Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r) - Hillcrest Elementary

Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r)

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David Brodsky 

Spanish 

VERBS 

Simple(r) 

University of Texas Press Austin 

MADE

Copyright © 2005 by the University of Texas Press 

All rights reserved 

Printed in the United States of America 

First edition, 2005 

Requests for permission to reproduce material from this work should be sent to 

Permissions, University of Texas Press, P.O. Box 7819, Austin, TX 78713-7819. 

 

The paper used in this book meets the minimum requirements of 

ANSI /NISO Z39.48-1992 (R1997) (Permanence of Paper). 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Brodsky, David, 1950 – 

Spanish verbs made simple(r) / David Brodsky.— 1st ed. 

p. cm. 

Summary: “Provides rules for conjugating all classes of Spanish verbs, including 

irregular verbs. Includes discussion of the uses of the subjunctive and the 

difference between the verbs ser and estar”—Provided by publisher. 

Includes bibliographical references. 

ISBN 0-292-70677-4 (hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-292-70653-7 (pbk. : 

alk. paper) 

1. Spanish language—Verb. 2. Spanish language—Textbooks for foreign 

speakers—English. I. Title: Spanish verbs made simple. II. Title. 

PC4271.B76 2005 

468.2421—dc22 

2004024713

For Daniel, Michael, and Beatriz


Contents 

Preface ix 

Introduction 1 

PART I. FORMS OF VERBS 

1. Present, Simple Past, Imperfect, Participles 13 

2. Irregularities: Present Tense 22 

3. Irregularities: Simple Past Tense 45 

4. Future and Conditional Tenses 50 

5. Subjunctive and Imperative 54 

6. Compound Verb Forms 67 

7. Orthographic Modifications 71 

8. Vosotros/Ustedes and Tuteo/Voseo 91 

9. Summary and Presentation of Verb Classes 96 

PART II. USES OF VERBS 

10. Indicative 109 

11. Special Topic: Ser versus Estar 128 

12. Subjunctive 138 

PART III. ANNEXES 

A. Models of Verb Classes and Sub-classes 167 

B. Index by Class and Sub-class for 4,818 Verbs 215 

Selected References 273


Preface 

The fundamental aim of this book is to provide: 

(a) easily understood—yet comprehensive—tools to recognize and learn the 

patterns that govern the large majority of “irregular” verbs in Spanish; and 

(b) clear and systematic illustrations of the use of all of the principal Spanish 

verb forms, with particular emphasis placed on the subjunctive. 

It is intended for both the relatively new student grappling with the apparent 

complexities of Spanish verbs, as well as for the more advanced student seeking 

to “perfect” his or her understanding. 

The book is divided into three parts, which to a certain extent are independent: 

Part I provides a description of the various verb tenses and forms, the emphasis 

being on establishing rules for the more than 90 percent of irregular verbs 

whose irregularities are entirely “predictable”. Emphasis is also given to the stress 

accent patterns of the various forms, which play a critical role in the Spanish verbal 

system. 

Chapter 8 highlights one of the major differences between the Spanish language 

of Spain and that of the Americas, namely the contrasting use of personal 

pronouns (and verb forms) corresponding to “you”. Chapter 9 provides an overall 

summary of verb forms and presents 35 general models (or classes) into which 

all Spanish verbs can be placed. 

Part II illustrates the use of the various verb tenses and forms, with particular 

emphasis given to the subjunctive and its use in “if . . . then” clauses. Chapter 11 

is devoted to the distinctions in use between ser and estar, which many students 

find to be the most confusing element of the Spanish verbal system. 

Annexes: By reviewing Annex A, the student can become familiar with the 

various classes of verb “irregularities” and their unifying features. Complete conjugations 

are presented for each of the 35 model verbs, as well as for various subclasses 

including those displaying purely orthographic changes. Verb classes are 

nested, so that one can easily see that a verb like colgar (sub-class 4B-2) is identical 

in form to the basic model mostrar (class 4B), apart from regular orthographic 

modifications which are highlighted in the conjugations, and described 

in detail in Part I of the text. Mostrar itself is clearly identified as following a very 

regular pattern—a vowel change (e.g., muestro) in the 9 conjugations where the 

stress accent falls on the initial syllable.

x PREFACE 

Annex B provides an alphabetical index of more than 4,800 verbs, showing 

for each verb its class model and, where applicable, sub-class, e.g., 

verb class (sub-class) number 

prevenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

prever ver (prever) 14-1 

primar cantar 1 

pringar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

priorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

privar cantar 1 

Thus one can determine at a glance that: (a) primar and privar follow the 

model of the (perfectly regular) verb cantar; (b) pringar and priorizar also follow 

the model of cantar, but with orthographic modifications as per the sub-models 

pagar and cazar; (c) prevenir follows the model of venir, with the same modifications 

as the sub-model convenir; and (d) prever follows the basic model ver, 

and is itself a sub-model for certain modifications, as shown in Annex A. 

A more advanced student will have the option of reading the book either sequentially 

or “à la carte”. A student at a more elementary level may find it preferable 

to concentrate initially on those chapters dealing with the indicative—both 

forms and uses—before passing on to the subjunctive. In this case the suggested 

order of chapters would be the following: 

chapter topic 

1– 4 indicative verb forms 

6 compound verb forms 

8 second person pronouns: tuteo and voseo 

9 summary and presentation of verb classes 

10 uses of indicative 

11 ser versus estar 

7 orthographic modifications 

5 subjunctive and imperative forms 

12 uses of subjunctive

Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r)


Introduction 

The structure of Spanish verbs is not difficult to comprehend for a native English 

speaker, as most of the forms parallel or are very close in meaning to those employed 

in English. This basic similarity is at times obscured, however, by the lack 

of uniformity in naming the various verb forms. Consider, for example, some of 

the names variously applied to the two verb forms represented by I took and 

I have taken: 

I took I have taken 

preterite present perfect 

past past perfect 

simple past compound past 

past definite past definite 

past indefinite past indefinite 

To emphasize the close correspondence between English and Spanish verb forms, 

we have chosen to use names which are simple to remember and convey the essential 

nature of the verb form in question, even if some grammarians might not 

always consider them the most appropriate. 

One seeming major difference between Spanish and English verb systems is 

that Spanish employs two “moods”: the indicative and the subjunctive. The mood 

of the verb does not refer (at least directly) to that of the speaker but rather to the 

type of statement he or she is making. The indicative can be thought of as the 

“normal” verb mood (or mode), while the subjunctive is used in a number of special 

circumstances—in connection with orders, desires, uncertainty, etc. Contrary 

to what many might think, the subjunctive also exists in English, though its 

existence generally passes unnoticed since subjunctive and indicative verb forms 

in Modern English are almost always the same. But a sentence like 

I insist that he be punished. 

provides an illustration that there is at times a difference between the two. 

In Spanish the subjunctive is an essential element of the verb system and it is 

virtually impossible to have a meaningful conversation without using it. For this 

reason we will devote a substantial portion of Part II to a discussion of its use.

2 INTRODUCTION 

In addition to the indicative and subjunctive, there is a third verbal “mood”— 

the imperative (“Go!” “Run!” etc.). In Spanish some forms of the imperative are 

distinct, while others (including all negative imperatives) use subjunctive forms. 

For any English verb there are essentially only five “simple” forms: 

infinitive (to) write 

present write(s) 

past wrote 

past participle written 

present participle writing 

All other verb forms are compound ones created from the simple ones using various 

auxiliaries or “helping” verbs (e.g., I was writing, I will write, I would have 

written). For Spanish, there are eleven simple verb forms—the five English 

ones, plus: 

indicative subjunctive imperative 

imperfect present present 

future imperfect 

conditional 

Each Spanish verb thus has associated with it 47 basic “simple” conjugations, e.g., 

for the verb cantar (“to sing”): 

infinitive cantar 

present indicative canto, cantas, canta, cantamos, cantáis, cantan 

simple past canté, cantaste, cantó, cantamos, cantasteis, cantaron 

imperfect cantaba, cantabas, cantaba, cantábamos, cantabais, 

cantaban 

past participle cantado 

present participle cantando 

future cantaré, cantarás, cantará, cantaremos, cantaréis, cantarán 

conditional cantaría, cantarías, cantaría, cantaríamos, cantaríais, 

cantarían 

present subjunctive cante, cantes, cante, cantemos, cantéis, canten 

imperfect subjunctive 1 cantara, cantaras, cantara, cantáramos, cantarais, cantaran 

imperative canta, cantad (you: singular and plural) 

1 As we shall see in Chapter 5, there is a second form of the imperfect subjunctive (cantase, cantases, 

etc.) which in many cases can be used interchangeably with the first.

There are in addition a number of compound verb forms, most having close 

English counterparts. 

The Spanish future and conditional tenses are each equivalent to very specific 

Englishcompound forms (I will write, I would write). For the imperfect tense, there 

is no one-to-one correspondence with a specific English verb form, which probably 

is why among the various indicative verb forms it often causes the greatest 

difficulty. 

The table below illustrates basic English equivalents for the simple and principal 

compound Spanish indicative verb forms. In each case the name in bold 

type (e.g., simple past) is the name by which the form will be referred to throughout 

the text; for several of the forms common alternative names are shown 

in parentheses. 

SIMPLE FORMS (INDICATIVE) 

infinitive To live is to love. 

present He writes in the book. 

simple past (preterite) He wrote a book about Shakespeare (in 1974). 

imperfect When I was young I played baseball every day. 

When the phone rang I was leaving the house. 

future Some day I will write a book about Shakespeare. 

conditional If I were not so lazy, I would write a book about 

Shakespeare. 

present participle/ I saw your brother crossing the street. 

gerund 2 I am writing a book about Shakespeare. 

past participle The book, written in the Middle Ages, is now in the 

British Museum. 

COMPOUND FORMS (INDICATIVE) 

INTRODUCTION 3 

compound past He has written a number of best-sellers. 

(present perfect) 

past perfect By the age of 30, he had written a number of best-sellers. 

(pluperfect) 

future perfect By the time I retire, I will have worked 40 years. 

conditional perfect I would have done it, if only I had had the chance. 

(past conditional) 

2 In English the present participle and gerund have the same form but fulfill different grammatical 

functions (e.g., “the man running” versus “running is healthy”). The Spanish gerundio fulfills 

some but not all of the functions of both the English gerund and present participle. This is discussed 

in Chapter 10.


Verb Classes 

Spanish has three basic classes of verbs: 

1. -ar verbs cantar “to sing” 

2. -er verbs comer “to eat” 

3. -ir verbs subir “to climb” 

The -ar verbs are by far the most numerous. 

DISTRIBUTION OF SPANISH VERBS 

-ar -er -ir 

85% 7% 8% 

They are also the most dynamic, in the sense that the vast majority of verbs 

created in the post-Latin period have taken this ending, e.g., 

espiar “to spy” 

esquiar “to ski” 

robar “to rob” 

escanear “to scan” 

telefonear “to telephone” 

xerografiar “to photocopy” 

chatear “to chat” (in common use but without “official” approval) 

Endings of the -er and -ir verbs are nearly always the same, differing for only 

three of the 47 simple conjugations (present indicative 1p and 2p, and imperative 

2p). 3 

Stress Accent 

As in English, each word in Spanish is pronounced with a stressed or accented 

syllable. The place of the stress accent plays a critical role in Spanish, particularly 

3Throughout the text we will use the notation 1s, 1p, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p to refer to “first person 

singular”, “first person plural”, etc.

in the verbal system. This is illustrated by the following examples, where the 

stressed syllable is shown in bold: 

a•mo Te amo. “I love you.” 

a•mo Te amó. “He loved you.” 

can•te ¡Cante la canción! “(You, usted) sing the song!” 

can•te Canté la canción. “I sang the song.” 

ter•mi•no termino “I finish” 

ter•mi•no terminó “he finished” 

ter•mi•no término “term”, “limit” 

ma•mas Todas las mamás son invitadas. “All the mothers are invited.” 

ma•mas Todas las mamas son invitadas. “All the breasts are invited.” 

The syllable on which the stress 4 falls is determined according to the following 

general rule: 

In the absence of a written accent mark, words ending in 

(a) a consonant other than n or s are stressed on the last syllable; 

(b) n, s, or a vowel are stressed on the next-to-last syllable. 

When the stress accent does not fall on the “expected” syllable, it is 

marked by placing a written accent mark (tilde, in Spanish) over the 

vowel in the stressed syllable.The letter y is treated as a consonant. 

It is thus necessary to distinguish between the stress accent, which every word has, 

and the written accent which only occurs when the stress accent does not fall on 

the “expected” syllable. 

The above rule does not cover the very tricky issue of vowel combinations, 

which can be pronounced either as part of separate syllables or as elements of a 

diphthong. This issue will be addressed in Chapter 7. 

Irregular Verbs 

In Spanish, as in most languages, a “Murphy’s law of verbs” seems to hold: 

1. Regular verbs are infrequently used. 

2. Frequently used verbs are irregular. 

4 We will use the terms stress and stress accent interchangeably. 

INTRODUCTION 5


There is actually a simple explanation apart from that of Sr. Murphy: frequently 

used verbs simply have much greater capacity to resist the constant pressure to 

become uniform. Consider, for example, the English verb to crow, whose historical 

past tense was crew: 

Then began he to curse and to swear, saying, I know not the man. And 

immediately the cock crew. (Matthew 26:74, King James Version) 

And, as the Cock crew, those who stood before The Tavern shouted— 

”Open then the Door!” (Rubáiyát of Omar Khayyám) 

Yet the verb was so infrequently used that most people assumed, or were easily 

convinced, that the past tense must be crowed and so it has become. 

Then he began to invoke a curse on himself and to swear, “I do not know 

the man.” And immediately the cock crowed. (Revised Standard Version) 

The verb to mow (old past tense mew) had a similar experience, while the much 

more commonly used verbs to know, to blow, to grow have been able to resist such 

uniformizing tendencies and still have “irregular” past tenses: knew, blew, grew. 

Of course if one goes back far enough in the history of English (and its predecessors) 

one will discover that most irregular verbs are really quite regular, following 

archaic patterns that have become obscured by several thousand years of 

gradual phonetic (and other) changes. In Spanish a similar situation prevails, but 

with one important advantage: more than 90 percent of (seemingly) irregular verbs 

follow easily understood and readily remembered patterns. Recognizing and learning 

these patterns is a far more efficient way to learn Spanish verbs than simply 

attempting to memorize what may at first seem like almost random irregularities. 

In Spanish, a fundamental distinction can be made between verbs having 

regular simple past tenses—whose irregularities in other tenses, if any, generally 

follow predictable patterns—and those with irregular simple past tenses, which 

generally have unpredictable irregularities in other forms as well. 

Basically regular verbs are those with regular simple past tenses 

and include verbs that 

(a) are (perfectly) regular; 

(b) are predictably regular; 

(c) are irregular in the first person singular present, but otherwise (largely) 

predictable; 

(d) have mixed patterns. 

Fundamentally irregular verbs are those with irregular simple 

past tenses.

Those in the second group are “fundamentally” irregular not only because they 

tend to have more than one irregularity, but also because of the nature of the past 

tense irregularity itself: the pattern of accentuation is different and in most cases 

there is a vowel change (e.g., infinitive poder S simple past pude). 

The 17 fundamentally irregular verbs are: 

ser/estar to be ir to go 

haber/tener to have poder to be able (can) 

andar to walk poner to put 

caber to fit querer to want 

dar to give saber to know 

decir to say traer to bring, carry 

hacer to do, make venir to come 

-ducir (conducir, producir, 

seducir, etc.) 

Apart from caber and andar, all would likely appear on any list of the 25 most important 

Spanish verbs. 5 It is also interesting to note that the majority correspond 

to English irregular verbs. 

We will use the nomenclature “perfectly regular”, “predictably regular”, “basically 

regular”, and “fundamentally irregular”, in accordance with the above 

schema. 

Personal Pronouns 

One of the major differences between the Spanish spoken in Spain and that 

spoken in the Americas concerns the pronouns used for the second person 

(“you”), and in some cases the verb forms used in the second person as well. 

This will be considered in Chapter 8. Until that point we will consider only the 

“standard” forms: 

singular plural 

1st person yo “I” nosotros/nosotras “we” 

2nd person tú “you” vosotros/vosotras “you” 

3rd person él /ella “he/she” ellos/ellas “they” 

usted “you” ustedes “you” 


5 Caber owes its place on the list due to the close association, dating back to Latin, of its form with 

that of saber. Andar is the sole survivor of a group of regular verbs which attempted to develop irregular 

simple past tenses in Old Spanish times.


It should also be noted that, like Latin and most other Romance languages, 6 

Spanish generally does not use personal pronouns unless there is a specific need 

for emphasis or, in the case of third person pronouns, to identify the subject with 

greater precision: 

Voy a hacerlo. “I am going to do it.” 

Yo voy a hacerlo. “I am going to do it.” 

Él está ausente pero ella está aquí. “He is absent but she is here.” 

Additional Observations 

1. Real Academia Española 

At various points in the text we will make reference to the Real Academia Española 

(RAE). Since 1714 the RAE has been charged with the responsibility to 

“fix the words and expressions of the Castilian language in their greatest propriety, 

elegance and purity.” 7 The RAE thus functions in a role similar to that of the 

Académie Française with regard to French, but with the important difference 

that the RAE has to take into account the views of 21 other national academies of 

Spanish, 8 whereas—at least in principle—the Académie Française rules unchallenged 

in the Francophone world. The RAE’s excellent online site contains not 

only the entire text of its Diccionario de la lengua española, 9 but also the complete 

conjugations for all Spanish verbs. 

2. Definitions and Dictionaries 

Brief definitions (one or two words) are given for most of the verbs presented in 

the text, either the first time they appear or at a later stage. These definitions are 

meant to be suggestive only and are in no manner a substitute for fuller definitions 

to be found in a dictionary. As early as possible, one should try to use a 

Spanish-Spanish dictionary, preferably one with examples. Outstanding (and 

perhaps unique) in its class is the VOX Diccionario para la enseñanza de la lengua 

española, which is specifically designed for non-native speakers. Apart from good 

6French being the principal exception. 

7From the RAE’s online description of its origen y fines (, July 2004): “fijar las voces 

y vocablos de la lengua castellana en su mayor propiedad, elegancia y pureza.” 

8Including the Academia Puertorriqueña de la Lengua Española and the Academia Norteamericana 

de la Lengua Española. 

9The 22nd edition (2001) as well as all preceding editions dating back to 1726.

examples, it offers a feature found surprisingly rarely in Spanish dictionaries, 

pronunciations of individual words. The RAE’s dictionary, while authoritative, 

does not have examples (or pronunciations). The “Rolls Royce” of Spanish 

dictionaries is the two-volume Diccionario de uso del español by María Moliner, 

frequently referred to simply as Moliner. A CD-rom version is available and 

includes conjugations of individual verbs. 

3. Prepositions Accompanying Verbs 

Just as in English we insist on something and laugh at somebody, Spanish verbs 

are often associated with specific prepositions. Thus, corresponding to the two 

English examples, in Spanish one generally says insistir en and reírse de. When 

learning the definition of an individual verb, it is a good idea to learn at the same 

time the associated preposition(s). 

4. Historical References 


At various stages in the text references are made to the historical development of 

Spanish and its relation to other Romance languages and Latin. While many are 

limited to footnotes, there are also several extended historical and methodological 

notes. The motivation for all such references is to help provide answers to the 

“why” questions which occur to many students—e.g., why do some verbs have 

vowel changes (yo cuento) but only in certain conjugations (nosotros contamos) 

and tenses (yo conté)?


PART I 

FORMS OF VERBS


CHAPTER 1 

Present, Simple Past, Imperfect, Participles 

Present Tense (Indicative) 

The present tense is formed by adding the following endings to the verb stem or 

root, i.e., the infinitive minus the final -ar, -er, or -ir. 

-ar verbs -er verbs -ir verbs 

-o -o -o 

-as -es -es 

-a -e -e 

-amos -emos -imos 

-áis -éis -ís 

-an -en -en 

Thus, 

infinitive can•tar co•mer su•bir 

(to sing) (to eat) (to raise, climb) 

1s can•to co•mo su•bo 

2s can•tas co•mes su•bes 

3s can•ta co•me su•be 

1p can•ta•mos co•me•mos su•bi•mos 

2p can•táis co•méis su•bís 

3p can•tan co•men su•ben 

where the stressed syllable is shown in bold. 

Note that: 

(1) For all three singulars and for the third person plural, the stress accent is 

on the stem (root) syllable, while for the first and second person plurals 

it is on the post-stem syllable. Among regular verbs, non-uniform stress 

patterns occur for the present indicative, present subjunctive, and 

imperative. All other tenses have uniform stress patterns for all six 

conjugations. 

(2) In the second person plural a written accent is required for all three 

classes: áis, éis, ís. The first two are pronounced as diphthongs.

14 FORMS OF VERBS 

(3) The endings for the -er and -ir verbs differ only for the first and second 

person plural. 

Irregularities for the present indicative—predictable and otherwise—are presented 

in Chapter 2. 

Simple Past Tense 

The simple past tense for regular verbs is formed by adding the following endings 

to the verb stem: 

-ar verbs -er and -ir verbs 

1s -é -í 

2s -aste -iste 

3s -ó -ió 

1p -amos -imos 

2p -asteis -isteis 

3p -aron -ieron 

cantar comer subir 

1s can•té co•mí su•bí 

2s can•tas•te co•mis•te su•bis•te 

3s can•tó co•mió su•bió 

1p can•ta•mos co•mi•mos su•bi•mos 

2p can•tas•teis co•mis•teis su•bis•teis 

3p can•ta•ron co•mie•ron su•bie•ron 

The simple past tense endings for -er and -ir verbs are identical. This is no random 

occurrence: of the 47 simple verb forms, -er and -ir verbs have 44 in common, the 

only discrepancies being the two already noted in the present (1p and 2p) plus the 

imperative (2p). 

Regarding pronunciation and orthography: 

(1) In all cases the stress accent is on the post-stem syllable, which necessitates 

a written accent for the first and third person singulars—apart from 

the one-syllable verb ver (the other one-syllable verbs—ser, ir, and 

dar—have irregular simple past tenses).

