A grammar of the Homeric dialect - Wilbourhall.org

JS I LIBRARY

HOMERIC GRAMMAR 

D. B. MONRO 

LIBRARY

HENRY FROWDE 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS WAREHOUSE 

AMEN CORNER, E.G.

A GRAMMAR 

OF THE 

HOMERIC DIALECT 

BY 

D. B. MONRO, M.A. 

PROVOST OP ORIEL COLLEGE, OXFORD 

SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED 

L'objet de cette science est de rechercher dans 1'esprit de 1'homme 

la cause de la transformation des idioines 

M. BREAI 

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 

1891 

[ All rights reserved]

PRINTED AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 

BY HORACE HART, PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY

DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY 

OF THE REV. 

JAMES EIDDELL 

LATE FELLOW AND TUTOR OF BALLIOL

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 

IT may be said, without fear of giving offence, that a new 

Grammar of the Homeric dialect is sorely wanted. The 

admirable Griechische Formenlehre of the late H. L. Ahrens 

is now just thirty years old, and is confined, as its title indicates, 

to the inflexions. Not only has the course of discovery 

been going on since Ahrens wrote (and with hardly less 

rapidity than in the first years of the new science), but the 

historical method has been carried into the field of syntax. 

And apart from ' comparative philology,' the researches of 

other students have 

Bekker, Cobet, La Roche, and many 

brought together a wealth of material that only needs careful 

analysis and arrangement to make it accessible to the general 

body of learners. 

The plan of this book has sufficient novelty to call for some 

explanation. I have not attempted to write a Comparative 

Grammar, or even a Grammar that would deserve the epithet 

' 

' 

historical : but I have kept in view two principles of arrangement 

which belong to the historical or genetic method. These 

are, that grammar should proceed from the simple to the complex 

types of the Sentence, and that the form and the meaning 

should as far as possible be treated together. Now the 

simplest possible Sentence apart from mere exclamations 

consists of a Verb, or word containing in itself the two elements 

of all rational utterance, a Subject and a Predicate. 

We begin, therefore, by analysing the Verb, and classifying 

the Person and Number of the 

(i) the Endings, which express 

Subject ( 1-7), and serve also to distinguish the ' Middle ' or 

Reflexive use ( 8), 

and (2) the modifications of the Stem 

which yield the several Tenses and Moods. These modifications, 

we at once perceive, are more numerous than the meanings 

which they serve to express, and we have therefore to

viii 


choose between classifying according to i. e. 

formation according 

to the process by which each Tense-Stem and Mood- 

Stem is derived from the simple Verb-Stem or Ko.ot, and the 

ordinary classification according to meaning (Present, Future, 

Perfect, Aorist, &c.). The former course seemed preferable 

because it answers to the historical order. The problem 

is to 

find how pre-existing forms common to Greek and Sanscrit, 

and therefore part of an original 

* 

Indo-European ' grammar 

were adapted to the specifically Greek system of Tense-meanings. 

I have therefore taken the different formations in turn, 

beginning with the simplest ( 9-20, 22-27, 29-69, 79~&3)> 

and introducing an account of the meaning of each as soon as 

possible ( 21, 28, 70-78). This part of the subject naturally 

includes the .accentuation of the different forms of the Verb 

( 87-89)- 

The next great division of the subject is concerned with the 

first enlargement of the Sentence. A word may be added 

which taken by itself says nothing contains no Subject and 

Predicate but which combines with ând qualifies the primitive 

one-word Sentence. The elements which may gather 

in this way round the basis or nucleus formed by the Verb 

are ultimately of two kinds, Nouns and Pronouns ; 

and the 

relations in which they may stand to 

the Verb are also twofold. 

A Noun or Pronoun may stand as a Subject limiting 

or explaining the Subject already contained in the Person- 

Ending or may qualify the Predicate given by the Stem of 

the Verb. These relations are shown by the Ending, which 

again may be either a Case-Ending or an adverbial Ending. 

We begin accordingly by an account of the Declensions, supplemented 

by a list of the chief groups of Adverbs (Chapter V). 

to the Stems of Nouns 

When we pass from the Endings 

and Pronouns, we find that they are essentially different. A 

' 

Nominal Stem 5 consists in general of two parts, (i) a predicative 

part, usually identical with a Verb-Stem, and (2) a 

Suffix. Each of these two elements, again, may be complex. 

The addition of a further Suffix yields a fresh Stem, with a 

corresponding derivative meaning and thus we have the distinction 

between Primitive or Verbal and Secondary or De- 

; 

nominative Nouns. The Suffixes employed in these two


IX 

classes are generally distinct, and deserve a more careful 

enumeration than is usually given in elementary grammars. 

The predicative part, again, may be enlarged by a second 

Nominal Stem, prefixed to the other, and qualifying it nearly 

as a Case-form or Adverb qualifies the Verb. The Compounds 

thus formed are of especial interest for the poetical dialect of 

Homer. The analysis which I have given of the chief forms 

which they present must be taken to be provisional only, as 

the subject is still full of doubt. With respect to the meaning 

I have attempted no complete classification. It is always 

unsafe to insist on distinctions which may be clear to us, but 

only because we mark them by distinct forms of expression. 

The chapter on the formation of Nouns should perhaps 

have been followed by one on the formation of Pronouns. 

The material for such a chapter, however, lies for the most 

part beyond the scope of a grammar. It is represented in this 

book by a section on Heteroclite Pronouns ( 108), which 

notices some traces of composite Pronominal Stems, and in 

some degree by another on the Numerals ( 130). 

When we come to examine the syntactical use of the Cases, 

we find ourselves sometimes dealing with sentences which 

contain at least two members besides the Verb. Along with 

the constructions which may be called ' adverbial ' (using the 

term Adverb in a wide sense, to include all words directly 

construed with the Verb), we have the constructions in which 

the governing word is a Noun or Preposition. And in these 

again we must distinguish between the government of a Case 

apparently by a Noun or Preposition, really by the combined 

result of the Noun or Preposition and the Verb, and the true 

government by a Noun alone, of which the dependent Genitive 

and the Adjective are the main types. These distinctions, 

however, though of great importance in reference to the development 

of the use of Cases, cannot well be followed exclusively 

in the order of treatment. I have therefore taken the 

Cases in succession, and along with them the chief points 

which have to be noticed regarding the { concords ' of Gender 

( 166-168) and Number ( 169-173). 

In the Infinitive and Participle (Chapter X) we have the 

first step from the simple to the complex Sentence. 

The pre-

X 


dicative element in the Verbal Noun is treated syntactically 

like the same element in a true or * finite ' Verb ; 

that is to 

say, it takes ' adverbial ' constructions. Thus while retaining 

the character of a Noun it becomes the nucleus of a new 

imperfect Sentence, without a grammatical Subject properly 

so called (though the Infinitive in Greek acquired a quasi- 

Subject in the use of the Accusative before and it), standing 

to the main Sentence as an adverb or adjective. 

While the Infinitival and Participial Clauses may thus be 

described as Nouns which have expanded into dependent 

Sentences, the true Subordinate Clause shows the opposite 

process. In many instances, especially in Homeric syntax, 

we can trace the steps by which originally independent 

Sentences have come to stand in an adverbial or adjectival 

relation. The change is generally brought about, as we shall 

see, by means of Pronouns, or Adverbs formed from Pronominal 

stems. Hence it is convenient that the account of the 

uses of the Pronouns (Chapter XI) should hold the place of an 

introduction to the part in which we have to do with the 

relations of Clauses to each other. 

The next chapter, however, does not treat directly of subordinate 

Clauses, but of the uses of the Moods in them. 

seemed best to bring these uses into immediate connexion 

with the uses which are found in simple Sentences. In this 

way the original character of Subordinate Clauses comes into a 

clearer light. If anything remains to be said of them, it finds 

its place in the account of the Particles (Chapter XIII) in 

; 

which also we examine the relations of independent Sentences, 

so far at least as these are expressed by grammatical forms. 

The last chapter contains a discussion of the Metre of 

Homer (Chapter XIV), and of some points of 'phonology' 

which (for us at least) are ultimately metrical questions. 

Chief among these is the famous question of the Digamma. 

I have endeavoured to state the main issues which have been 

raised on this subject as fully as possible 

: but without much 

hope of bringing them to a satisfactory decision. 

A book of this kind is necessarily to a great extent a 

compilation, and from sources so numerous that it is scarcely 

possible to make a sufficient acknowledgment of indebted- 

It


XI 

ness. The earlier chapters are mainly founded on the great 

work of G. Curtius on the Greek Verb. More recent writers 

have cleared up some difficulties, especially in the phonology. 

I have learned very much from M. de Saussure's 

Mtmoire sur le systeme primitif des voyelles, and from several 

articles by K. Brugmann and Joh. Schmidt, especially the last. 

I would mention also, as valuable on single points, the papers 

of J. Paech (Vratisl. 1861) and H. Stier (Curt. Stud. II) 

on the 

Subjunctive, B. Mangold 

on the 'diectasis' of Verbs in -a&> 

(Curt. Stud. VI), F. D. Allen on the same subject (Trans, of 

the American Phil. Assoc. 1873), Leskien on o-crin the Fut. and 

Aor. (Curt. Stud. II), 

and K. Koch on the Augment (Brunsvici 

1868). On the subject of Nominal Composition I 

may name 

a paper by W. Clemm in Curt. Stud. VII, which gives references 

to the earlier literature of the subject, and one by F. Stolz 

(Klagenfurt 1874). On the forms of the Personal Pronouns 

there is a valuable dissertation by P. Cauer (Curt. Stud. VII) : 

on the Numerals by Joh. Baunack (K. Z. : 

XXV) on the Comparative 

and Superlative by Fr. Weihrich (De Gradibus, &c. 

Gissae 1869). Going on to the syntax of the Cases, I would 

place first the dissertation of B. Delbruck, Ablativ Localis 

Instrumental, &c. (Berlin 1867), and next the excellent work 

of Hubschmann, Zur Casuslehre (Mlinchen 1875). On the 

Accusative I have obtained the 

greatest help from La Roche, 

Der Accusativ im Homer (Wien 1861): on the Dual from 

Bieber, De Duali Numero (Jena 1864). On the Prepositions 

I have used the papers of C. A. J. Hoffmann (Luneburg 1857- 

60, Clausthal 1858-59), T. Mommsen (see 221), Giseke, Die 

allmdliche Entstehung der Gesdnge der Ilias (Gottingen 1853), 

La Roche, especially on VTTO 

(Wien 1861) and CTH (in the Z.f. 

ost. Gymn.), Rau on -napd (Curt. Stud. Ill), 

and the articles in 

Ebeling's Lexicon. On this part of syntax the fourth volume 

of Delbruck's Forschungen is especially instructive. Of the 

literature on the Infinitive I would mention J. Jolly's Geschichte 

des Infinitivs im Indogermanischen (Miinchen 1873), a^so a 

paper by Albrecht (Curt. Stud. IV), and a note in Max 

Mliller's Chips from a German Workshop (IV. p. 49 The 

ff.). 

use of the Participle has been admirably treated by Classen, 

in his Beobachtungen uber den homerischen Sprachgebrauch

xii 


(Frankfurt 1867). 

A paper by Jolly in the collection of 

Sprachwissenschaftliche Abhandlungen (Leipzig 1874) 

On the subject of the Pronouns the chief source 

is also 

suggestive. 

is a dissertation by E. Windisch in Curt. Stud. II. On the 

Article almost everything will be found in H. Foerstemann's 

Bemerkungen uber den Gebrauch des Artikels bei Homer (Magdeburg 

1861). The controversy on the Reflexive Pronoun is 

referred to in 255. On the Homeric uses of the Moods, 

besides Delbriick's great work, I would mention Jolly's 

monograph entitled Ein Kapitel vergleichender Syntax (Munchen 

1872), and L. Lange's elaborate papers on et (Leipzig 

1872-73). It is to be regretted that they have not yet been 

carried to the point of forming a complete book on the 

Homeric use of ei. For the general theory of the subject 

Prof. Goodwin's Greek Moods and Tenses is of the very highest 

value. Regarding the cognate question of the uses of av and 

KW the main principles have been laid down by Delbriick. 

It is worth while to mention that they were clearly stated 

as long ago as 1832, in a paper in the Philological Museum 

(Vol. I. p. 96), written in opposition to the then reigning 

method of Hermann. For the other Particles little has been 

done by Homeric students since Nagelsbach and Hartung. 

I have cited three valuable papers; on re by Wentzel, on 

7} (rje) by Praetorius, and on jj by A. R. Vierke. I would 

add here a paper on the syntax of Causal Sentences in 

Homer, by E. Pfudel (Liegnitz 1871). On all syntactical 

matters use has been made of the abundant stores of Kiihner's 

Ausfuhrliche Grammatik. And it is impossible to say too 

much of the guidance and inspiration (as I may almost call 

which it) I have derived from the Digest of Platonic Idioms 

left behind by the lamented friend to whose memory I have 

ventured to dedicate this book. 

On the collateral subjects of Metre I have profited most by 

Hartel's Homerische Studien, La Roche, Homerische Untersuchungen 

(Leipzig 1869), Knb's, De digammo Homerico 

(Upsaliae 1872-79), and Tudeer, De dialectorum Graecarum 

digammo (Helsingforsiae 1879). 

OXFORD, July 18, 1882.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

THE rapid progress of linguistic science during 

the nine 

years that have passed since this Grammar was first published 

has necessitated considerable alteration and enlargement in a 

new edition. Much has been discovered in the interval ; 

much 

that was then new and speculative has been accepted on all 

sides ; 

and much has been done in sifting 

and combining the 

results attained. The Morphologischen Untersuchungen of 

Osthoff and Brugmann have been followed by Brugmann's 

admirable summary of Greek grammar (in Iwan Muller's 

Handbuch), and his comprehensive Grundriss der vergleichenden 

Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen. Of three 

portions of this work that have already appeared (Strassburg 

1886-90-91), the last (treating chiefly of the Declensions) 

came too late to be of service to the present book. The part 

which deals with the Verb has not yet been published 

: and the 

volume on Comparative Syntax, promised by Delbruck the 

first complete work on this part of the subject is also still to 

come. 

It will doubtless be a worthy sequel to the Altindische 

Syntax, which now forms the fifth volume of his Syntaktische 

Forschungen. Among other books which have appeared since 

the publication of this Grammar, or which were not sufficiently 

made use of for the first edition, I would mention Joh. 

Schmidt's Pluralbildungen der indogermanischen Neutra 

(Weimar 1889), G. Meyer's Griechische Grammatik (second 

edition, Leipzig 1886), the new edition of Mr. Goodwin's 

Moods and Tenses (London 1889), the treatises in Schanz's 

series of Beitrdge zur historischen Syntax der griechischeri 

Sprache, Aug. Tick's two books (see Appendix F), articles by 

Wackernagel, Frb'hde and others in Kuhrts Zeitschrift and 

1 

Bezzenberger 

s Beitrdge, the long series of papers by Aug.

XIV 

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 

Nauck collected 

in the Melanges gre'co-romains (St. Petersburg 

1855-88) a book not often seen in this country, 

and the dissertations of J. van Leeuwen in the Mnemosyne. 

The two writers last mentioned are chiefly concerned with 

the restoration of the Homeric text to its original or prehistoric 

form. Their method, which is philological rather 

than linguistic, may lead to some further results when the 

numerous MSS. of the Iliad have been examined and have 

furnished us with an adequate apparatus criticus. 

Although very much has been re-written, the numbering of 

the sections has been retained, with a few exceptions so that 

; 

the references made to the first edition will generally still hold 

The new sections are distinguished by an asterisk. 

enumerate the points on which new 

good. 

I will not attempt to 

matter has been added, or former views recalled or modified. 

The increase in the size of the book is largely due to the fuller 

treatment of the morphology. Additions bearing on questions 

of syntax will be found in 238, 248, 267, 270*, 362, 365. 

On the whole I have become more sceptical about the theories 

which seek to explain the forms of the Subordinate Clause 

from parataxis, or the mere juxta-position of independent 

clauses. In general it may be admitted that the complex 

arose in the first instance by the amalgamation of simpler 

elements : but we must beware of leaving out of sight the 

effect of * contamination ' in extending syntactical types once 

created. The neglect of this consideration is in reality 

another and more insidious form of the error from which 

recent writers on morphology have delivered us, viz. that 

of explaining grammatical forms as the result of direct 

amalgamation of a stem with a suffix or ending, without 

duly allowing for the working of analogy. 

OXFORD, March 21, 1891.

CHAPTER I. The Person-Endings. 

PAGE 

TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

1. Sentences Subject and Predicate . . . i 

2. Stem and Endings 

. . . . . i 

3. 

The Person-Endings 

. . . . . i 

4. Thematic Vowel .2 

Non-Thematic forms . . 

5. Table of . . 

Person-Endings 

. . .2 

6. Influence of the Ending on the Stem . . .6 

7. 

The forms of the 3 Plural . . . .8 

8. Meaning of the Middle -9 

. . . . 

CHAPTER II. 

The Tenses. 

Verb-Stem Tense- Stem . . . . .10 

9. 

10. Formation of Tense-Stems . . . . .11 

IT. The Simple Non-Thematic Present . . . .12 

12. Variation of the Stem Examples 

. . .12 

13. The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist . . . 

14 

14. Metathesis . . . . . . 15 

15. Aorists in -a and -KCI . . . . .16 

1 6. The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present . . 

17. The Presents with -v] (-vd) and -vu . . . 

1 8. Thematic forms . . . . 

. 

17 

.18 

.18 

19. Non-Thematic Contracted Verbs Presents .20 

. . 

20. Aorists . . .22 

21. Meaning of Non-Thematic Tenses .22 

. . 

22. The Perfect . . . . . . .22 

23. Reduplication .26 

. . . . . 

24. The forms of the 3 Plural . . . . 

27 

25. Long and Short Stems . . . .28 

26. The Perfect Participle 

. . .28 

27. Thematic forms . . . . 

-30 

28. Meaning of the Perfect . . . . 31 

29. The Simple Thematic Present . . . 

.32 

30. With Short Stem 33 

31. The Thematic Aorist . . . , . . 

-34 

32. Remarks . . . . . 

-36 

33. Doubtful forms . . . . 

-37 

34. Thematic Aorists in Homer . . . 

-38

XVI 


PAGE 

35. The Eeduplicated Thematic Present . . . 

-39 

36. The Reduplicated Aorist (Thematic) . . . .39 

37. Aorists in -a . . . . . . .40 

38. Tense- Stems formed by a Suffix . . . .40 

39. The Aorist in -


xvil 

CHAPTER III. The Moods. 

PAGE 

79. The Moods Infinitive and . . 

Participle .67 

80. The Subjunctive Non-Thematic Tense- Stems . . 68 

8 1. Contraction . . . . 

.69 

82. Thematic Tense-Stems . , . . 

-7 

83. The Optative 

. . . ... 

. 

. 

.72 

. 

-73 

-74 

84. The Verbal Nouns . ... 

85. The Infinitive >.' ... . 

86. The Participle 

. . . . 

-75 

CHAPTER IV. 

Accentuation of the Verb. 

87. General rule of accentuation of Verbs . . 

-75 

88. Accent in Composition 

. . . 

76 

89. The Infinitive and Participle 

. . 

-77 

CHAPTER V. 

Wouns and Pronouns. 

90. Nominal and Pronominal Steins . . . 

78 

91. Declensions . . . . . . -78 

92. The Vocative. . . . . -79 

93. The . . . . . 

Case-Endings 79 

94. Stems in -t, -u and -

xviii 


PAGE 

117. Secondary Suffixes . . . . . .no 

1 1 8. Compound Suffixes . . . . .in 

1 1 8*. Suffixes of different periods 

. . .in 

119. Gender . . . . . .112 

120. Denominative Verbs . . . 

.113 

121. Comparison of Adjectives 

. . . . .114 

122. Meaning of Comparatives and Superlatives 

. 116 

123. Composition . . . . . . .116 

124. Form of the Prefixed Stem . . . 

117 

125. Form of the Second Stem . . . .120 

.122 

1 26. Meaning of . . 

Compounds 

. 

127. Stems compounded with Prepositions 

. 

.123 

128. Accentuation of Compounds 

. . 

.124 

129. Proper Names . . . . 

.124 

130. Numerals . . . . . -125 

CHAPTER VII. 

Use of the Cases. 

131. Eelation of Nouns and Pronouns to the Verb . 

.127 

132. The Accusative Internal and External Object 

. .128 

133. Neuter Pronouns . , . . .129 

134. Neuter Adjectives . . . . .129 

T 35- Cognate Accusatives . . . .129 

136. Other Adverbial Accusatives . . 

.130 

137. Accusative of the part affected . . 131 

. 

138. of Time and Space 

. . 

.132 

139. ,, 

with Nouns .... 132 

140. of the External Object 

. . . 

133 

135 

143. The ' true ' Dative . . . . . 

135 

144. The Instrumental Dative . .. . 137 

145. The Locatival Dative . . . 

.139 

140 

141. Double Accusatives . . . . 134 

142. The Dative ....... 

146. The Genitive . . .... 

147. The Genitive with Nouns . . . 

.141 

148. in the Predicate . . 

.142 

149. of Place . . . 

.143 

150. of Time . . . 

.143 

151. The quasi- Partitive Genitive . . 

144 

149 

156. Ablative . . . . . . 

149 

152. The Ablatival Genitive . . . . 

147 

153. The Genitive of Price . . . 

.148 

154. The Case-Ending 

..... 

-t(v) 

. . . . 

.148 

155. Instrumental 

157. Locative . ... 

. 

. . 

150 

158. Dative and Genitive . . , .150 

159. Forms in -Oev and -cos The Ending -0v . . . 

151 

160. The Ending -ws . . . . 

.152


xix 

PAGE 

161. The Nominative Impersonal Verbs . . 

.152 

162. Nominative in the Predicate . . . 

153 

163. Interjectional Nominative . . . . 

155 

164. The Vocative . . . . . . 155 

165. Substantive and Adjective . ., . . . 

156 

1 66. Gender of Adjectives . . . 

.157 

167. Pronouns . . . 

158 

- . . .158 

- 

1 68. Implied Predication . . 

CHAPTER VIII. 

Use of the Numbers. 

169. Collective Nouns . . . . . .158 

'170. Distributive use of the . . . 

Singular .159 

171. Plural of Things 

. . . . . . 160 

172. Neuter Plural with Singular Verb . .160 

173. The Dual . . . . . . .161 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Prepositions. 

174. Definition . . . . . . -163 

175. Adverbial use of Prepositions 

. . . . 

163 

176. Tmesis . . . . . . .163 

177. Ellipse of the Verb . . . . .164 

178. Use with Oblique Cases . . . . . 

165 

179. Use with 

....... 

the Genitive . . . .166 

' 

1 80. Accentuation Anastrophe ' of Prepositions 

. .166 

1 80*. Apocope 169 

181. dftî 

. . . . .0 . . . 

170 

182. afjupi with the Dative . . . 

.171 

183. Accusative . . . . 

171 

184. ,, Genitive . . 

.172 

185. vcpi ... . . . . . 

.172 

1 8 6. 7T6/H with the Dative . . . . 

173 

187. ,, ,, 

Accusative . . . . 

174 

1 88. Genitive . . . . 

174 

189. irapa .... ... 175 

190. irapa with the Dative * : . . . . 

175 

191. Accusative . .- / .176 

192. ,, 

Genitive . . / .176 

. . 

193. jierti .177 

194. (if TO. with the Dative . . . 177 

195. ,, 

Accusative . . . 

.178 

196. ,, ,, 

Genitive .- 178 

197. km . . . * . . .179 

198. 

7rt with the Dative . . . . 

179 

199. Accusative . . . .180 

200. Genitive . . . .181

xx 


201. V7T($s), irori . . . . . .184 

206. irpori with the Dative . . . 

.184 

207. Accusative . . . 

.184 

208. Genitive . . . 

.184 

209. ova with the Dat. with the Gen. . . .185 

210. ova. with the Accusative . . . 

.185 

211. Kara . . . . . . . 186 

212. Kara with the Accusative . . . .186 


.187 

214. Sid . . . . . . .187 

215. Sia with the Accusative . . . 


.187 

.188 

188 

218. vrrep with the Accusative . . . .188 

219. ,, 

Genitive .... 188 

220. \vi (Iv) 

. , . . . . . 

189 

189 

190 

223. If ... 190 

19! 

192 

227. Double . . . . 

Prepositions .192 

217. virtp ........ 

221. avv, vv ....... 

222. tlS ........ 

224. anu ........ 

225. irp6 

......... 191 

226. dvri 

228. Improper Prepositions 

. . . . . 

193 

229. Homeric and Attic uses . . . . 194 

CHAPTER X. 

The Verbal Nouns. 

230. Nature of the Verbal Nouns . . . 

-195 

231. The Infinitive original meaning . . . .196- 

232. Infinitive with Nouns . . . 

.198 

2 33- with Impersonal Verbs . . . 

198 

234. as the Subject .... 199 

235. with Relatives . . . .201 

2 36. with npiv and irapos 

. . .201 

237. Accusative with the Infinitive . . .201 

238. Tenses of the Infinitive . . . 

.203 

239. Dative with the Infinitive.... 204 

240. Predicative Nouns Attraction . . 

,204 

241. Infinitive used as an Imperative 

. . . 206 

242. Origin and History of the Infinitive . . 

207


XXI 

PAGE 

243. The Participle uses . . . . . 

209 

244. Tenses of the . 

Participle 

, . .211 

245. Implied Predication . < . . .212 

The Genitive Absolute . . . .212 

, 246. 

246*. The Verbal Adjectives 

. . . 

.214 

CHAPTEB XI. 

Use of Pronouns. 

247. Subordinate Clauses Deictic and Anaphoric Pronouns . 

215 

248. Interrogative Pronouns . . . . 

.215 

.216 

249. oSe, ToaocrSe, rotoaSe,

' 

xxii 


oircas.... PAGE 

284. Relatival Adverbs . . . . .260 

285. us, 

.260 

261 

. . . . . 

287. oQpa .262 

288. eojs, 

els o . 262 

289. ore, ... oirore . 

263 

. . . 

290. VT, %HOS .265 

291. Clauses with el, &c. 265 

292. Conditional Protasis .... 265 

293. Final Clauses with et 267 

294. Object Clauses with et . . 

.267 

295. The Subjunctive with us el . . .268 

296. eTret with the Subj...... 268 

286. 'iva ...... 

297. -npiv 

. 

269 

298. The Subjunctive after Secondary Tenses . .270 

299. The Optative in Simple Sentences . . . 

.271 

300. With K(v or ay . . . . 

273 

301. The Optative in Subordinate Clauses . . 

.275 

302. Clauses with i?e jê . . . 

-275 

303. Clauses with fJL-fj 

. . . 

.276 

304. Relative Clauses Final and . 

Object .276 

305. Conditional . . 

.278 

306. Relatival Adverbs o>s, OTTWS, Iva. . . 

-279 

. . . . 

307. eoas, oQpa .281 

308. ore, oTTore ..... 

282 

309. eim . . . . . . . 283 

310. irpiv . . . . . . .283 

311. el Conditional Protasis . . . .284 

312. et Optative of Wish . . . .285 

313. ei Kev Conditional Protasis . . .285 

i 

314. Final and Object Clauses . . . 286 

315. History of the Subjunctive and Optative- 

Uses in Independent Clauses 

...... 

. . 

.287 

316. ,, 

Subordinate Clauses . . 

.287 

317. Original meaning 

289 

318. Conditional Protasis with et . . 

.290 

319. Final Clauses with et . . . .291 

320. 

t 8' 

aye 

. . . . . 

.291 

321. Conclusion ...... 

292 

322. Homeric and Attic Uses 293 

323. The Indicative Modal Uses .... 293 

324. Conditional Apodosis 

. . . . 

294 

324*. Ellipse of the Apodosis .... 295 

325. Past Tense by Assimilation . . . 

296 

326. Future Indicative ..... 296 

327. The Imperative 298 

328. Prohibition...... 299


xxill 

CHAPTER XIII. 

The Particles. 

PAGE 

329. Classification of the Particles . . . . 299 

330. /cat . . . . . . . . 300 

331. re . . . . . . . .301 

332. re in general statement . . . 

301 

333- Se . . . . . 304 

334. 5e of the Apodosis ..... 305 

335. Enclitic 8e . . . . . . 307 

336-7. dAAa, avrap, arap, av, avr(, e/Mnjs .... 308 

338. ^ 308 

339. TIT), fTTft-fi .309 

340. , 3 .31 

. . . 

341. Dependent Interrogative .311 

342-5. fjidv, HTJV, fj.ev . . . . . 

.312 

346. rot . 315 

. . 

347-8. apa, -yap 316 

349-352. ovv, 817, vv, 

. . 

erjv 319 

- 

353- p 320 

354. 76 .. . 

321 

355. ov, u.i\ 

distinction of usage -322 

. . . . 

356. ovoe, Û, ovfeis 323 

. . 

357. Double negatives 

. . . . 

.323 

358. Uses of /; Indicative .... 324 

359. ov and \ii] 

in Conditional Clauses . . . 

325 

360. ov with ....... the Infinitive and . 

Participle .326 

361. M ,, 326 

362. Kfv and dV 327 

363. Summary of uses difference of av and Kei> . 331 

364. Original meaning of av and itev . . . 334 

Order of Particles and Enclitic Pronouns . . -335 

365. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Metre and Quantity. 

...... 366. The Hexameter 338 

367. Diaeresis and Caesura -338 

. . . 

368. Spondaic verses . . 34 

369. Quantity of Syllables 

. . . . . 

34 1 

370. Position -34 . . . . . 2 

371. Lengthening before />, X, /*, v, cr, 5 . . . 

344 

372. Origin of the . . . 

lengthening 345 

373. Final -t of the Dat. Sing. .... 346 

374. Final -a of the Neut. Plur. . . . 347 

375. Short Syllables ending in a Consonant . . 347 

376. Elision, &c. . . 349 

377. Crasis * 

. . . 

35 

378. Synizesis 

. . . . 35 1 

378*. Contraction . . . . 35 1

xxiv 


PAGE 

379. Hiatus 355 

380. Long vowels before Hiatus . . -355 

381. Shortening of diphthongs before Hiatus . . 

356 

382. Hiatus after short . . - 

syllables 357 

383. Doubtful Syllables 

..... 

. . . . . 

-357 

384. Doubtful vowels 358 

385. Doubling of ...... consonants . . 360 

. . 

386. Metrical licence 360 

387. Vocatives 360 

388. The . . . . 

Digamma .361 

389. Nature of the evidence from metre . .361 

390. Words with initial f 363 

391. Words with initial af ( 

e 

f ) .370 

. . . 

392. f inferred from metre only 

. . . 

371 

393. Loss of p , esp. before o, 

w . . . 

.372 

394-5. Initial 5f, fp, &c. 374 

not initial 375 

397. Loss of initial a and ..... i . . . . . 376 

398. Traces of f Summary 376 

399. Theories of the Digamma 376 

400. Hypothesis of alternative forms -377 

. . 

396. f ..... 

401. Explanation from fixed phrases, &c. . . 377 

402. Hiatus, &c., as a survival -378 

. . . 

403. Explanation from the nature of the . 

f -379 

404-5. f in other Greek dialects in Ionic -379 

. . 

APPENDIX C. On 77 

and et in Homer .... 384 

F. Pick's theory of the Homeric dialect . 386 

. 

Other Notes and Corrections .... 

INDEX I. Homeric Forms ..... 

396 

403 

II. Subjects 

. . . . . . 

424 

III. Chief passages referred to . . . 

.431 

ERRATA. 

Page 70, line 6, for yvus read yvws 

,, 83, ,, 23, for /eprjotvTos read ttpvoevros 

,, 93, ,, 30, for OrjprjOi read OvprjOi 

149, 38, before 18. 305 imert II. 

,, 185, i, for II. read Od. 

olos read olos 

,, 223, ,, 32, for 

,, 245, ,, 36, for three read two, and dele 16. 131., 

259, ,, 12, for govering read governing 

22. 280 read 16. 61 

,, 309, ,, 12, for 

,, 329, ,, 10, for

HOMEHIC GRAMMAR 

CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 

ALL 1.] language of which grammar takes cognisance consists 

of SENTENCES. The simplest complete Sentence expresses the 

combination of a SUBJECT that about which we speak (or think); 

and a PREDICATE that which we say (or think) about the 

Subject. On the sentences which are (apparently or really) without 

a Subject, see 161, 163. 

2.] In Greek (and generally in languages whose structure 

resembles that of Greek) every Verb is a complete Sentence, 

consisting of two parts, the Stem, which expresses the Predicate, 

and the Ending, which expresses the Subject. Thus CO--TI he 

(or it) is,

2 THE VERB. [4- 

4.] The further modifications which the Endings undergo 

depend chiefly upon the final letter of the Stem. 

In certain forms the Ending is preceded by O or E : that is 

to say, O before the nasals fx, K, and E before other letters e. ; g. 

nr7rrO-fAj>, TUTrrE-re, TVTtrO-vTi (older and Dor. form of TVTTTOVO-L). 

We shall call this the Thematic Vowel,* and the Stems which 

contain it Thematic Stems. The term will naturally include the 

corresponding Subjunctives, in which the final letter of the Stem 

varies in the same way between and as YJ 

u>, Tuirrw-jxeK, Tu'imi-Te, &c. 

and the I Sing, in -. These long vowels doubtless represent a 

primitive contraction of the Thematic vowel with some other 

element : but the exact process can hardly be determined. 

The forms which do not contain this variable e of o are called 

Non-Thematic. Among these, again, we have to distinguish a 

group of Tenses with Stems ending in -d, viz. the Perfect, the 

First Aorist, and some forms peculiar to the Ionic Dialect, as 

the Plpf 

. 

(e. g. 7]6ea / knew], 

the . 

Impf rja I was, rfia I went. In 

these Stems the -a changes in the 3 Sing, to -e^.f 

The distinction between Thematic and Non-Thematic applies in strictness 

only to forms, but may generally be extended to Tenses and Moods. Thus the 

are Non- 

Pres. and Impf. of TVTTTCU are Thematic, the same Tenses of tyrî 

Thematic. In every Verb the Future is Thematic, the Optative is Non-Thematic, 

&c. But the distinction does not apply to ' Verbs ' (in the collective sense of 

the term), because almost every Verb is made up of forms of both kinds. 

5.] In the following Table of the Person-Endings found in 

Homer the Endings distinguished by larger type are those of the 

Non-Thematic Tenses. The Endings in smaller type are, first, 

those of the forms with -a, and, under them again, those of the 

Thematic forms. In the Dual and Plural (except the 3 Plur.) 

the Endings are the same throughout. 

* This vowel has also been termed the ' Connecting ' or 'Auxiliary' Vowel 

names given on the supposition that it is originally euphonic, inserted in 

order to allow the Stem and the Ending to be distinctly heard in pronunciation. 

The name ' Thematic ' implies a different theory, viz. that it serves to form a 

' 

Theme ' from a simpler element or ' Boot/ as \y- from the Boot \( 7- see 

; 

Curt. Chron. p. 40. On this theory the Stem \ey-e, \ty-o is originally the same 

as the Theme or Stem of the Noun \6yo-s. See the remarks of Brugmann, 

Grundriss, ii. 8, n. I. 

In the former edition the -co of the I Sing, was explained as -o-ju (Sanscr. 

d-mi). It is now generally thought that -

5-] 

PERSON-ENDINGS. 

, 

O b 

b ? 

o ^> b b 

b ^t 

*?

4 PERSON-ENDINGS. [5- 

Remarks on the Table of Person-Endings. 

1 Sing. On the Subj. in -w-fu see 82, and on the Optatives 

which take -ju in the I Sing, see 83. 

2 Sing. The original 

-o-i remains only in Icr-o-i thou art. 

The form ets (or enclitic ds) is read in nine places, but there is only one 

(Od. 17. 388) in which the metre does not allow eW to be read instead. 

Probably, therefore, lo-crC is the genuine Homeric form. The Attic e? is not 

found in Homer. 

The Ending 

-o-0a occurs in the Pf. ota0a thou hiowest (oi8as in 

Od. I. 337, is a very doubtful reading), Plpf. fjbr](r0a (Od. 19. 

93), the Impf. and rfar0a erjo-fla thou wast, e

5-] PERSON-ENDINGS. 5 

suffer Hyphaeresis (cp. 105, 4), 

and drop one e ; 

as /owfleat (Od. 

2. 202), aTTo-ai/oeo, e/cAeo. But we find also /wtfetat (Od. 8. 180), 

velai (Od. 1 1. 114., 12. 141) where it is possible to substitute 

the uncontracted /uud&ai, z>eeai -and atSeto (II. 24. 503). 

In the Imper. the Ending 

-0i is common in Non-Thematic 

Tenses : 

t-0i, o-rrj-fli, KXv-6i, KexXv-Oi, e.ara-0t, opvv-Oi, (f)dvrj-6i 

(II. 18.^198), btia>-0L (Od. 3. 380), ^7uVAr7-0 t (II. 23. 311). We 

find -s in 0e-?, 8o-s, Trpot-s (Trpo- 117^1), 

and the thematic vi-cnr-s 

tell (cp. Attic o-ê-j). 

In the forms iffrrj (II. 21. 313), SatVt) (II. 9. 70), SfiKvv (Hes. Th. 526), the long 

final vowel probably comes by analogy from the Pres. and Impf. Singular 

forms (by the ' proportion ' Impf. e\ef-$, e\tye Imper. : \eye : : iffrr]*, lartj : 

forr)}. For the forms Ka6-i), 

in which 

the phonetic change of -TI to -a(rt, loraori, rtêtcrt, bibova-i, {tvyvva-i (not TiOt-acrt, &c v as in 

Attic). 

On the accent of these forms, see 87, 2. 

The Perfect Act. has -do-t and -ao-i. The latter occurs only 

twice in Homer, Tre^K-ao-t (Od. 7. 114), AeXoyxao-iz; (Od. n. 

304) for other examples in Ionic see Curt. Verb. ii. 166. In 

; 

these forms the a belongs to the Ending, since -ao-i is for -an, 

which corresponds to the -m of the Doric Qa-vrC, Xtyo-vn (as 

-arai in the Mid. to -rrai). 

The forms with -dai belong to two 

essentially distinct groups; see 7. 

The secondary -w (for -avr) 

is found in all Aorists which form 

the i Sing, in -a. It may also be traced in the Impf. of et/xt, 

in the form j\v (Hes. Th. 321, 825), for âv (Sanscr. asan). 

Non-Thematic -v occurs in the forms !

6 PERSON-ENDINGSDUAL. [6. 

The Imper. Endings -ro>o-ai>, 

-o-O&ffav are post-Homeric. 

1 Dual. -jJieOo^ occurs only once, in Tre/nSwjuiefloz^ II. 23. 485. 

Elmsley (on Ar. Ach. 733) maintained that this form was a 

fiction of the grammarians. It is defended by G. Curtius Verb. 

( I. 97 and there seems no valid reason for f.), rejecting it. 

2 and 3 Dual. In the Historical Tenses, according to the 

ancient grammarians,, 

the regular Endings are 

2, Dual Act. -TOV, Mid. -. 

3 

"rt 

\ 

v i 

'aQl \ 

y - 

This scheme, however, is open to some doubt for 

; 

(1) Homer has three instances of the 3 Dual Impf. in -TOV, where the metre 

does not admit of -rrjv, viz. Stowe-rop (II. 10. 363), CTCI/X^-TOI/ (II. 13. 345), 

Xa(f>vffff6Tov (II. 18. 583). Three others in -o-0ov occur as various readings, 

where the metre admits of either -aOov or -oQrjv, viz. dtyiKe-aOov, read by some 

ancient critics (probably Zenodotus) in II. 13. 613 : Oup-qffae-crOov, the reading 

of A. (the Cod. Venetus) and Eust. in II. 16. 218: -nkri-aQov, a marginal 

variant of A. in II. 23. 506. 

(2) Three forms of the 2 Dual in -TTJV were read in the text of Zenodotus, 

viz. K(Hi.k-Tt\v (II. 

8. 448), \a0f-Trjv (II. 10. 545), -êeXc-rrji/ (II. u. 782). 

Aristarchus read Ka^t-rov, \dfie-Tov, rjOeke-rov. The metre gives no help to a 

decision. 

(3) In Attic the examples of the 2 Dual in -TTJV, - is found in eorcoz/ I. (II. 338) and 

Ko/xemoy (II. 8. 109). As to eorojz; in Od. I. 

273, where it is 

usually taken as a Plural, see 1 73. 

Variation of the Stem. 

6.] In Thematic Stems it is plain that the Ending influences 

only the final e(o), leaving the rest of the Stem unaffected. 

Non-Thematic forms, on the other hand, are liable to variations 

in quantity which affect the main vowel of the Stem. These 

variations are governed by the general rule that when there are 

two forms of a Stem the longer is found with the Endings of the

6.] 

VARIATION OF STEM. 7 

Sing. Indie. Act.^ the shorter with all other Endings, 

viz. those of 

the Dual and Plural, the Imperative, and the Middle. Thus : 

(i) a, e, o interchange with the corresponding long vowels 

d (in Ionic r]), rj, w ; 

as

8 THIRD PERSON PLURAL. 

[7. 

Thus we have an apparent interchange of two 

veo), f-irf-v-ov (4>v-, cp.

8.] 

MIDDLE VOICE. 9 

answering to -aw. The corresponding1 Mid. -o-arai is found in 

Doric (yeypaârai, Tab. Heracl. i. 

131, in C. I. 5774). 

The contraction in lo-racri, TcOvaai is evidently due to the impossibility of 

4(rr

IO THE TENSES. 

[9. 

(4) The Reciprocal use ; apeifioiievos taking his turn ; 

to tell over (in talk) ; d/oeV/ceo-flai to maJce friends with vvo-arojjievtov 

(II. 14. 26) as they pierced each other ; eptibecrOov (II. 33. 

735)jpush each other \ strive. Hence the Middle form of 

Fr. se battre and its equivalents, aycoznbjuia6, 

(5) The Passive use, as exe-rcu is possessed, e/SA^-ro ftvzs struck, 

o w#s bound, eK-TreTro-rat z's drunk up. This is not a very 

common use of the Middle. It may be illustrated from the 

similar use of some Reflexive Verbs in French, as * 

' 

je 

me trouve 

1 am found, 

*il se mange ' it is eaten. 

The Middle is rather more common in Homer than in later 

Greek. For example, in the class of Verbs of feeling and thinking 

we may add the Homeric fyapai, yaw/mat, eA8o//at, lATrojutat, 060- 

//ai, oro/xcu, orevo/uku, Kâpovro, 

dbva-acrOai.. And the use is extended 

to Verbs of 

seeing and hearing, as 6pw-/xat (Aor. t8e'-o-0ai), 

aKOvo-jxai (used as well as 6/)

10.] 

THE TENSES. II 

This we shall call the Verb-Stem. A Verb-Stem not derived from 

more primitive elements is called a Root. 

Again, the different forms belonging to any one TENSE are 

which we shall call the Tense-Stem. 

based upon a common part, 

This part may be the same as the Verb-Stem or it ; may contain 

an additional element, as 8t- in 5i-8o-juez;, 8t-8o-tV^ &c. 

5 ; 

-T, -TO in TVTT-T-T, TV7T-TO-fJiV, 

/ will be writing and 0a ypcn//^ 

I will write, related to each other as ey/>a$oz> 

and ypa\j/a. 

10.] Formation of Tense-Stems. Leaving out of sight the 

meanings of the several Tenses, and looking to the mode of their 

formation, we may distinguish the following groups : 

(i) 

With the Verb-Stem serving as Tense-Stem 

The Simple Non-Thematic Present, as fa-pi. 

The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist, as t-pr]-v. 

The Aorist in -a, as e-

12 TENSES. [ll. 

(2) With Tense-Stem enlarged from Verb-Stem 

The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present, as ri-Or]-^. 

The Present in -nq-jju 

and -yu-ju, as a-Kib-vrj-î, beiK-vv-fjn,. 

The Perfect. 

(3) 

With the Thematic Vowel 

The ordinary Thematic Present, as A.eyo>. 

The Present with short Stem, as ayco. 

The Simple Thematic Aorist, as e-Aa/3-o-z;. 

(4) With Reduplication (Thematic) 

The Thematic Reduplicated Present, as yt-yv-0-fj.ai. 

The Thematic Reduplicated Aorist, as ij-y-dy-o-v. 

(5) With other Suffixes (Non-Thematic) 

The Aorist in -ad, and in - (Aor. II Pass.). 

The Aorist in -0Tj-i> (Aor. 

I Pass.). 

(6) With other Suffixes (Thematic) 

The Present in -TW (T-Class of Curtius). 

The Present in -vw (Nasal Class). 

The Present in -cncco, and the Iterative forms. 

The Present in -w (I-Class). 

The Future in -o-w, -(, Part. (f>ds.

12.] 

NON-THEMATIC PRESENT. 13 

Mid. 2 Plur. a-jueyoy. 

And similarly 

Pres. et-jut, el-o-Oa, et-o-t, 3 Du. -roi>, Plur. i-êz;, t-re, tacrt. 

Impf. 3 Du. t-rrjv, 3 Plur. frrazj, Imper. l-Qi, I-TO), t-re, Inf. 

t-juerat (once and teVai. 

t), 

The i Sing, rfia does not represent the original form of the Impf., which 

would be TJa (for â, Sanscr. dyam). Hence fjfawith the 3 Sing. fî and 3 Plur. 

fjtcrav, -rjo-av must be formed like rjSea and other Pluperfects in -co, ( 68, 2) ; 

the of the original tjea, rjecrav being changed to i under the influence of i-pev, 

&c. (Wackernagel, J. Z. xxv. 266). For -

14 TENSES. [13. 

corruption or misreading. 

The facts certainly give much countenance to this 

view, which has been adopted by Curtius (Stud. i. 2, 292) and Nauck. It 

can hardly be accidental that out of 54 places in which rjv occurs in the thesis 

or second half of the foot, there are 50 in which it is followed by a vowel, as 

II. 2. 77 NCO-TOJ/) os pa IlvAoiO dvag rjv r/ftaOoevTOS. 

Od. 17. 208 8' ajjL(f)l dp' alyetpwv vScLTOTpttyecw r\v d\ffos. 

Moreover, out of 72 instances of ITJV there are 63 in which it is followed by 

a consonant (including f). 

On the other hand, in 26 places TJV occurs in the 

first half of the foot, and in 2 places it ends the line (in the phrase ou5' dpa ircas 

or cev, 

and it is not 

rjv) easy to correct many of these so as to admit TJCV ; 

Again, fy and V nave sme support in the 2 Sing, forms âOa, â$a. (For 

e?7n, in Hes. Th. 875), and the 

Opt. Kixe-irj may find. The vowel is also long in epiJ-ro protected, 

Inf. pv-crOai, ; 

and in all forms of Ketjuai, ^juat, orcv/xat. 

A similar Non-thematic inflexion, in which the final vowel of 

the Stem is long except before -IT and -i, appears in the jÊolic 

conjugation of verbs in -ju, as ye'Aai-j/t / laugh, aivr\-\ki 

I praise 

(Hes. Op. 681), (/Arj-ju Hove (i 

Plur. (j)i\rj-^v, 3 Plur. 

Part. ^>tX?;-jULeôs), crdco-jut 

I save. See 19. 

13.] The Simple Non-Thematic Aorist. This term includes 

the ( Second Aorists/ such as -(3r]-v e-o-r?;-^ &c., and also those 

so-called First Aorists in which the -d of the i Sing. Active is 

added directly to the Verb-stem, as in e-xev-a. 

Variation of quantity 

is rare in the Active, but the Stem is 

usually shortened in the Middle. The chief forms are : e-fa-v 

I went, 3 Du. (3d-rr]v (but also f-firjrriv), 3 Plur. virtp-fid-a-av, 

Imper. /merd-/3rj^t, Inf. /3rj-/xef at : Z-VT*]-V I stood, Du. OTTJ-TT/Z^ 

Plur. e-o"n7-fxei>, e-o-rrj-re, l-oTrj-o-ay, Imper.

I4-] 

NON-THEMATIC AORIST. 15 

(Hes. Op. 98), 3 Du. Kara-TTT^-T^v cowered, Mid. e-Trra-ro flew: 

e-or|3T) 

was quenched ; e-rXt]-^ / endured, Plur. e-rArj-fxei^ e-rArj-re, 

Imper. rA?j-rco, rArj-re ; e-yi/w-i/ 

7 yfoztfw, 3 Du. yvto-rrjv, 3 Plur. 

-yvo)-(rav ; eir-e-irXw-s

T6 TENSES. [15. 

as pv-a-OaL 

to shield (Fpv-), pv-ros drawn (Ftpv-, Fpv-), rpv-a> (cp. 

is of 

rp-Tj-, root Hence it 

tar). is probable that the long vowel 1 

the nature of a suffix, by which a new verbal stem is formed from 

the primitive stem or * root/ This vowel usually does not vary 

with the Person-endings, but is long in all forms of the Tense. 

It cannot be an accident, however, that the same Stems appear 

also as disyllables with a short final vowel : 

KaA.-e 

raA-a, 7reA-a,

1 6.] 

NON-THEMATIC TENSES. T; 

i8-juer. 

The 3 Sing, in -e(i>), 

follows the analogy of the Thematic 

conjugation (ex eve like eAeye). 

The three Aoristsin -icd, e-0r;/ca I put, e-rj/ca I sent forth, e-oa)Ka 

I gave, are inflected as follows : 

1 Sing. -6r]Ka I Plur. e-0e-/xez> 

2 e-flq/ca-s- 2 Du. e-0e-roz> 2 e-0e-re 

Imper. 0e'-y, #e'-ra>, Plur. 0e'-re, Qi-vrav. 

Inf. Oe-fjievaL, Oe-pev, Oelvai, Part, 0eis, Oe-vros, &c. 

Mid. t-Qt-wv &c. with 6e- as stem throughout. 

Thus 6r]K.a-, 77*01-, SCOKCI- alternate with 0e-, e-, So- as long and 

short Stems respectively. The only forms in Homer which do 

not conform to this scheme are the I Plur. eV-?j/ca-/iezj (Od. 12. 

401), and the 3 Sing. Mid. OrjKa-ro (II. 

10. 31., 14. 187, also 

Hes. Th. 175). 

The primitive 3 Plur. e-oo-*> occurs in Hes. Th. 

30, and in Doric : e-Oe-v only on inscriptions (C. L 29). 

The Homeric forms with the stem I- do not take the augment : 

in Attic we have (e. g.) et-juezj et-re (for e-e-jmev e-e-re). 

In respect of the -a of the Stem the 2 Sing. e-tfrjKa-j is 

formed like e-xeva-?, and the occasional examples of the type 

-6rjKa-}JLv, e-flrj/ca-ro are parallel to e-ytva-nev, e-xem-ro. That 

is to say, the -a comes from e-0?)Ka, c-OrjKa-v. The relation of 

e-0?7Ka-//,ez>, z-OrJKa-To to !-0e-//ez>, e-0e-ro, is complicated by the 

use of a new Verb-Stem (flrj-Kinstead 

of #17-). 

Thus it is the 

same as the relation of eomJKa-/xez> to e'ora-juei> ( 22). 

The Aorist tfveiKa (without augment eVeiKa) shows no variation 

of stem ; I Plur. eveiKa-^v, 3 Plur. TJVLKCL-V and ViKa-v, Imper. 

eW/ca-re, Mid. 3 Plur. êi/ca-zro. 

On the Aorist etTra see 37. 

16.] 

The Non-Thematic Reduplicated Present. These 

Presents are formed by Reduplication, usually of the initial 

consonant with t; riOrj-cri puts, 8t6o)-^t I give, ITJ-O-I (for 0-60-17-0-1?) 

sends, laraa-i 

(o-i-o-ra-) they set, m/UTrAao-t they fill (the ja 

is 

euphonic it is dropped after in : //, l^-TrtTrAry-^t), bibr] bound, 

j3i(3a-s striding with Attic 

; Reduplication, 6vivr}--0i 

(Od. 3. 380)*, and the Inf. rtîj-juerat (II. 23. 83, 247) and Part. 

* The variation is perhaps less regular in the Imper.; cp. 

Sanscr. the 3 Sing. Imper. has the strong Stem. 

C 

K\v-0i. In

1 8 TENSES. [17. 

10. 34). Also in bifn-âi I seek (for 

(II. 

the Homeric Verb answering to Attic C^-rew. 

tiqjjit 

is now generally connected with Lat. sero (for si-so, cp. 'iffrrjfjii sisto). 

Earlier scholars (as Bopp) derived it from the root yd (Lat. ja-c-io\ Possibly 

it represents both and ai-cnrjfu (sa-) I-IKIJAI (?/-). In meaning 

it is much nearer 

to jacio than to sero. 

17.] Present Stems in -nrj (-m) and ->u. The Tense-Stems 

of this class which may be called the Non-Thematic Nasal 

class form the Present-Stem from the Verb- Stem by the 

Suffixes -vv -vr], (which with Heavy Endings regularly become 

-I'd, 

-vv). 

The Presents with -nrj (-/&) are nearly all peculiar to Homer, 

I 

bajj,-vr]-fjLL subdue, nlp-vr] mixed, nep-va-s selling, o-Kib-va-Tai is 

scattered, mA-i/a-rat comes near, yâp-va-rai fights. Note I for e in 

Ktp-,

1 8.] 

THEMATIC FORMS. 19 

ebibovs, ebibov Imper. bibov (Od. : 3. 58). 

Examples occur also in the Pres. Indie,; ba^va (3 Sing. Act.) 

in Od. ii. 221 (with v. 1. 

bd^var)-, bapvq (2' Sing. Mid.) in 

II. 14. 199 (with v. 1. bafjiva, for bapva-ai) ; ai/-teis (II. 5. 880), 

pfO-ieis (II. 6. 523, Od. 4. 372), ptd-iel (II. 10. 121), Ti0ei (II. 13. 

732), 7rap-rt0et (Od. I. 192), for which the MSS. usually have 

azn'eis, &c. : SiSois (II. 9. 164), 61801 (II. 9. 519, Od. 4. 237). So 

for vpolci in II. 2. 752 we should read 

Add the Part, fiifiuvra (II. 3. 22, cp. 13. 807., 16. 609), Fern. 

/3i/3wo-a (Od. 1 1 . 539) ; for which Bekk. writes /3i/3ayra, /B 

Editors differ in their manner of dealing with these forms. Bekker in his 

second edition (1858) restored the 2 Sing. Pres. rldijs, i'rjs, 5i8 Taw-awn, TOLVV-OVTO (four times), 

* In considering this and similar questions it should be remembered (i) 

that we do not know when the Homeric poems were first written down ; 

(2) that we do not know of any systematic attention having been paid to 

spelling, accentuation, &c. before the time of the Alexandrian grammarians ; 

(3) that the tendency of oral recitation must have been to substitute later for 

earlier forms, unless the metre stood in the way ; (4) that this modernising 

process went on in different parts of Greece, and therefore need not represent 

the exclusive influence of any one dialect ; (5) that the older Ionic alphabet 

confused e, t, t] 

and o, ou, w. 

C 2

20 TENSES. [19. 

Tavv-iv (II. 17. 391), aria* (II. 4. 56, but may be Fut.). 

As to 

v-rj (2 Sing-. Subj. Mid.) see 80. 

Also, the Verb pvoâi protect, save, is for the most part Non- 

Thematic (Zpv-o-o, epu-ro, 3 Plur. pv-aro, Inf. p-o-0at), but partly 

-. S 

Thematic (pue-rat, pve-ro, pvo-vTai, &c.), 

see n. And the 

Aor. e-nXv-ov is Thematic, except the Imper. K.\.v-Qi, KXv-rt. 

It should be observed that in all the foregoing cases the Thematic form is 

obtained by combining thematic endings with the final vowel of the Stem. 

In other cases the original final vowel is lost, as i've(i/) for e-icix 7 8to> for 

], 

ilfrj-ftatj 

and the like. 

19.] 

Won - Thematic Contracted Verbs. The following 

Homeric forms are usually regarded as instances of 'irregular 

Contraction ' of Verbs in -aco, -eco, -oco : 

(-aw) : 

(jvvavTf]-Tif]v met, crvXr^-Trji' spoiled, Trpocravbrj-Trjv spoke to, 

$oiTr\-Ti]v went about, /a-rj scraped, apri-êvai to pray, yor/-//,Jai to 

bewail, -neivri-pevai to hunger, drj-o-Oai to milk. 

(-ew) : a7ri\Yi-Tr]v threatened, o/xaprrj-r^y met, KaXrj-fjLtvai to call, 

iTv6ri-jjivaL to mourn, Tro^-juerai to regret, (îkri-^vai to love, cf)opf]- 

fjLtvai, (j)op7J-vai to carry, aAir?]-juero9 sinning, re/)o-?}-juerat to get 

dry ( 

4^). 

of o-ao'co 

(-ow) o-aco 3 Sing. Impf. and also 2 Sing. Imper : 

I keep safe. 

These forms cannot be explained by the ordinary contraction 

with the Thematic e or o e. : 

g. ôirr]-Tr]v cannot come from *(/>ot- 

Taerrjv, fyoprj-vai from " 

5f 

*op*4-vai, aXiTr]-^vot\iT]v, -oirjv (for 

which however in the case of verbs in 

-ew we expect -eirjy, as in KL\LT]V and Êolic ^lAetr;). 

These facts seem to show that the formation now in question 

is of high antiquity, and Curtius even maintained that it was 

older than the ordinary conjugation of the verbs in -aw, -ew, -ow.

1 9.] 

NON-THEMATIC CONTRACTED VERBS. 21 

In these verbs, as he pointed out, there is evidence to show that 

the vowel before the thematic ending was originally long (e. g. 

in Homeric 8n/raa>y, TTivd is for older beiKvvjju and 

: 

these again may be explained by contraction from -dt^juu, -^trj/ou, 

-oHrj/xt, the Greek representatives of the Sanscrit -aydmi. The 

Latin amo, doceo, PI. amdmus, docemus, would fall into this 

scheme, if we suppose that they belong to the stage at which the 

thematic endings had not extended beyond the I Sing. 

Against this theory it is urged by Bruginann (M. U. i. 86) 

that the thematic conjugation of these verbs is found also in 

Sanscrit, Zend, Slavo-Lithuanian and Germanic all which members 

of the Indo-European 

if family, Curtius is right, must have 

recast their derivative verbs on the same thematic model. It is 

more probable therefore that these verbs were originally thematic, 

and according to the final vowel of the base appeared as verbs in 

-aoo (as z>tKa-o)), -eco (as Trofle-o)), or -oco (as drji'o-co). 

On this 

assumption, again, the Homeric forms now in question may be 

variously explained. Where we find rj 

for ee or ae, as in 

(f)i\rilJLV(u, yori^tvai (instead of the ei, d required by the ordinary 

we rules), may suppose, with Wackernagel (K. Z. xxvii. 84), that 

the contraction belongs to an earlier (pre-Hellenic) period. The 

existence of such a period is 

proved (e. g.) by the temporal 

augment, as in ??(cr)a for an original e-eo-a. Then the participles 

aAinj/xez/o?,

22 TENSES. [2O. 

Similarly, again, the * 

analogy of the verbs in -ju/ and especially 

of those tenses which do not vary the quantity of the stem (as 

KI'XIMU, arj/u, 77X77-7-0, tyvav) has affected the derivative verbs, and 

has thus produced the non-thematic forms in question fyiXrmtvai 

like drjjuewu, aXiTri^vos like KIXWCVOS, and so on. The forms 

riflrJ-juezxH (II. 23. 83, 247), nOri-^vov (II. 10. 34) are probably 

due to the influence of the same group of Verbs. A similar 

process explains the Êolic conjugation of verbs in -juu (ye'Acujut, 

ûAry/xt, SoKtV^M ^ne difference 1 )' being that in JEolic it was carried 

much further. In Homer we have nothing answering to the 

I Sing. (f)i\r]fjLi f the I Plur. , 

the 3 Plur. (/uAeto-t, or the 

corresponding Imperfect forms. 

We cannot be sure, however, that all the examples of this type which 

appeared in the original text of Homer have been preserved. Wackernagel 

has observed that nearly all the words now in question are forms which 

would be unfamiliar in the Greece of classical times. The list is made up 

chiefly of duals (irpoaavbrjTrjv, (poirrjTrjv, &c.) and Infinitives in -fifvai. It is not 

improbable (e.g.) that the familiar form TrpoaTjvba has supplanted an original 

Non-Thematic irpoff^vSr}. 

On the other hand in II. n. 638 km 5' aiyeiov Kvr\ 

rvpov the metre points rather to the uncontracted Kvde. 

20.] Aorists. Of the Aorist Stems noticed in 13, several 

are probably derived from Nouns, and do not differ in formation 

from the Presents discussed in the preceding section : e. g. e-yrjpu 

(yfjpa-s), /3tw-ro) (/3io-s), 7r-e7rAo)-s (77X00-9), ah&-vai, perhaps 

cnr-6vr)-To. Regarding the Passive Aorists, see 42-44. 

21.] Meaning of the Non-Thematic Pres. and Aor. The 

Presents formed by Reduplication, and by the Suffixes -vv\ and 

-w, are nearly always Transitive or ( Causative ' in meaning, as 

torq-ju, (TKid-pq-juij op-vv-î whereas the simpler Verbs, whether 

: 

Present or Aorist, are usually Intransitive, as eo-rrj-z;, $ o-/3 77. 

Regarding the Tense-meaning, it is enough to point out here 

that the difference of the Present and Aorist is not given by the 

form of the Tense : thus the Impf. e-ffrrj-v 

is the same in formation 

as the Aor. e-Sr-z; 

e-crn-zj. 

The Perfect. 

22.] The Perfect-Stem is formed by Reduplication, and is 

liable to vary with the Person-Endings ( 6). 

This variation is 

the rule in the Homeric Perfect. In Attic it survives in a few 

forms only; it is regular in otda and e'o-rrjKa. 

The weak form of the Stem is the same (except for the Reduplication) 

as in the Tenses already discussed. The long Stem 

is often different, showing a predilection for the O-form. 

The variation appears in the interchange of

22.] THE PERFECT. 

(1) tj (d) and a: as re07JA.-et bloomed, Part. Fern. 

apr/pe is fitting ', dpap-ina; A.eA.rjK-ws', A.eA.aK-wa yelling, 

jxe/xa/c-tua bleating', AeAaorat (AeAa0-rai, ArJ^-co) 

^#s forgotten, 

aKct)(-juez;os sharpened, Treâ^-rat /to appeared; o-eVijTre 

w rotten 

(

24 TENSES. [22. 

(5) eu and u : Treêvy-ws having escaped, Mid. 

raL are made, 3 Sing. reruK-rat ; 

KKevOe hides (Aor. 

efeuy-joievoi joined ((vy-6v). Other weak Stems : 

ntyv-Tai, 

rat ( 15), TTtTTVcr-iJiai (TTV^-), 

KKkv-6i listen. 

ou interchanging with u is much less common : 

eiA?]A.oi>0a 

/ am 

come (\v9-), perhaps btbovir-oTos (cp. KTVTT-OS). 

u appears in jLte'juwke (Aor. /Ae), f3ej3pv^v roars, as in the Pres. 

(6) op (po), 

o\ and dp (pd), 

dX (for r, /, 6, 5) : bi-f^dopas #?^ 

destroyed (

2,2,.] 

THE PERFECT. 

' 

25 

When the Stem ends in a vowel, certain forms of the Pf. Act. 

1 

take K, thus filling the hiatus which would otherwise be made 

between the Stem and the : 

Ending as in ZO-TYJ-K-CLS, 8ei'8oi-K-a, 

TeOapa-ij-K-da-L. The Perfects of this type including those of 

which no forms with K are actually found may be divided again 

into 

(a) Perfects with variable root-vowel : eorr/Ka I stand, i Plur. 

t(TTa-fjiv ; 

8et8otKa I fear, I Plur. 8ei8t-êi> ; TreûKe, 3 Plur. Ttetyvd(Ti: 

fiefirjKa, Inf. /3e/3a-/xez; ; T0vr]Ka} Imper. rtOva-Qi 

Imper. rerXa-Qi. Add also jue/ow-Ke is closed (of a wound), 

is sunk in, though the short form is not found. 

(b) Perfects with invariable long vowel, especially t] 

and w 

(discussed in 14) : /Se/SA^-K-et struck, Mid. j3e'j3A.rj-rai (cp. fvjut- 

(3Xrj-Tr]v, /SArj-jueroj) ; KCKfjirj-K-as art weary, 7^7T\r]-fjLvos brought 

near, KK\r]-fjLaL, eiprj-rcu, fjLfjivr]-fjLaL, rerjur^-jaeVoj ; /3e/3pco-K-a)j 

having eaten (Fut. Mid. /3/3p&>-o-ercu), ju4t/3Aa>-/c-e is gone, TreTrpwpiws 

fated. 

Similarly, from disyllabic Stems, 8e8ar/-K (Aor. -bdr]-v) has 

learned (Od. 8. 134), rer^x^-Ke (Od. 10. 88), and the Participles 

To this class belong the Perfects of derivative Verbs in -aw, 

-ew, -ow, -uw, as ^J3ir]-K-V (II. IO. 145, 172., 16. 22), V7i-epvr]^v- 

K 

(II. 22. 49lX b$L7TVYI-Kl (Od. 1 7. 359), T0ap(Tri-K-d(TL (II. 9. 

420, 687) : KKOT7]-ora, KKOpr]-oTa, aK-d^rj-fjLai, aX-aXri-âi, oXa- 

\VKTf] -)U,at. 

(II. 10. 252, with v. 1. irapa;x cw CI ') ig formed as if from *Trap-oixe&, 

. 

dS-rj-K-oTes (Od. 12. 281, and four times in II. 10) means displeased, disgusted, 

and should probably be written daSrjKoTes, from daSe'cu (for d-o/a5-ecw). 

The Subj. {XTJKTJO-I (Od. 21. 36), Opt. Ixjicoi (H. Apoll. 165) point to a Pf. 

Pres. I\T]-KQ}. 

A Perfect in -0a 

may be recognised in eypriyop-Oaa-L keep 

(TO) 

awake 10. (II. 419) perhaps in the Opt. : /3e/3/ow0ois (II. 4. 35). 

In general the Perfects of derivative Verbs are formed with an 

It is a confirmation of this view that the Stem with -KO, is in the same form 

as the Present Stems with a suffixed K, 7, 9 ( 45), or

26 THE PERFECT. 

[23. 

/ 

invariable Stem : as MKopvO-fjievos, 7re 7roAto--ro, oSwSixr-rat, KZKOVI- 

But no such Perfects are used in the Active. 

IJLGVOS. 

23.] The Reduplication takes the following forms : 

An (1) initial consonant is repeated with e. This is the 

general rule we need : only notice the Perfects in which an 

original consonant has been lost, viz. : 

A labial semi-vowel (F) 

in e-eA-//eVos cooped in (for fe-feA- 

Hevos), tlpvarai (Ftpv-) are drawn up, etAv-ro (feAu-, volvo\ 

e-opya (Ftpy-ov), e-oA-Tra, eotKa, Mid. ?;IK-TO (unless this 

comes from eta-Kco). 

A sibilant 

(o-) 

in f-arqjca (for ô-e-oTrjKa), e-ep-jueVos strung 

together (Lat. sero). 

But the o- is retained in o-eVrjTre. 

when the 

(2) Stems beginning with two consonants (except 

second is p X or 

fA v], 

or with , usually prefix e : 

only as 6i-e- 

(frOopas, e-$0iaro, e-Krrjo-flai (but KeKrrjjucu, Hes. Op. 437), e- 

feuy/u.eVat. 

But we find 7re-7m}co?, ire-irTavrai. And in eorr/Ka 

the rough breathing represents original o--. 

The group vF has been lost in c-aScus (either o-e-o-FaSvs or 

e-o-fdScos) pleasing, and iu>6a, ecoâ (Lat. sue-sco]. 

The group 8f has the effect of lengthening the vowel of the 

reduplication in 6t8otKa, 8et5t-)u,r, &c., which represent original 

be-SFoi-KCi, be-bFl-iJiev, &c. 

Initial p, which generally stands for Fp (sometimes ap), gives 

epp-_, as in tpprjKrai (Fprjy-), epptfcorat. Sometimes etp-_, 

as eip>;rcu 

(Fpv}-, cp. ver-bum), and dpvarai (pvoât, Fpv- protect). 

One Stem 

reduplicates p, viz. pe-puTroojuieW, from pvTroco. 

Similarly we have e/xjuope, Mid. etftap-rat (o-jj.ap-) } and eWirrai 

We must distinguish between (i) phonetic loss, as of

24-] 

REDUPLICATION. 2/ 

(4) Temporal Augment (see 67) : e. g. ty-ijir-Tai 

(5) In a few cases there is no Reduplication : 

0180, for Folba, Sanscr. veda. 

are shut in (Ftpy-), Plpf. Zp^-aTo and (with augment) 

eo--ro and 

t/xai / am clothed with (feo--), tv-crai, Plpf. eV-o-o, 

(with augment) e-eo--m, Du. tcr-Q^v, 3 Plur. eiaro, Part. etjuteVos. 

Reduplication is not to be found in the et of et/âi,, el/zeroj, 

since these are for Fta-pai, feaê'ros (as etjua for FO-JJLO). 

The 

3 Sing. Pf. occurs once in Homer, in Od. IT. 191, where the best 

MSS. have rja-Tai, others eto-reu and etrat. The true form is 

probably e'orcu,, preserved in an oracle in Hdt. I. 47 (cp. eWcu). 

apfyiayma (II. 2. 316) crying around can hardly be divided 

apfy-iayma, since the Stem tax- nas initial f ( 390). But a 

Stem fr/x- (Frjxri cry], 

weak form fax-* without Reduplication 

would give the Fern. Part. Fd^vla, whence aî-ayma. 

These examples make it doubtful whether initial F was originally 

reduplicated in the Pf. stem. In Sanscr. the roots which 

begin with va (answering to Gr. fe-) take u-, as uvdca (vac-, Gr. 

fW-). Thus the fe- of FeToiKa, F e/"eAju,eVos, &c. may be later, due 

to the analogy of other Perfects. 

Se'x-arai await (II. 12. 147), Plpf. e-de'y/^ (Od. 9- 513., 12. 

230), Part, beyptvos (II. 2. 794., 9. 191., 18. 524., Od. 20.385), 

with the same Pf. meaning that we have in 8e6eyjmat (await) not 

receive, 28) : while in other places l-Sexm, &c. are no less 

clearly Aorists. It seems that we must recognise 

a Pf. form 

*e'yjotai (Buttm. G. G. ii. 149., Curt. Verb. ii. 144), probably 

older than 5e8eyjuat. 

(6) The Reduplication in Sei-5e'x-oVat they welcome, seems to be 

that of the e Intensive ' forms, as in : 

8a-6iVKo/*cu see 61. The 

form belongs to btiK-vvfju, not Sex-ojuai (see Veitch). 

24.] 

In the 3 Plur. 

1. The long Stem with -a) are stretched out,


[2-5. 

welcome 

-, KKpv(p-araL (Hes. Op. 386). The aspirated forms of 

the Act., such as eiArâ, KeKo

26.] PARTICIPLE. 29 

weak Stem, but there are exceptions in Homer, due partly to 

the F of the Masc. and Neut. Suffix (-fcos, -ina, -fos), partly to 

the general tendency to adopt the form of the Sing. Indie, as the 

Stem. Thus the Homeric Pf. Part, is intermediate between the 

primitive formation with the weak Stem (as in Sanscrit), and the 

nearly uniform long Stem of Attic. In particular 

1. When the Ending -us (-o'ro?) follows a vowel, one or both 

of the concurrent vowels may be long : /ote/xa-ore, êjua-core (both 

for /xejud-fo're). 

So yeya-wraj ; /3e/3a-x??-K-a>9 

(II. 17. 748), 5e8ar]-/c-or? (Od. 2. 61), d8r/-/c-ores (II. 

10. 98, 

312, 399, 471., Od. 12. 281), and /3e/3pco-K-coy (II. 22. 94., Od. 

22. 403). These instances are hardly sufficient to prove that 

the form is Homeric, since we might read reri^coj, deSaTyoYe?, 

&c. (like /cexap>?w9, /cos 

is supported 

by Attic /3e/3p


[27. 

the Homeric refl^-coj) 

is not earlier than Theognis. Similarly 

yeyor-co? for yeyacos first appears in H. Merc. 17. 

5. The form ne^vC-ores flying (only in II. 20 and 21), seems 

to be formed from the noun $i;a, without the intervention of 

any Tense- Stem. This account will apply also to 

KCKOTT-CUS (II. 13. 60), from KOTT-OS striking. 

8e8oim-oT09 (II. 23. 679) having fallen with a thud. (The 

regular form would be 8e8ov:r?7-co?, or rather perhaps ey 5 ovirr] -co?, 

cp. -ybovTrr]-(rav.) 

dpY)-jAeVos, in which the a of ap-rj 

is retained, against analogy. 

It is in favour of this view that many Denominative Verbs 

form the Pf. Part, without the corresponding Indicative, as 

KeKOTY)-ws and the others given above ( 22, 9). 

That is to say, 

the Participle is treated as a derivative Adjective, which may 

be formed independently of the corresponding verb. 

27.] Thematic Perfects. By this term we understand the 

forms which arise when a Perfect is inflected like a Present in -w. 

This change took place universally in Syracusan Doric, occasionally 

in other dialects. The chief Homeric instances are 

as follows : 

aywya : 3 Sing, aucoyet, 

which has a Present sense in several 

places (though more commonly it is a Plpf Dual 

.), av&ye-rov ; 

also yvtoyov, avo&yov, circoye, Opt. aucoyoijut, Imper. d^coye-rco, 

dvcoye-re. Such a form as ijvtoyov may be regarded either as 

a thematic Plpf. of az;o>ya, or as . 

Impf of a new thematic Pres. 

dycoyco. This remark applies also to the next three cases. 

yeyum : eyeyowe, Inf. ycyaW-jtxei; (also yeyuviv or yeyoweiz;, 

II. 12.337). 

(only in the Part.) ^TrXrjyov and : TienXrjyov, Inf. 

, 

Mid. TreTrArjye-ro. Similarly 

ws (Part.) 

: 

ejue'/xr/Kou. 

(us : Plur. KK\riyovTs (II. 12. 125., 1 6. 430., 17. 756, 

759)5 perhaps TCTpiyoi/Tcs ( 26, i), 

and iceKo-iro^ 1. (v. 

for 

' 

/ce/co7rcoy, 

II. 13. 60., Od. 1 8. 335). 

(xc/jL^jjiai the Opt. : jue/owe'toro (II. 23. 361) is apparently obtained 

by transference of quantity from a thematic 

but we may read //e'juz^ro, 3 Sing, of the regular Opt. 

(II. 24. 745)' 

F r this, again, some MSS. have juejuiWju,?^, as 

if from */xe/uz>o-^cu. 

The 2 Sing. Ind. ^/jivy (II. 15* i&) also 

points to jutjuro/i/,at, but we may read /ae/ui^' (i. e. /ute/jtzâi). 

fj^jjipXc-Tai (II. 19. 343) and (xe^pXe-To (jmeA-co) may be variously 

explained. Perhaps juejueA-, the short Stem answering to 

became by metathesis /xe/xAe-, /jie/x/3Ae- : 

cp. ijfjippoTov for 

opwpe-rai (Od. 19. 377, 524, Subj. 6pu>pr)-raL II. 13. 2/l). 

&I!]&-TCU (v. 1. in Od. 22. 56, see 25, 3). 

We may add the

28.] 

MEANING. 31 

Pluperfects Sci'Sie feared, forivoQev (II. 

n. 266), t-n-tvT\vofev (II. 2. 

219., 10. 134) : perhaps also the Optatives in -oiju, -015, &c. viz. 

/3e/3pco0-ots (II. 4. 35), /3e/3A?JK(H (II. 8. 270), irefavyoi (II. 2J. 

609), tATJKOi (H. Apoll. 165); see 83. 

28.] Meaning of the Perfect. The Perfect denotes a lasting 

condition or attitude (e'is). 

If we compare the meaning of any 

Perfect with that of the corresponding Aorist or Present, we 

shall usually find that the Perfect denotes a permanent state, the 

Aor. or Pres. an action which brings about or constitutes that 

state. Thus, 5aio> I kindle, btbrjt Hazes, or (better) 

is ablaze ; 

KV& hid, KKV0 has in hiding ; op-vv-Tai bestirs himself, opcope is 

astir; wAe-ro was lost, oAcoAe is undone; tfpape 

made to Jit, 

apt]pe fits (Intrans.) ; rapao-o-co I disturb, rerprjêt was in disorder ; 

/xetpo-juat / divide, ef/ujuope has for his share ; pvopai I save, shelter, 

eipv-arcu keep safe ; TV^ I make, re-ri>/c-rat is by making (not 

has been made) ; e$v grew, iretyvKt is by growth. 

Thus the so-called Perfecta praesentia, /Se/fy/ca, eorrjKa, ytyr]Qa, 

fjL^vrjfjiai, TteiroiOa, ola, lotKa, KCKT^fiat, &c., are merely the 

commonest instances of the rule. 

Note the large number of Homeric Perfects denoting attitude, 

temper, &c. Besides those already mentioned we have TrapfjLfjLJ3\MK 

is posted beside, bebopKt is gazing, epptye shudders, r^rrjKa 

I am wasting, /ote/mvKe is closed (of wounds), SebaKpvo-at, art in 

tears, 8e'Seo be in waiting, opcope'xaro were on the stretch, TreTror??- 

arat are on the wing, KK/xr]Ka / am weary, 7rpo/3e'/3oi>A.a 

/ prefer, 

SetSta I fear, eoATra / hope, rÔrjira I am in amazement, rerA?7/ca-9 

thou hast heart, irtTrvvTaL has his senses, 8i8e'x-arat welcome (in 

the attitude of holding out the hand, while buKoYe bent together, 

KKOTr)(&s in wrath, rertrycoj vexed, aSrjKws' disgusted, jue/x7]Aco9 in 

thought, TT

32 TENSES. [29. 

(In later Greek this use seems to be confined to the Middle : 

7re$ o'/3 0-0e do not be in T] alarm, Trerraucro keep silence?) 

The number of Homeric Perfects which can be rendered by 

have is comparatively small. The chief instances in the Active are, 

eopya-s tliou Jiast done, 0770)770, / have seen, AeAoi77e has left, 

TTtirao-Oe 

ye have suffered, eT]8-co?, /3e/3pa)/c-cos having eaten they are 

somewhat commoner in the Middle. Yet in the use of these 

Perfects (and probably in the Perfect of every period of Greek) 

we always find some continuing result implied. There is 

nothing 

in Greek like the Latin idiom fuit Ilium ( 

= Ilium is no longer}, 

vixi ( 

= 1 have done with living}, &c. 

The Intransitive meaning1 

prevails in the Perfect, so that the 

Act. is hardly distinguishable from the Mid. : cp. re'reuê an

30.] 

THEMATIC PRESENT. 33 

The forms with ci for c, 

as Qd-eiv, TrXet'ew, w&av, 

(for Ot-tiv, &c.) should probably be written with eu, 

7rXev~etz>, &c. See Appendix C. 

(4) ep (pc) : 8epK-o-jutat 7 behold, rep-Trety 

fo rejoice, -zrepêro 

w## 

sacked, eepyet confines, repo-erat 

34 TENSES. [31. 

Note that ypao> 

is not found in Homer except in the Aor. 

The forms p6\erai (II. 

n. 319), l|36\ovTO (Od. i. 234), |36\(r06 (Od. 16. 387) 

were restored by Wolf : see Buttmann's Lexil. s, v. 

The form pXa/krai (II. 19. 82, 166, Od. 13. 34) occurs in gnomic passages 

only, where an Aorist would be equally in place ( 78, 2). 

opovrcu (Od. 14. 104), opovro (Od. 3. 471) occur in the phrase eirl V dvepes 

laflAoi opovrai, where cirt opovrai seems to be = 'act as firiovpot,' 'are in charge.' 

dto) only occurs as a Pres. in the phrase OVK = ai'eis ; have you not heard ? 

Elsewhere aiov is used as an Aorist (Schulze, K. Z. xxix. 249). 

A Pres. 8pv4>w cannot be inferred with certainty from the Opt. aTrotipvoi 

(II. 23. 187., 24. 21), which may be an Aorist. 

The forms apx", ayX** are difficult because original apx-, a-yx- would shorten 

the vowel (before a semi-vowel and mute), and consequently the Stem, would 

be indistinguishable from original apx-, ayx-- Tna* in apX'" tne Stem is weak 

may be inferred from the Nouns apx- 6s, dpx-t| ( 109) the 0-form may be 

: 

found in opxapos, the strong form possibly in epx-ofjiai. Again a-yx-" may be 

identified with Sanscr. dh-ati (for ngh-atf) 

: the strong form being eyx- in 

67X' 6ÛS (De Saussure, Mem. p. 276 ff.). 

31.] 

The Thematic Aorist. The Verb-Stem is in the weak 

form we : 

may distinguish the following groups : 

(i) With d as Stem vowel (the strong Stem with (r/xriyco) parted, av- 

-Kpayov cried aloud (Attic Pf. KeKpaya), apero gained, aArjrat 

(Subj.) shall leap, e-xpae assailed (xpû-), barren (Subj.) 

shall be 

burned (8au-), ^>ae shone (au-, cp. Trtâvo-KO)), Aae seized, pinned 

(Xdu-, cp. aTro-Aavco), Âêro was healed, ri\^>ov (Opt. Â^>ot) earned, 

met (Part. avT-6p,vos). 

The forms de (Od. 14. 502) and XAe, Part, \cuuv (Od. 19. 229, 230) are placed 

here provisionally. Each occurs once, in a context which does not decide 

between Aor. and Impf. 

The existence of an Aor. -fax-ov has been made probable by W. Schulze 

(K. Z. xxix. 230). He shows that the form taxov, generally taken as the Impf. 

of lax" ( 35), is an Aor. in meaning, and constantly occurs after elision 

, tirl 5' taxov, fir-iaxov). Consequently we can always read /"&X OV 

km 8% , fax 01 '* Im-fax ") or 

> 

with augment va\ov (cp. 

euaSe for 

f-faSc). In II. 20. 62 KOI ?axc would be read Kal (vaxf. The alternative is to 

suppose that l-flfaxov became etaxov by loss of f and contraction (Wackernagel, 

K. Z. xxv. 279) but contraction in such a case : 

is very rare in Homer, 

and the Aor. meaning of taxov has to be accounted for. On the other hand 

if we accept Schulze's view we have still to admit a Pres. (or Aor. ?) Participle 

(2) With e (strong YJ) : tOav doing as he is wont (cp. 77^-05 for 

31.] 

THEMATIC AORIST. 35 

The forms ^SovTo, &c. are generally referred to a Verb /'8o-//cu : but 

no such Present is found, and the other Moods Subj. Opt. Imper. and 

Inf. always admit the Aor. meaning. As to c0oov see 243, i. If an Aor. 

it should be accented 19wv. 

(3) With i 1 

(strong 

ei) : e-o-rt^-oz^ (orei'xco) marched, e-ni 

^ 

inia-Qai to come to, AireVdcu to entreat, ^piTre (epetTro)) fell 

down, TJptK (epeiKco) was torn, fiîrtv offended (Mid. dA-ireo-flai), 

aiov heard, 8te feared (%Fi-), OLOV ran, e-/aoz> moved, l-moy drank, 

oW0e dipped, KpUe cracked. 

With 01, aWfytvov burning, atSero felt shame ( 32, 2); 

eXpaio-jue Bailed ( 32, 3). 

8Cov I ran (II. 22. 251) is not to be connected with 8ie feared, 

but with 

(v-5ie-aav, Sif-vrai chase, of which we have the Thematic Subj. Stcu/on, Opt. 

StotTo, Inf. SicaOat. That they are Aorists appears (e.g.) from II. 16. 246 k-nti 

K SirjTcu when he shall have chased. 

Ktov is probably an Aor., since *#u does not occur. The accentuation of 

the Part. KUUV is in favour of this, but not decisively (cp. \&v, luv). 

(4) With u (strong eu) : KV0 hid, fyvyov fled, TV\Z hit upon, 

TTv06^r]v I heard tell, torvyovfelt disgust, ^KTVTTC sounded, rjpvye dellowed, 

7JX.v6ov I came, ZK\VOV heard, a/u-Trzwe recovered breath. 

With CM, ave shouted, avy (Subj.) kindle, tTt-avpetv to gain from, 

enjoy. 

With eu, tvpe found. 

K\vov is clearly an Aor. in Homer. The Pres. K\VO>, which occurs in 

Hesiod (Op. 726 ou yap roi ye K\vov. On the other hand op, oX only 

appear before a vowel. 

(6) With d (strong w, CJA) 

: c-TtaO-ov (irevd-os) suffered, paQ-ov 

learned, Zhaxov obtained as share, eâSe (Fut. x^tcrojutat) contained, 

to bite, bdrjraL shall learn (Sao--, strong form *8eya-, cp. 

;, 36, 5). 

D 2

36 TENSES. [32. 

o.v, ajx (before a vowel) : Z-KTCLV-OV Jellied, t-Oave died, t-Kap-ov 

wearied, rajute cut (cp. f-ba^-r], 42). 

ey appears in ytv-ivQai to become. 

(7) With loss of e : e- for o-e'x-co), ecnrero /

33-] 

THEMATIC AORIST. 37 

48, 51). 

We may identify this au- with u in Sanscr. u-noti calls. 

The d- is a distinct syllable 

in the Aor. av-o-e, cp. dvrrj. 

auT) (Od. 5' 490? v. 1. avoi) makes good sense as an Aor., expressing 

the act of kindling. The Stem is weak (auo-- 

= Sanscr. 

ush- in ush-ds, Êol. cwcos); 

the strong form appears in e# 

Lat. uro. 

7r-avpiv exhibits the Thematic form answering 

to aTTaTTo-vpas 

( 13). 

aXe-ero,, found only in II. 5. 417, is clearly an Aor. 

dX- occurs in ri\(j)ov, Opt. a\(j)OL, with Aor. meaning. 

drr- in î/rero, (rvv-avTeo-Orjv, Inf. dvrecrdai, Part. 

always with clear Aor. meaning. Accordingly arreo-0cu in II. 15. 

698 (the only place where it occurs) was accented by Tyrannic 

The a- of al0-, aua--, &c. is discussed by De Saussure along with that of dpx-, 

dyx- in a passage quoted above ( 30 note). He regards it as 'prothetic/ so 

that the Stems in which it appears are generally in "the weak form. The -fcof 

au- may answer to either fe or ev in the strong form ; 

thus avS-rj 

: 

= av 

o\taOt 

and 6\iffO-dvca, also in Attic alaO-caOai and alaO-dvonm. The last is interesting 

as the only post-Homeric Second Aorist which is used in good Attic prose. 

3. 

A few Thematic Aorists seem to be formed from the Stems 

of Nouns of the O-declension. Thus expense availed is generally 

derived from XP 

7 ? "^? useful (Curt. Verb. ii. 13). So, according 

to Curtius, 0pfjie-T warm ye, 0p/u,e-ro grew warm, from flep/zo's ; 

oTrAe-o-ât (II. 19. 172., 23. 159) to get ready, from oTrAor (oTrAe-co); 

yoov (II. 6. 500) bewailed, from yo'os (yo-aa>); ajmapr-etz; to miss, 

from d-/xap-ro- without part in. 

Some at least of these instances may be otherwise explained. For oirXeo-Oai 

we may read oirXctcrOai (the uncontracted 6n\erOai is impossible in the 

hexameter), yoov in II. 6. 500 at plv crt faov yoov "Enropa K. r. \. makes better 

sense as an Impf. 

: Tick reads y6ar, 3 Plur. of an ' Êolic ' y6r] jwt. Possibly y6ov 

is for y6fov by hyphaeresis ( 105, 4). 

33.] In several cases it is difficult to say whether loss of c is 

characteristic of an Aor. Stem, or is merely phonetic, due to

38 TENSES. [34. 

* 

5 

syncope. Thus we have ayepozro, Part, aypo/xez/ot 

: 

o>(/>eXov 

and the Attic ox^Xoy owed : TreXco and the syncopated forms 

TrXero, Part. eTrf/rXo/xez/oy, &c. (not eTrcXez;, eTre'Xero, &c. 

in Homer). 

d-yepovTo were assembled, Inf. ayepeaOai (so accented in MSS.) imply a Pres. 

aytpca but the Part, ayp-opfvoi seems to be an Aor. The e is only lost in 

; 

the Part., whereas in the undoubted Aor. Zyp-cro the form fyep- never occurs 

(Opt. ZypoiTO, Inf. 7/>e6Xov ought ( = would that} bears a different sense from the Aor. &\ov, 

but is indistinguishable from the Impf. &q>e\\ov (Od. 8. 312 TOJ ^ yeivaaOai 

oêAXov, so II. 7. 390., 24. 764, Od. 14. 68., 18. 401). Hence u(pc\ov is probably 

an older form of the Imperfect which has survived in this particular 

use. 

e-rrXcv, eirXe-TO, &c. must be Aorists, since 

(1) 7r\To occurs in the 'gnomic' use, e.g. 

II. 2. 

480 iyuT6 jSovs a-ye\7](l>i fjity' foxos TT\CTO iravrwv 

and so in II. 24. 94, Od. 7. 217. This use is not found with the Impf. 

(2) lirXcro with the meaning of a Present can only be explained as an Aor. 

= the English Pf., has turned out, has come to be, (and so is) see : 78, and cp. II. 

12. 271 vvv 677A.6TO epyov airavToiv now it has become : with another Aor. similarly 

used, II. 15. 227 TroAu KepSiov ZirXfro, on viroeigev it is better that he has yielded: 

also II. 6. 434., 7. 31., 8. 552., 14. 337., 19. 57, Od. 20. 304, &c. 

The Part, occurs in firi-rr\6iJ.vov troy (Od.) and 7re/H-7rA.o/iei/cwi> tviavruv, with 

much the same force as the Pres. Part, in the equivalent phrase irfpireXXo- 

H&'

36.] REDUPLICATED PRESENT AND AORIST. 39 

35.] The Reduplicated Thematic Present. This formation 

appears in a few instances only : 

/u'-/xz/-ere await (jxei>-o>). 

ifet sits, 

holds, for *o-t-cr)(-t, from * 

for *o-t-o-8-et, from (re8-. 

ytyverair becomes (yev-). 

TiKTO), for rt-TK-o), from rex-. 

vfoo[j,ai 

/ ^0, j?a##, for zn-rtr-ojuat, or zn-zxr-fco-jucu, from yeo-- : 

related to veo/xat ( 29, 6) as to-xco to ex made to forget, AeAa/3eV0ai to seize, KeKabvv 

severing, KCKCLOOVTO yielded, neyapovro rejoiced, a/x-Tre-TraXcoz; brandishing 

on high, reraywz; grasping, ijy-ay-ov led, e-?J7rae deceived, 

ripape fitted, ^Kaê vexed. 

(2) t : 

7re7ri0-ot/ixei> may persuade, 7re0i8eV0at to spare. 

(3) " : TZTVK-OVTO made for themselves, TTZTTI/OOITO may hear ly 

report, KeKvOaxn shall hide. 

(4) ap (pa), a\, X : rerap-Tr-ero was pleased, 7re'$pa8e showed forth, 

aX-aAKe warded off, e-Ke'-K\-ero shouted (KZ\-). 

(5) a, v (for CK) : AeXdx~^T (Subj.) make to share, 8e'8a> taught 

(cp. 31, 5); !-7re--e slew (cp. W-â-rai is slain). 

(6) Loss of c : 

l-re-r/ute found, caught (re/x- ?); tti-nov said (perhaps 

for e-fe-feTr-oz;)* ; also eo-Trero followed, if it is taken to be 

for o-0"7T-ro. 

* The difficulty in the way of this explanation is that in the old Attic 

inscriptions which distinguish the original diphthong et (written El) from the 

sound arising from contraction or ' compensatory ' lengthening (written E), 

the word eirre is always written with El (Cauer in Curt. Stud. viii. 257). In 

Sanscr. the corresponding form is avocam, for a-va-vac-am (vac becoming we). 

Answering to this we expect in Greek eevirov (Vogrinz, Gr. d. horn. Dial. p. 123).

40 TENSES. [37. 

The forms which point to *a-o"ir-TO, viz. eatrcavrai (Od. 12. 349), 

(Od. 19. 579., 21. 77), ffireff6< (II. 12. 350, 363), fairofJifvcs (II. 10. 246., 12.395., 

13. 570), can be easily altered (e.g. by writing o>a o-irot|XT]v for a/ ) 

checked, and rivtirairc (evmrf) 

rebuked. 

These Aorists are exclusively Homeric, except rjyayov and 

eeiirov (Attic et-nw). They are mostly Transitive or Causative in 

meaning ; compare -Xa\o-v I got for my share, with XeAaô-v / 

made to share; aprjpe is fitting, with r/pape made to jit, &c. 

The Inf. SeBaa-aOai (Od. 16. 316) 

is not to be connected with the Perf. Part. 

8e8a-ws, but is for ScSaeaflat, Inf. Mid. of the Eeduplicated Aorist SeSaev taught. 

Thus the sense is to have oneself taught. 

37.] Aorists in -a. Besides the usual forms of 1-eiTro-u we (et- 

TTO-V) find a 2 Sing. ei7ra-s (II. I. 106, 108), or e-enra-s (II. 24. 

379), 2 Plur. e^Tra-re (Od. 3. 427). Answering to the Attic 

tfveyKov Homer has rjveiKa, Opt evclka-t, &c. : but Inf. ez/etK-/x,ez; 

(II. 19. 194). In these two cases the form in -ov is probably 

older. 

Tenses with Suffix ^Non-Thematic). 

38.] 

The Tense-Stems which remain to be discussed are 

formed (like the Presents in -z^jui and -vvpi) by means of a 

characteristic Suffix. Of these Tense-Stems three are Non- 

Thematic, viz. those of the Aorists formed by the Suffixes -aa, 

-T), 

and -Orj. 

It is important to notice the difference between these formations and the 

Perfect and Aorist Stems which take -/fa. The Suffix -a in such cases is not 

characteristic of the Tense-Stem. It is only found as a rule with certain 

Person-Endings. 

39.] The Aorist in -

39-] 

AORIST IN -2A. 41 

acu 

', eVay, e$-eWa-ro (16- for *o--) ; 

e-0Aa(re and 0Aao--o-, 

(ntacra-To, e-8a, -oa>, -u&> usually form the Aor. 

with a long vowel (in -rycra, -axra, -Do-a). 

But the Verbs in -w 

often form the Aor. in -etra-a, -eo-a ; 

not only the Verbs derived 

from Noun-Stems in -ea, such as reXeco, êiKt'co, aKr/8eco, but also 

several Verbs derived from Masc. Nouns in -o-s; e.g. e/copeV-o-aro 

w^ satiated (PL KeKoprj-juteôy), KoreV-craro w TT--TL\a (reA-), -(f)i\a-To 

ryyetpa (eyep-), yr\pa-To (x a />-)*- 

A few Stems retain cr : 

Sip-era, 

ap-a-at, d-Tro-ep-cre, !-Kep-(re, KVp-cra-s, 0vp-(ra), IX-o-a-z;, KeA-rrat, 

KeWat. This is the rule when p or A of the Stem is followed by 

a dental, as in l-Trepcre (for e-7rep0-(re), ^/utepcre (d/xep5o>). 

But v 

* The form tjpa-TO, 

which is usually taken to be an Aor. of ap-vv-nm, may 

stand to dptaOai as I-TTTU-TO to irreaOai, uva-ro to ovo-pai, Sic-vrat 

however Cobet, Msc. Grit. p. 400). 

to Sie-aOai (see

42 TENSES. [40. 

before 8 is lost in e-5-0-a) : cp. TreiVojueu for 

is later. 

oâi, &c. The form /ceWai (II. 23. 337) 

The Verb-Stem oêX- makes an Aor. Opt. oê'XXcie 

: see 53. 

40.] Primitive Aorists with Suffix -

41.] AORIST IN -SE(O). 43 

sionally on inscriptions in other dialects (Meyer, G. G. p. 468); 

but that is very slight ground for admitting 

it in Homer. In 

any case it is later than -ec, and due to the analogy of the other 

Person-Endings *. 

The Homericr forms of the Subj. also pre-suppose a Stem without final a : 

e.g. the Subj. /3i7 points to an Indie. *t-firja-p.v ( 80). The existence 

of such Indicatives in an earlier period of the language is proved by the Sanscrit 

Aorists with 8, many of which join the Person-Endings directly to the 

Stem, without an ' auxiliary' a (except in the i Sing, and 3 Plur.) ; e. g. the 

~Rootji gives ajaish-am, 3 Sing, ajais (for a-jai-s-f), I Plur. ajaish-ma, &c. 

Upon this stage of inflexion Joh. Schmidt has based a very probable 

explanation of the 3 Plur. Ending - 

ill), ol

44 PASSIVE AORISTS. [42. 

42.] The Aorist in -v\-v. The Stem of this Tense is formed 

by suffixing TJ 

to the weak form of the Verb-Stem. This ij 

becomes e in the 3 Plur. (-ev 

for original -C^T), the Opt. and the 

Part. (i. 

e. before i and VT). 

The Person-Endings are those of the 

Active, but the meaning is either Intransitive or Passive : e. g. 

e-xap-f? rejoiced, e-Scb? was taught, e-tydv-rj appeared, rpdty-rj was 

nurtured, Z-dk-rj shrank (Stem feA-), St-e-r/ixay-e-y parted asunder, 

e-Tray-r/, e-da/x-r?, e-ay-r?, -(B\a(3-v, l-piy-i), TdpTr-rj-^v and (with 

Metathesis) rpaTr-rj-o/xez; (rep-Tr-co), &c. 

The Stem is 

long in e-TrArjy-?? (cp. l-TreTrAr/y-oi^ and 

TrXryy-?]), 

once in eayrj (a 

in II. II. 559)*. The Inf. repo-rj-juez/at (repcnâc), 

which occurs in II. i6 519, Od. 6. 98, need not be an Aorist : 

see the similar forms in 19. The Part, ava-ppo^v (Od. n. 

