />
: and <strong>the</strong> form fja.Tai (for<br />
qo-arai) is supported by ancient authority (Eust. Od. 20. 354.)<br />
4. In <strong>the</strong> declension <strong>of</strong> Stems in -eea (for -cfeo--)<br />
we sometimes find<br />
r] throughout, as 'HpcutXi}"?, 'HpaicX^t, 'Hpa/cX^a, sometimes YJ<br />
before et<br />
and i,<br />
but ei before a, o, a> : as aK\rjfls, {axpriels, but d/cXetcos, VK\elas,<br />
fijppelos, gaxpci&v. So fieiov?, vneiovs, but o-Trrj'i, trirrjcam. In all <strong>the</strong>se<br />
cases, however, <strong>the</strong> uncontracted ee should probably be substituted for<br />
T) orct( 105, 15). In x<br />
e V"7' X^Pn^t X*P fia (Aristarchus and most MSS.)<br />
<strong>the</strong> origin <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> long vowel is not quite certain ( 121).<br />
* The matter contained in <strong>the</strong> Appendix to <strong>the</strong> first edition under <strong>the</strong><br />
headings A, B, D and E has now been incorporated with <strong>the</strong> body <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
work.
H AND El IN HOMER. 385<br />
5. The Attic -ew- in TrAeW, Kpea-cpdyos, xp f03K(m^w points to original<br />
iJos, Kprjas, XP*1 OS )<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> usual TrAeios, Kpelas, XP ^OS' And eats,<br />
are for T/OS-, TT)OS (not etW, as in <strong>the</strong> MSS.).<br />
6. So Attic -ea points to -T) to have been changed to 6p6a><br />
through <strong>the</strong> intermediate form 6p> ( 55).<br />
C c
386 APPENDIX.<br />
A similar account is to be given <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> forms which exhibit ei for<br />
eu or ef, as -rrveiet brea<strong>the</strong>s, 6eifiv to run, x W (Subj.) shall pour, TrXeiovrfs<br />
sailing, K\iov passed<br />
into -cfw and <strong>the</strong>n -cw, <strong>the</strong> e was leng<strong>the</strong>ned by <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
metre, and became ei. So <strong>the</strong> et <strong>of</strong> Keiavrcs (for Krjvavres or Krjavrcs, from<br />
KCUGJ)<br />
is to be attributed to <strong>the</strong> Attic i Aor. Part. Keas. But <strong>the</strong><br />
Verbs in -eiu ( 51, 3), or some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m, may be Verbs in -rjw :<br />
e.g. oKvf}(*>, like JEolic TTO^O), dStKqw.<br />
It is probable that in <strong>the</strong> same way <strong>the</strong> a <strong>of</strong> ({idea (Plur. <strong>of</strong> (pdos),<br />
drjp, aetdoo, aWe, ai'oi/, aWa, aop, aXiarjs, &r)S, &C. represents au. The<br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ning cannot well be merely metrical, as in dddvaros &c. ( 386).<br />
In some cases ci takes <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> an e which was long by Position :<br />
and perhaps eifiap for eS-fap.<br />
as Sei'SoiKa for 6evrai; evveia, i8pvs, TrdXetco?, and Genitives<br />
in -K\CIOVS (H. Weir Smyth, The Vowel System <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ionic Dialect,<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Trans, <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Am. Phil. Ass. xx. p. 74 G. Meyer, Griech. Gr?<br />
:<br />
149). It is worth observing that <strong>the</strong>se inscriptions belong to <strong>the</strong><br />
same period as <strong>the</strong> MSS. in which, as we ga<strong>the</strong>r from <strong>the</strong> criticism <strong>of</strong><br />
Aristarchus, such forms as redveiSyras, orW, jSeuo, &c. first found<br />
<strong>the</strong>ir way into <strong>the</strong> text.<br />
F, Fictfs <strong>the</strong>ory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>.<br />
The <strong>the</strong>ory put forward by Aug. Fick in his<br />
two works on Homer<br />
(Die homerische Odyssee in der ursprunglichen SpracJiform wiederhergestellt,<br />
1883 Die homerische Ilias nach Hirer Entstehung betrachtet<br />
:<br />
und in der urspriinglichen SpracJiform wiederhergestellt, 1886) admits<br />
<strong>of</strong> being stated in a very few words. He holds that <strong>the</strong> poems (with<br />
certain exceptions) were originally composed in an ^olic <strong>dialect</strong> ;<br />
that some three centuries later (about 540 B.C.) <strong>the</strong>y were translated<br />
into Ionic; and that in this process every ^Eolic word for which<br />
<strong>the</strong>re was no metrically equivalent form in Ionic was simply left<br />
unchanged. Thus, in his view, was formed <strong>the</strong> Epic <strong>dialect</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
literature, a <strong>dialect</strong> mainly Ionic, but with a considerable admixture<br />
<strong>of</strong> JEolic forms.<br />
The arguments which Fick advances in favour <strong>of</strong> this <strong>the</strong>ory are<br />
not entirely linguistic. The scene <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad, he reminds us, is
PICK'S THEORY. 387<br />
laid in ^Eolis ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> heroes and legends are largely those <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> JEolic<br />
race ;<br />
<strong>the</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> Ionia which tradition connects with Homer adjoin<br />
^Eolic settlements ;<br />
and Smyrna, which figures in some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oldest<br />
traditions as his birthplace, was for a time an ^Eolic city. Now if<br />
<strong>the</strong> poems were first composed in some JEolic district <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> northwest<br />
<strong>of</strong> Asia Minor, and passed <strong>the</strong>nce to Ionia, <strong>the</strong>y would take an<br />
Ionic form ; and, as <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> supremacy <strong>of</strong> Ionia in art and<br />
literature, that form, though<br />
full <strong>of</strong> anomalies and half-understood<br />
archaisms, would naturally hold its<br />
ground as <strong>the</strong> accepted text <strong>of</strong><br />
Homer, and become <strong>the</strong> standard to which later poets, both <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> and <strong>the</strong> Hesiodic school, would be obliged to^ conform.<br />
The linguistic arguments upon which Fiek chiefly relies are as<br />
follows :<br />
1 . The p or ' digamma/ which is required by <strong>the</strong> metre <strong>of</strong> Homer,<br />
is an -zEolic letter, unknown to <strong>the</strong> earliest extant Ionic. Moreover<br />
<strong>the</strong> vocalisation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> p seen in a number <strong>of</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> words<br />
and <strong>the</strong> like, 396) is characteristically ^Eolic : cp.<br />
<strong>the</strong> ^Eolic<br />
(for e-fiSe), a%> (for afqp), avdra (=0717), &c. The pro<strong>the</strong>tic<br />
eeSm (e-feoVa), ee/Kocrt, cepyoa, &C. is also -^Eolic.<br />
e- <strong>of</strong><br />
In order to prove that p never existed in Ionic Fick appeals to <strong>the</strong><br />
Ionic inscriptions, and <strong>the</strong> early Ionic poets.<br />
This evidence, however,<br />
does not go back beyond <strong>the</strong> 7th century B.C., and <strong>the</strong>refore proves<br />
nothing for <strong>the</strong> original language <strong>of</strong> Homer. As we have seen<br />
( 405), <strong>the</strong>re is reason to believe that <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> F in <strong>the</strong> Ionic<br />
<strong>dialect</strong> was subsequent to <strong>the</strong> first settlements <strong>of</strong> lonians in Asia.<br />
2. The ^Eolic accent and breathing are found in a number <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> words. Thus <strong>the</strong> barytone accent appears in <strong>the</strong> Nominatives<br />
in -a (as pqricra, &c.),<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Perfect forms aica^o-dac, dKaxn^vos,<br />
a\a\r)ap, cifjLaa, a^vdis, dp.66fv, r^-os, eir-iortov, avr-odtov (oSos) ;<br />
and both<br />
and fyi/zes.<br />
peculiarities in <strong>the</strong> Pronouns ap,fj,es<br />
The answer is suggested by Fick himself, though he makes it<br />
apply to a small part only <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se forms.* It is that <strong>the</strong> accent<br />
and breathing <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> JEolic words in Homer was determined by <strong>the</strong><br />
* '<br />
Fur u/x/zfs, v/i/i', tifj-nf<br />
und vf3(3a\\iv mag die psilose aus dem aolischen<br />
<strong>dialect</strong> erschlossen sein, in den iibrigen fallen liegt wohl achte iiberlieferung<br />
vor ' (Odyssee, p. 12). Where is <strong>the</strong> evidence <strong>of</strong> any such tradition ? Whenever<br />
<strong>the</strong> <strong>grammar</strong>ians have to do with a form which was obsolete or archaic<br />
in <strong>the</strong>ir time, <strong>the</strong>y are evidently quite at a loss.<br />
C C 3
388 APPENDIX.<br />
living ^Eolic <strong>dialect</strong>. Let us take <strong>the</strong> form as a<br />
ajji|jii(i>) typical<br />
instance. Fick holds that <strong>the</strong> ^Eolic appi(v) was adopted by <strong>the</strong> Ionic<br />
reciters and preserved with all its ^Eolic features <strong>the</strong> double JA,<br />
<strong>the</strong><br />
smooth breathing, <strong>the</strong> barytone accent for several generations,<br />
because <strong>the</strong> Ionic fjfuv is metrically different ( instead <strong>of</strong> - w).<br />
The alternative is to suppose that <strong>the</strong> original <strong>Homeric</strong> language had<br />
a form with short t as in Doric aptv and that in later times,<br />
when this form had gone out <strong>of</strong> use, <strong>the</strong> ./Eolic o/u/u(i/)<br />
took its place<br />
in <strong>the</strong> text. Such a substitution is eminently natural. The rhapsodists<br />
were doubtless familiar with <strong>the</strong> ^Eolic Pronouns, and <strong>the</strong>ir<br />
adoption <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> form was ap.p.i(v) simply putting <strong>the</strong> known in place <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> unknown. In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> &pt"(r) and v/3/3aXXe/ Fick himself takes<br />
this view. But if <strong>the</strong> form vp,p,i(v)<br />
was maintained by <strong>the</strong> influence<br />
<strong>of</strong> contemporary JEolic, we need go no fur<strong>the</strong>r for an explanation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> whole group <strong>of</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> which it is <strong>the</strong> type.<br />
3.<br />
Several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> inflexional forms <strong>of</strong> JEolic are more or less frequent<br />
in Homer, and <strong>the</strong>ir occurrence, according to Fick, is subject to<br />
a law w r hich holds almost without exception, viz.<br />
that <strong>the</strong> JEolic form<br />
is used (i)<br />
whenever <strong>the</strong> corresponding Ionic form is different in<br />
quantity, and <strong>the</strong>refore is not admitted by <strong>the</strong> metre, and (2)<br />
when<br />
<strong>the</strong> word itself is wanting in Ionic. In ei<strong>the</strong>r case <strong>the</strong> simple substitution<br />
<strong>of</strong> Ionic for J3olic was impossible. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand <strong>the</strong><br />
Ionic <strong>of</strong> Homer can be translated back into ^Eolic without encountering<br />
any difficulty <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind.<br />
The forms to which Fick applies his argument are :<br />
<strong>the</strong> Fern. Voc.<br />
in -a (vvp.a),<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gen. in -oio (-00), -ao, -awK : <strong>the</strong> Dat. Plur. in<br />
-ea) : <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>of</strong> Pronouns in -Qev : <strong>the</strong> forms ajxfxes, fyfui', ujajj.es,<br />