(2) For the singulars and the third person plural, the stress accent is 

moved forward compared to the present tense, e.g., 

present simple past 

1s co•mo co•mí 

2s co•mes co•mis•te 

3s co•me co•mió 

3p co•men co•mie•ron 

It is important to put the stress on the correct syllable in order to avoid 

confusion with other tenses: 

can•tó (3s, simple past) can•to (1s, present indicative) 

can•té (1s, simple past) can•te (1s/3s, present subjunctive) 

(3) for -ar and -ir verbs, the first person plural has identical forms for the 

present and simple past: 

Llegamos muy tarde. “We arrive very late.” 

“We arrived very late.” 

Subimos la montaña. “We climb the mountain.” 

“We climbed the mountain.” 

For -er verbs there is no such potential confusion: 

Comemos muy tarde. “We eat very late.” 

Comimos muy tarde. “We ate very late.” 

Irregularities for the simple past are presented in Chapter 3. For -er and -ir verbs 

whose stem ends in a vowel (e.g., caer, construir, reír), there are certain regular 

orthographic modifications (Chapter 7). 

Imperfect (Indicative) 

The following endings are added to the verb stem: 


1s -aba -ía 

2s -abas -ías 

3s -aba -ía 

1p -ábamos -íamos 

2p -abais -íais 

3p -aban -ían 

PRESENT, SIMPLE PAST, IMPERFECT, PARTICIPLES 15


1s can•ta•ba su•bí•a 

2s can•ta•bas su•bí•as 

3s can•ta•ba su•bí•a 

1p can•tá•ba•mos su•bí•a•mos 

2p can•ta•bais su•bí•ais 

3p can•ta•ban su•bí•an 

The imperfect has a uniform stress pattern, as all six forms are stressed on the 

post-stem syllable. A written accent is required for: 

(1) the first person plural for -ar verbs 

(2) all six conjugations for the -er and -ir verbs, in order to maintain -i and 

-a as distinct vowels. 

Irregularities 

The imperfect is the most “perfect” of all Spanish verb forms, as there are only 

three verbs having irregular imperfects: ser, ir, and ver. 

ser ir ver 

1s era iba veía 

2s eras ibas veías 

3s era iba veía 

1p éramos íbamos veíamos 

2p erais ibais veíais 

3p eran iban veían 

The imperfect for ver would be entirely regular if the infinitive were *veer 1 (which 

was in fact the case in “Old” Spanish) rather than ver. The imperfects for ser and 

ir are direct continuations of irregular Latin forms. 

Past Participle 

The following ending is added to the verb stem: 


-ado -ido 

1An asterisk (*) placed immediately before a particular verb form indicates that the form is not a 

correct one.

Thus, 

infinitive past participle 

-ar verbs cantar can•ta•do 

dar dado 

hablar hablado 

-er verbs comer co•mi•do 

beber bebido 

morder mordido 

-ir verbs subir su•bi•do 

cumplir cumplido 

vivir vivido 

Under certain circumstances, a written accent is added to the vowel of the past 

participle ending: 

Rule. If an -er or -ir verb has a stem ending in -a, -e, or -o, then the ending 

of the past participle has a written accent (-ído rather than -ido). For 

all other cases in which the stem ends in a vowel, no change is made. 

Examples: 

caer caído 

leer leído 

roer roído 

oír oído 

compared to 

PRESENT, SIMPLE PAST, IMPERFECT, PARTICIPLES 17 

crear creado not *creádo 

loar loado not *loádo 

evaluar evaluado not *evaluádo 

criar criado not *criádo 

construir construido not *construído 

This rule reflects a particularity of the Spanish orthographic system, which distinguishes 

between “strong” and “weak” vowels (Chapter 7). 

Of the 14 irregular past participles, eleven are found among the “basically regular” 

verbs, three among the fundamentally irregular ones (italicized).


infinitive past participle not 

abrir abierto *abrido “opened” 

cubrir cubierto *cubrido “covered” 

decir dicho *decido “said” 

escribir escrito *escribido “written” 

freír frito [see below] “fried” 

hacer hecho *hacido “done” 

imprimir impreso [see below] “printed” 

morir muerto *morido “died” 

poner puesto *ponido “placed”, “put” 

resolver 2 resuelto *resolvido “resolved” 

romper roto *rompido “broken” 

ver visto *vido “seen” 

volver vuelto *volvido “turned” 

pudrir podrido *pudrido “rotted”, “putrefied” 

These generally represent the continuation of “strong” Latin past participles 

which had the ending (-tus or -sus) connected directly to the root without an 

intervening vowel. As a result of their truncated form, irregular Spanish past participles 

(apart from podrido) 3 are stressed on the stem syllable, as compared to 

regular past participles, whose stress is on the post-stem syllable: 4 

di•cho ro•to vuel•to versus can•ta•do co•mi•do su•bi•do 

Compound verbs generally have the same irregularities (descubierto, impuesto, 

absuelto, disuelto, etc.). Exceptions include bendecir and maldecir (“to bless”, “to 

curse”), which have regular past participles (bendecido, maldecido), 5 and corromper 

(“to corrupt”), whose regular past participle is corrompido. 

The RAE accepts the regular form freído alongside frito as a past participle for 

freír, but frito is far more common. For imprimir it accepts either impreso or 

imprimido; however, for comprimir (“to compress”), deprimir (“to depress”), 

2Although the verb solver exists, it is rarely used. Thus one resolves a Spanish mystery rather than 

solving it. 

3Pudrir used to be podrir: the stem vowel -o changed to -u in all 47 forms except the past participle. 

The old infinitive podrir still exists alongside pudrir. 

4For abrir, cubrir, and ver the past participles are stressed on what is in fact the original stem 

syllable, as each of these verbs subsequently “lost” a syllable: ab(e)rir, cub(e)rir and v(e)er. 

5The forms bendito and maldito exist but are used only as adjectives: el agua bendita (“holy water”).

exprimir (“to express”), and reprimir (“to repress”) only the regular forms comprimido, 

deprimido, exprimido, and reprimido are accepted. 6 

Satisfacer, which is essentially a compound form of hacer, 7 has satisfecho as 

past participle. Apart from reescribir, compounds of escribir omit the “helping” 

initial -e and thus have past participles ending in -scrito: 8 

inscribir inscrito 

suscribir suscrito 

transcribir transcrito 

Important observation: 

No -ar verb has an irregular past participle. 

Present Participle (Gerundio) 

The Spanish present participle (gerundio) is formed by adding the following ending 

to the verb stem: 

-ar verbs -er/-ir verbs 

-ando -iendo 

Thus, 

infinitive present participle 

-ar verbs cantar can•tan•do 

dar dando 

hablar hablando 

-er verbs comer co•mien•do 

beber bebiendo 

morder mordiendo 

-ir verbs subir su•bien•do 

cumplir cumpliendo 

vivir viviendo 


6For proveer—a compound formed using the “old” form veer of ver—both provisto and the regular 

proveído are acceptable. 

7Like many words in Spanish (e.g., higo “fig”), hacer changed its initial f to h. 

8The RAE also accepts the “old” forms ending in -scripto for all -scribir verbs apart from escribir, 

rescribir, reescribir, and manuscribir, and these are still found with some frequency in certain regions 

(notably Argentina and Uruguay): inscripto, suscripto, transcripto, etc.


This verb form is called gerundio in Spanish because it was derived from the Latin 

gerund; many English-language books on Spanish call it the present participle 

because its use more closely parallels that of the English present participle. In 

English, of course, the present participle and gerund both have the same -ing 

form. 

There is essentially only one irregular present participle: 

poder pudiendo not *podiendo 

Other apparent regularities are all of the predictable type and fall into three 

categories: 

(1) -ir verbs with stem vowels -e or -o have the stem vowel changed to -i 

and -u, respectively: 

sentir sintiendo not *sentiendo 

medir midiendo not *mediendo 

dormir durmiendo not *dormiendo 

[See “La regla milagrosa (extended)” in Chapter 9.] 

Exceptions: 

(a) oír [see below] 

(b) “regular” present participle 9 

discernir discerniendo 

(2) for -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, the -i in -iendo is 

changed to -y, a normal orthographic change (Chapter 7): 

infinitive present participle not 

caer cayendo *caiendo 

leer leyendo *leiendo 

traer trayendo *traiendo 

construir construyendo *construiendo 

huir huyendo *huiendo 

oír oyendo *oiendo 

9Also cernir and hendir—although the RAE prefers the forms cerner and hender—andconcernir. 

Like discernir these were originally -er verbs and behave throughout their conjugations as -er 

diphthong verbs. Concernir is a “defective” verb used only impersonally, e.g., 

A mí no me concierne este asunto. “This matter is of no concern to me.” 

The only forms which exist are the infinitive, participles, and third person (singular and plural).

Also: 

ir yendo *iendo 

(3) -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in a palatalized consonant—either ñ or 

ll—omit the -i- from -iendo (Chapter 7): 

infinitive present participle not 


tañer tañendo *tañiendo 

bullir bullendo *bulliendo

CHAPTER 2 

Irregularities: Present Tense 

Present-tense (indicative) irregularities—real and apparent—can be divided 

among the following categories. Verbs shown in bold are those we have defined 

as fundamentally irregular, i.e., having irregular simple pasts. 

“Predictable” irregularities 

1. Diphthong in verbs having stem vowel -e or -o 

A. e → ie 

B. o → ue 

2. Umlaut (e → i) for -ir verbs having stem vowel -e 

3. First person singular ending in -zco 

A. (Most) infinitives ending in -cer (e.g., conocer) 

B. (All) infinitives ending in -ucir (e.g., producir, lucir) 

4.Verbs ending in -uir add -y except before -i 

“Unpredictable” irregularities 1 

5.“To be” ser, estar 

6. Other first person singulars ending in -oy ir, dar 

7A. First person singular ending in -e haber, saber 

7B. First person singular with umlaut (a S e) caber 

8. First person singular ending in -go, 

other persons without -g (hago, haces, hace, etc.) decir, hacer, caer, 

traer, oír, poner, salir, 

tener, valer, venir 

Verbs with “mixed” patterns 

9. Ver, adquirir, jugar, argüir (and discernir) 

Purely orthographic changes 

Orthographic changes will be treated in Chapter 7. 

Predictable Irregularities 

1. Diphthong in Verbs Having Stem Vowel -e or -o 

A large number of verbs display the following change in stem vowel in four of the 

six grammatical persons—the three singulars and the third person plural. 

1 By coincidence there are 17 verbs with irregular present tenses and the same number with 

irregular simple past tenses. Thirteen verbs are in both groups.

A. e → ie pronounced like “ye” in yet 2 

B. o → ue pronounced like “we” in wet 

(sometimes more like “wei” in weight) 

IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 23 

These are known as the diphthong verbs. Some examples, with the stressed syllable 

highlighted in bold: 

e S ie o S ue 

-ar verbs 

pensar (to think) mostrar (to show) 

1s pienso pien•so muestro mues•tro 

2s piensas pien•sas muestras mues•tras 

3s piensa pien•sa muestra mues•tra 

1p pensamos pen•sa•mos mostramos mos•tra•mos 

2p pensáis pen•sáis mostráis mos•tráis 

3p piensan pien•san muestran mues•tran 

-er verbs 

perder (“to lose”) mover (“to move”) 

1s pierdo pier•do muevo mue•vo 

2s pierdes pier•des mueves mue•ves 

3s pierde pier•de mueve mue•ve 

1p perdemos per•de•mos movemos mo•ve•mos 

2p perdéis per•déis movéis mo•véis 

3p pierden pier•den mueven mue•ven 

-ir verbs 

sentir (“to feel”) dormir (“to sleep”) 

1s siento sien•to duermo duer•mo 

2s sientes sien•tes duermes duer•mes 

3s siente sien•te duerme duer•me 

1p sentimos sen•ti•mos dormimos dor•mi•mos 

2p sentís sen•tís dormís dor•mís 

3p sienten sien•ten duermen duer•men 

2 At the beginning of a word or syllable, the ie diphthong in much of the Spanish-speaking world 

is pronounced either like the “s” in pleasure or the “j” in judge, while after a consonant the “ye” sound 

is maintained. This has only very limited effect on the verbal system, where virtually all ie diphthongs 

are preceded by a consonant, the principal exceptions occurring in errar and erguir.


We note the following fundamentally important pattern: 

The diphthong occurs only in stressed syllables, i.e., in those conjugations 

where the stress accent falls on the stem (root) of the verb. 

We shall subsequently see that this pattern holds for all of the 47 simple conjugations 

and thus provides a remarkably simple way to remember which conjugations 

have diphthongs and which do not. 

How to Determine (and Remember) Whether a Verb Is a Diphthong Verb 

The historical note presented as an appendix to this chapter shows that whether 

a Spanish verb diphthongs or not is generally dependent on the quantity (short 

or long) of the vowel in its corresponding Latin root. While this is of little practical 

assistance to those whose Latin is a bit rusty, there fortunately exists an 

alternative method which is applicable in the large majority of cases: 

General rule: 

-ar and -er verbs: 

If the stem vowel of any associated noun or adjective has diphthonged, 

then it is almost certain that the verb has diphthonged as well. 

-ir verbs: 

(i) There are only three commonly employed verbs with stem 

vowel -o—dormir, morir, and oír—of which the first two diphthong. 

(ii) For verbs with stem vowel -e, la regla milagrosa presented in the 

following section provides a sure method for determining those 

which diphthong. 

For -ar and -er verbs the general rule is illustrated below with regard to a number 

of verbs in common use: 

infinitive noun /adjective 1s 

e S ie 

acertar (to get /guess right) cierto (certain) acierto 

alentar (to encourage) aliento (breath) aliento 

apretar (to squeeze) aprieto (predicament) aprieto 

arrendar (to rent) arriendo (rent) arriendo 

atravesar (to cross) travieso (mischievous) atravieso 

calentar (to heat) caliente (hot) caliento 

cegar (to blind) ciego (blind) ciego 

cerner (to sift, blossom) cierne (blossoming) cierno


cerrar (to close) cierre (snap, clasp) cierro 

cimentar (to lay foundations) cimiento (foundation) cimiento 

comenzar (to commence) comienzo (commencement) comienzo 

desmembrar (to dismember) miembro (member) desmiembro 

despertar (to awake) despierto (awake) despierto 

desterrar (to exile) tierra (land) destierro 

emparentar 3 (to become related) pariente (relative) empariento 

empezar (to begin) pieza (piece) empiezo 

encomendar (to entrust) encomienda (commission) encomiendo 

enmendar (to amend) enmienda (amendment) enmiendo 

ensangrentar (to bloody) sangriento (bloody) ensangriento 

errar (to err) yerro (error) yerro 4 

fregar (to scrub) friega (rubdown) friego 

gobernar (to govern) gobierno (government) gobierno 

herrar (to shoe a horse) hierro (iron) hierro 

manifestar (to manifest) manifiesto (manifest) manifiesto 

merendar (to snack) merienda (snack) meriendo 

negar (to deny) reniego (curse) niego 

pensar (to think) pienso (fodder) pienso 

plegar (to fold) pliegue (crease) pliego 

quebrar (to break) quiebra (bankruptcy) quiebro 

regar (to irrigate) riego (irrigation) riego 

segar (to reap) siega (reaping) siego 

sembrar (to sow) siembra (sowing) siembro 

sentar (to seat) asiento (seat) siento 

serrar (to saw) sierra (mountain range) sierro 

sosegar (to calm) sosiego (tranquillity) sosiego 

tender (to extend/stretch) tienda (tent, shop) tiendo 

tentar (to feel /touch) tiento (touch, feeling) tiento 

tropezar (to stumble) tropiezo (stumble) tropiezo 

o S ue 

acordar (to remember) acuerdo (accord) acuerdo 

acostar (to put to bed) cuesta (slope) acuesto 

almorzar (to lunch) almuerzo (lunch) almuerzo 

3 Emparentar can also be conjugated without diphthongs. 

4 The initial ie is written ye (Chapter 7) : yerro, yerras, yerra, erramos, erráis, yerran.


apostar (to bet) apuesta (bet) apuesto 

avergonzar (to shame) vergüenza (shame) avergüenzo 

clocar (to cluck) clueco (broody, decrepit) clueco 

colgar (to hang) cuelgacapas (hatrack) cuelgo 

consolar (to console) consuelo (consolation) consuelo 

contar (to count, to tell) cuenta (bill, account) cuento 

degollar (to behead) degüello (beheading) degüello 

doler (to hurt) duelo (mourning) duelo 

encontrar (to meet) encuentro (encounter) encuentro 

esforzar (to strengthen) esfuerzo (effort) esfuerzo 

forzar (to force) fuerza (force) fuerzo 

hollar (to tread on) huella (trace) huello 

moler (to mill) muela (millstone, molar) muelo 

mostrar (to show) muestra (sample) muestro 

poblar (to populate) pueblo (town) pueblo 

probar (to prove/try) prueba (proof ) pruebo 

recordar (to remember) recuerdo (memory) recuerdo 

renovar 5 (to renovate) nuevo (new) renuevo 

resolver (to resolve/solve) resuelto (resolute) resuelvo 

rodar (to roll) rueda (wheel) ruedo 

rogar (to request) ruego (request) ruego 

soltar (to loosen) suelto (loose) suelto 

soñar (to dream) sueño (sleep, dream) sueño 

torcer (to twist) tuerto (one-eyed) tuerzo 6 

trocar (to barter) trueque (exchange) trueco 

volar (to fly) vuelo (flight) vuelo 

volcar (to capsize) vuelco (overturning) vuelco 

volver (to turn) vuelta (return) vuelvo 

Also three “weather” verbs used only in the third person singular: 

helar (to freeze) hielo (ice) hiela (it is freezing) 

nevar (to snow) nieve (snow) nieva (it is snowing) 

tronar (to thunder) trueno (thunder) truena (it thunders) 

5 Innovar does not diphthong: yo innovo. 

6 See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the (regular orthographic) change of the ending to -zo.


Compound verb forms almost always follow the same pattern, e.g., 

infinitive 1s 

absolver absuelvo “to absolve” 

aprobar apruebo “to approve” 

comprobar compruebo “to verify”, “to check” 

concertar concierto “to harmonize”, “to arrange” 

contender contiendo “to contend”, “to contest” 

entender entiendo “to understand” 

demoler demuelo “to demolish” 

desenvolver desenvuelvo “to unwrap”, “to evolve” 

envolver envuelvo “to wrap up”, “to involve” 

revolver revuelvo “to mix”, “to turn over”, “to revolve” 

remover remuevo “to remove”, “to stir” 

with the following major exceptions: 7 

pretender pretendo “to try to”, “to aspire to” 

interrogar 8 interrogo “to interrogate” 

There exist a much smaller number of verbs with no associated commonly used 

diphthonged nouns or adjectives which nevertheless are diphthonged, including: 

infinitive 1s 

ascender asciendo “to ascend” 

cocer cuezo 9 “to cook” 

confesar 10 confieso “to confess” 

costar cuesto “to cost” 

defender 11 defiendo “to defend” 

descender desciendo “to descend” 

encender enciendo “to light” 

heder hiedo “to stink” 

7 Aterrar is essentially two separate verbs: a diphthong verb like desterrar when its meaning has 

to do with tierra (“to cover with earth”, “to demolish”, “to land”); a regular verb when it relates to 

terror (“to frighten”, “to terrify”). 

8 Similarly, abrogar, arrogar, derogar, prorrogar, subrogar are conjugated without diphthongs. 

9 See Chapter 7 for an explanation of the (regular orthographic) change of the ending to -zo. 

10 Profesar does not diphthong: yo profeso. 

11 Ofender does not diphthong: yo ofendo.


hender hiendo “to crack”, “to split” 

morder muerdo “to bite” 

oler huelo “to smell” 

perder pierdo “to lose” 

restregar restriego “to scrub”, “to rub” 

reventar reviento “to burst” 

soler suelo “to be accustomed to” 

sonar sueno “to sound”, “to ring” 

temblar tiemblo “to tremble” 

tostar tuesto “to toast”, “to roast” 

verter vierto “to pour”, “to spill” 

as well as 

llover llueve “it rains” (used only in third person singular) 

2. Umlaut (e → i) for -ir Verbs Having Stem Vowel -e 

The situation with regard to -ir verbs with stem vowel -e is more complex, yet in 

some respects far simpler. More complex, since there is not one but two possible 

“irregularities”: while some verbs diphthong, others display a different pattern of 

vowel alternation (e → i) which we will call umlaut. 12 

diphthong umlaut 

sentir (to feel) pedir (to request) 

1s siento sien•to pido pi•do 

2s sientes sien•tes pides pi•des 

3s siente sien•te pide pi•de 

1p sentimos sen•ti•mos pedimos pe•di•mos 

2p sentís sen•tís pedís pe•dís 

3p sienten sien•ten piden pi•den 

12 Umlaut, since the shift -e to -i occurred because of a (now disappeared) “y” in the following 

syllable, analogous to the process of umlaut which occurred in the Germanic languages (including 

English—e.g., when a verb was created from the adjective full, the vowel was umlauted, hence to fill). 

The term generally used to describe this process in Romance languages is metaphony, a word the 

French created by translating German “umlaut” into Classical Greek (“um” meta, “laut” phony).


For umlaut verbs the stem vowel -e is raised to -i in the four conjugations in 

which the stress accent falls on the stem syllable, i.e., in exactly the same conjugations 

where diphthong verbs have diphthongs. 