586) is not connected with ava-fieppo^v ( 25); see Buttmann, 

Lexil. 

There is evidently a close relation between these ' Passive ' Aorists and the 

forms discussed in 14 (such as -^\rj-v, t-Trrrj-v, e-rA^, c-triS?;), 

and we can 

hardly doubt that they are nothing more than an extension by analogy of that 

older type (see Brugmann, M. U. i. 71). The chief difference is that (as in- the 

Thematic Aorist) the Stem is usually disyllabic, retaining the short vowel of 

the root : thus we have l-8a/7, but b^rj- in Se-S/xTy-Tat, &c. 

The Aorists with Stems in a and to ( 19) are parallel to the Aorists in -TJ. 

Thus Y^pa-vai, {3iw-vai, a\w-vai only differ in the quality of the vowel from 

8afj-v as well 

43.] The Aorist in -Qi)-v. The Stem of this Tense is formed 

by the Suffix -Or]. 

The Person-Endings are the same as those of 

the Aorist in -77, 

and the meaning 

is Reflexive or Passive. 

In later Greek the Verb-Stem is 

mostly in the strong form, 

as e-8?Jx-077-z>5 e-Act^-^v, t-^vy^-Q^v but this does not seem to 

; 

have been the original rule e. : 

g. Homer has e-rv^-Orj was made, 

Attic t-Ttvx-Or]. So we find the weak Stem in Kar-e-Kra-0ez; 

e-ora- 

(KTV-), ra-6r] (TV-), rap. 

44.] Meaning of the Passive Aorists. The Aorist in -TJ 

appears to have originally had an Intransitive sense, of which the 

Passive sense was a growth or adaptation. This transition is 

* In the former edition Bekker's reading ia.yr\ (Pf. Subj ,) was given as the 

probable correction for this passage. But the sense required is rather that of 

the Aor. were (i. e. had been) broken than the Pf. are in a broken state. Cp. 

Hes. Op. 534 ov T' f-nl vwra taye whose back is broken down, i. e. bowed. As to the 

a of 60x777 see 67, 3.

45-] THEMATIC PRESENT WITH SUFFIX. 45 

seen (e.g.] 

in e\apy] rejoiced, eSarj learned, pvrj flowed, e 

appeared. In these instances the Passive grows out of the 

Intransitive meaning (as in the Middle forms it grows out o 

the ReflexiveTneaning). Similar transitions of meaning may be 

found in the Perfect ( 38, fin.), 

the Aorist (eV/Sr; 

was quenched), 

and even in the Present, as eKTUTrreiv to be driven out, Ketrai is 

laid down (as 

Pf. Mid. of nflrjjuii), 

and TTCIO-XCO 

itself. 

The Aorist in -bt\-v is often indistinguishable in meaning 

from the Aor. Middle. There appears to be ground for distinguishing 

it from the Aor. in -t\v as originally reflexive rather 

than intransitive (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxx. 305.) In many cases 

Middle forms are used in Homer interchangeably with those 

in -fa\-v 

: thus we find dacraro and aacrOrj, atSero r)8e(raro and 

aibea-0r]T, aiâcrOai and aiyQr]vai, Swrjcraro and ^vvacrOt], KopeVo-aro 

and Kopea-Orjv, ^vr\). 

These suffixes may be compared with other elements used in 

the same way, but not always confined to the Present ; 

as K in 

oA.e'-K(> / destroy, e/w-Kco 

/ restrain, 8ic>-Ka> I chase, y m Tjurj-ya) 

I cut, x in vr)-x-pfv

46 T-CLASS NASAL CLASS. [46. 

fipl-Oo-v were heavy, vXfj-Otv was full, epe-0e provoke, 

blazes, pivv-Qti diminishes, fyQivv-Oti. wastes, pya-0V kept off, 

6aXe-6o-vTs blooming, /uer-e-Kia-0oz> moved after, rjpe-0o-vTai 

&c. These 

flutter, riytpe-Oo-vTo were assembled (ayep-, in dyeipa)),, 

elements were called by Curtius Root-Determinatives (Chron. p. 

22 ff .) 

the name implying that they are of the nature of suffixes 

modifying or ' determining' the meaning of a simple Hoot. But 

their origin and primitive significance are quite unknown (Brugmann, 

Grundriss, ii. 8, n. 2). 

46.] The T-Class. The suffix -re (o) is usually found with a 

Verb-Stem ending in a labial mute (TT, /3, ), 

as ZVLTT-TC rebuke 

(IvlTt-rf), \a\tTT-Ti annoys, dorpaTr-rei lightens, o-Kerr-reo look out, 

KAeTT-re, KOTT-re, TVTT-T, (--{JLCLpTT-TC ', aTJTO) (d

49-] 

ITERATIVE CLASS. 47 

in mjut-TrA-ayerai (II. 9. 679), la-)(dvu> (for ^cri-cr^-ava^, tfarco (for 

The class of Verbs in -vu is derived from the Non-thematic 

Verbs in -w-. Sometimes, as has been noticed -i>u 

( 18), takes 

the Thematic c or o after it, as in dju-z/vco for o^vv-î ; 

but in 

other cases, especially when -w follows a vowel, 

u. becomes F and 

is lost. Thus &-vu- gives avva 1 accomplish, and. also averai (d) 

draws to a close : so Tivv-rai punishes and TLVO>, (frOivv- (in tyOwv- 

0co) and (j)0Lva). 

The vowel of ava>, (frOdva, rtvu>, (frdiva) is long- in 

Homer, short in Attic (cp. Homeric fety-o? for feV-foj, Attic 

dv-os) whereas in KAu>a>, ; K/nVco (for /cAi^-to), it is 

/cpiz;-ia>) 

always long. Note also that -ye(o) 

for -vFe(o) 

is confined to the 

Present, while the v of KAtz>o>, &c. appears in other Tenses 

(Solmsen, K. Z. xxix. 78). 

eXauVw has been explained as *e\a-yu-a>, but there is no parallel 

for epenthesis of u. 

The d of IKCU/O), Ki%av(a points to -av-Fw, but the forms have 

not been satisfactorily explained. 

48.] Stems formed by -crKe(o), 

the Iterative class of Curtius. 

(1) Without Reduplication, as /3a-(nce go, (36-a-KeL feeds, (fxi-o-Kt 

said, tAa-cnco-zmu propitiate, ^XaorKouo-t flit about, 6vfj--(TKe-/ Jc6z; to go before (/3A.a>- for juAco-). 

(2) With Reduplication, jut-/u^?}-o-Ke-rat is reminded, Ki-K^rj-a-Ktv 

called, yt-yrco-crKa) 1 know, iri-(j)av-(TK showed. 

Stems ending in a consonant sometimes insert i, 

as a7r-a

48 PRESENT. [50. 

not occur. It may be regarded as a link between the two groups of Stems 

with -one. 

in the 

It is remarkable that in the Latin Verbs in -sco we may distinguish 

same way between the regular Inceptives, such as lique-sco, puer-a-sco, and 

the Presents, such as pa-sco, pro-fic-iscor, in which the Inceptive meaning 

is hardly, or not at all, perceptible. Originally, no doubt, there was a single 

group of derivative Stems in ). 

c. With assimilation, in -XXw (for -A-tco), -o-crw (for -K-tco, -T-too), 

and -la (for -8-tco, -y-to>). 

d. 

By compensatory lengthening in -eiyw, -eipw, -iixo, -Gf-ta), -i5z/-ta>, -vp-to)). 

That the ei of -iva), 

-etpo) is not a true diphthong (and therefore not due to epenthesis) 

is shown by the corresponding Doric -rjuco, -rjpco. 

e. In -aw, -ea>, -oa>, -aua>, -euw, -ouw (for -a-tco, &c.). 

a. Verbs in -ia>, &c. 

51.] The Verbs in which the original becomes t i, 

thus forming 

-tco, -atco, -etco, -utco, are almost confined to the Homeric 

dialect. The chief examples are as follows : 

(1) -i&> 0-0 Ui : eats, Ibiov I sweated, pr\vie le angry, juiao-rte whip, 

ava-KrjKi gushed forth, KOVIO-VTZS raisin?/ dust. In these verbs 

(except perhaps the first two) the Verb-Stem ends in i, 

so that 

(e. g.) KOVIO-VTZS is for Koi^t-to-^res ; so probably rtco / honour, 

I waste (j)6ia> away, for rt-tco, ^t-to). The i therefore is naturally 

long, but may be shortened before a vowel hence it is ; 

usually 

doubtful in quantity. 

(2) -aw usually with loss of a or : F, vaiovcn dwell (Aor. vav-cra, 

vav-Qri), juaiWflai to feel ones way (Fut. 

AtXcueat 

jaacr-o-erat), 

desirest (At-Xaa--); 

Kata> (for Kaf-tco, cp. Aor. Krja for e-K^f-a), 

KXatco (for KAaf-ta)), 

Sate kindled (bdv-), vaiov swam (cp.,vav-s), 

yaiaiv rejoicing (yav-pos, Lat. gau-deo] ; /ce'pcue mix, dyatojuevo? 

indignant 

(cp. -Kpaa--ora} ^yao--o-aro, but the o- in these words is 

not original, 39, 2) ; perhaps also

53-] 

/-CLASS. 49 

(3) -iw : TrvOi-Tov (probably for TrevOccr-ic-Tov) mourn, 

fighting, olvoflapeicw drunken, reAeio-z> brought to pass, 

splitting, aKm-fjievoL being healed, veiKeirj-o-i shall quarrel, 

shrink, fyweia> (Hes.). 

When the diphthongs at, 

ei come before a vowel there is a 

tendency to drop the i ; 

as aya-io-pai, 2 Plur. ayda-o-de (for dya- 

-o-#e, 55) ; Kepa-ia), Plur. 2, Kepaa-o-0e ; re'Ae-io-z;, also re'Ae-o-z; ; 

valov swam, also yd-et, va-ovcri; perhaps also Sdryrai shall be 

destroyed (root Sat- see 

; Schulze, K. Z. xxix. p. 258). Where 

this tendency does not show itself, as in iraia), -Trraia), creta), it 

will usually be found that the diphthong belongs to the whole 

Verb, not merely to the Present Stem. 

So perhaps Ipci.av drove (Part. t\acav\ eicXcov 

broke : unless these forms are obtained by simple change from the Non- 

Thematic (pa-pai, &c. ( 18). 

For the Presents in -eta; from -e^w (Otica, irXtio), &c.), see 29, 3. 

(4) -uia> ornate had to : wife (for O7n;o--t are of this Class (original -mco), 

as 

vd) (Aeolic ), 

0vco (t6viv Hesych.), Xvco, bva, I0va>, YITTUCO, 

dtCvco. The vowel is doubtful, but only because it comes before 

another vowel (as 

was noticed in the case of Verbs in -io>). 

lOtico 

generally has but v in t; eir-UKiovo-i 

; (II. 18. 175), which ought to be so 

divided, not em-Gttovo-i. It is a Denominative from lOvs (0) aim* 

The Verbs in -cuw, -ouw are probably also of the I-Class (for 

-evict, -OVL(*>). For, as Curtius points out (Verb. i. 360), they 

are chiefly Denominatives, and it is contrary to analogy to form 

a Verb by suffixing the Thematic e (o) 

to a Noun-Stem. 

b. 

Epenthesis 

of i. 

62.] It will suffice to give a few examples : 

ai, aiv, /SatVo) (/3aju-ta>), and with reduplication, 

-pw : atpco, (TKacpa), a, /xap/xatpa), KapKaipco, 

atpco (for ap-ioi) is distinct from acipco, which by contraction would become 

apoj : cp. det'Scy, qSca (Brugmann, K. Z. xxvii. 196). 

This Class includes also the numerous Denominatives in -an>, 

: 

-atpw see 1 20. The Stem is in the weak form. 

c. Assimilation of t. 

53.] Examples : -XXw : aAAo-juai, /3aAAa>, TraXXco, o-reXAa), reAXco; 

from Nouns, dyyeAXco, vavri\Xoâi ; 

with Reduplication taXXco, 

artrciAAco I rear, tend, cp. araXXco I cherish. 

Epenthesis (instead of Assimilation) is found in 6iXo> I owe. 

-o-aw : 

oWo-/xcu (OK-), -TreVo-a) (TTCK-), 

eAta-cra) 

^-), XtVo-o-jixat (Atr-), Kopvcro-a) (nopvO-), Trrcocro-a) (TTTCOK-). 

E

50 /-CLASS. [54 

,w : for -8to) in /cXvfco, in ab-/ 

i, rpio ; 

with reduplication, /uu/zmo> 7 loiter , /3i/3df&> / c?ê 

:Xtô) 7 âê ^ quiver (II. I. 530)*. 

(for -ep-tw), in etpo>, Ketpco, /utetpo/xat, Tretpco, o-Tretpco, retpw, 

, dyetpa), detpco, eyeipco, #etpa). 

-IKW (for -IK-IW), 

in K\iv(t), Kpiva), opivw. 

-u^w (for -ui>-jta>), 

in TrXwa), ZVTVVW. 

-opw (for -up-j,w), in Kvpco, /uvpojuat, (j>vpa>, 

e. Verbs in -aa>, -ea), -oco. 

55.] Assimilation. This term is applied to certain forms of 

the Verbs in -aco, in which, instead of contraction, we find 

assimilation of one of two concurrent vowels to the other, as opo'w 

for 6pdc), opdas for opdetj. 

The chief varieties are as follows : 

() Forms with simple Assimilation, the vowel being long 

f}fido-VTS 

(b) 

pvaq (% Sing. Mid.). 

With shortening of the first vowel 

opdco gives opdco 

edrj-s 

taq-s 

Cp. btbda-o-Oai from e8ae'-a-0at ( 35) and dyda-o-ê from dyde- 

(T0 ; 

Fut. eAoco, Kpe/uda) 

from eAaco, Kpejutdco. 

(

55-] ASSIMILATION. 51 

(d) With lengthened second vowel (the first being also long), 

in very few forms bpdowi, gives 

jJiVOLVaL 

Other isolated examples are : juepotwô-t (II. 15. 82) ; aXoo> 

(Od. 5. 377), 2 Sing. Imper. of dXaojuat (for dXaeo dXaou); 

KtKpdavTCLL, Kprjrjvai, Kpaiaiva) J (fradvdrj (for (j>a^v-Or]J 

troaxri 

; 

(Subj.), o-oci)?, cro'(i> 

(Opt., cp. 83), o-dWres Similar 

(o-ao'a>). 

phenomena may be seen in , but is not yet uttered in one breath with it. 

In the forms opoWre?, opo'coo-t, 

&c. he pointed out that the long 

vowel is never wanted for the metre, and accordingly he wished 

to read opo'oure?, opoovan, &c. To this last proposal exception 

was taken by Gr. Curtius (Erlauterungen,, p. 96), 

who made the 

counter-supposition that, as the a of these Verbs was originally 

long, the successive steps might be opaovrey, opwovres and 

(by metathesis of quantity) opoWres. The stage -wo- is 

exemplified in nvtoopevos. 

2. The main objection to this theory lies in the circumstance 

* 

that the forms opoo), opdas and the like are exclusively Epic/ 

that is to say, they are confined to Homer, Hesiod, and their 

direct imitators. If they had been created by any natural 

development of Greek sounds, we should expect to find them 

in other dialects. But neither in Ionic nor elsewhere is there 

any trace of their existence in living speech. It must be 

admitted, too, that neither Meyer nor Curtius has given a 

satisfactory account of the long vowel in opo'coo-i, opoWro, 

opoWres, &c. A form opo'oirej, as Curtius pointed out, would 

give opovvres, not opwz/res. And if there has been metathesis 

of quantity, why do we never find opo'cojuei; for opdo^v, or opddre 

for opoiere? 

3. 

An entirely different theory was put forward by 

J. Wack-

53 /-CLASS. [55- 

ernagel (Bezz. Beitr. iv. 259). The true Homeric forms, in his 

view, are the original uncontracted opao), opaeis, &c. and these have 

passed into the opo'co, opdqs, &c. of our Homer by a process of 

textual corruption consisting of two stages 

: 

(i) contraction, 

according to the ordinary rules of Attic, into opw, opas, &c. 

which would obviously give forms of different metrical value 

from the original words, and then (2) 

restoration of the metre 

by a kind of ' distraction ' (in the old sense of the term), i.e. 

the insertion of a short vowel before the new contracted -w, -as, 

&c. Thus o^x opaei? first became o^x opas, and then metri 

gratia ov^ opdqs*. 

4. Paradoxical as this may seem, there can be little doubt 

that it is substantially right. The forms in question, as Wackernagel 

justly argues, are not a genuine growth of language. 

They are the result of literary tradition, that is to say, of the 

modernising process which the language of Homer must have 

undergone in the long period which elapsed before the poems 

were cared for by scholars. The nature of this process is 

excellently described and illustrated in his dissertation. In 

many cases, too, he shows that when the later form of a word 

ceased to fit the metre, some further change was made by 

which the metrical defect was cured, or at least disguised. 

Corruption of this latter kind may often be traced in the 

various readings of MSS. 

But must we suppose that optxo, &c. went through the two 

changes which Wackernagel postulates ? 

5. The case is unique, not only from the large number of 

forms involved, and the singularly thorough and systematic way 

in which they have been introduced into the text, but also from 

the circumstance which he has himself so well pointed out, 

viz. their unreal conventional stamp. They are hardly more 

' 

modern 

' 

in the sense of being familiar through contemporary 

speech than the forms which they have displaced. Wackernagel 

has shown how ecos and recos supplanted the original rjos 

and rrjos, even where the result was absolute ruin to the verse ; 

as in Od. 19. 367, where nearly all the MSS. have eW ucoio. 

Similarly the loss of the old Gen. in -oo ( 98) has produced 

the forms Ato'Aou, 'I^trov, 'lAiou, &c. scanned . These 

examples, however, prove too much; for if such unmetrical 

forms could remain in the text without further change, why 

do we never find the slightest trace of an unmetrical 6p

55-] ASSIMILATION. 53 

have been retained. The instances are, z/aterdia), -dei (Hes. Th. 

775)5 -aov, -aozrra, t)Adei, -doixn, dotStaet, -dova-a, 6/xoorixaj 

yoaet/xev, -doiez;, Kpabdwv, cAdcou, iXaozrat, rryA.eâoj'ray ; 

with a, dyajmcujudei, Treivdav, -dovra, bitydav. (The forms which 

have lost a F, as Ade, de, \paov, do not concern us now.) A 

third variety is exhibited by the form mierdoxraz; (-err/?, -077, -, opdcis to 6/xxo, opdas 

except through the contracted 6p, opas were the forms of ordinary speech, while 

opdco, opdeis were only known from the recitation of epic poetry. 

Under such conditions it is surely possible that the poetical 

forms were partially assimilated to the colloquial forms that 

opdco, opdeis were changed into 6po'o>, opdas by the influence of 

the familiar 6p8e we may read /mrjSfc rpomieo-0e 

o'/3oy6e. 

The verb Trcordoât only occurs once (II. 

12.

54 /-CLASS. [56. 

287 Ai0oi TTWT&VTO fla/xetai), while the form Trorao/xat is well 

attested. In the other cases the restoration is 

supported by 

etymology (rpoTrao) from rpoTnj, &c.), and by the considerable 

traces of rpoTraco, rpoâ^, a-rpo^dco in our manuscripts (see Leaf on 

II. 15. 666). The process must have been that (e.g.] original 

rpoTrdecrOe became r/>o7racr0e (which is also found in MSS.), 

and then 

10. In the Impf. Act. assimilation is 

unknown, mainly 

because the metre generally allows contraction. We find 

however (i) 

several uncontracted forms, viz. ovrae (Od. 22. 356), 

irepaov (II. 1 6. 367), v\aov (Od. 16. 5), Kareovaaoz; (Od. 12. 436) : 

)(paT, fxpaov (for fypaFT Z\paFov) do not belong to this 

head. Also (2) 

some verbs show the New Ionic -eo- for -ao- } 

viz. ojnoKAeo^, ojuiOKAeojuiei', -Troreo^rat, /xeiWêoz;, r/irreoz;, r 

For

57-] 

CONTRACTION SYNIZESIS. 55 

2. Verbs in -eo> 

rarely contract -eo or -ew, except in the 

Participle (-ivjuero? for -eojueôj). This rule is confirmed from 

New Ionic inscriptions (Erman, Curt. Stud. v. 

292), as well 

as the MSS. of Herodotus. For eu in TTOL^V^V (II. 9. 495), 

O^tvvro (II. 7. 444), o^XevvTai (II. 21. 261), eyeyoWw (Od. 9. 47, 

&c.) and a few similar forms we should write -eo (see 57). 

The contraction of -ce, -ei is established by the large number 

of instances * in which it is required by the metre. Moreover 

it is not merely a license, necessary for the sake of admitting 

certain forms into the hexameter (such as rap/3 eij, z>etKetz>, 

reAeiTai, T/yeta-flcu, o-âpayei, e(/uAei, olvo\6fi). Among the 

instances of contraction in the last foot we find 29 of -ei for -ee 

(as -ôXos 6c piv aypio? and 16 i?/>t), of -ei for -eei (as naC jute 

y\VKvs Ifjitpos cupei); also the forms

56 /-CLASS. [58. 

Meaning of Verbs of the I- Class. 

58.] Verbs in -cw are mainly Intransitive, whether formed 

from Adjectives, as aTrtcrreo) / am unbelieving, or abstract Nouns, 

as fjio-Ô^M 

I labour. But there is also a group of Causatives in 

-eo), as co, dAv(TKaâ) ; 

LI, ra-vvd), retVco, rtratVco ; re^x 00 ? Tuyxdz/co, ri-rv-0-KO-jmai ; 

It may be conjectured that these different forms originally expressed corresponding 

shades of meaning. In some cases a more specific meaning may 

still be traced e. ; g. 4>danc(i> I allege (i. e. feeep saying, or perhaps n/ to say) has 

something of the Iterative force (cp. tirrao-K fte kept flinging about) which in

63.] FUTURE. 57 

0VT) 1 stay waiting, Ttraivco I stretch is to be compared with that of the 

Intensive Verbs. The Perfect, too, may be regarded as a refined and 

generalised kind of Intensive ; cp. the forms \\-r]Ka, KCKpaya, p.|xvKa, &c. 

with Kapicaipco, 6XoXv, &c. 

Future in 

63.] The Stem of the Future is formed by suffixing -cre(o) 

to the Verb-Stem (in the strong form) ; 

as $?7-(rei, a>- 

eK-Trepcro) (irep0-^ Treicrojuai (irekO-), xe&rerai (x^S-), eojucu 

SSeiK-), Sex-)' et-o-o/xai (eT-|iu). 

The Stem e

58 TENSES. [64. 

Fut. or Aor. Subj. 

: 

yoiwao-o/xai (II. I. 427), oiracra-o^v (II. 24. 

I 53)> tvvd(ra> (Od. 4. 408), Aryio-o-o/xat (Od. 23. 357), cpvo-a-erai 

(II. 10. 44), dAeo-o) (Od. 13. 399), apeo-o-o'/xetfa. There remain : 

ap/ceVei (II. 21. 131 in Od. 16. 261 we should read apK.tarrj), 

atSeVerai (II. 22. 124., 24. 208), (Wcrcrerai (II. 9. 55), ycu>W(Trcu 

(II. 14. 504), dAeWeis (II. 12. 250), oAeWei (Od. 2. 49), and a 

few forms of derivative Verbs in -ao, -i&, viz. at'xjutdo-o-oixri 

(II. 4. 324), Oavâcra-^Tai 1 

(II. 

8. 

467), eôTrAuro-oixri (Od. 

6. 69), aimao-eis (Od. 22. 28). 

On the whole it would appear 

that the Futures with o-o- (or o- representing original v j a

66.] FUTURE. 59 

the accent ot the Futures KOJUU-W, aeiK6-o>, KTepi-ovo-i, dyAai-eio-0at 

points to contamination of the forms in -. 

According to some ancient grammarians the Fut. of dvvoj, kpvoi, &c. should 

be written dvvu>, kpvu, &c. ; 

see Schol. II. u. 454., 20. 452. This form in -aw 

is found in Attic (n\cvaov/jiai, &c. : see however Kutherford's New Phrynichus, 

pp. 91-95) ; 

it answers to the Doric Fut. in -, Ocuaojxcu ; K\ai'cu, K\auaojji.ai ; êuya}., 

dei'ow, aetcrojjuu ; Kara-ccua), Kara-KcJcrofMU j 6aup,aa>j Oau/xdcrcreTat.

60 TENSES. [67. 

With these are usually reckoned the Verbs in which the Pres. 

is of a different formation, as 6p.oGfi.cu Treaeoi>T), j3^(rojxat (/3au>co), icap-emu (Kajutrco 

ireiaojjiat (7rao-)(co) : 

also the Futures to which no Pres. corresponds, 

as eurojuicu (oi6"a), Setcrojxai (6"ei'6ta), ovj/ojiai (OTT-). 

It may help to explain these cases if we consider that the Fut. 

Act. is apt to have a Transitive sense, as in OTTJO-CO, /3?jo-co, ^wo-co, 

Hence there was a tendency to have recourse to the Middle 

whenever a distinctly intransitive sense was wanted. 

Historical Tenses the Augment. 

67.] The Augment takes two forms, the Syllabic and the 

Temporal. 

The Syllabic Augment 

is the prefix I-, and is used for Stems 

beginning with a consonant. The Temporal Augment is a 

simple lengthening of the initial vowel of a Stem, the vowels a 

and becoming r/ ; 

as fyo-v (ayo-), r/Aa-o-a-z; (eAa-), ue-ro (t/ce-), 

o)p-ro (op-), ÂTyAa-ro (Pf. eArjAa-rai), fjveov (atz/eco), wxtro (O'LXOjxat). 

So the Impf. rja 

/ went (Sanscr. dyam} y 

from the stem 

t (6t-/xt) 

: as to the form rfia see 12. 

Many seeming exceptions are due to the loss of the original 

initial consonants, F, ((repw-). 

In 

these cases the a passed into the rough breathing, which was 

then thrown back on the Augment but : etxor has the smooth 

breathing owing to the following \. Also eta (eaco 

for 

t 

(or y) perhaps in Ka 

77 (for e-ir]Ka) and, with contraction, 

(e-e-jue^), and irap-eidr] (-e-e^r;). 

But see 16. 

Several Homeric forms have been supposed to point to a Syllabic Augment 

TJ- (instead of -). 

One of these 

iî'a I went has been already explained ( 

1 2). 

As to the others we have to note as follows : 

(i) i]eipev (II. 10. 499) is not from ei'pco to join together (Lat. sero\ but from 

oei'pw : for, as Cobet has shown (Misc. Crit. p. 326), deipcu is a technical word in 

the sense required (cp. II. 15. 680 ffwacipfrai 'iirnovs, also the words vvcapis, for 

vv-aop-is, and nap-rjopos).

68.] 

AUGMENT. 6l 

(2) In several words (as usually written) the initial vowel of the Stem is 

lengthened after t-f- : et|v8av (for f-'favSavf}, e-covoxoci (foivoxoeaj), dv-e-cpycv, 

av-e-q>g (di/a-forycw), also e-a.yi\ (ây-vvfjLi), with d in one place (II. n. 559), 

and the Plpf. forms twAim (eo\7ra, feA.7r-), ceopyei (eopya, fepy-}, WKt (eota, 

ft*-). In some of these there may be merely confusion with the later use of 

the : 

Temporal Augment &. g. liyi/Sai/e is doubtless due to the Attic rjvSave, a 

form which arose after the loss of f. Hence recent editors write tavSave, 

(oivo\6(i, avzoiyov, also t6\irei, lop-yet, eoiKfi. 

(3) A different explanation is required for tbyi] (a), supported as it is by 

Attic Iwpcov (ppaoj) and laXcov (a in aX&vai, &c.)*. These point to an Augment 

TJ-, the combinations ijfo, t\fa. passing into ecu, ea (as in QaatXecas, -ed for -rjfos, 

-t]fo.\ 

Such an Augment is also found in iqciSTjs, TjeiBet (Plpf. of o?5a), and 

Tjurice. 

There is much probability in the suggestion of G. Meyer (G. G. p. 423) 

that this T|- is a Temporal Augment obtained from the prothetic I- so often 

found before f : e.g. in -ei0dfj,evos (f6i8-). 

Thus 4]unce would be the augmented 

form of HffK

62 TENSE MEANING. 

[69- 

With these may be placed the Thematic forms l-yeya>i>e (II. 

14. 469), az/ooyo-jj, aycoye, -7T7rXr;yo-^, TreTrATJye-ro, ejue/^KOz;, in 

Hesiod eVe^Tj/coz; 

: see 27. 

3. By Composition, with the Augment and the Suffix -ea 

(probably for -ecra), joined to the longer form of the Stem e. : 

g. 

-re#TJ7r-ea, ireTroitfea, Tj^coy-ea. The 3 Sing, usually has -ee(i>) 

contracted -ei(i'), 

as e-TreTroiflei, TT^wyeiz;, SeSTJet, riprjpti, ê/3rJKet. 

The Plur. occurs only once in Homer, in eouc-e (II. 13. 102) : 

the Dual never. 

To this group belongs ?j5ea I knew ^ 

2 Sing. 77616779 (for e-fetSeaj), 

also rjbrja-Oa, 3 Sing. TjeiSei, r/8ei (or, 

as Aristarchus read, 7761877, 

77877). 

As to the augment TJ- see 67. In respect of form 77860, 

is a Sigmatic Aorist, standing for e-fctdeo-a, Sanscr. dvedisham, 

and is only a Pluperfect because it is used as the past tense 

answering to 0180, (M. U. iii. p. 16). 

69.] Loss of Augment. The Augment is so often dropped in 

Homer that the augmented and the unaugmented forms are 

almost equally numerous. It has been observed however * that 

the forms without the Augment are comparatively rare in the 

speeches, the proportion of augmented to unaugmented forms 

(excluding speeches which mainly consist of narrative matter) 

being about jo to 3, whereas in narrative it is about 5 to 7. 

It 

would appear therefore that the Augment is chiefly omitted 

where the context shows that past time is meant ; 

and this is 

confirmed by the remarkable fact that the Iteratives, which are 

only used as Historical Tenses, do not take the Augment. 

The only clear instance of an Iterative form with the Augm. is e-f 

KOVTO (Od. 20. 7). On the forms e-tyaatco-v, c-âa/ff see 49. 

Meaning of the Present and Aorist Stems. 

70.] The forms which contain the Present Stem (the Present 

and Imperfect Indie., with the Moods of the Present) 

denote progressive action (incipient, continued, repeated, &c.), 

as 

opposed to a single fact or event. 

It is easy to understand why a language which distinguished these two 

kinds of action should have no Aorist for present time * 

(,*J3fjp,i,, \df3c.), &c.). 

The present is not a space of time, but a point ; 

what is present therefore is 

not (generally speaking) a whole action or event, but the fact that it is in 

course of happening. So in English we usually say, not I write now, but I am 

uniting now. The mere effort of regarding an action as in present time almost 

obliges us to give it a progressive character. 

The forms tljxi, eijxt, ^jit, ayu>, Ypdo>, &c., in which the Stem has the form 

generally found only in Aorists ( u, 30"), may be regarded as surviving 

* Konrad Koch, De Augmento apud Homerum omisso, Brunswick, 1868.

71.] 

IMPERFECT. 63 

instances of the ' Present Aorist,' i.e. of a Present not conveying the notion of 

progress. We may compare the English use of I am, I go (now archaic in the 

sense of I am going], I say (says he), &c. In these cases the use of a distinctly 

progressive form has not been felt to be necessary. 

A past action may usually be regarded, if we choose, as a 

single fact, irrespective of its duration (e/Sao-tAevo-ez; err? Tpi&Kovra 

he reigned, not he continued reigning}. But an action which is 

thought of as contemporary with some other event is almost 

necessarily regarded as progressive. Accordingly, answering to 

the Present / am writing (now), 

we have the Past Tense 1 was 

writing (when he came). 

It follows from what has been said that a Pres. or Impf . 

may 

be used either (i) because the action intended is essentially 

progressive, or (2) because the time is fixed by reference (a) to 

the moment of speaking, or (ft) 

to a point of time in the past. 

E.g. 8iSo>/xt may mean either / seek to give, 1 offer, or / am giving; 

toibov either he offered 

or he was giving. In the second of these 

uses the notion of progress is only relative, arising from the 

relation of time under which the action is 

thought of *. 

From 71.] the relative notion of progress or continuance is 

derived the general rule that the Impf. is used of a subordinate 

action or circumstance: II. 8. 87 o$p' 6 yfyvv aTrerajuye roc/)/)' 

"EKTopos

64 TENSE MEANING. 

[72. 

72.] Essentially progressive action (incomplete or continuous) 

is exemplified 

(1) In the Verbs which form the Aor. from a different Verb- 

Stem : 

opdo) I watch (Lat. tueor, whereas tlbov means / descried) 

Aeyco 1 relate, set forth (but elirov I said) ; 0epo) / carry (but 

tfvtyKov I brought) ; 

so rpe^co, tpyoâi (expressing different kinds 

of motion). 

(2) In other Verbs of motion, esp. fiaiva and urrryjuu, as II. 21. 

13 i(TTif] 

be /ze'ya Ku/xa raise up a great wave, and often in the 

3 

M 

1 

id., as II. 2. 473 *v ^8i(j> Ivravro were drawn up in the plain, 

came and stood beside, &c. 

Note i. We should read torao-av (not rras urrao-av ine? 'Axatwf which the Greeks had planted ; see 73. 

Od. 3. 

1 80 TfTparov ^fjiap fr/v or' tv 'Apye'i vrjas fi'aas 

IvSfi'Seo) erapoi . . . to-rao-av (see Ameis a. Z.). 

8. 435 at 8e \otTpoxoov rpiiroS' ta-rao-av 

, , ~ Bekk. , 

La Eoche. 

lo. 307 avritea XafAirTTjpas rpeis icrracrav ) 

2. The Verb dyw is often so used : II. i. 367 rfjv 8e 8if-rrpa.eofj.ev re /fat r\yo\nev 

fvOa.Se = -navro. ; II. 7. 363 KTrjp.ara 5* oaa' dyofji^v the treasures which I brought 

( have brought) ; II. 9. 664 rrjv A.fcr/3oOv 3\yc 

whom he had brought. In this 

Verb, however, the Aorist meaning appears distinctly in the Participle ; 

II. 6. 87 r/ Se ^vvdyovcra 76patas assembling ( = having assembled) j II. i. 311 flffev 

ay

7

66 TENSES. [77. 

ing), but completion with reference to (i. e. usually before) the 

time of the principal Verb. 

77.] The Participle of the Aor. is sometimes used to express 

exact coincidence with the action of the principal Verb : as (Sfj 

8e 

aka(ra went with a spring, ^f^vcra^vrj Trpocrrjvba spoke a lie, aXro 

XaOtov leaped unseen, Here a Pres. Part, would imply that there 

was a distinct subordinate action : the Aor. expresses something 

that coincides with, or is 

part of, the main action. 

This is especially found with Verbs expressing the manner 

(tone, gesture, &c.) with which a thing is said or done II. 6. 54 

: 

ojuto/cArjo-as tiros rjvba shouted the words ; II. 8. 

219 TtonrvixravTi 

Oo&s orpvvai 'AXCUOVS to make hot haste in stirring up the Greeks ; 

II. 13. 597 xeipa Trapa/cpejuaa-as : II. 10. 139., 16. 474., 17. 334., 

20. 161, Od. 2. 422., 17. 330 (cp. (frevytiv napavdaavTi Arist. 

Eth. Nic. 4. 3. 15). 

78.] The Aor. sometimes appears to be used of present time. 

(i) 

As in 

II. 14. 95 vvv 8e (TV tovocrafjiriv Trdy\v typtvas olov eetTre?. 

The Aor. here expresses a culminating point, reached in the immediate 

past, or rather at the moment of speaking : I have been 

brought to the i. 

point of blaming, e. / blame. 

II. 20. 306 r/6rj . . fyOript has now come to hate. 

II. 3. 4^5 T s G ^ ^ 

cLTT\dr^p(^ cos vvv eK'TrayA.'

79-1 AORIST MEANING. 67 

speaker puts himself at the (future) point of time given by the 

context, and uses the Tense which then becomes appropriate. 

(2) Again 

When an assertion is made irrespective of time, the Pres. or 

Aor. is used the Pres. for continuous and the Aor. for single or 

momentary action. Hence the use 

In similes, as II. 3. 23 wore AeW t\apT] as a lion is gladdened 

(but in v. 25 /careo-fliei goes on devouring) : II. 4. 75 olov 6* dorepa 

. . 

rjK TOV 8e re iroXXol CLTTO o-TTivOfjpes teurai. 

The only examples of the Impf. in a simile are II. 15. 274., 

495> m the phrase ovb' apa . . ai(n^6v fjv, where it is virtually 

a Present. 

Also in ' gnomic ' passages, reflexions, general sayings, &c. : 

II. T. 218 6s K Oeols eTTtTret^rat pa\a r ZK\VOV avrov. 

9. 320 KarOav' OJJL&S 6 T aepyoj avrip, 6 re 7roAA.a eopycoj. 

These uses of the Aor. are very common in Homer. 

The Impf. may possibly be found in a gnomic passage, II. 13. 730-732 

dAAo; fjilv yap 4'5o6 Oebs TroXf^-fjia tpya 

d\\q> 8' fv crrjOeffffi TiOfi voov evpvoira Zevs, 

where the MS. reading TiOsi may be defended as an Impf. marking subordination 

to the Aor. cScoice : 

cp. the examples in 71. 2. 

Much light has been thrown upon the history of the Aorist by the comparison 

of the use in Sanscrit (Delbruck, 8. F. ii, and A. S. p. 280). If the 

result has not been to determine the original force of the Aorist, it has at 

least shown that the question cannot be settled from the material furnished 

by Greek alone. The use which predominates in Greek, the historical use to 

assert the happening of a single event in the past, is almost unknown to the 

earliest Sanscrit. In the Veda the Aor. is employed, as often in Homer ( 74^ 

of what has happened in the immediate past. In the early Sanscrit prose (the 

Brahmanas) the Aor. is used of what has happened to the speaker himself. 

It is worth noticing that these uses, in which the Aor. answers approximately 

to the English Pf. with have, are found in later Greek in the case of the verbs 

whose Pf. retains its original meaning. As Mr. Gildersleeve ' 

puts it, 

when 

the Perfect is used as a Present, the Aorist is used as a Perfect. So e/cTr)aafj.rjv 

I have gained possession of, ic4r^fuu I possess' (Am. Journ. of Phil. iv. 429). Hence, 

if the Greek Perfect is originally a kind of present, there is a presumption 

that the Aor. was originally akin in meaning to our Perfect. On this view the 

ordinary historical Aor. is a derivative use. 

CHAPTER III. 

THE MOODS. 

79.] 

The Moods of the Verb (properly so called) are the 

Subjunctive) the Optative, and the Imperative. It is convenient 

however to rank the two Verbal Nouns, the Infinitive 

and the

68 MOODS. 

[80. 

Participle, along with them. The meanings of the Moods and 

Verbal Nouns cannot well be discussed until we come to the 

chapters dealing with Complex Sentences. 

The Subjunctive. 

80.] 

N on-Thematic Tense-Stems usually form the Subj. by 

taking the Thematic Vowel, with the Primary Endings ; except 

that when the Thematic Vowel enters into a diphthong, or is followed 

by two consonants, it becomes or w instead of or o. 

TJ 

Thus the scheme is 

Sing. Dual. Plur. 

Act. Mid. Ad. Mid. Ad. Mid. 

-0) 

-o/xat 

-77S -eat -ere -r/crtfe 

-OXTL^vJ 

-toVTCLl. 

The long t\ 

or a>, it will be seen, comes in place of or o 

wlierever it can do so without disturbing the metre. Examples : 

Strong Aorists : t-), virp-(3ri-r], ^r\-o^v (or 

e-oTT], Subj. (TTrj-rjs, (rrri-r}, 0r?7-eroz>, oT^-Ojuey, 0T/]-co(rt 

e-yi/co, 

Subj. yz;co-a), 

e-6u, Subj. bv co, bv-, 

e-/3A.77-ro, 

-(J>OL-TO, 

Subj. 

Subj. 

aA-ro, Subj. aA-erat : 

Stem Or]-, Subj. êt-co (or 07J-eo), Oi'i-ys, dd-optv (or 

Stem ?/-, Subj. e(^-et-co, az/-rj-r/ : 

Stem 6r7-ju, Subj. ^-77 ': 

KlX^-^t, Subj. KIX^-O), KLXi-OlJ,V (or 

so pi-ofjiv as if from ^"e/orj-jui. 

Passive Aorists : 

e-Sd^, Subj. 5a/uet-o), 

so 5aet-a), aAco-oo, a\(&-r], (ra7r?y-r/, iâi 

For baLvvy, i Sing. Subj. Mid. (Od. 

8.' 

243., 19. 328), we 

may read dcuwe', 

i. . 8atw-e-at. 

Perfects : 

Trtiroida, Subj. TreTro 1^-97?, 7TiroiO-o^v : eppiye, Subj. 

e/>pty-rycrt : jB^fB^Kf, Subj. TTpo-(3priK-ri so : k(rrr\K.-ri, ap?jp-?y, jue/xrJA-?/, 

d/VcoA-r/, opcop-7/, /3e/3pux"?7 a^so : tA?JKr/(n (Od. 21. 365.) unless we 

assume a Pres. tArj/co) ( 45). 

Pf. Mid. TTpoa-apripeTaL (Hes. Op. 431). 

, 

Subj. et'6eco, et6f/9, et6r} 5 et8o/xer, etdere,

8l.] SUBJUNCTIVE. 69 

For 6iSo, &c., Tyrannic wrote i8&>, ei'S^s, ciSt), ctSwcrt (Schol. Od. i. 174), 

uniform with efSo/uei/, 

ei'Sere. Both forms may be accounted for : eiBeco is 

Subj. of l-fet'Sea ( 68) ei'8a> with the Plur. 

; 

eiS-o-fifv, fi'S-e-re, is Subj. of a 

Non-Thematic *f6iS-|ti, Sanscr. ved-wi (If. 7. iii. 18). The form ISeu, read by 

most MSS. in II. 14. 235, is a mere error for eiStco. 

Aorists in -ad : 

i-)3ij

70 MOODS. 

[82. 

Traces of this type of Subj. are found in the Greek dialects : 

bvvd-fJiaL (for 8wo>/icu), naO-tord-Tai, 7rpo-Ti6r]VTi, &c. (Meyer, G. G. 

p. 502). In Homer it 

may be recognised in the 3 Sing, forms 

Qyviv (Od. I. 1 68), (f)6fi(n (II. 23. 805), fja-L (II. 15. 359), |ue0-ir/(ri 

(II. 13. 234), 8o>o-t ; perhaps in 6?, b&fjiev, SGxri, '7repi-8a>ju,e0oi>, 

e7u-8a>jute0a ; yuws, yv&jJLtv, yv&vi ; irL-(3fJTov, TrcLprjOfjrov, &c. 

which are usually regarded as contracted from the regular 

Homeric 8o>o>, 8co?7?, Scooter, &c. and in fc/pq-rai, eTU-or^rai 

( 87, 3)- 

How then did the Homeric forms of the type of

82.] SUBJUNCTIVE. 71 

(II. 3. 353). The 2 Sing, sometimes takes -o-Oa; 

enr-?]cr$a, 7rtr/(r$a, &c. 

The Subj. in -cop,t 

had almost disappeared at one time from the text of 

Homer, having been generally corrupted into -oiju, sometimes -wp,ai. It was 

restored by Wolf, chiefly on the authority of the ancient grammarians. Some 

of the best MSS. (especially Ven. A) have occasionally preserved it. 

It is interesting to observe the agreement in form between the Thematic 

Indie, and the Non-Thematic Subj. e. ; g. Indie, dyw and Subj. yvw-co, in 

contrast to Subj. e0e\cw-/ 

: 

just as ayo-pfv and yvw-opev agree in contrast to 

aya-pev. 

A few forms of the Aorist in -

72 MOODS. [83. 

The 

Optative. 

83.] The Optative Stem is formed from the Tense Stem by 

the Suffix IYJ 

or i, 

as 8180- ir)-v, TV\O-I-TO. 

i. Non-Thematic Tenses (except the Aorist in -crd) 

take u] 

before Light Endings, i before Heavy Endings; as et^-z; (for 

: once - 

viz. a-Ta-if](rav (II. 17. 733). 

The i is lost in bvr] (Od. 9. 377., 18. 348., 20. 286, for bv-trj) 9 

cK-bvfJiev, \\VTO (Od. 

1 8. 

238 La Roche), baivvro (II. 24. 665), 

datzw-aro (Od. 

1 8. 248), 0tro, aTro-^dijmqz* (for 0i-t-ro, cbro- 

2. In Thematic Tenses the scheme of Endins is : 


1. -oi/n Mid. - 

Mid. 

Mid. - 

3. -ot -otro -OLTYJV 

-oa.ro. 

2. -CHS -CHO -OITOV 

-otre 

3. The Aorist in -

84.] 

VERBAL NOUNS. 73 

The so-called 'JEolic'Opt. of Contracted Verbs (-(prj-v,-onj-v) 

appears in i\otrj (Od. 4. 692) and Qopoir] (Od. 9. 320). 

In II. 14. 241 most authorities give eirurxoujs as an Opt. (rS> feev ciriax ^] 5 

Xtirapovs -noSas tikanivafav. Three of the chief MSS. (A. B. C.) have emcrxoics, 

and this was quoted by Herodian, apparently as the only reading known to 

him (see Ludwich, A.H.T. i. 374). The Syr. palimpsest has Imcrxoias. All 

three forms are anomalous ; fmaxoiijs finds a parallel in dyayoirjv (Sappho) 

and one or two other forms, but can hardly be Homeric. 

The forms crows (II. 9. 681), crow (II. 9. 424) are so written by modern 

editors. Most MSS. have O-OTJS, cr6r|. 

In the former place we learn that Ar. 

doubted between craws and crows (or creeps, for the accent here is conjectural). 

The ancient grammarians apparently took both forms as Opt. (which suits 

the sense, 304, a). 

Some wrote craws, craw (or crows, crow), deriving them 

directly from craow : others crows, crow, from crww or crow. It is not difficult to 

restore the uncontracted craoois, craooi, or, if the Subj. is preferred, craoTjs, 

craoTj (so Nauck). 

For the 3 Plur. in -oi-v Bekker finds one instance of -ot-v, viz. in Od. 20. 

382, where the common text has 

TOVS fivovs kv VTJI iro\vK\.r]i8i @a\6vTfs 

fs 2iKc\ovs ireftif/ufifv 

oOw Kt rot aiov a\(j>oi, 

for which he would read a\c|>oiv. The I Sing, in -oi-v (instead 

anomalous -ou-jxt) 

was not unknown in Attic (Bekker, H. B. p. 1 1 1 if) *. 

of the 

irapa-c{>0a-iTr)-cri (II. 10. 346), with Primary instead of Secondary Ending, is 

perhaps a pseudo-archaic form, made on the analogy of the Subjunctives in 

The 

Verbal Nouns. 

84.] Infinitives and Participles are not properly speaking 

Verbs since they do not contain a Subject and Predicate but 

Nouns : the Infinitive is a kind of Substantive and the Participle 

an Adjective. In certain respects however they belong 

4 

to the scheme of the Verb : 

1. 

They answer in form and meaning to the Tense Stems; 

each Tense Stem has in general an Infinitive and a Participle 

formed from it. 

2. 

They are distinguished as Active and Middle (or Passive) 

in sense. 

3. They are construed with the same oblique cases of Nouns; 

and the same Adverbs and Adverbial phrases, as the corresponding 

Verbs. 

* It must not be supposed, however, that the i Sing, and the 3 Plur. in 

-otv are primitive forms. The termination -ow was originally impossible in 

Greek (as -em and -om are in Sanscrit) ; 

we should expect -otcf, -oiav (Sanscr. 

-eyam, -eyus). Hence -OI-JJLV probably made its way into Greek in place of 

*-oia, as -crai-p,i in the Aor. in place of -cmS (see Brugmann, in Curt. Stud. ix. 

313). The 3 Plur. form diroTtvotdv is found in the Eleian dialect.

74 INFINITIVE. [85. 

85.] 

The Infinitive Active is formed 

(i) In Non-Thematic Tenses (except the Aor. in -o-a) by the 

Suffixes -jAeycu, -flee, -eixu, -yea. 

Of these -jjiemi is the most usual, as 0e-/zei>ctt, yrco-juez/at, fxiyrjjuemi, 

tb-fJLevai, TeQva-pevai, fevy-zw-jueyat occurs : 

-jxei/ 

after short 

vowels, as t-juez;, do-jutez>, rcOvd-^v, op-vv-ptv also in 

; ejujuez> (five 

times, but always where we may write ejutjuez/), t6-/xez;(Il. 11.719), 

and ^tvy-vv-^tv (II. 16. 145), 

in which the long 

u is irregular. 

The full Suffix -eVai only occurs in t-eVat but 

; 

there are many 

vowel or 

other Infinitives in -mi, all of them containing a long 

diphthong in which an e may be supposed to have been absorbed ; 

as bovvcu (for So-eWi, see Max Miiller, Chips, iv. 56), Oelvcu, 

(TTrjvai, firjvciLj bvvcu, yv&vai) aXoivai, /3tai, afjvai, (poprj-vai, 

bibovvai (II. 24. 425). The original form of the Suffix seems to 

have been - 

From t/tt (, cfttvcu, ffJifv, 

and eFi/at. Of these 

eleven, fpfv are irregular ; they follow the analogy of Offifvai, &c. Cp. the 

I Plur. efiv (Soph. El. 21). From cf-/it 

are formed "1-jj.fvcu, t-pfv, and i-4vcu. 

In one place (II. 20. 365) ipcvcu is scanned with I perhaps in imitation of 

e/i/icvat (Solmsen, K. Z. xxix. 72). 

The common Attic Present Infinitives Iffrd-vai, TtOt-vai, 8i56-vai, 8eiK-vv-vai, 

&c., as well as the Perfect Infinitives in -eVcu, are entirely unknown in 

Homer. 

(2) In Thematic Tenses by -e-pecai, -c'-pei', -cii/ ; 

as etV- 

The Ending 

-e-cii/ 

only occurs in the Thematic Aor., and is 

anomalous ; compare j3a\--iv (Stem fiaXt-) and fid\\-iv (Stem 

/3aAAe-). 

The original ending was doubtless -itv : thus- 

Stern (3a\-, Inf. fia\4-V, contr. (3aXeiv. 

/3aA.Ae-, j8(iAXe-er, ,, f3d\\iv. 

In the Aor. the metre usually allows us to restore -CCK (see 

Renner, Curt. Stud. i. 2. p. 33). 

It is possible that the forms (3a\f-eiv, &c., are genuine, since -cev might pass 

into -6iv from the analogy of the Pres. Inf. in -civ, just as in the Rhodian 

dialect -ejjiev 

became -fp,eiv. 

Leo Meyer (Vergl. Gr. ii. 284) proposed to read 

@a\-fj,fv, &c. But, as Renner points out the (I. c.), change from -ecv to -ceiv is 

very much slighter, indeed is a mere matter of spelling. Original /SaXeêv, 

&c. would probably have been retained. 

(3) The Aor. in -ad forms -aai, as OTTJ-CT-CU. 

(4) The Inf. Middle is formed by -a0cu : (3\r)-a-9ai, 7re

87.] PARTICIPLE. 75 

(Sanscr. vid-man-e). Similarly bovvai is bo-Fev-ai (dd-vdn-e) { for 

giving/ Probably the Infinitives in -o-tu and - 

and -tv (-eu>) originally differed in meaning from 

those in -êvai, -evai, &c. In Greek, however, the sense of the 

Inf. as a Case-form is lost, so that the different forms are all 

construed in exactly the same way. 

86.] The Participle. The Aorist, the Present, and the Future 

Tense Stems form the Active Participle by the Suffix -IT- : thus 

we have, Non-Thematic vra-vr-, TiOt-vT- ; 

Thematic paXo-vr-, 

(TTrj-ao-vr-, &c. 

The vowel before vr is 

always short, as yvo-vr-, juiye-ir-. 

The Perfect Stem takes -or or -oo- (originally -For, -Fov), Fern, 

-uid (for -vv-ia, the -uo- originally a weak form for The 

-foo-). 

Middle Participle is formed by -JAC^CS, which in the Perfect is 

accented -jmeVos. 

For the Verbal Adjectives in -ro-j, see 114. The Verbal in 

is 

post-Homeric. 

CHAPTER IV. 

ACCENTUATION OF 

THE VERB. 

87.] The general rule is that the accent is thrown back as far 

as possible ; 

and the chief departures from this rule are found in 

the Infinitives and Participles, which are in reality Nouns. In 

the forms of the Verb properly so called the following exceptions 

have to be noted : 

I. elfu and T]jjit. 

The 2 Sing. Imper. a-0i is oxytone. 

The disyllabic forms of the Pres. Indicative, efyu, eoW, C^TJJUI', 

(fyrja-i, &c., are enclitic, and, when they do not lose the accent 

altogether, are oxytone but eort is accented in the ; 

ordinary way 

when it occurs at the beginning of a sentence, or after certain 

words (OVK, KCU, wj). 

Such was the commonly accepted account ; 

but the ancient grammarians 

were not agreed as to the enclitic character of the Dual and Plural forms (on 

CO-TOY see Charax 1151 ; 

on 4>ap,V, ar, 4>aat, ibid. ; 

on eo-jjuv, lore, clcri, Eust. 

1457, 48). Again, one grammarian denies that T]|A 

was ever enclitic 

(Charax 1152) ; another holds that it should be written TJIU, at least in such 

instances as (prj/jii yap ovv Karavevaat, KT\. (Tyrannic ap. Eust. 1613, 18). In 

all likelihood the original forms were, Sing. Icm, $T\\LI, Plur. eo-fxev, ajxv, 

and IOTI are not properly oxytone, but are 

and we may suppose that Tj[xC 

unaccented forms made oxytone as enclitics (wgvvOij 

8ia T^V 

ttrovaav avrots

76 ACCENT. 

[88. 

Apoll. Synt.). The Sanscrit Verbs of the same kind follow the rule 

of accenting the Stem in the Sing., the Ending in the Dual and Plur. and 

; 

this must be connected with the difference of quantity between strong and 

weak Sterns (6). See Benfey, Vedica und Linguistica, pp. 90 ff. 

The 2 Sing, els is enclitic, though the corresponding Attic 

form et is 

not; but see 5- As to $779 there is a contradiction; 

it is not enclitic according to Arc. 142, 8, but enclitic according 

to rest on 

to Schol. A. II. 17. 147 both notices being supposed 

the authority of Herodian (ed. Lentz, i. 553, 4 and ii. 

105, 5). 

2. The 3 Plur. to-rao-t, ri#eia-t, 8i8ocri, btiKvvo-i, are properispomena 

(Herodian, i. 459, ed. Lentz). 

This can hardly have been the original accentuation, since they are not 

contracted forms, but represent iVra-i/Tt, c. 

Probably it comes from the 

Attic Iffrdai (contracted from lara-aai, cp. rtOe-affi, &c.). The Doric forms are 

written rtfleWt, &c. by Eustath. Od. 1557, 45 ; 

but we do not know that this 

represents the usage of any living dialect. 

3. Subjunctives such as (fravfj, Sacojueu are circumflexed, as 

being contracted forms (for (f>avrm, 6a?jojuz>). 

On ei8eco, etSrjs, 

flbfi, etdecocrt see 80. 

Optatives in which -IT]- becomes -i- before Heavy Endings are 

accented on the i 

throughout, as 8iaK/ny0etre, Sajueiez/. 

But Middle forms to which there is no corresponding Active 

follow the general rule : 

bvv[j.ai, bvvrjai. (so Herodian, but 

Tyrannio wrote bw&fjiai, bvvijai, Schol. II. 6. 229), Kepuvrai (II. 

4. 260), eTuoTTfrai ( 280); eTuarairo, OVCLLO, OVOLTO. 

4. The Imperatives eiTre, eA0, are oxytone (and so in Attic 

cvpt, i8e, Aa/3e). Similarly Tyrannio wrote mfle'o-tfe, Aa/3eV0e 

(Schol. V. II. 1 8. 266) ep. the Attic /3aAo, &c. 

; 

The rule in Sanscrit is that the Verb loses the accent, except in subordinate 

clauses, or when it begins the sentence. Hence the verbs ijxi and ^TJÎ in 

fact retain the original accentuation, which was doubtless that of the Indo- 

European language. The Imperatives c'ure, X0, c., are evidently words that 

would often be used to begin a sentence. 

The ordinary accent of a Greek verb, the so-called ' recessive ' accent, represents 

the original enclitic condition. The Opt. for ({XUTJV, example, is originally 

oxytone. On the Sanscrit rules it loses its accent, and we should have (e. g.) 

tYw-avr)v. But owing to the Greek rhythmical law this is impossible. 

Accordingly the accent goes back as far as the Greek rules will allow, and 

we have eyvj-fpairjv. 

5. The final -ai of the Endings -JACU, -erai, -rai, -rrai, and of 

the Inf. is treated as short. These are all cases in which -at 

represents the original final sound of the word. But the -at of 

the Opt., which is for original -air, counts as long. 

88.] Accent in Composition. Unaugmeiited forms of Compound 

Verbs are accented as though the Verb were an enclitic

89.] 

ACCENT. 77 

following the Preposition : hence (rvv-zyjov, 7r/>o'-e?, 7rapa-0e5, 

Kirai, cLTTo-o-^vraL. If the final syllable of the Preposition is 

lost by elision or apocope the accent falls on the first syllable; 

hence {/(^-eAKe, Kdr-9av. 

But the accent falls if possible upon the : 

Augment hence 

TTpoa--âv, 7r-c(rxov, e7r-?jA0e. In other words, the Augment is 

treated in accentuation as a Preposition. 

The form lo-rat keeps the accent (7701/0- eo-rcu, &c.); perhaps 

because it is formed by syncope from eo-erai. 

The Subj. (vfjL-pXrjTCLL (Od. 7. 204) ought to be properispomenon, 

if it is a contracted form; cp. /SAêrai (Od. 17. 47 2 )- 

The grammarians however wrote aô-Oaoâi (in spite of cbrofleiojuai, 

II. 1 8. 409) and 8id-0co//,at (Herodian, i. 469, 7, ed. Lentz). 

We have to recognise in such cases the encroachment of the 

common Thematic type, though we may doubt whether the 

change reaches back to the earliest form of the text of Homer. 

According to Herodian, the 2 Sing. Imperative tvi-o-ires is paroxytone, but 

the other Imperative form vi-crire, and the Indie, forms tvi-o-ire-s, tvicnrf, are 

proparoxytone see Schol. on II. ; 24. 388. That is to say, the Imper. 

evi-o-irc-s is regular, the others are accented as if compounds of icrirco. 

The Imperative lirwrxe in Hes. Scut. 446 may be divided ir-tffx 

f or Im-axe, 

and in the latter case we may write iTnVx 6 (with the MSS.), or irtax f like 

> 

the cviffne of Herodian. 

The MSS. vary between (Imper.) evio-ircs and Ivtcrire : in the two places of 

the Iliad (n. 186., 14. 470) the Venetus has IVIO-TTCS : on the other hand in the 

only Homeric passage in which the metre gives any help (Od. 4. 642) it is 

decisive for vi

78 NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. [90. 

The Part, of the Pf. Middle is paroxytone. But aKaxêros 

follows anayycrQai. 

In Composition the Infinitive and Participle retain the accent 

of the simple word ; 

in other words,, they do not become enclitic. 

Hence we have Impf . (rvv-tyjovj but Neut. Part. ?, &c. 

The Stems now in question belong to two great classes,, those 

of Nouns and of Pronouns, called Nominal and Pronominal Stems 

respectively. 

The term ' Noun ' includes Substantives and Adjectives. 

The other ' parts of speech' Adverbs, Prepositions, 

Conjunctions may ultimately be resolved into Case-forms or 

Adverbial forms either of Nouns or Pronouns. 

The distinction between Nouns and Pronouns brings before us in a new 

form the fundamental antithesis involved in the division of a Verb into a 

Stem which 'predicates/ and a Person-Ending which marks the Subject. 

A Noun either denotes a single object or group of objects (L e. when it is a 

'proper name'), or denotes objects through their permanent attributes, as 

belonging to a class whereas a Pronoun denotes an 

; object by its local 

position, or momentary relation to something else, as ' this ' or ' that/ ' here ' 

or ' there/ ' same ' or < other/ This contrast is shortly expressed by saying 

that Nominal Stems are Predicative, and Pronominal Stems Demonstrative ; the 

former name or describe, the latter only 'point out' what is intended. 

Accordingly, Nominal Stems are in general either identical with, or formed 

from, the Stems of Verbs : Pronouns are found to contain the same elements 

as those which furnish the Person-Endings of Verbs. The simplest forms 

obtained by analysis are thus of two kinds. They were first clearly distinguished 

by Bopp, and called by him Verbal and Pronominal Roots respectively 

(Vergl-Gr. 105). 

The Cases. 

91.] Declensions. The main distinction is that between the 

Consonantal Declension (including 

that of Stems in -i and -u),

93-] 

CASE-ENDINGS. 79 

which forms the Genitive in -o 

In II. i. 86 KaAxai/ (Voc. 

of Kd\x. as ) 

was rea(^ 

by Aristarchus, 

KdXâ by Zenodotus. On the other hand in II. 12. 231 Ar. 

read YlovXybdpa, but Zen. IlovXvbdfjiav. The form Aao6djua in 

Od. 8. 141 probably has the authority of Aristarchus. 

Stems in -o form the Voc. in -e, as $t'Ae tKvpe. Some Stems 

in -0(77) shorten the final vowel, as VVJJL^CL, Voc. of vv^rj, and 

the Masc. oT>/3 : -01 a. 

: : 

Y\ : 

The words of address, TraTTTra, arra, rerra, /otata, may be ranked 

as Vocatives. So ?7$ete, as to which see the note on 96. 

93.] Case-Endings. These are given in the following Table. 

The Endings of the Consonantal Declension are in larger type 

: 

the two Vowel Declensions of Nouns are numbered (i), (2), 

and 

the Pronominal Declension (3). 


Nom. -9 -e -69, 

(1) -o-s, Neut. -o-v -co -ot 

(2) -a(j), -ta ; -TJ-S -a -at 

Ace. -z/ 

? 

-a. -e -a?, 

Neut. -a, 

Neut -a 

Gen. -o? -066V 

-co 

-CD? (for -o-vs) 

!i) 2) -a -ay (-a-z^s) 

-oto, -oo, -OD -oitr -a>i; 

-r;9; -do, -eco -aajj^, -ecoy 

-to, -eo, -eu -t(z^) -etcoz;, -ecoz; 

Dat. -6 -OUV 

-O"i(v} y 

- 

(i) -a) 

(Loc. -ot) 

-our 

-otcrt(i;), -ots 

f 

aj 

-ry (Loc. 

-at ?) -??

80 DECLENSION. [94. 

94.] Stems ending in i, u, and o- are liable to lose the final 

letter before the Case-Endings which begin with a vowel. 

1. Stems in -t]u, -eu : e. g. 

w\v-s, Gen. vr]-6s (for vtjF-os), rarely ê-o'?. The e arises by 

shortening from i] ; 

so z/ees, veo>v, vtecra-i, yea? all less common 

than the corresponding forms with TJ-, vijes, vr]&v, vritvvi, v?ias. 

The forms VTJV-S, vyv-ai are irregular, since original an before a consonant 

would appear in Greek as av (cp. Zcvs for original dyeus}. Hence the true 

Greek form is preserved in the Instrum. va-4>iv ( 104) and the Compounds 

vavffi-tcXvTos, Nauo-i-tfaa, &c. The of TJ vrjv-s and vrjv-ai is taken by analogy from 

the other Cases. 

|3ao-iXeu-s, Gen. j3acri\rj-os {but Dat. Plur. j8aoiXev-(n), 

nrjXeu-s, Gen. TlrjXrj-os and n^Xe-oj. In oblique Cases of 

Stems in -eu the e seems to be nearly confined to proper names ; 

cp. Tudeos TuSe'i Tv8ea, 'Ar/oe'o? 'Arpei, rja-ea, Nr]Xea, &c. 

On Zeuj, /3oi;s see 106, 2. 

2. Stems in -i and -u form the same Cases in two ways 

: 

(1) Retaining the Stem- vowel, as KOVI-S KoVt-o?, Ilapt-s 

riapt-o?, l\vs l\vos, IxOv-s l%6v-S, av-s arv-6s, cru-t, (rv-e?. 

It is probable that this form of declension was originally 

confined to monosyllables. 

(2) Inserting e and dropping i or u as TroVt-?, Dat. : iroo-e-i", 

acrrv acrre-os, irfj^v-s Tr^x.e-09, TTO\V-S TroA.e-0?. Here the 

Stem of the oblique Cases ends in -ei, -eu : hence Gen. 

-eos for -et-os, -ef-o?, &c. 

forms several of its Cases in three ways : 

(1) Gen. 7roOu-oj, Dat. 770X1 (for jroAi-i, 99), 

Plur. Nom. 

Gen. iroXi-tov, Dat. iroXl-ecrcri, Ace. 7roAt-as and 

7ro'Ai-es, 

zroXis ( 100). 

(2) Gen. -rro'Aeoj (so Bekk. reads in II. 2. 8u v 21. 567, 

with the scanning 

v^ 

cp. -TroAev? in Theognis), Dat. 

TToAei, -n-roAefc (II. 17. 152, perhaps should be TJTO'AU, cp. 

the Cyprian form TrroAt^t). 

(3) Gen. Tro'Arj-o?, Dat. iroAr;-t, Plur. Nom. Tro'A^-es, Ace. 

The stem TroAry- which furnishes the last of these three forms 

of inflexion has been traced by Joh. Schmidt (K. Z. xxvii. p. 287) 

to a primitive Locative in -TJ (cp. Sanscr. agni, Loc. agnd), to 

which the ordinary Loc. -t was suffixed. From this new Loc. 

the other Cases were then formed TTO'ATJ-I 

by analogy. 

The Nouns in -a (from -ia) answer to the original Stems in 

-I, as Ibvia, for lbvo--La, Sanscr. vidush-l. 

qij-s or lij-s good makes Gen. et]-os, perhaps by transference of quantity for 

Other Adjectives in -iis form --os, --i, &c. 

fjf-os. 

3. Stems in -e

96.] SINGULAR. 8l 

95.] Original d as the final vowel of the Stem becomes T) ; 

except (i) after e, ei, a, as in Bed, and the proper names 'Epjueias, 

, 

Auyeiaj, NaucrtKaa, 'Peta (Ar. on II. 14. 203), 3>aa (II. 7. 

135, Od. 15. 297), and (2) 

in the Gen. in -do and -awi>. 

Other exceptions to the scheme given above will be best 

treated under the separate Cases. 

96.] Nominative Singular. The final -s is retained after 

vowels and mutes, but lost with Stems ending in p, as Trarrjp, //ôro)/). 

Stems ending in v either (i) take final -s (with loss of v), as 

eis (for h-s), Ois Ace. 6iv-a, /xe'Aas Gen. peXav-os, or (2) do not 

take -s, 

but lengthen a preceding vowel, as yfl&v Gen. -Ôov-os, 

TIQI\M\V Gen. 7T(n/xez/-os. So with Stems in -vr : bovs Gen. bovr-os, 

but Ibtov. 

Originally it seems that all monosyllables took -s 

and all others -v (J. Schmidt, K. Z. xxvii. 392). 

If so, \6


The form eupvoira also appears as an Ace., and has accordingly been explained 

from a Nona, evpv-o^. It is improbable however that it is a different 

word from the Nom. Voc. evpvoira. Probably the fact that it had the appearance 

of an Ace. of one of the numerous Compounds in led to an extension 

-oif/ 

of use *. 

97.] Accusative Sing. The Ending 

-a is found after consonants 

and the diphthongs rju, cu ; 

as vrjv-s vfja (for vrjva, vr]Fa), 

(3a(TL\v-s /Sao-tXrjaj TuSev-s Tu8ea f. Otherwise the Ace. takes -v ; 

e. g. TTO'A.I-Z;, lyOv-v, (Bov-v. 

But eupu-s makes cupea in the phrases evpea TTOVTOV, 

the common form being eupu-i>. 

The original Ending is -m, which becomes -v after a vowel and -a (for m} 

after a consonant. The preference for o after rjv, ev is due to the semiconsonantal 

nature of the v in these combinations. 

We may compare the 

Aorists Ktja (for IKTJV-CI), ex va (also x ea )> 

& c -> 

an(l on the other hand e8v-v, 

fV-V. 

Several Stems form the Ace. in -w and also in -iSa : 

epi8a and 

i-piv (Od.), (f)v\o7nba (Od. n. 313) and cfrvXoiTLv, y\auK(o7rt8a 

(II. 8. 373) and y\avK&iriv (Od. I. 156), avd\Ktba and avaXK.iv 

(Od. 3. 375)5 oinba and o-mv, Kvirpiba and Kvirpiv ; OovpivÎpw, 

av\LV) QCTLV. Cp. also \dpL-v (for ^dpiT-a), and Kopv-v (for 

KopvO-a), found in the line II. 13. 131 (=16. 315), 

do-ms ap' d(T7rt5' epetSe, Kopvs Kopvv, avepa 8* avrip. 

In Attic there are many more such forms ; opvw, &c. 

Note that no oxytones form the Ace. in -w. 

The Accusatives Ja-qv (Od. 12. 313), "ApTjv, Mcy-qv are probably formed 

directly from the Nom. C ai 7 

y > "Apys, Me7?;j, on the analogy of Masc. Nouns in 

-TJ-S. 

On the other hand Z-qv (Zeus), (3uiv (jSoGs), are very ancient forms, 

answering to the Sanscr. dydm, gam (Joh. Schmidt in K. Z. xxv. 17) : see 

106, 2. 

A final 8 is lost in the Neut. Pronouns o, TO, TOVTO, Ktlvo, a\Xo 

(Lat. id, is-tud, illucl, aliud), and in r( (Lat. quid) : perhaps also 

in the Personal Pronouns, Ace. Sing. c//e (ju.e),

99-] 

SINGULAR. 83 

98.] Genitive Singular. The Stems in -o form the Gen. in 

-oio, -oo, -ou. Of these forms only -oio and -ou are read in the 

existing- text of Homer; but there are sufficient traces of -oo, 

and indeed several places where it is called for by the metre. 

Thus we must read 

II. 2. 5*8 fte'e? 'lûro 

i5- 66 (=21. 104) 'IXtoo 

22. 313 dypioo, TTpocrOzv de KT\. 

Od. IO. 36 8d)pa Trap' Aio'Aoo 

60 (3fjv ets Aio'Aoo K\VTCL Sahara. 

II. 9. 440, &c. ojuouoo TjroAe'juioio (for ojuouov 

2. 32^ oo /cAeo? OVTTOT dAetrat ) / 

\ 

r\A ' * > f (f r ooi; )- 

Ud. I. 

7O 00 ^ 

KpCLTOS (TK jJ,yi(rTOV ) 

II. 2. 73 1 'AflncAqvfoq 8vo TratSe. 

15. 554 aV\l/tOO KTCLJJulvOLO. 

5. 21 a8eA

84 DECLENSION. [99*. 

The Dat. of Neuters in -as was commonly written -a ; 

but the 

a is long1 

anomalous, and -at is now read by La Roche from good 

MSS. (in o-e'Aat, /cepat). 

The forms in -a appear to have become 

established in later Greek (Hdn. II, 316, 10, ed. Lentz). 

Stems in -i, Gen. -1-09, form the Dat. in -t, as KO'ZH, /oirjrt, 

fjida-TL, Kvrjo-Ti, ert, re/xecrcrt (with v. 1. z;e//,eo-

102.] PLURAL. 85 

Stems in -u, Gen. -eos, have only -eas in Homer : 

except 

7roAs, read by Zenodotus in II. 2. 4, perhaps in other places (II. i. 

559-> I 3- 734-, i5- 66 20. 

-> 313., 2,1. 59, 131, Od. 3. 262., 4.1 70), 

where the MSS. have -rroAe'as or TroAeis. 

The MS. of Schol. A in II. 2. 

4 gives iroXels as read by Zen., but the context 

shows that the true reading of the scholium is iroXvs. But there is no trace 

of this form in any of the other places. 

The Personal Pronouns have ^/xeas (once rjâs), vâs, o-êas 

(once creeds encl., II. 5. 567), as well as ajtx/xe, #/a,//,e, o-(/>e. 

The 

forms in -as are later, the result of adding the common ending of 

the Ace, Plur. : see on the Ace. Sing. 

101.] Genitive Plural. Stems in -ci(v]) 

and -d form the Gen. 

Plur. in -au^, less 

commonly -ewy. The -ea)z> is generally scanned 

and after a vowel is written -, 

as KAi(ri-, irapei-Qv, 

SKCU-WZJ v(f)aXi-Qv} 

(cp. the Gen. Sing, in -do, -ew). 

The Pronominal Stems rjfAc-, UJJLC-, a(J>e- form êicoz/ and T^jtieW, 

and vfjiecov, oxêtW oxêcoz; (encl.) and ax^wz;. 

These forms are plausibly explained by supposing that originally 

the Gen. was in -eto, as in the Singular. Then 

were assimilated to the Gen. Plur. in -


Case, and then combined with other Stems; hence 

o-u-eo-at, &c. Thus forms like eTre-eo-at (for e7reo--eKD7rerd 

(II. 8. 42): but Fern. Trpo^cweWe, TrA^yez^re (of two goddesses, II. 

8. 378, 455); 

The Genitive and Dative Ending in all Nouns is -ouV, as 

7To5-otti;, faiT-ouv. The contracted form -oik and the Fern, -cu^ 

do not occur. The Personal Pronouns have : 

i. Nom. Ace. v&'i, vv (v&'iv 

II. 16. 99, aQwiv Od. 23. 52?); 

Gen. Dat. vQ'iv. 

2. Nom. Ace. o-^wt, or^w; Gen. Dat. a

105.] CONTRACTION, &C. 87 

vav-(f)iv, (vyo-î, /3i??-), Lat. si-6i. These are relics of an original 

Instrumental Case. 

105.] Contraction, &c. The loss of i, u and o- between vowels 

94) does not generally lead to contraction in the Homeric 

ialect : note that 

S!J 

1. The Dat. Sing, of Stems in -e, cp. II. 7. 153 Odpve'i o>). 

17. 647 ev Se ai Kal oktcraov (read ev $ae'i). 

2 3- 5 J 5 ^ rt TX 

t 

7 e (read ov ra\d ye). 

^3. 639 7rA?j0ei (read -nXrjOvl). 

Also o5et, Dat. of oi!6aj (II. 5/734., 8. 385., 14. 467., 17. 92., 

23. 719., 24. 527), for which read ov5at or ovba ( 99). 

2. The combinations -ea, -eo, -cw are often scanned as one 

syllable by < Synizesis/ as foot (II. I. 18), o-aKea (II. 4. 113), 

(II. 7. 207, &c.) ; so with the Pronouns ^/xeas, vjuteas, (T{as. 

In II. i. 1 8 u//" 

/ 

A"" ^6 i Sorey 'O\vfjuria d&paT' Zxovrfs the word Ocoi is not 

certain, since 'Q\vp.ina Swftar' 6X OVTS ^G lords of Olympus is used as a Substantive, 

and 0e of is therefore unnecessary (Fick, Ilias p. 75). 

3. The Gen. Sing, has -eus for -e-os in a few words ; 

Odpo-fvs, Otpevs, OdiJiptvs chiefly aira etpqjue'va. It is probably 

better to write -cos and admit Synizesis. 

On -eu in [j.v, rev, tv, TV see 378*. 

4. Nouns with Stems in -eeo- (as KAe'o?, 6eos) and some Nouns 

in -ds are liable to ' Hyphaeresis/ or dropping a vowel before 

another vowel : as KAe'a (for KAee-a), and so bv(TK\ta, d/cAe'a, 

aKAe-e? ; vr)\r}S, lAjXA", i/qAea (Neut. Sing. z/rjAees) ; êo^Sri?, êovSea 

(for Oeo-bFris god-fearing), vnepbta (II. 17. 330); yepa, 6e7ra, Kepa, 

Kpea, (r


9. 334, Od. 4. 66). Kp4a occurs in the phrase Kpea ISfiei/cu, and in one or two 

other places before a vowel ; 

but more frequently it is followed by a consonant, 

and is to be scanned icpcS or icpca (necessarily so in Od. 9. 347, where it ends 

the line). Possibly the a is shortened by the analogy of the ordinary Neut. 

Plur. forms in -a (Meyer, G. G. p. 348). Or, as is now maintained by Joh. 

Schmidt (Pluralb. p. 321 ff.), Kpta, ffpa, &c. are stems in -a, originally distinct 

from the corresponding stems in -So-, and are therefore properly Singular, but 

capable of being used in a collective sense. On this view fcpta meant flesh, 

icpeaa pieces of flesh: cp. prjpa and fjirjpoi ( 99*). Schmidt does not admit 

hyphaeresis in most of these words, holding that it 

only occurred when three 

vowels came together in the oldest Greek: so that (e.g.} 

we may have 5tct 

for 8fefa (5fetff-a), but not Aea for KXefea. 

5. There are also several contracted forms from Stems in -ceowhich 

offer some difficulty 

: 

d/cAêis (II. 12. 316), d/cAetws (Od. I. 

2,41., 14. 371), eikAeiois (II. 22. no), eikAeias (II. 10. 281, Od. 

21. 331; al. eikArjas), aycLKXjjos (dyaKAetos Hesych.), Harpo/cAr/os, 

< 

UarpoKAfja, 'HpctKArjos, 'HpaKArJa, HpaK\rj'C ) BatfvKAâ, A60/cA??os, 

AiOKA?ja ; faxpritls, a\peiG>v (also a\pr]&v Hesych.) ; 

Setovs (II. 

IO. 376** 15* 4) ) "^Lovs t ?, 

Dat. TJO'I, 

Ace. f]6a (see 368); at8a>y, Dat. albo'C, Ace. alboa: tfyws, Ace. 

ibpoa (II. 10. 574)- 

-Bu"t the Genitive in -ovs (rjovs, ArfTovs, &c.) 

is required by the metre in several places. Naturally the 

contraction of oo was earlier than that of two unlike sounds, as 

01, oa. See L. Meyer, Decl. 23. 

106.] Variation of the Stem. The phonetic influence of 

the Ending on the form of the Stem, which plays so large a part 

in the inflexion of Non-Thematic Tenses, was originally no less 

important in the Nouns. In Sanscrit a Nominal Stem of the 

consonantal Declension appears in general in at least two forms,

106] STEM VARIATION. 89 

a ' strong 3 and a 'weak' form; the strong form being- used in 

the Nom. and Ace. Sing, and Dual and the Nom. Plur., the 

weak form in other Cases. The weak form, again, may have 

two degrees, which are then called the ' weak ' or ' middle ' and 

the ' weakest ' form. A few traces of these variations remain 

in the Greek Declension : 

1. In the words of relationship, 7rar?jp, pjrr}/), &c. and in avrip. 

Thus we find Nom. iron-rip, 

Ace. mirep-a, but Gen. irarp-os (irarep-os 

only Od. II. 500), Dat. narp-L (sixty times in Homer, Trare'p-t 

thrice) ; PITTJP, Ace. jutryrepa (only), Gen. and Dat. jurjrp-o's, /uqrp-f, 

less 

commonly firjrep-os, /xTjrep-t. &vr\p uses avtp- and avdp- (for 

avp-) almost promiscuously ; 

the latter is also seen in the Dat. 

PL avSpa-a-i (for avbp-


to Nouns 

107.] Heteroclite Nouns. This term is applicable that employ distinct Stems. The chief variations are 

1. Between the vowel Declension (Stems in -o and -a, -77) 

and 

the corresponding consonantal forms : 

bLTTTVÔ-S ', 

ACC. biTTTV)(-a. 

pir]po-s ; 

Plur. epiTjp-e?, epfyp-ay. 

(avbpaTTobo-v post-Horn.) ; Dat. Plur. avbpaTrob-eo-an. 

a\Ki] ; 

Dat. aA/c-i. 

va-y.ivTf] 

Dat. 

', va-^lv-i. 

l&Kij ; 

Ace. tok-a. 

'Aibrj-s, Gen. 5 Ai8a-o ; 

also "AiS-o?, Dat. "Ai8-i. 

(or z^) may 

be a Neut. Sing. 

: 

cp. Êolic oTTTrara

107.] 

HETEROCLITE NOUNS. 9! 

ovbas, ov$-os, &c. : so K


The declension of J-pcos, -yeXcos 

and i8pu>s in Homer is open to some doubt ; 

it is clear however that the Stems in -r are post-Homeric. 

Nom. epos occurs in II. 14. 315, Ace. fpov in the phrase e Zpov tvro put away 

desire, Dat. Jlpcp 

in Od. 18. 212 ; 

Nom. epcas is read in II. 3. 442., 14. 294, but 

the metre allows epos in both places, cpur-a occurs first in H. Merc. 449. 

Nom. -ycXws occurs in II. i. 599, Od. 8. 326, 343, 344: in the two last 

passages (in the Song of Demodocus) the metre is rather against -ycXos. The 

Dat. ycXcp occurs in Od. 18. 100 (most MSS. -ycXco) ; 

the Ace. -y^Xov or -yeA" in 

Od. 1 8. 350., 20. 346 (MSS. ye\Q}v, y\ov, and ye\a}). Thus the word may be 

either yA.o-s (Gen. -ou) or "y*Xo>s, Ace. ytXco (for yt\u>-a or y*Xo-a) 

: 

cp. aiSw 

for aidoa. The Stem ye\off- appears in yeXoios, cp. aidoios, ijofos. 

From ISpus we have Ace. IdpSi ; 

but this must be read I8p6a in one place 

(II. 10. 574 fSpcD TroAAoV at the end of the line), and always maybe so read. 

The Dat. is ISpy (II. 17. 385, 745), possibly to be written ISpoi. Hence I8pws is 

probably like XP^S - 

Two other Case-forms of this type are Ixw (H. 5. 416), Ace. of ix&P, and 

KVK6LW (II.) or KVKO> (Od.), Ace. of KVKthv. Cp. also auo (Aesch. fr. 413), Ace. 

of ai&v. 

The history of all these instances is very similar. The original Stem ended 

with a spirant (commonly o-), the loss of which in the oblique Cases caused 

hiatus (-oos, -01, -oa, &c.) 

: then these forms were replaced by adopting Stems 

in -T and -v. Cp. 114*, 6-8. 

1O8.] Heteroclite Pronouns. The following points remain 

to be noticed : 

1. The stems CJAC (jxe) 

and ee, e do not form a Nom. Sing. 

It is evident that the original Nom. coalesced at a very early period with 

the Stem of the Verb, becoming the ending -|xi ; just as the French je has 

ceased to be used except in a fixed place before the Verb, so that it is hardly 

a separate word. 

In the Plural also the Nom. was not originally formed from the same Stems 

as the oblique Cases. Both a/i/ze-s, vfj.fj.e-s 

and i7/ie-es, u/xe-cs are comparatively 

late, and due to the analogy of the Nominal declension (Meyer, G. G. p. 388). 

2. The Interrogative and Indefinite rts is declined from three 

Stems_, viz. 

(1) TI-, giving Neut. ri (for also the Plur. Neut. traceable 

rt'6), 

in aa-a-a (for a TLO). 

The Indef. aoxra occurs in Od. 19. 318 6777:01' 

aoraa, where it would be better to write oTTTrotd Va-a (for ria). 

(2) re-, giving Gen. re'o, rev (cp. e/xeo, &c.), Dat. reo), rw 1 (II. 

6. 

227, H. Apoll. 170). 

Gen. reW (eo>)_, 

Dat. in 6-reotcrt (eot), II. 15. 491. 

(3) rw ~> &i vin Ace. ff riv-a, Dat. (very rarely) riv-i, Plur. Nom. 

(only in the Od.). 

have been originally a derivative, introduced to mean head when rtepas had 

come to be limited to the sense of horn. From it again Kaprj-aros, &c. were obtained 

by analogy.

109.] 

ADVERBS. 93 

In the Compound OO--TLS the first part is sometimes declined as 

09, rjf, o, sometimes undeclined, giving- o-rtj, o-rev, &c. The Neut. 

Plur. is once O-TIV-CL 22. (II. 450), usually oVo-a. 

In the forms with TT, -mr (as o'rrt, 077770) we have s) to recognise 

the original Neuter 08 (Sanscr. yad ). 

Thus 08 rt becomes or rt 

(not oo-rt, since rt is a distinct word, not a Suffix). 

In orreo, 

which occurs in the Odyssey (i. 124., 17. 121., 22. 377), 68- is 

indeclinable (cp. o-ru), and so in OTTTTCO?, 0777700-09, 677710109, &c. 

For the assimilation we may compare Kab 8e, KQITT trfbiov, &c. (for 

Kar 8e Kar 

3. 

The Article is declined from two Stems : 

6-, Fern, a-, which gives 6, f), ot, at : 

perhaps also cos thus, 

is distinct from the Relatival o>? as. 

if it 

TO-, Fern. rd-, which gives the other Cases, and second forms 

of the Nom. Plur. rot, rat : also the Adverb rws thus. 

The Compound o-8e uses the Stem o- for the forms o-8e, 17-86, 

ot-8e, at-8e, and the Adverb (II. 

10. 462 

and Od.). 

The -8e is enclitic : hence the accent, ?J-8e, 

not ^8e. 

Strictly, therefore, it should be written o 8e, rj 8e, &c. 

The forms tyavTov, vtavrov, &c. are post- Homeric. The earliest 

instance of a Compound of this kind is the word !aur?j, in Hes. 

Th. 216. 

Adverbial Suffixes. 

109.] The Suffixes employed 

in Homer to form Adverbs are 

as follows : 

-0t expresses the place where : the chief instances are from 

Pronouns and Prepositions, ro'-0i, o-0t, iro-0i, av-di, avro-di, Ktl-Qi 

(e/cet-0t only Od. 17. 10), lre'pw-01, eKao-ro-^t, aAXo-^t, e'/cro-tft, 

e^8o-^t, a7ro-7rpo-^t, tyo-Qi, tyyv-Oi ; 

from Nouns, veto-^t, 6ripr]-0i, 

(Od. 14. 352), ot/co-01, jiS>-di, ovpavo-6i, Krypo'-^t; 'IXto'-^t, KopivOo- 

Oi, 'A/3v8o'-0t. Note that Ket is not found in Homer. 

-6a place ; ev-6a, tvrav-Qa, vTrai-Oa (cp. 

also 8ryâ, yîvvvQa). 

-0e(i') place, from Prepositions ; 

/ 

7rpo cr-ê(r), 

and oTrt- 

O7rto--#e(z>) 

-0ei/ jt?^^

94 DECLENSION. [lIO. 

-TOS place ; h-ros, IK-TO?. Originally, perhaps, it expressed 

the place whence, as Lat. caeli-tus, divini-tus. 

--us, in OLV-TIS back, again (Attic av-Qis). 

-ere place whither ; Tro-o-e, oTTTro'-o-e, Ket-cre, erepco-cre, d/utôre/oo)- 

(T, 6/xo-o-e. 

From Nouns, iravro-a-e, KVK\O-(T. 

-c|>i(f), -4)19, in v6(T-a ?m?^7, lit. meanwhile (II. 8. 58).' 

-Xt, in ??-x l where (lit. which way, Lat. ^). 

-X a ? 

with Numerals; 6t-xa #w0 wtf^s, Tpi-yjn, irlvra-xa,

110.] ADVERBS. 95 

confirmed by the forms a, OTTO, d\\q, itavra on Doric inscriptions (Ahrens, 

ii. 369). In Homer however the final vowel of irdvrr) (or -77) is frequently 

shortened before another vowel, which is rarely done in the case of final -T) 

( 380). It is not unlikely therefore that the original Instrum. Fern. -TJ 

took 

iota subscr. from the analogy of the Dat. Fern, in -TJ. 

There were also Doric 

adverbs of place in -TJ 

or ^ (7717 TTOKO., l/carf/^, see Ahrens, ii. 362, Brugmann, 

M. V. ii. 244), in which is of course 

t\ 

pan-Hellenic but Ionic 

; 7777, &c. are 

connected by the meaning with the Doric forms in -a. Cp. also XdOpij (-77) 

with Attic XaOpa (or -a). The form itavr-rj is an extension of the ending -TJ 

to the consonantal declension (as with the adverbs in -cos). 

-i, -i time, manner ; avro-vv\-i (or -t) 

that very night, II. 8. 

197; Tpi-, Kar-co, Trporep-co {further on), e/caoWp-a), eKao-rar-a> {farther^ 

farthest^), dcro-orep-a) nearer. 

Two others are Adverbs of manner, &-b, OVT-M (for which 

is only written when a vowel follows in the same sentence).

96 DECLENSION. [lIO. 

The ending -cos has long been considered to be the Greek form of the 

original Ablatival -6t (Lat. -od) of o- stems In Greek, however, a final -d 

would disappear (as in aAAo, Lat. aliu-d, &c.) and consequently the theory 

applies only to the forms without -s, viz. cD8e and ovrca. The difficulty was 

met by Curtius (Curt. Stud. x. 219) with the suggestion that -T would pass into 

-s before a dental or cr : e. g. ovrcas

III.] ACCENT. 97 

avrrjv (avTiov, tvavTiov, &c.) opposite, itaXiv backwards, brjpov long, 

(T^b(j\v hand to hand, aâbi^v openly, aitpiarriv without purchase; 

perhaps also ay\t near, in/a aloft, ia>). 

The 

nature of this -s is obscure. Brugmann (K. Z. xxiv. 74) connects 

it with the -s of the Prepositions ef, w\ry d/x

98 DECLENSION. [lI2. 

The second group consists of 

(i) Nouns with monosyllabic Stem, as TTOUS, 1708-0'?, irob-'i, 

TOS-WV, TTOCTvl', KUWI>, KVV-OS, KVV-i, KVV-&V, KlKTi; 6rjp, 

Orjp-i, 077p-, O-rjp-a-L. 

(3) The words iranr/p, /^TT}/), dvydr^p, avrjp, yavrrip Gen. 

; 

Trarp-oj, /xrjrp-o'?, fluyarp-o'j, avbp-os, yaa-rp-os &c. 

The accent of ^rrjp and Ovydrrjp is anomalous : cp. the Accusatives 

fj-rjTtp-a, 6vyarep-a. Probably the Nom. Sing, was 

originally oxytone. The change of accentuation may be explained 

by supposing that the Nom. was influenced by the accent 

of the Vocative that in fact the Voc. pro tanto took the place 

of the Nom. (cp. 96). 

It is evident that the Voc. of these words 

would be especially familiar to the ear. 

The Dat. ending -eom never takes the accent ; 

hence Tro'5-ecro-t, 

r?5-eo-o-t, avSp-ta-a-i, K.vv-(r

IT3-] NOUN FORMATION. 99 

CHAPTER VI. 

FORMATION OF NOUNS. 

113.] 

Nominal Stems. Some Nouns are formed with Stems 

identical with Verb-Stems ; Trrv^-es folds (TTTTÔ-O-CO for -Tiri^-to)), 

o-n'x-e? ranks (o-reixco, e-o-rt^-oi;), A.o' flame (ojAeyo)), Trrok-a 

cowering (777-77 o-o-co, -7rraK-o^), 8co house, for 8a>//, cp. Sa- (dm) in 

6), pa>y-a? clefts, 

openings (pr\y-vvî), 0a>? jackal (0ea>), 

O7r-a tw'00 (Ft*-), pt, 6p(, 

2r?j. In these Nouns the Stem is usually either in the weak 

form or in the O-form ( 38). 

Originally the Stem was long (and accented) in the Nom. and Ace., weak 

(with the accent on the Case-Ending) in the Gen. and Dat. Instances of this 

variation have been given in 106 ; cp. 114*. 

Commonly however a Nominal Stem is formed from a Verb- 

Stem by means of one or more Suffixes, which we may call 

Nominal Suffixes. These are of two kinds : 

j. Primary, by which Nouns are formed from Verb-Stems ; 

as -o in ay-o'-s leader, -TI in (a-rt-s saying. Nouns so formed 

are called Primitive (sometimes Verbal : but this term is better 

known in a more restricted sense, 84). 

2. Secondary, by which Nouns are formed from other Nouns ; 

-eu in iTTTr-ev-j horseman. These Nouns 

as -10 in Si/ca-io-s- just, 

are called Denominative. 

The Suffixes which mark the Feminine Gender might be 

classified as Secondary thus 

; 

the Stem KaXrj- might be said to 

be formed by a fresh suffix from KaXo-, the Stem S/^reipa- (for 

bfjLT]-Tp-La) from 8/0177 -rep-, &c. But it is more convenient to 

treat the Feminine Endings as mere inflexions, along with 

the corresponding Masc. forms. 

In the same way we might treat Suffixes like -rpo (in Irj-rpo-s 

healer, apo-Tpo-v plough) as compounded of -TTJP or -Tp (tTj-TTJp 

healer, apo-TTJp ploughman), and a secondary -o. Practically, 

however, -rpo is a single Primary Suffix : and this applies also 

to -fjii/o (in ptXt-^vo-v dart), which might be resolved into fxo + ev + o, 

and to many similar cases. H 2

100 NOUN FORMATION. [114. 

Primitive Noiins. 

114.] Primary Suffixes. The form of the Verb-Stem in 

Primitive Nouns is liable to the same variations as in the Tenses 

(38). 

It will be seen that these variations are connected with 

the accent ; 

but this part of the subject will be best treated 

separately ( 115). 

The chief Primary Suffixes are as follows : 

-0, Fern, -a, -77 ; 

the Verb-Stem taking- three forms 

(i) The weak form; as ay-6-s leader, vy-6-v yoke, $vy-r\ 

flight: with reduplication, layj\ (Fi-Fa^-^) cry, I-OTO-S (ora-) web. 

(3) The O-form ; 

as TOK-O-S (re/c-) offspring, dpcoy-o-j (ap7?y-a)) 

er, (nrovb-r) ((nrv$-u>) libation, 'noT-r] flight, por] flow. 

(3) Attic reduplication as 

; ay-coy-rj leading, OLKCO/CTJ point, 80)877 

"*~" 

sight, d8co8rj smell. 

as o>. 

The radical vowel appears 

-i : as rp6(j)-L (rpe$-co) thick, Tpoir-i-s keel of a ship, 

understanding (with the Verb-Stem in the O-form). 

-ia : seldom with Stems of clearly Verbal meaning, as in (frvfr 

(tyvy-ia) flight,

II4-] PRIMARY SUFFIXES. IOI 

Note however that in Homer the Substantive is 0dpo-os (for which dpaaos 

occurs only once, II. 14. 416), the Adj. always flpao-us ; 

so that a distinction of 

quantity is kept up in place of the original distinction between * Oepffos and 

Opaavs. On Olpaos as the original Greek form see Osthoff, M. U. ii. 49. 

t and o appear in these Stems as in the Present tense ( 29) : 

e.g. ply-os cold, \l/v-^-os warmth, Kvb-os glory. 

-wcr, -oo-; in ^cos (Sanscr. ush-ds) dawn, albas shame, and in 

the older declension of ye'AoK, 16/50)9, ol&v, t'xwp ( 107 ad fin.). 

The Stem is probably in the weak form ; 

see 30. 

-a, -w, -ov, -wi> : e. g. Tep-rjv, Gen. -V-os (retpco) soft, apa--r]v 

male, av^-r\v neck ; ire-ir-ov (Voc.) tender one, apriy-ov-es defenders, 

TKTO)v, ', 

7Tpi-KTiovs ayK-tov, Gen. -&V-OS eluow, ayvv, aWojv. 

Fern, -aim (-az^-ta), 

in Xeatâ imitated : 

by way of sarcasm in 

et-aiva 8. (II. 5). 

-IT, -on-, in Participles, and in a few Substantives, as bpaK-u>v 

a serpent, lit. the ' staring ' animal (8epK-o/xdt), Ttv-av, ytpw. 

-ar, in oblique Cases of Neuter Nouns as (vba>p), vbar-os, &c. 

The a of this Suffix represents the weak form of a nasal syllable ; 

see 38, and 1 14*, 8, c. 

-O.VT, notably in Compounds, as aK.aâs, abacas, Tro\vT\as. 

-a.v, in rd\as, fxeAas : perhaps originally Stems in -avr, which 

have followed the analogy of -ei>, -ov (Meyer, G. G. p. 304). 

-6Q, -wp) -ap; as arjp (aF-^p) air, alO-r]p (aW-u>) bright sky, 

ba-rip husband's brother (levir) ; e'A-cop booty, vb-ap water ; /ua/c-ap 

great (II. 

II. 68), eap spring. 

-op in the Homeric aop sivord, ^rop breast is perhaps only the 

Êolic form of -ap (-r). 

As to the Nom. and Ace. Neut. forms 

in -wp see 114*, 8, d. 

-CO, -k is very rare in Greek as a Primary Suffix : B 

ragman n 

gives epetV-ta ruins and (post-Horn.) ay-tos, orrvy-ios, o-ây-iov, 

irdy-ios. 

We may add ra^-ir] dispenser, irev-ir] 'poverty 

: also bios 

(biF-io-s) bright, irefos (7re8-) 

on foot, Kpab-trj (nyp 

for Kr/p-8) heart, 

in which the Stem is a Root-Noun. 

The word d-oo-cnr)-Tif|p helper pre-supposes a Stem ocro-o- for aoK-io-, answering 

to Latin soc-iu-s (seq-, Gr. ITT-). 

In aAAos (al-ius}, peaaos (medius), 8ei6s the Suffix appears to give the force of 

a Comparative : see Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 63, p. 125.


-iodr, -too-, -ur : the Comparative Suffix, as TrXeco (7rXe-too--a) 

TrXeio-Tos (7rXe-ia--ros) 

: see 114*, J. 

