Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r) - Hillcrest Elementary
Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r) - Hillcrest Elementary
Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r) - Hillcrest Elementary
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<strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Verbs</strong> <strong>Made</strong> <strong>Simple</strong>(r)
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David Brodsky<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong><br />
VERBS<br />
<strong>Simple</strong>(r)<br />
University of Texas Press Austin<br />
MADE
Copyright © 2005 by the University of Texas Press<br />
All rights reserved<br />
Printed in the United States of America<br />
First edition, 2005<br />
Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to<br />
Permissions, University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819.<br />
<br />
The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of<br />
ANSI /NISO Z39.48-1992 (R1997) (Permanence of Paper).<br />
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data<br />
Brodsky, David, 1950 –<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> verbs made simple(r) / David Brodsky.— 1st ed.<br />
p. cm.<br />
Summary: “Provides rules for conjugating all classes of <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs, including<br />
irregular verbs. Includes discussion of the uses of the subjunctive and the<br />
difference between the verbs ser and estar”—Provided by publisher.<br />
Includes bibliographical references.<br />
ISBN 0-292-70677-4 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-292-70653-7 (pbk. :<br />
alk. paper)<br />
1. <strong>Spanish</strong> language—Verb. 2. <strong>Spanish</strong> language—Textbooks for foreign<br />
speakers—English. I. Title: <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs made simple. II. Title.<br />
PC4271.B76 2005<br />
468.2421—dc22<br />
2004024713
For Daniel, Michael, and Beatriz
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Contents<br />
Preface ix<br />
Introduction 1<br />
PART I. FORMS OF VERBS<br />
1. Present, <strong>Simple</strong> Past, Imperfect, Participles 13<br />
2. Irregularities: Present Tense 22<br />
3. Irregularities: <strong>Simple</strong> Past Tense 45<br />
4. Future and Conditional Tenses 50<br />
5. Subjunctive and Imperative 54<br />
6. Compound Verb Forms 67<br />
7. Orthographic Modifications 71<br />
8. Vosotros/Ustedes and Tuteo/Voseo 91<br />
9. Summary and Presentation of Verb Classes 96<br />
PART II. USES OF VERBS<br />
10. Indicative 109<br />
11. Special Topic: Ser versus Estar 128<br />
12. Subjunctive 138<br />
PART III. ANNEXES<br />
A. Models of Verb Classes and Sub-classes 167<br />
B. Index by Class and Sub-class for 4,818 <strong>Verbs</strong> 215<br />
Selected References 273
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Preface<br />
The fundamental aim of this book is to provide:<br />
(a) easily understood—yet comprehensive—tools to recognize and learn the<br />
patterns that govern the large majority of “irregular” verbs in <strong>Spanish</strong>; and<br />
(b) clear and systematic illustrations of the use of all of the principal <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
verb forms, with particular emphasis placed on the subjunctive.<br />
It is intended for both the relatively new student grappling with the apparent<br />
complexities of <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs, as well as for the more advanced student seeking<br />
to “perfect” his or her understanding.<br />
The book is divided into three parts, which to a certain extent are independent:<br />
Part I provides a description of the various verb tenses and forms, the emphasis<br />
being on establishing rules for the more than 90 percent of irregular verbs<br />
whose irregularities are entirely “predictable”. Emphasis is also given to the stress<br />
accent patterns of the various forms, which play a critical role in the <strong>Spanish</strong> verbal<br />
system.<br />
Chapter 8 highlights one of the major differences between the <strong>Spanish</strong> language<br />
of Spain and that of the Americas, namely the contrasting use of personal<br />
pronouns (and verb forms) corresponding to “you”. Chapter 9 provides an overall<br />
summary of verb forms and presents 35 general models (or classes) into which<br />
all <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs can be placed.<br />
Part II illustrates the use of the various verb tenses and forms, with particular<br />
emphasis given to the subjunctive and its use in “if . . . then” clauses. Chapter 11<br />
is devoted to the distinctions in use between ser and estar, which many students<br />
find to be the most confusing element of the <strong>Spanish</strong> verbal system.<br />
Annexes: By reviewing Annex A, the student can become familiar with the<br />
various classes of verb “irregularities” and their unifying features. Complete conjugations<br />
are presented for each of the 35 model verbs, as well as for various subclasses<br />
including those displaying purely orthographic changes. Verb classes are<br />
nested, so that one can easily see that a verb like colgar (sub-class 4B-2) is identical<br />
in form to the basic model mostrar (class 4B), apart from regular orthographic<br />
modifications which are highlighted in the conjugations, and described<br />
in detail in Part I of the text. Mostrar itself is clearly identified as following a very<br />
regular pattern—a vowel change (e.g., muestro) in the 9 conjugations where the<br />
stress accent falls on the initial syllable.
x PREFACE<br />
Annex B provides an alphabetical index of more than 4,800 verbs, showing<br />
for each verb its class model and, where applicable, sub-class, e.g.,<br />
verb class (sub-class) number<br />
prevenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
prever ver (prever) 14-1<br />
primar cantar 1<br />
pringar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
priorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
privar cantar 1<br />
Thus one can determine at a glance that: (a) primar and privar follow the<br />
model of the (perfectly regular) verb cantar; (b) pringar and priorizar also follow<br />
the model of cantar, but with orthographic modifications as per the sub-models<br />
pagar and cazar; (c) prevenir follows the model of venir, with the same modifications<br />
as the sub-model convenir; and (d) prever follows the basic model ver,<br />
and is itself a sub-model for certain modifications, as shown in Annex A.<br />
A more advanced student will have the option of reading the book either sequentially<br />
or “à la carte”. A student at a more elementary level may find it preferable<br />
to concentrate initially on those chapters dealing with the indicative—both<br />
forms and uses—before passing on to the subjunctive. In this case the suggested<br />
order of chapters would be the following:<br />
chapter topic<br />
1– 4 indicative verb forms<br />
6 compound verb forms<br />
8 second person pronouns: tuteo and voseo<br />
9 summary and presentation of verb classes<br />
10 uses of indicative<br />
11 ser versus estar<br />
7 orthographic modifications<br />
5 subjunctive and imperative forms<br />
12 uses of subjunctive
<strong>Spanish</strong> <strong>Verbs</strong> <strong>Made</strong> <strong>Simple</strong>(r)
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Introduction<br />
The structure of <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs is not difficult to comprehend for a native English<br />
speaker, as most of the forms parallel or are very close in meaning to those employed<br />
in English. This basic similarity is at times obscured, however, by the lack<br />
of uniformity in naming the various verb forms. Consider, for example, some of<br />
the names variously applied to the two verb forms represented by I took and<br />
I have taken:<br />
I took I have taken<br />
preterite present perfect<br />
past past perfect<br />
simple past compound past<br />
past definite past definite<br />
past indefinite past indefinite<br />
To emphasize the close correspondence between English and <strong>Spanish</strong> verb forms,<br />
we have chosen to use names which are simple to remember and convey the essential<br />
nature of the verb form in question, even if some grammarians might not<br />
always consider them the most appropriate.<br />
One seeming major difference between <strong>Spanish</strong> and English verb systems is<br />
that <strong>Spanish</strong> employs two “moods”: the indicative and the subjunctive. The mood<br />
of the verb does not refer (at least directly) to that of the speaker but rather to the<br />
type of statement he or she is making. The indicative can be thought of as the<br />
“normal” verb mood (or mode), while the subjunctive is used in a number of special<br />
circumstances—in connection with orders, desires, uncertainty, etc. Contrary<br />
to what many might think, the subjunctive also exists in English, though its<br />
existence generally passes unnoticed since subjunctive and indicative verb forms<br />
in Modern English are almost always the same. But a sentence like<br />
I insist that he be punished.<br />
provides an illustration that there is at times a difference between the two.<br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong> the subjunctive is an essential element of the verb system and it is<br />
virtually impossible to have a meaningful conversation without using it. For this<br />
reason we will devote a substantial portion of Part II to a discussion of its use.
2 INTRODUCTION<br />
In addition to the indicative and subjunctive, there is a third verbal “mood”—<br />
the imperative (“Go!” “Run!” etc.). In <strong>Spanish</strong> some forms of the imperative are<br />
distinct, while others (including all negative imperatives) use subjunctive forms.<br />
For any English verb there are essentially only five “simple” forms:<br />
infinitive (to) write<br />
present write(s)<br />
past wrote<br />
past participle written<br />
present participle writing<br />
All other verb forms are compound ones created from the simple ones using various<br />
auxiliaries or “helping” verbs (e.g., I was writing, I will write, I would have<br />
written). For <strong>Spanish</strong>, there are eleven simple verb forms—the five English<br />
ones, plus:<br />
indicative subjunctive imperative<br />
imperfect present present<br />
future imperfect<br />
conditional<br />
Each <strong>Spanish</strong> verb thus has associated with it 47 basic “simple” conjugations, e.g.,<br />
for the verb cantar (“to sing”):<br />
infinitive cantar<br />
present indicative canto, cantas, canta, cantamos, cantáis, cantan<br />
simple past canté, cantaste, cantó, cantamos, cantasteis, cantaron<br />
imperfect cantaba, cantabas, cantaba, cantábamos, cantabais,<br />
cantaban<br />
past participle cantado<br />
present participle cantando<br />
future cantaré, cantarás, cantará, cantaremos, cantaréis, cantarán<br />
conditional cantaría, cantarías, cantaría, cantaríamos, cantaríais,<br />
cantarían<br />
present subjunctive cante, cantes, cante, cantemos, cantéis, canten<br />
imperfect subjunctive 1 cantara, cantaras, cantara, cantáramos, cantarais, cantaran<br />
imperative canta, cantad (you: singular and plural)<br />
1 As we shall see in Chapter 5, there is a second form of the imperfect subjunctive (cantase, cantases,<br />
etc.) which in many cases can be used interchangeably with the first.
There are in addition a number of compound verb forms, most having close<br />
English counterparts.<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> future and conditional tenses are each equivalent to very specific<br />
Englishcompound forms (I will write, I would write). For the imperfect tense, there<br />
is no one-to-one correspondence with a specific English verb form, which probably<br />
is why among the various indicative verb forms it often causes the greatest<br />
difficulty.<br />
The table below illustrates basic English equivalents for the simple and principal<br />
compound <strong>Spanish</strong> indicative verb forms. In each case the name in bold<br />
type (e.g., simple past) is the name by which the form will be referred to throughout<br />
the text; for several of the forms common alternative names are shown<br />
in parentheses.<br />
SIMPLE FORMS (INDICATIVE)<br />
infinitive To live is to love.<br />
present He writes in the book.<br />
simple past (preterite) He wrote a book about Shakespeare (in 1974).<br />
imperfect When I was young I played baseball every day.<br />
When the phone rang I was leaving the house.<br />
future Some day I will write a book about Shakespeare.<br />
conditional If I were not so lazy, I would write a book about<br />
Shakespeare.<br />
present participle/ I saw your brother crossing the street.<br />
gerund 2 I am writing a book about Shakespeare.<br />
past participle The book, written in the Middle Ages, is now in the<br />
British Museum.<br />
COMPOUND FORMS (INDICATIVE)<br />
INTRODUCTION 3<br />
compound past He has written a number of best-sellers.<br />
(present perfect)<br />
past perfect By the age of 30, he had written a number of best-sellers.<br />
(pluperfect)<br />
future perfect By the time I retire, I will have worked 40 years.<br />
conditional perfect I would have done it, if only I had had the chance.<br />
(past conditional)<br />
2 In English the present participle and gerund have the same form but fulfill different grammatical<br />
functions (e.g., “the man running” versus “running is healthy”). The <strong>Spanish</strong> gerundio fulfills<br />
some but not all of the functions of both the English gerund and present participle. This is discussed<br />
in Chapter 10.
4 INTRODUCTION<br />
Verb Classes<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> has three basic classes of verbs:<br />
1. -ar verbs cantar “to sing”<br />
2. -er verbs comer “to eat”<br />
3. -ir verbs subir “to climb”<br />
The -ar verbs are by far the most numerous.<br />
DISTRIBUTION OF SPANISH VERBS<br />
-ar -er -ir<br />
85% 7% 8%<br />
They are also the most dynamic, in the sense that the vast majority of verbs<br />
created in the post-Latin period have taken this ending, e.g.,<br />
espiar “to spy”<br />
esquiar “to ski”<br />
robar “to rob”<br />
escanear “to scan”<br />
telefonear “to telephone”<br />
xerografiar “to photocopy”<br />
chatear “to chat” (in common use but without “official” approval)<br />
Endings of the -er and -ir verbs are nearly always the same, differing for only<br />
three of the 47 simple conjugations (present indicative 1p and 2p, and imperative<br />
2p). 3<br />
Stress Accent<br />
As in English, each word in <strong>Spanish</strong> is pronounced with a stressed or accented<br />
syllable. The place of the stress accent plays a critical role in <strong>Spanish</strong>, particularly<br />
3Throughout the text we will use the notation 1s, 1p, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p to refer to “first person<br />
singular”, “first person plural”, etc.
in the verbal system. This is illustrated by the following examples, where the<br />
stressed syllable is shown in bold:<br />
a•mo Te amo. “I love you.”<br />
a•mo Te amó. “He loved you.”<br />
can•te ¡Cante la canción! “(You, usted) sing the song!”<br />
can•te Canté la canción. “I sang the song.”<br />
ter•mi•no termino “I finish”<br />
ter•mi•no terminó “he finished”<br />
ter•mi•no término “term”, “limit”<br />
ma•mas Todas las mamás son invitadas. “All the mothers are invited.”<br />
ma•mas Todas las mamas son invitadas. “All the breasts are invited.”<br />
The syllable on which the stress 4 falls is determined according to the following<br />
general rule:<br />
In the absence of a written accent mark, words ending in<br />
(a) a consonant other than n or s are stressed on the last syllable;<br />
(b) n, s, or a vowel are stressed on the next-to-last syllable.<br />
When the stress accent does not fall on the “expected” syllable, it is<br />
marked by placing a written accent mark (tilde, in <strong>Spanish</strong>) over the<br />
vowel in the stressed syllable.The letter y is treated as a consonant.<br />
It is thus necessary to distinguish between the stress accent, which every word has,<br />
and the written accent which only occurs when the stress accent does not fall on<br />
the “expected” syllable.<br />
The above rule does not cover the very tricky issue of vowel combinations,<br />
which can be pronounced either as part of separate syllables or as elements of a<br />
diphthong. This issue will be addressed in Chapter 7.<br />
Irregular <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong>, as in most languages, a “Murphy’s law of verbs” seems to hold:<br />
1. Regular verbs are infrequently used.<br />
2. Frequently used verbs are irregular.<br />
4 We will use the terms stress and stress accent interchangeably.<br />
INTRODUCTION 5
6 INTRODUCTION<br />
There is actually a simple explanation apart from that of Sr. Murphy: frequently<br />
used verbs simply have much greater capacity to resist the constant pressure to<br />
become uniform. Consider, for example, the English verb to crow, whose historical<br />
past tense was crew:<br />
Then began he to curse and to swear, saying, I know not the man. And<br />
immediately the cock crew. (Matthew 26:74, King James Version)<br />
And, as the Cock crew, those who stood before The Tavern shouted—<br />
”Open then the Door!” (Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám)<br />
Yet the verb was so infrequently used that most people assumed, or were easily<br />
convinced, that the past tense must be crowed and so it has become.<br />
Then he began to invoke a curse on himself and to swear, “I do not know<br />
the man.” And immediately the cock crowed. (Revised Standard Version)<br />
The verb to mow (old past tense mew) had a similar experience, while the much<br />
more commonly used verbs to know, to blow, to grow have been able to resist such<br />
uniformizing tendencies and still have “irregular” past tenses: knew, blew, grew.<br />
Of course if one goes back far enough in the history of English (and its predecessors)<br />
one will discover that most irregular verbs are really quite regular, following<br />
archaic patterns that have become obscured by several thousand years of<br />
gradual phonetic (and other) changes. In <strong>Spanish</strong> a similar situation prevails, but<br />
with one important advantage: more than 90 percent of (seemingly) irregular verbs<br />
follow easily understood and readily remembered patterns. Recognizing and learning<br />
these patterns is a far more efficient way to learn <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs than simply<br />
attempting to memorize what may at first seem like almost random irregularities.<br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong>, a fundamental distinction can be made between verbs having<br />
regular simple past tenses—whose irregularities in other tenses, if any, generally<br />
follow predictable patterns—and those with irregular simple past tenses, which<br />
generally have unpredictable irregularities in other forms as well.<br />
Basically regular verbs are those with regular simple past tenses<br />
and include verbs that<br />
(a) are (perfectly) regular;<br />
(b) are predictably regular;<br />
(c) are irregular in the first person singular present, but otherwise (largely)<br />
predictable;<br />
(d) have mixed patterns.<br />
Fundamentally irregular verbs are those with irregular simple<br />
past tenses.
Those in the second group are “fundamentally” irregular not only because they<br />
tend to have more than one irregularity, but also because of the nature of the past<br />
tense irregularity itself: the pattern of accentuation is different and in most cases<br />
there is a vowel change (e.g., infinitive poder S simple past pude).<br />
The 17 fundamentally irregular verbs are:<br />
ser/estar to be ir to go<br />
haber/tener to have poder to be able (can)<br />
andar to walk poner to put<br />
caber to fit querer to want<br />
dar to give saber to know<br />
decir to say traer to bring, carry<br />
hacer to do, make venir to come<br />
-ducir (conducir, producir,<br />
seducir, etc.)<br />
Apart from caber and andar, all would likely appear on any list of the 25 most important<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> verbs. 5 It is also interesting to note that the majority correspond<br />
to English irregular verbs.<br />
We will use the nomenclature “perfectly regular”, “predictably regular”, “basically<br />
regular”, and “fundamentally irregular”, in accordance with the above<br />
schema.<br />
Personal Pronouns<br />
One of the major differences between the <strong>Spanish</strong> spoken in Spain and that<br />
spoken in the Americas concerns the pronouns used for the second person<br />
(“you”), and in some cases the verb forms used in the second person as well.<br />
This will be considered in Chapter 8. Until that point we will consider only the<br />
“standard” forms:<br />
singular plural<br />
1st person yo “I” nosotros/nosotras “we”<br />
2nd person tú “you” vosotros/vosotras “you”<br />
3rd person él /ella “he/she” ellos/ellas “they”<br />
usted “you” ustedes “you”<br />
INTRODUCTION 7<br />
5 Caber owes its place on the list due to the close association, dating back to Latin, of its form with<br />
that of saber. Andar is the sole survivor of a group of regular verbs which attempted to develop irregular<br />
simple past tenses in Old <strong>Spanish</strong> times.
8 INTRODUCTION<br />
It should also be noted that, like Latin and most other Romance languages, 6<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> generally does not use personal pronouns unless there is a specific need<br />
for emphasis or, in the case of third person pronouns, to identify the subject with<br />
greater precision:<br />
Voy a hacerlo. “I am going to do it.”<br />
Yo voy a hacerlo. “I am going to do it.”<br />
Él está ausente pero ella está aquí. “He is absent but she is here.”<br />
Additional Observations<br />
1. Real Academia Española<br />
At various points in the text we will make reference to the Real Academia Española<br />
(RAE). Since 1714 the RAE has been charged with the responsibility to<br />
“fix the words and expressions of the Castilian language in their greatest propriety,<br />
elegance and purity.” 7 The RAE thus functions in a role similar to that of the<br />
Académie Française with regard to French, but with the important difference<br />
that the RAE has to take into account the views of 21 other national academies of<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong>, 8 whereas—at least in principle—the Académie Française rules unchallenged<br />
in the Francophone world. The RAE’s excellent online site contains not<br />
only the entire text of its Diccionario de la lengua española, 9 but also the complete<br />
conjugations for all <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs.<br />
2. Definitions and Dictionaries<br />
Brief definitions (one or two words) are given for most of the verbs presented in<br />
the text, either the first time they appear or at a later stage. These definitions are<br />
meant to be suggestive only and are in no manner a substitute for fuller definitions<br />
to be found in a dictionary. As early as possible, one should try to use a<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong>-<strong>Spanish</strong> dictionary, preferably one with examples. Outstanding (and<br />
perhaps unique) in its class is the VOX Diccionario para la enseñanza de la lengua<br />
española, which is specifically designed for non-native speakers. Apart from good<br />
6French being the principal exception.<br />
7From the RAE’s online description of its origen y fines (, July 2004): “fijar las voces<br />
y vocablos de la lengua castellana en su mayor propiedad, elegancia y pureza.”<br />
8Including the Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española and the Academia Norteamericana<br />
de la Lengua Española.<br />
9The 22nd edition (2001) as well as all preceding editions dating back to 1726.
examples, it offers a feature found surprisingly rarely in <strong>Spanish</strong> dictionaries,<br />
pronunciations of individual words. The RAE’s dictionary, while authoritative,<br />
does not have examples (or pronunciations). The “Rolls Royce” of <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
dictionaries is the two-volume Diccionario de uso del español by María Moliner,<br />
frequently referred to simply as Moliner. A CD-rom version is available and<br />
includes conjugations of individual verbs.<br />
3. Prepositions Accompanying <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
Just as in English we insist on something and laugh at somebody, <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs<br />
are often associated with specific prepositions. Thus, corresponding to the two<br />
English examples, in <strong>Spanish</strong> one generally says insistir en and reírse de. When<br />
learning the definition of an individual verb, it is a good idea to learn at the same<br />
time the associated preposition(s).<br />
4. Historical References<br />
INTRODUCTION 9<br />
At various stages in the text references are made to the historical development of<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> and its relation to other Romance languages and Latin. While many are<br />
limited to footnotes, there are also several extended historical and methodological<br />
notes. The motivation for all such references is to help provide answers to the<br />
“why” questions which occur to many students—e.g., why do some verbs have<br />
vowel changes (yo cuento) but only in certain conjugations (nosotros contamos)<br />
and tenses (yo conté)?
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PART I<br />
FORMS OF VERBS
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CHAPTER 1<br />
Present, <strong>Simple</strong> Past, Imperfect, Participles<br />
Present Tense (Indicative)<br />
The present tense is formed by adding the following endings to the verb stem or<br />
root, i.e., the infinitive minus the final -ar, -er, or -ir.<br />
-ar verbs -er verbs -ir verbs<br />
-o -o -o<br />
-as -es -es<br />
-a -e -e<br />
-amos -emos -imos<br />
-áis -éis -ís<br />
-an -en -en<br />
Thus,<br />
infinitive can•tar co•mer su•bir<br />
(to sing) (to eat) (to raise, climb)<br />
1s can•to co•mo su•bo<br />
2s can•tas co•mes su•bes<br />
3s can•ta co•me su•be<br />
1p can•ta•mos co•me•mos su•bi•mos<br />
2p can•táis co•méis su•bís<br />
3p can•tan co•men su•ben<br />
where the stressed syllable is shown in bold.<br />
Note that:<br />
(1) For all three singulars and for the third person plural, the stress accent is<br />
on the stem (root) syllable, while for the first and second person plurals<br />
it is on the post-stem syllable. Among regular verbs, non-uniform stress<br />
patterns occur for the present indicative, present subjunctive, and<br />
imperative. All other tenses have uniform stress patterns for all six<br />
conjugations.<br />
(2) In the second person plural a written accent is required for all three<br />
classes: áis, éis, ís. The first two are pronounced as diphthongs.
14 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
(3) The endings for the -er and -ir verbs differ only for the first and second<br />
person plural.<br />
Irregularities for the present indicative—predictable and otherwise—are presented<br />
in Chapter 2.<br />
<strong>Simple</strong> Past Tense<br />
The simple past tense for regular verbs is formed by adding the following endings<br />
to the verb stem:<br />
-ar verbs -er and -ir verbs<br />
1s -é -í<br />
2s -aste -iste<br />
3s -ó -ió<br />
1p -amos -imos<br />
2p -asteis -isteis<br />
3p -aron -ieron<br />
cantar comer subir<br />
1s can•té co•mí su•bí<br />
2s can•tas•te co•mis•te su•bis•te<br />
3s can•tó co•mió su•bió<br />
1p can•ta•mos co•mi•mos su•bi•mos<br />
2p can•tas•teis co•mis•teis su•bis•teis<br />
3p can•ta•ron co•mie•ron su•bie•ron<br />
The simple past tense endings for -er and -ir verbs are identical. This is no random<br />
occurrence: of the 47 simple verb forms, -er and -ir verbs have 44 in common, the<br />
only discrepancies being the two already noted in the present (1p and 2p) plus the<br />
imperative (2p).<br />
Regarding pronunciation and orthography:<br />
(1) In all cases the stress accent is on the post-stem syllable, which necessitates<br />
a written accent for the first and third person singulars—apart from<br />
the one-syllable verb ver (the other one-syllable verbs—ser, ir, and<br />
dar—have irregular simple past tenses).
(2) For the singulars and the third person plural, the stress accent is<br />
moved forward compared to the present tense, e.g.,<br />
present simple past<br />
1s co•mo co•mí<br />
2s co•mes co•mis•te<br />
3s co•me co•mió<br />
3p co•men co•mie•ron<br />
It is important to put the stress on the correct syllable in order to avoid<br />
confusion with other tenses:<br />
can•tó (3s, simple past) can•to (1s, present indicative)<br />
can•té (1s, simple past) can•te (1s/3s, present subjunctive)<br />
(3) for -ar and -ir verbs, the first person plural has identical forms for the<br />
present and simple past:<br />
Llegamos muy tarde. “We arrive very late.”<br />
“We arrived very late.”<br />
Subimos la montaña. “We climb the mountain.”<br />
“We climbed the mountain.”<br />
For -er verbs there is no such potential confusion:<br />
Comemos muy tarde. “We eat very late.”<br />
Comimos muy tarde. “We ate very late.”<br />
Irregularities for the simple past are presented in Chapter 3. For -er and -ir verbs<br />
whose stem ends in a vowel (e.g., caer, construir, reír), there are certain regular<br />
orthographic modifications (Chapter 7).<br />
Imperfect (Indicative)<br />
The following endings are added to the verb stem:<br />
-ar verbs -er and -ir verbs<br />
1s -aba -ía<br />
2s -abas -ías<br />
3s -aba -ía<br />
1p -ábamos -íamos<br />
2p -abais -íais<br />
3p -aban -ían<br />
PRESENT, SIMPLE PAST, IMPERFECT, PARTICIPLES 15
16 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
1s can•ta•ba su•bí•a<br />
2s can•ta•bas su•bí•as<br />
3s can•ta•ba su•bí•a<br />
1p can•tá•ba•mos su•bí•a•mos<br />
2p can•ta•bais su•bí•ais<br />
3p can•ta•ban su•bí•an<br />
The imperfect has a uniform stress pattern, as all six forms are stressed on the<br />
post-stem syllable. A written accent is required for:<br />
(1) the first person plural for -ar verbs<br />
(2) all six conjugations for the -er and -ir verbs, in order to maintain -i and<br />
-a as distinct vowels.<br />
Irregularities<br />
The imperfect is the most “perfect” of all <strong>Spanish</strong> verb forms, as there are only<br />
three verbs having irregular imperfects: ser, ir, and ver.<br />
ser ir ver<br />
1s era iba veía<br />
2s eras ibas veías<br />
3s era iba veía<br />
1p éramos íbamos veíamos<br />
2p erais ibais veíais<br />
3p eran iban veían<br />
The imperfect for ver would be entirely regular if the infinitive were *veer 1 (which<br />
was in fact the case in “Old” <strong>Spanish</strong>) rather than ver. The imperfects for ser and<br />
ir are direct continuations of irregular Latin forms.<br />
Past Participle<br />
The following ending is added to the verb stem:<br />
-ar verbs -er and -ir verbs<br />
-ado -ido<br />
1An asterisk (*) placed immediately before a particular verb form indicates that the form is not a<br />
correct one.
Thus,<br />
infinitive past participle<br />
-ar verbs cantar can•ta•do<br />
dar dado<br />
hablar hablado<br />
-er verbs comer co•mi•do<br />
beber bebido<br />
morder mordido<br />
-ir verbs subir su•bi•do<br />
cumplir cumplido<br />
vivir vivido<br />
Under certain circumstances, a written accent is added to the vowel of the past<br />
participle ending:<br />
Rule. If an -er or -ir verb has a stem ending in -a, -e, or -o, then the ending<br />
of the past participle has a written accent (-ído rather than -ido). For<br />
all other cases in which the stem ends in a vowel, no change is made.<br />
Examples:<br />
caer caído<br />
leer leído<br />
roer roído<br />
oír oído<br />
compared to<br />
PRESENT, SIMPLE PAST, IMPERFECT, PARTICIPLES 17<br />
crear creado not *creádo<br />
loar loado not *loádo<br />
evaluar evaluado not *evaluádo<br />
criar criado not *criádo<br />
construir construido not *construído<br />
This rule reflects a particularity of the <strong>Spanish</strong> orthographic system, which distinguishes<br />
between “strong” and “weak” vowels (Chapter 7).<br />
Of the 14 irregular past participles, eleven are found among the “basically regular”<br />
verbs, three among the fundamentally irregular ones (italicized).
18 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
infinitive past participle not<br />
abrir abierto *abrido “opened”<br />
cubrir cubierto *cubrido “covered”<br />
decir dicho *decido “said”<br />
escribir escrito *escribido “written”<br />
freír frito [see below] “fried”<br />
hacer hecho *hacido “done”<br />
imprimir impreso [see below] “printed”<br />
morir muerto *morido “died”<br />
poner puesto *ponido “placed”, “put”<br />
resolver 2 resuelto *resolvido “resolved”<br />
romper roto *rompido “broken”<br />
ver visto *vido “seen”<br />
volver vuelto *volvido “turned”<br />
pudrir podrido *pudrido “rotted”, “putrefied”<br />
These generally represent the continuation of “strong” Latin past participles<br />
which had the ending (-tus or -sus) connected directly to the root without an<br />
intervening vowel. As a result of their truncated form, irregular <strong>Spanish</strong> past participles<br />
(apart from podrido) 3 are stressed on the stem syllable, as compared to<br />
regular past participles, whose stress is on the post-stem syllable: 4<br />
di•cho ro•to vuel•to versus can•ta•do co•mi•do su•bi•do<br />
Compound verbs generally have the same irregularities (descubierto, impuesto,<br />
absuelto, disuelto, etc.). Exceptions include bendecir and maldecir (“to bless”, “to<br />
curse”), which have regular past participles (bendecido, maldecido), 5 and corromper<br />
(“to corrupt”), whose regular past participle is corrompido.<br />
The RAE accepts the regular form freído alongside frito as a past participle for<br />
freír, but frito is far more common. For imprimir it accepts either impreso or<br />
imprimido; however, for comprimir (“to compress”), deprimir (“to depress”),<br />
2Although the verb solver exists, it is rarely used. Thus one resolves a <strong>Spanish</strong> mystery rather than<br />
solving it.<br />
3Pudrir used to be podrir: the stem vowel -o changed to -u in all 47 forms except the past participle.<br />
The old infinitive podrir still exists alongside pudrir.<br />
4For abrir, cubrir, and ver the past participles are stressed on what is in fact the original stem<br />
syllable, as each of these verbs subsequently “lost” a syllable: ab(e)rir, cub(e)rir and v(e)er.<br />
5The forms bendito and maldito exist but are used only as adjectives: el agua bendita (“holy water”).
exprimir (“to express”), and reprimir (“to repress”) only the regular forms comprimido,<br />
deprimido, exprimido, and reprimido are accepted. 6<br />
Satisfacer, which is essentially a compound form of hacer, 7 has satisfecho as<br />
past participle. Apart from reescribir, compounds of escribir omit the “helping”<br />
initial -e and thus have past participles ending in -scrito: 8<br />
inscribir inscrito<br />
suscribir suscrito<br />
transcribir transcrito<br />
Important observation:<br />
No -ar verb has an irregular past participle.<br />
Present Participle (Gerundio)<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> present participle (gerundio) is formed by adding the following ending<br />
to the verb stem:<br />
-ar verbs -er/-ir verbs<br />
-ando -iendo<br />
Thus,<br />
infinitive present participle<br />
-ar verbs cantar can•tan•do<br />
dar dando<br />
hablar hablando<br />
-er verbs comer co•mien•do<br />
beber bebiendo<br />
morder mordiendo<br />
-ir verbs subir su•bien•do<br />
cumplir cumpliendo<br />
vivir viviendo<br />
PRESENT, SIMPLE PAST, IMPERFECT, PARTICIPLES 19<br />
6For proveer—a compound formed using the “old” form veer of ver—both provisto and the regular<br />
proveído are acceptable.<br />
7Like many words in <strong>Spanish</strong> (e.g., higo “fig”), hacer changed its initial f to h.<br />
8The RAE also accepts the “old” forms ending in -scripto for all -scribir verbs apart from escribir,<br />
rescribir, reescribir, and manuscribir, and these are still found with some frequency in certain regions<br />
(notably Argentina and Uruguay): inscripto, suscripto, transcripto, etc.
20 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
This verb form is called gerundio in <strong>Spanish</strong> because it was derived from the Latin<br />
gerund; many English-language books on <strong>Spanish</strong> call it the present participle<br />
because its use more closely parallels that of the English present participle. In<br />
English, of course, the present participle and gerund both have the same -ing<br />
form.<br />
There is essentially only one irregular present participle:<br />
poder pudiendo not *podiendo<br />
Other apparent regularities are all of the predictable type and fall into three<br />
categories:<br />
(1) -ir verbs with stem vowels -e or -o have the stem vowel changed to -i<br />
and -u, respectively:<br />
sentir sintiendo not *sentiendo<br />
medir midiendo not *mediendo<br />
dormir durmiendo not *dormiendo<br />
[See “La regla milagrosa (extended)” in Chapter 9.]<br />
Exceptions:<br />
(a) oír [see below]<br />
(b) “regular” present participle 9<br />
discernir discerniendo<br />
(2) for -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, the -i in -iendo is<br />
changed to -y, a normal orthographic change (Chapter 7):<br />
infinitive present participle not<br />
caer cayendo *caiendo<br />
leer leyendo *leiendo<br />
traer trayendo *traiendo<br />
construir construyendo *construiendo<br />
huir huyendo *huiendo<br />
oír oyendo *oiendo<br />
9Also cernir and hendir—although the RAE prefers the forms cerner and hender—andconcernir.<br />
Like discernir these were originally -er verbs and behave throughout their conjugations as -er<br />
diphthong verbs. Concernir is a “defective” verb used only impersonally, e.g.,<br />
A mí no me concierne este asunto. “This matter is of no concern to me.”<br />
The only forms which exist are the infinitive, participles, and third person (singular and plural).
Also:<br />
ir yendo *iendo<br />
(3) -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in a palatalized consonant—either ñ or<br />
ll—omit the -i- from -iendo (Chapter 7):<br />
infinitive present participle not<br />
PRESENT, SIMPLE PAST, IMPERFECT, PARTICIPLES 21<br />
tañer tañendo *tañiendo<br />
bullir bullendo *bulliendo
CHAPTER 2<br />
Irregularities: Present Tense<br />
Present-tense (indicative) irregularities—real and apparent—can be divided<br />
among the following categories. <strong>Verbs</strong> shown in bold are those we have defined<br />
as fundamentally irregular, i.e., having irregular simple pasts.<br />
“Predictable” irregularities<br />
1. Diphthong in verbs having stem vowel -e or -o<br />
A. e → ie<br />
B. o → ue<br />
2. Umlaut (e → i) for -ir verbs having stem vowel -e<br />
3. First person singular ending in -zco<br />
A. (Most) infinitives ending in -cer (e.g., conocer)<br />
B. (All) infinitives ending in -ucir (e.g., producir, lucir)<br />
4.<strong>Verbs</strong> ending in -uir add -y except before -i<br />
“Unpredictable” irregularities 1<br />
5.“To be” ser, estar<br />
6. Other first person singulars ending in -oy ir, dar<br />
7A. First person singular ending in -e haber, saber<br />
7B. First person singular with umlaut (a S e) caber<br />
8. First person singular ending in -go,<br />
other persons without -g (hago, haces, hace, etc.) decir, hacer, caer,<br />
traer, oír, poner, salir,<br />
tener, valer, venir<br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> with “mixed” patterns<br />
9. Ver, adquirir, jugar, argüir (and discernir)<br />
Purely orthographic changes<br />
Orthographic changes will be treated in Chapter 7.<br />
Predictable Irregularities<br />
1. Diphthong in <strong>Verbs</strong> Having Stem Vowel -e or -o<br />
A large number of verbs display the following change in stem vowel in four of the<br />
six grammatical persons—the three singulars and the third person plural.<br />
1 By coincidence there are 17 verbs with irregular present tenses and the same number with<br />
irregular simple past tenses. Thirteen verbs are in both groups.
A. e → ie pronounced like “ye” in yet 2<br />
B. o → ue pronounced like “we” in wet<br />
(sometimes more like “wei” in weight)<br />
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 23<br />
These are known as the diphthong verbs. Some examples, with the stressed syllable<br />
highlighted in bold:<br />
e S ie o S ue<br />
-ar verbs<br />
pensar (to think) mostrar (to show)<br />
1s pienso pien•so muestro mues•tro<br />
2s piensas pien•sas muestras mues•tras<br />
3s piensa pien•sa muestra mues•tra<br />
1p pensamos pen•sa•mos mostramos mos•tra•mos<br />
2p pensáis pen•sáis mostráis mos•tráis<br />
3p piensan pien•san muestran mues•tran<br />
-er verbs<br />
perder (“to lose”) mover (“to move”)<br />
1s pierdo pier•do muevo mue•vo<br />
2s pierdes pier•des mueves mue•ves<br />
3s pierde pier•de mueve mue•ve<br />
1p perdemos per•de•mos movemos mo•ve•mos<br />
2p perdéis per•déis movéis mo•véis<br />
3p pierden pier•den mueven mue•ven<br />
-ir verbs<br />
sentir (“to feel”) dormir (“to sleep”)<br />
1s siento sien•to duermo duer•mo<br />
2s sientes sien•tes duermes duer•mes<br />
3s siente sien•te duerme duer•me<br />
1p sentimos sen•ti•mos dormimos dor•mi•mos<br />
2p sentís sen•tís dormís dor•mís<br />
3p sienten sien•ten duermen duer•men<br />
2 At the beginning of a word or syllable, the ie diphthong in much of the <strong>Spanish</strong>-speaking world<br />
is pronounced either like the “s” in pleasure or the “j” in judge, while after a consonant the “ye” sound<br />
is maintained. This has only very limited effect on the verbal system, where virtually all ie diphthongs<br />
are preceded by a consonant, the principal exceptions occurring in errar and erguir.
24 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
We note the following fundamentally important pattern:<br />
The diphthong occurs only in stressed syllables, i.e., in those conjugations<br />
where the stress accent falls on the stem (root) of the verb.<br />
We shall subsequently see that this pattern holds for all of the 47 simple conjugations<br />
and thus provides a remarkably simple way to remember which conjugations<br />
have diphthongs and which do not.<br />
How to Determine (and Remember) Whether a Verb Is a Diphthong Verb<br />
The historical note presented as an appendix to this chapter shows that whether<br />
a <strong>Spanish</strong> verb diphthongs or not is generally dependent on the quantity (short<br />
or long) of the vowel in its corresponding Latin root. While this is of little practical<br />
assistance to those whose Latin is a bit rusty, there fortunately exists an<br />
alternative method which is applicable in the large majority of cases:<br />
General rule:<br />
-ar and -er verbs:<br />
If the stem vowel of any associated noun or adjective has diphthonged,<br />
then it is almost certain that the verb has diphthonged as well.<br />
-ir verbs:<br />
(i) There are only three commonly employed verbs with stem<br />
vowel -o—dormir, morir, and oír—of which the first two diphthong.<br />
(ii) For verbs with stem vowel -e, la regla milagrosa presented in the<br />
following section provides a sure method for determining those<br />
which diphthong.<br />
For -ar and -er verbs the general rule is illustrated below with regard to a number<br />
of verbs in common use:<br />
infinitive noun /adjective 1s<br />
e S ie<br />
acertar (to get /guess right) cierto (certain) acierto<br />
alentar (to encourage) aliento (breath) aliento<br />
apretar (to squeeze) aprieto (predicament) aprieto<br />
arrendar (to rent) arriendo (rent) arriendo<br />
atravesar (to cross) travieso (mischievous) atravieso<br />
calentar (to heat) caliente (hot) caliento<br />
cegar (to blind) ciego (blind) ciego<br />
cerner (to sift, blossom) cierne (blossoming) cierno
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 25<br />
cerrar (to close) cierre (snap, clasp) cierro<br />
cimentar (to lay foundations) cimiento (foundation) cimiento<br />
comenzar (to commence) comienzo (commencement) comienzo<br />
desmembrar (to dismember) miembro (member) desmiembro<br />
despertar (to awake) despierto (awake) despierto<br />
desterrar (to exile) tierra (land) destierro<br />
emparentar 3 (to become related) pariente (relative) empariento<br />
empezar (to begin) pieza (piece) empiezo<br />
encomendar (to entrust) encomienda (commission) encomiendo<br />
enmendar (to amend) enmienda (amendment) enmiendo<br />
ensangrentar (to bloody) sangriento (bloody) ensangriento<br />
errar (to err) yerro (error) yerro 4<br />
fregar (to scrub) friega (rubdown) friego<br />
gobernar (to govern) gobierno (government) gobierno<br />
herrar (to shoe a horse) hierro (iron) hierro<br />
manifestar (to manifest) manifiesto (manifest) manifiesto<br />
merendar (to snack) merienda (snack) meriendo<br />
negar (to deny) reniego (curse) niego<br />
pensar (to think) pienso (fodder) pienso<br />
plegar (to fold) pliegue (crease) pliego<br />
quebrar (to break) quiebra (bankruptcy) quiebro<br />
regar (to irrigate) riego (irrigation) riego<br />
segar (to reap) siega (reaping) siego<br />
sembrar (to sow) siembra (sowing) siembro<br />
sentar (to seat) asiento (seat) siento<br />
serrar (to saw) sierra (mountain range) sierro<br />
sosegar (to calm) sosiego (tranquillity) sosiego<br />
tender (to extend/stretch) tienda (tent, shop) tiendo<br />
tentar (to feel /touch) tiento (touch, feeling) tiento<br />
tropezar (to stumble) tropiezo (stumble) tropiezo<br />
o S ue<br />
acordar (to remember) acuerdo (accord) acuerdo<br />
acostar (to put to bed) cuesta (slope) acuesto<br />
almorzar (to lunch) almuerzo (lunch) almuerzo<br />
3 Emparentar can also be conjugated without diphthongs.<br />
4 The initial ie is written ye (Chapter 7) : yerro, yerras, yerra, erramos, erráis, yerran.
26 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
apostar (to bet) apuesta (bet) apuesto<br />
avergonzar (to shame) vergüenza (shame) avergüenzo<br />
clocar (to cluck) clueco (broody, decrepit) clueco<br />
colgar (to hang) cuelgacapas (hatrack) cuelgo<br />
consolar (to console) consuelo (consolation) consuelo<br />
contar (to count, to tell) cuenta (bill, account) cuento<br />
degollar (to behead) degüello (beheading) degüello<br />
doler (to hurt) duelo (mourning) duelo<br />
encontrar (to meet) encuentro (encounter) encuentro<br />
esforzar (to strengthen) esfuerzo (effort) esfuerzo<br />
forzar (to force) fuerza (force) fuerzo<br />
hollar (to tread on) huella (trace) huello<br />
moler (to mill) muela (millstone, molar) muelo<br />
mostrar (to show) muestra (sample) muestro<br />
poblar (to populate) pueblo (town) pueblo<br />
probar (to prove/try) prueba (proof ) pruebo<br />
recordar (to remember) recuerdo (memory) recuerdo<br />
renovar 5 (to renovate) nuevo (new) renuevo<br />
resolver (to resolve/solve) resuelto (resolute) resuelvo<br />
rodar (to roll) rueda (wheel) ruedo<br />
rogar (to request) ruego (request) ruego<br />
soltar (to loosen) suelto (loose) suelto<br />
soñar (to dream) sueño (sleep, dream) sueño<br />
torcer (to twist) tuerto (one-eyed) tuerzo 6<br />
trocar (to barter) trueque (exchange) trueco<br />
volar (to fly) vuelo (flight) vuelo<br />
volcar (to capsize) vuelco (overturning) vuelco<br />
volver (to turn) vuelta (return) vuelvo<br />
Also three “weather” verbs used only in the third person singular:<br />
helar (to freeze) hielo (ice) hiela (it is freezing)<br />
nevar (to snow) nieve (snow) nieva (it is snowing)<br />
tronar (to thunder) trueno (thunder) truena (it thunders)<br />
5 Innovar does not diphthong: yo innovo.<br />
6 See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the (regular orthographic) change of the ending to -zo.
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 27<br />
Compound verb forms almost always follow the same pattern, e.g.,<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
absolver absuelvo “to absolve”<br />
aprobar apruebo “to approve”<br />
comprobar compruebo “to verify”, “to check”<br />
concertar concierto “to harmonize”, “to arrange”<br />
contender contiendo “to contend”, “to contest”<br />
entender entiendo “to understand”<br />
demoler demuelo “to demolish”<br />
desenvolver desenvuelvo “to unwrap”, “to evolve”<br />
envolver envuelvo “to wrap up”, “to involve”<br />
revolver revuelvo “to mix”, “to turn over”, “to revolve”<br />
remover remuevo “to remove”, “to stir”<br />
with the following major exceptions: 7<br />
pretender pretendo “to try to”, “to aspire to”<br />
interrogar 8 interrogo “to interrogate”<br />
There exist a much smaller number of verbs with no associated commonly used<br />
diphthonged nouns or adjectives which nevertheless are diphthonged, including:<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
ascender asciendo “to ascend”<br />
cocer cuezo 9 “to cook”<br />
confesar 10 confieso “to confess”<br />
costar cuesto “to cost”<br />
defender 11 defiendo “to defend”<br />
descender desciendo “to descend”<br />
encender enciendo “to light”<br />
heder hiedo “to stink”<br />
7 Aterrar is essentially two separate verbs: a diphthong verb like desterrar when its meaning has<br />
to do with tierra (“to cover with earth”, “to demolish”, “to land”); a regular verb when it relates to<br />
terror (“to frighten”, “to terrify”).<br />
8 Similarly, abrogar, arrogar, derogar, prorrogar, subrogar are conjugated without diphthongs.<br />
9 See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the (regular orthographic) change of the ending to -zo.<br />
10 Profesar does not diphthong: yo profeso.<br />
11 Ofender does not diphthong: yo ofendo.
28 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
hender hiendo “to crack”, “to split”<br />
morder muerdo “to bite”<br />
oler huelo “to smell”<br />
perder pierdo “to lose”<br />
restregar restriego “to scrub”, “to rub”<br />
reventar reviento “to burst”<br />
soler suelo “to be accustomed to”<br />
sonar sueno “to sound”, “to ring”<br />
temblar tiemblo “to tremble”<br />
tostar tuesto “to toast”, “to roast”<br />
verter vierto “to pour”, “to spill”<br />
as well as<br />
llover llueve “it rains” (used only in third person singular)<br />
2. Umlaut (e → i) for -ir <strong>Verbs</strong> Having Stem Vowel -e<br />
The situation with regard to -ir verbs with stem vowel -e is more complex, yet in<br />
some respects far simpler. More complex, since there is not one but two possible<br />
“irregularities”: while some verbs diphthong, others display a different pattern of<br />
vowel alternation (e → i) which we will call umlaut. 12<br />
diphthong umlaut<br />
sentir (to feel) pedir (to request)<br />
1s siento sien•to pido pi•do<br />
2s sientes sien•tes pides pi•des<br />
3s siente sien•te pide pi•de<br />
1p sentimos sen•ti•mos pedimos pe•di•mos<br />
2p sentís sen•tís pedís pe•dís<br />
3p sienten sien•ten piden pi•den<br />
12 Umlaut, since the shift -e to -i occurred because of a (now disappeared) “y” in the following<br />
syllable, analogous to the process of umlaut which occurred in the Germanic languages (including<br />
English—e.g., when a verb was created from the adjective full, the vowel was umlauted, hence to fill).<br />
The term generally used to describe this process in Romance languages is metaphony, a word the<br />
French created by translating German “umlaut” into Classical Greek (“um” meta, “laut” phony).
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 29<br />
For umlaut verbs the stem vowel -e is raised to -i in the four conjugations in<br />
which the stress accent falls on the stem syllable, i.e., in exactly the same conjugations<br />
where diphthong verbs have diphthongs.<br />
While having two separate patterns of vowel variation, -ir verbs with stem<br />
vowel -e are nonetheless simpler than their -ar and -er counterparts because virtually<br />
all of them 13 display one variation or the other, and there is a simple rule<br />
for determining which “regular irregularity” they follow:<br />
La regla milagrosa<br />
-ir verbs with stem vowel -e have diphthongs or umlauts as follows:<br />
Diphthong (model sentir): if the stem vowel is followed by -r or -nt<br />
Umlaut (model pedir): all other cases<br />
Exceptions: servir (umlaut)<br />
venir (diphthong)<br />
Examples:<br />
DIPHTHONG (MODEL SENTIR) 14<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
adherir adhiero “to adhere”<br />
arrepentir(se) 15 me arrepiento “to repent”<br />
convertir convierto “to convert”<br />
digerir digiero “to digest”<br />
discernir discierno “to discern”, “to distinguish”<br />
erguir 16 yergo “to raise”, “to lift up”<br />
herir hiero “to wound”<br />
hervir hiervo “to boil”<br />
ingerir ingiero “to ingest”<br />
mentir miento “to lie”<br />
referir refiero “to refer”<br />
requerir requiero “to require”, “to request”<br />
sentir siento “to sense”, “to feel”, “to regret”<br />
sugerir sugiero “to suggest”<br />
13 The single exception being sumergir, a former -er verb, which neither diphthongs nor umlauts.<br />
14 Venir has an additional irregularity and will be considered at a later stage (number 8).<br />
15 The (se) indicates that the verb is used only reflexively; see Chapter 10.<br />
16 Erguir allows either diphthong (yergo) or umlaut (irgo) forms, although the former are more<br />
common. The initial ye- in place of ie- is a regular orthographic change (Chapter 7).
30 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
UMLAUT (MODEL PEDIR)<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
ceñir ciño “to fit (tightly)”<br />
colegir colijo “to collect”, “to deduce”<br />
comedir(se) me comido “to control oneself ”, “to be courteous”<br />
competir compito “to compete”<br />
concebir concibo “to conceive”<br />
constreñir constriño “to constrain”<br />
derretir derrito “to melt”<br />
desleír deslío “to dissolve”, “to dilute”<br />
elegir elijo “to elect”<br />
embestir embisto “to assail”, “to attack”<br />
expedir expido “to send”, “to issue”<br />
freír frío “to fry”<br />
gemir gimo “to moan”<br />
henchir hincho “to fill”, “to stuff ”<br />
impedir impido “to prevent”, “to impede”<br />
medir mido “to measure”<br />
pedir pido “to request”<br />
regir rijo “to rule”, “to govern”<br />
reír río “to laugh”<br />
rendir rindo “to render”, “to give up”, “to defeat”<br />
reñir riño “to quarrel”<br />
repetir repito “to repeat”<br />
seguir sigo “to follow”, “to continue”<br />
servir sirvo “to serve”<br />
teñir tiño “to dye”, “to tint”<br />
vestir visto “to clothe”<br />
The -j in colijo, elijo, and rijo is a regular orthographic change, as is the -g in sigo<br />
(see Chapter 7). While concebir and regir are “umlauted” in the normal way, for<br />
the closely related recibir (“to receive”) and dirigir (“to direct”) the umlaut propagated<br />
itself throughout the entire verb, thus converting them into completely<br />
regular verbs with stem vowel -i in all 47 conjugations. <strong>Verbs</strong> ending in -eír have<br />
a written accent throughout their present conjugations to maintain the independent<br />
pronunciation of the stem vowel, i.e., to avoid a diphthong with the following<br />
vowel.
eír “to laugh” freír “to fry”<br />
1s río frío<br />
2s ríes fríes<br />
3s ríe fríe<br />
1p reímos freímos<br />
2p reís freís<br />
3p ríen fríen<br />
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 31<br />
Compound verbs generally follow the same patterns. For example:<br />
DIPHTHONG<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
conferir confiero “to confer”, “to bestow”<br />
inferir infiero “to infer”, “to cause”<br />
preferir prefiero “to prefer”<br />
transferir transfiero “to transfer”<br />
interferir interfiero “to interfere”<br />
asentir asiento “to assent”<br />
consentir consiento “to consent”, “to coddle”<br />
presentir presiento “to have a presentiment or premonition of ”<br />
advertir advierto “to notice”, “to warn”<br />
divertir divierto “to amuse”, “to divert oneself ”<br />
invertir invierto “to invest”, “to invert”<br />
pervertir pervierto “to pervert”, “to corrupt”<br />
subvertir subvierto “to subvert”<br />
UMLAUT<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
corregir corrijo “to correct”<br />
despedir despido “to bid farewell”, “to dismiss”<br />
investir invisto “to invest” (with a responsibility)<br />
conseguir consigo “to obtain”, “to attain”<br />
perseguir persigo “to pursue”, “to persecute”<br />
proseguir prosigo “to continue”, “to proceed”<br />
refreír refrío “to refry”<br />
sonreír sonrío “to smile”
32 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
3. First Person Singular Ending in -zco<br />
These fall into two general categories: (A) verbs ending in -cer; (B) verbs ending<br />
in -(d)ucir.<br />
A. (Most) Infinitives Ending in -cer<br />
Many of these are descendants of Latin “inceptive” verbs 17 where an ending<br />
-scere was added to “normal” verbs to indicate the beginning of an action or<br />
process, e.g.,<br />
florere “to bloom or blossom”, i.e., to flower<br />
florescere “to begin to bloom or blossom”, i.e., to flourish<br />
Over time many such verbs were created referring to the process itself, not necessarily<br />
only to its beginning. Eventually they were created from adjectives and<br />
nouns as well (e.g., noble → ennoblecer).<br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong> the descendants of these verbs all have an -zco ending in the first<br />
person singular, while the other persons are “normal”.<br />
crecer (to grow) conocer (to know, be familiar with)<br />
1s crezco conozco<br />
2s creces conoces<br />
3s crece conoce<br />
1p crecemos conocemos<br />
2p crecéis conocéis<br />
3p crecen conocen<br />
Examples:<br />
FORMED DIRECTLY FROM VERBS<br />
infinitive 1s 3s<br />
adormecer adormezco adormece “to put to sleep”<br />
conocer conozco conoce “to know”<br />
crecer crezco crece “to grow”<br />
establecer establezco establece “to establish”<br />
fallecer fallezco fallece “to die”<br />
guarnecer guarnezco guarnece “to garnish”, “to reinforce”<br />
merecer merezco merece “to merit”<br />
nacer nazco nace “to be born”<br />
17 Their more formal name is inchoative verbs.
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 33<br />
obedecer obedezco obedece “to obey”<br />
ofrecer ofrezco ofrece “to offer”<br />
pacer pazco pace “to pasture”, “to graze”<br />
padecer padezco padece “to suffer”<br />
parecer parezco parece “to appear”, “to seem”<br />
perecer perezco perece “to perish”<br />
permanecer permanezco permanece “to stay”, “to remain”<br />
prevalecer prevalezco prevalece “to prevail”<br />
DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES OR NOUNS<br />
adj./<br />
noun infinitive 1s 3s<br />
agrado agradecer agradezco agradece “to be grateful for”<br />
mañana amanecer amanezco amanece “to dawn”<br />
bello embellecer embellezco embellece “to embellish”<br />
blanco emblanquecer emblanquezco emblanquece “to whiten”<br />
pobre empobrecer empobrezco empobrece “to impoverish”<br />
negro ennegrecer ennegrezco ennegrece “to blacken”<br />
noble ennoblecer ennoblezco ennoblece “to ennoble”<br />
rico enriquecer enriquezco enriquece “to enrich”<br />
viejo envejecer envejezco envejece “to age”<br />
claro esclarecer esclarezco esclarece “to illuminate”<br />
favor favorecer favorezco favorece “to favor”<br />
oscuro oscurecer oscurezco oscurece “to darken /obscure”<br />
Due to the popularity of these verbs, several <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs ending in -cer but<br />
which are not by origin “inceptive” have adopted the -zco ending for the first person<br />
singular, notably:<br />
infinitive 1s 3s<br />
complacer complazco complace “to please”<br />
Not all -cer verbs have -zco endings. The principal exceptions are:<br />
infinitive 1s 3s<br />
cocer cuezo cuece “to cook”<br />
coercer coerzo coerce “to coerce”<br />
ejercer ejerzo ejerce “to exercise”<br />
mecer mezo mece “to rock”<br />
torcer tuerzo tuerce “to twist”<br />
vencer venzo vence “to vanquish”
34 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
The -zo ending (rather than -co) is a regular orthographic change occurring when<br />
the soft c sound occurs before -o (Chapter 7). We have previously seen that cocer<br />
and torcer are diphthong verbs, hence the vowel change -o → -ue. We can formulate<br />
the following general rule:<br />
General rule for -cer verbs:<br />
(a) Two-syllable verbs are regular (type vencer).<br />
Exceptions: crecer those with stem vowel -a (nacer, pacer, placer,<br />
yacer). 18<br />
(b) <strong>Verbs</strong> of three or more syllables have first person singular -zco<br />
(type conocer).<br />
Exceptions: coercer, ejercer. 19<br />
Historical Note In the other Romance languages the inceptive class of verbs also<br />
experienced exponential growth, as a large number of existing verbs were replaced<br />
by inceptive ones and many new ones were created from adjectives or<br />
nouns. 20 This process was so widespread that, via Old French, it became the<br />
basis for the -ish endings of English verbs, e.g.,<br />
abolish, accomplish, blemish, brandish, cherish, demolish, embellish, establish,<br />
finish, flourish (from FLORESCERE), furbish, furnish, garnish, impoverish,<br />
languish, nourish, perish, polish, ravish, relinquish, replenish,<br />
tarnish, vanish, etc.<br />
The popularity of the -ish ending in English was such that it was extended to a<br />
number of verbs which in neither Latin nor the Romance languages had been inceptive:<br />
e.g., admonish, diminish, distinguish, famish, publish, vanquish.<br />
18Yacer (“to lie”) is in a class by itself, offering three possibilities for the first person singular: yazco,<br />
yazgo, or yago.<br />
19One could thus formulate the rule: verbs of three or more syllables have 1s -zco, except those<br />
ending in -ercer.<br />
20In French one of the three principal groups of verbs consists entirely of “inceptive” verbs (those<br />
conjugated like finir “to finish”), while in Italian the majority of -ire verbs have inceptive elements in<br />
their conjugations (e.g., non capisco, “I don’t understand”).