While having two separate patterns of vowel variation, -ir verbs with stem 

vowel -e are nonetheless simpler than their -ar and -er counterparts because virtually 

all of them 13 display one variation or the other, and there is a simple rule 

for determining which “regular irregularity” they follow: 

La regla milagrosa 

-ir verbs with stem vowel -e have diphthongs or umlauts as follows: 

Diphthong (model sentir): if the stem vowel is followed by -r or -nt 

Umlaut (model pedir): all other cases 

Exceptions: servir (umlaut) 

venir (diphthong) 

Examples: 

DIPHTHONG (MODEL SENTIR) 14 

infinitive 1s 

adherir adhiero “to adhere” 

arrepentir(se) 15 me arrepiento “to repent” 

convertir convierto “to convert” 

digerir digiero “to digest” 

discernir discierno “to discern”, “to distinguish” 

erguir 16 yergo “to raise”, “to lift up” 

herir hiero “to wound” 

hervir hiervo “to boil” 

ingerir ingiero “to ingest” 

mentir miento “to lie” 

referir refiero “to refer” 

requerir requiero “to require”, “to request” 

sentir siento “to sense”, “to feel”, “to regret” 

sugerir sugiero “to suggest” 

13 The single exception being sumergir, a former -er verb, which neither diphthongs nor umlauts. 

14 Venir has an additional irregularity and will be considered at a later stage (number 8). 

15 The (se) indicates that the verb is used only reflexively; see Chapter 10. 

16 Erguir allows either diphthong (yergo) or umlaut (irgo) forms, although the former are more 

common. The initial ye- in place of ie- is a regular orthographic change (Chapter 7).


UMLAUT (MODEL PEDIR) 

infinitive 1s 

ceñir ciño “to fit (tightly)” 

colegir colijo “to collect”, “to deduce” 

comedir(se) me comido “to control oneself ”, “to be courteous” 

competir compito “to compete” 

concebir concibo “to conceive” 

constreñir constriño “to constrain” 

derretir derrito “to melt” 

desleír deslío “to dissolve”, “to dilute” 

elegir elijo “to elect” 

embestir embisto “to assail”, “to attack” 

expedir expido “to send”, “to issue” 

freír frío “to fry” 

gemir gimo “to moan” 

henchir hincho “to fill”, “to stuff ” 

impedir impido “to prevent”, “to impede” 

medir mido “to measure” 

pedir pido “to request” 

regir rijo “to rule”, “to govern” 

reír río “to laugh” 

rendir rindo “to render”, “to give up”, “to defeat” 

reñir riño “to quarrel” 

repetir repito “to repeat” 

seguir sigo “to follow”, “to continue” 

servir sirvo “to serve” 

teñir tiño “to dye”, “to tint” 

vestir visto “to clothe” 

The -j in colijo, elijo, and rijo is a regular orthographic change, as is the -g in sigo 

(see Chapter 7). While concebir and regir are “umlauted” in the normal way, for 

the closely related recibir (“to receive”) and dirigir (“to direct”) the umlaut propagated 

itself throughout the entire verb, thus converting them into completely 

regular verbs with stem vowel -i in all 47 conjugations. Verbs ending in -eír have 

a written accent throughout their present conjugations to maintain the independent 

pronunciation of the stem vowel, i.e., to avoid a diphthong with the following 

vowel.

eír “to laugh” freír “to fry” 

1s río frío 

2s ríes fríes 

3s ríe fríe 

1p reímos freímos 

2p reís freís 

3p ríen fríen 


Compound verbs generally follow the same patterns. For example: 

DIPHTHONG 

infinitive 1s 

conferir confiero “to confer”, “to bestow” 

inferir infiero “to infer”, “to cause” 

preferir prefiero “to prefer” 

transferir transfiero “to transfer” 

interferir interfiero “to interfere” 

asentir asiento “to assent” 

consentir consiento “to consent”, “to coddle” 

presentir presiento “to have a presentiment or premonition of ” 

advertir advierto “to notice”, “to warn” 

divertir divierto “to amuse”, “to divert oneself ” 

invertir invierto “to invest”, “to invert” 

pervertir pervierto “to pervert”, “to corrupt” 

subvertir subvierto “to subvert” 

UMLAUT 

infinitive 1s 

corregir corrijo “to correct” 

despedir despido “to bid farewell”, “to dismiss” 

investir invisto “to invest” (with a responsibility) 

conseguir consigo “to obtain”, “to attain” 

perseguir persigo “to pursue”, “to persecute” 

proseguir prosigo “to continue”, “to proceed” 

refreír refrío “to refry” 

sonreír sonrío “to smile”


3. First Person Singular Ending in -zco 

These fall into two general categories: (A) verbs ending in -cer; (B) verbs ending 

in -(d)ucir. 

A. (Most) Infinitives Ending in -cer 

Many of these are descendants of Latin “inceptive” verbs 17 where an ending 

-scere was added to “normal” verbs to indicate the beginning of an action or 

process, e.g., 

florere “to bloom or blossom”, i.e., to flower 

florescere “to begin to bloom or blossom”, i.e., to flourish 

Over time many such verbs were created referring to the process itself, not necessarily 

only to its beginning. Eventually they were created from adjectives and 

nouns as well (e.g., noble → ennoblecer). 

In Spanish the descendants of these verbs all have an -zco ending in the first 

person singular, while the other persons are “normal”. 

crecer (to grow) conocer (to know, be familiar with) 

1s crezco conozco 

2s creces conoces 

3s crece conoce 

1p crecemos conocemos 

2p crecéis conocéis 

3p crecen conocen 

Examples: 

FORMED DIRECTLY FROM VERBS 

infinitive 1s 3s 

adormecer adormezco adormece “to put to sleep” 

conocer conozco conoce “to know” 

crecer crezco crece “to grow” 

establecer establezco establece “to establish” 

fallecer fallezco fallece “to die” 

guarnecer guarnezco guarnece “to garnish”, “to reinforce” 

merecer merezco merece “to merit” 

nacer nazco nace “to be born” 

17 Their more formal name is inchoative verbs.


obedecer obedezco obedece “to obey” 

ofrecer ofrezco ofrece “to offer” 

pacer pazco pace “to pasture”, “to graze” 

padecer padezco padece “to suffer” 

parecer parezco parece “to appear”, “to seem” 

perecer perezco perece “to perish” 

permanecer permanezco permanece “to stay”, “to remain” 

prevalecer prevalezco prevalece “to prevail” 

DERIVED FROM ADJECTIVES OR NOUNS 

adj./ 

noun infinitive 1s 3s 

agrado agradecer agradezco agradece “to be grateful for” 

mañana amanecer amanezco amanece “to dawn” 

bello embellecer embellezco embellece “to embellish” 

blanco emblanquecer emblanquezco emblanquece “to whiten” 

pobre empobrecer empobrezco empobrece “to impoverish” 

negro ennegrecer ennegrezco ennegrece “to blacken” 

noble ennoblecer ennoblezco ennoblece “to ennoble” 

rico enriquecer enriquezco enriquece “to enrich” 

viejo envejecer envejezco envejece “to age” 

claro esclarecer esclarezco esclarece “to illuminate” 

favor favorecer favorezco favorece “to favor” 

oscuro oscurecer oscurezco oscurece “to darken /obscure” 

Due to the popularity of these verbs, several Spanish verbs ending in -cer but 

which are not by origin “inceptive” have adopted the -zco ending for the first person 

singular, notably: 


complacer complazco complace “to please” 

Not all -cer verbs have -zco endings. The principal exceptions are: 


cocer cuezo cuece “to cook” 

coercer coerzo coerce “to coerce” 

ejercer ejerzo ejerce “to exercise” 

mecer mezo mece “to rock” 

torcer tuerzo tuerce “to twist” 

vencer venzo vence “to vanquish”


The -zo ending (rather than -co) is a regular orthographic change occurring when 

the soft c sound occurs before -o (Chapter 7). We have previously seen that cocer 

and torcer are diphthong verbs, hence the vowel change -o → -ue. We can formulate 

the following general rule: 

General rule for -cer verbs: 

(a) Two-syllable verbs are regular (type vencer). 

Exceptions: crecer those with stem vowel -a (nacer, pacer, placer, 

yacer). 18 

(b) Verbs of three or more syllables have first person singular -zco 

(type conocer). 

Exceptions: coercer, ejercer. 19 

Historical Note In the other Romance languages the inceptive class of verbs also 

experienced exponential growth, as a large number of existing verbs were replaced 

by inceptive ones and many new ones were created from adjectives or 

nouns. 20 This process was so widespread that, via Old French, it became the 

basis for the -ish endings of English verbs, e.g., 

abolish, accomplish, blemish, brandish, cherish, demolish, embellish, establish, 

finish, flourish (from FLORESCERE), furbish, furnish, garnish, impoverish, 

languish, nourish, perish, polish, ravish, relinquish, replenish, 

tarnish, vanish, etc. 

The popularity of the -ish ending in English was such that it was extended to a 

number of verbs which in neither Latin nor the Romance languages had been inceptive: 

e.g., admonish, diminish, distinguish, famish, publish, vanquish. 

18Yacer (“to lie”) is in a class by itself, offering three possibilities for the first person singular: yazco, 

yazgo, or yago. 

19One could thus formulate the rule: verbs of three or more syllables have 1s -zco, except those 

ending in -ercer. 

20In French one of the three principal groups of verbs consists entirely of “inceptive” verbs (those 

conjugated like finir “to finish”), while in Italian the majority of -ire verbs have inceptive elements in 

their conjugations (e.g., non capisco, “I don’t understand”).

B. (All) Infinitives Ending in -ucir 

These are all composites of -ducir (“to lead”) and -lucir (“to shine”). Largely due 

to the influence of the -cer verbs, they also adopted -zco endings for the first person 

singular: 

conducir (to drive) lucir (to shine) 

1s conduzco luzco 

2s conduces luces 

3s conduce luce 

1p conducimos lucimos 

2p conducís lucís 

3p conducen lucen 

Similarly: 


aducir aduzco aduce “to adduce” 

deducir deduzco deduce “to deduce” 

inducir induzco induce “to induce” 

introducir introduzco introduce “to introduce” 

producir produzco produce “to produce” 

reducir reduzco reduce “to reduce” 

seducir seduzco seduce “to seduce” 

traducir traduzco traduce “to translate” 

deslucir desluzco desluce “to tarnish”, “to discredit” 

enlucir enluzco enluce “to plaster”, “to polish” 

entrelucir entreluzco entreluce “to show through” 

relucir reluzco reluce “to shine”, “to excel” 

traslucir trasluzco trasluce “to be translucent”, “to reveal” 

4.Verbs Ending in -uir Add -y Except before -i 


Apart from those ending in -guir, all verbs ending in -uir undergo a “predictable” 

change: 

-uir verbs (apart from -guir) 

A -y is inserted after the -u for the three singulars and the third person 

plural, i.e., whenever the normally following letter is not an -i.


huir (to flee) construir (to construct) 

1s huyo construyo 

2s huyes construyes 

3s huye construye 

1p huimos construimos 

2p huís construís 

3p huyen construyen 

The logic of the rule is that a -y is effectively present in all conjugations but is absorbed 

by a following -i (the combination yi not normally being permitted in 

Spanish orthography). 

Other verbs following the same pattern include: 

atribuir (to attribute) concluir (to conclude) 

constituir (to constitute) destituir (to deprive, to dismiss) 

destruir (to destroy) diluir (to dilute) 

disminuir (to diminish) distribuir (to distribute) 

excluir (to exclude) imbuir (to imbue) 

incluir (to include) influir (to influence) 

instituir (to institute) obstruir (to obstruct) 

restituir (to restitute) sustituir (to substitute) 

For verbs ending in -guir (e.g., distinguir, seguir) the -u is not a “real” u but simply 

an orthographic device (Chapter 7) for marking a “hard” “G” sound before 

the front vowel -i, analogous to the -u in English guilt and guitar. 

We will see in number 8 below that the verb oír (“to hear”) follows a similar 

pattern. 

Unpredictable Irregularities 

We will begin with the verb (or rather verbs) that almost certainly cause the most 

problems for students of Spanish—the equivalents of the English verb to be. 

5. Ser/estar 

“to be” ser estar 

1s soy estoy soy es•toy 

2s eres estás e•res es•tás 

3s es está es es•tá


1p somos estamos so•mos es•ta•mos 

2p sois estáis sois es•táis 

3p son están son es•tán 

The difficulty is of course not with the conjugations but rather with determining 

which of the two verbs to use in any given situation, a topic to be explored in 

Chapter 11. For estar it is important to note that—in contrast to regular verbs— 

the stress is uniformly on the post-stem syllable; thus it is es•tás not *es•tas. 

6. Other First Person Singulars Ending in -oy: ir, dar 

In addition to ser and estar, there are two other verbs whose first person singular 

ends in -oy: ir and dar. 

ir (to go) dar (to give) 

1s voy doy 

2s vas das 

3s va da 

1p vamos damos 

2p vais dais 

3p van dan 

Thus, apart from ver (“to see”), all one-syllable Spanish verbs have first person 

singulars ending in -oy, along with estar. 21 Vais and dais do not have the usual second 

person plural written accent because they have only one syllable. 

7A. First person singular ending in -e: haber, saber 

7B. First person singular with umlaut (-a → -e): caber 

Haber and saber are the only Spanish verbs which have a first person singular 

present ending of -e. Due to haber’s frequent use as an auxiliary verb, its form was 

drastically shortened at the Vulgar Latin stage, which is why only the second person 

plural has a regular form. In contrast, the present tenses of both saber and 

caber are regular apart from the first person singular. 

21 The “natural” form of estar would have been the one-syllable *star. A “helping” e- was added— 

as it was to all words beginning with s consonant (e.g., español, especial, esnob, espagueti). This also 

accounts for the uniform stress of estar on the post-stem syllable.


In the conjugations below, irregular forms are italicized. 

haber saber caber 

(to have) (to know) (to fit) 

1s he sé quepo 

2s has sabes cabes 

3s ha sabe cabe 

1p hemos sabemos cabemos 

2p habéis sabéis cabéis 

3p han saben caben 

While the vowel in quepo is irregular, the qu- is not—it is a regular orthographic 

change required to maintain a “hard” c sound (see Chapter 7). The written accent 

in sé is purely orthographic and serves to distinguish it from the reflexive 

pronoun se. 

8. First Person Singular Ending in -go 

decir, hacer, caer, traer 

oír, poner, salir 

tener, valer, venir 

These are verbs with irregular first person singular ending -go, where the -g does 

not appear in the other grammatical persons. Four of these verbs (decir, oír, 

tener, venir) have other apparent present tense irregularities—marked below in 

italics—but all are of the “predictable” type. The ten verbs can be divided into 

three groups, as shown in the following lists. 22 

decir (to say) hacer (to do) 

1s digo hago 

2s dices haces 

3s dice hace 

1p decimos hacemos 

2p decís hacéis 

3p dicen hacen 

22 In addition to these ten verbs, there are several others which “optionally” show this characteristic. 

Roer (“to gnaw”) and raer (“to wear away”) offer multiple possibilities: roigo, royo, or the regular 

roo; raigo or rayo. Asir (“to grasp”) presents only the conjugation with -go (asgo), but in practice 

this form is avoided (as are other forms of the verb in which an “extraneous” -g appears).


Apart from the irregular first person singular, decir follows the pattern of umlauting 

-ir verbs with stem vowel -e (number 2 above) in accordance with la regla 

milagrosa. 

caer (to fall) traer (to bring) oír (to hear) 

1s caigo traigo oigo 

2s caes traes oyes 

3s cae trae oye 

1p caemos traemos oímos 

2p caéis traéis oís 

3p caen traen oyen 

Apart from the irregular first person singular, caer and traer have regular present 

conjugations. Oír follows the same pattern as the -uir verbs (number 4 above): 

-y is inserted following the stem vowel -o in those conjugations where the following 

letter is not an -i. 

poner (to put) salir (to exit) valer (to be worth) 

1s pongo salgo valgo 

2s pones sales vales 

3s pone sale vale 

1p ponemos salimos valemos 

2p ponéis salís valéis 

3p ponen salen valen 

tener (to have) venir (to come) 

1s tengo vengo 

2s tienes vienes 

3s tiene viene 

1p tenemos venimos 

2p tenéis venís 

3p tienen vienen 

Apart from the irregular first person, tener and venir display regular diphthong 

patterns (venir representing one of the two exceptions to la regla milagrosa).


Compounds of these ten verbs generally have the same irregularities: 

infinitive 1s 

bendecir bendigo “to bless” 

contradecir contradigo “to contradict” 

desdecir desdigo “to retract”, “to be unworthy of ” 

maldecir maldigo “to curse” 

predecir predigo “to predict” 

deshacer deshago “to undo”, “to destroy” 

satisfacer satisfago “to satisfy” 

decaer decaigo “to decay”, “to weaken” 

recaer recaigo “to fall back (or on)”, “to relapse” 

atraer atraigo “to attract” 

contraer contraigo “to contract” 

detraer detraigo “to detract”, “to remove” 

extraer extraigo “to extract” 

sustraer sustraigo “to subtract”, “to remove” 

desoír desoigo “to disregard” 

entreoír entreoigo “to hear vaguely” 

componer compongo “to compose”, “to repair” 

deponer depongo “to depose”, “to lay aside” 

exponer expongo “to expose”, “to explain” 

imponer impongo “to impose” 

oponer opongo “to oppose” 

posponer pospongo “to postpone” 

presuponer presupongo “to presuppose”, “to budget” 

proponer propongo “to propose”, “to propound” 

suponer supongo “to suppose” 

yuxtaponer yuxtapongo “to juxtapose” 

sobresalir sobresalgo “to protrude” 

equivaler equivalgo “to be equal”

abstener(se) me abstengo “to abstain”, “to refrain” 

contener contengo “to contain” 

detener detengo “to detain”, “to stop”, “to arrest” 

entretener entretengo “to amuse”, “to entertain” 

mantener mantengo “to maintain”, “to keep” 

obtener obtengo “to obtain” 

retener retengo “to retain” 

sostener sostengo “to support”, “to sustain” 

contravenir contravengo “to contravene” 

convenir convengo “to agree”, “to be suitable” 

intervenir intervengo “to intervene” 

prevenir prevengo “to forewarn”, “to prevent” 

reconvenir reconvengo “to reproach” 

Mixed Patterns 

9. Ver, jugar, adquirir, argüir (and discernir) 

In the present tense discernir behaves as a normal -ir verb with diphthong (model 

sentir). The conjugations for the other four are: 

ver (to see) jugar (to play) adquirir (to acquire) argüir (to argue) 

1s veo juego adquiero arguyo 

2s ves juegas adquieres arguyes 

3s ve juega adquiere arguye 

1p vemos jugamos adquirimos argüimos 

2p veis jugáis adquirís argüís 

3p ven juegan adquieren arguyen 

As noted in Chapter 1, by origin ver was a two-syllable word, as its Old Spanish 

form was veer. In the infinitive and most of its conjugations it has lost one of the 

e’s but the original form remains in the first person singular present (and 

throughout the imperfect indicative and present subjunctive). The second person 

plural lacks the usual written accent (veis, not *véis) since it has only one syllable. 

Compound forms of ver—prever and entrever—require written accents on 

those forms for which ver has only one syllable: 

prevés (2s), prevé (3s), prevéis (2p), prevén (3p) 

IRREGULARITIES: PRESENT TENSE 41


Jugar comes from the same Latin word that produced English joke, and it has 

lived up to its name: the three singulars and the third person plural have a diphthong 

-ue instead of the expected stem vowel -u. 23 Adquirir was at an earlier stage 

adquerir, with a completely regular conjugation following the model of sentir. 

When it subsequently evolved to adquirir, the conjugations with diphthongs 

were left unchanged. 

Argüir adheres to the following formula (throughout all 47 conjugations): 

except before -i 

(i) add -y (like construir); 

(ii) -gü S -gu 

Appendix 

The Origins of Spanish Diphthongs 

In Latin, each of the five vowels (a, e, i, o, u) had a short and a long variant which differed 

only (or primarily) in the length of articulation, not in the fundamental nature of the 

sound. A similar situation prevailed in English until the so-called “Great Vowel Shift”, 

which occurred between the times of Chaucer and Shakespeare, during the course of 

which all of the English long vowels changed the fundamental nature of their sound. 24 

In the evolution from Latin to Spanish, the “short” versions of e and o generally became 

diphthongs when they were in stressed syllables, while they remained unchanged 

when they were in unstressed syllables. The “long” versions remained unchanged regardless 

of location. This pattern carried through to the verbal system, so that, in general, verbs 

whose stem vowel -e and -o come from a short Latin vowel are diphthong verbs, while 

those which come from a long Latin vowel are not. 

The varying pattern of diphthongs of Latin e and o represents one of the principal features 

which distinguish the different Romance languages. This can be illustrated by looking 

at the contrasting treatment accorded by Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese to 

the Latin verbs tenere, movere, sentire, and dormire. The conjugations for the third 

person singular (“he has”, “he moves”, etc.) are shown below, with those displaying diphthongs 

highlighted in bold. 

23 In principle, Latin jocari should have evolved to *jogar, not jugar. Viewed from this perspective, 

the 9 conjugations with -ue (4 in the present indicative, 4 in the present subjunctive and 1 in the 

imperative) are actually “regular” diphthongs of an -ar verb with stem vowel -o, while the remaining 

38 conjugations (including the infinitive) are “irregular”! 

24 Which is why today English “long a” corresponds to Spanish e, “long e” to Spanish i.


I. Spanish French Italian Portuguese 

open syllable 

e tener tiene tient tiene tem 

o mover mueve meut muove move 

closed syllable 

e sentir siente sent sente sente 

o dormir duerme dort dorme dorme 

Apart from Spanish, a critical element was whether the vowel was located in an open or 

closed syllable—i.e., whether the syllable ended in a vowel or a consonant. Expanding the 

comparison to include Catalan (spoken in northeastern Spain) and Occitan (also known 

as Provencal, spoken in southern France), the following pattern emerges. 

F 

II. diphthong or no? X yes, O no 

short E short O 

type of syllable open closed open closed 

Spanish X X X X 

rench X O X O 

Italian X O X O 

Portuguese O O O O 

Catalan O O O O 

Occitan O O O O 

Portuguese, Catalan, and Occitan did not diphthong at all. French and Italian diphthonged, 

but only in open syllables. Only Spanish diphthonged in both open and closed 

syllables. It is not easy to come up with an explanation, or explanations, which can account 

for this diversity, particularly since the three diphthonging languages were noncontiguous 

in their formative years. 

In “old” Spanish, French, and Italian, for all verbs which diphthonged there was a 

marked contrast between the diphthong of the 1s-2s-3s-3p forms, on the one hand, and 

the “pure” vowel of the 1p-2p forms. In both French and Italian, the large majority of 

diphthong verbs succumbed to the pressures to become “regular”, leaving only a very few 

verbs which today display the original contrast. Spanish was not immune to such pressures, 

and while the majority of diphthong verbs were able to resist, a number succumbed. 