-Fo : Kivo$ (Ktv-Fos) empty, ovXos (oX-fos) whole, Xai-os Icterus, 

6p96s ard-uus. 

-F*v, -Fov, -Fuv, -Fv : 

iriaivfat, alvv age, life (Loc. attv, see 99), 

a-TTip(t>v (d-Trep-Ftov, cp. TTtipaivo) for Trep-f^-tco) -Ftv appears in 

: 

the Inf. in -tv-ai, as dbtvai for Fib-Fev-cu, ( 84). 

-fwo-, -for, Fern, -met; in the Pf. Part., and in the Nouns 

6py-via fathom, apir-via storm-wind, ay-tna street. 

-Fap ', 

as map (for Ttl-Fap) fatness, oveiap (6vr]-Fap ?) help, et8ap 

(eb-Fap) food, etA.ap shelter, &c. ; -fep in Tueipa, Fern, of Tiiavfat. 

The ancient grammarians noticed that the Stem before -a/> is 

long (Herodian ii. 769 ed. Lentz). 

-JUiO ', 

with the O-form, as TTOT-JUO-S (irer-) fall, Kop-jmo 

torc/, oX-juo-j (êX-) 

rolling stone, pcox-jôs (/5r?y-) ^?^%. 

-jxi ; 

in (j)TJ-iJiL-s report, bvva-fja-s power. 

-\tiv in priy-fuv beach on which the waves break, Dat. v 

also Nom. vo-îvr]. 

fght : 

-jj.6^, -fA.o^ -jjiwi' ; TTvO-fjLrjV (Gen. -/iez/-os) base, avr-priv breath, 

\L[jLrjv haven, TTOL^V shepherd, 8et-/xo)z; (-JJLOV-OS) fearing, fjivrj-jJiav 

mindful, r\-^v shooter, rep-paw end, Orj-p&v-a (Ace.) a heap. 

Also the Infinitives in -jxey-ai (Dat.) and -jxek (Loc.) 

: see 84. 

-fjiar as 

; 8et-jua, Gen. -/xar-o?, /mr, orojua ^^^ &c. 

Of these Suffixes -^v and -JJLCIT go with the strong form of 

the Stem, -y.w with the weak form. 

With -o, -YJ 

are formed -fxei/o (in Participles), and -jjô, -\LVT\, 

as 

(3t\-iJivo-v a dart, Xi-^vn] a marsh ; 

-jxyd (-pv-ia), in ptpi-^va care. 

fiwp ; 

as TK-fj.ap and roc-juuop device ; -p*po, in t-j 

-ZÔ, -oô ; 

as 8et-ro-s fearful, TIT^-VOS flyina, T^-VTJ art, TTOI-VTI 

atonement ; o\-avo-?v handle, bpeiravr] sic&le, Tpvir-avov auger, o-re'

114.] 

PRIMARY SUFFIXES. 103 

-ex, -IJT : Acc. apy-er-a white (II. 21. 127), also apyfjra (II. 8. 

133), Dat. dpye'rt and dpyrjri (II. II. 818), KeX-^s, AeJQ-rjs. 

-7*0 ; 

found with Stems 

(1) In the O-form, as KGI-TO-?, KOL-TY] (/cet-^cu) /air, (j)6p-ro-v 

burden, VOCT-TO-S going,, return (pco/mat 

for 

rc) 

thunder. 

(2) In the weak form, as o-ra-ro-s stalled, bpa-To-s flayed ; 

aK-T?j beach; 6e/c-r?]-s beggar, irapai-fia-Trj-s. 

For the use of -TO to form Superlatives and Ordinal Numerals 

see 121 and 130. 

-T6, -o-i j generally with the weak Stem, as

104 NOUN FORMATION. [U4*- 

Similarly from Verb-Stems with the suffix -T we have Aat-r-fta 

gulf (cp. XCLL-JJLOS throat), av-r-pri breath, also dv-r-jju^v (root av-), 

p-r-fji6s oar, e-e-r-/z?j injunction. 

114*. Variation of Suffixes. 

1. 

Primary Suffixes were originally liable to variation of 

the kind already noticed ( 106). 

From the Sanscrit declension, 

in which the variation is preserved with singular fidelity, it 

appears that a Suffix in general has three different forms or 

degrees of quantity, called by Sanscrit grammarians the strong, 

the middle, and the weakeit form. Just as in the declension of 

dyaus, Gr. Zevj, we find (T) dyau- in the Nom., (2) dyau- in the 

Loc. dyav-i (Lat. 

Jovi for diev-i), 

and (3) div- or diu- in other 

' 

Cases, so in dd-ta 'giver we have (i) 

-tar- in the Ace. dd-tdr-am, 

(2) -far- in the Loc. dd-tdr-i, and (3) 

-tr- in the Dat. dd-tr-e, 

Instrum. dd-tr-a. 

Similarly we have the series -dr, -dr, -r ; -man, -man, -mn ; 

-van, -van, -vn ; -an, -an, -n, &c. : the rule being that the first 

or strong form contains a long vowel, which in the second is 

short, and in the third disappears altogether. 

In the combinations -va, -ia the a is lost and the semivowel 

becomes a vowel, thus giving -u, -i. 

2. In Greek we find the same Suffixes as in Sanscrit, with the 

further distinction that the vowel may be tj 

or , -pov, -\w\v, -per, -pv 

(-jua, -fJiav) ; -wa, -op-os, the second in 6a>-ra)/>, -rop-os, 

to the exclusion of the original ^/xrjo-rp-o's, *Sa>rp-o'j, &c. The 

* 

weakest ' form, however, often appears in derivatives e. ; g. 

TrotjueV-05, iroifjiv-r] : dci/xwz;, 8ei/xoz;-o9, Sei/xatrco (for -pav-iut, 

: 

Ofpdirtov, Fern. Ocpatrv-rj, also Otpa-naiva (for -TTV-LO) : 

larp-os : vbu>p, vbp-o$ : re'K-/u, (-fxw^ -Fw), -wp 5 (-Twp), &c. 

to -T^, -JJ-TJI/, -Fi]v, -T)p, -TT)p, &c. has been the subject of much 

controversy. It is generally agreed 

that the difference is not 

original, but arises in each case by differentiation from a single

JI4*.] 

VARIATION OF SUFFIXES. 

form. Probably it is due to shifting of accent, the Suffixes with 

T] being generally accented, while those with w are found in 

barytone words. Thus we have the pairs orr\p 

and 6&>ro>p, 

pj]Ti]p and prjrcop, fiorrjpts and /3corope?, Trarrjp but ^parcop, also 

Lat. sor-or (Sanscr. svdsa). In composition, too, the loss of 

accent is regularly accompanied by the change from tj, e to w, o : 

Trarrjp, /^rpo-Trarcop ; ^//.rjrijp, Trav-bafJidraip ; avrip, v-^voop ; v, &c. Many exceptions, however, remain unexplained. 

4. The Nouns of Relationship (the group Trar^p &c.) with one 

or two similarly inflected words (aorrjp, yaorTJp) 

are distinguished 

from the Nouns of the Agent in -rr]p (-ro>p) by the use of the 

shorter form -rep in the Accusative: 7rarep-a, Sanscr. pitdr-am^, 

but 6orr;p-a, Sanscr. ddtar-am. Similarly among Stems in -n 

apcrrjv, apatv-a answer to Sanscr. vfsh-a, vrshan-am (instead 

of -dn-am). This peculiarity has been explained as the result 

of an original difference of quantity. That is to say, the form 

pitar (Gr. irarep-) has been taken to be the strong Stem, because 

it is the Stem of the Ace. If so, the TJ 

of the Nom. has to 

be explained as due to the analogy of the -yjp of 8or?jp, &c. 

But this view cannot well be reconciled with the fact that 

the Stem pitar- occurs not only in the Ace. pitdram but also 

in the Loc. pitdr-i. The Loc. is a Case which regularly takes 

the middle Stem; cp. ddtar-am, Loc. ddtdr-i, dcmdn-am, Loc. 

dgman-i. Hence we must recognise a group of Stems in -r and 

-n forming the Ace. with the middle form. Thus the original 

declension would be (e. g.}, Strong form, Nom. Tra-rrjp, 

Middle 

form, Ace. -jra-rep-a, Loc. 7ra-rep-t, Voc. ira-rep, Weakest form, 

Gen. Tra-rp-os. 

The cause of this difference in the treatment 

of the Accusative has still to be found *. 

5. The Stems in -ant, -mant, -vant } (Gr. -ovr, &c.) interchange 

with shorter forms in -at, -mat, -vat, Gr. -ar, -jmaT, -Far. 

In Greek the Suffix -OVT is used to form the Part. Pres,, as 

tpovT-a. The chief trace of -ar is the Doric eWo-a (e

106 NOUN FORMATION. [lI4*. 

-v(T-ia) seem to represent the original gradation ; 

but the T of 

the Masc. and Neut. oblique cases is peculiar to Greek,, as the 

nasal to Sanscrit. If we suppose a primitive declension (e. g.) 

Fi$-Fu>s, Ace. Fib-F^xr-a, Gen. Ftb-vcros, &c. this might become 

Ace. Fib-F6ar-a, Gen. Fi$-F6cr-os, &c. (by the same levelling which 

we have in bu>-T(*>p, 

Ace. 6co-rop-a, Gen. 8a>-rop-os), then Ace. 

Fti-Fo-a, Gen. Fib-Fo-os &c. At this stage the endings -oY-oj, 

-o'r-a &c. may have been introduced through analogy perhaps 

of the Pres. Part. However this 

may be, this is one of several 

instances in Nominal Declension of T creeping in to form a Stem 

for the oblique Cases. 

7. A Suffix which originally was closely parallel to the -fco? 

of the Pf . is to be seen in the -Iw or -IWK of the Comparative ; 

Sanscr. -yams, -yas, (-is), 

Greek -wv, -toy, -to- (in -LCT-TOS). 

Here 

the v, 

in spite of the Sanscr. nasal, is as difficult to explain 

as the T of the Pf . However the older endings -o-a, -o-cs (for 

-oa-a, -OCT-CS) are preserved in the Ace. Sing. Masc. and Nom. 

and Ace. Plur. Neut. (d/xetVco for aîv-ocr-a), and the Nom. 

Plur. (afjiivovs } &c.). In the Latin -ior, -ior-is, &c. there is no 

trace of a nasal. We may compare the variation in atcor, 

KVKZUV (107 ad Jin}*. 

8. Heteroclite forms occur when different Suffixes are brought 

into a single declension. In particular 

(a) Suffixes ending in -v interchange with Suffixes in -p. 

Thus we find TTIODV, Gen. KIOV-OS fat, but Fern. irUipa (irl-Fep-ia) 

and the Neut. Substantive iriap fatness. Also xeijutou, 

but 

XLfjip-Los. (Cp. the ~La,t. femur, femin-is, &nd.jec-ur, jecin-or-is, 

which is for an older jecin-is.) 

(#) Similarly along with TJWS we have yep-Los at dawn, and the 

Adv. ripi (Sanscr. 

ushas and ushdr). 

(e) Final T is introduced in the Suffix; as in fjira-T-os (for 

f)irv-T-os, cp. the Sanscr. yakrt, Gen. yakn-as, and the other 

* 

The suffixes of the Pf. Part. Act. and the Comparative have lately been 

the subject of much controversy: see Brugmann, K. Z, xxiv. 79 ff., Grundr. 

!35j "36, pp. 403, 417 Joh. 

; Schmidt, K. Z. xxvi. 341 ff., 378 ff., Pluralb. p. 

157 ; Collitz, Bezz. Beitr. x. 25, 63. The chief difficulty lies in the nasal of the 

Sanscrit strong Cases. Such a gradation as -vons (or -vens), -ves, -us, or -ions, 

-ios (or ies), -is, is unexampled. Joh. Schmidt takes the nasalised forms 

(Sanscr. -vdms-, -lams') as his point of departure, but has been unable to explain 

-is to the satisfaction of other scholars. Those who assume a 

-vas, -ias, -us, 

primitive -vos, -ids have hitherto been equally unsuccessful in accounting for 

The explanation of the r of -OT-OS, &c. is 

Sanscr. -vams, -iams and Greek -J.GOV. 

also difficult, but there it is at least certain that it is of secondary origin. It 

is to be noted that the traces of -uxr in the Comparative are confined to strong 

Cases, as Ace. Sing. -o

1 15.] 

ACCENT. 107 

Neuters in -ap, -wp, Gen. -dr-os, as Tretpap, -arc? (for Trep-fap, 

-Fv-T-o$) : 

also in Neuters in -pd, Gen. -jadr-os (for -fxy-T-os). 

(d) It is probable that the Neuters in -wp viz. #co/>, e'Acop, 

n-e'Awp, eeAScop, reK/jia>p, vvKTup (Ace. used adverbially) were 

originally Collective or Abstract nouns (Joh. Schmidt, Pluralb. 

p. 193). 

On this view waters tfScop (Germ, gewdsser) is properly 

a different word from the stem *vba or *vbap which we infer 

from the oblique Cases : 

is 

re'/c/xcop originally a Collective or 

Abstract from re/cjuap 

: and similarly e'Acop, eeAScop, Tre'Aoop, vvnTap 

(cp. vvKTp-is), which only occur in the Nom. Ace., are nouns 

formed like xei/zcoz; (xei//a), 

atScos (atSeo-- 

in aiSeojutat, av-aibris), 

ye'Ao)? (yeAao-- in yeAaco), &c. When #5cop, &c. were brought into 

use as Nominatives answering to Neuter oblique Cases, they 

naturally followed these in respect of gender. Cp. 

1 10 (adfin.). 

115.] Accentuation. The accent is often connected with the 

form of the Suffix, and sometimes varies with the meaning. 

But the rules that can be given on this subject are only 

partial. 

1. Stems in -o are generally oxytone when they denote an 

agent, barytone when they denote the thing done ; e. g. (ôpo-s 

bearer, but $o'po-s that which is brought ; dyo-j leader, dpcoyo-s 

helper, O-KOTT-OS watcher, rpoô-s nurse, TOKO-S offspring. 

But 

ro/xo-s pasture, Aotyo-s pestilence (perhaps thought of as an 

agent, ' 

destroyer''). 

2. Stems in -rj 

are generally oxytone, but there are many 

exceptions (as 8tK-r;, jutax.-^). 

3. Most stems in -18, and all in -a8, are oxytone. But those 

which admit an Ace. in -iv are all barytone. 

4. Adjectives in -u-s are oxytone; except Ofj\-v-s arid the 

isolated Fern. 0aAeia. Substantives in -u-s are mostly oxytone ; 

but see 116, 4. 

5. Neuters with Stems in -eo- (Nom. Ace. -05) are barytone, 

but Adjectives in -rjs, 

and Fern. Nouns in -&>s, 

Gen. -oos, are 

oxytone. 

6. Nouns in -rjp 

and -t\v 

are oxytone, except juTJrryp, Bvyar-qp 

(but see HI, 2), aparjv, Ttpr)v. 

Nouns in -wp and -WK are mostly barytone, but there are 

many exceptions, esp. the Abstract Nouns in -8wf, the Substantives 

in as -jAwy, baLTv^v, fjyefjLtov, Krê/xwz;, 

and most Nouns 

in -w, Gen. -iovos as 

} ayvv, dy/ccoz;, )(eiju(oi>, reAajuwr. 

7. Stems in -TO with the O-form are barytone, with the weak 

form oxytone e. ; g. KOI-TO-J, VOO--TO-S, but ora-ro'-s, &c. 

8. Stems in are -TT] mostly oxytone. Accordingly the Prim-

I08 NOUN FORMATION. [ll6. 

itive Masculines in -rrj-s, which are Nouns of the Agent, can 

generally be distinguished from the Denominatives in -TTJS 

( 117) : e. g. ayoprjrris a speaker, but vavrris a ship-man. 

9. Abstract Nouns in -TI, -at are barytone in -TU ; oxytone. 

It will be seen that, roughly speaking, when the Verbal Stem is in the 

weak form, the Suffix is accented, and vice versa : also that words with an 

active meaning (applicable to a personal agenf) are oxytone, those with a 

passive meaning (expressing the thing done) are barytone. 

116.] Gender. The Gender of Nouns is determined in most 

cases by the Suffix. The following rules do not apply to Compounds, 

as to which see 125. 

1 . Stems in -o are Masc. or Neut., with some exceptions, as 

obos, arapiros, KeAeuflos, vrjaos, (frrjyos, aju/TreAo?, vocros, ratypos, 

\lsf)(pos, 0-77080?, \l/dij,a8os, pa/35o?, SOKO'J, pivos, TT/OO'-XOOJ. 

In 

these the change of gender seems to be due to the meaning. 

K\VTOS is used as a Fern, in II. 2. 

742 K\VTOS 'iTTTroSa/êta. In 

Od. 4. 406 TriKpbv a-JTOTrveiovo-ai, . . objjnjv 

it is best to take 

TTLKpov as an adverb, not with 68ju?jy 

: 

cp. 

II. 6. 182. 

FIvAo? has the two epithets fffjLaOoeis 

and TjyaOer], 

and is probably 

therefore of both Genders. 

2. Stems in -TJ (for -a) are mainly Fern. ; 

but 

Stems in 

-TTJ denoting an agent are Masc., as SeK-rrj-s a 

beggar, alyj^r)-Tr\-s a warrior. Also, iropKrj-s the ring of a spear, 

Tr]-s comrade, rajuu?]-s dispenser, verjvirj-s a youth, perhaps ayyeA- 

117-9 

a messenger ; also the proper names Bo/>ea-?, 'Ep/xeuz-s, 

Alvfta-$, A^yeta-9, Tet/oecrta-?, 'Ay^to-?]-?, 'Afity-s. 

The Masc. Nouns in -as, -r]s are probably formed originally 

from Feminine abstract or collective Nouns in -a, -TJ. 

The first 

step is the use of the word as a concrete : cp. Od. 22. 209 

6/Â.iKtT) 8e /xot eo-o-t thou art one of the same age (6/xrpuf) with me ; 

II. 12. 213 brjjjiov 

eovra leing one of the common people. So in 

Latin magistrates, potestas (Juv. 

10. ico), optio : English a 

relation ( 

= a, relative). 

The next step is the change to the Masc., 

which leads to the use of the Endings -TJS, 

Gen. -ao on the 

analogy of the Masc. -05, Gen. -oio. We may compare Fr. 

un trompette bearer of a trumpet, Italian il podesta the magistrate, 

where the change of meaning is marked by the gender only. 

So errj-s is probably from a word crfe-rrj kindred, from 

vtrjvirj-s 

a Fern, verfvirj youth, ayyt\(-r\-

II 6.] 

GENDER. 109 

3. Stems in -ia, -IS, -a8 are Fern. ; 

also most Stems in -t. 

But IJLCLV-TI-S 

is Masc., and some Adjectives 'ib-pi-s, rp6(j)-i-s, 

fvvt-s are of all genders. 

Mase. Nouns in -o sometimes form a Fern, in -i, -18, -u8 : as 

0ovpo-s, Fern. 6ovpi-s (Ace. Oovpi-v, Gen. 6ovpib-os) ; (/>op-To-s 

burden,

110 NOUN FORMATION. 

[117. 

Denominative Nouns. 

117.] Secondary Suffixes. The following are the chief 

Secondary or ( Denominative ' Suffixes. (Note that -o and -t\ 

of 

the Primitive Stem disappear before Secondary Suffixes beginning 

with a vowel*.) 

-O, -"i; 

as 5ljca-to-?/tffj ap/iou-irj a joining) apQ^-io-s friendly, 

aiSoio-s (for aZSor-io-s) reverenced, yeXouo-s (probably to be 

written yeAw-io-s) laughable, &P-LO-S in season, 0-0^-177 skill, 

(TKOTT-iT? watch, dvayKa-ir] necessity. 

-LO, -eo (chiefly used to denote material, especially the 

animal which furnishes the material of a thing) ; e. g. ftnr-eto-s, 

ravp-io-$, aly-Lo-s, (36-io-s and /3o-eo-?, K.vv-tr], \d\K.~fio-s and 

~)(dh.K-to-$, Kvdv-zo-s, bovpdr-zo-s, ^)A.oy-eo-j, r]yd6-o-s (from 

aya06-s), 8cu6aA-eo-?, &c. These must be distinguished from the 

Adjectives in which eio stands for O--LO, as re'Aeto-s (for 

to-s), ovtibtio-s, 'Apyeto-s. 

-eL' j 

iirir-ev-s horseman, apivT-ev-s one who does lent, xa 

Lp-v-s, von-tv-s, "2^Lv9-v-s, &c. 

all from Nouns in -o. 

-LOT], -ia8r| ; in patronymics, as 'Arpe-tSrj-s, Or; A rj-'Cabrj-s, 

'Ao-KX?;7rt-a6r]-s. Cp. the compound -18-109 ( 118). 

-DO, -po ; 

as \Lyv-po- $ shrill, bvo-cp6s dark ; yîya-po-v. 

-IfJUO ', 

aoib-ifjio-s matter of song, pop-ipo-sfated, &c. 

-VO, -IKO ; 

as (frauvos (âecr-) shining, p(3evvos (epe^Seo--) âf/?:, 

epavvos lovely ; 

-Ii'oj 

-7JVO ; 

riy-Lvo-s oaken, tlap-ivo-s of spring, &c. 

oTTcop-tro? of autumn, dy)(ioT-iz>os. 

7TT-riv6s flying (TTT-(T-). 

-CTVVO, -aunrj ; yrjOo-o-vvo-s joyful ; linro-aijvr) horsemanship, &c. 

"6Z^T (for -FZVT), Fern, -eo-o-a ; vAr/-ez;r-a, Fem. -uA.7?-ea-0--a 

wooded, bLVTj-evT-afull of eddies, Aeipto-err-a /i/fo ^^ ^7y, &c. 

-^/CO ; only found in opav-iK.6-s orphan, vapOtv-iKri virgin, and 

a few Adjectives from proper names, as 

Tpco-tKo-s, 'A)(at-tKo-9, 

ITeXao-y-tKo-s. In these words it is evident that there is no 

approach to the later meaning of the Suffix. 

* This is probably not the result of an ' elision/ but analogous to the weakening 

of a Suffix (cp. 114, i). Thus the Stem of

II 8*.] SECONDARY SUFFIXES. Ill 

', 

-T7) vav-Trj-s, i7T77o-ra, rofo-ra (Voc.), dypo-rai, 

Kopvvi]-rr]-s, vTrr]vij-Tr]-s, TroAiTJ-r?;-? and TroAi-rry-s, 6bi-rrj-s. 

of these are perhaps Primitive e. g. : al^rj-rri-s may 

an obsolete *al)yjida) 

to wield the spear 

: see 120. 

Some 

come from 

-T7]T 

', 

(friXo-TriT-a love, brj'io-TrJT-a battle. 

', (j>opiJLiy 

a lyre, a-vpiy^ a reed-pipe, o-aAmyf a trumpet, 

Aeuyy-es pebbles, o-rpoâAtyl eddy, pa0ajuuyy-es drops. 

The I of -iB-rj, -ijxo, -tvo, -IKO was probably not part of the original Suffix, but 

was the final vowel of the Stem. We may either suppose that (e. gr.) fj.6p-i-/j.os 

was formed directly from a Stem p.op-i (cp. poipa for pop-ia), or that it followed 

the analogy of aA/a-/uos,

NOUN FORMATION. 

[119. 

the language with which we are concerned, and those which only 

survive in words handed from an earlier period. Thus in Homer 

the oldest and simplest Suffixes, as -o, -t, -u, -e, -jxa, -TY]p, -Tpo-i>, -ai-s, 

-TU-S, and the Denominatives in -to-s, -epo-s, -iô-s, -rrj-s, &c. are 

felt as derivatives, and consequently their number can be indefinitely 

increased by new coinage. Again the use of a Suffix 

may be restricted to some purpose which represents only part of 

its original usage. Thus -n\ ceased, as we have seen, to form 

abstract Nouns, but was largely used to form Masculine Nouns 

of the Agent. So too the Suffix -So, -Srj survived in two isolated 

uses, (i) in Adverbs in -8o-i>, -^-v and in (2) Patronymics. 

Compare in Latin the older use of -tus in the adjectives cautus, 

certus, &c. with the living use in amd-tns, &c. Sometimes too a 

Suffix dies out in its original form, but enters into some combination 

which remains in vigour. Thus -vo survives in the form 

-tfo, and in -eiô (-eo--ro). 

The distinction of Primary and Secondary Suffixes is evidently 

one which grew up by degrees, as the several forms came to be 

limited to different uses. In this limitation and assignment of 

functions it is probable that the original meaning of the Suffix 

seldom had any direct influence*. The difference between the 

Suffixes of the two great classes is 

mainly one of period. The 

elements which go to form them are ultimately much the same, 

but the Primary Suffixes represent on the whole earlier strata of 

formation. 

119.] Gender. The rules previously given ( 116) apply to 

Denominative Nouns; the exceptions are few. Note II. 18. 

222 ova yja.\K.tov (\aXK.tr]v Zenod.), 19. 88 aypiov ar^v (the 

passage is probably corrupt, since it appears that the Homeric 

form of CLTY] is the uncontracted darry, aFArr)), 20. 299 = Od. 

( 5. 

410) aAos TToAtoto, Od. 3. 82 TTprjis 

. . 

6?j/j,to9, 4. 442 oAowraroy 

68ju?7, 23. 233 CLO'irdo'Los yfj (al. d

120.] DENOMINATIVE FORMS. 113 

12O.] Denominative Verbs. Some apparent anomalies in the 

Denominative Verbs may be explained by the loss of an intermediate 

step of formation. Thus, there are many Verbs in -euw 

not formed from Nouns in -eu-s, as (3ov\V(t> (/3oi>A-?j), 

(ayoprj), Or]pV(a so 

(6t]p) ; that, instead of the three stages 

vofjio-s, Denom. Noun vo^-ev-s, Denom. Verb vo^-tv-co 

a/HOTO-9, apL(JT-V-$ ,, ,, apl(TT-V-(O 

the language goes directly from any Noun to a Verb in -euw. 

Again, the Verbs in -taw ( 60) presuppose Nouns in -ITJ, 

which are seldom found in use : 

S^pido-pai. (cp. bfjpi-s 

from which 

an intermediate brjpi-rj might be formed), pjnaoj (cp. //rjri-s), 

KV$i6o)v, aoibidovcra, e8/no'a)zrro, /êi8toa)z>, OaXTTiocov, (f)Vcri6a>VT$, 

, oify-po-s 

the Verb were passed over, we should appear to have a Denominative 

Noun in -po-s. Again, 

if the Primitive Noun in 

-i] 

and the Verb in -ao> were both wanting, we should practically 

have the Compound Suffix -rj-po : and this accordingly is 

the case (e. g.} 

in aty-rjpo-s (atya) swift, Ov-r]Xri (0v-a>), 

i 

In this way are formed the peculiar Homeric -wpr], 

-wXr], which 

are used virtually as Primary Suffixes (forming abstract Nouns) ; 

eATT-coprj hope, 6a\7T-u>pTJ comfort, aXecop?} (dXef) escape, repTr-coX?} 

delight, (êtS-ooArj sparing, Travcr-coArj ceasing. Note that the difference 

between -a^prj 

and -coArj is euphonic ; -copr] is found only 

when there is a preceding X in the Stem. 

The Verb- Stem in Denominative Verbs is not always the 

same as that of the Noun from which it is formed : in particular 

i. Verbs in -ew, -ou lengthen the final -o of the Noun-Stem 

to -77 

and -to ; 

as

114 NOUN FORMATION. [l2I. 

o{ST]-ofir)-aa, ire- (/xaX-a), aa-tX-â>r, d/xetVcoz;, /SeAr-ioz;, Aa>toz;, 

(3pabi(Dv (Hes.). 

The Stem is properly in the strong form, as in Kpeio-o-av (but 

Kpar-vs, KapT-io-Tos) j but it is assimilated to the Positive in 

7rc(r(ra)z>, ppacra-tov, y\.VK.i&v. 

In Oaa-rrav, eXaa-o-coz/ the a points to 

forms *6ayy^-i(i>Vy *eAayx-ta>z^ in which the nasal of the original 

, *eXeyx-to)z; was retained, but the e 

changed into d. 

The Superlative -IOTO is used in the same way ; 

we have : 

&K-KTTO-S 

ft> 

s, otKr-tcrro-s otKr-o-s), jjurf 

(3d6-LCTTO-s ((BaO-v-s), pTJ-to-ro-s (peta, for prj'i-a), fytp-icrTO-s (ep-a)); 

also, answering to Comparatives given above, ato-x-ioro-s, 

Tra^-io-TO-?, rd\-KTTa y Kapr-tcrro-s, KCLK-KTTO-S, /xey-toro-s, /x,aA.-taTa, 

ay)(-to-ra, rJK-i(TTO-$, ap-toro-s, Kep8-t(rro-s, pi'y-iara, 

aAy-toro-s, TrAe-to-ro-s : 

4 

finally the anomalous Trpoa 

The Suffix -toy has taken the place of -100- 

( 107, 7); the 

weakest ' form may be traced in -IO--TOS. The middle form -iea

I2I-] DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 115 

perhaps appears in the two Comparatives -rrAe'ej more n. (II. 395, 

Ace. -rrAe'as II. 2. 129) and \tpeia worse (Ace. Sing, and Neut. 

Plur., also Dat. Sing. \tprji, Nom. Plur. \tpr)s). Original 

TrAeees (for 7rAe-te

Il6 

COMPOSITION. 

later forms like Karw-repo-s, ai'co-raro-s, &e. ; 

so probably in Tra\airepos 

and virep-repos. On the analogy of vTr^p-repos we can 

explain 6i>^p-repos (op. V7rep-0e : eWp-06, &c.). 

The form yepatrepos, 

again, may be suggested by TroAafrepos, through the 

relation yepeuJs 

: TraAaios and the likeness of meaning (Meyer, 

G. G. p. 372). The words defi-rtpos, dpiorepo'y are formed like 

Comparatives. but aiv distinguished by their aivont. 

The Suffix -repo is combined witli the Suffix -IOK in acrcro- 

(Adv.) nearer, ^Tr-cKroiJrepot drawing on, \ipo-Tpo-s and 

-Tpo, -TSro aiv combinations of -TO (in Tpt-ro-s, &c.) with the Suffixes -po 

and -Sro respectively. The tendency to accumulate Suffixes of comparison is 

soon in 4v-^p-T-Te/>os (-raros), do-Tpo-s, &c. ; 7/fx^-repo-s is not wor^ belonging 

to its, but belonging to us (not you). So in the Homeric Comparatives 

: 

dypo'-repo-s o/" Me? country (opp. to the town). 

124-] PREFIXED STEM. 1 17 

that while a Verb cannot be compounded with any prefix except 

a Preposition, a Nominal Stem may be compounded with any 

other Nominal Stem, the first or prefixed Stem serving to limit 

or qualify the notion expressed by the other. 

The Homeric language contains very many Compounds formed 

by the simple placing together of two Nominal Stems : as TtroXl- 

TropOo-s sacker of cities, pobo-baKrv\o-s rose-jingered, reAe

Il8 COMPOSITION. [124. 

The result of these changes is to make o the ' connecting vowel ' in the 

great majority of Compounds. In later Greek this form prevails almost 

exclusively. 

I. Stems in -t : 

The Compounds which contain these stems are mostly of an 

archaic stamp : 

dpyi-Trod-es- with swift (or white)feet, apyi-ooovr-es 

white-toothed, dpyi-Kepawo-s = with bright lightning, repTU-Kepawo-s 

hurling thunderbolts (repTrco rpeTro), 

Lat. torgueo), eiAi-7ro8-e? 

trailing (?) 

the feet (of oxen), 

aAi-TrAoo-s washed by the sea, also 

aAi-av}?, aAt-Tropûpoj, 'AAi'-apro?, 'AXi-favoi, 'AAi-flepo^s (cp. 

aAi-evs fisherman), atyi-/3oro-? fed on by goats, atyi-An//- deserted by 

goats, ya\i-v of light mind, bat-pa>v warlike (or prudent), 

dAei-KaKo-y defender against ill, Xa^t-K^Srj? forgetting care, TTVKL- 

with shrewd 

/utT/Srj? counsel, /caAAi-ywaiK-a with beautiful women 

(cp. KaAAt-joios), Kvbi-avtipa glorifying men (cp. Kv8t-oW); with the 

Proper Names, Al0i-OTT-s, Ueipi-Ooo-s, 'AAKt-z/oo-s, 'AAKi-/ute'8a>i> 

(cp. av-a\Ki-s), and the words beginning with apt- and epi-. 

The meaning of several of these words is very uncertain, 

owing to the merely ornamental and conventional way in 

which they are used in Homeric poetry. It seems to follow 

that they are survivals from an earlier period, one in which 

the number of Stems in -t was probably greater than in Homeric 

times. 

Loss of o 

may be recognised in aprt-Tro? ( 

= apnos TOVS -rroSas), 

fei-8a)pos grain giving (feia), Kparai-yvaXos 

of strong pieces, Arjtcf)o(3os, 

perhaps also /oiiai-

1 24.] 

PREFIXED STEM. 119 

But in many cases new Stems 

Tp\j/L-s, TtXri-nnros with 7rAr/i-?. 

have been formed under the influence of the sigmatic Aorist, with 

a difference of quantity, as in tyva-i-foo-s life-giving 

Ai5o-6- 

($i;o-t-s), 

H\rjs, (frOlo-i-fjLJBpoTO-s. Compare also ra/jtes with T/UTJO-I-?, 

neKn-OTpaTO-s with TTICTTL-S, &C. 

The group of Compounds 

is also to be noticed for the distinctly 

Ferial or participial meaning given by the first part of 

the word ; cp. the next group, and 1 26. 

d. Stems in -e : 

These are nearly all Verbal, both in form and meaning : 

eA/e- 

Xtrcoz/-es trailing the chiton, fj.V-bri'lo-s withstanding foemen (so 

/ueê-xappj-?, /utê-TrroAejuto-s, Mei>e-Aao-s, Mevc-orOtvs, &c.) : ex e'~ 

0viJ,o-s restraining passion, eyt-typav possessingjudgment, ex^-Trev/ces 

carrying sharpness, 'Exe-TrcoAo-y, 'Exe-z/rjo?, 'Exe-KArjs ; dye-Aeirj 

driving spoil, ap^t-KaKo-s beginning mischief, ayyj.-ij.ayo-s fighting 

close, Aexe-Troiij with beds of grass : ' 

Apxe-Aoxo-s, epe-KAos, MeAeaypo-s 

; cê/oe-otKos carrying his house (of the snail in Hes.), eype- 

Kvboijjios stirring tumult : also e is 

(if elided) x/feuS-ayyeAo-? 

bringing false news, aW-oty fiery, nia-y-a.yK.Gia. the meeting-place of 

glens, dAeaz;eôs keeping off wind, 'AXe-avopos. 

Stems in -ae ; aKepo-e-Ko/utry-s 

w/^ unsworn hair, riepo-e-ôVeta. 

With the Stems in -e 

may evidently be placed raXa-, in raAa- 

with (f)p(*>v enduring mind, raAa-epyo-? enduring in work, Ta\avpivos 

(for Ta\a-Fpwo-s) bearing a shield of hide, raAa-Trei^rj? bearing 

sorrow, raAa-Tretptoj bearing trial ; and T\YJ- in TArj-Tro'Aejuos &c. : 

also TO.W-, in raz/v-yAcoo-o-os 

w^^ outstretched tongue, long-tongued, 

Tavv-(f)v\\os long-leaved^ raiû-yAwxtês long-notched (arrows), and 

^pu- in 'Epw-Aaoj, defender of the host. 

e. Stems in -v : 

a for n appears in OVOHO.-K.\VTOS of famous name, Kwa-jjivia for 

Kva.-yt.via on the analogy of Kvv-a. 

f. Case-forms : 

Nom. Ace. in Numerals, as ei/-6e/ca, bvu-btKa. 

The Dative is probably to be recognised in apYfi-fyaTo-s slain in 

war (and so 'Aprjt-floo-?, 'Aprjt'-AuKo-s), Trupt-ryK?]? sharpened by fire 

(irvpi-KavarTo-s, riupi-Âeyeâ)^), du-Trcr?}? falling in the sky ; the 

Dat. Plur. in KTypetrcri-ôpiyro-s brought by the fates, dpeo"t-rpo^)o-j 

nursed in mountains, eyxeo"t-joto>po-y great with spears, evreo-t-epyo-s 

working in harness, Ttiyt(Ti-T:\r\Ta (Voc.) drawing near to (assailing] 

walls, Nawt-Kaa, Mrydeo-i-KaoTrj, liatn-Qir], Xcpo-t-Sa/xas ; 

a 

Locative form in yanai-evvr}? sleeping on the ground, 6601- 

Tropo-s a wayfarer, \opoi-rvnir] figuring in the dance, ITvAoiytvris 

born at Pylus, TraAat-âro-s of ancient fame, and perhaps 

(to express manner) in i0at-yez>?js duly born, 6Aoot-rpoxo-s rolling. 

Cp. e/x-TTvpt-^rjrrys made to stand over the i. 

fire, 

e. a kettle.

120 COMPOSITION. 

This use of the Dative may have been suggested by the Stems in -i and --) usually take u>>> (oi>-) in Composition : as 

priv (Gen. pei>-o's) 

forms Trpo-typtov, Gen. vpo-typov-os 

: and

1 25.] 

SECOND STEM. 121 

Neuters in -fxa 

form Compounds in -pay, Gen. -jutoy-os, as avcu/xor-es 

(al/jia) bloodless. Cp. aireipoDV boundless (irelpap, 7repau>o)). 

So too Trarrip, ju,rjr?]p, avr\p, &c. form -wp (Gen. -op-os), as jurjrpo- 

4. Some Stems take a final -T, as d-/3Ar/-r-a (Ace. Sing-.) ^#- 

thrown, d-Kju,?7-r-es umvearied ; so e7n-/3A?js, d-8ju?]9, a-y^coj. 

5. In Adjectives the Suffix is often replaced by one ending in 

0#0 father, (3ap(3apo-(f)(t)vo-s with strange voice 

1 

-o ; 

as o-Trarpo-s" 0/ 

(from (frtovr)), \pv(T-T}XaK.aTo-s with golden distaff (Âa/ccm/), bv

122 COMPOSITION. 

e\u(6)- come, 

dyep- assemble, ojut-rjyep-ees', $i>//,-T7yep-ecou ( 

= OVJJLOV dyeipo)i>). 

cpiS- strive, afji(f)-ripL(TTos striven about. 

So TTob-rivjjLOs, v-u>vv[j.os (TTokv-tovvjjLOs, &c.), 

ev-r](t>vr)$ (from atyevos wealth}, yoftx/A-wzwf, 77e/ui77-&>/3oAoz', 

dz;- 

Tf/ceaTo?, di'-coioTos, epi-ovzn/s (oVa- help), v77-a>peia (opos), 8i-?]KoViot 

and rpi-T)KoVioi (e/caroV). 

Similar lengthening 

is found, but less frequently, in the first 

part of the Compound; o>Aeo-i-Kap7709, TÂtro-jutryroj, 'ilpei-0wa. 

Also in other derivatives, as ^yejuo'-eu, rjvop-er), rrjAetfo'coo-a (0aAe'0co) 

3 

(dyep-). 

126.] Meaning of Compounds. The general rule is that the 

prefixed Stem limits or qualifies the meaning of the other : as 

a>//,o-yepa)z; hale old man, S^juto-yepcoy /r/r of the people, rpi-yepojz; 

(Aesch.) thrice aged ; t7nro'-6a/uio-s 

tamer of horses, LTTTTO-POTO-S 

pastured by horses, ITTTTO'-KOJUIOS with plume of horse-hair, 177770- 

Ke'A.et>0os making way with horses ; /3a^v-5i^rjets deep-eddying. 

The prefixed Stem may evidently express very different relations 

that of an Adjective, as wjuto-yepcoz/, (3a6v-ivrjs, or a 

Genitive, as 6r//xo-yepcoz;, t7777o-KOjuto9, or an Object, as 177770-6 ajuo?, 

or an Adverb of manner or place or instrument, as o/x-rjyepe'es, 

?)epo-0otrt?, &c. and various attempts have been made to 

classify Compounds according to these relations. Such attempts 

are usually unsatisfactory unless the differences of meaning upon 

which they are based are accompanied by differences of grammatical 

form. 

In respect of form an important distinction is made by the 

fact that in the second part of many Compounds a Substantive 

acquires the meaning of an Adjective without the use of a new 

Suffix e. g. po8o-5aKri>Ao-5, literally rose-finger, means not a rosy 

finger, but having rosy fingers ; so t7777o'-KOju,o9 

with a horse-plume, 

i7777io-)(a inj-s with horse's mane (as a plume), (3a6v-bivr]-s ( 

= {3a6v- 

Stz^rj-etj), &c. Such Compounds are called by Curtius Attributive. 

The formation is analogous to the turning of abstract into concrete 

Nouns by a mere change of Gender (instead 

of a Suffix), 

1 16. Thus bio-yvris (= blov yeVos ZXMV) is to $lov yeVos as 

\//-eu5rjjfalse to \ê8o? falsehood. 

Among the meanings which may be conveyed by a Stem in 

a Compound, note the poetical use to express comparison: as 

deAAo'-77os storm-foot, 

i. e. with feet (swift) as the storm, /uieAt-yrjpu-s 

honey-voiced, poSo-dd/cruAo-s, Kvv-a>7n-s, &c. So too 7rob-^v[JLo-s 

like the wind in feet, Ovpo-Xecov like a lion in spirit. 

The order of the two Stems may be almost indifferent ; 

i. e. it 

may be indifferent which of the two notions is treated as qualifying 

the other; e.g. irob-toKrjs swift of foot ( = &KV$ rovs irobas)

I27-] 

MEANING OF COMPOUNDS. 123 

is the same in practical effect as WKV-TTOVS swift-foot, with swift 

feet (oo/cets irobas X (t)V )' 

In the Compounds called by Curtius i. e. Objective, 

where the 

relation between the two parts is that of governing and 

governed word, the general rule requires that the governed word 

should come first, as in linTo-baô-s horse-taming. This order 

appears to be reversed in certain cases in which the first Stem 

has the force of a Verb. The Stems so used are 

1. Stems in -e ( 124, d\ as 

2. Stems in -ai ( 124,


sometimes obtained directly from Compound Verbs : 

from eW)(a>5 not from e 

and oôs. 

e.g. 

2. The Preposition governs, 

i. e. the Compound is equivalent 

to a Preposition governing- a Noun ; ev-vv^-io-s in the night, 

K.ara-\Q6v-Lo-s under-ground., aô-Ov^-io-s displeasing (lit. awat/ 

from the mind\ &c. also 

; (but less commonly) without a 

Secondary Suffix, as ey- KetyaXo-s brain (lit. 

within the head), 

tirapovpo-s 

attached to the soil. 

The placing of the Preposition before the governed Stem is a 

departure from the general rule stated above. It may be held, 

however, that the Preposition serves (in 

some of these Compounds 

at least) as the limiting or qualifying member of the 

word. Compare VI>X-LO-S by night^ CV-VV^-LO-S within the night : 

it is evident that the \v limits the sense of VV^LOS in essentially 

the same way as nav- in 7rav-vv%-(.o-s all the night. So KaraxQov-io-s 

is nearly equivalent to yj)6v-io-s the Preposition 

; 

merely makes it clear in what sense the Suffix -10 is to be 

' 

' 

understood belonging to the earth by being under it. 

128.] Accentuation, The Accent generally falls on the last 

syllable of the prefixed Stem, or if that is impossible, then as 

far back as possible ; 

1 

^pva-o-Opovos, deAAo-Troj, eTr-TJparo-s (eparo-s), 

alv-aptrrj-s (dper??), &c. The chief exceptions are the following: 

i. When the second Stem ends in -o and has the force of 

an Active Participle, it is oxytone, or, if the penult is short, 

paroxytone ; as v-tyoppo-s, Srj/xto-epyo'-j, Too-7r-6-s, 

&c. (as if from /So-oty, yXavK-w\ls, &c.). 

129.] Proper Names in Greek are generally Compounds; 

the exceptions are chiefly 

names of gods, as ZCT;?, "Hpr;, 'A^TJz^, 

&c., and of certain heroes, as Ilapi?, npta/xoj. Alas, TeOKpos, &c.

130.] PROPER NAMES NUMERALS. 125 

Note that the gods whose names are Compound, as Ai 

Ar]-fjn]Tr]p, Ylepa--epe-/cA.oj, for Tlarpo-KX^s, 4>epe-KAerys, 

20ve-\os for 20ei>e'-Aao-?, Atyi-o-0os for AlyL-a-0vr]s, MevecrOevs 

for Mtve-a-Oevrjs ; cp. Evpvpftrjs (Od. 9. 509), patronymic of 

Evpu/zeScoy. In these names the shorter form has (or 

had 

originally) the character of a { nick-name/ or pet name. 

In general; however, the ' pet ' name is formed by dropping 

one of the two Stems altogether 

: the other Stem taking a 

Suffix in its place"*. 

Thus we have in Homer the names 

in -TO-S, as r/ EKa-ros (for eKarry-/3oXos), Evpv-Tos (Evpv-jSdrrjs, 

TZvpv-a\o$, &c.), "I


For the number 1 2 we find the three forms 8vo>8eKa, 6a>8eKa, and 

bvoKafofKa ; 

also the Ordinals bvafteKaros and (rarely) 

dcoSe/caros. 

3. Besides reo-orap-cs there is a form iria-vp-ts, applied to horses 

in II. 15. 680 and 23. 171, to other objects in II. 24. 233 and 

three times in the Odyssey (5. 70., 16. 249., 22. in). 

The Stem rerpa- appears in the Dat. rerpa-o-t, also in the 

Ordinal (rerpa-ros and rerap-ro?), and most derivatives, as 

TTpd-KL$ } Trpa-^0d, rerpd-âAos four-crested, &c. (but cp. reo~crapafioios 

worth four oxen) also with loss of the first : syllable in 

rpa-Trefa. 

The variation in the Stem of this Numeral has been fully discussed by Joh. 

Schmidt (JT. Z. xxv. p. 47 ff.). 

He shows that the Stem had three forms (114*). 

The strong form is seen in Sanscr. catvdras, which would lead us to expect 

Greek *TTfo>/>es (hence perhaps Dor. T tropes) ; 

the weakest in the Sanscr. 

Ordinal turiya, for ktur-iya, in which the shortening affects both syllables, and 

the first is consequently lost. This weakest Stem appears in rpv-^>a\fia a fourridged 

helmet, and is not derived from the form rcrpa-. It probably fell into 

disuse owing to its unlikeness to Ttcro-apes ; accordingly it has only survived 

in words in which the meaning ' four ' had ceased to be felt. 

The form iriavpfs may be akin to Lesbian ireaffvpfs or irtffvpes, 

but there is no 

decisive ground for regarding it as JEolic. 

4. OKTCO, like bva, is a Dual in form. The primitive ending 

-wu (Sanscr. ashtau) may be traced in oy8oo? (oyScof-os, oyScooj, 

Lat. octdvus). 

5. Under eiWa note the varieties eva-ros and etm-ro? ninth ^ 

probably for e^fa-ros; so etra-Kis, cU-nugcr, etm-eres; also tvv- 

(for ezW-rjjmap), ez/ue'-copo? of nine seasons, tvvr\K.ovTa (for tvvtcp. 

rpi-TJ/cozmz, &c.) and VvrjKovTa the last a form difficult 

to explain. 

The numbers above ten are generally denoted by Compounds 

of the kind called Copulative (Sanscr. dvandva) : 8uo>-8eKa two and 

ten. 

The analogy of the Numerals ending in -d (e^rra, 8e'/ca, with 

the Stems rerpa-, etm-) has led to the use of

131.] 

ADVERBIAL WORDS. 127 

CHAPTER VII. 

USE OF THE CASES. 

Introductory. 

131.] The Case-Endings and Adverbial Endings serve (as has 

been said in 90) to show the relation in which the words to 

which they are suffixed (Nouns, Pronouns, Adverbs, &c.) stand 

to the Verb of the Sentence. 

This relation may be of three kinds : 

1. The Noun or Pronoun may express the Subject of the 

Verb : or rather (since a Subject is already given by the Person- 

Ending) it may qualify or define the Subject so given. E. g. in 

the sentence fiaa-iXevs 5t8co-o-t the-king Tie-gives /Bao-tAetfs explains 

the Subject given by the Ending -o-i. 

2. The Noun &c. may qualify the Predicate given by the 

Stem of the Verb. E.g. in ravra didco-cn, e/ixot 8i8o)-cri, KaA

128 USE OF CASES. '[132, 

one the Ace. nva is 

governed by the phrase KCLKCI : 

pe'fet in rUv 

la-a TK(T(TL honoured like his children the Dat. re/ceo-o-t is 

governed 

by riev laa. 

Again, the new Case-form or Adverb so c governed ' by a 

Verb and Noun may belong in sense to the Noun. Thus in 

the sentence /otey' Ifoô? eTrAero he is greatly eminent, since Ifoôs 

expresses the meaning which //,eya is intended to qualify, we 

may consider that practically jue'ya 

is construed with !OXG? 

alone. Evidently a qualification of this kind will generally 

apply only to an Adjective * (just as the degrees of comparison 

are essentially adjectival). In this way 

it comes about that an 

Adverb may in general be used to qualify an Adjective and 

; 

that very many Adjectives and Adverbs 'govern' the same Cases 

as the Verbs which correspond to them in meaning. E.g. in 

i etKeAos aXK.r]v the Adj. euceAos takes the construction of 

a Verb meaning 

to be like. 

In a strictly scientific treatment of the Cases the various constructions 

with the Verb should come before the constructions with Nouns and Prepositions. 

Such a treatment, however, would have the inconvenience of 

frequently separating uses of the same Case which are intimately connected. 

E. g, the construction dA/ycf rrjv K(j>a\r]v (2) cannot well be separated from the 

extension of the same construction in fjteyas carl TO aSifia (3). The Nominative, 

too, is used not only as the Subject, but also as the Predicate, or part of 

it. It will be best therefore to take the several Cases in succession, and to 

begin with the ' oblique ' Cases. 

The Accusative. 

132.] Internal and External Object. The uses of the Accusative 

have been divided into those in which the Ace. repeats, 

with more or less modification, the meaning given by the Verb, 

and those in which the action of the Verb is limited or directed 

by an c Object ' wholly distinct from it. E. g. in the sentence 

\KO$ 6 jute OVTCKT, lit. the wound which he wounded me, o ('AKOS) 

qualifies ovracre by a word which expresses to some extent the 

same thing as the Verb ovracre : whereas jme qualifies 

it in a 

different way. As the latter kind of Ace. had been known as 

the Ace. of the EXTERNAL OBJECT, so the former has more 

recently been termed the Ace. of the INTERNAL OBJECT. We 

shall take first the different uses which fall under the description 

of the ' Ace. of the Internal Object/ 

The foundation of this division (as Delbriick observes, Synt. 

Forsch. iv. p. 29) 

is the circumstance that all Accusatives which 

* In later Greek Adverbs are constantly used to qualify substantives : as 

u dd Pamtevs, 6 irplv xpwos, &c. But this use only becomes possible when we 

have the Article to show how the Adverb is to be understood.

I35-] ACCUSATIVE. 129 

do not express the external Object of an action may be explained 

in nearly the same way. The real difficulty arises when we 

try to find a principle which will explain these different Accusatives 

and at the same time exclude the relations expressed 

by other Cases or Adverbial forms. No such principle can be 

laid down. The fact seems to be that the Accusative originally 

had a very wide ' 

Adverbial ' use, which was encroached upon by 

the more specific uses of other Cases. The different constructions 

included under the ' Internal Object ' have all the appearance of 

fragments of an earlier more elastic usage. 

133.] Neuter Pronouns may be used in the Accusative ' adverbially/ 

to define the action of the Verb as II. i. 289 a 

: 

i. e. 

TLV ov 7Tia-eor0ai 6ia> in which 1 think that some one will not obey ; 

II. 14. 249 aAAo 7rivv(r(rv gave another lesson ; Od. 23. 24 TOVTO 

ovria-ei will do this benefit; Od. 10. 75 

ro'6' LK&VCLS comest as thou 

dost; II. 5. 827 pjre (TV y "Aprja TO ye 8et'8i0i fear not Ares as to 

this ; Tobt x 

e an 9r y at this; ra8e juaiz/erai does these mad 

things ( 

= is mad with these acts). 

This use includes the Adverbial rt 

why ? (e. g. TL rjAfle? in regard 

to what have you come?=wh&t means your coming?) : TO 

therefore ( 262, 3), o, OTL because, that ( 269) : rt in any way, 

ovbtv not at all, a/xcpa, abiva, fiapv, /3ape'a, 6v, rapêa, VTrep/xopa, hbe&a, ox.a, 

*X a > 

an(^ man y more. 

In general there is no difference perceptible between the Neut. 

Sing, and Neut. Plur. But compare TVT06v for a little space, 

and TVT0a Kedo-at split into little pieces (Od. 12. 388). 

Note the combination of Pronoun and Adjective in TO irpuTov, 

TCL Trpwra, ro TPLTOV, TO TTapTov also in TCL aAAa in other respects. 

: 

This construction is 

very common in Homer, and may almost 

be said to be the usual Homeric mode of forming an Adverb. 

It has been already observed that Adverbs in -ws are comparatively 

rare in Homer ( 

no). 

135.] Cognate Accusative. This term denotes that the Verb

130 USE OF CASES. [136. 

is construed with a Substantive in the Ace. of ' cognate ' form, 

or at least of equivalent meaning. 

A Cognate Ace. is generally used to introduce the Adjective 

or Pronoun which really qualifies or defines the predication contained 

in the Verb: e.g. airprjKTov -Tro'Aejuou TToXejjLifciv to wage a 

war without result (cp. the adverbial use of a Neut. Adj. in 

aXXrjKTov TToAejuu'Cetz; to war without ceasing] ; 05 KCV apio-ryv (3ovXr]v 

povXtva-rj who shall give the lest counsel ( = apicrra (BovXevcrrj) ; 

e^>tA.t TravTotrjv /3ij(rao-0e, eA/cos o jue (Bporos ovracrtVy VTTOO-^CTLS rjv ircp VTre- 

&C. 

136.] Other Adverbial Accusatives. The following uses 

may be placed here as more or less analogous to the Cognate 

Accusative : 

(1) Substantives expressing a particular sphere or kind of the 

action denoted by the Verb as 

: 

II. 6. 292 rjyayz îbovtifjOev . . rrjv obbv rjv 'EAez^y Trep a^ryyaye 

the voyage on which he brought lack Helen: (cp. 

Od. 6. 164 

yXOov yap KCU Keure . . Tr)v obbv fj 877 KrA.) ; so obbv ot>(crât, 

obbv rjyrja-aa-daL 

to lead on the way ; and again efeo-uyz; eXOelv 

to go on an expedition (and in Od. 21. 20 teo-ir]v TroXXrjv obov 

yXdev went a long way on an expedition)^ ayycXirjv cXOovra going on 

a message ; fiovXas eapyu*v ayaOas taking the lead in good 

counsels ; Od. 8. 23 a0Xovs . . TOVS . . 

CTretpTJo-ayr' 'Obvcrfjos ', 

Od. 19. 393 ovXrjV rr]v TTOTC JJLLV crvs rjXaa-. So baivvvra yapov 

holding a wedding-feast, baivv rd(pov gave a funeral feast (whereas 

the cognate bair-qv baivvjjievovs means holding an ordinary feast) 

vvdyiJiv "Aprja let us join battle, e/n8a pr^yvvvro fiapelav broke in 

grievous strife. 

So probably we should explain II. I. 31 \\LQV Ae'xos avrLoaxrav, 

like II. 15. 33 (Âo'rr;? re KCU e^^ rjv îyrjs (cp. Pind. N. I. 67 

orav 0eot . . 

yiyavTevo-iv payav avTiafavi). Also Od. 6. 259 otyp* 

av jjLv K aypovs tojuteu Kat epy' avOpunrutv so long as our way is 

through "fields and tillage of 'men = , aypovs obbv v dypoty. 

Note that this construction is chiefly applied to the familiar 

spheres of action battle, council, feasting. &c. 

(2) Abstract Nouns expressing an attribute of the action. 

II. 9. 115 ov TL \l/evbo$ jjias aras KareAefas with no falsehood

I37-] ACCUSATIVE. 131 

hast thou recounted my folly : Od. 7. 297 

ravra rot . . 

So bcâs (in phrases like 8e//a? irvpos 

like fire), 

and the Adverbs 

, 

abrjv, Xirjv, with many others (see no), are originally the 

Accusatives of Abstract Nouns. 

Add the poetical expressions such as irvp o(/>0aAjus 

with look offire, jmeyea Trêto^re? breathing martial fury. 

The phrase irvp 5e8o/>/i>s is a boldness of language (compared e. g. with Stivbv 

Septcofjievoi} analogous to that which we observed in Compounds such as deAAoiros 

with storm- (like) feet, as compared with wKv-noScs, &c. ; 

see 126. 

(3) The words epyov, CTTO?, ^v0os, with Pronouns, are used 

nearly as the Neuter of the same Pronouns as 

: 

II. = I. 

294 TTCLV Zpyov vTreifojuiai I shall yield in every matter (nav 

epyoi> 7razrra) : 5. 757 ^ v 

vcpforifr) Apt ra6e Kaprepa tpya (constr. 

like ro5e x^ )f C P- 9- 374- 

Od. 3. 243 en-OS- aAAo /ixeraAArjo-at to ask another question. 

II- 5- 7 I 5 tf P' aA.60i^ roz; pvQov VTIÔ-T^^V our promise was idle. 

(4) Words expressing the sum or result of an action are put 

in the Ace. ; 

as II. 4. 207 ffia\v . . rw /xez; KXeoj a/xjut 8e itivQos ; 

24- 735 P lêt %ipbs eAcay 0,770 irvpyov Xvypov okeOpov : Od. 6. 184- 

So TTOIZ;?^ m compensation, irpoffraa-iv on the pretence, MK\r]


the force of the Verb to a part or attribute of the subject 

: as 

KCLfJiveL x^P a ^s hand is weary, irvpl Îpas 

eotKe his hands are as 

fire, (3X.i]To KvrjiJL-qv was wounded in the shin, aAAaW Treptet/n voov I 

am beyond others in understanding ; fypiva re'pTrer' 

aKovwv was 

pleased at heart listening ; ov Xrjye juteWs ceased not in his fury ; 

yevos 6' r\v eK Trora/xoto in descent he was from the river, yevtT]v 

ewKet (II. 14. 474) was like in descent, i. e. bore ' a family likeness 

' -, 

aOavcLTycn befjias KOL et8os eptfetz; 

to rival the immortals in 

form and feature. See 141. 

These uses differ from other Accusatives of the sphere of an 

action in the distinctly concrete nature of the words employed. 

The Ace. does not express the notion of the Verb, or an attribute 

of it, but merely denotes a thing by reference to which it is 

limited or characterised. Thus in Koêt X e Va ^ne ^cc. limits 

' 

the action Kapvei feels hand-weariness/ The relation is local 

or instrumental, though not so expressed. The 

( 

meaning in or 

with the hand ' is conveyed, because it is the only one possible 

the only way in which the notion hand can qualify the notion 

weariness. 

The ' Ace. of the part affected/ or 'Ace. of reference/ is 

characteristic of Greek : hence it is called Accusative Graecus by 

the Latin grammarians. It is unknown, or nearly so, in 

Sanscrit. We cannot infer, however, that it originated with the 

Greeks, especially as it is found in Zend (Delbriick, Synt. 

Forsch. iv. 33) but it may have been extended in Greek. The 

: 

alternative Case is generally the Instrumental: cp. II. 3. 194 

cvpvrepos w/xoto-ti; tde a-repvoKriv tdeVflat, but a. 478 ojutjmara /cat 

Kt &c. 

138.] Accusative of Time and Space. The word expressing 

duration of time is 

put in the Ace., as tva /x,rji>a jueWz; waiting a 

month, xeijuta ei>'8ei sleeps through the winter } Tpls avdâcrOai yeW 

avbp&v to reign for three generations of men. 

The Accusative of Space expresses the extent of an action, as 

II. 23. 529 AetVero bovpbs was 6po>rjz> a spear's throw behind. 

These Accusatives are to be compared with the Neuter Adjectives 

of quantity, as TIO\V, oXlyov, rvrOov, rocrov, &c. 

139.] 

Accusative with Nouns. The chief uses are : 

(1) Neut. Adjectives, as /xey' efoxos greatly surpassing. 

(2) Cognate Accusative, as II. 15. 641 afjLLva)v iravTOias dperas 

better in every kind of excellence. This is rare in Homer. 

(3) Ace. of the ' part affected ' ; oâra KCLL K(j>a\r)v ueAos like 

in eyes and head, (cp. xetpas eotKe), fiorjv ayaOos good in shouting,

140.] ACCUSATIVE. 133 

yevos /ca/cos- /cat avaXms a coward by right of descent. With a Substantive 

: 

xi/od? r al)yj.r]TrjV eju6i>at. 

140.] Accusative of the External Object. Under this head 

it is unnecessary to do more than notice one or two points : 

(1) The ceremonial words anapâ, /carapxo//,ai, &c. are construed 

according to the acquired meaning 

: as rpi\as airapîv to 

cut off hair as a preliminary, cp. Od. 3. 445 (with 

the note in 

Riddell and Merry's edition). 

So II. 24. 710 TOV . . rtAAecrflrjz; 

mourned him by tearing their hair: and op/ua Ttpveiv to make a 

treaty (by slaying a victim). 

(2) The Verbs euror, avbda), &c. may take an Ace. of the person 

spoken to: II. 5. 170 eVo? re \LIV avriov rjvba: II. 13. 725 

UovXvbdfjias Opavvv "E/cropa cnre. Cp. II. 9. 59., 17. 651, Od. 4. 

155. But this construction is rare with the simple Verbs : it is 

found passim with Compounds (Trpocrr^Sa, TrpocreetTre, &c.). 

(3) An Ace. may be used of the person about whom something 

is told, known , thought, &c. 

(a) If a person or a thing is treated as the thing said, known, 

&c. (not merely spoken or known about] 

: as II. I. 

90 ovb* rjv 

'Aya^fjivova enrr/? not even if you say Agamem,non (cp. ovvoâ 

ei7Tiz>) ; 3. 192 eur' aye /uot /cat rovbc tell me this man too. So 

with oi8a when it means only to know what a thing is : as II. 6. 

150 ofyp ei) t6r/s Têreprju ytver\v, -rroAAot 8e JJLLV avbpzs Ivacriv : 

and with ^l^v^âi, as II. 9. 527 ro5e 

/ote/u,^ryjoiat epyov ; II. 

23. 

361 a>? //ejutrewro bpojjiovs 

that he might remember the courses 

(i.e. remember how many there wr ere) ; II. 6. 222 Tu8ea 8' ov 

/xe'/uwrât (of remembering his existence). 

The Ace. implies 

that the person 

is the whole fact remembered. But with a Gen. 

means I remember something about, I bethink myself 

(b) If the real Object of the Verb is a fact expressed by a 

limiting word or clause as II. 2. 81 tyevbos K.V :


imply reaching a point), but is comparatively rare with other 

simple Verbs, such as et/uti, Ipô/jiai, vtopai, ayo>, ^yeojmat. 

The 

words so used with these Verbs are mostly Nouns 1 

denoting house 

0), II. 7. 363, &c. ; Sopor, Od. 7. 22, II. 22. 482; olitov, Od. 14. 

167), city (Od. Od. 6. 114., 15. 82), rc^fe land (II. 7. 335., 15. 706): 

cp. also II. I. 322 p^(T0ov K.Xi(r'n]v 6. ; 37 vvdyov(ra yepataj 

21. 40 Arjfjivov TTpao-(rV, Od, 4. 478 AlyvTTTOio vbu>p eA0r/s. 

Compound Verbs esp. with the Prepositions ei ?, cm, Trpo's, 

irapa usually take an Ace. of this kind. 

There is no reason to infer from these and similar instances that the 

Accusative is originally the Case of the terminus ad t quern. It is natural that a 

Verb of motion should be denned or qualified by a Noun expressing place, and 

that such a Noun should generally denote the place 

to which the motion is 

directed. But this is not necessary. The Ace. is used with Verbs denoting 

motion from, as favyv, vo

I43-] DATIVE. 135 

The notion ' doing ' given by pe'o> is so vague that an Ace. of 

the person would be : 

ambiguous but the more definite notions 

of doing evil, &c. become susceptible of the construction. So 

with etTrety, as Od. I. 

303 tva ris ere ev enrr; may speak well of thee : 

cp. II. 6. 479. 

A similar account is to be given of the ' Accusative of the 

Whole and Part/ which is very common in Homer; e.g. TOV 

/3aXe him he smote on KvrjfJirjv the shin, ere (frvyzv epKos OOOVTMV has 

escaped you over the fence of teeth. The second Ace. has been 

-L


II. 12. 374 TTLyojjivoLa-L b' VKOVTO they came for them when hard 

pressed, i. e. their was coming1 (what such a thing- is) 

to hard 

pressed men. So 11. 14. 108 cjuol 8e Kv ao-juteVo) eir; it would be 

for me when welcoming it, i. e. would be what I welcome : Od. 1 1 . 

115 OV K fJLOl a^VVfJ^Vid KT\. 

The Dat. with Verbs of giving, showing, telling (a fact), praying, 

helping favouring being angry, &c., and the corresponding 

, pleasing, , 

Adjectives (^tAos, ex^po's, &c.), is evidently of this kind. 

The so-called Dativus 

( 

commodi, Ethical Dative/ &c. need hot 

be separated from the general usage. Note however that 

1. The Dative of the Personal Pronouns is very often used 

where we should have a Possessive agreeing with a Noun in the 

Clause; as II. I. 104 cWe 8e ot irvpl eucrrjy his eyes were like fire ; 

Od. 2. 5 MTpi jutot {j,i"r](TT7Jpes cTrexpaoz; the suitors have assailed 

my mother ; so II. i. 55, 150, 188, 200, &c. 

2. Sexojjiai with the Dat. means to take as a favour: II. 15. 87 

e'juiort dcjcro de-Trots accepted the cup from Themis (as a compliment); 

or to take as an attendant does, II. 2. 186., 13. 710., 17. 

207, Od. 15. 282. For the Gen. see 152. 

3. dKouw with the Dat. means to hear favourably ; II. 16. 515 

CLKOVZLV avpi KrjbofjLevu' and so K.\.vQL /uoi in prayers (II. 5. H5> 

Od. 2. 262). See 151, d. 

4. The Dat. with Verbs meaning- to give commands (/ceAewo, 

(Trjjjiaivu), &c.), and to lead the way (apx&), ?yyeo/zai, rjyeôvev^ is 

apparently the true Dat. But this does not apply to Verbs 

meaning to have power, to be king (as K/>are'o>, dvaa-ora)) : e.g. avavcre/aei; 

'Apyetoto-t probably means to be king among the Argives 

(Loc.). See 145 (7, a). 

5. The c Dat. of the Agent ' with Passive Verbs seems to be a 

special application of the true Dat.; ..

I44-] INSTRUMENTAL DATIVE. 137 

In this respect Latin offers a marked contrast ; cp. .the various uses, 

especially of abstract Substantives, explained by Mr. Roby under the headings 

'indirect object' (1143, n. n), 'work contemplated' (1156), 'predicative 

dative' (11580".). The source of the difference evidently is that the Dat. 

is not liable, as in Greek, to be confounded with the Loc. and Instrum. 

It will be seen however that the Greek Infinitive is in fact the Dat. of an 

abstract Substantive. 

144.] The Instrumental Dative. The so-called Instrumental 

Case appears to have been employed to express whatever accompanies 

or shares in an action not : 

only the instrument or cause, 

but any attendant object or circumstance. Hence it covers the 

' 

ground of the Datives of circumstance/ f manner/ &c. 

The Dat. of circumstance &c. is common with abstract or semiabstract 

words : as rixV 

w^ ôise ( 

Kâ "/7^ aAaArjrw, hoity, &c.) ; 

criyrj, o-ia)7r7j ; 

albol with reverence (Od. 8. 172); avdyKy, (3irj } 

cnrovbfj : KaKrj with alcrrj evil fortune ; eiol 

KaAeorrai 

things because of which men live well and are called opulent. So of 

an almost personal agent, Od. 14. 299 rj 6' efleeu Bope'rj avepa the 

ship coursed on with (driven by) the North wind. 

The c comitative ' or ' sociative ' sense is chiefly found in the 

Plural, which denotes attendants, surroundings, adjuncts, &c. ; II. 

1 8. 506 Tola-iv 7TLT rj'L(T(Tov 

with these (the sceptres) they started 

up ; Od. 4. 8 l-mtoHTi KOI ap}j,a(ri TrejUTre sent with horses and chariots 

(cp. 4. 533) Od. u. 161 ; 

vrji re Kai erapoto-t with a ship and com- 

rades; ; II. 12. 28 KVfjiao-L TT^fjiTT let ffo 

with the waves ; II. 2. 818 

jme/xaores eyxetât ardent with their spears; II. 6. 243 feo-rrj? 

al6ovo"r)(TL T^rvy^vov built with smooth porticoes (cp. Od. 9. 185, 

&c.) II. : 2. 148 em r bends rjfj.vL a

. 


(without their losing hold) : Od. 14. 77 Slpp avTols o/3eXotcrt hot 

with the spits as they were*. 

The Dative with Verbs meaning 

to be with, to follow, to join, 

to agree with, to be like, &c., and again with the Prepositions vvv 

and dfjia, 

and the various Pronouns and Adjectives meaning 

the 

same, equal, like, &c., is generally Instrumental. 

The Dat. with Verbs meaning to fight, strive, &c. may be the 

Instrumental or (more probably) the true Dat. Words meaning 

to trust &c. probably take an Instrumental Dat. of. the ground of 

trust, a true Dat. of the person trusted or obeyed : cp. the Lat. 

construction of confidere with a Dat. or Abl. 

With Verbs meaning to be phased the Dat. is doubtless Instrumental 

: as II. 21. 45 TpircTO oto-t C\ouri had pleasure with his 

friends (so Od. 14. 245). This is still more clear in II. 5. 682 

yapri ft apa ol TrpocrtoVrt and II. 23. 55^ xaipav 'AzmA.o'x 

on KT\. 

' 

rejoiced at the fact (of his coming, &c.)/ 

The Instrum. is used in Sanscrit of the space over which action 

extends. The nearest approach to this in Greek is the Dat. of 

the way by which : cp. the Adverbs f l} rr\, rgbe, irjj, OTH/, Travrr). 

But see 158, note. 

The Dat. is probably Instrumental (not Locative) in Od. i. 197 

KCLTpVKraL ev/oe'i TToVrw (by, not on, the sea). Also with 6e'x.ojuiai, 

&c v as II. 6. . 

136 vTTtotfaro KO^TT^, Od. 1 6. 70 VTroSefojiat otKa>. 

In later Greek de'xo/xcu 

is construed with OIKO>, Tro'Aei, &c. without 

a Preposition. 

Note the occasional use of the Instrumental Dat. with Verbs 

of buying, as II. 7. 475 olvi&vro aAAoi plv xA.K

1 45-] 

LOCATIVAL DATIVE. 139 

also with a Verb of e cognate 9 

meaning, as Oavov otKrtora> Oavdrto 

(Od. II. 412), peov vban (Od. 5. 70). 

145.] The Locatival Dative. The Dative without a Preposition 

denoting the place of an action is much commoner in Homer 

than in later Greek, though already restricted to a comparatively 

narrow range. It is used 

(1) Of towns and countries: lAica eto-t are in Ilios, , ^^pirj, 

Kv6rtpoLa-i, 77/377, KPTJTT?, "Apyei, 'EAAa5t, &c. So too y At8i. 

(2) Of the great divisions of the world, the chief spheres of 

action, &c., as alOepi, ovpav>, ovpecri, dyp


The Dat. after the Prepositions 4i>, em, impel, JAT

147-] 

GENITIVE. 141 

the predicate given by a Verb. The Genitive is originally of the third group ; 

and properly qualifies a Noun. Hence the Ablative and Genitive uses are 

generally distinguished partly in meaning, partly in grammatical structure. 

But they are not always distinguished by the structure, since (i) the Ablative 

(like the Ace. and Dat.) may be construed with an Adjective, and (2) the true 

Gen. may be predicative (like an Adj.), and thus apparently construed with 

a Verb. To give a single example 

: Otwv yovos kari might be = 

(theoretically) 

he is offspring from-gods (Abl.), and on the other hand OeoJv feyovf may be = /ie 

offspring of-gods (Gen., see 148). 

147.] The Genitive with Nouns. The manner in which a 

Genitive serves to define or qualify the { governing- ' Noun may 

be very various. E. g. Tpvcov xoôs may mean anger of (i. e. felt 

by) the Trojans, or (as in II. 6. 335) anger at the Trojans, or anger 

on account of the Trojans (as in II. 15. 138 \6\ov vios erjos means 

anger about the death of his son). 

Compare also 

pKos TroXe/xoto a bulwark in (or against) war. 

UpKos obovrcDv the fence (made) of teeth. 

repas juepo'moy avOpuHrcav a sign to men. 

XdOprj AaoptbovTos with secrecyfrom Laomedon. 

atKovros with fiirj 

force used to one unwilling. 

Kv/xara iravroLutv avt^tov the waves raised by all winds. 

o/u,(|>aA.oi Kaaxrirepoto bosses made of tin. 

'\\iov TTTo\i0pov the town of Ilios. 

'0't'A.ryos 

Ta\vs Alas swift Ajax son of Oileus. 

baifjioviz êivtov unaccountable stranger ! 

VOJJLOS v\rj$ pasture ground in the wood. 

VOCTTOS yair]s 3>air\K.u>v return to the land of the Phaeacians. 

virotyios aAAcoj; suspected by others. 

e-nwrpoôj av0pu>T7(j)v going about among men. 

a(j)Vibs PLOTOLO rich in substance. 

lOvs Aio/u?}8eos straight for Diomede. 

The different uses of the Genitive often answer to the different 

meanings given by the Suffixes which serve to form 

Adjectives from Nouns ( 117). Compare, for instance, II. 2. 54 

Neorope'rj Trapa vrjt HvXoiytveos fiao-iXrjos by the ship of Nestor 

the Pylian king ; II. 6. 180 Qtiov yez'os ot>6' avOptoirav the offspring 

of gods, not of men ; rofov atyo'j (II. 4. 105) a bow of goat's horn, 

but dcTKos atyetos a bag of goatskin ; 'Ot'A.T/os ra-^vs Ataj and Atas 

'OtXtciaryy ; TeAajuiajzno? vios the son of Telamon ; and so in the 

Pronouns, ejueto TioQr] (II. 6. 362), but 077 iroOfj (II. 19. 321). 

These uses have been classified as Objective and Subjective, Possessive, 

Partitive, Material, &c. In many cases however the variety of relations 

expressed by the Gen. eludes this kind of analysis. Such classifications, 

moreover, are apt to lead us into the fallacy of thinking that relations which 

are distinct to us, because expressed by different language, were distinctly 

the fallacy, in 

conceived by those who expressed them all in the same way ; 

is


short, of supposing the distinctions of thought to be prior to the language 

which embodies them. 

The relation of the Genitive to the governing Noun is in many ways 

analogous to the relation of the Accusative to the Verb, and also to that 

which subsists between the first part of a Compound Noun and the second. 

that of a defining or qualifying word to 

In each of these cases the relation is 

the notion defined or qualified, and it is one which may be of various kinds, 

as may be suggested by particular combinations of meaning. 

Notice, as especially frequent 

in Homer 

(1) the use of a Gen. after Nouns meaning grief, anger, &c., 

to express the object or cause of the feeling 

: as aôs- jjvioyoLO grief 

for the chariot-driver (II. 8. 124, 316, &c.), axoy crtQev (II. 4. 169) ; 

obvvrj 'Hpa/cXr/os (II. 15- 25) j irtvOos iraibbs a/no^Qiîvoio (II. 1 8. 

88); Kriot' fy&v trapuv (II. 22. 2J2, Od. ii. 382); and so in the 

much-disputed phrase 'EAeVjjs o/ojurjjuara re arova^ds re (II. 2. 356, 

590), which can only mean efforts and groans about Helen. 

(2) the ' ' 

partitive 

use after rts (Interrog.) and TIS (Indef.), 

often with several words interposed 

: as II. 1 . 8 TLS r ap o- 

Oe&v KT\. ; II. I. 88 ov TLS ejuteu f&vros . . x W a * CTroicret 

rcoz> AavaQv no one shall . . . 

of all the Greeks. 

The partitive Gen. is also seen in the Homeric phrases 8ta 

Otdav bright one among goddesses, dia yvvaiK&v, daijuuwe fctvtov, 

TrdvTMv apibiKTov avop&v (II. 14. 320) where the governing 

: 

word implies some kind of distinction or eminence. So when 

there is a contrast, as 

II. II. 761 TravTS ' evêroco^ro 0e Ati Neoropt r' avbp&v. 

148.] Genitive in the Predicate. Among the various uses 

of the Gen. in construction with a Verb the first to be noticed 

are those in which the Case evidently retains its attributive or 

adjectival character. This use is rare in Homer examples : are, 

ets ayaOolo thou art of good blood, eTrotryo-ez^ 

O-CIKOJ aloXov 

ravpav farpeêW made a shield seven hides thick, of 

(hides of) goodly bulls. In classifying the Greek uses of the 

Gen. the chief object is to separate constructions of this kind (in 

which the Case is ultimately the adjectival or ' true ' 

Gen.) from 

those in which it represents an Ablative, and therefore is essen- 

akin to the Adverbs. 

tially 

* Prof. Max Miiller (Lectures, I, p. 103) shows how the Genitive Ending -oio 

(for -o-o-j-o) may be explained as a Suffix of the same kind as those which 

form Adjectives from Nouns. If his hypothesis is admitted, the Genitive is 

simply ' an Adjective without Gender,' in respect ofform as well as use. And 

even if the identification on which he chiefly relies (of the Case-ending -sya 

and Suffix -tya with the Pronoun eyas, syd, tyad) should be thought open to 

question, there can be little doubt that the Case is originally ' adnominal ' or 

adjectival in character.

150.] GENITIVE. 143 

This use of the Gen. is singularly common in Latin: see Roby, 1282. 

The reason for this difference between Greek and Latin evidently is that in 

Latin the Gen. is not confounded with the Abl. The same explanation has 

been given of the free use which Latin makes of the predicative Dative 

( 143, note}. 

149.] Genitive of Place. A Gen. expresses a vague -local 

relation (within, 

in the sphere of, &c.), 

in the following uses : 

(1) After a negative 

II. 17. 372 vtcfros b' ov (paiveTo 770,0-77? yatrjs OVT opeW. 

Od. 3. 251 r\ ov/c'Apyeos jjev 'AâuKov. Cp. 14. 98., 21. 109. 

(2) When two sides or alternative places 

II. 9. 219 avrbs 6' avriov l&v Ôbvo-afjos 0etoto 

are contrasted 

roiôu TOV erepoto. Cp. 24. 59 8 

Od. I. 23 AWioiras, rol bixQa SeScuarat, ecrxarot avbp&v, 

oi IJLZV bvffOfjievov 'Tirtpiovos, ol 8' aviovros, 

and so perhaps Od. 12. 27 r) 

oAos TJ CTT! yijs, 

and Od. 4. 678 av\rjs 

KTOS v in the court outside (cp. 9. 239). 

(3) With Verbs of motion, to express the space within which 

the motion takes place, as II. 2. 785 dteTrprjcrow TreStoto made 

their way over the plain : so lav Tro/Ve'os irebioLo, t'Trrrco 

TreSi'oto, Trebioio io)Ke^ KOVLOVTZS irebiOLO, &c. 10. ; 353 e 

veiolo (3a6ir]s TTTIKTOV aporpov 

: 

24. 264 Iva Trpôra-cojuez; 6oto, cp. 

Od. 2. 404., 3. 476. This use of the Gen. is almost confined to 

set phrases ; accordingly it is only found with the Gen. in -oio 

When an Ace. of quantity and 

(the archaic form). 

The difference of meaning between this Genitive and the 

Accusative of Space ( 138) seems to be that the Ace. measures 

the action of the Verb, whereas the Gen. only gives a local relation 

in which the action stands. 

a Gen. are both used, the Ace. often seems to govern the Gen. ; 

e. g. 6/uuA.ou TTO\\OV TT\6(6v advancing far in the throng, Trapef eA- 

Otiv irebioLo rvrOov to go a short space ofplain beyond. So with 

Adverbs : tvOa KOL ZvO* Wv&e fJ'CL^rj 

irebioio : 

abrjv eAaorat TroAe/xoto ; 

and with a negative 

: OVK "Apyeos ^v ê was nowhere in Argos. 

Thus the Gen. has a partitive character. 

15O.] Genitive of Time. This Gen. expresses a period of 

time to which the action belongs, without implying anything as 

to its duration; e.g. 

Od. 14. 161 Tovb' avrov XvitdfiavTos eAevo-erai he will come (sometime 

in) this very year. So II. 5. 523 zê/uur/? in calm weather ; 

8. 

470 fiovs in the morning ; n. 691 r&v vpoTtpwv ereW informer 

years ; 22. 27 o-n-wprjs eto-t goes in autumn. 

It appears from the corresponding construction in Sanscr. and


Zend that this is the true Genitive (Delbruck, Synt. ForscJi. iv. 

P- 45)- 

For the c Gen. Absolute ' which is akin to the Gen. of time 

see 246. 

151.] 

The quasi-partitive Genitive. Under this term we 

may include a number of constructions in which the Gen. is 

used (in preference to some other Case) because the action of the 

Verb does not affect the person or thing- in a sufficiently direct 

and unqualified 

: 

way e. g. in Acoroio

151.] GENITIVE. 145 

The Gen. in this group of uses is probably akin to the Gen. of 

the space within which action takes place, 149. Compare, for 

example, epeuraro yairjs with te TOL\OV TOV ere'pou, passages 

given under the same head by Kuhner ( 418, 8, a). 

Or it 

may 

be Ablatival : 

cp. TTpvfjivr]0v Ad/3e, 159. 

With (V) Verbs meaning to touch, to hit (an object aimed at), 

reach (a person), 

to put in or on (a chariot, ship, wall, &c.), with 

the derivative meanings, to attain to, get a place or share in, &c. ; 

as aXXri\(*)v C^LKOVTO got at each other ; riê yap p ajjiddoio paOtir/s 

he happened to fall in deep sand ; so venpovs irvpKa'ifjs eirtvrivcov 

heaped the corpses on the funeral pile ; so metaphorically, 

K.OLK.&V 

fTnf3a(TK^V to bring into mischief; avriaav TroAe/xoto to join in 

war, avnotov l/caro^/S^s (but II. I. 

31 (JLOV Aeôj avriouLxrav because 

Aeôs is'the whole object, cp. 

136, i). 

With (c) 

Verbs meaning to aim at, strive after, desire, care for, 

complain of, grieve for, be angry about, &c. ; 

as Alavros CLKOVTHTG 

threw a dart at Ajax, ov Tratbos dpearo held out his arms for his 

child, o-KOTre'Acou e-TTtjuateo feel for the rocks (but e-Trejutatero LTTTTOVS 

touched up the eTreiyo/xeyos1 

horses), "Aprjos hasting to (eager for) 

battle, T>V ov n ovb' joterarpe-Trrj dAeyifeu these you do not regard or 

heed, KVK\(*)TTOS Kexo'Awrat is enraged on behalf of the Cyclops ; and 

many similar instances. 

Kuhner ( 416, Anm. 9) quotes II. 5. 582 xW^V ayK&va 

TVX&V fjLcaov as a use of rvy\ava) with the Ace. But it is possible 

to construe ayK&va with /3aAe in the earlier part of the sentence. 

Si) 

With Verbs meaning to hear, perceive, know of, remember, 

the Gen. expressing 

the like ; 

(1) the person from whom sound comes ; 

(2) the person about whom something is heard, known, &c. 

(3) the sound heard (but the Ace. is more usual). 

The particular thing heard or known is often indicated by a 

Participle agreeing with the Genitive : e. g. 

II. I. 257 e ' ox/xSi'z; ra Traira TrvOoiaro âpva^voi'iv { if they 

heard of all this fighting on your part\ 

II. 4. 357 ws yuo) ytooiitvoio ( 

= &>s eyva avrov on 

Od. 2. 220 t 8e K TtOvri&Tos aK.ovcra> : so 4. 728, &c. 

The Verb oI8a, when it means to know about, to be skilled in, 

takes a Gen., as II. n. 657 ovbe TL ote nevOeos knows nothing of 

the sorrow. So Od. 21. 56 ôpjottyyoj eTrto-rdjuteôs KCU doiSrys 

: II. 

16. 811 bubavKoiJitvos TroAe/moto. 

So fjiejjivT)jjLai 

takes a Gen. when it means I bethink myself of , 

am affected by the memory (II. 2. 686, Od. 15. 23) 

: see 140, 

4, a. Cp. Lat. memini with the Gen. or Ace., perhaps with a 

similar difference of meaning (Roby, 1332). 

L 

to


(e) The Gen. of material, &c. The construction so termed is 

found with Verbs that imply the use of a material (especially 

one of indefinite quantity), 

a stock drawn upon, &c. E.g. 

II. l. 

470 KOVpOL juei> Kprjrrjpas tTrto-rtyavTo TTOTOIO filed up the 

cups to the brim with liquor ; 9. 214 7ra

152] ABLATIVAL GENITIVE. 147 

o-Y]|jLaiVw : II. 14. 85 (TTparov a\\ov a-rjfjiaiveiv : so riyovâi, &c. 

OejjLurreuw Od. : 9. 1 14 0fJLL(TTVL 8e ocao-ros iratbav 778' a\6â)v. 

It is probable, from the analogy of Sanscrit, that this is the 

true Gen. ; 

but the original force of the Case is obscure. 

152.] The Ablatival Genitive. The Ablative expressed the 

object (person, place, or thing) from which separation takes 

place, and is represented by the Gen. in various uses as 

: 

avtbv noXifjs aAo's rose from the grey sea. 

K\vdov gave wayfrom the path. 

/xax 7 ?? were stayed from the fight. 

eepyei pvlav keeps off a fly from her child. 

8ia>Kro oto So'jototo 

was chased from his house. 

KaKo'rrjros eAixraz; delivered from ill. 

areju/3o'/xei>o9 fcrjs defrauded of a share. 

7rai8o? edeâro received from her son. 

TTL0(v -fi^vcra-^To otvos wine was drawn from, casks. 

behind Antilochus. 

*Az;TiAo'xoio AetTrero was left 

yovv yovvbs a/zet/Scoz; exchanging knee past knee (=putting them 

in front by turns). 

7 beginfrom (a point), 

II. 9. 97, Od. 21. 142. 

I miss, lose, fail in. 

ct) 

Tputas a/xwe vt&v keep off 

the Trojansfrom the ships: 

so with 

va), TrvvOdvofjiai,


X fxe tpa>v, &c.), but only with Verbs which imply 

separation or distance from a point, or which are compounded with 

Prepositions such as e, OTTO', &c. 

Later poets seem to be more free in this respect (probably because they 

treated the usage as an archaism, adopted as being poetical) : e. g. Soph. 0. T. 

142 ftaPpcav 'iffraaOf, Ant. 418 xO v s ddpas, Phil. 630 rea-s d-yovra, &c. Further 

extensions are, the use for the place from which something is seen, as Soph. 

El. 78, 324, and for the agent, Eur. Or. 497, El. 123. 

153.] Gen. of Price. Verbs meaning to change places with 

take an Ablatival Gen., as yovv yovvos CL^LÛ^V (quoted 


last section) 

: hence the constructions 

II. 6. 

235 re^x/ afjLifi \pva-a xa\Kuoz> exchanged armour, 

golden (passing in exchange] for bronze. 

II. I. ill XpvoTj&os ayAa' airowa ... 6eao-#at to accept a splendid 

ransom for Chryseis ; so Od. n. 327 77 \pvo-ov ^tAou avopbs 

e8ea,TO who took gold for (to betray) 

her husband. 

II. n. 1 06 eAucre^ aTToivcov released for a ransom. 

Hence we may explain the construction with Verbs meaning 

to value at, set off against (a price) ; as II. 23. 649 TI/XT/S rjs re' jtx' 

TtrifjifjcrOai so with the Adjectives cbraftoy, &c. 

; 

It is possible however that a word expressing value or price may be construed 

as a Gen. with a Noun. As we can say reject 4aTo^j3oia armour worth 

a hundred oxen, we might have rtvxâ (Karov &owv (as in Attic prose, e. g. Se/ca 

JJLVUJV \(apiov a plot worth ten minae) ; cp. the Latin magni emere, magnifacere, &c. 

Case-forms 

154.] The Case-Ending -4>i(0 

is found in a number of 

Homeric forms which appear to be construed indifferently as 

Datives or Genitives. It will be shown, however, that there is 

ground for believing these forms to have been used for the Dat. 

only in the instrumental and locatival senses (the latter being 

comparatively rare), and for the Gen. only in the ablatival 

sense. They formed, therefore, a * mixed Case/ composed of the 

same elements as the Latin Ablative, viz. the original Instr. 

Abl. and Loc. 

In respect of usage these forms are archaic that is to : say, 

they are confined for the most part to lines and phrases of a 

in

156.] FORMS IN -*I(N). 149 

fixed conventional type. In several instances the survival is 

evidently due to the influence of the metre thus : 8aKpu6i TT\ija-0v were filled with tears (II. 17. 696,, &c.). 

In the ' comitative ' use, avroivw oyta-fyLv chariot and all, nr- 

TIOKTIV KOL oxeo-Qiv with horses and chariot (II. 12. 1 14, Od. 4. 533); 

with Prepositions, aju' ?)ot aivoi*,vr]($>iv, 

crvv linroKTiv Kai OÔ-^LV 

(often in the Iliad), also Trap o%ea-(j)iv (construed with Verbs of 

rest, II. 5. 28, 794., 8. 565., 12. 91., 15. 3) 

unless dô-(f)Lv 

is a 

Loc. ( 157); with words expressing agreement, likeness, &c., as 

ira\diJ.r](f)LV dprj/oet fitted his hand, Qtofyiv JUTJOTCO/) ardAairos (II. 7. 

366, &c.). 

With Verbs of trusting ; II. 4. 303 iinroa-vvrj 

re Kal 

; so dyAair^t (II. 6. 510), /3tr](/)t (several times). 

156.] Ablative. Forms used as Ablatival Genitives are 

II. 2. 794 vavfyiv atyopfjiriOtltv start from the ships. 

13. 700 vav

1.50 USE OF CASES. [157. 

down from: 

KCIT o/oeo-^t (II. 4. 452., 

1 1. 493). 

under : VTT oyjtcrfyi (II. 23. 7), 

VTTO 

vy6$w (II. 24. 576). 

With this use of -t 

we may compare the use of the Dative with ! and diro, 

which is one of the peculiarities of the Arcadian and Cyprian dialects 

(Meister, ii. 119, 296). The parallel of the Latin Abl. has been noticed. 

157.] Locative. This use is found in several clear instances, 

as well as others of an indecisive kind : 

II. 19. 323 ^6ir](f)L in Phthia ; 

AeAetTrro was 

II. 13. 168 KXivirifyi 

left in the tent ; Qvpîv out of doors, for is (Od. 9. 238., 22. 220); 

Kt(j)a^rj(j)Lv 0rjK put on the head (II. 10. 30, 257* 261 ; cp. 496, 

Od. 20. 94); II. ii. 474 s et re 8a$oiz;ot 07/pes opta-fyiv : 19. 376 

TO 8e Kaierai v\l/oO' optvfyiv 

: 22. 139 T^re /apKos Sptovfup /crA. ; 

22. 189 a>s 8' ore vtflpbv opeo-û KVWJ; KrA. ; II. 2. 480 ?}i;re 

dye'Arjc/H /xey' eo)(os eTrAero Tiavrav 1 6. 487 : aye'A?7

1 59-] 

FORMS IN -0EN AND -112. 

151 

(5) Certain uses with Prepositions; viz. em in II. 13. 308 r) 

cirl b*(t(tyiv . . TI 

eV api(TTp6(f)Lv towards right or Left ; irpoaOe in 

II. 5. 107 itpfotf tirnotiv Koi oxto-Qiv : Sid through, in 8ta 5e OTTJ- 

0(T(f)Lv (?Xaa-(Tv (II. 5- 4 1 * &c.), also 10. 185 

The first four of these references evidently do not prove much. The first 

would be a clear instance of the true Gen. if we could be sure of the text : but 

there is some probability in favour of 'IXCoo ( 98), proposed by Leo Meyer 

as an Instr. : hot 

(Ded. p. 35). In II. 21. 367 we may perhaps take pi-rjQi 

breath vexed him through (by reason of the ) might of Hephaestus. 

Again, the use with cm may be locatival, with irpoaOe ablatival (as with 

irpo). The uses with Sid are more important, because they are not isolated, 

but form a distinct group. It is improbable that did through should take an 

ablatival Gen. or a Locative. The Sanscrit Instr. is used of the space or time 

over which an action extends (Delbriick, A. S. : 

88) and so the Abl. in Latin 

(Roby, 1176, 1189). This use appears in Greek as the Dat. of the way by 

which, and perhaps in the phrases irfpuovri TW 0e/>et, &c. It may be thought 

possible that 81' opecrt 

and 5

USE OF CASES. [160. 

from, defend, surpass, or with the corresponding Adjectives and 

Adverbs. Hence it cannot be held to be equivalent to an Ablative 

( 152), and probably differed from the Abl. in expressing 

motion from rather than separation. 

On the other hand, the Pronominal forms fyeOtv, vtQtv, eOev 

are freely construed 

(1) as Ablatives: Trpb tOev, virtp vtQev, avtv ZfjitOtv ; 

and with 

a Comparative, 

II. I. 114 ov kQtv eort êpeiW, &c. Cp. also II. 

9. 419 /xaAa yap 0tv . . X^LP 

a ^ v Wp^tf)(

162.] 

NOMINATIVE. 153 

' 

' 

notion the case/ the course of things/ &c.* Verbs used with 

a vague unexpressed Subject of this kind are called IMPERSONAL. 

The vague Subject may be a Plural, as II. 16. 128 OVKZTL (J)VKTGL 

TTtXovTat the case no longer allows of flight, Od. 2. tcra 

203 

eo-o-erat 

things will be even. 

A Neuter Pronoun used as the Subject sometimes gives a 

vague meaning, not far removed from that of an Impersonal 

Verb; e.g. II. I. 564 et 8' OVTM TOVT eort if this is so (cp. OVTMS 

eon' it is so) ; v coming forth by night, tvbov -navvv^LOi 

slept all night, x0 L os tfa wen *' yesterday. 

Such Adjectives seem to answer most nearly to the Gen. of 

time within which, but may also express duration, as âurj^pLos 

and Travvv)(Los. 

2. In describing the attitude, manner, position, &c. in which an 

action is done : as -naXivopcros a-nivrr) stood off 

with a start lackwards, 

VTTTLOS o$8et ZptiarOr) was dashed face upwards on the ground ; 

so Trefo? eiA.?jAoi>0a, \afipbs e7raiyifa>j>, Ttpofypw rerXr^/cas (cp. Trpo- 

poyea)j), djuer/ooe' 77179 eKoAwa^ &c. 

3. 

The Pronouns o8e and Ketzôj are sometimes used instead of 

Adverbs of place II. : 

5. 604 KOL vvv ot irdpa KZLVOS "Aprjs now too 

yonder is Ares at his side ; 10. 434 0p?ji'Kes ot6 5 airdvtvOt here are 

the Thracians apart; Od. 6. 276 n's 5' 68e Navo-tKcia eTrerat So 

; 

OVTOS in II. JO. 82 rts 8' OVTOS KrA.. 

4. With Verbs meaning to 6e, to become, to appear, to be made, 

called, thought, &c. ; 

as /ca/moroi rpdtyev they were nurtured the 

mightiest, (i. 

e. to be the mightiest) ; et(ra>7rot tytvovro vtGtv they 

came to be in front of the ships: rjbe aplarr] (ftaivero fiov\r) this appeared 

the best counsel. 

In all such cases the Nominative which goes with the Verb not only qualifies 

the notion given by the Verb-Stem, but also becomes itself a Predicate (t. e. 

the assertion of an attribute). E. g. /cdpriaroi rpaêv implies that they were 

KapTwrroi. A Noun so used is called a SECONDARY Predicate. 

The use of eljju as the ' logical copula ' is merely a special or ' singular ' case 

* See Kiddell's Digest, 95-100: Sigwart, Impersonalien.


of this type of sentence. The Verb has then little or no meaning of its own, 

but serves to mark the following Noun as a Predicate. The final stage of 

the development is reached when the Verb is omitted as being superfluous. 

5. With Impersonal or half-Impersonal Verbs meaning to be, 

&c. ; 

the Predicate being 

(a) a Neuter Adjective ; 

as juo'po-i/xoz; 

ecm it is fated ; ye/xeo-- 

arrjrov Be* KV eiT? it would be worthy of indignation ; ov rot aeiKe's it 

is not unmeet for thee : 

with a Pronominal Subject, to-OXbv yap TO 

TeTVKTaL it is a good thing. 

In the Plural, OVK^TL (frvKTa tf&oprat there is no more escaping ; 

cp. Aoiyia epya ra8' eWerai this will be a pestilent business. 

In one or 'two instances the Adverbial form in -ws is used in 

suck 1 was 

phrases of this kind : II. n. 762 o>? eW et TTOT eW ye 

if I was ; II. 9. 55 r KovpTJreo-ort /caK

164.] VOCATIVE. 155 

163.] Interjectional Nominative. The Nom. is not unfrequently 

used in Homer without any regular construction, as a 

kind of exclamation : 

e.g. 

II. 5- 4O5 aoi * 

cirl 

TOVTOV avfJKe Oca yXavK&TTis 'AOrivr), 

vrjTTios, ov8e TO oi6e KT\. fool ! he knows not fyc. 

Similarly o-xerAios cruel! bvo-fjLopos the unhappy one! (Od. 20. 