ujAfAii/, ujifAc : <strong>the</strong> Pres. in -au ; -TJW (-cia>), -ww : <strong>the</strong> Inf. in -pcrai and<br />
-jj.e> : <strong>the</strong> Pf. Part, in -v for KficXrjyws)<br />
-aos,<br />
form.<br />
: <strong>the</strong> Nouns in<br />
-awi><br />
(Xaoy,<br />
O7rda>v } StSv/uaa>z>, and many proper names) ; #ea,<br />
and some<br />
, proper names in -eia, -cias (in Ionic -erjs).<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
words in Homer are ytXos TrXe'fs (ye'Aeos), (frXcorer), nio-vpfs (Ion.<br />
fj^porov (rj^aprov)<br />
all metrically different from <strong>the</strong> Ionic<br />
In several instances <strong>the</strong> corresponding Ionic form would have<br />
suited <strong>the</strong> metre, but was not in use ;<br />
so 6cd (Ionic only 0c6s),<br />
TTO\V-<br />
Trafjicov (JEol. Tre'Tra/xati^AceKT^/iai), eppope (in Ionic only Middle ei/iapjMat) ,<br />
evvrip-ap, evvoa-iyaios, dpyevvos, fpfficwos. So OTTTTCO? was retained because<br />
<strong>the</strong> Ionic form was o*cs, never OKKUS: and OTTTTCOS<br />
again<br />
retention <strong>of</strong> OTTO)?.<br />
led to <strong>the</strong><br />
In order to determine how far <strong>the</strong>se forms are pro<strong>of</strong>s <strong>of</strong> an JEolic
FICK'S THEORY. 389<br />
Homer, it is necessary to distinguish between those which are<br />
specifically ^Eolic, i.e. ^Eolic modifications <strong>of</strong> a common original, and<br />
those which are simply <strong>the</strong> older forms, which Ionic and o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
<strong>dialect</strong>s modified each in its own way. To <strong>the</strong> latter class belong<br />
<strong>the</strong> Gen. endings -oio (Indo-Eur. -osyo\ -So, -auv (New Ion. -cw,<br />
-cwy), <strong>the</strong> Voc. in -d, <strong>the</strong> Inf. in -jxemi, -per. These are forms which<br />
would be found everywhere in Greece, if we could trace <strong>the</strong> different<br />
<strong>dialect</strong>s far enough back. They are ' JEolic ' only because <strong>the</strong>y were<br />
retained in ^Eolic (among o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>dialect</strong>s), but were altered or lost in<br />
Attic and Ionic. The same may be said <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> endings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pronouns<br />
,<br />
&c. They appear also in <strong>the</strong> corresponding Doric forms d/ue's,<br />
ey, Dat. ap.iv, vy-tv, Ace. a/xf, v/^e. In <strong>the</strong>se cases, <strong>the</strong>n, we only know<br />
that a form is archaic, not that it belongs to any one <strong>dialect</strong>.*<br />
On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand <strong>the</strong>re are some forms to which this account<br />
does not apply. The Dat. Plur. in -com is not proved to be ' Panhellenic,'<br />
and is certainly less primitive than <strong>the</strong> form in -ai ( 102).<br />
The case stands thus : Ionic has only -cri, ^Eolic only -eom, in Homer<br />
both are found (-eaai being ra<strong>the</strong>r less frequent). Therefore, says<br />
Tick, <strong>the</strong> language <strong>of</strong> Homer is JEolic, not <strong>the</strong> later ^Eolic, in which<br />
every Dat. Plur. ended in -eao-i, but an earlier, in which -eo-cri had<br />
begun to take <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> -v, KfKonav ( 27).<br />
The argument here has greater weight than<br />
in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Pan-hellenic inflexions, but it is not conclusive. The<br />
forms now in question are not confined to JEolic :<br />
<strong>the</strong>y appear<br />
occasionally in Doric, and in <strong>the</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>s <strong>of</strong> nor<strong>the</strong>rn Greece. There<br />
was <strong>the</strong>refore a general tendency towards <strong>the</strong>se forms, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>dialect</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Homer may have shared in this tendency without being <strong>the</strong>reby<br />
proved to be non-Ionic.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Genitives in -oio and <strong>the</strong> Voc. in -& <strong>the</strong> argument<br />
may be pressed somewhat fur<strong>the</strong>r. The forms -oio and -ou,<br />
which are found toge<strong>the</strong>r in Homer, represent different steps <strong>of</strong> a<br />
phonetic process (-010, -oio, -oo, -ou) : <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong>y<br />
subsisted toge<strong>the</strong>r in any spoken <strong>dialect</strong>, and -oio<br />
cannot have<br />
in Homer must be<br />
an archaism, preserved by literary tradition. This conclusion is<br />
*<br />
Undue stress has been laid upon <strong>the</strong> variety <strong>of</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Infinitive in<br />
Homer : e. g. Offttvai, 6f/j.tv, Otivat. Originally <strong>the</strong>re were as many Infinitive<br />
endings as <strong>the</strong>re were different ways <strong>of</strong> forming an abstract Substantive. In<br />
Vedic Sanscrit, where <strong>the</strong> Infinitive is less developed than in Greek, <strong>the</strong><br />
variety <strong>of</strong> formation is much greater (Whitney, 970).
390 APPENDIX.<br />
confirmed by <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ending ( 149, 3).<br />
If<br />
<strong>the</strong>n<br />
Pick is right in regarding -oio in Alcaeus as taken from <strong>the</strong> living<br />
JEolic <strong>of</strong> Lesbos (Odyssee, p. 14),<br />
it follows that Lesbian retained a<br />
form which had died out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> supposed old JEolic <strong>of</strong> Homer's time.<br />
Again, <strong>the</strong> Fern. Voc. in -a appears to be regular in Lesbian ^Eolic :<br />
whereas in Homer it is found only in <strong>the</strong> isolated vvpfpa. This is<br />
<strong>the</strong>refore ano<strong>the</strong>r point in which historical JEolic is more primitive<br />
than Homer. The argument would apply also to <strong>the</strong> Gen. in -ao and<br />
-oW, if it were certain that -cw and -ewy belong to <strong>the</strong> original<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> language.<br />
4. Among <strong>the</strong> forms now in question <strong>the</strong>re are many instances <strong>of</strong><br />
a for which Ionic must have had YJ,<br />
and which <strong>the</strong>refore Fick argues<br />
cannot have come to Homer from Ionic. Such are, <strong>the</strong> Gen. in -ao,<br />
-awi>, which must have appeared in Old Ionic as -TJO, -TJO>I>,<br />
whence<br />
New Ionic -ew, -cwi/ : <strong>the</strong> Participles neivduv, St^acoi/<br />
: <strong>the</strong> Nouns in<br />
-aoy, -atoj/ : <strong>the</strong> word Bed, and some proper names, 'Ep/zeias-, AiVet'a?,<br />
'Peia, 3>/a, NatxriKaa : <strong>the</strong> Words Xaay, dr)p (Gen. ^epoy), darjp ( 106, l),<br />
rerp-aopos- (Od. 13. 8l), perhaps also <strong>the</strong> Perfects eaScoy, eaya ( 22, l).<br />
The normal change to v\ appears in vrjvs (VTJOS for vrifts, &c.), v-qos<br />
temple, rjas, r]\ios, Trap-rjopos, drj'ios (JEol. Safioy), K\rjts, prjtSios, 7rr)6s.<br />
Against <strong>the</strong> Nouns in -a.uv we can only set <strong>the</strong> single form Trmryooi/.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> first place, it is very probable (as has been shown in 405),<br />
that <strong>the</strong> Ionic <strong>of</strong> Homer's time still had <strong>the</strong> sound <strong>of</strong> 5 in all <strong>the</strong>se<br />
forms. This however is not a complete answer to Fick. We have<br />
to explain how this primitive a was retained in <strong>the</strong>se particular cases,<br />
when <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> a to took rj place generally in <strong>the</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>. For<br />
we can hardly suppose that <strong>the</strong> change <strong>of</strong> -ao, -aa>i> to -TJO, -i\wv (on <strong>the</strong><br />
way to -eci), -e&>y) could have been made in <strong>the</strong> spoken language<br />
without extending to <strong>the</strong> recitation <strong>of</strong> poetry.<br />
The true answer seems to be that <strong>the</strong> retention <strong>of</strong> a in Homer was<br />
due, generally speaking, to <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> literary <strong>dialect</strong>s,<br />
especially Attic and ^Eolic.<br />
Let us take <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> Xaos (Xafo?), which in some ways is typical.<br />
The Ionic form \rj6s is quoted from Hipponax 88 (fr. Bergk), and is<br />
preserved, as Nauck acutely perceived (Mel. gr.-rom. iii. 268),<br />
in <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> proper names AijiYos, Aeioxpiroy (for A^oKptros), and AeicoS^s<br />
(A.r]o-pd8r]s).<br />
Fick supposes that when Homer was translated into<br />
Ionic th'e form Xrjos had become antiquated, and accordingly, as Aecos<br />
was metrically different, Ado's- was retained. If so, however, <strong>the</strong><br />
proper names would d, fortiori have remained in <strong>the</strong>ir ^Eolic form
PICK'S THEORY. 391<br />
(AdiYo?, AaoKpiros), just as <strong>the</strong> older form *dfp
392 APPENDIX.<br />
in o<strong>the</strong>r words, that <strong>the</strong> steps were -ao, -aw, -cw and -awy, -awv, -CWK<br />
(not -ao, -t]o, &c.).<br />
It is also not improbable that <strong>the</strong> shortening had<br />
taken place in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Homer, so that -ao and -dwi> were <strong>the</strong>n<br />
archaic (as<br />
-oio almost certainly was). There are 54 instances <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Gren. Plur. Fern, in -ewe (-wi>)<br />
in Homer, against 306 in -owi> (Menrad,<br />
pp. 36, 38). Considering <strong>the</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> tradition in such matters<br />
we may infer that <strong>the</strong> vowel was doubtful in quantity, if not actually<br />
short, in <strong>the</strong> spoken language <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time. As to -So see 376, i.<br />
Now if <strong>the</strong> forms in -ao and -auv were <strong>the</strong>n archaic, <strong>the</strong>y might be<br />
exempted, by <strong>the</strong> force <strong>of</strong> a poetical tradition, from <strong>the</strong> general phonetic<br />
law or tendency which turned a into in <strong>the</strong> Ionic <strong>dialect</strong>.<br />
i\<br />
And <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> Old Attic and o<strong>the</strong>r literary <strong>dialect</strong>s which<br />
retained <strong>the</strong> a would operate <strong>the</strong> more decisively.<br />
However this may<br />
be, it is clear that <strong>the</strong> causes which retained <strong>the</strong> a <strong>of</strong> Xndy, i/ao's,<br />
irapdopos, gvvdopos, 8aos, irads, neirap.ai in <strong>the</strong> Old Attic <strong>of</strong> tragedy, may<br />
have operated at an earlier time in favour <strong>of</strong> -ao and -awy.<br />
The question between a and e in <strong>the</strong> later form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se endings<br />
would naturally be settled by <strong>the</strong> example <strong>of</strong> Ionic in favour <strong>of</strong> -eu>,<br />
-ewv : but it is worth noticing that <strong>the</strong> result has not been <strong>the</strong> same<br />
in <strong>the</strong> Gen. <strong>of</strong> Neuters in -&s ( 107, 3).<br />
Here <strong>the</strong> Ionic e appears in<br />
Homer in <strong>the</strong> declension <strong>of</strong> ovSas, K&US, Krepas, but not in yrjpa-os,<br />
6e7ra-a>i>, repa-nv. The tendency to uniformity works much more<br />
powerfully on a large class <strong>of</strong> words, such as <strong>the</strong> Nouns in -a (-TJ),<br />