In most such cases, it was the “pure vowel” form which was victorious, leading to the following 

modern regular verbs (without diphthongs): 

“old” 1s modern 1s 

entregar entriego entrego “to deliver” 

prestar priesto presto “to lend” 

pretender pretiendo pretendo “to try to”, “to aspire to”


templar tiemplo templo “to temper” 

vedar viedo vedo “to veto” 

aportar apuerto aporto “to contribute” 

confortar confuerto conforto “to comfort” 

derrocar derrueco derroco “to overthrow” 

sorber suerbo sorbo “to suck”, “to sip” 

Less frequently, the diphthong forms prevailed, producing the following modern regular 

verbs (with diphthongs in all 47 conjugations): 25 

“old” 1p modern 1p 

adiestrar adestramos adiestramos “to train” 

diezmar dezmamos diezmamos “to decimate” 

amueblar amoblamos amueblamos “to furnish” 

deshuesar desosamos deshuesamos “to bone” 

The visible effects of Spanish’s greater propensity to diphthong extend well beyond the 

verbal system, as the following comparison of six common nouns shows: 

Spanish Italian Portuguese French 

hundred ciento cento cento cent 

wind viento vento vento vent 

feast fiesta festa festa fête 26 

bridge puente ponte ponte pont 

death muerte morte morte mort 

fate suerte sorte sorte sort 

25For each of these verbs, the “old” (mixed diphthong pattern) forms still exist but are rarely used: 

adestrar, dezmar, amoblar, desosar. 

26Until the early eighteenth century written as feste (origin of English feast).

CHAPTER 3 

Irregularities: Simple Past Tense 

Simple past tense irregularities can be divided among the following categories: 

“Predictable” irregularities 

1. Umlaut for -ir verbs having stem vowel -e or -o: e→i or o→u 

“Unpredictable” or “fundamental” irregularities 

2. One-syllable verbs: ser, ir, dar 

3.Verbs with stem vowel S -u: poner, poder, estar, tener, andar, haber, 

saber, caber 

4.Verbs with stem vowel S -i: hacer, venir, querer 

5.Verbs with post-stem consonant -j: decir, traer, -ducir 

Purely orthographic changes 

Orthographic changes for the simple past (and other tenses) will be 

treated in Chapter 7. 

Predictable Irregularities 

1. Umlaut for -ir Verbs Having Stem Vowel -e or -o 

Essentially all -ir verbs with stem vowel -e or -o have umlauts in the stem vowel 

of the third person simple past, singular and plural: 

e→i 

o→u 

This applies both to verbs which umlaut in the present tense (type pedir) and 

those which diphthong (types sentir and dormir): 

sentir pedir dormir 

1s sentí pedí dormí 

2s sentiste pediste dormiste 

3s sintió pidió durmió 

1p sentimos pedimos dormimos 

2p sentisteis pedisteis dormisteis 

3p sintieron pidieron durmieron


Exceptions (i.e., regular simple past): 

3s 3p 

discernir 1 discernió discernieron 

oír 2 oyó oyeron 

sumergir sumergió sumergieron 

Note that verbs which diphthong in the present tense (types sentir and dormir) 

do not do so in the past tense, since for “regular” verbs the stress in the past tense 

never falls on the stem syllable. 

Unpredictable Irregularities 

2. One-Syllable Verbs 

Of the four one-syllable verbs in Spanish, 3 all but ver have irregular simple pasts: 

ser ir dar ver (regular) 

1s fui fui di vi 

2s fuiste fuiste diste viste 

3s fue fue dio vio 

1p fuimos fuimos dimos vimos 

2p fuisteis fuisteis disteis visteis 

3p fueron fueron dieron vieron 

Several points require comment: 

(i) The simple past conjugations for ser and ir are identical, and clearly 

originate from an altogether different verb. 4 

1Also cernir, hendir, and concernir. As noted in Chapter 1, throughout their conjugations these 

“mixed pattern” verbs behave like -er diphthong verbs. 

2The -i between vowels “regularly” becomes -y in oyó and oyeron (see Chapter 7). 

3Excluding verbs with a root diphthong—e.g., huir, fiar—which can be pronounced with either 

one or two syllables. 

4The simple past for ser comes directly from Latin, where the verb to be—as in English—took 

elements from different sources. Ir abandoned its original Latin past tense, the first person singular 

in particular being somewhat impractical (ii, pronounced i•i). The subsequent merger between the 

past tenses of the two verbs was facilitated by their natural similarity in meaning; e.g., 

A. Last night I was at the library. 

B. Last night I went to the library.

(ii) Ser and ir have regular endings apart from the first and third person 

singular. 

(iii) The endings for dar are those of a regular -er/-ir verb—i.e., dar would 

have a regular simple past tense if the infinitive were *der or *dir rather 

than dar. 

(iv) Unlike regular simple past tenses, there are no written accents on the first 

and third person singulars, as these have only one syllable. 5 

3.Verbs with Stem Vowel → u 

There are eight verbs which have an irregular stem vowel -u in the simple past 

tense. 

poner poder estar tener 

1s puse pude estuve tuve 

2s pusiste pudiste estuviste tuviste 

3s puso pudo estuvo tuvo 

1p pusimos pudimos estuvimos tuvimos 

2p pusisteis pudisteis estuvisteis tuvisteis 

3p pusieron pudieron estuvieron tuvieron 

andar haber saber caber 

1s anduve hube supe cupe 

2s anduviste hubiste supiste cupiste 

3s anduvo hubo supo cupo 

1p anduvimos hubimos supimos cupimos 

2p anduvisteis hubisteis supisteis cupisteis 

3p anduvieron hubieron supieron cupieron 

Note that: 

IRREGULARITIES: SIMPLE PAST TENSE 47 

(i) The stress accent falls on the stem syllable for the first and third person 

singulars, representing a major contrast with regular past tenses.The 

other four conjugations, as for regular verbs, are stressed on the poststem 

syllable. 

5 Until 1952 these forms had written accents (fuí, fué, dí, dió, ví, vió), and it is not uncommon to 

encounter such forms well after this date. Written accents are required for the corresponding forms 

of the compound verb prever (preví, previó) since they have more than one syllable.


irregular regular (-ar) regular (-er/-ir) 

1s tu•ve can•té su•bí 

2s tu•vis•te can•tas•te su•bis•te 

3s tu•vo can•tó su•bió 

1p tu•vi•mos can•ta•mos su•bi•mos 

2p tu•vis•teis can•tas•teis su•bis•teis 

3p tu•vie•ron can•ta•ron su•bie•ron 

(ii) The endings of the four conjugations with“normal”(post-stem) stress are 

identical to those of regular -er/-ir verbs, while the first and third person 

singular endings are those of regular -ar verbs (without the written accent): 

poner, etc. -ar verbs -er and -ir verbs 

1s -e -é -í 

2s -iste -aste -iste 

3s -o -ó -ió 

1p -imos -amos -imos 

2p -isteis -asteis -isteis 

3p -ieron -aron -ieron 

(iii) For saber and caber, the stem consonant is -p rather than -b. This goes 

back to the original Latin forms of these verbs (cf. English insipid and 

capture). 6 

4.Verbs with Stem Vowel → i 

Three verbs have an irregular stem vowel -i: 

hacer venir querer 

1s hice vine quise 

2s hiciste viniste quisiste 

3s hizo vino quiso 

1p hicimos vinimos quisimos 

2p hicisteis vinisteis quisisteis 

3p hicieron vinieron quisieron 

6 The Latin verb sapere, from which saber is derived, meant “to taste” and is the origin of English 

savor. Latin p between vowels became a v sound in the western Romance languages, written with a 

v in French (savoir) but with a b in Spanish, while retaining the original pronunciation in Italian 

(sapere). Due to other phonetic factors, the past tense of saber and caber—as well as the present 

subjunctive—retained the original p.

Comments (i) and (ii) for -u stems, with reference to stress and endings, are 

equally applicable here. The z in hizo is a regular orthographic change (see 

Chapter 7) to preserve the “soft” c sound before -o. The consonant in querer 

changes from -r to -s for reasons that go back to the earliest days of Latin, and is 

analogous to the contrast in English query and quest. 

5.Verbs with Post-stem Consonant -j 

IRREGULARITIES: SIMPLE PAST TENSE 49 

Decir, traer, and the -ducir verbs have an irregular -j immediately following 

the stem vowel. The third person plural “loses” the -i which normally is the first 

element of the ending -ieron (Chapter 7): 

decir traer -ducir 

1s dije traje conduje 

2s dijiste trajiste condujiste 

3s dijo trajo condujo 

1p dijimos trajimos condujimos 

2p dijisteis trajisteis condujisteis 

3p dijeron (not *dijieron) trajeron condujeron 

Comments (i) and (ii) for -u stems, with reference to stress and endings, apply 

here as well. 

Note that other -ucir verbs (lucir), as well as all -cer verbs (conocer), have regular 

past tenses: lucí, conocí, etc.

CHAPTER 4 

Future and Conditional Tenses 

The future and conditional tenses are formed by adding the following endings to 

the infinitive: 

future conditional 

1s -é -ía 

2s -ás -ías 

3s -á -ía 

1p -emos -íamos 

2p -éis -íais 

3p -án -ían 

cantar 1s can•ta•ré can•ta•rí•a 

2s can•ta•rás can•ta•rí•as 

3s can•ta•rá can•ta•rí•a 

1p can•ta•re•mos can•ta•rí•a•mos 

2p can•ta•réis can•ta•rí•ais 

3p can•ta•rán can•ta•rí•an 

comer 1s comeré comería 

2s comerás comerías 

3s comerá comería 

1p comeremos comeríamos 

2p comeréis comeríais 

3p comerán comerían 

subir 1s subiré subiría 

2s subirás subirías 

3s subirá subiría 

1p subiremos subiríamos 

2p subiréis subiríais 

3p subirán subirían 

Points to note: 

(1) The endings are the same for all three classes of verbs: -ar, -er, -ir. 

(2) In all six conjugations, the stress falls on the stem 2 syllable. In the 

future tense this necessitates a written accent for all conjugations

except the first person plural, in the conditional tense for all 

conjugations. 

(3) The -í in the conditional is pronounced as a separate vowel, not as a 

diphthong with the following -a. 

(4) The endings for the future tense are essentially equal to the present tense 

of haber minus the (unpronounced) h. 

he S é 

has S ás 

ha S á 

hemos S emos 

habéis S (ab)eis S éis 

han S án 

(5) The endings for the conditional tense are identical to those of the 

imperfect tense of haber (and of all other -er/-ir verbs). 1 

We will see below that facts (4) and (5) did not arise by coincidence but instead 

reflect the historical development of these verb forms. 

Irregularities 

FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL TENSES 51 

Twelve verbs truncate the infinitive stem to which the (normal) future and conditional 

endings are added. Ten of these are “fundamentally irregular” verbs, the 

exceptions being salir and valer. 

infinitive modified form future 1s conditional 1s 

haber hab(e)r habré habría 

saber sab(e)r sabré sabría 

caber cab(e)r cabré cabría 

poder pod(e)r podré podría 

querer quer(e)r querré querría 

poner pon(e)r S pondr pondré pondría 

tener ten(e)r S tendr tendré tendría 

venir ven(i)r S vendr vendré vendría 

salir sal(i)r S saldr saldré saldría 

valer val(e)r S valdr valdré valdría 

decir d(ec)ir diré diría 

hacer ha(ce)r haré haría 

1 Thus, these endings added to the verb stem of -er/-ir verbs give the imperfect, while added to the 

infinitive (for -ar verbs as well) they give the conditional.


In the second group above a “helping” -d has been added, analogous to the -d in 

English thunder (Middle English thunre). Composite verbs having one of these 

verbs as a base (convenir, deshacer, etc.) normally have the same irregularities in 

the future and conditional tenses, although those of bendecir and maldecir are 

regular (bendeciré, etc.). 2 

Appendix 

Historical and Methodological Note 

The Latin future tense died without leaving a trace in the successor Romance languages. 3 

The main reason for its disappearance was that phonetic developments during the post- 

Classical period had created confusions between it and other verb tenses. 

A new Romance future tense arose as a refinement of a construction which had already 

existed in classical Latin, i.e., the combination of the verb to have (or “have to”) with another 

verb to convey an idea of what will happen (or has to happen) in the future. Thus, 

Cicero wrote to his friend Atticus: 

DE RE PUBLICA NIHIL HABEO AD TE SCRIBERE 

“Of public matters I have nothing to write you.” 

The meaning of this differs very little from the straightforward future: 

“Of public matters I will write nothing to you.” 

Similarly, I have to go to Rome tomorrow is not too distant in meaning from I am going 

(will go) to Rome tomorrow. 

The modern form of the Romance future arose from the custom of placing the verb 

“to have” (present tense) after the infinitive. Thus 

escribir (h)e S escribiré 

escribir (h)as S escribirás 

escribir (h)a S escribirá 

escribir (h)emos S escribiremos 

escribir (hab)éis S escribiréis 

escribir (h)an S escribirán 

Classical Latin had no single verb form corresponding to the notion of a “future in the 

past” (e.g., he said he would write a letter the next day). The Romance development of the 

2 For predecir, contradecir, and desdecir there is disagreement: the RAE says that their futures and 

conditionals are like those of decir (prediré, contradiré, desdiré), while according to Moliner they are 

like those of bendecir (predeciré, contradeciré, desdeciré). 

3 Apart from placebo—directly from the Latin “I will please.”

future tense led naturally to the development of a future in the past by replacing the present 

of the verb haber with the imperfect. Thus, the natural progression in meaning was: 

I told you that I had a letter to write. S I told you that I had to write a letter. 

S I told you that I would write a letter. 

In Spanish and most of the other Romance languages the conditional tense— originally 

limited to the past—was thus formed through a fusion of the infinitive with the imperfect 

of the verb haber. 

escribir (hab)ía S escribiría 

escribir (hab)ías S escribirías 

escribir (hab)ía S escribiría 

escribir (hab)íamos S escribiríamos 

escribir (hab)íais S escribiríais 

escribir (hab)ían S escribirían 

FUTURE AND CONDITIONAL TENSES 53 

Even after eliminating the hab-, conditionals (and futures) can be very long, particularly 

for the first person plural. Escribiremos and escribiríamos, for example, have five and six 

syllables respectively. While this is a tolerable situation for verbs not used with great frequency 

(especially in these tenses), twelve more commonly used verbs were successful in 

shedding an additional syllable, as we have seen above.

CHAPTER 5 

Subjunctive and Imperative 

Present Tense 

The present subjunctive endings for all verbs are: 


1s -e -a 

2s -es -as 

3s -e -a 

1p -emos -amos 

2p -éis -áis 

3p -en -an 

For most verbs these endings are added to the normal verb stem, i.e., the infinitive 

minus the final -ar, -er, or -ir. The present subjunctives for the standard verbs 

(cantar, comer, subir) are shown below; for comparison the present indicative is 

also shown. 

-ar verbs subjunctive indicative 

1s cante canto 

2s cantes cantas 

3s cante canta 

1p cantemos cantamos 

2p cantéis cantáis 

3p canten cantan 

-er verbs subjunctive indicative 

1s coma como 

2s comas comes 

3s coma come 

1p comamos comemos 

2p comáis coméis 

3p coman comen

-ir verbs subjunctive indicative 

1s suba subo 

2s subas subes 

3s suba sube 

1p subamos subimos 

2p subáis subís 

3p suban suben 

It can be observed that: 

SUBJUNCTIVE AND IMPERATIVE 55 

(1) The -ar verbs form their present subjunctive by uniformly replacing the 

post-stem vowel of the present indicative with -e. 

(2) The -er and -ir verbs form their present subjunctives by uniformly 

replacing the post-stem vowel with -a (or ái for the second person plural 

of -ir verbs). 

(3) The first and third person singulars have identical forms for the present 

subjunctive. 

(4) The stress pattern for the present subjunctive is identical to that of the 

present indicative. 

The alternation of vowels, a S e for -ar verbs and e/i S a for -er and -ir verbs, 

comes straight from Latin. It creates potential problems for the beginning student, 

since a verb form with post-stem vowel -e could theoretically be either the 

indicative of an-er/-ir verbor thesubjunctiveofan-ar verb. Similarly, a verb form 

with post-stem vowel -a could be the indicative of an -ar verb or the subjunctive 

of an -er/-ir verb. There are in fact a small number of couplets where (in some 

conjugations) the subjunctive of one is the indicative of the other, e.g., 

sentar (“to seat”) sentir (“to feel”) 

sientas indicative, 2s subjunctive, 2s 

sientes subjunctive, 2s indicative, 2s 

siente subjunctive, 1s/3s indicative, 3s 

Irregularities in the Present Subjunctive 

The general situation can be summarized as follows: 

1. Verbs with regular present indicatives have regular present 

subjunctives. 

2. Verbs with predictably irregular present indicatives have predictably 

irregular present subjunctives (and hence are not really 

irregular). 

3. Of the verbs which have unpredictably irregular present indicatives, 

four—ser, ir, haber, and saber—have unpredictably irregular


present subjunctives.The remainder have predictably irregular 

present subjunctives. 

4.The “mixed pattern” verbs offer a mixture of patterns. 

5. Present subjunctives are subject to the general rules governing 

regular orthographic changes (Chapter 7). 

Verbs with Predictably Irregular Present Indicatives 

For convenience we repeat the four groups of predictable present indicative 

irregularities: 

1.Diphthong in verbs having stem vowel -e or -o 

A.e S ie 

B. o S ue 

2.Umlaut (e S i) for -ir verbs having stem vowel -e 

3. First person singular ending in -zco 

A. (Most) infinitives ending in -cer (e.g., conocer) 

B. (All) infinitives ending in -ucir (e.g., producir, lucir) 

4.Verbs ending in -uir add -y except before -i 

Group #1: Verbs Which Diphthong in the Present Indicative 

Here there is an important difference between the -ar and -er verbs on the one 

hand, and the -ir verbs on the other: 

(a) -ar and -er verbs have diphthongs in the present subjunctive under exactly 

the same conditions as in the present indicative—the three singulars and 

the third person plural.The first and second person plural are completely 

regular. 

(b) -ir verbs have the same diphthongs but also have umlaut (e S i, o S u) for 

the first and second person plurals. 1 

-ar verbs -er verbs 

pensar mostrar perder mover 

1s piense muestre pierda mueva 

2s pienses muestres pierdas muevas 

3s piense muestre pierda mueva 

1p pensemos mostremos perdamos movamos 

2p penséis mostréis perdáis mováis 

3p piensen muestren pierdan muevan 

1 With the exception of discernir and associated verbs, which, as noted previously, behave throughout 

their conjugations as -er diphthong verbs.

-ir verbs 

sentir dormir 

1s sienta duerma diphthong 

2s sientas duermas diphthong 

3s sienta duerma diphthong 

1p sintamos durmamos umlaut 

2p sintáis durmáis umlaut 

3p sientan duerman diphthong 

Group #2: -ir Verbs Which Umlaut in the Present Indicative 


These verbs also have umlaut in the present subjunctive, but in this case the 

umlaut extends to all six conjugations. 

pedir 

1s pida 

2s pidas 

3s pida 

1p pidamos 

2p pidáis 

3p pidan 

Group #3: Verbs with First Person Singular -zco in the Present Indicative 

These verbs use the first person present indicative singular (minus the final -o) as 

the stem to which the regular subjunctive endings are added: 

crecer conocer lucir conducir 

1s present indicative crezco conozco luzco conduzco 

subjunctive stem crezc- conozc- luzc- conduzc- 

1s crezca conozca luzca conduzca 

2s crezcas conozcas luzcas conduzcas 

3s crezca conozca luzca conduzca 

1p crezcamos conozcamos luzcamos conduzcamos 

2p crezcáis conozcáis luzcáis conduzcáis 

3p crezcan conozcan luzcan conduzcan


Group #4: Verbs Which Add -y to the Present Stem Except before -i 

Like Group #3, these verbs use the first person present indicative singular (minus 

the final -o) as the stem to which the regular subjunctive endings are added. In 

other words, the -y is added to all six conjugations of the present subjunctive, in 

conformity with the general rule of add -y except before -i, since the following 

letter in all six cases is -a. 

huir construir 

1s present indicative huyo construyo 

subjunctive stem huy- construy- 

1s huya construya 

2s huyas construyas 

3s huya construya 

1p huyamos construyamos 

2p huyáis construyáis 

3p huyan construyan 

Verbs with Unpredictably Irregular Present Indicatives 

Four of these verbs are unpredictable in the present subjunctive as well, while the 

other 13 are predictably irregular. 

Ser, ir, haber, and saber 

The present subjunctive is formed by adding the regular subjunctive endings to 

an irregular subjunctive stem. 

ser ir haber saber 

1s present indicative soy voy he sé 

subjunctive stem se- vay- hay- sep- 

1s sea vaya haya sepa 

2s seas vayas hayas sepas 

3s sea vaya haya sepa 

1p seamos vayamos hayamos sepamos 

2p seáis vayáis hayáis sepáis 

3p sean vayan hayan sepan


All Others 

The others form their present subjunctive stem from the first person present indicative—minus 

the final -o or -oy—in a manner analogous to that of verbs of 

type crecer and huir. 

estar dar caber decir 

1s present indicative estoy doy quepo digo 

subjunctive stem est- d- quep- dig- 

1s esté dé quepa diga 

2s estés des quepas digas 

3s esté dé quepa diga 

1p estemos demos quepamos digamos 

2p estéis deis quepáis digáis 

3p estén den quepan digan 

For dar, the written accents for 1s and 3s (dé) are purely orthographic and are 

meant to distinguish them from the preposition de, while the one-syllable deis requires 

no written accent. Estar maintains the stress (and written accent) pattern 

of the indicative. 

hacer caer oír 

1s present indicative hago caigo oigo 

subjunctive stem hag- caig- oig- 

1s haga caiga oiga 

2s hagas caigas oigas 

3s haga caiga oiga 

1p hagamos caigamos oigamos 

2p hagáis caigáis oigáis 

3p hagan caigan oigan 

traer poner salir 

1s present indicative traigo pongo salgo 

subjunctive stem traig- pong- salg- 

1s traiga ponga salga 

2s traigas pongas salgas 

3s traiga ponga salga 

1p traigamos pongamos salgamos 

2p traigáis pongáis salgáis 

3p traigan pongan salgan


tener valer venir 

1s present indicative tengo valgo vengo 

subjunctive stem teng- valg- veng- 

1s tenga valga venga 

2s tengas valgas vengas 

3s tenga valga venga 

1p tengamos valgamos vengamos 

2p tengáis valgáis vengáis 

3p tengan valgan vengan 

Mixed Pattern Verbs: ver, jugar, adquirir, argüir, discernir 

Ver constructs its present subjunctive using a subjunctive stem derived from the 

irregular first person singular present indicative veo. Jugar and adquirir repeat 

their diphthongs from the present indicative (three singulars and third person 

plural). 

ver jugar adquirir 

1s present indicative veo juego adquiero 

subjunctive stem ve- 

1s vea juegue adquiera 

2s veas juegues adquieras 

3s vea juegue adquiera 

1p veamos juguemos adquiramos 

2p veáis juguéis adquiráis 

3p vean jueguen adquieran 

The -gu in place of -g for jugar is a normal orthographic change to maintain the 

“hard” g sound (see Chapter 7). 