B. (All) Infinitives Ending in -ucir<br />
These are all composites of -ducir (“to lead”) and -lucir (“to shine”). Largely due<br />
to the influence of the -cer verbs, they also adopted -zco endings for the first person<br />
singular:<br />
conducir (to drive) lucir (to shine)<br />
1s conduzco luzco<br />
2s conduces luces<br />
3s conduce luce<br />
1p conducimos lucimos<br />
2p conducís lucís<br />
3p conducen lucen<br />
Similarly:<br />
infinitive 1s 3s<br />
aducir aduzco aduce “to adduce”<br />
deducir deduzco deduce “to deduce”<br />
inducir induzco induce “to induce”<br />
introducir introduzco introduce “to introduce”<br />
producir produzco produce “to produce”<br />
reducir reduzco reduce “to reduce”<br />
seducir seduzco seduce “to seduce”<br />
traducir traduzco traduce “to translate”<br />
deslucir desluzco desluce “to tarnish”, “to discredit”<br />
enlucir enluzco enluce “to plaster”, “to polish”<br />
entrelucir entreluzco entreluce “to show through”<br />
relucir reluzco reluce “to shine”, “to excel”<br />
traslucir trasluzco trasluce “to be translucent”, “to reveal”<br />
4.<strong>Verbs</strong> Ending in -uir Add -y Except before -i<br />
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 35<br />
Apart from those ending in -guir, all verbs ending in -uir undergo a “predictable”<br />
change:<br />
-uir verbs (apart from -guir)<br />
A -y is inserted after the -u for the three singulars and the third person<br />
plural, i.e., whenever the normally following letter is not an -i.
36 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
huir (to flee) construir (to construct)<br />
1s huyo construyo<br />
2s huyes construyes<br />
3s huye construye<br />
1p huimos construimos<br />
2p huís construís<br />
3p huyen construyen<br />
The logic of the rule is that a -y is effectively present in all conjugations but is absorbed<br />
by a following -i (the combination yi not normally being permitted in<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> orthography).<br />
Other verbs following the same pattern include:<br />
atribuir (to attribute) concluir (to conclude)<br />
constituir (to constitute) destituir (to deprive, to dismiss)<br />
destruir (to destroy) diluir (to dilute)<br />
disminuir (to diminish) distribuir (to distribute)<br />
excluir (to exclude) imbuir (to imbue)<br />
incluir (to include) influir (to influence)<br />
instituir (to institute) obstruir (to obstruct)<br />
restituir (to restitute) sustituir (to substitute)<br />
For verbs ending in -guir (e.g., distinguir, seguir) the -u is not a “real” u but simply<br />
an orthographic device (Chapter 7) for marking a “hard” “G” sound before<br />
the front vowel -i, analogous to the -u in English guilt and guitar.<br />
We will see in number 8 below that the verb oír (“to hear”) follows a similar<br />
pattern.<br />
Unpredictable Irregularities<br />
We will begin with the verb (or rather verbs) that almost certainly cause the most<br />
problems for students of <strong>Spanish</strong>—the equivalents of the English verb to be.<br />
5. Ser/estar<br />
“to be” ser estar<br />
1s soy estoy soy es•toy<br />
2s eres estás e•res es•tás<br />
3s es está es es•tá
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 37<br />
1p somos estamos so•mos es•ta•mos<br />
2p sois estáis sois es•táis<br />
3p son están son es•tán<br />
The difficulty is of course not with the conjugations but rather with determining<br />
which of the two verbs to use in any given situation, a topic to be explored in<br />
Chapter 11. For estar it is important to note that—in contrast to regular verbs—<br />
the stress is uniformly on the post-stem syllable; thus it is es•tás not *es•tas.<br />
6. Other First Person Singulars Ending in -oy: ir, dar<br />
In addition to ser and estar, there are two other verbs whose first person singular<br />
ends in -oy: ir and dar.<br />
ir (to go) dar (to give)<br />
1s voy doy<br />
2s vas das<br />
3s va da<br />
1p vamos damos<br />
2p vais dais<br />
3p van dan<br />
Thus, apart from ver (“to see”), all one-syllable <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs have first person<br />
singulars ending in -oy, along with estar. 21 Vais and dais do not have the usual second<br />
person plural written accent because they have only one syllable.<br />
7A. First person singular ending in -e: haber, saber<br />
7B. First person singular with umlaut (-a → -e): caber<br />
Haber and saber are the only <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs which have a first person singular<br />
present ending of -e. Due to haber’s frequent use as an auxiliary verb, its form was<br />
drastically shortened at the Vulgar Latin stage, which is why only the second person<br />
plural has a regular form. In contrast, the present tenses of both saber and<br />
caber are regular apart from the first person singular.<br />
21 The “natural” form of estar would have been the one-syllable *star. A “helping” e- was added—<br />
as it was to all words beginning with s consonant (e.g., español, especial, esnob, espagueti). This also<br />
accounts for the uniform stress of estar on the post-stem syllable.
38 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
In the conjugations below, irregular forms are italicized.<br />
haber saber caber<br />
(to have) (to know) (to fit)<br />
1s he sé quepo<br />
2s has sabes cabes<br />
3s ha sabe cabe<br />
1p hemos sabemos cabemos<br />
2p habéis sabéis cabéis<br />
3p han saben caben<br />
While the vowel in quepo is irregular, the qu- is not—it is a regular orthographic<br />
change required to maintain a “hard” c sound (see Chapter 7). The written accent<br />
in sé is purely orthographic and serves to distinguish it from the reflexive<br />
pronoun se.<br />
8. First Person Singular Ending in -go<br />
decir, hacer, caer, traer<br />
oír, poner, salir<br />
tener, valer, venir<br />
These are verbs with irregular first person singular ending -go, where the -g does<br />
not appear in the other grammatical persons. Four of these verbs (decir, oír,<br />
tener, venir) have other apparent present tense irregularities—marked below in<br />
italics—but all are of the “predictable” type. The ten verbs can be divided into<br />
three groups, as shown in the following lists. 22<br />
decir (to say) hacer (to do)<br />
1s digo hago<br />
2s dices haces<br />
3s dice hace<br />
1p decimos hacemos<br />
2p decís hacéis<br />
3p dicen hacen<br />
22 In addition to these ten verbs, there are several others which “optionally” show this characteristic.<br />
Roer (“to gnaw”) and raer (“to wear away”) offer multiple possibilities: roigo, royo, or the regular<br />
roo; raigo or rayo. Asir (“to grasp”) presents only the conjugation with -go (asgo), but in practice<br />
this form is avoided (as are other forms of the verb in which an “extraneous” -g appears).
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 39<br />
Apart from the irregular first person singular, decir follows the pattern of umlauting<br />
-ir verbs with stem vowel -e (number 2 above) in accordance with la regla<br />
milagrosa.<br />
caer (to fall) traer (to bring) oír (to hear)<br />
1s caigo traigo oigo<br />
2s caes traes oyes<br />
3s cae trae oye<br />
1p caemos traemos oímos<br />
2p caéis traéis oís<br />
3p caen traen oyen<br />
Apart from the irregular first person singular, caer and traer have regular present<br />
conjugations. Oír follows the same pattern as the -uir verbs (number 4 above):<br />
-y is inserted following the stem vowel -o in those conjugations where the following<br />
letter is not an -i.<br />
poner (to put) salir (to exit) valer (to be worth)<br />
1s pongo salgo valgo<br />
2s pones sales vales<br />
3s pone sale vale<br />
1p ponemos salimos valemos<br />
2p ponéis salís valéis<br />
3p ponen salen valen<br />
tener (to have) venir (to come)<br />
1s tengo vengo<br />
2s tienes vienes<br />
3s tiene viene<br />
1p tenemos venimos<br />
2p tenéis venís<br />
3p tienen vienen<br />
Apart from the irregular first person, tener and venir display regular diphthong<br />
patterns (venir representing one of the two exceptions to la regla milagrosa).
40 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
Compounds of these ten verbs generally have the same irregularities:<br />
infinitive 1s<br />
bendecir bendigo “to bless”<br />
contradecir contradigo “to contradict”<br />
desdecir desdigo “to retract”, “to be unworthy of ”<br />
maldecir maldigo “to curse”<br />
predecir predigo “to predict”<br />
deshacer deshago “to undo”, “to destroy”<br />
satisfacer satisfago “to satisfy”<br />
decaer decaigo “to decay”, “to weaken”<br />
recaer recaigo “to fall back (or on)”, “to relapse”<br />
atraer atraigo “to attract”<br />
contraer contraigo “to contract”<br />
detraer detraigo “to detract”, “to remove”<br />
extraer extraigo “to extract”<br />
sustraer sustraigo “to subtract”, “to remove”<br />
desoír desoigo “to disregard”<br />
entreoír entreoigo “to hear vaguely”<br />
componer compongo “to compose”, “to repair”<br />
deponer depongo “to depose”, “to lay aside”<br />
exponer expongo “to expose”, “to explain”<br />
imponer impongo “to impose”<br />
oponer opongo “to oppose”<br />
posponer pospongo “to postpone”<br />
presuponer presupongo “to presuppose”, “to budget”<br />
proponer propongo “to propose”, “to propound”<br />
suponer supongo “to suppose”<br />
yuxtaponer yuxtapongo “to juxtapose”<br />
sobresalir sobresalgo “to protrude”<br />
equivaler equivalgo “to be equal”
abstener(se) me abstengo “to abstain”, “to refrain”<br />
contener contengo “to contain”<br />
detener detengo “to detain”, “to stop”, “to arrest”<br />
entretener entretengo “to amuse”, “to entertain”<br />
mantener mantengo “to maintain”, “to keep”<br />
obtener obtengo “to obtain”<br />
retener retengo “to retain”<br />
sostener sostengo “to support”, “to sustain”<br />
contravenir contravengo “to contravene”<br />
convenir convengo “to agree”, “to be suitable”<br />
intervenir intervengo “to intervene”<br />
prevenir prevengo “to forewarn”, “to prevent”<br />
reconvenir reconvengo “to reproach”<br />
Mixed Patterns<br />
9. Ver, jugar, adquirir, argüir (and discernir)<br />
In the present tense discernir behaves as a normal -ir verb with diphthong (model<br />
sentir). The conjugations for the other four are:<br />
ver (to see) jugar (to play) adquirir (to acquire) argüir (to argue)<br />
1s veo juego adquiero arguyo<br />
2s ves juegas adquieres arguyes<br />
3s ve juega adquiere arguye<br />
1p vemos jugamos adquirimos argüimos<br />
2p veis jugáis adquirís argüís<br />
3p ven juegan adquieren arguyen<br />
As noted in Chapter 1, by origin ver was a two-syllable word, as its Old <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
form was veer. In the infinitive and most of its conjugations it has lost one of the<br />
e’s but the original form remains in the first person singular present (and<br />
throughout the imperfect indicative and present subjunctive). The second person<br />
plural lacks the usual written accent (veis, not *véis) since it has only one syllable.<br />
Compound forms of ver—prever and entrever—require written accents on<br />
those forms for which ver has only one syllable:<br />
prevés (2s), prevé (3s), prevéis (2p), prevén (3p)<br />
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 41
42 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
Jugar comes from the same Latin word that produced English joke, and it has<br />
lived up to its name: the three singulars and the third person plural have a diphthong<br />
-ue instead of the expected stem vowel -u. 23 Adquirir was at an earlier stage<br />
adquerir, with a completely regular conjugation following the model of sentir.<br />
When it subsequently evolved to adquirir, the conjugations with diphthongs<br />
were left unchanged.<br />
Argüir adheres to the following formula (throughout all 47 conjugations):<br />
except before -i<br />
(i) add -y (like construir);<br />
(ii) -gü S -gu<br />
Appendix<br />
The Origins of <strong>Spanish</strong> Diphthongs<br />
In Latin, each of the five vowels (a, e, i, o, u) had a short and a long variant which differed<br />
only (or primarily) in the length of articulation, not in the fundamental nature of the<br />
sound. A similar situation prevailed in English until the so-called “Great Vowel Shift”,<br />
which occurred between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare, during the course of<br />
which all of the English long vowels changed the fundamental nature of their sound. 24<br />
In the evolution from Latin to <strong>Spanish</strong>, the “short” versions of e and o generally became<br />
diphthongs when they were in stressed syllables, while they remained unchanged<br />
when they were in unstressed syllables. The “long” versions remained unchanged regardless<br />
of location. This pattern carried through to the verbal system, so that, in general, verbs<br />
whose stem vowel -e and -o come from a short Latin vowel are diphthong verbs, while<br />
those which come from a long Latin vowel are not.<br />
The varying pattern of diphthongs of Latin e and o represents one of the principal features<br />
which distinguish the different Romance languages. This can be illustrated by looking<br />
at the contrasting treatment accorded by <strong>Spanish</strong>, French, Italian, and Portuguese to<br />
the Latin verbs tenere, movere, sentire, and dormire. The conjugations for the third<br />
person singular (“he has”, “he moves”, etc.) are shown below, with those displaying diphthongs<br />
highlighted in bold.<br />
23 In principle, Latin jocari should have evolved to *jogar, not jugar. Viewed from this perspective,<br />
the 9 conjugations with -ue (4 in the present indicative, 4 in the present subjunctive and 1 in the<br />
imperative) are actually “regular” diphthongs of an -ar verb with stem vowel -o, while the remaining<br />
38 conjugations (including the infinitive) are “irregular”!<br />
24 Which is why today English “long a” corresponds to <strong>Spanish</strong> e, “long e” to <strong>Spanish</strong> i.
IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 43<br />
I. <strong>Spanish</strong> French Italian Portuguese<br />
open syllable<br />
e tener tiene tient tiene tem<br />
o mover mueve meut muove move<br />
closed syllable<br />
e sentir siente sent sente sente<br />
o dormir duerme dort dorme dorme<br />
Apart from <strong>Spanish</strong>, a critical element was whether the vowel was located in an open or<br />
closed syllable—i.e., whether the syllable ended in a vowel or a consonant. Expanding the<br />
comparison to include Catalan (spoken in northeastern Spain) and Occitan (also known<br />
as Provencal, spoken in southern France), the following pattern emerges.<br />
F<br />
II. diphthong or no? X yes, O no<br />
short E short O<br />
type of syllable open closed open closed<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> X X X X<br />
rench X O X O<br />
Italian X O X O<br />
Portuguese O O O O<br />
Catalan O O O O<br />
Occitan O O O O<br />
Portuguese, Catalan, and Occitan did not diphthong at all. French and Italian diphthonged,<br />
but only in open syllables. Only <strong>Spanish</strong> diphthonged in both open and closed<br />
syllables. It is not easy to come up with an explanation, or explanations, which can account<br />
for this diversity, particularly since the three diphthonging languages were noncontiguous<br />
in their formative years.<br />
In “old” <strong>Spanish</strong>, French, and Italian, for all verbs which diphthonged there was a<br />
marked contrast between the diphthong of the 1s-2s-3s-3p forms, on the one hand, and<br />
the “pure” vowel of the 1p-2p forms. In both French and Italian, the large majority of<br />
diphthong verbs succumbed to the pressures to become “regular”, leaving only a very few<br />
verbs which today display the original contrast. <strong>Spanish</strong> was not immune to such pressures,<br />
and while the majority of diphthong verbs were able to resist, a number succumbed.<br />
In most such cases, it was the “pure vowel” form which was victorious, leading to the following<br />
modern regular verbs (without diphthongs):<br />
“old” 1s modern 1s<br />
entregar entriego entrego “to deliver”<br />
prestar priesto presto “to lend”<br />
pretender pretiendo pretendo “to try to”, “to aspire to”
44 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
templar tiemplo templo “to temper”<br />
vedar viedo vedo “to veto”<br />
aportar apuerto aporto “to contribute”<br />
confortar confuerto conforto “to comfort”<br />
derrocar derrueco derroco “to overthrow”<br />
sorber suerbo sorbo “to suck”, “to sip”<br />
Less frequently, the diphthong forms prevailed, producing the following modern regular<br />
verbs (with diphthongs in all 47 conjugations): 25<br />
“old” 1p modern 1p<br />
adiestrar adestramos adiestramos “to train”<br />
diezmar dezmamos diezmamos “to decimate”<br />
amueblar amoblamos amueblamos “to furnish”<br />
deshuesar desosamos deshuesamos “to bone”<br />
The visible effects of <strong>Spanish</strong>’s greater propensity to diphthong extend well beyond the<br />
verbal system, as the following comparison of six common nouns shows:<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> Italian Portuguese French<br />
hundred ciento cento cento cent<br />
wind viento vento vento vent<br />
feast fiesta festa festa fête 26<br />
bridge puente ponte ponte pont<br />
death muerte morte morte mort<br />
fate suerte sorte sorte sort<br />
25For each of these verbs, the “old” (mixed diphthong pattern) forms still exist but are rarely used:<br />
adestrar, dezmar, amoblar, desosar.<br />
26Until the early eighteenth century written as feste (origin of English feast).
CHAPTER 3<br />
Irregularities: <strong>Simple</strong> Past Tense<br />
<strong>Simple</strong> past tense irregularities can be divided among the following categories:<br />
“Predictable” irregularities<br />
1. Umlaut for -ir verbs having stem vowel -e or -o: e→i or o→u<br />
“Unpredictable” or “fundamental” irregularities<br />
2. One-syllable verbs: ser, ir, dar<br />
3.<strong>Verbs</strong> with stem vowel S -u: poner, poder, estar, tener, andar, haber,<br />
saber, caber<br />
4.<strong>Verbs</strong> with stem vowel S -i: hacer, venir, querer<br />
5.<strong>Verbs</strong> with post-stem consonant -j: decir, traer, -ducir<br />
Purely orthographic changes<br />
Orthographic changes for the simple past (and other tenses) will be<br />
treated in Chapter 7.<br />
Predictable Irregularities<br />
1. Umlaut for -ir <strong>Verbs</strong> Having Stem Vowel -e or -o<br />
Essentially all -ir verbs with stem vowel -e or -o have umlauts in the stem vowel<br />
of the third person simple past, singular and plural:<br />
e→i<br />
o→u<br />
This applies both to verbs which umlaut in the present tense (type pedir) and<br />
those which diphthong (types sentir and dormir):<br />
sentir pedir dormir<br />
1s sentí pedí dormí<br />
2s sentiste pediste dormiste<br />
3s sintió pidió durmió<br />
1p sentimos pedimos dormimos<br />
2p sentisteis pedisteis dormisteis<br />
3p sintieron pidieron durmieron
46 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
Exceptions (i.e., regular simple past):<br />
3s 3p<br />
discernir 1 discernió discernieron<br />
oír 2 oyó oyeron<br />
sumergir sumergió sumergieron<br />
Note that verbs which diphthong in the present tense (types sentir and dormir)<br />
do not do so in the past tense, since for “regular” verbs the stress in the past tense<br />
never falls on the stem syllable.<br />
Unpredictable Irregularities<br />
2. One-Syllable <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
Of the four one-syllable verbs in <strong>Spanish</strong>, 3 all but ver have irregular simple pasts:<br />
ser ir dar ver (regular)<br />
1s fui fui di vi<br />
2s fuiste fuiste diste viste<br />
3s fue fue dio vio<br />
1p fuimos fuimos dimos vimos<br />
2p fuisteis fuisteis disteis visteis<br />
3p fueron fueron dieron vieron<br />
Several points require comment:<br />
(i) The simple past conjugations for ser and ir are identical, and clearly<br />
originate from an altogether different verb. 4<br />
1Also cernir, hendir, and concernir. As noted in Chapter 1, throughout their conjugations these<br />
“mixed pattern” verbs behave like -er diphthong verbs.<br />
2The -i between vowels “regularly” becomes -y in oyó and oyeron (see Chapter 7).<br />
3Excluding verbs with a root diphthong—e.g., huir, fiar—which can be pronounced with either<br />
one or two syllables.<br />
4The simple past for ser comes directly from Latin, where the verb to be—as in English—took<br />
elements from different sources. Ir abandoned its original Latin past tense, the first person singular<br />
in particular being somewhat impractical (ii, pronounced i•i). The subsequent merger between the<br />
past tenses of the two verbs was facilitated by their natural similarity in meaning; e.g.,<br />
A. Last night I was at the library.<br />
B. Last night I went to the library.
(ii) Ser and ir have regular endings apart from the first and third person<br />
singular.<br />
(iii) The endings for dar are those of a regular -er/-ir verb—i.e., dar would<br />
have a regular simple past tense if the infinitive were *der or *dir rather<br />
than dar.<br />
(iv) Unlike regular simple past tenses, there are no written accents on the first<br />
and third person singulars, as these have only one syllable. 5<br />
3.<strong>Verbs</strong> with Stem Vowel → u<br />
There are eight verbs which have an irregular stem vowel -u in the simple past<br />
tense.<br />
poner poder estar tener<br />
1s puse pude estuve tuve<br />
2s pusiste pudiste estuviste tuviste<br />
3s puso pudo estuvo tuvo<br />
1p pusimos pudimos estuvimos tuvimos<br />
2p pusisteis pudisteis estuvisteis tuvisteis<br />
3p pusieron pudieron estuvieron tuvieron<br />
andar haber saber caber<br />
1s anduve hube supe cupe<br />
2s anduviste hubiste supiste cupiste<br />
3s anduvo hubo supo cupo<br />
1p anduvimos hubimos supimos cupimos<br />
2p anduvisteis hubisteis supisteis cupisteis<br />
3p anduvieron hubieron supieron cupieron<br />
Note that:<br />
IRREGULARITIES: SIMPLE PAST TENSE 47<br />
(i) The stress accent falls on the stem syllable for the first and third person<br />
singulars, representing a major contrast with regular past tenses.The<br />
other four conjugations, as for regular verbs, are stressed on the poststem<br />
syllable.<br />
5 Until 1952 these forms had written accents (fuí, fué, dí, dió, ví, vió), and it is not uncommon to<br />
encounter such forms well after this date. Written accents are required for the corresponding forms<br />
of the compound verb prever (preví, previó) since they have more than one syllable.
48 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
irregular regular (-ar) regular (-er/-ir)<br />
1s tu•ve can•té su•bí<br />
2s tu•vis•te can•tas•te su•bis•te<br />
3s tu•vo can•tó su•bió<br />
1p tu•vi•mos can•ta•mos su•bi•mos<br />
2p tu•vis•teis can•tas•teis su•bis•teis<br />
3p tu•vie•ron can•ta•ron su•bie•ron<br />
(ii) The endings of the four conjugations with“normal”(post-stem) stress are<br />
identical to those of regular -er/-ir verbs, while the first and third person<br />
singular endings are those of regular -ar verbs (without the written accent):<br />
poner, etc. -ar verbs -er and -ir verbs<br />
1s -e -é -í<br />
2s -iste -aste -iste<br />
3s -o -ó -ió<br />
1p -imos -amos -imos<br />
2p -isteis -asteis -isteis<br />
3p -ieron -aron -ieron<br />
(iii) For saber and caber, the stem consonant is -p rather than -b. This goes<br />
back to the original Latin forms of these verbs (cf. English insipid and<br />
capture). 6<br />
4.<strong>Verbs</strong> with Stem Vowel → i<br />
Three verbs have an irregular stem vowel -i:<br />
hacer venir querer<br />
1s hice vine quise<br />
2s hiciste viniste quisiste<br />
3s hizo vino quiso<br />
1p hicimos vinimos quisimos<br />
2p hicisteis vinisteis quisisteis<br />
3p hicieron vinieron quisieron<br />
6 The Latin verb sapere, from which saber is derived, meant “to taste” and is the origin of English<br />
savor. Latin p between vowels became a v sound in the western Romance languages, written with a<br />
v in French (savoir) but with a b in <strong>Spanish</strong>, while retaining the original pronunciation in Italian<br />
(sapere). Due to other phonetic factors, the past tense of saber and caber—as well as the present<br />
subjunctive—retained the original p.
Comments (i) and (ii) for -u stems, with reference to stress and endings, are<br />
equally applicable here. The z in hizo is a regular orthographic change (see<br />
Chapter 7) to preserve the “soft” c sound before -o. The consonant in querer<br />
changes from -r to -s for reasons that go back to the earliest days of Latin, and is<br />
analogous to the contrast in English query and quest.<br />
5.<strong>Verbs</strong> with Post-stem Consonant -j<br />
IRREGULARITIES: SIMPLE PAST TENSE 49<br />
Decir, traer, and the -ducir verbs have an irregular -j immediately following<br />
the stem vowel. The third person plural “loses” the -i which normally is the first<br />
element of the ending -ieron (Chapter 7):<br />
decir traer -ducir<br />
1s dije traje conduje<br />
2s dijiste trajiste condujiste<br />
3s dijo trajo condujo<br />
1p dijimos trajimos condujimos<br />
2p dijisteis trajisteis condujisteis<br />
3p dijeron (not *dijieron) trajeron condujeron<br />
Comments (i) and (ii) for -u stems, with reference to stress and endings, apply<br />
here as well.<br />
Note that other -ucir verbs (lucir), as well as all -cer verbs (conocer), have regular<br />
past tenses: lucí, conocí, etc.
CHAPTER 4<br />
Future and Conditional Tenses<br />
The future and conditional tenses are formed by adding the following endings to<br />
the infinitive:<br />
future conditional<br />
1s -é -ía<br />
2s -ás -ías<br />
3s -á -ía<br />
1p -emos -íamos<br />
2p -éis -íais<br />
3p -án -ían<br />
cantar 1s can•ta•ré can•ta•rí•a<br />
2s can•ta•rás can•ta•rí•as<br />
3s can•ta•rá can•ta•rí•a<br />
1p can•ta•re•mos can•ta•rí•a•mos<br />
2p can•ta•réis can•ta•rí•ais<br />
3p can•ta•rán can•ta•rí•an<br />
comer 1s comeré comería<br />
2s comerás comerías<br />
3s comerá comería<br />
1p comeremos comeríamos<br />
2p comeréis comeríais<br />
3p comerán comerían<br />
subir 1s subiré subiría<br />
2s subirás subirías<br />
3s subirá subiría<br />
1p subiremos subiríamos<br />
2p subiréis subiríais<br />
3p subirán subirían<br />
Points to note:<br />
(1) The endings are the same for all three classes of verbs: -ar, -er, -ir.<br />
(2) In all six conjugations, the stress falls on the stem 2 syllable. In the<br />
future tense this necessitates a written accent for all conjugations
except the first person plural, in the conditional tense for all<br />
conjugations.<br />
(3) The -í in the conditional is pronounced as a separate vowel, not as a<br />
diphthong with the following -a.<br />
(4) The endings for the future tense are essentially equal to the present tense<br />
of haber minus the (unpronounced) h.<br />
he S é<br />
has S ás<br />
ha S á<br />
hemos S emos<br />
habéis S (ab)eis S éis<br />
han S án<br />
(5) The endings for the conditional tense are identical to those of the<br />
imperfect tense of haber (and of all other -er/-ir verbs). 1<br />
We will see below that facts (4) and (5) did not arise by coincidence but instead<br />
reflect the historical development of these verb forms.<br />
Irregularities<br />
FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL TENSES 51<br />
Twelve verbs truncate the infinitive stem to which the (normal) future and conditional<br />
endings are added. Ten of these are “fundamentally irregular” verbs, the<br />
exceptions being salir and valer.<br />
infinitive modified form future 1s conditional 1s<br />
haber hab(e)r habré habría<br />
saber sab(e)r sabré sabría<br />
caber cab(e)r cabré cabría<br />
poder pod(e)r podré podría<br />
querer quer(e)r querré querría<br />
poner pon(e)r S pondr pondré pondría<br />
tener ten(e)r S tendr tendré tendría<br />
venir ven(i)r S vendr vendré vendría<br />
salir sal(i)r S saldr saldré saldría<br />
valer val(e)r S valdr valdré valdría<br />
decir d(ec)ir diré diría<br />
hacer ha(ce)r haré haría<br />
1 Thus, these endings added to the verb stem of -er/-ir verbs give the imperfect, while added to the<br />
infinitive (for -ar verbs as well) they give the conditional.
52 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
In the second group above a “helping” -d has been added, analogous to the -d in<br />
English thunder (Middle English thunre). Composite verbs having one of these<br />
verbs as a base (convenir, deshacer, etc.) normally have the same irregularities in<br />
the future and conditional tenses, although those of bendecir and maldecir are<br />
regular (bendeciré, etc.). 2<br />
Appendix<br />
Historical and Methodological Note<br />
The Latin future tense died without leaving a trace in the successor Romance languages. 3<br />
The main reason for its disappearance was that phonetic developments during the post-<br />
Classical period had created confusions between it and other verb tenses.<br />
A new Romance future tense arose as a refinement of a construction which had already<br />
existed in classical Latin, i.e., the combination of the verb to have (or “have to”) with another<br />
verb to convey an idea of what will happen (or has to happen) in the future. Thus,<br />
Cicero wrote to his friend Atticus:<br />
DE RE PUBLICA NIHIL HABEO AD TE SCRIBERE<br />
“Of public matters I have nothing to write you.”<br />
The meaning of this differs very little from the straightforward future:<br />
“Of public matters I will write nothing to you.”<br />
Similarly, I have to go to Rome tomorrow is not too distant in meaning from I am going<br />
(will go) to Rome tomorrow.<br />
The modern form of the Romance future arose from the custom of placing the verb<br />
“to have” (present tense) after the infinitive. Thus<br />
escribir (h)e S escribiré<br />
escribir (h)as S escribirás<br />
escribir (h)a S escribirá<br />
escribir (h)emos S escribiremos<br />
escribir (hab)éis S escribiréis<br />
escribir (h)an S escribirán<br />
Classical Latin had no single verb form corresponding to the notion of a “future in the<br />
past” (e.g., he said he would write a letter the next day). The Romance development of the<br />
2 For predecir, contradecir, and desdecir there is disagreement: the RAE says that their futures and<br />
conditionals are like those of decir (prediré, contradiré, desdiré), while according to Moliner they are<br />
like those of bendecir (predeciré, contradeciré, desdeciré).<br />
3 Apart from placebo—directly from the Latin “I will please.”
future tense led naturally to the development of a future in the past by replacing the present<br />
of the verb haber with the imperfect. Thus, the natural progression in meaning was:<br />
I told you that I had a letter to write. S I told you that I had to write a letter.<br />
S I told you that I would write a letter.<br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong> and most of the other Romance languages the conditional tense— originally<br />
limited to the past—was thus formed through a fusion of the infinitive with the imperfect<br />
of the verb haber.<br />
escribir (hab)ía S escribiría<br />
escribir (hab)ías S escribirías<br />
escribir (hab)ía S escribiría<br />
escribir (hab)íamos S escribiríamos<br />
escribir (hab)íais S escribiríais<br />
escribir (hab)ían S escribirían<br />
FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL TENSES 53<br />
Even after eliminating the hab-, conditionals (and futures) can be very long, particularly<br />
for the first person plural. Escribiremos and escribiríamos, for example, have five and six<br />
syllables respectively. While this is a tolerable situation for verbs not used with great frequency<br />
(especially in these tenses), twelve more commonly used verbs were successful in<br />
shedding an additional syllable, as we have seen above.
CHAPTER 5<br />
Subjunctive and Imperative<br />
Present Tense<br />
The present subjunctive endings for all verbs are:<br />
-ar verbs -er and -ir verbs<br />
1s -e -a<br />
2s -es -as<br />
3s -e -a<br />
1p -emos -amos<br />
2p -éis -áis<br />
3p -en -an<br />
For most verbs these endings are added to the normal verb stem, i.e., the infinitive<br />
minus the final -ar, -er, or -ir. The present subjunctives for the standard verbs<br />
(cantar, comer, subir) are shown below; for comparison the present indicative is<br />
also shown.<br />
-ar verbs subjunctive indicative<br />
1s cante canto<br />
2s cantes cantas<br />
3s cante canta<br />
1p cantemos cantamos<br />
2p cantéis cantáis<br />
3p canten cantan<br />
-er verbs subjunctive indicative<br />
1s coma como<br />
2s comas comes<br />
3s coma come<br />
1p comamos comemos<br />
2p comáis coméis<br />
3p coman comen
-ir verbs subjunctive indicative<br />
1s suba subo<br />
2s subas subes<br />
3s suba sube<br />
1p subamos subimos<br />
2p subáis subís<br />
3p suban suben<br />
It can be observed that:<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 55<br />
(1) The -ar verbs form their present subjunctive by uniformly replacing the<br />
post-stem vowel of the present indicative with -e.<br />
(2) The -er and -ir verbs form their present subjunctives by uniformly<br />
replacing the post-stem vowel with -a (or ái for the second person plural<br />
of -ir verbs).<br />
(3) The first and third person singulars have identical forms for the present<br />
subjunctive.<br />
(4) The stress pattern for the present subjunctive is identical to that of the<br />
present indicative.<br />
The alternation of vowels, a S e for -ar verbs and e/i S a for -er and -ir verbs,<br />
comes straight from Latin. It creates potential problems for the beginning student,<br />
since a verb form with post-stem vowel -e could theoretically be either the<br />
indicative of an-er/-ir verbor thesubjunctiveofan-ar verb. Similarly, a verb form<br />
with post-stem vowel -a could be the indicative of an -ar verb or the subjunctive<br />
of an -er/-ir verb. There are in fact a small number of couplets where (in some<br />
conjugations) the subjunctive of one is the indicative of the other, e.g.,<br />
sentar (“to seat”) sentir (“to feel”)<br />
sientas indicative, 2s subjunctive, 2s<br />
sientes subjunctive, 2s indicative, 2s<br />
siente subjunctive, 1s/3s indicative, 3s<br />
Irregularities in the Present Subjunctive<br />
The general situation can be summarized as follows:<br />
1. <strong>Verbs</strong> with regular present indicatives have regular present<br />
subjunctives.<br />
2. <strong>Verbs</strong> with predictably irregular present indicatives have predictably<br />
irregular present subjunctives (and hence are not really<br />
irregular).<br />
3. Of the verbs which have unpredictably irregular present indicatives,<br />
four—ser, ir, haber, and saber—have unpredictably irregular
56 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
present subjunctives.The remainder have predictably irregular<br />
present subjunctives.<br />
4.The “mixed pattern” verbs offer a mixture of patterns.<br />
5. Present subjunctives are subject to the general rules governing<br />
regular orthographic changes (Chapter 7).<br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> with Predictably Irregular Present Indicatives<br />
For convenience we repeat the four groups of predictable present indicative<br />
irregularities:<br />
1.Diphthong in verbs having stem vowel -e or -o<br />
A.e S ie<br />
B. o S ue<br />
2.Umlaut (e S i) for -ir verbs having stem vowel -e<br />
3. First person singular ending in -zco<br />
A. (Most) infinitives ending in -cer (e.g., conocer)<br />
B. (All) infinitives ending in -ucir (e.g., producir, lucir)<br />
4.<strong>Verbs</strong> ending in -uir add -y except before -i<br />
Group #1: <strong>Verbs</strong> Which Diphthong in the Present Indicative<br />
Here there is an important difference between the -ar and -er verbs on the one<br />
hand, and the -ir verbs on the other:<br />
(a) -ar and -er verbs have diphthongs in the present subjunctive under exactly<br />
the same conditions as in the present indicative—the three singulars and<br />
the third person plural.The first and second person plural are completely<br />
regular.<br />
(b) -ir verbs have the same diphthongs but also have umlaut (e S i, o S u) for<br />
the first and second person plurals. 1<br />
-ar verbs -er verbs<br />
pensar mostrar perder mover<br />
1s piense muestre pierda mueva<br />
2s pienses muestres pierdas muevas<br />
3s piense muestre pierda mueva<br />
1p pensemos mostremos perdamos movamos<br />
2p penséis mostréis perdáis mováis<br />
3p piensen muestren pierdan muevan<br />
1 With the exception of discernir and associated verbs, which, as noted previously, behave throughout<br />
their conjugations as -er diphthong verbs.
-ir verbs<br />
sentir dormir<br />
1s sienta duerma diphthong<br />
2s sientas duermas diphthong<br />
3s sienta duerma diphthong<br />
1p sintamos durmamos umlaut<br />
2p sintáis durmáis umlaut<br />
3p sientan duerman diphthong<br />
Group #2: -ir <strong>Verbs</strong> Which Umlaut in the Present Indicative<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 57<br />
These verbs also have umlaut in the present subjunctive, but in this case the<br />
umlaut extends to all six conjugations.<br />
pedir<br />
1s pida<br />
2s pidas<br />
3s pida<br />
1p pidamos<br />
2p pidáis<br />
3p pidan<br />
Group #3: <strong>Verbs</strong> with First Person Singular -zco in the Present Indicative<br />
These verbs use the first person present indicative singular (minus the final -o) as<br />
the stem to which the regular subjunctive endings are added:<br />
crecer conocer lucir conducir<br />
1s present indicative crezco conozco luzco conduzco<br />
subjunctive stem crezc- conozc- luzc- conduzc-<br />
1s crezca conozca luzca conduzca<br />
2s crezcas conozcas luzcas conduzcas<br />
3s crezca conozca luzca conduzca<br />
1p crezcamos conozcamos luzcamos conduzcamos<br />
2p crezcáis conozcáis luzcáis conduzcáis<br />
3p crezcan conozcan luzcan conduzcan
58 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
Group #4: <strong>Verbs</strong> Which Add -y to the Present Stem Except before -i<br />
Like Group #3, these verbs use the first person present indicative singular (minus<br />
the final -o) as the stem to which the regular subjunctive endings are added. In<br />
other words, the -y is added to all six conjugations of the present subjunctive, in<br />
conformity with the general rule of add -y except before -i, since the following<br />
letter in all six cases is -a.<br />
huir construir<br />
1s present indicative huyo construyo<br />
subjunctive stem huy- construy-<br />
1s huya construya<br />
2s huyas construyas<br />
3s huya construya<br />
1p huyamos construyamos<br />
2p huyáis construyáis<br />
3p huyan construyan<br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> with Unpredictably Irregular Present Indicatives<br />
Four of these verbs are unpredictable in the present subjunctive as well, while the<br />
other 13 are predictably irregular.<br />
Ser, ir, haber, and saber<br />
The present subjunctive is formed by adding the regular subjunctive endings to<br />
an irregular subjunctive stem.<br />
ser ir haber saber<br />
1s present indicative soy voy he sé<br />
subjunctive stem se- vay- hay- sep-<br />
1s sea vaya haya sepa<br />
2s seas vayas hayas sepas<br />
3s sea vaya haya sepa<br />
1p seamos vayamos hayamos sepamos<br />
2p seáis vayáis hayáis sepáis<br />
3p sean vayan hayan sepan
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 59<br />
All Others<br />
The others form their present subjunctive stem from the first person present indicative—minus<br />
the final -o or -oy—in a manner analogous to that of verbs of<br />
type crecer and huir.<br />
estar dar caber decir<br />
1s present indicative estoy doy quepo digo<br />
subjunctive stem est- d- quep- dig-<br />
1s esté dé quepa diga<br />
2s estés des quepas digas<br />
3s esté dé quepa diga<br />
1p estemos demos quepamos digamos<br />
2p estéis deis quepáis digáis<br />
3p estén den quepan digan<br />
For dar, the written accents for 1s and 3s (dé) are purely orthographic and are<br />
meant to distinguish them from the preposition de, while the one-syllable deis requires<br />
no written accent. Estar maintains the stress (and written accent) pattern<br />
of the indicative.<br />
hacer caer oír<br />
1s present indicative hago caigo oigo<br />
subjunctive stem hag- caig- oig-<br />
1s haga caiga oiga<br />
2s hagas caigas oigas<br />
3s haga caiga oiga<br />
1p hagamos caigamos oigamos<br />
2p hagáis caigáis oigáis<br />
3p hagan caigan oigan<br />
traer poner salir<br />
1s present indicative traigo pongo salgo<br />
subjunctive stem traig- pong- salg-<br />
1s traiga ponga salga<br />
2s traigas pongas salgas<br />
3s traiga ponga salga<br />
1p traigamos pongamos salgamos<br />
2p traigáis pongáis salgáis<br />
3p traigan pongan salgan
60 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
tener valer venir<br />
1s present indicative tengo valgo vengo<br />
subjunctive stem teng- valg- veng-<br />
1s tenga valga venga<br />
2s tengas valgas vengas<br />
3s tenga valga venga<br />
1p tengamos valgamos vengamos<br />
2p tengáis valgáis vengáis<br />
3p tengan valgan vengan<br />
Mixed Pattern <strong>Verbs</strong>: ver, jugar, adquirir, argüir, discernir<br />
Ver constructs its present subjunctive using a subjunctive stem derived from the<br />
irregular first person singular present indicative veo. Jugar and adquirir repeat<br />
their diphthongs from the present indicative (three singulars and third person<br />
plural).<br />
ver jugar adquirir<br />
1s present indicative veo juego adquiero<br />
subjunctive stem ve-<br />
1s vea juegue adquiera<br />
2s veas juegues adquieras<br />
3s vea juegue adquiera<br />
1p veamos juguemos adquiramos<br />
2p veáis juguéis adquiráis<br />
3p vean jueguen adquieran<br />
The -gu in place of -g for jugar is a normal orthographic change to maintain the<br />
“hard” g sound (see Chapter 7).<br />
Argüir follows the rule established in Chapter 2:<br />
except before -i<br />
(i) add -y (like construir);<br />
(ii) -gü S -gu<br />
Discernir has diphthongs in the expected conjugations but no umlauts.
argüir discernir<br />
1s present indicative arguyo discierno<br />
subjunctive stem arguy-<br />
1s arguya discierna<br />
2s arguyas disciernas<br />
3s arguya discierna<br />
1p arguyamos discernamos<br />
2p arguyáis discernáis<br />
3p arguyan disciernan<br />
Subjunctive: Imperfect Tense<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 61<br />
There are two distinct forms of the imperfect subjunctive which, subject to certain<br />
qualifications (see Chapter 12), can be used interchangeably. In both cases,<br />
the endings are added to the imperfect subjunctive stem, defined as follows:<br />
imperfect subjunctive stem simple past 3p, minus final -ron<br />
This rule applies without exception to all verbs, regular or irregular.<br />
infinitive simple past 3p imperfect subjunctive stem<br />
cantar cantaron cantacomer<br />
comieron comiesubir<br />
subieron subie-<br />
sentir sintieron sintiepedir<br />
pidieron pidiedormir<br />
durmieron durmie-<br />
ser, ir fueron fuedar<br />
dieron dieponer<br />
pusieron pusiepoder<br />
pudieron pudieestar<br />
estuvieron estuvietener<br />
tuvieron tuvieandar<br />
anduvieron anduviehaber<br />
hubieron hubiesaber<br />
supieron supiecaber<br />
cupieron cupiehacer<br />
hicieron hicievenir<br />
vinieron vinie-
62 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
querer quisieron quisiedecir<br />
dijeron dijetraer<br />
trajeron traje-<br />
(con)ducir (con)dujeron (con)duje-<br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> undergoing an orthographic modification in the simple past 3p (see Chapter<br />
7) display the same modification in the imperfect subjunctive, e.g.,<br />
leer leyeron leyeconstruir<br />
construyeron construy-<br />
The two imperfect subjunctives are then formed by adding one or the other of<br />
the following sets of endings:<br />
Imperfect Subjunctive (I) Imperfect Subjunctive (II)<br />
1s -ra -se<br />
2s -ras -ses<br />
3s -ra -se<br />
1p -ramos -semos<br />
2p -rais -seis<br />
3p -ran -sen<br />
Several examples:<br />
cantar subir<br />
Form I Form II Form I Form II<br />
1s can•ta•ra can•ta•se su•bie•ra su•bie•se<br />
2s can•ta•ras can•ta•ses su•bie•ras su•bie•ses<br />
3s can•ta•ra can•ta•se su•bie•ra su•bie•se<br />
1p can•tá•ra•mos can•tá•se•mos su•bié•ra•mos su•bié•se•mos<br />
2p can•ta•rais can•ta•seis su•bie•rais su•bie•seis<br />
3p can•ta•ran can•ta•sen su•bie•ran su•bie•sen<br />
tener sentir<br />
Form I Form II Form I Form II<br />
1s tuviera tuviese sintiera sintiese<br />
2s tuvieras tuvieses sintieras sintieses<br />
3s tuviera tuviese sintiera sintiese<br />
1p tuviéramos tuviésemos sintiéramos sintiésemos<br />
2p tuvierais tuvieseis sintierais sintieseis<br />
3p tuvieran tuviesen sintieran sintiesen
Note that:<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 63<br />
(a) As in the indicative imperfect, all six conjugations are stressed on the<br />
post-stem syllable; this necessitates a written accent for the first person<br />
plural.<br />
(b) The second form differs from the first only in that the -ra has been<br />
replaced by -se.<br />
(c) For verbs of the sentir/dormir and pedir types, the stem is umlauted<br />
uniformly throughout all six conjugations, reflecting the umlaut in the<br />
third person simple past.<br />
(d) For 2s, 3s, and 3p, the only difference between the imperfect subjunctive<br />
(Form I) and the future indicative is the syllable on which the stress falls<br />
(marked by a written accent in the future):<br />
imperfect subjunctive future (indicative)<br />
2s cantaras can•ta•ras cantarás can•ta•rás<br />
3s cantara can•ta•ra cantará can•ta•rá<br />
3p cantaran can•ta•ran cantarán can•ta•rán<br />
Imperative<br />
Imperative statements are direct orders or commands:<br />
you Get out!<br />
we Let’s go!<br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong>, “you” commands can involve tú (2s), vosotros (2p), usted (3s), and<br />
ustedes (3p), so that there are thus five grammatical persons in which the imperative<br />
is possible (all except the first person singular).<br />
There are separate imperative forms for the second person (singular and<br />
plural) only; for nosotros, usted, and ustedes the present subjunctive tense is used.<br />
For all negative imperative statements (Don’t go!) the present subjunctive is used:<br />
form of<br />
imperative nosotros tú vosotros usted ustedes<br />
positive subjunctive imperative imperative subjunctive subjunctive<br />
negative subjunctive subjunctive subjunctive subjunctive subjunctive
64 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
The imperatives for all verbs having regular— or predictably irregular—present<br />
indicatives are formed as follows:<br />
tú: present indicative minus final -s<br />
vosotros: infinitive with final -r replaced by -d<br />
Examples:<br />
indicative imperative<br />
infinitive tú vosotros tú vosotros<br />
cantar cantas cantáis canta cantad<br />
pensar piensas pensáis piensa pensad<br />
mostrar muestras mostráis muestra mostrad<br />
comer comes coméis come comed<br />
perder pierdes perdéis pierde perded<br />
mover mueves movéis mueve moved<br />
subir subes subís sube subid<br />
pedir pides pedís pide pedid<br />
sentir sientes sentís siente sentid<br />
dormir duermes dormís duerme dormid<br />
huir huyes huís huye huid<br />
Note that:<br />
(1) The stem vowel diphthongs (pierde), umlauts (pide), or adds a -y (huye)<br />
whenever the corresponding form in the present indicative does.<br />
(2) The second person plural imperative for -er and -ir verbs differs (comed<br />
vs. subid), thus constituting the third and final difference among the<br />
47 different simple forms for these verbs (along with the present indicative<br />
1p and 2p).<br />
(3) The tú form of the imperative is stressed on the stem syllable, the vosotros<br />
form on the post-stem syllable (can•ta, can•tad), as in the present indicative.<br />
Unlike the present indicative, however, no written accent is required<br />
for the vosotros form since it ends with a -d (cantáis versus cantad).<br />
(4) <strong>Verbs</strong> with regular orthographic changes in the present indicative have<br />
identical changes in the corresponding form of the imperative (see<br />
Chapter 7).<br />
Of the 17 verbs having (unpredictably) irregular present indicatives, 8 are<br />
entirely regular in the imperative, as are the 5 “mixed pattern” verbs.
SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 65<br />
indicative imperative<br />
infinitive tú vosotros tú vosotros<br />
estar estás estáis está estad<br />
dar das dais da dad<br />
saber sabes sabéis sabe sabed<br />
caber cabes cabéis cabe cabed<br />
caer caes caéis cae caed<br />
oír oyes oís oye oíd 2<br />
traer traes traéis trae traed<br />
valer vales valéis vale valed<br />
mixed pattern<br />
ver ves veis ve ved<br />
jugar juegas jugáis juega jugad<br />
adquirir adquieres adquirís adquiere adquirid<br />
argüir arguyes argüís arguye argüid<br />
discernir disciernes discernís discierne discernid<br />
The remaining 9 verbs with irregular present indicatives have irregular onesyllable<br />
imperatives in the singular but regular forms in the plural:<br />
indicative imperative<br />
infinitive tú vosotros tú vosotros<br />
ser eres sois sé sed<br />
ir vas vais ve id<br />
haber has habéis he habed<br />
decir dices decís di decid<br />
hacer haces hacéis haz haced<br />
poner pones ponéis pon poned<br />
salir sales salís sal salid<br />
tener tienes tenéis ten tened<br />
venir vienes venís ven venid<br />
Note that:<br />
(a) Sé has a written accent to distinguish it from the reflexive pronoun se.<br />
As a result, its form is identical to the first person singular present of<br />
saber (“I know”).<br />
2 Oíd requires a written accent to preserve its two-syllable pronunciation: o•íd.
66 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
(b) Ve (“go!”) is identical to ve (“see!”), the regular imperative of ver.<br />
(c) For tener and venir, there are no diphthongs of the stem vowel<br />
(ten not *tien), despite the fact that it is stressed.<br />
(d) One-syllable imperatives ending in -n (pon, ten, ven) require a written<br />
accent when they appear in compound verbs, since they are then multisyllable<br />
words ending in -n and stressed on the final syllable.<br />
infinitive imperative 2s imperative 2p<br />
componer compón componed<br />
obtener obtén obtened<br />
revenir revén revenid<br />
Appendix<br />
Future Subjunctive<br />
While rarely used, the future subjunctive is found on occasion in official documents and<br />
in certain fixed expressions of the type “what will be will be” (see appendix to Chapter 12).<br />
Given the rarity of its use—and its general omission from texts—a frequent reaction<br />
upon encountering it is to mistake it for an imperfect subjunctive with a typographical<br />
error.<br />
The future subjunctive is formed using the stem of the imperfect subjunctive, to which<br />
the following endings are added:<br />
1s -re<br />
2s -res<br />
3s -re<br />
1p -remos<br />
2p -reis<br />
3p -ren<br />
For the verb ser, which is by far the most common one encountered:<br />
imperfect subjunctive<br />
future subjunctive I II<br />
fuere fuera fuese<br />
fueres fueras fueses<br />
fuere fuera fuese<br />
fuéremos fuéramos fuésemos<br />
fuereis fuerais fueseis<br />
fueren fueran fuesen
CHAPTER 6<br />
Compound Verb Forms<br />
All compound verb tenses are formed with haber as an auxiliary verb:<br />
verb form (form of ) haber past participle<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
compound past present<br />
past perfect imperfect<br />
past anterior (rare) simple past<br />
future perfect future<br />
conditional perfect conditional<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
compound past subjunctive present subjunctive<br />
past perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive<br />
Compound Past<br />
The compound past is formed using the present tense of the auxiliary verb haber<br />
with the past participle.<br />
1s he cantado he subido I have sung/climbed<br />
2s has cantado has subido you have sung/climbed<br />
3s ha cantado ha subido he/she/it has sung/climbed<br />
1p hemos cantado hemos subido we have sung/climbed<br />
2p habéis cantado habéis subido you have sung/climbed<br />
3p han cantado han subido they have sung/climbed<br />
Methodological Note for Those with Background in French<br />
Note the following differences (advantages) compared to the French passé<br />
composé:<br />
(i) The <strong>Spanish</strong> compound past uses only one auxiliary verb (haber) whereas<br />
the French passé composé uses two (avoir and être), depending on the verb<br />
and/or situation.
68 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
(ii) The <strong>Spanish</strong> compound past is invariable, i.e., it does not change according<br />
to the gender of the noun or of a preceding direct object (cf. French je suis<br />
descendu(e) and la monnaie que je vous ai donné(e).<br />
Past Perfect (Pluperfect)<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> pluscuamperfecto, like its English counterpart, refers to situations<br />
existing prior to a fixed point in the past. It is formed analogously to the compound<br />
past, except that the present tense of haber is replaced by the imperfect.<br />
haber (present) past participle S compound past<br />
haber (imperfect) past participle S past perfect<br />
había cantado I had sung<br />
habías cantado you "<br />
había cantado he/she "<br />
habíamos cantado we "<br />
habíais cantado you "<br />
habían cantado they "<br />
Past Anterior<br />
This marks a past event immediately preceding another past event and is formed<br />
using the simple past of haber as the auxiliary verb. The past anterior is rarely<br />
used in modern speech (or writing), generally being substituted by the simple<br />
past or past perfect.<br />
hube cantado I had (just) sung<br />
hubiste cantado you "<br />
hubo cantado he/she "<br />
hubimos cantado we "<br />
hubisteis cantado you "<br />
hubieron cantado they "<br />
Future Perfect<br />
The future perfect consists of the future of the auxiliary verb haber plus the past<br />
participle.
habré subido I will have climbed<br />
habrás subido you "<br />
habrá subido he/she "<br />
habremos subido we "<br />
habréis subido you "<br />
habrán subido they "<br />
Conditional Perfect<br />
The conditional perfect is formed by the conditional of the auxiliary verb haber<br />
plus the past participle.<br />
habría subido I would have climbed<br />
habrías subido you "<br />
habría subido he/she "<br />
habríamos subido we "<br />
habríais subido you "<br />
habrían subido they "<br />
Compound Past Subjunctive<br />
This is analogous in its formation to the indicative compound past, with the<br />
present subjunctive of the auxiliary haber used in place of the present indicative.<br />
haya subido . . . (that) I have climbed<br />
hayas subido . . . (that) you have climbed<br />
haya subido . . . (that) he/she has climbed<br />
hayamos subido . . . (that) we have climbed<br />
hayáis subido . . . (that) you have climbed<br />
hayan subido . . . (that) they have climbed<br />
Past Perfect Subjunctive<br />
COMPOUND VERB FORMS 69<br />
This is analogous in formation to the indicative past perfect, with the imperfect<br />
subjunctive of haber used in place of the imperfect indicative. As there are two<br />
forms of the imperfect subjunctive, there are likewise two forms of the past perfect<br />
subjunctive.