than on a small group, like <strong>the</strong> Neuters in -as. But <strong>the</strong> survival<br />
<strong>of</strong> -dos, -a.wv in <strong>the</strong> latter makes it<br />
probable that -aw, -awi> were at<br />
one time <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> forms, anterior to -ew, -ewi>.*<br />
A singular problem is presented by <strong>the</strong> a in <strong>the</strong> two forms nftvduv<br />
(Ace. TTfivdovra) and SH/mow, as to which see 55, 8. As <strong>the</strong>se verbs<br />
belong to <strong>the</strong> small group in which contraction gives TJ instead <strong>of</strong> a,<br />
it seems at first sight strange that <strong>the</strong>y should be <strong>the</strong> only examples<br />
<strong>of</strong> -awy in <strong>the</strong> Participle. But <strong>the</strong> connexion between <strong>the</strong> two<br />
phenomena appears when we consider that <strong>the</strong> contraction in neiiys,<br />
&c. implies <strong>the</strong> steps ae>Yj>Tj, consequently that <strong>the</strong> exceptional<br />
feature in it is precisely <strong>the</strong> retention <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> long vowel. Thus it<br />
remains only to explain <strong>the</strong> combination aw, ao, which in Ionic<br />
should become TJW,<br />
YJO.<br />
* The fact that -o> and -
FICKS THEORY. 393<br />
5. In his earlier work on <strong>the</strong> Odyssey Fick recognised both oV and<br />
KC> as <strong>Homeric</strong> ;<br />
but subsequently he came to <strong>the</strong> conclusion that ay<br />
is everywhere due to <strong>the</strong> Ionic translators (Ilias, p. xxiii).<br />
His main<br />
argument is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 43 instances <strong>of</strong> oV in <strong>the</strong> Ionic poets (Archilochus,<br />
&c.) <strong>the</strong>re are not more than 2 1 in which it could be changed<br />
into Key (ice,<br />
K S )<br />
without affecting <strong>the</strong> metre, whereas in Homer <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> cases. The<br />
change can be made in a much larger proportion<br />
inference is that in making <strong>the</strong> change in Homer we are restoring <strong>the</strong><br />
original form. But his induction is far too narrow. In <strong>the</strong> first three<br />
books <strong>of</strong> Apollonius Rhodius <strong>the</strong>re are 46 instances <strong>of</strong> oV, and only<br />
13 in which it cannot be changed into Ke(y). Again in JEschylus<br />
(excluding chorus) <strong>the</strong>re are 212 instances <strong>of</strong> dV, <strong>of</strong> which 73 are<br />
unchangeable. In <strong>the</strong> (Edipus Tyrannus <strong>the</strong> number is 31<br />
out <strong>of</strong><br />
107. In <strong>the</strong> Iliad, without counting %\v<br />
and eiryjy,<br />
<strong>the</strong> instances <strong>of</strong><br />
unchangeable civ are 43 out <strong>of</strong> 156. This is nearly <strong>the</strong> same proportion<br />
and we admit that in a few cases o> has replaced an original<br />
;<br />
Kev. Moreover it has been already shown, on quite independent<br />
grounds, that <strong>the</strong> combination OUK oV is <strong>Homeric</strong> ( 362). There can<br />
be little doubt, <strong>the</strong>refore, that while Ke(y)<br />
is distinctive <strong>of</strong> ^Eolic, as<br />
oV <strong>of</strong> Ionic and Attic, <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong> <strong>dialect</strong> possessed both Particles.<br />
It may seem strange that which ce(i>), is commoner than oV in Homer,<br />
should have died out <strong>of</strong> Ionic. On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand ai> was <strong>the</strong><br />
more emphatic Particle, and <strong>the</strong> desire <strong>of</strong> emphasis is a frequent<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> change in <strong>the</strong> vocabulary <strong>of</strong> a language.<br />
It may be objected that we have still to explain <strong>the</strong> remarkable<br />
coincidence on which Fick's argument rests, viz. <strong>the</strong> fact that in so<br />
many cases <strong>the</strong> non-Ionic forms are precisely those which are<br />
different in metrical value from <strong>the</strong> Ionic equivalents. The answer<br />
is that <strong>the</strong> same coincidence would be found with archaisms <strong>of</strong> any<br />
<strong>dialect</strong>. It is only <strong>the</strong> metre <strong>of</strong> Homer (generally speaking) that<br />
has preserved or could preserve such things. Why do we find (e. g.)<br />
(TT^<strong>of</strong>ieVj oriyeTf, but (rrfjr/s, orjfo, ar^coo-i (not CTTYJCIS, arrjei,<br />
1<br />
orqovcn)<br />
Evidently because <strong>the</strong> metre admits <strong>the</strong> modernised forms in <strong>the</strong><br />
latter case, not in <strong>the</strong> former. Thus all words or inflexions which do<br />
not belong to <strong>the</strong> New Ionic or Attic <strong>dialect</strong>, be <strong>the</strong>y Old Ionic or<br />
Old ^Eolic, will be found to be metrically different from <strong>the</strong> later<br />
forms.<br />
It has been sought thus far to show that phenomena which Fick<br />
explains by supposing a translation from JEolic into New Ionic may
394 APPENDIX.<br />
be equally well accounted for, partly by <strong>the</strong> changes which must<br />
have taken place within <strong>the</strong> Attic-Ionic <strong>dialect</strong> itself, and partly by<br />
<strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> post-<strong>Homeric</strong> spoken language. We may now<br />
consider what <strong>Homeric</strong> peculiarities cannot be explained on Tick's<br />
principles, and may <strong>the</strong>refore be held to turn <strong>the</strong> scale in favour <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> alternative view.<br />
(a) The Dual is wanting in <strong>the</strong> earliest ^Eolic, whereas it is in<br />
living use in Homer, and also in Attic down to <strong>the</strong> 5th century B.C.<br />
It is true, as Tick urges, that <strong>the</strong> loss <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dual may have taken<br />
place in ^Eolic between <strong>the</strong> pth and <strong>the</strong> 7th centuries. But <strong>the</strong> gap<br />
thus made between <strong>the</strong> earliest known ^Eolic and <strong>the</strong> supposed<br />
jEolic <strong>of</strong> Homer is a serious weakening <strong>of</strong> his case.<br />
The (6) moveable -v is unknown in ^Eolic, as also in New Ionic.<br />
Tick strikes it out whenever it is possible to do so, but is very far<br />
from banishing it from <strong>the</strong> text. Thus in <strong>the</strong> first book <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad<br />
he has to leave it in 11.<br />
45, 60, 66, 73, 77, &c.<br />
(c) The psilosis which Fick introduces (airir) for dfoei, &c.)<br />
is common<br />
to ^Eolic and New Ionic. Why <strong>the</strong>n does it not appear in<br />
Homer ?<br />
(d) The forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong> 6pdo>, opoavres, &c. ( 55) are not<br />
accounted for by Fick's <strong>the</strong>ory. This is recognised by Fick himself<br />
(Odyss. p. 2).<br />
He adopts <strong>the</strong> view <strong>of</strong> Wackernagel, supposing that<br />
<strong>the</strong> Attic forms 6pS>v, 6/>z/re? were introduced into <strong>the</strong> recension <strong>of</strong><br />
Pisistratus, and that <strong>the</strong>se were afterwards made into opowz/, opo'ooi/res<br />
to fit <strong>the</strong> metre. This view is doubtless in <strong>the</strong> main correct.<br />
Setting aside <strong>the</strong> mythical ' recension <strong>of</strong> Pisistratus,' and putting in<br />
its place <strong>the</strong> long insensible influence <strong>of</strong> Attic recitation upon <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> text, we obtain a probable account <strong>of</strong> 6p6 or 6pS> (see H. Weir Smyth, Vowel-system e'
FICK'S THEORY. 395<br />
( /) Many Attic peculiarities may be noted ovv for &v : (which<br />
Aristarchus counted among <strong>the</strong> pro<strong>of</strong>s that Homer was an A<strong>the</strong>nian) :<br />
^coy, TroVf, &c. for KU>S, Kore, &c. i th e two Genitives Seious and o-vmovs<br />
(for Neuters Se'e<strong>of</strong>, o-Treeos) in : -as, Gen. -aos (instead <strong>of</strong> -cos) : apcrrjv<br />
(for -^Eolic and Ionic epo-rjv) : reao-apes for Ionic reo-a-cpes', Kpficro-wv,<br />
fj.e[a)v for Kpeo-crwv, p.fga>v, Cp. also eaya (Ionic e^ya), and eaSo'ra (22,<br />
i),<br />
for which Ionic analogy would require ej/Sdra.<br />
(g) The ^Eolic forms a/ijLu(i/), fy(u(v) are not used quite consistently :<br />
thus we find <strong>the</strong> form a^\iw in three places (II. 13. 379., 14. 85, Od.<br />
12. 275), but rjp.lv<br />
in three o<strong>the</strong>rs (Od. 8. 569., n. 344., 17. 376).<br />
On Pick's <strong>the</strong>ory q/ui/, if it was an Ionic form, would have been<br />
adopted. Again v^iv is occasionally used where vptv is admitted by<br />
<strong>the</strong> metre (II. 10. 380, Od. 4. 94., 20. 367).<br />
Several <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se arguments may be met by admitting an Atticising<br />
tendency, subsequent to <strong>the</strong> lonicising which Fick supposes. Some<br />
such Attic influence clearly was exerted, and also an JEolic influence<br />
(as Fick allows in <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> But if <strong>the</strong> Ionic Homer<br />
fyifies). only<br />
dates from 540 B.C., what room is <strong>the</strong>re for <strong>the</strong>se o<strong>the</strong>r processes<br />
1<br />
And if we suppose a modernising process, as wide in place and time<br />
as <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> Homer, but in which Attic and Ionic naturally<br />
predominated, what ground is left for an original ^Eolic element 1<br />
(h) The Iterative forms in -cricoi> ( 48) appear to be characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> Homer and also <strong>of</strong> later Ionic. This is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> points in <strong>the</strong><br />
nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> case not numerous in which <strong>the</strong> Ionic character <strong>of</strong><br />
Homer is<br />
guaranteed by <strong>the</strong> metre.<br />
Ano<strong>the</strong>r point <strong>of</strong> this kind is <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> fieV<br />
in ^ p.ev,<br />
KOI p.ev,<br />
and<br />
o<strong>the</strong>r combinations where Attic would have ^v ( 345). On <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r<br />
side it<br />
may be said that <strong>the</strong> retention <strong>of</strong> pdv (see 342) was due to<br />
<strong>the</strong> want <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> form pjv in Ionic. But if pav were an original ^Eolic<br />
form we should expect on Tick's <strong>the</strong>ory to find it in <strong>the</strong> older parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odyssey as well as in <strong>the</strong> Iliad.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r words which show a difference <strong>of</strong> quantity between <strong>the</strong><br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> and <strong>the</strong> JEolic forms are: Upla^os (^Eol. n/ppa/xos), rpiros<br />
(Mol. rep?), KaXos (^Eol. K&XOS, see Meyer, G. G. 65).<br />
The ancients supposed that Homer <strong>of</strong> set purpose employed a<br />
mixture <strong>of</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>s.<br />
Modern scholars have condemned this notion as<br />
uncritical, but have generally held that his language is<br />
a poetical and<br />
conventional one, a Sdngersprache, never used in actual speech.<br />
It<br />
may<br />
be allowed that <strong>the</strong>re is a measure <strong>of</strong> truth in both <strong>the</strong>se views,