194) : and so II. i. 231 br]fjLoj36pos pacnkevs I Cp. the inter jectional 

use of albas shame ! (II. 5. 787., 13. 95., 16. 422). 

A similar account may be given of one or two passages in 

which commentators generally suppose 

' 

anacoluthon ' : viz. 

II. 10. 436 rov 877 KaAAioTovs fonrovs Ibov ?)5e 

AevKorepoi ^LOVOS, deiLv 6 GLVÔKTIV 

whiter than snow they are ! &c. ; 

and so in the equally abrupt 

II. 

10. 547 ctiVwy aKTiv(T(nv eouores ?]eAioio. 

2. 

353 a

156 ADJECTIVES. [165. 

The Nominative is often used for the Voc., especially, 

it would 

seem, in order to avoid the repetition of the Voc. ; e.g. II. 4. 

189

1 66.] ADJECTIVES. 157 

expresses quality in the same way as an Adjective. E. g. the definition does 

not enable us to distinguish /xax^T^s from naxhpaw. 

It is evident that the use of a Nominative in the Predicate as /SatriAtvs tan 

he is king 

is strictly speaking an adjectival use. 

The corresponding distinction in the Pronouns does not need 

much explanation. The Personal Pronouns are essentially Substantives 

(being incapable of serving as limiting or descriptive 

words) the Possessive Pronouns are ; essentially Adjectives. The 

others admit of both uses; e.g. OVTO$ this one, and avr]p ovros (in 

Attic 6 avrjp ovros) 

this man. 

166.1 Gender of Adjectives. In a few cases the Gender of 

the Adjective is independent of the Substantive with which it 

is construed. 

i. When a person 

is described by a word which properly 

denotes a thing (viz. 

a Neuter, as TGKVOV, re'/coj, &c., or an 

the concord of Gender is not 

abstract Noun, /3i'r] Hpiapoio, &c.), 

always observed. Thus we have $iAe TZK.VOV (but L\ov TC'KOS, 

again 

/ce(/>aA?j) ; 

II. n. 690 \6uv yap p eKa/oorre (3ir) 'HpaKArjeirj ( = Heracles). 

Od. I J. 

90 f)\$ 

6"' eTrt \l/vxn rj{3aiov Tetpeo-iao 

In such cases grammarians speak of a ' 

construction according 

to the meaning' (Kara The term 

(ri/vea-iv). is unobjectionable, 

provided that we remember that constructions according to the 

meaning are generally older than those in which meaning is 

overridden by idiom or grammatical analogy. 

2. Where an Adjective refers to more than one Noun, it follows 

the most prominent 

: or (if 

this is at all doubtful) the Masc. 

is used of persons , 

the Neut. of things: e.g. 

II. 2. 

136 al 5e TTOV ^jmerepai r' aAo)(ot /cat vrjina TZKVCL 

rjaT 

tvl jueydpots -TrortSeyêi'at 

because the wives are chiefly thought of : 

but 

II. 18. 5^4 Tefyos ^v p aXoôi re ûAat Kai W^TTLO. re/era 

pvar eêo-raoVes, /xera 5' ai/epes ovs eê y^pa? 

because the boys and old men are also in the speaker's mind. 

Od. 13. 435 ^M^t 6e îv paKOs aAAo KCLKOV /SaAez; ?)e ^tr

USE OF THE NUMBERS. 

[167. 

167.] Gender of Pronouns. A substantival Pronoun denoting 

a person may retain its proper Gender although the 

antecedent is a Neuter, or an abstract word ; 

as II. 22. 87

170.] SINGULAR. 159 

binations such as - ojuuAo? are repTro'/meyot only found when there is 

some pause between the words ; 

otherwise the Genitive would be 

used (construed 

as in Tpwcoz; Kare8v 8e7ras afji(f)LKVTTX\ov (TTTLoravTs Trapa vfjas l(rav irdXiv. 

Even 

the Verb is made Sing, in II. 16. 264 ot 8' &\KL{JLOV r\rop exoz/res 

7rpoV(ra> Tras Trererat KO! a/xwet oto-t rocecnn : but this is a slight 

boldness of expression. 

at 8' 

On the same principle we may explain the Sing, in Od. 4. 300 

Ivav ec joteyapoio baos jotera xepo"iz> tyovcrai ( 

= each with a torch 

in her hands)', II. 13. 783 rerujujue'ya) Kara x e *-P 

a (^^ of the two) 

wounded in the hand ; II. 3. 235 ovs Ktv v yvoir)v Kat T ovvoâ 

IJLvdrjcraiiJirjv. 

So in II. 17. 260 r 8' aAAaif rts Kez; . . owo/xar' 

etTrot we should doubtless read ovvoâ (fetTrot). 

Similarly the Dual is used of a group of pairs : 

II. 16. 370 'TroAA.oi 8' kv rafypto epixrapjutare? a>Kees linrot. 

aâvr GV TTptoTij) pVjJLto XLTTOV a/)/xar' avaKT(t)V 

Avhere the Dual aavT (like the Sing, /ou/xcp) 

refers to one chariot. 

Probably, too, we should read ap/xa avanTav e. (i. FCLVCLKTUV). 

So 

II. 23- 3^ ^ ^' â 7r^ rf 1' S' 

6^)' tTTTrottV juaartyas aeipav, Od. 2O. 

348 o(T(re 8' apa (rêcoy baKpvo 

. . VTI' 

yxo? f]fjiTpoio before the spear of one of us. The distributive 

TLS is equivalent to a Plural. 

Hence a peculiar vague use of the Plural, as II. 3. 49 wov 

avbp&v alwr]Td(Dv the bride of some warrior's son (lit. daughter-in-

l6o USE OF THE NUMBERS. [171. 

law of tvarriors, i.e. of this or that warrior); 4. 142 

fJLjJLVai, tTTTTCOr (v. 

1. 

J/TTTKp) 2T. 499 j vX.tfKT^fO' 

(less directly personal than aA.o'x). 

171.] Plural of Things. The Plural form is not confined in 

Greek (or indeed in any language) to the expression of ' 

plurality ' 

in the strict sense, i. e. to denote a group composed of distinct 

individuals, but is often used (esp. in Homer) of objects which 

it is more logical to think of in the Singular. Many words, 

too, are used both in the Sing, and the Plur., with little or no 

difference of meaning. 

Notice especially the uses of the Plural in the case of 

(1) Objects consisting of : 

parts rooz> and roa low and arrows: 

o)(oj and o-êa, ap//a and apjuara a chariot : 8c5juta, jueyapou a hall or 

room, 8&>juara, jueyapa a house : X&rpo? and Ae'/crpa a bed. 

irv\aL a gate is only used in the Plur. ; Ovpr] 

is used as well as 

Ovpai, but only of the door of a room (0d\a}JLo$). 

(2) Natural objects of undefined extent : \/mjua0o? and x/rajua#oi 

(as we say sands), aAe? (once aAs) salt, Kovirj and KOVIOLI dust, nvpos 

and irvpoL wheat, p&Opov and p&Qpa, KV/ZO, (in a collective sense) 

and Kvâra, baKpv and baKpva, Kpea (seldom Kpeas) meat, o-apKe? 

(once Smg.)fles//. 

(3) Parts of the body V&TOV : (or i;5ro? the Nom. Sing, does 

not occur in Homer) and V&TCL, crrrjOos and (more commonly) 

or?70ea, TrpocrtoTrov and TrporrtoTra the countenance, and (f)prjv (f>pV$. 

(4) Abstract words : 

XeXao-juiei'o? iinrocrvvaav forgetting horsemanship, 

TTo8coKt?7(rt Tre-TTot^d)? trusting to speed of foot, avaXîrjcn 

6a/xeVr? overcome by want of prowess, TroAutSpetr/o-t vooio through 

cunning of understanding : so aravOaXiai, a^)pa8tat, ayr}vopiai, a

I73-] 

NEUTER PLURAL DUAL. l6l 

generally be found that the word is really Plural in meaning 

e. that it calls (?'. up the notion of distinct units). 

Thus it is 

used with 

Nouns denoting agents as e#z>ea ; applied to the men of the 

army (II. 3. 91, 464), to birds (II. 2. 459)> 

to swine 

(Od. 14. 73) ; so with QvX.' avOpunwv (Od. 15. 409). 

Distinctly plural parts of the body: Trre/oa, x ^ a > ovara, 

jue'Aea so irebiXa : 

(of the shoes of Hermes). 

Numerals: btKa oro'/xara (II. 2. 489), ovara reWapa (II. II. 

634), reVcrapa o"epju,ara (Od. 4. 437)^ atTroAta ez/Ka iravra 

(Od. 14. 103); so with irdvTa and TroAAd (II. II. 574., 15. 

714., 17. 760, Od. 4. 437,, 794., 9. 222., 12. 411), and when 

the context shows that distinct things are meant as II. : 5. 

656 r&v fj^v bovpara (the spears of two warriors), 13. 135 

A. few instances occur in fixed phrases, which may represent 

an earlier syntax; \VVTO 8e yvla (but also X.VTO yovvaTa), 

epya yevovTo, &c. Note especially the lines ending with. 

(TO, re Trrepa vrjval 77e'Aoz;rat, 6Ye T r/juara juta/cpa irtXovT 

77e'Aoi;ra6, &c.). 

The exceptions to the use of the Sing, are fewest with Pronouns 

and Adjectives 

: doubtless on account of their want of a 

distinct Plural meaning (see the end of last section). 

173.] The Dual is chiefly used (i) of two objects thought of 

as a distinct pair, 

and (2) 

when the Numeral 8vo> is used. 

I. Thus we have the natural pairs x W > ^X 

jotrjpo), oVde, ocÔaXjjuO) and (in the Gen. Dat.) 

' 

ftvovrt, w/za>, 

Trobol'iv, /3\(f)dpouv 

: 

(rra0ju,o> door-posts ; 177-770) the horses of a chariot, /3o'e a yoke of oxen^ 

apv a pair of lambs (for sacrifice); bovpe (in II. 13. 241., 16. 139 

of the two spears usually carried, but bvo bovpe is more common) ; 

77ora//d) (II. 5. 773) of the two rivers of the Troad, and so Kpovvu 

(II. 22. 147). So of the two warriors in a chariot (II. 5. 244, 

272, 568), two wrestlers (II. 23. 707), two dancers (Od. 8. 37 8), 

the Sirens (Od. 12. 52, &c.); the 'ArpetSa and Alavre. 

The Numeral is generally added in speaking of two wild 

animals (Ofjpe 

6" wo, AeWre o"wo_, &c,) : Kairpa) 

1 

(II. 

1. 

324) and 

AeWre 1 6. (II. 75^) are hardly exceptions, since the context shows 

that two are meant. Also aterco (Od. 2. 146) of two eagles sent 

as an omen, and yvne (Od. n. 578) of the vultures that devoured 

Tityos. 

The Dual in II. 8. 

185191 (where Hector calls to four horses 

by name) might be defended, because two is the regular number ; 

but probably v. 185 is spurious. In II. 23. 413, again, at K' 

ai70KT]d?jo-az>re (/>e/>a>/xe0a \tipov 

atQXov the Dual is used because 

M

162 USE OF THE NUMBERS. [173. 

it is the horses that are chiefly 

in the driver's mind, although he 

associates himself with them. In II. 9. 182-195 the Dual refers 

to the two envoys, Phoenix being overlooked. 

Again, when two agents have been mentioned together, or 

are represented as acting together in any way, the Dual may 

be used: as II. I. 

531 ro> y o>? fiovhevn-avre (of Thetis and 

Achilles), 16. 823 (of a lion and boar fighting), Od. 3. 128., 13. 

372, &c. Similarly, of the meeting of two rivers, II. 4. 453 

ey jjLL(rydyKiav orv[j,(Bd\\TOV ofipijjiov vbutp (cp. 5- 774)- 

The Dual Pronouns v&'i and o-&u are used with comparative 

regularity: see II. i. 257, 336, 574., 5. 34, 287, 718, &c. This 

usage may be a matter of traditional courtesy. Hence perhaps 

the scrupulous use where the First Person Dual is meant II. ; 4. 

407 ayayovtf Diomede and 8. 

(' I') 109 OepairovTe our attendants; 

; 

II. 313 TL 7ra66vT XfXda-fJL^da KrA. 12. j 323 co ireirov el . . (f>vyovTt 

; 

Od. 3. 

128 eva Ovpbv ZX. OVT ('Ulysses and I'). 

In Od. 2. 

78 for a7raLTiovTs eW should be read a-nairifyvQ' rjos, since 

Telemachus there is speaking of his mother and himself. So with 

the Second Person, II. 1.216 (Athene and Here), 322 (the heralds), 

3- 379-j 7- 279- 

In II. 3. 278 KCU ol virevepOf KapovTas dv0p

176.] PREPOSITIONS. 163 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE PREPOSITIONS. 

Introductory, 

174.] Prepositions are words expressing some local relation, 

and capable of being used as prefixes in forming Compound 

Verbs. The Prepositions are also used in construction with 

oblique Cases of Nouns and Pronouns. 

The Adverbs that are construed with oblique Cases, but do 

not enter into composition with Verbs, are called Improper 

Prepositions. 

The list of Homeric Prepositions is the same (with perhaps 

one exception, see 226) as that of later classical Greek. In 

the use of Prepositions, however, there are some marked differences 

between the two periods ( 229). 

There are no ' Inseparable ' Prepositions in Greek: see however 

221. 

175.] Adverbial use. In post-Homeric Greek it is a rule 

(subject to a few exceptions only) that a Preposition must either 

(i) enter into Composition with a Verb or (2) be followed immediately 

by and * govern ' a Noun or Pronoun in an oblique 

Case. But in the Homeric language the limitation of the Prepositions 

to these two uses is still far from being established. A 

Preposition may not only be separated from the Case-form which 

it governs (a licence sometimes found in later writers), but may 

stand as a distinct word without governing any Case. In other 

words, it may be placed in the sentence with the freedom of an 

Adverb : 

e.g. d/x

164 PREPOSITIONS. [177. 

which it qualifies, thus 

1 

including all 'adverbial' uses, but is 

more properly restricted to a particular group of these uses, viz. 

those in which the meaning is the same as the Preposition and 

Verb have in Composition : e. g. 

ot Kara fBovs 'Tirepiovos 'HeA.toto ijcrOiov 

who ate up (Kar?7) 

the oxen of the sun. 

ovs TTOT 

5 

a-TT 

AlvLav kXo^v which I took from (d

178.] TMESIS USE WITH CASES. 165 

178.] Use with oblique Cases. Prepositions are frequently 

used in Greek with the Accusative, the locatival and instrumental 

Dative, and the ablatival Genitive ; 

much less commonly 

(if at with the true Genitive. 

all) 

It may be shown (chiefly by comparison with Sanscrit) that 

the government of Cases by Prepositions belongs to a later stage 

of the language than the use of Prepositions with Verbs. In the 

first instance the Case was construed directly with the Verb, and 

the Preposition did no more than qualify the Verbal meaning. 

E.g. in such a sentence as et? Tpotr/y ?fA0e the Ace. Tpoirjy 

originally went with fj\0. If however the construction Tpbirjv 

ceased to be usual ??/\.0e except with ei?, the Preposition would be 

felt to be necessary for the Ace., 

i. e. would * govern ' it. 

In Homer we find many instances of a transitional character, 

in which a Case-form which appears to be governed by a Preposition 

may equally well be construed directly with the Verb, 

may be, in meaning by the Preposition. 

modified, it 

Thus we have djuuf>i 

with the Dat. in the recurring form 

5 

djm0t 6' a/o w/xot(7tp /3aA.ero fi$o?, 

but the Preposition is not necessary for the Case, as we see from 

' 

its absence in ro'f &{jLoi,i must be taken with I-nw, as in II. n. 776 o-(/>


primarily construed with Verbs, and that consequently the construction 

of these Cases with Nouns and (we may now add) 

Prepositions is always of a derivative kind. 

Use with the Genitive. Where the Genitive with a 

179.] 

Preposition is not ablatival, it may usually be explained in two 

ways, between which it is not always easy to choose : 

(1) It may be derived from one of the uses with Verbs discussed 

in 149-151. E.g. the Genitive in 

os T tiviv bia bovpos which goes through the wood 

is probably the Genitive of the space within which motion takes 

place. For elcnv 5m bovpos has the same relation to Tredioto 

biu>Kiv and TreSioio biaTtprio-cTtLv, that r\\0tv ei? Tpofyv has to 

Tpoirjv TjXOfv and Tpoirjv ef

l8o.] ACCENTUATION. 167 

Cases, the general assumption made by the Greek grammarians 

is that all Prepositions are oxytone. They do not recognise the 

modern distinction according to which lv, els, and e are unaccented. 

This distinction rests entirely on the practice of the 

manuscripts (Chandler, p. 254), and apparently arises from the 

accident of the smooth breathing and accent falling on the same 

letter (Wackernagel, K. Z. xxix. 137). 

Disyllabic Prepositions, however, are liable in certain cases 

to become barytone. The exact determination of these cases was 

a matter of much difficulty with the ancients, and unfortunately 

we cannot now determine how far their dicta rest upon observation 

of usage, and how far upon analogy and other theoretical 

considerations. The chief points of the accepted doctrine are : 

(1) The disyllabic Prepositions, except d/>t(|)t, dvru, avd, and 

6id (except 

also the dialectical forms Karat, viral, Trapai, aTrai, 

virtip, Trport), are liable to ( ' 

Anastrophe that is to 

; 

say, 

when 

placed immediately after the Verb or the Case-form to which 

they belong, they throw back the accent as 

; Aovo-rj airo ( 

= airo- 

\ova-rj), )^v Kara, w ITU, jâx?7 tvt, Zecfrvpov VTTO, &c. Some held 

that the insertion of 8e before the Preposition did not prevent 

Anastrophe, and accordingly wrote So-e 6' OTTO, &c. 

(2) Also, according to some, if the Prep, stands at the end of 

a verse, or before a full stop (Schol. 

A on II. 5. 283). 

(3) Also, when it is equivalent to a Compound Verb ( 177) ; 

as ezn, errt, Trepi, irdpa (for eu-eori, &c.). 

So am (for avavTriQi) 

; 

although avd according to most authorities was not liable to 

Anastrophe. Some wrote Trdpa yap 0eoi etVt /cat rj^Civ (II. 3. 440), 

on the ground that in Trdp-eco-t the accent is on the syllable Trap-. 

(4) Two Prepositions are barytone in the adverbial use, 

airo when it is = aTioQev at a distance, and 

exceedingly. 

irepi when it is = Trepto-o-ws 

To which some added VTTO (as rpo/xeet 5' VTTO yvia, &c.). 

(5) Monosyllabic Prepositions when placed after the governed 

word take the acute accent (as an equivalent for Anastrophe) ; 

but only when they come at the end of the line. Some however 

accented Od. 3. 137 

KaAecrcrajueâ) ayopi]v es Trarra? 'A)(atouj. 

Most Prepositions, 

as appears from the Sanscrit accent, are 

originally barytone, and the so-called Anastrophe is really the 

retention of the accent in certain cases in which the Preposition 

is emphatic, or has a comparatively independent place in the 

sentence. Just as there is an orthotone eort and an enclitic eon 

( ^7, i), so there is an orthotone Trept and a 'proclitic' Trept, 

written Trepl before a governed Noun, but in reality unaccented.

1 68 PREPOSITIONS. [180. 

This view will serve to explain one or two minor peculiarities 

of Greek usage. Thus (i) 

it is the rule that when the last 

syllable of a Preposition is elided before a Case-form, the accent 

is not thrown back. This is intelligible on the ground that the 

Preposition is in fact without accent and the 

; 

same account will 

apply to the same peculiarity in the case of ctAAa and nvd. On 

the other hand, (a) 

in the case of elision before a Verb (as 

v-naye) 

the accent is retracted, because the Preposition is then the 

accented word.* Again, (3) the general rule of the JEolic 

dialect, that all oxytones become barytone, does not extend to 

Prepositions, because they are not real oxytones. 

The word en (Sanscr. is dti) 

a Preposition which happens to 

have survived (with the original accent) 

in the adverbial use 

only 

= : 

cp. Trpo'j besides. 

One or two suggestions may be added in reference to the 

Prepositions which are 

generally said to be incapable of 

Anastrophe : 

dw was thought by some to be capable of Anastrophe, and 

this view is supported by the adverbial use ava up / 

dfi

l8o*.] 

ACCENTUATION. 169 

as wept 6et5ta, we'pt Travruv oi6e, &c. But in Subordinate Clauses 

the accent is on the Verb, and the Preposition commonly forms 

one word with it, as in weptei'8ta. If the Preposition is separated 

from the Verb,, both are accented. In classical Greek two 

changes have taken place: (i) the Preposition and Verb are 

inseparable, and (2) the accent is placed almost uniformly according 

to the ' ' 

law of three syllables 

: if it 

( 88) falls on the 

Preposition, as in


Thus we find 

Trapd and IT dp : 

avd, av, a/x, (/Soo/xouri, fyovov) : 

Kara, tab (6e), Ka/3-(/3aAe), Kar-(0ai>e), Kap (poor), 

Kay (yovv), KCIK (KecjbaArjs), KaA-(AtTre), Kcbr 

Kajut-(/xoznr}), 

l, TTpOS (for TTpOr-), Cp. TTOTt, 

ip (for vWpt), i/Trep : 

ein, eii> (elvi), eV : 

This phenomenon appears to be connected with the loss of 

accent which the Preposition suffers when closely connected with 

a Verb or Case-form. That is to say, from the adverbial forms 

irdpa, TTPOTL, Kara, hi, ava (or dvd), &c. were formed in the first 

instance the unaccented Trap, Trpos, /car or Ka, tv, av. Then the 

pairs irdpa and Trap, &c. were used promiscuously. Finally one 

form was adopted as normal. 

181.] The Preposition means on loth 

dfxt sides, or (if 


notion of two sides is not prominent) all round. It is doubtless 

connected with CLJJL^M both. 

The adverbial use is common; e.g. with a Verb understood, 

Od. 6. 392 tv de Kprjvr) vdti, apfyl 8e Aei/uwz; 

and around is a 

meadow. 

It is especially used in reference to the two sides of the body : 

II. 5. 310 a/x$fc 8e oo-de KeAaiurj vv exaAvxê black night covered 

his eyes on both sides (i.e. 

both eyes); 

II. 10. 535 a/î KTVTTOS 

ovara /3aAAet 

: II. 1 8. 414 

5' 

o-Tro'yya) d^l TrpoVcoTra Kal a/x^)(o 

Xetp' aTtofjiopyvv Od. 2. 153 : Trapetas ajou^H re tpas Od. : 9. 389 

Trayra 6e ot Kal /3Ae'ap' djuqbt d^pva? KrA. 

So II. 6. 117 d/x(/u 6e /ouy vfyvpa TUTTTC KOL avytva Sepjua KcAatôV 

//^ shield smote him on the ankles on both sides and on the neck. 

Here &p$l is generally taken to mean above and beneath ; wrongly, 

as the passages quoted above show. 

This use of djxt 

is extended to the internal organs, esp. the 

midriff (c/;peVes) regarded as the seat of feeling : 

as 

II. 3. 442 ov yap 7TW Trore ^

183.] 'AM*I. 171 

273, H. Ven. 243 ; 

Mimnerm. I. 7 $peWs d/mc^t Ka/cat retpovo-t 

Hence read 

II. I. 

103 

and similarly in II. 17. 83, 499, 573. 

182.] The Dative with is a natural extension of the 

djjii 

ordinary locatival Dative the Preposition being adverbial, and 

not always needed to govern the Case. Compare 

(e. g.} 

II. I. 45 ro'' &{jLOLcriv tyjuv (Loc. Dat., 145, 3). 

J 

2O. 150 dju^t 6"' ap appj]KTOv VtXr]V &HOKTIV tcravro. 

527 d/,t(/>' &fjLOL(riv e'xet 

his shoulders, 

i. e. across his shoulders. 

(TOKO? to s/W^ 0w 0^ Vfe* on 

In a metaphorical sense &p$l is applied to the object about 

which two parties contend : as II. 3. 70 d/x^>' 'EAeVrj KCU 

nayjeaQai : so of a negotiation, II. 13. 382 

we shall agree about the marriage ; II. 7. 408 

as to the question of the dead; II. 16. 647 

^p^pifcov. Cp. the use with -Trept ( 186). So too 

in Sanscrit the Loc. is used with Verbs oi-fghting to express the 

object over which the fighting is. 

It is a further extension of this use when djAt 

with the Dat. 

is construed with Verbs meaning to speak, think, &c., as Od. 4. 

1 

151 cLfjiff) 'OSva-rj'C This 

fjLvOtojjiriv. last variety (in 

which the 

notion of two sides disappears) 

is confined to the Odyssey : cp. 5. 

287., 14. 338, 364. 

A true Dative may follow but cannot be said to be 

d|jii, 

governed by it; e.g. in II. 14.420 a^fyl 6e ot fipayje Ti>\ta his 

arms rattled about him the Dat. is ' ethical/ as in II. 13. 439 

pr/fey 8e ot a^tyl \LrQva. So in II. 4. 431 d//,

J72 PREPOSITIONS. [184. 

(2) of attendants or followers ; 

as II. 2. 445 a^ ot 6' 'Arpeuora 

. . Qvvov they bustled about Agamemnon. 

The description about (a person] does not exclude the person 

who is the centre of the group ; e.g. in II. 4. 294 (Agamemnon 

found Nestor) 

oiis trapovs a-TtXXovra . . afJL

1 86.] 'AM*I, HEPI. 

173 

186.] The Dative with irept (as with aju^t) 

is Locatival; 

as II. I. 

303 epco?io-et TTpl bovpi will gush over (lit. round upon) the 

xpear ; 2. 

389 TTfpl 8' eyx^t X e 'P a Ka/oteirai his hand will be weary 

with holding the spear ; 2,. 416 yj.T&va. Tre/n orrjtfeo-o-i baiai to tear 

the chiton about (round on) 

the breast. Also of an object of contention, 

over; as II. 16. 568 ircpl TrcuSt . . TTOVOS eir; the toil (of 

battle) might be over his son, cp. II. 17. 4, 133, Od. 5. 310 : and 

in a derivative sense, Od. 2. 245 juax^'o-aa-0ai Tiept am /^/^ 

flfowtf a feast. 

1. It is a question which meaning is to be given to ircpC in 

II. 5. 566 irepl yap 8ie iroiuevi \awv (so 9. 433., II. 586). 

IO. 240 eSfiffev 8e irepl 

avQ> Mevf\da>. 

17. 242 offffov efj.p KeovTa, Thuc. I. 60 SeStorcs trepl KT\. ; 

also by the use of with 

dp,i 

the Dat. ( 

182) in nearly the same meaning. 

2. Much difficulty has been felt about the use of irepi in a group of phrases 

of which the following are the chief instances : 

II. 4. 53 ras biairfpffaij or' av rot direxÔJVTaL ir*pl ffrjpi (cp. 4. 4^, &c.). 

Od. 6. 158 Kfivos 5' av irepl Krjpi fj-aKapraros eoxov d\\cav. 

II. 21. 65 TTfpl 8' fjOe\e 6vu> (so 24. 236). 

22. 70 d\vaaovTfs TTfpl 0vjji>. 

Od. 14. 146 irepl yap ft' ecpiXet Kal KrjSero QvjJiSt. 

II. 1 6. 157 roiaiv re trfpl typealv dcfrrfros d\Kr]. 

Od. 14. 433 irepl yap (pptalv aiffipa ySrj. 

In all these places the Dative may be construed as a Locative (although 

without K-rjpt irepi is only found in II. 9. 117): the only question is whether 

the Preposition is to be taken in the literal local sense round, all over, or in the 

derivative sense exceedingly. In favour of the latter it may be said that the 

same combinations of Preposition and Verb are found without a Dat. such as 

K-qpi or OVJJLW, where accordingly irepi must mean exceedingly ; compare 

II. 13. 430 rr)v irepl Krjpi Q&rjffe irarrip 

Od. 8. 63 TOV irfpl MoiJa' l^tAô-e 

Od. 14. 433 irepl yap


On the other side, the representation of a feeling as something surrounding 

or covering the heart, midriff, &c. is common in Homer. Thus we have 

II. II. 89 airov re ^Xvittpoio Trept (ppevas fyepos alpeT. 

Od. 9. 362 liret Kv/cXcana ircpl

190.] KEPI, IIAPA. 175 

l 

\ffvxys as when life is at stake ; and of doubt, II. 20. 17 ?J rt 

t 

Tpcocou KCU 'Axatair //epjutrjptfeis. 

The use with Verbs of anger 

Siudfear is closely akin; II. 9. 449 TraAAa/ado? Trepi ^wo-aro; 17. 

240 VCKVOS Trept 6et6ta (unless 

we read irepiyj&oraro, TrepiSeiTua). 

The weapons of the contest are said to be fought over in Od. 8. 

225 tpl&OTKOV TTept TO^toV ; 

SO II. I5' 284 OTTTTOre KOVpOL pi(TO-tiaV 

iTpl ivuQdov. 

And this is also applied to the quarrel itself, II. 16. 

476 (Tvvirr]v ep,8o? Trept OvfjiofBopoLO (cp. 2O. 253)- 

Under this head will come the Gen. in II. 23. 485 77)1770809 

7rpib&fji0ov let us wager a tripod, Od. 23. 78 e/me'0; irept8d)(ro//at 

avrfjs / wz7/ e'es irdpa. 

(2) aside; as II. II. 233 Trapat 8e ot erpaTrer' !yx.s Me spear 

was turned to his side (instead 

of striking him). 

(3) hence figuratively, irapd // îra(f) cozened me ( aside,' away 

from my aim : and so TrapTT7ri6tov changing the mind by persuasion, 

TiapeiTTcoy talking over, &c. ; also, with a different 

metaphor, wrongly. 

(4) past, with Verbs of motion, as epô/ât, eA.awa>, &c. 

190.] With the Dative irapd means beside, in the company of, 

near. It is applied in Homer to both persons and things 

(whereas in later Greek the Dat. with irapd is almost wholly


confined to persons) ; 

thus we have Trapa vr\i, Trap a vrjva-i (very 

frequently), Trap' ap/xaort, Trapa /Sco/xa), Trap TTOO-, Trapa ora0ju, 6"e OTTJOW 

Trap' pLVov. Similarly of the place near which a weapon has 

struck, as II. 5. 146 /cArj'iSa Trap' apov TrArjfe struck the collar-bone 

by the shoulder. 

(2) of motion or extent alongside of a thing (esp. a coast, a 

river, a wall, II. I. 

&c.) 34 ; /3r} 8' d/ceW Trapa diva went along 

the shore ; Od. 9. 46 TroAXa 8e jzr)A.a lcr(/>abzj Trapa 0u;a sacrificed 

many sheep along the shore ; II. 2. 522 Trap Trora/oioz; 

Zvaiov dwelt by the side of the river ; II. 3. 272 Trap ueos 

KoiAeoy acopro ^^^ beside the sword-scabbard. 

(3) of motion past a place; as II. u. 166, 167 ot 6e Trap' "IXou 

(râ . . Trap' pii>ov tcra-evovro they sped past the tomb of Ilus, 

past the fig-tree ; II. 6. 42 Trapa rpoôv ^Kv\ia-0r] rolled out 

past the wheel ; II. 16. 312 ovra Qoavra (rrepvov yv^vÔevra 

Trap' aa-niba passing the shield (implied motion, ovra=.thrust 

at and struck). 

The derivative meaning- beyond 

= in excess 

( 

of) is only found in Homer in the phrases Trap bvvafjuv (II. 

13. 787) and Trapa poipav (Od. 14. 509): but cp. the Adj. 

TrapatVtos against fate. 

192.] With a Genitive -n-apd properly means sideways from, 

aside from. As with the Dative, it is used of things as well as 

persons (whereas in later Greek it is practically 

restricted to 

persons). 

On the other hand it is confined in Homer to the local 

sense ; 

thus it is found with Verbs meaning to go, bring, take, &c. 

not (as afterwards) with aKova), navOdva, olba, or the like. An 

apparent exception is 

II. II. 794 t 8e nva (ppecrlv fj

1 94.] IIAPA, META. 

be seen in Emped. 144 0eo Trdpa pvQov aKovaas, Xenophanes 3. i 

afipoa-vvas Se juafloWe? dz/'oxêAeas Trapa Avb&v. 

The original meaning sideways or at the side from 

is visible in 

some of the uses with a Gen. denoting a thing: 

as II. 4. 468 Trap' 

ao-iTibos efe0?/ appeared beyond (outside the shelter of) the 

shield: so probably II. 4. 500 vibv Ilpidjuioio voBov /3aAe . . Trap' 

fanrcov a>Ketda>zj struck him (aiming) JP#^ ^ chariot. So too a 

sword is drawn Trapd jjLr/pov sideways from the thigh. The same 

meaning lies at the root of the frequent use of irapd in reference 

to the act of passing from one person to another (as 

in Trapa8i8co/u 

and Trapa8e'xojitai), 

hence of gifts, messages, &c. 

It is usual to regard irapA with the Gen. as meaning from the side of, from 

beside, de chez. But this is contrary to the nature of a prepositional phrase. 

The Case-ending and the Stem must form a single notion, which the Preposition 

then modifies ; 

hence (e. g.) irapa prjpov means beside from-the-thigh, not 

from beside-the-lhigh. This is especially clear where the Preposition is joined to 

a Verb ; 

Od. 19. 187 irapair\ayâaa MaXawv drivitig-aside from- Maleae : and in 

II. 4. 97 TOV KCV Srj irtifMrpuTa wop' ayXad bwpa (pepoio 

the rhythm connects Trapd with


there is a sarcastic force lie there with the fish for company. 

Cp. also the phrase Od. 5. 224 //era /cat rode rotcrt yeyeV0a> & tfto 

fo as one among them. The expression in II. 15. 118 /xe0' atfxart 

Kat is Koviyari equivalent to a Collective ( 

Noun, the crowd 

of wounded and fallen/ So II. 21. 503 /utera o-rpo$aAiyyi KOVLTIS, 

a somewhat bolder phrase of the same kind. 

The Dat. with (xerd is locatival (whereas with ??AiKas 

eTrXev a/oio-ros (so Od. 16. 419). And with a Singular in II. 18. 

552 8payjotara /uer' oyjuoz; TTLTTTOV the hand/ills of corn fell 

middle of the furrow (between the ridges). 

Of the other meaning we may distinguish the varieties 


(1) after, following ; II. 13. 513 cTraffcu /me0' kbv fitXos following 

his weapon, Od. 2. 406 /uer' tx^ta /3atz;e êoto. 

(2) after, in order to find (with a Verb of motion), as jmer' e// 

o/" me, Od. I. 184 es 

(3) 

^ succession to, next to; TOV 8e /oiera KrX. ^ a/^r him 

fyc. ; II. 8. 

289 Trpwra) rot fxer' e/xe irpeorfiri'iov kv x^pt ^ri

198.] META, "EIII. 

179 

write jjicTaTraXXfyeyos and construe of them casting lots in turn I was 

chosen. But the last two indicate that the use had crept into 

colloquial language as early as the Odyssey, taking the place of 

auv or 3/jia 

with the Dative. See 221. 

197.] The Preposition em means over, upon ; sometimes after 

(as we speak of following upon) with, at (i. e. close upon) 

in 

; 

addition, besides, esp. of an addition made to correspond with or 

complete something else ; also,, attached to, as an inseparable incident 

or condition of a person or thing and 

; conversely, on the 

condition, in the circumstances, &c. 

Examples of these meanings in the adverbial use are 

II. i. 462 em 8' aWoTTa olvov Aei/3e poured wine over (the meat). 

13. 799 Trpb \kiv r aAA', avrap en' aAAa in front behind. 

Od. i. 

273 Oeol ' 

em juaprvpot iorav the gods le witnesses thereto. 

5. 443 7r ' o-KeVay r\v avôio there was thereto (the place 

w&sfurnwked with) a shelter from the wind. 

II. 1 8. 

529 KTclvov 8' em fj,T]\o(3oTr]pas killed the shepherds with 

the sheep. 

i. 

233 em jue'yaz> op/coy o/xoujuiat 

I will swear in confirmation. 

With a Verb understood, em = is present, is in the case, as Od. 2. 

58 ov yap eV dz/rjp êr*? is no man (for the purpose) ; II. i. 

515 ov 

rot TTL beos there is no fear with 01 for you (as part of your circumstances) 

; 21. no eTrt rot KCU e/xot Odvaros death is 

II. 

my 

lot too 

(cp. 6. 357 oto-tu em Zei;s 0r/Ke KO.KOV popov). 

It is very much used in Composition. Note the meaning over 

in eTrt-TrXe'o) fo & 

oi'^-r, also eTr-otxojutat 

^ ^70 oêr, review, em- 

-TrcoAe'ojutat, eTr-aXao/xat (II. 17. 650 fxax. 1 ? 8* ^wi -Trao-a (j>adv6r] the fight 

was lighted up all over} ; besides, in e7rt-8i'8coju,t, &c. ; 

ô (of bringing 

aid, joining, &c.) in e7r-ap?jya> 5 eTr-aXe'ôo, eTr-apaptcrKco, e-TraAAaa-cra), 

&c. ; j^br, in e7n-KA.G>06o j^ ^t?m /br (so as to attach to) ; 

hence of assent, eTrt-êvco, em-rAât, em-etKO) (with a general 

affirmative meaning, on as opposed to off, for as opposed to 

198.] With the Dative em has the same group of meanings ; 

note especially 

(1) em vr]V(TL ly the ships, eV oeo-o-t with the sheep (of a shepherd), 

em Kreareo-o-t with (in charge of) the possessions ; II. 4. 

with (on the 

235 tm \lfVO(T(rtv ea-crer' apooyo's 

w^ ^

l8o PREPOSITIONS. [199. 

(3) Od. 17. 454 OVK apa

aoi.] "Em, Tno. 181 

4. The instances in which extent (without motion) is implied 

are chiefly found in the Odyssey (2. 370, &c.). Examples from 

the Iliad are : 

9. 506 tyOdvti 5e' re iravav eV alav she is beforehand 

all the world over (so 23. 742) 10. : 

213 KAe'os eir; Trdvras eV 

avOptoirovs, 24. 2O2, 535- It wiU be seen that they are from 

books 9, 10, 23, 24. 

Notice also the use with Neuters expressing quantity ; as II. 5. 

772 TOCTUOV TTL 0p(^(TKov(TL to such a distance they bound ; also e^ri 

TroAAoV a long way, 

eirl Icra to an equal extent ; and esp. the common 

phrase ocrov T em, see II. 2. 616, &c. 

5. Of time: II. 2. 

299 jueiVar' em \povov wait for (lit. over) a 

time ; Od. 7. 288 e!oz> jravvv^LOL /cat eV ?5 'iTnrtov, firl dpovov, CTT' ovbov, eVl Tivpyov, CTT' 

dyKo>z;oj, 

beside ships, em vrj&v on board ships. 

7il jueAirj? (epeto-êt?). 

Thus CTTI vijva-i means on or 

(3) with Verbs of motion, upon (of the terminus ad quern), as 

II. 3. 293 KartOrjKtv irl xôuo's j 

so Bearing down on, as II. 

3. 6 TreVoyrat eTr' 'llKearoto poaaiv : II. 5- 7^^ ^pOTpeirovro jute- 

Aatâwz; eTrt vr]&v: Od. 3. 171 z>eoi//,0a z;7](rou eTTt tyvptrjs 

taking the course by the island Psyria. So perhaps 

II. 7. 195 

(e#xe' vjJLftwv (keeping the words) to yourselves. 

(4) of ^W; eV clpyvris (II. 2. 797, &c.) em ; Trporepojz; d^pw- 

TTO>I> (II. 5. 637, &c.). Cp. the Gen. of Time, 150. 

In later prose the Gen. is 

very common, and the uses become 

indistinguishable from those of the Dat. 

201.] The Preposition UTTO (also UTTCU') usually means beneath^ 

as in II. 2. 95 virb Se arTevayi&TO yala the earth groaned beneath 

(their tread). 

The original sense, however, seems to have been 

upwards, as in the Superlative vir-aros uppermost (cp. v\jfL alofi, 

facing upwards). On this view we can understand why


uiro is not applied (like icard) to express downward motion. 

Hence, too, it is especially used of supporting a tiling 1 , 

as II. i. 

486 VTTO 5' epjixara /xa/cpa ravvao-av : and on the same principle it 

expresses resistance to a motion (whereas Kara implies yielding, 

going with the stream &c.) ; 

as II. 5- 55 v & to"rpo//ai ( 

= Att. aTro/cptôjutat), 

VTTO- 

/3dAAa> / take up (a speaker), vir-aKovto I hear in reply, i. e. show 

that I hear (by answering or obeying). 

So too the Compounds u-opw, uir-6\|uos, uiro-Spa, &c. do not 

express looking down, but looking upwards from under ; even in 

it is 

II. 3. 217 (TTaa-Kcv viral d~e t &c. ; 

so II. 16. 333 

was warmed by (the blood). 

202.] With the Dative UTTO is very common in the simple local 

meaning, under. It is sometimes found with Verbs of motion, 

as Od. 4. 297 btjJivi VTT' alOovorrj Otpfvai ; 

and even when motion 

from is intended, in II. 18. 244 eAtxraz> v(f)' ap/ix,acrtzj a>Keas nr7rot>y. 

In this case however we have to consider that apjuarow is metrically 

impossible. 

The derived sense under the charge or power 

is found in such 

uses as II. 5. 231 vcj)' rjvtox^ (of horses), 6. 139 Zev? yap 

ot VTTO 

(TKt]7rTp(f eSa/jiao-o-e, 6. 171 Ot&v VTT' ajjiVfjiovi 

: 

Troîrfl also, with the 

notion of an effect produced (where the Gen. would therefore be 

rather more natural), 

VTTO \cpa-i (ba^rjvai, Qavteiv, &c.), VTTO doupt 

(rvTrets, &c.); II. 13. 667 vovcrto vV dpyaXery Od. (f)Oia-0aL, 4. 295 

virvto viro yAvKepo) rapTrce)/x0a : and often of persons, as II. 5. 93 

VTTO Tvbdbrj irvKLval KXoveovTO 

203.] The Accusative is used with UTTO (i) 

of motion to a 

point under, as 

II. 2. 2i6 VTTO *I\LOV tfXOe came under (the walls of) Troy. 

17. 309 TOV /3dA.' VTTO K\r]lba /xeVryz; (so often with Verbs of 

striking, &c.). 

Also (2) 

of motion passing under, and hence of extent under : 

Od. 

15. 349 e ' 7rov ^rt Ctooww VTT' avyas 976X1010 i. e. anywhere that the 

sun shines (cp. 

VTT' 770) 

T r}eXto^ re an equivalent phrase). 

II. 2. 

603 ot 5' %yov 'ApKabirjv VTTO K.v\\rjvr)s opoj. 

3. 371 yx e be i*iv Tro\VK(TTo$ t/xds avaXriv it-no Setprjz; (i.e. 

passing under the throat).

204.] 

"rno. 183 

In one or two places it is applied to time : II. 16. 202 irdvO' VTTO 

fji^viOfjiov all the time that my anger lasted ; so perhaps 

II. 22. 102 

vvyO' VTTO Trjvb' d\oi]v (but night is often regarded as a space of 

darkness). 

204.] 

The Genitive with UTTO is found in two or three distinct 

uses : 

(i) with the force of separation from : as II. 17. 235 veKpov VTT 

Atazrros tpvtiv from under Ajax ; Od. 9. 463 VTT' dpveiov 

so II. 19. 17 oWe btivbv VTTO /3A.ez> &>s et cr 

In this use the Gen. is ablatival, cp. 152. Originally u-n-o 

with an Abl. probably meant upwards from 

: see 192. 

(2) of place under i 

with contact (especially of 

a surface] ; 

as 

II. 8. 14 VTTO yQovos eort fitpeOpov. 

Od. 5- 346 

To'8e K/)rj8ejuiz>oz> vita oreproto Tavvo-crai. 

II. I. 

501 Seftreprj 8' ap VTT ai'Oepe&vos eAoSo-a taking hold of 

him under the chin. 

4 I O6 VTTO (TTtpVOlO TVÔ'aS. 

16. 375 faffi 

8' aeXAa iJ,VOS rj 

V ae'flAco 

176 /cat V TToXejuta) brjicav VTTO OvfjLOpa'ia-Tttov, 

under the stress of an enemy (so 18. 220); 

II. 23. 86 VT /ne . . riyayev vfjiercpovb' avbpoKTaa-iqs VTTO Xvyprjs 

by reason of a homicide (committed by me). 

As a sound is said to be over or about (Trepi, a/x^)t) 

the person 

hearing, so he is under the sound hence : 

with a half metaphorical 

meaning II. 15. 275 T&v * & v/no t'aX^ s tydvrj Xiy. So 

(e.g.) 

of other accompaniments, as II. 18. 492 ba'tbtov VTTO 

by the light of blazing torches.

1 

84 PREPOSITIONS. 

irpOTi. 

205.] The Preposition irpori (irpos, iron) expresses attitude or 

direction towards an object. It is found in the adverbial use; 

Od. 5 255 upas 8' apa TrrjbaXiov Trotrjo-aro he made a rudder to be 

put to (the raft)-, hence commonly in addition, besides a use 

which remained in later Greek. 

It is a question whether irprt payjEvOai to fight with a man in opposition to a god ; also 

addressing (persons), with Verbs of speaking, &c. in one 

; place 

of time, Od. 17. 191 Trort eWepa towards evening. 

Note that the literal local sense appears in all the Homeric 

uses of irpori with the Ace. : the metaphorical uses, viz. in respect 

of, for the purpose of, in proportion to, according to, &c., are later. 

208.] With the Genitive irpOS z>oYou i. e. not at or facing the 

north and south, but more generally, in the direction fixed by 

north and south ; II. 10. 428-430 irpos pev aXos . . 

Trpo? &v^pr]s : 

II. 22. 198 Trort Trro'Atoj in the direction of Troy; Od. 8. 29 ?Je 7jy>os 

rj 

cnrpiu>v avOpvircov (=.from east or west). 

Among derived senses we may distinguish 

(1) at the hand of, from (persons), 

as II. I. 160 

irpbs Tpwcov, II. 831 

ra o~e Trport fyavL 

(2) on the part of, by the will of, as II. I. 239 

ot re 

Trpds Atoy elpvarai who uphold judgments on behalf of Zeus ; 

II. 6. 456 vrpos aAArjy to-roz; vâtW? at another's bidding: 

and, perhaps in a metaphorical sense, Od. 6. 207 TT/>OS yap 

Atos daiv airavTes fetz/ot re TTTÔL re.

210.] IIPOTI, 'ANA. 185 

(3) before, ~by (in oaths and entreaties) ; as II. 13. 324 

Trarpo? yovva&pai I entreat in the name of thy father. The 

Preposition here implies that the god or person sworn by is 

made a party to the act ; cp. Od. 11.66 vvv 8e ere T&V oiuOtv 

yovvaôâi ov Trapeovrav, irpos r akoôv KOI irarpos KrA. on the 

part of the absent ones I entreat fyc. 

It will be seen that irp. So di>a-/3aAAo) to put off. 

di>< is seldom used with the Dative the ; meaning is up on (a 

height of some V(T^ kind), as II. 1. 15 XP ava wfiitrpy* 

raised on a 

golden staff; 15. 152 ava Tapyapw; so 8. 441., 14. 352., 18. 177., 

Od. ii. 128., 23. 275., 24. 8. This use is occasionally found in 

Pindar (Ol. 8. 67, Pyth. i. 10), and lyric parts of tragedy, but is 

not Attic. 

With the Genitive dw is only used in three places in the 

Odyssey (2. 416., 9. 177., 15. 284), and only of going on board 

a ship (ava vrjos /3atVa>). 

The meaning up from is only found in 

Composition avebv : 

TroAtf/s dAos, &c. 

210.] With the Accusative &vd means up along, up through, 

of motion or extent : azâ aoru, aju Ttebiov, ava 8w/xara, av 65oV, av 

*EAAd8a, &c. ; II. 5- 74 av> obovras VTTO y\G>cr


The use with collective Nouns, as av oîkov through the press, 

^GL\f]v ava, afj. (frovov av VCKVCLS, &c. seems to be peculiar to the 

Iliad. 

The use in II. 14. 80 dÂ CU'KTO, 

may be explained either of 

time or of space: cp. 

UTTO I/UKTO, ( 203), 8td vuura ( 215). 

The meaning up on, up 

to (of motion) may be traced in II. 10. 

466 6rJKv ava fjLVpLKrjv : Od. 22. 176 KIOZ/ av v\l/rjXriv pv(rai draw 

(the cord] up to a high pillar ; perhaps in the phrase dvd 0' apâra 

TroiKiA' tfiaivov (Od. 3. 492, &c.). 

KttTct. 

211.] 

The Preposition Kara (by Apocope icdS, &c.) means 

down, and is parallel in most uses to avd. It is never purely 

adverbial (KCLTM being used instead, cp. aw), but is common in 

Tmesis, as II. I. 436 Kara 8e irpvfjLVTJo-L ebrja-av, 19. 334 Kara Tra/u,- 

Trav TtOvajjitv, &c., and in Composition. Besides the primary 

sense (seen 

in Kar-dyco / bring down, Kara-vVM 1 nod downwards, 

i. e. in assent, &c.) 

it often has the meaning all over, as Kara-izwo> 

/ clothe, Kar ax too I pour over ; hence completely, as Kara Trdvra 

fyayslv to eat all up, Kara-KretVco I kill outright: also in the place, 

as before, as KaraA.ei7rco / leave where it was, &c. 

Kara is not used with the Dative. If such a use ever existed 

it was superseded by 

UTTO (just 

as avd with the Dat. gave way to 

em). The possibility of the combination may be seen from the 

phrases Kar avToOi, nar av0i. 

212.] With the Accusative icard means down along, down 

through, as Kara poov down stream ; cp. II. 16. 349 ava arj/xa Kat 

Kara ptvas (of blood). 

But it is very often used (like av a) of 

motion that is not upward or downward, except from some 

arbitrary point of view as 

; 

Ka0' obov along the way, Kara TtroXiv 

through the city, &c. : again, Kara Qpeva Kat Kara 6v^6v in mind 

and spirit. 

Other varieties of use are : 

(1) with collective Nouns (chiefly in the Iliad), as Kara orparoV 

through the camp, -Tro'Ae/ioy Kara, Kara K\OVOV, &c. 

(2) with Plurals (less common), as Kar 5 avrovs going among 

them, Kar' av9pu>Trovs aXa\it](TOai. 

(3) of the character or general description of an action, as Kara 

(dA.aA.77cr0e) on a piece of business, rjX.0ov Kara XP e/os > 

i. Kara Xrjiba (all in the Odyssey). 

(4) to express place ; esp. of wounds, e. g. Kar' about a>juoz> (somewhere 

on) 

the shoulder. Cp. II. I. 484 IK.OVTO Kara o-rparov 

arrived opposite (within the space adjoining) 

the camp j Od. 

3. 441 TTora/ôto Kara o-ro'juta tfe vtav.

2 1 5.] KATA, AIA. 187 

(5) to express agreement (from the notion of falling in wifJi), in 

the phrases Kara 0i>juoi>, 

Kara Koarfjiov, Kara nolpav, Kar J alcrav. 

(6) distributively as II. 2. 99 : tpr\rvQtv 8e Ka0' e5pas in their 

several seats ; and so in 2. 

362 Kpiv avbpas Kara Aa Kara 

(7) Kara (7/ioj> like the Ace. of the ' part 

affected.' 

213.] With the G-enitive xard has two chief meanings : 

(1) down from ; as Kar' ovpavov down from heaven, KaO 1 ITTTTCOZ; 

aXro leaped from the chariot. This Genitive is clearly ablatival 

in origin. 

(2) down on (in, over, &c.) as II. : 3. 217 Kara xOovbs o/x/xara 

fixing his eyes on the ground ; Kara 5' dv K^VT 

a mist was shed over his eyes j Kara yairjs 

down in the 

earth. 

Comparing the similar uses of em ( 200), uiro ( 204, 2), 

and 

208)^ we can hardly doubt that the Gen. in this latter 

group is originally akin to the Genitives of Place ( 149). 

214.] The Preposition Sid seems to mean properly apart, in 

twain. It is not used freely as an Adverb ; 

but the original 

sense appears in the combinations biairpo, bia^-Kepts, 

and in 

Tmesis and Composition, as Sia-o-rrjmt to stand apart ; 8ta-rajutz;a> 

/ cut asunder ; bia KTTJCTLV bartovro divided the possession. From 

the notion of going through it means thoroughly^ as in dia-7rep0co 

/ sack utterly. 

In several Compounds, as 6ia-rajuro>, 6i-aipao } 8ta-8a7rra), the 

notion of division is given by the Preposition to the Verb; e.g. 

I separate by cutting, &c. 

215.] The Accusative with Sid is often used to denote the 

space through which motion takes place as 

: 

II. I. 600 8ta Swjuara 7roi7rwoz>ra bustling through the palace (so 

ia (TTreo?, 8ta /3rjo-o-as, 8ta /ocoTTTJia, &c.). 

14. 91 jjivOov ov ov Kev avrip ye 8ta crro/jia TrajJLTTav ayotro 

( = with which a man would not sully his mouth : cp. ava 

oro/xa, 2io). 

Od. 9. 400 wKeoy v o-7rr}eo-(rt bi aKptaj dwelt in caves about 

(scattered through] the headlands.

188 PREPOSITIONS. [2l6. 

So II. 2. 40 bia Kparepa? va-fjitvas lasting through hard fyhts : 

and bia VVKTCL (chiefly 

in the Odyssey, and books 10 and 24 of the 

Iliad). 

This use is distinctively Homeric. 

Sometimes also Sid with the 

Ace. is used in Homer to express cause or agency ; as II. I. 

73 fjv 

bia âvro(Tvvr]v (Calchas led the army) by virtue of his soothsaying ; 

Od. 8. 

520 bia ' 

êydOvfjiov Mr\vf]v (to conquer) by the help of 

Athene ; so II. jo. 497.*, 15. 41, 71, Od. 8. 82., n. 276, 282, 

43 7 v T 3- I 2i v I 9- I 54> 5 2 3- 

These places do not show the 

later distinction between by means of and by reason of. 

216.] The Genitive with 8id implies passing through something 

in order to get beyond it; esp. getting through some 

obstacle: as 

II. 4. 135 bia l&v ap fooarrjpos eAryAaro. 

So of a gate, II. 3. 263 bia SKOUOW fyov tWou? : and of lower and 

upper air, &c. bi T^'po? aWtp iKavtv, bi alOepos ovpavbv txe, 

Trtbiovbz bia v(j>z &c. of 

making way through the press. 

The Ace. is used where we expect this Gen. in II. 7. 247 ef 8e 

bia irrvxas J?A0e went through six folds : but this may be partly 

due to the metrical impossibility of TTTUXW^. Conversely, in II. 

10. 185 oy re Ka0' v\rjv tpxnTai bi opeo-^t the Ace. would be right, 

and op

221.] AIA, "rilEP, ENI, 2TN. 189 

1 

ing ) over the sides of a ship: II. 23. 327 ocrov r opyvi virep atrys a 

fathom s length above ground. 

Metaphorically it means over so as to protect, hence In defence 

of, on behalf of; as II. 7* 449 TCLÔS TL\i(rv. So II. 6. 524 00' virep 

(Tdv al(j-\ aKovo) when I listen to reproaches on your account (of 

which I bear the brunt). 

But Hes. Op. 217 due?] 8' virep vfipws 

icryei justice rises (prevails) 

over insolence. 

In respect of form uirep (for virepi, Sanscr. updri) 

is a Comparative 

of uiro ; cp. the Superlative viraros, and the Lat. superus, 

summus. Hence the Gen. is ablatival, like the Gen. with words 

of comparison ; see 152. 

ivL 

220.] The Preposition ivl means (also etci, tlv, iv) within, In ; 

it is used adverbially (as 

II. 5. 740 ez> 8 J e/ns, tv 6' aA*?} &c.), in 

Tmesis (as eV r' 

apa ol 0u x et PO> an(^ w^n a (locatival) Dative. 

Notice, as departures from the strict local sense, the uses 

(1) with Plurals denoting persons ( = ^ra among), as h viuv 

(II. 9. 121, 528 V 10. 445), V TTCLO-L (Od. 2. 194., 16.378), 0>t 

o-(f)i(ri (II. 23. 703). 

(2) with abstract words (rare in the Iliad) ; tv navreo-cri -TJWOKTI 

(II. 10. 245, 279), tv iravTta-ff epyoto-t (II. 23. 671), ez> aAyeo-t 

(II. 24. 568) ; Qa\iri tvi (II. 9. 143, 285), Iv vr\-niir\ (II. 9. 

491) ; ev ^lAorryrt ; 

v ôiprj aright (II. 19. 186), aia-rj tv apyaXtT] 

(II. 22. 6l), tv Kapos aia-rj (II. 9. 378) ; ev 6e Ifj n/xrj 

(II. 9. 319). 

These two uses are nearly confined in the Iliad to books 9, 10, 

23, 24- 

221.] The Preposition ow (or uV) 

means in company with. 

It is not used as a pure Adverb, but is found in Tmesis, as II. i. 

579 avv 8' balra fjiJiiv rapd^rj and disturb (o-wrapao-o-co) our feast. 

It is used with an Instrumental Dative ( 144). 

To express equally with, or at the same time as, Homer uses Sjuia 

with a Dat. ; 

while ow commonly means attended by, with the 

help of, &c. Hence vvv cWeo-t with armour on, vvv VTJVO-L in ships, 

on oath, crvv 'Ad^vrj aided by Athene : so II. 4. 161 crvv re 

they pay with a great price. 

The use of o-vv with the Dative has been recently shown by Tycho Momrnsen 

to be confined, generally speaking, to poetry. The Attic prose writers (with 

the singular exception of Xenophon) use with jjierd the Gen. the 

; practice of 

the poets varies, from Homer, who hardly ever uses jjierd 

with the Gen., down 

to Euripides, who uses it about half as often as o-viv. It is evident that in

190 PREPOSITIONS. 

post-Homeric times \ier& with the Gen. became established in the ordinary 

colloquial language, while Aiojm?j8eos ap/xara ft^rrjv. 

The motion is sometimes implied: as II. 15. 275 ^ 

hold back from fighting (going] out of range: cp. 16. ' 

122, 

678., 18. 152. 

So of direction: II. 14. 153 "Hprj 6' etVetde . . o-raa' If OvXvp- 

1:010 stood and looked from Olympus; Od. 21. 420 (drew the 

bow) avrodev e/c btypoLo KaQriptvosfrom the chair as he sat ; II. 19. 

375 or' av K TTOVTOIO o-e'Xas vavTyo-i (fravrirj 

when a meteor appears 

to sailors at sea (seeing 

it from the sea) 

: of choosing out of, II. 15. 

680 e/c TroAeW iria-vpas crvâeiperat LTTTTOVS, and similarly^ II. 18. 

431 ocro-' e/xot eK naa-ttov Kpovioys Zevs aAye' e'ScoKe to me (taken 

from, hence) more than all. 

e is also used of an agent as the source of action ; 

as II. 5. 384 

rA%iez> ef avop&v have endured at the hands of men . . ; cp. II. 22. 

280, Od. 7. 70., 9. 512: also II. 24. 617 0&v e/c K7J8ea 

endures heaven-sent troubles, and Hes. Theog. 94 eK yap Movo-a 

az^Spes aot8ot eaom The meaning

225-] 

EI 2, 'EB, 'AHO, HPO. 191 

consequence of (a thing) occurs in II. 9. 566 e apeW ^rjTpbs MXO- 

Aa>jueW, and in the Odyssey (3. 135., 5. 468, &c.). 

Of time: CK roiofrom that time, e 

apxfc from the first (Od. I. 

1 88, &c.), 

K veorrjros (II. 14. 86). 

With an abstract word, II. 10. 107 e* \6Xov dpyaAeoio jueraorpe\//-T7 

fyiKov Tyrop. 

Note also : II. 10. 68 TrarpoOtv K -yevfijs 

ovondfav calling them by the father s name according to family ; II. 

9. 343 (486) K dvôv from the heart, heartily (but II. 23. 595 ft 

to fall away from a persons favour). 

Ovpov Treo-eeiz> 

dTT. 

With the Genitive diro generally expresses motion away from, 

not implying previous place within the object (whereas e| means 

proceeding from}. It is also used of position, as II. 8. 16 oa-ov 

will be the 

ovpavos eor' OTTO yairjs as far as heaven is from earth Od. I. 49 

(j>L\d)v airo 7r?7/xara -rracrxei suffers woes far from his friends j metaphorically, 

II. i. 562 aTro Ovpov /uaXAoy e//ot eoôu you 

more out of favour with me; aito bo^s away from expectation. 

This Gen. is clearly ablatival. irpo. 

225.] The Preposition irpo means forward, in front. It is 

seldom used as an Adverb; II. 13. 799 npb ^v T aAA', KT\. II. 16. 

; 

1 88 efayaye Trpo ôaxrSe brought forth to the light: and of time, 

II. I. 

/o Trpo T tovTa the past. In one or two other instances we 

may recognise either the free adverbial use or Tmesis II. I. 195 

: 

r 

Trpo yap rJK, I. 442 Trpo \ eTrejixê, Od. l. 37 Trpo ot enro/zer. 

Traces of a use of Trpo with the Locative may be seen in the 

phrases ovpavoOi Trpo in the face of heaven, '\\i66i Trpo in front of 

Troy, and (perhaps in the temporal sense) 77(0^1 Trpo' before dawn. 

In these cases the meaning is to the front in, hence 'immediately 

before.


With a Genitive, on the other hand, irpo 

means in front with 

respect to, in advance of; hence, in a more or less metaphorical 

sense, in defence of, as II. 8. 57 ^po TZ vafoav KOL irpb yvvaiK&v. 

The Case is here the ablatival Gen. (as with virep 

and words of 

comparison). 

But in II. 4. 382 irpb obov lytvovro the Gen. is partitive, got 

forward on the way ; and so perhaps II. 16. 667 TT/OO o'/3oio forward 

in the flight, 

i. e. 

having betaken themselves to flight (so 

Diintzer a. I.]. 

The temporal sense is rare in Homer; Od. 15. 524., 17. 476 

irpb ydfjLOLo before marriage ; II. 10. 224 KCU re Trpo 6 rov eWrjo-e 

one thinks of a thing before another. 

drri. 

226.] The only certain Compound with dm in Homer appears 

to be avTi- meet and dz>rirope'o> pierce may 

be derived from the Nouns dz/ri-/3oAo?, dz>ri-ropos- 

: also in II. 8. 

163 we may read yvvaiKos ap } avrl re'ri>o, not dvrereYufo (cp. 

Od. 

8. 54^ CLVT! Ka(nyvTt]Tov feii/os 0' iKcrrjs re and in Od. 

re'ru/crai), 22. 

74 for avTio"(r0 (hold up against) avr' to-xeo-ê (i. e. avra tcrêcrê, 

cp. Od. I. 334 avTU TtapeLaajv a"ôfjLevr] Xnrapa Kpr^Sejura). 

&vn also resembles the Improper Prepositions (esp. the Adverbs 

aura, CLVTLOV, &c.) in being used with the Gen., but not with the 

Dat. or Ace. It means in place of, hence in the character of, 

to: as II. 2,1. 75 a 

Double Prepositions. 

227.] It is characteristic of Homer to form a species of compound 

by combining two Prepositions. We have 

dfi,

228.] 

IMPROPER PREPOSITIONS. 193 

In all these instances the and construction are meaning1 

mainly 

determined by the first of the two Prepositions (so that e. g. impel 

is used nearly as irapd, 8ie' and Sia-rrpo as Sid, &c.). 

The second 

does little more than add some emphasis. 

The treble Preposition ttireKirpo is found in Composition : v-rrffcnpoOea}, vircrtirpopecu, 

&c. The sense is represented by dividing the words viretc-TrpoOeci}, &c. 

A curious variety is found in the Compound -npo-irponvXivSo^fvos rolling forward 

where before, a second irpo is added to give emphasis to the first. 

Improper Prepositions. 

228.] The term ' Improper Preposition' may be applied to 

are some of 

any Adverb used to govern a Case. The following 

the most important words of the kind : 

Used with a Genitive : 

ayyî near, close to, eyyv&i,, eyyus near, 

avra, avriov, &c. facing, Trp6 was supposed to govern 

an Accusative in one 

place in Homer, viz. Od. 17. 218 o>? atet TOV oôlov ayet 0eo? a>s 

TOV ofjiolov. 

But the true construction is (as 

Mr. Ridgeway has 

pointed out) o>? o>? as God brings like as he brings like, i. e. deals 

with a man as he dealt with his like (see 

Journal of Philology , 

vol. xvii. p. 113). 

Note the frequency of Compounds formed by one of these words following a 

Preposition : tv-avra, fta-avra, dv-avra, KO.T-a.VTa., irdp-avTa, tv-avTiov, 

O


avriov : 

cfA-irpoffOeV) irpo-napoiOfj fj.fT-6irioOev, air-ai'fvdfv, air-are pOev, di 

viT-evepOe, Kar-avriKpv. Cp. dV-5iX> Si-afJLtrepes, Kar-avruOt, &c. These are not 

true Compounds ((ruvOera), but are formed by irapaSeoas, or mere juxtaposition 

: i. e, they do not consist of two members, of which the first is wholly 

employed in limiting or qualifying the second, but of two adverbial words 

qualifying the same Verb. Thus they are essentially akin to the combinations 

formed by a Preposition and its Case : see 178. 

Homeric and Attic uses of Prepositions. 

229.] The development of the language between the Homeric 

and the Attic period is especially shown in the uses of Prepositions. 

It may be convenient here to bring together some of the 

chief points. 

i . Most of the Prepositions, but esp. djj,i_, irepi, impd, em, uu

230.] INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLE. 195 

t with the Ace. = about > 

nearly (of time and number) ; also = 

in relation to: 

concerning', 

irapd with the Dat. = in the opinion of; with the Ace. = during 

the continuance of; also compared with : 

card with the Ace. = answering to ; also during the time of : 

with the Gen. = about \ against : 

Im with the Dat. = in the power of: 

with many phrases in which the force of the Preposition is 

vague, such as 81' opyrjj, ava Kparos, irpos (3tav t e/c TOV eju.$avovs, 

&c. 

6. There are slight but perceptible differences between the 

usage of the Iliad and that of the Odyssey ( 182, 188, 196, 199, 

215). Some uses, again, are peculiar to one or two books of the 

Iliad, esp. 9, 10, 23, 24 : see 199 (4), 220, 223 (fin.). 

CHAPTER X. 

THE VERBAL NOUNS. 

Introductory. 

230.] The preceding chapters deal with the Simple Sentence : 

that is to say, the Sentence which consists of a single Verb, and 

the subordinate or qualifying words (Case-forms, Adverbs, Prepositions) 

( 131). 

We have now to consider 

how this type is enlarged by means of the Verbal Nouns. 

The Infinitive and Participle, as has been explained ( 84), 

are in fact Nouns : the Infinitive is an abstract Noun denoting 

the action of the Verb, the Participle a concrete Noun expressing 

that action as an attribute. They are termed ' Verbal ' because 

they suggest or imply a predication, such as a finite Verb expresses 

(e. g. p^Tai ayav avrovs implies the assertion ayei CIVTOVS), 

and because the words which depend upon or qualify them are 

construed with them as with Verbs (ayav avrovs, not ayav avr&v 

bringer of them). 

Thus they have the character of subordinate 

Verbs, ' governed ' by the finite Verb of the sentence, and 

serving at the same time as centres of dependent Clauses. 

The distinction between Infinitives and other abstract Substantives, and 

again between Participles and other primitive Adjectives, was probably not 

always so clearly drawn as it is in Greek. The Infinitives of the oldest 

Sanscrit hardly form a distinct group of words ; they are abstract Nouns of 

various formation, used in several different Cases, and would hardly have 

O 2


been classed apart from other Case-forms if they had not been recognised as 

the precursors of the later more developed Infinitive. The Participles, too, 

are variously formed in Sanscrit, and moreover they are not the only Nouns 

with which the construction is l adverbial ' instead of being ' adnominal.' 

The peculiarity of the Verbal Nouns in point of meaning may be said to 

consist in the temporary and accidental character of the actions or attributes 

which they express. Thus irpdrTeiv and irpaât suggest a particular doing, 

momentary or progressive, at or during a time fixed by the context whereas 

; 

irpais means doing, irrespective of time ; irpaKTup one who does, generally or 

permanently, a doer; and so in other cases. The distinction is especially 

important for Homer. In the later language there are uses of the Infinitive 

and Participle in which they lose the Verbal element, and have the character 

of ,ordinary Nouns ; e. g. TO irpdrTfiv is nearly equivalent to 7r/>ot?, ol irpaTTovrts 

to irpaKTOpts, &c. 

The Infinitive. 

231.] Form and original meaning. The Greek Infinitive 

is a Case-form usually the Dative of an abstract Verbal 

Noun (nomen actionis). 

As a Dative it expresses an action to 

which that of the governing Verb is directed, or for which it 

takes place, 

viz. a purpose, effect, bearing, &c. of the main 

action. Thus 86jjiei>-ai to give, being the Dative of a Stem SO-JAC^ 

giving, means ' to or for giving,' hence in order to give, so as to 

give, &c. But owing to the loss of all other uses of the Dative 

in Greek ( 143), and the consequent isolation of the Infinitive, 

its 

meaning has been somewhat extended. For the same reason 

the Infinitives derived from other Cases ( 85) are no longer used 

with different meaning, but are retained merely as alternative 

forms. 

The Dative meaning evidently accounts for the common constructions 

of the Infinitive with Verbs expressing wish, command, 

power, expectation, beginning, and the like as e0e'Aco bo^vai lit. 

: 

I am willing for giving, ^vvaâi i8eeiy 1 have power for seeing, &c. 

In Homer it 

may be said to be the usual meaning of the Infini- 

such as 

tive. It is found in a great many simple phrases, 

fvWqicc nax.or0aL urged together to fight (so that they fought), 

bos ayeiv give for leading away (to be led away), ot8e vorjo-ai, 

knows 

(has sense) to perceive, (3rj b y ttvai stepped to go ( 

= took his way, 

cp. yovvar ercojua (f)vyefJLvai) ; TT/ooerjKe irvOlcrdaL, TTC^TTC ve

231.] INFINITIVE. 197 

Od. 4. 634 5e efxe XP ^ ytyveran. avrrjs "HAi5' e? fvpvôpov 5ia/3rjjoierai 

/ have need of it for crossing over to Elis. 

The notion of purpose often passes into that of adaptation, 

possibility, necessity, &c. ; e. g. 

II. 6. 227 -TroAAol IJLV yap e/xoi Tpcoes . . KTWiv 

Trojansfor me to kill (whom I may kill)-, cp. 9. 

there are many 

688 etVt KCH 

ot8e ra' ctTre/xe^ 

^^ #00 fl/ 1^ ^f


eiTrare 5' 

i7reii> to speak to the intent that, to bid, as OcL 3. 427 

to-a) 8juta)?jo-tz> 

. . TrevecrOai. Other examples are given in 238. 

In this use, as was observed by Mr. Eiddell (Dig. 83), the ' dictative 

force' the notion of thinking right, advising, &c. comes through the 

Infinitive to the governing Verb, not vice versa. The same remark holds of 

the use with &TTI it is possible, lit. it is (a case) for (something to happen). 

232.] Infinitive with Nouns, &c. It will be useful to bring 

together instances in which the Infinitive depends upon some 

qualifying word Preposition, Adverb, Adjective, &c. construed 

with the Verb : 

II. i. 258 pt'vcpl fj-tv /SovXqy Aava&v ircpl 6"' ecrre id\(r6ai excel 

them in fighting. 

I. 

589 apya\os yap 'OA.u/xTuos' ai>rt

234-] INFINITIVE AS SUBJECT, &C. 199 

It is very common with a negative : OVK eo-ri, ov mo? 2oz>, 


With an abstract Noun as 

(5) 

: 

II. 14. 80 ov yap TLS re/xea-ij (hvyetiv K.OLK.OV there is no wrong 

in escaping 

ill. 

Od. 5. 345 6'0i rot /xotp' eoriz; dAveu where it is thy fate to fyc. 

II. 330 dAAa KCU u>prj evbtiv there is a time for fyo. 

So with o2 fiacri- 

\VfjiV to be a king is not a lad thing. This construction however 

is not consistent with the original character of the Infinitive. 

It is ' 

plain that lortz; evbciv can never have meant sleeping is/ 

but ' there is (room &c.) for sleeping ' : and so apyaXtov ecrrt 

dtcrOai is 

originally, and in Homer, it (the case, state of tilings, fyc.) 

is hard m view of making. It is only in later Greek that we have 

the form apyaXtov 

crrl TO dtvQai, in which Ota-Oai is an indeclinable 

Neuter Noun. 

The process by which the Infinitive, from being a mere word

- 


of limitation, comes to be in sense the Subject or Object 


principal Clause, can be traced in sentences of various forms : 

(1) With a personal Subject; e.g. in 

II. 5- 75O Trjs eTTtreYpaTmu /aeyas ovpavbs Ov^vfjuros re 

rjfjicv avcLKXlvai TTVKLVOV vetyos rjb' e-jnOelvai 

the meaning ' to them is entrusted the opening and shutting of 

the thick cloud of heaven/ is expressed by saying 'to them 

heaven is entrusted for opening and shutting the cloud/ So 

II. T. 107 aid TOI TO, KCIK' eort petrt fjiavTtvta-Oai. 

4. 345 ^vOa tA' oTrraAe'a Kpe'a e'Sjueyai. 

Meaning you love to prophesy tvils (to eat roast flesh, fyc.). 

(2) The Impersonal form (apyaAeW ecm) only differs from the 

other in the vagueness of the Subject, which makes it easier for 

the Infinitive to become the Subject in sense, while it is still 

grammatically a word limiting the vague unexpressed Subject. 

The use of a Neuter Pronoun as Subject (e.g. TO ye 

the thing is good, to listen] may be regarded as a link 

between the personal and impersonal forms of expression 

: 

cp. 

161 (note), 

also 258. 

(3) Similarly an Infinitive following the Object of a Verb may 

become the logical Object ; 

as 

II. 4. 347 ?? juteVere Tpwas cr\tov eA0e/meF ; do ye wait for the 

Trojans for their coming on ? i. e. for the coming on of the 

Trojans. 

14. 342 r/ Hp?7, jurjre Oe&v TO ye ei'8i0i //,?jre 

nv &vbp&v ctyeo-0ai 

do not fear any one of gods or of men for their being about to 

see, i. e. that any one will see : cp. Od. 22. 39, 40. 

A further development of this use leads, as we shall see, to the 

' 

Accusative with the Infinitive/ 

(4) Again, the Infinitive sometimes takes the place of a vague 

unexpressed Object. 

Thus ote ror/o-oi means knows (enough) 

to 

perceive: the full construction being such as we have in II. 2. 213 

09 p eVea (j)p(rlv i](Tiv a/cooâ re TroAAa re fjbL . . ept^juezât who 

knew (had 

a store of) words wherewith to wrangle. So too 8i6co^t 

with an Infinitive is originally construed as Od. 8. 44 rw yap pa 

0eo9 Trept bG)Kv CLOIOTJV T^pifftP 

: II. II. 2O TOV Trore ot Kivvprjs Sw/ce 

^tivrjiov tlvai ; 

thence it comes to mean ' to give (such 

a state of 

things) that some event shall happen/ i. e. to grant the happening ; 

as 86? rtVacrflai grant that I may punish. In such a passage as II. 

3. 3^2 Tov ^^s aiTO(j)OL^Lvov bvvai KrA. we may take TOV with 5os 

or as an Ace. with the Inf. bvvai. 

A Neuter Pronoun, too, may serve as a vague Object, explained 

by an Infinitive; e.g. II. 5. 6656 TO JJL^V 

ov rts eTr 

crar' . . 

ttpv

237-] WITH RELATIVES WITH HPIN. 2OI 

(5) The Infinitive may also be equivalent in sense to the Genitive 

depending on a Noun; as 

II. 7- 49 V "/UP TIS ei8o> VKV(6V KaTaT0VT](dT(i)V 

yiyVtT 7Tl K OdvtiKTL TTVpOS î\l(T(ri^V 

&>KCL 

i. e. there is no grudging about the appeasing of the dead. 

Hence is developed an idiomatic use of the Genitive parallel to 

that of the Accusativus de quo: see Shilleto on Thuc. i. 61, i. 

With Relatives. It is remarkable that the use of the 

235.] 

Infinitive with obs, s re only occurs twice : II. 9. 42 eTreVcrvrai 

cos re v(T0ai is eager to return, and Od. 17. 20 ov -yap 

em 

(TTaO[jLol(TL fJLevtiv TL rrjAtKOs eijut, cos r' eTTtreiAajuero) THêVât. 

. . 

The other instances are: Od. 2,1. 

173 rotor olov re such 

e'ju,ei>ai 

a one as to be ; Od. 5. 484 ocro-ov re . . epixrflai so far as to skelter ; 

Od. 19. 1 60 av7]p otos re juaAto~ra OIKOU K?]6ecr$aij 21. 117 otos r' . 

236.] With irptV and irdpos. This use is common in Homer : 

as II. T. 

98 TTpiV y ttTro Trarpt tXa) 8o'/>tez/at before they give back to 

LI. 573 Trapos xpoa \VKOV eTrcwpeiV before touching the 

her father ; 

The tense is nearly always the Aorist the : 

exceptions are, Od. 

19. 475 Kplv a/â0dao-0at (a verb which has no Aorist), 

1 8. 

245 Trapes bopiroLo jme'deo-flat. Perhaps however /utedecrât 

Aorist : see 31, 2. 

and II. 

is an 

irpti/ 

with the Indicative first appears in H. Apoll. 357 irpiv ye 

01 Ibv tyrJKtv. For the use with the Subj. see 297. 

The origin of this singularly isolated construction must evidently be sought 

in the period when the Infinitive was an abstract Noun ; 

so that (e. g.} irplv 

86fj*vai meant before the giving. The difficulty is that a word like irpiv would 

be construed with the Ablative, not the Dative : as in fact we find Ablatives 

used as Infinitives in Sanscrit with purd 'before ' (,Whitney, 983). It may 

be conjectured that the Dative Infinitive in Greek was substituted in this 

construction for an Ablative. Such a substitution might take place when 

the character of the Infinitive as a Case-form had become obscured. 

It is held by Sturm (Geschichtliche Entwickelung der Constructionen mit irpii', 

p. 15) that the Inf. has the force of limitation: e.g. irplv ovraaai 'before in 

respect to wounding/ before the time of wounding. But on this view the 

sense would rather be 'too soon to wound.' It is better to say, with Mr. 

Goodwin ( 623"!, that irpiv is : 

'quasi-prepositional' and if so the Infinitive 

had ceased to be felt as a Dative when the use arose. 

The restriction to the Aor. Inf. may date from the time when Infinitives 

or Case-forms on the way to become Infinitives ( 242) were chiefly formed 

from the same Stem as the Aorist. Cp. the Aor. Participles which are without 

Tense-meaning ( 243, i). 

237.] Accusative with the Infinitive. Along with the use 

of the Infinitive as an abstract Noun ; 

we find in Homer the


later use by which it is in sense the Verb of a dependent Clause, 

the Subject of the Clause being in the Accusative. 

In the examples of the Ace. with the Infinitive we may distinguish 

the following varieties or stages of the idiom : 

1 . The Ace. has a grammatical construction with the governing 

Verb : 

e.g. 

II. I. 

313 \aovs 8' 'Arpdbrjs aTTO\vâivcr9aL cbcoye Agamemnon 

ordered the people to purify themselves = that ( they should 

purify). 

5. 601 olov 6r) Oavâô^v "EnTopa blov a2)(M r ? T1 ? z; r' fy-ewt KrA. 

(for being a ivarrior, how he was a warrior}. 

This might be called the natural Ace. with the Infinitive. 

2. The Ace. has not a sufficient construction with the Verb 

alone, but may be used if it is accompanied by an Infinitive of 

the thing or fact: e.g. 

/3ovAo/i/,' eyo) Xabv cr&v ejutfxerat 

/ wish the people to be safe (the 

safety of the people). 

OVVK CLKOV(T 

Tip(rOaL TpcSaj because he heard of the Trojans 

being hard pressed. 

no ov uejueo-ifoju' 'Axcuoifj ddâXdav wherefore 

I do not think it a 

shame in the Greeks to chafe. 

In this construction the logical Object 

is the fact or action 

given by the Infinitive, to which the Ace. furnishes a Subject or 

agent, and thus turns it from an abstract Noun to a predication 

(so that e.g. reipeo-flai T/xSas is virtually =. or 6 ereipoyro Tpwej). 

It is found with Verbs that usually take only a ' 

Cognate Ace/ 

(Neuter Pronoun, &c.), 

as 4>?]/xt, eiTroy, aKovo), TrvvQavopai. oi8a, duo, 

&c. Thus 

238.] 

ACCUSATIVE WITH INFINITIVE. 203 

This may be called the purely idiomatic Ace. with the Infinitive. 

It has evidently been formed on the analogy of the older 

varieties. 

238.] Tenses of the Infinitive. So long as the Infinitive is 

merely a Verbal Noun, it does not express anything about the 

time of the action as past, present, or future. But when it is 

virtually a predication, the idea of time comes in ; 

e.g. 

II. 5- 659 aAA' olov TLVCL ao-t (3ir]V 'HpaKArjeû 

e/z/xerai what (' they say he was ') : cp. Od. 8. 181. 

14. 454 ov [Jiav avr dfo) . . aXwv 77778?}am aK.ovra, 

dAAa ris 'ApyeiW Ko'juio-e \pot. 

The Future Infinitive is used with c^jut, duo, eA7ro/*at, vina-yvto- 

HaL, and other Verbs o/Aisvjuit implying expectation we promise ; also 

with /ixe'AAco 

when it means to be about to. 

When the Inf. expresses, not simple expectation as to the 

future, but fitness, obligation, necessity, or the like ( 231, 2), the 

Aorist or Present is used. Thus II. 13. 262 ov yap duo TroXe/îfet^ 

means, not ' I do not think I shall fight/ but I do not think Jit, 

I 

have no mind, to fyht ; so II. 3. 98 oeo> peo-t rtjur/o-ao-flat 

(understand] that I should honour thee ( 

1. 

purpose to honour 

thee) : 24. 5^ voi


281. So Od. 13. 173 os TIo(Tibaa)v t(f)a(TK ayavavQai who said 

that Poseidon was moved to indignation ( 

= 6 

In several places the reading is uncertain, the Fut. being 

of the same 

metrical value as the Aor. or the Pres. (-ecrOcu and -ao-0ai, -i^ctv and -iêiv. 

In such cases the evidence of the ancient grammarians and the MSS. is 

&c.). 

usually indecisive, and we are justified in writing the Fut. throughout, according 

to the general rule. Thus 

II. 3. 28

ATTRACTION. 

240.] 205 

may have a Predicative Accusative, in agreement with its (expressed 

or understood) Subject as II. 4. 341 : aty&'iv pev r eTreot/ce 

fjLtra TTptoTOicriv copras kcrra^v it becomes you that you should stand 

among the foremost ; II. 8. 192 rrj? vvv KA.eos ovpavov uet Traa-av 

Xpvcreirjv ejueuat whose fame reaches heaven that it is all gold. 

Or the words which enter in this way into an Infinitival Clause 

may follow the construction of the principal Clause, and thus be 

put in the Nom. or Dat. as 

; 

II. I. 

76 KCU fjiOL ojuoo-o-oz;, 77 îv ju,ot Trpotypav . . ap?jfiu 

12. 337 ov TTW? ot erjv {3a>cravTL yeyawelv. 

Here Trpo^pcoz; 

is said to be 'attracted'' into the Nom. (agreeing 

with the subject of o/xoo-o-ou), 

and pvcravn into the Dat. (agreeing 

with ot). 

The difference of meaning given by the two constructions is 

generally to be observed in Homer, at least in the case of the 

Dative. A Noun or Participle is 

put in the Ace. if it is closely 

connected with the Inf., so as to become an essential part of the 

predication whereas a Dat. construed with the : 

principal Clause 

expresses something prior to the Inf. (either a condition or a 

reason). 

Thus 

II. i. 

541 alet rot $i\ov evrlv 6jueC OTTO vo;jT KCU avTu> (13. 46., 15. 604).* 

II. 15. 496 ov ot aetKes ajuvuo/xeVa) trepl Trdrprjs reOvafJiev 

to die when fghting for his country. 

So II. 5. 253., 13. 96., 20. 356., 21. 185., 22. 72. 

There are some exceptions, however, if our texts are to be 

trusted ; 

i. e. there are places where a word which belongs to the 

predication is put in the Dat. owing to a preceding Dat. : e. g. 

II. 15. TI7 ct Tre'p /mot Kat fjLolpa AIOJ -rrA^yeVrt Kpavv 

Ki(rdai 6[jiov VKV

' 

* 


This seems to be always the case when there are two successive 

Participles, the first of which is properly in the Dat. as 

: 

II. 12. 410 apyaXtov 8e [JLOI eori KOL t(0tjuto> Trep 

jjiovvto p?7a//,eV a>s eTTtreXAa). 

3. 459 ÔT, KCU TL^J]V aTTOTlVe[JiV. 

Od. 4. 415 KCU TOT 7766^' V[UV fJL\T(D KttpTO? T (3if] T, 

avOi 8' exetv KrA.. (cp. v. 419, 422 f.). 

Or after a Future, to express what the person addressed is to do 

as his part in a set of acts : 

II. 22. 259 VKp6v A.yjcaio'ia'iv 8o> TTCL\IV, &s e &v peêty. 

Od. 4. 408 Vvd(T(ti ^LT]S' (TV b' V KplVCLvQai, tTCLlpOVS. 

So after a clause which leads up to a command; II. u. 788 

aAA.' ev ol (f)d(T0aL (Achilles 

is the mightier) but do you advise him 

well: 17. 691., 20. 335. Cp. also, II. 10. 65 aWi ptveiv (answer 

to the question am I to remain here?): 5. 124 Qapvtav vvv . . 

^dx(r6ai (in answer to a prayer) without fear now you may fght. 

The use for the Third Person is rare : in a command, II. 6. 

8692 etTre 6' eTretra ju^rept

242.] ORIGIN OF THE INFINITIVE. 207 

II. 2. 4*2 Zei5 Kvbi(TT, /xeytore, KeA.atzt(/)ej, alOcpi vaiwv, 

JXT) TT/HZJ 

7r' 

r]tkiov bvvai, KT\. (cp. 3. 285., 7. 179). 

Od. 17. 354 Zei) aVa, Trj\fjLaxov /xot ez> avopdviv o\(3ioi> tlvai. 

An Infinitive of wish is used with the Subject in the Nom., 

once of the Second Person, and once of the First Person : 

Od. 7. 311 at yap Ze re -TrdVep Kat 'AOrjvair) Kat "AiroXXov 

rotos ea>u otos efrat, ra re (frpovewv a T ey&> Trep, 

TratSa r' e/xr)z; eê/xev Kat e/xo? yafjifipos 

KC 

it yap . . otoj N?)ptKOi> etAoy . . rotos e 

\ > / 

Kat afjivvtiv. 

The force of the Infinitive in all these uses seems to be that of 

an indirect Imperative. The command is given as something 

following on an expressed or implied state of things. Thus we 

may connect the idiom with the use of the Infinitive to imply 

fitness, obligation, &c. ( 231); compare etcrt Kat ot6e rad' etVejue^ 

these are here to say this with Kat 8e ay etTre/xeuat it is your part to 

say. There is a similar use of the Infinitive in Sanscrit, with 

ellipse of the verb to be (Delbriick, A. S. p. 15 : Whitney, 982, 

It should be noticed, however, that other languages have developed a use of 

the Infinitive in commands, to which this explanation does not apply : as 

Germ, schritt fahren ! In these cases we may recognise a general tendency 

towards the impersonal form. It is very probable that the ordinary 2 Sing. 

Imper. \4ye represents an original use of the Tense-stem without any Personending 

(Paul, Principien, p. 108). 

242.] Origin and history of the Infinitive. That the Greek 

Infinitive was originally the Dative of an abstract Noun is 

proved by comparison with Sanscrit. * 

In the Veda and Brahmana 

a number of verbal nouns, nomina actionis, in various of 

their cases, are used in constructions which assimilate them to 

the infinitive of other languages although, were it not for these 

other later and more developed and pronounced infinitives, the 

constructions in question might pass as ordinary case-constructions 

of a somewhat peculiar kind' (Whitney, 969). In the 

Veda these Infinitives, or Case-forms on the way to become 

Infinitives (werdende Infinitive, Delbr.), are mostly Datives, expressing 

end or purpose, and several of them are identical in 

formation with Greek Infinitives ; 

as ddvane BoOmi (boFevai,), 

vidmane fiSfAemi, -dhyai -aBai,* -ase -


quently these forms stand quite apart from the Case-system, 

and have ceased to be felt as real Case-forms. Thus the Greek 

Infinitive is a survival, both in form and in construction, from a 

period when the Dative of purpose or consequence was one of 

the ordinary idioms of the language. In Latin, again, this 

Dative is common enough, and often answers in meaning to the 

Greek Infinitive; compare (e.g.] co/>ry ta-rlv evfeiv with munitioni 

tempws relinquere (Roby, 1156), a^vveiv eiVi KOI aAAoi with 

auxilio esse, &c. The retention of the construction in Latin is 

connected, on the one hand with the fact that the Latin Dative 

is a 'true Dative/ on the other hand with the comparatively 

small use that is made in Latin of the Infinitive of purpose. 

Similarly in classical Sanscrit the Dative of purpose &c. is extremely 

common, but the Dative Infinitives have gone entirely 

out of use (Whitney, 287 and 986) a result of the * struggle 

for existence ' which precisely reverses the state of things in 

Greek. 

The growth of the Dative of purpose into a distinct subordinate 

Clause was favoured by the habit of placing it at the end of the 

sentence, after the Verb, so that it had the appearance of an 

addition or afterthought. This was the rule in Vedic Sanscrit 

(see Delbriick, A. S. p. 25). 

It may be traced in Greek, not 

merely in collocations like epcSt fcvvtrjKf fjia^crOai, &c., but even 

in such forms as 

II. 5* 639 4AX* olov TLVOL (fraa-i ftirjv 

coeval (what they call him as to being), 

where the Inf. appears to be added epexegetically after a slight 

pause : cp. II. 2. 249., 17. 27., 21. 463, 57, Od. i. 

233, 377., 

6. 43., 17. 416. 

The development of the Infinitival Clause which we find in 

Greek and Latin may be traced chiefly under two heads ; (i) the 

construction of the ' Accusative with the Infinitive/ by which 

the predication of the Infinitive was provided with an expressed 

Subject ( 237) and : (2) the system of Tenses of the Infinitive, 

which was gradually completed by the creation of newjftn/w, 

esp. the Future Infinitive, peculiar to Greek, and by the use of 

the Present Infinitive as equivalent in meaning to the Present 

and Imperfect Indicative. In the post- Homeric language the 

Infinitive came to be used as an equivalent, not only for the 

Indicative, but also for other Moods. 

The use of the Infinitive as an indeclinable Noun is subsequent 

it became possible with the later use of the Article. 

to Homer ; 

Some of the conditions, however, out of which it 

grew may be 

traced in Homeric language. The first of these was the complete 

separation of the Infinitive from the Case-system; so that it 

'

243-] PARTICIPLE. 209 

ceased to be felt as a Case-form, and could be used in parallel 

construction to the Nom. or Ace. : as 

II. 2. 453 os miserable, ovrjuevos happy IK^VOS secundus, acr^vos 

, 

glad, CKG>V willing, 0(*>v (better t06v, since it is an Aor. in form, 

31, i) according to wont, TrepmXofjLtvos (in the phrase 

jueVcou cviavT&v the revolving years) ; 

also the Substantival 

rulers, TtvovTes muscles, aî(3ovTs rafters, aWovva a portico, 

a serpent, ytpav, ôva-a. The word Kpeiwv ruler retains a trace of 

the Verb in cvpv K/oetW widely ruling. Cp. also the compounds 

2. Much more frequently, the Participle qualifies or forms 

part of the predication ( 162) : e.g. in such combinations as 

diao-njrrjz; eptVa^re parted having quarrelled 

V(f)poi>())v ayoprjcraTo spoke with good thought 

the Participle has the same construction as the Adjective in 

naXivopa-os ch-eWrj, or Trpotypav reYArj/cas ( 162, 2). Thus it 

serves to express a predication which the speaker wishes to subordinate 

in some way to that of the governing Verb. 

The Participle may express different relations : attendant cirp

210 PARTICIPLE. 

cumstance or manner (as 

in the examples quoted) ; cause, as II. 1 1 . 

313 TL iraOovre XeXda-fjLcOa 6ovpibos aA.*?}? ; opposition, as often 

with Kai and &c. irep, (Goodwin, 832-846). 

3. Finally, a Participle construed in ' Apposition ' to a Noun 

in an oblique Case may imply a predication ( 168); 

as Kairv6v 

a7ro0p(p(TKovTa vofjcrai to descry the smoke rising (i. 

e. when it rises, 

or that it rises, &c.). 

Note that 

(a) 

A Participle of this kind often has the character of a distinct 

Clause, coming at the end of a sentence, and after a metrical 

pause : as 

II. 4. 420 btivbv 8' fipa\ \aXKbs m o-rrjOco-orLV CLVCLKTOS 

opvvfjievov (as he roused himself). 

Od. 23. 205 &? (fraTo, TTJS b' avrov XVTO yovvara KOI QiXov ryrop 

tricar' avayvovcrrjs (when she recognised the token). 

Not (b) unfrequently the word with which the Participle should 

be construed is understood : 

especially when it is a Partitive or 

quasi-Partitive Gen. ( 147, 151) : 

II. 2. 153 avrrj 8' ovpavbv IKCV cn/cade UjueWz/ a cry rose to 

heaven (of men) eager to return home : so II. 1 2. 

339., 13. 291, 49 8 -> !5- 68 9- 

5. 162 iropTios rj /3o6s vXoyov Kara poa-KOfjLevdwv a heifer or 

cow (of those) 

that are feeding in a thicket. 

5. 665 TO /xei> ov TIS y 

7T(f)pd(TaT ovb' fvorjvt jur/poO e^-epvcrat 

bopv fjii\ivov, o(f)p' TTL/3aLTj, (TTrtvbovTtov no one 

. . . 

(of them) in their haste : cp. 15. 450 

ov rts tpVKaKtv LC^VMV ircp. 

1 8. 246 opO&v 8' OTaoT(t>v ayopri ytver an assembly 

Od. 17. 489 Trj\fjLa\o$ 8' 

upstanding (of them standing up). 

\v \L\V Kpabirj peya irevOos aefe 

TO ot 

was held 

fiXrjfjitvov (for his having been wounded). 

So with the Dative ; II. 12. 374 eTmyo/xeroto-i 8' LKOVTO came as a 

relief (to them) when they were hard pressed ; Od. 5. 152 Karet/3ero 

8e yXvitvs aiotv vocrrov d8vpojuter(o. 

(c) The Subject thus understood may 

be indefinite : 

II. 2. 

291 -TToVoj eortz; avnqQtvTa veea-dai (see 233). 

6. 267 o8e 777] (TTL 

K\CLlV(f)L KpOVLMVL 

at/ârt KOL XvOpa f n r noi\ay^vov ev)(eraacr0at 

for one who is bespattered . . to pray. 

13. 787 Ta/> ovvajJiiv 8' OVK eort Kat kcrcrv^vov iioXîîv. 

So II. 2. 234., 14. 63, Od. 2. 311 : cp. the phrase ovovre ytycave 

/3o?JGras as far as a man makes himself heard by shouting. 

(d) The Participle is sometimes found in a different Case from

244-] TENSES. 211 

a preceding Pronoun with which it 

Thus we have 

might 

have been construed. 

II. 

14. 25 AttKC 

(construed with xpoi instead of i). 

1 6. 531 OTTL OL 0)K 7]KOV(T fJLtyaS 0OS va[JiVOLO 

(with TJKouo-e instead of ol). 

Od. 9. 256 s e$a0' 5 fifuv ft avre KareKAao-flrj v (so 

II. 3. 301, Od. 6. 157.., 9. 458). 

II. 2O. 413 TOV /3aAe . . . V&TCL irapa'LO'O'ovTOS 

in the lack as he darted past. 

wounded him . . . 

Od. 4. 646 rj ere fiir) acKOvros airrjvpa. 

II. 

10. 187 &s T&V vijbviJios VTTVOS curb y3Ae^)apo6tV 

VVKTO, (^V\a(T(TOjJiVOL(TL KCLKrjV 

I SO II. I 

Od. 17. 555 jueraAAô-at ri e Ov^bs 

afjioi

212 PARTICIPLE. [245. 

245.] Implied Predication. Where the Participle is predicative, 

we often find the Noun or Pronoun taking- the place in 

the construction of the whole Participial Clause : as II. 17. i ovb* 

\aO' 'Arpeos vlbv riarpoKAos Tpwecrcrt dajueis that Patroclus had 

fallen : Od. 5- 6 /meAe yap ot eooz; ev 6&>//ao-t vv^rjs 

it troubled her 

that he was : fyc. 

II. 6. 191 ytyz^cocrKe fleow yoVoi' 7]iii> 

eozrra knew 

him for the offspring of a god: Od. 10. 419 o-ot y^v vovrricravTi 

âpr]^v we were gladdened by thy return: II. 13. 417 aôj yeVer' 

vanvoio there was vexation at his boasting : II. 5. 682., 14. 504., 

17- .53 8 ; SH, 18. 337,&c. 

We have here the idiom already observed in the use of the 

Infinitive ( 237) by which the weight of the meaningis 

shifted 

from the grammatical Subject, Object, &c. to a limiting or 

qualifying word. Note especially that 

i . The Aor. Participle may be used in this way to express a 

fact which coincides in time with the Verb of the sentence : as 

II. 6. 284 ei K&VOV ye tSoijuu KareAtfoW "A'ibos eicrco. So especially 

when the time of the fact is the important point, as Is r)t\iov 

KarabvvTa till sun-set: II. 