70 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
hubiera subido / hubiese subido . . . (that) I had climbed<br />
hubieras subido / hubieses subido . . . (that) you "<br />
hubiera subido / hubiese subido . . . (that) he/she "<br />
hubiéramos subido / hubiésemos subido . . . (that) we "<br />
hubierais subido / hubieseis subido . . . (that) you "<br />
hubieran subido / hubiesen subido . . . (that) they "
CHAPTER 7<br />
Orthographic Modifications<br />
More than half of all <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs that “look” irregular are actually perfectly<br />
regular verbs whose irregular appearance is due to a series of orthographic changes<br />
which obey very precise rules. These can be divided into the following categories:<br />
Letter changes<br />
1. Consonant changes depending on nature of following vowel<br />
2. Initial ie S ye, ue S hue: errar, oler, erguir<br />
3. Unstressed -i between vowels S -y<br />
4. i i S i: reír<br />
5. (a) <strong>Verbs</strong> with -ll and -ñ omit first element of following -ie or -io<br />
(b) Irregular verbs with -j omit first element of following -ie<br />
Additional written accents<br />
6. -er and -ir verbs with stem ending in -a, -e, or -o<br />
7. <strong>Verbs</strong> with two vowels in stem: reinar (reino) vs. reunir (reúno)<br />
8. -uar and -iar verbs: adecuar (adecuo) vs. actuar (actúo); cambiar<br />
(cambio) vs. enviar (envío)<br />
Letter Changes<br />
1. Consonant Changes Dependent on Following Vowel<br />
A large number of <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs display (for certain conjugations) one of the following<br />
changes in the consonant which follows the stem vowel:<br />
c S z<br />
c S qu<br />
g S gu<br />
g S j<br />
gu S g<br />
gu S gü<br />
qu S c<br />
z S c
72 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
For example, for the verb cazar (“to hunt”, cognate with English chase):<br />
present simple past present subjunctive<br />
1s cazo cacé cace<br />
2s cazas cazaste caces<br />
3s caza cazó cace<br />
1p cazamos cazamos cacemos<br />
2p cazáis cazasteis cacéis<br />
3p cazan cazaron cacen<br />
While these consonant alternations give cazar—and other verbs displaying such<br />
variations—the appearance of an irregular verb, they are in fact entirely normal<br />
orthographic changes subject to very well defined rules.<br />
Basic Principles<br />
In English, the letter -c can have either a “hard” sound (cat, comb, cut) or a “soft”<br />
sound (cell, cider). The basic rule is that:<br />
before -c is pronounced<br />
back vowels (-a, -o, -u) hard<br />
front vowels: (-e, -i) soft<br />
Question: What happens when a “hard” -c finds itself placed before a front vowel<br />
-e or -i?<br />
Answer: It changes to a -k.<br />
This in fact explains the origin of -k in many English words which previously<br />
were written with -c, including:<br />
keen, keep, kerchief, kettle, key, kill, kin, kind, king, kiss, kitchen, kite,<br />
kitten<br />
A similar orthographic change explains the -gu in several English words in place<br />
of the original -g:<br />
guess, guest, guilt<br />
The orthographic consonant changes in <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs represent exactly the same<br />
process, albeit on a larger—and more systematic—basis: in <strong>Spanish</strong> there are
five sounds which have alternative spellings depending on the nature of the vowel<br />
(front or back) which follows. These are:<br />
(i) hard “C” (K), spelled with -c or -qu<br />
(ii) soft “C”—(u), pronounced as “th” in parts of Spain, as “s” elsewhere—<br />
spelled with -c or -z<br />
(iii) hard “G” (G), spelled with -g or -gu<br />
(iv) “GW”—as in Gwendolyn (GW)—spelled with -gu or -gü<br />
(v) “H” as in Halloween (H)—spelled with -g or -j<br />
As the table below illustrates, the written form for the first four of these sounds<br />
is always determined uniquely by the nature of the vowel which follows. For H<br />
there is a well-defined rule for back vowels but before front vowels there is<br />
ambiguity.<br />
LETTERS USED TO REPRESENT 5 “MULTI-FORM” SOUNDS<br />
back vowels front vowels<br />
sound (A, O, U) (E, I)<br />
K c qu<br />
u z c<br />
G g gu<br />
GW gu gü<br />
H j jor g<br />
Some examples:<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 73<br />
back vowels front vowels<br />
A O U E I<br />
K c c c qu qu<br />
vaca cosa curso quemar quince<br />
u z z z c c<br />
rezar brazo zumo cena cinco<br />
G g g g gu gu<br />
llegar amigo gusano guerra guitarra<br />
GW gu gu — gü gü<br />
agua antiguo antigüedad lingüista<br />
H j j j j, g j, g<br />
Japón rojo justo jefe jirafa<br />
ligero gigante
74 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
The General Rule for <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
For verbs whose stems end with one of the following five consonants (or consonant<br />
groups)—c, g, gu, qu, or z—an orthographic change is required to preserve<br />
the regularity of the pronunciation whenever the post-stem vowel changes from<br />
back to front (or vice versa).<br />
Such a shift in the nature of the post-stem vowel occurs in the present indicative,<br />
simple past, and present subjunctive, as follows:<br />
-ar verbs -er verbs -ir verbs<br />
present indicative — 1s 1s<br />
simple past 1s — —<br />
present subjunctive all 6 all 6 all 6<br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> undergoing these orthographic modifications thus display such changes in<br />
precisely 7 of the 47 conjugations, though the pattern differs between -ar verbs<br />
on the one hand, and -er/-ir verbs on the other.<br />
There are ten categories of verbs subject to such modifications; in the table<br />
below, each verb serves as a model for others undergoing the same changes.<br />
-ar -er -ir<br />
-c tocar vencer fruncir<br />
-g pagar coger dirigir<br />
-gu averiguar — distinguir<br />
-qu — — delinquir<br />
-z cazar — —<br />
verb type consonant sound modification<br />
1. tocar [K] c S qu<br />
2. pagar [G] g S gu<br />
3. averiguar [GW] gu S gü<br />
4. cazar [u] z S c<br />
5. vencer [u] c S z<br />
6. coger [H] g S j<br />
7. fruncir [u] c S z<br />
8. dirigir [H] g S j<br />
9. distinguir [G] gu S g<br />
10. delinquir [K] qu S c<br />
Some of these groups are large—there are more than 150 verbs like tocar—while<br />
others are far smaller, delinquir being in many dictionaries the only member of<br />
its class.
Note that verbs with consonant -j never undergo orthographic modification<br />
since -j is compatible with both front and back vowels: thus while the H sound in<br />
coger (“to catch”) is modified before back vowels, the same sound in tejer (“to<br />
weave”) requires no such change.<br />
2. Initial ie S ye, ue S hue<br />
No <strong>Spanish</strong> word begins with the written letter combinations ie- or ue-, these being<br />
replaced by ye- and hue-, respectively. This accounts for the forms of words<br />
like yegua (“mare”) and hueso (“bone”), rather than the “expected” forms *iegua<br />
and *ueso. For verbs with initial e- and o- subject to diphthong, a similar<br />
modification is required. The three verbs affected are errar, oler, and erguir.<br />
errar (to err) oler (to smell) erguir (to place erect)<br />
1s *ierro S yerro *uelo S huelo *iergo S yergo<br />
2s *ierras S yerras *ueles S hueles *iergues S yergues<br />
3s *ierra S yerra *uele S huele *iergue S yergue<br />
1p erramos olemos erguimos<br />
2p erráis oléis erguís<br />
3p *ierran S yerran *uelen S huelen *ierguen S yerguen<br />
The same modification occurs in the other forms which have diphthongs, i.e., the<br />
present subjunctive (singulars and third person plural) and the tú form of the<br />
imperative.<br />
An analogous modification occurs in the present participle of ir:<br />
*iendo S yendo<br />
3. Unstressed -i between Vowels S y<br />
Whenever an unstressed -i appears between two vowels, neither of which is -i, it<br />
changes to -y. 1 This affects -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, in the<br />
following 9 conjugations:<br />
(a) simple past (3s, 3p)<br />
(b) imperfect subjunctive (all 6)<br />
(c) present participle<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 75<br />
1 If an unstressed -i is either followed or preceded by another -i, the first -i disappears (see reír in<br />
no. 4). A stressed -i appears between vowels in the imperfect indicative for -er and -ir verbs with stem<br />
ending in a vowel: caíamos, leíamos, oíamos, construíamos, etc.
76 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
SIMPLE PAST<br />
caer leer construir oír<br />
1s caí leí construí oí<br />
2s caíste leíste construiste oíste<br />
3s cayó not *caió leyó construyó oyó<br />
1p caímos leímos construimos oímos<br />
2p caísteis leísteis construisteis oísteis<br />
3p cayeron not *caieron leyeron construyeron oyeron<br />
For construir and oír, unlike the present tense where a -y is added somewhat superfluously,<br />
here the -y is completely “regular”. 2<br />
When the stem ends in -a (caer), -e (leer), or -o (oír), a written accent is added<br />
to the simple past 2s/1p/2p in order to preserve the pronunciation of -i distinct<br />
from that of the preceding vowel. This does not occur when the stem ends in -u<br />
(construir), for reasons which will become clear at a later stage when we introduce<br />
the notion of strong versus weak vowels.<br />
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE (I)<br />
1s cayera not *caiera leyera construyera oyera<br />
2s cayeras leyeras construyeras oyeras<br />
3s cayera leyera construyera oyera<br />
1p cayéramos leyéramos construyéramos oyéramos<br />
2p cayerais leyerais construyerais oyerais<br />
3p cayeran leyeran construyeran oyeran<br />
The identical change occurs for the second form of the imperfect subjunctive:<br />
cayese, leyese, construyese, oyese, etc. 3<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE<br />
cayendo not *caiendo leyendo construyendo oyendo<br />
4. Reír: i i S i<br />
Reír undergoes “normal” umlauts (e S i) in all of the conjugations in which the<br />
rule in number 3, above, would otherwise apply. In the simple past 3s and 3p, for<br />
example, the newly umlauted stem vowel would normally be followed directly by<br />
2 In accordance with the rule “add -y except before -i”, no -y is added; instead, the existing -i is<br />
modified to -y since it has vowels on either side.<br />
3 And also for the (rarely used) future subjunctive.
a diphthong -io or -ie. As in <strong>Spanish</strong> neither of the letter combinations -ii or -yi<br />
is normally allowed, 4 an -i is omitted:<br />
reí<br />
reíste<br />
*ri-ió S rió5 reímos<br />
reísteis<br />
*ri-ieron S rieron<br />
As for verbs like caer, leer, and oír, written accents are added to the simple past<br />
2s/1p/2p to mark the independent pronunciation of -i (see no. 6, below).<br />
The imperfect subjunctive is formed in the normal manner using the stem rie-<br />
(derived from the third person plural simple past minus the final -ron). The present<br />
participle also sheds an -i:<br />
*ri-iendo S riendo<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 77<br />
Other verbs following the model of reír are: desleír (“to dissolve”), engreír (“to<br />
infatuate”), freír (“to fry”), refreír (“to refry”), sofreír (“to fry lightly”), and<br />
sonreír (“to smile”).<br />
5a.<strong>Verbs</strong> with -ll and -ñ Omit First Element of Following -ie or -io<br />
The -ie or -io represents a diphthong whose first element is pronounced “Y”.<br />
Since this “Y” sound is already incorporated in the immediately preceding palatal<br />
sound represented by -ll or -ñ, the written -i is eliminated. This modification<br />
affects the same conjugations as in number 3, above: (i) simple past (3s/3p); (ii)<br />
imperfect subjunctive (all 6); and (iii) present participle.<br />
bullir (to boil) tañer (to play [an instrument])<br />
simple past<br />
1s bullí tañí<br />
2s bulliste tañiste<br />
3s bulló not *bullió tañó not *tañió<br />
1p bullimos tañimos<br />
2p bullisteis tañisteis<br />
3p bulleron not *bullieron tañeron not *tañieron<br />
4Among the handful of exceptions are antiimperalismo, antiinflamatorio, chiita (“Shiite”), and<br />
yiddish.<br />
5As discussed in the appendix to this chapter, a recent orthographic change instituted by the RAE<br />
now allows (in fact favors) the spelling rio, without written accent.
78 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
imperfect subjunctive (I)<br />
1s bullera not *bulliera tañera not *tañiera<br />
2s bulleras tañeras<br />
3s bullera tañera<br />
1p bulléramos tañéramos<br />
2p bullerais tañerais<br />
3p bulleran tañeran<br />
present participle<br />
bullendo not *bulliendo tañendo not *tañiendo<br />
5b. Irregular <strong>Verbs</strong> with -j Omit First Element of Following -ie<br />
A similar modification takes place for irregular verbs having a -j stem consonant<br />
in their simple past and (hence) imperfect subjunctive, specifically decir, traer,<br />
and verbs ending in -ducir. By contrast, regular verbs with stem consonant -j<br />
(e.g., tejer) do not undergo such a modification. 6<br />
decir traer producir but tejer<br />
simple past<br />
3p dijeron trajeron produjeron tejieron<br />
imperfect subjunctive (I)<br />
1s dijera trajera produjera tejiera<br />
2s dijeras trajeras produjeras tejieras<br />
3s dijera trajera produjera tejiera<br />
1p dijéramos trajéramos produjéramos tejiéramos<br />
2p dijerais trajerais produjerais tejierais<br />
3p dijeran trajeran produjeran tejieran<br />
Additional Written Accents<br />
All of the consonant changes dealt with above are obligatory, in the sense that<br />
they always occur in the prescribed circumstances. The situation with regard to<br />
6 The -j in both cases was -x in Old <strong>Spanish</strong>. This was pronounced “SH”, a palatal sound, and<br />
hence a following -ie or -io lost the -i (e.g., dixeron, texeron). When <strong>Spanish</strong> “SH” shifted to the nonpalatal<br />
“H”, regular verbs like tejer had the “normal” -i restored (tejieron), while the irregular verbs<br />
decir, traer, and -ducir, in conformity with Murphy’s law, were able to resist these pressures. Note that<br />
no modification is required for the simple past 3s (which, like other irregular verbs, ends in -o rather<br />
than -io) or for the present participle (where -j does not appear).
orthographic written accent changes is on occasion less clear-cut—some verbs<br />
display the modifications, others do not. In all cases, knowledge of the form<br />
taken by the first person singular present is sufficient to determine the entire<br />
conjugation.<br />
A Note on the Orthographic Treatment of Potential Diphthongs<br />
The rules governing the treatment of two adjacent vowels are almost certainly the<br />
most complicated and frequently misunderstood element in the <strong>Spanish</strong> orthographic<br />
system. Their complete explanation falls outside the scope of the present<br />
work. For an understanding of verb conjugations, the essential elements can be<br />
summarized as follows:<br />
(a) The vowels a, e, and o are called “strong vowels”, i and u “weak vowels”.<br />
(b) Two strong vowels in succession are always pronounced in hiatus, i.e., as<br />
separate vowels in separate syllables.<br />
(c) For the combination of a weak and strong vowel, the orthography allows<br />
no determination of the pronunciation unless the stress accent falls on the<br />
weak vowel, in which case it has a written accent mark and the two vowels<br />
are pronounced in hiatus.<br />
país pa•ís<br />
María Ma•rí•a<br />
flúor flú•or<br />
ataúd a•ta•úd<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 79<br />
In all other circumstances, a weak/strong or strong/weak combination is<br />
assumed for the purposes of orthography to be pronounced as a diphthong,<br />
independent of its actual pronunciation.When the stress falls on<br />
the strong vowel in a weak/strong combination, there is a written accent if<br />
the syllable is not the “expected” one; however, this provides no information<br />
as to the actual pronunciation of the vowel combination. For example,<br />
adiós can be pronounced as either a•diós or a•di•ós. The same logic applies<br />
to strong/weak vowel combinations where the stress falls on the<br />
strong vowel (e.g., veintiséis), but in practice these always are pronounced<br />
as diphthongs.When the stress falls in the “expected” syllable on the<br />
strong vowel of a weak/strong or strong/weak combination, there is no<br />
written accent, e.g. diosa (di•o•sa or dio•sa) and seise (sei•se).<br />
(d) Two weak vowels in succession can in principle be pronounced either as a<br />
diphthong or hiatus—there is no way to tell from the spelling of the word.<br />
For purposes of orthography they are always assumed to be pronounced as<br />
a diphthong, independent of their actual pronunciation.When the
80 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
(assumed) diphthong -iu or -ui is stressed, a written accent is placed on the<br />
second element according to the normal rules, i.e., when the stress does<br />
not fall on the “expected” syllable:<br />
written accent no written accent<br />
jesuítico jesuita<br />
druídico druida<br />
veintiún veintiuno<br />
interviú interviuvar<br />
A written accent is required for jesuítico (je•suí•ti•co or je•su•í•ti•co) which<br />
otherwise would be pronounced *je•sui•ti•co or *je•su•i•ti•co, while no such<br />
accent is required for jesuita (je•su•i•ta or je•sui•ta) since the stress falls on<br />
the “expected” syllable.That this written accent (or lack thereof ) provides<br />
no information about the pronunciation of the vowel combination is<br />
clearly illustrated by the contrasting examples of veintiún and<br />
veintiuno.<br />
6. -er and -ir <strong>Verbs</strong> with Stems Ending in -a, -e, or -o<br />
The different treatment accorded to strong and weak vowels allows us to understand<br />
the orthographic distinction observed in Chapter 1 for the past participles<br />
of verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, which we repeat here for convenience:<br />
Rule. If an -er or -ir verb has a stem ending in -a, -e, or -o, then the ending<br />
of the past participle has a written accent (-ído rather than -ido). For<br />
all other cases in which the stem ends in a vowel, no change is made.<br />
The four basic cases covered by this rule are presented below:<br />
infinitive past participle<br />
(i) caer caído [AI: strong/weak, stress falls on weak]<br />
oír oído [OI: strong/weak, stress falls on weak]<br />
(ii) crear creado not *creádo [EA: strong/strong]<br />
(iii) criar criado not *criádo [IA: weak /strong, stress falls on strong]<br />
(iv) construir construido not [UI: weak /weak]<br />
*construído<br />
In (i) the fact that the stress falls on the weak vowel -i allows it to carry a written<br />
accent, which in this case clearly distinguishes its independent pronunciation.<br />
For -ar verbs like crear, the two strong vowels -e and -a are automatically pronounced<br />
separately (hiatus) without the need for a written accent. For -ar verbs
like criar, where the stress falls on the strong vowel -a, the weak /strong combination<br />
-ia is assumed for the purposes of orthography to be pronounced as a diphthong—even<br />
though the majority of speakers pronounce the two vowels separately.<br />
The same holds for the weak /weak combination -ui in -ir verbs like<br />
construir. 7<br />
Analogous reasoning accounts for the written accents added to the simple<br />
past (2s/1p/2p) for -er and -ir verbs whose stems end in a strong vowel (e.g., caer,<br />
leer, oír, reír) but not for those whose stems end in a weak vowel (e.g., construir).<br />
2s caíste leíste oíste reíste construiste<br />
1p caímos leímos oímos reímos construimos<br />
2p caísteis leísteis oísteis reísteis construisteis<br />
The rules of <strong>Spanish</strong> orthography always assume that -ui (and -iu) are pronounced<br />
as diphthongs.<br />
Such reasoning also explains the presence of (additional) written accents in<br />
the present indicative and subjunctive for reír. 8<br />
indicative subjunctive<br />
1s río ría<br />
2s ríes rías<br />
3s ríe ría<br />
1p reímos riamos<br />
2p reís riáis<br />
3p ríen rían<br />
A good test of one’s comprehension is to see whether one can explain why reímos<br />
has a written accent but riamos does not. 9<br />
7.<strong>Verbs</strong> with Two Vowels in Stem: Reinar versus Reunir<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 81<br />
There is a fundamental contrast in the pronunciation of reinar (“to reign”)<br />
compared to reunir (“to reunite”). In the first case the two vowels in the stem<br />
7 Until the RAE’s orthographical “reform” of 1952, construido had in fact been written construído.<br />
The change had nothing to do with pronunciation but rather with the notion that combinations of the<br />
“weak” vowelsu and i should always be assumed to be diphthongs for purposes of orthography. Needless<br />
to say, many erroneously interpreted the new spelling as requiring a diphthong pronunciation.<br />
8 As well as the 1p present indicative oímos of oír.<br />
9 In reímos the stress falls on the weak vowel of a strong/weak vowel combination (re•í•mos) and<br />
hence <strong>Spanish</strong> orthography requires a written accent. In riamos the stress falls on the strong vowel in<br />
the “expected” syllable (ri•a•mos or ria•mos), hence no written accent is required (or permitted).
82 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
(-e and -i) are pronounced as part of the same syllable—i.e., they form a diphthong.<br />
In the second case the two vowels (-e and -u) are pronounced separately,<br />
i.e., in hiatus. Thus, for the infinitive and first person singular present one has<br />
(with the stressed syllable in bold):<br />
infinitive 1s present<br />
rei•nar rei•no 2 syllables<br />
re•u•nir re•ú•no 3 syllables<br />
One of the important characteristics of the <strong>Spanish</strong> orthographic system is that<br />
it is able to distinguish between these two types of pronunciations only in those<br />
conjugations in which the stress accent falls on the stem. For the present indicative,<br />
reunir thus has “separating” written accents on the -u for the three singulars and<br />
the third person plural, but not for the first or second person plural, nor for the<br />
infinitive—where the stress does not fall on the stem.<br />
infinitive reinar reunir<br />
present 1s reino reúno<br />
2s reinas reúnes<br />
3s reina reúne<br />
1p reinamos reunimos<br />
2p reináis reunís<br />
3p reinan reúnen<br />
For reunir, the lack of written accent on the -u in the infinitive and 1p/2p does<br />
not mean that they are necessarily pronounced as diphthongs, only that the<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> orthographic system lacks a means of clearly identifying the specific<br />
nature of their pronunciation.<br />
Rule. <strong>Verbs</strong> like reunir have a written accent only in those conjugations<br />
in which the stress accent is on the stem syllable.<br />
A written accent is therefore also found in the present subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p)<br />
and the tú form of the imperative.
Other examples of verbs with stems having a strong/weak vowel combination—i.e.,<br />
whose second element is -i or -u—include:<br />
no written accents (diphthong) written accents in 9 conjugations<br />
infinitive 1s present infinitive 1s present<br />
ai arraigar arraigo aislar aíslo<br />
bailar bailo enraizar enraízo<br />
envainar envaino ahincar 10 ahínco<br />
au aplaudir aplaudo aullar aúllo<br />
causar causo aunar aúno<br />
pausar pauso maullar maúllo<br />
desahuciar desahucio ahumar ahúmo<br />
ei afeitar afeito descafeinar descafeíno<br />
peinar peino sobrehilar sobrehílo<br />
oi coitar coito prohibir prohíbo<br />
eu adeudar adeudo rehundir rehúndo<br />
Important Note<br />
The above discussion applies only to cases where the first vowel is “strong” (-a,<br />
-e, or -o) and the second one is “weak” (-i or -u). In all other cases of two adjacent<br />
stem vowels there are no written accents: when both vowels are strong (e.g.,<br />
coercer) the pronunciation is as hiatus, while in weak-weak (e.g., cuidar) or<br />
weak-strong (e.g., amueblar) combinations the pronunciation is generally as a<br />
diphthong. 11<br />
8. -uar and -iar <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 83<br />
A situation very similar to the above occurs for verbs ending in -uar or -iar.<br />
For some of these verbs the two vowels are pronounced separately, for others<br />
jointly, and the orthography seeks to distinguish, where permitted, between<br />
the two.<br />
10 The letter -h has no phonetic value. When it appears in the verb stem between two vowels it is<br />
an almost certain indicator that the verb is of the hiatus type (an exception being desahuciar—“to give<br />
up as hopeless”).<br />
11 Triunfar, arruinar, and orientar are examples, however, of verbs pronounced by many<br />
speakers—in some if not all conjugations—with hiatus pronunciations of the stem. The orthographic<br />
rules do not allow such pronunciations to be distinguished: for triunfar and arruinar since a<br />
weak /weak vowel combination is always assumed to be a diphthong, for orientar since even when the<br />
weak vowel -i is pronounced separately, the stress still falls on the strong vowel -e.
84 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
-uar <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
There are two patterns: (i) completely regular with no written accents, in which<br />
-u following vowel is pronounced consistently as a diphthong; and (ii) written<br />
accents in certain conjugations, marking a pronunciation of -u and the following<br />
vowel as part of separate syllables (i.e., hiatus) rather than as a diphthong.<br />
The first pattern is represented by adecuar (“to adapt”), the second by actuar (“to<br />
actuate”).<br />
present indicative present subjunctive<br />
adecuar actuar adecuar actuar<br />
1s adecuo actúo adecue actúe<br />
2s adecuas actúas adecues actúes<br />
3s adecua actúa adecue actúe<br />
1p adecuamos actuamos adecuemos actuemos<br />
2p adecuáis actuáis adecuéis actuéis<br />
3p adecuan actúan adecuen actúen<br />
For -uar verbs there is a very simple rule for distinguishing between those<br />
following the first pattern and those following the second.<br />
Rule. <strong>Verbs</strong> ending in -cuar and -guar follow the first pattern (no written<br />
accents); all other -uar verbs follow the second (written accents in selected<br />
conjugations) pattern.<br />
There is an equally simple rule for determining precisely in which conjugations<br />
the written accents are placed.<br />
Rule. <strong>Verbs</strong> following the second pattern display the written accent<br />
only in those conjugations in which the stress accent is on the stem<br />
syllable.<br />
Thus, written accents are found in precisely the same conjugations as in number<br />
7, above: (a) present indicative and subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p); and (b) tú form<br />
of the imperative.
Other examples:<br />
no written accents (diphthong) written accents in 9 conjugations<br />
infinitive 1s present infinitive 1s present<br />
amortiguar amortiguo acentuar acentúo<br />
apaciguar apaciguo continuar continúo<br />
atestiguar atestiguo efectuar efectúo<br />
averiguar averiguo evaluar evalúo<br />
desaguar desaguo fluctuar fluctúo<br />
evacuar evacuo habituar habitúo<br />
menguar menguo insinuar insinúo<br />
santiguar santiguo perpetuar perpetúo<br />
Pronunciation Note<br />
We have seen that verbs like actuar and acentuar have a written accent for 9 of the<br />
47 basic forms of the verb, indicating that in these cases the -u is pronounced as<br />
an independent vowel, not as an element of a diphthong, e.g.,<br />
actuar adecuar<br />
ac•tú•o as compared to ade•cwo<br />
ac•tú•as as compared to ade•cwas<br />
Does this mean that in the remaining 38 forms -u is pronounced as part of a diphthong?<br />
Popular opinion to the contrary, the answer is not necessarily. Analogous<br />
to the situation described in number 7, above, for verbs like reunir, <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
orthography simply does not allow a determination of the pronunciation of -ua,<br />
-uo, or -ue in a non-stressed syllable. In general, for verbs like actuar the -u is<br />
pronounced in hiatus throughout the verb conjugation (including the infinitive),<br />
although in less “careful” speech—and perhaps influenced by the absence of written<br />
accents—diphthongs tend to emerge for the first and second person plurals.<br />
-iar <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 85<br />
The situation is analogous to that of -uar verbs: there are two classes, one with no<br />
written accents, the other with written accents in those conjugations in which the<br />
stress falls on the stem syllable. Cambiar (“to change”) is an example of the former,<br />
enviar (“to send”) of the latter.
86 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
present indicative present subjunctive<br />
cambiar enviar cambiar enviar<br />
1s cambio envío cambie envíe<br />
2s cambias envías cambies envíes<br />
3s cambia envía cambie envíe<br />
1p cambiamos enviamos cambiemos enviemos<br />
2p cambiáis enviáis cambiéis enviéis<br />
3p cambian envían cambien envíen<br />
Unlike the -uar verbs, however, there is no simple rule to allow one to determine<br />
from the form of the infinitive to which class the verb belongs. However, verbs<br />
which diphthong (i.e., no written accents) are more numerous—representing<br />
approximately 70 percent of the total—and tend to be more easily recognizable,<br />
formed from or closely linked to adjectives and nouns.<br />
Other examples:<br />
(a) no written accents (diphthong)<br />
abreviar “to shorten” envidiar “to envy”<br />
aliviar “to alleviate” estudiar “to study”<br />
asociar “to associate” incendiar “to set on fire”<br />
beneficiar “to benefit” iniciar “to initiate”<br />
codiciar “to covet” injuriar “to insult”<br />
copiar “to copy” limpiar “to clean”<br />
denunciar “to denounce” odiar “to hate”<br />
diferenciar “to differentiate” pronunciar “to pronounce”<br />
distanciar “to distance” reconciliar “to reconcile”<br />
divorciar “to divorce” refugiar “to shelter”<br />
ensuciar “to dirty” remediar “to remedy”<br />
(b) written accents in 9 conjugations (hiatus)<br />
ampliar “to enlarge” guiar “to guide”<br />
criar “to rear” liar “to bind”<br />
desviar “to deviate” piar “to chirp”<br />
enfriar “to chill” repatriar “to repatriate”<br />
espiar “to spy” vaciar “to empty”<br />
fiar “to (en)trust” variar “to vary”<br />
For the “ambiguous” pronunciations of the 38 forms of class (b) without written<br />
accent, diphthongs seem to be more prevalent than for -uar verbs, and sometimes<br />
affect the infinitive as well (e.g., variar).
9. Combinations of Changes<br />
The verbs avergonzar and traer provide noteworthy illustrations of the possibility<br />
of combining orthographic and other predictable changes within the same verb.<br />
As confirmed by the closely associated noun vergüenza (“shame”) which<br />
diphthongs, avergonzar is an -ar diphthong verb (basic model mostrar). At the<br />
same time it offers not one but two separate orthographic changes:<br />
(1) z S c (model cazar)<br />
(2) gu S gü in those conjugations in which the diphthong changes the stem<br />
vowel from -o to -ue.<br />
The two orthographic changes and the diphthong occur simultaneously in the<br />
present subjunctive (three singulars and third person plural):<br />
present indicative present subjunctive<br />
avergüenzo avergüence<br />
avergüenzas avergüences<br />
avergüenza avergüence<br />
avergonzamos avergoncemos<br />
avergonzáis avergoncéis<br />
avergüenzan avergüencen<br />
Traer combines two irregularities with three regular orthographic modifications:<br />
Irregularity 1st person singular -go traigo<br />
simple past traje<br />
Orthographic #3 unstressed -i between vowels S -y trayendo<br />
#5b irregular verbs with -j omit 1st e.g., trajeron<br />
element of following -ie<br />
#6 additional written accent for past traído<br />
participle<br />
Appendix<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 87<br />
Recent Changes Affecting <strong>Verbs</strong> like Reír, Criar, and Huir<br />
The Real Academia Española has recently implemented an orthographic change affecting<br />
a number of very short verbs. While not much attention has yet been paid to this change,<br />
over time—unless rescinded—it is likely to cause some confusion.
88 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
The change can best be explained by comparing the simple past tense conjugations,<br />
and pronunciations, of sonreír (“to smile”) and reír (“to laugh”). The stressed syllable is<br />
shown in bold.<br />
1s sonreí reí son•re•í re•í<br />
2s sonreíste reíste son•re•ís•te re•ís•te<br />
3s sonrió rió son•ri•ó or son•rió ri•ó or rió<br />
1p sonreímos reímos son•re•í•mos re•í•mos<br />
2p sonreísteis reísteis son•re•ís•teis re•ís•teis<br />
3p sonrieron rieron son•rie•ron rie•ron<br />
For the third person singular there is an ambiguity in the pronunciation. 12 Most <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
speakers use the hiatus forms son•ri•ó and ri•ó . <strong>Spanish</strong> orthography, however, is incapable<br />
of distinguishing between the hiatus and diphthong pronunciations, since the written<br />
accent on the -o serves only to indicate that the stress falls on the final syllable, not<br />
whether the combination -io is to be pronounced as a diphthong or hiatus.<br />
In its 1999 Ortografía de la Lengua Española, the RAE attempted to resolve this ambiguity<br />
by decreeing that, for the purposes of orthography only, such ambiguous situations are<br />
assumed to represent diphthongs independent of the actual pronunciation of the word. Thus<br />
for the third person singular, the “assumed” pronunciations are now son•rió (2 syllables)<br />
and rió (1 syllable). For rió this creates a small problem: as an (assumed) one-syllable<br />
word it no longer has the right to a written accent—whose purpose is to identify the<br />
stressed syllable in a word of two or more syllables—and it has therefore been eliminated.<br />
For sonreír, on the other hand, the written accent is still required to signal that the stress<br />
is on the final syllable (independent of whether that syllable is -io or -o). Thus, according<br />
to the RAE’s new norms, there is now a contrast between the forms of sonreír and refreír<br />
on the one hand, reír and freír on the other:<br />
simple past 3s sonrió rio<br />
refrió frio<br />
A similar contrast exists in the second person plural of the present subjunctive, where riáis<br />
and friáis have relinquished their written accent: 13<br />
present subjunctive 2p sonriáis riais<br />
refriáis friais<br />
12 While there is also ambiguity for the third person plural (ri•e•ron or rie•ron), this has no effect<br />
on the orthography and will not be considered here.<br />
13 The logic is the following: the combination -iai consists of the weak vowel -i and the diphthong<br />
-ai. Since the stress falls on the diphthong and not on the weak vowel, the (orthographic) assumption<br />
is that the two elements are enunciated as a single vowel, i.e., that they form a triphthong and<br />
hence that riais has only one syllable. In the contrasting case of roáis (roer), since the strong vowel -o<br />
is assumed to be pronounced in a separate syllable from the following diphthong, a written accent is<br />
required to show that ro•áis is stressed on the second syllable and not the first (*ro•ais).
Other verbs affected by this change are the simple past and present tenses for “short” -iar<br />
and -uir verbs.<br />
SIMPLE PAST<br />
old forms new forms<br />
1s 3s 1s 3s<br />
criar crié crió crie crio<br />
fiar fié fió fie fio<br />
guiar guié guió guie guio<br />
liar lié lió lie lio<br />
piar pié pió pie pio<br />
fluir fluí fluyó flui fluyó<br />
huir huí huyó hui huyó<br />
PRESENT TENSE, 2P<br />
old forms new forms<br />
indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive<br />
criar criáis criéis criais crieis<br />
fiar fiáis fiéis fiais fieis<br />
guiar guiáis guiéis guiais guieis<br />
liar liáis liéis liais lieis<br />
piar piáis piéis piais pieis<br />
fluir fluís fluyáis fluis fluyáis<br />
huir huís huyáis huis huyáis<br />
Note that for the “short” -uir verbs the (multi-syllable) 3s simple past and 2p present subjunctive<br />
have not changed. Related compound verbs—malcriar, confiar, desliar, influir,<br />
rehuir, etc.—are not affected by the new rules.<br />
A New Ambiguity in Place of the Old<br />
ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 89<br />
The RAE was aware of the potential problem of public acceptance of this change and has<br />
therefore sought to satisfy both its logical instincts and public preferences by permitting,<br />
under certain circumstances, both the new and old spellings. Thus (italics added):<br />
...algunas palabras que antes de esta fecha se consideraban bisílabas pasan ahora a<br />
ser consideradas monosílabas a efectos de acentuación gráfica, por contener alguna<br />
de las secuencias vocálicas antes señaladas, y, como consecuencia de ello, deben<br />
escribirse sin tilde . . . No obstante, es admisible acentuar gráficamente estas palabras,<br />
por ser agudas acabadas en -n, -s o vocal, si quien escribe articula nítidamente como
90 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
hiatos las secuencias vocálicas que contienen y, en consecuencia, las considera bisílabas:<br />
fié, huí, riáis, guión, truhán, etc. 14<br />
. . . some words which before this date were considered disyllabic [having two syllables]<br />
are now considered to be monosyllabic for the purposes of written accentuation,<br />
on account of their containing one of the vowel sequences signaled above, and,<br />
in consequence, they should be written without an accent....Notwithstanding, it is<br />
permitted to use a written accent with these words, on account of their being stressed<br />
on the final syllable and ending in -n, -s, or vowel, so long as whoever does this articulates<br />
very clearly as hiatuses the vowel sequences they contain and, in consequence, considers<br />
them to be disyllabic: fié, huí, riáis, guión, truhán, etc.<br />
Thus if you not only pronounce (inadvertently or otherwise) rió/rio and fié/fie with two<br />
syllables but truly consider them to be two-syllable words, you have the right to use the old<br />
spelling; otherwise only the new spelling is acceptable.<br />
14 From the RAE’s online Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (, July 2004), section<br />
1.2 (Tilde 2 ). The RAE notes that the diphthong pronunciation “is predominant in wide zones of Latin<br />
America, especially in Mexico and in Central America, while in other Latin American countries such<br />
as Argentina, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela, as well as in Spain” the hiatus pronunciation is more<br />
common.
CHAPTER 8<br />
Vosotros/Ustedes and Tuteo/Voseo<br />
As noted in the Introduction, one of the most noticeable differences between the<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> spoken in Spain and that spoken in the Americas is the contrast in how<br />
one says “you”:<br />
Spain Americas<br />
singular plural singular plural<br />
familiar tú vosotros tú/vos ustedes<br />
formal usted ustedes usted ustedes<br />
In the formal sense, the treatment is identical: usted for the singular, ustedes for<br />
the plural. However, for familiar (or “informal”) you, usage always differs for the<br />
plural, and often for the singular.<br />
Familiar Plural: Vosotros versus Ustedes<br />
American <strong>Spanish</strong> uniformly uses ustedes along with its associated pronouns,<br />
while the <strong>Spanish</strong> of Spain uses vosotros and its associated pronouns. One thus<br />
has the following contrasts:<br />
Spain Latin America (All)<br />
Vosotros cantáis muy bien. Ustedes cantan muy bien. “You sing very well.”<br />
Os levantáis temprano. Ustedes se levantan temprano. “You get up early.”<br />
Salís temprano. Ustedes salen temprano. “You leave early.”<br />
Esto es para vosotros. Esto es para ustedes. “This is for you.”<br />
Vengo con vosotros. Vengo con ustedes. “I come with you.”<br />
Os veo. Los veo (a ustedes). “I see you.”<br />
Os doy un regalo. Les doy un regalo (a ustedes). “I give you a present.”<br />
Familiar Singular: Tuteo versus Voseo<br />
Here the situation is considerably more complicated. In somewhere between<br />
one third to one half of the Americas, vos is used—instead of or in addition to
92 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
tú—a practice known as voseo (compared to <strong>Spanish</strong> tuteo). Somewhat surprisingly,<br />
the object pronoun used for direct /indirect objects is te rather than vos (or<br />
os), while vos is used following prepositions. Thus one has:<br />
Spain Latin America (tuteo) Latin America (voseo)<br />
Tú cantas muy bien. Vos cantás muy bien. “You sing very well.”<br />
Te levantas temprano. Te levantás temprano. “You get up early.”<br />
Sales temprano. Salís temprano. “You leave early.”<br />
Esto es para tí. Esto es para vos. “This is for you.”<br />
Vengo contigo. Vengo con vos. “I come with you.”<br />
Te veo. Te veo. “I see you.”<br />
Te doy un regalo. Te doy un regalo. “I give you a present.”<br />
The verb forms used with vos are generally those of vosotros but simplified by reducing<br />
the diphthong (-áis or -éis) to a simple vowel (-ás, -és). For -ar and -er<br />
verbs this produces the corresponding tú verb form of normal <strong>Spanish</strong>. However,<br />
in the three forms in which there is a different pattern of stress accentuation<br />
for the tú and vosotros forms—the present indicative, present subjunctive and<br />
imperative—voseo practitioners generally maintain the vosotros stress pattern.<br />
This is illustrated below, with the traditional <strong>Spanish</strong> (tuteo) forms shown in<br />
parentheses.<br />
cantar comer subir<br />
present indicative cantás (cantas) comés (comes) subís (subes)<br />
present subjunctive cantés (cantes) comás (comas) subás (subas)<br />
imperative cantá (canta) comé (come) subí (sube)<br />
1. The voseo forms for the present subjunctive are utilized less widely than<br />
the other two and are often seen as less “cultured”. Under pressure from<br />
some of the American academies, the Real Academia Española has given<br />
official status to the voseo forms for the present indicative and imperative,<br />
but not for the present subjunctive.<br />
2. There are many variants. In some areas, the diphthong is maintained (vos<br />
cantáis, coméis). Some voseo speakers use the personal pronoun vos but<br />
with the normal <strong>Spanish</strong> second-person singular verbs (cantas rather than<br />
cantás). Still others use the personal pronoun tú but with the voseo verbs<br />
(e.g., tú cantás).<br />
Finally, it is worth noting that in post-Franco Spain tú has become omnipresent,<br />
even in advertisements. This marks a dramatic reversal: English “how to learn<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong>” books in the 1950s and 1960s frequently omitted or paid scant
attention to tú on the grounds that a foreigner would likely never have the<br />
opportunity to use it.<br />
Appendix<br />
Historical Background<br />
In Latin the distinction between tu and vos was purely singular versus plural. Apart from<br />
being somewhat egotistical (it was ego et tu, “I and you”, compared to tú y yo in <strong>Spanish</strong>),<br />
Romans were, at least initially, egalitarian in treating all “second” persons equally.<br />
The distinction between what can be called formal “you” and familiar “you” arose during<br />
the early Middle Ages and is characteristic of many European languages, including the<br />
Romance languages, German, and Middle English. It seems to have arisen out of the requirement<br />
to address one’s superior in a more respectful manner, e.g., “Would his lordship<br />
like to have his pudding now?” The lord would of course continue to address his subjects<br />
in the familiar way, much as today a French school teacher or prison guard will use<br />
the familiar tu in addressing his or her wards and expect to receive the formal vous in<br />
return.<br />
At an early stage <strong>Spanish</strong> usage was similar to that of modern French, 1 as the plural<br />
pronoun vos came to be used in the singular with a formal sense while maintaining its role<br />
as the unique plural (both formal and informal).<br />
OLD SPANISH<br />
singular plural<br />
familiar tú vos<br />
formal vos vos<br />
VOSOTROS/USTEDES AND TUTEO/VOSEO 93<br />
Vos then began to encroach on the one remaining form of “you” not yet conquered, the<br />
singular familiar form tú. This was probably an overreach on its part, for its increasing use<br />
in a familiar sense provided the opportunity in the fifteenth century for a new formal<br />
“you” to develop: vuestra merced (pl. vuestras mercedes), which can be translated into English<br />
as “your grace” or “your lordship/ladyship”. Through a process of evolution, passing<br />
through various stages including vuesa merced, vuesarced, vuced, and vusted, this arrived<br />
at the modern <strong>Spanish</strong> form usted (pl. ustedes). In formal correspondence one<br />
frequently finds these terms abbreviated, either Vd. and Vds., or Ud. and Uds. As in<br />
the formal form of address in English (“Is your ladyship happy with her meal?”), a<br />
third-person verb is used with both usted and ustedes—singular for the former, plural for<br />
the latter.<br />
At the same time that vos was losing out to usted (and ustedes) for the formal market,<br />
its use in the familiar sense as both a singular (in competition with tú) and plural led to<br />
1In French, vous is used for either a group of people—formal or familiar— or for one person in<br />
a formal setting.
94 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
the development of a new plural familiar form, vosotros (vos otros, “you others”). At the<br />
time of Cervantes (1547–1616) the situation was thus:<br />
“GOLDEN AGE” SPANISH<br />
singular plural<br />
familiar tú/vos vosotros<br />
formal vuestra merced vuestras mercedes<br />
It is interesting to note that merced did not initially mean “grace” or “lordship/ladyship”<br />
but rather “wages”, “payment”, or “reward”. It was with this latter meaning, expanded<br />
metaphorically in a religious context, 2 that it passed into French as merci (now restricted<br />
to “thank you”) and thence into English as mercy. The original sense has been preserved in<br />
mercenary (Sp. mercenario).<br />
The “we” pronoun, while not facing any serious competition, analogously shifted<br />
from nos to nosotros. While nosotros has survived in all forms of <strong>Spanish</strong>, vosotros has had<br />
considerably less success: it has been replaced in much of Andalucia, in the Canary Islands,<br />
and in all of Latin America by ustedes. 3<br />
The only domain left to vos was the familiar singular “you”, where it remained in<br />
heated competition with the original tú. In Spain, tú was victorious and today is used almost<br />
universally to refer to a singular “you” with whom one is on familiar terms. However,<br />
much of <strong>Spanish</strong>-speaking America was colonized when vos was still flourishing in<br />
Spain, so that a substantial portion uses vos (Argentina, Uruguay, most of Central America,<br />
and parts of most of the other countries). There are in addition a not insubstantial<br />
number of people who use both tú and vos as familiar singular “you”, though not necessarily<br />
in the same context.<br />
English “You”<br />
In Old English, as in Latin, there were separate singular and plural forms for “you”: thou<br />
and ye in the nominative, and thee and you for the accusative (and dative). You was thus<br />
initially used only as an object, not as the subject:<br />
Thou art a good man.<br />
I gave it to thee.<br />
Ye are good men.<br />
I gave it to you.<br />
2I.e., the reward in heaven which one earns (on earth) by being kind to those who are not in a<br />
position to offer anything in return.<br />
3The similarity of American <strong>Spanish</strong> with that of the Canaries and Andalucia is no coincidence,<br />
as a disproportionate share of colonists either originated from these areas or spent considerable time<br />
there en route to the Americas.
VOSOTROS/USTEDES AND TUTEO/VOSEO 95<br />
The evolution of you in Middle English was analogous to what occurred in both French<br />
and <strong>Spanish</strong>: the plural ye/you replaced the singular thou /thee for formal use. Subsequently,<br />
in early Modern English, ye/you replaced thou /thee for informal use as well. The<br />
distinction between nominative and accusative lasted until the seventeenth century and is<br />
found in the King James Bible:<br />
And Isaac said unto them, Wherefore come ye to me, seeing ye hate me, and have<br />
sent me away from you? (Genesis 26:27)<br />
The evolution of “you” as described above can be summarized as follows:<br />
familiar formal<br />
singular plural singular plural<br />
Classical Latin tu vos tu vos<br />
Old <strong>Spanish</strong> tú vos vos vos<br />
“Golden Age” <strong>Spanish</strong> tú/vos vosotros vuestra vuestras<br />
merced mercedes<br />
Modern <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
Spain tú vosotros usted ustedes<br />
Americas tú/vos ustedes usted ustedes<br />
Modern French tu vous vous vous<br />
Old English<br />
nominative thou ye thou ye<br />
dative & accusative thee you thee you<br />
Middle English<br />
nominative thou ye ye ye<br />
dative & accusative thee you you you<br />
Modern English you you you you
CHAPTER 9<br />
Summary and Presentation of Verb Classes<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> verbs can essentially be classified as follows:<br />
Basically regular verbs are those with regular simple past tenses<br />
and include verbs that<br />
(a) are (perfectly) regular<br />
(b) are predictably regular<br />
(c) are irregular in the first person singular present, but otherwise<br />
(largely) predictable<br />
(d) have mixed patterns<br />
Fundamentally irregular verbs are those 17 with irregular simple past<br />
tenses.<br />
Certain basic patterns facilitate considerably the learning of the individual verb<br />
forms.<br />
Imperfect<br />
For all but three verbs—ser, ir, ver—the imperfect is completely regular.<br />
Future/Conditional<br />
The future and conditional always share the same stem. There are 12 verbs which<br />
have truncated stems not equal to the infinitive, of which all except salir and valer<br />
are “fundamentally irregular” verbs.<br />
Present Subjunctive<br />
Only four verbs have “unpredictable” present subjunctives—ser, ir, haber, and<br />
saber. Predictably regular verbs (including those with irregular first person singular<br />
present indicative) have well-defined patterns for their present subjunctives,
SUMMARY AND PRESENTATION OF VERB CLASSES 97<br />
while each of the “mixed pattern” verbs follows its own particular pattern (see<br />
below).<br />
Imperfect Subjunctive<br />
The imperfect subjunctive stem of all verbs is equal to the third person plural<br />
simple past minus the final -ron.<br />
Present Imperative<br />
All verbs have regular imperatives for the second person plural. Nine verbs have<br />
irregular one-syllable imperatives for the second person singular.<br />
Present Participle<br />
All verbs have regular present participles, with the single exception of poder<br />
(pudiendo).<br />
Past Participle<br />
Apart from the simple past, the past participle is the least regular of the verb<br />
forms. Fourteen verbs have irregular past participles, of which 11 are from the<br />
basically regular category.<br />
Orthographic Changes<br />
Consonant changes are obligatory, in the sense that they always occur in the prescribed<br />
circumstances. While this is not always the case with written accent<br />
modifications, knowledge of the form of the first person singular present is always<br />
sufficient for determining the entire conjugation.<br />
Below are presented 35 categories or classes into which all <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs can<br />
be placed. Annex A presents the complete conjugations for model verbs in each<br />
of the categories, as well as highlighting the changes for sub-classes which display<br />
orthographic modifications or have irregular past participles. Annex B provides<br />
an alphabetical index of approximately 4,800 verbs, showing for each its class<br />
and, where applicable, sub-class.<br />
Basically Regular: <strong>Verbs</strong> Having Regular <strong>Simple</strong> Past<br />
I. Perfectly regular<br />
1. cantar 2. comer 3. subir
98 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
II. Predictably regular<br />
A.Diphthongs (e Sie, o S ue) and/or umlauts (e S i, o S u) of<br />
stem vowel<br />
4A. pensar 4B. mostrar<br />
5A. perder 5B. mover<br />
6A. sentir 6B. pedir 6C. dormir<br />
B. First person singular -zco<br />
7A. conocer (most verbs ending in -cer)<br />
7B. lucir (all verbs ending in -ucir) 1<br />
C. Add -y except before -i<br />
8. construir<br />
III. Irregular first person singular -go but otherwise (largely) predictable<br />
9. caer 10. oír 11. salir 12. valer (13. asir) 2<br />
IV. Mixed patterns<br />
14. ver 15. discernir 16. jugar 17. adquirir 18. argüir<br />
Fundamentally Irregular: Irregular <strong>Simple</strong> Past Tense<br />
19. ser 20. estar 21. haber 22. saber 23. caber<br />
24. ir 25. dar 26. poder 27. querer 28. decir<br />
29. hacer 30. poner 31. tener 32. venir 33. traer<br />
34. -ducir 35. andar<br />
Observations<br />
I. Perfectly Regular<br />
Six otherwise “perfectly regular” verbs—none of which is an -ar verb—have irregular<br />
past participles: romper, abrir, cubrir, escribir, imprimir, and pudrir.<br />
II. Predictably Regular <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
1. Four otherwise “predictably” regular verbs have irregular past participles:<br />
resolver, volver, freír, morir.<br />
1<strong>Verbs</strong> ending in -ducir additionally have irregular simple past tenses and hence are classified as<br />
a separate class (34).<br />
2As noted in Chapter 2, for asir the conjugations with -g are generally avoided.
SUMMARY AND PRESENTATION OF VERB CLASSES 99<br />
2. -ar and -er diphthong verbs (4A /B, 5A /B) have diphthongs in the 9 conjugations<br />
in which the stress falls on the stem syllable:<br />
pensar/perder mostrar/mover<br />
present indicative (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie ue<br />
present subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie ue<br />
imperative (2s) ie ue<br />
Such verbs can generally be identified through the existence of a closely related<br />
noun or adjective whose stressed vowel has the same diphthong (e.g. almorzar<br />
“to lunch” and almuerzo “lunch”). Where no such help is available (e.g., descender),<br />
knowledge of the first person singular present (desciendo) is sufficient to<br />
determine the entire conjugation.<br />
3. For -ir verbs, the regla milagrosa cited in Chapter 2 allows one to determine<br />
whether a given verb with stem vowel -e is of the mixed diphthong/umlaut (6A)<br />
or umlaut alone (6B) types. Of the three common -ir verbs with stem vowel -o,<br />
dormir and morir are of the mixed diphthong/umlaut type (6C). 3 For all of these<br />
verbs, 20 of the 47 conjugations are affected, as follows:<br />
REGULAR VS. “PREDICTABLY” IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS<br />
total regular diphthong umlaut<br />
sentir/dormir 47 27 9 11<br />
pedir 47 27 0 20<br />
An extension of la regla milagrosa defines the precise conjugations in which these<br />
“predictable” irregularities occur:<br />
La regla milagrosa (extended)<br />
A. For verbs with conjugations like pedir (6B), the stem vowel “umlauts”<br />
(e S i) unless the following vowel is -i.<br />
B. For verbs with conjugations like sentir (6A), as well as dormir/morir (6C),<br />
the stem vowel:<br />
(i) diphthongs (e S ie or o S ue) whenever it is stressed (i.e., in exactly<br />
the same conjugations as for 4A/B, 5A/B);<br />
(ii) otherwise it “umlauts” (e S i or o S u) unless the following<br />
vowel is -i.<br />
3 Oír (10) has neither diphthongs nor umlauts.
100 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
The stem vowel contrast in unstressed syllables is perhaps best illustrated by the<br />
first person plural present indicative and subjunctive:<br />
pedimos sentimos dormimos where the following vowel is -i<br />
pidamos sintamos durmamos where the following vowel is -a<br />
Note that a diphthong in the next syllable involving -i does not prevent umlaut, 4<br />
thus providing the contrasts:<br />
pedí sentí dormí where the following vowel is -i<br />
pidió sintió durmió where the following vowel is the diphthong -io<br />
pedido sentido dormido where the following vowel is -i<br />
pidiendo sintiendo durmiendo where the following vowel is the diphthong -ie<br />
The conjugations in which these predictable changes take place are:<br />
sentir pedir dormir<br />
present indicative (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie i ue<br />
simple past (3s/3p) i i u<br />
present subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie i ue<br />
present subjunctive (1p/2p) i i u<br />
imperfect subjunctive (all 6) i i u<br />
imperative (2s) ie i ue<br />
present participle i i u<br />
4. For -ocer and -ucir verbs (7A /B) with first person singular present -zco, the<br />
-zc propagates itself to all 6 forms of the present subjunctive. 5<br />
5. For verbs like construir which “add -y except before -i”, -y is added to<br />
11 conjugations: present indicative (singulars and 3p), present subjunctive<br />
(all 6), and tú imperative. In addition, a regular orthographic change (e.g.,<br />
constru[i]endo S construyendo) introduces a -y into 9 other conjugations:<br />
simple past (3s/3p), imperfect subjunctive (all 6), and present participle.<br />
4 Since “-i” in this case has the phonetic value of the consonant “Y”.<br />
5 This holds as well for the -ducir verbs (34).
III. Irregular First Person Singular -go but Otherwise (Largely)<br />
Predictable<br />
The first person singular present -go propagates itself to all 6 forms of the present<br />
subjunctive. Oír, salir, and valer have additional irregularities:<br />
(1) Oír “adds -y except before -i” (like construir).<br />
(2) Salir and valer have modified future/conditional stems (saldr-, valdr-).<br />
(3) Salir has a shortened tú imperative sal.<br />
IV. Mixed Patterns<br />
1. Ver used to be veer and has maintained the additional -e in the following conjugations:<br />
first person singular present, imperfect (all 6), and present subjunctive<br />
(all 6). Ver also has an irregular past participle visto.<br />
2. Discernir used to be discerner and behaves throughout its conjugation as if<br />
it were an -er diphthong verb (model perder). Viewed in this sense, the only “irregularities”<br />
are the second -i in the infinitive, the 1p/2p present indicative, and<br />
the 2p imperative.<br />
3. Jugar has 9 diphthongs -ue in exactly the same locations where diphthong<br />
verbs (e.g., mostrar) have such diphthongs. Jugar in fact used to be jogar;<br />
it subsequently changed the stem vowel -o to -u while leaving intact the diphthongs<br />
-ue.<br />
4. Adquirir is analogous to jugar. Previously it was adquerir with 9 regular -ie<br />
diphthongs (model sentir). It subsequently changed the stem vowel -e (including<br />
that of the infinitive) to -i, while leaving intact the diphthongs -ie.<br />
5. Argüir essentially follows the model of construir: add -y except before -i. The<br />
complication is that the combination -güy, with pronunciation “GWY”, would<br />
be virtually unpronounceable, hence it is changed to -guy.<br />
Summary Tables<br />
SUMMARY AND PRESENTATION OF VERB CLASSES 101<br />
The three tables below provide summary information for essentially all of the<br />
“unpredictable” irregularities found in <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs.<br />
Table 9.1 highlights the basic irregularities for the 17 “fundamentally” irregular<br />
verbs which have irregular simple pasts. The present indicatives for poder and<br />
querer are shown in parentheses since they are “predictable” diphthongs. Similarly,<br />
present subjunctive forms are shown in parentheses in those cases—e.g.,<br />
(quepa)—in which they are “regularly” based on the first person singular
102 FORMS OF VERBS<br />
present indicative. The present subjunctive for dar is shown in brackets [dé] since<br />
it has an orthographic written accent in the first and third person singulars.<br />
Table 9.2 shows irregularities for ver and for the 4 principal “basically regular”<br />
verbs which have irregular first person singulars ending in -go: caer, oír, salir, and<br />
valer. The present subjunctives are shown in parentheses, since they are regularly<br />
based on the first person singular present indicative.<br />
Table 9.3 shows the remaining 10 verbs with irregular past participles.
TABLE 9.1. FUNDAMENTAL IRREGULARITIES: SEVENTEEN VERBS WITH IRREGULAR SIMPLE PASTS<br />
infinitive present indicative simple past imper- past future subjunctive imperative<br />
fect participle stem<br />
1s other conjugations 1s 1s present 1s 2s<br />
ser soy eres/es/somos/sois/son fui (3s: fue) era — — sea sé<br />
estar estoy estás (etc.) estuve — — — (esté) —<br />
haber he has/ha/hemos/—/han hube — — habr- haya he<br />
saber sé — supe — — sabr- sepa —<br />
caber quepo — cupe — — cabr- (quepa) —<br />
ir voy vas (etc.) fui (3s: fue) iba — — vaya ve<br />
dar doy — di (3s: dio) — — — [dé] —<br />
poder 1 (puedo) — pude — — podr- (pueda) —<br />
querer (quiero) — quise — — querr- (quiera) —<br />
decir digo — dije — dicho dir- (diga) di<br />
hacer hago — hice (3s: hizo) — hecho har- (haga) haz<br />
poner pongo — puse — puesto pondr- (ponga) pon<br />
tener tengo tienes . . . tenemos tuve — — tendr- (tenga) ten<br />
venir vengo vienes . . . venimos vine — — vendr- (venga) ven<br />
traer traigo — traje — — — (traiga) —<br />
-ducir -duzco — -duje — — — (-duzca) —<br />
andar — — anduve — — — — —<br />
1 Poder also has irregular present participle pudiendo.
TABLE 9.2. VER FOUR “BASICALLY” REGULAR VERBS WITH FIRST PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT -g 1<br />
infinitive present indicative simple imperfect past future subjunctive imperative<br />
past participle stem<br />
1s other conjugations 1s 1s present 1s<br />
ver veo — — veía visto — (vea) —<br />
caer caigo — — — — — (caiga) —<br />
oír oigo oyes . . . oímos... — — — — (oiga) —<br />
salir salgo — — — — saldr- (salga) sal<br />
valer valgo — — — — valdr- (valga) —<br />
1 Caer and oír in addition display several regular orthographic modifications.
SUMMARY AND PRESENTATION OF VERB CLASSES 105<br />
TABLE 9.3. TEN OTHER VERBS WITH IRREGULAR PAST PARTICIPLE<br />
abrir abierto morir muerto<br />
cubrir cubierto pudrir podrido<br />
escribir escrito resolver resuelto<br />
freír frito, freído romper roto<br />
imprimir impreso, imprimido volver vuelto
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PART II<br />
USES OF VERBS
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CHAPTER 10<br />
Indicative<br />
Present Tense<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> present tense is used in virtually the same way as in English:<br />
“True” present:<br />
Canta la canción. “He/she/it sings the song.”<br />
Comes con mucha prisa. “You eat in a big hurry.”<br />
Subo las escaleras muy despacio. “I climb the stairs very slowly.”<br />
El chico lee el libro. “The boy reads the book.”<br />
To describe permanent situations or habitual actions:<br />
Nunca fuma ni bebe. “He/she never drinks nor smokes.”<br />
Los caballos comen hierba. “Horses eat grass.”<br />
En nuestra casa comemos a las tres. “In our house we eat at three o’clock.”<br />
En invierno los días son muy cortos. “In winter the days are very short.”<br />
To describe future activities:<br />
Mañana subimos al Everest. “Tomorrow we climb Everest.”<br />
¿Adónde vas este verano? “Where are you going this summer?”<br />
Voy a España. “I am going to Spain.”<br />
To narrate activities from the past:<br />
Y en ese momento César toma su decisión, pasa el Rubicón y avanza con su<br />
ejército hacia Roma.<br />
“And in that moment Caesar takes his decision, crosses the Rubicon, and<br />
advances with his troops towards Rome.”<br />
Past Tense: <strong>Simple</strong> and Compound, and Past Participle<br />
In general, the simple and compound pasts are used in very similar manners in<br />
English and <strong>Spanish</strong>.