396 APPENDIX.<br />
provided that we distinguish<br />
Homer and <strong>the</strong> * Epic ' <strong>of</strong> our texts. For<br />
between <strong>the</strong> <strong>dialect</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong><br />
1. Even in <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Homer <strong>the</strong>re was doubtless an element<br />
<strong>of</strong> conventionality in <strong>the</strong> style and vocabulary, and even in <strong>the</strong> grammatical<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> poetry. Such phrases as /*epo7ro>i> av6pa>na>v, v^v^os<br />
(or qSv/Mos) vnvos, ava TrroXe/xoio yeffrvpas, are used with little or no sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir original meaning, but evidently as part <strong>of</strong> a common poetical<br />
stock. Doubtless <strong>the</strong> Gen. in -oio was already poetical, perhaps<br />
also <strong>the</strong> Gen. in -So and in -ciui>. These forms <strong>the</strong>n were genuinely<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong>, but not part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> living speech <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time.<br />
2.<br />
Many primitive <strong>Homeric</strong> forms were lost in Ionic and Attic,<br />
but survived elsewhere in Greece. These seemed to <strong>the</strong> ancients to<br />
be borrowed from <strong>the</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>s in which <strong>the</strong>y were known in historical<br />
times, and thus gave support to <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> a mixture <strong>of</strong> <strong>dialect</strong>s.<br />
3. The poems suffered a gradual and unsystematic because generally<br />
unconscious process <strong>of</strong> modernising, <strong>the</strong> chief agents in which were<br />
<strong>the</strong> rhapsodists, who wandered over all parts <strong>of</strong> Greece and were<br />
likely to be influenced by all <strong>the</strong> chief forms <strong>of</strong> literature. In this<br />
way forms crept in from various <strong>dialect</strong>s, from Ionic, from Lesbian<br />
^Eolic, and from Attic. The latter stages <strong>of</strong> this process may be<br />
traced in <strong>the</strong> various<br />
readings <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ancient critics, and even in our<br />
MSS., in which a primitive word or form is <strong>of</strong>ten only partially<br />
displaced by that <strong>of</strong> a later equivalent. The number <strong>of</strong> instances<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind may be materially increased as <strong>the</strong> MSS. <strong>of</strong> Homer<br />
become better known.<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r<br />
Notes and Corrections.<br />
2 3 5 (p* 2 7)<br />
With <strong>the</strong> instances here given we may place <strong>the</strong><br />
Cretan KarafeX/ueVoi, which occurs in <strong>the</strong> inscription <strong>of</strong> Gortyn with<br />
<strong>the</strong> meaning ga<strong>the</strong>red toge<strong>the</strong>r, assembled (cp. <strong>Homeric</strong> e'eX/Ki/ot crowded).<br />
Baunack however takes it for wrr<strong>of</strong>ijX/zo'ot, supposing loss <strong>of</strong> f and<br />
contraction from KarafefeX^ieW.<br />
27 (p. 30). The Present (XKOUW / hear appears to be originally<br />
a Perfect which has gone through <strong>the</strong> process here exemplified. The<br />
true Present form is a.Kcva>, which survived in Cyprus (diccver<br />
KvTTpioi) and Crete (Law <strong>of</strong> Gortyn, ii. 1 7).<br />
Hence <strong>the</strong> Attic d/c^/<br />
(for aK-riKova), and presumably also an earlier form *aKoua, formed like<br />
,<br />
and passing into dnow as avoya passed into dvd>yo). This
NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. 397<br />
explains <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> UKOVCO with <strong>the</strong> Perfect meaning (72, 4), which<br />
accordingly is not quite parallel to <strong>the</strong> similar use <strong>of</strong> Trwddv<strong>of</strong>jLai, ^.av-<br />
6dva>, &c. O<strong>the</strong>r <strong>Homeric</strong> examples are SIWKW ( 29),<br />
in which <strong>the</strong><br />
want <strong>of</strong> reduplication may be original ( 23, 5), and IX^KW (22,9, 6.).<br />
The form YJKW, which is probably <strong>of</strong> this nature, occurs in our MSS.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Homer (II. 5. 473., 18. 406, Od. 13. 325., 15. 329), but Bekker<br />
substituted <strong>the</strong> undoubtedly <strong>Homeric</strong> t*o> (La Koche, If. T. 287).<br />
The form eWWe rebuked, which occurs several times in Homer<br />
(usually with <strong>the</strong> variants evevirrre and eWi/toTre), should perhaps be<br />
placed here. It is usually classed as a Keduplicated Aorist (so Curt.<br />
Verb.<br />
ii.<br />
26), but <strong>the</strong>re is no analogy for this, and <strong>the</strong> <strong>Homeric</strong><br />
passages do not prove that it is an Aorist. The I <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> stem may be<br />
due to <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Pres. eViVro) and <strong>the</strong> Noun erinr) (cp. 25,<br />
3).<br />
Buttmann acutely compared<br />
it with eTrcTrXrjyov, which is evidently<br />
related to 77X770-0-0) and rrXrjyr]<br />
as svtvarov to eviirroa (eW)<br />
and winy.<br />
The reduplication is <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> type <strong>of</strong> epepwrro.<br />
42 (p. 44). The Aor, eYpa8e<br />
:<br />
(plXov irTOHTKagiifv rjtv) aKovdop.ai I please myself with hearing (II. 4.<br />
343 dairos dicovd&o-dov, Od. 13. 9 aKovd&ffGe d' :<br />
aot8ov) SO vcva> and<br />
a^o) 2O. 162), /u'yw/LU<br />
and mydfrnai (Od. 8. 271), piVra) and<br />
(II.<br />
a^o), fpva> and puo-rd^o),<br />
eiXvco and fl\v.
398 APPENDIX.<br />
67 (p. 61).<br />
With er)i>8avov compare <strong>the</strong> Aor. form ej?|a (for eaa),<br />
preserved in <strong>the</strong> text <strong>of</strong> Zenodotus in II. 13. 166 (^we'ij^e for Wae)<br />
and 257 (KaTfr)gap.ev<br />
for KaT(dgafjLev).<br />
In this case <strong>the</strong> change to T)<br />
did<br />
not make its way into <strong>the</strong> vulgate perhaps because <strong>the</strong> form ^|a,<br />
which suggested it, was a rarer word than rjvdavov.<br />
71 (p. 63).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Present stem to express relative time<br />
is well exemplified by <strong>the</strong> following sentence from an early Attic<br />
inscription : clo-rrpagdvTtoV avrovs ol flpiiiifvoi, a-vveiairpaTTOVTUv<br />
Kai ol (TTparr^yoL (Meisterhans, 48 a.).<br />
de auroiy<br />
72, 2, n. 2 (p. 64). In <strong>the</strong> Law <strong>of</strong> Gortyn aya> and fa'pa are<br />
employed where <strong>the</strong> Aor. is <strong>the</strong> usual tense : see especially<br />
i. 1 2 at<br />
ft dwioiTo fir} ciyev if Tie<br />
deny that he has taken away (Baunack, Die<br />
Inschrift von Gortyn, p. 79).<br />
77 (p. 66).<br />
Some valuable remarks on this and similar uses <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> Aor. Part, are to be found in an article by Mr. Frank Carter in<br />
<strong>the</strong> Classical Review (Feb. 1891, p. 4).<br />
He observes that it is really<br />
a timeless use, i.e. that <strong>the</strong> speaker does not wish to indicate a relation<br />
in time between <strong>the</strong> action <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Participle and that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> finite<br />
verb. The Participle expresses a predication, but one which is only<br />
a part or essential circumstance <strong>of</strong> that which <strong>the</strong> verb expresses.<br />
See below, on 245, i.<br />
80 (p. 68). As to <strong>the</strong> MS. authority for some forms <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Pf. Subj. see 283, a.<br />
92 (p. 79).<br />
The Nominative is used for <strong>the</strong> Vocative in <strong>the</strong> case<br />
<strong>of</strong> oxytones in -w, and all Nouns in -i\v (Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 206,<br />
P- 544).<br />
99* (P- 84). To <strong>the</strong> examples <strong>of</strong> metaplastic Neut. Plur. used<br />
with collective meaning add eo-nepa evening-time (Od. 17. 191), vevpa<br />
sinews (used<br />
in II. 16. 316 <strong>of</strong> one bowstring), rrXevpd side (II. 4. 468),<br />
Trapeid cheeks (Neut. Plur. in II. 22. 491 according to Aristarchus).<br />
It may be suspected that epfrpd oars belongs to this group, since <strong>the</strong><br />
Sing, in later Greek is always epcrpds, and a Neut. eper/xoV is contrary<br />
to analogy, and only rests on <strong>the</strong> phrase evfjpcs cperpov (Od.),<br />
for which<br />
We can read fvrjpe' eperp-ov.<br />
102 (p. 86). It appears that <strong>the</strong> stems in -a originally formed<br />
a Loc. Plur. in -as (as well as -dsu and -dsi)<br />
:<br />
devds (Inscr.).<br />
Hence it is possible<br />
hence Lat./oras, alias,<br />
that <strong>the</strong> few <strong>Homeric</strong> forms in<br />
-ais or -r]s<br />
which cannot be written -YJO-' represent this -as (Brugmann,<br />
Grundr. ii.<br />
358, p. 704).<br />
no (p. 95). The question between iravTy and irdv-n) cannot be
NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. 399<br />
decided, as Joh. Schmidt supposes (Pluralb. p. 40), by <strong>the</strong> circumstance<br />
that <strong>the</strong> final vowel is frequently shortened before ano<strong>the</strong>r vowel<br />
in Homer. It is true, as was observed by H<strong>of</strong>fmann (Quaest. Horn. i.<br />
p. 58, quoted by Schmidt I.e.), that final TJ is <strong>of</strong>tener shortened than<br />
final YJ.<br />
In <strong>the</strong> first four books <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Iliad and Odyssey, as Hartel<br />
shows (Horn. Stud. ii. p. 5), -t\ is shortened 41 times, -rj 19 times:<br />
and fur<strong>the</strong>r examination confirms this ratio. But,<br />
as Hartel also<br />
points out, -rj<br />
occurs in Homer about three times as <strong>of</strong>ten as -YJ<br />
:<br />
consequently <strong>the</strong> shortening <strong>of</strong> -# is relatively more frequent.<br />
116, 4 (p. 109). For f)8i>s dur/^ in Od. 12. 369 we may read<br />
j^Svs dvTp.r)v, as suggested by Baumeister on Horn. H. Merc. no.<br />
1 1 6, 5 (p. 109). vyirjs<br />
has been explained as a Compound,<br />
viz. <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>the</strong> prefix su- (su-manas, &c.) and a stem from <strong>the</strong> root jyd (Saussure,<br />
Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. 161).<br />
117 (p. no). Adjectives in -109 are <strong>of</strong>ten used with some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a Comparative, i. e. in words which imply a contrast<br />
between two sides : as in eo-Treptos- evening and ^oTo? or qepios morning,<br />
TjfjuiTios day and vvxrepos),<br />
(opposed to dry land), VOTIOS, ^vpios (opp. to north and east),<br />
dovXios. The suffix serves to form a kind <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>tened<br />
ios, geivios,<br />
Superlative in eVxanos- and uorcmo?, lit. '<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> last ' : and <strong>the</strong> same<br />
analogy yields oo-crarios from oo-o-oj, a formation like Lat. quantulus.<br />
The Comparative force <strong>of</strong> -w>s, -jae, dp,6fv, &c., also in Ifpaavvrj, and shows that if we derive<br />
it from a Case-form in -co (as Karoorepo) from KOTO), &c.),<br />
we have still to<br />
explain <strong>the</strong> rhythmical law according to which w and o interchange :<br />
for a law which governed common speech in all periods cannot have<br />
arisen merely from <strong>the</strong> needs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hexameter. Accordingly he<br />