13. 38 jAtvoitv voo-T^cravra avatara 

should aivait the master s return : 13. 545 

i>a 

2. With Verbs of saying, hearing, knowing, &a, also of rejoicing 

and grieving, the Ace. with a Participle is used like the Ace. with 

the Inf. (both being evidently applications of the Accusativus de 

quo, 140, 3, b) : e.g. 

II. 7 129 TOVS vvv et 7TTto(T(rovTa$ yep 

f/ 

E/cropt iravras 

if he were to hear of their shrinking. 

Od. 4. 732 

et 

yap eya> TrvOo^v ravrr]v obbv bppalvovTa. 

23. 2 deorTTOiV?? epeovcra fyiXov TTOO-LV Zvbbv tovra. 

II. 1 . 1 24 OV$i TL TTOV lbfJiV (uW/jjia KLjJ,Va 770 AAtt. 

Od. 7* 2il ovs TLvas vfjitls to-re /oiaAtcrr' oôvTas oi(vv> 

axioixyai 

II. 8. 

378 rj vSti . . yr]d^crL TrpoâiêtVa will rejoice at our appearing. 

13. 353 7Jx^ TO 7 a P P a Tpcoo-ti; ba^va^vovs he was vexed at 

their being subdued by the Trojans. 

A further extension, analogous to the Ace. with the Inf. after 

Impersonal Verbs, may perhaps be seen in Od. 6. 193 8>v eTre'otx' 

IK^TTIV raAaTretptoy avTiavavTa which it is Jit that a suppliant should 

meet with. 

246.] Genitive Absolute. This is a form of implied predication, 

in which the Noun or Pronoun has no regular construction 

with the governing Verb. The Participial Clause expresses

246.] GENITIVE ABSOLUTE. 213 

the time or circumstances in which the action of 

the Verb takes 

place : 

II. i. 88 ov TIS tfjLv &VTOS KT\. no one, while lam living shall tyc. 

2. 551 TrepireAAoêVcoz/ tviavr&v as years go round. 

5. 203 avbp&v etAo/*eVo>z> where men are crowded ; so avbp&v 

AiKju&>jjro>i>, avbp&v Tpev, -TroAAoSv \KOVTMV, &c. 

Od. i. 

390 KCU Kev TOVT efleAotjuu ALOS ye bibovros a/oecr#at that too 

I would be willing to obtain if Zeus gave it. 

The Subject 

is understood in Od. 4. 19 {JLoXirijs ^dpôvros when 

the singer began the music. 

The Aorist Participle is less common in Homer than the Present, 

especially in the Odyssey: the instances are, II. 8. 164, 

468., 9. 426., 10. 246, 356-, ii. 59" I 3- 409-> J 4- 522., 16. 306., 

19. 62, 75., 21. 290, 437., 22. 47, 288, 383, Od. 14. 475., 24. 

88, 535 (Classen, Beob. p. 180 ff.j. 

The * Genitive Absolute ' must have begun as an extension of 

one of the ordinary uses of the Gen. ; 

most probably of the Gen. 

of Time ( 150). For, êAtou aviovros within the time of the suns 

rising is a Gen. like rjovs in the morning, VVKTOS by night, &c., and 

answers, as a phrase denoting time, to arf i?eA.lcp 

KarabvvTi at sunset, 

cs f\i\iov KaTabvvra up to sun-set, &c. So we may compare 

rovb' avrov XvitdfiavTos eAewerat he will come within this year with 

o-*0v v6ab' 

r\ 

eoVro? eAevo-erat he will come within your being here ; 

and again TrepireAAojueVcoz; tviavr&v in the years as they go round, 

with rS)v irpoTpa)v erecoz> in the former years. 

The transition may 

be seen in eapos viov ivrapevoio in the spring when it is beginning. 

Compare also the phrases brtiyophtov avipav, Bopeao Treo-oWos, 

&c. with vr]Vnir]s in calm weather, &c. 

The circumstance that the Ablative is the ' Absolute ' Case in Latin is far 

from proving that the Greek Gen. in this use is Ablatival. In Sanscrit the 

Case used in this way is the Locative, occasionally the Genitive : and the 

Latin Abl. Absolute may represent a Locative of time at which, or an Instrumental 

of circumstance ( 144). The hypothesis that such Participial Clauses in 

Greek expressed space of time within which (rather than point of time, or circumstance) 

is borne out by the interesting fact, noticed above, that in Homer 

this construction is chiefly found with the Participle which implies continuance, 

viz. the Present : whereas in Latin the Abl. Abs. is commonest 

with the Perfect Participle. 

An approach to a ' Dative Absolute ' may 

II. 8. 487 Tpaxrlv \ikv 

12. 374 eireiyoftfvoiffi 

5' IKOVTO. 

' 

afKOvaiv eSy

214 VERBAL ADJECTIVES. [246*. 

246.*] The Verbal Adjectives. The formations to which this 

term is applied resemble the Participles in some of their 

characteristics. 

groups of Nouns are used as Participles or ' Gerundives 

' in the cognate languages, such as the Latin forms in 

-tu-s, the Sanscr. in -ta-s, -na-s, -ya-s, -tavya-s, &c. Of the corresponding 

Greek forms the Verbal in -TO-S is the most important, 

and approaches most nearly to the character of a Participle.* It 

is used mainly in two senses : 

(1) To express the state corresponding to or brought about by 

the action of a Verb : TVK-TOS made, Kpv-xTos secret, K^V-TOS heard 

about, famed, ora-ro's standing (in a stall), r/\r/-ros enduring (II. 24. 

49), dyaTrrj-To's object of love, e/oTre-roV creeping thing, fyv-rov growth, 

plant, TTIVV-TOS wise. So with a- priv., a-K\avros unweeping, a- 

Traoros fasting, CL-TTVO-TOS not having news, also of whom there is no 

news, a-TTioros faithless, &c. The force of the Verb in these 

words is intransitive rather than passive, and they have no 

reference to time as past or present. Compare the Latin aptus, 

cautus, certus, catus, falsus, scUus, &c. We may note that there 

is a similar (but more complete) divergence of use between the 

Sanscr. Participles in -na-s and the Greek Adjectives in -vo-s, as 

arvy-vos. 

(2) To express possibility, as KT^-TOS that can be acquired, 

that can be taken as plunder (II. 9. 406), prjKros vulnerable 

(II. 13. 323), aju-/3a-ro's approachable. This meaningis chiefly 

found in Compounds with d- priv. : as CL-\V-TOS that cannot be 

loosed, appr]KTos, a-VK.ros, a-Aaaros, d-Ki'xrjTos, a-o-pearos, a-T\r)Tos, 

a-0i-ros, &c. : and in other negative expressions, as OVK ovo- 

âorros, OVKT ovocrra, OVK.&T avKT&$, ov TL v^

248.] 

PRONOUNS. 215 

CHAPTER XL 

USES OF THE PRONOUNS. 

247.] The preceding chapter has dealt with the two grammatical 

forms under which a Noun, by acquiring a verbal or 

predicative character, is developed into a kind of subordinate 

Clause. "We have now to consider the Subordinate Clause properly 

so called that is to : say, the Clause which contains a true 

(finite) Verb, but stands to another Clause in the relation of a 

dependent word. E.g. in the Sentence Aevo-o-ere yap TO ye iravres 

o (AOL yepas epyerai a^y y e see that my prize goes elsewhere, the 

Clause o fjiOL yepas epx rat a^V stands in the relation of Object 

to the Verb of the principal Clause. 

As the grammatical structure of Subordinate Clauses is shown 

in general by means of Pronouns, or Conjunctions formed from 

Pronominal Stems, it will be proper to begin with an account 

of the meaning and use of the different words of this class. 

The Greek Grammarians divided the Pronouns (aprcozw/uat) 

into btLKTiKai ' pointing/ and avaôpiKai 'referring-' or ' repeating/ 

These words have given us, through the Roman grammarians, 

the modern terms Demonstrative and Relative ; 

but the meaning, 

as often happens in such cases, has undergone a considerable 

change. A Deictic Pronoun it will be convenient to adopt 

the Greek words is one that marks an object by its position in 

respect to the speaker : /, thou, this (here), yonder, &c. an Anaphoric 

Pronoun is one that denotes an object already mentioned 

' 

; 

or otherwise known, the term thus including many Demonstratives 

' (that same man, the man, &c.), as well as the ' Relative.' 

In we all, therefore, may distinguish three kinds of Pronouns : 

1. DEICTIC, in the original sense. 

2. ANAPHORIC, i. e. referring to a Noun, but Demonstrative (in 

the modern sense). 

3. RELATIVE, in the modern sense. 

This however, it should be observed, is a classification of the uses of Pronouns, 

not of the words or Stems themselves for the same Pronoun : 

may be 

Deictic or Anaphoric, Demonstrative or Kelative, according to the context. It 

is probable, indeed, that all Pronouns are originally Deictic, and become 

Anaphoric in the course of usage. 

248.] Interrogative Pronouns. The Interrogatives used in 

Homer are rts ( 108), iroYepos, TTO'OTOS, irolos, TTT/, TTWS, TTOU, -rro'tft,

24. 

$16 PRONOUNS. [249. 

, TTo're, TroVe. The form TTOO-OS only occurs in the compound 

(II. 24. 657)- 

The Pronoun TIS is used both as a Substantive and as an 

Adjective. The adjectival use is chiefly found in the Odyssey 

(e.g. I. 225 Tt

*OAE, KEINOS, O'TTOS. 

21 J 

is the wife of Hector ; Od. I. 76 ^jutet? oi8e Trtpifypa&ntQa let us 

here consider ( 162,, 2): I. 226 OVK tpavos ra8e y eort wto I see 

here is not a club-feast. It is especially applied to a person or 

thing to which the speaker turns for the first time, as 

II. 3. 192 etTr' aye /mot KOL roV8e, (f)L\ov re/cos, os rts 06' eor. 

Hence the use to denote what is about to be mentioned the new 

as opposed to the known. This is an approach to an Anaphoric 

use, in so far as it expresses not local nearness, but the place of 

an object in the speaker's thought. So in 

II. 7- 35^ otcrda KOL a\.\ov jJivOov afjitivova roOde vofjffai 

the speech 

is the present one, opposed to a better one which 

should have been made. 

The derivatives roo-oaSe, roioo-Se, yonder he is in the chamber. 

5. 604 /cat vvv 01 7ra/>a Keiuos *Apr]s there is Ares at his side. 

So of an absent object 

: as Od. 2. 351 KCWOV OLO^YJ rov Kdôpov 

thinking of that (absent} one, the unhappy. 

Hence in an Anaphoric use, icetyos distinguishes what is past or 

done with) in contrast to a new object or state of things 

: 

II. 

2. 

330 KWOS rw? ayoptve he (on that former occasion), Sfc. 

3. 440 vvv jueu yap MezÂaos ZviKrjorev crvv 

Kelvov 8' avTis eyca. 

Od. I. 46 Kat \irjv Ketvo? ye eoi/coYi Ketrat 

aXXd juot dju,(/>' 'Obvcrrji KT\. 

Here KCIÔS marks the contrast with which the speaker turns to 

a new case. The literal sense of local distance is transferred to 

remoteness in time, or in the order of thought. 

Deictic in 

251.] The Pronoun OUTOS is not unfrequently 

Homer, expressing an object that is present to the speaker, but 

not near him, or connected with him. Hence it is chiefly used 

(like iste in Latin) of what belongs to or concerns the person 

spoken to, or else in a hostile or contemptuous tone. Instances 

of the former use are : 

II. 7' HO a^paivcis, MereXae 8ior/)e$es, ov5e' rl ere \pr\ 

Tavrr)s a(j)po (as you are).

2l8 PRONOUNS. [252. 

Again, ovros is regularly used of one of the enemy 

as 

; 

II. 5- 257 

TOVTO) b' ov irdXiv CLVTLS airoia-CTov co/cees LTTTTOL. 

2,2,. 

38 /Ut?7 fJLOL jUUjLlZ;e,

253.] 

ATTO5 REFLEXIVE PRONOUN. 219 

(2) To express without change, the same as before; 

II. 12. 225 ^ KO(TjU6) Trapa vav(j)iv eAewojuefl* avra KeAevfla. 

Od. 8. 107 ^ ??px e r( ? . 

The unemphatic use, as it 

may be called, 

(3) 

in which it is an 

rding linary Anaphoric Pronoun of the Third Person (Eng. he, she, 

In this 

it). 

use the Pronoun cannot stand at the beginning of 

a Clause (the emphatic position), 

or in the Nominative an 

unemphasised Subject being sufficiently expressed by the Person- 

Ending of the Verb. The use is derived from that of the 

emphatic auros in the same way that in old-fashioned English 

the same ' often denotes merely the person or thing just mentioned 

' 

: and as in German derselbe and der ndmliche are used 

without any emphasis on the idea of 

sameness. 

(4) The Reflexive use of avros is very rare Od. : 4. 247 aAAw 6' 

avrov (/>6orl KaraKpvirr^v ryi'o-Ke, 

and perhaps 

II. 20. 55 %v ouroij 

6s 

epia ptfyvvvTo ftapelav (among them there, in heaven itself). 

II. 9. 342 rrjv avrov

220 PRONOUNS. [254. 

II. 17. 407, Od. 7. 217, &c. Compare 

Subordinate Clauses, as 

also the similar use in 

II. II. 439 yv& ' 'OSwei'S o ot ov n reXo? KaraKaipLov r)\@ev. 

The strictly Reflexive use is commoner in the Iliad than in the 

Odyssey. Excluding* Infinitival and Subordinate Clauses, there 

are 43 examples in the Iliad, against 1 8 in the Odyssey. Note 

that the use is 

mainly preserved in fixed combinations (diro e'o, 

TTpOTl Ot, &C.). 

(2) The Anaphoric (non-Reflexive) use is very much commoner. 

In this use which is doubtless derived from the other by loss 

of the original emphasis the Pronoun is enclitic : whereas in 

the Reflexive use it is orthotone. 

Accentuation. According to the ancient grammarians this Pronoun is 

orthotone (i) 

when used in a reflexive sense, when (2) preceded by a Preposition, 

and (3) when followed by a Case-form of avros in agreement with 

it. The first and second rules, as we have seen, practically coincide : and the 

third is not borne out by the usage of Homer. In such places as Od. 2. 33 

(We ot aura) Zeus ayaBov TeAeaete, II. 6. 91 /cat ot iro\v (f>i\Ta.Tos airy, Od. 8. 396 

Evpva\os Se 4 avrbv ('Odvffffta) dpfaaaffOo}, add II. 24. 292, Od. 4. 66, 667., 6. 277 

the Pronoun is evidently unemphatic, and is accordingly allowed to be enclitic 

by good ancient authorities. This is amply confirmed by the instances of |*tv 

atirov (II. 21. 245, 318, Od. 3. 19, 237, &c.), and the parallel use of auros with 

the enclitic \ioi, rot, &c. 

In one instance, viz. 

Od. 4. 244 auToV fuv irXrj'yfiffiv dcitceXiriffi Sapaffffas 

it would seem that p,iv 

has a reflexive sense. The reading, however, is not 

certain, some ancient authorities giving atrrdv jtlv or avirov jjiev. 

254.1 The Possessive eos, os is nearly always Reflexive. Occasionally 

it refers to a prominent word in the same Sentence 

which is not grammatically the Subject 

: as 

II. 6. 500 at (Joz> a> 

yoov "'EKTOpa zvl 

Od. 9. 369 OVTLV eyw vvfjiaTov e'8o/xat /xera ot? 

Cp. II. 16. 800., 22. 404, Od. 4. 643., ii. 282., 23. 153. And 

it is occasionally used in a Subordinate Clause to refer to the 

Subject, or a prominent word, of the Principal Clause : 

Od. 4. 618 Kopcv 8e e at8tjuo? rjpus 

a(Ti\vs, ##' 16s 6o/ 

II. 

poorijowra (cp. 4. 74 1 )- 

IO. 256 TuSetSr/ êv Sake ju,ei>e7JTo'A.eju,o? 

(fraa-yavov a/x^r^Ke?, TO 5* tbv Trapa vrfi 

1 6. 753 ^/3A.ryro TTpoj (TTrjOos, kri re wXeo-ev 

/xtz; 

It will be seen that where eos 

does not refer to the grammatical 

Subject it is generally emphatic : e. g. in the line last quoted, 4r) 

d\K?} his own prowess, not that of an enemy. This indicates the

255-] ^02. 221 

original force of the Pronoun, which was to confine the reference 

emphatically to a person or thing just mentioned. 

255.] Use of 46s, os as a general Reflexive Pronoun. It has 

been a matter of dispute with Homeric scholars, both ancient and 

modern, whether 46s (os) 

was confined to the Third Person 

Singular (Ms own) or could be used as a Reflexive of any Number 

and Person (own in general my own, thy own, their own, &c.).* 

The question is principally one of textual criticism, and depends 

in the last resort on the comparative weight to be assigned to the 

authority of the two great Alexandrian grammarians, Zenodotus 

and Aristarchus. It is connected with another question, of less 

importance for Homer, viz. whether the forms Io x ot, 

I are confined 

to the Singular, and those beginning with z> (BacnX^Mv 

rtjurj 8' K Aio's cart, $tA.et 8e e jurjriera Zevj, 

and so the first line is quoted by Aristotle (Rhet. 2. 2). Aristarchus 

read bioTpetyeos pacnXijos. However, admitting Zenodotus 

to be right, I need not be a Plural. The change from Plural to 

Singular is not unusual in passages of a gnomic character, e.g. 

Od. 4- 691 T/ 

T eori biKr] 0i(tiv /3acrtA.77* 

aAAoz> K 

c^daiprjcTL (Bpor&v, a\\ov Ke (4X0177. 

(2) Again, the ' general ' Reflexive use, if it exists in Homer, 

is confined to the Adjective 46s, os. The only contrary instance 

is II. 10. 398 (Dolon tells Ulysses that he has been sent by 

Hector to find out) 

rj (f)vXd(rcrovTaL vf]s Goal ws TO irdpos Trep, 

77 tfbr] \eip(T(nv ix^ ^/xerepr/a-t ba^VTfS 

(J)VLV povXtvoiTe juera (rtytfTiv, ov5' eêAotre KT\. 

So the MSS., but Ar. read fiovXevovcri, tQeXovvi, making Dolon 

repeat the exact words of Hector (11. 309-311) ; and this reading, 

which gives o-^tVt its usual sense, is clearly right. The Optative 

is not defensible (esp. 

after the Indie. ^vXaa-o-ovrai), 

and was 

probably introduced by some one who thought that Dolon, speaking 

of the Greeks to Ulysses, must use the Second Person Plural. 

But the Third Person is more correct ; 

for Ulysses 

is not one of 

* The question was first scientifically discussed by Miklosich, in a paper 

read to the Vienna Academy (I, 1848, p. 119 ff.). 

He was followed on the 

same side by Brugmann (Ein Problem der homerischen Texfkritik und der vergkichenden 

Sprachwissenschaft, Leipzig, 1876).


the Greeks who can be supposed to be c 

consulting among themselves/ 

The form I is found as a Plural in Horn. H. Ven. 267. In 

later Epic poets the Substantival eto, &c. are used as Reflexives 

of any Person or Number : see Theocritus 27. 44, Apollonius 

Rhodius i. 893., 2. 635, 1278., 3. 99 (Brugmann, Probl. p. 80). 

But the use is exclusively post-Homeric. 

(3) The case is different with the Adjective. We find forms 

of 46s read (os) by Zenodotus in a number of places in which our 

MSS. and editions following the authority of Aristarchus have 

substituted other words. Thus in 

II. 3 244 &s (f)aTo, TOVS 

' 

rjbr] 

KCLT^V s and 0-65. Thus 

II. 14. 221 on (f)p(rl (rfj

255-] "E^. 223 

Od. 13. 320 (where there is some reason to suspect an interpolation), 

and 

Od. 9. 38 ov rot eyw ye 

rjs yair]s bvvafJLai yAuKepwrepoz/ aAAo IbecrOai. 

But there is no reason to take ^s otherwise than in v. 

34 &? ovbev 

yXvKiov rjs Trarpibos ovbe TOKYJO^V yiyêrcu nothing is sweeter than a 

man's own country, fyc. 

The reference of the Pronoun is to a 

re ot 6


Bragmann has himself given 

excellent instances of the extension 

to the First and Second Person of a Reflexive Pronoun originally 

confined to the Third (Probl. pp. 1 19 In the 

ff.). present case it 

is significant that the generalised use of the substantival forms 

Io, &c. is clearly post-Homeric. If eos is (os) 

sometimes used in 

Homer, as well as afterwards, of the First and Second Persons, 

it is natural to see in this the result of an extension of usage. 

The case is different with the use of the Stem sva for the Plural. 

That use, as we see from the Latin se and suus, was the original 

one. It is noteworthy that this undoubtedly primitive use is precisely 

the one of which there is least trace in Homer. 

6 ^ TO. 

256.] The Article 6 TO 

rj may be defined as a purely Anaphoric 

Pronoun, conveying some degree of emphasis. It differs 

from o6e OVTOS and eKetô? in the absence of Deictic meaning : 

for while it usually marks some contrast between objects, it does 

not distinguish them as near or far, present or absent, &c. On 

the other hand it is distinguished from the non-Reflexive use of 

avros and co by greater emphasis. 

Three chief uses of 6 f\ 

TO 

may be distinguished : 

1. The use as an independent Pronoun; 6 rj 

TO lie she it. 

This may be called the SUBSTANTIVAL use : it embraces 

the great majority of the instances in Homer. 

2. The use as an ' Article ' in the later sense of the term, 

i. e. 

with a Noun following. This may be called the ATTRI- 

BUTIVE use. 

3. 

The use as a Relative. 

257.] 

The Substantival Article. This use of the Article is 

very much the commonest in Homer, and it is also the use from 

which the others may be easily derived. 

The Substantival Article either (i) 

is 

simply ' resumptive/ 

recalling a person or thing already mentioned, as 6 yap for he, 

TOV pa him I say, avrbs KCU TOV o&pa the man and his gifts: or 

(2) marks a contrast, as 6 8e but the other. 

The following points of usage are to be noticed : 

I . The most frequent we may almost say the regular place 

of the Article is at the beginning of a Clause, followed 

by fjieV, Be, yap, apa, or preceded by auTdtp, dXXd, rj TOI, or 

an equivalent Particle. Hence the familiar combinations 

6 juo;, 6 8e, 6 yap, KCU yap 6, avrap 6, rot r\ 6, TOV pa, aAAa 

TOV, &c. of which it is needless to give instances. 

The later Substantival use with piv and 8e is a surviving frag-

257-] THE SUBSTANTIVAL ARTICLE. 225 

ment of this group of uses. A few others are found in Attic 

poets, as 6 yap (Aesch. Sept. 17, Soph. El. 45, O. T. 1082). 

The use to contrast indefinite persons or things (6 juez> 6 6"e= 

one another, ot [L\V ot be = $ome 

others) is not very common in 

Homer. 

The use of the Article with an adversative Particle (6e, avrap, 

a\Xd) generally marks a change of Subject 6 8e but the other, &c. 

: 

But this is not always the case: e.g. II. 4. 491 rov ptv a\j.apB\ 

6 8e AevKov . . . 

/3e/3ArJKet him he missed^ but smote Leucus (so II. 

8. 119, 126, 302., II. 80, II. 

&c.) I. 

496 0e'rts 6' ov A?j0er' 

; 

eêrjueW TTCLLOOS tov, dXA.' rj y dueSiWro KT\. : cp. II. 5- 321., 

6. 1 68, Od. i. 4, &c. The Article in all such cases evidently 

expresses a contrast not however between two : persons, but between 

two characters in which the same person 

is 

thought of. 

This last use in which the Article is pleonastic, according to 

Attic notions occurs in Herodotus, as 5. 120 ra JJLZV irporepov 

ot Rapes (3ov^vovTO juier?7/cai>, ot e CLVTIS TroAe/xetz; eâp^r}? apreovTo. 

We may compare 

it with the pleonastic use of the Pronoun in 

II. ii. 131 fwypet 'Arpeo? vU, (TV ft afta 5eât airoiva, 

where the effect of inserting au is to oppose the two acts denoted 

by wy/ t an(i Seât avoiva. 

2. The Article is frequent in Disjunctive sentences : 

II. 12. 240 et T 7rt 6e^t" i(ti(ri Trpoj 770) r r}Xidv re, 

et T ZTT 

dpiarepa rot ye KrX. (or else to left}. 

Od. 2. 132 Ca>et o y r/ riQv^tv. 

Here also it serves to contrast the alternative things said 

the same Subject. 

about 

3. The principle of contrast often leads to the placing of two 

Articles together 

: II. 21. 602 rjos 6 TOV TreStoio 6tco/cero, 

10. 224 Kai re Trpo 6 TOV v6r](Ttv. 

So an Article and a 

Personal Pronoun, tv 8e av roto-t (II. 13. 829, &c.); cp. 

II. 8. 

53^ ffcro/ykii et Ke 6 /m' Tu8et8r]? /cparepo? Ato/X7j6r^j 

Trap vrj&v Trpos retôj aTiwo'erat, rj 

Kv eya> TOV. 

Note that when the second of the two is in the Nom., it 

usually takes y e : hence rou o ye, TTJ p ' ot ye, &c. 

4. The Article often stands for the object to be denned by a 

following Relative Clause, e.g. 

II. 9. 615 Ka\6v rot crvv e/xot TOV Kqbeiv os K* e/ute K^by. 

I. 

272 rwr ot vvv ySporot eto-t &c. 

The use is to be classed as Anaphoric ; 

the intention of saying 

something about the object is equivalent to a previous mention. 

So in Latin the Anaphoric is is used to introduce qui. 

Q

| 

229, and the like : 

II. 1 5- 207 ecrOXbv KOL TO re'rvKrat or' ayyeAos atort/xa et6"?j. 

Od. 9. 442 ro 6e vrjinos OVK i'6r](rev 

00? ot /crA. 

II. 3. 308 Zei>s IJLCV TTOV TO ye ot6e . . . OTTTrorepa) /crA. 

So II. 14. 191., 20. 466., 23. 545. It may 

independent sentence, as 

Od. 4. 655 dAAa TO 0ai>juaa>' tbov v6abe MeVropa blov, 

even introduce an 

5. The uses in which the Article is least e. 

emphatic does 

(i. 

not begin the Clause, or express a contrast) appear to be 

(a) after Prepositions : esp. in the Dat. Plur. after jxe-ni, iraprf, 

irpori, ow, Iv, fifia as II. T. 348 : 77 6' de'/covo-' ajua roto-t yvvrj Kiev. 

This is to be connected with the fact that the forms eo, ot, O-

259-] 

THE ATTRIBUTIVE ARTICLE. 227 

And where the Neut. TO is followed by an epexegetic Infinitive : 

Od. I. 

37 TTi TO ye Ka\bv dKOue/uev eortz; aoibov. 

II. 17. 406 7Tt ovbe ro eATrero -Tra/utTraz;, 

Kirep(Tiv TiToXitOpov avev 0V. 

In all these cases the combination of Article and Noun is not 

sufficiently close to constitute an Attributive use but 

; they serve 

to show how such a use is developed. 

be classified as follows : 

The Attributive uses in Homer may 

1. Uses with connecting Particles, where some contrast is made 

in passing to the new sentence or clause. 

2. Uses with certain Adjectives that imply contrast. 

3. Uses to mark a person or thing as definite. 

259.] Article of Contrast with connecting Particles. The 

uses that fall under this head, though not very numerous, are 

characteristic of Homer. The following are the chief : 

(a) The Article with an adversative 8e, aurdp, &c. is not unfrequently 

used to bring out the contrast in which the Noun 

stands to something already mentioned : e. g. 

II. 2. 217 4>o\Kos fr]v, xcoAo? frcpov 7ro'8a, r 6e ot oWe (II. 13. 616), &c. 

II. 22. 405 &$ T v l^v KCKoVtro Kaprj aVar, fj 

be vv ^Trjp KrX. 

lut on the other hand his mother fyc. 

II. J. 

382 rJKt $' ITT' 'A/>yeuH/xara 0ir], /crA. 

(c) The corresponding use with copulative 

and illative Particles, 

Kat, re, ^8e, /cat yap, is much less common : cp. 

' 

II. 1. 

339 TTpos re Ot&v /xaKapcou Trpos re 6vrjT&v avdp&TttoV 

Kat irpbs TOV jSao-tAôs a^rjveos. 

1$. 36 ta-ra) vvv roe yata Kat ovpavbs tvpvs virepOev, 

Kat ro KaTL(36jJivov 2n;yos v8co/o (cp. 

18, 486).


Od. 22. 103 8co(ro) 6e arvfltoTrj | 

/cat TKoA.a> aA.A.a. 

II. 14. 53 ovbe yap f] Tlpo^dôio bdpap KrX. 

The Article singles out its Noun as the special object intended, 

or turns to it with fresh emphasis. So with an Infinitive, Od. 

20. 52 ai'ir) Kal TO

2.61.] 

THE ATTRIBUTIVE ARTICLE. 229 

3. 138 r(3 8e K6 viKr\(ravTi (/u'Ar; KK\ârr] O.KOITLS 

(the conqueror being one of two definite persons). 

So j] irXrjOvs (II. 2. 278., 15. 305) the many (in 

contrast to a 

single man, or to the few) TO xdiôv : (II. 13. 745) TOV 8etw 

; 

ILTTTTOV (II. 23. 336) 

; 

Ata? 6 juteya? the greater Ajax 

: 0eoi>? . . rovs 

vKOTaprapiovs (II. 14. 279) the gods of the lower world: oVa/cre? ot 

VOL (Od. 14. 61) masters of the younger generation: lÔvcn rots 

oAtyotcrt (Od. 12. 252) the smaller kinds offish. 

So 

II. 1 . 

700? fl^ TOL T tovTO. rd T ecra-o'ju,z>a irpo r ovra. 

The use to contrast indefinite individuals (one another) is rare 

in Homer : II. 23. 325 rbv irpovôvra 

8o/cevet waits on the one in 

advance: II. 16. 53 oTrrrore bri TOV ojjiolov avyp eêArjcrtz; d/xepo-at : 

II. 9. 320 KarOav 1 

ojucSs o r' aepyo? ain)p o re -TroAAa eopycos Od. 

: 

17. 21 8 a>s del roi> ojutotov ayet êo? a>s roz^ oôlov. 

(/") Patronymics and geographical epithets:

PRONOUNS. 

[26r. 

II. 13. 53 y p o y 6 Xvo-o-tobris KT\., where 6 Xvo-orubrjs the madman 

is used as a single term, in Apposition to o ye. This use 

which is characteristic of Homer may be regarded 

as a relic 

of the Deictic force of 6 ^ TO. It answers to the later use of 

OUTOS, Latin iste. 

The use of the Article to show that the Noun denotes a 

3. 

known person or thing the defining Article of later Greek is 

rare in Homer. It is found in the Iliad 

(a) with : 

ye'po>z;, yepaio's, ava, rjpais 

where however the 

Pronoun is the important word, the Nonn being subjoined as a 

' 

kind of title: roto avaKros = 'o his lordship (cp. 

the German 

allerhochst derselbe). Accordingly, when the name is added the 

Art. is generally not used ; as yepaw tTTTnjAara Urjhevs (not 6 

ye'pcoz/). 

() with eVo? and pvOos, in certain phrases, as irolov rbv pvOov 

eenrej; In these cases the Noun is of vague meaning, adding 

little to the Article : 

cp. eTret TOV fjivOov a/covcre with eTrei TO y' 

a/cowe. So in the formula o/xocreV Te TeAe^Tr/crez; Te TOV opKov } 

perhaps with a touch of ceremonial verbiage. 

In the Odyssey 

it occurs with several other Nouns : 6 etôj 

(passim) ; 77 vrjo-os Od. 5. 55., 9. 146., 12. 201, 276, 403, &c. ; 

Ta 

/xTJAa Od. 9. 464., 1 1. 4, 20 : 6 juo'xAos 

Od. 9. 375, 378 

: TO rogov Od. 

21. 113, 305. The other examples in the Iliad are chiefly found 

in books x, xxiii, xxiv : see II. 10. 97, 277) 3 2I > 3 22 > 33^ 

4^ 5 

497., 23. 75, 257, 465., 24. 388, 8or, also 2. 80., 7. 412., 20. 147. 

We may perhaps add a few uses with words of relationship 

: 

II. II. 142 vvv \v ST) TOU TTarpos aeiKe'a TtVeTe \u>j3r]v. 

But here the Art. is resumptive with emphasis : (if ye 

are sons 

of Antimachus) ye shall now pay for his, your father s> outrage. 

II. 19. 322 0^8* et KV TOV TTCLTpOS CL7TO(p9LfJLVOLO TTvOoijJiriV 

not even if I heard of such a one as my father being 

dead : Od. 

2. 

134 K yap TOV TtcLTpbs KCLKCL Titivo[ks av pn 

TQV Tratba KTA. : Od. 

ll. 492 aAA' aye /xot TOV iraibbs KTA. Od. 8. 195 KCH K dAaos Tot 

: 

. . TO oTJjuta: Od. 18. 380 ovb* dv //ot TTJV yavTtp KT\. : Od. 19. 

535 &\)C aye /uot TOI; ovzipov KT\. : II. I. 167 o-ot TO ye'/oa? TroAv 

fjLifov. Hence the Art. in these places has much the same

262.] 

THE ARTICLE AS A RELATIVE. 23! 

function as with a Possessive (jutot 

rov Traiba = Tov e/utov TratSa) ; 

it 

reinforces the Pronoun which conveys the idea of possession. 

This account does not apply to TTJS tvvfjs (II. 9. 133, 275., 19. 

176), and rfjs apery? (Od. 2. 206). But here the Art. is probably 

substantival : 

rrjs VVTJ her couch^ r?}? aper?} her perfection. In 

23. 75 KO.L IJLOL 86s TT]v x W a the Art. *s quite anomalous. 

262.] The Article as a Relative. The Article at the beginning- 

of a clause may often be translated either as a Demonstrative 

or as a Relative. It has the character of a Relative when 

the clause which it introduces is distinctly subordinate or parenthetical 

: 

as 

II. I. 

36 'ATToAAooin dvaKTL, rbv rjiJKOfjLOs Te'Ke ATJTCO 

Apollo son of the fair-haired Leto. 

The use of 6 rj 

TO as a Relative is less common in Homer than 

that of 09 rjf o, and is restricted in general to clauses which refer 

to a definite antecedent. Thus in the line just quoted the clause 

rov rivKonos Tece A^rw does not define Apollo, 

i. e. does not show 

who is meant by the name ; 

it assumes that a definite person is 

meant, and adds something further about him. 

From this principle it evidently follows that 

(1) The Art. when used as a Relative must follow the Noun or 

Pronoun to which it refers ; 

whereas a Relative Clause often 

precedes. 

The only exceptions are 

II. I. 

125 AAa ra juez; 

TroAtW ee7rpa00juez>, ra Se'Saarai. 

Od. 4. 349 (=17. 140) dAAa ra jueV /xot eeiTre . . r&v KrA. 

We may perhaps read aAAa 0' a juey ( 332). 

(2) 

The Art. cannot stand as correlative to a Demonstrative 

we must have (i.e. TO o that which^ not TO Hence in 

TO). 

II. 7- 452 TOV 5' TTl\.r]0t/3o? 'ATTo'AAo)^ KTA. 

Toi; TO are not meant as correlatives : the sense is and will forget 

the other 

(a wall) which But 

fyc. 

some MSS. have o T eyco. So 

Od. 13. 263 (rrjs A?7t8o9) TTJS etz/CK* eyo> iraOov ciAyea 0uju,tA' eo-ê TCL TTOV 0eos Iv (frptcrl drJKev, 

19. 573 TOI;? TrcAeKeas TOI;? KTA. (perhaps also Od. 9. 334). 

(3) The Art. is not used in epexegetic clauses, as II. 2. 338 

l?, OtS OV TL fji\l KTA., II. 5^ 63 CLp^KCLKOVSy 

at 7Ta(TL KaKOV 

KTA., II. 15. 5^^ AafMTer&tySj o^ Aa/xTroj tyeivaro. 

Instances at variance with the general principle are to be 

found in II. 5- 747 ^P^coz; roivlv TC KOTeo-o-eTat (olo-iv 

T in some 

MSS.), II. 9. 592 K?]8e' oV* av0p(t)TroLO"L TreAet T


355, &c. It is probable however that the text is sometimes at 

fault, the Art. having been substituted for os, especially in order 

to avoid hiatus : 

e.g. 

II. 17- 145 ôs ^v ^ttouri rot 'IA.to) (Xaots o* 

Od. 1 6. 263 &6\u> rot TOVTO) y îra^vvTope TOVS 

(where ovs is not excluded by the hiatus, 382). 

As the Art. usually adds some new circumstance about a 

known antecedent, it sometimes has the effect of representing a 

fact as unexpected: as II. i. 

392 Tr\v juot boarav vies 'Axai&v 

whom the Greeks 

(jBriseis) gave me ( 

= although the Greeks had 

given her to me) Od. 16. 19 povvov : rrjAuyeroy, r

264.] HOMERIC AND ATTIC ARTICLE. 233 

fining Article of modern languages, and of Attic Greek, we 

naturally import it into Homer whenever it is not made impos- 

the context. But even when a Homeric use falls under 

sible by 

the general head of the ' defining Article'' ( 261), 

the effect is 

perceptibly different from that of the ' Definite Article ' properly 

so called. In Homer the Article indicates, not that a person or 

thing is a known or definite one, but that it is presented 

to us in 

an antithesis or contrast. Objects so contrasted are usually 

definite, in the sense that they are already known or suggested 

by the context : and hence the readiness with which the later 

defining sense can be applied to passages in Homer. Thus avrap 

o y 7Jpo)s can usually be translated but the hero (before mentioned), 

as though 6 distinguished him from other heroes. But when we 

find that aurap 6 in Homer constantly means but Jie, or but the 

other , 

and that it 

may be followed by an epexegetic Noun (as 

avrap 6 (3ovv I4pvapirr]$6va blov 

not the others, but others as well, certain others. 

II. 5- 672 TJ Trpore/xo Atos vlov epiyboviroio 6"ia>Koi, 

77 o ye Ttov irXtovtov AVKLMV aTro Qvpbv eAoiro 

or should take the lives of more Lydans instead. Here ot TT\OVS 

does not mean ' the greater number/ but ' a greater number/ in 

contrast to the one person mentioned. 

II. 22. 162 ws 5' OT aeOXotyopoi 7re/)t repjmara fJLu>vv^S iTnroi 

piu(f)a jj,d\a TPÛKTL' TO /uteya Ketrat ae#Aoz> 

and there a great prize lies ready. So Od. 20. 242 avrap o . . 

opvLs but a bird. The same thing is shown by T&V 

fjivrjo-Trjpcov 

pw KT\. ( 259, It is evident that TWK 

b). 

is used, not because 

the suitors are definite persons, but because a contrast is made 

by jjieK. 

The same remark applies to the use with Adjectives ( 260), 

especially to the use by which they are turned into Substantives, 

as TO Kpyyvov, 

TO. KaKa. In Homer ra KUKCL is said because in 

the particular context KaKa evils are opposed to good. In Attic 

ra KaKa or TO Kattov implies that evils form a class of things, 

distinguished from all other things. 

This again 

is a difference,


which does not come out in translating Homer, and is therefore 

apt to be overlooked. 

The use with Cardinal Numerals ( 260, is

266.] 

THE RELATIVE. 235 

the Correlation ws ws as so. A single 

s tlirtov, &c. : 

cp. the Latin guae quum diosisset, &c. The 

other instances in which we have to translate cos as a Demonstrative 

are rare : 

e.g. II. 3. 339 &s ' avr&s and in like manner, 

Among Demonstrative uses of os it is usual to count the use 

with ydp, as os yap, o>s yap, %va yap. This however is an error, 

arising from the occasional use of yap where it cannot be translated 

for: see 348, 3. 

Some commentators find a Demonstrative os in 

Od. 4. 388 rov y' (i TTcas av Svvaio \oxf}ffafj.fvos XzXafitadai, 

os Ktv TOI fiTrgaw u86v KT\. 

Here however the clause os KW rot KT\. is not the Apodosis, but a Relative 

Clause expressing purpose. The peculiarity of the passage is 7 merely that the 

Apodosis is left to be understood : if you can seize him, (do so), that he may tell 

you &c. : 

cp. Od. 5. if., 10. 539. 

These idioms are usually regarded as the remains of an earlier 

use of os in the simple Anaphoric sense. The growth of a 

Relative out of a Demonstrative has been already exemplified in 

the Article ( 262). But the Relatival use of os is so ancient 

that any attempt to trace its growth from an earlier syntax must 

be of very uncertain value. 

266.] os re, os ns. The simple os may be used in any kind of 

Relative Clause, although in certain cases ( 262) the Article is 

preferred. Thus we have 

II. 4. 196 ov ris di'o-rewas Zj3a\v (a particular fact). 

I. 

403 bv B/oia/oeow KaAe'ouo-i (a constant, characteristic fact). 

In these two places the Art. might be put in place of os but 

: 

not in 

II. 2. 205 els j3ao-L\vs, o> e8o>Ke (a characteristic fact, defining). 

I. 21 8 09 K 0eots TTL77idr]TaL (definition of a class). 

So os is used to convey a reason (which implies a general cause 

or tendency) 

: as Od. i. 

348 Zevs amos os re 6t8coo-tz/ KT\. ; cp. 

II. 2. 275., 5. 650., 8. 34. 

If the Relative is meant to refer to an indefinite number of 

individuals falling under a common description, os TIS is generally 

used, = wtio being any one, whoever. 

again, the Relative Clause generalises by making us think, 

If, 

not so much of all possible individuals in a class, as of different 

times and circumstances, in other words, if it lays stress on the 

general and permanent element in facts os re is used e. : g. 

II. I. 

279 oTK/77iro{5)(os /3ar7tAev?, w re Zevs Kvbos eSco/ce to whom 

as king, to whom in every such case.


II. 4. 361 ra yap eioi3 os r vpv pe'ei (cp. 5. 876). 

9. 117 avrjp ov re Zei>s Krjpi ûAr/o-r?. 

Od. 7. 74 ola-iv T ev (frpoveyai they to whom she is well inclined. 

Thus os re is constantly used in comparisons: as II. 3. 6 1 (-TreAeKVs) 

os r' etcrty 6ta bovpbs vif avepos os pa re re^ry z/7jtoi/ eKra/jwrjo-t. 

SO WS T, o6t T, oOey T, OT T eVOtt T, iVtt T OOX>S T, OlOS T. 

I ! 

Od. 12. 22 8to~0ai>ees, ore r' aAAoi a^ra^ ^r/crKOixr' avOpc&TTOi. 

19. 179 Kwoa-o's, juteyaXr] TroA-ts, eyâ re MtVcos KrA. 

Thus Homer has ê Relatives, viz. os^ os re, os rts, 6, o re, each 

with a distinct use : 

Attic retains only os and os rts.* 

267.] Correlative Clauses. I. We have first to distinguish 

between the simple structure in which the Relative Clause only 

qualifies a Noun or Pronoun in the Principal Clause, as 

T&V ol vvv (Bporoi et 

oBi Trep KrA. in the plain where fyc. 

and the parallel structure, in which the Relative is an Adverb of 

the same form as the Antecedent ; 

as 

robs 8e & aTT\6ripu> o>s vvv eWayA' e^)tAr](ra. 

Tofypa 6' irl Tpweo-crt rtêt Kparos, op 

rrj 'L^v fj Kev brj s eûAr/o-a implies rws cos e' av is equivalent to ro^pa o$p' av, &c. 

In this way, then, it came about that cos (lit. in which manner] 

means in the manner in which: and so o

267.] 

RELATIVE CLAUSES. 237 

2. The omission of the antecedent from the governing clause 

leads to various idiomatic uses : 

The (a) Relative Clause comes to be equivalent 

or Pronoun in any Case which the governing clause may 

require thus 

: 

to a Noun 

II. 5. 481 ra T ee'ASerai os K eiriScuTjs which (he) 

desires who 

is in need. 

I. 

230 bS>p* anooLipti&Qai os ris crzOev avriov elirrj to take 

away gifts (from him, from any one) who fyc. 

7. 401 yvcarbv 8e KCU 6s /maAa vrfinos the twelfth morn (from the time] when fyc. 

So in II. 2. 303 

' 

\QiCa re /cat 

TrpoD'if ore means f/y or ô (from the time] that. 

Hence too the forms ets ore to the time that, irpiv y ore before the 

time when. 

Similarly with 061 where, as faavov 60 1 they came (to the place) 

where. 

(c) With a Verb of saying or knowing 

the Relative Clause 

has apparently the force of a dependent question 

: 

II. 2. 365 yvuxry evret^ os & fiytpovtov KOKO'S, os re' w Xa&v, 

rib' os K (T0\6s eryo-t 

you will recognise (yiyvu>o-K(a, not ot8a) of the leaders him wJio is 

a weakling, and who of the people, ami again him who shall be 

(found to be] brave. 

So II. 

13. 278., 21. 609, Od. 3. 185., 17. 363 compare the 

: 

form with the antecedent expressed 

II. 23. 498 

ro're 8e yvuHrearQe exacrros 

ITTTTOVS 'A/>yeW, o\ 8ei/repoi ot re irdpoiOtv. 

The construction is the same with a Verb which implies 

knowing, finding out, or the like : 

KAr^po) vvv 7re7rdAa0'0e 8ta/x7repes os Ke 

cast lots (to find him] whose portion it shall be.


The 3. suppressed antecedent, again, may have no clear or 

grammatical construction : 

found when the Relative Clause ex- 

(a) This is especially 

presses a reason, as 

Od. 4. 6 II atjutaro's ets dyafloto, (fri\ov re/co?, of ayopeveis 

lit. 

you are of good Hood (seeing the things) such as you speak, i.e. 

as I see by the manner of things that you speak. 

II. 14. 95 vvv 8e (rev a)VO(rdfjir]V Tiayyv (frptvas olov eet7T? 

/ blame your thought, because of the kind of thing you have said. 

Od. 2. 

239 vvv 6' aAAo> brjjji(f z>juiea-ib/xat, olov cnraz/res 

970-0' avp, TLS Ke (T CT aXXos 'Aâi&v Tapfiri(rLv, 

olov 8r) 

Mev\aov vTrerpecra? j 

who would fear you any more, seeing the way you shrank before 

Menelaus ? 

Od. 15. 212 otoS KLVOV OvjJLOS VTTtpfiLOS, OV (T 

[JLeOrj(Tl. 

II. 1 6. 1 7 TI^ y 'Apyetcoz/ dAo^vpeat ws oAeKoi/rat. 

Od. 10. 326 âu/ua // exet a>s KrA.. I wonder at the way that fyc. 

This is the idiom generally described by saying that otos is put 

for ort TOLOVTOS, ws for ort oi^rcos, and so on. So when os introduces 

a reason ( 266) we might say that it is for ort OVTOS (e.g. 

Zevs CLITLOS os re 5t8o)n-t = ort OVTOS bfatHn). 

The peculiarity, how- 

that the Relative can have 

ever, of the clauses now in question is 

no grammatical Antecedent, that is to say, that the Correlative 

which it implies as an Antecedent has no regular construction 

in the Principal Clause. 

(b) This is also found after Verbs of knowing, &c. the Relative 

Clause expressing the Object or thing known : as 

II. 2. 409 fjb yap Kara Ov^bv abeXtyeov o>? 7roz;etro 

he knew of his brother (as 

to the manner) 

in which he laboured. 

24. 419 6f]ol6 KV . . olov p(TT^LS KfLTaL. 

Od. 7. 327 et8rja-ei? oo-crov . . a/norai vrjes ejucu. 

This is evidently an extension of the form yzô-rj os Ka/co's (supra, 

2 c), 

with the difference that the suppressed Correlative in the 

Principal Clause is without a regular construction. 

Sometimes (c) the Relative Clause is used without any- 

Principal Clause, as an exclamation : 

e.g. 

II. 7. 455 TTOTTOL, 'Evvoo-iyai' evpvcrOevts, olov eetTres. 

Od. i. 

32 o> TTOTTOL, olov 8?] vv 6eovs (3porol amoWrcu. 

II. 5- Ôl a>

267.] RELATIVE CLAUSES. 239 

how we wondered at Hector ! The want of a construction has 

much the same effect as with the exclamatory use of the Nominative 

( 163). Similarly 

Od. 4. 

240 Trdvra jj^v OVK &v eyw fJLvOrjo'OfJLaL 

OCTO~Ol 'Qbv(T(T7]0$ TakCL(TLee KT/V. 

I will not tell of all his feats : but (just to mention) what a feat 

t/iis was that he did fyc. 

So Od. 4. 269., n. 517 ; cp. also II. 

5. 638 dAA' olov TWO. fyacri /crA. (Just to instance) the kind of man 

that they tell fyc. 

If the explanation now given of these Eelative Clauses is right, it is 

evidently incorrect to accent and punctuate as is done by editors (e. g. in ) 

II. 6. 1 08


This ' Inverse Attraction } may be placed with the forms in 

which the Antecedent is 

wanting, because it can only arise when 

the original construction of the Antecedent (e'A.Kcoju,ey vrjas ocrai ) 

has been forgotten. 

5. Again, the Correlative structure is liable to an extension, 

the characteristic of which is that the Relatival Adverb has no 

proper construction in its own clause. 

This may be most clearly seen in the use of out/eKo, (i. 

VKa)for which reason : e.g. 

II. I. no a>? $rj 

TOV& eW/ca a(j)LV /ci]/3o'A.o? aAyea rev;(et, 

OVVZK eya> 

. . OVK efleAov KrA. 

e. ov 

Apollo causes sorrow for this reason, that I would not Here 

fyc. 

we cannot translate OVVCKOL for which reason : the reason does not 

precede, but is given by the Relative Clause. That is, the first 

VK.a is rational ; 

the second is logically unmeaning. Hence the 

ovvKa can only be due to the correlation : as it is usually expressed, 

ovveKa is attracted to the antecedent rowe/ca. Then 

since ovvKa comes to imply a correlative rowe/co, the antecedent 

rovvKa is omitted, and the relatival ovvtKa by 

itself comes to 

meanjfor the reason that, because. 

The process may be traced more or less distinctly in all the 

Relatival Adverbs. Thus ws (in which manner] comes to mean in 

such manner that : and so ctypa for so long that, Iva. (lit. where) to 

the end that. Also, as will be shown presently, o, 

on and o re are 

Adverbial Accusatives, meaning literally in which respect, hence 

in respect that, because : 

cp. eiTretz; o TL e^craro to say for what he 

was angered with ^wcraro on he was angered- for (the reason} 

that. The qualifying force of the Adverb is transferred from its 

own clause to the Verb of the Governing Clause. 

On the same principle e* TOV ore from 

the time when becomes 

e ou (for 

K TOV ov 

: and ets TO ore becomes els o to the time 

that. 

) 

268.] OUMCKO. This Conjunction (which may 

be treated as a 

single word) is used in two ways : 

(a) to assign a cause or reason : 

(I) 

to connect the fact expressed in the Relative Clause with 

a Verb of saying, knowing, &c. 

The second of these uses is evidently derived from the first by a 

kind of degeneration, or loss of meaning. The fact told or 

known is originally given as the ground of the saying or knowing. 

The transition may be seen in 

Od. 7- 2/99 ^'j ^ TOL [JLV TOVTO y Vai(TlfJLOV OVK VOrj(T 

tf, 

ovvKa or' ov TI /xer' aju

269.] 'O, C OTI, 'O TE. 241 

my daughter did not judge aright in this, because she did not fyc., 

more simply, in this, that she did not Sfc. Again 

Od. 5- 215 olba KOL avTos 

TrdvTa /jtciA', 

OVVZKCL

242 PRONOUNS. 

, 

[269. 

(1) o in respect that, because may be exemplified by 

II. 1 6. 835 Tpcotn (tA.07rroA.e/xoto-t //,ra,7rpe7rco, o o-tyiv afjivva) 

ripap avayKaiov (for that I keep off}. 

Od. I. 

382 Tr]\jjia\ov Oavâfov o 0ap(raA.ea)j dyo'peue. 

So II. 9. 534 Od. (xcocrajueV??), 19. 543., 21. 289 (OVK ayairqs o). 

The use to state a consequence as a ground of inference (like 

that of ovWa in II. 9. 505, 268) occurs in 

Od. 4. 206 TOLOV yap /cat irarpo's, o /cat TTtirvvfJitva /3afeis 

for you are of a wise father, (as I know) because you speak wisely : 

so Od. 18. 392, and probably also 

II. 21. 150 rt? TroOev et? avbp&v, o /xeu ^rXrjs dzmos eA.0etz; ; 

269.] 

f 

O, 'OTI, 'O TE. 

243 

causes you many evils? So II. 10. 142., 21. 488., 24. 240, Od. 

14. 367., 22. 36. 

The transition to the meaning that may be seen in 

II. 2. 255 50"tti 6vf&tcrKa) 6' ort j/,oi irpotypav KareVewe Kpoviav I know that Sfc. 

Cp. II. I. 536 ovbf fJLLv"Hpr] riyvoirja-cv Ibovv on ol /crA. : 24. 563 

Kat 5e ere yiyvva-KO) . . orri Oe&v TLS a? ??ye. 

The use of on = that is commoner in the Iliad than in the 

Odyssey (where ws and ouycica partly supply the place, see 268). 

(3) The form o re (so written by Bekker to distinguish it 

from ore is 

when) found in Homer with the same varieties of 

meaning as o and 6. Thus we have = o re because in 

II. l. 

244 \(t)6fjivos o T apiOTov 'A)(cu 

ovbv erto-a? 

angry because Sec. II. 6. 

; 126., 16. 59> Od. 8. 78. So 

Od. 5- 35^ &> M ot ^7^5 M 7 T ? LS M ot ixf^cLLvrjo'Lv 

bokov avT 

aOavaTtoV, o re jue (TêStrj? aTrojSrjvai d^coyet 

i. e. there is a snare in this bidding me to get off the raft. So 

probably II. I. 518 77 brj Aotyta epy* o re tf KrA. w *V a pestilent 

thing that you fyc. II. ; 19. 57 ^ aP TL T * 

afjL(f)OTpoL(nv apaov 

eTrXero o re KrX. : and the exclamatory use ( 267, 3, in II. 16. 

c) 

433 & M ot ^ywr, o re KrA. alas for me that Sec. 

Again, o re is = as I know because, in 

II. 4 31 baifjiovirfy TL vv ere riptajLtoj Uptdnxoto re 7rcues 

rocrcra Kaxa peov(nv, o r* dcr7rep)(es fxeêatêis 

^


by all the gods. So II. 8. 251 &oz>0' o T ap KrA. saw that fyc. ; 

and with. II. ytyz^coo-KO), 5- 23 1 &c - 

; 

The existence of a distinct 5 TC with the meaning because or 

that depends upon its being shown that in places such as those 

now quoted the word cannot be either cm that or ore when. The 

latter explanation of the reading ore (or 6Y) is often admissible, 

of elision. 

e.g. in II. 14. 7 1 a J?^ *V I JL y^-P T â ^ ^^ ^re C 

> P' -^ I 5- 

207 ZcrOXbv KOL TO TCTVKTCLL or . . etSrj, and instances in Attic, as 

Soph. O. T. 1133 KCLToibev KrA. he knows well 

?]/x,o9 of the time 

when fyc., 

Eur. Troad. 70 018' VVLK Alas etAKe. But the supposition 

of a distinct o re is supported by a sufficient number of examples 

in Homer, e.g. II. 5. 331 yiy^coovccoi; o r' ava\Kis ZT]V Ocos, 

and generally by the complete correspondence of meaning thus 

obtained between o, 6, and o re. On the other hand it is extremely 

improbable that the t of on was ever capable 

In this respect cm that stands on the same footing as TI and on. 

Moreover, the adverbial use of these words, which gives them the 

character of Conjunctions, is only a slight extension of the ordinary 

Ace. of the Internal Object ( 133). Hence if the Neut. of os 

and 05 TIS is used in this way, it is difficult to see any reason why 

the Neut. of the equally familiar os TC should be excluded. The 

ancient authorities and the MSS. vary in some places between 

ore and cm (as 

in II. 14. 71, 72., 16. 35, Od. 13. 129), and on 

such a point we have no good external authority. 

270.1 o, cm, o re as Conjunctions. In a few instances it is 

impossible to explain these Relatives by supplying an Accusative 

TO in the principal Clause. Thus in 

Od. 2O. 333 vvv 6' TI^T] ro'Se 877X01;, o r ov/ceri roVri/xo's eari 

the Antecedent is a Pronoun in the Nom. Similarly in 

II. 5. 349 r] o^x. dXis OTTI yvvalKas avd\mas ^TrepOTrevet? ; 

the principal Clause is Impersonal, and the Antecedent might be 

a Nom. it (is 

not enough) or Gen. (is 

there not enough in this), but 

hardly an Accusative. Again in 

II. 8. 362 ov8e TL T&V fi^Furqrat, o ot /otaAa TroAAaKis KrA.. 

17. 207 T&V iroivriv, o rot KrA. (as amends for the fact that) 

the Relative Clause serves as a Genitive: cp. Od. n. 540 yrjtfoa-uvrj 

o ot KrA., 12. . . 

374 ayyeAo? r)\6tv o ot KrA. 

Add II. 9. 493 r" fypw&tw o f*ot KrA., 23. 545 T^ 4 > P ov ^(tiV 0/n * 

KrA. : and also Od. 2. 1 16 ra povtov

271.] 

ORATIO OBL1QUA. 245 

It may be worth while pointing out the parallel between this extension of 

the Kelative Clause and the development which has been observed in the use 

of the Infinitive ( 234). In the first instance the Clause serves as epexegesis 

of an Ace. with a Verb of saying, knowing, feeling, &c. ( 237, 2) : fir) SeiSiOi riva 

fyeaOai fear not any one, for being likely to see ; Tapfirjffas (TO) 6 ayx 1 v&yr) ftt\os 

fearing (this}, 

that the spear stuck near him. Then the Ace. is used without 

reference to the construction of the principal Verb and consequently the 

dependent Clause may stand to it as logical Subject 

: ov n veêffffijTov fiaffiXfja 

dirapeffffaaOat for a king to make his peace is no shame ; oi>x a\is on rjirfpoireveis is 

(the fact) that you deceive not enough; where the Clause in both cases serves as a 

Nom. Finally the Clause is used as an indeclinable Noun of any Case : rwv 

He^rjrai b KT\. remembers this, that &c. ; 

to which corresponds the so-called 

' 

articular Infinitive,' or Inf. with the Article as a Substantive. 

The three forms o, o T, OTI do not differ perceptibly in meaning. Hence 

the reduction in Attic to the single on is no real loss. 

270*.] Indirect Discourse. Clauses introduced by o (o re, 

on), ws, oui/eica after Verbs of saying and knowing are evidently of 

the nature of oratio obliqua, or indirect quotation of the words of 

another person. 

The Homeric language has no forms of Syntax peculiar to 

Indirect Discourse (such as the use of the Opt. or Pres. Indie. 

after a Secondary Tense). Every assertion is made from the 

speaker's own point of view consequently what was present to 

: 

the person quoted must be treated as now past. Accordingly the 

Present Tense of the oratio directa becomes the Impf., the Pf. 

becomes the Plpf 

. The Future is thrown into past time by the 

help of as in ovbe TO f/,e'AA.o>, 77817 o ov 7rei(reo-0cu ejuteAAezJ he knew 

not that he would not be persuaded. The only exception to this is 

Od. 13. 340 7J8e' 

6 zôoTTJo-ei? / knew that you will (i.e. would) 

return. For an instance of the Opt. with ws after a Verb of saying 

see 306, 2 and : cp. the Dependent Question, 248. 

The Clauses now in question are commoner after Verbs of knowing, 

hearing, remembering, &c. than after Verbs of saying. 

Of the 

former kind there are about 70 in Homer ; 

of the latter, which 

may be counted as examples of true Indirect Discourse, there are 

16. Of these, again, only three are in the Iliad (i 6. 131., 17. 

654., 22. 439). This confirms the view that these Clauses are 

originally causal, the meaning that being derived from the meaning 

because ( 268). 

If we confine ourselves to o (o re) 

and ort 

the proportion is still more striking, since out of more than 50 

instances there are only four with a Verb of saying *. 

271.] Form of the Relative Clause. It is characteristic of 

the Relative Clause that the Verb to be is often omitted : as 

II. 8. 524 fJLvOos 8' 6s juey vvv vytrjs, eiprj/oteVos e'oro), 

* The figures are taken from Schmitt (Unsprung des Substantivsatses'), but i 

clude instances of o r which he refers to ore when.


and so 6Vo-ot 9 A\aioi t ot Trep apto-rot, 77 

rts apt'orr?, os r' atrtos 09 re 

Kal ov/a, &c. Hence we should write in II. n. 535., 20. 500 

avrvycs at Trept bitypov, in II. 21. 353 txês ^ Ka ivas. So 

with the Adverbs ; 

as Od. TO. 176 op' er 1^7 1 0or) (Bp&cris re TioVts 

re 50 

long as there is food and drink in the ship. 

' 

i . This ellipse leads to a peculiar Attraction ' 

into the Case of 

the Antecedent, found chiefly with ooros re, as 

Od. JO. 113 rr]v 8e yvvciiKa \ tvpov ocrrjv r opeos Kopvcfrriv, 

which is equivalent to roa-rjv oVrj eo-rt Kopvtyri ; and so ovov re, 

Od. 9. 322, 325., JO. 167, 517., I J. 25 ; 

also oUv re, Od. 19. 233. 

The only instance in the Iliad is somewhat different : 

II. I. 262 ov yap TTOJ TOLOVS t6oz> . . olov RtipiOoov KT\. 

The later Attraction of the Relative into the Case of the 

Antecedent is not found in Homer. Kiihner gives as an example 

II. 5. 265 rrjs yap rot yeêrjs fjs Tpau Trep e^puoVa Zei/j O>K. But 

there the Gen. is ' 

partitive the brood from which Zeus gave ' 

: 

( 151 e). 

So II. 23. 649 ( 153). 

2. Another effect of this omission may be found in the use of 

double Relatival forms, especially ws ore as when (it is) ; which 

again may be used without any Verb following : 

e.g. 

II. 13. 471 aAA' ejuez/ a>s ore rts (TVS ovp of the kind to defend (Od. 2. 60), 

IJitvcLv ert r?]AtKos of the agefor remaining (Od. 17. 20); 

(2) the Correlative form, such as II. 5. 483 rotoy olov K ?]e 

(j)poiv 'Axaiot r\ 

KZV ayoitv: II. 7. 231 ^juets 5' d^lv rotot ot av 

Thus (e.g.] 

Od. 21. 172 rotor otoV re . . pvrrjpa /3to 

/cat oto-rw^ combines the forms rotoz; ejuteât of the kind to be and 

rotor ows re (eo-rt) of the kind that In other 

(is). 

words, the con-

272.] 

FORMS OF THE RELATIVE CLAUSE. 247 

struction of rotos is transferred to the Correlatives rotos otos. 

Then rotos is omitted, and we get otos with the Inf. The same 

be said of

248 MOODS. [273. 

relates to a particular fact : as II. 4. 442 77 

r oXiyr] JJLZV 

Kopvcra-zrai . . rj crfyiv KOI rare KT\. ; 5- 545 'AAêtou, os r evpv /5eet 

Tlv\{(av bia yair]s, os reVer' 'OpviXoxov : and in the reverse order, 

II. 1 8. 

52O 01 6' ore 5r/ p IKCLVOV O&L cr(f)i(nv eu

^ 

273-] KINDS OF SENTENCE. 249 

2. Prohibitive Clauses (^r\ 

= lest). 

3. Relative Clauses proper (introduced by os). 

4. Clauses introduced by a Relatival Adverb (o>s, o#i, o0ei>, ore, 

eo>s, o$/oa, &c. ; 

also HvOa, 

r 

(va, and e 

5. Clauses introduced by el if. 

This classification is based upon the grammatical form of the 

Clause. If we look to the relation in point of meaning between 

the two Clauses of a Complex Sentence, we find that subordinate 

Clauses fall into a wholly different set of groups. Thus there 

are 

(1) Clauses expressing cause or reason: as 

II. 2. 274 vvv 8e ro'8e jue'y' apioroy kv 'Apyeioia-LV epefez/, 

fas TOV XtofirjTTJpa e7recr/3oAoz; t^X* a "ypa(^v. 

And clauses like II. 4. 157 o5? o-' tfiaXov Tpoies #ww?0 ^ Trojans 

have thus shot at you ; 6. 166 olov aKova-e at hearing such a thing 

26 

( 7, 3) 

: as well as in the regular Causal use of o, on, o re 

( 269), and oft/eica. 

(2) Clauses expressing the Object of Verbs of saying, knowing ', 

thinking, &c. (i. e. the fact or thing said, &c.) : as 

II. 2. 365 yvto(TT\ 

1 

eVeifl' os & 

fjyejjiovtov KOTO'S, oj re vv Xa&v. 

Od. 6. 141 6 5e ^p^-ripi^v 'OStxro-evj . . | 

^ KrA. 

II. 1 8. 

125 yvoiev 8* o>s 8^ brjpbv eyo> TroXe/xoto TreTravjuat. 

601 TretpTJo-erai at Ke Oeya-iv (tries if 

it will rim). 

(3) Clauses expressing condition or limitation ; which may be 

introduced 

By 05 : as r ot z;w (Bporoi eô-t ^ tf^0 mortals now living : os K 

fTTibevri ? >^(? 2#y0 ^ m ww/^ : os KC êots eTriTret^^rat 

^^/^

250 MOODS. [273. 

By e

2 75-] SUBJUNCTIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 251 

The Subjunctive 

in Principal Clauses. 

274.] The Subjunctive in a Simple Sentence, or in the Principal 

Clause of a Complex Sentence, may be said in general 

to express either the will of the speaker or his sense of the necessity 

of a future event. Like the English must and shall, by 

which it 

may usually be rendered, it is intermediate in meaning 

between an Imperative and a Future. Sometimes (as 

in toptv 

let us go, or in Prohibitions with pj) it is virtually Imperative; 

sometimes it is an emphatic or passionate Future. These 

varieties of use will be best understood if 

treated with reference 

to the different kinds of sentence Affirmative, Interrogative, 

Negative, Prohibitive, &c. in which they occur. 

275.] In Affirmative sentences the force of the Subj. depends 

in great measure on the Person used. 

(a) In the First Person the Subj. supplies the place of an 

Imperative, so far as such a thing is conceivable: that is, it 

expresses what the speaker resolves or insists upon doing ; e. g. 

II. 9. 121 VyClV 8' V 7rdvTCT(TL TTeptKAura (Sp' OVOfJiriVd) 

(where the list of gifts immediately follows). 

Od. 2. 222 a-rjfjid 

re ot yjE.v(& Kat em Krepea Krepetfco 

3 

TroAAa fjidX 6Vo*a eotKe, Kat avept, jx^re'pa Swcrco 

(the Subj. expresses the decisive action to be 

taken by Telemachus, viz. to acknowledge his 

father's death : the Fut. 6o>a-a> expresses what 

would follow as a matter of course). 

12. 383 8u0"ojucu ets 'AtSao Kat V VKVZju' TOVTOV KT\. 

avpa 

450 8ei;re, o"wo jtxot e7reo-0ozj, t8co// ortz;' epya reVuKrat. 

So after the phrases dXV aye, el 8' aye, as Od. 6. 126 dAA' ay' eya>y 

avrbs 7reipr7O"Ojutat 7]8e tdw/xat: 9* 37 

' ^' 

^7 e rot Ka^ VO

252 SUBJUNCTIVE. [275. 

II. 14. 235 TTciOtv, eyo> 

8e' KC rot et8e'o> 

ofoy, flftd / will feel thankfulness. 

16. 129 overdo re^x. ea Oao-a-ov, eyo> Se Ke Aaoy ayetpa). 

Od. 17. 4^7 

r( ? ^ XP*) bofjievai, Kat Acotozj ?}e Tre/) 

aAAot 

CTLTOV ey&) 8e Ke (re KAetco KrA. 

So too II. J. 183 TJ\V fJifv . . Tre'/^to, eyco 8e K' ayco B/no-^tda I will 

send her (as required), 

fl?z6? ^

277-] PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 253 

II. 18. 308 ^vBri KrX. am I to remain here, or am I to run fyc. ; 

Od. 15. .509 Trfj yap eya>, ^>tAe TCKVOV, too ; reu baâf? I'KCO/^CU KrA. 

where am I to go ? to whose house Od. fyc. : 5. 465 & jutot eya>, rt


TL vv /xot juT/Ktorra yeznjrat ; what am I to suffer 

? what is to 

become of me ? And rhetorically, with an implied negation 

II. 1 8. 188 7T

280.] PROHIBITION SUBORDINATE CLAUSES. 255 

probable, however, that in such cases the Clause with p,T| 

has acquired a subordinate 

character, serving as Object to the Verb (thing feared) see 281. 

; 

On the other hand, the Clauses now in question are often explained by 

supposing an ellipse of a Verb of fearing 

: 

^ pcri for 8t8o> /) /5effl. 

This is open 

to the objection that it separates Clauses which are essentially similar. For 

A") P*V I witt n t have ^m ao (hence I fear he may do} is identical in form with 

A"7 P*v s I wul n(>t have you do. In this case, then, we have the simple Sentence 

fjtr) 

into which it entered. 

Thus in II. 

per), as well as the Compound SeiSca pr) pegy, 

Similar questions may arise regarding Final Clauses with JATJ. 

i. 

586-7 TfrXaOi, prjrep /j.rj, 

. . 

fj.rj ffe . . idcupai we may translate endure, mother ; 

let me not see you &c., or (bringing the two Clauses more closely together) endure, 

lest I see you &c. So in II. 8. 522, Od. 13. 208. No clear line can be drawn 

between independent and subordinate Clauses : for the complex Sentence has 

been formed gradually, by the agglutination of the simple Clauses. 

The combination ^ ou prohibition of a negative 

is extremely 

rare in Homer. In II. 5. 2$3 jur) ro> juez; SeiVavre /xarr;- 

(rerov ovb' eOtXrjrov, and II. 1 6. 128 JUIT/ 8r) vrjas e/Vcoo-t KOI OVKTL 

VKTCL 7T\u>vTai, the Particles are in distinct Clauses. It occurs 

in a Final Clause, II. i. 28 ^r\ vv rot ov xpa^M?? KT\., II. 24. 569 : 

and after SetSw in II. 10. 39 8et8o> ov 

jut^ rts rot KT\. 

The Subj. in this use does not take KGV or $.v, 

the prohibition 

being always regarded as unconditional. 

It is well known that the Present Subj. is not used as an Imperative 

of Prohibition (with p]). 

The rule is absolute in 

Homer for the Second Person. 

The Third Person is occasionally 

used when fear (not command) is expressed ; 

the instances are, 

Od. 5. 356 (quoted above); 15. 19 jtxrj 

v6 n . . 

(/xfp^rat 16. ; 87 ^ 

IJLIV KeprojueWtzj. The restriction does not apply to the First 

Person Plur., as II. 13. 292 jury/cert ravra Aeya>/xe0a. We shall 

see that a corresponding rule forbids or restricts the use of ^ 

with the Aorist Imperative ( 327). 

279.] Homeric and Attic uses. In Attic the use of the 

Subj. in independent Clauses is either Hortatory, or Deliberative, 

or Prohibitive. Thus the use with av ( 275, #), the use in Affirmation 

( 275, and 1), the Negative uses (276) do not survive. 

The Subjunctive in Subordinate Clauses. 

280.] Clauses with T|e ife. Doubt or deliberation between 

alternative courses of action is expressed by Clauses of the form 

rje (TJ) rfe (rj) 

with the Subj., dependent on a Verb such as 

(Jbjuai, fjLp^j]pif(ti, &c., or an equivalent phrase 

: e. g. 

II. 4' 14- flêis Se (j)pa(&jJL0' OTTCOS eorat rae f/oya, 

97 /5' CLVTIS 7roAejuoi> re K.OLK.OV Kal fyvXoinv alvrjv 

opcro^v, r) (piXoTrjTa /xer' d/x,

256 SUBJUNCTIVE. [28l. 

This form is 

also found (but rarely) expressing, not the speaker's 

own deliberation, but that of a third person 

: 

Od. 1 6. 73 jJ-rjTpl 8' tfjifj bfya dvfjibs tvl (f)p(rl /xepju^/Hêt, 

T) 

avrov nap* e/xot re }j.evr) 

KOL 8

282.] RELATIVE CLAUSES FINAL. 257 

Such a Clause may be Object to a Verb of knowing, $


So II. 1 8. 

467 TrapeWerai ota ris . . QavpaorveTai (unless 

this is 

Fut.) also the : 

Object Clause II. 5* 33 âpvao-d', oTTTrorepoio-i narr/p 

Zeus KVOOS to ope'fr? fight (out the issue) 

to which of the two Zeus 

shall give victory (i. 

e. till one or other wins). The want of KCI/ or 

ai> is 

owing to the vagueness of the future event contemplated, 

i. e. the wish to exclude reference to a particular occasion. 

The Relative is sometimes used with the Subj. after a Negative 

principal Clause where there is necessarily no actual 

purpose : 

Od. 6. 2O I OVK f-o-O* OVTOS avrjp 

. . os Kei> . . 

ucrjrcu (v. I. IKOLTO). 

II. 23. 345 OVK. eo-0' os Ke' (T e'Aryo-t KrA. 

and without Key, II. 21. 103 vvv ft OVK eV0' os ris Oavarov ^vyy 

(v. 1. (frvyoi). 

In these places the construction evidently follows 

that of ou and OUK &v with the Subj. in Simple sentences (OVK 

= eo-0' 6s ov fyvyri TL s Otherwise we should have the uy?7). Opt. 

' 

( 34, 6). 

The Subj. is quite anomalous in 

Od. 2. 42 cure TIV' dyye\ir]V arparov ZicXvov cpxofJievoio, 

TJV x vfjuv ffa

283.] RELATIVE CLAUSESCONDITIONAL. 259 

Where the principal Verb refers to the future, and K.W or ai> is 

not used, the intention is to make the reference quite general 

and sweeping ; e.g. 

Od. 2O. 334 dAA3 aye n-rj 

ra8e JUUJT/H Trapefb'juiez'oy 

' 

6s TLS apicrTos avrjp KCLL TrXetora 

Forms of the 3 Sing. Plqpf. are sometimes given by the MSS. and older 

editions in Clauses of this kind : as ire(J>tiKei (II. 4. 483), !


Od. 2O. 294 

ov yap KaXbv aren&fiv ovSe Sttcatov 

geivovs TrjXffAaxov, os Kfv raSe 5a;â0' 'iKTjrat. 

With the change of Number we seem to pass from a general description to a 

particular instance. So in Od. 15. 345, 422, and perhaps in II. 3. 279., 6. 228., 

16. 621, Od. 7. 33 : see 362, 6. 

The use of &v in the Clauses of this kind 

(

286.] 

'fls, 'onns, 'INA. 261 

1 

Regarding 

K.W and fa observe that in Final and Object Clauses 

after ws the Subj. with KCK is the commonest, occurring 32 times, 

while the Subj. with ay and the pure Subj. occur each 8 times. 

After OTTWS, which has a more indefinite meaning (in some suck 

manner that), the pure Subj. occurs 7 times, the Subj.. with *.tv 

twice (Od. i. 296., 4. 545> both Object clauses). 

(3) In Conditional or limiting Clauses : 

(a) After a Present the Subj. is pure in the phrase OTTO)? eflÂrjcri 

as he pleases (Od. i. 349., 6. 189). In II. 16. 83 77ei0eo 5' wsYoi 

eyo> fjivOov re'Aos ei> the pure Subj. indicates that 0eio> 

is really an unconditional expression of will: ' listen to me I 

will tell 

you ' : 

cp. the independent sentences such as II. 6. 340 

7TLIJiLVOV, dpr/id TV\. a Mto ( 275' fl )' 

The use of ws and s 8e Aeo>i> \v poval Oopav e avyjzva ay KT\. 

II. 67 ot 8' 'A^cuot, 

vfja KOL eatrous f 

eperas, iva daa'crov tK?]at 

the meaning is ' I undertake that the Achaeans will do this for 

you/ Exceptions (out of about 80 instances) are : II. i. 203 77 

Iva vfipiv 1877 is it that you may see fyc. : II. 9. 99., 12. 435-. 24- 43> 

Od. 8. 580.', 10. 24., 13. 327. 

An Object Clause with fra is perhaps to be recognised in 

Od. 3. 327 î(T(T


The line may be an incorrect repetition 

if the reading1 

is right. 

of 3. 19. 

The pure Subj. only 

is used with wa, except in Od. 12. 156 tva 

eiSo're? TJ 

KC OavtDjJLtv f) 

Ktv dXeua/xerot Odvarov Kal Krjpa tyvyoipev, 

where two alternatives are given by the correlative TJ 

w 

cp. 275, b. But some MSS. have TJC 0az;a>juez>. 

rj 

KCK : 

As Mr. Gildersleeve points out (Am. Jour, of Phil. iv. 425) tva is the only 

purely final Particle, i. e. the only one which does not limit the purpose by the 

notion of time (opa, ecus) or manner (us, OTTOJS-). 

Hence Clauses with tva do not 

take KCV or av, because the purpose as such is unconditional. 

287.] 3pa is sometimes Final, sometimes Conditional. 

(1) In Final Clauses o(f>pa either retains a distinctly temporal 

force meaning so long till, till the time when, or passes into the 

general meaning 

to the end that. Thus we have 

(#) o$pa. 

= until (as shall be), 

used with Key or o.v, 

as 

II. I. 59 Totypa 5' em TpoWo-i ri'0et /cparo?, otyp' av ' 

vlov fjLov Tio'coo'Lv, oêAAcoo'ti' re e 

22. 192 avixyevdov êet e/ot7re8or, otypa Kv 

With this meaning the pure Subj. is found in II. I. 82 exet KOTOV 

oQpa reAeVo-ry he keeps his anger until he accomplishes it a general 

reflexion: also in II. 12. 281 (in a simile). 

(b) 

Key or o.v. 

o^pa = to the end that, used with the pure Subj., rarely with 

The transition to this meaning may be seen in 

II. 6. 258 aX\a /xeV, otypa Ke rot juteAt^êa olvov eêtKO) 

stay till I bring ( 

= giving me time to bring}. 

(2) Clauses with opa may be classed as Conditional when it 

means so long as e. ', g. 

II. 4. 345 tvOa (f)C\' d'nraA.e'a Kpe'a efyxeâi . . otyp' efle'Arjroz;. 

Od. 2. 123 Totypa -yap ovv fiiorov re reor Ka^ Krri//ar' eSoz^rat, 

otypa K Kivrj TOVTOV XV voov. 

The use of KCI/ or Q.V in these Clauses is governed by the same 

rule as with 05, viz. it is used when the reference is to the future, 

and is not expressly meant to be general (as II. 23. 47 otypa 

{cooto-t As to 

jxereuo). the form otyp av ptv Kv, see 363, 4. 

In II. 6. 112 aveps core, tyiXoi, juô-ao-ê Oovpibos dAK^?, 

otyp av eya> /3?ia) (cp. 8. 375., 17. 186, Od. 13. 412., 19. 17) the 

Clause seems to mean until I go, i. e. long enough for me to go. 

Delbruck however counts the uses of otypa in II. 6. 112, &c. as 

Conditional (Synt. Forsch. i. p. 170). 

288.] Iws (rjos) and els o, used with the Subj., always take w. 

The meaning until > 

with implied purpose, is the usual one : as

289.] '0*PA, 'EH2, 'OTE, 'OHOTE. 263 

II. 3. 290 avrap eyo> KCU eVetra jutaxôjmat etVe/ca 

avOi fjievtov, rjos KG re'Aos TroAe'/zoio Ki^tia. 

9. 48 Z;OH 6' eya> SêVeAc's re jixaxô'/êfl' etj o KC 

'IAlOt> V 

The Conditional meaning is only found in the recurring expression 

eis o K avrfjir) ev o-rTJflecro-t jueVrj KCU /xot


II. 15. 207 e, or' ay rtya KrA. and Od. 13. 

roo-0ey 8e r' ayev 8eo-)utoto jute'yoixrt yijes edo-o-eAjuot, or' ay oppov 

jmeVpoy tKcoyrat (in contrast to those outside). 

But cp. the remark 

as to or' ai> in the last note. 

(2) "When there is a change from Plural to Singular : 

II. 9. 501 Aio-o-o/xeyot, ore Ke'y rts U7rep^3ri?] Kat

. 

292.] 

CLAUSES WITH El. 265 

Od. II. 21 8 dAA' avrr] 81/07 eort fiporutv, ore rt's Ke 

This last instance is doubtful, since the order ore T(S Ke is not 

Homeric ( 365). 

We should probably read ore ris re. 

290.] cure, rjfjios. 

The word cure is only 

once found with a 

pure Subj., viz. Od. 7. 202 (in a general assertion) 

: CUT' &v occurs 

after a Future (II. 

i. 242., 19. 158), and an Imperative (II. 2. 34); 

also in one or two places where the use of &v is more difficult to 

explain, viz. II. 2. 227 (read eSre TrroXieOpov Od. e'Acojuez;), I. 192., 

17. 320, 323., 1 8. 194. The combination cure KeV is not found. 

The pure Subj. with ifjaos 

occurs in one place 

Od. 4. 400 quos 8* 

1 

ê'Atos 

jueVou ovpavbv dju$t/3e/3 77/07 

where the reference is general, ' each midday/ 

The Subjunctive with el, fyc. 

291.] Clauses with el. The use of the Particle el (or at), in 

the Clauses with which we have now to do, is to make an assumption 

or supposition. In most cases (i) this assumption 

is made 

in order to assert a consequence (ti 

= if) 

: in other words, it is a 

condition. But (2) an assumption may also be made in order to 

express end : efytt at Ke . . iri'flrjrat 

/ go suppose he shall listen 

' 

I go in order that if he will listen (he may do ' 

so) accordingly 

: 

the Clause may be virtually a Final Clause. Again (3) with 

certain Verbs an assumption may be the Object e. : g. TLS ot8' et 

Kev . . 

optvQ) who knows suppose I shall rouse = who knows whether 

I shall rouse. We shall take these three groups of Clauses in 

order. 

of in- 

292.] Conditional Protasis with The el. chief point 

terest under this head is the use of *ev or av. The rules will be 

found to be essentially the same as those already laid down for 

the corresponding Clauses with the Relative ( 283, and the 

b] 

Relatival Adverbs (see esp. 289, b] 

and to be even more uniform 

in their 

} 

application. 

(a) The pure Subj. is used in general sayings, 

II. I. 80 Kpeio-a-tov yap (3a(nX.vs ore x&} avr]p 

TreVotê Kat et jue'ya jêtKos oprjraL.

266 SUBJUNCTIVE. [292, 

II. II. Il6 rj 8' et Tre'p 

re rvyTi *rA. (so II. 4. 261., 9. 48 1 ., 

10. 225., 16. 263., 21. 576., 22. 191, Od. 1. 188., 

7. 204., 12. 96., 14. 373. 

If the principal Verb is a Future (or implies reference to the 

future), the pure Subj. with el indicates that the supposed occasion 

is indefinite, one that happens repeatedly, or at any time, 

or may not happen at all; so II. I. 340 et Trore 8r) avre XP L^ fytw 

yeV^rat KrA. ; 12. 245 % ^ P y a P T ' $AAot ye 7repiKretzJO)ju,e0a 

TTCLVTZS 

KrA.; Od. I. 204 oi>5' et Tre'p re ort8?7pea 8ecrjutar' export. This form 

is naturally employed by a speaker who does not wish to imply 

that the occasion will actually arise : thus in 

II. 12. 223 &s 97/xets et Tre'p re irvXas /cat retôs 

prjôfjieOa (T0eVet joteyaAa), et^cocrt 8' ' 

ov KOO"//(J) Trapa vav(f)Lv eA.evo"o/x,e^' avra 

Polydamas is 

1 

interpreting an omen which he wishes to remain 

unfulfilled. Similarly II. 5. 248 et y ovv : II. 

erepos ye ^yr/crt 

22. 

86 et Trep yap ere KaTaKTavy, ov K aAeytfco 

^coo/xeVr;?, 0118' et Ke ra z/etara Tretpa^' tKryat 

= 1 do not care for you, (and shall not) even if Sfc. 

Instances of KC^ or &v in a sentence of general meaning are 

II. 3. 25 /x,aAa yap re Kareo-^tet, et ai> a^roz; 

-rrep 

o-euavrai, KrA. (etraw 

m ^6 ca^ when 

, 363, I, &). 

11. 391 ^ T aAAco? ^TT' e/xeto, Kat et K' oX'iyov Trep 

ofu /Se'Aos.-TreAerat. 

12. 302 et Trep yap )(' evprjcn Trap' avTO(f)L KrA.

294-] 

CLAUSES WITH EL 267 

Od. II. 158 roz; ov TTCOS lVrt Treprjo-at 

TTÔV OVT , TjV fJLT^ 

TIS f\TJ evepyea vfja. 

But with i Ke there is the same doubt as with os K 

( 283), and 

eiret KC ( 296). 

As to ty, which occurs in a general saying in II. 

i. 1 66 and Od. n. 159, see 362. 

293.] Final Clauses with ei. After a principal Verb expressive 

of the speaker's will (an Imperative, or First Person), a Final 

Clause may be introduced by ei K.CV or r\v : as 

II. 8. 282 /3aAA' oimos et KeV TL (f)6a)s kavaoicri ye'zât. 

II. 791 TCLVT 

enrots 'A)(tA?jt batypovL tt Ke TTidrjraL. 

Od. 4. 34 btvp' iKo'/xefl' at Ke 7ro0t Zet>? . . 

navvy KrA. 

The effect of using el (instead of o>s or IW) is ta express some 

degree of uncertainty. The end aimed at is represented as a 

opposition, instead of being a direct purpose. 

In the existing text the pure Subj. occurs only in II. 14. 165 

apCcTTr) (f)CLLVTO /3ovA.TJ fkOflv . . L TTCOS t/XljOatTO . . T, 

al Ke ra- 

Xiora VCKVV irl vija o-aworr/ and ot8a in the phrase rts otd' et Kez^ 

: 

who knows lut (II. 15. 403., 16. 860, Od. 2. 332), and ov JJLCLV ot5' 

et' (II. 15. 16).


The use of the Accusative* de quo ( 140, 3) should be noticed; 

especially after olSa, anticipating the Clause with el as 

: 

II. 8. 

535 aupioz/ f)v aperrjv dtaetVerat et K' 

meaning ' he will know as to his prowess whether it will enable 

him to withstand my spear/ So Od. 22. 6 a-Koirbv a\\ov . . eto-o- 

/mai at Ke rvxtofju (cp. 140, 3, #). 

In one place the Clause with el serves as explanation of a 

Neuter Pronoun in the Nominative: 

II. 2O. 435 AA' 77 rot /u,ei> Tavra Oe&v Iv yovvaa-i Ketrat, 

et Ke' (re \eip6rep6s Trep ecoy aTro Qvpov 

295.] The Subj. with ws et occurs in a single place only, viz. 

II. 9. 481 Kat jote c/>tA.?7o-' 

ws et re Trarrjp 6i> 7rai8a (^tA.?jo-7y. 

Here the assumption 

et . . 

iA?j(n7 is made for the purpose of 

comparison. Thus the meaning is nearly the same as with ws 

ore ( 289, 2), and the Clause is essentially Conditional. 

296.] eirei with the Subj. The use of eiret implies that the 

action is prior in time to the action of the principal Clause; 

hence Clauses with eirei properly fall under the definition of the 

Conditional Clause. 

A pure Subj. after eirei is found in four places, one a gnomic 

passage, Od. 20. 86 eiret ap phefyap' djuK^tKaAifyn? (sleep makes men 

forget everything] when it has spread over their eyelids ; the other 

three in viz. II. jr. 15. 363, 680. In II. 16. 453 

the best brj TOV ye Ann? ^v\r\ re Kat alvv, 

similes, 

MSS. give 

478., 

avrap erret 

Tre'jotTretj; {JLLV KT\., others c^rjv 6?}. 

The pure Subj. implies that 

the command is meant to be general in form : 

cp. 292, a. 

icei> or OLV is invariably used when the principal Verb is future. 

It is also found after a Present, and even in similes : e. g. 

II. 2. 474 TOVS 6' cos T at7ro'A.ta TrAare" aly&v atTroAot aySpej 

peta 8taKptô)(7tr, eiret Ke z/o/xw joityecoo-tr. 

SoeW R (K), 

II. 7. 410., 9. 324-, 21. 575, Od. 8. 554., ii. 

221., 24. 7 : and eir^, II. 6. 489., 19. 223, Od. 8. 553., 10. 411., 

IT. 192., 14. 130., 19. 206,515. In II. i. 168 should perhaps 

be read eTret KeKajutco (instead 

of eTret Ke Ka/^co), 

and so II. 7. 5 

eTret KeKCtyuoo-t, 

and II. 17. 657 eTret ap Ke/cajmr/o-t. 

Regarding eirei *e(v) in this use there is the same question as 

with os Ke ( 283). 

Out of 10 instances there is only one in 

which the form icec appears, viz. II. 21. 575 ^Tret KZV vkay^bv 

aKovcrrj, and there Zenodotus read KvvvXayjjibv, 

which is strongly 

supported by the metre ( 367, Thus there is the same 

2). 

reason as before for supposing that KC is often merely a corrup-

297-] 

'EIIEI IIPIN. 269 

tion of re. The use of eirei re is sufficiently 

established in Homer 

( 332). 

The form lirf\v is 

open to doubt on other grounds, which it 

will be better to discuss in connexion with other uses of the 

Particle w ( 362). 

297.] irpiV with the Subj. In general, as we have seen ( 236), 

upiV is construed with an Infinitive. If, however, the event is 

insisted upon as a condition, the principal Verb being an Imperative 

or emphatic Future, the Subj. may be used ; 

as 

II. 1 8. 

134 aXXa (TV juez> ntf mo Karabvcreo jutwAoz/ "Apr]os 

do not enter the battle 

irpiv y ejute bevp' eXOovvav ev oÔaX/jLolo-iv Ibrjat, 

before you see me coming hither. 

Od. IO. 174 $&oi, ov -yap irplv Kara8i; 

ai/ with the Subj. is post-Homeric. 

It is evident that a conditional Clause of this kind can only 

occur after a negative principal Clause. 

' 

Do not do this before 

I come ' makes my coming into a condition, and a condition 

which may or may not be realised : but ' do this before I come ' 

is merely a way of fixing the time of doing. 

This construction is usually explained from Parataxis : thus it is held that 

in II. 24. 551 ovSf fjuv dvarffffis irplv KO.I KGLKOV d\\o iraOriaOa stands for 

ouSc JJLIV dvffTrjfffis' irplv ftal KO.KOV aAAo Trd6r)ffOa, 

you will not raise him, sooner shall you suffer passing into ' you will not raise him 

before you suffer.' So Sturm (p. 26), and Goodwin ( 624). But (i) this use 

of the Subj. in a Principal clause without KCV or dv, whether as a Future 

( 275, &) or as an Imperative, is not Homeric, and therefore cannot be used 

to explain a use which is only beginning in Homer. And (2) the change 

from you will not raise, you will suffer before you do to you will not raise before you suffer 

is not an easy one : it involves shifting irptv as an Adverb from one clause to 

another. Above all (3) 

it is probable that the new construction of irpCv with 

the Subj. was directly modelled on the existing use witn the Inf. : that is to 

say, irplv ndOyo'Oa simply took the place of irplv 

iradclv when a more definite 

conditional force was wanted. This is confirmed by the analogy of the later 

change to the Indie. thus in Aesch. P. V. 479 : irpiv y' 70; atyiaiv c'Setâ is used 

instead of irplv l/^ 5?cu because the poet wishes to make the assertion 4'8eia. 

So with the transition from the Inf. to the Indie, after axrre (Goodwin, 585): 

the finite mood is not a survival of parataxis, but is used when the Infinitive 

is not sufficiently positive.


298.] Subjunctive after a Secondary Tense. The rule in 

Homer is that the Subj. is not used in a Subordinate Clause to 

express & past purpose, condition, &c. 

be used however 

It may 

(i) when the governing Verb is a ' gnomic ' Aorist : 

II. I. 2l8 09 K 0eOlS lTLTTL0r)TaL {JLaXci T K\VOV aVTOV. 

Od. 2O. 85 o yap r' eTre'Aô-ez; airavToiv 

eV0Aa>i> rjbe K.CLK.&V, erret ap pêtyap 

Or an Aor. used to express a general denial, as 

3 

afjL(j) 

Od. IO. 327 ovbe yap ovbz ns aAAos avqp ra8e at o^pa 0eoto 

(=19. 296) eK bpvbs vx/UKo'juoto Aioj (3ov\r)v TraKOV(rri, 

where the Subj. was read by Aristarchus, the Opt. eTraKovcrat by 

Aristophanes and Herodian. Again in 

Od. 10. 65 ? ptv (T eV8uKe'a>s aTreTre/utTrojuey, o$p' av tKT/at 

the best MSS. have tKTjat, but others have o$p av IKOIO and 

See also II. 15. 23, Od. 15. 300., 22. 98 and : cp. 

II. 

5' 5^7 M TL "naOoL, /oteya 8e o-ây aTroox^rjAete 

I 5- 59^ fyfiaXoi . . 0e'rt8os 8' efatVtoz; aprjv 

In these places the MSS. generally have Tratfr/, e/x/SaArj 

: but the 

Opt. in the clause following has led the editors to adopt irdOoi, 

Other places where the Subj. is contrary to the rule now laid 

down are II. 13. 649., 14. 165., 16. 650 (see La R.)., 19. 354., 

24. 586, Od. 9. 102., 10. 24., 16. 369., 17. 60., 22. 467. In all

299-] 

OPTATIVE IN PRINCIPAL CLAUSES. 271 

the Opt. may be substituted without affecting- the metre ; 

and 

when we consider the number of places where the MSS. vary 

between Subj. and Opt. forms, we can hardly doubt that it would 

generally be right to make the change. 

The Homeric rule is observed by Plato (see Riddell, Dig. 

90, 91), but not by Attic writers in general. 

The Optative in Simple Sentences. 

299.] The uses of the Optative in Simple Sentences range 

from the expression of a wish on the part of the speaker to the 

expression of mere supposition, or admission of possibility. 

Without KCK or &v the Optative may express 

(a) Simple wish or prayer : as 

II. I. 42 TLO-ZLCLV Aaâol eâ baKpva crolcri /3e'Ae(ro-i. 

Od. i . 

403 jotrj yap 6 y eA0oi KrA. never may he come fyc. 

Regarding the Opt. of wish with ct or at, ei0e, cu0e, &c. see 311. 

A 

(#) gentle or deferential Imperative, conveying advice, suggestion, 

or the like as 

: 

II. 4* 17 e ^ ^' a^ irtos ro8e Tracrt fyiXov /cat f)bv yeVotro, 

rot 77 jjiv oiKtOLTO TTo'Ai? TIpidfjiOLO KrA. 

( = 2 presume the city is to remain inhabited}. 

Od. 4. 735 aAAa ? orpripwj AoAiou KaAetme yepovra 

(as we say, would some one call fyc.). 

1 8. 141 T

272 OPTATIVE. [299. 

(d) Concession or acquiescence : 

II. 21. 359 Arjy' eptSos, Tpwas 8e Kat avruca bios 'AxtAAevs 

aoreos efeAdVete (cease strife} 

and I consent that fyc.}. 

Od. 1. 402 KTâra 8' a^ro? eôts Kat 8a>ju,ao-t 

2. 232 aAA' atet xaAeTro'j r3 etr] Kat atcrvAa pefot 

(rolcriv avacraois. 

(i. e. ^

300.] WITH KEN OR 'AN. 273 

Od. 14. 122, o> ye'poy, ov TLS KC'LVOV avrjp a\a\riiJLVos 

dyye'AAo)z> Treureie yvvaiKa re KCU fyiXov viov. 

So in the Relative clauses, II. 5. 303 (= 20. 386) o ov bvo y 

avbpe eA0e'jLiez>. 

And 

in one or two interrogative clauses, with implied negation 

: II. 

II. 838 TT6>5 T ap eoi rd5e epya j 

Od. 5. 100 TLS b' av tuvv biabpapoi 

(since we should probably read rt? be fe/ccoz;). 

In such 

case the absence of Key or av marks the negation as sweeping 

and unconditional. We should compare the corresponding 

Homeric use of ou with the pure Subj., which differs in the 

degree of confidence expressed : ovbe t8o)jotat 

7 am sure I shall 

never see, ov iraOoifju I suppose I shall never suffer. 

300.] With K.W or av the Optative does not express wish (which 

is essentially unconditional), or even direct willingness on the part 

of the speaker, but only willingness to admit a consequence 

: hence 

expectation in view of particular circumstances : e. g. 

II. T. 100 rore KCV IJLLV tAacro-ajueuoi ireTriOoifJiev 

then we may expect to appease him and gain grace, 

The character of a Clause of this kind depends chiefly on the 

manner in which the condition is indicated. The following are 

the main points to be observed : 

(a) An Opt. with KCI/ or w often follows an independent Clause 

with a Future, Imperative, &c. : 

II. 23. 1 08 &s tpeovo-LV, ejutot 

be TOT av TroXv Ktpbiov et?/ 

KT\. 

Od. 10. 269 êvyco/xe^' 

ert yap KV aXvfaLfjiev KUKOV rjnap. 

II. 3. 4lO'Ket(re 8' eya>y O^K etjuu, ye/xeo-a-^ro^ 5e Ktv etr;. 

Or (^) the preceding Clause may contain a wish : 

II. 7. 157 et0' 

Cp. II. 4. 93 (where the preceding Opt. is a gentle The Imper.). 

(c) case supposed may be in past time, so that the Optative 

expresses what would have followed on an event which 

did not occur e. : 

g. 