Argüir follows the rule established in Chapter 2: 

except before -i 

(i) add -y (like construir); 

(ii) -gü S -gu 

Discernir has diphthongs in the expected conjugations but no umlauts.

argüir discernir 

1s present indicative arguyo discierno 

subjunctive stem arguy- 

1s arguya discierna 

2s arguyas disciernas 

3s arguya discierna 

1p arguyamos discernamos 

2p arguyáis discernáis 

3p arguyan disciernan 

Subjunctive: Imperfect Tense 


There are two distinct forms of the imperfect subjunctive which, subject to certain 

qualifications (see Chapter 12), can be used interchangeably. In both cases, 

the endings are added to the imperfect subjunctive stem, defined as follows: 

imperfect subjunctive stem simple past 3p, minus final -ron 

This rule applies without exception to all verbs, regular or irregular. 

infinitive simple past 3p imperfect subjunctive stem 

cantar cantaron cantacomer 

comieron comiesubir 

subieron subie- 

sentir sintieron sintiepedir 

pidieron pidiedormir 

durmieron durmie- 

ser, ir fueron fuedar 

dieron dieponer 

pusieron pusiepoder 

pudieron pudieestar 

estuvieron estuvietener 

tuvieron tuvieandar 

anduvieron anduviehaber 

hubieron hubiesaber 

supieron supiecaber 

cupieron cupiehacer 

hicieron hicievenir 

vinieron vinie-


querer quisieron quisiedecir 

dijeron dijetraer 

trajeron traje- 

(con)ducir (con)dujeron (con)duje- 

Verbs undergoing an orthographic modification in the simple past 3p (see Chapter 

7) display the same modification in the imperfect subjunctive, e.g., 

leer leyeron leyeconstruir 

construyeron construy- 

The two imperfect subjunctives are then formed by adding one or the other of 

the following sets of endings: 

Imperfect Subjunctive (I) Imperfect Subjunctive (II) 

1s -ra -se 

2s -ras -ses 

3s -ra -se 

1p -ramos -semos 

2p -rais -seis 

3p -ran -sen 

Several examples: 

cantar subir 

Form I Form II Form I Form II 

1s can•ta•ra can•ta•se su•bie•ra su•bie•se 

2s can•ta•ras can•ta•ses su•bie•ras su•bie•ses 

3s can•ta•ra can•ta•se su•bie•ra su•bie•se 

1p can•tá•ra•mos can•tá•se•mos su•bié•ra•mos su•bié•se•mos 

2p can•ta•rais can•ta•seis su•bie•rais su•bie•seis 

3p can•ta•ran can•ta•sen su•bie•ran su•bie•sen 

tener sentir 

Form I Form II Form I Form II 

1s tuviera tuviese sintiera sintiese 

2s tuvieras tuvieses sintieras sintieses 

3s tuviera tuviese sintiera sintiese 

1p tuviéramos tuviésemos sintiéramos sintiésemos 

2p tuvierais tuvieseis sintierais sintieseis 

3p tuvieran tuviesen sintieran sintiesen

Note that: 


(a) As in the indicative imperfect, all six conjugations are stressed on the 

post-stem syllable; this necessitates a written accent for the first person 

plural. 

(b) The second form differs from the first only in that the -ra has been 

replaced by -se. 

(c) For verbs of the sentir/dormir and pedir types, the stem is umlauted 

uniformly throughout all six conjugations, reflecting the umlaut in the 

third person simple past. 

(d) For 2s, 3s, and 3p, the only difference between the imperfect subjunctive 

(Form I) and the future indicative is the syllable on which the stress falls 

(marked by a written accent in the future): 

imperfect subjunctive future (indicative) 

2s cantaras can•ta•ras cantarás can•ta•rás 

3s cantara can•ta•ra cantará can•ta•rá 

3p cantaran can•ta•ran cantarán can•ta•rán 

Imperative 

Imperative statements are direct orders or commands: 

you Get out! 

we Let’s go! 

In Spanish, “you” commands can involve tú (2s), vosotros (2p), usted (3s), and 

ustedes (3p), so that there are thus five grammatical persons in which the imperative 

is possible (all except the first person singular). 

There are separate imperative forms for the second person (singular and 

plural) only; for nosotros, usted, and ustedes the present subjunctive tense is used. 

For all negative imperative statements (Don’t go!) the present subjunctive is used: 

form of 

imperative nosotros tú vosotros usted ustedes 

positive subjunctive imperative imperative subjunctive subjunctive 

negative subjunctive subjunctive subjunctive subjunctive subjunctive


The imperatives for all verbs having regular— or predictably irregular—present 

indicatives are formed as follows: 

tú: present indicative minus final -s 

vosotros: infinitive with final -r replaced by -d 

Examples: 

indicative imperative 

infinitive tú vosotros tú vosotros 

cantar cantas cantáis canta cantad 

pensar piensas pensáis piensa pensad 

mostrar muestras mostráis muestra mostrad 

comer comes coméis come comed 

perder pierdes perdéis pierde perded 

mover mueves movéis mueve moved 

subir subes subís sube subid 

pedir pides pedís pide pedid 

sentir sientes sentís siente sentid 

dormir duermes dormís duerme dormid 

huir huyes huís huye huid 

Note that: 

(1) The stem vowel diphthongs (pierde), umlauts (pide), or adds a -y (huye) 

whenever the corresponding form in the present indicative does. 

(2) The second person plural imperative for -er and -ir verbs differs (comed 

vs. subid), thus constituting the third and final difference among the 

47 different simple forms for these verbs (along with the present indicative 

1p and 2p). 

(3) The tú form of the imperative is stressed on the stem syllable, the vosotros 

form on the post-stem syllable (can•ta, can•tad), as in the present indicative. 

Unlike the present indicative, however, no written accent is required 

for the vosotros form since it ends with a -d (cantáis versus cantad). 

(4) Verbs with regular orthographic changes in the present indicative have 

identical changes in the corresponding form of the imperative (see 

Chapter 7). 

Of the 17 verbs having (unpredictably) irregular present indicatives, 8 are 

entirely regular in the imperative, as are the 5 “mixed pattern” verbs.




estar estás estáis está estad 

dar das dais da dad 

saber sabes sabéis sabe sabed 

caber cabes cabéis cabe cabed 

caer caes caéis cae caed 

oír oyes oís oye oíd 2 

traer traes traéis trae traed 

valer vales valéis vale valed 

mixed pattern 

ver ves veis ve ved 

jugar juegas jugáis juega jugad 

adquirir adquieres adquirís adquiere adquirid 

argüir arguyes argüís arguye argüid 

discernir disciernes discernís discierne discernid 

The remaining 9 verbs with irregular present indicatives have irregular onesyllable 

imperatives in the singular but regular forms in the plural: 



ser eres sois sé sed 

ir vas vais ve id 

haber has habéis he habed 

decir dices decís di decid 

hacer haces hacéis haz haced 

poner pones ponéis pon poned 

salir sales salís sal salid 

tener tienes tenéis ten tened 

venir vienes venís ven venid 

Note that: 

(a) Sé has a written accent to distinguish it from the reflexive pronoun se. 

As a result, its form is identical to the first person singular present of 

saber (“I know”). 

2 Oíd requires a written accent to preserve its two-syllable pronunciation: o•íd.


(b) Ve (“go!”) is identical to ve (“see!”), the regular imperative of ver. 

(c) For tener and venir, there are no diphthongs of the stem vowel 

(ten not *tien), despite the fact that it is stressed. 

(d) One-syllable imperatives ending in -n (pon, ten, ven) require a written 

accent when they appear in compound verbs, since they are then multisyllable 

words ending in -n and stressed on the final syllable. 

infinitive imperative 2s imperative 2p 

componer compón componed 

obtener obtén obtened 

revenir revén revenid 

Appendix 

Future Subjunctive 

While rarely used, the future subjunctive is found on occasion in official documents and 

in certain fixed expressions of the type “what will be will be” (see appendix to Chapter 12). 

Given the rarity of its use—and its general omission from texts—a frequent reaction 

upon encountering it is to mistake it for an imperfect subjunctive with a typographical 

error. 

The future subjunctive is formed using the stem of the imperfect subjunctive, to which 

the following endings are added: 

1s -re 

2s -res 

3s -re 

1p -remos 

2p -reis 

3p -ren 

For the verb ser, which is by far the most common one encountered: 

imperfect subjunctive 

future subjunctive I II 

fuere fuera fuese 

fueres fueras fueses 

fuere fuera fuese 

fuéremos fuéramos fuésemos 

fuereis fuerais fueseis 

fueren fueran fuesen

CHAPTER 6 

Compound Verb Forms 

All compound verb tenses are formed with haber as an auxiliary verb: 

verb form (form of ) haber past participle 

INDICATIVE 

compound past present 

past perfect imperfect 

past anterior (rare) simple past 

future perfect future 

conditional perfect conditional 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

compound past subjunctive present subjunctive 

past perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive 

Compound Past 

The compound past is formed using the present tense of the auxiliary verb haber 

with the past participle. 

1s he cantado he subido I have sung/climbed 

2s has cantado has subido you have sung/climbed 

3s ha cantado ha subido he/she/it has sung/climbed 

1p hemos cantado hemos subido we have sung/climbed 

2p habéis cantado habéis subido you have sung/climbed 

3p han cantado han subido they have sung/climbed 

Methodological Note for Those with Background in French 

Note the following differences (advantages) compared to the French passé 

composé: 

(i) The Spanish compound past uses only one auxiliary verb (haber) whereas 

the French passé composé uses two (avoir and être), depending on the verb 

and/or situation.


(ii) The Spanish compound past is invariable, i.e., it does not change according 

to the gender of the noun or of a preceding direct object (cf. French je suis 

descendu(e) and la monnaie que je vous ai donné(e). 

Past Perfect (Pluperfect) 

The Spanish pluscuamperfecto, like its English counterpart, refers to situations 

existing prior to a fixed point in the past. It is formed analogously to the compound 

past, except that the present tense of haber is replaced by the imperfect. 

haber (present) past participle S compound past 

haber (imperfect) past participle S past perfect 

había cantado I had sung 

habías cantado you " 

había cantado he/she " 

habíamos cantado we " 

habíais cantado you " 

habían cantado they " 

Past Anterior 

This marks a past event immediately preceding another past event and is formed 

using the simple past of haber as the auxiliary verb. The past anterior is rarely 

used in modern speech (or writing), generally being substituted by the simple 

past or past perfect. 

hube cantado I had (just) sung 

hubiste cantado you " 

hubo cantado he/she " 

hubimos cantado we " 

hubisteis cantado you " 

hubieron cantado they " 

Future Perfect 

The future perfect consists of the future of the auxiliary verb haber plus the past 

participle.

habré subido I will have climbed 

habrás subido you " 

habrá subido he/she " 

habremos subido we " 

habréis subido you " 

habrán subido they " 

Conditional Perfect 

The conditional perfect is formed by the conditional of the auxiliary verb haber 

plus the past participle. 

habría subido I would have climbed 

habrías subido you " 

habría subido he/she " 

habríamos subido we " 

habríais subido you " 

habrían subido they " 

Compound Past Subjunctive 

This is analogous in its formation to the indicative compound past, with the 

present subjunctive of the auxiliary haber used in place of the present indicative. 

haya subido . . . (that) I have climbed 

hayas subido . . . (that) you have climbed 

haya subido . . . (that) he/she has climbed 

hayamos subido . . . (that) we have climbed 

hayáis subido . . . (that) you have climbed 

hayan subido . . . (that) they have climbed 

Past Perfect Subjunctive 

COMPOUND VERB FORMS 69 

This is analogous in formation to the indicative past perfect, with the imperfect 

subjunctive of haber used in place of the imperfect indicative. As there are two 

forms of the imperfect subjunctive, there are likewise two forms of the past perfect 

subjunctive.


hubiera subido / hubiese subido . . . (that) I had climbed 

hubieras subido / hubieses subido . . . (that) you " 

hubiera subido / hubiese subido . . . (that) he/she " 

hubiéramos subido / hubiésemos subido . . . (that) we " 

hubierais subido / hubieseis subido . . . (that) you " 

hubieran subido / hubiesen subido . . . (that) they "

CHAPTER 7 

Orthographic Modifications 

More than half of all Spanish verbs that “look” irregular are actually perfectly 

regular verbs whose irregular appearance is due to a series of orthographic changes 

which obey very precise rules. These can be divided into the following categories: 

Letter changes 

1. Consonant changes depending on nature of following vowel 

2. Initial ie S ye, ue S hue: errar, oler, erguir 

3. Unstressed -i between vowels S -y 

4. i i S i: reír 

5. (a) Verbs with -ll and -ñ omit first element of following -ie or -io 

(b) Irregular verbs with -j omit first element of following -ie 

Additional written accents 

6. -er and -ir verbs with stem ending in -a, -e, or -o 

7. Verbs with two vowels in stem: reinar (reino) vs. reunir (reúno) 

8. -uar and -iar verbs: adecuar (adecuo) vs. actuar (actúo); cambiar 

(cambio) vs. enviar (envío) 

Letter Changes 

1. Consonant Changes Dependent on Following Vowel 

A large number of Spanish verbs display (for certain conjugations) one of the following 

changes in the consonant which follows the stem vowel: 

c S z 

c S qu 

g S gu 

g S j 

gu S g 

gu S gü 

qu S c 

z S c


For example, for the verb cazar (“to hunt”, cognate with English chase): 

present simple past present subjunctive 

1s cazo cacé cace 

2s cazas cazaste caces 

3s caza cazó cace 

1p cazamos cazamos cacemos 

2p cazáis cazasteis cacéis 

3p cazan cazaron cacen 

While these consonant alternations give cazar—and other verbs displaying such 

variations—the appearance of an irregular verb, they are in fact entirely normal 

orthographic changes subject to very well defined rules. 

Basic Principles 

In English, the letter -c can have either a “hard” sound (cat, comb, cut) or a “soft” 

sound (cell, cider). The basic rule is that: 

before -c is pronounced 

back vowels (-a, -o, -u) hard 

front vowels: (-e, -i) soft 

Question: What happens when a “hard” -c finds itself placed before a front vowel 

-e or -i? 

Answer: It changes to a -k. 

This in fact explains the origin of -k in many English words which previously 

were written with -c, including: 

keen, keep, kerchief, kettle, key, kill, kin, kind, king, kiss, kitchen, kite, 

kitten 

A similar orthographic change explains the -gu in several English words in place 

of the original -g: 

guess, guest, guilt 

The orthographic consonant changes in Spanish verbs represent exactly the same 

process, albeit on a larger—and more systematic—basis: in Spanish there are

five sounds which have alternative spellings depending on the nature of the vowel 

(front or back) which follows. These are: 

(i) hard “C” (K), spelled with -c or -qu 

(ii) soft “C”—(u), pronounced as “th” in parts of Spain, as “s” elsewhere— 

spelled with -c or -z 

(iii) hard “G” (G), spelled with -g or -gu 

(iv) “GW”—as in Gwendolyn (GW)—spelled with -gu or -gü 

(v) “H” as in Halloween (H)—spelled with -g or -j 

As the table below illustrates, the written form for the first four of these sounds 

is always determined uniquely by the nature of the vowel which follows. For H 

there is a well-defined rule for back vowels but before front vowels there is 

ambiguity. 

LETTERS USED TO REPRESENT 5 “MULTI-FORM” SOUNDS 

back vowels front vowels 

sound (A, O, U) (E, I) 

K c qu 

u z c 

G g gu 

GW gu gü 

H j jor g 

Some examples: 

ORTHOGRAPHIC MODIFICATIONS 73 

back vowels front vowels 

A O U E I 

K c c c qu qu 

vaca cosa curso quemar quince 

u z z z c c 

rezar brazo zumo cena cinco 

G g g g gu gu 

llegar amigo gusano guerra guitarra 

GW gu gu — gü gü 

agua antiguo antigüedad lingüista 

H j j j j, g j, g 

Japón rojo justo jefe jirafa 

ligero gigante


The General Rule for Verbs 

For verbs whose stems end with one of the following five consonants (or consonant 

groups)—c, g, gu, qu, or z—an orthographic change is required to preserve 

the regularity of the pronunciation whenever the post-stem vowel changes from 

back to front (or vice versa). 

Such a shift in the nature of the post-stem vowel occurs in the present indicative, 

simple past, and present subjunctive, as follows: 

-ar verbs -er verbs -ir verbs 

present indicative — 1s 1s 

simple past 1s — — 

present subjunctive all 6 all 6 all 6 

Verbs undergoing these orthographic modifications thus display such changes in 

precisely 7 of the 47 conjugations, though the pattern differs between -ar verbs 

on the one hand, and -er/-ir verbs on the other. 

There are ten categories of verbs subject to such modifications; in the table 

below, each verb serves as a model for others undergoing the same changes. 

-ar -er -ir 

-c tocar vencer fruncir 

-g pagar coger dirigir 

-gu averiguar — distinguir 

-qu — — delinquir 

-z cazar — — 

verb type consonant sound modification 

1. tocar [K] c S qu 

2. pagar [G] g S gu 

3. averiguar [GW] gu S gü 

4. cazar [u] z S c 

5. vencer [u] c S z 

6. coger [H] g S j 

7. fruncir [u] c S z 

8. dirigir [H] g S j 

9. distinguir [G] gu S g 

10. delinquir [K] qu S c 

Some of these groups are large—there are more than 150 verbs like tocar—while 

others are far smaller, delinquir being in many dictionaries the only member of 

its class.

Note that verbs with consonant -j never undergo orthographic modification 

since -j is compatible with both front and back vowels: thus while the H sound in 

coger (“to catch”) is modified before back vowels, the same sound in tejer (“to 

weave”) requires no such change. 

2. Initial ie S ye, ue S hue 

No Spanish word begins with the written letter combinations ie- or ue-, these being 

replaced by ye- and hue-, respectively. This accounts for the forms of words 

like yegua (“mare”) and hueso (“bone”), rather than the “expected” forms *iegua 

and *ueso. For verbs with initial e- and o- subject to diphthong, a similar 

modification is required. The three verbs affected are errar, oler, and erguir. 

errar (to err) oler (to smell) erguir (to place erect) 

1s *ierro S yerro *uelo S huelo *iergo S yergo 

2s *ierras S yerras *ueles S hueles *iergues S yergues 

3s *ierra S yerra *uele S huele *iergue S yergue 

1p erramos olemos erguimos 

2p erráis oléis erguís 

3p *ierran S yerran *uelen S huelen *ierguen S yerguen 

The same modification occurs in the other forms which have diphthongs, i.e., the 

present subjunctive (singulars and third person plural) and the tú form of the 

imperative. 

An analogous modification occurs in the present participle of ir: 

*iendo S yendo 

3. Unstressed -i between Vowels S y 

Whenever an unstressed -i appears between two vowels, neither of which is -i, it 

changes to -y. 1 This affects -er and -ir verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, in the 

following 9 conjugations: 

(a) simple past (3s, 3p) 

(b) imperfect subjunctive (all 6) 

(c) present participle 


1 If an unstressed -i is either followed or preceded by another -i, the first -i disappears (see reír in 

no. 4). A stressed -i appears between vowels in the imperfect indicative for -er and -ir verbs with stem 

ending in a vowel: caíamos, leíamos, oíamos, construíamos, etc.


SIMPLE PAST 

caer leer construir oír 

1s caí leí construí oí 

2s caíste leíste construiste oíste 

3s cayó not *caió leyó construyó oyó 

1p caímos leímos construimos oímos 

2p caísteis leísteis construisteis oísteis 

3p cayeron not *caieron leyeron construyeron oyeron 

For construir and oír, unlike the present tense where a -y is added somewhat superfluously, 

here the -y is completely “regular”. 2 

When the stem ends in -a (caer), -e (leer), or -o (oír), a written accent is added 

to the simple past 2s/1p/2p in order to preserve the pronunciation of -i distinct 

from that of the preceding vowel. This does not occur when the stem ends in -u 

(construir), for reasons which will become clear at a later stage when we introduce 

the notion of strong versus weak vowels. 

IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE (I) 

1s cayera not *caiera leyera construyera oyera 

2s cayeras leyeras construyeras oyeras 

3s cayera leyera construyera oyera 

1p cayéramos leyéramos construyéramos oyéramos 

2p cayerais leyerais construyerais oyerais 

3p cayeran leyeran construyeran oyeran 

The identical change occurs for the second form of the imperfect subjunctive: 

cayese, leyese, construyese, oyese, etc. 3 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE 

cayendo not *caiendo leyendo construyendo oyendo 

4. Reír: i i S i 

Reír undergoes “normal” umlauts (e S i) in all of the conjugations in which the 

rule in number 3, above, would otherwise apply. In the simple past 3s and 3p, for 

example, the newly umlauted stem vowel would normally be followed directly by 

2 In accordance with the rule “add -y except before -i”, no -y is added; instead, the existing -i is 

modified to -y since it has vowels on either side. 