connects <strong>the</strong> phenomenon with a rhythmical leng<strong>the</strong>ning<br />
<strong>of</strong> final<br />
short vowels (among o<strong>the</strong>rs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> final t <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Locative, see 378),<br />
which is found in Yedic Sanscrit.<br />
Xapooraro? (Od. 2. 350) points to a <strong>Homeric</strong> form \acpds, which we<br />
can always substitute for Xapo?. It is probably for Xacr-epor from<br />
Xao-- desire: see Curtius, Grundz, p. 361 (sth edit).<br />
125, 8 (p. 121). This peculiar leng<strong>the</strong>ning in <strong>the</strong> second member<br />
<strong>of</strong> a Compound has been explained by Wackernagel (Dehnungsgesetz,
400 APPENDIX.<br />
pp. 2 1 ff.) as <strong>the</strong> result <strong>of</strong> a primitive contraction, or Crasis, with <strong>the</strong><br />
final vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first part : e. g. o/ucowjuo? for opo-ovvnos. The chief<br />
argument for this view is that <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning is only found in stems<br />
beginning with a vowel a fact which can hardly be accounted for on<br />
any o<strong>the</strong>r i<br />
supposition. Such cases as Wv/ios in<br />
,<br />
which no contraction<br />
can have taken place, may be extensions by analogy <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
original type. It is to be understood <strong>of</strong> course that <strong>the</strong> contraction<br />
was governed by different laws from those which obtain in <strong>the</strong> Greek<br />
which we know. The chief rule is that <strong>the</strong> resulting long vowel is<br />
fixed by <strong>the</strong> second <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two concurrent vowels : o/^yupis for 6/*oayvpis,<br />
7re/u7ra)/3oXoi/ for ne/jLire-o^oXov, &c. Whe<strong>the</strong>r this was a primitive<br />
phonetic rule, or partly due to <strong>the</strong> working <strong>of</strong> analogy, it finds an<br />
exact parallel in <strong>the</strong> Temporal Augment, which must have been due<br />
to <strong>the</strong> influence <strong>of</strong> a prefix e-<br />
upon <strong>the</strong> initial vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> verb-stem.<br />
We may compare also <strong>the</strong> Subjunctive forms dvvdpai, rift/m, &c. ( 81).<br />
Thus <strong>the</strong> later contraction, as in (r/c^Trrov^oy, AuxoCpyos, stands in <strong>the</strong><br />
same relation to <strong>the</strong> older forms now in question as er^oi/, &c. (with ct<br />
for ee)<br />
to 77X0, wpova, &C.<br />
The primitive Indo-European 'sandhi,' crasis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> final vowel<br />
<strong>of</strong> one word with <strong>the</strong> initial vowel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> next, was generally given<br />
up in Greek, and <strong>the</strong> system <strong>of</strong> elision took its place. In Compounds<br />
we constantly find elision <strong>of</strong> a short final vowel along with <strong>the</strong><br />
leng<strong>the</strong>ning (which is <strong>the</strong>n a mere survival) : as eV-^paros, dfjLcp-ijpio-Tos,<br />
(p6io--r)i>(op (cp. $$im'-/i/3poroj).<br />
But leng<strong>the</strong>ning does not take place<br />
if <strong>the</strong> vowel is long by position (e. g. eVep-aX^y, 'AXe^-ai/fyw, avails),<br />
which seems to indicate that <strong>the</strong> preservation<br />
though not <strong>the</strong> origin<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ned stem was a matter <strong>of</strong> rhythm (as in -repos).<br />
O<strong>the</strong>r exceptions to <strong>the</strong> rule <strong>of</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning may be variously explained.<br />
In some cases, as Wackernagel suggests (p. 51), an initial short<br />
vowel may have been retained from <strong>the</strong> original formation as in <strong>the</strong><br />
:<br />
ancient Compounds poiTidvcipa (avridveipa, Kvdidveipa), dpyiodovTcs, evpiWa,<br />
cvpvdyvia, where <strong>the</strong> metre stood in <strong>the</strong> way <strong>of</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning by analogy.<br />
More generally it is a mark <strong>of</strong> lateness : e. g. in <strong>the</strong> forms compounded<br />
with TT&V-, as Tra^-OTTor/io?, Trav-ctfprjXig, Trav-iuapios, Hav-a%aioi, and with<br />
Prepositions, as ev-apitifjuos, vnevavrios (p. 55). Such words as mV<br />
aperrjs (II. 16. 31), XajSp-ayo'pqs (II. 23. 4^9), dv-6\e0pos (II. 13. 761<br />
TOVS 6* tvp ovKTi Trdpnav drrr)fj,ovas ov& dvoXeflpovs), dvaTToivov (II. I. 99),<br />
dw-apio-TOTOKfia (II. 18. 54), have all <strong>the</strong> appearance <strong>of</strong> being<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
poet's own coinage.<br />
On <strong>the</strong> view here taken <strong>the</strong> leng<strong>the</strong>ning in \viKap7ros and <strong>the</strong>
NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. 401<br />
similar cases given<br />
at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> section must be o<strong>the</strong>rwise<br />
explained. It is probably <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> kind noticed in 386.<br />
170 (p. 159). Ano<strong>the</strong>r example <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> distributive use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
Singular is Od. 13. 78 dveppiirTow aXa jrrjda <strong>the</strong>y threw up<br />
<strong>the</strong> salt sea<br />
(each) with his oar-Hade. So in <strong>the</strong> recurring phrase <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Odyssey<br />
a\a TVTTTOV eper/xots we should probably read eper/xw ( 102), which may<br />
be similarly distributive. Or we may take eperjuo'y<br />
in a collective<br />
sense, oarage.<br />
173, 2 (p. 162). For <strong>the</strong> use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Dual with a large number<br />
which contains <strong>the</strong> numeral Suo, cp. irevraKoa-Lais eiKoo-i Svolv Spa^/Mao/<br />
in an Attic inscription <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 5th century (Meisterhans, p. 45, 4).<br />
This is a good parallel to Od. 8. 35, 48 Kovpa> 8va> 8eica a-Tarrjpavs rj<br />
dvadeiea<br />
Dd
402 APPENDIX.<br />
e p.r) (sc. SoVw) {/ maw or wife choose to give payment for nurture,<br />
let him or her give a garment or twelve staters or something <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> value<br />
<strong>of</strong> twelve staters, but not more: cp. <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r places quoted by<br />
Baunack, Die Inschrift von Gortyn, p. 77. This shows that <strong>the</strong> usage<br />
must have been well established in Greek prose from an early period.<br />
33^ (P- 39)' In II- 3- 2I 5 m st MSS. have el KOI yeWi va-repos<br />
rjev, but t]<br />
/cat is found in <strong>the</strong> two Venetian (AB) and <strong>the</strong> Townley and<br />
Eton MSS. The scholia show that <strong>the</strong> ancients knew nothing <strong>of</strong><br />
el, and only doubted between rj (in <strong>the</strong> sense <strong>of</strong> if) and rj.<br />
348, 4 (p. 318). In II. 18. 182 one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> editions <strong>of</strong> Aristarchus<br />
had ris rap
INDEX I.<br />
OF HOMERIC FORMS.<br />
N.B. The figures refer to <strong>the</strong> sections.<br />
Compound verbs are not indexed if <strong>the</strong> same form <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> simple verb occurs.<br />
ddoraro )
'<br />
404 INDEX.<br />
dicdpas 114, 243 (l).<br />
386.<br />
App. C (3).<br />
22 (9), 23 (3).<br />
25, 89,<br />
\ App. F(2).<br />
22 (l).<br />
51 (3).<br />
dK6pa-KOfJ.T]S 124 d.<br />
IIO.<br />
24 (3, 4), 53.<br />
23 (3).<br />
dieXea, axXe'e? 105 (4).<br />
I0 5(5),App.C.<br />
12$ (4).<br />
dKOjJLlCTTLr) 384 (l).<br />
aKovdfb/zai App. p. 397.<br />
aKoua> 143 (3), App. p.<br />
396.<br />
dupafc 384 (l).<br />
aicpis 114.<br />
OKTOIS I O2.<br />
129.<br />
114.<br />
114.<br />
22 (9), 23 (3).<br />
F(2).<br />
3Xa\K 36 (4).<br />
t, 25, 89, App.<br />
d\a\i>KTr)fjiai 22 (9).<br />
aXyioTos \<br />
dXeairo, a)<br />
^<br />
384 (I).<br />
dXeyfivos 1 1 8.<br />
^ 125 (7).<br />
aXet5f>ap 107 (2).<br />
aXerai 80.<br />
29(2).<br />
124 d<br />
1246.<br />
39 (2).<br />
80.<br />
396.<br />
i<br />
1 2O.<br />
31 (l).<br />
1 24 .<br />
31 (l), 32.<br />
384 (l).<br />
no, 390.<br />
107 (l).<br />
d\Ki- 124 ^.<br />
31 (3).<br />
19*<br />
aXXa (use) 336.<br />
dXX<strong>of</strong>iSea 125 (2), 396.<br />
a'XXuSi?<br />
F(2).<br />
&\ovs 13.<br />
109, 1 10, App.<br />
dXoa) 55-<br />
aXo-o, aXro 40, App. F<br />
ifa App. p. 397.<br />
31 (i), 32.<br />
a\(poiv (3 PL Opt.) 83.<br />
80.<br />
a/za IIO.<br />
a/za^a App. F (2).<br />
31 (5), 32.<br />
3> 20j 42,<br />
126.<br />
rj 125 (7).<br />
IIO.<br />
29 (2), 32.<br />
Tes 243 (l).<br />
29 (4), 32.<br />
II.<br />
a/z/xe 97, 100.<br />
afjLfjLi(v) 102, App. F (2).<br />
IIO.<br />
App. F (2).<br />
IIO.<br />
d/z7T7raXo)f 36 (l).<br />
31 (4), 32.<br />
r] 44.<br />
13, 32.<br />
log, App. F (2).<br />
129.<br />
dp.(pijpe(pr)S 125 (8).<br />
dfJLCprjpHTTOS 125 (8).<br />
d/z0i 1 80, 181-184.<br />
dfji(pia\os 397.<br />
'A/jL(piapaos App. F (4).<br />
23 (5), 28.<br />
397.<br />
d/z^i's IIO, 228.<br />
av (use) 362-365, App.<br />
F(5).<br />
dvd, aj/a 1 80, 1 80*, 209,<br />
210.<br />
dvap&pvxe 25 (3).<br />
42.<br />
IIO.<br />
dvaKrjKte 51 (l).<br />
390.<br />
di/do-o-oj.(c.<br />
I O2.<br />
,<br />
ava\Kiv 97.<br />
Gen.)<br />
29.<br />
47, 391.<br />
dvdpaKas 109.<br />
di/8pa7roSe
INDEX. 405<br />
dvovrrjri IIO.<br />
dai 32.<br />
IIO.<br />
avri 1 80, 226.<br />
dvridveipa App. p. 400.<br />
avTidaeis 63.<br />
dvridarrjTov 82.<br />
'AvTiK\ia 378^.<br />
dvriK.pi) IIO.<br />
63.<br />
226.<br />
'AvrKparrja 107 (5).<br />
voa 1 8, 63.<br />
di/a>yei<br />
IIO.<br />
31 (l), 32.<br />
63.<br />
21 (l), 23, 27.<br />
dvayoiju > 27> 68.<br />
avatyov<br />
ai/eotori IIO.<br />
d/c
406 INDEX.<br />
(8).<br />
fidXoio-da $. t'iy 125 (7),<br />
121.<br />
Bopeas Il6 (2).<br />
/3Xoo-upa)7Tts 1 1 6. yepairepos 121.<br />
i<br />
30.<br />
(BacriXevrepos 121, 122.<br />
/3ao-Ke 48.<br />
13.<br />
Bopea> 98.<br />
^oVicei 48.<br />
ftovftpOMTTlS 12$.<br />
ftovydios App. F (4).<br />
a 22 (9), 28.<br />
|3e/3a 7, 68.<br />
5.<br />
82.<br />
/3e/3aa>ra 26 (l).<br />
125.<br />
22 (9).<br />
^ 125, 128.<br />
68.<br />
22 (9).<br />
$.<br />
5.<br />
/^ei 22 (7), 28.<br />
27, 83.<br />
/3e'j3X^rat 22 (9).<br />
IOO.<br />
tS Il6 (3), 128 (3).<br />
121.<br />
e>i 29 (5).<br />
29 (4).<br />
/3a/ 97, 106 (2).<br />
81.<br />
28.<br />
124 r, App.<br />
22 (3).<br />
p. 400.<br />
/3e/3pi0e 22 (6).<br />
a 26 (3).<br />
28.<br />
is 22 (lo), 27,83.<br />
124 a.<br />
yaiav $1 (2).<br />
ya/zeWerat 63, 367 (2).<br />
/3e/3pa>Ka>s- 22 (9), 26 (4),<br />
28.<br />
/3e/3paxrerat 22 (9), 65.<br />
ydvvrai 17.<br />
yavv
8e (use) 257 (i), 259<br />
INDEX. 407
408 INDEX.
ip.aprai 22 (6), 23 (2).<br />
INDEX. 409
4io<br />
INDEX.<br />
cvcvrjKovTd 130 (5).
INDEX.<br />
fppT)a 67, 395.<br />
64.<br />
1<br />
eppiya 22 (6), 28.<br />
^<br />
ea-rddrj 43.<br />
22 (5), 23. 31 (l).<br />
eppiyrjve 67, 395.<br />
eppiyyo-t 80, 82.<br />
eppt^OTiu 23.<br />
eppatya 22 (l).<br />
eppow 29 (4), 392.<br />
60.<br />
29.<br />
eVradrej 26 (l).<br />
23 (5).<br />
eVrai/, eor^craj' 5> I 3*<br />
eo-rao-ai/ (l Aor.) 72 (2)<br />
72. I.<br />
eaTaaijCaraaaJ' 7> 68, 72.<br />
eVre 12, 87 (l).<br />
'EpuXaos 124 ^.<br />
eWe$e 29 (6).<br />
epvo-ap/uares 124 , 125 earqKa 22 (9) , 23.<br />
y 124 .<br />
80, 283.<br />
39 (2).<br />
(TTT]Te 13 (e0-n?re 25).<br />
eori 12, 87 (l).<br />
63.<br />
eoTi^ov 31 (3).<br />
epvro II, 12, 1 8.<br />
eVro 23.<br />
epua> 1 8, 63, 392.<br />
eWo'v 12, 87 (l).<br />
eVrpa>ro 13, 14.<br />
epeoy 107.<br />
12.<br />
31 (4).<br />
CO-TOW 12.<br />
>,<br />
earacrdai<br />
, 39 (l).<br />
?