II. 5- 3 11 Ka-t w KV tvQ' d.7roAotro ava avbp&v 

tt fjir] 

ap' 6v votive KrA. 

^^- 5- 73 evOa K eTretra Kat aOavaTos Trcp 

So II. 2. 81., 3. 220., 4. 223, 429, 539-. 5- 85, 3n> 3 88 -. 

^- 5 8 - 5 

13. 127, 343-, i5- 697-, 17- 70. 3 66 . 39 8 ' 

Od 

- 

7- 293-; 13. 86. 

This use of the Optative 

is confined to Homer, and is chiefly 

found in the Iliad. 

A somewhat similar idiom occurs in Herodotus ; e. g. Hdt. i . 2 firjffav 

8' av 

ovrot KpfjTts Hhese may have been Cretans' ( = probably were), 7. 180 raxa 8' 

T


av TI Kal rov ovv6fMTos firavpoiro. But there the meaning is different not 

would have happened = did ( not), but would be found to have happened (if 

we knew 

more). 

(d) The case supposed may be vague or imaginary : 

II. 8. 

143 avrjp 8e Kv ov n Atos voov eipvo-o-atro, 

where the emphatic avr\p suggests a condition : if a man, he 

cannot fyc.; cp. Od. 4. 78., 23. 125, also 

Od. 12. I O2 7rXr)(rLov aXXri\(tiV' Kai KCV 6 > iotoTeuo~eias 

one may (on occasion arising} 

shoot an arrow across. 

9. 131 ov fjiv yap TI KttK?} ye, $epot 6e KCV wpta TrdVra. 

It is natural that an admission that something may happen 

should generally be made more or less in view of circumstances, 

given or supposed. Hence the use of KI> or &v with an Opt. of 

this force became the prevailing use, and exceptions are rare, 

even in Homer. 

The principal clause or Apodosis of an ordinary Complex Conditional 

Sentence belongs to this head. It is erroneous, however, 

to regard the varieties now explained as complex sentences 

with the Protasis understood. In this, as in some other cases, 

the complex is to be explained from the simple, not vice versa. 

In some instances the Opt. with KCI> 

appears to be concessive 

(expressing willingness). Delbriick (8ynt. Forsch. I. p. 200) gives 

as examples 

II. 22. 252 VVV aVTC fJL 

orrrifjLfvaL avria o-eib* e'A.oi/xi KCV rj KZV 

Od. 8. 

570 ra 8e Kev Oebs r) 

TI K are'AeoT' efy, aSs ot tyiXov e-TrAero 

To which may be added Od. 14. 183 ij 

KCV 0X0117 ? K vyoi KT\. 

(but II. 13. 486 is different). Possibly the use of *ev in these 

places is due to the opposition made between the two alternatives 

: 

cp. 285, 3, 3, 286, and 289, 2, b. 

II. 24. 618 dXA.' aye 8r/ Kal v&'i fx,e8c6jue0a, 6te yepate, 

(rirov eTretra K*V aure tyiXov Traioa K\aioi

303.] 

DEPENDENT DELIBERATIVE USE. 275 

14. 155 irplv 6e KC, Kal fj,dXa irep Kexp??|u&>os, 

ov TL 

So Od. 2. 219., 4. 347., 12. 387., 15. 313, 449., 18. 166., 19. 579., 

20. 326., 21. 113, 193, II. 9. 417., 24. 664. 

(/3) Negative Clauses, with the Second Person : 

II. 14. 126 raj OVK av jute 

. . 

(f>avTS \ 

/ ?0 ft# ^m> yo^ w^/ (/ expect you not to) fyc. 

fJivOov drt/xrjo-atrc 

Od. 2O. 135 OVK av JJLLV vvV) TZKVOV, avairiov atrtowo. 

So II. 2. 250 ra> OVK av (3a(ri\.fjas ava OTOJU.' e^00 ^ ayopeuot? is to be 

understood as ironical courtesy (you will not if you are advised ty 

me). This, again, when turned into a question yields another 

form of polite Imperative; as II. 3. 52 OVK av 8r) jueiVetas will you 

not await? So II. 5. 32, 456., 10. 204, Od. 6. 57., 7. 22. 

The fact that ou is the negative Particle in all these instances 

shows that the Optative 

is 

grammatically more akin to a Future 

than to an expression of wish. So far as wish is intended, the 

use is a rhetorical one, implying what it does not directly express, 

like the similar use of the Future Indicative in Attic. 

It will be seen that, except in one or two rare Homeric uses 

of the pure Opt., the usage of the Opt. in independent Sentences 

is nearly the same in Homer as in later Greek. 

Optative 

in Subordinate Clauses. 

301.] The classification which has been followed in discussing 

the Subordinate Clauses with the Subjunctive will also be the 

most convenient in the case of the Optative. Indeed there is so 

close a parallelism between the uses of these two Moods that 

little is now left to do except to take clauses of the several types 

already analysed, and show in each case the difference which 

determines the use of one Mood rather than the other. 

The reason for using an Optative will generally be found in 

the circumstance that the governing Verb is incompatible with 

a subordinate clause expressing either the will or the assured 

expectation of the speaker. If the occasion to which the whole 

sentence refers is past, or is a mere possibility) or an imaginary 

case, these two meanings of the Subjunctive are generally out of 

place and we can only have the Mood which expresses a wish, 

or an admission of possibility. Hence it is a general rule to 

which however we have found important exceptions ( 298) 

that the Optative must be used when the principal Verb is an 

Optative, or one of the Secondary Tenses. 

302.] Clauses with rj^ rje. The Optative in the Homeric 

examples is generally to be explained as the translation of the 

Subjunctive into oratio obliqua ; that is to say, it expresses a 

doubt or deliberation thrown back into the past. 

T 2


Thus (a) 

we have past deliberation in 

II. 1 6. 713 o"te yap 176 juaxotro Kara K\OVOV CLVTLS eAaWa?, 

77 

Xaovs s retxo? ojuoKAr/oretez; aX^vai 

he debated should he fight tyc., 

or should he call to the people fyc. : 

so II. i. 189., 5. 671, Od. 4. 117., 6. 141., 10. 50, &c. 

Past doubt is less common the examples are 

(b) 

: 

Od. 4. 789 6pfj,aivov(r' r\ ot Odvarov (frvyoi 

wo? aj 

ri 

o y VTIO fJLVY](TTr]p(TLV VTrepcfriaXoiO' 

15. 304 o-u^wreco ireip^ri^v 

r\ \LIV er' ep5uKca>? c^tAeot /uetrat re 

avrov vl , 17 drpwete -7roA.tz;6 

Ulysses tried the swineherd whether would he still be hospitable 

and bid him stay, or fyc. 

In this use we once find Key KCI/ ; 

viz. Od. 15. 300 6p//,aiVa>z> ^ 

KW aXoirj (La Roche reads 

KCV Qavarov (frvyoi 77 

303.] Clauses with jx^. 

These are of two kinds, answering 

to the similar Clauses with the Subj. ( 281) : 

(1) Final Clauses : a single example 

will suffice : 

II. 5. 845 bvv "A'ibos Kvverjv JUT} jur t6ot o(3pLfjios "Aprjs 

(so that) Ares should not see, her. 

(2) Object Clauses, with Verbs of thinking, &c. : 

II. 

21. 516 fjiCfjipXeTO y&p ot retxo? eiJd^roto TroAryos, 

/mr) 

Aavaol Treporetaz^ (his 

care was that) 

the Greeks 

should not fyc. 

: so Od. 16. 179., 19. 390. 

Od. 21. 394 7rLpu>iJLvos vOa Kal i-vOa 

JUT) Kpa tTTf? e8oiei> CLTTOLXO^VOLO CLVCLKTOS 

to see that worms should not have eaten it. 

So in the common use with Verbs of fearing: as II. 18. 34 

3et8te yap /XT) Aatjuoz> eTrajuijo-eie lie feared lest fyc. 

But in 

II. 9. ^44 raur' atVais 8et8otKa Kara

304.] RELATIVE CLAUSES FINAL. 277 

speaker's present point of view, not subordinated to the point 

of view fixed by the governing- Verb. Thus in 

Od. 4. 698 dAAa TTO\V /xetfoV re Kat dpyaAecore/ooy $AAo 

^vr]O'TrjpS (f>pdovTai, b reAeVete jar) 

Kpoviwv 

we have an independent parenthetical wish : and in 

II. 3 234 vvv 5' aXXovs /utez> TTCLVTCLS 6pG> . . ovs KV eii yvofyv KrA. 

5* 33 ( = 2O. 286) f^ya Hpyov, b ov bvo y avbpe


Od. 5' 

1 

240 ava TrdAat, TrepuojAa, ra ot TrAcooie^ eAa^pws 

dry^ such as would float. 

(3) After Verbs that express asking or finding out the Clause 

acquires the force of a dependent Interrogative, and so of an 

Object Clause : 

Od. 9. 331 avTap TOvs aXXovs KArjpo) TremiAdcrflat avcayov 

6s Tts ToAjuuj(retei> KTA. (for the man) who should Sfc. 

II. 3. 316 KArjpOVS TIOXXOV . . OTTTTOTfpOS CL(f)Lrj 

they cast lots for which of the two should throw. 

14. 507 (=16". 283) TTaTTTrjvev 8e eKaoros oirr\ (f>vyoi. 

So II. 6. 177., 10. 503, Od. 9. 88., 10. 101, no., 19. 464. As 

to the form of the Relative Clause see 267, z, c. 

The Dependent Interrogative properly so called is rare in 

Homer : 

!! 5- ^5 Tvo'eto'rjzj 5' OVK av yvoirjs -Trorepoto-t 

Od. 15. 4^3 etpwra brj liretra ris etr; Kat iroOcv 

17. 368 dXA?]Aous T epeorro rts 117 

Kat noOev 

It is evidently akin to the Optatives with which 

ij TJ express 

past doubt ( 302, 5) rts : efy wô ^^ should be comes to mean who 

he should prove to lie. 

Cp. the Subj. in the corresponding Clauses 

relating to present time ( 280). 

Relative Clauses Conditional. When the event to 

305.] 

which the condition attaches is matter of wish or mere expectation, 

or is in past time, the condition is generally expressed by 

the Optative. Hence we find the Optative 

(a) With an Optative of wish in the principal Clause : 

II. 

3. 299 oTnro'repot Trporepot vTrep op/cta TrrjfjirjveLav, 

306.] 

RELATIVE CLAUSES CONDITIONAL. 279 

After a Present or 

(


indicate that the consequence is not immediate or certain (the 

governing Verb having a present or future meaning), or (b] 

because the governing Verb is an Opt., or (c) a Secondary Tense. 

Thus we have the Opt. 

(a) After a Present, &c. in the principal Clause; especially 

when the Clause bears a negative meaning (so that the occasion 

is necessarily imaginary) : 

II. I, 

343 ou8e TL olb vofjvai a/xa TrpoVo-a) KOI OTTiVcra), 

oTr-TTCos ol irapa invert (TOOL âôivro 'Amatol. 

(juaxeWro however is not a good Homeric form, and makes an 

intolerable hiatus : read probably payjiovTai, cp. 326, 3). 

Od. 2,, 52 

ot TTCLTpOS }JLV S OIK.OV a7TppLya(TL V(rOat, 

'Ittapiov, (ws K' avros ee6^coa-atro Ovyarpa. 

But also after an affirmative Clause : 

Od. 23. 134 rjyL(rd(ti (f)L\OTTaLyiJ,ovos op^Qôlo, 

ws K.ZV TLS aiT7 ydfjiov ejUjuevai ZKTOS CLK.OVU>V 

= so that any one who happens to hear may think fyc. 

13. 156 aAA' epeco ^tv (yav Iva et8ores 17 Ke Oava^^v 

?/ KV aAeva/xerot QCLVCLTOV Kat Krjpa (j)vyoifJLv 

(the Opt. of the less emphatic alternative, 275, 1}- 

17. 249 TOV TTOT tytov Im vr]bs eiioWAjuoio 

a fa) TTJ\' 'IâK7]s, 

f(va JJLOL (Biorov noXvv 

(irore indicates a distant occasion). 

13. 401 Kvvf

307.] '&2, e onn2, f iNA, 'Ens, 'O*PA. 281 

(quoted above), II. 19. 331,, Od. 17. 362; and in the combinations 

ws o^ TIS (Od. 15. 538), s exo'juu?*' o$/>' efe/xeVetez; dmo-o-o) 

until it should vomit forth again(Q 12. 428. ,20.80). 

Od. 23. 151 ipvorOai fjitya Swjua 8iaju/77epe5 ôs IKOITO 

till he should come (so 5. 386., 9. 376). 

It is indistinct, or lost, in the ordinary use of ocj)pa, as 

II. 6. 170 Setfai 6' ^wyct o> 77e^0e/oterp?/a-aijut Xdpvfifiiv 

to the end that 1 should measure again fyc. 

and with Is in Od. 4. 799 77e/x77e 8e \iiv 

. . 

rjos TlriveXoTreiav 

77auo-te KXavQpoio, and other places in the Odyssey (5. 386., 6. 

80., 19. 367). 

The corresponding form of Object Clause with these Conjunctions 

may be traced in one instance of each, viz. II. 4. 465 AeAt??- 

juiepos 

o


With Iws and opa the Opt. is : 

nearly always pure but we 

have op' 

ai/ in Od. 17. 298 (until), 

: 

24. 334 and ws KCI/ in 

Od. 2. 

77 T0(f)pa yap av Kara acrrv 7rori7m;cr(roi/xe0a juv$a> 

XprifjiaT aTTaLTiovT$, eW K' OLTTO Trayra Sofleir/, 

where there is a stress on the particular time contemplated. So 

II. 15. 69 e/c rou 8' oV rot erreira 7raA.uoiz/ Trapa vr]&v 

altv eya> Tevyoipi 8taju,7repe?, ei? o K' 'Amatol 

v 

IA.toy at? e'Aotev (the only instance with els o). 

The similar uses of fore, ax/n, jue'xpt are post-Homeric. 

The chief instance of 6pa with an Opt. following a Fut. or Subj. is II. 7. 

339 TTuAas norfaofjiev . . 6

310.] 'OTE, 'OHOTE, 'EIIEI, HPIN. 283 

21. 265 6Wd/a 8' 6pju?} 

may be accounted for by the change from the 

Plural to the Singular 

: 

cp. 283, I, c. 

(2) After a Past Tense of a Verb of waiting 6tr6re with the 

Aorist Opt. forms a kind of Object Clause as ; II. 7. 415 TrortSeyfjivoi 

OTTTTOT' ap' eA.0oi waiting for (the time) when he should come ; 

so II. 9. 191., 1 8. 524, and (after jueWres) 4. 334. Cp. 289 (i). 

309.] Clauses with eW. The few examples of this use show 

the same varieties as with ore. Thus, (a) 

after another Opt. 

II. 9. 304 vvv yap %' "EKro// e'Aois, eTret &v /utaAa rot 

&00L. 

24. 226 CLVTLKCL 

yap jue KaraKreêtez^ 'A)(iAAevs 

ayKas eAoW ejuoz; viov, e7T7)z> yo'ov ef epoz; 

Od. 4. 222 6? ro Kara/3po 

/feter, CTT^ Kpr)rfjpi /iztyetr;, KrA. 

(#) After a Present, in the statement of a supposed consequence 

Od. 24. 254 

TOLovTto 8e eWas, eiret Aovcratro dyot re, 

evSe'/uevat (wc^ ow^ 5 wo^^ *fed^ after 

that fyc.). 

(c) After a Past tense, in the iterative sense : 

II. 24. 14 dAA' o y eirel C^fez> KrA., Od. 2. 105 (=19. 150., 

24. 140) eTn)z> baibas TtapaQtiTo (v.l. eTret). 

The use of w is intelligible in the first of these passages (II. 9. 

304), since it refers to an event in the immediate future; 

perhaps also in 11.24. 227, after an Opt. of concession. But as 

to the form eTrf\v see 362. 

310.] irpiv. The peculiar way of expressing a condition by a 

Negative followed by irpiv ( 297) is transferred to the past, the 

Subj. becoming an Opt., in one passage 

II. 2,1. 580 OVK e0eAe*> $evyeiz> nplv 7ret/>?}o-air' 

'


The Optative with el, tyc. 

311.] Optative with el Conditional Protasis. The Clause 

with el expresses a supposition, made in order to lead up to the 

Clause which expresses the expected consequence 

: as 

Od. i. 

163 ei Kttvov y 'IBdKrjvfa lootaro voorr^cravTa, 

irdvres K dprjoraiar eAa^porepot TTobas etzw /crA. 

r 

1 

II. 7. 1^9 TOVS vvv et Trrcoo-a-oiTas v(j)' 'E/cropt TTCLVTCLS d/cowat, 

-TroAAa Kv aOavdroKri (/>t'Aas 

ava )(eTpaj deipat. 

The Clause with el 

may follow the other, as 

II. 2,2. 2,0 rj 

(T hv Tio-aifjiriv, et jutot bvvajjiis ye Trapetr;. 

The apodosis is generally given by the Opt. with Key, as in the 

examples quoted : but we may have the Subj. with KCK, the 

Future, or the Present. In such cases there is some change of 

tone between Protasis and Apodosis 

: as II. n. 386 

et jueu brj 

avripiov arvv T^V^CTL ^^tp^êti]?, OVK. av rot j(/>a6ran

313-] CLAUSES WITH El. 285 

312.] Optative with el Wish. The Conditional Protasis, 

when used without an Apodosis, becomes a form of expressing 

!! ^5' 569 'AzmA.ox' ov 

5 

TLS o-eto aAAos ' 

uewrepos1 

OVT TTOCrlv Od(T(T(JL>V OVT* aA-KiJUOJ 0)9 (TV 

et TLVOL TTOV Tpcocov td\iJLVos avbpa 

So II. 10. in., 1 6. 559., 24. 74. More frequently a wish is introduced 

by el ydp or at yap, as in 

at yap, Ze re Trarep KOL *A0r]vair] KOL "AiroXXov, KT\. 

Such a wish is sometimes used as a form of asseveration, as 

II. 1 8. 464 at yap \*.iv Oavdroio bvcrrjôs a>8e bvvaijJLrjv 

v6cr(f)LV aTTOKpv\lfaL, ore jutti^ {Jiopos alvbs LK.GLVOI, 

a>$ ol 

Ti>\a KaXa TrapeVa-erat 

i. e. fair arms shall be his as surely as I wish I could save him 

from death : so II. 8. 538, Od. 9. 523 and : ironically 

Od. 21. 402 at yap 8r) TOO-CTOVTOV ovr/a-ios avTidoriV, 

O)J OVTOS TTOT 

TOVTO bvVT)(TTaL tVTOLVVG'aa'Ocil. 

Here also we must place the wishes expressed by 

eifle or ai6e, 

which have generally the character of hopeless regret : as et0' o>s 

ô>ot/xt KrA. It may be noted that in the Odyssey wish is not 

expressed by el except in the combinations ct ydp and cl'Oe. 

A wish is often followed by a Clause expressing an expected 

consequence of its fulfilment as 

; 

II. 2. 3/1 at yap, Ze re -rrarep . . 

rep Ke rax' rffjivcreie Tro'Ais Dptajuoto avaKTos* 

Od. 7. 331 Zeu Trarep, at^' ocra etTre re/\evrâ-ete^ airavra 

'A\KLVOOS' TOV fJiCV 

KV eTTt tibo)pOV CLpOVpCLV 

avfizvrov K\tos etr/. 

So we should probably punctuate 

II. 13. 485 et yap o/ÂtKirj ye y^voiÔa r(58 J 

em 

at\l/d 

Kv TJ


II. 23. 591 tinrov 8e rot avrbs 

Swo-ft), TTJV apofJLrjv' el KCL vv KV OLKoOev aAAo 

jueifoy eTratrô-etas, acfrap 

Ke rot CLVTIKO. bovvat, 

/3ovAotjur?z> if (after that) you demand more fyc. 

Od. 2. 76 & x' fyiets ye c^dyotre, rd)(' 

ai> Trore /cat n'

316.] SUMMARY OF USES. 287 

So in the only example of the kind found in the Iliad : 

II. II. 792 rts ' 

016' et Ktv ot (rvv baifjiovi OVJJLOV opivais ; 

The pure Optative 

is used in all the places quoted, except the 

two in which el *ev follows otSc (II. 

n. 793, Od. 14. 119). In 

these the structure is the same as in the corresponding1 

independent 

Clauses ( 300). That is to say, the phrase ris olbcv et is 

treated as a mere ' perhaps ' (Lat. nescio an). 

An Opt. in a Final Clause depending upon a Subj. is perhaps to be found 

in Od. 5. 471 

i 5^ icev . . 

yearaSpafleu et pe peedr; (so all MSS. : peQrjri Bekk.). Cp. 

293- 

History of the Subjunctive and Optative. 

315.] Uses in Independent Clauses. The uses of the Subj. 

and Opt. in independent Clauses have been shown to fall in each 

case into two main groups. In one set of meanings the Mood 

expresses desire on the part of the speaker ; to this belong the Subj. 

of commdnd and prohibition, and the Opt. of wish. In the other 

the Mood is a kind of Future; the Subj. being an emphatic or 

confident Future (like our Future with shall), 

the Opt. a softened 

Future, expressing expectation, or mere admission of 

possibility 

(the English may or should). 

These two sets of meanings may be called the ' quasi-Imperative/ 

and the ' quasi-Future/ We must remember however that 

they are not always clearly separable, but are connected by transitional 

or intermediate uses : such as (e.g.] the Subj. which expresses 

necessity ( 277), and the Opt. of concession ( 399, d). 

316.] Uses in Subordinate Clauses. Passing over for the 

present the question whether the quasi-Imperative or the quasi- 

Future use is to be regarded in each case as representing the 

original meaning of the Mood, we proceed to consider the uses in 

Subordinate Clauses. Here the main distinction is that between 

1 

Final ' and 'Conditional/ if these terms are used with some 

latitude : 

especially if we rank with the Final Clauses not only 

those which distinctly express the end or purpose of an action, 

but also all Clauses which are referred to the time of the governing 

Verb. It is true that this distinction does not always apply; 

e.g. to the Subj. in 

Aava&v oXofyvpoptQ' alwrjTatoV, 

01 KCV 8r) KCLKOV olrov ava7r\r](ravT$ oAcoyreu' 

or to the Opt. in 

dA.Aa 7ToA.ii jxetfoz; . . 

(ppdfrvrai, o reXeVete jur) 

Kpoviaw*

288 SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. [316. 

For there the Relative Clause is in sense a parenthesis, and is 

construed accordingly as an independent Sentence. Again, in 

eVcrerai ijâp 6V av TTOT' dAwA?] /crA. 

8ei'8te 

yap /utr) Xaiôv aTror/xTJa-ete KrA.. 

and generally in Object Clauses, the Subordinate Clause does not 

express end ; but the time from which it is regarded as spoken is 

fixed by the governing Verb, in the same way that the time of a 

true Final Clause is fixed by the action of which it gives the end. 

For the present purpose, accordingly, there are two kinds of 

Clause to be considered, (i) Final and Object Clauses, and (2) 

Conditional Clauses. 

Eegarding the meaning of the Subjunctive and Optative in 

Final Clauses there can be little doubt. The Subj. in most 

instances follows either a First Person (Present or Future), 

or an 

Imperative that is to say, it expresses the immediate purpose 

: 

with which the speaker announces his own action, or commands 

the action of others. Hence, by a natural transference, it comes 

to express the purpose of another person (viz. the Subject of the 

Principal Clause). Similarly the Opt., whether as the Mood of 

wish or of expectation, comes to express a wish or expectation not 

now felt, but spoken 

of. Again, by virtue of its character as a 

softened or less confident Future, it naturally expresses a purpose 

that does not lie within the speaker's own sphere of action or 

direct influence. 

It should be noticed, too, that the relation which we imply by 

the term ( Final Clause y may exist without grammatical Subordination, 

i. e. without a Particle such as Iva or o>? to introduce 

the clause. Thus in II. 6. 340 aAA' aye vvv tTiipeivov apri'ia rev^ta 

$va> the meaning would not be altered by saying ^-niîvov Iva bva>. 

So in II. 1 8. 121-125 vvv 8e KAe'o? apoi^v KCU . . o-Tova\ijo-ai 

(j)irjv, yvoitv & o>s 6r) br]pov eyo> TroAe'juioio Trerrau/xai 

: the last wish 

is evidently also the result hoped for from the fulfilment of the 

preceding wishes (so that yvoizv 

= b &s yvottv). 

In Conditional Clauses, on the other hand, the condition or 

supposition is not subordinated to the time of the governing 

Verb, but is made from the present point of view of the speaker. 

The question arises : What is the original force of the Subj. and 

Opt. in this use ? 

In the case of the Subj. we naturally look to the quasi-Imperative 

use. It is common to use the Imperative as a way of 

stating a * 

* 

supposition as when we 

; say let it be so/ meaning 

if 

it is so ' (cp. Latin eras petito, daUtur). This view is confirmed 

by the fact that negative Conditional Clauses take jx^, 

not ou : 

that is to say, they are felt to be akin to prohibition rather than 

denial. Thus 6s fir) e'A.0?7 literally 

means not ( who will not come '

317.] ORIGINAL MEANING. 289 

(6? OVK av eA0ry), but e who shall not come/ i. e. whom we are not 

to suppose coming. 

Similarly we may understand the Opt. in these Clauses as the 

( 

Mood of concession ; admitting this to be so ' : and so in a negative 

sentence, 6? ^ whom e'Aflot 

' 

I agree to suppose not coming/ 

For the choice of the Mood does not depend on the greater or less 

probability of the supposition being true,, but on the tone in which 

it is made on the degree of vividness, as Mr. Goodwin says, with 

which it is expressed (Moods and Tenses } 455). 

It may be objected that on this view we ought to have et ov, 

not et JUT}, 

whenever the Verb is in the Indicative. But there is 

no difficulty in supposing that u.rj 

was extended to the Indicative 

on the analogy of the Clauses with the Subj. and Opt. ; just as 

ju,r) &(j)\ov is an extension from the common use of in 

u.rj 

wishes. 

And this is strongly supported by the circumstance that in fact 

et ou with the Indicative occurs several times in Homer : 

II. 15' 162 et 8e (JLOL 

OVK erreeoV eTrtTreto-erat /crA. (so 178). 

2O. T2Q et 6' 'A^tAeus ov TCLVTCL 0&v e/c Trewerat 6fjL(j)rj$. 

24. 296 et 8e rot ov Swcret ov ayyeXov /crA. 

Od. 2. 274 et 6' ov Keivov y eo-at yovos /crA. 

See also II. 4. 160, Od. 12. 382., 13. 143. On the other hand, 

in the very few examples of et ou with a Subj., the ou goes 

closely with the Verb, viz. II. 3. 289 (OVK etfe'Aojo-iz/), 20. 139 

(OVK 

On the 

ei


proper, the Injunctive, the Subj., and the Optative 

: in Greek the Imper., the 

Subj. and certain uses of the Future. The reason of this is evident. Variety 

in the expression of will and wish is one of the first needs of human society. 

The form which has been appropriated to express command is unsuitable to 

courteous request, still more unsuitable to humble entreaty. Accordingly other 

forms are used, precisely because they are not Imperatives. In time these 

acquire a quasi-Imperative character, and fresh forms are resorted to as the 

same want of a non- Imperative mode of expression is again perceived. 

The (c) use of the Secondary Endings in the Optative points to the conclusion 

that in its origin it was a Mood of past time. The tendency to use 

a past Tense in wishes, and in some kinds of suppositions, may be amply 

illustrated from English and other modern languages. 

(c?) 

The uses with ou go far to show that the quasi-Future sense of the 

Subj. and Opt. is at least as primitive as the quasi-Imperative sense. If the 

strong negation ou yevrjrat is derived by gradual change of meaning from a 

prohibition, the appearance of ou is difficult to explain. 

The use of the Subj. as an Imper. may be compared to the Attic use of the 

(e) 

' 

Future in a 'jussive 

sense, and in Final Clauses to express purpose (Goodwin, 

P- 373)- The change from an expression of will to one of expectation is one 

to which it would be much more difficult to find a parallel. 

318.] Conditional Protasis with. el. The derivations that have been proposed 

for the Particle el or at are too uncertain to furnish ground for any 

theory as to the manner in which the Conditional Protasis may have been 

formed. The question arises for us on the passages in which el with the Opt. 

is used to express a wish. Thus in el' TIS KaXecreie I pray some one to call we may 

take the Clause as Conditional, with a suppressed Apodosis (/caAcDs av ex 01 * 

the like). Or we may follow L. Lange in holding that the Clause is not 

Subordinate at all, the Particle el 

being originally a kind of affirmative 

Interjection, used to introduce expressions of wish and supposition ; 

and we 

can thus explain the ordinary Complex Conditional Sentence as made up of 

two originally independent Clauses, viz. (i) a wish or supposition, introduced 

by el, and (2) 

an assertion of the consequence to be expected from its being 

realised. On this theory the Clause of Wish introduced by 

el is not an incomplete 

Sentence, derived from a Complex Sentence by omission of the 

Apodosis, but is one of the elements from which the Complex Sentence was 

itself developed. 

The latter of these views has a priori the advantage of deriving the complex 

from the simple 

: and it has some apparent support in Homeric usage. 

We find in Homer 

(1) Wish, standing alone : 

us diroXoiTO Kol a\\os cms Toiavra yc peoi. 

(2) Wish followed by an independent Clause expressing expectation of a 

consequence : Od. 15. 180 OVTQ) vvv Zeus Qfirj, epiyfioviros irovis "Hprjs' 

T> KV rot teal KeiOi Oeu d>s ci>xfToa>fJ.rjv. 

II. 13. 55 ff)'iv S' wdf OeSiv TIS \vl

320.] EI-CLAUSES. 291 

(3) Wish, with el, el Yap, eI0e, &c., but without 'Apodosis 

' 

II. 4. 189 at yap 8?) OVTCDS eirj, Mei/eAae. 

II. 670 (10' At $0(&M/ii, St (lir) /tot CjUTreSos KT\. 

fir], 

(4) Wish, with el, el yip, ei0e, &c., followed by a Clause of Consequence 

: 

II. 7. 157 ei0' cbs r}@ajoifjii, (tirj de /tot c/xwcSos fir)' 

Ti\as ova xfipas detpai. 

The similarity in these examples is manifest. The type in the first four 

sets consists of a Clause of Wish, either alone (i and 3) or followed by a Clause 

of Consequence (2 and 4). Again, (5) only differs from (4) in punctuation, 

so to speak the two Clauses are taken : together, and thus the el- Clause is 

no longer an independent supposition, but is one made with a view to the 

consequence expressed in the Clause with KV. And this, it is contended, was 

the result of a gradual process, such as we find whenever parataxis passes 

into hypotaxis. 

: 

319.] Final Clauses with el. An argument for Lange's view of the original 

force of el is found in the use in Final Clauses, such as ef/tt ei ice iriOrjrat. 

The 

meaning here is essentially different from that of the Conditional sentence 

I go if he listens ; and on the ordinary hypothesis, that el originally expressed 

a condition, it is difficult to account for the two uses. But if el is a mere 

interjection, introducing wish or supposition, it is intelligible that the Clause 

should be Conditional or Final, as the context may determine. 

320.] The formula el 8' dye, with the varieties el 8' d-yer* (II. 22. 381) and 

el 8e (II. 9. 46, 262), is often used in Homer to introduce an Imperative or 

Subjunctive ( 275). It has generally been supposed to be elliptical, standing 

for 6t 8' *0t\cis aye, or the like. And el 8' e06\eis is actually found with 

an Imperative in a few places 

: II. 19. 142 6t 8* e06\6is trnpfivov, Od. 16. 82., 17. 

2 77 ( C P- 3- 3 2 4)' I* J1^ been pointed out, however, by Lange, in his 

dissertation on this question,* that el 8' eOeAeis is only found where it 

introduces a distinct second alternative. Thus in Od. 16. 82 the context is : 

' 

I will send the stranger wherever he desires ; 

or if you choose (ef 8' 106 A.6ts) 

take him into your house.' So Od. 3. 323 dAA* 'iOi vvv avv vrjt 

. . et 8' efle'Xets 

Trefos KT\. But with el 8' aye this is not the case. We find it at the beginning 

of a speech ; 

as 

II. 6. 376 6t 8' dye /tot, 8/xcoat, vrji^fprea fJivOrjffaaOe. 

Od. 2. 178 3) yepov, et 8' 0176 vvv /zavreueo KT\. : so II. 16. 697., 17. 685, 

Od. 12. 112., 22. 391., 23. 35. 

Or in the Apodosis of a Conditional sentence, as 

Od. 4. 831 6t p.lv 5r) 06os eo-o-t, fcofo re e/e\vfs avSrjs, 

fl 8' 

dye /lot KT\. : so II. 22. 379-381. 

Or to express an appeal which is consequent upon something just said : 

as 

II. I. 301 rwv OVK dv n Depots dve\ojv dfteovros !/*efo' 

et 8' 

076 pfjv ireiprjffai (ay, come now and try} : cp. II. 8. 18. 

* De formula Homerica el 8' dye commentatio, Lipsiae 1873. 

U 2


II. I. 523 e/zot 8e tee ravra (j.eXrjffeTa.1 ofypa. 

el 

8' 

dye rot Kpa\r] Karavevaoâi (so come, I will nod my head). 

23. 579 ft 8' ay 1 eywv avros StKaffoj, KO!I p ov rivd ^>rjp.i 

d\\ov etn-n\rieiv Aava&v Weia yap earac 

'AvriXox') el 8' dye Sevpo . . opvvQi KT\. 

come I will be judge myself . . so come, Antilochus, take this oath : 

see also Od. i. 271., 9. 37., 21. 217., 24. 336. 

Hence, Lange argues, it is probable that el does not express condition, but has 

an interjectional character (cp. Latin eia age] and if so it may be the same 

: 

with the use in Clauses expressing wish. 

321.] Conclusion. Notwithstanding these arguments, 

the common explanation 

of the el-Clause of wish (as primarily a Clause of supposition) 

seems to be the more probable one.* For 

(1) The uses of el present a marked correspondence with those of the 

Kelative and its derivatives. Note especially the use of ore p.rf 

as almost 

exactly = d firj. 

(2) 

The analogy etra : el :: eiretra : eiret makes it likely that el was 

originally temporal. The fact that tlra is not Homeric takes something from 

the force of this argument. 

(3) The use of alternative forms of wish, and the use of some form of 

supposition to express wish, are phenomena which can be exemplified from 

many languages : cp. the Latin o si, German wenn, wenn nur, &c. And ellipse 

of the apodosis occurs with el-clauses of other kinds ; 

see 324.* 

(4) The el-clause, whether of supposition or of wish, is specifically Greek, 

whereas the chief meanings of the Optative wish, concession, supposition 

are much older, being common to Greek and Sanscrit. Hence the el-clause 

was formed at a time when the Opt. of wish had long been established in 

use. The presumption surely is that the el-clause, when it came to be used 

as a form of wish, was a new way of expressing wish. It would probably 

be adopted at first as a less direct form, suited for wishes couched in a 

different tone (as f'iOe is confined to hopeless wish). 

(5) The only use of el not obviously expressive of supposition is that which 

is seen in the isolated phrase d 8' dye, of which Lange has given an exceedingly 

probable analysis. Possibly however the el of d 8' 

dye is not the same 

word as el if, but an interjection, like eltv and Latin eia. We may go further, 

and point out that the 5e of el 8' 0176 has been shown by Lange himself 

to be out of place, hence the true form may be el' dye, like Latin eia age. 

It may be observed, in conclusion, that the question of the el-clause is 

quite distinct from the question of the original meaning of the Optative. 

It is possible to combine Lange's theory of el with Delbriick's earlier view 

of the Optative as originally the Mood of wish,f but Lange himself does not 

do so. He regards the el-clause of supposition (Fallsetsung) as developed 

independently of the el-clause of wish. His main thesis is that el does not 

* This is also the conclusion maintained by Mr. Goodwin, who discusses 

the question very fully in the new edition of his Moods and Tenses (pp. 376 ff.). 

f This view was proposed in Delbriick's Syntaktische Forschungen (vol. 

i. p. 13), 

but is withdrawn in his recent work (Altindische Syntax, 172).

3*3-] INDICATIVE. 293 

imply a correlative particle, or an apodosis (na\ws av e'xot or the like), so that 

the two meanings of et 761/017-0 suppose it happened and would that it happened 

belong to originally distinct meanings of the Opt. ycvoiro. That is to say, the 

development of i ^/with various Moods Opt., Subj., Indie. was parallel to 

an entirely distinct development of interjectional el with the Opt. of wish. 

322.] Homeric and Attic uses. The main difference between Homer and 

later writers in regard to the Moods may be said to be that the later uses are 

much more restricted. Thus the Subj. is used by Homer in Principal Clauses 

of every kind Affirmative and Negative, as well as Prohibitive, Interrogative, 

&c. In Attic it is confined to the Prohibitive use with /;, and the idiomatic 

' 

Hortatory ' and ' Deliberative ' uses. 

Again, in Subordinate Clauses the important Homeric distinction between 

the 'pure' Subj. and the Subj. with dv or KCV is almost wholly lost in Attic. 

In Clauses of Conditional meaning, whether Relatival, Temporal, or introduced 

by i, the Subj. with civ has become the only generally allowable construction 

the : 

pure Subj. being confined to a few instances in poetry. With 

the Optative, on the other hand, an equal uniformity has been attained by 

the loss of the use with civ or KV. In short, of the four distinct Homeric 

constructions 

1. os \0T) (ore f\0ri, et eAfl?/, &c.) 

2. os civ (or os KV) eXO-Q (or av tX6ri, eav e'Aflfl, &c.) 

3. os eXOoi (ore e'A0ot, et eA0ot, &c.) 

4. os S.V (or os KCV)

294 INDICATIVE. [324. 

where there need be no implication either for or against the truth 

of the supposition thus made. Further, the Indicative may be 

used in certain cases in a Conditional Apodosis, expressing an 

imaginary consequence. Again, it may be used in Final and 

Object Clauses referring to the past or to the future. All such 

uses, in which the Indicative does not assert, may be called 

Modal Uses. 

The tendency of language appears to be to extend the Modal Uses of the 

Indicative, and consequently to diminish the range of the other Moods. It 

is found possible, and more convenient, to show the modal character of 

a Clause by means of Particles, or from the drift of the context, without 

a distinct Verbal form. It will be seen, on comparing the Homeric and Attic 

usage, that the Indicative has encroached in several points upon the other 

Moods. 

324.] Conditional Clauses (Apodosis). The Secondary Tenses 

or Tenses of past time (Aor. Impf. and Plupf.), are used with K*V 

or o,v to express a supposed consequence 

: as 

II. 4. 420 beivov 8' 

(3paxe xaA.Kos em a-ryOto-a-iv CLVCLKTOS 

fear would have seized even the stout-hearted. 

This way of speaking of a conditional event ordinarily implies 

that the condition on which it 

depended was not fulfilled. For 

if (e.g.] the assertion rj\Qw he came is true, we can hardly ever 

have occasion to limit it 

by saying j\\Q^v av he came in that case. 

Hence a Past Tense with KCV or fa naturally came to be used 

where the event in question had not happened, owing to the 

non-fulfilment of the condition. 

The rule does not apply to events that occur repeatedly, or on no particular 

occasion ; 

for there is no contradiction in saying of such an event tha't it 

happened when a condition was fulfilled. Hence the use in the iterative sense 

(as Hdt. 3. 119 K\aifffK av teal odvpefftcero, Thuc. 7. 71 ti rives iSoiev . . 

dve6dpcrrjadv 

re av rA.). This use, however, is not Homeric. In Od. 2. 104 evQa KV 

finariri /j.ev vcpaivea/ecv has slender authority, most MSS. reading =v0a KCU. 

Another supposed instance is 

Od. 18. 263 iirncav T' uKvnoScav eiriPrjTopas, o'i ue rd\t.ara 

fKpivav fte-ya V?KOS KT\., 

where the commentators (Fasi, Ameis, Merry) take eicpivav as a ' gnomic ' 

Aorist. The words as they stand can only mean who < would most speedily 

have decided mighty strife' (so Goodwin, 

: 

244) but this does not suit the 

context. The difficulty is best met by reading ot T : cp. 283, b. 

An exceptional use of a different kind is 

Od. 4. 546 r) yap piv faov ye Kôta-i, r\ Kf 

Here KCV marks the alternative ( 283, n. 2) : either you will find him alive or (in 

the other case) Orestes has kilkd him (i. 

e. must have kitted him}. Thrown into

324-*] CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 295 

a Conditional form the sentence would be : 

then Orestes has killed him.' So with an Infinitive 

'if you do not find him alive, 

II. 22. 108 /J.ol Sc TOT' av iro\v ttfpSiov fir) 

dvrrjv ^ 'Axi\7ja KaTaKTeivavra vfeaOai 

i\k KCV avrai 6\ff6ai fi'>K\iws irpb ITU AT/OS. 

In the Protasis Kv with the Indicative occurs only once, viz. II. 23. 526 et 

8e K' en irpoTepoj ycvero 8p6fj,os (see Leaf's note a. Z.). 

This may be compared 

with the occasional use of KCV with el and an Opt. ( 313). The rarity of the 

use with an Indie, need not be felt as a difficulty 

: 

cp. the oracle in Hdt. i. 

1 

74 Zevs yap K' ZOrj/ct vrjaov ei K' eftovkfro, also Erinna, fr. 4, 4, and Ar. Lys. 

1098 (Hartung, ii. p. 240). 

In later Greek the Imperfect with a> 

may express either a 

continuous action which would have occurred at some past time, 

or an action (continuous or momentary) which would have been 

occurring at the moment of speaking. The latter of these uses, 

as Mr. Goodwin points out is ( 435), not Homeric. He sees 

an approach to it in II. 24, 220 ei \v yap rts ^ aXXos K\vev 

were it 

any one else who lade me. Another may be found in Od. 

2O. 307 KCU Ke rot avrl yapoio irar^p rdcjiov ajuêTroyetro vOdb (if 

had struck the stranger] your father would have had to busy 

here with your burial in place of wedding : cp. also Od. 4. 

178 KCU KC ddfjC vOdb' OVT$ fJLLa-y6}Ji0' , 

ovoc Ktv ^/oie'aj 

aAAc 

The Impf. without av or KCI/ may express what ought to have 

been, if the meaning of fitness, obligation, &c. is given by the 

Verb or Predicate. Thus we have Od. 20. 331 ntpbiov riev it 

would have been better. So in Attic with exp^ ^ et and 

j 

similar 

words. 

The Opt. with &v or Key, as we have seen is ( 300, not unf 

requently used in Homer with the same meaning as the Aor. 

or Impf. with a.v has in later Greek. This is one of the points 

c), 

in which the use of the Indicative gained on that of the 

Optative. 

324.*] Ellipse of the Apodosis. We may notice here the 

cases in which el with an Indie, or Subj. is not followed 

by a corresponding Clause expressing the consequence of the 

supposition made. This occurs 

When (a) two alternative suppositions are made, the second 

being the one upon which the speaker wishes to dwell : as II. I. 

135 t ptv buxrovcTL yeptts . et 8e Ke . JUIT/ Swoxriz;, eyo> 8e KV avrbs 

e'Aco/xat if they give (there is nothing to be said), but if not, &c. 

When (b) the consequence is sufficiently implied in the et- 

Clause : as II. 6. 150 et 8' eêXet? KCU ravra barmtvai, if you wish 

to be told this (I 

will do so) 

: II. 7. 375 

at K' eêAcoo-t Trawa

396 INDICATIVE. [325. 

if they wish to cease (let them): Od. 2,1. 260 drdp TreAe'/ceds ye KCU 

et K' el&jjLtv cLTravras eoTajueu : II. 19. 147.5 2O. 213., 21. 487, Od. 

4. 388., 15. 80. 

When (c) the speaker prefers to suggest the consequence in an 

indirect : 

way as II. I. 

580 et Trep yap K' etfe'ArjCT-tz; 'OXvînos dorepo- 

7 

^ wishes 

Trrjrrjs e eSeW oTU

326.] FUTURE. 297 

II. I. 

522 dAAa (TV per vvv O.VTLS cnr6(rTL\ \M\ TL 

"Hpij* jjiol 8e K TavTa /u,eA?jo-erai (to me, as my part}. 

4. 76 Kai K ris a>5' epe'ei 

W^ castf #z^ will say. 

This use of Kei/ is chiefly found after 8e, as II. i. 139., 6. 260., 8. 

419., 14. 267, &c. : and in Relative Clauses, as II. 12. 226., 17. 

241., 22. 70, Od. 5. 36., 8. 318., 16. 438: perhaps with ore, II. 

2O. 335 ore KZV

298 IMPERATIVE. [327. 

i, 

where the Verb may be a Future, as in the places now quoted, or a 

Subj., according to the commoner Homeric construction. So in II. 10. 44, 282., 

17. 144. 

The use of the Future in Final Clauses is probably later than that of the 

Subjunctive. In general, as we have seen, the Subj. is akin to the Imperative, 

and therefore expresses the speaker's purpose directly, by its own force ; 

whereas the Fut. Ind. properly expresses sequence. Thus Oe\yei us XdOrjTai 

literally means charms ' so that he shall forget ' : 

OeXyei OTTOJS X-qa^rai ' charms 

so that he will forget/ The same conclusion seems to follow from the rule 

that SITUS and 6pa may be used with a Future, but not ws or*va (Goodwin, 

324). For ws in the manner that fits a direct purpose better than omos in 

some such manner that, or 6pa till the time that. It would seem probable, then, 

that in Final Clauses the Future is a less emphatic and positive expression of 

end. Thus when Achilles prays (II. 16. 242), embolden him ' so that Hector 

will know/ the Future conveys a shade of indifference, as though Hector's 

knowledge were the natural consequence rather than the direct object. 

And so in II. I. 175 01 /ce /xe TifjLr/ffovfft who will (I presume) honour me. 

5. In Clauses with el the Future is chiefly used of events regarded 

as necessary, or as determined by some power independent 

of the speaker 

: as 

II. 14. 6 1 ^juets 6e

329-] PARTICLES. 299 

328.] Prohibition. The Aorist Imperative is very rarely used 

with : JJITJ examples are 

II. 4. 41O TO) [M] fJLOL TTCLTpaS TT()0' OjUOlT] 7^060 TtjUTJ 

(so Od. 24. 248 av 8e JUT) oz; 

x'^ tvQto 

1 8. 134 (TV /ley jxri 770) Karabvcrto /u,(oAoz> "Aprjos. 

Od. 1 6. 301 //,rj 

rt? eTretr' 'O6vo-rjos aKOU(rara). 

II. 1 6. 200 /ur) AeAa0e'(70co. 

For the rule which is the complement of this one, forbidding the 

use of the Present Subj. with /j^, see 278^. 

Regarding the origin of this curious idiom a very probable conjecture has 

been made by Delbriick (Synt. Forsch. iv. p. 120). In the Veda it has been 

shown by Grassmann that the prohibitive Particle md is never found with 

the forms of the Imperative proper, but only with the so-called 

' 

spurious 

Conjunctive ' or ' Injunctive/ Hence it may be inferred that the Imperative 

was only used originally in positive commands, not in prohibitions. Again, 

it 

appears that in Sanscrit the Imperative is nearly confined to the Present 

Tense : and in Greek the forms of the First Aor. Imper. (K\tyov, Mid. /cAt'^m) 

are certainly of late origin. The fine distinction which is made, in the 

Imperative as well as in other Moods, between the continuous action 

expressed by the Present Stem and the momentary action expressed by the 

Aorist belongs to the specific development of Greek. Accordingly Delbriick 

suggests that the extension of the Imperative to express prohibition took 

place at a time when the Aorist Imperative had not come into general use : 

and hence it was only carried into the Present Tense. In other words, the 

form \ir\ KXIirre came into use in pre-historic Greek as an extension of the 

positive K\irT, and superseded JAT| K\ITTTIS but : [ni\ K\I}/T)S kept its ground, 

because the form K\&|/OV did not then exist. This account of the idiom seems 

much more probable than any attempt to explain it on psychological grounds. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

THE PARTICLES. 

329.] Under the term Particles it is convenient to group 

together a number of words that are mainly used to show the 

relations between other words, and between Clauses. In respect 

of this office they are akin to the various syllables or letters used 

as Endings and with them go to constitute what are called the 

: 

'formal elements ' of the language, in contradistinction to the 

roots or stems which compose 

its ' matter/ 

The Particles which connect successive Clauses in any way 

form the Conjunctions. As such they may be distinguished, 

according to the nature of the connexion which they indicate,

300 PARTICLES. [330. 

as Copulative (KCU, re, Y|8e', &c.), Adversative (8^, clXXd, aurdp), Disjunctive 

Conditional 

(rj r\), (el, cV, Illative 

KCI/), 

(apa, 817, out/), 

Causal (Y?7 

spoke and thereupon fyc. : and (2) a strengthening or emphasising 

Particle meaning also, even, just : as 

II. I. 63 r) 

KCU dvtipoTTokov or even a dream-prophet. 

3. 176 TO KCU KAcuovcra rerr^Ka which is the very reason that 

I am wasted with weeping. 

It is especially used with words that imply comparison, increase 

as KCU aAAos 

or diminution, extension of time or the reverse, &c. ; 

another (not 

this only), 

KCU avro's himself (as well as others) KCU 

: 

TrdAcu long ago (not merely now), KCU avOis another time (if not 

now), KCU fxaXa, KCU Airjy (in a high degree, not merely in an 

ordinary degree) so with Comparatives, KCU : /xetfou, KCU /nytoz;, 

&c. Both terms of a comparison may be strengthened in this 

way; as 

II. I. 8 1 ei Trep yap re \faov ye ica! avTTJâp KaraTre'^r;, 

dAAa re KCU /êroVto-#ei> KrA. 

Notice, too, the use at the beginning of an Apodosis, esp. with 

Adverbs of time, as 

II. I. 477 fines 5' 77ptyeVeta fyavr] pooooa,KTV\o$ T^COJ, 

KCU TOT 1TLT KrA. 

KCU precedes the word which it emphasises, but is sometimes 

separated from it by other Particles, enclitic Pronouns, &c. : as 

II. I. 

213 KCU Trore' rot Tpls roWa (not merely compensation but) 

three times as much: 2. 292 KCU yap TLS eW 0' prjva a man 

/xeVcoz; 

^vho stays even one month. So 7. 281 KCU t6/xez> airavTes ( 

= icr/xez; 

KCU mitres). 

KCU el and el KCU. The combination KCU el indicates that the

332.] KAI, TE. 301 

whole condition is an extreme one : even on the supposition that . 

But with the order el KCU the KCU emphasises particular words : et 

Kal judAo, Kaprepos eo-ri even if he is (I will go so far as to say) 

very strong. Hence ei KCU usually implies that the supposition is 

more or less true. 

331.] 

distinguish ; 

re. 

The enclitic re has two main uses which it is essential to 

besides one or two special uses of less importance. 

(a) As a Conjunction re connects clauses and single words. 

It is especially used when a new fact or new object is to take 

its place pari passu with "what has been already said : KVVZO-O-LV 

oicoôio-i re Tracrt to dogs and birds as well: at TTCLCTL KaKov Tpweo-o-i 

ytvovro ol T avTtp which were a bane to all the Trojans, and to 

himself (equally). This meaning is given still more distinctly 

by the Correlative re re thus we have the : pairs avbp&v re flewr 

re, brjjjLos re Tro'Ais re, KAayyf/ T eô-Trrj re, &c. and the pairs of 

Clauses expressing simultaneous action, such as 

&\lr T avX(aprja-v} (*>xpos re \LIV etAe mipeia?. 

Hence re re sometimes marks that two things are mutually 

dependent: oXiyov re va. 

As to the place of re the general rule is that it follows the 

first word in the Clause. Hence when standing 

first in the pair 

T re it does not always follow the word which it couples e. : g. 

II. 6. 317 tyyuOi re ripiajuoio KCU "E/cropos near both Priam and 

Hector ; II. 5- $78 crot T tTwrelQovTai Kal de8pjjuecr0a e'/caoros (cp. 

2. 136, 198., 4. 505., 7. 294-5). 

The use of TC as a Particle of transition (to begin a fresh sentence after a 

pause) is not Homeric, though common in later Greek. This may indicate 

that the use as a connecting Particle was originally confined to the Correlative 

re re (Delbriick, Synt. Forsch, iv. p. 145). 

332.] (fj) 

In its other use which is distinctively Homeric 

re serves to mark an assertion as general or indefinite. 

Hence it 

is found in gnomic passages : 

as 

II. I. 21 8 09 Ke 0eot? eTriTrei^rat, jutaAa r' HK\VOV avrov. 

9. 509 rbv 8e /oie'y' &vj](rav /cat r' K\vov 

Od. 6. 185 /xaAiara 8e' r' K\vov avroi.


II. 1 6. 688 dAA' atet re Aio? Kp euro-coy voos rj irep avp&v. 

19. 221 al\lfd re (frvXainbos WAerat Ko'pos (cp. Od. I. 392). 

Hes.Th. 87 al\l/a re Kat /xeya vet/cos eTrtcrrajuieVa)? KareVaixre. 

So in many short maxims, such as pcxOev be re ^rJTrtos ey^co 

orpeTrrot 8e' re Kat 0eot aurot. In similes it is very common, and 

is often repeated in the successive Clauses; e.g. 

II. 4. 482 6 5* eV Koviyori â/xat TreVez^ atyetpos etajtxey?) e'Aeos /uteyaAoto Tre^VKr/ 

Aetrj, drdp T^ ot 6'fot eV aKporarr/ TT(j)vacrL' 

rrjv fJLv & apiJiaTOTrr]ybs avrjp aWavi o-t8?jpa> 

efeVaju,^ o' -Trao-tz; 8e 'naprfiov atjaart 

Kat T' 

ayeXrjbbv lacnv airb Kprjvr 

Xa\lsovTS yAa)(rcr?7(rtr apairjoriv j 

aKpov, epefyo/êvot (frovov at/ixaros* 

ei^ 8e re 

(TTri0(Tiv arpojao? eo-rt, Trepto-reiêrat 5e re yao-r?7p. 

So where the meaning is frequentative : 

Od. 4. I O2 aAAore fxe'u 

re yoa> typeva re'pTrojuiat (cp. 5. 55-? I3< ^4) 

II. 19. 86 Ka re /xe vciKetea-Kov (20. 28, Od. 5. 33 1, &c.). 

So II. I. 

521 retKet Kat re /me (^Tjo-t KrA. aa^ ^y^ (habitually) that 

I fyc. 

: 

cp. 9. 410., 17. 174, Od. i. 215., 4- 3 8 7-> IO 33v - 17- 2 5- 

Hence it is used of names, as II. I. 403 avbpts 6e re TTCLVTS (K 

ovo-t), 2. 814., 5. 306, &c. of characteristic 

; attributes, as 

II. 2. 

453 ^' 7 e n^êio) (rvjUjmtVyerat . . 

dAAa re /xtz^ KaOvKtpOcv eTTtppeet ?}i;r' eAator. 

5. 340 t^wp, oto? Trep re joeet juaKapeo-o-t êotcrt. 

And generally of any fixed condition of things, as II. 4. 247 

re vês etpwrr' virpv}j,voL : 5- 477 ^ "^^P r' cTTtKOUpot eêijuer : 15. 

187 rpet? yap r' eK Kporov etjutez^ d6eA0eot (a fact of permanent 

be laid 

significance) 22. 116 ^ r' e-TrAero retKeos dpx^. It may : 

down as a general rule that re in the combinations ju,eV re, 6e re, 

Kat re. yap re, dAAd re, and the like, is not a Conjunction, and 

does not affect the meaning of the Conjunction which it follows. 

In a Conditional sentence of gnomic character the re is often 

used in both members, as 

II. I. 8 1 et Trep ydp re -ôXov ye Kat avTtjfJiap KareTre'x/aj, 

dAAd re Kat /uteroVto-flez/ eêt KOTOV. 

The use with the Article and the different forms of the Relative 

has been already discussed in the chapter on the Pronouns 

(see 263, 266). It was there pointed out that re is used when 

the Clause serves to describe a class, as

332.] 

TE. 303 

aypta iravra, ra re rpeet ovpccriv v\.rj. 

peta b' dptyycoros yovos avepos to re Kpovt&V KT\. 

or to express a permanent characteristic, as 

y?jpas KOL Oavaros, ra T ITT' avOpwiroLorL Tre'/Voi/rat. 

Xo'Aos, os r' 8e T eacre 

(Read ovb' er' with the Lipsiensis, and so in II. 21. 596). 

* The account now given of the uses of re was suggested (in substance) by 

Dr. Wentzel, whose dissertation (Ueber den Gebrauch der Partikel TC bei Homer, 

Glogau, 1847) appears to have been overlooked by subsequent writers.


at 6e T avv0v 

II. 23. 474 

(Read 

at 5' er' with the Townleianus). 

Similarly we should read ou8' IT' in II. 15. 709., 17. 42., 21. 248., 

22. 300., 23. 622, 730., 24. 52, Od. 12. 198. In such a matter 

manuscript authority is evidently of no weight, and it will be 

found that the MSS. often have 8e T' where the editors have 

already corrected 8' IT' (e.g. in II. I. 573., 2. 344., 12. 106, Od. 

2. 115., ii. 380., 21. 1 86., 24. 401). In II. ii. 767 the editions 

have v&'C 8e T Zvbov, but all MSS. v&'C 8e evbov so : 

perhaps we 

may correct II. 21. 456 v&'C 8e r' axôppot K[OJJ.V. Perhaps In 

should be restored in II. 16. 836 o-e 6e r' ey0d8e yuTre? j&ovrot, 

Od. 15. 428 TTtpaa-av 8e Te 8ep' dyccyorrcg. 

Two isolated Epic uses remain to be noticed : 

(1) After an Interrogative in the combination T' apa, T' ap as 

: 

II. I. 8 Tts T ap o-(|>a)e 

0&v ept8t wlf}icc /oidêo-flai ; 

1 8. 1 88 TTWS T' ap' to) juera fji&Xov ; (so TTT) r' ap II. 13. 307). 

Od. I. 

346 iîJTep e/xry, rt r apa

334-] AE. 305 

vovcrov ava (rrparbv Spcre KCLKTJV, oktKOvro 8e Aaoi, 

ovvKa KrA. 

Here a prose writer would say 6\0piav, or wore airoXXva-Qai rbv 

AaoV, or v 

ayK&va TV^MV pea-ov. 

I. e. ( struck him as lie was turning- the horses/ 

8^ is nearly always the second word in the Clause. It is occasionally 

put after (i) a Preposition and Case-form, as ITT' avr&v 

b' wfjioOerrjo-aVj or (3) 

an Article and Numeral, as rrj Senary 

8' KrA.: 

but not after other combinations. Hence K


Philoctetes is opposed as commander to the people of Methone, 

and the whole statement is opposed to the previously mentioned 

peoples with their commanders. So in a period composed of two 

pairs of correlated Clauses, as 

II. I. 

135 oM-' *i P*v bu>(rovcn ye'pas . . 

ei 8e Ke jut,?; b&ocrut, eya> 8e' Kev avrbs eAcojuat. 

p. 5& os jueV T aiSeVerat Kovpas Aios aa- epyoi; early eiTrety (Kiiliner, 5.33; 

It has 

2). 

been regarded as the key to the Homeric usage now 

in question 

: * but this would compel us in many cases to give 

different explanations of uses to which the same explanation is 

evidently applicable. For instance, in the four lines last quoted, 

if we account for the 8^ of AtVo-oyrat 8' 

apa KT\. as a repetition of 

the 8^ of its protasis 6s 8e' K' KT\., how do we treat the 8^ of the 

first apodosis (TOV 8e KrA.)? 

The two forms are essentially 

similar. 

as a survival 

2. The 8e of the Apodosis is commonly regarded 

from a period in which the Relative Clause or Conditional Protasis 

was not yet subordinate, so that the Apodosis, if it followed 

the other, still needed or at least admitted of a connecting 

Particle. Such an explanation 

is attractive because it presents 

us with a case of the general law according to which the complex 

sentence or period is formed by the welding together of originally 

distinct simple sentences.! It is to be observed, however, that 

the phenomenon in question is not necessarily more than a particular 

use of 8e. The survival may be, not of a paratactic form 

of sentence, but only of a use of 8e where it is not a Conjunction. 

Such a use has been already seen in the Particle Kai. 

In the correlation dAA.' ore 8r) Kai ro're 8rj 

we need find nothing 

* So in the first edition of this book, following the discussion of Nagelsbach 

in his Anmerkungen zur Bias (p. 261 and p. 271, ed. 1834). The Excursus on 

the subject was omitted in later editions. For the view adopted in the text 

the author is indebted almost wholly to Dr. R. Nieberding, Ueber die parataktische 

Anknupfung des Nachsatses in hypotctktischen Satzgefugen, insbesondere bei Homer, 

Gross-Grlogau, 1882. 

t On the danger of explaining the Syntax of complex sentences by 

recourse to a supposed survival of paratactic structure there is a timely warning 

given by Brugmann, Gr. Gr. 203.

3350 AE. 307 

more than the ordinary use of icat with the also, even meaning1 

; 

that is to say, it emphasises the sequence of the apodosis, just as 

it often emphasises single words or phrases. Similarly 8e may 

have been used to mark the adversative character of an apodosis. 

3. These points may be illustrated by the parallel between KCU 

also, even and ou8e or = 

\utfi 

not even, also not. In this use 8^ is 

clearly not a Conjunction, but merely serves to mark the natural 

opposition between the negative and some preceding affirmation 

(expressed or implied). Thus it is closely akin to the use in 

apodosis, the difference being only that it belongs to a single 

word rather than a Clause. 

4. It is a confirmation of this view that among the cases of 8e 

in the apodosis we never find one in which the protasis is introduced 

by the corresponding jjieV.* 

Where this is apparently the 

case it will be found that the jj-eV 

refers forward, not to the 8^ of 

the immediate apodosis, but to a new sentence with 8^ or some 

equivalent Particle : 

e.g. 

II. 2. 1 88 ov Ttva jjiV pao-iXija KCLL 


It seems likely that the -Be of these two uses is originally the same. The 

force in both cases is that of a local Adverb. Whether it is to be identified 

with the Conjunction 8e is a further question. 

dXXd, auTctp, drdp, au, aure. 

336.] The remaining Adversative Particles do not need much 

explanation. 

dXXd and aurdp are used (like 8^) 

in the apodosis, especially 

after a Clause with et irep 

: as 

II. I. 81 ? TTtp y&p re . . aAAo* re (cp. 8. 153., 19. 164). 

2"2. 

390 et 8e OavovTutv Trep . . avrap eyco KrA. 

aurdp and drdp express a slighter opposition than a'XXd, and 

accordingly are often used as Particles of transition ; e.g. in such 

formulae as A s ot i**v 

. . 

avrap KrA. similar use of dXXd may 

be seen with Imperatives as dAA' 

; WL, dAA' aye /xot ro'Se enre, and 

the like. It is evident that the stronger Adversative is chosen 

where greater liveliness of tone is to be conveyed. 

337.] au and aure (again, on the contrary] have nearly the same 

force as aurdp, but do not begin the sentence : hence vvv a.v, TLS 

5' av, TiiiT avT, &c. : and so in correspondence to êv or 77 rot, 

as II. 4. 237 T&V rot . . 

rj fjfjiels avre KT\. They also serve to 

mark the apodosis of a Relative or Conditional Clause, as II. 4. 

321 et roVe Kovpos ea, vvv avre jixe yijpas oTrafet. Thus they have 

the two chief uses of 8 

Originally, doubtless, au meant backwards, but in Homer this 

sense is only found in the form aurts though perhaps 

it sur- 

: 

vives in the sacrificial word avepva-av. 

The form ojjiws is later, the Homeric word being C/ATUJS. 

o(xcos is usually read in II. 12. 393 opus 5' ov X-fjOero xa/V* 7 ??, 

and Od. n. 565 

fvOa x ofJMs -npoaeQrjv. In both places however the Scholia indicate that the 

word was anciently circumflexed by some authorities. 

338.] The Particle rf at the beginning of a sentence gives it 

the character of a strong affirmation 

: 

II. i. 240 77 TTor' 'AxiAA?jos irodrj tferat be sure that one day fyc. 

So, with an ironical tone, 

II. I. 229 TtoXv X&LOV eort Kara 77 (rrparov evpvv 'Aâtcar 

6

339-] 'AAAA, ATTAP, 'ATAP, AT, 'H. 

309 

15. 54 3 eA.7re. 

7. 393 ov (})r](nv bu>(TW 77 yJr}v Tpwes ye Ke'Aoirat ( 344). 

II. 362 ef aS vvv e^vyes Oavarov, KVOV' 77 re rot ay^t 

??A0 KctKoV (so 

18. 13). 

22. 280 77 

rot e(/)r?y ye ( 

= though I did think ; so 22. 280). 

The question whether f\ (or can be used f\) to introduce a Dependent Interrogative 

depends upon a few passages. Bekker favours TJ 

in this use, and 

reads accordingly, e. g. II. I. 83 av 5e Qpdffai % /*e ffauffcis. The majority of the 

editors recognise it in three or four places : 

II. 8. ill efcreTCu ^ KOI ejjiov 56 pv paii/erai KT\. 

Od. 13. 415 uxfTO irevffofJLevos fêrcL abv K\eos, ij irov er' 6075. 

16. 137 dA.\' 0176 /-tot 

r68e etV^ KOI arpCKfcas Ka.Ta\fov, 

^ Kai Aaeprr; avrrjv 6Sov dyye\os 'iXQca, 

19. 325 TTOJS yap efjifv ffv, *iv, Sarjffeai, n 

ij yvvaiKuv 

a\\dcav irepictfu ; 

In all these places, however, there is manuscript support for el, and so La 

Roche reads in the two last. For the use of el with the Subj. see 294, with 

the Opt. 314. It is difficult to derive the use of r\ 

which Bekker supposes 

either from the emphatic or from the TJ, disjunctive or rje T\ (Horn. Bl. p. 59). 

In any case there is no sufficient ground for deserting the MSS. 

rf is often combined more or less closely with other Particles : 

as T Te ( 332, 2), rf p&v, &C. ( 343-5). *f T0t ( or ^roi), 

r)Sr] (for 

and the 17 6?j), correlative Tjfjiei' rjSe. In these combinations if 

strengthens the other Particle. Note that 

rjficV rjSe are used of slightly opposed things, especially when 

alternation is implied as 

: 

Od. 2. 68 AiWo/x,at fjfjLtv Zrjvds 'OXvjutTrtou 976^ ejuito-ro?, 

rj T avbp&v ayopas ij/xe^ Avet T}O KOtBiffl" 

l 

i. e. assembles and dissolves again in turn ' (Lat. turn turn). 

Cp. II. 8. 395 rj^v avaKXlvai . . ?}5' tTtiQtivai and so II. : 7. 301, 

Od. i. 97., 8. 383, and probably II. 6. 149 i7/xez> 


forms raj (or rtrj) 

and eTretrj, 

which are evidently rt, e^ret with a 

suffix -T) 

of an affirmative or emphasising kind. 

The ancient grammarians seem generally to have considered 

this T] 

as a distinct word. They lay down the rule that after 

eTret it is circumflexed, after rt oxytone. The form eTret is rj 

supported by the fact that it is chiefly found in the combination 

lire! if 

iroXu KT\. (II. I. 169., 4. 56, 307, &C.) 

also with pxXa ; (II. 

I. 156 eVel r] /xdAa TroAAa /xerafi) KrA., Od. IO. 465 eTret r) /xaXa 

TroAAa Tre'Trao-0e, cp. 7] /xaXa, II. 17. 34), and KCU (II. 20. 437, Od. 

1 6. 443). 

The case of rt is different. There is no ground for writing 

rt rj (like 

eTret rj). 

The form ri rj, 

which is adopted by the most 

recent editors on the authority of the ancients, is not satisfactory. 

If this 7; 

was originally the affirmative the 77, change of accent 

would indicate that it had lost its character as a separate word. 

And this is confirmed by the combination rt r) 

8e

Kt0' 

341.] 'HE, TL 

311 

1 would say a word ; or shall I keep it to myself? (so perhaps II. 

14. 190). 

One of the members of a disjunctive 

Disjunctive: 

e.g. 

question may be itself 

II. 6. 377 TIT) e/3r/ ' 

Avbpofjidx 1 ! XcVKcSAevoj e/c jueyapoto ; 

976 7777 S ya\6o)v TI 

77 S 'A6rjvaLr]s e 

Here 77 dvaTtpuv offers an alternative for yctAoW, but the main 

question is between these two alternatives on one side and es 

'AOr]vaLr)s /crA. on the other. 

Most editors of Homer recognise an interrogative use of the 

form vje, 

but erroneously."* The questions in which rje is found 

are all disjunctive, so that we must write rje ufe (II. 

6. 378., 13. 

251-, 15- 735-, 16. 12, 13, 17, Od. i. 408., i. 30., ii. 399). In 

Od. 13. 233 TLS yrj ; TLS rives bfjfJios ; avepes Zyyeydaa-LV ; 

77 itov TLS vrjorvv tvbtitXos, rje' 

TLS d/crr/ 

\ 

KrA.. 

rf TTOU means surely methinks : the sense being, ' what land is this ? 

It must be some island or else promontory/ Hence we should 

read -rje 

in the last clause, not ife (as Ameis, &c.). 

rj 

or r\ 

= than is found after Comparatives ; 

also after Verbs 

implying comparison, as ftovXoâL I prefer, (pOava) I come sooner. 

The correlative fj 

re 

r\ re appears in three places, viz. II. 9. 

276 77 T avbp&v T] T yvvaLK&v (where it seems to be~r)/xeV ?78e), 

II. 410 77 T} tfi\r]T i] 

T e/3aA' aXXov, and 17. 42 r\ r a\K7Js r\ 

T 

(f)6(3oLo (where however Aristarchus read T|8' ^8e). 

The single 

r\ 

re occurs with the meaning, or in II. 19. 148 77 T x^^v irapa 

(Toi : and with the meaning than in Od. 16. 216 ( 332). Considering 

the general difficulty of deciding between el and in 

r\ 

the text of Homer, we cannot regard the form TJ 

re as resting on 

good evidence : 

see the next section. 

341.] Dependent Interrogative Clauses. A Disjunctive 

question after a Verb of asking^ saying^ knowing, &c. is generally 

expressed by the Correlatives T|C (r\) ife as 

(if) : 

Od. l. 

174 Kat /xot TOVT ayoptvaov tTrjTVfjiov, otyp' 

v et8tXot Kat jJiLvaT eTU yj)6vov, otypa ba&fjiev, 

7) ere6z> KdAx? jbta^reêrat, 7/e Kat OVKL. 

Other examples have been given in the account of the Subjunc- 

* This has been well shown by Dr. Praetorius, in a dissertation to which I 

am largely indebted (Der homerische Gebrauch wn rj (i)e) in Fragesatzen, Cassel, 

1873). The rule as to the accentuation in a disjunctive question rests upon 

the unanimous testimony of the ancient grammarians, and is now generally 

adopted. The MSS. and the older editors give TJC or t] only.

fwei 


tive ( 280) and the Optative ( 302). In general it will be seen 

that these Dependent Clauses are the same in form as the corresponding 

direct questions. 

In a very few instances the first member of a sentence of this 

kind is without yje (TJ) 

: as 

Od. 4. 109 ovbe TL 6 ft)//ez> 

| y rj Te6vr]K (4. 837., II. 464). 

So II. IO. 544 etTr' aye . . OTTTTCOJ rowS' 'LTTTTOVS Aa/3eroz> 5 

KarabvvTS 

oîXov Tp&>a>z;, TI 

TLS cra>e Tropes KT\., Od. 4. 643. 

The combination el 

rfe 

is often found in the 

(if) 

MSS. of 

Homer; see II. 2. 367., 8. 532, Od. 4. 28, 712, 789., 16. 238, 

36o._, 17. 308., 1 8. 265., 24. 217. La Roche (following Bekker) 

reads r\ ife (if) 

in all these places. 

The common texts have in one place ei T 

-Jje, 

II. 2. 

349 yvwfievai et re êGSos vrroax^ffis fje 

teal ovni. 

In this instance, if the reading is right, there is a slight irregularity : the 

speaker beginning as if he meant to use et T ei T, and changing to the 

familiar rf 

KOA. OVK'I, But the best MSS. have ct TC t re. 

A change of construction may also be seen in Od. 24. 235-8 pepnrjpif . . 

Kv&aai /cat irepKpvvat, 

. . 

^ TT/JWT' egepeocro he debated about embracing &c., or should he 

first ask &c. 

342.] The three words JKXK, jx^, jxeV agree so nearly in meaning 

and usage that they are to be regarded as etymologically connected, 

if not merely varieties of the same original form. The 

two former (with the long a, rj) express strong affirmation = ( 

surely, indeed, &c.). 

The shorter form jmeV is also originally a 

Particle of affirmation, but has acquired derivative uses of which 

the chief are : 

(i) the concessive use, preparing us for a Clause 

with an Adversative 8e, avrap, a\kd, &c. : and (2) the use in the 

second of two Clauses with the meaning yet, nevertheless. 

Taking the generally received text of Homer, we find that jxdv occurs 24 

times, and that there are only two places in which it is not followed by 

a vowel. The exceptions are, II. 5. 895 d\\' ov pav a' ert fypov avôâi d\yi 

ixpvra, where jxav may be due to the parallel II. 17. 41 dAA' ov pav en Srjpw 

airtiprjTos irovos e'orcu, and II. 5. 765 dypei pav ol (i. e. poi) Ziropaov KT\, (cp. II. 

7. 459 dypei fjiav or' av rA.). On the other hand JAT|V, 

which occurs 10 times, 

is followed by a consonant in every place except II. 19. 45 /rat p.ty 01 TOT* 7' 

els ayopfjv laav. These facts have not yet been satisfactorily explained. 

Bekker in his second edition (1858) wrote |XT|V throughout for and jxav, sought 

to distinguish and 

JJLTJV jxev as far as the metre allowed according to Attic 

usage (H. B. pp. 34, 62). Cobet on the contrary proposed to restore p,V for 

p,T|v (Misc. Grit. p. 365), and so far as these two forms are concerned his view 

is probable enough. But how are we to explain the peculiar facts as to fjiav 

We ? 

can hardly account for it except as a genuine Homeric form, and such 

a form must have been used before consonants as well as vowels. 

If so, we

345-] 

MAN 

> 

can only suppose that an original jxdv was changed into \ntv 

whenever it came 

before a consonant, and preserved when the metre made this corruption 

impossible. 

It is to be observed also that jjidv 

and \i-f\v 

are almost confined to the 

Iliad, in which \iav occurs 22 times and jjify 7 times. In the Odyssey jjidv is 

found twice, viz. in u. 344., 17. 470, and frqv three times, in u. 582, 593., 16. 

440 = ( 11. 23. 410). It appears then that \ntv is the only form which really 

belongs to the language of the Odyssey. Consequently the substitution 

of jtv for (xdv in the Iliad niay have taken place very early. The change 

of [xv to \LT\V probably belongs to the later period when |XT|V 

had been 

established in Ionic and Attic prose. 

343.] pdv has an affirmative and generally a hortatory or 

interjectional force: as in aypei JJL&V nay come! (II. 5. 765., 7. 

459), and r\ par, ov pav, used when a speech begins in a tone of 

surprise, triumph, or the like as 

; 

II. 2. 

370 r] pax avr ayopy viKas, yepov, was 'Axai. 

12. 318 ov JJLCLV aKXr/et? AvKiyv Kara Koipaveovcnv 

TêYe/xn/Sao-iAT/ej (cp.4. 512., 13. 414-, H-454, &c.). 

An approach to the force of an emphatic yet appears in 

II. 8. 373 lorai nav OT ai> avrz (f)(,\r)v y\avK(>TTLba eurrj' 

and in dAA' ov pkv (II. 5. 895., 17. 41, 418, &c.) ; /XT) p&v (II. 8. 

512., 15. 476., 22. 304). 

344.] firji> with a hortatory force occurs in II. i. 302 t 8' aye 

WV TTtiprja-ai come, do but try. 

The combination ij pr\v 

is affirmative 

(rather than merely concessive), not so much admitting as 

insisting upon an objection or reply II. 2. 291 KCU : r] jur)z; 

770^0? 

eo-rt it is true enough that there is toil: 7. 393 r] p,r]v Tpwes ye 

KcXovrai I assure you that the Trojans bid him: 

9. 57 r] JUT)Z> 

KOI veos 

eo-o-t we must remember that you are young. In K

3H PARTICLES. [345- 

strengthens a purely affirmative 17, 

and there is no sense of contrast. 

The adversative use may be perceived, as with the simple 

Vf ( 338) and r\ \w\v, when a speaker insists on his assertion as 

true along with or in spite of other facts: e.g. in Od. 10. 64 

770)9 

"' 

??A0eS, 'Obv(TV j TLS TOL KttKOS \pa SaijUUWP 5 *J M^ && 8?) Ka0apw flaâro) 0,716 OvfJibv e\otfjLi]v KrA. (cp. JUT) judu). 

Denial insisted upon in view of some state of things is expressed 

by ou jieV, as II. 4. 372 ov /otez; 

TuSet y' ô?^ shrink ?) surely Tydeus did not. 

The form KCU peV answers closely to the Attic Kat /LMJV, 

which is 

used to call attention to a fact, especially as the ground of an 

argument; as II. 18. 362 Kat \i\v 81} TTOV rt? /ute'AAei fiporbs KT\. a 

mortal, remember, will accomplish his will: (much more a great 

goddess): II. i. 269 Kat ptv rolviv eya> jaeôjottAeoz; (^^5^ w^f^ the 

mightiest of men) : yes, and I was of their fellowship. Sometimes 

the fact is first indicated, then dwelt upon in a fresh clause with 

cat fxeV 

: II. 9. 497 o-rpeTrrot 8e re Kat êot avrot, . . Kat jute^ roi/s 

tfue'eo-o-t KrX. even gods may be moved . . 

they are indeed turned from 

their anger by sacrifice fyc.: cp. 24. 488, Od. 7. 325., 14. 85. 

in the narrative is reached : as II. 6. 

Similarly when a new point 

194 Kat jueV ot AvKiot re'juei>os rdjutoz; yes and (besides what the king 

gave) the Lycian people made him a re/uteô? (cp. 

6. 27., 23. i74-> 

24. 732). 

The adversative sense but yet, but surely is chiefly found 

after a negative, /xeV being used either alone or in combination 

with an adversative Conjunction (dAAa, drcip) 

: as 

II. I. 602 SaCvvvT, ovbt TL Ovpos eSeêro 8atros et'crr/s 

ov IAV (o'p//tyyos nor yet the phorminx. 

2. 73 v$ ptv ovb' ot avapyjoi ecrav, iroOtov ye i*tv ap\6v. 

Od. 15* 405 ov TL TTpiTT^rjdrjs Atr/f TOVOV, aAA' ayadrj jueV. 

II. 6. 123 ov [Jiv yap TTOT oTrcoTra . . drdp juez^ vvv ye KrA. 

Also after a question 

II. 15. 203 77 TL fxeraoTpe'êts ; orpeTrrat /êV re v. 

With the Article jxeV is sometimes used to bring in a 

parenthesis, which may be simply affirmative, 

opposition : 

II. I. 

234 val /ud ro8e o-KrjirTpov, TO /uer 

or indicate some 

ov Trore

346.] MEN, TOI. 315 

oovs v(TL (=by this sceptrej 

even as it shall 

never 8fc.). 

5. 892 juryrpoy rot [JLtvos k&riv adcr^TOV, OVK 

''Hprjs, rrjv IJLCV ey&> 0-7701)67} bdfJLvr]^ e 

she is indeed one whom I can hardly tame. 

Cp. II. 10. 440.,, 15. 40., 16. 141. A less emphatic use (merely 

to bring out a new point in the is 

story) not uncommon : as II. 

2. IOI !0T?7 CTKTJTTTpOV fytoV, TO fJiV KrA. I 

Cp. II. l8. 84, I$I. f 1$. 

328, 808, Od. 9. 320, 321. Further, the interposed statement 

may have a double reference, a corresponding Clause with 6e or 

avrdp serving to resume the narrative as 

: 

II. 8. 

25^ aAAa TroAv Trpwros Tpcocoz; e'Aer avopa Kopvorr/z;, 

' 

3>pabjJiovLbr]V Aye'Aaoz;* 6 jmez;

316 PARTICLES. [347- 

It has sometimes been thought that rot is originally 

the same as the Dat. 

of (TV, meaning ' I tell you ' or the like. The orthotone roiyap (or rot -ydip, 

as some MSS. read) is difficult to explain on this view. It has also been 

explained as the Locative of TO : cp. the Dat. ra> = in that case, therefore. Or it 

may be from the same stem as rts and T (as Kiihner holds, 507) 

: 

cp. irov 

(8:7 TTOI;) 

= somehow, thence surely. But the Loc. of this stem exists already 

in the form TTOI whither. 

Spa, 

yap. 

347.] The Adverb apa properly means fittingly, accordingly 

(root ap- to The forms 

fit}. ap and pa seem to be varieties produced 

by difference of stress, answering to the different values 

which the Particle may have in the sentence. Of these ap retains 

its accent, but pa, the shortest form, is enclitic. 

The ordinary place of apa is at the beginning of a Clause 

which expresses what is consequent upon something already said. 

But occasionally it follows a Participle in the same Clause, as in 

the formula 77 

rot o y &s eiTrwv /car' ap' efero (cp. II. 2,. 310., 5- 

748). 

_ 

It is to be observed, however, that apa may indicate a reason 

(as well as a consequence) that is to : 

say, we may go back from 

a fact to the antecedent which falls in with and so explains 

it. 

E.g. II. l. 429 xtoofjitvov Kara Qvôv kv&voio yvvaLKos, rrjv pa . . 

whom aTrrivptov (and this was the reason of his anger] they had taken 

away. So in the combinations os pa, eirei pa, on pa, ouj/eic' 

apa = 

because (and this is the explanation) 

: also in yrai//,i>?]OT/>?js -7T/)o/3e/3oiAa. 

apa is also found in the first of two correlative Clauses, as 

el T' ap' o y 19(0) A??s e7njme'jui(erai et 0' e /career] s. 

&s ayay a>s y*r\T ap rts toy ju?jr' ap re zôrjo-r/. 

The parallel form of the sentence enables us to regard the first 

Clause, by anticipation, as falling in with and completing the 

second. 

The Attic Spa is unknown to Homer. Whether it is identical with apa 

seems doubtful. It is worth while noticing that &pa answers in usage to the 

Homeric combination ^ a (is it then ?). 

348.] The Causal Particle yap is originally a compound of yc 

and apa, but the two elements have so completely united into a 

new whole that the fresh combination yap pa is found in Homer. 

yelp serves to indicate that the Clause in which it is used is a 

reason or explanation, usually of something just mentioned or 

suggested : as rpe

348.] 'APA, TAP. 

317 

apa more commonly (though not always) indicates the sequence 

of the facts themselves. 

Compare the double use of o, ort, o re (i) to express a cause, (2) to express 

a consequent used as an argument (cp. roiov yap KOL Trarpos, o teal ireirvvueva 

@deis, and other examples in 269). To understand the ordinary use of yap 

we have only to suppose that when a speaker was going back upon an 

antecedent fact, he generally used the combination ye &pa (y ap, yap), rather 

than the simple apa. The principle of this usage is that a causal relation 

may be indicated by a distinction of emphasis, such as y would express (as 

indeed -y* 

alone sometimes has a distinctly causal force). 

As subordinate or exceptional uses, we have to note the following 

: 

1. The use of yap to introduce a mere explanation, which 

became very common in Attic (e.g. Thuc. I. 8 naprvpLov 8e* 

A?}Aoi> Y^P *rA.) and may be traced back to Homer. Thus 

II. 8. 147 dAAa ro'8' alvbv aôs Kpabirjv KOL Ovfjiov IKCLV^L' 

"EtKTMp yap TTOre (^TJO-ft KT\. 

This idiom by which the Clause with yap becomes a kind of Object-Clause, 

in apposition to a Pronoun may be compared with the use of on and ouvexa 

with the meaning that, instead of because: see 268, 269. In both cases the 

language does not clearly distinguish between the ground of a fact (which is 

properly a separate and prior fact), and a mere analysis, or statement of 

circumstances in which a fact consists. 

2. The inversion (as 

it 

may be regarded) by 

with Y^P precedes the fact explained ; 

as 

which the Clause 

II. 2. 802 "EKTop, crol 6e fxaAtor' eTrire'AAojueu a>8e ye peac 

m>AAot yap Kara O.O-TV /xeya IT/naôu 

a 

aAArj 6' aAAcoi; yAoocnra 

/ 

7roAuo"7repecoi> 

Tolcriv e/caoros avr]p a-^/oiatz/era) (II. 13. 736., 23. 

890, Od. I. 337., 9. 319., 10. 174, 190, 226, 

383., II. 69., 12. 154, 208, 320, &c.). 

Here the speaker begins by stating something that leads up to 

his main point. Sometimes, especially when the reason is stated 

at some length, the main point is marked as an inference by TW 

so, therefore: 

II. 

as 

7. 3^8 TroAAol yap reQvacri KCLpr] 

T&V vvv at/ma KeAatz;oz> . . 

331 T(5 ere xp^? TroAefxoz; juez> a/ot' r\ol Travcrai ' 

So II. 13. 228., 15. 739., 17. 221, 338., 23. 607; there is no 

instance in the Odyssey. 

When the Clause with ydp precedes, it 

may be opposed to the 

preceding context hence the yap may be combined with adversative 

Conjunctions, : 

as 

II. 12. 326 vvv 8' ejuTrrjs yap KT/pes eeoTa Qavaroio . . 

lo^v KT\. (cp. II. 7. 73., 17. 338., 24- 223).

31 8 PARTICLES. [348. 

Od. 14. 355 AAA 1 oi) 

yap vfyiv lâtVero Kepbiov elvai, 

fx,ateo-#at Trporepco' rot jua> irdXiv avns (- 

vrjos eVi y\acf)vpfjs (cp. Od. 19. 591). 

dXXa 

ydtp also occurs without a subsequent Clause : 

Od. IO. 2OI K\CLIOV 6e Atyeoos, OaXepbv Kara 

dAA' ov yap TLS Trprj^ts eytyzêro 

Here it has the force of f but be that as it 

may/ f but the truth 

is ' (Riddell, Dig. 147). That is, 

dXXa yap meets what has 

preceded not by a simple opposition, but by one which consists in 

going back to a reason for the opposite which may be enough 

: 

to convey the speaker's meaning. 

In these uses of yap the peculiarity 

is more logical than grammatical. 

The yap (or 

rather the apa contained in it) 

indicates 

that the Clause gives a reason or explanation, which the speaker 

chooses to mention before the consequent or thing to be explained. 

The use only strikes us because the English for 

is restricted to 

causal clauses placed in the more natural order. 

With 8e yap and dXXa ydp it is incorrect (as Riddell shows, 

1. c.) 

to treat the Clause with yap as a parenthesis (writing e.g. 

vvv 6' IJUTT^S yap /crA.). 

The Clause so introduced is 

always in 

opposition to the preceding context, so that the 8e or dXXd has its 

full force. 

3. After the Relative 6's, rj, o : as 

II. 12. 344 afJL(f)OTpu> fj.ev juaAAozr 6 yap K o\ apLa-rov airavTaw 

etrj (so II. 23. 9, Od. 34. 190). 

Od. I. 286 (Meue'Aaos) os yap bevraros 7?A0ez> (cp. 17. 172). 

So with &>s ydp=:for t/ius, and Va ydp (II. 10. 127). 

These are generally regarded as instances of the original use of 

05 as a Demonstrative ( 265). But it is only the use of yap that 

is peculiar; or rather, this is only another case in which yap is 

not translated layfor. It will be seen that 6s yap may always be 

replaced by 6s apa without changing the sense. 

4. In abrupt questions, and expressions of surprise 

: as 

II. I. 123 TTCOS yap rot Oto&ovcri yepas ^yaOvfjLOL 'A)(aiot ; 

why, how are the Greeks to give you a prize / 

1 8. 182 'I/H Ota, rt? yap

350.] TAP, OTN, AH, NY, 0HN. 319 

the use of 8^ and r apa in questions, > in Homer does not properly express inference, or even 

consequence (like apa). 

Its use is to affirm something with reference 

to other facts, already mentioned or known ; 

hence it 

may 

generally be represented by a phrase such as after all, be this as it 

may, &c. E.g. 

II. 

2. 

350 (^THU yap ovv for 1 do declare that fyc. 

Od. II. 350 fetz/oj 8e rA^ra), fjidXa irep VOO-TOLO xcm^coz/, 

l/u/m}? ovv 

7TL{jilvaL ts avpiov (nevertheless to wait]. 

Like apa, it is used to emphasise correlative Clauses, but only 

with the negative oure OUTC and j^re jj^re 

: as 

Od. 6. 192 ovr ovv fo-Orjros 8ev??o-eai OVT rev aXXov. 

II. 16. 97 at yap. . jurjre TLS ovvTpuxtw . . jur/re rts 'Apyeuoy, KT\. 

(so II. 8. 7., 17. 20., 20. 7, Od. i. 414., 2. 200., 

ii. 200., 16. 302., 17. 401). 

The combination y' 

oSi/ 

(not to be written yovv in Homer) 

occurs only twice, with the meaning in any case : 

II. 5- 258 et y ovv Tpos ye (frvyyo-i, if one of the two does 

(after all) escape. 

1 6. 

30 M^) ^/^ 7 ovv OVTOS ye XajBoi \6Xos 

(cp. 19. 94 Kara 5' ovv erepo^ ye 7re8r/(re^). 

As an emphatic Particle of transition ovv is found in pev ouk (II. 

9. 550, and several times in the Odyssey), much more frequently 

in the combinations lire! oui>, d>s ouc. In these an approach to the 

illative force may perhaps be observed. 

350.] 817 is 

properly a temporal Particle, meaning now, at 

length (Lat. jam) : hence it implies arriving at a result, as e o 

8r) ra 7rp

efoTTtVa) 


so as to form one syllable, it is sometimes written 8', and so is 

liable to be confused with Se. This occurs especially in the combinations 

8rj a.v, 8fj auTos, STJ OUTWS : as II. I. 

131 JU.T) 6r) ovrcds, 340 

et Trore 8r) avre, 10. 385 TT?) dr) o#ro>s, 2O. 22O 6s 8rj affrveioTaros 

/crA.. So in el 8' aye the sense generally requires 8rj : see 321. 

Note that Sfjra, Sr^Gei/ (cognate or derivative forms) are post- 

Homeric ; 

as also are the combinations Srjirou, KTpOV OVK O\(.yOV 7Tp. 

II. 2. 

236 OtKCtSe 7Tp (TVV VV]V(T\ Vt&\J*tQa. 

( 

let us have nothing short of return home}. 

8. 

452 crQ&'iv 5e irpiv irep Tp6fj,os eAAa/3e âibiâ yvla 

even beforehand trembling seized your knees. 

13. 72 apiyvaiTOL 8e OOL 7Tp gods, surely, are easily known. 

Od. 4. 34 

at K TToOi Zev? 

| Trep irava-rj oivos.

354-] 

nE P, TE. 321 

So with Relatives, os Trep the very one who, cos ecrerat Trep (Attic 

COCTTrep Kttt (TTGii)jUSt dS it Will be, OTf Tlp JUSt wkeU. AlsO et Trep 

even if, 

and ê' Trep or r; Trep 

ev^ ^/to. 

Usually, however, Trep implies a sense of opposition ; 

i. e. it 

emphasises something as true in spite of a preceding assertion : 

as ov TL bvvrjcr(u a^vv^vos Trep thou wilt not be able, however much 

vexed, TroAe'es Trep eoVres many as they are, TTLVOVTCL Trep IJUTT^S even 

though drinking, &c. ; 

and with Substantives, II. 20. 65 rd re 

^^ o-Tvytova-i 0eot Trep w^'

322 PARTICLES. [355- 

taken away what you gave (where we should rather emphasise 

8oVres) : Od. 4. 193 ov rot e'ycoye re'pTro// obvpofjitvos . . z>e/jteo-

357-] or, MH. 323 

The general use of ou is to deny the predication to which it is 

attached (while /XT} forbids or deprecates}. In some instances, 

however, ou does not merely negative the Verb, but expresses the 

opposite meaning : ov (frrjfju is not / do not say, but / deny, refuse ; 

OVK l Krepas ovbtv 

6/xotoy, and perhaps II. 22. 513 ovbtv


ov K rts ovbt tboLTO, ovbe Oe&v [AaKapav 

: II. 6. 58 fJ^rjb^ 

yaorept fJLrjrrjp Kovpov kovra

359-] 

lest she have persuaded thee (i. e. prove to have persuaded) cp. Od. 21. 395 

fjir) Kepa lires !8oiej> lest worms should (be found to) have eaten ( 303, i). Cp. Matth. 

xvi. 5 irf\d6ovTo aprovs XafieTv they found that they had forgotten (Field's Otium 

Noroicense, Pt. 3, p. 7). 

The use of the Past Indicative after Verbs of fearing is closely parallel to the 

use in Final Clauses, noticed in 325. While the Clause, as an expression of 

the speaker's mind about an event his fear or his purpose should have 

a Subj. or Opt., the sense that the happening of the event is matter of past 

fact causes the Indicative to be preferred. Cp. the Modal uses noticed in 

324-326, and the remark in 323 as to the tendency in favour of the 

Indicative. 

The essence of these idioms is the combination of the imperative 

tone shown in the use of ^ with the Mood proper to a 

simple assertion. The tendency to resort to the form oi prohibition 

in order to express strong or passionate denial 

may be 

seen in the use of p] with the Optative in deprecating a supposition 

( 299, e), and of fjnq with the Subj. in oaths, as Od. 12. 

300., 18. 56. 

359.] Conditional Clauses. The rule which prescribes ^ as 

the negative Particle to be used in every Clause of Conditional 

meaning does not hold universally. In Homer 

When (a) the Verb is a Subjunctive or Optative 

is jjnq 

used : 

the very few exceptions being confined to OVK etfe'Aoj (II. 3. 289., 

which are treated almost as 

15. 492) and OVK eao> (II. 20. 139), 

Compounds ( 355). Cp. the use of OVK e0e'Aco in Final Clauses, 

as II. 5- 233 jurj . . juarrjo-erou ovb' efle'Arjroz; KrA. 

With (b) the Relatives 09, GO-OS, &c. when the Verb is an 

Indicative ou is generally used as 

; 

II. 2. 143 Tracrt /utera r n\t]0vv, 6Vot ov fiovXrjs TTaKovo~av. 

Od. 3. 348 cos re' rev TJ irapa TiapTtav avtiiJiovos rj Tremx/ 30^ 

to ov TL yXaivai KrA. (a general description). 

II. 2. 

338 vrjTHaxois, ot? ov TL KrA. jute'Aei (so 7. 236., 18. 363). 

The only clear instance of u-rj is II. 2. 301 eore 8e irdvres pdpTvpoi, 

ovs /AT) K?7pes (Bav davdroio tyepovcrai, where the speaker wishes to 

make an exception to what he has just said. In Od. 5. 489 o> /mr) 

Trdpa ytLTovts aAAot we may supply either eto-t or ecoo-t : the latter 

is found in the similar cases Od. 4. 164., 23. 118. But Hesiod 

uses [AT) 

with the Indie.; see Theog. 387, Op. 225. 

With cl and the Indicative ou is used when the Clause 

(c) 

with el precedes the Principal Clause as 

: 

II. 4. 1 60 et Tre/o ydp re KCH CLVTLK.' 'OAv/zTTios OVK ere'Aecro-ej 

and similarly in II. 9. 435., 15. 213, Od. 19. 85, and the (eight) 

other places quoted in 316. But when the Clause with el follows 

the other, ^ is used, as in the sentences of the form 

II. 2. 155 eV0a Key . . VOCTTOS trvyQ-t) \ 

et JUT) 

KrA.


The only instance in which this rule fails seems to be 

Od. 9. 410 et jJLV brj fjirf TLS tre /3tae rat olov eoVra, 

I'ova-ov y ov TTOOS com Atos /xeydAou dAeao-0at. 

Here w ns may be used rather than ou ns in order to bring out 

more clearly the misunderstanding of the OUTIS of Polyphemus. 

This curious law was pointed out by A. R. Vierke, in a valuable dissertation 

De fxf] particulae cum indicative conjunctae usu antiquiore (Lipsiae, 1876). With 

regard to the ground of it, 

we may observe that a Clause with el in most cases 

order. When it is 

precedes the apodosis and this is ; probably the original 

inverted it may be that the use of u/f| 

instead of ou has a prohibitive character, 

as though the condition were added as an afterthought, in bar of what has 

been already said. In any case the inversion throws an emphasis on the 

Clause, which would account for the preference for p,T| ; 

see 358. 

360.] Infinitive and Participle. It appears from comparison 

with the forms of negation in the oldest Sanscrit that the negative 

Particles were originally used only with finite Verbs. The 

negation of a Noun was expressed by forming 

it into a Compound 

with the prefix an- or a- (Greek d^-, d-) 

and the Infinitives 

and Participles were treated in this respect as Nouns. The 

: 

first exception to this rule in Greek was probably the use of ou' 

: 

with the Participle a use which is well established in Homer. 

ou with the Infinitive is used in Homer (as 

in Attic) after 

Verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, &c. ( 237); 

as in II. 16. 61 

r] 

rot e$r?z> ye ov Trplv /xrjznfyxoz; KaraTTavo-^fv KT\. : Od. 5- 34 2 

e uot OVK 

This use however is to be compared with that noticed above ( 355), in 

which an ov which belongs in sense to the Infinitive is placed before the 

governing Verb ; 

as ou rov efjiov ôkov, 

dAAa // eatrat. 

An Infinitive which stands as Object of a Verb of saying, &c. 

takes \ir\ 

when it expresses command or wish : as II. 3. 434 TTCIV- 

362.] MH, KEN, 'AN. 327 

I. 37 eTret iTpo ol enroll; T/êt? ju?jr' 

/crA. &?


the Iliad and 157 times in the Odyssey. Thus the proportion 

is more than 3:1, and is not materially different in the two 

poems. 