110 USES OF VERBS<br />
<strong>Simple</strong> Past<br />
Colón descubrió América “Columbus discovered America<br />
en 1492. in 1492.”<br />
Tomé el primer avión y llegué “I took the first plane and arrived<br />
a mediodía. at noon.”<br />
El año pasado visité Granada. “Last year I visited Granada.”<br />
Franco murió en 1975. “Franco died in 1975.”<br />
Compound Past<br />
He visitado tres veces Granada. “I have visited Granada three times.”<br />
Hemos trabajado todo el día. “We have worked all day.”<br />
Juan, ¿has hecho todos tus deberes? “Juan, have you done all your<br />
homework?”<br />
Siempre he tenido mucha suerte. “I have always had a lot of luck.”<br />
In both languages, the theoretical difference governing the use of the two tenses<br />
is that the simple past refers to a period of time which has completely expired,<br />
while the compound past refers to a period which still exists at the moment of<br />
speaking.<br />
REMOTE PAST PRESENT<br />
simple past compound past S<br />
In practice, there is of course a large gray area where both can be used and the<br />
choice of one or the other is largely a matter of personal choice and desired nuance,<br />
e.g.,<br />
I have studied all day.<br />
I studied all day.<br />
I have already been to Europe [in 1965].<br />
I went to Europe last year.<br />
There is a considerable difference between usage in Spain and that in the Americas:<br />
in Spain the compound past tense is generally used whenever there is a connection,<br />
however tenuous, with the present, while in American <strong>Spanish</strong> the more<br />
common practice is to always use the simple past unless referring to a situation<br />
very directly linked to the present.
Spain (generally)<br />
He leído el periódico hoy. “I have read the newspaper today.”<br />
He tenido muchas malas “I have had a lot of unpleasant experiences<br />
experiencias en mi vida. in my life.”<br />
He ido al cine tres veces “I have gone to the movies three times this<br />
esta semana. week.”<br />
Americas (generally)<br />
INDICATIVE 111<br />
Leí el periódico hoy. “I read the newspaper today.”<br />
Tuve muchas malas “I [have] had a lot of unpleasant<br />
experiencias en mi vida. experiences in my life.”<br />
Fui al cine tres veces “I went to the movies three times this<br />
esta semana. week.”<br />
The usage in Spain is not dictated simply by how long ago the action took place.<br />
Thus, with ayer (“yesterday”) the simple past is generally used, while the compound<br />
past can be used with reference to situations where the action took place<br />
many years ago (e.g., “earlier this century . . .”). Even in Spain there seems to be<br />
some movement toward greater use of the simple at the expense of the compound<br />
past, to judge by warnings in manuals of “proper” <strong>Spanish</strong>:<br />
ABUSO DEL PRETÉRITO INDEFINIDO O PERFECTO SIMPLE<br />
Los titulares de la prensa y las emisiones radiadas peninsulares han dado en<br />
preferir el perfecto simple para hechos recientes o inmediatos que en el uso<br />
espontáneo . . . se expresan con el perfecto compuesto: Llegó a Madrid el<br />
equipo de la Juventus; Oyeron ustedes “Los clásicos de la canción” . . . en este<br />
resurgimiento—arcaizante para el sentir lingüístico del español medio—<br />
parecen haberse juntado influjos del inglés estadounidense y del español<br />
americano, uno y otro apegados al perfecto simple. 1<br />
ABUSE OF INDEFINITE PRETERITE OR SIMPLE PAST<br />
The headlines of the peninsular [i.e., <strong>Spanish</strong>] press and broadcast emissions<br />
have shown a preference for the simple past for recent or immediate events<br />
which in spontaneous (natural) use are expressed with the compound past:<br />
“The team of Juventus arrived in Madrid”; “You heard ‘the classics of<br />
song’[?]” ...In this resurgence—archaic sounding for the average <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
1 Rafael Lapesa, El español moderno y contemporáneo (Barcelona: Crítica, 1996), quoted in Manuel<br />
Casado, El Castellano actual: Usos y normas (Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, 1997),<br />
p. 89; translation mine.
112 USES OF VERBS<br />
ear—there seems to be a mixture of influence of U.S. English and American<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong>, both attached to the simple past.<br />
Past Participle as Adjective<br />
As in English, the past participle can be used adjectivally, in which case it agrees<br />
with the noun it modifies in both gender and number.<br />
el tesoro robado “the stolen treasure”<br />
con los ojos cerrados “with the [his] eyes closed”<br />
Aprobada la propuesta, “The proposition approved, the<br />
se levantó la sesión. meeting adjourned.”<br />
Alternative Past Participles<br />
During the transition from Latin to <strong>Spanish</strong>, the large majority of irregular Latin<br />
past participles were regularized. While displaced from their role as participles, a<br />
number of the original irregular forms have survived and have become ordinary<br />
Modern <strong>Spanish</strong>adjectives. Thus, the adjectiveconfuso exists alongside the regular<br />
past participleconfundido, incluso alongsideincluido, etc. In some cases the meaning<br />
of the adjective has come to differ from that of the related past participle, e.g.:<br />
adjective past participle<br />
atento “attentive” atendido (well /badly) “looked after”<br />
convicto “convicted” convencido “convinced”<br />
correcto “correct” corregido “corrected”<br />
distinto “distinct”, “different” distinguido “distinguished”<br />
tuerto “one-eyed” torcido “twisted”, “crooked”<br />
In these cases there is no danger of confusion between the two forms which can<br />
both be used as adjectives, e.g.,<br />
Es un esposo muy atento. “He is a very attentive husband.”<br />
Es un esposo muy atendido. “He is a very well looked after husband.”<br />
El libro es correcto. “The book is correct.”<br />
El libro está corregido. “The book is corrected” [i.e., has<br />
previously been corrected].<br />
Es un hombre muy distinguido. “He is a very distinguished man.”<br />
Es un hombre muy distinto. “He is a very different man.”
El cuadro está torcido. “The picture is crooked.”<br />
En tierra de ciegos el tuerto es rey. “In the land of the blind the one-eyed<br />
man is king.”<br />
In other cases the meanings are virtually the same, in which case the general practice<br />
in adjectival constructions is to use the adjectival (i.e., irregular) form rather<br />
than the (regular) past participle. Common examples are:<br />
past participle adjective<br />
confundir “to confuse” confundido confuso<br />
despertar “to wake (up)” despertado despierto<br />
elegir “to elect” elegido electo<br />
fijar “to (af )fix” fijado fijo<br />
freír “to fry” frito/freído frito<br />
hartar “to satiate” hartado harto<br />
imprimir “to print” impreso/imprimido impreso<br />
juntar “to join” juntado junto<br />
soltar “to loosen”, “to let go of ” soltado suelto<br />
suspender “to suspend” suspendido suspenso<br />
Thus one generally says<br />
estoy despierto not *despertado “I am awake”<br />
el presidente electo not *elegido “the president-elect”<br />
con los ojos fijos en ella not *fijados “with his eyes fixed on her”<br />
estoy harto not *hartado “I’m fed up”<br />
el libro impreso not *imprimido “the printed book”<br />
dar rienda suelta not *soltada “to give free rein”<br />
The use of double participles is an area of rapid change, generally in favor of the<br />
regular forms. For example, today one says almost equally<br />
los animales extinguidos or los animales extintos<br />
whereas in the past the use of extinguido in this context would have been seen as<br />
bad form.<br />
Historical and Usage Note: Development of Compound Past<br />
INDICATIVE 113<br />
The Latin perfect tense was used to convey the meanings of both the simple<br />
(“remote”) and compound (“near”) pasts. During the evolution to Romance
114 USES OF VERBS<br />
languages, the perfect came to specialize in the remote past and gave birth to the<br />
Romance simple past tense. To express the near past, the Romance languages<br />
came up with a structure analogous to that used in English, i.e., the combination<br />
of the auxiliary verb “to have” with the past participle. In fact it was a relatively<br />
short step from expressions of the form<br />
I have two books already written.<br />
to the formal compound past<br />
Ya he escrito dos libros. “I have written two books already.”<br />
Before settling on this form, <strong>Spanish</strong> experimented with a number of other auxiliary<br />
verbs conveying similar notions of something already accomplished, notably<br />
tener (possession) and llevar (“to bring”). Such constructions continue to<br />
be employed occasionally, particularly when one wants to stress the immediacy<br />
of the past action, e.g.,<br />
Tengo los ojos cerrados. “I have my eyes closed.”<br />
(or: tengo cerrados los ojos)<br />
Llevamos ahorrados dos mil pesos. “We have saved 2,000 pesos.”<br />
Unlike the formal compound past with auxiliary haber, “informal” constructions<br />
with other auxiliaries require agreement between the past participle and the direct<br />
object it modifies, in terms of gender and number. With such constructions<br />
the auxiliary can be separated from the past participle, something which cannot<br />
occur with the regular compound past using haber:<br />
Llevo cuatro páginas escritas. “I have four pages written.”<br />
but not *He cuatro páginas escrito.<br />
“Immediate” Past<br />
The construction acabar de infinitive is frequently used in place of the simple<br />
or compound past to refer to an event which has just happened, literally one<br />
finishes to do something:<br />
Ella acaba de llegar. “She has just arrived.”<br />
With reference to something which had just occurred at a point in the past, the
analogous construction is used with the imperfect of acabar:<br />
Fui a visitarla pero ella “I went to see her but she had just left.”<br />
acababa de salir.<br />
Imperfect Tense<br />
As noted in the Introduction, the imperfect does not correspond directly to any<br />
simple English verb form. It refers to a past action without conveying any information<br />
as to whether or not the action was completed. Thus the contrast:<br />
imperfect Llovía ayer. “It was raining yesterday.”<br />
simple past Llovió ayer. “It rained yesterday.”<br />
Based on the first statement we cannot say for sure that the rain yesterday ever<br />
stopped—it is possible that it has continued until the present moment. In contrast,<br />
the second statement indicates unequivocally that the rain yesterday terminated,<br />
and if by chance it is raining at the present time then it is not the same rain<br />
shower as yesterday.<br />
The most common uses of the imperfect are in:<br />
(1) Indefinite statements about the past<br />
INDICATIVE 115<br />
En aquel tiempo reinaba la paz, y la “In that era peace reigned, and<br />
gente era muy feliz. the people were very happy.”<br />
Cuando era joven jugaba mucho “When I was young I played a lot<br />
al béisbol. of baseball.”<br />
(2) Statements relating to a condition existing at the moment of a specific<br />
action in the past (the latter expressed in the simple past tense)<br />
Lavaba la ropa cuando sonó “I was washing the laundry<br />
el teléfono. when the phone rang.”<br />
or Estaba lavando . . . [see<br />
gerundio, below]<br />
Todavía iba a la escuela “I was still going to school<br />
cuando murió Franco. when Franco died.”<br />
There is a gray area between the definite and indefinite historical past, i.e., be-
116 USES OF VERBS<br />
tween the use of the simple past and imperfect, where the two can be used almost<br />
interchangeably:<br />
En el siglo XVIII hubo muchas “In the eighteenth century there were<br />
revoluciones en América Latina. many revolutions in Latin America.”<br />
El el siglo XVIII había muchas [same as above]<br />
revoluciones en América Latina.<br />
In the first formulation the focus is on a large number (e.g., 22) of finite events,<br />
while the second is nuanced toward the general condition of having many<br />
revolutions.<br />
En el principio creó Dios los cielos y la tierra.Y la tierra estaba sin orden y<br />
vacía, y las tinieblas cubrían la superficie del abismo, y el Espíritu de Dios<br />
se movía sobre la superficie de las aguas. (Génesis 1:1–2, La Biblia de las<br />
Américas)<br />
Creó is simple past; the other three verbs are imperfects. Thus,<br />
In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was<br />
without form, and void; and darkness was upon [i.e., covered] the face of the<br />
deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. (King James<br />
Version)<br />
Identity between First and Third Person Singulars<br />
For all <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs, the imperfect for the first and third person singulars is the<br />
same. It wasn’t always this way, as in Latin times the first person singular ended<br />
with -m, the third person with -t. But phonetic evolution did away with most<br />
final consonants, including -m and -t. In principle, the context should make clear<br />
whether the subject is the first or third person singular, and whenever this is not<br />
the case the subject should be specified explicitly. In practice confusion and ambiguity<br />
occasionally arise, particularly since the context is often clearer in the<br />
mind of the speaker (or writer) than in that of the listener (or reader).<br />
Consider, for example, the following situation:<br />
My bicycle collides with John’s. My friend Mary asks me what happened.<br />
I reply:<br />
Desgraciadamente, no miraba por donde iba.
What did I say, or rather, mean to say? With no personal pronouns or names used<br />
(because I think the context is perfectly clear), this could be understood by Mary<br />
in any one of the following ways.<br />
(1) “Unfortunately, I wasn’t looking where I was going.”<br />
(2) “Unfortunately, I wasn’t looking where he (John) was going.”<br />
(3) “Unfortunately, he (John) wasn’t looking where I was going.”<br />
(4) “Unfortunately, he (John) wasn’t looking where he (John) was going.”<br />
Past Perfect<br />
The primary use of the past perfect is to express an action in the past which occurred<br />
prior to another past action or point in time.<br />
Ya había preparado la cena cuando “I had already prepared the dinner when<br />
llegaron mis invitados. my guests arrived.”<br />
Juan había vivido feliz hasta “Juan had lived happily until he married.”<br />
que se casó.<br />
Estábamos contentos porque “We were happy because we had received<br />
habíamos recibido buenas noticias. good news.”<br />
Yo creía (creí) que ya te habías ido. “I thought that you had already left.”<br />
The verb expressing the “other” action is in the simple past or imperfect, according<br />
to the normal rules. Used with a “time” conjunction, the past perfect can<br />
also refer to a habitual action in the past, in which case the verb in the main clause<br />
is in the imperfect:<br />
Cada día cuando había terminado su “Each day when he had finished his<br />
trabajo, daba un paseo por el parque. work, he took a walk in the park.”<br />
Past Anterior<br />
Like the past perfect, the past anterior refers to an action which occurred prior to<br />
another action in the past, with the nuance that the action occurred immediately<br />
prior.<br />
Hube preparado la cena cuando “I had just prepared the dinner<br />
llegaron mis invitados. when my guests arrived.”<br />
Cuando hubo amanecido, salí. “As soon as dawn broke, I left.”<br />
INDICATIVE 117
118 USES OF VERBS<br />
The past anterior has disappeared completely from the spoken language and appears<br />
only rarely in literary works. It has been replaced by the simple past, or less<br />
frequently the past perfect:<br />
Tan pronto como preparé (había “As soon as I had prepared the dinner<br />
preparado) la cena llegaron my guests arrived.”<br />
mis invitados.<br />
Luego que amaneció salí. “As soon as dawn broke, I left.”<br />
The immediacy formerly conveyed by the past anterior is thus expressed instead<br />
by an adverbial expression: luego que, tan pronto como, no bien, así que, apenas,<br />
en cuanto, etc. 2<br />
Present Participle (Gerundio)<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> gerundio combines elements of the English present participle and<br />
gerund. Examples of its use:<br />
Los niños salieron corriendo. “The children left [e.g., the room]<br />
running.”<br />
Ganó este dinero trabajando “He earned this money [by] working<br />
durante las vacaciones. during the vacation.”<br />
Vi a su hermano atravesando la calle. “I saw your brother crossing the street.”<br />
Atravesando la calle, vi a su hermano “[While] crossing the street I saw your<br />
sentado en el café. brother seated in the café.”<br />
Estando en París, decidí visitar “Being in Paris I decided to visit the Eiffel<br />
la Torre Eiffel. Tower.”<br />
No viendo ninguna alternativa, “Not seeing any alternative, I sold my<br />
vendí mi carro. car.”<br />
Ya habiendo visto tres veces esta “Already having seen this [same] movie<br />
misma película, no tengo ganas three times I have no desire to see it<br />
de verla otra vez. again.”<br />
Viviendo sola, a menudo se siente “Living alone, she often feels uneasy at<br />
inquieta. night.” (or “a woman often feels . . .”)<br />
2 In its rare literary use today, the past anterior is almost always accompanied by one of these same<br />
adverbial expressions. This is somewhat redundant, since the idea of immediacy is conveyed twice:<br />
by the past anterior itself and by the accompanying adverb (“As soon as I had just prepared . . .).
Probably the most common use of the gerundio is in expressions identical to the<br />
English “progressive” tenses, with the verb estar assuming the role of the auxiliary<br />
to be:<br />
Juan está jugando en la calle. “Juan is playing in the street.”<br />
Juan estaba jugando en la calle. “Juan was playing in the street.”<br />
This progressive sense can also be expressed with the verbs ir, venir, seguir, continuar,<br />
and andar.<br />
Continúas haciendo la misma cosa. “You continue doing the same thing.”<br />
Siguió trabajando a pesar de su “He continued working in spite of his<br />
enfermedad. illness.”<br />
La situación va empeorando. “The situation continues getting worse.”<br />
As with the infinitive and imperative, a pronoun object is “glued” to the gerundio:<br />
Acercándolo, vi que no era Diego. “Approaching him, I saw that it wasn’t<br />
Diego.”<br />
Contándomelo se sentía más seguro. “Telling it to me he felt more secure.”<br />
This applies as well to reflexive verbs:<br />
Acostándome temprano duermo mejor. “Going to bed early I sleep better.”<br />
When the gerundio is used with estar, pronoun objects can either be attached to<br />
the gerundio or placed before estar:<br />
Estábamos mirándola desde “We were looking at her<br />
la ventana. from the window.”<br />
or La estábamos mirando desde<br />
la ventana.<br />
When pronouns are attached to the gerundio, the stress accent remains on the<br />
same syllable, so that a written accent is always required:<br />
a•cer•can•do acercando a•cer•cán•do•lo acercándolo<br />
con•tan•do contando con•tán•do•me•lo contándomelo<br />
INDICATIVE 119
120 USES OF VERBS<br />
There are a number of cases where English -ing constructions are not expressed<br />
by the <strong>Spanish</strong> gerundio. For example:<br />
(1) When the action is simultaneous, the construction al infinitive is<br />
commonly used:<br />
Al salir del hotel tomó un taxi. “Leaving the hotel he took a taxi.”<br />
Al salir yo del hotel, María “[On] leaving the hotel, Maria was<br />
estaba esperándome. waiting for me.”<br />
(2) Where English allows either a gerund or the infinitive, <strong>Spanish</strong> generally<br />
permits only the infinitive:<br />
Ver es creer. “Seeing is believing.”<br />
“To see is to believe.”<br />
Correr es bueno para el corazón. “Running is good for the heart.”<br />
“To run is good for the heart.”<br />
Me gusta cocinar. “I like cooking.”<br />
“I like to cook.”<br />
(3) While it can be used in adjectival constructions (“I saw the man running in<br />
the park”), 3 the <strong>Spanish</strong> gerundio cannot (in theory) be used as an adjective<br />
directly modifying a noun (“the running man”). One way to remember<br />
this: if it were used in this manner (“Sleeping Beauty”), the final -o would<br />
have to be changed to -a when modifying feminine nouns and this never<br />
occurs with the gerundio.<br />
In many cases, there is a related verbal adjective ending in -ante or -iente, descended<br />
from the Latin present participle (a separate verbal form from the<br />
gerund), that can be used instead:<br />
correct incorrect<br />
mi ardiente deseo *ardiendo “my ardent (burning) desire”<br />
el sol brillante *brillando “the brilliant sun”<br />
el agua corriente *corriendo/a “running water”<br />
la Bella durmiente *durmiendo/a “Sleeping Beauty”<br />
el hombre sonriente *sonriendo “the smiling man”<br />
el platillo volante *volando “flying saucer”<br />
3 Vi al hombre corriendo en el parque.
Thus one says that<br />
el niño está durmiendo “the child is sleeping”<br />
el hombre está sonriendo “the man is smiling”<br />
el platillo está volando “the saucer is flying”<br />
but<br />
el niño durmiente “the sleeping child”<br />
el hombre sonriente “the smiling man”<br />
el platillo volante “the flying saucer”<br />
The large majority of <strong>Spanish</strong> verbs, however, do not have verbal adjectives ending<br />
in -nte, so that it is necessary to find a different adjective to express the English<br />
present participial adjective or to use a different structure altogether. Thus,<br />
if asked which of two children— one smiling, one crying—is yours, you could<br />
respond either:<br />
“el sonriente” “the smiling one”<br />
or “el que llora” / “el llorón” “he who cries” / “the tearful one”<br />
since in the latter case there is no verbal adjective *llorante. The prohibition<br />
against using gerundios as direct adjectives seems to have evaporated in the case<br />
of boiling water. While many sources continue to indicate that the adjectival form<br />
of “boiling” is hirviente, it is more common today to see agua hirviendo. In 1992<br />
the Real Academia Española went so far as to remove hirviente from its dictionary,<br />
although it continues to be found in most others. Note that it is agua<br />
hirviendo not *agua hirvienda, which it would be if hirviendo had become a fullfledged<br />
adjective. Other forms are likely to follow this path: e.g., one frequently<br />
sees ardiendo in place of ardiente.<br />
In some cases an English present participle translates instead into a <strong>Spanish</strong><br />
past participle:<br />
el hombre sentado a la mesa not *sentando “the man sitting at the table”<br />
i.e., “the man seated at the table”<br />
Future Tense<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> future tense is used very similarly to that in English:<br />
INDICATIVE 121<br />
Mañana iré al médico. “Tomorrow I will go to the doctor.”<br />
Venderemos nuestra casa el año próximo. “We will sell our house next year.”
122 USES OF VERBS<br />
The future tense is also used frequently in if and when clauses:<br />
Si eres bueno Papá Noel te “If you are good Santa Claus will<br />
dará unos regalos. give you some presents.”<br />
Cuando estés listo saldremos. “When you are ready we will leave.”<br />
In the when clause the verb following cuando (estés) is in the present subjunctive,<br />
a use we will discuss in Chapter 12.<br />
The future tense is also used occasionally to denote probability, e.g., in response<br />
to the question What time is it?, one could respond:<br />
Serán las cinco y media. “It will be [around] five thirty.”<br />
Another example:<br />
No la he visto hoy. Estará enferma. “I haven’t seen her today. She must be ill.”<br />
Alternative Forms of Future<br />
In English the future tense is often replaced by a more informal construction<br />
using the verb to go, particularly when the future being referred to is not too<br />
distant:<br />
future: I will do my homework tomorrow.<br />
near-future: I am going to do my homework tomorrow.<br />
The same substitution also occurs in <strong>Spanish</strong>, using the verb ir (“to go”) plus the<br />
preposition a:<br />
future: Mañana haré mis deberes.<br />
El próximo año compraremos un nuevo auto.<br />
near-future: Mañana voy a hacer mis deberes.<br />
El próximo año vamos a comprar un nuevo auto.<br />
As noted earlier, the present tense is also used at times to replace the future, particularly<br />
with regard to the verb ir.<br />
future: Mañana iremos a la playa.<br />
present: Mañana vamos a la playa.<br />
“Tomorrow we will go [we go] to the beach.”
Future Perfect<br />
The <strong>Spanish</strong> use of the future perfect parallels that in English:<br />
Lo habré terminado para el viernes. “I will have finished it by Friday.”<br />
Si llegamos tarde, ya se habrá ido. “If we arrive late, he will have left already.”<br />
Conditional Tense<br />
The conditional tense initially developed to fulfill the role of a future in the past<br />
and only later was extended to situations in the present and future. Its major uses<br />
include:<br />
Future in the Past<br />
He said: I will be there at noon.<br />
Dijo que estaría allí a mediodía. “He said he would be there at noon.”<br />
Similarly,<br />
Pensaba que llegarías más temprano. “I thought that you would arrive earlier.”<br />
Present Conditional Meaning<br />
Supongo que te gustaría comer “I suppose that you would like to eat<br />
un helado. an ice cream.”<br />
Yo no lo haría. “I wouldn’t do it.”<br />
Politeness<br />
Podrías pasarme la mantequilla? “Could you pass me the butter?”<br />
Querrías ir al cine conmigo? “Would you like to go to the cinema with me?”<br />
In this use the conditional is in competition with the imperfect subjunctive<br />
(Chapter 12). Note also that the conditionals for the verbs poder and querer are<br />
irregular.<br />
If-Then Clauses<br />
INDICATIVE 123<br />
The conditional tense is used very frequently in if-then clauses, of the form<br />
Si fueras mejor estudiante, recibirías “If you were a better student, (then)<br />
mejores notas. you would receive better grades.”
124 USES OF VERBS<br />
As the verb in the “if ” clause is in the imperfect subjunctive, we will defer discussion<br />
of this type of phrase until Chapter 12.<br />
Conditional Perfect<br />
Me habría gustado estar allí. “I would have liked to be there.”<br />
The most common use of the conditional perfect is in si clauses, and will be dealt<br />
with in Chapter 12. With the verbs deber, poder, and querer an alternative form of<br />
the conditional perfect is more commonly employed when an infinitive immediately<br />
follows, using the construction conditional haber past participle:<br />
Debería haber hecho mis deberes. “I should have done my homework.”<br />
vs Habría debido hacer mis deberes.<br />
Podría haber ido a París. “I could have gone to Paris.”<br />
vs Habría podido ir a París.<br />
Querría haber ido a París. “I would have liked to go to Paris.”<br />
vs Habría querido ir a París.<br />
Reflexive <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
Many verbs used with a reflexive pronoun—i.e., one which refers to the<br />
subject—have become so identified with a particular meaning that the two have<br />
become permanent partners in a union known as a reflexive verb. 4 Some dictionaries<br />
provide separate entries for these, others include them as part of<br />
the overall definition of the verb. While often the meaning is simply that of<br />
the simple verb used reflexively, in other cases there is a substantially different<br />
nuance. A few common examples:<br />
simple verb reflexive<br />
acordar “to agree” acordarse “to remember”<br />
acostar “to put to bed” acostarse “to go to bed”<br />
casar “to marry” (others) casarse “to marry” (one another)<br />
dormir “to sleep” dormirse “to fall asleep”<br />
ir “to go” irse “to go away”, “to leave”<br />
4 The <strong>Spanish</strong> more accurately call these verbos pronominales (“pronominal verbs”) because in a<br />
number of cases there is no direct reflexive action, e.g., irse (“to leave”).
levantar “to lift” levantarse “to get up” (out of bed)<br />
llamar “to call” llamarse “to be named”<br />
restablecer “to reestablish” restablecerse “to recover” (from illness)<br />
sentar “to seat” sentarse “to sit (down)”<br />
volver “to return” volverse “to become”<br />
El sacerdote casa a Juan y a María. “The priest marries Juan and Maria.”<br />
Juan se casa con María. “Juan marries Maria.”<br />
Acordamos comenzar el trabajo mañana. “We agree(d) to start the work<br />
tomorrow.”<br />
¿No te acuerdas de mí? “Don’t you remember me?”<br />
La policía restablece el orden en la ciudad. “The police restore order in the city.”<br />
Se restablece lentamente de sus heridas. “He recovers slowly from his injuries.”<br />
Hoy voy a la piscina. “Today I go to the swimming pool.”<br />
Se va sin decir nada. “He leaves without saying anything.”<br />
Llamo al médico. “I am calling the doctor.”<br />
Me llamo Carlos. “My name is Carlos.”<br />
The following example shows that it is sometimes necessary to determine from<br />
the context whether the meaning is that of a reflexive verb or of a simple verb<br />
used with a normal direct object pronoun.<br />
Me levanto a las seis. “I get up at six (from the bed).”<br />
Me levanto del sofá. “I raise myself from the sofa.”<br />
Reflexive verb constructions often serve to eliminate the need for possessive<br />
pronouns:<br />
Se pone el sombrero. “He puts on his hat.”<br />
Me lavo las manos. “I wash my hands.”<br />
Me duele la cabeza. “My head hurts.”<br />
Reflexive verbs can also translate the idea of reciprocity:<br />
INDICATIVE 125<br />
Los dos hermanos se abrazan. “The two brothers 5 embrace each other.”<br />
5 Or “The brother and sister . . .”
126 USES OF VERBS<br />
Reflexive constructions can allow transitive verbs to be used intransitively:<br />
El tren se detuvo en la estación. “The train stopped in [or at] the station.”<br />
The verb detener (“to stop”) normally requires a direct object (“to stop something”)<br />
which in this case is provided by the reflexive pronoun acting as a direct<br />
object (“the train stopped itself”).<br />
Some verbs canonly be used reflexively, in which case they are normally shown<br />
in dictionaries with the reflexive pronoun attached at the end of the verb, e.g.,<br />
arrepentirse “to repent” 6<br />
Note on Use of Haber<br />
Sometime during the “Golden Age” of <strong>Spanish</strong> haber lost its primary role as the<br />
verb of possession to tener so that today one says<br />
Tengo muchos amigos. “I have many friends.”<br />
rather than<br />
*He muchos amigos. (French: J’ai beaucoup d’amis.)<br />
At the same time, however, haber consolidated its role as the only auxiliary verb<br />
in <strong>Spanish</strong> (unlike French where both avoir and être “to be” are used). As we have<br />
seen in Chapter 6, all compound <strong>Spanish</strong> verb tenses are formed with haber:<br />
verb form (form of ) haber past participle<br />
compound past present<br />
past perfect imperfect<br />
past anterior (rare) simple past<br />
future perfect future<br />
conditional perfect conditional<br />
compound past subjunctive present subjunctive<br />
past perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive<br />
6 In general, the smaller a dictionary is, the more likely that for a given verb all of the definitions<br />
will involve reflexive uses, and hence the more likely it is that the verb will be shown in its reflexive<br />
form. For example, most dictionaries show abstener (“to abstain”) and atener (“to keep to”) in their<br />
reflexive forms (abstenerse and atenerse) while the more complete RAE and Moliner show them in<br />
their “normal” forms.
Apart from its role as an auxiliary, haber is used very frequently in constructions<br />
of the form “there is” or “there are”. Until the Golden Age, this would have been<br />
written using the old <strong>Spanish</strong> adverb y: 7<br />
Ha y 40 personas en mi casa. “There are 40 people in my house.”<br />
En Inglaterra ha y mucha lluvia. “In England there is much rain.”<br />
The adverb y disappeared from Modern <strong>Spanish</strong> but remained fixed in expressions<br />
like this, so that one now says and writes:<br />
Hay 40 personas en mi casa.<br />
En Inglaterra hay mucha lluvia.<br />
In other words, the y has become “glued” to ha to produce the form hay. This is<br />
the only context in which such agglutination with haber occurs, and only in the<br />
present tense: in “yesterday there were 40 people in my house” the simple past of<br />
haber (hubo) is used with no y either as part of the verb or elsewhere.<br />
Ayer hubo 40 personas en mi casa.<br />
Similarly,<br />
INDICATIVE 127<br />
Mañana habrá 40 personas en mi casa. “Tomorrow there will be ...”<br />
Note that in all cases the third person singular is used in such expressions, so that<br />
one is literally saying there is/was 40 persons.<br />
7 As in modern French: “Il y a 40 personnes dans ma maison.”
CHAPTER 11<br />
Special Topic: Ser versus Estar<br />
The Latin origins of these verbs can provide some assistance in understanding<br />
their different uses. Ser represents a merger of the Latin verbs “to be” (esse) and<br />
“to be seated” (sedere). esse is the ultimate origin of English essence and essential,<br />
sedere of sedentary and residence. Estar is derived from the Latin verb “to<br />
stand” (stare), the origin of English state and status and, via Old French, the<br />
verb to stay.<br />
Thus one can think of ser as applying to the essence of an object, a characteristic<br />
which is seated or innate, as opposed to the less permanent state (or status)<br />
of an object represented by estar. The basic distinction, admittedly not always<br />
clear, is thus that:<br />
Ser expresses the fundamental essence of a thing or being, as well as<br />
its defining characteristics:<br />
physical or moral characteristics<br />
nature<br />
nationality, religion<br />
profession<br />
form<br />
color<br />
weight<br />
what it is made from<br />
ownership<br />
ser o no ser “to be or not to be”<br />
un ser humano “a human being”<br />
es decir “i.e.”, “that is to say”<br />
“La insoportable levedad del ser” “The Unbearable Lightness of Being”<br />
(una novela por Milan Kundera) (a novel by Milan Kundera)<br />
Soy francés. “I am French.”<br />
Somos estudiantes. “We are students.”<br />
Es médico. “He is a doctor.”<br />
Eres muy alto. “You are very tall.”<br />
Dos por cuatro son ocho. “Two times four is eight.”<br />
Ya son las nueve. “It is already nine o’clock.”<br />
El avión es muy grande. “The airplane is very big.”
La bandera es azul. “The flag is blue.”<br />
Es más pesado que un saco de plomo. “It is heavier than a lead sack.”<br />
El libro es mío. “The book is mine.”<br />
Esta casa es de mi tío. “This is my uncle’s house.”<br />
Mi reloj es de oro. “My watch is (made) of gold.”<br />
Soy de Filadelfia. “I am from Philadelphia.”<br />
Estar expresses the state or status in which something exists:<br />
location, whether permanent or temporary<br />
state of mind or being<br />
situation<br />
Los Alpes están en Europa. “The Alps are in Europe.”<br />
Hoy está en casa. “Today he/she is at home.”<br />
Estoy de pie. “I am standing.” (literally “I am on my feet”)<br />
Estamos sin dinero “We are without money.”<br />
Estoy enfermo. “I am ill.”<br />
Estás cansada. “You (fem.) are tired.”<br />
Estoy bien. “I am well.”<br />
Estoy mal. “I am not well.” (“I am sick.”)<br />
El que no está contra nosotros, “For he that is not against us is for us.” (Mark<br />
está con nosotros. 9:40, American Standard Version)<br />
El café está muy caliente. “The coffee is very hot.”<br />
El cielo está encapotado. “The sky is overcast.”<br />
El vino está a un euro el litro. “Wine is one euro per liter.”<br />
Estamos en verano. “We are in summer.”<br />
Estamos de vacaciones. “We are on vacation.”<br />
Hoy estamos a 28 de enero. “Today is January 28.” (“We are at January 28.”)<br />
but: Hoy es 28 de enero. (ser) “Today is January 28.” (fundamental quality)<br />
Consider a piece of green (verde) paper which happens to be wrinkled (arrugado).<br />
This particular piece of paper by its very nature is green; this is an essential<br />
characteristic. On the other hand, the fact that it is wrinkled reflects its status<br />
rather than its essence. It presumably hasn’t always been wrinkled and it is at least<br />
in principle possible that at some point in the future it might return to an unwrinkled<br />
state. Thus<br />
El papel es verde. “The paper is green.”<br />
but<br />
El papel está arrugado. “The paper is wrinkled”<br />
SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 129
130 USES OF VERBS<br />
The same adjective can generally be used with ser and estar, often merely with an<br />
“essence-status” distinction:<br />
Es una chica tranquila. “She is a calm girl.” (essence)<br />
Hoy estás un poco más tranquilo. “Today you are a bit calmer. (status)<br />
Este niño es muy impaciente. “This child is very impatient.” (essence)<br />
Estoy muy impaciente por verlos. “I am very impatient to see them.” (status)<br />
For some adjectives, however, the meaning can be considerably changed:<br />
El hombre es rico. “The man is rich.”<br />
Los tomates están ricos. “The tomatoes are delicious.”<br />
Other examples of adjectives whose meanings can differ:<br />
adjective with ser with estar<br />
aburrido “boring” “bored”<br />
bueno “good” “healthy”, “tasty”, “in good condition”<br />
cansado “tiring” (e.g., journey) “tired”<br />
completo “complete” “full”<br />
consciente “conscious” (of something) “conscious” (state)<br />
divertido “amusing” “amused”<br />
listo “intelligent” “ready”<br />
malo “bad” “ill”, “deteriorated”<br />
orgulloso “haughty” “proud (of )”<br />
verde “green” (color) “unripe”<br />
vivo “alive” (vivid) “alive” (living)<br />
La manzana es verde. “The apple is green.”<br />
La manzana está verde. “The apple is unripe.”<br />
Esta manzana aunque roja está verde. “This apple although red is not ripe.”<br />
Eres aburrido. “You are boring.”<br />
Estás aburrido. “You are bored.”<br />
El ritmo de esta música es muy vivo. “The rhythm of this music is very vibrant.”<br />
El fuego todavía está vivo. “The fire is still burning.”
SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 131<br />
One common difficulty lies with expressions relating to the location where an<br />
event takes place. While it might seem that the verb employed should be estar,<br />
which after all refers to the location of things, it is instead ser which normally is<br />
employed:<br />
El concierto es en el aula principal. “The concert is in the main hall.”<br />
La exhibición es en el museo. “The exhibition is in the museum.”<br />
La Copa del Mundo es en Francia. “The World Cup is in France.”<br />
compared to:<br />
El cine está en el centro comercial. “The cinema is in the shopping center.”<br />
La Mona Lisa está en el museo. “The Mona Lisa is in the museum.”<br />
El estadio donde juegan la Copa del “The stadium where they play the World<br />
Mundo está en Francia. Cup is in France.”<br />
The second group of examples refers to the physical location of a tangible object<br />
and hence uses the verb estar. The first group refers to the realization of an event,<br />
and there is an implicit verb indicating “taking place” which effectively transforms<br />
the phrase into a passive construction requiring the verb ser (see Passive<br />
and “False Passive” Constructions, below):<br />
“The concert is [taking place] in the main hall.”<br />
There are also a number of seeming exceptions to the rules. Thus for the two<br />
similar adjectives feliz (as in Feliz Navidad “Merry Christmas”) and contento<br />
(“happy”) one typically says<br />
Soy feliz. “I am happy.”<br />
but<br />
Estoy contento. “I am happy.”<br />
Being alive is temporary; by analogy so is being dead, whether literally or<br />
figuratively:<br />
Está muerto. “He is dead.”<br />
Está muerto de risa. “He is dying of laughter.”
132 USES OF VERBS<br />
Is one permanently or temporarily married? Most commonly estar is used with<br />
casado, divorciado, separado:<br />
Está casada con un francés. “She is married to a Frenchman.”<br />
Está divorciado/separado. “He is divorced/separated.”<br />
but<br />
Es soltero. “He is single.”<br />
Notes:<br />
1. Usage of ser and estar with adjectives relating to el estado civil (marriage status)<br />
is far from uniform.<br />
2. The basic reason for the distinction casado/soltero is that casado is a past<br />
participle of a verb (casar) and thus expresses the result of a process (that of getting<br />
married), while soltero is an ordinary adjective describing an inherent state.<br />
This, more than the analogy with vivo, is perhaps the better explanation for estar<br />
muerto. 1 This will be discussed in more detail below when we deal with passive<br />
constructions, one of the major areas of confusion between ser and estar.<br />
3. In a legal or administrative sense one normally uses ser with casado and<br />
divorciado.<br />
No podemos casarnos por la Iglesia porque eres divorciado.<br />
“We can’t get married in the Church because you are divorced.”<br />
4. Soltero and virgen, which in the past have always been associated with ser because<br />
they describe innate conditions, are now used increasingly with estar. This<br />
presumably reflects both the analogy with casado and divorciado and the recognition<br />
that as with other conditions susceptible to change, estar is more appropriate.<br />
The same logic would suggest that one might say *estoy estudiante, but this<br />
is rarely if ever heard.<br />
5. One of the relatively few things which can be said with some confidence is<br />
that bien and mal are used only with estar. 2<br />
6. There is considerable regional variation in usage, and one person’s ser is<br />
often another’s estar. Usage frequently is not in accord with “the law.”<br />
1 Muerto is the irregular past participle of morir (“to die”).<br />
2 In the expressions“todo fue bien” and“todo me fue bien”, fue represents the past tense of the verb<br />
ir rather than that of ser (so that the literal meaning is “all went well”). In a phrase like “el mensaje fue<br />
bien recibido”, the adverb “bien” modifies the past participle “recibido”, not the past tense “fue”.
Passive and “False Passive” Constructions<br />
SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 133<br />
As in English, the past participle of transitive verbs can be used adjectivally in<br />
passive constructions:<br />
active<br />
Cervantes escribió “Don Quijote” “Cervantes wrote “Don Quixote” in the<br />
en el siglo XVII. seventeenth century.”<br />
passive<br />
El libro fue escrito en el siglo XVII. “The book was written in the seventeenth<br />
century.”<br />
Este edificio fue construido en 1842. “This building was constructed in 1842.”<br />
Las abejas son atraídas por las flores. “Bees are attracted by flowers.”<br />
In each of these examples, the passive construction can be converted into an<br />
active one (and vice versa) in the same tense, e.g., “flowers attract bees” (present),<br />
“[somebody] constructed the house in 1842” (past).<br />
There is a related type of construction, sometimes called false passive, which<br />
involves the result (status, condition) of an action completed in an earlier time<br />
period. Compare the first four sentences below which describe the action of shutting<br />
a door—<br />
1. The door is shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, present<br />
2. The door was shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, simple past<br />
3. The door has been shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, compound past<br />
4. The door had been shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, past perfect<br />
with the next two sentences which describe the status of the door—<br />
5. The door is shut. false passive, present<br />
6. When I arrived, the door was shut. false passive, past (“imperfect”)<br />
The fifth sentence describes the present status of a past action, the sixth the past<br />
status of a prior action. In contrast to each of the first four sentences, 3 neither can<br />
be converted into an active form without changing the tense.<br />
3 The doorkeeper shuts/shut/has shut/had shut the door.
134 USES OF VERBS<br />
In English the distinction between true and false passives is of little practical<br />
importance, since both are constructed using the verb to be. In <strong>Spanish</strong> the<br />
difference assumes much greater significance because true passives are constructed<br />
with ser, while false passives use estar. <strong>Spanish</strong> thus avoids the inherent<br />
ambiguity in the English passive (the door is shut, the door was shut) but at the cost<br />
of making one choose explicitly between ser and estar. Thus,<br />
passive (ser)<br />
1. La puerta es cerrada por el portero. “The door is [being] shut by the<br />
(present) doorkeeper.”<br />
2. La puerta fue cerrada por el portero. “The door was shut by the doorkeeper.”<br />
(simple past)<br />
3. La puerta ha sido cerrada por “The door has been shut by the<br />
el portero. doorkeeper.”<br />
(compound past)<br />
4. La puerta había sido cerrada por “The door had been shut by the<br />
el portero. doorkeeper.”<br />
(past perfect)<br />
false passive (estar)<br />
5. La puerta está cerrada. “The door is shut.”<br />
(present)<br />
6. Cuando llegué, la puerta estaba “When I arrived the door was shut.”<br />
cerrada.<br />
(imperfect)<br />
Similarly,<br />
La casa está construida con ladrillos. “The house is of brick construction<br />
[is constructed with bricks].”<br />
La casa es construida con ladrillos “The house is (being) constructed with<br />
[por la empresa Jiménez]. bricks [by Jiménez Co.].”<br />
El nuevo museo fue inaugurado la “The new museum was inaugurated last<br />
semana pasada; esta semana está week; this week it is open every day.”<br />
abierto todos los días.<br />
Los actores son aplaudidos por todos; “The actors are applauded by everyone;<br />
están cubiertos de sudor. they are covered with sweat.”
A potential confusion arises if one compares:<br />
SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 135<br />
La casa está construida con ladrillos El reloj es de oro. (“The watch is of<br />
gold.”)<br />
Both appear to relate to an essential, embedded, nature of an object, yet the first<br />
uses estar, the second ser. The fundamental difference is that in the first case the<br />
introduction of an explicit verb (construir) forces one to make a choice between<br />
process (ser) and outcome (estar).<br />
There are a number of stative verbs which relate essentially to a process and<br />
have no definite outcome, e.g. love, like, hate, envy, esteem, admire, search, contemplate,<br />
listen, know. These are (in principle at least) used only with ser:<br />
El Prado es muy conocido. “The Prado is very well known.”<br />
La reina es amada por todos. “The queen is loved by everyone”<br />
The following is normally a safe way to determine which verb to use:<br />
If there is an explicit agent introduced with por, or if one can add the<br />
agent without changing the sense (“The Prado is very well known . . . by<br />
all connoisseurs of art”), then a true passive is involved and ser is used.<br />
However, there are some verbs with a seeming agent introduced by por which<br />
nonetheless can be, and often have to be, used with estar. These include verbs<br />
whose English translation would be occupied, surrounded, covered, composed of,<br />
formed.<br />
La ciudad está rodeada por altas “The city is surrounded by high mountains.”<br />
montañas<br />
El senado está constituido por un “The Senate consists of (is constituted by)<br />
diputado de cada distrito del país. one deputy from each district of the<br />
country.”<br />
El suelo está cubierto por dos metros “The ground is covered by (with) two meters<br />
de nieve. of snow.”<br />
El tercer piso del hotel está ocupado “The third floor of the hotel is occupied by<br />
por turistas ingleses. English tourists.”<br />
In each of these examples, the noun following por is not really an active agent and<br />
in most cases could be replaced by another preposition (generally de or con)<br />
without changing the meaning.
136 USES OF VERBS<br />
Most of these verbs can also be used with ser, when the focus is on the process<br />
rather the result or status, something which is much easier to conceive when one<br />
is looking backward and hence uses the past tense:<br />
En menos de dos días, la ciudad fue “In less than two days, the city was<br />
rodeada por el ejército enemigo. surrounded by [true passive] the enemy<br />
army.”<br />
versus<br />
Cuando llegué la ciudad estaba “When I arrived the city was<br />
rodeada por el ejército enemigo. surrounded by [false passive] the<br />
enemy army.”<br />
Similarly,<br />
En 15 minutos el suelo fue totalmente “In 15 minutes the ground was covered<br />
cubierto por la nieve (de nieve). by snow.”<br />
El edificio fue ocupado por dos mil “The building was occupied by 2,000<br />
estudiantes para protestar contra la students to protest against the war.”<br />
guerra.<br />
This distinction between the use of ser and estar in “true” and “false” passive constructions<br />
is relatively recent. Thus in Don Quijote, one finds the phrase<br />
—Luego, ¿no es baptizada?—replicó “Then, she is not baptized?” replied<br />
Luscinda. 4 Luscinda.<br />
where the verb ser is used in a false passive construction (she was baptized in the<br />
past, she is presently in the state or condition of having been baptized). In Modern<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> this would be expressed as:<br />
—Luego, ¿no está bautizada?—replicó false passive, present of estar<br />
Luscinda.<br />
or<br />
—Luego, ¿no fue bautizada?—replicó true passive, simple past of ser<br />
Luscinda.<br />
or<br />
—Luego, ¿no ha sido bautizada?— true passive, compound past of ser<br />
replicó Luscinda.<br />
4 Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (Bogota:<br />
Panamericana, 1998), p. 365 (primera parte, capítulo 37).
SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 137<br />
Passive constructions are far less common in <strong>Spanish</strong> than English, as <strong>Spanish</strong> often<br />
replaces them with either an active or reflexive construction. Thus, the passive<br />
I am very surprised by your visit can be reformulated actively as:<br />
Me sorprende mucho tu visita. “Your visit greatly surprises me.”<br />
When no obvious subject is in sight, a reflexive or “pseudo-passive” construction<br />
is frequently employed using the reflexive pronoun se.<br />
literal meaning practical meaning<br />
Aquí se habla inglés. “Here English speaks “English is spoken<br />
itself.” here.”<br />
Aquí se construye una casa. “Here a house builds “Here a house is being<br />
itself.” built.”<br />
Se prohibe entrar. “To enter prohibits “It is prohibited to<br />
itself.” enter.”<br />
¿Cómo se hace esto? “How does this do “How does one do<br />
itself ?” this?”<br />
Note that with this type of construction the verb is always in the singular: se<br />
hablan (en) inglés would mean “they speak English among themselves.” Hablan<br />
inglés, without the pronoun, would be an acceptable substitute: “they speak English”<br />
(in general, not only among themselves).<br />
The popularity of this “pseudo-passive” has led to its expansion to areas of active<br />
meaning:<br />
Se me ocurre una idea. “An idea occurs to me.”<br />
Se le olvidó hacer sus deberes. “He forgot to do his homework.”<br />
Se nos robó el carro. “They robbed us of our car.”<br />
The literal translations of these phrases are “an idea occurs itself to me”, “to do<br />
his homework forgot itself to him”, and “the car robbed itself to us”.
CHAPTER 12<br />
Subjunctive<br />
Only traces of the subjunctive remain in Modern English:<br />
(a) the third person singular, where the present indicative ending -s contrasts<br />
with the “null” subjunctive ending (he does versus he do);<br />
(b) the verb to be, whose present subjunctive for all six conjugations is “be”<br />
(if I be, if you be, etc.); and<br />
(c) the use of were rather than was in statements of the form if I were, if he<br />
were, were he to (past subjunctive of to be).<br />
Consider, for example, the following phrase pairs:<br />
indicative subjunctive<br />
He is here; he was here. I wish that he were here.<br />
He does it. It is essential that he do it.<br />
He is punished. I demand that he be punished.<br />
He leaves. It is my desire that he leave at once.<br />
He is elected. God forbid that he be elected.<br />
The king lives. Long live the king.<br />
It is so; it was so. If only it were so!<br />
He understands. In order that he understand ...<br />
I am wicked. “If I be wicked, woe unto me . . .” (Job 10:15)<br />
It pleases the court. “If it please the court . . .”<br />
If John was at the meeting last night he certainly maintained a very low profile.<br />
versus<br />
If John were at the meeting, it would make a big difference.<br />
Some General Comments on the Use of the Subjunctive<br />
The subjunctive is often explained as representing the expression of an opinion<br />
or state of mind of the speaker, in the form of a wish, order, sentiment, or judgment.<br />
Its use in <strong>Spanish</strong> (as well as its traces in English) generally obeys these
SUBJUNCTIVE 139<br />
precepts. The difficulty for the student of <strong>Spanish</strong>, and the advanced practitioner<br />
as well, is that in its finer detail the use of subjunctive does not represent a fully consistent<br />
system. This can perhaps best be illustrated by contrasting the use of subjunctives<br />
in <strong>Spanish</strong>, French, and Italian, each of which derived both the form and<br />
use of its subjunctives from a common source. Consider the following sentences:<br />
1.When I am rich I will buy a house.<br />
2. I think that you are right.<br />
3. He is the richest man that I know.<br />
4. I will call you when I arrive.<br />
5.Take an umbrella, in case it rains.<br />
6. If I were rich, I would buy a castle.<br />
7. I wonder if this is true.<br />
8. Although it is raining, I will go for a walk.<br />
9. Even if it rains, I will go for a walk.<br />
Translated into the three languages, these phrases would typically employ the<br />
following moods for the italicized verb:<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> French Italian<br />
1. subjunctive indicative (future) indicative (future)<br />
2. indicative indicative subjunctive<br />
3. indicative subjunctive subjunctive<br />
4. subjunctive indicative (future) indicative (future)<br />
5. subjunctive indicative (conditional) subjunctive<br />
6. subjunctive (imperfect) indicative (imperfect) subjunctive (imperfect)<br />
7. indicative indicative subjunctive<br />
8. indicative subjunctive subjunctive<br />
9. subjunctive indicative subjunctive<br />
In each case, the <strong>Spanish</strong> usage differs from one or both of the others; nor is there<br />
uniformity between the French and Italian forms. Any “logical” explanation of<br />
why the subjunctive is used as it is in one of these languages is unlikely to convince<br />
practitioners of the other two.<br />
The uses of the subjunctive in <strong>Spanish</strong> fall into two general categories, depending<br />
upon whether such use is obligatory or optional. Contrary to what might<br />
be one’s initial thought, its correct use is more important in the second case than<br />
in the first. That is, an error with an obligatory subjunctive does not impede the<br />
accurate conveyance of what the person is trying to say, whereas in an optional<br />
one it is likely to do so.
140 USES OF VERBS<br />
Thus in English if one incorrectly says<br />
*I wish that he leaves. rather than I wish that he leave.<br />
this will not prevent anyone understanding what the speaker is trying to say. Converse<br />
examples (i.e., of optional subjunctives) are rather hard to come up with in<br />
English, but consider the following pair of sentences:<br />
subjunctive Though I be sick I will go to school tomorrow<br />
(i.e., I am not sick at the moment but even if I am sick tomorrow<br />
I will still go to school).<br />
indicative Though I am sick I will go to school tomorrow<br />
(i.e., I am sick at the moment but still intend to go to school<br />
tomorrow).<br />
While archaic, the first phrase is grammatically correct (native English speakers<br />
would almost certainly say “Even if I am sick” . . .). The incorrect use of one of<br />
these forms in place of the other would convey inaccurate information as to the<br />
current health of the speaker.<br />
Numerous books have been written on the <strong>Spanish</strong> subjunctive 1 (as well as the<br />
French, Italian, etc.) to attempt to come up with a coherent theory for its use. The<br />
following is a somewhat typical explanation: 2<br />
...podemos decir que el indicativo presupone la afirmación o negación<br />
de un hecho, esto es, el hablante se compromete con la verdad de lo que<br />
dice, en tanto que el subjuntivo carece de semejante presuposición, el<br />
hablante adopta una postura neutra acerca de la verdad de lo dicho;<br />
esto es particularmente claro, por ejemplo, en la alternancia<br />
Aunque no sabe nada, aprobará/Aunque no sepa nada, aprobará,<br />
donde la carencia de conocimientos tan solo se constata en el primer caso.<br />
which can be translated as:<br />
...we can say that the indicative presupposes the affirmation or negation of<br />
a fact, i.e., the speaker commits himself to the truth of what he says, while<br />
the subjunctive lacks a similar presumption, the speaker adopting a neutral<br />
1 The reader is recommended at an appropriate stage to refer to one of the <strong>Spanish</strong>-language texts<br />
on the subjunctive having exercises and answers, e.g., Borrego, Asencio, and Prieto (1992) or Porto<br />
Dapena (1991), both of which also contain extensive bibliographies.<br />
2 Porto Dapena, pp. 33 –34.
SUBJUNCTIVE 141<br />
posture with regard to the truth of what is said; this is particularly clear, for<br />
example, in the alternation<br />
Although I know nothing I will approve (it) / Although I might not know anything,<br />
I will approve (it),<br />
where the lack of knowledge is evident [and hence the indicative is used]<br />
only in the first case.<br />
Imperfect Subjunctive I versus Imperfect Subjunctive II<br />
So why are there two different forms for the imperfect subjunctive, and how, if at<br />
all, does their usage differ? The easiest way to answer these questions is to look at<br />
the historical origins of the two forms:<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> form Latin origin<br />
imperfect subjunctive I (-ra form) indicative past perfect<br />
imperfect subjunctive II (-se form) subjunctive past perfect<br />
The imperfect subjunctive I thus started off life as an indicative form and has undergone<br />
the following metamorphoses:<br />
indicative past perfect S indicative conditional S imperfect<br />
subjunctive<br />
While passing through these stages, it maintained, at least in part, its previous<br />
meanings, so that in Modern <strong>Spanish</strong>, apart from its principal use as an imperfect<br />
subjunctive, the -ra form continues to have residual uses both as a conditional<br />
and as an indicative past perfect. The -se form cannot be used in either of<br />
these two manners; in all other (i.e., subjunctive) uses the -se and -ra forms can<br />
be used interchangeably.<br />
-ra Form Used with Conditional Meaning<br />
In the past, the -ra forms of all verbs could be used with conditional meaning.<br />
This usage has now largely been restricted to the auxiliary verb haber and the<br />
“modal” verbs querer, poder, and (more rarely) deber. Thus,<br />
often instead of<br />
hubiera hecho habría hecho “I (he) would have done”<br />
Quisiera vino. Querría vino. “I (he) would like wine.”<br />
Pudiera haberlo hecho. Podría haberlo hecho. “I (he) could have done it.”<br />
Habría podido hacerlo.