412 INDEX.<br />
129.<br />
f\va, 15.<br />
f<br />
3i (7)-<br />
44-<br />
?^pae 31 (l), 32.<br />
e^pato-p.6 31 (3), 32.<br />
e^uro 15.<br />
e^a) 29 (6).<br />
?6eov 67.<br />
e'coKei 67.<br />
ecoXn-fi 67.<br />
ecopev 80.<br />
29 (6).<br />
e^y<br />
ea>pyei 67.<br />
ecus 265 (2), 273, 288,<br />
307, App. F (*).<br />
Za/cw^os 370.<br />
f 29 (6).<br />
fei'Scopos 124.<br />
^uyi/0/xei/ 17, 85 (l).<br />
fcvyvvov 1 8.<br />
386.<br />
97, 106 (2).<br />
60.<br />
,<br />
see rje.<br />
17.<br />
r) 109.<br />
^a 12.<br />
TJaTdi, rjaro 5, II, App.<br />
C.<br />
Typcoaxra 55^*<br />
jyayov 36 (l).<br />
riydcraaro 39 (2).<br />
39 (2).<br />
^yetpa<br />
rjyepedovTai 125 (8).<br />
$3/338.<br />
?/dea, Tj8r) 68.<br />
fjSrjo-Qa 5, 68.<br />
?Mff 114, 116(4), 391.<br />
> 3 (fa *?) 340, 341.<br />
rjfidrjs, rjeiSei 67, 68.<br />
^etpe 67.<br />
jjiay, jjei 12, 67.<br />
rjepios 114* (8).<br />
rjQele 92, 96.<br />
r)6e\6Trjv (2 Du.) 5.<br />
r;0oy 391.<br />
fia 12, 67.<br />
fj'iKTO 23.<br />
jftoi/, TJ'io-av 5, 12, 30.<br />
r;Ka 1 10.<br />
fJKctxe 36 (l).<br />
jfco) App. p. 397.<br />
qXatro-a 39 (2).<br />
338, 339-<br />
IS-<br />
6 7 ,<br />
68.<br />
ros 124.<br />
393-<br />
frmv 31 (3).<br />
r)\iTopr)vos 125 (8).<br />
r^Xos- 393.<br />
'3i (4).<br />
31 (i), 32.<br />
r/X
m 390-<br />
INDEX. 413
INDEX.<br />
x** 35-<br />
Irerj 390.<br />
IT1JV 12.<br />
'{TVS 390.<br />
101 1 10.<br />
ri 60.<br />
'Iv 12, 30.<br />
an' (use) 259 (3), 265<br />
W, 330, 353-<br />
KaiVvjuai 17.<br />
Kaico 51 (2).<br />
KOKKetOVTf? 59*<br />
KaXeoixra 63.<br />
KaXeor(rai 39 (2).<br />
19.<br />
124^.<br />
KaXxa92,App.(p.32l).<br />
KafJ,TT]V (2 DU.) 5-<br />
47.<br />
107 (5).<br />
VTS 125 (6).<br />
Kapra IIO.<br />
KapTHTTOS 121.<br />
Kapros 114.<br />
KcuriyvrjTos 14.<br />
Kaoriai/eipa<br />
Kara 180.<br />
107.<br />
397*<br />
KaraKTaveovo-i 63.<br />
13.<br />
Xeypevos 40*<br />
13.<br />
KaredpaOov 31 (5).<br />
KaTfipvcrrai 396.<br />
43.<br />
40.<br />
55 (l^)<br />
23.<br />
Karr)p(pr]s 12$ (8).<br />
Karoo IIO.<br />
377.<br />
(Subj.) 82.<br />
III.<br />
370.<br />
Kciavres App. C (3).<br />
Ket0i 109.<br />
Kelvos 250.<br />
114, 384 (2).<br />
Kelrat II, 8 1.<br />
App. C (3).<br />
51 (3).<br />
r](r6fjLe6a 65.<br />
Ke/caSa)j/<br />
36 (l).<br />
K6Kd>a> 35, 296.<br />
KeicaS 22 (8), 26 (5),<br />
28.<br />
KfKoprjoTa 22 (9), 28.<br />
KeXqs 114.<br />
22 (9), 28.<br />
55.<br />
36 (3).<br />
114.<br />
99*.<br />
60.<br />
K\op.aL 29 (4).<br />
39 (3).<br />
see<br />
39 (3).<br />
Keovrai 29 (6).<br />
Ke'pa 105 (4).<br />
Ke'pa, Kepai 99.<br />
51 (2).<br />
s 124 ^.<br />
39 (l).<br />
KepduTTOS 121.<br />
Kepcoi/rai 87 (3).<br />
Ke
INDEX. 415
4 i6 INDEX.<br />
/ne A as 114.<br />
MeAeaypo? 124.<br />
/ie'At 107 (2).<br />
/neAAa) (use) 238.<br />
p.\7recrdai 29 (4).<br />
)<br />
7,68.<br />
/ue/uaKina 22 (l).<br />
/ie/Lidore, /uejuaoore 26 (l).<br />
/ie'/mre 22 (7), 28.<br />
/Lte'/Lt/3AcoK<br />
22 (9).<br />
Hp,r]Ka>s 22 (l), 26 (2),<br />
28.<br />
fjLpr)\ 22 (2), 28.<br />
27.<br />
64 .<br />
?a 8l.<br />
22 (7).<br />
22 (9), 28.<br />
*v (use) 257 (i), 259<br />
(2), 265 (2), 342, 345.<br />
:- 1<br />
24^.<br />
124.<br />
55-<br />
/uei/oij'ooa) 55 ^*<br />
M.evTT)s} MeVrcop 129.<br />
/xe'i/o) 29 (5).<br />
114.<br />
109.<br />
121.<br />
p) IIO.<br />
/uj/riera 96.<br />
in, 115 (6).<br />
prjTpo- 124 60.<br />
valfo 51 (2).<br />
vdadrj 44.<br />
NauortKaa 95, Io6 (4),<br />
I24/ App. F (3 ).<br />
NeoTrroAe/iO? 126.<br />
29 (3)'<br />
i/eupa App. p. 398.<br />
da> App. p. 397.<br />
W&D 46.<br />
I2 5 (I).<br />
9 6.<br />
105 (4).<br />
(i).<br />
viTTT(rdat 46.<br />
vi
INDEX. 417<br />
*<br />
'/*<br />
X
41 8 INDEX.<br />
7rapa/3Xa>7Tff 128 (3).<br />
TrapairXfjyas 128 (3).<br />
irapa(pdatr)(ri 51 (2), 83.<br />
napetd App. p. 398.<br />
TrapelQrj 67*<br />
TrapeiTTJy 39^ %<br />
aoxms 63.<br />
227.<br />
384 (I), 397.<br />
117.<br />
TTCtpoi'repoi 121.<br />
Trdpos 236.<br />
22 (9).<br />
102.<br />
39 (l).<br />
124 f.<br />
ovo'a 12$ (6).<br />
121.<br />
48.<br />
Trarepoy, rrarpos Io6 (l).<br />
Trarpo- 124 /3oXoi/ 125 (8).<br />
i<br />
7rep.\|/ a>p,e' 82.<br />
nevfcrOai 29 (5).<br />
irevdeifTov 51 (3).<br />
irevOr/fJievai 19.<br />
rrevOos 114.<br />
114.<br />
I 3 0.<br />
109.<br />
ua 22 (7 ).<br />
Trerra pfj.vos 22 (6).<br />
TreTraa^e 22 (7), 28.<br />
7rc7rd(T[Jir]v<br />
22 (l).<br />
TTtirrjye 22 (l).<br />
6 5<br />
.<br />
, 36 (2).<br />
27, 68.<br />
26 (3), 28.<br />
_ MS 22 (l), 27,28.<br />
7TfTr\r)fjiVos 22 (9).<br />
22 (7 ), 28.<br />
'a 22 (4).<br />
68.<br />
24.<br />
oiS 26 (2).<br />
22 (7).<br />
22 (5).<br />
28.<br />
23.<br />
22 (9).<br />
a 26 (3).<br />
obs 14, 26 (l), 28.<br />
7T7rv6oiTO 36 (3).<br />
22 (5).<br />
353. 365 (i).<br />
63.<br />
nepaov 55 (lo).<br />
TrepOai 40.<br />
82.<br />
Tre'ptfero 29 (4).<br />
7Tpl I 8O. 5, 8l, 1 88.<br />
17.<br />
Ilepa-evs 129.<br />
, 243(1).<br />
64? 66.<br />
7760-0-0) 46, 53-<br />
Trere^vd? 117.<br />
Trererat 29 (6).<br />
7TTa6av (3 Du.) 5<br />
nere'oao 98.<br />
12$.<br />
Tre^o/zat 29 (3), 72 (4).<br />
TreVparat 22 (7).<br />
27, 68.<br />
27, 83.<br />
necpevyas 22 (5), 28.<br />
TtffpTJo'eai 65.<br />
7re(pj)crerat 65.<br />
7re
.<br />
INDEX.<br />
419<br />
124 c.<br />
7T\r)cri(rTios 124 C.<br />
irp6(ppa(rara 114* (5),<br />
7T\ij(r(r 395-<br />
e'^ouXa 22 (3), 25 95, App. F (4).<br />
p'eVe 29 (4).<br />
/jtev 48.<br />
23 (2).<br />
5.<br />
114.<br />
Trpoiet, Trpoieiv 1 8.<br />
prjyvva-i 17, 395.<br />
Trpopos 121.<br />
1<br />
24 *:.<br />
?rpo(rapj;perai 80.<br />
395.<br />
19.<br />
piyea) 395.<br />
IIO.<br />
pt'yioj/, ptyiora 121.<br />
7rpoaa>7rara 107 (2).<br />
pi'Ca 29 (4).<br />
IIO.<br />
E e 2<br />
125<br />
pii/os- 595.<br />
piTrra^Q) App. p. 397.<br />
piVra) 395.<br />
puerai, pucro 1 8.<br />
pui; 44.<br />
pvyrocovra 55 ^.<br />
pvarQat 12, 14.<br />
pyro's 14, 395.<br />
(rair^rj 80.<br />
o-a 29 (5).<br />
29 (4).<br />
vdciv 29 (3).<br />
(TTairja-av 83.<br />
o-Tcap 107 (2).<br />
(TTetjSoi' 29 (2).<br />
(TTcixfiv 29 (2).<br />
fvei 29 (5).<br />
II.<br />
80.<br />
eTa 96.<br />
^opei/, &C., 80.<br />
ea-(pi 154.<br />
J/rqz/, &C., 13.
420 INDEX.<br />
(TTope
INDEX. 421<br />
55.(9).<br />
82.<br />
rpooxao) 55 (9).<br />
TpOHOV'III.<br />
rvyx avf 47<br />
Tvnre 46.<br />
TVT0d, TVT00V 134.<br />
31 (4).<br />
i>ppd\\eiv App. F (2).<br />
vytrjs Il6 (5), App. p.<br />
399-<br />
vdaTOTpeCprjs 124 a.<br />
vdcap IO7 (2), 114*.<br />
vlos 107 (5).<br />
vXaei 55 (6).<br />
uXaoi/ 55<br />
IOO.<br />
(lo).<br />
VfJ. IOI.<br />
UP, vp.p.i(v) IO2.<br />
vpp-e 97, loo, App. F<br />
It 1 80.<br />
vira-ros 121.<br />
UTTfl'p 1 8O.<br />
V7reiJ.vrjiJ.vKe 22 (9).<br />
VTT^ 22 7 .<br />
i>7rep 1 80.<br />
virepfiacrav 13*<br />
vTTp8ea 105 (4).<br />
vrreprjcpavos 124 a.<br />
virepTfpos 121.<br />
vnvp6(plOS 12$ (8).<br />
yo-pli/i 107 (l), 114.<br />
v^ayoprj 92.<br />
tyrjXos 120.<br />
{J^t, v^ov IIO.<br />
(padvdr) 55.<br />
422 INDEX.<br />
i^fuSayyeXos- 124^.