It is part of Tick's well known theory that &v was unknown 

in the original Homeric dialect (see Appendix F) and a systematic 

attempt to restore the exclusive use of KCI/ in Homer has 

: 

been made by a Dutch scholar, J. van Leeuwen,* who has proposed 

more or less satisfactory emendations of all the places in 

which oV now appears. It is impossible to deny the soundness 

of the principles on which he bases his enquiry. When the 

poems were chiefly known through oral recitation there must 

have been a constant tendency to modernise the language. With 

Attic and Ionic reciters that tendency must have led to oV 

creeping into the text, sometimes in place of Key, sometimes 

where the pure Subj. or Opt. was required by Homeric usage. 

Evidence of this kind of corruption has been preserved, as Van 

Leeuwen points out, in the variae lectiones of the ancient critics. 

Thus in II. I. 168 eVei Ke Ka/xco 

is now read on the authority of 

Aristarchus ; 

but Zirrjv KeKa/oico and eTrrjz/ 

Ke Kajuco were also ancient 

readings, and tnriv is found in all our MSS. Similarly in II. 7. 

5 Aristarchus read k^d Ke Kajouoo-tu, and the MSS. are divided 

between eTret Ke and l-rtfy Ke (or tirrjv KeK.). 

There is a similar 

variation between the forms fy and ei ice 

(or 

at ice) 

in the phrases 

at K te&rjo-Oa, ai K efle'Arjo-t, &c. Thus in II. 4. 353 ( 

= 9. 359) 

the MSS. nearly all have 

ox/êat rjv e0c'A.7?o-0a 

KOL al KV rot ra 

but al K' efle'ATjo-fla, 

which gives a better rhetorical effect, is found 

in II. 8. 471 Jtyeat at K' e0e'A?7o-0a (so all MSS., r}v e0. as a v. I. in 

A), also in II. 13. 260., 18. 457, Od. 3. 92, &c. Similarly in 

II. 1 6. 

453 ^7I> ' ^*) T v 7 e AtTrry the v. I. kn-^v is given by good 

MSS. (D, G, L, and as a variant in A). And the line II. n. 

797 MupjutSoVtoZJ, aL Key rt (ôcos Aavaolcri, yzvr\ai is repeated in 

II. 1 6. 

39 with the variation r\v irou for ai K>. In such cases we 

can see the intrusion of o> actually in process. 

Again, the omission of oV may be required by the metre, or by 

the indefinite character of the sentence ( 283) : e.g. in II. 15. 209 

OTTTTOT' av io-6}jLopov efle'Arjo-t 

both these reasons point to oTnrore 

Fio-ojjiopov KrA. So in II. 2. 228 &i> TiToXieOpov read 

eSr"1 e'Aoo/mez; 

VT TTT., and in Od. n. 17 ovO' OTTOT hv o-retx^(rt 

read ovO' oTrore 

(ore Ke, which Van Leeuwen proposes in these two places, 

is not 

admissible, since the reference is 

general). 

Several reasons combine to make it probable that the forms r\v 

* De particularum KCV et av apud Homerum usu (Mnemosyne, xv. p. 75). The 

statistics given above are taken from this valuable dissertation.

362.] 

'AN IN HOMER. 329 

and are lirl]v post-Homeric. The contraction of el av, eirel &v is 

contrary to Homeric analogies ( 378*), and could hardly have 

taken place until o.v became much commoner than it is in Homer. 

Again, the usage with regard to the order of the Particles 

excludes the combinations r\v be, r\v Trep, r\v yap for which 

Homer would have ei 5' &v, ei Trep av, ei yap av ( 365). Again, 

r\v cannot properly be used in a general statement or simile, and 

whenever it is so used the metre allows it to be changed into el : 

e.g. in II. I. 166 drap TJV TTOTC bao-fjibs iKrjrat Od. : 5. 120 r\v ris 

re $'du\v Tj-otTJo-er' aKOLTyv (rj 

ris re in several MSS.) Od.n. 159 

: 

rjv M TLS ex?? wepyta rfa Od. ' 12. 288 rfv TTCOS efcnrforjs eAflrj II. 

: 

2O. 172 nva 

-tjv TTecfrvrj (in a Similar simile). arguments apply 

with even greater force to ltrl\v. 

Of the 48 instances there are 

1 8 in general sentences, and several others (II. 4. 239., 16. 95, 

Od. 3. 45., 4. 412., 5. 348., .11. 119-. 15; 3 21. 159) in whicl1 

the reference to the future is so indefinite that eiret with a pure 

Subj. is admissible. It cannot be accidental that in these places, 

with one exception (Od. n. 192), irf]v is followed by a consonant, 

so that en-ei can be restored without any metrical difficulty. 

On 

the other hand, in 13 places in which em^ is followed by a vowel 

the reference is to a definite future event, and accordingly we 

may read liret K'. In the combination eirrjv 8??, 

which occurs 

seven times, we should probably read eTret 8?j, 

or in some places 

eTret KZV (as 

in Od. n. 221). 

The form l-neti&v occurs once, in a 

simile (II. 13. 285) 

: hence we should read eirel SYJ (not eTret Kez>, 

as Bekker and Nauck, or at KZV as Menrad). 

The distinction between general statements and those which refer to an 

actual future occurrence has hardly been sufficiently attended to in the conjectures 

proposed by Van Leeuwen and others. Thus in Od. 5. 121 fy ris re 

i\ov iroirjatT' aKoirrfv (in a general reflexion) Van Leeuwen would read at KK'V 

ris re : and in Od. 12. 288 fy TTOJS fâmvrjs eXOij he proposes ai KC irov. So in 

II. 6. 489, Od. 8. 553 tirty ra wpura yevrjrai (of the lot of man) he bids us read 

eirci K. If any change is wanted beyond putting lirci for the most 

4irf|i', 

probable would be circt T : see 332. On the other hand he would put irt 

for 6TTT|v in such places as Od. I. 293 avrap enty 81) ravra. Te\VT7]ffris re KOI Zpgrjs 

(cp. Od. 5. 363., 1 8. 269), where a definite future occasion is implied, and 

consequently im K*V (which he reads in Od. 4. 414) would be more Homeric. 

read eTret e TroAeos 

In Od. 6. 262 avrap ITTTJV TTO\IOS cTrtjSôynei/ we should perhaps 

(-) 

: 

see 94, 2. 

In a few places the true reading may be t or eim with the : 

Opt. as Od. 8. 

511 alaa yap fy diroXeaOcu, tTrfjV iro\is dp.(piKa\vif/r} (tirel . . ap,iKa\v\f/ai, as in II. 

19. 208 we should read ewei Tiffa.ifj.eOa) : Od. 21. 237 ( = 383) fjv 

5e ns . . ditovffr} 

Hr] n 6vpae irpo0\waKtv (et 5e' rts . . d.Kovffcu') II. : 15. 504., 17. 245., 22. 55, 487. 

The form or' dv occurs in our text in 29 places, and in 22 of these the metre 

admits ore K' which Van Leeuwen (x')> accordingly would restore. The 

mischief however must lie deeper. Of the 22 places there are 13 in which 

or' av appears in the leading clause of a simile (us 8' or' av and in three 

),

330 PARTICLES. 

others (II. 2. 397, Od. n. 18., 13. 101) the sense is general so that ore ' 

is 

: 

admissible in six only (II. 7. 335, 459., 8. 373, 475, Od. 2. 374., 4. 477). It 

cannot be an accident that there are so many cases of oV dV where Homeric 

usage requires the pure Subj., and no similar cases of ore KCV : but for that 

very reason we cannot correct them by reading ore '. Meanwhile no better 

solution has been proposed, and we must be content to note the 16 places as 

in all probability corrupt or spurious. 

It is one thing,, however, to find that &v has encroached upon 

Key in Homer, and another thing to show that there are no uses 

of ay which belong to the primitive Homeric language. 

The restoration of Ke(y) is generally regarded as especially easy 

in the combination OUK ay, for which ou Key can always be written 

without affecting either sense or metre. The change, however, 

is 

open to objections which have not been sufficiently considered. 

It will be found that OVK av occurs 61 times in the ordinary text 

of Homer : while ou Key occurs 9 times, and ou KC 7 times. Now 

of the forms Key and KC the first occurs in the Iliad 272 times, the 

second 222 times. Hence, according to the general laws of 

probability, ou Key and ou Ke may be expected to occur in the same 

proportion and in the ordinary text this is the case But 

: 

(9 : 7). 

if 

every OUK oV were changed into ou Key, there would be 7 

instances of ou Key against 7 of ou KC. This clearly could not be 

accidental : hence it follows that OUK ay must be retained in all or 

nearly all the passages where it now stands.* And if OUK ay is 

right, we may infer that the other instances of oV with a negative 

22 in number are equally unassailable. 

Another group of instances in which ay is evidently primitive 

consists of the dactylic combinations 05 irep &v, rf irep ay, 

et irep ay. 

Van Leeuwen would write os K &c. 

7re/>, ; 

but in Homer irep 

usually comes immediately after the Relative or el, 

and before Key 

( 365)- Similarly ou8e yap ay (II. 24. 566) and Topa yap ay (Od. 

2. 77) cannot be changed into ov8e Ke yap, rotypa K since the 

-yap, 

order ydp Key is invariable in Homer. In these uses, accordingly, 

ay 

may be defended by an argument which was inapplicable to 

to Key. 

OUK ay, viz. the impossibility of making the change 

The same may be said of the forms in which ay occurs under 

the ictus of the verse, preceded by a short monosyllable (w 

as ), 

II. I. 

205 fjs VTipo7fXirj(ri, ra)(' &v 7rore OVJJLOV oAeVa-r?. 

Od. 2. 76 et x.' iV 6 '- 5 7 e

363.] KEN, 'AN. 

331 

II. 4. 164 eao-erat âp or' av TTOT' KT\. (cp. I. 519., 4- 53v> 

6. 448., 9. 101). 

8. 406 o(f)p' clbfi yXavK&iTLS or av w irarpl //a^rai ( 420). 

So xai av and TOT' ai> (see the instances, 363, 2, c), au 8' ai> (II. 6. 

329), os ay (Od. 21. 294, cp. Od. 4. 204., 18. 27, II. 7. 231). In 

this group, as in the last, we have to do with recurring- forms, 

sufficiently numerous to constitute a type> with a fixed rhythm, 

as well as a certain tone and style. 

The combination of av and *ev in the same Clause is found in 

a very few places, and is probably not Homeric. In four places 

(II. ii. 187, 202, Od. 5. 361., 6. 259) we have o$p av pev K*V 

KT\., where the place of av is anomalous ( 365). For OVT av KV 

(II. 13. 127) we should probably read OVT dp KZV, and so in Od. 9. 

334 TOVS dp K (or rather ovs ap *e) KOI rjQtXov avrbs eAeV0ai (cp. 

II. 7. 182 ov ap' jjOtXov avToi). In Od. 1 8. 

318 TJV irtp yap KC 

should be et Tre/o yap KC (supra). 

363.] Uses of KZV and av. It will be convenient, by way of 

supplement to what has been said in the chapter on the uses of 

the Moods, (i) to bring together the chief exceptions to the 

general rule for the use of K.CV or av in Subordinate Clauses and 

; 

(2) to consider whether there are any differences of meaning or 

usage between the two Particles. 

I . In Final Clauses which refer to what is still future, the use 

of KCP or av prevails ( 282, 285, 288, 293, 304). But with 

certain Conjunctions (especially wy, ows, f lva, ocfrpa) there are 

many exceptions see 285-289, 306-307. When the : purpose 

spoken of is not an actual one, but either past or imaginary, the 

Verb is generally ' pure.' 

In Conditional Clauses the Subj. and Opt. generally take KW 

or av when the governing Verb is in the Future, or in a Mood 

which implies a future occasion (Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative 

with Key or av). 

On the other hand in similes, maxims, 

and references to frequent or indefinite occasions, the Particle is 

not used. But 

(a) Sometimes the pure Subj. 

is used after a Future in order 

to show that the speaker avoids referring to a particular occasion : 

cp. 11. 21. HI o-


real exceptions will generally be found where a Clause is added 

to restrict or qualify a general supposition already made : 

II. 3. 25 juaAa yap re KCtrecrfliet, et irp av avTov 

o-euctiVTCLL (even in the case when fyc.). 

Od. 21. 293 olvos ere rpooet fxeAir]^?, 6s re Kai d'AAovs 

/3AdWet, 6s av \j,iv \ avov e'A?? (in the case of him 

who takes it greedily). 

So II. 6. 225., 9. 501, 524., 20. 166, Od. 15. 344., 19. 332 

( 289, 292, 296). In these places we see the tendency of the 

language to extend the use of icei/ or civ beyond its original limits, 

in other words, to state indefinite cases as if they were definite 

a tendency which in later Greek made the use of av universal in 

such Clauses, whether the event intended was definite or not. 

The change is analogous to the use of the Indicative in a general Conditional 

protasis ; when, as Mr. Goodwin ' 

expresses it, 

the speaker refers to one of 

the cases in which an event may occur as if it were the only one that is, 

' 

he states the general supposition as if it were particular (Moods and Tenses, 

467). The loss of the Homeric use of TC, 

and the New Ionic use of 6 TJ 

TO 

as a Eelative with indefinite as well as definite antecedents, are examples of 

the same kind. 

2. Up to this point the Particles Key and have been treated 

as practically equivalent. There are however some differences of 

usage which remain to be pointed out. 

(a) In Negative Clauses there is a marked V 

preference for 

In the ordinary text of the Iliad oV is found with a negative 53 

times (nearly a third of the whole number of Key is 

instances), 

similarly used 33 times (about one-twentieth). The difference is 

especially to be noticed in the Homeric use of the Subj. as a kind 

of Future ( 275, 276). In affirmative clauses of this type KCJ/ 

is frequent, civ very rare in negative clauses : ai> is 

only found. 

(b) 

Sentence : 

Kk is often used in two or more successive Clauses of a 

e.g. in both protasis and apodosis, as 

II. I. 

324 ei 8e' Ke JUT) btoyo-Lv, eyo> 8e Kez; avrbs eXco/zat /crA. 

In Disjunctive Sentences, as 

II. 1 8. 

308

363.] KEN, 'AN. 333 

av, on the other hand, is especially used in the second of two 

parallel 

or connected Clauses as 

: 

II. 19. 2,2,8 aAAa xprj TOV y&v KaTaOa,TTTiv os K ddv^(Ti . . 

oVcrot 8' av iroAejuioto Trept orvyepoto Anrcoyrat KrA. 

Od. 19. 329 os jutey aiTrjvrjS avros cr? 

KOI aTTtjvla et8f) 

. . 

6s 8' av afjiVfjiMV avrbs cry KrA. 

So II. 21. 553 ei ptv KV . . et 8 s &^ KrA.; II. 3. 288 ff. et 

ptv Ktv 

el g e ' Ke e 8' &,, (the last an alternative to the second). 

The only instance of av in two parallel Clauses is 

Od. II. 17 ov6' OTTOT av o-ret'xô-t Trpos ovpavbv aa-Tpovra 

ov6' or av a\^ CTTI 

yalav KrA. 

and there we oug-ht to read oTiore oreô-i, according to the 

regular Homeric use of the Subj. in general statements ( 289, 

2,). 

(c) 

There are several indications of the use of av as a more 

emphatic Particle than **v. Thus the combination rj T av surely 

in that case occurs 7 times in the Iliad, TJ 

re KC^ only twice. 

Compare the force of K


in the orthotone and adversative 8e', 

which stands to re and the 

correlated re re somewhat as we have supposed 

civ to stand to 

Key and Key 

Key. 

364.] Original meaning of dv and KCV. The identity of the Greek dv with 

the Latin and Gothic an has been maintained with much force and ingenuity 

by Prof. Leo Meyer. The following are some of the chief points established 

by his dissertation.* 

1. The Latin an is used by the older poets in the second member of a 

disjunctive question, either direct, as egone an ille injurie facimus ? or indirect, 

as utrum scapulae plus an callus calli habeat nescio (both from Naevius). The use 

in single questions is a derivative one, and properly implies that the question 

is put as an alternative as 

: 

Plaut. Asin. 5. i, 10 credam istuc, si te esse hilarum videro. AR. An tu 

me tristem putas ? do you then think me (the opposite, viz.} sad ? 

Amph. 3. 3, 8 derides qui scis haec dudum me dixisse per jocum. SO. an 

illut joculo dixisti ? equidem serio ac vero ratus. 

In these places f we see how an comes to mean then on the contrary, then in the 

other case, &c. So in Naevius, eho an vicimus ? what then, have we conquered ? 

2. In Gothic, again, an is used in questions of an adversative character : 

as in Luke x. 29 an hvas ist mis nehvundja (' he willing to justify himself, said x : 

and who is my neighbour ? ' John xviii. 37 an nuh thiudans is thu l art thou a 

king then ? ' 

3. These instances exhibit a close similarity between the Latin and the 

Gothic an, and suggest the possibility of a Disjunctive Particle (or, or else} 

coming to express recourse to a second alternative (if not, then \ and so 

acquiring the uses of the Greek dv. This supposition, as Leo Meyer goes on 

to show, is confirmed by the Gothic aiththau and thau, which are employed 

(i) as Disjunctive Particles, or, or else, and (2) to render the Greek av, chiefly 

in the use with the Past Indicative. Thus we have, as examples of aiththau 

Matth. v. 36 ni magt ain tagl hveit aiththau svart gataujan thou canst not 

make one hair white or black. 

Matth. ix. 1 7 aiththau distaurnand balgeis (neither do men put new wine into 

old bottles} else the bottles break. 

John xiv. 2 niba veseina, aiththau qvethjau if it were not so, I would have toll 

you [= it is not so, else I would have told you]. 

John xiv. 7 ith kunthedeith mik, aiththau kunthedeith &c. if ye had known 

me, ye should have known &c. 

Similarly thau is used (i)' to translate $ in double questions, as in Matth. 

xxvii. 17 whom will ye that I release unto you, Barabbas or (thau) Jesus'? and 

after a Comparative = ( than) frequently also : (2) in a Conditional Apodosis, 

esp. to translate dv With Past Tenses, as 

Luke vii. 39 sa ith vesi praufetus ufkunthedi thau this man, if fie were a 

prophet, would have known. 

* 'AN im Griechischen, Lateinischen und Gothischen, Berlin 1880. The parallel 

between the Greek dv and the Gothic thau and aiththau was pointed out by 

Hartung (Partikeln, ii. p. 227). 

[ Taken from Draeger's H-istorische Syntax, i. p. 321, where many other 

examples will be found.

"" 

365.] KEN, 'AN' ORDER OF PARTICLES. 335 

Sometimes also with the Present (where there is no dv in the Greek), the 

meaning being that of a solemn or emphatic Future : 

Mark xi. 26 ith jabai jus ni afletith, ni thau . . afletith if ye do not forgive 

neither will . . forgive (oi5e . . atyrjafi). 

Matth. v. 20 ni thau qvimith (except your righteousness shall exceed (fee.) ye shall 

in no case enter &c. (ov /) etaeA^rc). 

This use evidently answers to the Homeric Kev or dv with the Subj. and Fut. 

Ind. : ni thau qvimith = OVK av e^drjre, ni thau afletith = ovd' av d


2. f*eV 

and 8e, also re in its use as a connecting word, come 

before other Particles. Hence we have ot 8e 8?} et 8e' KCV eyo> 

8e' Ke rot et 8' az> ov ^kv yap o#re Ke ovr' apa, &c. 

fxeV may be placed later when it emphasises a particular word, or 

part of a clause, especially in view of a following clause with 8e, 

as II. 9. 300 et 8e' rot 'Arpeto^s /xez; d7rrJx^ ero < 8' aXXovs Trep 

KrA., Od. 4. 23., 

ii. 385., 18. 67, &c. ; 

and in such collocations 

as trot 8' TI 

rot jueu eyo> KrA., eV0' ?J 

rot rot)? jueu KrA. Cp. also 

Od. 15. 405 ov TL TreptTrArjfl?)? \ir]v T0(rov, ctAA* ayaOj] piv. 

The form o(p' av JJLZV KZV is probably corrupt, see 362 ad fin. 

3. Of the remaining Particles y^P comes first : as 77 yap Ke 

rt? yap Ke et Trep yap Ke ro$pa yap av a>? yap vv rot, &c. 

Among the other Particles note the sequences Kat vv KZV e apa 

8rj oTTTToVe Kv brf rj pa vv rt? rot vv. But apa 

is sometimes 

put later in the clause, as cos etTrcoz; Kar' ap' eêro, cp. II. 5. 748 

r/ 

Hp77 o"e juao^rtyt 6oG>s eTTt/xater' ap I'TITTOU?. 

re in its generalising use comes after other Particles : hence 5e 

re fj.v re yap re dAAa re 6' apa re os pa re OVT ap re 

ov vv re. 

4. The Indefinite ns and the corresponding Adverbs, irou, TTWS, 

&c. follow the Particles. Hence we have ore Ke'z> rt? 

TTW, irore, 

at KeV TTCOJ 6V av Trore ov pa rts by TTOV vv TTOV TTOV rt 

r? o~e, 

&C. 

But T follows TIS ( 332), as in Kat yap rt? re, os rts re. And 

sometimes os ns is treated as a single word, as in ov nva pev (II. 

2. 188), os TIS 8e (II. 15. 743), 6s Tls Ke (II. io. 44, Od. 3. 355). 

t 

Similarly we find ei TTOTC in the combination et 

the more regular et 817 Trore. 

Trore by, as well as 

Kat OVK e0e'A.a)z> rtj 

TIS sometimes comes later, as II. 4. 300 o

AtyuTrroVSe 

ORDER. 337 

a line which has the bucolic caesura : II. 3. 368 ovb' e/3aAoV \LIV 

(v. 1. ovb' edajuao-o-a), 5- 104 et ereo'z; //e, 7- 79 otypa irvpos /-xe, II. 

380 0)9 ov rev e/x/xei'at vto'9. 

The second half of the line is treated as a fresh beginning of a 

sentence. 

Without assuming that the Homeric usage as to the place of Particles and 

Enclitics is invariable, we may point out that in several places where these 

rules are violated the text is doubtful on other grounds. Thus 

II- 3- J 

73 &s o

338 METRE. [366. 

II. 5. 273 el TOVTU KC Xafioinfv KT\. For KC (without meaning here) read -ye. 

II. 14. 403 ITTCI TfTpairro irpbs I6v ol. The sense seems to require irpbs Wvv 

in the direction of his aim, cp. irdaav CTT' Wvv for every aim, av' Wvv straight onwards 

(ii. 21. 303, od. 8.377). 

II. 24. 53 JUT) . . vefnffffr]0cafj.v ol TjfAfis. Read-ô/icr, omitting ot. 

A less strict usage may be traced in the loth book of the Iliad : cp. 1. 44 

77 rt's 6P, 242 et plv 5f; erapov 76 K\fvfTe JJL aiirbv tXtadai, 280 vvv avrf paXiara. 

fj. (pi\ai, 344 dAA.' JcD/xei/ niv, 453 OVKCT' Zireira av Trrjf^d TTOT' effO'eai. The subject, 

however, needs more detailed investigation. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

METRE AND QUANTITY. 

The Hexameter. 

366.] The verse in which the Homeric poems are composed 

the heroic hexameter consists of six feet, of equal length, each of 

which again 

is divided into two equal parts, viz. an accented 

part or arsis (on which the rhythmical beat or ictus and an 

falls), 

unaccented part or thesis. In each foot the arsis consists of one 

long syllable, the thesis of one long or two short syllables ; 

except the last thesis, which consists of one syllable, either long 

or short. 

The fifth thesis nearly always consists of two short syllables, 

thus producing the characteristic w w ^ which marks the 

end of each hexameter. 

The last foot is probably to be regarded as a little shorter than 

the others, the time being 

filled 

up by the pause at the end of 

the verse. The effect of this shortening is heightened by the 

take the 

dactyl in the fifth place, since the two short syllables 

full time of half a foot. 

367.] Diaeresis and Caesura. Besides the recognised stops 

or pauses which mark the separation of sentences and clauses 

there is in general a slight pause or break of the voice between 

successive words in the same clause, sufficient to affect the 

rhythm of the verse. Hence the rules regarding 

Caesura. 

By Diaeresis is meant the coincidence of the division between 

words with the division into feet. The commonest place of 

diaeresis in the hexameter is after the fourth foot : 

yptowv avrovs 8e eXcupta 

This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis. 

JJiaeresis and 

as

irjArfiaSeo) 

367.] 

THE HEXAMETER. 339 

Caesura (ro^rf) 

occurs when the pause between two words falls 

within a foot, so as to 'cut' it into two parts. The caesura 

which separates the arsis from the thesis (so 

as to divide the 

foot equally) is called the strong or masculine caesura : that 

which falls between the two short syllables of the thesis is called 

the weak or feminine or trochaic caesura. 

The chief points to be observed regarding caesura in the 

Homeric hexameter are as follows : 

j . There is nearly always a caesura in the third foot. Of the 

two caesuras the more frequent in this place is the trochaic (TO/XT/ 

Kara rpirov Tpoyaiov), 

as 

avbpa IJLOL f-vvtrre Movva 

\ 

TToXvTpOTrov bs jmaAa iroXXd. 

The strong caesura, or ' caesura after the fifth half-foot ' (TO/XT) 

), 

is rather less common : as 

&(.$, $ed, 

| 'AîAr/os. 

In the first book of the Iliad, which contains 611 lines, the 

trochaic caesura of the third foot occurs in 356, and the corresponding 

strong caesura in 247.* 

On the other hand, there must be no diaeresis after the third 

foot ; 

and in the few cases in which the third foot lies 

wholly in 

one word there is 

always a strong caesura in the fourth foot 

o? K OO'L$ eTrnret^rat fjidXa T ZK\.VOV CLVTOV 

H/37] T rfbt rio(rei5acozJ Kal ITaXAa? 'AOrjvr]. 

r/ 

The division between an enclitic and the preceding word is 

not sufficient for the caesura in the third foot : hence in Od. 10. 

58 we should read 

avrap eTret crtroio r' | 

e7rao~(rcijue0' 778 

not crtroto re iraa-a-dfjitO' (as 

La Roche). 

The remaining exceptions to these rules are 

II. I. 179 otKad' luv avv vrjvai re ays Kal aots 

which is an adaptation of the (probably conventional) form avv vrji T' e/*y Kal 

e/j.ois erdpoiai (1. 183). We may help the rhythm by taking vrjvai re ays closely 

together, so as to avoid the break in the middle of the line. 

II. 3. 205 rjSrj yap Kal devpo iror' ij\v9e Sios 'OSvaaevs. 

II. 10. 453 OVKGT' firetTO. av irrj^d TTOT' eaaeai 'Apyeioiai. 

Where TTOT?, as an enclitic, is in an unusual place in the sentence ( 365, 4), 

but it is 

perhaps in ' 

reality an emphatic one day.' Similarly, in 

II. 3. 220 (f>airjs Kf ^CLKOTOV re nv' (upevai dtypovd r* avrcus, 

nva may be slightly emphatic. Or should we read rbv fj./j.fvai ? 

II. 15. 

1 8 ^ ov ore fJ.ffJ.vy r' Itf/ae/xo; vtyoOev, etc re iroSouv. 

but possibly the peculiar rhythm is intentional, 

We may read ore re Kpefjua 

: 

as being adapted to the sense. 

* In this calculation no lines are reckoned twice, short monosyllables being 

taken either with the preceding or the following word, according to the sense. 

Z 2,

yajueWerat 

pax 

w 

340 METRE. [368. 

2. Trochaic caesura of the fourth foot is very rare, and is only 

found under certain conditions, viz. 

(1) when the caesura is preceded by an enclitic or short monosyllable 

(such as jieV, 8e' } &c.) ; as 

as 

Kat KV TOVT 

0eAoijuu Ato? ye 8i8oVros aptarQai. 

(2) when the line ends with a word of four or five syllables; 

avrap 6 (JLOVVOS erjv pera TreWe /cao-iyi^jrrjo-t. 

TroAAa 8' 

ap i-vOa KOL evO' Wvve 1 ! ir&loio. 

\ 

The commonest form of this kind of 

caesura (especially 


Iliad) is that in which these two alleviations are both present ; 

as 

&pcrlr aKpiTopvOc, \iyvs Trep eo)z/ dyoprjr?}?. 

The first fifteen books of the Iliad contain eleven instances of 

trochaic caesura in the fourth foot, of which seven are of this 

form. 

In II. 

9. 394 the MSS. give 

HrjXtvs 6r\v eVeira jbtot yvvaiKa CLVTOS. 

\ 

But we should doubtless read, with Aristarchus, 

yvvalna ye /uacro-erat airo?. 

Similarly we should probably read ra 8e' ^ OVK apa peXXov ovr\(riv 

(II. 5. 205, &a), instead of e/uteXXoi; : and conversely 0aAepr/ 8' 

fjnaivTO âiTJ] (II. 17. 439), and patyal 8' eXeXvvro ipavTuiv (Od. 

22. 1 86), 

instead of jutaiVero, AeAwro. In Od. 5. 272 we may 

treat 6\ff 

bvovra as one word in rhythm. But it is not easy to 

account for the rhythm in Od. 12. 47 eirt 8' ovar dXetx/rat eratpcoy. 

The result of these rules evidently is that there are two chief 

breaks or pauses in the verse the caesura in the third foot, and 

the diaeresis between the fourth and fifth and that the forbidden 

divisions are the diaeresis and caesura which lie nearest to 

Thus 

these pauses. 

Best caesura \> - -- 

Worst diaeresis J^J .Jw \> w -- 

Again 

Best diaeresis TTOTrot, &c. 

Hence the occasional hiatus in this place, as II. 2. 209 fixil> *> s 

KrA.., II. I. 333 avrap 6 eyvoo ycnv tvi pe

ty/foiou 

369.] QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 341 

place occurs most commonly in verses which end with a word of 

four or more syllables, as 

orejut-juar' fycav V ^pcrlv 

v 

Apei 8e 

vr]v, crrtpvov I 

It is also found with words of three long syllables, as 

And once or twice when the last word is a monosyllable 

: as 

uco/xr/o-cu (3&v (II. J. 238), ecrnj/ca /met? (II. 19. 117). 

A spondee in the fifth place ought not to end with a word. 

Hence we should correct the endings -f]5> 

blav &c. by reading T|6a, 

and 87/juoi> $77^1? (Od. 14. 239), by restoring the archaic 677^00. In 

Od. 1 2. 64 the words Xts irtrpr] at the end of the line are scanned 

together. 

Words of three long syllables are very seldom found before the 

Bucolic diaeresis. Examples are : 

II. 13* 7 J 3 ^ yo-P "0 l ffTC&tfl | vcrfAivr] | jj,ifAV (f)i\ov Krjp. 

Od. 10. 492 V^X?? XP r (TO Ji 

l i 

^vovs 

I | 

Tetpeo-tao. 

The rarity of verses with this rhythm may be judged from the 

fact that it is never found with the oblique cases of avOpto-nos 

(avOpdvwv &c.), although these occur about 150 times, and in 

every other place in the verse or with : 

a\\ri\(Dv &c., which occur 

about 100 times. 

Syllabic Quantity Position. 

369.] The quantity of a syllable that is to say, the time 

which it takes in pronunciation may be determined either by 

the length of the vowel (or vowels) which it contains, or by the 

character of the consonants which separate it from the next 

vowel sound. 

In ancient technical language, the vowel may be 

long by its own nature ($?Jo-ei), 

or by its position (0eVei). 

The assumptions that all long syllables are equal, and that a 

long syllable is equal in quantity to two short syllables, are not 

strictly true of the natural quantity in ordinary pronunciation. 

Since every consonant takes some time to pronounce, it is evident 

that the first syllables of the words otyis, ocppvs, o//,^^, opflpos 

are different in length; and so again are the first syllables of 

Mlro?, &rpvvov. Again, the diphthongs rj, T)U, &c. are longer than 

the single vowels TJ, w, &c., and also longer than the diphthongs 

6i, cu, 01, ou. In short, the poetical ( quantities ' must not be supposed 

to answer exactly to the natural or inherent length of the 

syllables. The poetical or metrical value is founded upon the 

natural length, but is the result of a sort of compromise, by 

which minor varieties of quantity are neglected, and the syllables 

thereby adapted to the demands of a simple rhythm.^

342 METRE. [370. 

It has been shown, however, that the general rule of Position rests upon a 

t 

sound physiological basis. The insertion of a consonant may be regarded as 

equivalent in respect of time to the change of a short vowel into a long one/ 

(Briicke, Die physiologischen Grundlagen der neuhochdeutschen Verskunst, p. 70 ; 

quoted by Hartel). 

370. ] 

Position. The general rule is that when a short vowel 

is followed by two consonants the syllable is long. 

Regarding this rule it is to be observed that 

(1) Exceptions are almost wholly confined to combinations of 

a Mute (esp. 

a tennis) with a following Liquid. But even with 

these combinations the general rule is observed in the great 

majority of the instances. 

(2) Most of the exceptions are found with words which could 

not otherwise be brought into the hexameter such as : 

'A^poStrr/, 

\\fjL(j)i.Tpv(Dv, ppor&v, rpdirefa, Trpoo-r^Sa, &c. 

(3) The remaining exceptions are nearly all instances in which 

the vowel is separated by Diaeresis from the following consonants 

: as II. 1 8. 122 /cat TLVCL T/oootaScoi;, 24. 795 KOL rd ye 

The chief exceptions in Homer are as follows * : 

rp : in 'ApcpiTpvcav, erpdtyrjv (II. 23. 84 but see the note on 42 in the 

Appendix, p. 390), Terparevithov (II. 24. 324), (papeTprjs (II. 8. 323), 'Orpwrevs 

(II. 20. 383-4) and in 

; d\\6rpios (unless we scan -tos, -tov, &c.). 

Before rpcnrfâ, Tpicuva, rpirrj (rpirjuovTa, &c.), r pairdopey (rpatrovTo, npo-TpairtaOat, 

&c.), Tpdyovs, rpoirois, rptfyti (Od. 5. 422., 13. 410), rpotpov (Od. 19. 489), 

rpffiov (Od. II. 527). 

Before a diaeresis, KO.I TIVO, Tpca'idSav (II. 18. 122). 

irp : in d\Xoirp6aa\\os (II. 5. 831) ; 

before irpocnjvSa, irpoaojirov, rrpo'i'Krrjs, ttp6oca, 

and other Compounds of irpo and irpos (irpoKfifjifva, Trpoffatgas, &c.) ; also before 

7iy>oy dAAÂous, itpb aoreos, and one or two similar phrases (cp. II. 13. 799., 

17. 726). 

Before Ilpm/uS^s (II.), irpiv (II. 

i. 97 ovS* o 76 irpiv KT\., cp. 19. 313, Od. 14. 

334., 17. 597) ; npwTOS (Od. 3. 320., 17. 275), irpoatpdaeai (Od. 23. 106). 

Kp: in SaKpvoiffi (Od. 18. 173), SaftpvirXweiv (Od. 19. 122), Iveicpvifse (Od. 5. 488), 

KfKpvfj.fj.tva (Od. 23. no). 

Before Kpovtav, Kpovov irais, Kparaiu, Kparaits, Kpdros fttya (II. 20. 121). Kpdveia, 

Kpv(pr)86v, KpaSaivu, Kpa.TtvTa.ojv, Kpfwv. 

Add II. II. 697 ei'AcTO Kpivdfjievos ; 

Od. 8. 92 /caret Kpa.ro. (K&K w/)ara?), 12. 99 

06 T6 KpdTl. 

Pp : in PpoTos and its derivatives, as dfipoTr], dfJKpifipoTos : also before fipaxtw. 

8p : in dfj.(pi-5pv(pr]s (II. 2. 700), and before SpdKcuv, A.pvas, Spopovs. Also 11. 

ii. 69 TO. 8e SpdynaTa (unless we read SdpyâTa, as Hartel suggests). 

0p : in d\Xo-Opoos (Od. i. 183, &c.), and before Opovcav, &c. and Qpaatiduv. 

Also in II. 5. 462 rjyrjTOpt QprjKcuv. 

* 

They are enumerated by La Roche, Homerische Untersuchungen, pp. 1-41, 

with his usual care and completeness.

37-] POSITION. 343 

p : in 'AQpo&in) : and Od. 15. 444 rjp.iv 5' eni-^paffffer' oktOpov. Cp. Hes. Op. 

655 irpoiretppaS^va. 

Xp : before xP e ' 

os or XP* 035 (Od. 8. 353) : and in II. 23. 186 po56fvn 8 xpi fv > 

II. 24. 795 Kal TO. ye xP va ' l7 J 

v > 

T\ : in 6po?, ZdnvvOos, 

fiporos, with its compounds, &c. No exceptions are found before 

yp, y\3

344 METRE. [371. 

The plea on which a short vowel is allowed before 

may be extended, as Fick points out (Bezz. Beitr. xiv. 316), to some forms of 

atfiSvrjui now written without the cr, viz. KedaaOev (II. 15. 657), KfSaffOfvres, &c. 

Metrical necessity, however, would not justify the same license with a/ciSvarai 

(emKiSvarai II. 2. 85O r c.), e-ffieiSvaTo, e-ffttzSaaae (for which lavceSacre is available). 

Neglect of Position is perceptibly commoner in the Odyssey than in the 

Iliad. Apart from cases in which the necessities of metre can be pleaded* 

viz. proper names and words beginning with w -, it will be found that the 

proportion of examples is about 3:1. It will be seen, too, that some marked 

instances occur in Books 23 and 24 of the Iliad. In Hesibd and the Homeric 

Hymns the rule is still more lax. Thus in Hesiod a vowel is allowed to be 

short before KV (Op. 567, Fr. 95), and -irv 

(Theog. 319). In the scanty 

fragments of the Cyclic poets we find "ntirpcarai (Cypria), irdrpt (Little Iliad), 

'A-yx" KXVTOV KT\. (ibid.}, a//3ea (Iliupersis). 

371.1 Lengthening before p, X, jut, v, a, 8. There are various 

words beginning with one of these letters (the liquids p, X, p, v, 

the spirant , Aiyvj, Aiapo?, AiTrapo?, At?, Xairapri, 

Xotyos, and occasionally in a few others but not : (e.g.) in 

such frequently occurring words as AVKIOJ, Ae'xo?, Aetmo. 

fi, in jueyaj, fjLtyapov, .juioipa, /zaAaKo?, /jte'Aoj, juieAtrj, /maorif, poOos : 

but not (e.g.) juax.ojucu, jote'ro?, jue'Xa?, /xa/cap, fjivQos. 

in v, vcvpri, ue'ôy, i>i

373-] LENGTHENING BEFORE LIQUIDS. 345 

s re VL()a$, 

KaAin/fe, ore crevatro, ov TL jmaAa 8771;, 


crvv e ve- 

These facts lead us to connect the lengthening now in question 

with the peculiar doubling of the initial consonant which we 

see in Compounds, as aTro-ppiVrco, v-ppoos, a-ppr]KTos, rpi-AAii(f)o$, e7n-o-p, &c.), or the Adverb Srju. 

The same may 

be said of paKos, priywî^ pvoâi, prjros, pnrra), piov, also /u,a\aKoj, 

jueAirj, vi(j)ds. Lengthening is also the rule, subject 

to few 

exceptions, with AtVo-o//at, Aoô?, vtcfros, vtvpri, ptvos, poos, pafibos, 

/oi'fa, 

and some others (La Roche, H. U. pp. 47 ff.). 

372.] Origin of the lengthening.* The most probable account 

of the matter is that most of the roots or stems affected originally 

began with two consonants, one of which was lost by phonetic 

decay. Thus initial p may stand for fp (as 

in Fpriy-vvfja), or ap 

(as *o-peo)^ Sanscrit sravdmi) : Ai? is probably for XFis (with a 

weaker Stem than the form seen in AeT-coy) 

: vvos is for crvvos 

(Sanscr. snus/id) : vify-as goes back to a root sneibh, (Goth, snaivs, 

snow) : jjiolpa is probably from a root smer : (reA/a,a is for a^cAjita 

(Curt. s. v.) and 8ei- in : det-z/o's &c. is for Sfet- (cp. 

Sei'-Souta for 

be-bFoiKo). 

It is not indeed necessary to maintain that in these 

cases the lost consonant was pronounced at the time when the 

Homeric poems were composed. We have only to suppose that 

fa& particular combination in question had established itself in the 

usage of the language before the two consonants were reduced 

by phonetic decay to one. Thus we may either suppose (e.g^) 

that Kara poov in the time of Homer was still 

pronounced Kara 

o-pooy, or that certain combinations Kara-o-peco, eu-a-pooj, Kara 

crpoov, &c. passed into Kara-ppeco, eu-ppoo?, Kara ppoov (or Kara 

poov). There are several instances in which a second form of a 

word appears in combinations of a fixed type. Thus we have 

* 

On this subject the chief sources of information are, La Roche, Homerische 

Untersuchungen (pp. 49-65) ; Hartel, Homerische Studien (Pt. i. pp. 1-55) ; 

and 

Knos, De Digammo Homerico Quaestiones (Pt. iii. 

225 ff.).

34$ METRE. [373. 

the form -nroAis, in TTOTI TJTO'AIO?, 'AîAAT/a TTToXiiropdov, &c. : 

Trro'Aejucos, in jue'ya TjroAe'juioio /utejutryXco?, 

am TrroAe/uioio yet/wpas. 

Similarly a primitive y5o{m>? survives in tpi-yboviTos (also epie-ySovTnjfre: 

and yz;oos in d-yôeco. Cp. also the pairs 

and juu/cpdj, o-Kibvapai. and Kibvaâi, (TVS and 9, w and 

It is at least conceivable that in the same way the poet of 

the Iliad said polpav and also Kara o-jutotpai> 5 juetSiacoi; but iAoo-^ci^s, 

at the 8r)i> 171; beginning of a line, but jmdAa Sfrjy at the 

end : and so in other cases. 

It is true that the proportion of the words now in question 

which can be proved to have originally had an initial double 

consonant is not very great. Of the liquids, the method is most 

successful with initial p, 

which can nearly always be traced back 

to vr or sr. And among the words with initial v a fair proportion 

can be shown to have begun originally with ov (vtvpri, vvos, 

vi(f)as, z>eo>, vv^r]). The difficulty is partly met by the further 

supposition that the habit of lengthening before initial liquids 

was extended by analogy, from the stems in which it was 

originally due to a double consonant to others in which it had 

no such etymological ground. This supposition is certainly well 

founded in the case of p, before which lengthening became the 

rule. 

373.] Final i of the Dat. Sing. The final i of the Dat. 

(Loc.) Sing, is so frequently long that it may be regarded as a 

' 

doubtful vowel/ The examples are especially found in lines 

and phrases of a fixed or archaic type 

: 

17 pa, Kat V 5eu>(i> cra/cel' lAao-' oj3pi[Jiov eyxs* 

ov TTOV Ait jue'AAei vTTfp^vfL (frihov etz>ai (thrice in the II.). 

TO rptrov avff vbari (Od. 1O. 520., II. 28). 

avrov Trap vrft re JJL^VCLV (Od. 9. 194., IO. 444). 

TJXvOov etKoo-rw ere'i es KrA. (6 times in the Od.). 

So in Auuri 8e /xdAtora, 'Obvcroiji 8e /xaAto-ra, &c. and the fixed 

epithet Att

375-] SHORT FINAL SYLLABLES. 347 

irartpi, ffdfcei, erfi. Hence it is probable that the lengthening dates from the 

Indo-European language, and is not due in the first instance to the requirements 

of the hexameter. But in such a case as 'OSvaarji it may be that the 

Greek poet treats it as a license, which he takes advantage of in order to avoid 

the impossible quantities v w (cp. oi^vpurepos for the unmetrical oi 

374.] Final a. The metrical considerations which lead us to 

recognise -I in the Dat. Sing, might be urged, though with less 

force, in favour of an original -d as the ending of the Neut. 

Plur. We have 

II. 5. 745 ( 

= 8. 

389) S 5' oxea Krat. 

24- 7 oTToa'a roAvTreixre. 

Od. 9. 109 arrTrapra Kal avr\pora. 

12. 396 oTrraAe'a re Kat a>/>ta. 

14. 343 pooyaA.e'a, ra Kat avro'j. 

23. 225 apt^)pa6ea Kare'Aefaj. 

In the majority of these instances, however, the final a is 

preceded by the vowel e, from which it was originally separated 

by a spirant (o;(e-(r~a, Tropc^vpe-t-a). Cp. II. I. 45 aju^r/peê'a re 

(frapcTpriv, 5- 576 rTvAat/oieVea eAerrjzJ, 5- 827 "Aprja TO ye, 14. 329 

flepo-^d TtavTutv, Od. I. 40 ex yap 'OpeVrao rtVt?. As two successive 

vowels are often found to interchange their quantity 

(fiaorikrja, /Sao-tAe'd), so perhaps, even when the first vowel retains 

its metrical value, there may be a slight transference' of 

quantity, sufficient to allow the final vowel, when reinforced by 

the ictus, to count as a long syllable. Cp. 375, 3. 

The scanning la (in II. 4. 321 et roVe Kovpos ea vvv KrA., cp. 

5. 887, Od. 14. 352) may be explained by transference of quantity, 

from rfa. 

375.] Short syllables ending in a consonant are also occasionally 

lengthened in arsis, although the next word begins with 

a vowel : as 

ovre TTOT' es TroAejuto^ a/xa Aaw 

aW ocêAes ayovos r e/xerat KrA. 

Xepo-tz> VTr3 'Apyetooy (^^tjiteôs tv 7rarp^8t yat'r/. 

The circumstances under which this metrical lengthening 

is 

generally found differ remarkably, as has been recently

348 METRE. 

[375. 

shown,* from those which prevail where short final vowels are 

lengthened before an initial consonant. In those cases, as we 

saw ( 

371), the rule is that the two words are closely connected, 

usually in a set phrase or piece of epic commonplace. In the 

examples now in question the words are often separated by the 

punctuation and where this is not the case it will : usually be 

found that there is a slight pause. In half of the instances the 

words are separated by the penthemimeral caesura, which always 

marks a pause in the rhythm. Further, this lengthening is 

only found in the syllable with the ictus. The explanation, 

therefore, must be sought either in the force of the ictus, or in 

the pause (which necessarily adds something to the time of a 

preceding syllable), 

or in the combination of these two causes. 

In some instances, however, a different account of the matter 

has to be given 

: in particular 

(1) With ? existed in Homeric times : but the habit of treating 

a preceding syllable as long by Position survived in the group 

of phrases. Others explain this

376.] ELISION. 349 

In Homer 

vowel, as in the Attic forms pavikta, 'AxiAAe'co?, &c. 

that the second of the two vowels borrows some 

we may suppose 

of the quantity of the other, so that with the help of the ictus it 

Actual lengthening of the second 

can form the arsis of a foot. 

vowel may be seen in Homer in the form a7r-7Ja>pos' hanging loose 

(cp. /zer-TJopos and the later /xer-oopo?) also in bva-arj^v (Gen. Plur. 

of bvcrarjs). 

(4) In the Ending -ou> of the Dual, as &potiv (II. 13. 51 1., 16. 

560, Od. 6. 219), twouVt a-TaOfjLOuv also in : v&'Cv, crcfr&'iv. 

We 

may compare the doubtful i of fjiuv, vjuv, and the two forms of 

the Dat. Plur. in Latin (-Ms, -Ms). Similarly there are traces 

of t in fiic (II. 5. 385., 6. 501 10. 

., 347., ii. 376, &c.). 

In the 

case of -oi'if and -one the account given under the last head 

would apply. 

In a few places it appears as though the 3 Plur. of Secondary Tenses in -v 

(for -VT) were allowed to be long: as fyav diriovres (Od. 9. 413), KO! tcvveov 

dyaira6}tevoi (Od. 17. 35, &c.), &c. This is confined (curiously enough) to the 

Odyssey and the Catalogue of the Ships. In the latter it occurs seven times : 

in the Odyssey eleven times, in the rest of the Iliad once (7. 206). 

Elision, Crasis, fyc. 

376.] A final vowel cut off before a word beginning with a 

vowel is said to suffer Elision (eK0A.i\/as) 

: as jj.vpC 'Amatols aXyz' 

eflr/Ke. 

Whether an elided vowel was entirely silent, or merely 

slurred over in such a way that it did not form a distinct syllable, 

is a question which can hardly be determined. 

The vowels that are generally liable to elision are a, e, o, i. 

But 

is not elided, 

(1) The o of 6, TO, irpo 

Final -o is not elided in the Gen. endings -ou>, -do, and very 

rarely in the Pronouns e/xeio, &c. This however may be merely 

because the later forms of these endings, viz. -ou, -ew, -eu, took 

the place of -oi'(o), -d'(o), -*i'(o) 

when a vowel followed. In the 

case of ao this supposition is borne out by the fact that -eu is 

often found before a vowel, as nrjArjiadeo) 'AxtArjo? (/. ITr;A.r]ta6a') 

: 

and by the rarity of the contraction of eo to eu ( 378*). There 

is less to be said for elision of -o in the ending -oio. That ending 

in Homer is archaic ( 149), therefore the presumption is against 

emendations which increase the frequency of its occurrence. And 

the cases of -ou remaining long before hiatus are not exceptionally 

common (Hartel, H. S. ii. 6). 

(2) The t of TI, irept is not elided in Homer; regarding on see 

269. But irepi is elided in Hesiod : as Trepotxerat, Trept'axe. 

(3) The -t of the Dat. Sing, is rarely elided; but see 105, T. 

Exceptions are to be seen in II. 4. 259 778' tv 8ai0' ore KrA. ; 5. 5

350 METRE. [377. 

acrre'p' O7ra>piz>(3 KrA. ; II. 3. 349., IO. 277., 12. 88., 16. 385., 17. 

45, 324., 23. 693., 24. 26, Od. 5. 62, 398., 10. 106., 13. 35., 15. 

364., 19. 480. The i of the Dat. Plur. is often elided in the 

First and Second Declensions, and in the forms in -ao-t of the 

Third Declension. On the other hand, elision is very rare in the 

forms in -ai 

OVK efleAovo-rj; 13. 481 KCL{ p oto> afjLVvtrt (so Od. 4. 367); 17. IOO 

TO) n' ov TLS VfjLo-ârTai : also II. I. 1 7o., 9. 673., 13. 544v 2 3- 

310, 579, Od. i. 60, 347., 23. 21 (Cobet, Misc. Grit. p. 345). 

Other instances may be recovered by conjecture : thus in II. 3. 

173 o>s ofatev Odvaros /ixot 

abeiv should probably be eAez> 

OdvciTos abeew ( 365) and in ; II. 24. 757 vvv be /xot epo-TJets 

Van 

Leeuwen reads vvv dt p eepo-?]et9. 

In the case of the enclitic ol ('fot) 

elision involved the disappearance 

of the Pronoun from the later text. In II. 6. 289 = ( 

Od. 15. 105) 

1-vO' eAe

378*.] SYNIZESIS CONTRACTION. 351 

metre we cannot but suspect that the spelling with Crasis may 

be due to later usage. The forms jcd/ceiô?, KaKeure, &c. (for 

KOI Ktlvos, &c.) are certainly wrong, as CKZIVOS is not the Homeric 

form. 

378.] Synizesis is the term used when the two coalescing 

vowels are written in full, but ' 3 

sink together (vvviavu>} 

into 

one syllable 

in pronunciation. 

The Particle 

r\ 

unites with the initial vowel of a following 

vowel, especially with av, CLVTOS and OVTMS ( 350) ; 

also with 

'Amjudxoio (II. 

II. 138), dêioYaros (II. 2O. 23OJ, dyprjv (Od. 

12. 330). ^ 

Synizesis is also found with if, in the combination 77 oi>x (II. 5- 

439, &c.), ri tls 6 Kev (II. 5. 466), ri efafyevat, (Od. 4. 682) ; with 

eirei ou (Od. 4. 352, &c.) ; 

with JAY) 

aXXoi (Od. 4. 165); and in 

II. 17. 89 do-/3e'oT(i)- ovb' vlbv \a0ev 'Arpeoj: where we may 

perhaps read da-/3eW' 

ovb' via Xa0' 'Arpeoj. 

18. 458 wet /x(5 &KV[jL6p

352 METRE. [37 8 *- 

I. Contraction is most readily admitted between similar 

sounds, or when the second is of hig'her vowel pitch, i. e. higher 

in the scale o, w, a, YJ, 

c. Thus we have many instances with 

the combinations ee, oo, ae, oe ; 

few with ea, aw, ao, still fewer 

With W, 0. 

2,. In most cases in which contraction is freely admitted we 

find that the sound which originally separated the vowels was 

the semi-vowel t or y. In case of the loss of or it is 

comparatively 

rare ; 

with F it is probably not Homeric at all ( 396). 

Hence (e. g.) although it is common with the combinations ee, 

eel in most Verbs in -eo> ( 56), it is not found in x^ (x 6^"^) 

and is extremely rare in rpea> (rpeo--a), see 29, 6). 

But it is 

admitted with loss of from stems in -co-, as 

(a) On these principles we should expect the 2 Sing, endings -eat, -co, -rjai, 

-ao (for -fffat, &c. ) 

to remain uncontraeted ; 

and this view is borne out on the 

whole by the very careful investigation made by J. van Leeuwen. Omitting 

the Verbs in -cuo and -ecu we find that there are about 522 occurrences of these 

endings, and that of these 434 present uncontracted forms : while in 66 

instances the contracted syllable comes before a vowel, so that it can be 

written with elision of -01 or -o (e.g. II. 3. 138 KtitXijat O.KOITIS, for KK\r) for fipa-to. The metre requires aiStTo, cupeo, eA.eo, 

iTwXfai ; 

for ireipa it allows ireipdcu (becoming irfipa.' in II. 24. 390, 433, Od. 4. 

545). The isolated form o/^cu (Od. 14. 343) for opa-eat should perhaps be 

opdai or upda. If the ending is in its original form it belongs to the Non- 

Thematic conjugation ( 19) another example may be found in : oprjro (or 

oprjro}, read by Zenodotus in II. i. 56, 

(c) In the Future in -eo> (for -etrca) contraction is less frequent than in the 

Present of Verbs in -ea> (-(tea or -etricy). 

Forms such as 6\e?Tcu, Kaêirat, paxfirai, 

dfjLeirai, KOfjiiw, KTfpiw, KTepiovai, evidently could not otherwise come into the 

verse. In II. 17. 451 atywiv 8' kv fovvtaat (3a\w we may read /3aA

378*0 CONTRACTION. 353 

II. 4. 161 eK re Kal 6\f;e re\ei we should take re\ei as a Present. The remaining 

exceptions are, KreveT in II. 15. 65, 68 (probably an interpolation), KaraKrevei 

in II. 23. 412, and eK(paveiin II. 19. 104. 

(d) Similarly in the declension of stems in -e

354 METRE. [378*. 

always be atieav : 

art] (afarrf) may be written darij except in II. 19. 8S 

typeali' en(3a\ov dypiov aTrjv (where the use of dypiov as a Fern, is also anomalous, 

119). In II. 3. 100., 6. 356., 24. 28 (where arys comes at the end of the line) 

the better reading is apx^s. KotXos may be KOI\OS (cp. Lat. cavus], except 

in Od. 22. 385. elSov (e-^tSov) may be ZiSov, except in four places (II. n. 112., 

19. 292, Od. 10. 194., ii. 162). iroXtas (Ace. Plur. of iro\vs) is not uncommon, 

but should probably be TTO\VS ( 100) : iroXlyv occurs once (II. 16. 655). Other 

instances with Nouns in -vs and -cvs are rare (Nauck, Mel. gr.-rom. iii. 219; 

Menrad, p. 60). The Fern, in -eta is not contracted from -e/7ct, 

-ei'ct but comes 

directly from -efta. So otos, olwv for ofi-os, bfi-wv (cp. Sfffcri for 6i-e, o ( 393 \ 

On the whole they are too few and isolated to be of weight against the 

general usage of Homer. 

The general result of the enquiry seems to be that the harshness 

of a synizesis or a contraction is a matter admitting of 

many degrees. With some combinations of vowels contraction 

is hardly avoided, with others it is only resorted to in case of 

necessity. We have already seen that the rules as to lengthening 

by Position ( 370) are of the same elastic character. And as there 

is hardly any rule of Position that may not be overborne by the 

desire of bringing certain words into the verse, 

so there is no 

contraction that may not be excused by a sufficiently cogent 

metrical necessity. Thus the synizesis in such words as 4 Irrrtata ; 

AlyuiTTLovs, xpvcrtoLai stands on the same footing as the neglect 

of Position with SnaiJiavbpos or (TKeirapvov 

: and again the synizesis 

in rejuezêa, acriêaj, or the contraction in 'novtviJi.tvos, a^^)i- 

(3a\V(jiai is like the shortening of a vowel before irpoo-rjvba, 

or the purely metrical lengthening of a short vowel ( 386). 

On the same principles harshness of metre may be tolerated 

for the sake of a familiar phrase 

: 

e.g. the hiatus a

3 8 -] 

HIATUS. 355 

II. 13. 22 (afyQiTov ael in II. 2. 46, 186., 14. 238). So when the 

formula /cat fj.iv $(*>vr\(ras eVea KT\. is used of a goddess (II. 15. 

35, 89) it becomes Kai }JLLV (/xouTJo-ao-a eVea. Again the harsh 

lengthening in juiepoTres avtipovnoi (II. 

18. 288, at the end of the 

line) is due to the familiar Hiatus. 

379.] Hiatus is a term which is used by writers on metre in 

more than one sense. It will be convenient here to apply 

it to 

every case in which a word ending with a vowel or diphthong is 

followed by a word beginning with a vowel, and the two vowelsounds 

are not merged together (as by elision, crasis, &c.) 

so as 

to form one syllable for the metre. 

It would be more scientific, perhaps, to understand the word 

Hiatus as implying that the two vowels are separated by a 

break or stoppage of vocal sound, so that the second begins with 

either the rough or the smooth ' breathing/ Thus it would be 

opposed to every form of diphthong (including synizesis\ the 

characteristic of which is that the two vowels are slurred 

together, by shifting the position of the organs without any 

perceptible interruption of the current of breath. This definition,, 

however, might exclude the case of a long vowel or diphthong 

shortened before an initial vowel (as TTJV b' eyo> ov y 

where the 

final o> seems to be partly merged in the following ou). Again 

when a final i or u comes before a vowel without suffering 

elision, it is probable that the corresponding ' semi-vowel = ' 

our 

( 

y or w) is developed from the vowel-sound, and prevents complete 

hiatus. 

380.] Long vowels before Hiatus. The general rule is that 

a long final vowel or diphthong coming before a vowel forms a 

short syllable in the metre. This shortening is very common in 

Homer: cp. II. I. 299 o#re o-ot ovre ro> aAA.o>, ercet /crA., where 

it occurs in three successive feet. 

But the natural quantity may be retained before hiatus when 

the vowel is in the arsis of the foot, as 'ArpefSry 'Aya/ute'jutyozn, 6s K 

enrol OTL KT\. And in a few instances a long vowel or diphthong 

is allowed to remain long in thesis, as II. 1 . 

39 ^fjuvOev' et -rror*' 

rot KrA. 

The readiness with which long syllables are allowed before 

hiatus varies with the several long vowels and diphthongs; 

partly also it depends on the pauses of the sense. 

The long diphthongs (as they may be called), 

viz. YJ 

and w, 

are the most capable of resisting the shortening influence of 

hiatus ; 

next to them are eu and ou, and the long vowels KJ 

and 

w : while ei, 01 and ai are at the other end of the scale. A 

A a 2

356 METRE. [381. 

measure of this may be gained by observing how often each of 

these terminations is 

long before a vowel, and comparing the 

number with the total number of times that the same termination 

occurs. Thus it appears that out of every 100 instances 

of final u, it is long before hiatus about 23 times. Similarly 

final -YJ is 

long 19 times, -eu 6-7 times, -ou 6 times, -i\ 5-7 

times, -o> 4 times, -ei r8 times, -01 i'6 times, and -s ore KrA., Od. 1 1 . 

1 88 aypo>, ovde KrA. ; 

or after the fourth foot (in the Bucolic 

diaeresis). 

381.] Shortening of diphthongs before Hiatus. Regarding 

the nature of the process by which a diphthong before hiatus was 

reduced to the time or metrical value of a short syllable two 

probable views have been maintained. 

I . Curtius holds that whenever long syllables are shortened by 

the effect of hiatus something of the nature of Elision takes 

place. Thus rj 

and w lose the second half of the vowel sound, 

while at, ei, 

01 lose the t. In support of this he points to the 

facts of Crasis : thus KCU eyco in becoming Kayo> may be supposed 

to pass through the stage 

KCI eyoo. 

2. 

According to an older view, which has been revived and 

defended with great ingenuity by Hartel,* the i or u in a 

diphthong is turned into the corresponding spirant so that 

; /cat 

eyco becomes Ka-t-eyco, 

and CK HvXov eA0o)ZJ becomes K YIvXo-F- 

It is certainly 

in favour of this latter supposition that it does 

not oblige us to suppose the frequent elision of the two vowels 

which in general are the least liable to be elided. The explanation 

however is not a complete one. It does not account for the 

shortening of and 

YJ w, which on the principle assumed by H artel 

would become T)*, on. On the whole it seems most probable that 

the shortening in question was effected, for diphthongs as well as 

for simple long vowels, by a process in which ancient grammarians 

would have recognised rather ' Synizesis ' viz. the 

slurring of vowels together without complete loss of any sound 

* Ilomerische Studien, iii. pp. 7 ff

383.] HIATUS DOUBTFUL SYLLABLES. 357 

than either Elision or Contraction. And this conclusion is supported 

by the general tendencies of the Ionic dialect, which was 

especially tolerant of hiatus, and allowed numerous combinations 

of vowels, such as ca, eo, ew, coi, to have the value either of one 

syllable or two.* 

382.] Hiatus after short syllables. The vowels which are 

not liable to elision may generally stand before hiatus : thus 

we find fao-rrjpi aprjpori ( 376, 3), irpb 68oi5, irpb 'Aâtwz;, avrap 6 

ejutjote/utacos, krapoio evrjtos, and the like. 

Hiatus is also tolerated occasionally in the pauses of the verse : 

(i) 

In the trochaic caesura of the third foot : as 

II. I. 

569 Kat p aKOV(ra KaOrj&To, ^TTiyvdâcra KT\. 

Od. 3. 175 T(JLVLVt 0(f)pa TOL\L(TT 

(3) 

In the Bucolic diaeresis : as 

II. 8. 66 o

358 METRE. [384- 

Under the heading of ' doubtful vowels ' 

should be classed, not 

only the words in which the same letter may stand either for a 

long- or a short vowel, as "Aprjs, durjp, 

but also those in which the 

change is shown by the i. 

spelling, e. in which a short vowel 

interchanges with a long vowel or diphthong as vos and : 

vrjos, 

OVOIMCL and owo/ma, &c. And with these variations, again, we 

may place, as at least kindred phenomena, the doubtful syllables 

which arise from the interchange of single and double consonants 

: 'Obvo-a-evs and 'OSvo-ev?, 'AxiAAev? and 'A)(iA.e7;9. 

As 

we speak of doubtful vowels, these might similarly be called 

' 

doubtful consonants/ 

In all such words the variation of quantity may either mean 

that there were two distinct forms between which the poet had 

a choice, or that the quantity as it existed in the spoken language 

was in fact intermediate. The former case would usually arise 

when a vowel or syllable which had come to be short in the 

spoken language was allowed to retain its older quantity as a 

poetical archaism. In the latter case the poet could give the 

syllable either metrical value or 

; (as 

in so many instances) he 

might treat the syllable as ordinarily short, but capable of being 

lengthened by the ictus, or by the pauses of the verse. 

384.] Doubtful vowels appear to rise chiefly in two ways: 

(i) 

vowel : viz. 

By the shortening of a long vowel or diphthong before a 

a, in tAaos (a in II. i. 583, a in II. 9. 639., 19. 178). 

t), 

in the oblique cases of vrjvs (except the Dat. vrj't) 

and of 

several Nouns in -eus, as IlrjATJos, UrjXtos 

: the forms rjfarcu 

and earat (rjâi): dqbjry and dêrj ( 80); rjvs and tvs, 

\rfioToi and XcfrmJ (II. 9. 408) 

; perhaps also in prjiKes, 

677109, rfia, which shorten v\ 

when the case-ending is naturally 

long (0pT}fjca>p, 7710)1;, ?)uoi>, &c. scanned w w , 

unless we 

suppose contraction or synizesis). 

t, in leposj Kovirj, Xir\v : Comparatives in -iw : Patronymics, as 

Kpoviav : to/zez;, fy/xi (d^tei, &c.), tatro), and Verbs in -iw, as 

ruo, duo 

(51, i) probably also in the abstract Nouns in 

: 

-ir], 

the i 

being treated as long in vTrepoTrAtr/, TrpoOvîrj, 

i>7roeti7, ari/u?;, aKO/^toTtry. 

u, in Verbs in -uw (51, 4). 

cj, in Tjfpcoos ( 

w ^ in Od. 6. 303) : TÔ), leg. rjpa'i (II. 7. 453). 

ai, in act for atet, e/uTrcuos ( 

w w in Od. 20. 379), and the Compound 

âfjiaievvaL, x a f JLCLLevv^ s ' a^so Verbs in -

384.] DOUBTFUL VOWELS. 359 

in i, coKe'a, /Safo'rjj (for co/ceia, (3a0Lr]s) Adjectives in : -eioy, as 

d \d\Kios and )(aAKoy peia and pea : : TrAetoj;, &c. and 

7rAe'oi>es : 

/3eto/xai and fitoâi ( 80), and many Verbs in 

-*> ( 5i, 3)- 

01, in oAoo's and dAoio's ; 

also olos (^ ^), as in II. 13. 275 otd' 

cu, 

dperV olos ea- XP*~) 

See Appendix C. 

Sometimes ei has taken the place of eu before another vowel, 

as in the Verbs 0o, wveo), TrAeco, x e/co Âeco 

? ( 29, 3). 

also in 

Aetofo-t, Dat. Plur. of Xecoi; (Aeiôz; 

or AeFay), and perhaps in the 

Pf. euo#a (cp. 

veOa>K Hesych.), doiKvlai (II. 18. 418). Similarly 

a may stand for au, as (^dea ^# ($at>-), dijp (cp. avpa) and other 

derivatives of aFrjfju (dAta?}?, d/cp-d?js), deVa/xei' w^ êj!?^ (tawco), 

aacrafjiriv (aFary), and probably juieâorej, dt'ozj, detSw, v A't'8oj. We 

even find 01 for ou (from of), 

in otereas for d-fereas o/" /^ a^ 

(II. 2. 765), Trvoirj for Trrofrj : cp. ot'ey (- w ^ in Od. 9. 42.5). 

T] for eu may perhaps be seen in ?)et8r]y, 7]et8et (e-fetSea?, -ee) : 

but see the explanation suggested in 67, 3. 

Interchange of quantity is occasionally found : oWoêz;, 

Krecojmer, (/>êo)/oiey for o-r?]o/xey, &c. ( 80) : ecoj and reco? (if these 

forms are Homeric) for ôj and rrjos. 

So the Gen. ending -eo>, 

for -do (-rjo). 

(2) By compensatory lengthening, of 

e to ei, in etz;o? (gevFos) but ^67, /cetro'j and KCVOS, irelpap and 

Tiepas (aTretpeVtoj), eimros, etreKa. 

o to ou, JJLOVVOS (but fj,ov(i)6ti$ 

II. II. 470) 

; oupoy ( watcher] but 

op-da) : ovpea and opos (dpfos ?). 

a in Trape'xfl (Trap-o-exa)), 

Od. 19. 1 13 ; u in crvvexes, H. 12. 26. 

Under this head we should place double forms arising by Epenthesis, 

as e'rapoj 

and Iratpo? (for rap-tos) 

: 

z^t, 

e/^ and etz\ 

But aTrepeiVios boundless should be d7rep?ja-tos, 

from ^Trepi] (ir^prjv). 

Other variations, of which no general account can be given, 

are seen in "Aprjs, avr\p, djudw / reap (d generally in the simple 

Verb, d in the compounds) ;

360 METRE. 

[385. 

being- long without the help of the ictus are, apr\, aX&vai ( 

with a in II. 5- 4^7)> Trph') i^ds, TT leaver KM. 

385.] Double consonants, causing doubtful syllables: chiefly 

in the First Aorist o-o-, ( 39, and i), Dat. Plur. ( 102) also 

; 

y 

Obv(raVs. So for 

ocro-os, jueVo-os, re/meo-traco (where O-CT=:TI), 

to-curt ( 

-- w) we should write to-o-aa-t (for id-o-ao-t, 7, 3). 

XX, in 'AxtAAevs. 

KK, in TreAeKKw = (KK K/: ?) ; cp. Tre'AeKUj. 

As to inr and TT, in o-n-Trcos, orrt, &c. see 108, 2. 

386.] Metrical licence. In a few cases the use of a vowel as 

long appears to be merely due to the necessities of the metre. 

Such are : 

a in aOdvaros, aKajuiaros, cnroz/e'eoâi, a-jroSuojuat, ayopaao-0e. 

e in fTTLTovos (Od. 12. 423), (etyvplr] (Od. 7. 119). 

i in IIptajuudT]?, 8ta (in 

e re.

389-] DIGAMMA. 361 

The reason may be found (as Hartel thinks*) in the nature of 

the Vocative as an interruption of the natural flow of a sentence. 

It is very possible, however, that the Nominative ought to be 

read in these places 

: see 164. 

The Digamma. 

388.] In seeking to arrive at general conclusions as to the 

rules and structure of the Homeric hexameter, it was necessary 

to leave out of sight all the words whose metrical form is 

uncertain on account of the possible or probable loss of an 

initial consonant. It is time to return to this disturbing 

element of the enquiry. 

The scholars who first wrote on this subject had few materials 

for their investigations outside of the Homeric poems. To them, 

therefore, the ' Digamma ' was little more than a symbol the 

unknown cause of a series of metrical anomalies. In the present 

state of etymological knowledge the order of the enquiry 

has been to a great extent reversed. It is known in most cases 

which of the original sounds of the Indo-European languages 

have been lost in Greek, and where in each word the loss has 

taken place. Hence we now come to Homer with this knowledge 

already in our possession. Instead of asking what sounds 

are wanting, we have only to ask whether certain sounds, of 

whose former existence we have no doubt, were still living at 

the time when the poems were composed, and how far they can 

be traced in their effect on the versification. 

389.] Nature of the evidence from metre. The questions 

which are suggested by the discovery in Homer of traces of a 

lost ' Digamma ' cannot be answered without some reference to 

the very exceptional circumstances of the text. 

Whatever may be the date at which writing was first used 

in Greece for literary purposes, there can be no doubt that the 

Homeric poems were chiefly 

known for some centuries through 

the medium of oral recitation, and that it was not till the time 

of the Alexandrian grammarians that adequate materials were 

brought together for the study and correction of the text. 

Accordingly when these scholars began to collect and compare 

the manuscripts of Homer, they found themselves engaged in a 

problem of great complexity. The various readings, to judge 

from the brief notices of them preserved in the Sctiolia, were 

very numerous; and they are often of a kind which must be 

attributed to failure of memory, or the licence of oral recita- 

And the amount of 

tion, rather than to errors of transcription. 

* Homerische Studien, i. p. 64.

362 METRE. [389. 

interpolation must have been considerable, if there was any ground 

for the suspicions so often expressed by the ancient critics. 

It follows from these circumstances that an attempt to restore 

the lost F throughout the text of Homer cannot be expected to 

succeed. Such an attempt necessarily proceeds on the assumption 

that the text which we have is sound as far as it goes, or 

that it is so nearly right that we can recover the original by 

conjecture. With an imperfect text the process can only be 

approximate. We may be satisfied if the proportion of failure 

is not greater than the history of the text would lead us to 

expect. 

The loss of the F-sound, moreover, must have been itself a 

cause of textual corruption. It led to irregularities 

of metre, 

especially to frequent hiatus, and there would be a constant 

tendency to cure these defects by some slight change. The 

insertion of the v ^^KVCTTIKOV was almost a matter of course 

(see however 391). The numerous alternative forms used in 

the poetical language, and the abundance of short Particles such 

as ye, T, pa, &c. made it easy to disguise the loss of F in many 

places. We cannot be surprised, therefore, if we have often to 

make the reverse changes. 

A few instances will serve to show the existence in pre-Alexandrian times 

of corruption arising from the tendency to repair defects of metre. 

In II. 9. 73 the MSS. have iroXeco-o-t 8' dvdoxreis, Aristarchus read -rroXIcrtv 

ydp dvdoro-ets. Both are evidently derived from iroXeonv 84 dvdoro-cis (i e. 

favdcro-cis), corrected in two different ways. 

In II. 13. 107 the MSS. have vvv 8' ?Ka06v, the reading of Aristarchus : but 

Zenodotus And Aristophanes had vvv 84 ?icas e. (t. f6as). 

In II. 9. 88 the reading of Aristarchus was rCOcvro 84 Sopira eiccurros : other 

ancient sources had Sopirov (the reading of most MSS.). 

In II. 14. 235 Treaty, 70; of nk roi elSto? xP tJ/ ?7M aTa Trovra, the order x^P tv 

elS&o was preferred by Aristarchus. 

Two very similar instances are 

II. 5. 787 K&K e\tyx fa > 

' 5os bmroi (Ar. 6\6YXs). 

9. 128 yvvaiKas apvpova tpya I8vias (Ar. dpA>p,ovas). 

In Od. 5. 34 jjfjari K fiKoffTu . . i'fcoiTo the common ' ' texts of Alexandrian 

times (at Koivorepai) omitted the K', 

which is not necessary, and may have 

been inserted in imitation of tee jjffiart rpirary KT\. (II. 9. 363). 

In Od. i. no ol plv dp' olvov Zfjuayov some MSS. omit dp'. 

So in Od. 3. 472 

most MSS. have olvov olvoxoevvres (vulg. tvoivo\.}. 

In Od. 2. 331., 8. 174., 13. 125 the e of avre is elided before a word with f. 

But in each case there is MS. authority for reading av. 

In Od. 8. 526 the MSS. are divided between aatralpovr' eaioovaa and aairaipovra 

ISovaa. 

It should be observed that the argument from these instances is equally 

good, whether the readings ascribed to Zenodotus, Aristarchus, &c. are 

conjectures made by them, or were derived (as is more probable) from older 

sources. They equally serve to illustrate the process by which traces of an

39-] INITIAL DIGAMMA. 363 

original f were liable to be gradually effaced. 

And it is not likely that there 

was any deliberate attempt to emend Homer on metrical grounds. It is 

enough to suppose that the metre helped to determine the preference given 

(consciously or unconsciously) to one or other of the existing variants. 

Words with initial F. The former existence of the F in 

390.] a given Homeric word may be inferred either from its appearance 

in some other dialect of Greek, or (where this kind of 

evidence fails) 

from the corresponding forms in the cognate 

languages. Thus an original feiicoo-i is supported by the forms 

FiKari. and feucart on Doric and Boeotian inscriptions, by the 

Laconian /3eiKcm (given by Hesychius), and again by Latin 

viginti, Sanscrit vimcâti, &c. : an original feWepos by the form 

fee-Trap too on a Locrian z; inscription, as well as by Latin vesper : 

original /nSeli/, Folba, &c. by ficrropes on inscriptions, yolba and 

yo(.bri^.i in Hesychius (erroneously so written, as Ahrens showed, 

for Folba and Fcibî), and also by Latin video, Sanscrit vedmi 

t 

veda, Engl. wit, &c. We do not, however, propose to discuss the 

external evidence, as it 

may be called, by which the loss of an 

initial F is proved, but only to consider the degree and manner 

in which the former existence of such a letter can be shown to 

have affected the versification of Homer. For this purpose it 

will be enough to give a list of the chief words in question, and 

in a few cases a statement, by way of specimen, of some of the 

attempts made to restore the F to the text.* 

The initial F is to be traced by the hiatus in II. 5. 161 ef 

av^va arj, II. 8. 403 Kara 0' a/o/xara afco (similar phrases in 

8. 417., 23. 341, 467); less decisively by the lengthening of the 

final -iv of the preceding word in II. 4. 214 -nakiv aytv ots oy/coi. 

The evidence against an initial consonant is 

very slight. In Od. 

19. 539 rcao-i xar av\ivas ?yfe we should read avytv eae (Bekk.), 

understanding the Singular distributively ( 170). In II. 23. 

392 for iTnreiozj 8e ot ^fe may be read unretoV ot lafe. 

* The first systematic attempt to restore the digamma was made by Heyne 

in his edition of the Iliad (1802). It was based upon Bentley's manuscript 

annotations, of which Heyne had the use. The first text with restored F was 

published by Payne Knight (1820). Much was done by the thorough and 

methodical Quaestiones Homericae of C. A. J. Hoffmann (Clausthal, 1842-48). 

The was again printed in the text of Bekker's second edition (Bonn, 1858'. 

The light of the comparative method was brought to bear upon it by Leskien 

(Rationem quam I. Bekker in restituendo digammo secutus est examinavit Dr. A. 

Leskien, Lipsiae, 1866). The most complete treatise on the subject is that of 

Knos (Upsaliae, 1872). The most important contributions, in addition to 

those mentioned, have been made by Leo Meyer (K. Z. xviii. 49), and by W. 

Hartel (Horn. Stud. iii). Most of the conjectures given in this chapter come 

from one or other of these sources.

364 METRE. [390. 

ava (avacrcra., avdcrcrtivj. 

The words of this group occur in Homer about 300 times, and 

in about 80 instances they are preceded by a final short vowel 

which would ordinarily be elided. This calculation does not 

include the phrase t of det/ces dvaffffepfv 

possibly interpolated). 

' 

Apyeioiffiv (a verse which is 

20. 67 Ivavro. TloaeiSdowos dvattros (in the probably spurious 0eo/zax). 

24. 449, 452 iroirjaav dvafcri. 

Od. 14. 40 dvri&fov ydp dvaKTos KT\, 

395 et ^tev KW voarrja^ dVa. 

438 /cuSatj/e 5e ûôi' dvafcros. 

24. 30 ^s 

api/a (a/ore?, &c.). 

7 

The y is 

supported by three instances of hiatus, viz. II. 4. 158 

cujua re apv&v, 4. 435 oira apv&v, 8. 131 rjvrz apvts and by the 

: 

metrical length given to the preceding syllable in II. 3. 103 6s 

btypov apvas, 16. 352 \VKOL dpvea-a-L. 

The passages which need correction are 

II. 3. 103 oarer* 8' apv' (the 8e is better omitted). 

119 178' dpv' trc&evev (read I8e apv'). 

22. 263 ouSc XVKOI T KO.L dpvcs (omit re). 

Od. 4. 86 iVo T' dpves afyap nepaol reXfOovai (omit T'). 

9. 226 epityovs T /cal dpvas. 

* For a complete analysis of the examples in the Iliad see Dawes, Miscellanea 

Critica, Sect. IV.


Note, however, that the evidence for f is confined to the Iliad, and that 

the derivative dpveios shows no trace of it. 

aoru. 

The presence of an initial consonant is shown by hiatus in 

nearly 80 places. In two places the text is uncertain II. : 

24. 

320 virep aoreoj (but 8ta aoreo? in the Bankes papyrus, and 

several MSS.), Od. 3. 260 ems aoreos v 

(eicas Apyeos in most MSS.). 

Two passages admit of the easiest correction : 

II. 3. 140 dvSpos re irporepoio KOI dffreos (read irpcmpov). 

15. 455 rovs pev o y' '&aTvv6f*a> (omit 76 or /-leV). 

Two remain, viz. 

II. JI. 733 dfupiffTavTO 87) 

aarv (ajAô-rav Bekk.). 

18. 274 VVKTO. nev civ dyoprj aBevos eô/ief darv 8e irvpyoi (I^cre Bekk.). 

The changes made by Bekker in these places are not improbable, but are 

hardly so obvious as to exclude other hypotheses. 

Hiatus is found in II. 8. 

307 vorir\a-i re elapLvfjcn, 

and a short 

final syllable is lengthened in Od. 19. 519 atibyoriv eapos. In the 

phrase &py h elapivfj 

we should doubtless omit the lv } 

as in 

Od. 5. 485 &pij xet/xepfy (Bentl.). 

The F appears in ava CIKOCTL (Od. 9. 209), and the combination 

KOL etKoo-t (which occurs 9 times, including the compounds with 

In II. ii. 25 x/wofo KOI f/LKoffi : 

readxpvo-ov and in the combination re ai 

(in three places) omit T. In the recurring rjXvOov C'IKOOTW erfi KT\. 

Bekker reads -TjAOov CCIKOO-TO) (Cobet well compares Od. 23. 102 e\0oi 

/frA..). 

On Od. 5. 34 Tjfiari K dtcoffTw KT\. see 389. 

Two instances of hiatus indicate F, in II. 

many places in which the word is 

preceded 

%K(Dv, Kaprei 

24. 100, 718^ besides 

by a Dat. Sing., as 

Two places may be easily corrected : II. 4. 509 ^5' (iKfre (read /XT) 

with asyndeton, as Od. 24. 54 iffxfcre' 'Ap-yeiot, ^ ^cêre), and 12. 48 TTJ r 

ciKovffi (omit T). In Od. 12. 117 for 6eoi

366 METRE. [390. 

it in 3 places, but twice rejects F (Od. 9. 321., n. 363), The 

adjective eticeXos or iiceXos usually needs an initial consonant (except 

II. 19. 282, Od. 3i. 207). 

It seems probable that this is the same word as CIKCO to yield. 

The notion of 

giving way easily passes into that of suiting or fitting, hence conforming to, 

resembling. 

KWy, eKTJTl, IlOrjXog. 

Hiatus indicating F is found in 22 places (not reckoning ov TL 

kt&v II. 8. 81, &c.). 

In Od. 4. 649 for avros ete&v we may read avros cywv (cp. Od. 2. 133, where 

both these forms are found in good MSS.). In Od. 17. 478 ceOi' tKT)\os two 

MSS. have eo-0' e. (i. jfo-flc). 

The remaining exceptions are ; 

with CKWV, II. 23. 

434, 585, Od. 5. 100 (where we may read ris KC, or perhaps 

ris 8c enwv . . 

SiaSpapoi ; 

the Opt. without dv being used as in negative Clauses, 299 /): 

with eKTjXos, II. 8. 512, Od. 2. 311 (IvtypaivfaO* ivKyXov Bekk.). 

CK(XS, eKttTOS, &C. 

Traces of F are to be seen in the hiatus vvv 6e e/cas- (II. 5. 791., 

13. 107), aAAa exas (Od. 15. 33), ovbe e/c?]/3oAuu (II. 5. 54): and 

in the lengthening in 'ATro'AAcoô? ZKCLTOIO (II. 7. 83., 20. 295), 

eiJTrAo/cajuos' 'E/caju,?^?], &c. 

The exceptions are, II. i. 21, 438., 17. 333., 20. 422., 22. 15, 

302, Od. 7. 321 mostly admitting of easy correction. 

The original F of this word (recently found on a Locrian 

inscription, see Curt. Stud. ii. 441 is traced ff.) by means of 

hiatus in 115 places. The adverse instances, however, are about 

50 in number, and the proportion that can be removed by 

emendation is not so large as in most cases L. (see Meyer, K. Z. 

viii. 1 6 6. About a fourth of the exceptions appear in the recurring 

phrase fj,evos KOL Ovôv CKCLO-TOV. 

The form ItcdrepOe shows slight traces of initial p in Od. 6. 19 ffraBfjioiiv 

tfcarcpOe, 1 1. 578 yvire 8e fji.iv tfcaTepQe, 22. 181 r


clXuw. 

Before eXto-o-w hiatus is found in four places, and the recurring 

phrases KOL eAi/ca? (3ovs and eiAtVoSas eAt/cas {3ov$ point in 

the same direction. The only exceptions are Od. 12. 355 /3ooWa-Kovd' 

e'AiKes KrA., and II. 18. 401 yvaîiTas 

6' eAtica?. 

It is probable that in many places the forms lAeAt/cTo, lAcA/;^, &c. are old 

errors for tftXiKro, cff\ixOr), &c. : see Dawes, Misc. Grit. 177 : also Heyne on 

II. i. 530. 

Traces of f in clXtico should perhaps be recognised in Od. 5. 403 (epevyoufvov, 

eiAvro) and 15. 479 aaiccaiv tiXvptvoi : cp. IL 20. 492 \6ya eikvQafa. In II. 18. 

522 'i&vr ei'AujueVot it is easy to read lov (as Bekker). The Aor. Part. \vo-0is 

has no f : but it may be from a different Verb-stem (see Buttm. Lexil. s. v. 

fl\voi). 

eXirw (eoATra). 

The initial F of this word is 

proved by 10 instances of hiatus 

(including KOL eArn'Sos, Od. 16. 101., 19. 84). 

The Perfect toXira 

also shows traces of F in the reduplicated syllable, viz. in Od. 2. 

*75-> 3- 375-, 5- 379- 

In II. 8. 526 fvxofjtai fkir6fj,(vos should be cux /*' leA7ro/iej/oj (Hoffm.) or 

perhaps (as Zenodotus read) cXii-opai eix^fJtcvos. 

In four places feXirco can be 

restored by very slight corrections : 

II. 15. 701 Tpualv 

8' 6A.7T6TO (Tpwcrl B Heyne). 

1 8. 194 a\\a /cal CLVTOS '65', \irofj.' (avros leATro/i' Heyne). 

Od. 2. 91 (=13. 380) navras t*.tv p" lAwet (omit '). 

Two others are less easy ; II. 15. 539 7ro\e'/zze ptvow, Zn 5' I\TTCTO (pevcav S' en 

l\7T6To Bentl.), and II. 24. 491 4m -r Z\irfTcu (teal eATrcrat Bentl.). 

The passages which tell against fe'foXira are II. 20. 186 xa^ f s 5e a' ? 

apa ol dirovTi, &c. The exceptions number about 35.

368 METRE. [390. 

Of these exceptions 10 are found in the recurring line otyp' 

eiirca ra /*e 6vfj.bs 

cvl ffrrjOeffffi Kf\fvfi. It has been suggested as possible that iira> has here 

taken the place of an older tirco (f iru), or eo-irto (cp. eo-TrcTf). 

This supposition 

would of course explain other instances of neglected f, as II. i. 64., n. 791, 

Od. i. 10, 37, &c. 

ep8o>, epyov, &C. 

The Verb ep8w is preceded by hiatus in two clear instances, II. 

14. 261, Od. 15. 360. In II. 9. 540 TTO'AA' Ip8eo-Kz; there is an 

ancient v. I. eppeêv. In II. 10. 503 OTL KVVTCLTOV epSot we may 

read Kucrara. But there are several instances on the other side 

in the Odyssey (viz. i. 393., 5. 342, 360., 6. 258., 7. 303., 8. 490., 

ii. 80). 

The reduplicated form eopya (for FtFopya) is preceded by hiatus 

in 7 places. Instances on the other side are, II. 3. 351 6 /xe Trpo- 

Tpos KO.K eopye (where the Aor. epefez; is more Homeric, cp. 28), 

2/1. 

399 ocraa // eopya? (ocrcra eopya? Ambr.J, 22. 347 ^ P py a $ 

(here also jue may be omitted), Od. 22. 318 ovbev eopycos (read ou 

Tl i 

C P- 356). 

The Noun epyo^j with its derivative epydfo/xai, occurs in Homer 

about 250 times, and the F is required to prevent hiatus in about 

165 places. There are about 18 instances against F. 

el'pw, epe'w. 

The F of eipw is required by hiatus in the three places where 

it occurs, viz. Od. 2. 162., n. 137., 13. 7; that of epe'w by 

about 50 instances of lengthening (such as dAA.' e/c rot epeco, cfc 

Trore rts epeet, 

and the like), against which are to be set three 

instances of elision (II. 4. 176., 23. 787, Od. 12. 156). 

i, ijj.a, 

The F is shown by hiatus in more than 80 places, including 

the instances of the Perfect Mid. (etjutai, eWat, &c., see 23, 5). 

The contrary instances are of no weight. The superfluous p 

may be omitted in eiret p eo-cravro (three places), and r similarly 

in Od. 14. 510., 24. 67. This leaves II. 3. 57, Od. 6. 83., 7. 259. 

The F (which 

is inferred from Lat. vomo) may be restored by 

reading efe'jueo-o-e for a7re/>teo-o- (II. 14. 437) and alâ 

possibly Ftnav (L. Meyer), for at// e/xeco^ (II. 15. n). 

Icrirepos. 

Hiatus occurs in six places, after the Prepositions TTOTL (Od. 17. 

191) and em. There are no instances against F. 

TOS. 

The F is 

supported by the lengthening of the preceding 

syllable in five places, such as II. 24. 765 eeiKoo-roz> Iros


In the only adverse instance, II. 2. 

328 TOO-O-CLVT erect, we may 

read and scan roa-a-avra erect, as in the case of eVea (snprn). 

The F in ta^co 

and iayji is chiefly indicated by 23 

instances of 

a peculiar hiatus, viz. after a naturally short final vowel in arsis ; 

as 77 

5e jueya ld\ov/>, 

>, 

&c. 

ioi> 

(toeis, 

The F is supported by hiatus in Od. 4. 135., 9. 426, and is 

nowhere inadmissible. 

19, tos K tot 10-779 (II. 

1 1. 705, Od. 9. 42, 549) the 

form 10-77? 

should perhaps be changed to ai'o-rjs share. Or we may 

the Êolic form of the 

recognise 

p. 20). 

The other places are easily corrected. 

B b 

word, viz. taaa (Fick, Odyssee,

370 METRE. [391. 

ITUS, ITCTJ. 

The F is shown by hiatus (II. 4. 486, Od. 10. 510). The 

Particle re 

may be left out before KOL treat in II. 21. 35- 

OIKOS. 

The F is required in 105 places by hiatus, in 14 by the lengthening 

of a short syllable. About* 25 places are adverse. 

The F is required by hiatus in nearly 100 places. 

places are about 20 (including the names Olvevs and 

The adverse 

of initial 

391.] Words with initial y ' F.' 

1 6. 

545 jurj a-nb revê' eXcovrat, read JUT} 

'F' (Cobet, Misc. 

Crit. 265). 

Od. 5. 135 ij6e tyaa-KOV Sêiv adavarov, read 778^ ' F.' 

Examples of the restoration of ^(ot) will be found in 376.* 

* The whole subject is fully treated by J. van Leeuwen, Mnemos. xiii. 188 ff. 

from whom these emendations are taken.

393-] INITIAL 7- FOR s 

o(f)\v OCLVCLTOS JJLOL 

abelv (read o>9 //,' o(/>eAez> 0ai>aros aSeetz;, see 

365) and 6 places with ^8v?, two of which (II. 4. 131, Od. 19. 

510) may be easily emended. The Substantive rjSos occurs 

chiefly in the phrase ecro-ercu r?oj, where lorat may perhaps be 

read. 

2009, 

The F is indicated by the hiatus Kara ?/0ea (Od. 14. 411). In 

T ijOea KOL voôv tirnwv (II. 6. 5 LI., 15. 268) the re is better 

omitted. The Pf. etwOa or ewQa probably had no initial F, since 

a/ 7 - would give in reduplication o-co-f- or eaf- (not afea/ 7 -). 

eicupog. 

The only place bearing on the question before us is II. 3. 172 

where the metre points to an initial consonant. 

j 

The F 

may be traced by hiatus in II. 5. 270 r&v ol If /crA.., by 

lengthening in II. 24. 604, Od. 10. 6. Adverse instances are II. 

23. 741, Od. 3. 115, 415., 14. 20. 

Trj9. 

The F appears from hiatus in seven places, and can always be 

restored. The word is probably formed from the pronominal 

stem o-Fe- (so that it is=zmus e suis). 

392.] F inferred from metre. A few words may be added 

here which in all probability had initial f, though the traces of 

it in the metre are not supported by independent evidence. 

dpatos. 

The hiatus in three places indicates the loss of a consonant. 

eOôs (perhaps akin to e0o?, ^6os). 

Hiatus precedes in 12 places, and there is only one instance 

on the other side, viz. II. n. 724 ra 8' 

(where erre'ppee is better, see 172). 

cTrepjoeoy tdvea Trefwz; 

epuo), e'ppco. 

Hiatus is found before epuw to draw in 14 places (not counting 

r 

those which are indecisive, such as fi0os ov epvo-ora^vo^, or ITT' 

riTTtipoio 

17 places. There are 17 instances against F, one of the strongest 

being II. I. 141 = vija ptXaivav fpva-a-oêv ( 

Od. 8. 34., 16. 348). 

epvo-a-av), and preceding short syllables are lengthened in 

The Verb pvopai to protect is unconnected with 

pva>. 

The Verb eppw (probably Lat. verro) shows hiatus in the phrase 

(II. 8. 239., 9. 364) ; cp. aTro-e/xre, 

B b 2

3/2 METRE. [393. 

The word occurs six times (counting 

the proper name *Hz/o\//-), 

and except in one place (where it begins the line) always requires 

an initial consonant. 

^pain 

the phrase em fjpa (f)piv 

: 

to cfioose or 

referred to the root var meaning 

The only instance of this word (II. 23. 126 /ze'ya rjptov) 

is in 

favour of initial F. 

An initial consonant is shown by hiatus in 23 places (6 8e 

tero, 

iepcvav, &c.) : there are four adverse places, viz. II. 18. 501, 

Od. 2. 327., 10. 246., 14. 142. It is not connected with irj/u, 

but is to be referred to root vi, meaning to aim at, wish (L. 

Meyer, Bezz. Beitr. i. 301). 

"lXios. 

An initial consonant is indicated in about 50 places the 

; 

number of adverse instances is 14. The derivation of this important 

word is unknown. 

9 9 

lpos, lpis. 

These words may be connected with etpo> to tell. If so, the F 

of *lpis is to be traced in &Kea 9 Ipi$ (19 times), &s e(ar', 2>pro Se 

T 

'I/ns (three times), /3acr/c' i0i, Tpt KrA. ; 

that of *lpos, Od. 18. 73, 

334 (but not always, see w. 38, 56, 233). 

393.] Loss of F in Homer. The chief instances in which loss 

of an original F can be shown to have taken place in the language 

of Homer fall under the following rule : 

When the original 

initial F is followed by the vowels o, 

the diphthong ou, it produces no effect on the metre of Homer. 

The following are words to which this rule will apply * : 

6pdci>, oupos (and avpws) a watcher ; op, &c. 

opos mountain (cp. Bopeaj), and 6p06s upright, which may be 

from the same root (cp. the Laconian "Aprejuu? BupOia). There 

is only one instance of hiatus (viz. Od. 3. 290 to-a opta-a-iv)- 

opru| (Sanscr. vartakas a quail) appears 

which does not admit F (Od. 5. 123). 

in the name 

' 

* See an article by Leo Meyer, K. Z. xxiii. pp. 49 ff.

393-] LOSS OF EIGAMMA. 373 

chariot (Lat. veho)-, oxXos (lit. movement, tossing), 

to disturb (cp. 6%kevs and Lat. vectis) ; 6x0&> (Lat. vehe-mens). 

A trace of F appears in the form a-vvoôs (II. 14. 465). 

o\|/, oWa, 6fxai 6m KaArj, &c. ; 

while there are three undoubtedly 

adverse places (II. 

n. 137., 21. 98, Od. 5. 61). In the case of 

opfyri the evidence is clear against F ; 

in oWa it is indecisive. 

oupaôs (Sanscr. vanmas). 

ouXcu coarsely ground barley, connected with the root feX-, 

meaning to roll, &c. Neither this word nor, the derivative 

ovXoyyrai admits F. 

ouXajjios crowd, press of battle, shows traces of initial F in II. 20. 

379 e8vcrero ovKapov avbp&v and the phrase ava ovXapdv avbp&v 

(II. 4. 251, 273., 20. 113). 

It does not occur except in these 

places. 

OUTCIW, wreiXii wound: cp. CL-OVTOS unwounded, and the form 

in Hesychius. 

w6ew (u>0ov, eo)o-a), 

root vadh to 

beat. 

&vo

374 METRE. [394. 

and v were afterwards identical in sound, and that in the modern language 

both are = i. 

Words with initial v are not found in Homer with p but we cannot in 

; 

this case speak of the loss of p the combination fv having been originally 

impossible. 

The remaining instances in which loss of F may be assumed 

in Homeric words are few, and for the most part open to 

question. 

e\Kco, root valk or vlak (Knb's, following Curtius) f is perhaps seen in 

: 

icard uXica (II. 13. 707., Od. 1 8. 375). This account of the word separates 

it from Lat. sulcus. 

IXeiv, iXup, possibly to be connected with Lat. vollur the bird of prey. 

instances of hiatus before eXcop are hardly enough to prove p. 

\os, from which the name Velia is said by Dionysius Hal. (Arch. i. 20) 

to be derived, has no p in Homer (II. 

2. 584, 594., 20. 221, Od. 14. 474). 

The p of this word is also wanting in the Cyprian dialect (Deecke and 

Siegismund, Curt. Stud. vii. 249). 

*HXis, 'HXetos is without p in Homer : /"aX-ffCot 

is the form found on Elean 

and Laconian inscriptions. 

?|Xos (Lat. vallus) rejects p in II. n. 29 tv 84 oi 77X01 the two other : places 

where it occurs prove nothing. 

ISiw, ISpws (root svid} the : 

a-p 

is lost in Homer. 

IKCO, iKvtojjiai : the derivation from the root viq is quite uncertain. 

loTtt) (Lat. Vesta) : the forms av-ferios, 40-ecmos show that the p 

The 

is lost in 

Homer (as also in the Laconian, Locrian, and Boeotian dialects, see 404). 

394.] Initial S/7 . This combination is to be recognised in 

two groups of words : 

Sfei- (Sfi-), 

eScura (so Ar.), Seos, SeiwSs, SciXos, &C. 