3 And also for the (rarely used) future subjunctive.

a diphthong -io or -ie. As in Spanish neither of the letter combinations -ii or -yi 

is normally allowed, 4 an -i is omitted: 

reí 

reíste 

*ri-ió S rió5 reímos 

reísteis 

*ri-ieron S rieron 

As for verbs like caer, leer, and oír, written accents are added to the simple past 

2s/1p/2p to mark the independent pronunciation of -i (see no. 6, below). 

The imperfect subjunctive is formed in the normal manner using the stem rie- 

(derived from the third person plural simple past minus the final -ron). The present 

participle also sheds an -i: 

*ri-iendo S riendo 


Other verbs following the model of reír are: desleír (“to dissolve”), engreír (“to 

infatuate”), freír (“to fry”), refreír (“to refry”), sofreír (“to fry lightly”), and 

sonreír (“to smile”). 

5a.Verbs with -ll and -ñ Omit First Element of Following -ie or -io 

The -ie or -io represents a diphthong whose first element is pronounced “Y”. 

Since this “Y” sound is already incorporated in the immediately preceding palatal 

sound represented by -ll or -ñ, the written -i is eliminated. This modification 

affects the same conjugations as in number 3, above: (i) simple past (3s/3p); (ii) 

imperfect subjunctive (all 6); and (iii) present participle. 

bullir (to boil) tañer (to play [an instrument]) 

simple past 

1s bullí tañí 

2s bulliste tañiste 

3s bulló not *bullió tañó not *tañió 

1p bullimos tañimos 

2p bullisteis tañisteis 

3p bulleron not *bullieron tañeron not *tañieron 

4Among the handful of exceptions are antiimperalismo, antiinflamatorio, chiita (“Shiite”), and 

yiddish. 

5As discussed in the appendix to this chapter, a recent orthographic change instituted by the RAE 

now allows (in fact favors) the spelling rio, without written accent.


imperfect subjunctive (I) 

1s bullera not *bulliera tañera not *tañiera 

2s bulleras tañeras 

3s bullera tañera 

1p bulléramos tañéramos 

2p bullerais tañerais 

3p bulleran tañeran 

present participle 

bullendo not *bulliendo tañendo not *tañiendo 

5b. Irregular Verbs with -j Omit First Element of Following -ie 

A similar modification takes place for irregular verbs having a -j stem consonant 

in their simple past and (hence) imperfect subjunctive, specifically decir, traer, 

and verbs ending in -ducir. By contrast, regular verbs with stem consonant -j 

(e.g., tejer) do not undergo such a modification. 6 

decir traer producir but tejer 

simple past 

3p dijeron trajeron produjeron tejieron 

imperfect subjunctive (I) 

1s dijera trajera produjera tejiera 

2s dijeras trajeras produjeras tejieras 

3s dijera trajera produjera tejiera 

1p dijéramos trajéramos produjéramos tejiéramos 

2p dijerais trajerais produjerais tejierais 

3p dijeran trajeran produjeran tejieran 

Additional Written Accents 

All of the consonant changes dealt with above are obligatory, in the sense that 

they always occur in the prescribed circumstances. The situation with regard to 

6 The -j in both cases was -x in Old Spanish. This was pronounced “SH”, a palatal sound, and 

hence a following -ie or -io lost the -i (e.g., dixeron, texeron). When Spanish “SH” shifted to the nonpalatal 

“H”, regular verbs like tejer had the “normal” -i restored (tejieron), while the irregular verbs 

decir, traer, and -ducir, in conformity with Murphy’s law, were able to resist these pressures. Note that 

no modification is required for the simple past 3s (which, like other irregular verbs, ends in -o rather 

than -io) or for the present participle (where -j does not appear).

orthographic written accent changes is on occasion less clear-cut—some verbs 

display the modifications, others do not. In all cases, knowledge of the form 

taken by the first person singular present is sufficient to determine the entire 

conjugation. 

A Note on the Orthographic Treatment of Potential Diphthongs 

The rules governing the treatment of two adjacent vowels are almost certainly the 

most complicated and frequently misunderstood element in the Spanish orthographic 

system. Their complete explanation falls outside the scope of the present 

work. For an understanding of verb conjugations, the essential elements can be 

summarized as follows: 

(a) The vowels a, e, and o are called “strong vowels”, i and u “weak vowels”. 

(b) Two strong vowels in succession are always pronounced in hiatus, i.e., as 

separate vowels in separate syllables. 

(c) For the combination of a weak and strong vowel, the orthography allows 

no determination of the pronunciation unless the stress accent falls on the 

weak vowel, in which case it has a written accent mark and the two vowels 

are pronounced in hiatus. 

país pa•ís 

María Ma•rí•a 

flúor flú•or 

ataúd a•ta•úd 


In all other circumstances, a weak/strong or strong/weak combination is 

assumed for the purposes of orthography to be pronounced as a diphthong, 

independent of its actual pronunciation.When the stress falls on 

the strong vowel in a weak/strong combination, there is a written accent if 

the syllable is not the “expected” one; however, this provides no information 

as to the actual pronunciation of the vowel combination. For example, 

adiós can be pronounced as either a•diós or a•di•ós. The same logic applies 

to strong/weak vowel combinations where the stress falls on the 

strong vowel (e.g., veintiséis), but in practice these always are pronounced 

as diphthongs.When the stress falls in the “expected” syllable on the 

strong vowel of a weak/strong or strong/weak combination, there is no 

written accent, e.g. diosa (di•o•sa or dio•sa) and seise (sei•se). 

(d) Two weak vowels in succession can in principle be pronounced either as a 

diphthong or hiatus—there is no way to tell from the spelling of the word. 

For purposes of orthography they are always assumed to be pronounced as 

a diphthong, independent of their actual pronunciation.When the


(assumed) diphthong -iu or -ui is stressed, a written accent is placed on the 

second element according to the normal rules, i.e., when the stress does 

not fall on the “expected” syllable: 

written accent no written accent 

jesuítico jesuita 

druídico druida 

veintiún veintiuno 

interviú interviuvar 

A written accent is required for jesuítico (je•suí•ti•co or je•su•í•ti•co) which 

otherwise would be pronounced *je•sui•ti•co or *je•su•i•ti•co, while no such 

accent is required for jesuita (je•su•i•ta or je•sui•ta) since the stress falls on 

the “expected” syllable.That this written accent (or lack thereof ) provides 

no information about the pronunciation of the vowel combination is 

clearly illustrated by the contrasting examples of veintiún and 

veintiuno. 

6. -er and -ir Verbs with Stems Ending in -a, -e, or -o 

The different treatment accorded to strong and weak vowels allows us to understand 

the orthographic distinction observed in Chapter 1 for the past participles 

of verbs whose stem ends in a vowel, which we repeat here for convenience: 

Rule. If an -er or -ir verb has a stem ending in -a, -e, or -o, then the ending 

of the past participle has a written accent (-ído rather than -ido). For 

all other cases in which the stem ends in a vowel, no change is made. 

The four basic cases covered by this rule are presented below: 

infinitive past participle 

(i) caer caído [AI: strong/weak, stress falls on weak] 

oír oído [OI: strong/weak, stress falls on weak] 

(ii) crear creado not *creádo [EA: strong/strong] 

(iii) criar criado not *criádo [IA: weak /strong, stress falls on strong] 

(iv) construir construido not [UI: weak /weak] 

*construído 

In (i) the fact that the stress falls on the weak vowel -i allows it to carry a written 

accent, which in this case clearly distinguishes its independent pronunciation. 

For -ar verbs like crear, the two strong vowels -e and -a are automatically pronounced 

separately (hiatus) without the need for a written accent. For -ar verbs

like criar, where the stress falls on the strong vowel -a, the weak /strong combination 

-ia is assumed for the purposes of orthography to be pronounced as a diphthong—even 

though the majority of speakers pronounce the two vowels separately. 

The same holds for the weak /weak combination -ui in -ir verbs like 

construir. 7 

Analogous reasoning accounts for the written accents added to the simple 

past (2s/1p/2p) for -er and -ir verbs whose stems end in a strong vowel (e.g., caer, 

leer, oír, reír) but not for those whose stems end in a weak vowel (e.g., construir). 

2s caíste leíste oíste reíste construiste 

1p caímos leímos oímos reímos construimos 

2p caísteis leísteis oísteis reísteis construisteis 

The rules of Spanish orthography always assume that -ui (and -iu) are pronounced 

as diphthongs. 

Such reasoning also explains the presence of (additional) written accents in 

the present indicative and subjunctive for reír. 8 

indicative subjunctive 

1s río ría 

2s ríes rías 

3s ríe ría 

1p reímos riamos 

2p reís riáis 

3p ríen rían 

A good test of one’s comprehension is to see whether one can explain why reímos 

has a written accent but riamos does not. 9 

7.Verbs with Two Vowels in Stem: Reinar versus Reunir 


There is a fundamental contrast in the pronunciation of reinar (“to reign”) 

compared to reunir (“to reunite”). In the first case the two vowels in the stem 

7 Until the RAE’s orthographical “reform” of 1952, construido had in fact been written construído. 

The change had nothing to do with pronunciation but rather with the notion that combinations of the 

“weak” vowelsu and i should always be assumed to be diphthongs for purposes of orthography. Needless 

to say, many erroneously interpreted the new spelling as requiring a diphthong pronunciation. 

8 As well as the 1p present indicative oímos of oír. 

9 In reímos the stress falls on the weak vowel of a strong/weak vowel combination (re•í•mos) and 

hence Spanish orthography requires a written accent. In riamos the stress falls on the strong vowel in 

the “expected” syllable (ri•a•mos or ria•mos), hence no written accent is required (or permitted).


(-e and -i) are pronounced as part of the same syllable—i.e., they form a diphthong. 

In the second case the two vowels (-e and -u) are pronounced separately, 

i.e., in hiatus. Thus, for the infinitive and first person singular present one has 

(with the stressed syllable in bold): 

infinitive 1s present 

rei•nar rei•no 2 syllables 

re•u•nir re•ú•no 3 syllables 

One of the important characteristics of the Spanish orthographic system is that 

it is able to distinguish between these two types of pronunciations only in those 

conjugations in which the stress accent falls on the stem. For the present indicative, 

reunir thus has “separating” written accents on the -u for the three singulars and 

the third person plural, but not for the first or second person plural, nor for the 

infinitive—where the stress does not fall on the stem. 

infinitive reinar reunir 

present 1s reino reúno 

2s reinas reúnes 

3s reina reúne 

1p reinamos reunimos 

2p reináis reunís 

3p reinan reúnen 

For reunir, the lack of written accent on the -u in the infinitive and 1p/2p does 

not mean that they are necessarily pronounced as diphthongs, only that the 

Spanish orthographic system lacks a means of clearly identifying the specific 

nature of their pronunciation. 

Rule. Verbs like reunir have a written accent only in those conjugations 

in which the stress accent is on the stem syllable. 

A written accent is therefore also found in the present subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p) 

and the tú form of the imperative.

Other examples of verbs with stems having a strong/weak vowel combination—i.e., 

whose second element is -i or -u—include: 

no written accents (diphthong) written accents in 9 conjugations 

infinitive 1s present infinitive 1s present 

ai arraigar arraigo aislar aíslo 

bailar bailo enraizar enraízo 

envainar envaino ahincar 10 ahínco 

au aplaudir aplaudo aullar aúllo 

causar causo aunar aúno 

pausar pauso maullar maúllo 

desahuciar desahucio ahumar ahúmo 

ei afeitar afeito descafeinar descafeíno 

peinar peino sobrehilar sobrehílo 

oi coitar coito prohibir prohíbo 

eu adeudar adeudo rehundir rehúndo 

Important Note 

The above discussion applies only to cases where the first vowel is “strong” (-a, 

-e, or -o) and the second one is “weak” (-i or -u). In all other cases of two adjacent 

stem vowels there are no written accents: when both vowels are strong (e.g., 

coercer) the pronunciation is as hiatus, while in weak-weak (e.g., cuidar) or 

weak-strong (e.g., amueblar) combinations the pronunciation is generally as a 

diphthong. 11 

8. -uar and -iar Verbs 


A situation very similar to the above occurs for verbs ending in -uar or -iar. 

For some of these verbs the two vowels are pronounced separately, for others 

jointly, and the orthography seeks to distinguish, where permitted, between 

the two. 

10 The letter -h has no phonetic value. When it appears in the verb stem between two vowels it is 

an almost certain indicator that the verb is of the hiatus type (an exception being desahuciar—“to give 

up as hopeless”). 

11 Triunfar, arruinar, and orientar are examples, however, of verbs pronounced by many 

speakers—in some if not all conjugations—with hiatus pronunciations of the stem. The orthographic 

rules do not allow such pronunciations to be distinguished: for triunfar and arruinar since a 

weak /weak vowel combination is always assumed to be a diphthong, for orientar since even when the 

weak vowel -i is pronounced separately, the stress still falls on the strong vowel -e.


-uar Verbs 

There are two patterns: (i) completely regular with no written accents, in which 

-u following vowel is pronounced consistently as a diphthong; and (ii) written 

accents in certain conjugations, marking a pronunciation of -u and the following 

vowel as part of separate syllables (i.e., hiatus) rather than as a diphthong. 

The first pattern is represented by adecuar (“to adapt”), the second by actuar (“to 

actuate”). 

present indicative present subjunctive 

adecuar actuar adecuar actuar 

1s adecuo actúo adecue actúe 

2s adecuas actúas adecues actúes 

3s adecua actúa adecue actúe 

1p adecuamos actuamos adecuemos actuemos 

2p adecuáis actuáis adecuéis actuéis 

3p adecuan actúan adecuen actúen 

For -uar verbs there is a very simple rule for distinguishing between those 

following the first pattern and those following the second. 

Rule. Verbs ending in -cuar and -guar follow the first pattern (no written 

accents); all other -uar verbs follow the second (written accents in selected 

conjugations) pattern. 

There is an equally simple rule for determining precisely in which conjugations 

the written accents are placed. 

Rule. Verbs following the second pattern display the written accent 

only in those conjugations in which the stress accent is on the stem 

syllable. 

Thus, written accents are found in precisely the same conjugations as in number 

7, above: (a) present indicative and subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p); and (b) tú form 

of the imperative.

Other examples: 

no written accents (diphthong) written accents in 9 conjugations 

infinitive 1s present infinitive 1s present 

amortiguar amortiguo acentuar acentúo 

apaciguar apaciguo continuar continúo 

atestiguar atestiguo efectuar efectúo 

averiguar averiguo evaluar evalúo 

desaguar desaguo fluctuar fluctúo 

evacuar evacuo habituar habitúo 

menguar menguo insinuar insinúo 

santiguar santiguo perpetuar perpetúo 

Pronunciation Note 

We have seen that verbs like actuar and acentuar have a written accent for 9 of the 

47 basic forms of the verb, indicating that in these cases the -u is pronounced as 

an independent vowel, not as an element of a diphthong, e.g., 

actuar adecuar 

ac•tú•o as compared to ade•cwo 

ac•tú•as as compared to ade•cwas 

Does this mean that in the remaining 38 forms -u is pronounced as part of a diphthong? 

Popular opinion to the contrary, the answer is not necessarily. Analogous 

to the situation described in number 7, above, for verbs like reunir, Spanish 

orthography simply does not allow a determination of the pronunciation of -ua, 

-uo, or -ue in a non-stressed syllable. In general, for verbs like actuar the -u is 

pronounced in hiatus throughout the verb conjugation (including the infinitive), 

although in less “careful” speech—and perhaps influenced by the absence of written 

accents—diphthongs tend to emerge for the first and second person plurals. 

-iar Verbs 


The situation is analogous to that of -uar verbs: there are two classes, one with no 

written accents, the other with written accents in those conjugations in which the 

stress falls on the stem syllable. Cambiar (“to change”) is an example of the former, 

enviar (“to send”) of the latter.



cambiar enviar cambiar enviar 

1s cambio envío cambie envíe 

2s cambias envías cambies envíes 

3s cambia envía cambie envíe 

1p cambiamos enviamos cambiemos enviemos 

2p cambiáis enviáis cambiéis enviéis 

3p cambian envían cambien envíen 

Unlike the -uar verbs, however, there is no simple rule to allow one to determine 

from the form of the infinitive to which class the verb belongs. However, verbs 

which diphthong (i.e., no written accents) are more numerous—representing 

approximately 70 percent of the total—and tend to be more easily recognizable, 

formed from or closely linked to adjectives and nouns. 


(a) no written accents (diphthong) 

abreviar “to shorten” envidiar “to envy” 

aliviar “to alleviate” estudiar “to study” 

asociar “to associate” incendiar “to set on fire” 

beneficiar “to benefit” iniciar “to initiate” 

codiciar “to covet” injuriar “to insult” 

copiar “to copy” limpiar “to clean” 

denunciar “to denounce” odiar “to hate” 

diferenciar “to differentiate” pronunciar “to pronounce” 

distanciar “to distance” reconciliar “to reconcile” 

divorciar “to divorce” refugiar “to shelter” 

ensuciar “to dirty” remediar “to remedy” 

(b) written accents in 9 conjugations (hiatus) 

ampliar “to enlarge” guiar “to guide” 

criar “to rear” liar “to bind” 

desviar “to deviate” piar “to chirp” 

enfriar “to chill” repatriar “to repatriate” 

espiar “to spy” vaciar “to empty” 

fiar “to (en)trust” variar “to vary” 

For the “ambiguous” pronunciations of the 38 forms of class (b) without written 

accent, diphthongs seem to be more prevalent than for -uar verbs, and sometimes 

affect the infinitive as well (e.g., variar).

9. Combinations of Changes 

The verbs avergonzar and traer provide noteworthy illustrations of the possibility 

of combining orthographic and other predictable changes within the same verb. 

As confirmed by the closely associated noun vergüenza (“shame”) which 

diphthongs, avergonzar is an -ar diphthong verb (basic model mostrar). At the 

same time it offers not one but two separate orthographic changes: 

(1) z S c (model cazar) 

(2) gu S gü in those conjugations in which the diphthong changes the stem 

vowel from -o to -ue. 

The two orthographic changes and the diphthong occur simultaneously in the 

present subjunctive (three singulars and third person plural): 


avergüenzo avergüence 

avergüenzas avergüences 

avergüenza avergüence 

avergonzamos avergoncemos 

avergonzáis avergoncéis 

avergüenzan avergüencen 

Traer combines two irregularities with three regular orthographic modifications: 

Irregularity 1st person singular -go traigo 

simple past traje 

Orthographic #3 unstressed -i between vowels S -y trayendo 

#5b irregular verbs with -j omit 1st e.g., trajeron 

element of following -ie 

#6 additional written accent for past traído 

participle 

Appendix 


Recent Changes Affecting Verbs like Reír, Criar, and Huir 

The Real Academia Española has recently implemented an orthographic change affecting 

a number of very short verbs. While not much attention has yet been paid to this change, 

over time—unless rescinded—it is likely to cause some confusion.


The change can best be explained by comparing the simple past tense conjugations, 

and pronunciations, of sonreír (“to smile”) and reír (“to laugh”). The stressed syllable is 

shown in bold. 

1s sonreí reí son•re•í re•í 

2s sonreíste reíste son•re•ís•te re•ís•te 

3s sonrió rió son•ri•ó or son•rió ri•ó or rió 

1p sonreímos reímos son•re•í•mos re•í•mos 

2p sonreísteis reísteis son•re•ís•teis re•ís•teis 

3p sonrieron rieron son•rie•ron rie•ron 

For the third person singular there is an ambiguity in the pronunciation. 12 Most Spanish 

speakers use the hiatus forms son•ri•ó and ri•ó . Spanish orthography, however, is incapable 

of distinguishing between the hiatus and diphthong pronunciations, since the written 

accent on the -o serves only to indicate that the stress falls on the final syllable, not 

whether the combination -io is to be pronounced as a diphthong or hiatus. 

In its 1999 Ortografía de la Lengua Española, the RAE attempted to resolve this ambiguity 

by decreeing that, for the purposes of orthography only, such ambiguous situations are 

assumed to represent diphthongs independent of the actual pronunciation of the word. Thus 

for the third person singular, the “assumed” pronunciations are now son•rió (2 syllables) 

and rió (1 syllable). For rió this creates a small problem: as an (assumed) one-syllable 

word it no longer has the right to a written accent—whose purpose is to identify the 

stressed syllable in a word of two or more syllables—and it has therefore been eliminated. 

For sonreír, on the other hand, the written accent is still required to signal that the stress 

is on the final syllable (independent of whether that syllable is -io or -o). Thus, according 

to the RAE’s new norms, there is now a contrast between the forms of sonreír and refreír 

on the one hand, reír and freír on the other: 

simple past 3s sonrió rio 

refrió frio 

A similar contrast exists in the second person plural of the present subjunctive, where riáis 

and friáis have relinquished their written accent: 13 

present subjunctive 2p sonriáis riais 

refriáis friais 

12 While there is also ambiguity for the third person plural (ri•e•ron or rie•ron), this has no effect 

on the orthography and will not be considered here. 

13 The logic is the following: the combination -iai consists of the weak vowel -i and the diphthong 

-ai. Since the stress falls on the diphthong and not on the weak vowel, the (orthographic) assumption 

is that the two elements are enunciated as a single vowel, i.e., that they form a triphthong and 

hence that riais has only one syllable. In the contrasting case of roáis (roer), since the strong vowel -o 

is assumed to be pronounced in a separate syllable from the following diphthong, a written accent is 

required to show that ro•áis is stressed on the second syllable and not the first (*ro•ais).

Other verbs affected by this change are the simple past and present tenses for “short” -iar 

and -uir verbs. 

SIMPLE PAST 

old forms new forms 

1s 3s 1s 3s 

criar crié crió crie crio 

fiar fié fió fie fio 

guiar guié guió guie guio 

liar lié lió lie lio 

piar pié pió pie pio 

fluir fluí fluyó flui fluyó 

huir huí huyó hui huyó 

PRESENT TENSE, 2P 

old forms new forms 

indicative subjunctive indicative subjunctive 

criar criáis criéis criais crieis 

fiar fiáis fiéis fiais fieis 

guiar guiáis guiéis guiais guieis 

liar liáis liéis liais lieis 

piar piáis piéis piais pieis 

fluir fluís fluyáis fluis fluyáis 

huir huís huyáis huis huyáis 

Note that for the “short” -uir verbs the (multi-syllable) 3s simple past and 2p present subjunctive 

have not changed. Related compound verbs—malcriar, confiar, desliar, influir, 

rehuir, etc.—are not affected by the new rules. 