INDEX II.<br />
OF SUBJECTS.<br />
N.B.<br />
The figures refer to <strong>the</strong> sections.<br />
Ablative: <strong>the</strong> Ending -ws no, 160 :<br />
Adverbs 90<br />
:<br />
Comparison <strong>of</strong> Adjectives 121, 122. 216.<br />
Adverbial Suffixes 109,<br />
Ablatival Genitive 146, 152, 153<br />
:<br />
no, 1 60 :<br />
with Prepositions 178, cp. nepi 188 133 : Neuter Adjectives 134, 139<br />
(l), irapa 192, vir6 204 (l), (3), ova. (i) : o<strong>the</strong>r Accusatives 135-139 :<br />
209, Ko.ro. 213 (l), vnep 219, If 223, -6ev :<br />
159 -ws 1 60 : -tos in <strong>the</strong> Predicate<br />
an6 224, vp6 225<br />
:<br />
-4>-(v) 156 : -0v<br />
162 (5) a : adverbial use <strong>of</strong><br />
159-<br />
Prepositions 175, 176: see esp.<br />
Accentuation : <strong>the</strong> Verb 87<br />
: Compound<br />
dfjKpi, irepi, Trdpa, ftera, eVi, vito, -rrpori,<br />
Verbs 88 : Inf. and Part. 89 : ava, fvi, irpo, and cp. 227<br />
: Eelative<br />
Nom. Sing, in -a 96<br />
: Ace. in -iv 97 : Adverbs 267<br />
:<br />
o, on, o re 269, 270.<br />
Case-forms in: <strong>the</strong> Vocative 112: ^olic : Verbs in -p,i 12, 19 : Opt. in<br />
Primary Nouns 115: Compounds -aeia 83 (3) : Opt. in -WKJV, -otijv 19,<br />
128 :<br />
Prepositions 180 : <strong>the</strong> Eeflexive<br />
Pronoun 253 (2)<br />
83 Nom. : Sing. Masc. in -a 96 : aop,<br />
:<br />
avvu, epvw fjrop 114 KV : 364<br />
: v for f 404 :<br />
(Fut.) 64 -8e 335 : : fneirj, or TI-IJ rirj<br />
Theory, App. p. 486 ff. Triffvpes<br />
339 ^ 34-<br />
3 = (3) = a/fyoTao,ui/ App. p. 402.<br />
Accusative :<br />
Singular 97 : Plural Anacoluthon 163, 243 (3) d, 353.<br />
100 : Adverbial no, 133-6 : in Anaphoric Pronouns 247<br />
: o8e 249 :<br />
Compounds 1247. Internal Object<br />
:<br />
Kftvos 250: OVTOS 251: avros 252:<br />
132 ff. : 'part affected' 137, 139<br />
(3) : Time and Space 138 : with<br />
Adjectives 139 : External Object omitted 267 (2), (3)<br />
: attracted by<br />
140: Ace. de quo 140 (3), 237 (2), <strong>the</strong> Rel. 267 (4) : attracting <strong>the</strong><br />
245 (2) <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> terminus ad : quern 140 Eel. 267 (5) : TO 269.<br />
(4) : Double Ace. :<br />
141 Whole and Aorist 13-15<br />
: Thematic 31-34<br />
: Reduplicated<br />
Part 141<br />
: with Prepositions 178<br />
:<br />
36 : in -a 37 : Sigmatic<br />
with -nape 227<br />
: with <strong>the</strong> Infinitive or Weak 39, 40<br />
: in -
424 INDEX.<br />
Aristarchus : 2 Dual in -TTJV 5<br />
: Voc.<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kd\x as &c-<br />
> 9 2 Dual ' 173<br />
: Accent<br />
<strong>of</strong> Prepositions 180 Aor. and<br />
:<br />
Fut. Inf. :<br />
238 Eeflexive Pronoun<br />
255 : Subj. after a past tense 298 :<br />
readings due to loss <strong>of</strong> f 389 :<br />
5 : ?ja0a(s\ o!
INDEX. 425<br />
Deictic Pronouns 247 : oSe 249 :<br />
:<br />
Prepositions 178, 179 Double Prepositions<br />
146-153 forms in<br />
; -i(v) 158 with : -d\ip,os, -evv6s 1 1 8 : Verbs in -law 60 :<br />
K(.WOS 250 oSros : 251 6 : 77<br />
TO 261<br />
227 : Improper Preposi-<br />
(2).<br />
tions 228 : Gen. Absolute 246: see<br />
Deliberation :<br />
Subj. <strong>of</strong> 277, 280 : Opt. Ablative.<br />
(past) 302.<br />
Herodian :<br />
tmax oi * s 83 : ps 87 (i) :<br />
Demonstrative Koots 90<br />
: Pronouns iardai, &c. 87 (2) : SvvufMi 87 (3) :<br />
247 : os, &c. 265 : Correlatives 267.<br />
88 : eviffires, &c. 88 : d/rat,<br />
Denominative Nouns 113<br />
: Suffixes<br />
&c. 89<br />
:<br />
-as, Dat. - 4i-43 <strong>of</strong> 0-397.<br />
378* g.<br />
<strong>Homeric</strong> and later Greek :<br />
Diminutives not <strong>Homeric</strong>, 117. A. Differences <strong>of</strong> form : co-o-C, t 5 :<br />
Dual 173: Endings 5.<br />
2 Sing. -o-0a 5 : 3 Plur. -eun, -ovo-u,<br />
Elision 376<br />
:<br />
cp. 398 (f ).<br />
-vo-i 5 : 3 Plur. Pf. -ao-i 5 : 3 Plur.<br />
Ellipse (real or supposed) after Prepositions<br />
:<br />
-v, -o-av 5 : 3 Plur. Mid. -arai, -aro,<br />
177 <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> antecedent to<br />
:<br />
5 : 3 Du. Impf. -TOV :<br />
:<br />
5 Aorists in<br />
a Relative 267 (2), (3)<br />
: <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb -Ka 15<br />
: Present with -vr\, -vv 17 :<br />
to be after a Relative 271<br />
: <strong>of</strong> a Verb Non-Thematic Contracted Pres. 19<br />
:<br />
<strong>of</strong> fearing 278 b : <strong>of</strong> a Conditional Variation in Perfect Stem 22 : Pf.<br />
Apodosis 318-321, 324*.<br />
Enclitic Verbs (*>', * 347> vv 35 V 36 Aorists in -oxra<br />
:<br />
1 , 352, p 353, Y 39 Aorists in -o-- : :<br />
40 Aorists in -o*<br />
354> K6V 363 ym. : order 365.<br />
(-0-0) 41 : Aorists in -0-rjv 43 : Iterative<br />
End : Inf. 231, 242<br />
: Final Clauses<br />
forms 49<br />
: Verbs in -uo, -auo,<br />
273 (4) : Subj. <strong>of</strong> purpose 275 : jx-fj -EUO,-VUO 51 Assimilation 55 Contraction<br />
: : 278, 281 (i), 303 (i) : Relative<br />
56, 105, 378*<br />
: : :<br />
Synizesis<br />
Clauses 282, 304, 322<br />
:<br />
ws, oircos, iva 57, I0 5 (3), 3/8 : Frequentatives<br />
285, 286, 306 (i) : 6pa, 6ws 287, 60 : Intensives 61 : Future in -aoxo<br />
288, 307 : ci 293, 314, 319 : Past 63 : Future Passive 65 : Pluperfect<br />
Tenses 325<br />
: Fut. Indie. 326 (3). 68 : Loss <strong>of</strong> Augment 69 : Subj. <strong>of</strong><br />
Final, see End.<br />
Non-Thematic Tenses 80, 8 1 : -WJAI,<br />
Frequentative Verbs 60.<br />
-TJO-I Subj. 82 : Inf. in -jJLvai,<br />
Future in -ffca<br />
63 in : -ffcca 64 from<br />
: -<br />
-p,ev 85 : Masc.-Nouns in -ra 96 :<br />
Perfect and Aorist Stems 65<br />
: Middle<br />
Ace. in -tv, -vv 97 : Gen. in -oo, -oio<br />
66 : with KW 326 (i)<br />
: for <strong>the</strong> 98 : Dat. Sing, in -I 99, 373 : Ace.<br />
Imperative 326 (2): in Final Clauses Plur. in -Is, -vs 100 : Dat. Plur. in<br />
326 (3) : in Object Clauses 326 (4) : -eo-on 102 : Instrum. in -i(v) 104 :<br />
with (I<br />
326 (5).<br />
Hyphaeresis 105 (4) variation <strong>of</strong><br />
;<br />
Gender : <strong>of</strong> Primary Nouns 116 : Denominative<br />
<strong>the</strong> Stem 106 : Heteroclite Nouns<br />
Nouns 1 19 Adjectives<br />
:<br />
107: -8e 109: Adverbs in -8, no :<br />
1 66 : Pronouns 167.<br />
Nouns in -TVS 114: Fern. OT]\VS,<br />
Genitive : :<br />
Singular 98 Gen. in -oo TjBvs, irovXvs 116 (4) Adjectives in<br />
:<br />
98 : Plural 101 : Dual 103 : accent<br />
-ijs (-co-) 116 (5), App. p. 399: in<br />
in: in Compounds 124/1 uses<br />
117: Diminutives 117: -a\os,<br />
-IKOS
INDEX.<br />
Abstract Nouns in -wpt|, -w\u] 120 :<br />
Stems in -t, -o-i, -, -
INDEX. 427<br />
Defining Art. 261 (i, 3)<br />
: T wherefore<br />
262 (3)<br />
: 5s as a Demonstr. 265<br />
:<br />
otlvKa that 268 : ort that 269 (2) :<br />
Indirect Discourse 270*: Attraction<br />
<strong>of</strong> Rel. 271 (i) :<br />
Final Rel. Clauses<br />
282 fin.<br />
:<br />
K(V) in general sentences<br />
283 6 : Opt. with KCV <strong>of</strong> unfulfilled<br />
condition 300 c : <strong>of</strong> concession 300 d<br />
(a) : el and Opt.<br />
after a Present<br />
311 : i y&p, i0 312 Object-<br />
:<br />
Clauses with i and Opt. 314<br />
:<br />
TVVTJ<br />
339 P &v : , l*V> h e'v 34 2 v i(v) 154-8 Instrumental Dat.<br />
144.<br />
Intensive Verbs 61.<br />
Interrogative Pronouns 108 (2), 248.<br />
Interrogative Clauses 273<br />
:<br />
Subj. 277,<br />
280 :<br />
Opt. 302 : Particles ft) 338 :<br />
Disjunctive question (176, 77) 340 :<br />
Dependent question 341 expecting<br />
:<br />
a negative answer 358<br />
c.<br />
Intransitive uses <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle Voice<br />
8 (3)<br />
: Non-Thematic Tenses 21 :<br />
<strong>the</strong> Perfect Active 28 : Aorists in<br />
-TJV and -6ir)v 44 : Verbs in -&> 58.<br />
Iterative Verbs 48<br />
: Tenses 49<br />
:<br />
Opt.<br />
with onus 306 (2)<br />
: with ore 308 (i)<br />
d : with d 311.<br />
Locative: Dative 145<br />
: -0i 109 : -u(v)<br />
157 : in Compounds 124 e : with<br />
irp6 225.<br />
Manner, Adverbs <strong>of</strong> 109, no : Dat. <strong>of</strong><br />
144 : -cos 1 60 : Adj. in <strong>the</strong> Predicate<br />
162 (2).<br />
Meta<strong>the</strong>sis 14<br />
: <strong>of</strong> Quantity 55 (i),<br />
98.<br />
Metre 366-405<br />
:<br />
affecting forms, Dual<br />
in -TTJV 5, axeOetiv 3 1 (7)> vropfaai,<br />
KpepAacu 39 (2) : affecting syntax,<br />
Gender 119, forms in -<br />
pera 195, (iri 199 (l},viro 202, Sia 216.<br />
Negative Clauses 273 : Subj. 276 : Opt.<br />
299 e, 300 n. (13} : ot>, jxiq 355~36i :<br />
div 363 (2) a.<br />
JSTeuter : Pronouns 133, 161 :<br />
Adjectives<br />
134, 162 (5) a, 166 (3)<br />
: Neut.<br />
Plur. 99* : <strong>of</strong> things 166 (2)<br />
: with a<br />
Singular Verb 172 : Article 257 (4),<br />
(5) &,<br />
260 & : Relative 269, 270<br />
:<br />
quantity <strong>of</strong> -a 374.<br />
Nominative :<br />
Sing. 96<br />
: use in <strong>the</strong><br />
Predicate 162, 245<br />
:<br />
interjectional<br />
Nom. 163.<br />
Number 169-173.<br />
Object: Ace. <strong>of</strong> (External<br />
and Internal)<br />
132-140 : Gen. <strong>of</strong> 147 (i) :<br />
Objective' Compounds 126 Object<br />
:<br />
'<br />
Clauses :<br />
273 (2) with ovvena 268 :<br />
o, 6Vt, o re 269, 270, 270* n^ 281<br />
:<br />
(2), 303 (2) : Relative 282, 304 (2) :<br />
w?, OTTOS, 'iva (Subj.) 285 (2), 286,<br />
(Opt.) 306 (2) : oTroVe 308 (a) : el<br />
294, 314.