142 USES OF VERBS<br />
less often<br />
Debiera hacerlo. Debería hacerlo. “I (he) should do it.”<br />
Many students become confused with this conditional use of the -ra form and<br />
make the mistake of employing the -se form, e.g.,<br />
*Quisiese un vino tinto, por favor. “I would like a red wine, please.”<br />
To avoid this problem, one can either constantly remind oneself of the fundamental<br />
rule that<br />
the -se form can never be used in situations where its value is not<br />
subjunctive<br />
or one can avoid all confusion by using only the -ra form. This is certainly the<br />
recommended strategy for the new student, particularly since outside of Spain<br />
the large majority of <strong>Spanish</strong> speakers seem to use this form exclusively. Within<br />
Spain there are many who continue to use the -se form and it is not unusual to<br />
find authors, particularly those affecting a literary style, using both forms, sometimes<br />
even in the same sentence.<br />
-ra Form Used with Meaning of Indicative Past Perfect<br />
Unlike the use of -ra forms with conditional meanings, this use is relatively rare<br />
and is generally discouraged by grammarians, e.g.,<br />
Se utiliza cantaras como arcaísmo o dialectismo en lugar de la forma compuesta<br />
habías cantado, con valor modal de indicativo e indicando anterioridad<br />
a un punto del pretérito. 3<br />
Cantaras is used as an archaism or dialectalism in place of the compound<br />
form [i.e., indicative past perfect] habías cantado, with the “value” of the indicative<br />
mode and indicating [action] prior to a point in the past.<br />
3 Alarcos Llorach (p. 199).
SUBJUNCTIVE 143<br />
Nonetheless, one occasionally finds examples in literary and journalistic<br />
works, e.g.,<br />
Confirmó las noticias que ya diera el ministro hace unos días.<br />
instead of<br />
Confirmó las noticias que ya había dado el ministro hace unos días.<br />
“He confirmed the news which the minister had given several days earlier.”<br />
Correspondence of Tenses<br />
We have seen that <strong>Spanish</strong> has five simple tenses in the indicative: present, simple<br />
past, imperfect, future, and conditional. As there are only two tenses for the subjunctive,<br />
it is clear that these have double (or treble) duty. In general, indicative<br />
tenses correspond to subjunctive ones in the following manner:<br />
indicative subjunctive<br />
present<br />
future<br />
S present<br />
imperfect<br />
simple past S imperfect (I or II)<br />
conditional<br />
These correspondences extend to compound tenses as well:<br />
compound past he notado<br />
future perfect habré notado<br />
past perfect había notado<br />
conditional perfect habría notado<br />
Uses of the Subjunctive<br />
indicative subjunctive<br />
S haya notado<br />
S hubiera/hubiese notado<br />
The major uses of the subjunctive can be broadly divided among the following<br />
categories:<br />
1. desire, fear, order<br />
2. sentiment or judgment
144 USES OF VERBS<br />
3. possibility, probability, doubt<br />
4.”if . . . then” and other conditional clauses<br />
5. Excluding phrases: unless, instead of, etc.<br />
6. adjectival clauses: indefinite or negative<br />
7. adverbial clauses ( purpose, temporal, although, as if, if only)<br />
1. Desire, Fear, Order<br />
The unifying idea in this group is that of contrasting the actual situation with a<br />
hypothetical version: a desired one, a feared one, etc. Examples using the present<br />
and compound past subjunctive:<br />
(a) Wish/Desire/Fear<br />
Quiero que salga de aquí inmediatamente. “I wish that he leave immediately.”<br />
Desea que nosotros hagamos todo el<br />
trabajo.<br />
“He wishes that we do all the work.”<br />
Espero que España gane la Copa del<br />
Mundo.<br />
“I hope Spain wins the World Cup.”<br />
Temo que España no gane la Copa del “I fear that Spain will not win the<br />
Mundo este año. World Cup this year.”<br />
Espero que ya hayas leído este libro. “I hope that you have already read<br />
this book.”<br />
Espero que hayas leído este libro dentro “I hope that in a week you will<br />
de una semana. have read this book.”<br />
(b) Command/Request/Permission<br />
Nos manda que salgamos de aquí. “He orders that we leave.”<br />
Te aconsejo que hagas tus deberes hoy. “I advise that you do your homework<br />
today.”<br />
Te pido que me des tu dinero. “I request that you give me your money.”<br />
Me mandan que yo asista en su lugar. “They order that I take his place.”<br />
Note that because of the double duty of the present subjunctive, there can be ambiguity<br />
as to the precise meaning, e.g., hayas leído, which can refer either to the<br />
past (you have read) or the future (you will have read).
SUBJUNCTIVE 145<br />
As with English, in many cases an infinitive construction can be used in place<br />
of the subjunctive. This is obligatory in the case of wish /desire verbs when the two<br />
clauses have the same subject:<br />
Quiero salir de aquí inmediatamente. “I want to leave from here<br />
immediately.”<br />
not *Quiero que (yo) salga de aquí.<br />
Espero ganar una medalla de oro. “I hope to win a gold medal.”<br />
not *Espero que (yo) gane una medalla<br />
de oro.<br />
Command/request /permission verbs in principle do not normally permit the subjects<br />
of the two clauses to be the same (*I order that I do it) and hence are not subject<br />
to the above rule. Nevertheless, with these verbs an infinitive construction is<br />
almost always possible and frequently preferred, although it is not wrong to use<br />
the subjunctive.<br />
Nos manda salir de aquí. “He orders us to leave.”<br />
Te aconsejo hacer tus deberes hoy. “I advise you to do your homework today.”<br />
Te pido darme tu dinero. “I request you to give me your money.”<br />
Me mandan asistir en su lugar. “They order me to take his place.”<br />
Some examples using the imperfect and past perfect subjunctive:<br />
Esperaba que España ganara la “I was hoping that Spain would win the the<br />
Copa del Mundo. World Cup.”<br />
Esperaba que llegaran a tiempo. “I was hoping that they arrived/would<br />
arrive on time.”<br />
Me mandaron que yo asistiera en “They ordered that I take his place.”<br />
su lugar.<br />
(or Me mandaron asistir en su lugar.)<br />
Esperaba que ya hubieras acabado “I was hoping that you had already finished<br />
con tus deberes antes de llegar. your homework before arriving.”<br />
Esperaba que hubieras acabado “I was hoping that you would have finished<br />
con tus deberes antes del próximo your homework before the coming<br />
fin de semana. weekend.”<br />
The last pair of examples illustrate that the subjunctive past perfect (hubieras<br />
acabado) can correspond to either an indicative past perfect (habías acabado) or<br />
to an indicative conditional perfect (habrías acabado).
146 USES OF VERBS<br />
It is also worth noting that esperar is one of the more semantically charged<br />
verbs in <strong>Spanish</strong>: apart from “to hope” it can also mean “to expect” or “to wait<br />
for.” Thus the first phrase above could also be translated as “I was expecting that<br />
Spain would win the World Cup.”<br />
2. Sentiment or Judgment<br />
(a) Sentiment<br />
Me alegra que te encuentres mejor. “I am glad that you are (find yourself )<br />
better.”<br />
Me molesta que lo hagas. “It bothers me that you do it.”<br />
Me molestaba que lo hicieras. “It bothered me that you were doing it /<br />
did it.”<br />
Me extraña que María esté ausente. “I am surprised that Maria is absent.”<br />
Note again the potential ambiguities: in the last phrase for example, I may have<br />
just been informed that Maria will not be at the meeting tomorrow, in which case<br />
the English translation would be “I am surprised that Maria will be absent.”<br />
(b) Judgment or Valuation<br />
These are frequently of the form “it is ...”<br />
Es normal que llueva en el verano. “It’s normal that it rain(s) in the<br />
summer.”<br />
Es preciso que terminemos hoy. “It’s necessary that we finish today.”<br />
Fue necesario que termináramos ayer. “It was necessary that we finish<br />
yesterday.”<br />
Hace falta que compres leche. “It is necessary that you buy milk.”<br />
Parece injusto que seamos tan pobres. “It seems unjust that we are so poor.”<br />
Parecía injusto que fuéramos “It seemed unjust that we were<br />
tan pobres. so poor.”<br />
Lo mejor es que nos lo digas. “The best thing is that you tell us.”<br />
Es horrible que todavía no lo “It’s horrible that they still have<br />
hayan hecho. not done it.”<br />
We shall see below that parecer (“to appear, seem”) is most commonly used with<br />
the indicative; here the subjunctive is used because the expression parece injusto<br />
expresses a judgment or evaluation and is essentially equivalent to es injusto.<br />
As with the first group, when the subjects of the two clauses are the same,<br />
an infinitive construction is preferred, if not required. This is also the case for<br />
impersonal constructions (“it is necessary”, etc.)
SUBJUNCTIVE 147<br />
Me molesta no poder ir al cine. “It bothers me not to be able to go to the<br />
cinema.”<br />
Te hace falta comprar leche. “You have to buy milk.”<br />
Es necesario terminar antes “It is necessary to finish by eight o’clock.”<br />
de las ocho.<br />
Lo mejor es no decirles nada. “The best thing is to tell them nothing.”<br />
3. Possibility, Probability, Doubt<br />
Consider the following hierarchy of likelihood:<br />
impossible S improbable S possible S probable S certain<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> generally uses the subjunctive with all except the last.<br />
Era imposible que viniera. “It was impossible that he come.”<br />
Es posible que vengamos. “It’s possible that we will come.”<br />
Puede ser que venga mañana. “It’s possible that he will come tomorrow.”<br />
Es probable que vaya al parque. “It’s likely that I will go to the park.”<br />
Yo dudo que lo haya hecho. “I doubt that he has done/will have done it.”<br />
Dudaba que ella llegara a tiempo. “I doubted that she would arrive on time.”<br />
but<br />
Estoy seguro que ella llegará “I am certain that she will arrive tomorrow.”<br />
mañana.<br />
Note:<br />
(i) The use of llegara (imperfect subjunctive) and llegará (future) in the last<br />
two examples is differentiated only by a written accent. 4<br />
(ii) In several of the expressions there is ambiguity as to whether the verb<br />
refers to third person singular or first person singular.<br />
There are a number of adverbs which mean “perhaps” or “possibly”:<br />
quizás (or quizá), literally “who knows” (from Old <strong>Spanish</strong> qui sabe)<br />
tal vez<br />
posiblemente<br />
acaso<br />
a lo mejor<br />
4Orally, the two forms are of course distinguished by differing stress accent: on the final syllable<br />
for llegará, on the penultimate for llegara.
148 USES OF VERBS<br />
All except a lo mejor generally take the subjunctive when they are used before<br />
the verb:<br />
Quizás no fueran minutos sino “Perhaps it was not minutes but<br />
segundos. seconds.”<br />
Tal vez lo hagamos mañana. “Perhaps we will do it tomorrow.”<br />
Posiblemente sea la mejor novela “It is possibly the best novel of<br />
del año. the year.”<br />
Acaso estemos todos equivocados. “Perhaps we are all wrong.”<br />
They are always used with the indicative when they follow the verb.<br />
¿No entiendes, acaso, lo que te “Perhaps you don’t understand what we<br />
decimos? are saying to you?”<br />
Esta solución es quizás la mejor. “This solution is perhaps the best.”<br />
A lo mejor always takes the indicative, regardless of position.<br />
A lo mejor vendrá mañana. “Perhaps he will come tomorrow.”<br />
When one “thinks” something, the process apparently involves fewer doubts<br />
in <strong>Spanish</strong> than in Italian, and the indicative rather than the subjunctive is thus<br />
(almost always) used:<br />
Creo que vendrá mañana. “I think he will come tomorrow.”<br />
Similarly, the indicative is used in expressions of the form parece que (“it appears<br />
that”) when this refers to likelihood and not to appearance.<br />
Parece que lloverá mañana. “It looks like it will rain tomorrow.”<br />
Parece que han descubierto un “It seems that they have discovered a<br />
nuevo planeta. new planet.”<br />
When constructions in the “certainty” range are put in negative form, they move<br />
into the uncertainty range and are generally used with the subjunctive:<br />
No creo que venga mañana. “I don’t think he will come tomorrow.”<br />
No creía que Dios existiera. “He didn’t believe God existed.”<br />
No estoy seguro que venga mañana. “I am not sure that he will come<br />
tomorrow.”<br />
No me parece que sea verdad. “It doesn’t seem (likely) to me that<br />
it is true.”
SUBJUNCTIVE 149<br />
When some expressions of the “doubtful” type are put in the negative, they become<br />
expressions of (near) certainty and hence are used with the indicative. Thus,<br />
Dudo que venga mañana. “I doubt that he will come tomorrow.”<br />
but<br />
No dudo que vendrá mañana. “I do not doubt that he will come tomorrow.”<br />
4.”If . . . then” and Other Conditional Clauses<br />
In <strong>Spanish</strong>, as in English, there are essentially three types of conditional phrases,<br />
two in the present (possible and purely hypothetical) and one in the past (hypothetical<br />
only); the latter can in turn be subdivided into two categories, depending<br />
upon whether the main (resultant) clause refers to the past or present.<br />
ENGLISH<br />
possible hypothetical<br />
present If I win the lottery I will If I were rich I would buy a<br />
buy a new house. new house.<br />
past — (a) If I had won the lottery, I would<br />
have bought a new house.<br />
(b) If I had won the lottery, today<br />
I would be a very rich man.<br />
SPANISH<br />
present Si gano la loto compraré Si fuera rico compraría una<br />
una nueva casa. nueva casa.<br />
past — (a) Si hubiera ganado la loto, habría<br />
comprado una nueva casa.<br />
(b) Si hubiera ganado la loto, hoy<br />
sería un hombre muy rico.<br />
The use of <strong>Spanish</strong> verb tenses in such phrases, which to a certain extent parallels<br />
the English usage, is as follows:<br />
if then<br />
present possible present indicative future (less commonly present<br />
or imperative)<br />
present hypothetical imperfect subjunctive conditional<br />
past hypothetical past perfect subjunctive (a) conditional perfect<br />
(b) conditional
150 USES OF VERBS<br />
Since<br />
past perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive of haber past participle<br />
conditional perfect conditional of haber past participle<br />
the use of verb tenses can be summarized as:<br />
if then<br />
possible present indicative future<br />
hypothetical imperfect subjunctive conditional<br />
It is essential to keep in mind that the indicative future or conditional can never<br />
be used in the if clause, although they are often used in the corresponding English<br />
phrases:<br />
Si me ayudas mañana, te daré 50 pesos. “If you will help me tomorrow,<br />
I will give you 50 pesos.”<br />
(not *ayudarás)<br />
Si estudiaras más, recibirías mejores notas. “If you would study more, you<br />
would get better grades.”<br />
(not *estudiarías)<br />
We remarked previously that the -ra form of the subjunctive is often used in place<br />
of the conditional for several verbs, including haber. Thus in place of the perfect<br />
conditional (habría comprado) one frequently finds the past perfect subjunctive<br />
(hubiera comprado):<br />
Si hubiera ganado la loto, hubiera “If I had won the lottery, I would<br />
comprado una nueva casa. have bought a new house.”<br />
One of the obvious advantages of this alternative is that the identical verb form<br />
is then used in both the if and then clauses.<br />
Other examples:<br />
Si llueve mañana no iré al parque. “If it rains tomorrow I will not go to<br />
the park.”<br />
Será un desastre si llueve mañana. “It will be a disaster if it rains<br />
tomorrow.”<br />
Sería un desastre si lloviera mañana. “It would be a disaster if it were to rain<br />
tomorrow.”
SUBJUNCTIVE 151<br />
Si has leído todos estos libros, el “If you have read all these books the test<br />
examen será fácil para ti. will be easy for you.”<br />
Habría (hubiera) sido un desastre “It would have been a disaster if that<br />
si ese hombre hubiera ganado man had won the elections.”<br />
las elecciones.<br />
Si hubieras estudiado más cuando “If you had studied more when young,<br />
joven, ahora serías médico. today you would be a doctor.”<br />
Conditional Phrases with Conjunctions Other than “If”<br />
As in English, conditional phrases can also be expressed with conjunctions other<br />
than if, e.g.,<br />
en (el) caso de que “in case that”, “if ”<br />
a condición de que “on condition that”<br />
siempre y cuando, siempre que 5 “provided that”<br />
con tal (de) que “provided that”<br />
The rules are the same as for conditional clauses with si, with the exception<br />
that in a present “possible” conditional the present subjunctive is used in the<br />
conditional part of the phrase rather than the present indicative. Thus the correspondences<br />
are:<br />
if then<br />
present possible present subjunctive future<br />
present hypothetical imperfect subjunctive conditional<br />
past hypothetical past perfect subjunctive (a) conditional perfect<br />
(b) conditional<br />
En caso de que llueva esta noche, “In the event that it rains tonight I will<br />
no iré al parque mañana. not go to the park tomorrow.”<br />
En caso de que haya llovido anoche, “In the event that it rained last night<br />
no iré al parque hoy. [it may have, but I haven’t looked outside<br />
yet] I will not go to the park today.”<br />
En el caso de que ese hombre “In the event that that man were to win the<br />
ganara las elecciones, sería un elections it would be a disaster for the<br />
desastre para el país. country.”<br />
5 Siempre que can also be used in temporal clauses (“whenever”), in which case the verb can be<br />
either subjunctive or indicative; see number 7(b).
152 USES OF VERBS<br />
En el caso de que ese hombre “In the event that that man had won the<br />
hubiera ganado las elecciones, elections it would have been a great<br />
habría (hubiera) sido un gran disaster for the country.”<br />
desastre para el país.<br />
Compraré los tiquetes a condición “I will buy the tickets provided that you<br />
de que (con tal de que, siempre y give me sufficient money.”<br />
cuando, etc.) me des el dinero<br />
suficiente.<br />
5. Excluding Phrases<br />
There are a range of “excluding” conjunctions governing phrases which express<br />
a condition or something contrary to reality, in both cases calling for the use of<br />
the subjunctive:<br />
a menos que “unless”<br />
a no ser que “unless”<br />
sin que “without”<br />
lejos de que “far from”<br />
en lugar de que “instead of ”<br />
en vez de que “instead of ”<br />
A no ser que uno se convierta en perro, “Unless one converts oneself into a dog,<br />
nunca entenderá lo que ellos piensan. one will never understand what they<br />
think.”<br />
Argentina no pagará la deuda a menos “Argentina will not pay (its) debt unless<br />
que haya un acuerdo con el FMI. there is an agreement with the IMF.”<br />
En este país no se pueden comprar “In this country one can’t buy certain<br />
ciertos artículos a no ser que se sea articles unless one is a foreigner or<br />
extranjero o se obtenga autorización obtains authorization from the<br />
del gobierno. government.”<br />
Se fue sin que nadie lo supiera. “He left without anyone noticing it.”<br />
There are several excluding conjunctions which are used with the subjunctive<br />
when they have a conditional or counter-reality sense, but with the indicative<br />
when referring to a real situation:<br />
excepto que “except”, “unless”<br />
salvo que “unless”, “save that”
subjunctive<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE 153<br />
No quiero nada, salvo que salgas de “I don’t want anything, except that you<br />
aquí inmediatamente. leave immediately.”<br />
O’Neal descarta jugar en Atenas ’04 “O’Neal rules out playing in Athens<br />
salvo que el técnico sea Phil Jackson. ’04 unless the coach is Phil Jackson.”<br />
indicative<br />
Ningún problema, salvo que he perdido “No problem, except that I have lost my<br />
mi pasaporte y todo mi dinero. passport and all my money.”<br />
6. Adjective Clauses: Indefinite or Negative<br />
An adjective clause is typically introduced by que or quien (pl. quienes). When it<br />
is specific and non-negative the indicative is used:<br />
Tengo un secretario que habla inglés. “I have a secretary who speaks English.”<br />
But when the reference is either nonspecific or negative the subjunctive is generally<br />
used:<br />
Busco un secretario que hable inglés. “I am looking for a secretary who<br />
speaks (would speak) English.”<br />
No conozco ningún secretario que “I don’t know any secretary who speaks<br />
hable inglés. (would speak) English.”<br />
Similarly,<br />
Quiero una habitación que tenga balcón. “I want a room which has a balcony.”<br />
Quise una habitación que tuviera balcón “I wanted a room which had a balcony.”<br />
¿Le dieron una habitación que tenga “Did they gave him a room which<br />
balcón? has a balcony?”<br />
The subjunctive is required in the last phrase because the person who is asking<br />
the question presumably is not referring to a specific room. In either of the cases<br />
below the indicative would be used:<br />
Le dieron una habitación que tenía “They gave him a room which had a<br />
balcón. balcony.”<br />
¿Le dieron la habitación que tiene “Did they give him the room which<br />
balcón? has a balcony?”
154 USES OF VERBS<br />
In the first case the reference is to a historical fact (he was given a room with balcony)<br />
while in the second the question refers to a specific room, i.e., the (only)<br />
one with a balcony.<br />
Other examples with the subjunctive:<br />
Cualquier cosa que haga este hombre “Whatever (thing) this man makes<br />
es mal hecha. (or does) is poorly made (done).”<br />
Quería ir de vacaciones a un lugar “I wanted to go for vacation to a place<br />
donde hubiera sol. where there was sun.”<br />
En este país no hay ningún político “In this country there isn’t any<br />
en quien uno pueda tener confianza. politician in whom one can have<br />
confidence.”<br />
7. Adverbial Clauses<br />
These are generally of the form:<br />
Main Clause Conjunction Adverbial Clause<br />
where the adverbial clause provides information relating to the how, why, when of<br />
the main clause. Adverbial clauses can be a bit tricky, because some conjunctions<br />
govern the subjunctive, others the indicative and yet others (the largest number)<br />
can be used with either depending on the meaning they are meant to convey.<br />
(a) Purpose versus Consequence<br />
Consider the following two sentences:<br />
Consequence: Mary spoke in such a manner that all were able to understand.<br />
Purpose: Mary spoke in such a manner so that John could understand.<br />
The first sentence says nothing about why Mary spoke the way she did; perhaps<br />
it is her natural speaking style. The fact that others were able to understand her<br />
is a consequence of her speaking style but we cannot say with certainty that this<br />
was its purpose. The situation is entirely different with the second sentence. Here<br />
Mary has made a concerted effort to speak in a manner in which John would understand<br />
her, and in fact we can make this even clearer in the form:<br />
Mary spoke in such a manner so that John would be able to understand.<br />
<strong>Spanish</strong> similarly distinguishes between these two types of phrases, using the<br />
indicativeforthefirst(consequence)andthesubjunctiveforthesecond(purpose).
Conjunctions of Purpose Always Followed by Subjunctive:<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE 155<br />
para que<br />
a fin de que, con el fin de que<br />
con el objeto de que, con el propósito de que, con la finalidad de que<br />
María hizo un esfuerzo especial para “Mary made a special effort so that John<br />
que Juan pudiera comprender. could understand.”<br />
Saldremos muy temprano a fin de “We will leave very early in order that we<br />
que lleguemos a la hora. will arrive on time.”<br />
Conjunctions of Consequence Generally Followed by Indicative<br />
así que “so that”<br />
conque “so then”, “now then”<br />
luego “therefore”<br />
por consiguiente, en consecuencia “consequently”, “accordingly”<br />
por eso “for that reason”<br />
por lo tanto “therefore”<br />
pues “since”, “therefore”<br />
de manera que “in a manner that”<br />
de modo que "<br />
de forma que "<br />
Pienso, luego existo. “I think, therefore I am.” (Descartes)<br />
María habló de manera que “Mary spoke in a manner that everyone<br />
todos pudieron comprender. was able to understand.”<br />
The last three conjunctions, particularly when accompanied by the adverb tal<br />
(“such”), can also refer to the purpose of an action in which case they require a<br />
verb in the subjunctive:<br />
de tal manera que “in such a manner that”<br />
de tal modo que "<br />
de tal forma que "<br />
María habló de tal manera que “Mary spoke in such a manner that<br />
todos pudieran comprender. everyone was (would be) able to<br />
understand.”
156 USES OF VERBS<br />
This would perhaps be a good point to note that causal conjunctions, like those<br />
of consequence, are normally used with the indicative.<br />
porque “because”<br />
puesto que “since”<br />
ya que “since”, “as”<br />
como “since”, “as”<br />
Juan comprende lo que dice María “John understands what Mary says because<br />
porque habla lentamente. she speaks slowly.”<br />
Ya que llueve no iré al parque. “Since it is raining, I won’t go to the park.”<br />
Como era muy tarde no te llamé. “As it was very late I didn’t call you.”<br />
Como can be used in a number of other senses as well, some requiring the subjunctive,<br />
e.g.,<br />
Puedes hacerlo como quieras. “You can do it however you (might) like.”<br />
In negative expressions in which the cause is called into doubt, porque can be<br />
used with the subjunctive:<br />
María está ausente hoy, no porque esté “Maria is absent today, not because she is<br />
enferma, sino porque está cansada. ill, but because she is tired.”<br />
The second verb (esté) is in the subjunctive because the speaker is not committing<br />
himself as to the state of Maria’s health. The third verb is in the indicative:<br />
the speaker not only affirms that Maria is tired but that this is the reason for her<br />
absence.<br />
(b) Temporal<br />
When the action governed by the conjunction is situated at a future point, with<br />
respect to either the present or a fixed point of reference, the subjunctive is used.<br />
In all other cases the indicative is used. The basic distinction is thus between<br />
something that has not yet occurred and hence is uncertain, and an event which<br />
is either occurring contemporaneously or has already taken place.<br />
cuando “when”, “whenever”<br />
antes de que “before”<br />
apenas “as soon as” (“scarcely”)<br />
después de que “after”<br />
en cuanto “as soon as”
hasta que “until”<br />
mientras “while”, “so long as”<br />
siempre que “whenever”<br />
tan pronto como “as soon as”<br />
With Subjunctive:<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE 157<br />
Vendré cuando termine mis deberes. “I will come when I have finished my<br />
homework.”<br />
Cuando sea grande, me haré futbolista. “When I grow up (will be older),<br />
I will be a soccer player.”<br />
Te llamaré en cuanto llegue. “I will call you as soon as I arrive.”<br />
Te llamaré en cuanto haya llegado. “I will call you as soon as I will have<br />
arrived.”<br />
Deberías salir, antes de que sospechen “You should leave, before they<br />
de ti. suspect you.”<br />
Esperemos hasta que lleguen. “We (will) wait until they arrive.”<br />
Mientras estemos en París, visitaremos “While we are in Paris we will visit<br />
el Arco de Triunfo. the Arc of Triumph.”<br />
Siempre que puedas, ven a verme. “Whenever you are able, come see me.”<br />
Dijo que vendría en cuanto “He said that he would come as<br />
terminara sus deberes. soon as he finished his homework.”<br />
Salí antes de que llegaran mis amigos. “I left before my friends (had)<br />
arrived.”<br />
Antes de que refers to a future event (with reference to the main clause) and<br />
hence, at least in theory, always requires the subjunctive. The other conjunctions<br />
can at times be used with the indicative, particularly in recounting events which<br />
already have occurred or which are habitual.<br />
Salí después de que llegaron mis amigos. “I left after my friends arrived.”<br />
Esperé hasta que llegaron. “I waited until they arrived.”<br />
Salimos cuando terminó sus deberes. “We left when he finished his<br />
homework.”<br />
Me saludaba siempre que me veía. “He greeted me whenever he saw me.”<br />
Me saluda siempre que me ve. “He greets me whenever he sees me.”<br />
Tan pronto como lo hice, supe que “As soon as I did it, I knew it was a big<br />
fue un gran error. mistake.”<br />
Cuando hay sol no hay lluvia. “When there is sun there is no rain.”<br />
Siempre cuando no hago mis deberes “Always when I do not do my<br />
el profesor hace un examen. homework the teacher gives an<br />
exam.”
158 USES OF VERBS<br />
Used in a future sense después de que normally takes the subjunctive:<br />
Limpiaré la casa después de que todos “I will clean the house after everyone<br />
se hayan ido. leaves (will have left).”<br />
In the past tense the indicative should theoretically be required since in this case<br />
después de que refers to a prior action with regard to the fixed point of reference.<br />
Nonetheless, probably through confusion with antes de que, which always takes<br />
the subjunctive, it is not uncommon to find the subjunctive:<br />
Limpié la casa después de que todos “I cleaned the house after everyone left.”<br />
se fueron/se fueran.<br />
(c) Although<br />
“Although” clauses take the form:<br />
Although [condition], [action]<br />
The most important of the various conjunctions denoting “although” is aunque.<br />
The general rule is that if the condition specified by aunque (or equivalent) is real<br />
rather than hypothetical the indicative is used; if the condition is counter to fact<br />
(or the speaker is not vouching for its veracity) the subjunctive is used. Several<br />
conjunctions are used only with real conditions and hence always require the<br />
indicative.<br />
“Although” clauses thus distinguish between conditions which exist, and are<br />
hence obstacles, and those which do not exist. The latter are differentiated in turn<br />
according to whether they are possible or unlikely/impossible. The tense used<br />
in the “although” clause is shown below: it depends on both the nature of the<br />
“although” and whether the “action” in the main clause takes place in the present<br />
/future or past.<br />
main clause tense used in although clause<br />
real (obstacle) possible unlikely/impossible<br />
indicative subjunctive subjunctive<br />
present /future present /future present imperfect<br />
past imperfect /simple past / — past perfect<br />
compound past /<br />
past perfect
SUBJUNCTIVE 159<br />
When the imperfect or past perfect subjunctive is used in the although clause, the<br />
verb in the main clause is usually in one of the forms of the conditional (present<br />
or perfect).<br />
Conjunctions Used with Either Subjunctive or Indicative<br />
aunque “although”<br />
aun cuando “even though”<br />
a pesar de que “in spite of ”<br />
por [adverb, adjective] que “for all the . . .”<br />
real obstacle, hence indicative<br />
Aunque eres mi hijo no te daré “Although you are my son, I will not<br />
ningún dinero. give you any money.”<br />
Aunque llueve iré al parque. “Although it is raining I will go to the<br />
park.”<br />
Aunque ayer llovía (llovió) fui al parque. “Although yesterday it was raining<br />
(rained) I went to the park.”<br />
Aunque hoy he trabajado mucho, “Although I have worked a lot today,<br />
no he logrado terminar. I have not managed to finish.”<br />
Aunque estará muy decepcionado no “Although he will be very disappointed<br />
iré a la playa con él mañana. I will not go to the beach with him<br />
tomorrow.”<br />
A pesar de que estaba (estuve) “Despite the fact that I was sick<br />
enfermo seguí trabajando. I continued working.”<br />
A pesar de que había estado muy “Despite the fact that I had been very<br />
enfermo en mayo, en junio fui al sick in May, in June I went to the<br />
polo norte. North Pole.”<br />
Por más que trabaja nunca tiene “For all that he works he never has<br />
el dinero suficiente. enough money.”<br />
possible, hence present subjunctive<br />
Aunque llueva voy (iré) al parque hoy. “Even if it rains (should rain) I will<br />
go to the park today.”<br />
La reconocerás aunque no la hayas “You will recognize her even if you<br />
visto en muchos años. have not seen (will not have seen)<br />
her for many years.”<br />
Por mucho que trabaje nunca será rico. “For all that he may work (will work)<br />
he will never be rich.”
160 USES OF VERBS<br />
unlikely or impossible, hence imperfect or past subjunctive<br />
Aunque fueras mi hijo no te daría “Even if you were my son I wouldn’t<br />
ningún dinero. give you any money.”<br />
Aunque ayer hubiera llovido, habría “Even if yesterday it had rained I would<br />
(hubiera) ido al parque. have gone to the park.”<br />
Aunque hubiera estado enfermo, “Even if I had been sick I would have<br />
habría (hubiera) terminado con finished the project.”<br />
el proyecto.<br />
Conjunctions Used Only with Indicative<br />
si bien “while”, “though”<br />
y eso que “even though”<br />
(aun) a sabiendas de que “knowingly”, “consciously”<br />
These conjunctions refer to real conditions, hence their use with the indicative.<br />
Si bien no es todo lo que esperaba, “Even if it is not everything I was<br />
estoy muy contento. hoping for, I am very happy.”<br />
Voy al partido a sabiendas de que van “I am going to the match even though<br />
a perder otra vez. I know they are going to lose again.”<br />
(d) As If<br />
You look as if you had just been hit by a train.<br />
By their very nature as if clauses present things which are counterfactual and<br />
hence are presented in the subjunctive. The principal conjunction used with this<br />
meaning is como si; others include cual si, lo mismo que si, and igual que si. The<br />
use of tenses is similar to the “unlikely/impossible” although clauses, i.e.<br />
setting subjunctive form<br />
present or future imperfect<br />
past past perfect (or imperfect)<br />
Me mira (miró) como si estuviera “He looks (looked) at me as if I were<br />
loco. crazy.”<br />
(or as if he were crazy)<br />
Mañana trabajaré lo mismo que si “Tomorrow I will work just the same as<br />
no fuera un día festivo. if it were not a holiday.”<br />
Estaba tan pálido como si hubiera “He was as pale as if he had seen<br />
visto un fantasma. a ghost.”
SUBJUNCTIVE 161<br />
With expressions of the form “it seems that”, the situation is a bit different. As<br />
noted earlier, parece que is used with the indicative when it is conveys information,<br />
albeit in an attenuated fashion.<br />
Parece que está durmiendo. “It seems he’s finally sleeping.”<br />
But when the verb is used not to convey information but rather the state of mind<br />
of the speaker about what the situation appears to be or seems to be like, the<br />
subjunctive can be employed—present in present situations, imperfect with<br />
the past.<br />
Parece que esté durmiendo. “It (almost) appears as if he were asleep.”<br />
Por fin llegamos a la cumbre “At last we arrived at the summit of the<br />
de la montaña; era preciosa, mountain; it was beautiful, it seemed<br />
parecía que estuviéramos en un like we were in a giant bowl.”<br />
vaso gigante.<br />
In such (relatively rare) use parece que has a similar meaning to como si, but with<br />
the difference that while como si always requires an imperfect subjunctive, with<br />
parece que the present subjunctive is also possible.<br />
(e) Hopefully and If Only<br />
Ojalá is a very commonly used expression to convey a wish that something happen,<br />
or a regret that something didn’t happen as one would have wished. The use<br />
of subjunctive tenses is parallel to that of although clauses: present for the possible,<br />
imperfect for the unlikely/impossible, and past perfect for past regrets.<br />
¡Ojalá todavía estén esperando! “Hopefully, they are still waiting.”<br />
(or “they will still be waiting”)<br />
¡Ojalá no haya lluvia! “Hopefully it did not rain (will not<br />
have rained).”<br />
¡Ojalá llueva mañana! “Hopefully it will rain tomorrow.”<br />
¡Ojalá sea verdad! “Hopefully it is true.”<br />
¡Ojalá fuera verdad! “If only it were true!”<br />
¡Ojalá hubiera sido verdad! “If only it had been true!”<br />
¡Ojalá ganara la loto esta semana! “If only I would win the lottery this week!”<br />
¡Ojalá hubiera terminado mis “If only I had finished my homework<br />
deberes ayer! yesterday!”
162 USES OF VERBS<br />
In “popular” language, que or y is often inserted:<br />
¡Ojalá que no llueva! “Hopefully, it won’t rain.”<br />
¡Ojalá y no llueva! "<br />
Appendix<br />
Future Subjunctive<br />
In conditional clauses, using si or other conjunctions, there is at times ambiguity with regard<br />
to the meaning of a verb in the present tense (indicative or subjunctive), reflecting its<br />
use to represent both present and future possibilities:<br />
indicative Si no cumples esta ley, irás inmediatamente a la cárcel.<br />
subjunctive En caso de que no cumplas esta ley, irás<br />
inmediatamente a la cárcel.<br />
These can mean either<br />
(a) ”If you are (at this moment) not in compliance with this law, then you<br />
will (now) go immediately to jail.”<br />
(b) ”If (at some future moment) you will not be in compliance with this law, then you<br />
will (then) go immediately to jail.”<br />
This ambiguity did not always exist, as until the eighteenth century <strong>Spanish</strong> commonly<br />
employed a future subjunctive which allowed it to distinguish between these two<br />
meanings:<br />
Si no cumplieres esta ley . . . If (at some future time) you do not comply<br />
with this law ...<br />
En caso de que no cumplieres ...<br />
Many texts on <strong>Spanish</strong> either make no mention of the future subjunctive or simply indicate<br />
that it is now obsolete. While this is essentially correct for the spoken language, one<br />
not infrequently encounters the future subjunctive in both legal and administrative texts,<br />
as well as in a wide range of fixed expressions of the form:<br />
Sea lo que fuere. “What will be will be.”<br />
Fuera lo que fuere. "<br />
Venga lo que viniere. "<br />
Pase lo que pasare. "<br />
Venga de donde viniere. “Let it come from wherever.”<br />
siempre que fuere necesario “whenever it will be necessary”
SUBJUNCTIVE 163<br />
Consider, for example, the part of La Constitución Española (1978) 6 which deals with the<br />
possibilities of a future king being either a child or incapacitated:<br />
Cuando el Rey fuere menor de edad, el padre o la madre del Rey y, en su defecto, el<br />
pariente mayor de edad más próximo a suceder en la Corona, según el orden establecido<br />
en la Constitución, entrará a ejercer inmediatamente la Regencia y la<br />
ejercerá durante el tiempo de la minoría de edad del Rey.<br />
Si el Rey se inhabilitare para el ejercicio de su autoridad y la imposibilidad fuere reconocida<br />
por las Cortes Generales, entrará a ejercer inmediatamente la Regencia el<br />
Príncipe heredero de la Corona, si fuere mayor de edad. Si no lo fuere, se procederá de<br />
la manera prevista en el apartado anterior, hasta que el Príncipe heredero alcance la<br />
mayoría de edad.<br />
An official translation reads:<br />
In the event of the King being under age [i.e., If the King will be under age], the King’s<br />
father or mother or, in default thereof, the oldest relative of legal age who is nearest<br />
in succession to the Crown, according to the order established in the Constitution,<br />
shall immediately assume the office of Regent, which [he] shall exercise during the<br />
King’s minority.<br />
If the King becomes [will become] unfit for the exercise of his authority, and this<br />
incapacity is [will be] recognized by the Cortes Generales, the Crown Prince shall<br />
immediately assume the Regency, if he is [will be] of age. If he is not [will not be], the<br />
procedure outlined in the foregoing paragraph shall apply until the coming of age<br />
of the Crown Prince.<br />
In modern <strong>Spanish</strong>, the future subjunctives would all have to be replaced by present<br />
subjunctives or indicatives, leading to potentially ambiguous statements (as in English)<br />
such as:<br />
which could mean<br />
Cuando el Rey sea menor “When the [current?] king is under age”<br />
Si el Rey se inhabilita “If the [current?] king is unfit”<br />
A text which suggests that an existing king (as opposed to a hypothetical future king) is<br />
unfit was not considered acceptable. The problem of course with legal texts is that they<br />
uniformly seek to avoid conditional tenses, saying whatwill happen rather than whatwould<br />
happen. In this case there is no alternative to the use of the “archaic” future subjunctive.<br />
6 Artículo 59. The <strong>Spanish</strong> Constitution (and English translation) can be found on the Constitution’s<br />
“official” website: .
164 USES OF VERBS<br />
Similarly, if one compares a “classical” with a “modern” version of the Bible, one will<br />
find that the elimination of the future subjunctive has led to a loss in precision in meaning<br />
in certain passages, such as the following:<br />
REINA VALERA VERSION:<br />
E hizo Jacob voto, diciendo: Si fuere Dios conmigo, y me guardare en este viaje que<br />
voy, y me diere pan para comer y vestido para vestir ...(Génesis 28: 20–22)<br />
Then Jacob made a vow, saying,“If God will be with me and will keep me in this way<br />
that I go, and will give me bread to eat and clothing to put on . . .” (English Standard<br />
Version)<br />
TYPICAL MODERN TRANSLATION:<br />
...Si Diosestá 7 conmigo . . . me guarda ...meda alimento...(La Biblia de las Américas)<br />
...If Godis with me . . .keeps me . . .gives me food. . . (author’s translation of La Biblia<br />
de las Américas)<br />
The Real Academia Española has tried on various occasions to revive the future subjunctive,<br />
but without success. It remains alive and well, however, in neighboring Portuguese.<br />
7 While there might appear to be a contradiction between the newer está (estar) and previous<br />
fuere, fuere was likely being used as the future subjunctive of ir rather than ser, so that a literal translation<br />
would be “if God will go with me . . .”
PART III<br />
ANNEXES
THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
ANNEX A<br />
Models of Verb Classes and Sub-classes 1<br />
Perfectly Regular<br />
1. cantar 1-1 tocar 1-2 pagar 1-3 averiguar<br />
1-4 cazar 1-5 aislar 1-6 aullar<br />
1-7 descafeinar 1-8 rehusar 1-9 amohinar<br />
1-10 ahincar 1-11 cabrahigar 1-12 enraizar<br />
1-13 europeizar 1-14 actuar 1-15 enviar<br />
2. comer 2-1 vencer 2-2 coger 2-3 leer<br />
2-4 empeller 2-5 tañer 2-6 romper<br />
3. subir 3-1 fruncir 3-2 dirigir 3-3 distinguir<br />
3-4 delinquir 3-5 bullir 3-6 bruñir<br />
3-7 reunir 3-8 prohibir 3-9 abrir<br />
3-10 cubrir 3-11 escribir 3-12 imprimir<br />
3-13 pudrir 3-14 abolir (defective)<br />
Diphthongs (e S ie, o S ue)<br />
4A. pensar 4A-1 negar 4A-2 empezar 4A-3 errar<br />
4B. mostrar 4B-1 trocar 4B-2 colgar 4B-3 forzar<br />
4B-4 agorar 4B-5 desosar 4B-6 avergonzar<br />
5A. perder<br />
5B. mover 5B-1 cocer 5B-2 oler 5B-3 resolver<br />
5B-4 volver<br />
Diphthongs (e S ie, o S ue) and/or Umlauts (e S i, o S u)<br />
6A. sentir 6A-1 erguir<br />
6B. pedir 6B-1 elegir 6B-2 seguir 6B-3 ceñir<br />
6B-4 reír<br />
6C. dormir 6C-1 morir<br />
1 Italicized sub-classes (e.g., 2.6 romper) are identical to their class model (comer for romper) apart<br />
from their irregular past participle. Freír has an irregular past participle but is not listed as a separate<br />
sub-class of reír (6B-4).
168 ANNEX A<br />
1st Person Singular -zco<br />
7A. conocer 7A-1 yacer 7A-2 placer<br />
7B. lucir<br />
“Add -y except before -i”<br />
8. construir<br />
Irregular 1st Singular -go (Otherwise Largely Predictable)<br />
9. caer 9-1 raer 9-2 roer<br />
10. oír<br />
11. salir<br />
12. valer<br />
13. asir<br />
Mixed Patterns<br />
14. ver 14-1 prever<br />
15. discernir<br />
16. jugar<br />
17. adquirir<br />
18. argüir<br />
Fundamentally Irregular<br />
19. ser<br />
20. estar<br />
21. haber<br />
22. saber<br />
23. caber<br />
24. ir<br />
25. dar<br />
26. poder<br />
27. querer<br />
28. decir 28-1 predecir 28-2 bendecir<br />
29. hacer 29-1 rehacer 29-2 satisfacer<br />
30. poner 30-1 suponer<br />
31. tener 31-1 obtener<br />
32. venir 32-1 convenir
33. traer<br />
34. -ducir<br />
35. andar<br />
On the following pages the complete conjugations for all of the above verb classes are presented.<br />
For the sub-classes, in general only tenses where one or more conjugations differ<br />
from the class model are shown; for 2-3 (leer), 3-14 (abolir), 6A-1 (erguir), 6B-1 (elegir),<br />
6B-2 (seguir), 6B-3 (ceñir), 6B-4 (reír) and 14-1 (prever) the full conjugations are shown.<br />
For all verbs apart from ser, haber, and ir, the relevant irregularities and/or orthographic<br />
modifications are presented in summary form at the top of the page. Note that:<br />
(i) For a number of verbs, changes occur in conjugations in which the stress accent<br />
falls on the stem (root) syllable: present indicative (1s/2s/3s/3p), present subjunctive<br />
(1s/2s/3s/3p), and imperative (2s).<br />
(ii) An irregular first person singular present indicative always implies an irregular<br />
present subjunctive.<br />
(iii) An irregular simple past implies a (precisely) corresponding irregular imperfect<br />
subjunctive.<br />
1 CANTAR TO SING<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
canto canté cantaba cantaré cantaría<br />
cantas cantaste cantabas cantarás cantarías<br />
canta cantó cantaba cantará cantaría<br />
cantamos cantamos cantábamos cantaremos cantaríamos<br />
cantáis cantasteis cantabais cantaréis cantaríais<br />
cantan cantaron cantaban cantarán cantarían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
cante cantara cantase<br />
cantes cantaras cantases<br />
cante cantara cantase<br />
cantemos cantáramos cantásemos<br />
cantéis cantarais cantaseis<br />
canten cantaran cantasen<br />
IMPERATIVE canta cantad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE cantado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE cantando<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 169
170 ANNEX A<br />
1-1 C S QU TOCAR TO TOUCH<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
toque toqué<br />
toques tocaste<br />
toque tocó<br />
toquemos tocamos<br />
toquéis tocasteis<br />
toquen tocaron<br />
1-2 G S GU PAGAR TO PAY<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
pague pagué<br />
pagues pagaste<br />
pague pagó<br />
paguemos pagamos<br />
paguéis pagasteis<br />
paguen pagaron<br />
1-3 GU S GÜ AVERIGUAR TO ASCERTAIN<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
averigüe averigüé<br />
averigües averiguaste<br />
averigüe averiguó<br />
averigüemos averiguamos<br />
averigüéis averiguasteis<br />
averigüen averiguaron<br />
1-4 Z S C CAZAR TO HUNT, CHASE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
cace cacé<br />
caces cazaste<br />
cace cazó<br />
cacemos cazamos<br />
cacéis cazasteis<br />
cacen cazaron
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 171<br />
1-5 AI S AÍ 1 AISLAR TO ISOLATE,<br />
INSULATE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
aíslo aísle<br />
aíslas aísles aísla<br />
aísla aísle<br />
aislamos aislemos<br />
aisláis aisléis aislad<br />
aíslan aíslen<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-5.<br />
1-6 AU S AÚ 1 AULLAR TO HOWL<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
aúllo aúlle<br />
aúllas aúlles aúlla<br />
aúlla aúlle<br />
aullamos aullemos<br />
aulláis aulléis aullad<br />
aúllan aúllen<br />
1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. Other verbs in 1-6:<br />
ahumar, aunar, aupar, maullar.<br />
1-7 EI S EÍ 1 DESCAFEINAR TO DECAFFEINATE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
descafeíno descafeíne<br />
descafeínas descafeínes descafeína<br />
descafeína descafeíne<br />
descafeinamos descafeinemos<br />
descafeináis descafeinéis descafeinad<br />
descafeínan descafeínen<br />
1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. The only other verb in 1-7 is<br />
sobrehilar.
172 ANNEX A<br />
1-8 E(H)U S E(H)Ú 1 REHUSAR TO REFUSE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
rehúso rehúse<br />
rehúsas rehúses rehúsa<br />
rehúsa rehúse<br />
rehusamos rehusemos<br />
rehusáis rehuséis rehusad<br />
rehúsan rehúsen<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-8.<br />
1-9 O(H)I S O(H)Í 1 AMOHINAR TO ANNOY<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
amohíno amohíne<br />
amohínas amohínes amohína<br />
amohína amohíne<br />
amohinamos amohinemos<br />
amohináis amohinéis amohinad<br />
amohínan amohínen<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-9.<br />
1-10 C S QU<br />
A(H)I S A(H)Í<br />
AHINCAR TO URGE<br />
1<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
ahínco ahínQUe ahinQUé<br />
ahíncas ahínQUes ahincaste ahínca<br />
ahínca ahínQUe ahincó<br />
ahincamos ahinQUemos ahincamos<br />
ahincáis ahinQUéis ahincasteis ahincad<br />
ahíncan ahínQUen ahincaron<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-10.
1-11 G S GU CABRAHIGAR TO CAPRIFICATE<br />
A(H)I S A(H)Í 1<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
cabrahígo cabrahíGUe cabrahiGUé<br />
cabrahígas cabrahíGUes cabrahigaste cabrahíga<br />
cabrahíga cabrahíGUe cabrahigó<br />
cabrahigamos cabrahiGUemos cabrahigamos<br />
cabrahigáis cabrahiGUéis cabrahigasteis cabrahigad<br />
cabrahígan cabrahíGUen cabrahigaron<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-11.<br />
1-12 Z S C ENRAIZAR TO TAKE ROOT<br />
AI S AÍ 1<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
enraízo enraíCe enraiCé<br />
enraízas enraíCes enraizaste enraíza<br />
enraíza enraíCe enraizó<br />
enraizamos enraiCemos enraizamos<br />
enraizáis enraiCéis enraizasteis enraizad<br />
enraízan enraíCen enraizaron<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. Other verbs in 1-12: desenraizar, he-<br />
braizar, judaizar<br />
1-13 Z S C EUROPEIZAR TO EUROPEANIZE<br />
EI S EÍ 1<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 173<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
europeízo europeíCe europeiCé<br />
europeízas europeíCes europeizaste europeíza<br />
europeíza europeíCe europeizó<br />
europeizamos europeiCemos europeizamos<br />
europeizáis europeiCéis europeizasteis europeizad<br />
europeízan europeíCen europeizaron<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-13.
174 ANNEX A<br />
1-14 U S Ú 1 ACTUAR TO ACT, ACTUATE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
actúo actúe<br />
actúas actúes actúa<br />
actúa actúe<br />
actuamos actuemos<br />
actuáis actuéis actuad<br />
actúan actúen<br />
1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. All -uar verbs not ending in -cuar<br />
or -guar are in 1-14.<br />
1-15 I S Í 1 ENVIAR TO SEND<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
envío envíe<br />
envías envíes envía<br />
envía envíe<br />
enviamos enviemos<br />
enviáis enviéis enviad<br />
envían envíen<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. About 30% of verbs ending in -iar<br />
are in 1-15, the rest (e.g., cambiar) are conjugated like cantar (1).<br />
2 COMER TO EAT<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
como comí comía comeré comería<br />
comes comiste comías comerás comerías<br />
come comió comía comerá comería<br />
comemos comimos comíamos comeremos comeríamos<br />
coméis comisteis comíais comeréis comeríais<br />
comen comieron comían comerán comerían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
coma comiera comiese<br />
comas comieras comieses<br />
coma comiera comiese<br />
comamos comiéramos comiésemos<br />
comáis comierais comieseis<br />
coman comieran comiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) come comed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE comido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE comiendo<br />
2-1 C S Z VENCER TO VANQUISH<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
venzo venza<br />
vences venzas<br />
vence venza<br />
vencemos venzamos<br />
vencéis venzáis<br />
vencen venzan<br />
2-2 G S J COGER TO GRASP, CATCH<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
cojo coja<br />
coges cojas<br />
coge coja<br />
cogemos cojamos<br />
cogéis cojáis<br />
cogen cojan<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 175<br />
2-3 UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y<br />
ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT <br />
LEER TO READ<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
leo leí leía leeré leería<br />
lees leíste leías leerás leerías<br />
lee leyó leía leerá leería<br />
leemos leímos leíamos leeremos leeríamos<br />
leéis leísteis leíais leeréis leeríais<br />
leen leyeron leían leerán leerían
176 ANNEX A<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
lea leyera leyese<br />
leas leyeras leyeses<br />
lea leyera leyese<br />
leamos leyéramos leyésemos<br />
leáis leyerais leyeseis<br />
lean leyeran leyesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) lee leed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE leído <br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE leyendo<br />
2-4 LL IE S LLE EMPELLER TO PUSH,<br />
LL IO S LLO SHOVE<br />
SIMPLE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Imperfect (1) Imperfect (2)<br />
empellí empellera empellese<br />
empelliste empelleras empelleses<br />
empelló (not *empellio) empellera empellese<br />
empellimos empelléramos empellésemos<br />
empellisteis empellerais empelleseis<br />
empelleron (not *empellieron) empelleran empellesen<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE empellendo (not *empelliendo)<br />
2-5 Ñ IE S ÑE<br />
Ñ IO S ÑO<br />
TAÑER TO PLAY (A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT)<br />
SIMPLE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Imperfect (1) Imperfect (2)<br />
tañí tañera tañese<br />
tañiste tañeras tañeses<br />
tañó (not *tañio) tañera tañese<br />
tañimos tañéramos tañésemos<br />
tañisteis tañerais tañeseis<br />
tañeron (not *tañieron) tañeran tañesen<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE tañendo (not *tañiendo)<br />
2-6 ROMPER TO BREAK PAST<br />
PARTICIPLE:<br />
ROTO
3 SUBIR TO RAISE, TO CLIMB<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
subo subí subía subiré subiría<br />
subes subiste subías subirás subirías<br />
sube subió subía subirá subiría<br />
subimos subimos subíamos subiremos subiríamos<br />
subís subisteis subíais subiréis subiríais<br />
suben subieron subían subirán subirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
suba subiera subiese<br />
subas subieras subieses<br />
suba subiera subiese<br />
subamos subiéramos subiésemos<br />
subáis subierais subieseis<br />
suban subieran subiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sube subid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE subido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE subiendo<br />
3-1 C S Z FRUNCIR TO WRINKLE<br />
(BROW, NOSE)<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
frunzo frunza<br />
frunces frunzas<br />
frunce frunza<br />
fruncimos frunzamos<br />
fruncís frunzáis<br />
fruncen frunzan<br />
3-2 G S J DIRIGIR TO DIRECT<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
dirijo dirija<br />
diriges dirijas<br />
dirige dirija<br />
dirigimos dirijamos<br />
dirigís dirijáis<br />
dirigen dirijan<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 177
178 ANNEX A<br />
3-3 GU S G DISTINGUIR TO DISTINGUISH<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
distingo distinga<br />
distingues distingas<br />
distingue distinga<br />
distinguimos distingamos<br />
distinguís distingáis<br />
distinguen distingan<br />
3-4 QU S C DELINQUIR TO TRANSGRESS<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
delinco delinca<br />
delinques delincas<br />
delinque delinca<br />
delinquimos delincamos<br />
delinquís delincáis<br />
delinquen delincan<br />
3-5 LL IE S LLE BULLIR TO BOIL, BUBBLE<br />
LL IO S LLO<br />
SIMPLE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Imperfect (1) Imperfect (2)<br />
bullí bullera bullese<br />
bulliste bulleras bulleses<br />
bulló (not *bullio) bullera bullese<br />
bullimos bulléramos bullésemos<br />
bullisteis bullerais bulleseis<br />
bulleron (not *bullieron) bulleran bullesen<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE bullendo (not *bulliendo)<br />
3-6 Ñ IE S ÑE BRUÑIR TO BURNISH<br />
Ñ IO S ÑO<br />
SIMPLE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Imperfect (1) Imperfect (2)<br />
bruñí bruñera bruñese<br />
bruñiste bruñeras bruñeses<br />
bruñó (not *bruñio) bruñera bruñese<br />
bruñimos bruñéramos bruñésemos<br />
bruñisteis bruñerais bruñeseis<br />
bruñeron (not *bruñieron) bruñeran bruñesen<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE bruñendo (not *bruñiendo)
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 179<br />
3-7 EU S EÚ 1 REUNIR TO REUNITE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
reúno reúna<br />
reúnes reúnas reúne<br />
reúne reúna<br />
reunimos reunamos<br />
reunís reunáis reunid<br />
reúnen reúnan<br />
1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. The only other verb in 3-7 is<br />
rehundir.<br />
3-8 O(H)I S O(H)Í 1 PROHIBIR TO PROHIBIT<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
prohíbo prohíba<br />
prohíbes prohíbas prohíbe<br />
prohíbe prohíba<br />
prohibimos prohibamos<br />
prohibís prohibáis prohibid<br />
prohíben prohíban<br />
1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. The only other verb in 3-8 is cohibir.<br />
3-9 ABRIR TO OPEN PAST PARTICIPLE: ABIERTO<br />
3-10 CUBRIR TO CLOSE PAST PARTICIPLE: CUBIERTO<br />
3-11 ESCRIBIR TO WRITE PAST PARTICIPLE: ESCRITO 1<br />
3-12 IMPRIMIR TO PRINT PAST PARTICIPLE: IMPRESO/IMPRIMIDO<br />
3-13 PUDRIR TO PUTREFY PAST PARTICIPLE: PODRIDO<br />
1 The RAE also accepts the “old” forms ending in -scripto for all -scribir verbs apart from escribir,<br />
rescribir, reescribir and manuscribir: inscripto, suscripto, transcripto, etc.<br />
3-14 DEFECTIVE ABOLIR TO ABOLISH<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
— abolí abolía aboliré aboliría<br />
— aboliste abolías abolirás abolirías<br />
— abolió abolía abolirá aboliría<br />
abolimos abolimos abolíamos aboliremos aboliríamos<br />
abolís abolisteis abolíais aboliréis aboliríais<br />
— abolieron abolían abolirán abolirían
180 ANNEX A<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
— aboliera aboliese<br />
— abolieras abolieses<br />
— aboliera aboliese<br />
— aboliéramos aboliésemos<br />
— abolierais abolieseis<br />
— abolieran aboliesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) — abolid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE abolido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE aboliendo<br />
Note: All conjugations are regular, but only those where the post-stem vowel is -i (or diphthong<br />
-ie/-io) are used.<br />
4A DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 PENSAR TO THINK<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
pienso pensé pensaba pensaré pensaría<br />
piensas pensaste pensabas pensarás pensarías<br />
piensa pensó pensaba pensará pensaría<br />
pensamos pensamos pensábamos pensaremos pensaríamos<br />
pensáis pensasteis pensabais pensaréis pensaríais<br />
piensan pensaron pensaban pensarán pensarían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
piense pensara pensase<br />
pienses pensaras pensases<br />
piense pensara pensase<br />
pensemos pensáramos pensásemos<br />
penséis pensarais pensaseis<br />
piensen pensaran pensasen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) piensa pensad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE pensado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE pensando<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.