A short vowel is frequently lengthened before these words, as 

II. I. 

515 v TOL ^7rt S 'Q?J II- II - 37 7rc P' ** Aei/xos re

396.] 8F-, Fp-, MEDIAL F. 375 

395.] Initial fp, &c. The metrical value of an initial p 

which represents Fp differs in the several words. It has always 

the effect of a double consonant in priyvvî, purrou, pa/coj, pv- (in 

pvros, &c.), pi]- (in pyros, and pr\Tr\p), nearly always in pwos 

(except Od. 5. 281), pi(a (Od. 9. 390). But lengthening 

is 

optional in ptfa, piyeo), peta thus we have eppefa and epefa : 

(in 

27 

I'TTTTOI 

places); 6e pea (II. 8. 179), but evOa K. peta KrA. ; 

but ppiyj](Tavt a>? fyaro piyi^crev be KrA. As to p- standing for 

an older o-p-, 

and the other letters which (X, p, v) lengthen a 

preceding short vowel, see 371. 

396.] F not initial. The metrical tests by which initial F 

is discovered generally fail us when the sound occurs in the 

middle of a word. Loss of F may be shown either (i) by the 

contraction or synizesis 

of two vowels originally separated by 

it, or (3) by the shortening of the first of two such vowels. We 

have seen that the instances of contraction and synizesis are 

too rare or doubtful to prove much ( 378*, 4). 

The cases in 

which hiatus is indicated by the shortening of a vowel are somewhat 

more important. In the declension of nrjus the forms veos, 

re'ey, z/ewz;, pc'eo-cri, veas ( 94, i) cannot be derived phonetically 

from vr]F6s, &c., unless we suppose loss of F to have taken place. 

The same applies to the double forms of Nouns in -eus, as Hrjîjos 

and IlTjAeos, &c. Unless the short vowel is explained on some 

other hypothesis (e.g. by variation in the stem, as in Ztvs and 

(3ovs, 106, 2), 

we must suppose that F had ceased to be sounded 

in the middle of a word. The loss of F would also explain the 

metathesis of quantity in ews for fjos in Od. 2. 79 (see 171, i), 

TEWS for TT/oj in II. 19. 189 avQi reW e7retyo/j,ôs (where G. Hermann 

read avrov II. TTJOS), 24. 658, Od. 18, 190 but : this, as 

these instances show, is even rarer than synizesis in these 

words, and is almost certainly post-Homeric. 

Compound Verbs usually recognize f, as airo-cnrwv, 8ia.-enreiJ.fv, also with 

apocope irap-diTttjv (d), &c. Exceptions are: dir-enTeêv (Od. I. 91), dn-enrovTOS 

(II. 19. 75), 8i-eiiT (II. 10. 425), irap-einri (II. I. 555) : Kar-eipvarai (Od. 8. 151., 

14. 332., 19. 289) ff-i8fffK : }

3/6 METRE. [397. 

anovpas ( 13), aKovrj. It is very possible that many more such 

forms were to be found in the original text: cp. 384, 

I. 

397.] Loss of initial and The o- traces of these sounds 

i (;/). 

in the metre of Homer are chiefly of interest for the purpose 

of comparison with the facts relating to F. 

be seen in a few cases of the 

The effects of initial os (Lat. salio), a 

(Lat. safy, aju(|H-e7roi' (Lat. sequor), Kara-i(T)(ercu (t^X 60 

and the lengthening in napiyj] (Od. 19. 113) and vvvt^s (Od. 9. 

74). Hiatus is also found twice before v^rj (II. 14. 285, Od. 5. 

257), once before VTTVOS (Od. 10. 68), and 18 times before eos 

(mostly in the principal caesura). These instances however are 

too few to prove anything. 

Initial t or y is chiefly traced in the Adverb ws, which when 

used after the Noun to which it refers is allowed to lengthen the 

final syllable 

: as 6tbs be noticed that in 

many places a short final vowel in arsis is lengthened before 

the F : see especially the instances given under I'o ( 390), and 

Idxw ( 389).* On the other hand there are 617 places where 

the F is neglected. Short vowels suffer Elision before it in 324 

places: it fails to* lengthen by Position after another consonant 

in 215 places and long vowels or diphthongs are shortened 

: 

before it in 78 places. Also the power to lengthen by Position 

is confined, except in the case of the enclitic eo, ot, to lengthening 

of syllables which have the ictus. 

399.] Theories of the F. The main question which arises on 

these facts evidently is : How can the great number of passages 

* A short vowel is also lengthened with ictus before eiros (Od. 10. 246^, 

epav (Od. 14. 411), and in the Compounds a-no-fnrwv (II. 19. 35) 

and UTTOeporj, 

ano-epaae (II. 21. 283, 329).

401.] THEORIES OF THE DIGAMMA. 377 

in which the F affects the metre o Homer be reconciled with 

the not inconsiderable number of passages in which it is neglected? 

The scholars who first became aware of the traces of a lost 

letter in Homer assumed that in the original form of the poems 

this letter, or at least the consonantal sound for which it afterwards 

stood, was consistently used that it was in fact one of 

the ordinary sounds of the language and 

; accordingly they 

directed their efforts to restoring it to the text. This was the 

principle on which Bentley made his famous series of emendations 

: and which was carried out by Bekker in his edition 

of 1858. Of late years, however, different views of the matter 

have been taken. Leskien seems to have been the first to 

maintain that the passages which do not admit F are not 

necessarily corrupt or spurious, but are to be regarded 

as evidence 

of an original fluctuation in the use of the sound. His 

view is adopted and defended by Curtius (Grundz. p. 56; 5^ ec^)' 

Prof. Hartel has more recently put forward a theory which 

agrees with that of Curtius in treating the apparent neglect of 

the F as part of the original condition of the text. But he 

ascribes this neglect, not to irregularity 

in the use of the sound, 

but to the intermediate half-vowel character of the sound itself. 

400.] If we are not satisfied that the F had the value of an 

ordinary consonant at the time when the Homeric poems were 

produced (or when they received their present form), we may 

explain the influence which it has on the metre in several ways. 

Hypothesis of alternative forms. We may suppose that 

each word that originally had initial F was known to Homeric 

times in two forms, an older form with the F confined perhaps 

to the archaic or poetical style and a later in which F was no 

longer heard. Just as the poet could say either o-Gs or us, either 

TroXis or iTToXis, either reXeWai or reXeom, so he may have had the 

choice between F&va% and fiwxf, 'Fififo and TJSu's, 

&c. 

In order to test the probability of this hypothesis, let us take 

a few common words of different metrical form, and which show 

no trace of F, the words "Apyjs, apioros, eyôs, fyiap, ojuXos, 60aXjJios, 

u'Swp, faros. These words, with their immediate derivatives, 

occur in the Iliad 1022 times ; 

and the places that would not 

admit an initial consonant number 684, or just two-thirds of the 

whole. Again, take some of the commonest words with F, ai>a, 

d'oTu, e'pyoi/, OIKOS, and the Aorist lbe.lv. These occur in the Iliad 

685 times, and the exceptions are hardly 50, or about onefourteenth. 

Compared with the other proportion this surely 

proves that the recognition of the F in these words was not 

arbitrary, but was the rule in Homeric verse. 

401.] Explanation from fixed phrases, &c. The traces of F

378 METRE. [402. 

may also be ascribed to the conventional phrases of the early 

epic style. 

The word aoru, for example, is found very frequently 

in the combinations irporl aaru, d^d aoru, Kara aoru, &c. ; 

but these 

do not prove the pronunciation fdoru for Homeric times any 

more than (e. g.} eirieiiois proves an Attic ImfeiKYJs. Such phrases, 

it 

may be said, were handed on ready-made, with a fixed metrical 

value, and served as models for fresh combinations, in which the 

hiatus was retained as part of the familiar rhythm. 

This explanation is inadequate, for the following reasons : 

(1) 

The instances of F are not confined to the commonest 

words, or to frequently recurring phrases. Thus it is found in 

lov a violet, ITUS the felloe of a wheel, treYj 

a willow, apyes lambs. 

And it is used (generally speaking) 

in all the different forms of 

each Verb or Noun, whether of common occurrence or not (ibeiv 

as well as ISeW, freo-i as well as i? and ufu, &c.). 

The other cases in which tradition can be shown to have 

(2) 

had the effect of retaining older phrases and combinations are 

not really parallel. In the Homeric Hymns the F can be clearly 

traced : but the proportion of instances which do not admit F is 

markedly different. Taking the words already used as examples, 

viz. wag, aoru, IpyoK, oticog, ISeii', 

we find them in the Hymns 152 

times, while the F is neglected in 36 places, or nearly one-fourth 

of the whole. Again if we look at the words which begin with 

o, as ouXafjios, &c. 

ov|/, ( 393), we find similar conditions. The 

traces of F are undoubted, but do not predominate as with orag or 

aoru. Other examples may be seen in the traces of the double 

consonants, o-p, o-X, cn>, Fp discussed in 371. Compare the free 

use of alternate forms, as epcga and eppega, irpo-pew and emppe'w, 

with the almost invariable recognition of 8f in 8eos, Seuras, &c. 

We seem to be able to draw a broad distinction between the 

predominating influence of the F in Homer and the arbitrary 

or occasional influence of the older forms in other cases. And 

these other cases, we may conclude, give us a measure of the 

force of tradition in such matters, while in the case of the 

Homeric F the effect is due to its retention as a living sound. 

(3) 

A further argument in favour of F as a real sound in 

Homer has been derived from the places in which Vc, 

cf01 suffer 

elision ( 391) ; see Leafs note on II. 24. 154. The argument 

has much force, and would be conclusive if we could assume that 

an elided vowel was not sounded at all. 

402.] Hiatus &c. as a survival. Another supposition, akin 

to the last discussed, is that in the words which originally had 

initial F the ordinary effects of an initial consonant remained 

after the sound itself was no longer heard. Such a phenomenon 

would be by no means without parallel in language. In French,

404.] THEORIES OF THE DIGAMMA. 379 

for instance, elision is not allowed before certain words beginning 

with //, 

as le heros, la hauteur, though the h is no longer pronounced. 

Similarly, then, it may be held that the facts of 

Homeric metre only prove the habit or rule of treating certain 

words as if they began with F. 

On the other side it 

may be urged that the h of heros, hauteur, 

&c. is only traced in one way, viz. by hiatus, and that only in 

a small number of combinations ; 

whereas the F not only protects 

hiatus, but also makes Position. Moreover the retention of a 

traditional usage of this kind is very much easier in an age of 

education. Anomalies which would naturally disappear in a few 

years are kept alive by being taught to successive generations of 

children. It seems difficult to believe that tha F would have 

kept its present place in the memory of the poets unless it were 

familiar, either to the ear as a present sound, or to the eye as a 

letter in the written text. 

403.] Explanation from the nature of the F. The theory 

recently advanced by Prof. Hartel is one to which it is difficult 

to do justice in a short statement. The careful re-examination 

which he has made of the metrical facts has convinced him that 

the influence of the F is not occasional or arbitrary, but in the 

strictest sense universal in Homer. He does not however regard 

the passages in which the F appears to be neglected as corrupt or 

them on the theory that the F in Homer 

spurious, but explains 

has not the full value of an ordinary consonant : 

comparing it, 

for instance, not with the initial V of Latin, but with the sound 

which that letter has in the combination QV, 

Kartells chief argument 

is that hiatus after short vowels is the 

most common of the metrical facts pointing to a lost F, and 

especially that it is much commoner than lengthening by Position, 

the numbers being 2995 and 359 respectively. But the force of 

this argument depends in the case of each word on the metrical 

form : thus before a word of iambic form the syllable must be 

short, hence we may find hiatus, but not lengthening 

: before an 

anapaest the reverse holds good. If (using 

Kartells list) 

we 

take the instances in which F is followed in the verse by two 

short syllables the words being ayei>, SXts, eapos, IXixcs (with 

eAt/c 0)776?, &c.), CTTOS, Ipuw, eras, taxT? 

'fiiov we shall find that they 

number 415, and the F makes Position in 98. But this is not 

materially different from the proportion which will be found to 

obtain in the case of any common word of the same metrical form 

(such as 

404.] F in other Greek dialects. It seems desirable here to 

say something of the uses of the Digamma which are found on 

the older inscriptions of the chief Doric and Êolic dialects.

380 METRE. [404. 

The forms preserved on these inscriptions do not indeed prove 

anything directly as to the Homeric digamma. We cannot 

infer from them, for instance, that the symbol F was ever used 

in any written copies of the poems, or that the sound which it 

represented in other dialects was known to the Homeric language. 

But they may serve by way of analogy to direct our conjectures 

on these questions. 

The most striking examples of F are found on the inscriptions 

of Corinth and its colony Corcyra (as FtKdfia, FioXaFos, FL^LTOS, 

Afeiznaj, Atfay, HtvF&v, Eez'fdpeo?, opFos, TAao-iafo, &c.). 

With 

these may be placed the Argive inscriptions (in one of which 

occurs Aift), and the few Laconian inscriptions. In the older 

monuments of these dialects initial F is never wanting; but 

omission in the body of the word is occasionally found, as in 

Aat(/>o/3os and UoXv^va (on the same Corinthian vase), and 

several names ending in -K\rjs (for -/cAeTrjs), 

and -Act? (for -XaFos). 

The scanty Phocian inscriptions yield the important forms fe, 

alFct, K\eFo$, with no early examples of omission ; 

and the little 

known Pamphylian dialect is equally constant, so far as it has 

been made out. The Locrian dialect shows more decided indications 

of falling off in the use of the digamma. On the inscriptions 

of that dialect (discussed by Prof. Allen in Curt. Stud. iii. 

207 ff.) 

we find it in /Wro's, F^KOOTOS, FK&V, F/ros, feo-Trdpcos, 

Folitos and its 

compounds (lirtFoiKOS, &c.), also in Kcmufet, 

FeFabrjKora but not in : 8a/xia>pyos, vos, Zvvta, 'Qir&vTios (for 

original 'OiroFtvTios). 

The only initial F which is 

wanting is 

in the word tori'at 

(we may compare the Laconian and Homeric 

eê'orio?). Similarly in the older Elean inscriptions initial F is 

regular (Fapyov, Feiros, Fpdrpa, &c.) and we have also 

; 'Epfaotoi 

(people of Heraea /), efepeiJ (prob. an Infinitive), but fez/os, AID'S 

without F. In the great inscription of Gortyn initial F appears 

in F6$ (sum), Fiv ( 

= 'Fol), FtKaaros, FtKarcpos, Fdpat, Fepyaa-ia, 

FfjjjLa (et/xa), fenrat, FOLKZVS, Fotvos, FLâri, Fe^rjKOvra, and is only 

lost in o>z;a, wvaco (before w, 393). 

The F is also found in 

Compounds, as ZvFoiKfi, TrpoêiTrarco, SuodeKafert'e?, and in the 

body of the word Fia-Fofjioipos, 

but disappears between vowels, as 

in Aaco (Gen. of Aaos a stone), aid, Ttcubiov, the oblique Cases of 

Nouns in -us and -eus (we'es, fotKea, bpopees, and the contracted 

words ara (dfdrr/) 

&c.), 

and as (for 

a/ : os, 

= ea)s). 

It is also lost 

before p, as in aTropprjOevTi.* 

A somewhat later stage in the use of F is well exemplified by 

the numerous Boeotian inscriptions. In these the general rule is 

that initial F is retained : the only word from which it is regularly 

absent is ZKCLOTOS. On the other hand the only instances of 

* Baunack, Die Inschrift von Gortyn, pp. 37-39, 68.

404.] DIGAMMA IN THE DIALECTS. 381 

F in the body of a word are, the compound 

and a ere'es), group of derivatives of aetSw (avXaFvbos, rpaya- 

Fvbos, &c.). 

The same rule applies to the Arcadian inscriptions, 

which however are too few to be of importance. The further 

progress of decay may be seen in the Doric dialect of Heraclea, 

of which a specimen remains in the well known Tabulae lleracleenses 

(of the 4th cent.). 

We there find Fe, feros, Fibios, FLKCITL 

and the compound ey-fÂrîWri = ( e-eiAr705*?}j). In 

these forms the F is vocalised ; cp. Homeric aviaôs ( = a-Fia)(os), 

evade, raXavpivos. 

It is necessary here to notice a group of uses of the F in which 

it seems to have been developed from a neighbouring vowel (u or 

The vowel 

o). 

usually precedes, as in Laconian edTJdofas, ebr/boFe, 

Corcyrean apio-TtvFovTa, Boeotian EvFapa, fiaKtvFai, Cyprian 

EvF\6u>v, EvFayopa), Kareo-Keufao-e : but we also find TAao-to/o 

(Corcyr.), rikyaFos (Cypr.), TiôxapiFos (Cypr.), Fori (Locr.). 

So perhaps the Boeotian avXaFvbos, rpayaFvbos, &c. (see above). 

With the former instances we might compare Italian Genova, 

Padova (for Genua, Padua) with the latter the n of Italian 

; 

uomO) uopo, the w of whole, the provincial English wuts for oats, 

&c. With fort we should compare the form Na/âKrios, also 

Locrian. Both are exceptional, and indeed must be considered 

as mere errors 

* 

: but they help to show how near F was to a 

pure vowel sound. It is evident that this redundant F, growing 

* The ordinary form NaviraKTOs occurs on the inscription 19 times, the 

form with Naf - only once. Similarly against the single instance of fort are 

to be set 2 instances of on, and 5 others of the Relative os, in the older 

Locrian inscription. See Allen in Curt. Stud. iii. p. 252 ; Brugmann, ibid. iv. 

p. 133, n. 57 : Tudeer, De digammo, p. 45.

383 METRE. [405. 

out of the vowel u or o, is a parallel phenomenon to the loss of F 

before these vowels which was noticed above as a characteristic 

of Homer ( 393). 

405.] F in Ionic. There remains the interesting question 

whether the existence of the F in Ionic can be traced in 

inscriptions. 

The evidence appears to be as follows (Tudeer, 

De dig ammo &c. pp. 5 ff.) 

: 

(1) The form APTTO (=avrov) on a Naxian inscription of 

the end of the 6th century B.C. But, as has been pointed out,* 

the F of dfuros indicates at most a special way of pronouncing 

the u, and is to be compared with the erroneous Ndf-ircuc-ros noticed 

above. 

(2) The name of the city of Velia, which was founded by 

exiles from Phocaea (feXea marshes ; but see 393). 

(3) The forms flO, TAPTfONES, OfATIES all proper names 

on vases found in Magna Graecia, and supposed to have come 

from Chalcis in Euboea, or one of its Italian colonies. 

It is inferred by Tudeer (1. c.) 

that the F must have been a 

sound in the Ionic dialect of Euboea at the time when the 

living 

colonies of Chalcis were sent to Magna Graecia, i. e. probably in 

the 8th century B.C. On the other hand, since there is no 

example on the inscriptions of Euboea itself, the sound does not 

seem to have survived there down to the date of the earliest 

examples of writing, viz. the 6th century B, c. Hence Tudeer 

the loss of the F in Ionic Euboea at some time between the 

puts 

8th and the 6th centuries. 

It has been recently pointed out by P. Kretschmer (K. Z. xxxi. 

285) that the Ionic change of a to cannot be 

T] placed very early. 

The name MTJOOL underwent the change, 

the original a appears 

in the form Ma5ot on the monument of Idalion and the Medes 

must therefore have become known to the lonians before it was 

completed. The Persian names which reached Ionia later 

Adpetosv, MiOpibaT^s, &c. retain their a. Similarly the old 

Carian MtXaros became the Ionic Micros. Hence the Ionic r] 

is later than the contact of lonians with the nations of Asia 

Minor. Now the anomalous TJ 

after p in the Attic Koprj 

and Sepry 

is to be explained from the older forms KopFt], bfyFjf (cp. Kopprj 

from Ko'ptrr?). Consequently the loss of F in Attic must be later 

than the change of a to tj, 

and a fortiori later than the Ionian 

migration. This inference is confirmed by the o of the Comparatives 

KtvoTepos and oreôYepoy, pointing as it does to the forms 

* By Brugmann, Curt. Stud. iv. p. 132, n. 55, and Tudeer, p. 7.

405.] DIGAMMA IN IONIC. 383 

KvF6$, a-TvF6s (since the lengthening of the e, 

as in Ionic KCIPO;, 

oreivos, never took place in Attic). 

The former use of F as a letter in all Greek alphabets 

is shown 

by its use as a numeral, and also by the existence of the first 

non-Phoenician letter, T. The addition of T, which was the 

earliest made,, and perhaps contemporaneous with the introduction 

of the alphabet, shows that the Greeks felt the need of a vowel 

distinct from the labial spirant Vau. Otherwise the Phoenician 

Vau would have served for the vowel u, just as the Yod was 

taken for the vowel i. And as there is no Greek alphabet without 

T, it follows that the consonant F was equally universal."* 

Combining these inferences with the independent evidence 

furnished by the metre, we may arrive at some^ approximate 

conclusions regarding the value of F in the Ionic of Homer. 

(a) Initial F had the value of a consonant, except before o or 

w ( 393)- 

(&) bF was retained, not only at the beginning of a word 

( 394), but also in i-bFticra, 8e'8f ta, &c. : we can hardly suppose 

compensatory lengthening in these forms. 

(0) F between vowels is more doubtful ( 396). Since initial F 

was lost as early as Homer before o or w, it probably vanished 

before most Case-endings of the Second Declension, and before 

the -05, -cui/ of the Third Declension. Thus for XaFds, &c. we 

should have Aaos, AaoS, &c. (but F possibly in Aafoi, Aafourt) 

: 

and again f]bv$, rjbcos, fibeFi, &c., UrjXtvs, ITÂrjos, Tlrj \fjFi, &c. 

Then other Cases might follow the analogy of the Gen. Sing, 

and Plur v and so drop the F altogether. However this 

may be, 

it is clear that F between vowels was generally lost much 

earlier than F at the beginning of the word Italian 

(cp. amai for 

amavij &c.). 

The absence of contraction proves little, as we see 

from the Attic x^* *X ea > *X 6 &c - At the same time we 

> 

occasionally find a partial survival of F in a vocalised form, 

making a diphthong with the preceding vowel ( 396). 

* 

As the Vau is written V on the Moabite Stone, it has been suggested that 

it was the source of the Greek T. It seems not improbable that the letters f 

and T were at first only two forms of Vau, appropriated in course of time to 

the consonant f and vowel v, just as our u and v come from the two uses 

of Latin V. If this is so, the place of T at the end of the then alphabet is 

significant, as showing the importance attached to the original order of the 

letters. See Koberts, Greek Epigraphy, n : 

Taylor, The Alphabet, ii. p. 82.

APPENDIX.* 

C. On t\ 

and ei in Homer, 

THIS seems the most convenient place for a 

short statement of the 

question as to the spelling of the Subjunctives formed from Stems in 

and of some other forms about which similar doubts have arisen. 

-T), 

1. In the case of Stems in which -r\ represents an older -a the 

MSS. usually have ei before o, w, but v\ 

before e, tj. 

Thus in the 

Subj. of ffirjv, CO-TTJV we find /3eio>, crreicocri, &C., but Pfos, orqerov, &C. 

There are one or two exceptions: KaTaô^v once in A (II. 10. 97), 

cinprjopcv in good MSS. of the Odyssey (6. 262., 10. 334). Aristarchus 

however wrote TrfptoTôoo-' in II. 17. 95 (where all the MSS. have 

and priofuu in II. 22. 431 (where the MSS. have either 

or fiiopai) 

: from which it 

may be inferred that he wrote in rj 

all similar forms. 

2. In the Subjunctives from Stems in -YJ (the short Stem ending in 

-e), the MSS. always have ci before o, w, and usually before 

, TJ. 

Thus we find 0eio>, faigs, fair), and less commonly Qfas, tfifo, &c. But 

Aristarchus wrote Byns, 0fiy, &c., and so in all similar cases, da/uqi?, 

0-0777777, 

&c. As to foi& } Safttuv, &c., no express statement of his opinion 

has been preserved. If we may argue from this silence, we should 

infer that the question had not arisen, 

and therefore that with these 

Stems the spelling -eio, -eio^v, &c. was anciently universal. 

3. The spelling with ci appears in some forms of the Aor. 6*7701 (for 

fKrjva, see 15), esp. Kfiop-fv, KfiavTfs, Keiavro, fceta/iej/ot, KaK-Kftai ; 

also in 

the Pf. Part. Tetfi/eieos 1 , 

and the 3 Plur. forms flarai, flaro, aKaxeiarn. 

Aristarchus certainly wrote eioja, retivrjus 

: and the form fja.Tai (for 

qo-arai) is supported by ancient authority (Eust. Od. 20. 354.) 

4. In the declension of Stems in -eea (for -cfeo--) 

we sometimes find 

r] throughout, as 'HpcutXi}"?, 'HpaicX^t, 'Hpa/cXâ, sometimes YJ 

before et 

and i, 

but ei before a, o, a> : as aK\rjfls, {axpriels, but d/cXetcos, VK\elas, 

fijppelos, gaxpci&v. So fieiov?, vneiovs, but o-Trrj'i, trirrjcam. In all these 

cases, however, the uncontracted ee should probably be substituted for 

T) orct( 105, 15). In x 

e V"7' X^Pn^t X*P fia (Aristarchus and most MSS.) 

the origin of the long vowel is not quite certain ( 121). 

* The matter contained in the Appendix to the first edition under the 

headings A, B, D and E has now been incorporated with the body of the 

work.

H AND El IN HOMER. 385 

5. The Attic -ew- in TrAeW, Kpea-cpdyos, xp f03K(m^w points to original 

iJos, Kprjas, XP*1 OS ) 

instead of the usual TrAeios, Kpelas, XP ÔS' And eats, 

are for T/OS-, TT)OS (not etW, as in the MSS.). 

6. So Attic -ea points to -T) to have been changed to 6p6a> 

through the intermediate form 6p> ( 55). 

C c

386 APPENDIX. 

A similar account is to be given of the forms which exhibit ei for 

eu or ef, as -rrveiet breathes, 6eifiv to run, x W (Subj.) shall pour, TrXeiovrfs 

sailing, K\iov passed 

into -cfw and then -cw, the e was lengthened by the force of the 

metre, and became ei. So the et of Keiavrcs (for Krjvavres or Krjavrcs, from 

KCUGJ) 

is to be attributed to the Attic i Aor. Part. Keas. But the 

Verbs in -eiu ( 51, 3), or some of them, may be Verbs in -rjw : 

e.g. oKvf}(*>, like JEolic TTOÔ), dStKqw. 

It is probable that in the same way the a of ({idea (Plur. of (pdos), 

drjp, aetdoo, aWe, ai'oi/, aWa, aop, aXiarjs, &r)S, &C. represents au. The 

lengthening cannot well be merely metrical, as in dddvaros &c. ( 386). 

In some cases ci takes the place of an e which was long by Position : 

and perhaps eifiap for eS-fap. 

as Sei'SoiKa for 6evrai; evveia, i8pvs, TrdXetco?, and Genitives 

in -K\CIOVS (H. Weir Smyth, The Vowel System of the Ionic Dialect, 

in the Trans, of the Am. Phil. Ass. xx. p. 74 G. Meyer, Griech. Gr? 

: 

149). It is worth observing that these inscriptions belong to the 

same period as the MSS. in which, as we gather from the criticism of 

Aristarchus, such forms as redveiSyras, orW, jSeuo, &c. first found 

their way into the text. 

F, Fictfs theory of the Homeric dialect. 

The theory put forward by Aug. Fick in his 

two works on Homer 

(Die homerische Odyssee in der ursprunglichen SpracJiform wiederhergestellt, 

1883 Die homerische Ilias nach Hirer Entstehung betrachtet 

: 

und in der urspriinglichen SpracJiform wiederhergestellt, 1886) admits 

of being stated in a very few words. He holds that the poems (with 

certain exceptions) were originally composed in an ôlic dialect ; 

that some three centuries later (about 540 B.C.) they were translated 

into Ionic; and that in this process every Êolic word for which 

there was no metrically equivalent form in Ionic was simply left 

unchanged. Thus, in his view, was formed the Epic dialect of 

literature, a dialect mainly Ionic, but with a considerable admixture 

of JEolic forms. 

The arguments which Fick advances in favour of this theory are 

not entirely linguistic. The scene of the Iliad, he reminds us, is

PICK'S THEORY. 387 

laid in Êolis ; 

the heroes and legends are largely those of the JEolic 

race ; 

the parts of Ionia which tradition connects with Homer adjoin 

Êolic settlements ; 

and Smyrna, which figures in some of the oldest 

traditions as his birthplace, was for a time an Êolic city. Now if 

the poems were first composed in some JEolic district of the northwest 

of Asia Minor, and passed thence to Ionia, they would take an 

Ionic form ; and, as the result of the supremacy of Ionia in art and 

literature, that form, though 

full of anomalies and half-understood 

archaisms, would naturally hold its 

ground as the accepted text of 

Homer, and become the standard to which later poets, both of the 

Homeric and the Hesiodic school, would be obliged to^ conform. 

The linguistic arguments upon which Fiek chiefly relies are as 

follows : 

1 . The p or ' digamma/ which is required by the metre of Homer, 

is an -zEolic letter, unknown to the earliest extant Ionic. Moreover 

the vocalisation of the p seen in a number of Homeric words 

and the like, 396) is characteristically Êolic : cp. 

the Êolic 

(for e-fiSe), a%> (for afqp), avdra (=0717), &c. The prothetic 

eeSm (e-feoVa), ee/Kocrt, cepyoa, &C. is also -Êolic. 

e- of 

In order to prove that p never existed in Ionic Fick appeals to the 

Ionic inscriptions, and the early Ionic poets. 

This evidence, however, 

does not go back beyond the 7th century B.C., and therefore proves 

nothing for the original language of Homer. As we have seen 

( 405), there is reason to believe that the loss of F in the Ionic 

dialect was subsequent to the first settlements of lonians in Asia. 

2. The Êolic accent and breathing are found in a number of 

Homeric words. Thus the barytone accent appears in the Nominatives 

in -a (as pqricra, &c.), 

in the Perfect forms aicaô-dac, dKaxn^vos, 

a\a\r)ap, cifjLaa, a^vdis, dp.66fv, r^-os, eir-iortov, avr-odtov (oSos) ; 

and both 

and fyi/zes. 

peculiarities in the Pronouns ap,fj,es 

The answer is suggested by Fick himself, though he makes it 

apply to a small part only of these forms.* It is that the accent 

and breathing of the JEolic words in Homer was determined by the 

* ' 

Fur u/x/zfs, v/i/i', tifj-nf 

und vf3(3a\\iv mag die psilose aus dem aolischen 

dialect erschlossen sein, in den iibrigen fallen liegt wohl achte iiberlieferung 

vor ' (Odyssee, p. 12). Where is the evidence of any such tradition ? Whenever 

the grammarians have to do with a form which was obsolete or archaic 

in their time, they are evidently quite at a loss. 

C C 3

388 APPENDIX. 

living Êolic dialect. Let us take the form as a 

ajji|jii(i>) typical 

instance. Fick holds that the Êolic appi(v) was adopted by the Ionic 

reciters and preserved with all its Êolic features the double JA, 


smooth breathing, the barytone accent for several generations, 

because the Ionic fjfuv is metrically different ( instead of - w). 

The alternative is to suppose that the original Homeric language had 

a form with short t as in Doric aptv and that in later times, 

when this form had gone out of use, the ./Eolic o/u/u(i/) 

took its place 

in the text. Such a substitution is eminently natural. The rhapsodists 

were doubtless familiar with the Êolic Pronouns, and their 

adoption of the form was ap.p.i(v) simply putting the known in place of 

the unknown. In the case of &pt"(r) and v/3/3aXXe/ Fick himself takes 

this view. But if the form vp,p,i(v) 

was maintained by the influence 

of contemporary JEolic, we need go no further for an explanation of 

the whole group of forms of which it is the type. 

3. 

Several of the inflexional forms of JEolic are more or less frequent 

in Homer, and their occurrence, according to Fick, is subject to 

a law w r hich holds almost without exception, viz. 

that the JEolic form 

is used (i) 

whenever the corresponding Ionic form is different in 

quantity, and therefore is not admitted by the metre, and (2) 

when 

the word itself is wanting in Ionic. In either case the simple substitution 

of Ionic for J3olic was impossible. On the other hand the 

Ionic of Homer can be translated back into Êolic without encountering 

any difficulty of the kind. 

The forms to which Fick applies his argument are : 

the Fern. Voc. 

in -a (vvp.a), 

the Gen. in -oio (-00), -ao, -awK : the Dat. Plur. in 

-ea) : the Gen. of Pronouns in -Qev : the forms ajxfxes, fyfui', ujajj.es, 

ujAfAii/, ujifAc : the Pres. in -au ; -TJW (-cia>), -ww : the Inf. in -pcrai and 

-jj.e> : the Pf. Part, in -v for KficXrjyws) 

-aos, 

form. 

: the Nouns in 

-awi> 

(Xaoy, 

O7rda>v } StSv/uaa>z>, and many proper names) ; #ea, 

and some 

, proper names in -eia, -cias (in Ionic -erjs). 

Other 

words in Homer are ytXos TrXe'fs (ye'Aeos), (frXcorer), nio-vpfs (Ion. 

fj^porov (rjâprov) 

all metrically different from the Ionic 

In several instances the corresponding Ionic form would have 

suited the metre, but was not in use ; 

so 6cd (Ionic only 0c6s), 

TTO\V- 

Trafjicov (JEol. Tre'Tra/xatiÂceKT^/iai), eppope (in Ionic only Middle ei/iapjMat) , 

evvrip-ap, evvoa-iyaios, dpyevvos, fpfficwos. So OTTTTCO? was retained because 

the Ionic form was o*cs, never OKKUS: and OTTTTCOS 

again 

retention of OTTO)?. 

led to the 

In order to determine how far these forms are proofs of an JEolic

FICK'S THEORY. 389 

Homer, it is necessary to distinguish between those which are 

specifically Êolic, i.e. Êolic modifications of a common original, and 

those which are simply the older forms, which Ionic and other 

dialects modified each in its own way. To the latter class belong 

the Gen. endings -oio (Indo-Eur. -osyo\ -So, -auv (New Ion. -cw, 

-cwy), the Voc. in -d, the Inf. in -jxemi, -per. These are forms which 

would be found everywhere in Greece, if we could trace the different 

dialects far enough back. They are ' JEolic ' only because they were 

retained in Êolic (among other dialects), but were altered or lost in 

Attic and Ionic. The same may be said of the endings of the Pronouns 

, 

&c. They appear also in the corresponding Doric forms d/ue's, 

ey, Dat. ap.iv, vy-tv, Ace. a/xf, v/ê. In these cases, then, we only know 

that a form is archaic, not that it belongs to any one dialect.* 

On the other hand there are some forms to which this account 

does not apply. The Dat. Plur. in -com is not proved to be ' Panhellenic,' 

and is certainly less primitive than the form in -ai ( 102). 

The case stands thus : Ionic has only -cri, Êolic only -eom, in Homer 

both are found (-eaai being rather less frequent). Therefore, says 

Tick, the language of Homer is JEolic, not the later Êolic, in which 

every Dat. Plur. ended in -eao-i, but an earlier, in which -eo-cri had 

begun to take the place of -v, KfKonav ( 27). 

The argument here has greater weight than 

in the case of Pan-hellenic inflexions, but it is not conclusive. The 

forms now in question are not confined to JEolic : 

they appear 

occasionally in Doric, and in the dialects of northern Greece. There 

was therefore a general tendency towards these forms, and the dialect 

of Homer may have shared in this tendency without being thereby 

proved to be non-Ionic. 

In the case of the Genitives in -oio and the Voc. in -& the argument 

may be pressed somewhat further. The forms -oio and -ou, 

which are found together in Homer, represent different steps of a 

phonetic process (-010, -oio, -oo, -ou) : therefore they 

subsisted together in any spoken dialect, and -oio 

cannot have 

in Homer must be 

an archaism, preserved by literary tradition. This conclusion is 

* 

Undue stress has been laid upon the variety of forms of the Infinitive in 

Homer : e. g. Offttvai, 6f/j.tv, Otivat. Originally there were as many Infinitive 

endings as there were different ways of forming an abstract Substantive. In 

Vedic Sanscrit, where the Infinitive is less developed than in Greek, the 

variety of formation is much greater (Whitney, 970).

390 APPENDIX. 

confirmed by the Homeric use of the ending ( 149, 3). 

If 

then 

Pick is right in regarding -oio in Alcaeus as taken from the living 

JEolic of Lesbos (Odyssee, p. 14), 

it follows that Lesbian retained a 

form which had died out of the supposed old JEolic of Homer's time. 

Again, the Fern. Voc. in -a appears to be regular in Lesbian Êolic : 

whereas in Homer it is found only in the isolated vvpfpa. This is 

therefore another point in which historical JEolic is more primitive 

than Homer. The argument would apply also to the Gen. in -ao and 

-oW, if it were certain that -cw and -ewy belong to the original 

Homeric language. 

4. Among the forms now in question there are many instances of 

a for which Ionic must have had YJ, 

and which therefore Fick argues 

cannot have come to Homer from Ionic. Such are, the Gen. in -ao, 

-awi>, which must have appeared in Old Ionic as -TJO, -TJO>I>, 

whence 

New Ionic -ew, -cwi/ : the Participles neivduv, Stâcoi/ 

: the Nouns in 

-aoy, -atoj/ : the word Bed, and some proper names, 'Ep/zeias-, AiVet'a?, 

'Peia, 3>/a, NatxriKaa : the Words Xaay, dr)p (Gen. êpoy), darjp ( 106, l), 

rerp-aopos- (Od. 13. 8l), perhaps also the Perfects eaScoy, eaya ( 22, l). 

The normal change to v\ appears in vrjvs (VTJOS for vrifts, &c.), v-qos 

temple, rjas, r]\ios, Trap-rjopos, drj'ios (JEol. Safioy), K\rjts, prjtSios, 7rr)6s. 

Against the Nouns in -a.uv we can only set the single form Trmryooi/. 

In the first place, it is very probable (as has been shown in 405), 

that the Ionic of Homer's time still had the sound of 5 in all these 

forms. This however is not a complete answer to Fick. We have 

to explain how this primitive a was retained in these particular cases, 

when the change of a to took rj place generally in the dialect. For 

we can hardly suppose that the change of -ao, -aa>i> to -TJO, -i\wv (on the 

way to -eci), -e&>y) could have been made in the spoken language 

without extending to the recitation of poetry. 

The true answer seems to be that the retention of a in Homer was 

due, generally speaking, to the influence of the literary dialects, 

especially Attic and Êolic. 

Let us take the case of Xaos (Xafo?), which in some ways is typical. 

The Ionic form \rj6s is quoted from Hipponax 88 (fr. Bergk), and is 

preserved, as Nauck acutely perceived (Mel. gr.-rom. iii. 268), 


Homeric proper names AijiYos, Aeioxpiroy (for AôKptros), and AeicoS^s 

(A.r]o-pd8r]s). 

Fick supposes that when Homer was translated into 

Ionic th'e form Xrjos had become antiquated, and accordingly, as Aecos 

was metrically different, Ado's- was retained. If so, however, the 

proper names would d, fortiori have remained in their Êolic form

PICK'S THEORY. 391 

(AdiYo?, AaoKpiros), just as the older form *dfp

392 APPENDIX. 

in other words, that the steps were -ao, -aw, -cw and -awy, -awv, -CWK 

(not -ao, -t]o, &c.). 

It is also not improbable that the shortening had 

taken place in the time of Homer, so that -ao and -dwi> were then 

archaic (as 

-oio almost certainly was). There are 54 instances of the 

Gren. Plur. Fern, in -ewe (-wi>) 

in Homer, against 306 in -owi> (Menrad, 

pp. 36, 38). Considering the strength of tradition in such matters 

we may infer that the vowel was doubtful in quantity, if not actually 

short, in the spoken language of the time. As to -So see 376, i. 

Now if the forms in -ao and -auv were then archaic, they might be 

exempted, by the force of a poetical tradition, from the general phonetic 

law or tendency which turned a into in the Ionic dialect. 

i\ 

And the influence of Old Attic and other literary dialects which 

retained the a would operate the more decisively. 

However this may 

be, it is clear that the causes which retained the a of Xndy, i/ao's, 

irapdopos, gvvdopos, 8aos, irads, neirap.ai in the Old Attic of tragedy, may 

have operated at an earlier time in favour of -ao and -awy. 

The question between a and e in the later form of these endings 

would naturally be settled by the example of Ionic in favour of -eu>, 

-ewv : but it is worth noticing that the result has not been the same 

in the Gen. of Neuters in -&s ( 107, 3). 

Here the Ionic e appears in 

Homer in the declension of ovSas, K&US, Krepas, but not in yrjpa-os, 

6e7ra-a>i>, repa-nv. The tendency to uniformity works much more 

powerfully on a large class of words, such as the Nouns in -a (-TJ), 

than on a small group, like the Neuters in -as. But the survival 

of -dos, -a.wv in the latter makes it 

probable that -aw, -awi> were at 

one time the Homeric forms, anterior to -ew, -ewi>.* 

A singular problem is presented by the a in the two forms nftvduv 

(Ace. TTfivdovra) and SH/mow, as to which see 55, 8. As these verbs 

belong to the small group in which contraction gives TJ instead of a, 

it seems at first sight strange that they should be the only examples 

of -awy in the Participle. But the connexion between the two 

phenomena appears when we consider that the contraction in neiiys, 

&c. implies the steps ae>Yj>Tj, consequently that the exceptional 

feature in it is precisely the retention of the long vowel. Thus it 

remains only to explain the combination aw, ao, which in Ionic 

should become TJW, 

YJO. 

* The fact that -o> and -

FICKS THEORY. 393 

5. In his earlier work on the Odyssey Fick recognised both oV and 

KC> as Homeric ; 

but subsequently he came to the conclusion that ay 

is everywhere due to the Ionic translators (Ilias, p. xxiii). 

His main 

argument is that of the 43 instances of oV in the Ionic poets (Archilochus, 

&c.) there are not more than 2 1 in which it could be changed 

into Key (ice, 

K S ) 

without affecting the metre, whereas in Homer the 

of cases. The 

change can be made in a much larger proportion 

inference is that in making the change in Homer we are restoring the 

original form. But his induction is far too narrow. In the first three 

books of Apollonius Rhodius there are 46 instances of oV, and only 

13 in which it cannot be changed into Ke(y). Again in JEschylus 

(excluding chorus) there are 212 instances of dV, of which 73 are 

unchangeable. In the (Edipus Tyrannus the number is 31 

out of 

107. In the Iliad, without counting %\v 

and eiryjy, 

the instances of 

unchangeable civ are 43 out of 156. This is nearly the same proportion 

and we admit that in a few cases o> has replaced an original 

; 

Kev. Moreover it has been already shown, on quite independent 

grounds, that the combination OUK oV is Homeric ( 362). There can 

be little doubt, therefore, that while Ke(y) 

is distinctive of Êolic, as 

oV of Ionic and Attic, the Homeric dialect possessed both Particles. 

It may seem strange that which ce(i>), is commoner than oV in Homer, 

should have died out of Ionic. On the other hand ai> was the 

more emphatic Particle, and the desire of emphasis is a frequent 

cause of change in the vocabulary of a language. 

It may be objected that we have still to explain the remarkable 

coincidence on which Fick's argument rests, viz. the fact that in so 

many cases the non-Ionic forms are precisely those which are 

different in metrical value from the Ionic equivalents. The answer 

is that the same coincidence would be found with archaisms of any 

dialect. It is only the metre of Homer (generally speaking) that 

has preserved or could preserve such things. Why do we find (e. g.) 

(TTôfieVj oriyeTf, but (rrfjr/s, orjfo, ar^coo-i (not CTTYJCIS, arrjei, 

1 

orqovcn) 

Evidently because the metre admits the modernised forms in the 

latter case, not in the former. Thus all words or inflexions which do 

not belong to the New Ionic or Attic dialect, be they Old Ionic or 

Old Êolic, will be found to be metrically different from the later 

forms. 

It has been sought thus far to show that phenomena which Fick 

explains by supposing a translation from JEolic into New Ionic may

394 APPENDIX. 

be equally well accounted for, partly by the changes which must 

have taken place within the Attic-Ionic dialect itself, and partly by 

the influence of the post-Homeric spoken language. We may now 

consider what Homeric peculiarities cannot be explained on Tick's 

principles, and may therefore be held to turn the scale in favour of 

the alternative view. 

(a) The Dual is wanting in the earliest Êolic, whereas it is in 

living use in Homer, and also in Attic down to the 5th century B.C. 

It is true, as Tick urges, that the loss of the Dual may have taken 

place in Êolic between the pth and the 7th centuries. But the gap 

thus made between the earliest known Êolic and the supposed 

jEolic of Homer is a serious weakening of his case. 

The (6) moveable -v is unknown in Êolic, as also in New Ionic. 

Tick strikes it out whenever it is possible to do so, but is very far 

from banishing it from the text. Thus in the first book of the Iliad 

he has to leave it in 11. 

45, 60, 66, 73, 77, &c. 

(c) The psilosis which Fick introduces (airir) for dfoei, &c.) 

is common 

to Êolic and New Ionic. Why then does it not appear in 

Homer ? 

(d) The forms of the type of 6pdo>, opoavres, &c. ( 55) are not 

accounted for by Fick's theory. This is recognised by Fick himself 

(Odyss. p. 2). 

He adopts the view of Wackernagel, supposing that 

the Attic forms 6pS>v, 6/>z/re? were introduced into the recension of 

Pisistratus, and that these were afterwards made into opowz/, opo'ooi/res 

to fit the metre. This view is doubtless in the main correct. 

Setting aside the mythical ' recension of Pisistratus,' and putting in 

its place the long insensible influence of Attic recitation upon the 

Homeric text, we obtain a probable account of 6p6 or 6pS> (see H. Weir Smyth, Vowel-system e'

FICK'S THEORY. 395 

( /) Many Attic peculiarities may be noted ovv for &v : (which 

Aristarchus counted among the proofs that Homer was an Athenian) : 

^coy, TroVf, &c. for KU>S, Kore, &c. i th e two Genitives Seious and o-vmovs 

(for Neuters Se'eof, o-Treeos) in : -as, Gen. -aos (instead of -cos) : apcrrjv 

(for -Êolic and Ionic epo-rjv) : reao-apes for Ionic reo-a-cpes', Kpficro-wv, 

fj.e[a)v for Kpeo-crwv, p.fga>v, Cp. also eaya (Ionic e^ya), and eaSo'ra (22, 

i), 

for which Ionic analogy would require ej/Sdra. 

(g) The Êolic forms a/ijLu(i/), fy(u(v) are not used quite consistently : 

thus we find the form a^\iw in three places (II. 13. 379., 14. 85, Od. 

12. 275), but rjp.lv 

in three others (Od. 8. 569., n. 344., 17. 376). 

On Pick's theory q/ui/, if it was an Ionic form, would have been 

adopted. Again vîv is occasionally used where vptv is admitted by 

the metre (II. 10. 380, Od. 4. 94., 20. 367). 

Several of these arguments may be met by admitting an Atticising 

tendency, subsequent to the lonicising which Fick supposes. Some 

such Attic influence clearly was exerted, and also an JEolic influence 

(as Fick allows in the case of But if the Ionic Homer 

fyifies). only 

dates from 540 B.C., what room is there for these other processes 

1 

And if we suppose a modernising process, as wide in place and time 

as the knowledge of Homer, but in which Attic and Ionic naturally 

predominated, what ground is left for an original Êolic element 1 

(h) The Iterative forms in -cricoi> ( 48) appear to be characteristic 

of Homer and also of later Ionic. This is one of the points in the 

nature of the case not numerous in which the Ionic character of 

Homer is 

guaranteed by the metre. 

Another point of this kind is the use of fieV 

in ^ p.ev, 

KOI p.ev, 

and 

other combinations where Attic would have ^v ( 345). On the other 

side it 

may be said that the retention of pdv (see 342) was due to 

the want of the form pjv in Ionic. But if pav were an original Êolic 

form we should expect on Tick's theory to find it in the older parts 

of the Odyssey as well as in the Iliad. 

Other words which show a difference of quantity between the 

Homeric and the JEolic forms are: Uplaôs (Êol. n/ppa/xos), rpiros 

(Mol. rep?), KaXos (Êol. K&XOS, see Meyer, G. G. 65). 

The ancients supposed that Homer of set purpose employed a 

mixture of dialects. 

Modern scholars have condemned this notion as 

uncritical, but have generally held that his language is 

a poetical and 

conventional one, a Sdngersprache, never used in actual speech. 

It 

may 

be allowed that there is a measure of truth in both these views,

396 APPENDIX. 

provided that we distinguish 

Homer and the * Epic ' of our texts. For 

between the dialect of the time of 

1. Even in the time of Homer there was doubtless an element 

of conventionality in the style and vocabulary, and even in the grammatical 

forms of poetry. Such phrases as /*epo7ro>i> av6pa>na>v, v^vôs 

(or qSv/Mos) vnvos, ava TrroXe/xoio yeffrvpas, are used with little or no sense 

of their original meaning, but evidently as part of a common poetical 

stock. Doubtless the Gen. in -oio was already poetical, perhaps 

also the Gen. in -So and in -ciui>. These forms then were genuinely 

Homeric, but not part of the living speech of the time. 

2. 

Many primitive Homeric forms were lost in Ionic and Attic, 

but survived elsewhere in Greece. These seemed to the ancients to 

be borrowed from the dialects in which they were known in historical 

times, and thus gave support to the notion of a mixture of dialects. 

3. The poems suffered a gradual and unsystematic because generally 

unconscious process of modernising, the chief agents in which were 

the rhapsodists, who wandered over all parts of Greece and were 

likely to be influenced by all the chief forms of literature. In this 

way forms crept in from various dialects, from Ionic, from Lesbian 

Êolic, and from Attic. The latter stages of this process may be 

traced in the various 

readings of the ancient critics, and even in our 

MSS., in which a primitive word or form is often only partially 

displaced by that of a later equivalent. The number of instances 

of this kind may be materially increased as the MSS. of Homer 

become better known. 

Other 

Notes and Corrections. 

2 3 5 (p* 2 7) 

With the instances here given we may place the 

Cretan KarafeX/ueVoi, which occurs in the inscription of Gortyn with 

the meaning gathered together, assembled (cp. Homeric e'eX/Ki/ot crowded). 

Baunack however takes it for wrrofijX/zo'ot, supposing loss of f and 

contraction from KarafefeXîeW. 

27 (p. 30). The Present (XKOUW / hear appears to be originally 

a Perfect which has gone through the process here exemplified. The 

true Present form is a.Kcva>, which survived in Cyprus (diccver 

KvTTpioi) and Crete (Law of Gortyn, ii. 1 7). 

Hence the Attic d/c^/ 

(for aK-riKova), and presumably also an earlier form *aKoua, formed like 

, 

and passing into dnow as avoya passed into dvd>yo). This

NOTES AND CORRECTIONS. 397 

explains the use of UKOVCO with the Perfect meaning (72, 4), which 

accordingly is not quite parallel to the similar use of TrwddvofjLai, ^.av- 

6dva>, &c. Other Homeric examples are SIWKW ( 29), 

in which the 

want of reduplication may be original ( 23, 5), and IX^KW (22,9, 6.). 

The form YJKW, which is probably of this nature, occurs in our MSS. 

of Homer (II. 5. 473., 18. 406, Od. 13. 325., 15. 329), but Bekker 

substituted the undoubtedly Homeric t*o> (La Koche, If. T. 287). 

The form eWWe rebuked, which occurs several times in Homer 

(usually with the variants evevirrre and eWi/toTre), should perhaps be 

placed here. It is usually classed as a Keduplicated Aorist (so Curt. 

Verb. 

ii. 

26), but there is no analogy for this, and the Homeric 

passages do not prove that it is an Aorist. The I of the stem may be 

due to the influence of the Pres. eViVro) and the Noun erinr) (cp. 25, 

3). 

Buttmann acutely compared 

it with eTrcTrXrjyov, which is evidently 

related to 77X770-0-0) and rrXrjyr] 

as svtvarov to eviirroa (eW) 

and winy. 

The reduplication is of the type of epepwrro. 

42 (p. 44). The Aor, eYpa8e 

: 

(plXov irTOHTKagiifv rjtv) aKovdop.ai I please myself with hearing (II. 4. 

343 dairos dicovd&o-dov, Od. 13. 9 aKovd&ffGe d' : 

aot8ov) SO vcva> and 

aô) 2O. 162), /u'yw/LU 

and mydfrnai (Od. 8. 271), piVra) and 

(II. 

aô), fpva> and puo-rdô), 

eiXvco and fl\v.

398 APPENDIX. 

67 (p. 61). 

With er)i>8avov compare the Aor. form ej?|a (for eaa), 

preserved in the text of Zenodotus in II. 13. 166 (^we'ijê for Wae) 

and 257 (KaTfr)gap.ev 

for KaT(dgafjLev). 

In this case the change to T) 

did 

not make its way into the vulgate perhaps because the form ^|a, 

which suggested it, was a rarer word than rjvdavov. 

71 (p. 63). 

The use of the Present stem to express relative time 

is well exemplified by the following sentence from an early Attic 

inscription : clo-rrpagdvTtoV avrovs ol flpiiiifvoi, a-vveiairpaTTOVTUv 

Kai ol (TTparr^yoL (Meisterhans, 48 a.). 

de auroiy 

72, 2, n. 2 (p. 64). In the Law of Gortyn aya> and fa'pa are 

employed where the Aor. is the usual tense : see especially 

i. 1 2 at 

ft dwioiTo fir} ciyev if Tie 

deny that he has taken away (Baunack, Die 

Inschrift von Gortyn, p. 79). 

77 (p. 66). 

Some valuable remarks on this and similar uses of 

the Aor. Part, are to be found in an article by Mr. Frank Carter in 

the Classical Review (Feb. 1891, p. 4). 

He observes that it is really 

a timeless use, i.e. that the speaker does not wish to indicate a relation 

in time between the action of the Participle and that of the finite 

verb. The Participle expresses a predication, but one which is only 

a part or essential circumstance of that which the verb expresses. 

See below, on 245, i. 

80 (p. 68). As to the MS. authority for some forms of the 

Pf. Subj. see 283, a. 

92 (p. 79). 

The Nominative is used for the Vocative in the case 

of oxytones in -w, and all Nouns in -i\v (Brugmann, Grundr. ii. 206, 

P- 544). 

99* (P- 84). To the examples of metaplastic Neut. Plur. used 

with collective meaning add eo-nepa evening-time (Od. 17. 191), vevpa 

sinews (used 

in II. 16. 316 of one bowstring), rrXevpd side (II. 4. 468), 

Trapeid cheeks (Neut. Plur. in II. 22. 491 according to Aristarchus). 

It may be suspected that epfrpd oars belongs to this group, since the 

Sing, in later Greek is always epcrpds, and a Neut. eper/xoV is contrary 

to analogy, and only rests on the phrase evfjpcs cperpov (Od.), 

for which 

We can read fvrjpe' eperp-ov. 

102 (p. 86). It appears that the stems in -a originally formed 

a Loc. Plur. in -as (as well as -dsu and -dsi) 

: 

devds (Inscr.). 

Hence it is possible 

hence Lat./oras, alias, 

that the few Homeric forms in 

-ais or -r]s 

which cannot be written -YJO-' represent this -as (Brugmann, 

Grundr. ii. 

358, p. 704). 

no (p. 95). The question between iravTy and irdv-n) cannot be


decided, as Joh. Schmidt supposes (Pluralb. p. 40), by the circumstance 

that the final vowel is frequently shortened before another vowel 

in Homer. It is true, as was observed by Hoffmann (Quaest. Horn. i. 

p. 58, quoted by Schmidt I.e.), that final TJ is oftener shortened than 

final YJ. 

In the first four books of the Iliad and Odyssey, as Hartel 

shows (Horn. Stud. ii. p. 5), -t\ is shortened 41 times, -rj 19 times: 

and further examination confirms this ratio. But, 

as Hartel also 

points out, -rj 

occurs in Homer about three times as often as -YJ 

: 

consequently the shortening of -# is relatively more frequent. 

116, 4 (p. 109). For f)8i>s dur/^ in Od. 12. 369 we may read 

j^Svs dvTp.r)v, as suggested by Baumeister on Horn. H. Merc. no. 

1 1 6, 5 (p. 109). vyirjs 

has been explained as a Compound, 

viz. of 

the prefix su- (su-manas, &c.) and a stem from the root jyd (Saussure, 

Mem. Soc. Ling. vi. 161). 

117 (p. no). Adjectives in -109 are often used with some of the 

meaning of a Comparative, i. e. in words which imply a contrast 

between two sides : as in eo-Treptos- evening and ôTo? or qepios morning, 

TjfjuiTios day and vvxrepos), 

(opposed to dry land), VOTIOS, ^vpios (opp. to north and east), 

dovXios. The suffix serves to form a kind of softened 

ios, geivios, 

Superlative in eVxanos- and uorcmo?, lit. ' 

of the last ' : and the same 

analogy yields oo-crarios from oo-o-oj, a formation like Lat. quantulus. 

The Comparative force of -w>s, -jae, dp,6fv, &c., also in Ifpaavvrj, and shows that if we derive 

it from a Case-form in -co (as Karoorepo) from KOTO), &c.), 

we have still to 

explain the rhythmical law according to which w and o interchange : 

for a law which governed common speech in all periods cannot have 

arisen merely from the needs of the hexameter. Accordingly he 

connects the phenomenon with a rhythmical lengthening 

of final 

short vowels (among others of the final t of the Locative, see 378), 

which is found in Yedic Sanscrit. 

Xapooraro? (Od. 2. 350) points to a Homeric form \acpds, which we 

can always substitute for Xapo?. It is probably for Xacr-epor from 

Xao-- desire: see Curtius, Grundz, p. 361 (sth edit). 

125, 8 (p. 121). This peculiar lengthening in the second member 

of a Compound has been explained by Wackernagel (Dehnungsgesetz,

400 APPENDIX. 

pp. 2 1 ff.) as the result of a primitive contraction, or Crasis, with the 

final vowel of the first part : e. g. o/ucowjuo? for opo-ovvnos. The chief 

argument for this view is that the lengthening is only found in stems 

beginning with a vowel a fact which can hardly be accounted for on 

any other i 

supposition. Such cases as Wv/ios in 

, 

which no contraction 

can have taken place, may be extensions by analogy of the 

original type. It is to be understood of course that the contraction 

was governed by different laws from those which obtain in the Greek 

which we know. The chief rule is that the resulting long vowel is 

fixed by the second of the two concurrent vowels : o/^yupis for 6/*oayvpis, 

7re/u7ra)/3oXoi/ for ne/jLire-oôXov, &c. Whether this was a primitive 

phonetic rule, or partly due to the working of analogy, it finds an 

exact parallel in the Temporal Augment, which must have been due 

to the influence of a prefix e- 

upon the initial vowel of the verb-stem. 

We may compare also the Subjunctive forms dvvdpai, rift/m, &c. ( 81). 

Thus the later contraction, as in (r/c^Trrovôy, AuxoCpyos, stands in the 

same relation to the older forms now in question as erôi/, &c. (with ct 

for ee) 

to 77X0, wpova, &C. 

The primitive Indo-European 'sandhi,' crasis of the final vowel 

of one word with the initial vowel of the next, was generally given 

up in Greek, and the system of elision took its place. In Compounds 

we constantly find elision of a short final vowel along with the 

lengthening (which is then a mere survival) : as eV-^paros, dfjLcp-ijpio-Tos, 

(p6io--r)i>(op (cp. $$im'-/i/3poroj). 

But lengthening does not take place 

if the vowel is long by position (e. g. eVep-aX^y, 'AXe^-ai/fyw, avails), 

which seems to indicate that the preservation 

though not the origin 

of the lengthened stem was a matter of rhythm (as in -repos). 

Other exceptions to the rule of lengthening may be variously explained. 

In some cases, as Wackernagel suggests (p. 51), an initial short 

vowel may have been retained from the original formation as in the 

: 

ancient Compounds poiTidvcipa (avridveipa, Kvdidveipa), dpyiodovTcs, evpiWa, 

cvpvdyvia, where the metre stood in the way of lengthening by analogy. 

More generally it is a mark of lateness : e. g. in the forms compounded 

with TT&V-, as Tra^-OTTor/io?, Trav-ctfprjXig, Trav-iuapios, Hav-a%aioi, and with 

Prepositions, as ev-apitifjuos, vnevavrios (p. 55). Such words as mV 

aperrjs (II. 16. 31), XajSp-ayo'pqs (II. 23. 4^9), dv-6\e0pos (II. 13. 761 

TOVS 6* tvp ovKTi Trdpnav drrr)fj,ovas ov& dvoXeflpovs), dvaTToivov (II. I. 99), 

dw-apio-TOTOKfia (II. 18. 54), have all the appearance of being 


poet's own coinage. 

On the view here taken the lengthening in \viKap7ros and the


similar cases given 

at the end of the section must be otherwise 

explained. It is probably of the kind noticed in 386. 

170 (p. 159). Another example of the distributive use of the 

Singular is Od. 13. 78 dveppiirTow aXa jrrjda they threw up 

the salt sea 

(each) with his oar-Hade. So in the recurring phrase of the Odyssey 

a\a TVTTTOV eper/xots we should probably read eper/xw ( 102), which may 

be similarly distributive. Or we may take eperjuo'y 

in a collective 

sense, oarage. 

173, 2 (p. 162). For the use of the Dual with a large number 

which contains the numeral Suo, cp. irevraKoa-Lais eiKoo-i Svolv Spa^/Mao/ 

in an Attic inscription of the 5th century (Meisterhans, p. 45, 4). 

This is a good parallel to Od. 8. 35, 48 Kovpa> 8va> 8eica a-Tarrjpavs rj 

dvadeiea 

Dd

402 APPENDIX. 

e p.r) (sc. SoVw) {/ maw or wife choose to give payment for nurture, 

let him or her give a garment or twelve staters or something of the value 

of twelve staters, but not more: cp. the other places quoted by 

Baunack, Die Inschrift von Gortyn, p. 77. This shows that the usage 

must have been well established in Greek prose from an early period. 

33^ (P- 39)' In II- 3- 2I 5 m st MSS. have el KOI yeWi va-repos 

rjev, but t] 

/cat is found in the two Venetian (AB) and the Townley and 

Eton MSS. The scholia show that the ancients knew nothing of 

el, and only doubted between rj (in the sense of if) and rj. 

348, 4 (p. 318). In II. 18. 182 one of the editions of Aristarchus 

had ris rap

INDEX I. 

OF HOMERIC FORMS. 

N.B. The figures refer to the sections. 

Compound verbs are not indexed if the same form of the simple verb occurs. 

ddoraro )

' 

404 INDEX. 

dicdpas 114, 243 (l). 

386. 

App. C (3). 

22 (9), 23 (3). 

25, 89, 

\ App. F(2). 

22 (l). 

51 (3). 

dK6pa-KOfJ.T]S 124 d. 

IIO. 

24 (3, 4), 53. 

23 (3). 

dieXea, axXe'e? 105 (4). 

I0 5(5),App.C. 

12$ (4). 

dKOjJLlCTTLr) 384 (l). 

aKovdfb/zai App. p. 397. 

aKoua> 143 (3), App. p. 

396. 

dupafc 384 (l). 

aicpis 114. 

OKTOIS I O2. 

129. 

114. 

114. 

22 (9), 23 (3). 

F(2). 

3Xa\K 36 (4). 

t, 25, 89, App. 

d\a\i>KTr)fjiai 22 (9). 

aXyioTos \ 

dXeairo, a) 

^ 

384 (I). 

dXeyfivos 1 1 8. 

^ 125 (7). 

aXet5f>ap 107 (2). 

aXerai 80. 

29(2). 

124 d 

1246. 

39 (2). 

80. 

396. 

i 

1 2O. 

31 (l). 

1 24 . 

31 (l), 32. 

384 (l). 

no, 390. 

107 (l). 

d\Ki- 124 ^. 

31 (3). 

19* 

aXXa (use) 336. 

dXXofiSea 125 (2), 396. 

a'XXuSi? 

F(2). 

&\ovs 13. 

109, 1 10, App. 

dXoa) 55- 

aXo-o, aXro 40, App. F 

ifa App. p. 397. 

31 (i), 32. 

a\(poiv (3 PL Opt.) 83. 

80. 

a/za IIO. 

a/zaâ App. F (2). 

31 (5), 32. 

3> 20j 42, 

126. 

rj 125 (7). 

IIO. 

29 (2), 32. 

Tes 243 (l). 

29 (4), 32. 

II. 

a/z/xe 97, 100. 

afjLfjLi(v) 102, App. F (2). 

IIO. 

App. F (2). 

IIO. 

d/z7T7raXo)f 36 (l). 

31 (4), 32. 

r] 44. 

13, 32. 

log, App. F (2). 

129. 

dp.(pijpe(pr)S 125 (8). 

dfJLCprjpHTTOS 125 (8). 

d/z0i 1 80, 181-184. 

dfji(pia\os 397. 

'A/jL(piapaos App. F (4). 

23 (5), 28. 

397. 

d/zî's IIO, 228. 

av (use) 362-365, App. 

F(5). 

dvd, aj/a 1 80, 1 80*, 209, 

210. 

dvap&pvxe 25 (3). 

42. 

IIO. 

dvaKrjKte 51 (l). 

390. 

di/do-o-oj.(c. 

I O2. 

, 

ava\Kiv 97. 

Gen.) 

29. 

47, 391. 

dvdpaKas 109. 

di/8pa7roSe

INDEX. 405 

dvovrrjri IIO. 

dai 32. 

IIO. 

avri 1 80, 226. 

dvridveipa App. p. 400. 

avTidaeis 63. 

dvridarrjTov 82. 

'AvTiK\ia 378^. 

dvriK.pi) IIO. 

63. 

226. 

'AvrKparrja 107 (5). 

voa 1 8, 63. 

di/a>yei 

IIO. 

31 (l), 32. 

63. 

21 (l), 23, 27. 

dvayoiju > 27> 68. 

avatyov 

ai/eotori IIO. 

d/c

406 INDEX. 

(8). 

fidXoio-da $. t'iy 125 (7), 

121. 

Bopeas Il6 (2). 

/3Xoo-upa)7Tts 1 1 6. yepairepos 121. 

i 

30. 

(BacriXevrepos 121, 122. 

/3ao-Ke 48. 

13. 

Bopea> 98. 

ôVicei 48. 

ftovftpOMTTlS 12$. 

ftovydios App. F (4). 

a 22 (9), 28. 

|3e/3a 7, 68. 

5. 

82. 

/3e/3aa>ra 26 (l). 

125. 

22 (9). 

^ 125, 128. 

68. 

22 (9). 

$. 

5. 

/êi 22 (7), 28. 

27, 83. 

/3e'j3X^rat 22 (9). 

IOO. 

tS Il6 (3), 128 (3). 

121. 

e>i 29 (5). 

29 (4). 

/3a/ 97, 106 (2). 

81. 

28. 

124 r, App. 

22 (3). 

p. 400. 

/3e/3pi0e 22 (6). 

a 26 (3). 

28. 

is 22 (lo), 27,83. 

124 a. 

yaiav $1 (2). 

ya/zeWerat 63, 367 (2). 

/3e/3pa>Ka>s- 22 (9), 26 (4), 

28. 

/3e/3paxrerat 22 (9), 65. 

ydvvrai 17. 

yavv

8e (use) 257 (i), 259 

INDEX. 407

408 INDEX.

ip.aprai 22 (6), 23 (2). 

INDEX. 409

4io 

INDEX. 

cvcvrjKovTd 130 (5).

INDEX. 

fppT)a 67, 395. 

64. 

1 

eppiya 22 (6), 28. 

^ 

ea-rddrj 43. 

22 (5), 23. 31 (l). 

eppiyrjve 67, 395. 

eppiyyo-t 80, 82. 

epptÔTiu 23. 

eppatya 22 (l). 

eppow 29 (4), 392. 

60. 

29. 

eVradrej 26 (l). 

23 (5). 

eVrai/, eor^craj' 5> I 3* 

eo-rao-ai/ (l Aor.) 72 (2) 

72. I. 

eaTaaijCaraaaJ' 7> 68, 72. 

eVre 12, 87 (l). 

'EpuXaos 124 ^. 

eWe$e 29 (6). 

epvo-ap/uares 124 , 125 earqKa 22 (9) , 23. 

y 124 . 

80, 283. 

39 (2). 

(TTT]Te 13 (e0-n?re 25). 

eori 12, 87 (l). 

63. 

eoTiôv 31 (3). 

epvro II, 12, 1 8. 

eVro 23. 

epua> 1 8, 63, 392. 

eWo'v 12, 87 (l). 

eVrpa>ro 13, 14. 

epeoy 107. 

12. 

31 (4). 

CO-TOW 12. 

>, 

earacrdai 

, 39 (l). 

?

412 INDEX. 

129. 

f\va, 15. 

f 

3i (7)- 

44- 

?^pae 31 (l), 32. 

e^pato-p.6 31 (3), 32. 

eûro 15. 

eâ) 29 (6). 

?6eov 67. 

e'coKei 67. 

ecoXn-fi 67. 

ecopev 80. 

29 (6). 

e^y 

ea>pyei 67. 

ecus 265 (2), 273, 288, 

307, App. F (*). 

Za/cwôs 370. 

f 29 (6). 

fei'Scopos 124. 

ûyi/0/xei/ 17, 85 (l). 

fcvyvvov 1 8. 

386. 

97, 106 (2). 

60. 

, 

see rje. 

17. 

r) 109. 

â 12. 

TJaTdi, rjaro 5, II, App. 

C. 

Typcoaxra 55^* 

jyayov 36 (l). 

riydcraaro 39 (2). 

39 (2). 

^yetpa 

rjyepedovTai 125 (8). 

$3/338. 

?/dea, Tj8r) 68. 

fjSrjo-Qa 5, 68. 

?Mff 114, 116(4), 391. 

> 3 (fa *?) 340, 341. 

rjfidrjs, rjeiSei 67, 68. 

êtpe 67. 

jjiay, jjei 12, 67. 

rjepios 114* (8). 

rjQele 92, 96. 

r)6e\6Trjv (2 Du.) 5. 

r;0oy 391. 

fia 12, 67. 

fj'iKTO 23. 

jftoi/, TJ'io-av 5, 12, 30. 

r;Ka 1 10. 

fJKctxe 36 (l). 

jfco) App. p. 397. 

qXatro-a 39 (2). 

338, 339- 

IS- 

6 7 , 

68. 

ros 124. 

393- 

frmv 31 (3). 

r)\iTopr)vos 125 (8). 

r^Xos- 393. 

'3i (4). 

31 (i), 32. 

r/X

m 390- 

INDEX. 413

INDEX. 

x** 35- 

Irerj 390. 

IT1JV 12. 

'{TVS 390. 

101 1 10. 

ri 60. 

'Iv 12, 30. 

an' (use) 259 (3), 265 

W, 330, 353- 

KaiVvjuai 17. 

Kaico 51 (2). 

KOKKetOVTf? 59* 

KaXeoixra 63. 

KaXeor(rai 39 (2). 

19. 

124^. 

KaXxa92,App.(p.32l). 

KafJ,TT]V (2 DU.) 5- 

47. 

107 (5). 

VTS 125 (6). 

Kapra IIO. 

KapTHTTOS 121. 

Kapros 114. 

KcuriyvrjTos 14. 

Kaoriai/eipa 

Kara 180. 

107. 

397* 

KaraKTaveovo-i 63. 

13. 

Xeypevos 40* 

13. 

KaredpaOov 31 (5). 

KaTfipvcrrai 396. 

43. 

40. 

55 (l^) 

23. 

Karr)p(pr]s 12$ (8). 

Karoo IIO. 

377. 

(Subj.) 82. 

III. 

370. 

Kciavres App. C (3). 

Ket0i 109. 

Kelvos 250. 

114, 384 (2). 

Kelrat II, 8 1. 

App. C (3). 

51 (3). 

r](r6fjLe6a 65. 

Ke/caSa)j/ 

36 (l). 

K6Kd>a> 35, 296. 

KeicaS 22 (8), 26 (5), 

28. 

KfKoprjoTa 22 (9), 28. 

KeXqs 114. 

22 (9), 28. 

55. 

36 (3). 

114. 

99*. 

60. 

K\op.aL 29 (4). 

39 (3). 

see 

39 (3). 

Keovrai 29 (6). 

Ke'pa 105 (4). 

Ke'pa, Kepai 99. 

51 (2). 

s 124 ^. 

39 (l). 

KepduTTOS 121. 

Kepcoi/rai 87 (3). 

Ke

INDEX. 415

4 i6 INDEX. 

/ne A as 114. 

MeAeaypo? 124. 

/ie'At 107 (2). 

/neAAa) (use) 238. 

p.\7recrdai 29 (4). 

) 

7,68. 

/ue/uaKina 22 (l). 

/ie/Lidore, /uejuaoore 26 (l). 

/ie'/mre 22 (7), 28. 

/Lte'/Lt/3AcoK 

22 (9). 

Hp,r]Ka>s 22 (l), 26 (2), 

28. 

fjLpr)\ 22 (2), 28. 

27. 

64 . 

?a 8l. 

22 (7). 

22 (9), 28. 

*v (use) 257 (i), 259 

(2), 265 (2), 342, 345. 

:- 1 

24^. 

124. 

55- 

/uei/oij'ooa) 55 ^* 

M.evTT)s} MeVrcop 129. 

/xe'i/o) 29 (5). 

114. 

109. 

121. 

p) IIO. 

/uj/riera 96. 

in, 115 (6). 

prjTpo- 124 60. 

valfo 51 (2). 

vdadrj 44. 

NauortKaa 95, Io6 (4), 

I24/ App. F (3 ). 

NeoTrroAe/iO? 126. 

29 (3)' 

i/eupa App. p. 398. 

da> App. p. 397. 

W&D 46. 

I2 5 (I). 

9 6. 

105 (4). 

(i). 

viTTT(rdat 46. 

vi

INDEX. 417 

* 

'/* 

X

41 8 INDEX. 

7rapa/3Xa>7Tff 128 (3). 

TrapairXfjyas 128 (3). 

irapa(pdatr)(ri 51 (2), 83. 

napetd App. p. 398. 

TrapelQrj 67* 

TrapeiTTJy 39^ % 

aoxms 63. 

227. 

384 (I), 397. 

117. 

TTCtpoi'repoi 121. 

Trdpos 236. 

22 (9). 

102. 

39 (l). 

124 f. 

ovo'a 12$ (6). 

121. 

48. 

Trarepoy, rrarpos Io6 (l). 

Trarpo- 124 /3oXoi/ 125 (8). 

i 

7rep.\|/ a>p,e' 82. 

nevfcrOai 29 (5). 

irevdeifTov 51 (3). 

irevOr/fJievai 19. 

rrevOos 114. 

114. 

I 3 0. 

109. 

ua 22 (7 ). 

Trerra pfj.vos 22 (6). 

TreTraaê 22 (7), 28. 

7rc7rd(T[Jir]v 

22 (l). 

TTtirrjye 22 (l). 

6 5 

. 

, 36 (2). 

27, 68. 

26 (3), 28. 

_ MS 22 (l), 27,28. 

7TfTr\r)fjiVos 22 (9). 

22 (7 ), 28. 

'a 22 (4). 

68. 

24. 

oiS 26 (2). 

22 (7). 

22 (5). 

28. 

23. 

22 (9). 

a 26 (3). 

obs 14, 26 (l), 28. 

7T7rv6oiTO 36 (3). 

22 (5). 

353. 365 (i). 

63. 

nepaov 55 (lo). 

TrepOai 40. 

82. 

Tre'ptfero 29 (4). 

7Tpl I 8O. 5, 8l, 1 88. 

17. 

Ilepa-evs 129. 

, 243(1). 

64? 66. 

7760-0-0) 46, 53- 

Trere^vd? 117. 

Trererat 29 (6). 

7TTa6av (3 Du.) 5 

nere'oao 98. 

12$. 

Treô/zat 29 (3), 72 (4). 

TreVparat 22 (7). 

27, 68. 

27, 83. 

necpevyas 22 (5), 28. 

TtffpTJo'eai 65. 

7re(pj)crerat 65. 

7re

. 

INDEX. 

419 

124 c. 

7T\r)cri(rTios 124 C. 

irp6(ppa(rara 114* (5), 

7T\ij(r(r 395- 

e'ôuXa 22 (3), 25 95, App. F (4). 

p'eVe 29 (4). 

/jtev 48. 

23 (2). 

5. 

114. 

Trpoiet, Trpoieiv 1 8. 

prjyvva-i 17, 395. 

Trpopos 121. 

1 

24 *:. 

?rpo(rapj;perai 80. 

395. 

19. 

piyea) 395. 

IIO. 

pt'yioj/, ptyiora 121. 

7rpoaa>7rara 107 (2). 

pi'Ca 29 (4). 

IIO. 

E e 2 

125 

pii/os- 595. 

piTrra^Q) App. p. 397. 

piVra) 395. 

puerai, pucro 1 8. 

pui; 44. 

pvyrocovra 55 ^. 

pvarQat 12, 14. 

pyro's 14, 395. 

(rair^rj 80. 

o-a 29 (5). 

29 (4). 

vdciv 29 (3). 

(TTairja-av 83. 

o-Tcap 107 (2). 

(TTetjSoi' 29 (2). 

(TTcixfiv 29 (2). 

fvei 29 (5). 

II. 

80. 

eTa 96. 

ôpei/, &C., 80. 

ea-(pi 154. 

J/rqz/, &C., 13.

420 INDEX. 

(TTope

INDEX. 421 

55.(9). 

82. 

rpooxao) 55 (9). 

TpOHOV'III. 

rvyx avf 47 

Tvnre 46. 

TVT0d, TVT00V 134. 

31 (4). 

i>ppd\\eiv App. F (2). 

vytrjs Il6 (5), App. p. 

399- 

vdaTOTpeCprjs 124 a. 

vdcap IO7 (2), 114*. 

vlos 107 (5). 

vXaei 55 (6). 

uXaoi/ 55 

IOO. 

(lo). 

VfJ. IOI. 

UP, vp.p.i(v) IO2. 

vpp-e 97, loo, App. F 

It 1 80. 

vira-ros 121. 

UTTfl'p 1 8O. 

V7reiJ.vrjiJ.vKe 22 (9). 

VTT^ 22 7 . 

i>7rep 1 80. 

virepfiacrav 13* 

vTTp8ea 105 (4). 

vrreprjcpavos 124 a. 

virepTfpos 121. 

vnvp6(plOS 12$ (8). 

yo-pli/i 107 (l), 114. 

vâyoprj 92. 

tyrjXos 120. 

{J^t, vôv IIO. 

(padvdr) 55. 

422 INDEX. 

i^fuSayyeXos- 124^.

INDEX II. 

OF SUBJECTS. 

N.B. 

The figures refer to the sections. 

Ablative: the Ending -ws no, 160 : 

Adverbs 90 

: 

Comparison of Adjectives 121, 122. 216. 

Adverbial Suffixes 109, 

Ablatival Genitive 146, 152, 153 

: 

no, 1 60 : 

with Prepositions 178, cp. nepi 188 133 : Neuter Adjectives 134, 139 

(l), irapa 192, vir6 204 (l), (3), ova. (i) : other Accusatives 135-139 : 

209, Ko.ro. 213 (l), vnep 219, If 223, -6ev : 

159 -ws 1 60 : -tos in the Predicate 

an6 224, vp6 225 

: 

-4>-(v) 156 : -0v 

162 (5) a : adverbial use of 

159- 

Prepositions 175, 176: see esp. 

Accentuation : the Verb 87 

: Compound 

dfjKpi, irepi, Trdpa, ftera, eVi, vito, -rrpori, 

Verbs 88 : Inf. and Part. 89 : ava, fvi, irpo, and cp. 227 

: Eelative 

Nom. Sing, in -a 96 

: Ace. in -iv 97 : Adverbs 267 

: 

o, on, o re 269, 270. 

Case-forms in: the Vocative 112: ôlic : Verbs in -p,i 12, 19 : Opt. in 

Primary Nouns 115: Compounds -aeia 83 (3) : Opt. in -WKJV, -otijv 19, 

128 : 

Prepositions 180 : the Eeflexive 

Pronoun 253 (2) 

83 Nom. : Sing. Masc. in -a 96 : aop, 

: 

avvu, epvw fjrop 114 KV : 364 

: v for f 404 : 

(Fut.) 64 -8e 335 : : fneirj, or TI-IJ rirj 

Theory, App. p. 486 ff. Triffvpes 

339 ^ 34- 

3 = (3) = a/fyoTao,ui/ App. p. 402. 

Accusative : 

Singular 97 : Plural Anacoluthon 163, 243 (3) d, 353. 

100 : Adverbial no, 133-6 : in Anaphoric Pronouns 247 

: o8e 249 : 

Compounds 1247. Internal Object 

: 

Kftvos 250: OVTOS 251: avros 252: 

132 ff. : 'part affected' 137, 139 

(3) : Time and Space 138 : with 

Adjectives 139 : External Object omitted 267 (2), (3) 

: attracted by 

140: Ace. de quo 140 (3), 237 (2), the Rel. 267 (4) : attracting the 

245 (2) of the terminus ad : quern 140 Eel. 267 (5) : TO 269. 

(4) : Double Ace. : 

141 Whole and Aorist 13-15 

: Thematic 31-34 

: Reduplicated 

Part 141 

: with Prepositions 178 

: 

36 : in -a 37 : Sigmatic 

with -nape 227 

: with the Infinitive or Weak 39, 40 

: in -

424 INDEX. 

Aristarchus : 2 Dual in -TTJV 5 

: Voc. 

of Kd\x as &c- 

> 9 2 Dual ' 173 

: Accent 

of Prepositions 180 Aor. and 

: 

Fut. Inf. : 

238 Eeflexive Pronoun 

255 : Subj. after a past tense 298 : 

readings due to loss of f 389 : 

5 : ?ja0a(s\ o!

INDEX. 425 

Deictic Pronouns 247 : oSe 249 : 

: 

Prepositions 178, 179 Double Prepositions 

146-153 forms in 

; -i(v) 158 with : -d\ip,os, -evv6s 1 1 8 : Verbs in -law 60 : 

K(.WOS 250 oSros : 251 6 : 77 

TO 261 

227 : Improper Preposi- 

(2). 

tions 228 : Gen. Absolute 246: see 

Deliberation : 

Subj. of 277, 280 : Opt. Ablative. 

(past) 302. 

Herodian : 

tmax oi * s 83 : ps 87 (i) : 

Demonstrative Koots 90 

: Pronouns iardai, &c. 87 (2) : SvvufMi 87 (3) : 

247 : os, &c. 265 : Correlatives 267. 

88 : eviffires, &c. 88 : d/rat, 

Denominative Nouns 113 

: Suffixes 

&c. 89 

: 

-as, Dat. - 4i-43 of 0-397. 

378* g. 

Homeric and later Greek : 

Diminutives not Homeric, 117. A. Differences of form : co-o-C, t 5 : 

Dual 173: Endings 5. 

2 Sing. -o-0a 5 : 3 Plur. -eun, -ovo-u, 

Elision 376 

: 

cp. 398 (f ). 

-vo-i 5 : 3 Plur. Pf. -ao-i 5 : 3 Plur. 

Ellipse (real or supposed) after Prepositions 

: 

-v, -o-av 5 : 3 Plur. Mid. -arai, -aro, 

177 of the antecedent to 

: 

5 : 3 Du. Impf. -TOV : 

: 

5 Aorists in 

a Relative 267 (2), (3) 

: of the Verb -Ka 15 

: Present with -vr\, -vv 17 : 

to be after a Relative 271 

: of a Verb Non-Thematic Contracted Pres. 19 

: 

of fearing 278 b : of a Conditional Variation in Perfect Stem 22 : Pf. 

Apodosis 318-321, 324*. 

Enclitic Verbs (*>', * 347> vv 35 V 36 Aorists in -oxra 

: 

1 , 352, p 353, Y 39 Aorists in -o-- : : 

40 Aorists in -o* 

354> K6V 363 ym. : order 365. 

(-0-0) 41 : Aorists in -0-rjv 43 : Iterative 

End : Inf. 231, 242 

: Final Clauses 

forms 49 

: Verbs in -uo, -auo, 

273 (4) : Subj. of purpose 275 : jx-fj -EUO,-VUO 51 Assimilation 55 Contraction 

: : 278, 281 (i), 303 (i) : Relative 

56, 105, 378* 

: : : 

Synizesis 

Clauses 282, 304, 322 

: 

ws, oircos, iva 57, I0 5 (3), 3/8 : Frequentatives 

285, 286, 306 (i) : 6pa, 6ws 287, 60 : Intensives 61 : Future in -aoxo 

288, 307 : ci 293, 314, 319 : Past 63 : Future Passive 65 : Pluperfect 

Tenses 325 

: Fut. Indie. 326 (3). 68 : Loss of Augment 69 : Subj. of 

Final, see End. 

Non-Thematic Tenses 80, 8 1 : -WJAI, 

Frequentative Verbs 60. 

-TJO-I Subj. 82 : Inf. in -jJLvai, 

Future in -ffca 

63 in : -ffcca 64 from 

: - 

-p,ev 85 : Masc.-Nouns in -ra 96 : 

Perfect and Aorist Stems 65 

: Middle 

Ace. in -tv, -vv 97 : Gen. in -oo, -oio 

66 : with KW 326 (i) 

: for the 98 : Dat. Sing, in -I 99, 373 : Ace. 

Imperative 326 (2): in Final Clauses Plur. in -Is, -vs 100 : Dat. Plur. in 

326 (3) : in Object Clauses 326 (4) : -eo-on 102 : Instrum. in -i(v) 104 : 

with (I 

326 (5). 

Hyphaeresis 105 (4) variation of 

; 

Gender : of Primary Nouns 116 : Denominative 

the Stem 106 : Heteroclite Nouns 

Nouns 1 19 Adjectives 

: 

107: -8e 109: Adverbs in -8, no : 

1 66 : Pronouns 167. 

Nouns in -TVS 114: Fern. OT]\VS, 

Genitive : : 

Singular 98 Gen. in -oo TjBvs, irovXvs 116 (4) Adjectives in 

: 

98 : Plural 101 : Dual 103 : accent 

-ijs (-co-) 116 (5), App. p. 399: in 

in: in Compounds 124/1 uses 

117: Diminutives 117: -a\os, 

-IKOS

INDEX. 

Abstract Nouns in -wpt|, -w\u] 120 : 

Stems in -t, -o-i, -, -

INDEX. 427 

Defining Art. 261 (i, 3) 

: T wherefore 

262 (3) 

: 5s as a Demonstr. 265 

: 

otlvKa that 268 : ort that 269 (2) : 

Indirect Discourse 270*: Attraction 

of Rel. 271 (i) : 

Final Rel. Clauses 

282 fin. 

: 

K(V) in general sentences 

283 6 : Opt. with KCV of unfulfilled 

condition 300 c : of concession 300 d 

(a) : el and Opt. 

after a Present 

311 : i y&p, i0 312 Object- 

: 

Clauses with i and Opt. 314 

: 

TVVTJ 

339 P &v : , l*V> h e'v 34 2 v i(v) 154-8 Instrumental Dat. 

144. 

Intensive Verbs 61. 

Interrogative Pronouns 108 (2), 248. 

Interrogative Clauses 273 

: 

Subj. 277, 

280 : 

Opt. 302 : Particles ft) 338 : 

Disjunctive question (176, 77) 340 : 

Dependent question 341 expecting 

: 

a negative answer 358 

c. 

Intransitive uses of the Middle Voice 

8 (3) 

: Non-Thematic Tenses 21 : 

the Perfect Active 28 : Aorists in 

-TJV and -6ir)v 44 : Verbs in -&> 58. 

Iterative Verbs 48 

: Tenses 49 

: 

Opt. 

with onus 306 (2) 

: with ore 308 (i) 

d : with d 311. 

Locative: Dative 145 

: -0i 109 : -u(v) 

157 : in Compounds 124 e : with 

irp6 225. 

Manner, Adverbs of 109, no : Dat. of 

144 : -cos 1 60 : Adj. in the Predicate 

162 (2). 

Metathesis 14 

: of Quantity 55 (i), 

98. 

Metre 366-405 

: 

affecting forms, Dual 

in -TTJV 5, axeOetiv 3 1 (7)> vropfaai, 

KpepAacu 39 (2) : affecting syntax, 

Gender 119, forms in - 

pera 195, (iri 199 (l},viro 202, Sia 216. 

Negative Clauses 273 : Subj. 276 : Opt. 

299 e, 300 n. (13} : ot>, jxiq 355~36i : 

div 363 (2) a. 

JSTeuter : Pronouns 133, 161 : 

Adjectives 

134, 162 (5) a, 166 (3) 

: Neut. 

Plur. 99* : of things 166 (2) 

: with a 

Singular Verb 172 : Article 257 (4), 

(5) &, 

260 & : Relative 269, 270 

: 

quantity of -a 374. 

Nominative : 

Sing. 96 

: use in the 

Predicate 162, 245 

: 

interjectional 

Nom. 163. 

Number 169-173. 

Object: Ace. of (External 

and Internal) 

132-140 : Gen. of 147 (i) : 

Objective' Compounds 126 Object 

: 

' 

Clauses : 

273 (2) with ovvena 268 : 

o, 6Vt, o re 269, 270, 270* n^ 281 

: 

(2), 303 (2) : Relative 282, 304 (2) : 

w?, OTTOS, 'iva (Subj.) 285 (2), 286, 

(Opt.) 306 (2) : oTroVe 308 (a) : el 

294, 314.

428 INDEX. 

Obligation, expressed by the Inf. 231, 

241 : by an abstract Noun 162. 

Odyssey, see Iliad. 

Optative form 83 uses : : 299-314, 

362 : history 315-322. 

Oratio Obliqua, see Indirect Discourse. 

Order : in Compounds 126, 127 : Art. 

261 (i) 

: Clauses 311, 359 c : Particles 

365, cp. 330 

: re 331, 332 : 84 

333- 

Parataxis 267 (3) n., 318-321 : cp. 

277, 278 b, 281 (2), 297. 

Participle 84, 86, 230 

: accent 89 

: 

uses 77, 86, 243-6. 

Particles 329-365. 

Passive use of the Middle Voice 8 : 

Aorists 42-4. 

Perfect form 22-26 : 

meaning 28. 

Person-Endings 2-5 : -w, -a 4 (footn.) : 

-|ju, -o-i (Subj.) 82 : -oiv (Opt.) 83. 

Personal (opp. to Impersonal) 234 

: see 

Pronouns. 

Persons (opp. to Things) 

: Ace. 140(2), (3) 

a, 141 : 'true* Dat. 143 : locatival 

Dat. 145 (7) 

: Gen. with Verbs of 

Jiearing, &c. 151 d : Gen. of material 

151 e : Gen. with Verbs of ruling 

151 /: Gender Kara avvtaiv 166, 

167 (Number) : 172 : irapd c. Dat. 

190, c. Gen. 192 : /nerd c. Dat. 194 : 

km c. Ace. 199 (2) 

: 

irpori c. Gen. 

208 : kvi 220. 

Place : Adverbs of 109, no : 

Accusative 

138 : Dative 145 : Genitive 149, 

152 (Abl.) : Prepositions 229 (5). 

Pluperfect 9, 68 : 

cp. 73, 76, 283 a. 

Plural : form 100-102 : Dat. Plur. 

*45 (7) : Collective Nouns 169 : of 

Things 171 : Neuter 166 (2) : Neuter, 

with a Singular Verb 172 

: after fvt 

220 : 

I, 46s, &c. 255. 

Position 370, cp. 397. 

Predicate i, 2 : Gen. in the 148 

: 

Nom. in the 162 : 

Secondary 162 

(3) : Tertiary (implied Predication) 

1 68, 245 : Preposition as the 177 : 

Ace. as Predicate with an Infinitive 

240 : Participle in the 243 (2), (3), 

245- 

Predicative (opp. to 

Demonstrative") 

Stems and Roots 90. 

Prepositions : 

174-229 accent of 

Verbs in Composition 88 : in Composition 

with Nouns 125 (4), 127 

: 

governing the Ace. 140 (4) : the 

Dat. 144 (Instr.), 145 (Loc.), 229 

(3) : the Gen. (Abl.) 152, 229 (4) : 

forms in -i(v) I55~7 * 5 (5) forms 

: 

in -0v 159 

: with co, ot, 253 

: with 

the Art. 257 (5) a. 

Present 9, 10 : 

Simple Non-Thematic 

ii : 

Eeduplicated Non-Thematic 

1 6 : in -vrj (-va) and -vv 17 : Thematic 

forms 1 8 : Non-Thematic 

contracted forms 19 

: 

Simple Thematic 

29 

: id. with weak Stem 30 

: 

Reduplicated Thematic 35 

: with 

Suffix : 

45-57 collateral forms 62 : 

meaning 70-74 meaning of the 

: 

/-Class 58-61. 

Price: Gen. of 153: Dat. (Instr.) 

144. 

Prohibition 273, 355 

: 

p.^ 

with the 

Subj. 278, 281 : denial under the 

form of prohibition 299 e, 358 b. 

Pronouns 90 

: Declension 93, 97- 

103 uses 

; 247-272 Heteroclite 

: 

1 08 : forms in -06v 109, 159 

: in 

-Tpos 122 Neuter used adverbially 

: 

133 : Subject of a quasi-Impersonal 

Verb 161, 162 (5) a, 234 (2) 

: Gender 

167 

: 

Interrogative 248 : Reflexive 

253-255 : Article 256-264 : 

Relative 265-272 : see Anaphoric, 

Deictic, Demonstrative, Relative. 

Pseudo-archaic, see Archaic. 

Purpose, see End. 

Reason, see Cause. 

Reduplication 

: Non-Thematic Present 

1 6 : Perfect 22, 23 

: Thematic 

Present 35 

: Aorist 36 

: T-Class 46 : 

Nasal Class 47 

: Iterative Class 48 : 

J-Class 52, 

: 

53 Iiitensives 61 : 

Future : 

65 Primitive Nouns 

114. 

Reflexive, o, &c. 253 : 16s, os 254 : 

use as a general Reflexive Pronoun 

255.

INDEX. 429 

Supposition: Opt. of 299/1 Opt. with 

with BTJ 350. 

Kelative, os o TJ 265-272 : o TIS, os re 

6 : App. p. 398. 

108 (2), 266, 272, 332 

: 

o, 5 T KCV or av 300 : in Relative Clauses 

(Neut.) 269, 270 the Art. : (6 fj TO) 304 : Clauses with el 311 : Indicative 

as a Relative 262 : o T (Masc.) 263 

: 

323. 

Correlative Clauses 267 

: Omission Swearing, Verbs of, with Fut. Inf. 238 : 

of the Verb to be in Relative Clauses with pi} and the Indie. 358 6 with 

: 

271: Attraction : 

271 Double Relative 

^17 and the Inf. 361. 

Clauses 271 

: Final Clauses 282, Synizesis 378 : in Verbs 57 : Caseforms 

304 Object-Clauses : 282, 304 Conditional 

: 105 (2), (3) 

: 

8-f| 350. 

Clauses 283, 305. 

Tenses 9, 10 : 

: meaning 28, 62, 66, 

Similes : use of the Aorist 78 (2) 

: 

70-78. 

Subj. in Relative Clauses 283 a : Thematic Vowel (e, o) 4 : forms 4, 10, 

with is and ws re 285 (3) a : with 18,27,41, 80,82,83(2), 8 5 (2). 

ws ore, ws oirore 289 (2) a. 

Time, not expressed by the Tense-stem 

Space : Ace. of 138 : Gen. of 149 : Instrum. 

28, 70 : relative (Impf.) 71, 73, 

of 158 

: Ace. of, with Prepositions 

(Aor.) 77, 78 : Ace. of : 

138 Dat. of 

183, 187, 191 (3), 199 (3), 145 (4) : Gen. of 1 50 : Adj. of Time 

(4), 203 (2), 210, 212, 215, 218. 

in Predicate 165 

: 

Prepositions expressing, 

Stem 2, 9 

: Nominal 90, 106, 113, 

nerd 195 (3) : viro 203 : 

1 20 : Pronominal 90, 108 : Variation 

215 : (is 222 : l 223 : irp6 225. 

6, 12, 22, 25, 31, 32, 1 06, Transitive, see Causative. 

5td 114*. 

Trypho 339. 

Subject i : expressed by the Person Tyrannic 32 (2), 80, 87 (i). 

Ending 2 : by a Noun or Pronoun Vocative 92 

: Vocatives turned into 

131 (2) : unexpressed (vague) 161 : Nominatives 96, 1 1 1 (2) 

: accent 112: 

attracted to the Gender of the Predicate 

use 164 

: metrical anomaly 387. 

167 

: Infinitive as Subject Way: Adverbs of, in -\i 109, in --Q 

234 Ace. with Inf. : 237. 

no : Dat. of 144 Instrum. : 158. 

Subjunctive: form 80-82 : uses 274- Wish : : 

Opt. 299 in a Relative Clause 

298, 362 : history 315-322 : forms 304 : with el, el y&p, et0e 312, 318 : 

in -uo, -Tjo) App. C. 

Negative 358. 

Substantive (opp. to Adjective} 165 

: Zenodotus: 2 Dual in -nr\v 5 

: Voc. 

the substantival Art. 257. 

of KdA-xas, &c. 92 

: TTO\VS (Ace. PI.) 

Suffix : in Verb-stems 14 

: -KO, in the 100 : Dual 173 (2) 

: Reflexive Pronoun 

Aor. 15 

: in the Pf. 22 (9) 

: 

-vtj, 

-vv 

255 

: 

readings due to loss of 

17 Nominal 113 Primary 114- P 389 for a : : T) App. p. 391 footn. : 

116: Variation 114*: Secondary readings, d0t/cea0oi/ (3 Dual) 5, ava- 

117-120: of Comparison 121 : derived 

23 (5), eou (eo) 98, x

INDEX III. 

CHIEF PASSAGES REFERRED TO. 

Iliad,

85 

INDEX. 43 1

43* INDEX. 

391

574 

INDEX. 433

434 INDEX. 

396

INDEX. 

435 

140

444 

INDEX.

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