A New Ambiguity in Place of the Old 


The RAE was aware of the potential problem of public acceptance of this change and has 

therefore sought to satisfy both its logical instincts and public preferences by permitting, 

under certain circumstances, both the new and old spellings. Thus (italics added): 

...algunas palabras que antes de esta fecha se consideraban bisílabas pasan ahora a 

ser consideradas monosílabas a efectos de acentuación gráfica, por contener alguna 

de las secuencias vocálicas antes señaladas, y, como consecuencia de ello, deben 

escribirse sin tilde . . . No obstante, es admisible acentuar gráficamente estas palabras, 

por ser agudas acabadas en -n, -s o vocal, si quien escribe articula nítidamente como


hiatos las secuencias vocálicas que contienen y, en consecuencia, las considera bisílabas: 

fié, huí, riáis, guión, truhán, etc. 14 

. . . some words which before this date were considered disyllabic [having two syllables] 

are now considered to be monosyllabic for the purposes of written accentuation, 

on account of their containing one of the vowel sequences signaled above, and, 

in consequence, they should be written without an accent....Notwithstanding, it is 

permitted to use a written accent with these words, on account of their being stressed 

on the final syllable and ending in -n, -s, or vowel, so long as whoever does this articulates 

very clearly as hiatuses the vowel sequences they contain and, in consequence, considers 

them to be disyllabic: fié, huí, riáis, guión, truhán, etc. 

Thus if you not only pronounce (inadvertently or otherwise) rió/rio and fié/fie with two 

syllables but truly consider them to be two-syllable words, you have the right to use the old 

spelling; otherwise only the new spelling is acceptable. 

14 From the RAE’s online Diccionario panhispánico de dudas (, July 2004), section 

1.2 (Tilde 2 ). The RAE notes that the diphthong pronunciation “is predominant in wide zones of Latin 

America, especially in Mexico and in Central America, while in other Latin American countries such 

as Argentina, Ecuador, Colombia and Venezuela, as well as in Spain” the hiatus pronunciation is more 

common.

CHAPTER 8 

Vosotros/Ustedes and Tuteo/Voseo 

As noted in the Introduction, one of the most noticeable differences between the 

Spanish spoken in Spain and that spoken in the Americas is the contrast in how 

one says “you”: 

Spain Americas 

singular plural singular plural 

familiar tú vosotros tú/vos ustedes 

formal usted ustedes usted ustedes 

In the formal sense, the treatment is identical: usted for the singular, ustedes for 

the plural. However, for familiar (or “informal”) you, usage always differs for the 

plural, and often for the singular. 

Familiar Plural: Vosotros versus Ustedes 

American Spanish uniformly uses ustedes along with its associated pronouns, 

while the Spanish of Spain uses vosotros and its associated pronouns. One thus 

has the following contrasts: 

Spain Latin America (All) 

Vosotros cantáis muy bien. Ustedes cantan muy bien. “You sing very well.” 

Os levantáis temprano. Ustedes se levantan temprano. “You get up early.” 

Salís temprano. Ustedes salen temprano. “You leave early.” 

Esto es para vosotros. Esto es para ustedes. “This is for you.” 

Vengo con vosotros. Vengo con ustedes. “I come with you.” 

Os veo. Los veo (a ustedes). “I see you.” 

Os doy un regalo. Les doy un regalo (a ustedes). “I give you a present.” 

Familiar Singular: Tuteo versus Voseo 

Here the situation is considerably more complicated. In somewhere between 

one third to one half of the Americas, vos is used—instead of or in addition to


tú—a practice known as voseo (compared to Spanish tuteo). Somewhat surprisingly, 

the object pronoun used for direct /indirect objects is te rather than vos (or 

os), while vos is used following prepositions. Thus one has: 

Spain Latin America (tuteo) Latin America (voseo) 

Tú cantas muy bien. Vos cantás muy bien. “You sing very well.” 

Te levantas temprano. Te levantás temprano. “You get up early.” 

Sales temprano. Salís temprano. “You leave early.” 

Esto es para tí. Esto es para vos. “This is for you.” 

Vengo contigo. Vengo con vos. “I come with you.” 

Te veo. Te veo. “I see you.” 

Te doy un regalo. Te doy un regalo. “I give you a present.” 

The verb forms used with vos are generally those of vosotros but simplified by reducing 

the diphthong (-áis or -éis) to a simple vowel (-ás, -és). For -ar and -er 

verbs this produces the corresponding tú verb form of normal Spanish. However, 

in the three forms in which there is a different pattern of stress accentuation 

for the tú and vosotros forms—the present indicative, present subjunctive and 

imperative—voseo practitioners generally maintain the vosotros stress pattern. 

This is illustrated below, with the traditional Spanish (tuteo) forms shown in 

parentheses. 

cantar comer subir 

present indicative cantás (cantas) comés (comes) subís (subes) 

present subjunctive cantés (cantes) comás (comas) subás (subas) 

imperative cantá (canta) comé (come) subí (sube) 

1. The voseo forms for the present subjunctive are utilized less widely than 

the other two and are often seen as less “cultured”. Under pressure from 

some of the American academies, the Real Academia Española has given 

official status to the voseo forms for the present indicative and imperative, 

but not for the present subjunctive. 

2. There are many variants. In some areas, the diphthong is maintained (vos 

cantáis, coméis). Some voseo speakers use the personal pronoun vos but 

with the normal Spanish second-person singular verbs (cantas rather than 

cantás). Still others use the personal pronoun tú but with the voseo verbs 

(e.g., tú cantás). 

Finally, it is worth noting that in post-Franco Spain tú has become omnipresent, 

even in advertisements. This marks a dramatic reversal: English “how to learn 

Spanish” books in the 1950s and 1960s frequently omitted or paid scant

attention to tú on the grounds that a foreigner would likely never have the 

opportunity to use it. 

Appendix 

Historical Background 

In Latin the distinction between tu and vos was purely singular versus plural. Apart from 

being somewhat egotistical (it was ego et tu, “I and you”, compared to tú y yo in Spanish), 

Romans were, at least initially, egalitarian in treating all “second” persons equally. 

The distinction between what can be called formal “you” and familiar “you” arose during 

the early Middle Ages and is characteristic of many European languages, including the 

Romance languages, German, and Middle English. It seems to have arisen out of the requirement 

to address one’s superior in a more respectful manner, e.g., “Would his lordship 

like to have his pudding now?” The lord would of course continue to address his subjects 

in the familiar way, much as today a French school teacher or prison guard will use 

the familiar tu in addressing his or her wards and expect to receive the formal vous in 

return. 

At an early stage Spanish usage was similar to that of modern French, 1 as the plural 

pronoun vos came to be used in the singular with a formal sense while maintaining its role 

as the unique plural (both formal and informal). 

OLD SPANISH 


familiar tú vos 

formal vos vos 

VOSOTROS/USTEDES AND TUTEO/VOSEO 93 

Vos then began to encroach on the one remaining form of “you” not yet conquered, the 

singular familiar form tú. This was probably an overreach on its part, for its increasing use 

in a familiar sense provided the opportunity in the fifteenth century for a new formal 

“you” to develop: vuestra merced (pl. vuestras mercedes), which can be translated into English 

as “your grace” or “your lordship/ladyship”. Through a process of evolution, passing 

through various stages including vuesa merced, vuesarced, vuced, and vusted, this arrived 

at the modern Spanish form usted (pl. ustedes). In formal correspondence one 

frequently finds these terms abbreviated, either Vd. and Vds., or Ud. and Uds. As in 

the formal form of address in English (“Is your ladyship happy with her meal?”), a 

third-person verb is used with both usted and ustedes—singular for the former, plural for 

the latter. 

At the same time that vos was losing out to usted (and ustedes) for the formal market, 

its use in the familiar sense as both a singular (in competition with tú) and plural led to 

1In French, vous is used for either a group of people—formal or familiar— or for one person in 

a formal setting.


the development of a new plural familiar form, vosotros (vos otros, “you others”). At the 

time of Cervantes (1547–1616) the situation was thus: 

“GOLDEN AGE” SPANISH 


familiar tú/vos vosotros 

formal vuestra merced vuestras mercedes 

It is interesting to note that merced did not initially mean “grace” or “lordship/ladyship” 

but rather “wages”, “payment”, or “reward”. It was with this latter meaning, expanded 

metaphorically in a religious context, 2 that it passed into French as merci (now restricted 

to “thank you”) and thence into English as mercy. The original sense has been preserved in 

mercenary (Sp. mercenario). 

The “we” pronoun, while not facing any serious competition, analogously shifted 

from nos to nosotros. While nosotros has survived in all forms of Spanish, vosotros has had 

considerably less success: it has been replaced in much of Andalucia, in the Canary Islands, 

and in all of Latin America by ustedes. 3 

The only domain left to vos was the familiar singular “you”, where it remained in 

heated competition with the original tú. In Spain, tú was victorious and today is used almost 

universally to refer to a singular “you” with whom one is on familiar terms. However, 

much of Spanish-speaking America was colonized when vos was still flourishing in 

Spain, so that a substantial portion uses vos (Argentina, Uruguay, most of Central America, 

and parts of most of the other countries). There are in addition a not insubstantial 

number of people who use both tú and vos as familiar singular “you”, though not necessarily 

in the same context. 

English “You” 

In Old English, as in Latin, there were separate singular and plural forms for “you”: thou 

and ye in the nominative, and thee and you for the accusative (and dative). You was thus 

initially used only as an object, not as the subject: 

Thou art a good man. 

I gave it to thee. 

Ye are good men. 

I gave it to you. 

2I.e., the reward in heaven which one earns (on earth) by being kind to those who are not in a 

position to offer anything in return. 

3The similarity of American Spanish with that of the Canaries and Andalucia is no coincidence, 

as a disproportionate share of colonists either originated from these areas or spent considerable time 

there en route to the Americas.

VOSOTROS/USTEDES AND TUTEO/VOSEO 95 

The evolution of you in Middle English was analogous to what occurred in both French 

and Spanish: the plural ye/you replaced the singular thou /thee for formal use. Subsequently, 

in early Modern English, ye/you replaced thou /thee for informal use as well. The 

distinction between nominative and accusative lasted until the seventeenth century and is 

found in the King James Bible: 

And Isaac said unto them, Wherefore come ye to me, seeing ye hate me, and have 

sent me away from you? (Genesis 26:27) 

The evolution of “you” as described above can be summarized as follows: 

familiar formal 

singular plural singular plural 

Classical Latin tu vos tu vos 

Old Spanish tú vos vos vos 

“Golden Age” Spanish tú/vos vosotros vuestra vuestras 

merced mercedes 

Modern Spanish 

Spain tú vosotros usted ustedes 

Americas tú/vos ustedes usted ustedes 

Modern French tu vous vous vous 

Old English 

nominative thou ye thou ye 

dative & accusative thee you thee you 

Middle English 

nominative thou ye ye ye 

dative & accusative thee you you you 

Modern English you you you you

CHAPTER 9 

Summary and Presentation of Verb Classes 

Spanish verbs can essentially be classified as follows: 

Basically regular verbs are those with regular simple past tenses 

and include verbs that 

(a) are (perfectly) regular 

(b) are predictably regular 

(c) are irregular in the first person singular present, but otherwise 

(largely) predictable 

(d) have mixed patterns 

Fundamentally irregular verbs are those 17 with irregular simple past 

tenses. 

Certain basic patterns facilitate considerably the learning of the individual verb 

forms. 

Imperfect 

For all but three verbs—ser, ir, ver—the imperfect is completely regular. 

Future/Conditional 

The future and conditional always share the same stem. There are 12 verbs which 

have truncated stems not equal to the infinitive, of which all except salir and valer 

are “fundamentally irregular” verbs. 

Present Subjunctive 

Only four verbs have “unpredictable” present subjunctives—ser, ir, haber, and 

saber. Predictably regular verbs (including those with irregular first person singular 

present indicative) have well-defined patterns for their present subjunctives,

SUMMARY AND PRESENTATION OF VERB CLASSES 97 

while each of the “mixed pattern” verbs follows its own particular pattern (see 

below). 

Imperfect Subjunctive 

The imperfect subjunctive stem of all verbs is equal to the third person plural 

simple past minus the final -ron. 

Present Imperative 

All verbs have regular imperatives for the second person plural. Nine verbs have 

irregular one-syllable imperatives for the second person singular. 

Present Participle 

All verbs have regular present participles, with the single exception of poder 

(pudiendo). 

Past Participle 

Apart from the simple past, the past participle is the least regular of the verb 

forms. Fourteen verbs have irregular past participles, of which 11 are from the 

basically regular category. 

Orthographic Changes 

Consonant changes are obligatory, in the sense that they always occur in the prescribed 

circumstances. While this is not always the case with written accent 

modifications, knowledge of the form of the first person singular present is always 

sufficient for determining the entire conjugation. 

Below are presented 35 categories or classes into which all Spanish verbs can 

be placed. Annex A presents the complete conjugations for model verbs in each 

of the categories, as well as highlighting the changes for sub-classes which display 

orthographic modifications or have irregular past participles. Annex B provides 

an alphabetical index of approximately 4,800 verbs, showing for each its class 

and, where applicable, sub-class. 

Basically Regular: Verbs Having Regular Simple Past 

I. Perfectly regular 

1. cantar 2. comer 3. subir


II. Predictably regular 

A.Diphthongs (e Sie, o S ue) and/or umlauts (e S i, o S u) of 

stem vowel 

4A. pensar 4B. mostrar 

5A. perder 5B. mover 

6A. sentir 6B. pedir 6C. dormir 

B. First person singular -zco 

7A. conocer (most verbs ending in -cer) 

7B. lucir (all verbs ending in -ucir) 1 

C. Add -y except before -i 

8. construir 

III. Irregular first person singular -go but otherwise (largely) predictable 

9. caer 10. oír 11. salir 12. valer (13. asir) 2 

IV. Mixed patterns 

14. ver 15. discernir 16. jugar 17. adquirir 18. argüir 

Fundamentally Irregular: Irregular Simple Past Tense 

19. ser 20. estar 21. haber 22. saber 23. caber 

24. ir 25. dar 26. poder 27. querer 28. decir 

29. hacer 30. poner 31. tener 32. venir 33. traer 

34. -ducir 35. andar 

Observations 

I. Perfectly Regular 

Six otherwise “perfectly regular” verbs—none of which is an -ar verb—have irregular 

past participles: romper, abrir, cubrir, escribir, imprimir, and pudrir. 

II. Predictably Regular Verbs 

1. Four otherwise “predictably” regular verbs have irregular past participles: 

resolver, volver, freír, morir. 

1Verbs ending in -ducir additionally have irregular simple past tenses and hence are classified as 

a separate class (34). 

2As noted in Chapter 2, for asir the conjugations with -g are generally avoided.


2. -ar and -er diphthong verbs (4A /B, 5A /B) have diphthongs in the 9 conjugations 

in which the stress falls on the stem syllable: 

pensar/perder mostrar/mover 

present indicative (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie ue 

present subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie ue 

imperative (2s) ie ue 

Such verbs can generally be identified through the existence of a closely related 

noun or adjective whose stressed vowel has the same diphthong (e.g. almorzar 

“to lunch” and almuerzo “lunch”). Where no such help is available (e.g., descender), 

knowledge of the first person singular present (desciendo) is sufficient to 

determine the entire conjugation. 

3. For -ir verbs, the regla milagrosa cited in Chapter 2 allows one to determine 

whether a given verb with stem vowel -e is of the mixed diphthong/umlaut (6A) 

or umlaut alone (6B) types. Of the three common -ir verbs with stem vowel -o, 

dormir and morir are of the mixed diphthong/umlaut type (6C). 3 For all of these 

verbs, 20 of the 47 conjugations are affected, as follows: 

REGULAR VS. “PREDICTABLY” IRREGULAR CONJUGATIONS 

total regular diphthong umlaut 

sentir/dormir 47 27 9 11 

pedir 47 27 0 20 

An extension of la regla milagrosa defines the precise conjugations in which these 

“predictable” irregularities occur: 

La regla milagrosa (extended) 

A. For verbs with conjugations like pedir (6B), the stem vowel “umlauts” 

(e S i) unless the following vowel is -i. 

B. For verbs with conjugations like sentir (6A), as well as dormir/morir (6C), 

the stem vowel: 

(i) diphthongs (e S ie or o S ue) whenever it is stressed (i.e., in exactly 

the same conjugations as for 4A/B, 5A/B); 

(ii) otherwise it “umlauts” (e S i or o S u) unless the following 

vowel is -i. 

3 Oír (10) has neither diphthongs nor umlauts.


The stem vowel contrast in unstressed syllables is perhaps best illustrated by the 

first person plural present indicative and subjunctive: 

pedimos sentimos dormimos where the following vowel is -i 

pidamos sintamos durmamos where the following vowel is -a 

Note that a diphthong in the next syllable involving -i does not prevent umlaut, 4 

thus providing the contrasts: 

pedí sentí dormí where the following vowel is -i 

pidió sintió durmió where the following vowel is the diphthong -io 

pedido sentido dormido where the following vowel is -i 

pidiendo sintiendo durmiendo where the following vowel is the diphthong -ie 

The conjugations in which these predictable changes take place are: 

sentir pedir dormir 

present indicative (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie i ue 

simple past (3s/3p) i i u 

present subjunctive (1s/2s/3s/3p) ie i ue 

present subjunctive (1p/2p) i i u 

imperfect subjunctive (all 6) i i u 

imperative (2s) ie i ue 

present participle i i u 

4. For -ocer and -ucir verbs (7A /B) with first person singular present -zco, the 

-zc propagates itself to all 6 forms of the present subjunctive. 5 

5. For verbs like construir which “add -y except before -i”, -y is added to 

11 conjugations: present indicative (singulars and 3p), present subjunctive 

(all 6), and tú imperative. In addition, a regular orthographic change (e.g., 

constru[i]endo S construyendo) introduces a -y into 9 other conjugations: 

simple past (3s/3p), imperfect subjunctive (all 6), and present participle. 

4 Since “-i” in this case has the phonetic value of the consonant “Y”. 

5 This holds as well for the -ducir verbs (34).

III. Irregular First Person Singular -go but Otherwise (Largely) 

Predictable 

The first person singular present -go propagates itself to all 6 forms of the present 

subjunctive. Oír, salir, and valer have additional irregularities: 

(1) Oír “adds -y except before -i” (like construir). 

(2) Salir and valer have modified future/conditional stems (saldr-, valdr-). 

(3) Salir has a shortened tú imperative sal. 

IV. Mixed Patterns 

1. Ver used to be veer and has maintained the additional -e in the following conjugations: 

first person singular present, imperfect (all 6), and present subjunctive 

(all 6). Ver also has an irregular past participle visto. 

2. Discernir used to be discerner and behaves throughout its conjugation as if 

it were an -er diphthong verb (model perder). Viewed in this sense, the only “irregularities” 

are the second -i in the infinitive, the 1p/2p present indicative, and 

the 2p imperative. 

3. Jugar has 9 diphthongs -ue in exactly the same locations where diphthong 

verbs (e.g., mostrar) have such diphthongs. Jugar in fact used to be jogar; 

it subsequently changed the stem vowel -o to -u while leaving intact the diphthongs 

-ue. 

4. Adquirir is analogous to jugar. Previously it was adquerir with 9 regular -ie 

diphthongs (model sentir). It subsequently changed the stem vowel -e (including 

that of the infinitive) to -i, while leaving intact the diphthongs -ie. 

5. Argüir essentially follows the model of construir: add -y except before -i. The 

complication is that the combination -güy, with pronunciation “GWY”, would 

be virtually unpronounceable, hence it is changed to -guy. 

Summary Tables 


The three tables below provide summary information for essentially all of the 

“unpredictable” irregularities found in Spanish verbs. 

Table 9.1 highlights the basic irregularities for the 17 “fundamentally” irregular 

verbs which have irregular simple pasts. The present indicatives for poder and 

querer are shown in parentheses since they are “predictable” diphthongs. Similarly, 

present subjunctive forms are shown in parentheses in those cases—e.g., 

(quepa)—in which they are “regularly” based on the first person singular


present indicative. The present subjunctive for dar is shown in brackets [dé] since 

it has an orthographic written accent in the first and third person singulars. 

Table 9.2 shows irregularities for ver and for the 4 principal “basically regular” 

verbs which have irregular first person singulars ending in -go: caer, oír, salir, and 

valer. The present subjunctives are shown in parentheses, since they are regularly 

based on the first person singular present indicative. 

Table 9.3 shows the remaining 10 verbs with irregular past participles.

TABLE 9.1. FUNDAMENTAL IRREGULARITIES: SEVENTEEN VERBS WITH IRREGULAR SIMPLE PASTS 

infinitive present indicative simple past imper- past future subjunctive imperative 

fect participle stem 

1s other conjugations 1s 1s present 1s 2s 

ser soy eres/es/somos/sois/son fui (3s: fue) era — — sea sé 

estar estoy estás (etc.) estuve — — — (esté) — 

haber he has/ha/hemos/—/han hube — — habr- haya he 

saber sé — supe — — sabr- sepa — 

caber quepo — cupe — — cabr- (quepa) — 

ir voy vas (etc.) fui (3s: fue) iba — — vaya ve 

dar doy — di (3s: dio) — — — [dé] — 

poder 1 (puedo) — pude — — podr- (pueda) — 

querer (quiero) — quise — — querr- (quiera) — 

decir digo — dije — dicho dir- (diga) di 

hacer hago — hice (3s: hizo) — hecho har- (haga) haz 

poner pongo — puse — puesto pondr- (ponga) pon 

tener tengo tienes . . . tenemos tuve — — tendr- (tenga) ten 

venir vengo vienes . . . venimos vine — — vendr- (venga) ven 

traer traigo — traje — — — (traiga) — 

-ducir -duzco — -duje — — — (-duzca) — 

andar — — anduve — — — — — 

1 Poder also has irregular present participle pudiendo.

TABLE 9.2. VER FOUR “BASICALLY” REGULAR VERBS WITH FIRST PERSON SINGULAR PRESENT -g 1 

infinitive present indicative simple imperfect past future subjunctive imperative 

past participle stem 

1s other conjugations 1s 1s present 1s 

ver veo — — veía visto — (vea) — 

caer caigo — — — — — (caiga) — 

oír oigo oyes . . . oímos... — — — — (oiga) — 

salir salgo — — — — saldr- (salga) sal 

valer valgo — — — — valdr- (valga) — 

1 Caer and oír in addition display several regular orthographic modifications.


TABLE 9.3. TEN OTHER VERBS WITH IRREGULAR PAST PARTICIPLE 

abrir abierto morir muerto 

cubrir cubierto pudrir podrido 

escribir escrito resolver resuelto 

freír frito, freído romper roto 

imprimir impreso, imprimido volver vuelto


PART II 

USES OF VERBS


CHAPTER 10 

Indicative 

Present Tense 

The Spanish present tense is used in virtually the same way as in English: 

“True” present: 

Canta la canción. “He/she/it sings the song.” 