4A-1 DIPHTHONG E S IE NEGAR TO DENY<br />
G S GU<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
niego nieGUe neGUé<br />
niegas nieGUes negaste niega<br />
niega nieGUe negó<br />
negamos neGUemos negamos<br />
negáis neGUéis negasteis negad<br />
niegan nieGUen negaron<br />
4A-2 DIPHTHONG E S IE EMPEZAR TO BEGIN<br />
Z S C<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 181<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
empiezo empieCe empeCé<br />
empiezas empieCes empezaste empieza<br />
empieza empieCe empezó<br />
empezamos empeCemos empezamos<br />
empezáis empeCéis empezasteis empezad<br />
empiezan empieCen empezaron<br />
4A-3 DIPHTHONG E S YE ERRAR TO ERR, TO WANDER<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
yerro yerre<br />
yerras yerres yerra<br />
yerra yerre<br />
erramos erremos<br />
erráis erréis errad<br />
yerran yerren<br />
4B DIPHTHONG O S UE 1 MOSTRAR TO SHOW<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
muestro mostré mostraba mostraré mostraría<br />
muestras mostraste mostrabas mostrarás mostrarías<br />
muestra mostró mostraba mostrará mostraría<br />
mostramos mostramos mostrábamos mostraremos mostraríamos<br />
mostráis mostrasteis mostrabais mostraréis mostraríais<br />
muestran mostraron mostraban mostrarán mostrarían
182 ANNEX A<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
muestre mostrara mostrase<br />
muestres mostraras mostrases<br />
muestre mostrara mostrase<br />
mostremos mostráramos mostrásemos<br />
mostréis mostrarais mostraseis<br />
muestren mostraran mostrasen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) muestra mostrad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE mostrado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE mostrando<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
4B-1 DIPHTHONG O S UE<br />
C S QU<br />
TROCAR TO EXCHANGE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
trueco trueQUe troQUé<br />
truecas trueQUes trocaste trueca<br />
trueca trueQUe trocó<br />
trocamos troQUemos trocamos<br />
trocáis troQUéis trocasteis trocad<br />
truecan trueQUen trocaron<br />
4B-2 DIPHTHONG O S UE<br />
G S GU<br />
COLGAR TO HANG<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
cuelgo cuelGUe colGUé<br />
cuelgas cuelGUes colgaste cuelga<br />
cuelga cuelGUe colgó<br />
colgamos colGUemos colgamos<br />
colgáis colGUéis colgasteis colgad<br />
cuelgan cuelGUen colgaron
4B-3 DIPHTHONG O S UE FORZAR TO FORCE<br />
Z S C<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 183<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
fuerzo fuerCe forCé<br />
fuerzas fuerCes forzaste fuerza<br />
fuerza fuerCe forzó<br />
forzamos forCemos forzamos<br />
forzáis forCéis forzasteis forzad<br />
fuerzan fuerCen forzaron<br />
4B-4 DIPHTHONG GO S GÜE AGORAR TO PREDICT<br />
(SUPERSTITIOUSLY)<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
agüero agüere<br />
agüeras agüeres agüera<br />
agüera agüere<br />
agoramos agoremos<br />
agoráis agoréis agorad<br />
agüeran agüeren<br />
4B-5 DIPHTHONG O S HUE DESOSAR 1 TO BONE<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
deshueso deshuese<br />
deshuesas deshueses deshuesa<br />
deshuesa deshuese<br />
desosamos desosemos<br />
desosáis desoséis desosad<br />
deshuesan deshuesen<br />
1 Desosar is the “old” form of deshuesar by which it has largely been supplanted.<br />
4B-6 DIPHTHONG GO S GÜE<br />
Z S C<br />
AVERGONZAR TO SHAME<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
avergüenzo avergüenCe avergonCé<br />
avergüenzas avergüenCes avergonzaste avergüenza<br />
avergüenza avergüenCe avergonzó<br />
avergonzamos avergonCemos avergonzamos<br />
avergonzáis avergonCéis avergonzasteis avergonzad<br />
avergüenzan avergüenCen avergonzaron
184 ANNEX A<br />
5A DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 PERDER TO LOSE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
pierdo perdí perdía perderé perdería<br />
pierdes perdiste perdías perderás perderías<br />
pierde perdió perdía perderá perdería<br />
perdemos perdimos perdíamos perderemos perderíamos<br />
perdéis perdisteis perdíais perderéis perderíais<br />
pierden perdieron perdían perderán perderían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
pierda perdiera perdiese<br />
pierdas perdieras perdieses<br />
pierda perdiera perdiese<br />
perdamos perdiéramos perdiésemos<br />
perdáis perdierais perdieseis<br />
pierdan perdieran perdiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pierde perded<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE perdido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE perdiendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
5B DIPHTHONG O S UE 1 MOVER TO MOVE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
muevo moví movía moveré movería<br />
mueves moviste movías moverás moverías<br />
mueve movió movía moverá movería<br />
movemos movimos movíamos moveremos moveríamos<br />
movéis movisteis movíais moveréis moveríais<br />
mueven movieron movían moverán moverían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
mueva moviera moviese<br />
muevas movieras movieses<br />
mueva moviera moviese<br />
movamos moviéramos moviésemos<br />
mováis movierais movieseis<br />
muevan movieran moviesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) mueve moved<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE movido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE moviendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 185<br />
5B-1 DIPHTHONG O S UE<br />
C S Z<br />
COCER TO COOK<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
cueZo cueZa<br />
cueces cueZas cuece<br />
cuece cueZa<br />
cocemos coZamos<br />
cocéis coZáis coced<br />
cuecen cueZan<br />
5B-2 DIPHTHONG O S HUE OLER TO SMELL<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
huelo huela<br />
hueles huelas huele<br />
huele huela<br />
olemos olamos<br />
oléis oláis oled<br />
huelen huelan<br />
5B-3 RESOLVER TO RESOLVE, SOLVE PAST PARTICIPLE: RESUELTO<br />
5B-4 VOLVER TO TURN PAST PARTICIPLE: VUELTO
186 ANNEX A<br />
6A DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 SENTIR TO FEEL<br />
UMLAUT E S I 2<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
siento sentí sentía sentiré sentiría<br />
sientes sentiste sentías sentirás sentirías<br />
siente sintió sentía sentirá sentiría<br />
sentimos sentimos sentíamos sentiremos sentiríamos<br />
sentís sentisteis sentíais sentiréis sentiríais<br />
sienten sintieron sentían sentirán sentirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
sienta sintiera sintiese<br />
sientas sintieras sintieses<br />
sienta sintiera sintiese<br />
sintamos sintiéramos sintiésemos<br />
sintáis sintierais sintieseis<br />
sientan sintieran sintiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) siente sentid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE sentido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE sintiendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
2 In conjugations not stressed on stem syllable, when next vowel is not (simple) -i.<br />
6A-1 LIKE SENTIR OR PEDIR1 GU S G<br />
ERGUIR TO RAISE, LIFT UP<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
yerGo or irGo erguí erguía erguiré erguiría<br />
yergues or irgues erguiste erguías erguirás erguirías<br />
yergue or irgue irguió erguía erguirá erguiría<br />
erguimos erguimos erguíamos erguiremos erguiríamos<br />
erguís erguisteis erguíais erguiréis erguiríais<br />
yerguen or irguen irguieron erguían erguirán erguirían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
yerGa or irGa irguiera irguiese<br />
yerGas or irGas irguieras irguieses<br />
yerGa or irGa irguiera irguiese<br />
yerGamos 2 or irGamos irguiéramos irguiésemos<br />
yerGáis 2 or irGáis irguierais irguieseis<br />
yerGan or irGan irguieran irguiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) yergue or irgue erguid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE erguido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE irguiendo<br />
1 Sentir model more common; diphthongs are written “ye”, as for errar (4A-3).<br />
2 The forms yergamos and yergáis are irregular, since a diphthong does not normally occur in an<br />
unstressed syllable. They are not recognized by the RAE but appear elsewhere (e.g., Moliner).<br />
6B UMLAUT E S I 1 PEDIR TO REQUEST<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
pido pedí pedía pediré pediría<br />
pides pediste pedías pedirás pedirías<br />
pide pidió pedía pedirá pediría<br />
pedimos pedimos pedíamos pediremos pediríamos<br />
pedís pedisteis pedíais pediréis pediríais<br />
piden pidieron pedían pedirán pedirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
pida pidiera pidiese<br />
pidas pidieras pidieses<br />
pida pidiera pidiese<br />
pidamos pidiéramos pidiésemos<br />
pidáis pidierais pidieseis<br />
pidan pidieran pidiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pide pedid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE pedido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE pidiendo<br />
1 In conjugations in which next vowel is not (simple) -i.<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 187
188 ANNEX A<br />
6B-1 UMLAUT E S I ELEGIR TO ELECT<br />
G S J<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
eliJo elegí elegía elegiré elegiría<br />
eliges elegiste elegías elegirás elegirías<br />
elige eligió elegía elegirá elegiría<br />
elegimos elegimos elegíamos elegiremos elegiríamos<br />
elegís elegisteis elegíais elegiréis elegiríais<br />
eligen eligieron elegían elegirán elegirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
eliJa eligiera eligiese<br />
eliJas eligieras eligieses<br />
eliJa eligiera eligiese<br />
eliJamos eligiéramos eligiésemos<br />
eliJáis eligierais eligieseis<br />
eliJan eligieran eligiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) elige elegid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE elegido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE eligiendo<br />
6B-2 UMLAUT E S I<br />
GU S G<br />
SEGUIR TO FOLLOW<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
siGo seguí seguía seguiré seguiría<br />
sigues seguiste seguías seguirás seguirías<br />
sigue siguió seguía seguirá seguiría<br />
seguimos seguimos seguíamos seguiremos seguiríamos<br />
seguís seguisteis seguíais seguiréis seguiríais<br />
siguen siguieron seguían seguirán seguirían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
siGa siguiera siguiese<br />
siGas siguieras siguieses<br />
siGa siguiera siguiese<br />
siGamos siguiéramos siguiésemos<br />
siGáis siguierais siguieseis<br />
siGan siguieran siguiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sigue seguid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE seguido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE siguiendo<br />
6B-3 UMLAUT E S I<br />
Ñ IE S ÑE, Ñ IO S ÑO *<br />
CEÑIR TO GIRD<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
ciño ceñí ceñía ceñiré ceñiría<br />
ciñes ceñiste ceñías ceñirás ceñirías<br />
ciñe ciñó * ceñía ceñirá ceñiría<br />
ceñimos ceñimos ceñíamos ceñiremos ceñiríamos<br />
ceñís ceñisteis ceñíais ceñiréis ceñiríais<br />
ciñen ciñeron * ceñían ceñirán ceñirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
ciña ciñera * ciñese *<br />
ciñas ciñeras * ciñeses *<br />
ciña ciñera * ciñese *<br />
ciñamos ciñéramos * ciñésemos *<br />
ciñáis ciñerais * ciñeseis *<br />
ciñan ciñeran * ciñesen *<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ciñe ceñid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE ceñido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE ciñendo *<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 189
190 ANNEX A<br />
6B-4 UMLAUT E S I REÍR TO LAUGH<br />
II S I *<br />
ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT <br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
río reí reía reiré reiría<br />
ríes reíste reías reirás reirías<br />
ríe rió * reía reirá reiría<br />
reímos reímos reíamos reiremos reiríamos<br />
reís reísteis reíais reiréis reiríais<br />
ríen rieron * reían reirán reirían<br />
Under new orthographic rules, rió can be written rio. Similarly for freír: frió can be written<br />
frio. For multi-syllable verbs a written accent is always required (sonrió, refrió, sofrió,<br />
deslió, engrió).<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
ría riera * riese *<br />
rías rieras * rieses *<br />
ría riera * riese *<br />
riamos riéramos * riésemos *<br />
riáis rierais * rieseis *<br />
rían rieran * riesen *<br />
Under new orthographic rules, riáis can be written riais. Similarly for freír: friáis can be<br />
written friais. For multi-syllable verbs a written accent is always required (sonriáis, etc.).<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ríe reíd <br />
PAST PARTICIPLE 1 reído <br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE riendo *<br />
1 Freír (to fry) has an irregular past participle frito beside the (rarer) regular form freído. The<br />
compound verbs refreír and sofreír similarly have dual past participles.<br />
6C DIPHTHONG O S UE 1 DORMIR TO SLEEP<br />
UMLAUT O S U 2<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
duermo dormí dormía dormiré dormiría<br />
duermes dormiste dormías dormirás dormirías<br />
duerme durmió dormía dormirá dormiría<br />
dormimos dormimos dormíamos dormiremos dormiríamos<br />
dormís dormisteis dormíais dormiréis dormiríais<br />
duermen durmieron dormían dormirán dormirían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
duerma durmiera durmiese<br />
duermas durmieras durmieses<br />
duerma durmiera durmiese<br />
durmamos durmiéramos durmiésemos<br />
durmáis durmierais durmieseis<br />
duerman durmieran durmiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) duerme dormid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE dormido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE durmiendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
2 In conjugations not stressed on stem syllable, when next vowel is not (simple) -i.<br />
6C-1 MORIR TO DIE PAST PARTICIPLE: MUERTO<br />
7A C S ZC CONOCER TO KNOW, BECOME<br />
ACQUAINTED WITH<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
conozco conocí conocía conoceré conocería<br />
conoces conociste conocías conocerás conocerías<br />
conoce conoció conocía conocerá conocería<br />
conocemos conocimos conocíamos conoceremos conoceríamos<br />
conocéis conocisteis conocíais conoceréis conoceríais<br />
conocen conocieron conocían conocerán conocerían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
conozca conociera conociese<br />
conozcas conocieras conocieses<br />
conozca conociera conociese<br />
conozcamos conociéramos conociésemos<br />
conozcáis conocierais conocieseis<br />
conozcan conocieran conociesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) conoce conoced<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE conocido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE conociendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 191
192 ANNEX A<br />
7A-1 ALTERNATE FORMS YACER TO LIE (AT REST)<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
yazco or yazgo or yago yazca or yazga or yaga<br />
yaces yazcas or yazgas or yagas<br />
yace yazca or yazga or yaga<br />
yacemos yazcamos or yazgamos or yagamos<br />
yacéis yazcáis or yazgáis or yagáis<br />
yacen yazcan or yazgan or yagan<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) yace or yaz yaced<br />
7A-2 ALTERNATE FORMS PLACER TO PLEASE<br />
INDICATIVE SIMPLE PAST<br />
Present Present<br />
plazco plací<br />
places placiste<br />
place plació or plugo<br />
placemos placimos<br />
placéis placisteis<br />
placen placieron or pluguieron 1<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
plazca placiera placiese<br />
plazcas placieras placieses<br />
plazca or plegue or plega 1 placiera or pluguiera placiese or pluguiese<br />
plazcamos placiéramos placiésemos<br />
plazcáis placierais placieseis<br />
plazcan placieran placiesen<br />
1 The old forms pluguieron, plegue, and plega are not recognized by the RAE, nor are any of the<br />
alternate forms for complacer. They nonetheless can be found in various other sources.<br />
7B C S ZC LUCIR TO SHINE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
luzco lucí lucía luciré luciría<br />
luces luciste lucías lucirás lucirías<br />
luce lució lucía lucirá luciría<br />
lucimos lucimos lucíamos luciremos luciríamos<br />
lucís lucisteis lucíais luciréis luciríais<br />
lucen lucieron lucían lucirán lucirían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
luzca luciera luciese<br />
luzcas lucieras lucieses<br />
luzca luciera luciese<br />
luzcamos luciéramos luciésemos<br />
luzcáis lucierais lucieseis<br />
luzcan lucieran luciesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) luce lucid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE lucido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE luciendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 193<br />
Note: <strong>Verbs</strong> ending in -ducir have in addition an irregular simple past tense (and hence imperfect<br />
subjunctive) and are treated as a separate class (no. 34).<br />
8 ADD -Y EXCEPT BEFORE -I CONSTRUIR TO CONSTRUCT<br />
UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
construyo construí construía construiré construiría<br />
construyes construiste construías construirás construirías<br />
construye construyó construía construirá construiría<br />
construimos construimos construíamos construiremos construiríamos<br />
construís construisteis construíais construiréis construiríais<br />
construyen construyeron construían construirán construirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
construya construyera construyese<br />
construyas construyeras construyeses<br />
construya construyera construyese<br />
construyamos construyéramos construyésemos<br />
construyáis construyerais construyeseis<br />
construyan construyeran construyesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) construye construid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE construido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE construyendo<br />
Note: For huir and fluir, the new orthographic rules allow the 1s simple past and 2p present<br />
indicative to be written without accents: e.g., hui, huis instead of huí, huís.
194 ANNEX A<br />
9 -GO CAER TO FALL<br />
UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y<br />
ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT <br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
caigo caí caía caeré caería<br />
caes caíste caías caerás caerías<br />
cae cayó caía caerá caería<br />
caemos caímos caíamos caeremos caeríamos<br />
caéis caísteis caíais caeréis caeríais<br />
caen cayeron caían caerán caerían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
caiga cayera cayese<br />
caigas cayeras cayeses<br />
caiga cayera cayese<br />
caigamos cayéramos cayésemos<br />
caigáis cayerais cayeseis<br />
caigan cayeran cayesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) cae caed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE caído <br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE cayendo<br />
9-1 ALTERNATE FORMS RAER TO WEAR AWAY<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
raigo or rayo 1 raiga or raya<br />
raes raigas or rayas<br />
rae raiga or raya<br />
raemos raigamos or rayamos<br />
raéis raigáis or rayáis<br />
raen raigan or rayan<br />
1 The regular form rao is sometimes found as well.
9-2 ALTERNATE FORMS ROER TO GNAW<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
roo or roigo or royo roa or roiga or roya<br />
roes roas or roigas or royas<br />
roe roa or roiga or roya<br />
roemos roamos or roigamos or royamos<br />
roéis roáis or roigáis or royáis<br />
roen roan or roigan or royan<br />
10 -GO OÍR TO HEAR<br />
ADD -Y EXCEPT BEFORE -I<br />
UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y<br />
ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT <br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
oigo oí oía oiré oiría<br />
OYES oíste oías oirás oirías<br />
OYE oyó oía oirá oiría<br />
oímos oímos oíamos oiremos oiríamos<br />
oís oísteis oíais oiréis oiríais<br />
OYENoyeron oían oirán oirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
oiga oyera oyese<br />
oigas oyeras oyeses<br />
oiga oyera oyese<br />
oigamos oyéramos oyésemos<br />
oigáis oyerais oyeseis<br />
oigan oyeran oyesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) OYE oíd <br />
PAST PARTICIPLE oído <br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE oyendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 195
196 ANNEX A<br />
11 -GO SALIR TO EXIT<br />
FUTURE STEM: SALDR-<br />
IMPERATIVE: SAL<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
salgo salí salía saldré saldría<br />
sales saliste salías saldrás saldrías<br />
sale salió salía saldrá saldría<br />
salimos salimos salíamos saldremos saldríamos<br />
salís salisteis salíais saldréis saldríais<br />
salen salieron salían saldrán saldrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
salga saliera saliese<br />
salgas salieras salieses<br />
salga saliera saliese<br />
salgamos saliéramos saliésemos<br />
salgáis salierais salieseis<br />
salgan salieran saliesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sal salid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE salido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE saliendo<br />
12 -GO<br />
FUTURE STEM: VALDR-<br />
VALER TO BE WORTH<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
valgo valí valía valdré valdría<br />
vales valiste valías valdrás valdrías<br />
vale valió valía valdrá valdría<br />
valemos valimos valíamos valdremos valdríamos<br />
valéis valisteis valíais valdréis valdríais<br />
valen valieron valían valdrán valdrían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
valga valiera valiese<br />
valgas valieras valieses<br />
valga valiera valiese<br />
valgamos valiéramos valiésemos<br />
valgáis valierais valieseis<br />
valgan valieran valiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) vale valed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE valido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE valiendo<br />
13 -GO ASIR TO GRASP<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
asgo así asía asiré asiría<br />
ases asiste asías asirás asirías<br />
ase asió asía asirá asiría<br />
asimos asimos asíamos asiremos asiríamos<br />
asís asisteis asíais asiréis asiríais<br />
asen asieron asían asirán asirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
asga asiera asiese<br />
asgas asieras asieses<br />
asga asiera asiese<br />
asgamos asiéramos asiésemos<br />
asgáis asierais asieseis<br />
asgan asieran asiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ase asid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE asido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE asiendo<br />
Note: Forms with -g are generally avoided.<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 197
198 ANNEX A<br />
14 VER TO SEE<br />
VEO<br />
IMPERFECT<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE: VISTO<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
veo vi veía veré vería<br />
ves viste veías verás verías<br />
ve vio veía verá vería<br />
vemos vimos veíamos veremos veríamos<br />
veis visteis veíais veréis veríais<br />
ven vieron veían verán verían<br />
Note: veis, vi, vio have no written accent since they have only one syllable.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
vea viera viese<br />
veas vieras vieses<br />
vea viera viese<br />
veamos viéramos viésemos<br />
veáis vierais vieseis<br />
vean vieran viesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ve ved<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE visto<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE viendo<br />
14-1 ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT PREVER TO FORESEE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
preveo preví preveía preveré prevería<br />
prevés previste preveías preverás preverías<br />
prevé previó preveía preverá prevería<br />
prevemos previmos preveíamos preveremos preveríamos<br />
prevéis previsteis preveíais preveréis preveríais<br />
prevén previeron preveían preverán preverían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
prevea previera previese<br />
preveas previeras previeses<br />
prevea previera previese<br />
preveamos previéramos previésemos<br />
preveáis previerais previeseis<br />
prevean previeran previesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) prevé preved<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE previsto<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE previendo<br />
Note: Written accents are required on forms which have only one syllable in ver and end in<br />
-n, -s, or a vowel; e.g., *preves (without written accent) would be pronounced pre•ves rather than<br />
pre•vés<br />
15 DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 DISCERNIR TO DISCERN<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
discierno discerní discernía discerniré discerniría<br />
disciernes discerniste discernías discernirás discernirías<br />
discierne discernió discernía discernirá discerniría<br />
discernimos discernimos discerníamos discerniremos discerniríamos<br />
discernís discernisteis discerníais discerniréis discerniríais<br />
disciernen discernieron discernían discernirán discernirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
discierna discerniera discerniese<br />
disciernas discernieras discernieses<br />
discierna discerniera discerniese<br />
discernamos discerniéramos discerniésemos<br />
discernáis discernierais discernieseis<br />
disciernan discernieran discerniesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) discierne discernid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE discernido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE discerniendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 199<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable. Discernir is thus conjugated like perder (5A) apart<br />
from 4 forms: infinitive; present indicative (1p/2p); imperative (2p)
200 ANNEX A<br />
16 DIPHTHONG U S UE 1 JUGAR TO PLAY<br />
GSGU<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
juego juGUé jugaba jugaré jugaría<br />
juegas jugaste jugabas jugarás jugarías<br />
juega jugó jugaba jugará jugaría<br />
jugamos jugamos jugábamos jugaremos jugaríamos<br />
jugáis jugasteis jugabais jugaréis jugaríais<br />
juegan jugaron jugaban jugarán jugarían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
jueGUe jugara jugase<br />
jueGUes jugaras jugases<br />
jueGUe jugara jugase<br />
juGUemos jugáramos jugásemos<br />
juGUéis jugarais jugaseis<br />
jueGUen jugaran jugasen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) juega jugad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE jugado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE jugando<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
17 DIPHTHONG I S IE 1 ADQUIRIR TO ACQUIRE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
adquiero adquirí adquiría adquiriré adquiriría<br />
adquieres adquiriste adquirías adquirirás adquirirías<br />
adquiere adquirió adquiría adquirirá adquiriría<br />
adquirimos adquirimos adquiríamos adquiriremos adquiriríamos<br />
adquirís adquiristeis adquiríais adquiriréis adquiriríais<br />
adquieren adquirieron adquirían adquirirán adquirirían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
adquiera adquiriera adquiriese<br />
adquieras adquirieras adquirieses<br />
adquiera adquiriera adquiriese<br />
adquiramos adquiriéramos adquiriésemos<br />
adquiráis adquirierais adquirieseis<br />
adquieran adquirieran adquiriesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) adquiere adquirid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE adquirido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE adquiriendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
18 LIKE CONSTRUIR (8)<br />
EXCEPT GÜY S GUY<br />
ARGÜIR TO ARGUE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
arguyo argüí argüía argüiré argüiría<br />
arguyes argüiste argüías argüirás argüirías<br />
arguye arguyó argüía argüirá argüiría<br />
argüimos argüimos argüíamos argüiremos argüiríamos<br />
argüís argüisteis argüíais argüiréis argüiríais<br />
arguyen arguyeron argüían argüirán argüirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
arguya arguyera arguyese<br />
arguyas arguyeras arguyeses<br />
arguya arguyera arguyese<br />
arguyamos arguyéramos arguyésemos<br />
arguyáis arguyerais arguyeseis<br />
arguyan arguyeran arguyesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) arguye argüid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE argüido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE arguyendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 201
202 ANNEX A<br />
19 SER TO BE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
soy fui era seré sería<br />
eres fuiste eras serás serías<br />
es fue era será sería<br />
somos fuimos éramos seremos seríamos<br />
sois fuisteis erais seréis seríais<br />
son fueron eran serán serían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
sea fuera fuese<br />
seas fueras fueses<br />
sea fuera fuese<br />
seamos fuéramos fuésemos<br />
seáis fuerais fueseis<br />
sean fueran fuesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sé sed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE sido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE siendo<br />
20 ESTAR TO BE<br />
ESTOY<br />
STRESS SHIFT *<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
ESTOY estuve estaba estaré estaría<br />
estás * estuviste estabas estarás estarías<br />
está * estuvo estaba estará estaría<br />
estamos estuvimos estábamos estaremos estaríamos<br />
estáis estuvisteis estabais estaréis estaríais<br />
están * estuvieron estaban estarán estarían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
esté * estuviera estuviese<br />
estés * estuvieras estuvieses<br />
esté * estuviera estuviese<br />
estemos estuviéramos estuviésemos<br />
estéis estuvierais estuvieseis<br />
estén * estuvieran estuviesen<br />
IMPERATIVE está * estad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE estado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE estando<br />
21 HABER TO HAVE<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
he hube había habré habría<br />
has hubiste habías habrás habrías<br />
ha hubo había habrá habría<br />
hemos hubimos habíamos habremos habríamos<br />
habéis hubisteis habíais habréis habríais<br />
han hubieron habían habrán habrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
haya hubiera hubiese<br />
hayas hubieras hubieses<br />
haya hubiera hubiese<br />
hayamos hubiéramos hubiésemos<br />
hayáis hubierais hubieseis<br />
hayan hubieran hubiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE he habed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE habido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE habiendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 203
204 ANNEX A<br />
22 SABER TO KNOW<br />
SÉ<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: SABR-<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE STEM: SEP-<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
sé supe sabía sabré sabría<br />
sabes supiste sabías sabrás sabrías<br />
sabe supo sabía sabrá sabría<br />
sabemos supimos sabíamos sabremos sabríamos<br />
sabéis supisteis sabíais sabréis sabríais<br />
saben supieron sabían sabrán sabrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
sepa supiera supiese<br />
sepas supieras supieses<br />
sepa supiera supiese<br />
sepamos supiéramos supiésemos<br />
sepáis supierais supieseis<br />
sepan supieran supiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE sabe sabed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE sabido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE sabiendo<br />
23 CABER TO FIT<br />
QUEPO<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: CABR-<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
quepo cupe cabía cabré cabría<br />
cabes cupiste cabías cabrás cabrías<br />
cabe cupo cabía cabrá cabría<br />
cabemos cupimos cabíamos cabremos cabríamos<br />
cabéis cupisteis cabíais cabréis cabríais<br />
caben cupieron cabían cabrán cabrían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
quepa cupiera cupiese<br />
quepas cupieras cupieses<br />
quepa cupiera cupiese<br />
quepamos cupiéramos cupiésemos<br />
quepáis cupierais cupieseis<br />
quepan cupieran cupiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE cabe cabed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE cabido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE cabiendo<br />
24 IR TO GO<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
voy fui iba iré iría<br />
vas fuiste ibas irás irías<br />
va fue iba irá iría<br />
vamos fuimos íbamos iremos iríamos<br />
vais fuisteis ibais iréis iríais<br />
van fueron iban irán irían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
vaya fuera fuese<br />
vayas fueras fueses<br />
vaya fuera fuese<br />
vayamos fuéramos fuésemos<br />
vayáis fuerais fueseis<br />
vayan fueran fuesen<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 205<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ve id<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE ido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE yendo [regular orthographic change: initial ie S ye]
206 ANNEX A<br />
25 DAR TO GIVE<br />
DOY<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
WRITTEN ACCENTS IN SUBJUNCTIVE <br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
doy di daba daré daría<br />
das diste dabas darás darías<br />
da dio daba dará daría<br />
damos dimos dábamos daremos daríamos<br />
dais disteis dabais daréis daríais<br />
dan dieron daban darán darían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
dé diera diese<br />
des dieras dieses<br />
dé diera diese<br />
demos diéramos diésemos<br />
deis dierais dieseis<br />
den dieran diesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) da dad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE dado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE dando<br />
Note: dais, deis, di, dio have no written accent since they have only one syllable.<br />
26 PODER CAN<br />
DIPHTHONG O S UE1 IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: PODR-<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE: PUDIENDO<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
puedo pude podía podré podría<br />
puedes pudiste podías podrás podrías<br />
puede pudo podía podrá podría<br />
podemos pudimos podíamos podremos podríamos<br />
podéis pudisteis podíais podréis podríais<br />
pueden pudieron podían podrán podrían
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
pueda pudiera pudiese<br />
puedas pudieras pudieses<br />
pueda pudiera pudiese<br />
podamos pudiéramos pudiésemos<br />
podáis pudierais pudieseis<br />
puedan pudieran pudiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) puede poded<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE podido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE pudiendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
27 QUERER TO WANT<br />
DIPHTHONG E S IE1 IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: QUERR-<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
quiero quise quería querré querría<br />
quieres quisiste querías querrás querrías<br />
quiere quiso quería querrá querría<br />
queremos quisimos queríamos querremos querríamos<br />
queréis quisisteis queríais querréis querríais<br />
quieren quisieron querían querrán querrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
quiera quisiera quisiese<br />
quieras quisieras quisieses<br />
quiera quisiera quisiese<br />
queramos quisiéramos quisiésemos<br />
queráis quisierais quisieseis<br />
quieran quisieran quisiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) quiere quered<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE querido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE queriendo<br />
1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 207
208 ANNEX A<br />
28 DECIR TO SAY<br />
DIGO<br />
UMLAUT E S I *<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: DIR-<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE: DICHO<br />
IMPERATIVE: DI<br />
J IE S JE †<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
digo dije decía diré diría<br />
dices * dijiste decías dirás dirías<br />
dice * dijo decía dirá diría<br />
decimos dijimos decíamos diremos diríamos<br />
decís dijisteis decíais diréis diríais<br />
dicen * dijeron † decían dirán dirían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
diga dijera † dijese †<br />
digas dijeras † dijeses †<br />
diga dijera † dijese †<br />
digamos dijéramos † dijésemos †<br />
digáis dijerais † dijeseis †<br />
digan dijeran † dijesen †<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) di decid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE dicho<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE diciendo *<br />
28-1 PREDECIR TO PREDICT<br />
In imperative 2s, predecir is regular where decir is not. Otherwise conjugations are<br />
identical. 1<br />
decir predecir<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) di decid predice predecid<br />
1 Conjugation according to RAE. Other references (e.g., Moliner, VOX) show regular future<br />
(predeciré, etc.) and conditional (predeciría).
28-2 BENDECIR TO BLESS<br />
In future, conditional, imperative 2s and past participle, bendecir is regular where decir<br />
is not.<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
decir bendecir<br />
Future Conditional Future Conditional<br />
diré diría bendeciré bendeciría<br />
dirás dirías bendecirás bendecirías<br />
dirá diría bendecirá bendeciría<br />
diremos diríamos bendeciremos bendeciríamos<br />
diréis diríais bendeciréis bendeciríais<br />
dirán dirían bendecirán bendecirían<br />
decir bendecir<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) di decid bendice bendecid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE dicho bendecido<br />
29 HACER TO DO, MAKE<br />
HAGO<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: HAR-<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE: HECHO<br />
IMPERATIVE: HAZ<br />
C S Z *<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
hago hice hacía haré haría<br />
haces hiciste hacías harás harías<br />
hace hiZo * hacía hará haría<br />
hacemos hicimos hacíamos haremos haríamos<br />
hacéis hicisteis hacíais haréis haríais<br />
hacen hicieron hacían harán harían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
haga hiciera hiciese<br />
hagas hicieras hicieses<br />
haga hiciera hiciese<br />
hagamos hiciéramos hiciésemos<br />
hagáis hicierais hicieseis<br />
hagan hicieran hiciesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) haZ * haced<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE hecho<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE haciendo<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 209
210 ANNEX A<br />
29-1 E(H)I S E(H)Í 1 REHACER TO REDO<br />
INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE<br />
Present Present<br />
rehíce<br />
rehiciste<br />
rehízo<br />
rehicimos<br />
rehicisteis<br />
rehicieron<br />
1 In the two simple past conjugations in which the stem syllable is stressed.<br />
29-2 SATISFACER TO SATISFY<br />
Conjugated identically to hacer (satisfago, satisfaces, etc.) except for imperative:<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) satisfaz or satisface satisfaced<br />
30 PONER TO PUT<br />
PONGO<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: PONDR-<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE: PUESTO<br />
IMPERATIVE: PON<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
pongo puse ponía pondré pondría<br />
pones pusiste ponías pondrás pondrías<br />
pone puso ponía pondrá pondría<br />
ponemos pusimos poníamos pondremos pondríamos<br />
ponéis pusisteis poníais pondréis pondríais<br />
ponen pusieron ponían pondrán pondrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
ponga pusiera pusiese<br />
pongas pusieras pusieses<br />
ponga pusiera pusiese<br />
pongamos pusiéramos pusiésemos<br />
pongáis pusierais pusieseis<br />
pongan pusieran pusiesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pon poned<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE puesto<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE poniendo
30-1 SUPONER TO SUPPOSE<br />
For imperative 2s suponer has a written accent where poner does not.<br />
poner suponer<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pon poned supón suponed<br />
31 TENER TO HAVE<br />
TENGO<br />
DIPHTHONG E S IE *<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: TENDR-<br />
IMPERATIVE: TEN<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
tengo tuve tenía tendré tendría<br />
tienes * tuviste tenías tendrás tendrías<br />
tiene * tuvo tenía tendrá tendría<br />
tenemos tuvimos teníamos tendremos tendríamos<br />
tenéis tuvisteis teníais tendréis tendríais<br />
tienen * tuvieron tenían tendrán tendrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
tenga tuviera tuviese<br />
tengas tuvieras tuvieses<br />
tenga tuviera tuviese<br />
tengamos tuviéramos tuviésemos<br />
tengáis tuvierais tuvieseis<br />
tengan tuvieran tuviesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ten tened<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE tenido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE teniendo<br />
31-1 OBTENER TO OBTAIN<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 211<br />
For imperative 2s obtener has a written accent where tener does not.<br />
tener obtener<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ten tened obtén obtened
212 ANNEX A<br />
32 VENIR TO COME<br />
VENGO<br />
DIPHTHONG E S IE *<br />
UMLAUT E S I: PRESENT PARTICIPLE<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
FUTURE STEM: VENDR-<br />
IMPERATIVE: VEN<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
vengo vine venía vendré vendría<br />
vienes * viniste venías vendrás vendrías<br />
viene * vino venía vendrá vendría<br />
venimos vinimos veníamos vendremos vendríamos<br />
venís vinisteis veníais vendréis vendríais<br />
vienen * vinieron venían vendrán vendrían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
venga viniera viniese<br />
vengas vinieras vinieses<br />
venga viniera viniese<br />
vengamos viniéramos viniésemos<br />
vengáis vinierais vinieseis<br />
vengan vinieran viniesen<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ven venid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE venido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE viniendo<br />
32-1 CONVENIR TO CONVENE, AGREE, BE SUITABLE<br />
For imperative 2s convenir has a written accent where venir does not.<br />
venir convenir<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ven venid convén convenid
33 TRAER TO BRING,<br />
-GO<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y *<br />
ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT <br />
J IE S JE †<br />
CARRY<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
traigo traje traía traeré traería<br />
traes trajiste traías traerás traerías<br />
trae trajo traía traerá traería<br />
traemos trajimos traíamos traeremos traeríamos<br />
traéis trajisteis traíais traeréis traeríais<br />
traen trajeron † traían traerán traerían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
traiga trajera † trajese †<br />
traigas trajeras † trajeses †<br />
traiga trajera † trajese †<br />
traigamos trajéramos † trajésemos †<br />
traigáis trajerais † trajeseis †<br />
traigan trajeran † trajesen †<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) trae traed<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE traído <br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE traYendo *<br />
MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 213<br />
34 C S ZC<br />
IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST<br />
J IE S JE *<br />
-DUCIR (E.G., CONDUCIR)<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
conduzco conduje conducía conduciré conduciría<br />
conduces condujiste conducías conducirás conducirías<br />
conduce condujo conducía conducirá conduciría<br />
conducimos condujimos conducíamos conduciremos conduciríamos<br />
conducís condujisteis conducíais conduciréis conduciríais<br />
conducen condujeron * conducían conducirán conducirían
214 ANNEX A<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
conduzca condujera * condujese *<br />
conduzcas condujeras * condujeses *<br />
conduzca condujera * condujese *<br />
conduzcamos condujéramos * condujésemos *<br />
conduzcáis condujerais * condujeseis *<br />
conduzcan condujeran * condujesen *<br />
IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) conduce conducid<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE conducido<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE conduciendo<br />
35 IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST ANDAR TO WALK<br />
INDICATIVE<br />
Present <strong>Simple</strong> Past Imperfect Future Conditional<br />
ando anduve andaba andaré andaría<br />
andas anduviste andabas andarás andarías<br />
anda anduvo andaba andará andaría<br />
andamos anduvimos andábamos andaremos andaríamos<br />
andáis anduvisteis andabais andaréis andaríais<br />
andan anduvieron andaban andarán andarían<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II)<br />
ande anduviera anduviese<br />
andes anduvieras anduvieses<br />
ande anduviera anduviese<br />
andemos anduviéramos anduviésemos<br />
andéis anduvierais anduvieseis<br />
anden anduvieran anduviesen<br />
IMPERATIVE anda andad<br />
PAST PARTICIPLE andado<br />
PRESENT PARTICIPLE andando
ANNEX B<br />
Index by Class and Sub-class for 4,818 <strong>Verbs</strong><br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> are listed according to the post-1994 rules under which ch and ll are now treated, for<br />
purposes of alphabetization, as simple letter combinations c h, l l (previously ch had<br />
been treated as a separate letter immediately following c in the alphabet, and likewise ll a<br />
separate letter following l). The ñ continues to be treated as a separate letter, following n.<br />
“DEF” (defective) indicates a verb which is used only in certain conjugations—<br />
generally the infinitive, participles, and third person (singular and plural) forms. A number<br />
of weather verbs (including llover “to rain”, nevar “to snow”, tronar “to thunder”) are<br />
frequently treated as defective, as they tend to be conjugated only impersonally (i.e., in the<br />
third person). They nonetheless have complete conjugations, since they also have rarer<br />
“personal” uses (I thundered at the unwanted intruder.)<br />
<strong>Verbs</strong> which can only be used reflexively are shown with the reflexive pronoun se in<br />
parentheses, e.g., arrepentir(se).<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
abajar cantar 1<br />
abalanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
abalar cantar 1<br />
abalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aballar cantar 1<br />
abanar cantar 1<br />
abanderar cantar 1<br />
abandonar cantar 1<br />
abanicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
abaratar cantar 1<br />
abarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
abarquillar cantar 1<br />
abarrotar cantar 1<br />
abastecer conocer 7A<br />
abatir subir 3<br />
abdicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
abetunar cantar 1<br />
abigarrar cantar 1<br />
abismar cantar 1<br />
abjurar cantar 1<br />
ablandar cantar 1<br />
abnegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
abobar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
abocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
abocetar cantar 1<br />
abochornar cantar 1<br />
abocinar cantar 1<br />
abofetear cantar 1<br />
abogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
abolir subir (abolir) 3-14<br />
abollar cantar 1<br />
abombar cantar 1<br />
abominar cantar 1<br />
abonar cantar 1<br />
abordar cantar 1<br />
aborrecer conocer 7A<br />
aborregar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
abortar cantar 1<br />
abotargar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
abotonar cantar 1<br />
abovedar cantar 1<br />
abrasar cantar 1<br />
abrazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
abrevar cantar 1<br />
abreviar cantar 1<br />
abrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2
216 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
abrir subir (abrir) 3-9<br />
abrochar cantar 1<br />
abrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
abrumar cantar 1<br />
absolver mover (resolver) 5B-3<br />
absorber comer 2<br />
abstener(se) tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
abstraer traer 33<br />
abuchear cantar 1<br />
abultar cantar 1<br />
abundar cantar 1<br />
aburguesar cantar 1<br />
aburrir subir 3<br />
abusar cantar 1<br />
acabar cantar 1<br />
acaecer (DEF) conocer 7A<br />
acallar cantar 1<br />
acalorar cantar 1<br />
acampar cantar 1<br />
acanalar cantar 1<br />
acantonar cantar 1<br />
acaparar cantar 1<br />
acaramelar cantar 1<br />
acariciar cantar 1<br />
acarrear cantar 1<br />
acartonar(se) cantar 1<br />
acatar cantar 1<br />
acatarrar cantar 1<br />
acaudalar cantar 1<br />
acaudillar cantar 1<br />
acceder comer 2<br />
accidentar(se) cantar 1<br />
accionar cantar 1<br />
acechar cantar 1<br />
aceitar cantar 1<br />
acelerar cantar 1<br />
acendrar cantar 1<br />
acentuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
aceptar cantar 1<br />
acerar cantar 1<br />
acercar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
acertar pensar 4A<br />
achabacanar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
achacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
achantar cantar 1<br />
achaparrar(se) cantar 1<br />
acharolar cantar 1<br />
achatar cantar 1<br />
achicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
achicharrar cantar 1<br />
achinar cantar 1<br />
achispar cantar 1<br />
achuchar cantar 1<br />
acicalar cantar 1<br />
acidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
acidular cantar 1<br />
aclamar cantar 1<br />
aclarar cantar 1<br />
aclimatar cantar 1<br />
acobardar cantar 1<br />
acodar cantar 1<br />
acoger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
acogotar cantar 1<br />
acolchar cantar 1<br />
acometer comer 2<br />
acomodar cantar 1<br />
acompañar cantar 1<br />
acompasar cantar 1<br />
acomplejar cantar 1<br />
acondicionar cantar 1<br />
aconsejar cantar 1<br />
acontecer (DEF) conocer 7A<br />
acoplar cantar 1<br />
acoquinar cantar 1<br />
acorazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
acorchar cantar 1<br />
acordar mostrar 4B<br />
acordonar cantar 1<br />
acorralar cantar 1<br />
acortar cantar 1<br />
acosar cantar 1<br />
acostar mostrar 4B<br />
acostumbrar cantar 1<br />
acotar cantar 1<br />
acrecentar pensar 4A<br />
acreditar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
acribillar cantar 1<br />
acrisolar cantar 1<br />
acristalar cantar 1<br />
activar cantar 1<br />
actualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
actuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
acuartelar cantar 1<br />
acuchillar cantar 1<br />
acuciar cantar 1<br />
acuclillar(se) cantar 1<br />
acudir subir 3<br />
acumular cantar 1<br />
acunar cantar 1<br />
acuñar cantar 1<br />
acurrucar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
acusar cantar 1<br />
adaptar cantar 1<br />
adecentar cantar 1<br />
adecuar cantar 1<br />
adelantar cantar 1<br />
adelgazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
adentrar(se) cantar 1<br />
aderezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
adeudar cantar 1<br />
adherir sentir 6A<br />
adicionar cantar 1<br />
adiestrar cantar 1<br />
adinerar cantar 1<br />
adivinar cantar 1<br />
adjetivar cantar 1<br />
adjudicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
adjuntar cantar 1<br />
administrar cantar 1<br />
admirar cantar 1<br />
admitir subir 3<br />
adobar cantar 1<br />
adocenar cantar 1<br />
adoctrinar cantar 1<br />
adolecer conocer 7A<br />
adoptar cantar 1<br />
adoquinar cantar 1<br />
adorar cantar 1<br />
adormecer conocer 7A<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 217<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
adormilar(se) cantar 1<br />
adornar cantar 1<br />
adosar cantar 1<br />
adquirir adquirir 17<br />
adscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
aducir conducir 34<br />
adueñar(se) cantar 1<br />
adular cantar 1<br />
adulterar cantar 1<br />
adverbializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
advertir sentir 6A<br />
aerotransportar cantar 1<br />
afanar cantar 1<br />
afear cantar 1<br />
afectar cantar 1<br />
afeitar cantar 1<br />
afelpar cantar 1<br />
afeminar cantar 1<br />
aferrar cantar 1<br />
afianzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aficionar cantar 1<br />
afilar cantar 1<br />
afiliar cantar 1<br />
afinar cantar 1<br />
afincar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
afirmar cantar 1<br />
aflautar cantar 1<br />
afligir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
aflojar cantar 1<br />
afluir construir 8<br />
afofar(se) cantar 1<br />
afrancesar cantar 1<br />
afrentar cantar 1<br />
africanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
afrontar cantar 1<br />
agachar cantar 1<br />
agarrar cantar 1<br />
agarrotar cantar 1<br />
agasajar cantar 1<br />
agavillar cantar 1<br />
agazapar(se) cantar 1<br />
agenciar cantar 1<br />
agigantar cantar 1
218 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
agilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
agitanar cantar 1<br />
agitar cantar 1<br />
aglomerar cantar 1<br />
aglutinar cantar 1<br />
agobiar cantar 1<br />
agolpar cantar 1<br />
agonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
agorar mostrar (agorar) 4B-4<br />
agostar cantar 1<br />
agotar cantar 1<br />
agraciar cantar 1<br />
agradar cantar 1<br />
agradecer conocer 7A<br />
agrandar cantar 1<br />
agravar cantar 1<br />
agraviar cantar 1<br />
agredir subir (abolir) 3-14<br />
agregar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
agremiar cantar 1<br />
agriar 1 cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
agrietar cantar 1<br />
agrisar cantar 1<br />
agrupar cantar 1<br />
aguantar cantar 1<br />
aguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
aguardar cantar 1<br />
agudizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aguijonear cantar 1<br />
agujerear cantar 1<br />
agusanar(se) cantar 1<br />
aguzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aherrojar cantar 1<br />
ahincar cantar (ahincar) 1-10<br />
ahogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
ahondar cantar 1<br />
ahorcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ahornar cantar 1<br />
ahorrar cantar 1<br />
ahuecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
1 Frequently conjugated without written accents (e.g., agrio rather than agrío).<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
ahuevar cantar 1<br />
ahumar cantar (aullar) 1-6<br />
ahuyentar cantar 1<br />
aindiar(se) cantar 1<br />
airear cantar 1<br />
aislar cantar (aislar) 1-5<br />
ajamonar(se) cantar 1<br />
ajar cantar 1<br />
ajardinar cantar 1<br />
ajetrear cantar 1<br />
ajuntar cantar 1<br />
ajustar cantar 1<br />
ajusticiar cantar 1<br />
alabar cantar 1<br />
alabear cantar 1<br />
alambicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
alambrar cantar 1<br />
alardear cantar 1<br />
alargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
alarmar cantar 1<br />
albardar cantar 1<br />
albergar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
alborear cantar 1<br />
alborotar cantar 1<br />
alborozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
alcahuetear cantar 1<br />
alcalinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
alcantarillar cantar 1<br />
alcanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
alcoholizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aleccionar cantar 1<br />
alegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
alegrar cantar 1<br />
alejar cantar 1<br />
alentar pensar 4A<br />
alertar cantar 1<br />
aletargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
aletear cantar 1<br />
alfabetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
alfombrar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
algodonar cantar 1<br />
alhajar cantar 1<br />
aliar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
alicatar cantar 1<br />
alicortar cantar 1<br />
alienar cantar 1<br />
aligerar cantar 1<br />
alimentar cantar 1<br />
alinear cantar 1<br />
aliñar cantar 1<br />
alisar cantar 1<br />
alistar cantar 1<br />
aliviar cantar 1<br />
allanar cantar 1<br />
allegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
almacenar cantar 1<br />
almendrar cantar 1<br />
almibarar cantar 1<br />
almidonar cantar 1<br />
almohadillar cantar 1<br />
almohazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
almorzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3<br />
alocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
alojar cantar 1<br />
alquilar cantar 1<br />
alterar cantar 1<br />
alternar cantar 1<br />
alucinar cantar 1<br />
aludir subir 3<br />
alumbrar cantar 1<br />
alunizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
alzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
amadrinar cantar 1<br />
amaestrar cantar 1<br />
amagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
amainar cantar 1<br />
amalgamar cantar 1<br />
amamantar cantar 1<br />
amancebar(se) cantar 1<br />
amanecer conocer 7A<br />
amanerar cantar 1<br />
amansar cantar 1<br />
amañar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 219<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
amar cantar 1<br />
amarar cantar 1<br />
amargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
amarillear cantar 1<br />
amarrar cantar 1<br />
amartelar cantar 1<br />
amartillar cantar 1<br />
amasar cantar 1<br />
amazacotar cantar 1<br />
ambicionar cantar 1<br />
ambientar cantar 1<br />
amedrentar cantar 1<br />
amenazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
amenizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
americanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
amerizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ametrallar cantar 1<br />
amigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
amilanar cantar 1<br />
aminorar cantar 1<br />
amnistiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
amodorrar(se) cantar 1<br />
amohinar cantar (amohinar) 1-9<br />
amojamar cantar 1<br />
amoldar cantar 1<br />
amonar(se) cantar 1<br />
amonestar cantar 1<br />
amontonar cantar 1<br />
amoratar(se) cantar 1<br />
amordazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
amorriñar(se) cantar 1<br />
amortajar cantar 1<br />
amortiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
amortizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
amostazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
amotinar cantar 1<br />
amparar cantar 1<br />
ampliar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
amplificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
amputar cantar 1<br />
amueblar cantar 1<br />
amuermar cantar 1<br />
amurallar cantar 1
220 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
analizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
anarquizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
anatematizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
anatomizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
anclar cantar 1<br />
andar andar 35<br />
anegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
anestesiar cantar 1<br />
anexionar cantar 1<br />
angostar cantar 1<br />
angustiar cantar 1<br />
anhelar cantar 1<br />
anidar cantar 1<br />
anillar cantar 1<br />
animalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
animar cantar 1<br />
aniñar(se) cantar 1<br />
aniquilar cantar 1<br />
anisar cantar 1<br />
anochecer conocer 7A<br />
anonadar cantar 1<br />
anotar cantar 1<br />
anquilosar cantar 1<br />
ansiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
anteceder comer 2<br />
anteponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
anticipar cantar 1<br />
antojar(se) cantar 1<br />
anudar cantar 1<br />
anular cantar 1<br />
anunciar cantar 1<br />
añadir subir 3<br />
añorar cantar 1<br />
apabullar cantar 1<br />
apacentar pensar 4A<br />
apaciguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
apagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
apalabrar cantar 1<br />
apalancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
apalear cantar 1<br />
apañar cantar 1<br />
aparcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
aparear cantar 1<br />
aparecer conocer 7A<br />
aparejar cantar 1<br />
aparentar cantar 1<br />
apartar cantar 1<br />
apasionar cantar 1<br />
apear cantar 1<br />
apechar cantar 1<br />
apechugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
apedrear cantar 1<br />
apegar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
apelar cantar 1<br />
apellidar cantar 1<br />
apelmazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
apelotonar cantar 1<br />
apenar cantar 1<br />
apercibir subir 3<br />
apergaminar(se) cantar 1<br />
apesadumbrar cantar 1<br />
apestar cantar 1<br />
apetecer conocer 7A<br />
apiadar cantar 1<br />
apilar cantar 1<br />
apiñar cantar 1<br />
apisonar cantar 1<br />
aplacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
aplanar cantar 1<br />
aplastar cantar 1<br />
aplatanar cantar 1<br />
aplaudir subir 3<br />
aplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
apocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
apocopar cantar 1<br />
apodar cantar 1<br />
apoderar cantar 1<br />
apolillar cantar 1<br />
apologizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
apoltronar(se) cantar 1<br />
apoquinar cantar 1<br />
aporrear cantar 1<br />
aportar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
aposentar cantar 1<br />
apostar (1) 2 mostrar 4B<br />
apostar (2) 3 cantar 1<br />
apostatar cantar 1<br />
apostillar cantar 1<br />
apostrofar cantar 1<br />
apoyar cantar 1<br />
apreciar cantar 1<br />
aprehender comer 2<br />
apremiar cantar 1<br />
aprender comer 2<br />
apresar cantar 1<br />
aprestar cantar 1<br />
apresurar cantar 1<br />
apretar pensar 4A<br />
apretujar cantar 1<br />
aprisionar cantar 1<br />
aprobar mostrar 4B<br />
apropiar cantar 1<br />
aprovechar cantar 1<br />
aprovisionar cantar 1<br />
aproximar cantar 1<br />
apuntalar cantar 1<br />
apuntar cantar 1<br />
apuntillar cantar 1<br />
apuñalar cantar 1<br />
apurar cantar 1<br />
aquejar cantar 1<br />
aquietar cantar 1<br />
aquilatar cantar 1<br />
arañar cantar 1<br />
arar cantar 1<br />
arbitrar cantar 1<br />
arbolar cantar 1<br />
archivar cantar 1<br />
arder comer 2<br />
argüir argüir 18<br />
argumentar cantar 1<br />
armar cantar 1<br />
2 To bet.<br />
3 To station or post.<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 221<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
armonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aromatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
arponear cantar 1<br />
arquear cantar 1<br />
arracimar(se) cantar 1<br />
arraigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
arramblar cantar 1<br />
arramplar cantar 1<br />
arrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
arrasar cantar 1<br />
arrastrar cantar 1<br />
arrear cantar 1<br />
arrebatar cantar 1<br />
arrebolar cantar 1<br />
arrebujar cantar 1<br />
arreciar cantar 1<br />
arredrar cantar 1<br />
arreglar cantar 1<br />
arrellanar(se) cantar 1<br />
arremangar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
arremeter comer 2<br />
arremolinar(se) cantar 1<br />
arrendar pensar 4A<br />
arrepentir(se) sentir 6A<br />
arrestar cantar 1<br />
arriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
arribar cantar 1<br />
arriesgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
arrimar cantar 1<br />
arrinconar cantar 1<br />
arrobar cantar 1<br />
arrodillar cantar 1<br />
arrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
arrojar cantar 1<br />
arrollar cantar 1<br />
arropar cantar 1<br />
arrostrar cantar 1<br />
arrugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
arruinar cantar 1
222 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
arrullar cantar 1<br />
arrumbar cantar 1<br />
articular cantar 1<br />
asaetear cantar 1<br />
asalariar cantar 1<br />
asaltar cantar 1<br />
asar cantar 1<br />
ascender perder 5A<br />
asear cantar 1<br />
asediar cantar 1<br />
asegurar cantar 1<br />
asemejar cantar 1<br />
asentar pensar 4A<br />
asentir sentir 6A<br />
aserrar pensar 4A<br />
asesinar cantar 1<br />
asesorar cantar 1<br />
asestar cantar 1<br />
aseverar cantar 1<br />
asfaltar cantar 1<br />
asfixiar cantar 1<br />
asignar cantar 1<br />
asilar cantar 1<br />
asimilar cantar 1<br />
asir asir 13<br />
asistir subir 3<br />
asociar cantar 1<br />
asolar (1) 4 mostrar 4B<br />
asolar (2) 5 cantar 1<br />
asomar cantar 1<br />
asombrar cantar 1<br />
aspar cantar 1<br />
asperjar cantar 1<br />
aspirar cantar 1<br />
asquear cantar 1<br />
astillar cantar 1<br />
4 To raze, devastate.<br />
5 To burn up, parch.<br />
6 To demolish.<br />
7 To terrify.<br />
8 To stuff.<br />
9 To attest.<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
asumir subir 3<br />
asustar cantar 1<br />
atacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
atajar cantar 1<br />
atañer (DEF) comer (tañer) 2-5<br />
atar cantar 1<br />
atardecer (DEF) conocer 7A<br />
atarugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
atascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ataviar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
atemorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
atemperar cantar 1<br />
atenazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
atender perder 5A<br />
atener(se) tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
atentar cantar 1<br />
atenuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
aterrar (1) 6 pensar 4A<br />
aterrar (2) 7 cantar 1<br />
aterrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aterrorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
atesorar cantar 1<br />
atestar (1) 8 pensar 4A<br />
atestar (2) 9 cantar 1<br />
atestiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
atiborrar cantar 1<br />
atildar cantar 1<br />
atinar cantar 1<br />
atiplar cantar 1<br />
atirantar cantar 1<br />
atisbar cantar 1<br />
atizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
atocinar cantar 1<br />
atolondrar cantar 1<br />
atomizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
atontar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
atontolinar cantar 1<br />
atorar cantar 1<br />
atormentar cantar 1<br />
atornillar cantar 1<br />
atosigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
atracar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
atraer traer 33<br />
atragantar cantar 1<br />
atrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
atrapar cantar 1<br />
atrasar cantar 1<br />
atravesar pensar 4A<br />
atrever(se) comer 2<br />
atribuir construir 8<br />
atribular cantar 1<br />
atrincherar cantar 1<br />
atrofiar cantar 1<br />
atronar mostrar 4B<br />
atropellar cantar 1<br />
atufar cantar 1<br />
aturdir subir 3<br />
aturullar cantar 1<br />
atusar cantar 1<br />
auditar cantar 1<br />
augurar cantar 1<br />
aullar cantar (aullar) 1-6<br />
aumentar cantar 1<br />
aunar cantar (aullar) 1-6<br />
aupar cantar (aullar) 1-6<br />
aureolar cantar 1<br />
auscultar cantar 1<br />
ausentar cantar 1<br />
auspiciar cantar 1<br />
autenticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
autentificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
autocensurar cantar 1<br />
autoeditar cantar 1<br />
automatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
automedicar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
autorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
autosugestionar(se) cantar 1<br />
auxiliar cantar 1<br />
avalar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 223<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
avanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
avasallar cantar 1<br />
avecinar cantar 1<br />
avecindar cantar 1<br />
avejentar cantar 1<br />
avenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
aventajar cantar 1<br />
aventar pensar 4A<br />
aventurar cantar 1<br />
avergonzar mostrar (avergonzar) 4B-6<br />
averiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
averiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
avezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
aviar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
aviejar cantar 1<br />
avinagrar cantar 1<br />
avisar cantar 1<br />
avispar cantar 1<br />
avistar cantar 1<br />
avituallar cantar 1<br />
avivar cantar 1<br />
avizorar cantar 1<br />
ayudar cantar 1<br />
ayunar cantar 1<br />
azarar cantar 1<br />
azogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
azotar cantar 1<br />
azucarar cantar 1<br />
azufrar cantar 1<br />
azulear cantar 1<br />
azuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
babear cantar 1<br />
babosear cantar 1<br />
bailar cantar 1<br />
bailotear cantar 1<br />
bajar cantar 1<br />
balancear cantar 1<br />
balar cantar 1<br />
balbucear cantar 1<br />
balbucir subir (abolir) 3-14<br />
balcanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
baldar cantar 1<br />
bambolear cantar 1
224 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
bandear cantar 1<br />
banderillear cantar 1<br />
bañar cantar 1<br />
baquetear cantar 1<br />
barajar cantar 1<br />
barnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
barrar cantar 1<br />
barrenar cantar 1<br />
barrer comer 2<br />
barritar cantar 1<br />
barruntar cantar 1<br />
basar cantar 1<br />
bascular cantar 1<br />
bastar cantar 1<br />
batallar cantar 1<br />
batear cantar 1<br />
batir subir 3<br />
bautizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
beatificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
beber comer 2<br />
becar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
bendecir decir (bendecir) 28-2<br />
beneficiar cantar 1<br />
berrear cantar 1<br />
besar cantar 1<br />
bestializar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
besuquear cantar 1<br />
bifurcar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
biografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
birlar cantar 1<br />
bisar cantar 1<br />
bisbisear cantar 1<br />
biselar cantar 1<br />
bizquear cantar 1<br />
blandir subir 3<br />
blanquear cantar 1<br />
blasfemar cantar 1<br />
blasonar cantar 1<br />
blindar cantar 1<br />
bloquear cantar 1<br />
bobear cantar 1<br />
bogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
boicotear cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
bombardear cantar 1<br />
bombear cantar 1<br />
bonificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
bordar cantar 1<br />
bordear cantar 1<br />
borrar cantar 1<br />
bosquejar cantar 1<br />
bostezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
botar cantar 1<br />
boxear cantar 1<br />
bracear cantar 1<br />
brear cantar 1<br />
bregar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
bribonear cantar 1<br />
brillar cantar 1<br />
brincar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
brindar cantar 1<br />
bromear cantar 1<br />
broncear cantar 1<br />
brotar cantar 1<br />
brujulear cantar 1<br />
bruñir subir (bruñir) 3-6<br />
brutalizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
bucear cantar 1<br />
bufar cantar 1<br />
bullir subir (bullir) 3-5<br />
burbujear cantar 1<br />
burilar cantar 1<br />
burlar cantar 1<br />
burocratizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
buscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
buzonear cantar 1<br />
cabalgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
cabecear cantar 1<br />
caber caber 23<br />
cablear cantar 1<br />
cablegrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
cabrahigar cantar (cabrahigar) 1-11<br />
cabrear cantar 1<br />
cabrillear cantar 1<br />
cacarear cantar 1<br />
cachear cantar 1<br />
caducar cantar (tocar) 1-1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
caer caer 9<br />
cagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
calafatear cantar 1<br />
calar cantar 1<br />
calcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
calcetar cantar 1<br />
calcificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
calcinar cantar 1<br />
calcografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
calcular cantar 1<br />
caldear cantar 1<br />
calentar pensar 4A<br />
calibrar cantar 1<br />
calificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
caligrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
callar cantar 1<br />
callejear cantar 1<br />
calmar cantar 1<br />
calumniar cantar 1<br />
calzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cambiar cantar 1<br />
camelar cantar 1<br />
caminar cantar 1<br />
campar cantar 1<br />
campear cantar 1<br />
camuflar cantar 1<br />
canalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cancelar cantar 1<br />
canjear cantar 1<br />
canonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cansar cantar 1<br />
cantar cantar 1<br />
canturrear cantar 1<br />
cañonear cantar 1<br />
capacitar cantar 1<br />
capar cantar 1<br />
capear cantar 1<br />
capitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
capitanear cantar 1<br />
capitular cantar 1<br />
capotar cantar 1<br />
capotear cantar 1<br />
captar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 225<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
capturar cantar 1<br />
caracolear cantar 1<br />
caracterizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
caramelizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
carbonatar cantar 1<br />
carbonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
carburar cantar 1<br />
carcajear cantar 1<br />
carcomer comer 2<br />
cardar cantar 1<br />
carear cantar 1<br />
carecer conocer 7A<br />
cargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
cariar cantar 1<br />
caricaturizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
carraspear cantar 1<br />
cartear cantar 1<br />
cartografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
casar cantar 1<br />
cascabelear cantar 1<br />
cascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
castañetear cantar 1<br />
castellanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
castigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
castrar cantar 1<br />
catalanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
catalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
catalogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
catapultar cantar 1<br />
catar cantar 1<br />
catear cantar 1<br />
categorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
catequizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
causar cantar 1<br />
cauterizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cautivar cantar 1<br />
cavar cantar 1<br />
cavilar cantar 1<br />
cazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cebar cantar 1<br />
cecear cantar 1<br />
ceder comer 2<br />
cegar pensar (negar) 4A-1
226 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
cejar cantar 1<br />
celar cantar 1<br />
celebrar cantar 1<br />
cenar cantar 1<br />
censar cantar 1<br />
censurar cantar 1<br />
centellear cantar 1<br />
centralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
centrar cantar 1<br />
centrifugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
centuplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ceñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
cepillar cantar 1<br />
cercar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
cercenar cantar 1<br />
cerciorar cantar 1<br />
cerner perder 5A<br />
cernir discernir 15<br />
cerrar pensar 4A<br />
certificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
cesar cantar 1<br />
chafar cantar 1<br />
chalar cantar 1<br />
chamullar cantar 1<br />
chamuscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
chancear cantar 1<br />
chancletear cantar 1<br />
chantajear cantar 1<br />
chapar cantar 1<br />
chapotear cantar 1<br />
chapucear cantar 1<br />
chapurrear cantar 1<br />
chapuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
chaquetear cantar 1<br />
charlar cantar 1<br />
charlatanear cantar 1<br />
charlotear cantar 1<br />
charolar cantar 1<br />
chascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
chasquear cantar 1<br />
chatear cantar 1<br />
chequear cantar 1<br />
chicolear cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
chiflar cantar 1<br />
chillar cantar 1<br />
chinchar cantar 1<br />
chinchorrear cantar 1<br />
chirigotear cantar 1<br />
chirriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
chismear cantar 1<br />
chismorrear cantar 1<br />
chispear cantar 1<br />
chisporrotear cantar 1<br />
chistar cantar 1<br />
chivar cantar 1<br />
chocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
chochear cantar 1<br />
choricear cantar 1<br />
chorrear cantar 1<br />
chotear cantar 1<br />
chulear cantar 1<br />
chupar cantar 1<br />
chupetear cantar 1<br />
churruscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
chutar cantar 1<br />
cicatear cantar 1<br />
cicatrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cifrar cantar 1<br />
cimbrear cantar 1<br />
cimentar pensar 4A<br />
cincelar cantar 1<br />
cinematografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
circuncidar cantar 1<br />
circunnavegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
circunscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
circunvalar cantar 1<br />
ciscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
citar cantar 1<br />
civilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cizañar cantar 1<br />
clamar cantar 1<br />
clamorear cantar 1<br />
clarear cantar 1<br />
clarificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
clasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
claudicar cantar (tocar) 1-1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
clausurar cantar 1<br />
clavar cantar 1<br />
clavetear cantar 1<br />
climatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
clocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
clonar cantar 1<br />
cloquear cantar 1<br />
clorar cantar 1<br />
cloroformizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
coadyuvar cantar 1<br />
coagular cantar 1<br />
coaligar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
coartar cantar 1<br />
cobijar cantar 1<br />
cobrar cantar 1<br />
cocear cantar 1<br />
cocer mover (cocer) 5B-1<br />
cocinar cantar 1<br />
codear cantar 1<br />
codiciar cantar 1<br />
codificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
codirigir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
coercer comer (vencer) 2-1<br />
coexistir subir 3<br />
coger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
cohabitar cantar 1<br />
coheredar cantar 1<br />
cohesionar cantar 1<br />
cohibir subir (prohibir) 3-8<br />
coincidir subir 3<br />
cojear cantar 1<br />
colaborar cantar 1<br />
colacionar cantar 1<br />
colapsar cantar 1<br />
colar mostrar 4B<br />
colear cantar 1<br />
coleccionar cantar 1<br />
colectar cantar 1<br />
colectivizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
colegiar(se) cantar 1<br />
colegir pedir (elegir) 6B-1<br />
colgar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2<br />
colindar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 227<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
colocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
colonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
colorear cantar 1<br />
columbrar cantar 1<br />
columpiar cantar 1<br />
comadrear cantar 1<br />
comandar cantar 1<br />
combar cantar 1<br />
combatir subir 3<br />
combinar cantar 1<br />
comedir(se) pedir 6B<br />
comentar cantar 1<br />
comenzar pensar (empezar) 4A-2<br />
comer comer 2<br />
comercializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cometer comer 2<br />
comisionar cantar 1<br />
compadecer conocer 7A<br />
compaginar cantar 1<br />
comparar cantar 1<br />
comparecer conocer 7A<br />
compartimentar cantar 1<br />
compartir subir 3<br />
compatibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
compeler comer 2<br />
compendiar cantar 1<br />
compenetrar(se) cantar 1<br />
compensar cantar 1<br />
competer comer 2<br />
competir pedir 6B<br />
compilar cantar 1<br />
complacer conocer (placer) 7A-2<br />
complementar cantar 1<br />
completar cantar 1<br />
complicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
componer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
comportar cantar 1<br />
comprar cantar 1<br />
comprender comer 2<br />
comprimir subir 3<br />
comprobar mostrar 4B<br />
comprometer comer 2<br />
compulsar cantar 1
228 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
computadorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
computar cantar 1<br />
computarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
comulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
comunicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
concatenar cantar 1<br />
concebir pedir 6B<br />
conceder comer 2<br />
concelebrar cantar 1<br />
concentrar cantar 1<br />
conceptualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
conceptuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
concernir (DEF) discernir 15<br />
concertar pensar 4A<br />
conchabar cantar 1<br />
concienciar cantar 1<br />
conciliar cantar 1<br />
concitar cantar 1<br />
concluir construir 8<br />
concordar mostrar 4B<br />
concretar cantar 1<br />
concretizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
conculcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
concurrir subir 3<br />
concursar cantar 1<br />
condecorar cantar 1<br />
condenar cantar 1<br />
condensar cantar 1<br />
condescender perder 5A<br />
condicionar cantar 1<br />
condimentar cantar 1<br />
condoler(se) mover 5B<br />
condonar cantar 1<br />
conducir conducir 34<br />
conectar cantar 1<br />
conexionar cantar 1<br />
confabular cantar 1<br />
confeccionar cantar 1<br />
confederar cantar 1<br />
conferenciar cantar 1<br />
conferir sentir 6A<br />
confesar pensar 4A<br />
confiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
configurar cantar 1<br />
confinar cantar 1<br />
confirmar cantar 1<br />
confiscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
confitar cantar 1<br />
conflagrar cantar 1<br />
confluir construir 8<br />
conformar cantar 1<br />
confortar cantar 1<br />
confraternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
confrontar cantar 1<br />
confundir subir 3<br />
congelar cantar 1<br />
congeniar cantar 1<br />
congestionar cantar 1<br />
conglomerar cantar 1<br />
congraciar cantar 1<br />
congratular cantar 1<br />
congregar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
conjeturar cantar 1<br />
conjugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
conjuntar cantar 1<br />
conjurar cantar 1<br />
conllevar cantar 1<br />
conmemorar cantar 1<br />
conmensurar cantar 1<br />
conminar cantar 1<br />
conmocionar cantar 1<br />
conmover mover 5B<br />
conmutar cantar 1<br />
connotar cantar 1<br />
conocer conocer 7A<br />
conquistar cantar 1<br />
consagrar cantar 1<br />
conseguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2<br />
consensuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
consentir sentir 6A<br />
conservar cantar 1<br />
considerar cantar 1<br />
consignar cantar 1<br />
consistir subir 3<br />
consolar mostrar 4B<br />
consolidar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
consonantizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
conspirar cantar 1<br />
constar cantar 1<br />
constatar cantar 1<br />
consternar cantar 1<br />
constipar cantar 1<br />
constituir construir 8<br />
constreñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
construir construir 8<br />
consultar cantar 1<br />
consumar cantar 1<br />
consumir subir 3<br />
contabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
contactar cantar 1<br />
contagiar cantar 1<br />
contaminar cantar 1<br />
contar mostrar 4B<br />
contemplar cantar 1<br />
contemporizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
contender perder 5A<br />
contener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
contentar cantar 1<br />
contestar cantar 1<br />
contextualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
continuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
contonear(se) cantar 1<br />
contornear cantar 1<br />
contorsionar(se) cantar 1<br />
contraatacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
contradecir decir (predecir) 28-1<br />
contraer traer 33<br />
contrahacer hacer (rehacer) 29-1<br />
contraindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
contrapear cantar 1<br />
contrapesar cantar 1<br />
contraponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
contrariar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
contrarrestar cantar 1<br />
contrastar cantar 1<br />
contratar cantar 1<br />
contravenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
contribuir construir 8<br />
contristar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 229<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
controlar cantar 1<br />
conturbar cantar 1<br />
contusionar cantar 1<br />
convalecer conocer 7A<br />
convalidar cantar 1<br />
convencer comer (vencer) 2-1<br />
convenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
converger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
conversar cantar 1<br />
convertir sentir 6A<br />
convidar cantar 1<br />
convivir subir 3<br />
convocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
convulsionar cantar 1<br />
cooperar cantar 1<br />
coordinar cantar 1<br />
copar cantar 1<br />
copear cantar 1<br />
copiar cantar 1<br />
coproducir conducir 34<br />
copular cantar 1<br />
coquetear cantar 1<br />
corear cantar 1<br />
coreografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
cornear cantar 1<br />
coronar cantar 1<br />
corregir pedir (elegir) 6B-1<br />
correr comer 2<br />
corresponder comer 2<br />
corretear cantar 1<br />
corroborar cantar 1<br />
corroer caer (roer) 9-2<br />
corromper comer 2<br />
cortar cantar 1<br />
cortejar cantar 1<br />
coscar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
cosechar cantar 1<br />
coser comer 2<br />
cosquillear cantar 1<br />
costar mostrar 4B<br />
costear cantar 1<br />
cotejar cantar 1<br />
cotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4
230 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
cotorrear cantar 1<br />
crear cantar 1<br />
crecer conocer 7A<br />
creer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
crepitar cantar 1<br />
criar 10 cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
cribar cantar 1<br />
crispar cantar 1<br />
cristalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cristianar cantar 1<br />
cristianizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
criticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
croar cantar 1<br />
cromar cantar 1<br />
cronometrar cantar 1<br />
crucificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
crujir subir 3<br />
cruzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cuadrar cantar 1<br />
cuadricular cantar 1<br />
cuadruplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
cuajar cantar 1<br />
cualificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
cuantificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
cuartear cantar 1<br />
cubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10<br />
cuchichear cantar 1<br />
cuestionar cantar 1<br />
cuidar cantar 1<br />
culminar cantar 1<br />
culpabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
culpar cantar 1<br />
cultivar cantar 1<br />
culturizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
cumplimentar cantar 1<br />
cumplir subir 3<br />
cundir subir 3<br />
curar cantar 1<br />
curiosear cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
currar cantar 1<br />
cursar cantar 1<br />
curtir subir 3<br />
curvar cantar 1<br />
custodiar cantar 1<br />
damnificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
danzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
dañar cantar 1<br />
dar dar 25<br />
datar cantar 1<br />
deambular cantar 1<br />
debatir subir 3<br />
deber comer 2<br />
debilitar cantar 1<br />
debutar cantar 1<br />
decaer caer 9<br />
decantar cantar 1<br />
decapitar cantar 1<br />
decepcionar cantar 1<br />
decidir subir 3<br />
decir decir 28<br />
declamar cantar 1<br />
declarar cantar 1<br />
declinar cantar 1<br />
decodificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
decolorar cantar 1<br />
decomisar cantar 1<br />
decorar cantar 1<br />
decorticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
decrecer conocer 7A<br />
decretar cantar 1<br />
dedicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
deducir conducir 34<br />
defecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
defender perder 5A<br />
defenestrar cantar 1<br />
definir subir 3<br />
deforestar cantar 1<br />
deformar cantar 1<br />
10 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—crie/crié, crio/crió—as well<br />
as for the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—criais/criáis and crieis/criéis.
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
defraudar cantar 1<br />
degenerar cantar 1<br />
deglutir subir 3<br />
degollar mostrar (agorar) 4B-4<br />
degradar cantar 1<br />
degustar cantar 1<br />
deificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
dejar cantar 1<br />
delatar cantar 1<br />
delegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
deleitar cantar 1<br />
deletrear cantar 1<br />
deliberar cantar 1<br />
delimitar cantar 1<br />
delinear cantar 1<br />
delinquir subir (delinquir) 3-4<br />
delirar cantar 1<br />
demacrar(se) cantar 1<br />
demandar cantar 1<br />
demarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
demarrar cantar 1<br />
democratizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
demoler mover 5B<br />
demorar cantar 1<br />
demostrar mostrar 4B<br />
demudar cantar 1<br />
denegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
denigrar cantar 1<br />
denominar cantar 1<br />
denostar mostrar 4B<br />
denotar cantar 1<br />
denunciar cantar 1<br />
deparar cantar 1<br />
departir subir 3<br />
depauperar cantar 1<br />
depender comer 2<br />
depilar cantar 1<br />
deplorar cantar 1<br />
deponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
deportar cantar 1<br />
depositar cantar 1<br />
depravar cantar 1<br />
depreciar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 231<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
depredar cantar 1<br />
deprimir subir 3<br />
depurar cantar 1<br />
derechizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
derivar cantar 1<br />
derogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
derramar cantar 1<br />
derrapar cantar 1<br />
derrengar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
derretir pedir 6B<br />
derribar cantar 1<br />
derrocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
derrochar cantar 1<br />
derrotar cantar 1<br />
derruir construir 8<br />
derrumbar cantar 1<br />
desabastecer conocer 7A<br />
desabollar cantar 1<br />
desabotonar cantar 1<br />
desabrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desabrochar cantar 1<br />
desacatar cantar 1<br />
desacelerar cantar 1<br />
desacertar pensar 4A<br />
desaclimatar cantar 1<br />
desacomodar cantar 1<br />
desaconsejar cantar 1<br />
desacoplar cantar 1<br />
desacostumbrar cantar 1<br />
desacreditar cantar 1<br />
desactivar cantar 1<br />
desacuartelar cantar 1<br />
desafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
desafinar cantar 1<br />
desagradar cantar 1<br />
desagraviar cantar 1<br />
desaguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
desahogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desahuciar cantar 1<br />
desajustar cantar 1<br />
desalar cantar 1<br />
desalentar pensar 4A<br />
desalinear cantar 1
232 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desalinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desaliñar cantar 1<br />
desalojar cantar 1<br />
desalquilar cantar 1<br />
desamortizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desamparar cantar 1<br />
desamueblar cantar 1<br />
desanclar cantar 1<br />
desandar andar 35<br />
desangrar cantar 1<br />
desanudar cantar 1<br />
desaparecer conocer 7A<br />
desapasionar cantar 1<br />
desapegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desapretar pensar 4A<br />
desaprobar mostrar 4B<br />
desaprovechar cantar 1<br />
desarbolar cantar 1<br />
desarmar cantar 1<br />
desarmonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desarraigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desarreglar cantar 1<br />
desarrendar pensar 4A<br />
desarrimar cantar 1<br />
desarrollar cantar 1<br />
desarropar cantar 1<br />
desarrugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desarticular cantar 1<br />
desasir asir 13<br />
desasistir subir 3<br />
desasnar cantar 1<br />
desasosegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
desatar cantar 1<br />
desatascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desatender perder 5A<br />
desatornillar cantar 1<br />
desatrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desautorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desayunar cantar 1<br />
desazonar cantar 1<br />
desbancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desbarajustar cantar 1<br />
desbaratar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desbarbar cantar 1<br />
desbarrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desbarrar cantar 1<br />
desbastar cantar 1<br />
desbloquear cantar 1<br />
desbocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desbordar cantar 1<br />
desbravar cantar 1<br />
desbrozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descabalar cantar 1<br />
descabalgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
descabellar cantar 1<br />
descabezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descacharrar cantar 1<br />
descafeinar cantar (descafeinar) 1-7<br />
descalabrar cantar 1<br />
descalcificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
descalificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
descalzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descamar cantar 1<br />
descambiar cantar 1<br />
descansar cantar 1<br />
descaperuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descapotar cantar 1<br />
descargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
descarnar cantar 1<br />
descarriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
descarrilar cantar 1<br />
descartar cantar 1<br />
descasar cantar 1<br />
descascarillar cantar 1<br />
descastar cantar 1<br />
descender perder 5A<br />
descentralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descentrar cantar 1<br />
descerebrar cantar 1<br />
descerrajar cantar 1<br />
descifrar cantar 1<br />
desclasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desclavar cantar 1<br />
descocar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
descodificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
descolgar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
descollar mostrar 4B<br />
descolocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
descolonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descompasar cantar 1<br />
descompensar cantar 1<br />
descomponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
descomprimir subir 3<br />
desconcertar pensar 4A<br />
desconchar cantar 1<br />
desconectar cantar 1<br />
desconfiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
descongelar cantar 1<br />
descongestionar cantar 1<br />
desconocer conocer 7A<br />
desconsiderar cantar 1<br />
descontaminar cantar 1<br />
descontar mostrar 4B<br />
descontentar cantar 1<br />
descontextualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descontrolar cantar 1<br />
desconvocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
descorazonar cantar 1<br />
descorchar cantar 1<br />
descorrer comer 2<br />
descoser comer 2<br />
descoyuntar cantar 1<br />
descreer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
descremar cantar 1<br />
describir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
descuadrar cantar 1<br />
descuajar cantar 1<br />
descuajeringar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
descuartizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
descubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10<br />
descuidar cantar 1<br />
desdecir decir (predecir) 28-1<br />
desdeñar cantar 1<br />
desdibujar cantar 1<br />
desdoblar cantar 1<br />
desdramatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desear cantar 1<br />
desecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desechar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 233<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desembalar cantar 1<br />
desembarazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desembarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desembargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desembarrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desembarrar cantar 1<br />
desembocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desembolsar cantar 1<br />
desembragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desembrollar cantar 1<br />
desembrujar cantar 1<br />
desembuchar cantar 1<br />
desempacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desempalmar cantar 1<br />
desempañar cantar 1<br />
desempapelar cantar 1<br />
desempaquetar cantar 1<br />
desemparejar cantar 1<br />
desempatar cantar 1<br />
desempedrar pensar 4A<br />
desempeñar cantar 1<br />
desempolvar cantar 1<br />
desempotrar cantar 1<br />
desenamorar cantar 1<br />
desencadenar cantar 1<br />
desencajar cantar 1<br />
desencajonar cantar 1<br />
desencallar cantar 1<br />
desencaminar cantar 1<br />
desencantar cantar 1<br />
desencapotar cantar 1<br />
desencarcelar cantar 1<br />
desencasquillar cantar 1<br />
desenchufar cantar 1<br />
desenclavar cantar 1<br />
desencolar cantar 1<br />
desencorvar cantar 1<br />
desencuadernar cantar 1<br />
desenfadar cantar 1<br />
desenfocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desenfrenar cantar 1<br />
desenfundar cantar 1<br />
desenfurruñar cantar 1
234 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desenganchar cantar 1<br />
desengañar cantar 1<br />
desengrasar cantar 1<br />
desenhebrar cantar 1<br />
desenjaular cantar 1<br />
desenladrillar cantar 1<br />
desenlazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desenmarañar cantar 1<br />
desenmascarar cantar 1<br />
desenraizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12<br />
desenredar cantar 1<br />
desenrollar cantar 1<br />
desenroscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desensibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desensillar cantar 1<br />
desentablillar cantar 1<br />
desentender(se) perder 5A<br />
desenterrar pensar 4A<br />
desentoldar cantar 1<br />
desentonar cantar 1<br />
desentrañar cantar 1<br />
desentrenar cantar 1<br />
desentumecer conocer 7A<br />
desenvainar cantar 1<br />
desenvolver mover (volver) 5B-4<br />
desequilibrar cantar 1<br />
desertar cantar 1<br />
desertificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desertizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desescombrar cantar 1<br />
desesperar cantar 1<br />
desestabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desestimar cantar 1<br />
desfalcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desfallecer conocer 7A<br />
desfasar cantar 1<br />
desfavorecer conocer 7A<br />
desfigurar cantar 1<br />
desfilar cantar 1<br />
desflecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desflorar cantar 1<br />
desfogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desfondar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desforrar cantar 1<br />
desgajar cantar 1<br />
desgañitar(se) cantar 1<br />
desgarrar cantar 1<br />
desgasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desgastar cantar 1<br />
desglosar cantar 1<br />
desgraciar cantar 1<br />
desgranar cantar 1<br />
desgravar cantar 1<br />
desguarnecer conocer 7A<br />
desguazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
deshabitar cantar 1<br />
deshacer hacer 29<br />
deshelar pensar 4A<br />
desheredar cantar 1<br />
deshidratar cantar 1<br />
deshilachar cantar 1<br />
deshilvanar cantar 1<br />
deshinchar cantar 1<br />
deshojar cantar 1<br />
deshollinar cantar 1<br />
deshonrar cantar 1<br />
deshuesar cantar 1<br />
deshumanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
designar cantar 1<br />
desigualar cantar 1<br />
desilusionar cantar 1<br />
desimantar cantar 1<br />
desincrustar cantar 1<br />
desinfectar cantar 1<br />
desinflar cantar 1<br />
desinformar cantar 1<br />
desinhibir subir 3<br />
desinsectar cantar 1<br />
desintegrar cantar 1<br />
desinteresar(se) cantar 1<br />
desintoxicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desistir subir 3<br />
deslavazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
deslegalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
deslegitimar cantar 1<br />
desleír pedir (reír) 6B-4
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desliar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
desligar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
deslindar cantar 1<br />
deslizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
deslomar cantar 1<br />
deslucir lucir 7B<br />
deslumbrar cantar 1<br />
desmadejar cantar 1<br />
desmadrar cantar 1<br />
desmagnetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desmandar cantar 1<br />
desmantelar cantar 1<br />
desmaquillar cantar 1<br />
desmarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desmayar cantar 1<br />
desmejorar cantar 1<br />
desmelenar cantar 1<br />
desmembrar pensar 4A<br />
desmentir sentir 6A<br />
desmenuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desmerecer conocer 7A<br />
desmigajar cantar 1<br />
desmigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desmilitarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desmineralizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desmitificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desmochar cantar 1<br />
desmontar cantar 1<br />
desmoralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desmoronar cantar 1<br />
desmotivar cantar 1<br />
desmovilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desnacionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desnatar cantar 1<br />
desnaturalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desnivelar cantar 1<br />
desnortar(se) cantar 1<br />
desnucar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desnuclearizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desnudar cantar 1<br />
desnutrir(se) subir 3<br />
desobedecer conocer 7A<br />
desobstruir construir 8<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 235<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
desocupar cantar 1<br />
desodorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desoír oír 10<br />
desojar cantar 1<br />
desollar mostrar 4B<br />
desorbitar cantar 1<br />
desordenar cantar 1<br />
desorejar cantar 1<br />
desorganizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desorientar cantar 1<br />
desosar mostrar (desosar) 4B-5<br />
desovar cantar 1<br />
desovillar cantar 1<br />
desoxidar cantar 1<br />
despabilar cantar 1<br />
despachar cantar 1<br />
despachurrar cantar 1<br />
despampanar cantar 1<br />
despanzurrar cantar 1<br />
desparasitar cantar 1<br />
desparejar cantar 1<br />
desparramar cantar 1<br />
despatarrar cantar 1<br />
despechugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
despedazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
despedir pedir 6B<br />
despegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
despeinar cantar 1<br />
despejar cantar 1<br />
despellejar cantar 1<br />
despelotar cantar 1<br />
despenalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
despendolar(se) cantar 1<br />
despeñar cantar 1<br />
despepitar cantar 1<br />
desperdiciar cantar 1<br />
desperdigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desperezar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
despersonalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
despertar pensar 4A<br />
despiezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
despilfarrar cantar 1<br />
despiojar cantar 1
236 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
despistar cantar 1<br />
desplanchar cantar 1<br />
desplantar cantar 1<br />
desplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desplegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
desplomar cantar 1<br />
desplumar cantar 1<br />
despoblar mostrar 4B<br />
despojar cantar 1<br />
despolitizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desportillar cantar 1<br />
desposar cantar 1<br />
desposeer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
despotricar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
despreciar cantar 1<br />
desprender comer 2<br />
despreocupar(se) cantar 1<br />
desprestigiar cantar 1<br />
despresurizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desprivatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desprogramar cantar 1<br />
desproveer 11 comer (leer) 2-3<br />
despuntar cantar 1<br />
desquiciar cantar 1<br />
desquitar cantar 1<br />
desratizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desriñonar cantar 1<br />
desrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
destacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
destapar cantar 1<br />
destaponar cantar 1<br />
destejer comer 2<br />
destellar cantar 1<br />
destemplar cantar 1<br />
destensar cantar 1<br />
desteñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
desternillar(se) cantar 1<br />
desterrar pensar 4A<br />
destetar cantar 1<br />
destilar cantar 1<br />
11 Past participle: desprovisto/desproveído.<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
destinar cantar 1<br />
destituir construir 8<br />
destornillar cantar 1<br />
destrenzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
destripar cantar 1<br />
destronar cantar 1<br />
destrozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
destruir construir 8<br />
desubicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
desunir subir 3<br />
desusar cantar 1<br />
desvalijar cantar 1<br />
desvalorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desvanecer conocer 7A<br />
desvariar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
desvelar cantar 1<br />
desvencijar cantar 1<br />
desvendar cantar 1<br />
desvergonzar(se) mostrar (avergonzar) 4B-6<br />
desvestir pedir 6B<br />
desviar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
desvincular cantar 1<br />
desvirgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
desvirtuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
desvitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
desvivir(se) subir 3<br />
detallar cantar 1<br />
detectar cantar 1<br />
detener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
detentar cantar 1<br />
deteriorar cantar 1<br />
determinar cantar 1<br />
detestar cantar 1<br />
detraer traer 33<br />
devaluar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
devanar cantar 1<br />
devastar cantar 1<br />
devengar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
devenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
devolver mover (volver) 5B-4
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
devorar cantar 1<br />
diagnosticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
diagramar cantar 1<br />
dializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
dialogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
dibujar cantar 1<br />
dictaminar cantar 1<br />
dictar cantar 1<br />
diezmar cantar 1<br />
difamar cantar 1<br />
diferenciar cantar 1<br />
diferir sentir 6A<br />
dificultar cantar 1<br />
difuminar cantar 1<br />
difundir subir 3<br />
digerir sentir 6A<br />
digitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
dignar(se) cantar 1<br />
dignificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
dilapidar cantar 1<br />
dilatar cantar 1<br />
diligenciar cantar 1<br />
dilucidar cantar 1<br />
diluir construir 8<br />
diluviar (DEF) cantar 1<br />
dimanar cantar 1<br />
dimitir subir 3<br />
dinamitar cantar 1<br />
dinamizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
diplomar cantar 1<br />
diptongar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
dirigir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
dirimir subir 3<br />
discernir discernir 15<br />
disciplinar cantar 1<br />
discordar mostrar 4B<br />
discrepar cantar 1<br />
discriminar cantar 1<br />
disculpar cantar 1<br />
discurrir subir 3<br />
discutir subir 3<br />
disecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
diseccionar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 237<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
diseminar cantar 1<br />
disentir sentir 6A<br />
diseñar cantar 1<br />
disertar cantar 1<br />
disfrazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
disfrutar cantar 1<br />
disgregar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
disgustar cantar 1<br />
disimilar cantar 1<br />
disimular cantar 1<br />
disipar cantar 1<br />
dislocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
disminuir construir 8<br />
disociar cantar 1<br />
disolver mover (resolver) 5B-3<br />
disparar cantar 1<br />
disparatar cantar 1<br />
dispensar cantar 1<br />
dispersar cantar 1<br />
disponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
disputar cantar 1<br />
distanciar cantar 1<br />
distar cantar 1<br />
distender perder 5A<br />
distinguir subir (distinguir) 3-3<br />
distorsionar cantar 1<br />
distraer traer 33<br />
distribuir construir 8<br />
disuadir subir 3<br />
divagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
divergir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
diversificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
divertir sentir 6A<br />
dividir subir 3<br />
divinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
divisar cantar 1<br />
divorciar cantar 1<br />
divulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
doblar cantar 1<br />
doblegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
doctorar cantar 1<br />
documentar cantar 1<br />
dogmatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4
238 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
doler mover 5B<br />
domar cantar 1<br />
domeñar cantar 1<br />
domesticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
domiciliar cantar 1<br />
dominar cantar 1<br />
donar cantar 1<br />
dopar cantar 1<br />
dorar cantar 1<br />
dormir dormir 6C<br />
dormitar cantar 1<br />
dosificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
dotar cantar 1<br />
dragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
dramatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
drenar cantar 1<br />
driblar cantar 1<br />
drogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
duchar cantar 1<br />
dudar cantar 1<br />
dulcificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
duplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
durar cantar 1<br />
echar cantar 1<br />
eclipsar cantar 1<br />
economizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
edificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
editar cantar 1<br />
educar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
edulcorar cantar 1<br />
efectuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
ejecutar cantar 1<br />
ejemplarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ejemplificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ejercer comer (vencer) 2-1<br />
ejercitar cantar 1<br />
elaborar cantar 1<br />
electrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
electrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
electrocutar cantar 1<br />
electrolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
elegir pedir (elegir) 6B-1<br />
elevar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
elidir subir 3<br />
eliminar cantar 1<br />
elogiar cantar 1<br />
elucidar cantar 1<br />
elucubrar cantar 1<br />
eludir subir 3<br />
emanar cantar 1<br />
emancipar cantar 1<br />
emascular cantar 1<br />
embadurnar cantar 1<br />
embalar cantar 1<br />
embaldosar cantar 1<br />
embalsamar cantar 1<br />
embalsar cantar 1<br />
embarazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
embarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
embargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
embarrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
embarrar cantar 1<br />
embarullar cantar 1<br />
embaucar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
embazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
embeber comer 2<br />
embelesar cantar 1<br />
embellecer conocer 7A<br />
embestir pedir 6B<br />
embetunar cantar 1<br />
emblanquecer conocer 7A<br />
embobar cantar 1<br />
embolsar cantar 1<br />
emborrachar cantar 1<br />
emborrascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
emborronar cantar 1<br />
emboscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
embotar cantar 1<br />
embotellar cantar 1<br />
embotijar cantar 1<br />
embozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
embragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
embravecer conocer 7A<br />
embrear cantar 1<br />
embriagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
embridar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
embrollar cantar 1<br />
embromar cantar 1<br />
embrujar cantar 1<br />
embrutecer conocer 7A<br />
embuchar cantar 1<br />
embutir subir 3<br />
emerger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
emigrar cantar 1<br />
emitir subir 3<br />
emocionar cantar 1<br />
empacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
empachar cantar 1<br />
empadronar cantar 1<br />
empalagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
empalar cantar 1<br />
empalidecer conocer 7A<br />
empalmar cantar 1<br />
empanar cantar 1<br />
empantanar cantar 1<br />
empañar cantar 1<br />
empapar cantar 1<br />
empapelar cantar 1<br />
empapuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
empaquetar cantar 1<br />
emparedar cantar 1<br />
emparejar cantar 1<br />
emparentar 12 pensar 4A<br />
empastar cantar 1<br />
empatar cantar 1<br />
empavonar cantar 1<br />
empecer conocer 7A<br />
empecinar(se) cantar 1<br />
empedrar pensar 4A<br />
empeller comer (empeller) 2-4<br />
empeñar cantar 1<br />
empeorar cantar 1<br />
empequeñecer conocer 7A<br />
emperejilar cantar 1<br />
emperifollar cantar 1<br />
12 Can also be conjugated without diphthongs, like cantar.<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 239<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
emperrar(se) cantar 1<br />
empezar pensar (empezar) 4A-2<br />
empinar cantar 1<br />
empitonar cantar 1<br />
emplastecer conocer 7A<br />
emplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
emplear cantar 1<br />
emplomar cantar 1<br />
emplumar cantar 1<br />
empobrecer conocer 7A<br />
empollar cantar 1<br />
empolvar cantar 1<br />
emponzoñar cantar 1<br />
emporcar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1<br />
empotrar cantar 1<br />
emprender comer 2<br />
empujar cantar 1<br />
empuñar cantar 1<br />
emular cantar 1<br />
emulsionar cantar 1<br />
enajenar cantar 1<br />
enaltecer conocer 7A<br />
enamorar cantar 1<br />
enamoriscar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enarbolar cantar 1<br />
enarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enardecer conocer 7A<br />
enarenar cantar 1<br />
encabalgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
encabestrar cantar 1<br />
encabezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
encabritar(se) cantar 1<br />
encabronar cantar 1<br />
encadenar cantar 1<br />
encajar cantar 1<br />
encajonar cantar 1<br />
encalar cantar 1<br />
encallar cantar 1<br />
encallecer conocer 7A
240 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
encallejonar cantar 1<br />
encamar cantar 1<br />
encaminar cantar 1<br />
encanar(se) cantar 1<br />
encandilar cantar 1<br />
encanecer conocer 7A<br />
encanijar cantar 1<br />
encantar cantar 1<br />
encanutar cantar 1<br />
encañonar cantar 1<br />
encapotar cantar 1<br />
encaprichar(se) cantar 1<br />
encapsular cantar 1<br />
encapuchar cantar 1<br />
encaramar cantar 1<br />
encarar cantar 1<br />
encarcelar cantar 1<br />
encarecer conocer 7A<br />
encargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
encariñar cantar 1<br />
encarnar cantar 1<br />
encarnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
encarpetar cantar 1<br />
encarrilar cantar 1<br />
encartar cantar 1<br />
encartonar cantar 1<br />
encasillar cantar 1<br />
encasquetar cantar 1<br />
encasquillar cantar 1<br />
encastrar cantar 1<br />
encausar cantar 1<br />
encauzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
encebollar cantar 1<br />
encelar cantar 1<br />
enceldar cantar 1<br />
encenagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
encender perder 5A<br />
encerar cantar 1<br />
encerrar pensar 4A<br />
encestar cantar 1<br />
encharcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enchufar cantar 1<br />
encintar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
encizañar cantar 1<br />
enclaustrar cantar 1<br />
enclavar cantar 1<br />
encocorar cantar 1<br />
encofrar cantar 1<br />
encoger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
encolar cantar 1<br />
encolerizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
encomendar pensar 4A<br />
encomiar cantar 1<br />
enconar cantar 1<br />
encontrar mostrar 4B<br />
encopetar cantar 1<br />
encorajinar cantar 1<br />
encorbatar cantar 1<br />
encordar mostrar 4B<br />
encorsetar cantar 1<br />
encorvar cantar 1<br />
encrespar cantar 1<br />
encuadernar cantar 1<br />
encuadrar cantar 1<br />
encubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10<br />
encuestar cantar 1<br />
encumbrar cantar 1<br />
encurtir subir 3<br />
endemoniar cantar 1<br />
enderezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
endeudar(se) cantar 1<br />
endilgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
endiñar cantar 1<br />
endiosar cantar 1<br />
endomingar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
endosar cantar 1<br />
endulzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
endurecer conocer 7A<br />
enemistar cantar 1<br />
enervar cantar 1<br />
enfadar cantar 1<br />
enfajar cantar 1<br />
enfangar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
enfatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
enfermar cantar 1<br />
enfervorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
enfilar cantar 1<br />
enflaquecer conocer 7A<br />
enfocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enfoscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enfrascar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enfrentar cantar 1<br />
enfriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
enfundar cantar 1<br />
enfurecer conocer 7A<br />
enfurruñar(se) cantar 1<br />
engalanar cantar 1<br />
enganchar cantar 1<br />
engañar cantar 1<br />
engarabitar cantar 1<br />
engarzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
engastar cantar 1<br />
engatusar cantar 1<br />
engendrar cantar 1<br />
englobar cantar 1<br />
engolar cantar 1<br />
engolfar cantar 1<br />
engolosinar cantar 1<br />
engomar cantar 1<br />
engominar(se) cantar 1<br />
engordar cantar 1<br />
engranar cantar 1<br />
engrandecer conocer 7A<br />
engrasar cantar 1<br />
engreír pedir (reír) 6B-4<br />
engrescar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
engrosar cantar 1<br />
enguachinar cantar 1<br />
enguantar cantar 1<br />
enguarrar cantar 1<br />
engullir subir (bullir) 3-5<br />
engurruñar cantar 1<br />
enharinar cantar 1<br />
enhebrar cantar 1<br />
enjabonar cantar 1<br />
enjaezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
enjalbegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
enjaretar cantar 1<br />
enjaular cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 241<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
enjoyar cantar 1<br />
enjuagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
enjugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
enjuiciar cantar 1<br />
enladrillar cantar 1<br />
enlatar cantar 1<br />
enlazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
enlodar cantar 1<br />
enloquecer conocer 7A<br />
enlosar cantar 1<br />
enlucir lucir 7B<br />
enlutar cantar 1<br />
enmadrar(se) cantar 1<br />
enmarañar cantar 1<br />
enmarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enmascarar cantar 1<br />
enmendar pensar 4A<br />
enmohecer conocer 7A<br />
enmoquetar cantar 1<br />
enmudecer conocer 7A<br />
ennegrecer conocer 7A<br />
ennoblecer conocer 7A<br />
ennoviar(se) cantar 1<br />
enojar cantar 1<br />
enorgullecer conocer 7A<br />
enquistar cantar 1<br />
enrabietar cantar 1<br />
enraizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12<br />
enrarecer conocer 7A<br />
enredar cantar 1<br />
enrejar cantar 1<br />
enriquecer conocer 7A<br />
enrocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
enrojecer conocer 7A<br />
enrolar cantar 1<br />
enrollar cantar 1<br />
enronquecer conocer 7A<br />
enroscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ensalzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ensamblar cantar 1<br />
ensanchar cantar 1<br />
ensangrentar pensar 4A<br />
ensañar cantar 1
242 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
ensartar cantar 1<br />
ensayar cantar 1<br />
enseñar cantar 1<br />
enseñorear(se) cantar 1<br />
ensillar cantar 1<br />
ensimismar(se) cantar 1<br />
ensoberbecer conocer 7A<br />
ensombrecer conocer 7A<br />
ensordecer conocer 7A<br />
ensortijar cantar 1<br />
ensuciar cantar 1<br />
entablar cantar 1<br />
entablillar cantar 1<br />
entallar cantar 1<br />
entarimar cantar 1<br />
entelar cantar 1<br />
entender perder 5A<br />
entenebrecer conocer 7A<br />
enterar cantar 1<br />
enternecer conocer 7A<br />
enterrar pensar 4A<br />
entibiar cantar 1<br />
entintar cantar 1<br />
entoldar cantar 1<br />
entonar cantar 1<br />
entontecer conocer 7A<br />
entornar cantar 1<br />
entorpecer conocer 7A<br />
entrampar cantar 1<br />
entrañar cantar 1<br />
entrar cantar 1<br />
entreabrir subir (abrir) 3-9<br />
entrechocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
entrecomillar cantar 1<br />
entrecortar cantar 1<br />
entrecruzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
entregar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
entrelazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
entrelucir lucir 7B<br />
entremeter comer 2<br />
entremezclar cantar 1<br />
entrenar cantar 1<br />
entreoír oír 10<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
entresacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
entretener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
entrever ver (prever) 14-1<br />
entrevistar cantar 1<br />
entristecer conocer 7A<br />
entrometer comer 2<br />
entroncar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
entronizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
entubar cantar 1<br />
entumecer conocer 7A<br />
enturbiar cantar 1<br />
entusiasmar cantar 1<br />
enumerar cantar 1<br />
enunciar cantar 1<br />
envainar cantar 1<br />
envalentonar cantar 1<br />
envanecer conocer 7A<br />
envarar cantar 1<br />
envasar cantar 1<br />
envejecer conocer 7A<br />
envenenar cantar 1<br />
enviar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
enviciar cantar 1<br />
envidar cantar 1<br />
envidiar cantar 1<br />
envilecer conocer 7A<br />
enviudar cantar 1<br />
envolver mover (volver) 5B-4<br />
enyesar cantar 1<br />
enzarzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
epatar cantar 1<br />
epilogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
equidistar cantar 1<br />
equilibrar cantar 1<br />
equipar cantar 1<br />
equiparar cantar 1<br />
equivaler valer 12<br />
equivocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
erguir sentir (erguir) 6A-1<br />
erigir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
erisipelar cantar 1<br />
erizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
erosionar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
erotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
erradicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
errar pensar (errar) 4A-3<br />
eructar cantar 1<br />
esbozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
escabechar cantar 1<br />
escabullir subir (bullir) 3-5<br />
escacharrar cantar 1<br />
escachifollar cantar 1<br />
escalar cantar 1<br />
escaldar cantar 1<br />
escalfar cantar 1<br />
escalonar cantar 1<br />
escamar cantar 1<br />
escamotear cantar 1<br />
escampar cantar 1<br />
escanciar cantar 1<br />
escandalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
escanear cantar 1<br />
escapar cantar 1<br />
escaquear(se) cantar 1<br />
escarbar cantar 1<br />
escarchar cantar 1<br />
escardar cantar 1<br />
escarificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
escarmentar pensar 4A<br />
escarnecer conocer 7A<br />
escasear cantar 1<br />
escatimar cantar 1<br />
escayolar cantar 1<br />
escenificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
escindir subir 3<br />
esclarecer conocer 7A<br />
esclavizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
esclerosar cantar 1<br />
esclerotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
escobar cantar 1<br />
escocer mover (cocer) 5B-1<br />
escoger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
escolarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
escoltar cantar 1<br />
esconder comer 2<br />
escorar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 243<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
escotar cantar 1<br />
escribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
escriturar cantar 1<br />
escrutar cantar 1<br />
escuchar cantar 1<br />
escudar cantar 1<br />
escudriñar cantar 1<br />
esculpir subir 3<br />
escupir subir 3<br />
escurrir subir 3<br />
esforzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3<br />
esfumar cantar 1<br />
esgrimir subir 3<br />
eslabonar cantar 1<br />
esmaltar cantar 1<br />
esmerar cantar 1<br />
esmerilar cantar 1<br />
espabilar cantar 1<br />
espachurrar cantar 1<br />
espaciar cantar 1<br />
espantar cantar 1<br />
españolear cantar 1<br />
españolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
esparcir subir (fruncir) 3-1<br />
especializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
especificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
especular cantar 1<br />
espejar cantar 1<br />
espeluznar cantar 1<br />
esperanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
esperar cantar 1<br />
espesar cantar 1<br />
espetar cantar 1<br />
espiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
espichar cantar 1<br />
espigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
espirar cantar 1<br />
espiritualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
espolear cantar 1<br />
espolvorear cantar 1<br />
esponjar cantar 1<br />
esponsorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
esposar cantar 1
244 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
esprintar cantar 1<br />
espulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
espumar cantar 1<br />
espurrear cantar 1<br />
esputar cantar 1<br />
esquejar cantar 1<br />
esquematizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
esquiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
esquilar cantar 1<br />
esquilmar cantar 1<br />
esquinar cantar 1<br />
esquivar cantar 1<br />
estabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
establecer conocer 7A<br />
estabular cantar 1<br />
estacionar cantar 1<br />
estafar cantar 1<br />
estallar cantar 1<br />
estampar cantar 1<br />
estampillar cantar 1<br />
estancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
estandarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
estar estar 20<br />
estatalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
estatuir construir 8<br />
estenografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
estercolar cantar 1<br />
estereotipar cantar 1<br />
esterilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
estibar cantar 1<br />
estigmatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
estilar cantar 1<br />
estilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
estimar cantar 1<br />
estimular cantar 1<br />
estipular cantar 1<br />
estirajar cantar 1<br />
estirar cantar 1<br />
estocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
estofar cantar 1<br />
estomagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
estoquear cantar 1<br />
estorbar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
estornudar cantar 1<br />
estragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
estrangular cantar 1<br />
estraperlear cantar 1<br />
estratificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
estrechar cantar 1<br />
estrellar cantar 1<br />
estremecer conocer 7A<br />
estrenar cantar 1<br />
estreñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
estresar cantar 1<br />
estriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
estribar cantar 1<br />
estropear cantar 1<br />
estructurar cantar 1<br />
estrujar cantar 1<br />
estucar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
estuchar cantar 1<br />
estudiar cantar 1<br />
estuprar cantar 1<br />
eternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
etimologizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
etiquetar cantar 1<br />
europeizar cantar (europeizar) 1-13<br />
evacuar cantar 1<br />
evadir subir 3<br />
evaluar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
evangelizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
evaporar cantar 1<br />
evidenciar cantar 1<br />
evitar cantar 1<br />
evocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
evolucionar cantar 1<br />
exacerbar cantar 1<br />
exagerar cantar 1<br />
exaltar cantar 1<br />
examinar cantar 1<br />
exasperar cantar 1<br />
excarcelar cantar 1<br />
excavar cantar 1<br />
exceder comer 2<br />
exceptuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
excitar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
exclamar cantar 1<br />
exclaustrar cantar 1<br />
excluir construir 8<br />
excomulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
excretar cantar 1<br />
exculpar cantar 1<br />
excusar cantar 1<br />
execrar cantar 1<br />
exfoliar cantar 1<br />
exhalar cantar 1<br />
exhibir subir 3<br />
exhortar cantar 1<br />
exhumar cantar 1<br />
exigir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
exiliar cantar 1<br />
eximir subir 3<br />
existir subir 3<br />
exonerar cantar 1<br />
exorbitar cantar 1<br />
exorcizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
expandir subir 3<br />
expansionar cantar 1<br />
expatriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
expectorar cantar 1<br />
expedientar cantar 1<br />
expedir pedir 6B<br />
expeler comer 2<br />
expender comer 2<br />
experimentar cantar 1<br />
expiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
expirar cantar 1<br />
explayar cantar 1<br />
explicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
explicitar cantar 1<br />
explicotear(se) cantar 1<br />
explorar cantar 1<br />
explosionar cantar 1<br />
explotar cantar 1<br />
expoliar cantar 1<br />
exponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
exportar cantar 1<br />
expresar cantar 1<br />
exprimir subir 3<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 245<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
expropiar cantar 1<br />
expugnar cantar 1<br />
expulsar cantar 1<br />
expurgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
extasiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
extender perder 5A<br />
extenuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
exteriorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
exterminar cantar 1<br />
extinguir subir (distinguir) 3-3<br />
extirpar cantar 1<br />
extorsionar cantar 1<br />
extractar cantar 1<br />
extraditar cantar 1<br />
extraer traer 33<br />
extralimitar(se) cantar 1<br />
extranjerizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
extrañar cantar 1<br />
extrapolar cantar 1<br />
extraviar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
extremar cantar 1<br />
exudar cantar 1<br />
exultar cantar 1<br />
eyacular cantar 1<br />
fabricar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
fabular cantar 1<br />
facilitar cantar 1<br />
facturar cantar 1<br />
facultar cantar 1<br />
faenar cantar 1<br />
fagocitar cantar 1<br />
fajar cantar 1<br />
faldear cantar 1<br />
fallar cantar 1<br />
fallecer conocer 7A<br />
falsear cantar 1<br />
falsificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
faltar cantar 1<br />
familiarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
fanatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
fanfarronear cantar 1<br />
fantasear cantar 1<br />
fardar cantar 1
246 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
farfullar cantar 1<br />
farolear cantar 1<br />
fascinar cantar 1<br />
fastidiar cantar 1<br />
fatigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
favorecer conocer 7A<br />
fechar cantar 1<br />
fecundar cantar 1<br />
federar cantar 1<br />
felicitar cantar 1<br />
fenecer conocer 7A<br />
feriar cantar 1<br />
fermentar cantar 1<br />
fertilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
festejar cantar 1<br />
festonear cantar 1<br />
fiar 13 cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
fichar cantar 1<br />
figurar cantar 1<br />
fijar cantar 1<br />
filetear cantar 1<br />
filiar cantar 1<br />
filmar cantar 1<br />
filosofar cantar 1<br />
filtrar cantar 1<br />
finalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
financiar cantar 1<br />
fingir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
finiquitar cantar 1<br />
firmar cantar 1<br />
fiscalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
fisgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
fisgonear cantar 1<br />
flagelar cantar 1<br />
flambear cantar 1<br />
flamear cantar 1<br />
flanquear cantar 1<br />
flaquear cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
flechar cantar 1<br />
fletar cantar 1<br />
flexibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
flexionar cantar 1<br />
flirtear cantar 1<br />
flojear cantar 1<br />
florear cantar 1<br />
florecer conocer 7A<br />
flotar cantar 1<br />
fluctuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
fluidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
fluir 14 construir 8<br />
fluorar cantar 1<br />
focalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
foguear cantar 1<br />
foliar cantar 1<br />
follar cantar 1<br />
fomentar cantar 1<br />
fondear cantar 1<br />
forcejear cantar 1<br />
forestar cantar 1<br />
forjar cantar 1<br />
formalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
formar cantar 1<br />
formatear cantar 1<br />
formular cantar 1<br />
fornicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
forrajear cantar 1<br />
forrar cantar 1<br />
fortalecer conocer 7A<br />
fortificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
forzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3<br />
fosforescer conocer 7A<br />
fosilizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
fotocopiar cantar 1<br />
fotografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
fotosintetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
fracasar cantar 1<br />
13The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—fie/fié, fio/fió—as well as for<br />
the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—fiais/fiáis and fieis/fiéis.<br />
14The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s—flui /fluí—as well as for the<br />
present indicative 2p—fluis/fluís.
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
fraccionar cantar 1<br />
fracturar cantar 1<br />
fragmentar cantar 1<br />
fraguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
franquear cantar 1<br />
frasear cantar 1<br />
fraternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
frecuentar cantar 1<br />
fregar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
fregotear cantar 1<br />
freír 15 pedir (reír) 6B-4<br />
frenar cantar 1<br />
fresar cantar 1<br />
friccionar cantar 1<br />
frisar cantar 1<br />
frivolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
frotar cantar 1<br />
fructificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
fruncir subir (fruncir) 3-1<br />
frustrar cantar 1<br />
fugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
fulgurar cantar 1<br />
fulminar cantar 1<br />
fumar cantar 1<br />
fumigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
funcionar cantar 1<br />
fundamentar cantar 1<br />
fundar cantar 1<br />
fundir subir 3<br />
fusilar cantar 1<br />
fusionar cantar 1<br />
fustigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
gafar cantar 1<br />
galantear cantar 1<br />
galardonar cantar 1<br />
gallardear cantar 1<br />
gallear cantar 1<br />
galopar cantar 1<br />
galvanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
gamberrear cantar 1<br />
15 Past participle: frito/freído.<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 247<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
ganar cantar 1<br />
gandulear cantar 1<br />
gangrenar(se) cantar 1<br />
gansear cantar 1<br />
gañir subir (bruñir) 3-6<br />
garabatear cantar 1<br />
garantizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
gargajear cantar 1<br />
gargarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
garrapatear cantar 1<br />
garrapiñar cantar 1<br />
gasear cantar 1<br />
gasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
gastar cantar 1<br />
gatear cantar 1<br />
gemir pedir 6B<br />
generalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
generar cantar 1<br />
germanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
germinar cantar 1<br />
gestar cantar 1<br />
gesticular cantar 1<br />
gestionar cantar 1<br />
gibar cantar 1<br />
gimotear cantar 1<br />
girar cantar 1<br />
gitanear cantar 1<br />
glasear cantar 1<br />
globalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
gloriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
glorificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
glosar cantar 1<br />
gobernar pensar 4A<br />
golear cantar 1<br />
golfear cantar 1<br />
golosear cantar 1<br />
golpear cantar 1<br />
golpetear cantar 1<br />
gorgoritear cantar 1<br />
gorgotear cantar 1
248 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
gorjear cantar 1<br />
gorronear cantar 1<br />
gotear cantar 1<br />
gozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
grabar cantar 1<br />
graduar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
gramaticalizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
granar cantar 1<br />
granizar (DEF) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
granjear cantar 1<br />
granular cantar 1<br />
grapar cantar 1<br />
gratificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
gratinar cantar 1<br />
gravar cantar 1<br />
gravitar cantar 1<br />
graznar cantar 1<br />
grillar(se) cantar 1<br />
gripar cantar 1<br />
grisear cantar 1<br />
gritar cantar 1<br />
gruñir subir (bruñir) 3-6<br />
guardar cantar 1<br />
guarecer conocer 7A<br />
guarnecer conocer 7A<br />
guarnicionar cantar 1<br />
guarrear cantar 1<br />
guasear(se) cantar 1<br />
guerrear cantar 1<br />
guerrillear cantar 1<br />
guiar 16 cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
guillotinar cantar 1<br />
guiñar cantar 1<br />
guipar cantar 1<br />
guisar cantar 1<br />
gulusmear cantar 1<br />
gustar cantar 1<br />
haber haber 21<br />
habilitar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
habitar cantar 1<br />
habituar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
hablar cantar 1<br />
hacer hacer 29<br />
hacinar cantar 1<br />
halagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
hallar cantar 1<br />
haraganear cantar 1<br />
hartar cantar 1<br />
hastiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
hebraizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12<br />
hechizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
heder perder 5A<br />
helar pensar 4A<br />
helenizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
henchir pedir 6B<br />
hendir discernir 15<br />
heñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
heredar cantar 1<br />
herir sentir 6A<br />
hermanar cantar 1<br />
hermosear cantar 1<br />
herniar(se) cantar 1<br />
herrar pensar 4A<br />
herrumbrar cantar 1<br />
hervir sentir 6A<br />
hibernar cantar 1<br />
hidratar cantar 1<br />
higienizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
hilar cantar 1<br />
hilvanar cantar 1<br />
himplar cantar 1<br />
hincar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
hinchar cantar 1<br />
hipar cantar 1<br />
hipertrofiar(se) cantar 1<br />
hipnotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
hipotecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
hispanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
16 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—guie/guié, guio/guió—as well<br />
as for the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—guiais/guiáis and guieis/guiéis.