428 INDEX.<br />
Obligation, expressed by <strong>the</strong> Inf. 231,<br />
241 : by an abstract Noun 162.<br />
Odyssey, see Iliad.<br />
Optative form 83 uses : : 299-314,<br />
362 : history 315-322.<br />
Oratio Obliqua, see Indirect Discourse.<br />
Order : in Compounds 126, 127 : Art.<br />
261 (i)<br />
: Clauses 311, 359 c : Particles<br />
365, cp. 330<br />
: re 331, 332 : 84<br />
333-<br />
Parataxis 267 (3) n., 318-321 : cp.<br />
277, 278 b, 281 (2), 297.<br />
Participle 84, 86, 230<br />
: accent 89<br />
:<br />
uses 77, 86, 243-6.<br />
Particles 329-365.<br />
Passive use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Middle Voice 8 :<br />
Aorists 42-4.<br />
Perfect form 22-26 :<br />
meaning 28.<br />
Person-Endings 2-5 : -w, -a 4 (footn.) :<br />
-|ju, -o-i (Subj.) 82 : -oiv (Opt.) 83.<br />
Personal (opp. to Impersonal) 234<br />
: see<br />
Pronouns.<br />
Persons (opp. to Things)<br />
: Ace. 140(2), (3)<br />
a, 141 : 'true* Dat. 143 : locatival<br />
Dat. 145 (7)<br />
: Gen. with Verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
Jiearing, &c. 151 d : Gen. <strong>of</strong> material<br />
151 e : Gen. with Verbs <strong>of</strong> ruling<br />
151 /: Gender Kara avvtaiv 166,<br />
167 (Number) : 172 : irapd c. Dat.<br />
190, c. Gen. 192 : /nerd c. Dat. 194 :<br />
km c. Ace. 199 (2)<br />
:<br />
irpori c. Gen.<br />
208 : kvi 220.<br />
Place : Adverbs <strong>of</strong> 109, no :<br />
Accusative<br />
138 : Dative 145 : Genitive 149,<br />
152 (Abl.) : Prepositions 229 (5).<br />
Pluperfect 9, 68 :<br />
cp. 73, 76, 283 a.<br />
Plural : form 100-102 : Dat. Plur.<br />
*45 (7) : Collective Nouns 169 : <strong>of</strong><br />
Things 171 : Neuter 166 (2) : Neuter,<br />
with a Singular Verb 172<br />
: after fvt<br />
220 :<br />
I, 46s, &c. 255.<br />
Position 370, cp. 397.<br />
Predicate i, 2 : Gen. in <strong>the</strong> 148<br />
:<br />
Nom. in <strong>the</strong> 162 :<br />
Secondary 162<br />
(3) : Tertiary (implied Predication)<br />
1 68, 245 : Preposition as <strong>the</strong> 177 :<br />
Ace. as Predicate with an Infinitive<br />
240 : Participle in <strong>the</strong> 243 (2), (3),<br />
245-<br />
Predicative (opp. to<br />
Demonstrative")<br />
Stems and Roots 90.<br />
Prepositions :<br />
174-229 accent <strong>of</strong><br />
Verbs in Composition 88 : in Composition<br />
with Nouns 125 (4), 127<br />
:<br />
governing <strong>the</strong> Ace. 140 (4) : <strong>the</strong><br />
Dat. 144 (Instr.), 145 (Loc.), 229<br />
(3) : <strong>the</strong> Gen. (Abl.) 152, 229 (4) :<br />
forms in -i(v) I55~7 * 5 (5) forms<br />
:<br />
in -0v 159<br />
: with co, ot, 253<br />
: with<br />
<strong>the</strong> Art. 257 (5) a.<br />
Present 9, 10 :<br />
Simple Non-Thematic<br />
ii :<br />
Eeduplicated Non-Thematic<br />
1 6 : in -vrj (-va) and -vv 17 : Thematic<br />
forms 1 8 : Non-Thematic<br />
contracted forms 19<br />
:<br />
Simple Thematic<br />
29<br />
: id. with weak Stem 30<br />
:<br />
Reduplicated Thematic 35<br />
: with<br />
Suffix :<br />
45-57 collateral forms 62 :<br />
meaning 70-74 meaning <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />
:<br />
/-Class 58-61.<br />
Price: Gen. <strong>of</strong> 153: Dat. (Instr.)<br />
144.<br />
Prohibition 273, 355<br />
:<br />
p.^<br />
with <strong>the</strong><br />
Subj. 278, 281 : denial under <strong>the</strong><br />
form <strong>of</strong> prohibition 299 e, 358 b.<br />
Pronouns 90<br />
: Declension 93, 97-<br />
103 uses<br />
; 247-272 Heteroclite<br />
:<br />
1 08 : forms in -06v 109, 159<br />
: in<br />
-Tpos 122 Neuter used adverbially<br />
:<br />
133 : Subject <strong>of</strong> a quasi-Impersonal<br />
Verb 161, 162 (5) a, 234 (2)<br />
: Gender<br />
167<br />
:<br />
Interrogative 248 : Reflexive<br />
253-255 : Article 256-264 :<br />
Relative 265-272 : see Anaphoric,<br />
Deictic, Demonstrative, Relative.<br />
Pseudo-archaic, see Archaic.<br />
Purpose, see End.<br />
Reason, see Cause.<br />
Reduplication<br />
: Non-Thematic Present<br />
1 6 : Perfect 22, 23<br />
: Thematic<br />
Present 35<br />
: Aorist 36<br />
: T-Class 46 :<br />
Nasal Class 47<br />
: Iterative Class 48 :<br />
J-Class 52,<br />
:<br />
53 Iiitensives 61 :<br />
Future :<br />
65 Primitive Nouns<br />
114.<br />
Reflexive, o, &c. 253 : 16s, os 254 :<br />
use as a general Reflexive Pronoun<br />
255.
INDEX. 429<br />
Supposition: Opt. <strong>of</strong> 299/1 Opt. with<br />
with BTJ 350.<br />
Kelative, os o TJ 265-272 : o TIS, os re<br />
6 : App. p. 398.<br />
108 (2), 266, 272, 332<br />
:<br />
o, 5 T KCV or av 300 : in Relative Clauses<br />
(Neut.) 269, 270 <strong>the</strong> Art. : (6 fj TO) 304 : Clauses with el 311 : Indicative<br />
as a Relative 262 : o T (Masc.) 263<br />
:<br />
323.<br />
Correlative Clauses 267<br />
: Omission Swearing, Verbs <strong>of</strong>, with Fut. Inf. 238 :<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Verb to be in Relative Clauses with pi} and <strong>the</strong> Indie. 358 6 with<br />
:<br />
271: Attraction :<br />
271 Double Relative<br />
^17 and <strong>the</strong> Inf. 361.<br />
Clauses 271<br />
: Final Clauses 282, Synizesis 378 : in Verbs 57 : Caseforms<br />
304 Object-Clauses : 282, 304 Conditional<br />
: 105 (2), (3)<br />
:<br />
8-f| 350.<br />
Clauses 283, 305.<br />
Tenses 9, 10 :<br />
: meaning 28, 62, 66,<br />
Similes : use <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Aorist 78 (2)<br />
:<br />
70-78.<br />
Subj. in Relative Clauses 283 a : Thematic Vowel (e, o) 4 : forms 4, 10,<br />
with is and ws re 285 (3) a : with 18,27,41, 80,82,83(2), 8 5 (2).<br />
ws ore, ws oirore 289 (2) a.<br />
Time, not expressed by <strong>the</strong> Tense-stem<br />
Space : Ace. <strong>of</strong> 138 : Gen. <strong>of</strong> 149 : Instrum.<br />
28, 70 : relative (Impf.) 71, 73,<br />
<strong>of</strong> 158<br />
: Ace. <strong>of</strong>, with Prepositions<br />
(Aor.) 77, 78 : Ace. <strong>of</strong> :<br />
138 Dat. <strong>of</strong><br />
183, 187, 191 (3), 199 (3), 145 (4) : Gen. <strong>of</strong> 1 50 : Adj. <strong>of</strong> Time<br />
(4), 203 (2), 210, 212, 215, 218.<br />
in Predicate 165<br />
:<br />
Prepositions expressing,<br />
Stem 2, 9<br />
: Nominal 90, 106, 113,<br />
nerd 195 (3) : viro 203 :<br />
1 20 : Pronominal 90, 108 : Variation<br />
215 : (is 222 : l 223 : irp6 225.<br />
6, 12, 22, 25, 31, 32, 1 06, Transitive, see Causative.<br />
5td 114*.<br />
Trypho 339.<br />
Subject i : expressed by <strong>the</strong> Person Tyrannic 32 (2), 80, 87 (i).<br />
Ending 2 : by a Noun or Pronoun Vocative 92<br />
: Vocatives turned into<br />
131 (2) : unexpressed (vague) 161 : Nominatives 96, 1 1 1 (2)<br />
: accent 112:<br />
attracted to <strong>the</strong> Gender <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Predicate<br />
use 164<br />
: metrical anomaly 387.<br />
167<br />
: Infinitive as Subject Way: Adverbs <strong>of</strong>, in -\i 109, in --Q<br />
234 Ace. with Inf. : 237.<br />
no : Dat. <strong>of</strong> 144 Instrum. : 158.<br />
Subjunctive: form 80-82 : uses 274- Wish : :<br />
Opt. 299 in a Relative Clause<br />
298, 362 : history 315-322 : forms 304 : with el, el y&p, et0e 312, 318 :<br />
in -uo, -Tjo) App. C.<br />
Negative 358.<br />
Substantive (opp. to Adjective} 165<br />
: Zenodotus: 2 Dual in -nr\v 5<br />
: Voc.<br />
<strong>the</strong> substantival Art. 257.<br />
<strong>of</strong> KdA-xas, &c. 92<br />
: TTO\VS (Ace. PI.)<br />
Suffix : in Verb-stems 14<br />
: -KO, in <strong>the</strong> 100 : Dual 173 (2)<br />
: Reflexive Pronoun<br />
Aor. 15<br />
: in <strong>the</strong> Pf. 22 (9)<br />
:<br />
-vtj,<br />
-vv<br />
255<br />
:<br />
readings due to loss <strong>of</strong><br />
17 Nominal 113 Primary 114- P 389 for a : : T) App. p. 391 footn. :<br />
116: Variation 114*: Secondary readings, d0t/cea0oi/ (3 Dual) 5, ava-<br />
117-120: <strong>of</strong> Comparison 121 : derived<br />
23 (5), eou (eo) 98, x
INDEX III.<br />
CHIEF PASSAGES REFERRED TO.<br />
Iliad,
85<br />
INDEX. 43 1
43* INDEX.<br />
391
574<br />
INDEX. 433
434 INDEX.<br />
396
INDEX.<br />
435<br />
140
444<br />
INDEX.
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