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
historiar cantar 1<br />
hocicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
hojaldrar cantar 1<br />
hojear cantar 1<br />
holgar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2<br />
holgazanear cantar 1<br />
hollar mostrar 4B<br />
homenajear cantar 1<br />
homogeneizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
homologar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
hondear cantar 1<br />
honrar cantar 1<br />
horadar cantar 1<br />
hormiguear cantar 1<br />
hornear cantar 1<br />
horripilar cantar 1<br />
horrorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
hospedar cantar 1<br />
hospitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
hostiar cantar 1<br />
hostigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
hostilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
hozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
huir 17 construir 8<br />
humanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
humar cantar 1<br />
humear cantar 1<br />
humedecer conocer 7A<br />
humidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
humillar cantar 1<br />
hundir subir 3<br />
hurgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
huronear cantar 1<br />
hurtar cantar 1<br />
husmear cantar 1<br />
idealizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
idear cantar 1<br />
identificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
idiotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 249<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
idolatrar cantar 1<br />
ignorar cantar 1<br />
igualar cantar 1<br />
ilegalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ilegitimar cantar 1<br />
iluminar cantar 1<br />
ilusionar cantar 1<br />
ilustrar cantar 1<br />
imaginar cantar 1<br />
imantar cantar 1<br />
imbricar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
imbuir construir 8<br />
imitar cantar 1<br />
impacientar cantar 1<br />
impactar cantar 1<br />
impartir subir 3<br />
impedir pedir 6B<br />
impeler comer 2<br />
imperar cantar 1<br />
impermeabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
impersonalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
implantar cantar 1<br />
implementar cantar 1<br />
implicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
implorar cantar 1<br />
imponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
importar cantar 1<br />
importunar cantar 1<br />
imposibilitar cantar 1<br />
impostar cantar 1<br />
imprecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
impregnar cantar 1<br />
impresionar cantar 1<br />
imprimir subir (imprimir) 3-12<br />
improvisar cantar 1<br />
impugnar cantar 1<br />
impulsar cantar 1<br />
imputar cantar 1<br />
inaugurar cantar 1<br />
17The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s—hui /huí—as well as for the present<br />
indicative 2p—huis/huís.
250 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
incapacitar cantar 1<br />
incardinar cantar 1<br />
incautar(se) cantar 1<br />
incendiar cantar 1<br />
incensar pensar 4A<br />
incentivar cantar 1<br />
incidir subir 3<br />
incinerar cantar 1<br />
incitar cantar 1<br />
inclinar cantar 1<br />
incluir construir 8<br />
incomodar cantar 1<br />
incomunicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
incordiar cantar 1<br />
incorporar cantar 1<br />
incrementar cantar 1<br />
increpar cantar 1<br />
incriminar cantar 1<br />
incrustar cantar 1<br />
incubar cantar 1<br />
inculcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
incumbir subir 3<br />
incumplir subir 3<br />
incurrir subir 3<br />
incursionar cantar 1<br />
indagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
indemnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
independizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
indicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
indigestar(se) cantar 1<br />
indignar cantar 1<br />
indisciplinar(se) cantar 1<br />
indisponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
individualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
inducir conducir 34<br />
indultar cantar 1<br />
industrializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
infamar cantar 1<br />
infantilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
infartar cantar 1<br />
infectar cantar 1<br />
inferir sentir 6A<br />
infestar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
infiltrar cantar 1<br />
inflamar cantar 1<br />
inflar cantar 1<br />
infligir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
influenciar cantar 1<br />
influir construir 8<br />
informar cantar 1<br />
informatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
infrautilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
infravalorar cantar 1<br />
infringir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
infundir subir 3<br />
ingeniar cantar 1<br />
ingerir sentir 6A<br />
ingresar cantar 1<br />
inhabilitar cantar 1<br />
inhalar cantar 1<br />
inhibir subir 3<br />
inhumar cantar 1<br />
inicializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
iniciar cantar 1<br />
injerir sentir 6A<br />
injertar cantar 1<br />
injuriar cantar 1<br />
inmigrar cantar 1<br />
inmiscuir construir 8<br />
inmolar cantar 1<br />
inmortalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
inmovilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
inmunizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
inmutar cantar 1<br />
innovar cantar 1<br />
inocular cantar 1<br />
inquietar cantar 1<br />
inquirir adquirir 17<br />
insalivar cantar 1<br />
inscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
inseminar cantar 1<br />
insensibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
insertar cantar 1<br />
insinuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
insistir subir 3<br />
insolentar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
insonorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
inspeccionar cantar 1<br />
inspirar cantar 1<br />
instalar cantar 1<br />
instar cantar 1<br />
instaurar cantar 1<br />
instigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
instilar cantar 1<br />
institucionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
instituir construir 8<br />
instruir construir 8<br />
instrumentalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
instrumentar cantar 1<br />
insubordinar cantar 1<br />
insuflar cantar 1<br />
insultar cantar 1<br />
insurreccionar cantar 1<br />
integrar cantar 1<br />
intelectualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
intensificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
intentar cantar 1<br />
interaccionar cantar 1<br />
interactuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
intercalar cantar 1<br />
intercambiar cantar 1<br />
interceder comer 2<br />
interceptar cantar 1<br />
interesar cantar 1<br />
interferir sentir 6A<br />
interiorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
intermediar cantar 1<br />
internacionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
internar cantar 1<br />
interpelar cantar 1<br />
interpolar cantar 1<br />
interponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
interpretar cantar 1<br />
interrelacionar cantar 1<br />
interrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
interrumpir subir 3<br />
intervenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
interviuvar cantar 1<br />
intimar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 251<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
intimidar cantar 1<br />
intitular cantar 1<br />
intoxicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
intranquilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
intrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
intrincar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
introducir conducir 34<br />
intubar cantar 1<br />
intuir construir 8<br />
inundar cantar 1<br />
inutilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
invadir subir 3<br />
invalidar cantar 1<br />
inventar cantar 1<br />
inventariar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
invernar cantar 1<br />
invertir sentir 6A<br />
investigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
investir pedir 6B<br />
invitar cantar 1<br />
invocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
involucionar cantar 1<br />
involucrar cantar 1<br />
inyectar cantar 1<br />
ionizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ir ir 24<br />
irisar cantar 1<br />
ironizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
irradiar cantar 1<br />
irrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
irritar cantar 1<br />
irrumpir subir 3<br />
islamizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
italianizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
iterar cantar 1<br />
izar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
jabonar cantar 1<br />
jactar(se) cantar 1<br />
jadear cantar 1<br />
jalar cantar 1<br />
jalear cantar 1<br />
jalonar cantar 1<br />
jamar cantar 1
252 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
jaranear cantar 1<br />
jarrear cantar 1<br />
jaspear cantar 1<br />
jerarquizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
jeringar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
joder comer 2<br />
jorobar cantar 1<br />
jubilar cantar 1<br />
judaizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12<br />
juerguear(se) cantar 1<br />
jugar jugar 16<br />
juguetear cantar 1<br />
juntar cantar 1<br />
juramentar cantar 1<br />
jurar cantar 1<br />
justificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
justipreciar cantar 1<br />
juzgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
kilometrar cantar 1<br />
labializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
laborar cantar 1<br />
labrar cantar 1<br />
lacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
lacerar cantar 1<br />
lacrar cantar 1<br />
lactar cantar 1<br />
ladear cantar 1<br />
ladrar cantar 1<br />
ladrillar cantar 1<br />
lagrimear cantar 1<br />
laicizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
lamentar cantar 1<br />
lamer comer 2<br />
laminar cantar 1<br />
lampar cantar 1<br />
lancear cantar 1<br />
languidecer conocer 7A<br />
lanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
lapidar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
laquear cantar 1<br />
largar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
lastimar cantar 1<br />
lastrar cantar 1<br />
lateralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
latinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
latir subir 3<br />
laurear cantar 1<br />
lavar cantar 1<br />
lavotear cantar 1<br />
laxar cantar 1<br />
leer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
legalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
legar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
legislar cantar 1<br />
legitimar cantar 1<br />
legrar cantar 1<br />
lesionar cantar 1<br />
levantar cantar 1<br />
levar cantar 1<br />
levitar cantar 1<br />
lexicalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
liar 18 cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
libar cantar 1<br />
liberalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
liberar cantar 1<br />
libertar cantar 1<br />
librar cantar 1<br />
licenciar cantar 1<br />
licitar cantar 1<br />
licuar cantar 1<br />
liderar cantar 1<br />
lidiar cantar 1<br />
ligar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
lijar cantar 1<br />
limar cantar 1<br />
limitar cantar 1<br />
limosnear cantar 1<br />
limpiar cantar 1<br />
18 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—lie/lié, lio/lió—as well as for<br />
the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—liais/liáis and lieis/liéis.
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
linchar cantar 1<br />
lindar cantar 1<br />
liofilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
liquidar cantar 1<br />
lisiar cantar 1<br />
lisonjear cantar 1<br />
listar cantar 1<br />
litigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
litografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
llagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
llamar cantar 1<br />
llamear cantar 1<br />
llanear cantar 1<br />
llegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
llenar cantar 1<br />
llevar cantar 1<br />
llorar cantar 1<br />
lloriquear cantar 1<br />
llover mover 5B<br />
lloviznar cantar 1<br />
loar cantar 1<br />
localizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
lograr cantar 1<br />
loquear cantar 1<br />
lubricar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
lubrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
luchar cantar 1<br />
lucir lucir 7B<br />
lucrar cantar 1<br />
lucubrar cantar 1<br />
lustrar cantar 1<br />
luxar cantar 1<br />
macerar cantar 1<br />
machacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
madrugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
madurar cantar 1<br />
magnetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
magnificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
magullar cantar 1<br />
majar cantar 1<br />
malacostumbrar cantar 1<br />
malcasar cantar 1<br />
malcomer comer 2<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 253<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
malcriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
maldecir decir (bendecir) 28-2<br />
malear cantar 1<br />
maleducar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
malgastar cantar 1<br />
malherir sentir 6A<br />
malhumorar cantar 1<br />
maliciar cantar 1<br />
malinterpretar cantar 1<br />
malmeter comer 2<br />
malograr cantar 1<br />
maltear cantar 1<br />
maltraer traer 33<br />
maltratar cantar 1<br />
malvender comer 2<br />
malversar cantar 1<br />
malvivir subir 3<br />
mamar cantar 1<br />
manar cantar 1<br />
manchar cantar 1<br />
mancillar cantar 1<br />
mancipar cantar 1<br />
mancomunar cantar 1<br />
mandar cantar 1<br />
manducar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
manejar cantar 1<br />
mangar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
mangonear cantar 1<br />
maniatar cantar 1<br />
manifestar pensar 4A<br />
maniobrar cantar 1<br />
manipular cantar 1<br />
manosear cantar 1<br />
manotear cantar 1<br />
mantear cantar 1<br />
mantener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
manufacturar cantar 1<br />
manumitir subir 3<br />
manuscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
maquetar cantar 1<br />
maquilar cantar 1<br />
maquillar cantar 1<br />
maquinar cantar 1
254 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
maquinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
maravillar cantar 1<br />
marcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
marchar cantar 1<br />
marchitar cantar 1<br />
marear cantar 1<br />
marginar cantar 1<br />
maridar cantar 1<br />
martillar cantar 1<br />
martillear cantar 1<br />
martirizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
masacrar cantar 1<br />
masajear cantar 1<br />
mascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
masculinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mascullar cantar 1<br />
masificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
masticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
masturbar cantar 1<br />
matar cantar 1<br />
matasellar cantar 1<br />
materializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
maternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
matizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
matricular cantar 1<br />
matrimoniar cantar 1<br />
maullar cantar (aullar) 1-6<br />
maximizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mear cantar 1<br />
mecanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mecanografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
mecer comer (vencer) 2-1<br />
mechar cantar 1<br />
mediar cantar 1<br />
mediatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
medicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
medicinar cantar 1<br />
medir pedir 6B<br />
meditar cantar 1<br />
medrar cantar 1<br />
mejorar cantar 1<br />
mellar cantar 1<br />
memorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
mencionar cantar 1<br />
mendigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
menear cantar 1<br />
menguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
menoscabar cantar 1<br />
menospreciar cantar 1<br />
menstruar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
mensualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mentalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mentar pensar 4A<br />
mentir sentir 6A<br />
menudear cantar 1<br />
mercadear cantar 1<br />
mercantilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mercar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
merecer conocer 7A<br />
merendar pensar 4A<br />
mermar cantar 1<br />
merodear cantar 1<br />
mesar cantar 1<br />
mestizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mesurar cantar 1<br />
metabolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
metaforizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
metalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
metamorfosear cantar 1<br />
meteorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
meter comer 2<br />
metodizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mezclar cantar 1<br />
microfilmar cantar 1<br />
migar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
militar cantar 1<br />
militarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mimar cantar 1<br />
minar cantar 1<br />
mineralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
miniaturizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
minimizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ministrar cantar 1<br />
minusvalorar cantar 1<br />
mirar cantar 1<br />
mistificar cantar (tocar) 1-1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
mitificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
mitigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
mixtificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
mocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
modelar cantar 1<br />
moderar cantar 1<br />
modernizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
modificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
modular cantar 1<br />
mofar cantar 1<br />
mojar cantar 1<br />
moldar cantar 1<br />
moldear cantar 1<br />
moler mover 5B<br />
molestar cantar 1<br />
momificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
mondar cantar 1<br />
monitorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
monologar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
monopolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
monoptongar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
montar cantar 1<br />
monumentalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
moquear cantar 1<br />
moralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
morar cantar 1<br />
morder mover 5B<br />
mordisquear cantar 1<br />
morigerar cantar 1<br />
morir dormir (morir) 6C-1<br />
mortificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
mosconear cantar 1<br />
mosquear cantar 1<br />
mostrar mostrar 4B<br />
motear cantar 1<br />
motejar cantar 1<br />
motivar cantar 1<br />
motorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mover mover 5B<br />
movilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
mudar cantar 1<br />
mugir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
mullir subir (bullir) 3-5<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 255<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
multar cantar 1<br />
multicopiar cantar 1<br />
multiplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
municipalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
murar cantar 1<br />
murmurar cantar 1<br />
musicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
musitar cantar 1<br />
mustiar cantar 1<br />
mutar cantar 1<br />
mutilar cantar 1<br />
nacer conocer 7A<br />
nacionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
nadar cantar 1<br />
narcotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
narrar cantar 1<br />
nasalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
naturalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
naufragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
navegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
necesitar cantar 1<br />
negar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
negociar cantar 1<br />
negrear cantar 1<br />
neurotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
neutralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
nevar pensar 4A<br />
ningunear cantar 1<br />
niñear cantar 1<br />
niquelar cantar 1<br />
nivelar cantar 1<br />
nombrar cantar 1<br />
nominar cantar 1<br />
noquear cantar 1<br />
normalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
notar cantar 1<br />
notificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
novelar cantar 1<br />
nublar cantar 1<br />
nuclearizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
numerar cantar 1<br />
nutrir subir 3<br />
obcecar cantar (tocar) 1-1
256 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
obedecer conocer 7A<br />
objetar cantar 1<br />
objetivar cantar 1<br />
obligar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
obliterar cantar 1<br />
obnubilar cantar 1<br />
obrar cantar 1<br />
obsequiar cantar 1<br />
observar cantar 1<br />
obsesionar cantar 1<br />
obstaculizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
obstar cantar 1<br />
obstinar(se) cantar 1<br />
obstruir construir 8<br />
obtener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
obturar cantar 1<br />
obviar cantar 1<br />
ocasionar cantar 1<br />
ociar cantar 1<br />
ocluir construir 8<br />
ocultar cantar 1<br />
ocupar cantar 1<br />
ocurrir subir 3<br />
odiar cantar 1<br />
ofender comer 2<br />
ofertar cantar 1<br />
oficializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
oficiar cantar 1<br />
ofrecer conocer 7A<br />
ofrendar cantar 1<br />
ofuscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
oír oír 10<br />
ojear cantar 1<br />
oler mover (oler) 5B-2<br />
olfatear cantar 1<br />
olisquear cantar 1<br />
olvidar cantar 1<br />
omitir subir 3<br />
ondear cantar 1<br />
ondular cantar 1<br />
operar cantar 1<br />
opinar cantar 1<br />
oponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
opositar cantar 1<br />
oprimir subir 3<br />
optar cantar 1<br />
optimar cantar 1<br />
optimizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
orar cantar 1<br />
ordenar cantar 1<br />
ordeñar cantar 1<br />
orear cantar 1<br />
organizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
orientar cantar 1<br />
originar cantar 1<br />
orillar cantar 1<br />
orinar cantar 1<br />
orlar cantar 1<br />
ornamentar cantar 1<br />
ornar cantar 1<br />
orquestar cantar 1<br />
osar cantar 1<br />
oscilar cantar 1<br />
oscurecer conocer 7A<br />
ostentar cantar 1<br />
otear cantar 1<br />
otorgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
ovacionar cantar 1<br />
ovalar cantar 1<br />
ovar cantar 1<br />
ovillar cantar 1<br />
ovular cantar 1<br />
oxidar cantar 1<br />
oxigenar cantar 1<br />
pacer conocer 7A<br />
pacificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
pactar cantar 1<br />
padecer conocer 7A<br />
pagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
paginar cantar 1<br />
paladear cantar 1<br />
palatalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
paliar cantar 1<br />
palidecer conocer 7A<br />
palmar cantar 1<br />
palmear cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
palmotear cantar 1<br />
palpar cantar 1<br />
palpitar cantar 1<br />
panificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
papear cantar 1<br />
parabolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
parafrasear cantar 1<br />
paralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
parangonar cantar 1<br />
parapetar(se) cantar 1<br />
parar cantar 1<br />
parcelar cantar 1<br />
parchear cantar 1<br />
parcializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
parecer conocer 7A<br />
parir subir 3<br />
parlamentar cantar 1<br />
parlar cantar 1<br />
parlotear cantar 1<br />
parodiar cantar 1<br />
parpadear cantar 1<br />
parrandear cantar 1<br />
participar cantar 1<br />
particularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
partir subir 3<br />
pasar cantar 1<br />
pasear cantar 1<br />
pasmar cantar 1<br />
pastar cantar 1<br />
pasteurizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
pastorear cantar 1<br />
patalear cantar 1<br />
patear cantar 1<br />
patentar cantar 1<br />
patentizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
patinar cantar 1<br />
patrocinar cantar 1<br />
patrullar cantar 1<br />
pausar cantar 1<br />
pautar cantar 1<br />
pavimentar cantar 1<br />
pavonear cantar 1<br />
pecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 257<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
pechar cantar 1<br />
pedalear cantar 1<br />
pedir pedir 6B<br />
pedorrear cantar 1<br />
pegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
pegotear cantar 1<br />
peinar cantar 1<br />
pelar cantar 1<br />
pelear cantar 1<br />
peligrar cantar 1<br />
pellizcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
pelotear cantar 1<br />
penalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
penar cantar 1<br />
pender comer 2<br />
pendonear cantar 1<br />
penetrar cantar 1<br />
pensar pensar 4A<br />
pensionar cantar 1<br />
peraltar cantar 1<br />
percatar(se) cantar 1<br />
percibir subir 3<br />
percutir subir 3<br />
perder perder 5A<br />
perdonar cantar 1<br />
perdurar cantar 1<br />
perecer conocer 7A<br />
peregrinar cantar 1<br />
perennizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
perfeccionar cantar 1<br />
perfilar cantar 1<br />
perforar cantar 1<br />
perfumar cantar 1<br />
pergeñar cantar 1<br />
periclitar cantar 1<br />
peritar cantar 1<br />
perjudicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
perjurar cantar 1<br />
perlar cantar 1<br />
permanecer conocer 7A<br />
permitir subir 3<br />
permutar cantar 1<br />
pernoctar cantar 1
258 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
perorar cantar 1<br />
perpetrar cantar 1<br />
perpetuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
perseguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2<br />
perseverar cantar 1<br />
persignar cantar 1<br />
persistir subir 3<br />
personalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
personar(se) cantar 1<br />
personificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
persuadir subir 3<br />
pertenecer conocer 7A<br />
pertrechar cantar 1<br />
perturbar cantar 1<br />
pervertir sentir 6A<br />
pervivir subir 3<br />
pesar cantar 1<br />
pescar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
pespuntear cantar 1<br />
pestañear cantar 1<br />
petar cantar 1<br />
petardear cantar 1<br />
peticionar cantar 1<br />
petrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
piafar cantar 1<br />
piar 19 cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
picar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
picotear cantar 1<br />
pifiar cantar 1<br />
pigmentar cantar 1<br />
pillar cantar 1<br />
pilotar cantar 1<br />
pimplar cantar 1<br />
pincelar cantar 1<br />
pinchar cantar 1<br />
pintar cantar 1<br />
pintarrajear cantar 1<br />
pinzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
pirar(se) cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
piratear cantar 1<br />
piropear cantar 1<br />
pirrar(se) cantar 1<br />
piruetear cantar 1<br />
pisar cantar 1<br />
pisotear cantar 1<br />
pitar cantar 1<br />
pitorrear(se) cantar 1<br />
pivotar cantar 1<br />
placer conocer (placer) 7A-2<br />
plagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
plagiar cantar 1<br />
planchar cantar 1<br />
planear cantar 1<br />
planificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
plantar cantar 1<br />
plantear cantar 1<br />
plantificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
plañir subir (bruñir) 3-6<br />
plasmar cantar 1<br />
plastificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
platear cantar 1<br />
platicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
plegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
pleitear cantar 1<br />
plisar cantar 1<br />
pluralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
poblar mostrar 4B<br />
podar cantar 1<br />
poder poder 26<br />
podrir 20 subir (pudrir) 3-13<br />
poetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
polarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
polemizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
policromar cantar 1<br />
polinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
politizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
polucionar cantar 1<br />
ponderar cantar 1<br />
19 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—pie/pié, pio/pió—as well as<br />
for the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—piais/piáis and pieis/piéis.<br />
20 Conjugation identical to that of pudrir apart from infinitive.
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
poner poner 30<br />
pontificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
popularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
pordiosear cantar 1<br />
porfiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
pormenorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
portar cantar 1<br />
portear cantar 1<br />
posar cantar 1<br />
poseer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
posesionar cantar 1<br />
posibilitar cantar 1<br />
posicionar cantar 1<br />
positivar cantar 1<br />
posponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
postergar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
postinear cantar 1<br />
postrar cantar 1<br />
postular cantar 1<br />
potabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
potar cantar 1<br />
potenciar cantar 1<br />
practicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
precaver comer 2<br />
preceder comer 2<br />
preciar cantar 1<br />
precintar cantar 1<br />
precipitar cantar 1<br />
precisar cantar 1<br />
preconcebir pedir 6B<br />
preconizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
predatar cantar 1<br />
predecir decir (predecir) 28-1<br />
predestinar cantar 1<br />
predeterminar cantar 1<br />
predicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
predisponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
predominar cantar 1<br />
preexistir subir 3<br />
preferir sentir 6A<br />
prefigurar cantar 1<br />
prefijar cantar 1<br />
pregonar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 259<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
preguntar cantar 1<br />
prejuzgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
preludiar cantar 1<br />
premeditar cantar 1<br />
premiar cantar 1<br />
prendar cantar 1<br />
prender comer 2<br />
prensar cantar 1<br />
preñar cantar 1<br />
preocupar cantar 1<br />
preparar cantar 1<br />
preponderar cantar 1<br />
presagiar cantar 1<br />
prescindir subir 3<br />
prescribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
preseleccionar cantar 1<br />
presenciar cantar 1<br />
presentar cantar 1<br />
presentir sentir 6A<br />
preservar cantar 1<br />
presidir subir 3<br />
presintonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
presionar cantar 1<br />
prestar cantar 1<br />
prestigiar cantar 1<br />
presumir subir 3<br />
presuponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
presupuestar cantar 1<br />
presurizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
pretender comer 2<br />
pretextar cantar 1<br />
prevalecer conocer 7A<br />
prevaricar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
prevenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
prever ver (prever) 14-1<br />
primar cantar 1<br />
pringar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
priorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
privar cantar 1<br />
privatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
privilegiar cantar 1<br />
probar mostrar 4B<br />
proceder comer 2
260 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
procesar cantar 1<br />
proclamar cantar 1<br />
procrear cantar 1<br />
procurar cantar 1<br />
prodigar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
producir conducir 34<br />
profanar cantar 1<br />
proferir sentir 6A<br />
profesar cantar 1<br />
profesionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
profetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
profundizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
programar cantar 1<br />
progresar cantar 1<br />
prohibir subir (prohibir) 3-8<br />
proliferar cantar 1<br />
prologar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
prolongar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
promediar cantar 1<br />
prometer comer 2<br />
promocionar cantar 1<br />
promover mover 5B<br />
promulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
pronosticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
pronunciar cantar 1<br />
propagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
propalar cantar 1<br />
propasar cantar 1<br />
propender comer 2<br />
propiciar cantar 1<br />
propinar cantar 1<br />
proponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
proporcionar cantar 1<br />
propugnar cantar 1<br />
propulsar cantar 1<br />
prorratear cantar 1<br />
prorrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
prorrumpir subir 3<br />
proscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
proseguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2<br />
21 Past participle: provisto/proveído.<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
prosificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
prosperar cantar 1<br />
prosternar(se) cantar 1<br />
prostituir construir 8<br />
protagonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
proteger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
protestar cantar 1<br />
proveer 21 comer (leer) 2-3<br />
provenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
provocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
proyectar cantar 1<br />
psicoanalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
publicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
publicitar cantar 1<br />
pudrir subir (pudrir) 3-13<br />
puentear cantar 1<br />
pugnar cantar 1<br />
pujar cantar 1<br />
pulimentar cantar 1<br />
pulir subir 3<br />
pulsar cantar 1<br />
pulular cantar 1<br />
pulverizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
puntear cantar 1<br />
puntualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
puntuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
punzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
purgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
purificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
putear cantar 1<br />
quebrantar cantar 1<br />
quebrar pensar 4A<br />
quedar cantar 1<br />
quemar cantar 1<br />
querellar(se) cantar 1<br />
querer querer 27<br />
quintuplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
quitar cantar 1<br />
rabiar cantar 1<br />
racanear cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
racionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
racionar cantar 1<br />
radiar cantar 1<br />
radicalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
radicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
radiodifundir subir 3<br />
radiografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
radiotelegrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
raer caer (raer) 9-1<br />
rajar cantar 1<br />
ralentizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rallar cantar 1<br />
ramificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ramonear cantar 1<br />
rapar cantar 1<br />
raptar cantar 1<br />
rarificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rasar cantar 1<br />
rascar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rasgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
rasguear cantar 1<br />
raspar cantar 1<br />
rastrear cantar 1<br />
rastrillar cantar 1<br />
rastrojar cantar 1<br />
rasurar cantar 1<br />
ratificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rayar cantar 1<br />
razonar cantar 1<br />
reabrir subir (abrir) 3-9<br />
reabsorber comer 2<br />
reaccionar cantar 1<br />
reactivar cantar 1<br />
readaptar cantar 1<br />
readmitir subir 3<br />
reafirmar cantar 1<br />
reagrupar cantar 1<br />
reajustar cantar 1<br />
realizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
realojar cantar 1<br />
realquilar cantar 1<br />
realzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
reanimar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 261<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
reanudar cantar 1<br />
reaparecer conocer 7A<br />
rearmar cantar 1<br />
reasegurar cantar 1<br />
reavivar cantar 1<br />
rebajar cantar 1<br />
rebanar cantar 1<br />
rebañar cantar 1<br />
rebasar cantar 1<br />
rebatir subir 3<br />
rebelar(se) cantar 1<br />
reblandecer conocer 7A<br />
rebobinar cantar 1<br />
rebordear cantar 1<br />
rebosar cantar 1<br />
rebotar cantar 1<br />
rebozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rebrotar cantar 1<br />
rebuscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rebuznar cantar 1<br />
recabar cantar 1<br />
recaer caer 9<br />
recalar cantar 1<br />
recalcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
recalentar pensar 4A<br />
recalificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
recamar cantar 1<br />
recambiar cantar 1<br />
recapacitar cantar 1<br />
recapitular cantar 1<br />
recargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
recatar cantar 1<br />
recauchutar cantar 1<br />
recaudar cantar 1<br />
recelar cantar 1<br />
recetar cantar 1<br />
rechazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rechinar cantar 1<br />
rechistar cantar 1<br />
recibir subir 3<br />
reciclar cantar 1<br />
recidivar cantar 1<br />
recitar cantar 1
262 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
reclamar cantar 1<br />
reclinar cantar 1<br />
recluir construir 8<br />
reclutar cantar 1<br />
recobrar cantar 1<br />
recocer mover (cocer) 5B-1<br />
recochinear(se) cantar 1<br />
recoger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
recolectar cantar 1<br />
recomendar pensar 4A<br />
recomenzar pensar (empezar) 4A-2<br />
recomer(se) comer 2<br />
recompensar cantar 1<br />
recomponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
reconcentrar cantar 1<br />
reconciliar cantar 1<br />
reconcomer(se) comer 2<br />
reconducir conducir 34<br />
reconfirmar cantar 1<br />
reconfortar cantar 1<br />
reconocer conocer 7A<br />
reconquistar cantar 1<br />
reconsiderar cantar 1<br />
reconstituir construir 8<br />
reconstruir construir 8<br />
recontar mostrar 4B<br />
reconvenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
reconvertir sentir 6A<br />
recopilar cantar 1<br />
recordar mostrar 4B<br />
recorrer comer 2<br />
recortar cantar 1<br />
recoser comer 2<br />
recostar mostrar 4B<br />
recrear cantar 1<br />
recriminar cantar 1<br />
recrudecer conocer 7A<br />
rectificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
recuadrar cantar 1<br />
recubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10<br />
recular cantar 1<br />
recuperar cantar 1<br />
recurrir subir 3<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
recusar cantar 1<br />
redactar cantar 1<br />
redefinir subir 3<br />
redimir subir 3<br />
redistribuir construir 8<br />
redoblar cantar 1<br />
redondear cantar 1<br />
reducir conducir 34<br />
redundar cantar 1<br />
reduplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
reedificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
reeditar cantar 1<br />
reeducar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
reelaborar cantar 1<br />
reeligir pedir (elegir) 6B-1<br />
reembarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
reembolsar cantar 1<br />
reemplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
reencarnar cantar 1<br />
reencontrar mostrar 4B<br />
reencuadernar cantar 1<br />
reenganchar cantar 1<br />
reensayar cantar 1<br />
reenviar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
reescribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
reestrenar cantar 1<br />
reestructurar cantar 1<br />
reexaminar cantar 1<br />
reexpedir pedir 6B<br />
reexportar cantar 1<br />
referir sentir 6A<br />
refinar cantar 1<br />
reflejar cantar 1<br />
reflexionar cantar 1<br />
reflorecer conocer 7A<br />
reflotar cantar 1<br />
refluir construir 8<br />
refocilar cantar 1<br />
reforestar cantar 1<br />
reformar cantar 1<br />
reforzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3<br />
refractar cantar 1<br />
refregar pensar (negar) 4A-1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
refreír 22 pedir (reír) 6B-4<br />
refrenar cantar 1<br />
refrendar cantar 1<br />
refrescar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
refrigerar cantar 1<br />
refugiar cantar 1<br />
refulgir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
refundir subir 3<br />
refunfuñar cantar 1<br />
refutar cantar 1<br />
regalar cantar 1<br />
regañar cantar 1<br />
regar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
regatear cantar 1<br />
regenerar cantar 1<br />
regentar cantar 1<br />
regionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
regir pedir (elegir) 6B-1<br />
registrar cantar 1<br />
reglamentar cantar 1<br />
reglar cantar 1<br />
regocijar cantar 1<br />
regodear(se) cantar 1<br />
regresar cantar 1<br />
regular cantar 1<br />
regularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
regurgitar cantar 1<br />
rehabilitar cantar 1<br />
rehacer hacer (rehacer) 29-1<br />
rehogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
rehuir 23 construir 8<br />
rehumedecer conocer 7A<br />
rehundir subir (reunir) 3-7<br />
rehusar cantar (rehusar) 1-8<br />
reimplantar cantar 1<br />
reimportar cantar 1<br />
reimprimir subir (imprimir) 3-12<br />
reinar cantar 1<br />
reincidir subir 3<br />
reincorporar cantar 1<br />
22 Past participle: refrito/refreído.<br />
23 In conjugations where stem syllable is stressed, ehu → ehú (as for 1-8 rehusar).<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 263<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
reingresar cantar 1<br />
reiniciar cantar 1<br />
reinscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
reinsertar cantar 1<br />
reinstalar cantar 1<br />
reintegrar cantar 1<br />
reinvertir sentir 6A<br />
reír pedir (reír) 6B-4<br />
reiterar cantar 1<br />
reivindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rejonear cantar 1<br />
rejuvenecer conocer 7A<br />
relacionar cantar 1<br />
relajar cantar 1<br />
relamer comer 2<br />
relampaguear cantar 1<br />
relanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
relatar cantar 1<br />
relativizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
releer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
relegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
relevar cantar 1<br />
religar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
relinchar cantar 1<br />
rellenar cantar 1<br />
relucir lucir 7B<br />
relumbrar cantar 1<br />
remachar cantar 1<br />
remangar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
remansar(se) cantar 1<br />
remar cantar 1<br />
remarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
remasterizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rematar cantar 1<br />
rembolsar cantar 1<br />
remedar cantar 1<br />
remediar cantar 1<br />
rememorar cantar 1<br />
remendar pensar 4A<br />
remeter comer 2
264 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
remitir subir 3<br />
remodelar cantar 1<br />
remojar cantar 1<br />
remolcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
remolonear cantar 1<br />
remontar cantar 1<br />
remorder mover 5B<br />
remover mover 5B<br />
remozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
remplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
remunerar cantar 1<br />
renacer conocer 7A<br />
rendir pedir 6B<br />
renegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
renegociar cantar 1<br />
renombrar cantar 1<br />
renovar mostrar 4B<br />
renquear cantar 1<br />
rentabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
renunciar cantar 1<br />
reñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
reordenar cantar 1<br />
reorganizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
reparar cantar 1<br />
repartir subir 3<br />
repasar cantar 1<br />
repatear cantar 1<br />
repatriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
repeinar cantar 1<br />
repeler comer 2<br />
repensar pensar 4A<br />
repercutir subir 3<br />
repescar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
repetir pedir 6B<br />
repicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
repintar cantar 1<br />
repiquetear cantar 1<br />
replantar cantar 1<br />
replantear cantar 1<br />
replegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
replicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
repoblar mostrar 4B<br />
reponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
reportar cantar 1<br />
reposar cantar 1<br />
repostar cantar 1<br />
reprender comer 2<br />
representar cantar 1<br />
reprimir subir 3<br />
reprobar mostrar 4B<br />
reprocesar cantar 1<br />
reprochar cantar 1<br />
reproducir conducir 34<br />
reptar cantar 1<br />
repudiar cantar 1<br />
repugnar cantar 1<br />
repujar cantar 1<br />
repulir subir 3<br />
reputar cantar 1<br />
requebrar pensar 4A<br />
requerir sentir 6A<br />
requisar cantar 1<br />
resaltar cantar 1<br />
resarcir subir (fruncir) 3-1<br />
resbalar cantar 1<br />
rescatar cantar 1<br />
rescindir subir 3<br />
rescribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
resecar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
resentir(se) sentir 6A<br />
reseñar cantar 1<br />
reservar cantar 1<br />
resetear cantar 1<br />
resfriar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
resguardar cantar 1<br />
residir subir 3<br />
resignar cantar 1<br />
resinar cantar 1<br />
resistir subir 3<br />
resolver mover (resolver) 5B-3<br />
resonar mostrar 4B<br />
resoplar cantar 1<br />
respaldar cantar 1<br />
respetar cantar 1<br />
respingar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
respirar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
resplandecer conocer 7A<br />
responder comer 2<br />
responsabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
resquebrajar cantar 1<br />
restablecer conocer 7A<br />
restallar cantar 1<br />
restañar cantar 1<br />
restar cantar 1<br />
restaurar cantar 1<br />
restituir construir 8<br />
restregar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
restringir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
resucitar cantar 1<br />
resultar cantar 1<br />
resumir subir 3<br />
resurgir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
retar cantar 1<br />
retardar cantar 1<br />
retener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
retentar pensar 4A<br />
reteñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
retirar cantar 1<br />
retocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
retomar cantar 1<br />
retoñar cantar 1<br />
retorcer mover (cocer) 5B-1<br />
retornar cantar 1<br />
retozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
retractar cantar 1<br />
retractilar cantar 1<br />
retraer traer 33<br />
retransmitir subir 3<br />
retrasar cantar 1<br />
retratar cantar 1<br />
retrepar(se) cantar 1<br />
retribuir construir 8<br />
retroceder comer 2<br />
retrotraer traer 33<br />
retumbar cantar 1<br />
reunificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
reunir subir (reunir) 3-7<br />
reutilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
revacunar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 265<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
revalidar cantar 1<br />
revalorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
revaluar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
revelar cantar 1<br />
revender comer 2<br />
reventar pensar 4A<br />
reverberar cantar 1<br />
reverdecer conocer 7A<br />
reverenciar cantar 1<br />
revertir sentir 6A<br />
revestir pedir 6B<br />
revisar cantar 1<br />
revitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
revivir subir 3<br />
revocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
revolcar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1<br />
revolotear cantar 1<br />
revolucionar cantar 1<br />
revolver mover (volver) 5B-4<br />
rezagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
rezar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rezongar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
rezumar cantar 1<br />
ribetear cantar 1<br />
ridiculizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rielar cantar 1<br />
rifar cantar 1<br />
rimar cantar 1<br />
rivalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
robar cantar 1<br />
robotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
robustecer conocer 7A<br />
rociar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
rodar mostrar 4B<br />
rodear cantar 1<br />
roer caer (roer) 9-2<br />
rogar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2<br />
romanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
romper comer (romper) 2-6<br />
roncar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rondar cantar 1<br />
ronronear cantar 1
266 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
ronzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
roscar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rotar cantar 1<br />
rotular cantar 1<br />
roturar cantar 1<br />
rozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
ruborizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
rubricar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
rugir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
rular cantar 1<br />
rumiar cantar 1<br />
rumorear cantar 1<br />
runrunear cantar 1<br />
rutilar cantar 1<br />
saber saber 22<br />
sablear cantar 1<br />
saborear cantar 1<br />
sabotear cantar 1<br />
sacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
saciar cantar 1<br />
sacralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sacramentar cantar 1<br />
sacrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
sacudir subir 3<br />
sajar cantar 1<br />
salar cantar 1<br />
saldar cantar 1<br />
salir salir 11<br />
salivar cantar 1<br />
salmodiar cantar 1<br />
salpicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
salpimentar pensar 4A<br />
saltar cantar 1<br />
saltear cantar 1<br />
saludar cantar 1<br />
salvaguardar cantar 1<br />
salvar cantar 1<br />
sanar cantar 1<br />
sancionar cantar 1<br />
sanear cantar 1<br />
sangrar cantar 1<br />
santificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
santiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
saquear cantar 1<br />
satinar cantar 1<br />
satirizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
satisfacer hacer (satisfacer) 29-2<br />
saturar cantar 1<br />
sazonar cantar 1<br />
secar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
seccionar cantar 1<br />
secretar cantar 1<br />
secretear cantar 1<br />
secuenciar cantar 1<br />
secuestrar cantar 1<br />
secularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
secundar cantar 1<br />
sedar cantar 1<br />
sedimentar cantar 1<br />
seducir conducir 34<br />
segar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
segmentar cantar 1<br />
segregar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
seguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2<br />
seleccionar cantar 1<br />
sellar cantar 1<br />
sembrar pensar 4A<br />
semejar cantar 1<br />
sensibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sentar pensar 4A<br />
sentenciar cantar 1<br />
sentir sentir 6A<br />
señalar cantar 1<br />
señalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
separar cantar 1<br />
sepultar cantar 1<br />
ser ser 19<br />
serenar cantar 1<br />
seriar cantar 1<br />
sermonear cantar 1<br />
serpentear cantar 1<br />
serrar pensar 4A<br />
servir pedir 6B<br />
sesear cantar 1<br />
sesgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
sestear cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
sextuplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
significar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
silabear cantar 1<br />
silbar cantar 1<br />
silenciar cantar 1<br />
siluetear cantar 1<br />
simbolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
simpatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
simplificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
simular cantar 1<br />
simultanear cantar 1<br />
sincerar cantar 1<br />
sincopar cantar 1<br />
sincronizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
singularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sintetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sintonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sisar cantar 1<br />
sisear cantar 1<br />
sistematizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sitiar cantar 1<br />
situar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
sobar cantar 1<br />
sobetear cantar 1<br />
sobornar cantar 1<br />
sobrar cantar 1<br />
sobrealimentar cantar 1<br />
sobreañadir subir 3<br />
sobrecargar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
sobrecoger comer (coger) 2-2<br />
sobredimensionar cantar 1<br />
sobreexcitar cantar 1<br />
sobrehilar cantar (descafeinar) 1-7<br />
sobrellevar cantar 1<br />
sobre(e)ntender perder 5A<br />
sobrepasar cantar 1<br />
sobreponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
sobresalir salir 11<br />
24 Past participle: sofrito/sofreído.<br />
25 Exists in all six persons but not used in future, conditional, or imperative.<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 267<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
sobresaltar cantar 1<br />
sobrescribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
sobreseer comer (leer) 2-3<br />
sobrestimar cantar 1<br />
sobrevalorar cantar 1<br />
sobrevenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
sobrevivir subir 3<br />
sobrevolar mostrar 4B<br />
socarrar cantar 1<br />
socavar cantar 1<br />
sociabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
socializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
socorrer comer 2<br />
sofisticar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
soflamar cantar 1<br />
sofocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
sofreír 24 pedir (reír) 6B-4<br />
sojuzgar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
solapar cantar 1<br />
solazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
soldar mostrar 4B<br />
solear cantar 1<br />
solemnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
soler (DEF) 25 mover 5B<br />
solfear cantar 1<br />
solicitar cantar 1<br />
solidarizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
solidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
soliloquiar cantar 1<br />
soliviantar cantar 1<br />
sollozar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
soltar mostrar 4B<br />
solucionar cantar 1<br />
solventar cantar 1<br />
somatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sombrear cantar 1<br />
someter comer 2<br />
sonar mostrar 4B<br />
sondar cantar 1
268 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
sondear cantar 1<br />
sonorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
sonreír pedir (reír) 6B-4<br />
sonrojar cantar 1<br />
sonsacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
soñar mostrar 4B<br />
sopapear cantar 1<br />
sopar cantar 1<br />
sopesar cantar 1<br />
soplar cantar 1<br />
soportar cantar 1<br />
sorber comer 2<br />
sorprender comer 2<br />
sortear cantar 1<br />
sosegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
soslayar cantar 1<br />
sospechar cantar 1<br />
sostener tener (obtener) 31-1<br />
soterrar pensar 4A<br />
sovietizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
suavizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
subalternar cantar 1<br />
subarrendar pensar 4A<br />
subastar cantar 1<br />
subcontratar cantar 1<br />
subdelegar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
subdividir subir 3<br />
subestimar cantar 1<br />
subir subir 3<br />
subjetivar cantar 1<br />
sublevar cantar 1<br />
sublimar cantar 1<br />
subordinar cantar 1<br />
subrayar cantar 1<br />
subrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
subsanar cantar 1<br />
subsidiar cantar 1<br />
subsistir subir 3<br />
subsumir subir 3<br />
subtitular cantar 1<br />
subvencionar cantar 1<br />
subvenir venir (convenir) 32-1<br />
subvertir sentir 6A<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
subyacer conocer (yacer) 7A-1<br />
subyugar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
succionar cantar 1<br />
suceder comer 2<br />
sucumbir subir 3<br />
sudar cantar 1<br />
sufragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
sufrir subir 3<br />
sugerir sentir 6A<br />
sugestionar cantar 1<br />
suicidar(se) cantar 1<br />
sujetar cantar 1<br />
sulfatar cantar 1<br />
sulfurar cantar 1<br />
sumar cantar 1<br />
sumariar cantar 1<br />
sumergir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
suministrar cantar 1<br />
sumir subir 3<br />
supeditar cantar 1<br />
superabundar cantar 1<br />
superar cantar 1<br />
superponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
supervalorar cantar 1<br />
supervisar cantar 1<br />
suplantar cantar 1<br />
suplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
suplir subir 3<br />
suponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
suprimir subir 3<br />
supurar cantar 1<br />
surcar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
surgir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
surtir subir 3<br />
suscitar cantar 1<br />
suscribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
suspender comer 2<br />
suspirar cantar 1<br />
sustanciar cantar 1<br />
sustantivar cantar 1<br />
sustentar cantar 1<br />
sustituir construir 8<br />
sustraer traer 33
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
susurrar cantar 1<br />
suturar cantar 1<br />
tabicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
tablear cantar 1<br />
tabular cantar 1<br />
tachar cantar 1<br />
tachonar cantar 1<br />
taconear cantar 1<br />
tajar cantar 1<br />
taladrar cantar 1<br />
talar cantar 1<br />
tallar cantar 1<br />
tambalear cantar 1<br />
tamborilear cantar 1<br />
tamizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
tanguear cantar 1<br />
tantear cantar 1<br />
tañer comer (tañer) 2-5<br />
tapar cantar 1<br />
tapear cantar 1<br />
tapiar cantar 1<br />
tapizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
taponar cantar 1<br />
taquigrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
taracear cantar 1<br />
tarar cantar 1<br />
tararear cantar 1<br />
tardar cantar 1<br />
tarifar cantar 1<br />
tarjetear(se) cantar 1<br />
tartajear cantar 1<br />
tartamudear cantar 1<br />
tasar cantar 1<br />
tatarear cantar 1<br />
tatuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
teatralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
techar cantar 1<br />
teclear cantar 1<br />
tecnificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
tejer comer 2<br />
teledirigir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
telefonear cantar 1<br />
telegrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 269<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
televisar cantar 1<br />
temblar pensar 4A<br />
temblequear cantar 1<br />
temer comer 2<br />
temperar cantar 1<br />
templar cantar 1<br />
temporizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
tender perder 5A<br />
tener tener 31<br />
tensar cantar 1<br />
tensionar cantar 1<br />
tentar pensar 4A<br />
teñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3<br />
teologizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
teorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
terciar cantar 1<br />
tergiversar cantar 1<br />
terminar cantar 1<br />
terraplenar cantar 1<br />
tersar cantar 1<br />
testar cantar 1<br />
testificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
testimoniar cantar 1<br />
tildar cantar 1<br />
timar cantar 1<br />
timbrar cantar 1<br />
tintar cantar 1<br />
tintinear cantar 1<br />
tipificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
tiranizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
tirar cantar 1<br />
tiritar cantar 1<br />
tirotear cantar 1<br />
titilar cantar 1<br />
titubear cantar 1<br />
titular cantar 1<br />
titularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
tiznar cantar 1<br />
tocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
toldar cantar 1<br />
tolerar cantar 1<br />
tomar cantar 1<br />
tonificar cantar (tocar) 1-1
270 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
tonsurar cantar 1<br />
tontear cantar 1<br />
topar cantar 1<br />
toquetear cantar 1<br />
torcer mover (cocer) 5B-1<br />
torear cantar 1<br />
tornar cantar 1<br />
tornasolar cantar 1<br />
tornear cantar 1<br />
torpedear cantar 1<br />
torrar cantar 1<br />
torturar cantar 1<br />
toser comer 2<br />
tostar mostrar 4B<br />
totalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
trabajar cantar 1<br />
trabar cantar 1<br />
traducir conducir 34<br />
traer traer 33<br />
traficar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
tragar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
traicionar cantar 1<br />
trajear cantar 1<br />
trajinar cantar 1<br />
tramar cantar 1<br />
tramitar cantar 1<br />
trampear cantar 1<br />
trancar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
tranquilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
transbordar cantar 1<br />
transcribir subir (escribir) 3-11<br />
transcurrir subir 3<br />
transferir sentir 6A<br />
transfigurar cantar 1<br />
transformar cantar 1<br />
transfundir subir 3<br />
transgredir subir (abolir) 3-14<br />
transigir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
transitar cantar 1<br />
transliterar cantar 1<br />
transmigrar cantar 1<br />
transmitir subir 3<br />
transmutar cantar 1<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
transparentar cantar 1<br />
transpirar cantar 1<br />
transportar cantar 1<br />
trapacear cantar 1<br />
trapichear cantar 1<br />
traquetear cantar 1<br />
trasbordar cantar 1<br />
trascender perder 5A<br />
trasegar pensar (negar) 4A-1<br />
trashumar cantar 1<br />
trasladar cantar 1<br />
traslucir lucir 7B<br />
trasmutar cantar 1<br />
trasnochar cantar 1<br />
traspapelar cantar 1<br />
traspasar cantar 1<br />
trasplantar cantar 1<br />
trasponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
trasquilar cantar 1<br />
trastabillar cantar 1<br />
trastear cantar 1<br />
trastocar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
trastornar cantar 1<br />
trasvasar cantar 1<br />
tratar cantar 1<br />
traumatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
travestir pedir 6B<br />
trazar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
tremolar cantar 1<br />
trenzar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
trepanar cantar 1<br />
trepar cantar 1<br />
trepidar cantar 1<br />
tributar cantar 1<br />
tricotar cantar 1<br />
trillar cantar 1<br />
trinar cantar 1<br />
trincar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
trinchar cantar 1<br />
triplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
triptongar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
tripular cantar 1<br />
triturar cantar 1
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
triunfar cantar 1<br />
trivializar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
trizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
trocar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1<br />
trocear cantar 1<br />
trompetear cantar 1<br />
tronar mostrar 4B<br />
tronchar cantar 1<br />
tropezar pensar (empezar) 4A-2<br />
troquelar cantar 1<br />
trotar cantar 1<br />
trovar cantar 1<br />
trucar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
trufar cantar 1<br />
truncar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
tullir subir (bullir) 3-5<br />
tumbar cantar 1<br />
tundir subir 3<br />
tupir subir 3<br />
turbar cantar 1<br />
turnar cantar 1<br />
tutear cantar 1<br />
tutelar cantar 1<br />
ubicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ufanar(se) cantar 1<br />
ulcerar cantar 1<br />
ultimar cantar 1<br />
ultrajar cantar 1<br />
ulular cantar 1<br />
uncir subir (fruncir) 3-1<br />
ungir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
unificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
uniformar cantar 1<br />
unir subir 3<br />
universalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
untar cantar 1<br />
urbanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
urdir subir 3<br />
urgir subir (dirigir) 3-2<br />
usar cantar 1<br />
usufructuar cantar (actuar) 1-14<br />
usurar cantar 1<br />
usurpar cantar 1<br />
INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 271<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
utilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vacar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
vaciar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
vacilar cantar 1<br />
vacunar cantar 1<br />
vadear cantar 1<br />
vagabundear cantar 1<br />
vagar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
vaguear cantar 1<br />
valer valer 12<br />
validar cantar 1<br />
vallar cantar 1<br />
valorar cantar 1<br />
valorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vampirizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vanagloriar(se) cantar 1<br />
vaporizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vapulear cantar 1<br />
varar cantar 1<br />
variar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
vaticinar cantar 1<br />
vedar cantar 1<br />
vegetar cantar 1<br />
vehicular cantar 1<br />
vejar cantar 1<br />
velar cantar 1<br />
vencer comer (vencer) 2-1<br />
vendar cantar 1<br />
vender comer 2<br />
vendimiar cantar 1<br />
venerar cantar 1<br />
vengar cantar (pagar) 1-2<br />
venir venir 32<br />
ventajear cantar 1<br />
ventear cantar 1<br />
ventilar cantar 1<br />
ventiscar (DEF) cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
ventosear cantar 1<br />
ver ver 14<br />
veranear cantar 1<br />
verbalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
verdear cantar 1<br />
verificar cantar (tocar) 1-1
272 ANNEX B<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
versar cantar 1<br />
versificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
vertebrar cantar 1<br />
verter perder 5A<br />
vestir pedir 6B<br />
vetar cantar 1<br />
vetear cantar 1<br />
viabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
viajar cantar 1<br />
vibrar cantar 1<br />
viciar cantar 1<br />
vidriar cantar 1<br />
vigilar cantar 1<br />
vigorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vilipendiar cantar 1<br />
vincular cantar 1<br />
vindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
violar cantar 1<br />
violentar cantar 1<br />
virar cantar 1<br />
virilizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
visar cantar 1<br />
visibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
visionar cantar 1<br />
visitar cantar 1<br />
vislumbrar cantar 1<br />
visualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vitorear cantar 1<br />
vitrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
vituperar cantar 1<br />
vivaquear cantar 1<br />
vivificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
vivir subir 3<br />
vocalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vocear cantar 1<br />
vociferar cantar 1<br />
volar mostrar 4B<br />
volatilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
Verb Class (Sub-class) #<br />
volcar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1<br />
volear cantar 1<br />
voltear cantar 1<br />
volver mover (volver) 5B-4<br />
vomitar cantar 1<br />
vosear cantar 1<br />
votar cantar 1<br />
vulcanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vulgarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4<br />
vulnerar cantar 1<br />
xerocopiar cantar 1<br />
xerografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15<br />
yacer conocer (yacer) 7A-1<br />
yantar cantar 1<br />
yermar cantar 1<br />
yodurar cantar 1<br />
yugular cantar 1<br />
yuxtaponer poner (suponer) 30-1<br />
zafar cantar 1<br />
zaherir sentir 6A<br />
zamarrear cantar 1<br />
zambullir subir (bullir) 3-5<br />
zampar cantar 1<br />
zanganear cantar 1<br />
zanjar cantar 1<br />
zapar cantar 1<br />
zapatear cantar 1<br />
zapear cantar 1<br />
zarandear cantar 1<br />
zarpar cantar 1<br />
zascandilear cantar 1<br />
zigzaguear cantar 1<br />
zonificar cantar (tocar) 1-1<br />
zorrear cantar 1<br />
zozobrar cantar 1<br />
zumbar cantar 1<br />
zurcir subir (fruncir) 3-1<br />
zurrar cantar 1
Selected References<br />
Alarcos Llorach, Emilio. 1999. Gramática de la lengua española. Madrid: Real Academia<br />
Española (Espasa Calpe).<br />
Borrego, J., Asencio, J. G., and Prieto, E. 1992. El subjuntivo. Valores y usos. Madrid: Sociedad<br />
General Española de Librería.<br />
Freysselinard, Eric. 1998. Ser y estar. Le verbe être en espagnol. Paris: Ophrys.<br />
Gómez Torrego, Leonardo. 2000. Ortografía de uso del español actual. Madrid:<br />
Ediciones SM.<br />
Lathrop, Thomas A. 2003. The Evolution of <strong>Spanish</strong>. Univ. of Delaware: Juan de la Cuesta.<br />
(Also available in <strong>Spanish</strong> translation.)<br />
Moliner, María. 1998. Diccionario de uso del español. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. (Also<br />
available on CD-ROM.)<br />
Penny, Ralph. 1991. A History of the <strong>Spanish</strong> Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University<br />
Press. (Also available in <strong>Spanish</strong> translation.)<br />
Porto Dapena, José Álvaro. 1991. Del indicativo al subjuntivo. Valores y usos de los modos<br />
del verbo. Madrid: Arco/Libros.<br />
Real Academia Española. 2001. Diccionario de la lengua española. Madrid: Espasa Calpe.<br />
(Also available at: .)<br />
———. [2004]. Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. Online: .<br />
———. 1999. Ortografía de la Lengua Española. Madrid: Espasa Calpe.<br />
VOX Diccionario para la enseñanza de la lengua española. 1997. Barcelona: Bibliograf.