Comes con mucha prisa. “You eat in a big hurry.” 

Subo las escaleras muy despacio. “I climb the stairs very slowly.” 

El chico lee el libro. “The boy reads the book.” 

To describe permanent situations or habitual actions: 

Nunca fuma ni bebe. “He/she never drinks nor smokes.” 

Los caballos comen hierba. “Horses eat grass.” 

En nuestra casa comemos a las tres. “In our house we eat at three o’clock.” 

En invierno los días son muy cortos. “In winter the days are very short.” 

To describe future activities: 

Mañana subimos al Everest. “Tomorrow we climb Everest.” 

¿Adónde vas este verano? “Where are you going this summer?” 

Voy a España. “I am going to Spain.” 

To narrate activities from the past: 

Y en ese momento César toma su decisión, pasa el Rubicón y avanza con su 

ejército hacia Roma. 

“And in that moment Caesar takes his decision, crosses the Rubicon, and 

advances with his troops towards Rome.” 

Past Tense: Simple and Compound, and Past Participle 

In general, the simple and compound pasts are used in very similar manners in 

English and Spanish.

110 USES OF VERBS 

Simple Past 

Colón descubrió América “Columbus discovered America 

en 1492. in 1492.” 

Tomé el primer avión y llegué “I took the first plane and arrived 

a mediodía. at noon.” 

El año pasado visité Granada. “Last year I visited Granada.” 

Franco murió en 1975. “Franco died in 1975.” 

Compound Past 

He visitado tres veces Granada. “I have visited Granada three times.” 

Hemos trabajado todo el día. “We have worked all day.” 

Juan, ¿has hecho todos tus deberes? “Juan, have you done all your 

homework?” 

Siempre he tenido mucha suerte. “I have always had a lot of luck.” 

In both languages, the theoretical difference governing the use of the two tenses 

is that the simple past refers to a period of time which has completely expired, 

while the compound past refers to a period which still exists at the moment of 

speaking. 

REMOTE PAST PRESENT 

simple past compound past S 

In practice, there is of course a large gray area where both can be used and the 

choice of one or the other is largely a matter of personal choice and desired nuance, 

e.g., 

I have studied all day. 

I studied all day. 

I have already been to Europe [in 1965]. 

I went to Europe last year. 

There is a considerable difference between usage in Spain and that in the Americas: 

in Spain the compound past tense is generally used whenever there is a connection, 

however tenuous, with the present, while in American Spanish the more 

common practice is to always use the simple past unless referring to a situation 

very directly linked to the present.

Spain (generally) 

He leído el periódico hoy. “I have read the newspaper today.” 

He tenido muchas malas “I have had a lot of unpleasant experiences 

experiencias en mi vida. in my life.” 

He ido al cine tres veces “I have gone to the movies three times this 

esta semana. week.” 

Americas (generally) 

INDICATIVE 111 

Leí el periódico hoy. “I read the newspaper today.” 

Tuve muchas malas “I [have] had a lot of unpleasant 

experiencias en mi vida. experiences in my life.” 

Fui al cine tres veces “I went to the movies three times this 

esta semana. week.” 

The usage in Spain is not dictated simply by how long ago the action took place. 

Thus, with ayer (“yesterday”) the simple past is generally used, while the compound 

past can be used with reference to situations where the action took place 

many years ago (e.g., “earlier this century . . .”). Even in Spain there seems to be 

some movement toward greater use of the simple at the expense of the compound 

past, to judge by warnings in manuals of “proper” Spanish: 

ABUSO DEL PRETÉRITO INDEFINIDO O PERFECTO SIMPLE 

Los titulares de la prensa y las emisiones radiadas peninsulares han dado en 

preferir el perfecto simple para hechos recientes o inmediatos que en el uso 

espontáneo . . . se expresan con el perfecto compuesto: Llegó a Madrid el 

equipo de la Juventus; Oyeron ustedes “Los clásicos de la canción” . . . en este 

resurgimiento—arcaizante para el sentir lingüístico del español medio— 

parecen haberse juntado influjos del inglés estadounidense y del español 

americano, uno y otro apegados al perfecto simple. 1 

ABUSE OF INDEFINITE PRETERITE OR SIMPLE PAST 

The headlines of the peninsular [i.e., Spanish] press and broadcast emissions 

have shown a preference for the simple past for recent or immediate events 

which in spontaneous (natural) use are expressed with the compound past: 

“The team of Juventus arrived in Madrid”; “You heard ‘the classics of 

song’[?]” ...In this resurgence—archaic sounding for the average Spanish 

1 Rafael Lapesa, El español moderno y contemporáneo (Barcelona: Crítica, 1996), quoted in Manuel 

Casado, El Castellano actual: Usos y normas (Pamplona: Ediciones Universidad de Navarra, 1997), 

p. 89; translation mine.


ear—there seems to be a mixture of influence of U.S. English and American 

Spanish, both attached to the simple past. 

Past Participle as Adjective 

As in English, the past participle can be used adjectivally, in which case it agrees 

with the noun it modifies in both gender and number. 

el tesoro robado “the stolen treasure” 

con los ojos cerrados “with the [his] eyes closed” 

Aprobada la propuesta, “The proposition approved, the 

se levantó la sesión. meeting adjourned.” 

Alternative Past Participles 

During the transition from Latin to Spanish, the large majority of irregular Latin 

past participles were regularized. While displaced from their role as participles, a 

number of the original irregular forms have survived and have become ordinary 

Modern Spanishadjectives. Thus, the adjectiveconfuso exists alongside the regular 

past participleconfundido, incluso alongsideincluido, etc. In some cases the meaning 

of the adjective has come to differ from that of the related past participle, e.g.: 

adjective past participle 

atento “attentive” atendido (well /badly) “looked after” 

convicto “convicted” convencido “convinced” 

correcto “correct” corregido “corrected” 

distinto “distinct”, “different” distinguido “distinguished” 

tuerto “one-eyed” torcido “twisted”, “crooked” 

In these cases there is no danger of confusion between the two forms which can 

both be used as adjectives, e.g., 

Es un esposo muy atento. “He is a very attentive husband.” 

Es un esposo muy atendido. “He is a very well looked after husband.” 

El libro es correcto. “The book is correct.” 

El libro está corregido. “The book is corrected” [i.e., has 

previously been corrected]. 

Es un hombre muy distinguido. “He is a very distinguished man.” 

Es un hombre muy distinto. “He is a very different man.”

El cuadro está torcido. “The picture is crooked.” 

En tierra de ciegos el tuerto es rey. “In the land of the blind the one-eyed 

man is king.” 

In other cases the meanings are virtually the same, in which case the general practice 

in adjectival constructions is to use the adjectival (i.e., irregular) form rather 

than the (regular) past participle. Common examples are: 

past participle adjective 

confundir “to confuse” confundido confuso 

despertar “to wake (up)” despertado despierto 

elegir “to elect” elegido electo 

fijar “to (af )fix” fijado fijo 

freír “to fry” frito/freído frito 

hartar “to satiate” hartado harto 

imprimir “to print” impreso/imprimido impreso 

juntar “to join” juntado junto 

soltar “to loosen”, “to let go of ” soltado suelto 

suspender “to suspend” suspendido suspenso 

Thus one generally says 

estoy despierto not *despertado “I am awake” 

el presidente electo not *elegido “the president-elect” 

con los ojos fijos en ella not *fijados “with his eyes fixed on her” 

estoy harto not *hartado “I’m fed up” 

el libro impreso not *imprimido “the printed book” 

dar rienda suelta not *soltada “to give free rein” 

The use of double participles is an area of rapid change, generally in favor of the 

regular forms. For example, today one says almost equally 

los animales extinguidos or los animales extintos 

whereas in the past the use of extinguido in this context would have been seen as 

bad form. 

Historical and Usage Note: Development of Compound Past 


The Latin perfect tense was used to convey the meanings of both the simple 

(“remote”) and compound (“near”) pasts. During the evolution to Romance


languages, the perfect came to specialize in the remote past and gave birth to the 

Romance simple past tense. To express the near past, the Romance languages 

came up with a structure analogous to that used in English, i.e., the combination 

of the auxiliary verb “to have” with the past participle. In fact it was a relatively 

short step from expressions of the form 

I have two books already written. 

to the formal compound past 

Ya he escrito dos libros. “I have written two books already.” 

Before settling on this form, Spanish experimented with a number of other auxiliary 

verbs conveying similar notions of something already accomplished, notably 

tener (possession) and llevar (“to bring”). Such constructions continue to 

be employed occasionally, particularly when one wants to stress the immediacy 

of the past action, e.g., 

Tengo los ojos cerrados. “I have my eyes closed.” 

(or: tengo cerrados los ojos) 

Llevamos ahorrados dos mil pesos. “We have saved 2,000 pesos.” 

Unlike the formal compound past with auxiliary haber, “informal” constructions 

with other auxiliaries require agreement between the past participle and the direct 

object it modifies, in terms of gender and number. With such constructions 

the auxiliary can be separated from the past participle, something which cannot 

occur with the regular compound past using haber: 

Llevo cuatro páginas escritas. “I have four pages written.” 

but not *He cuatro páginas escrito. 

“Immediate” Past 

The construction acabar de infinitive is frequently used in place of the simple 

or compound past to refer to an event which has just happened, literally one 

finishes to do something: 

Ella acaba de llegar. “She has just arrived.” 

With reference to something which had just occurred at a point in the past, the

analogous construction is used with the imperfect of acabar: 

Fui a visitarla pero ella “I went to see her but she had just left.” 

acababa de salir. 

Imperfect Tense 

As noted in the Introduction, the imperfect does not correspond directly to any 

simple English verb form. It refers to a past action without conveying any information 

as to whether or not the action was completed. Thus the contrast: 

imperfect Llovía ayer. “It was raining yesterday.” 

simple past Llovió ayer. “It rained yesterday.” 

Based on the first statement we cannot say for sure that the rain yesterday ever 

stopped—it is possible that it has continued until the present moment. In contrast, 

the second statement indicates unequivocally that the rain yesterday terminated, 

and if by chance it is raining at the present time then it is not the same rain 

shower as yesterday. 

The most common uses of the imperfect are in: 

(1) Indefinite statements about the past 


En aquel tiempo reinaba la paz, y la “In that era peace reigned, and 

gente era muy feliz. the people were very happy.” 

Cuando era joven jugaba mucho “When I was young I played a lot 

al béisbol. of baseball.” 

(2) Statements relating to a condition existing at the moment of a specific 

action in the past (the latter expressed in the simple past tense) 

Lavaba la ropa cuando sonó “I was washing the laundry 

el teléfono. when the phone rang.” 

or Estaba lavando . . . [see 

gerundio, below] 

Todavía iba a la escuela “I was still going to school 

cuando murió Franco. when Franco died.” 

There is a gray area between the definite and indefinite historical past, i.e., be-


tween the use of the simple past and imperfect, where the two can be used almost 

interchangeably: 

En el siglo XVIII hubo muchas “In the eighteenth century there were 

revoluciones en América Latina. many revolutions in Latin America.” 

El el siglo XVIII había muchas [same as above] 

revoluciones en América Latina. 

In the first formulation the focus is on a large number (e.g., 22) of finite events, 

while the second is nuanced toward the general condition of having many 

revolutions. 

En el principio creó Dios los cielos y la tierra.Y la tierra estaba sin orden y 

vacía, y las tinieblas cubrían la superficie del abismo, y el Espíritu de Dios 

se movía sobre la superficie de las aguas. (Génesis 1:1–2, La Biblia de las 

Américas) 

Creó is simple past; the other three verbs are imperfects. Thus, 

In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was 

without form, and void; and darkness was upon [i.e., covered] the face of the 

deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. (King James 

Version) 

Identity between First and Third Person Singulars 

For all Spanish verbs, the imperfect for the first and third person singulars is the 

same. It wasn’t always this way, as in Latin times the first person singular ended 

with -m, the third person with -t. But phonetic evolution did away with most 

final consonants, including -m and -t. In principle, the context should make clear 

whether the subject is the first or third person singular, and whenever this is not 

the case the subject should be specified explicitly. In practice confusion and ambiguity 

occasionally arise, particularly since the context is often clearer in the 

mind of the speaker (or writer) than in that of the listener (or reader). 

Consider, for example, the following situation: 

My bicycle collides with John’s. My friend Mary asks me what happened. 

I reply: 

Desgraciadamente, no miraba por donde iba.

What did I say, or rather, mean to say? With no personal pronouns or names used 

(because I think the context is perfectly clear), this could be understood by Mary 

in any one of the following ways. 

(1) “Unfortunately, I wasn’t looking where I was going.” 

(2) “Unfortunately, I wasn’t looking where he (John) was going.” 

(3) “Unfortunately, he (John) wasn’t looking where I was going.” 

(4) “Unfortunately, he (John) wasn’t looking where he (John) was going.” 

Past Perfect 

The primary use of the past perfect is to express an action in the past which occurred 

prior to another past action or point in time. 

Ya había preparado la cena cuando “I had already prepared the dinner when 

llegaron mis invitados. my guests arrived.” 

Juan había vivido feliz hasta “Juan had lived happily until he married.” 

que se casó. 

Estábamos contentos porque “We were happy because we had received 

habíamos recibido buenas noticias. good news.” 

Yo creía (creí) que ya te habías ido. “I thought that you had already left.” 

The verb expressing the “other” action is in the simple past or imperfect, according 

to the normal rules. Used with a “time” conjunction, the past perfect can 

also refer to a habitual action in the past, in which case the verb in the main clause 

is in the imperfect: 

Cada día cuando había terminado su “Each day when he had finished his 

trabajo, daba un paseo por el parque. work, he took a walk in the park.” 

Past Anterior 

Like the past perfect, the past anterior refers to an action which occurred prior to 

another action in the past, with the nuance that the action occurred immediately 

prior. 

Hube preparado la cena cuando “I had just prepared the dinner 

llegaron mis invitados. when my guests arrived.” 

Cuando hubo amanecido, salí. “As soon as dawn broke, I left.” 

INDICATIVE 117


The past anterior has disappeared completely from the spoken language and appears 

only rarely in literary works. It has been replaced by the simple past, or less 

frequently the past perfect: 

Tan pronto como preparé (había “As soon as I had prepared the dinner 

preparado) la cena llegaron my guests arrived.” 

mis invitados. 

Luego que amaneció salí. “As soon as dawn broke, I left.” 

The immediacy formerly conveyed by the past anterior is thus expressed instead 

by an adverbial expression: luego que, tan pronto como, no bien, así que, apenas, 

en cuanto, etc. 2 

Present Participle (Gerundio) 

The Spanish gerundio combines elements of the English present participle and 

gerund. Examples of its use: 

Los niños salieron corriendo. “The children left [e.g., the room] 

running.” 

Ganó este dinero trabajando “He earned this money [by] working 

durante las vacaciones. during the vacation.” 

Vi a su hermano atravesando la calle. “I saw your brother crossing the street.” 

Atravesando la calle, vi a su hermano “[While] crossing the street I saw your 

sentado en el café. brother seated in the café.” 

Estando en París, decidí visitar “Being in Paris I decided to visit the Eiffel 

la Torre Eiffel. Tower.” 

No viendo ninguna alternativa, “Not seeing any alternative, I sold my 

vendí mi carro. car.” 

Ya habiendo visto tres veces esta “Already having seen this [same] movie 

misma película, no tengo ganas three times I have no desire to see it 

de verla otra vez. again.” 

Viviendo sola, a menudo se siente “Living alone, she often feels uneasy at 

inquieta. night.” (or “a woman often feels . . .”) 

2 In its rare literary use today, the past anterior is almost always accompanied by one of these same 

adverbial expressions. This is somewhat redundant, since the idea of immediacy is conveyed twice: 

by the past anterior itself and by the accompanying adverb (“As soon as I had just prepared . . .).

Probably the most common use of the gerundio is in expressions identical to the 

English “progressive” tenses, with the verb estar assuming the role of the auxiliary 

to be: 

Juan está jugando en la calle. “Juan is playing in the street.” 

Juan estaba jugando en la calle. “Juan was playing in the street.” 

This progressive sense can also be expressed with the verbs ir, venir, seguir, continuar, 

and andar. 

Continúas haciendo la misma cosa. “You continue doing the same thing.” 

Siguió trabajando a pesar de su “He continued working in spite of his 

enfermedad. illness.” 

La situación va empeorando. “The situation continues getting worse.” 

As with the infinitive and imperative, a pronoun object is “glued” to the gerundio: 

Acercándolo, vi que no era Diego. “Approaching him, I saw that it wasn’t 

Diego.” 

Contándomelo se sentía más seguro. “Telling it to me he felt more secure.” 

This applies as well to reflexive verbs: 

Acostándome temprano duermo mejor. “Going to bed early I sleep better.” 

When the gerundio is used with estar, pronoun objects can either be attached to 

the gerundio or placed before estar: 

Estábamos mirándola desde “We were looking at her 

la ventana. from the window.” 

or La estábamos mirando desde 

la ventana. 

When pronouns are attached to the gerundio, the stress accent remains on the 

same syllable, so that a written accent is always required: 

a•cer•can•do acercando a•cer•cán•do•lo acercándolo 

con•tan•do contando con•tán•do•me•lo contándomelo 

INDICATIVE 119


There are a number of cases where English -ing constructions are not expressed 

by the Spanish gerundio. For example: 

(1) When the action is simultaneous, the construction al infinitive is 

commonly used: 

Al salir del hotel tomó un taxi. “Leaving the hotel he took a taxi.” 

Al salir yo del hotel, María “[On] leaving the hotel, Maria was 

estaba esperándome. waiting for me.” 

(2) Where English allows either a gerund or the infinitive, Spanish generally 

permits only the infinitive: 

Ver es creer. “Seeing is believing.” 

“To see is to believe.” 

Correr es bueno para el corazón. “Running is good for the heart.” 

“To run is good for the heart.” 

Me gusta cocinar. “I like cooking.” 

“I like to cook.” 

(3) While it can be used in adjectival constructions (“I saw the man running in 

the park”), 3 the Spanish gerundio cannot (in theory) be used as an adjective 

directly modifying a noun (“the running man”). One way to remember 

this: if it were used in this manner (“Sleeping Beauty”), the final -o would 

have to be changed to -a when modifying feminine nouns and this never 

occurs with the gerundio. 

In many cases, there is a related verbal adjective ending in -ante or -iente, descended 

from the Latin present participle (a separate verbal form from the 

gerund), that can be used instead: 

correct incorrect 

mi ardiente deseo *ardiendo “my ardent (burning) desire” 

el sol brillante *brillando “the brilliant sun” 

el agua corriente *corriendo/a “running water” 

la Bella durmiente *durmiendo/a “Sleeping Beauty” 

el hombre sonriente *sonriendo “the smiling man” 

el platillo volante *volando “flying saucer” 

3 Vi al hombre corriendo en el parque.

Thus one says that 

el niño está durmiendo “the child is sleeping” 

el hombre está sonriendo “the man is smiling” 

el platillo está volando “the saucer is flying” 

but 

el niño durmiente “the sleeping child” 

el hombre sonriente “the smiling man” 

el platillo volante “the flying saucer” 

The large majority of Spanish verbs, however, do not have verbal adjectives ending 

in -nte, so that it is necessary to find a different adjective to express the English 

present participial adjective or to use a different structure altogether. Thus, 

if asked which of two children— one smiling, one crying—is yours, you could 

respond either: 

“el sonriente” “the smiling one” 

or “el que llora” / “el llorón” “he who cries” / “the tearful one” 

since in the latter case there is no verbal adjective *llorante. The prohibition 

against using gerundios as direct adjectives seems to have evaporated in the case 

of boiling water. While many sources continue to indicate that the adjectival form 

of “boiling” is hirviente, it is more common today to see agua hirviendo. In 1992 

the Real Academia Española went so far as to remove hirviente from its dictionary, 

although it continues to be found in most others. Note that it is agua 

hirviendo not *agua hirvienda, which it would be if hirviendo had become a fullfledged 

adjective. Other forms are likely to follow this path: e.g., one frequently 

sees ardiendo in place of ardiente. 

In some cases an English present participle translates instead into a Spanish 

past participle: 

el hombre sentado a la mesa not *sentando “the man sitting at the table” 

i.e., “the man seated at the table” 

Future Tense 

The Spanish future tense is used very similarly to that in English: 


Mañana iré al médico. “Tomorrow I will go to the doctor.” 

Venderemos nuestra casa el año próximo. “We will sell our house next year.”


The future tense is also used frequently in if and when clauses: 

Si eres bueno Papá Noel te “If you are good Santa Claus will 

dará unos regalos. give you some presents.” 

Cuando estés listo saldremos. “When you are ready we will leave.” 

In the when clause the verb following cuando (estés) is in the present subjunctive, 

a use we will discuss in Chapter 12. 

The future tense is also used occasionally to denote probability, e.g., in response 

to the question What time is it?, one could respond: 

Serán las cinco y media. “It will be [around] five thirty.” 

Another example: 

No la he visto hoy. Estará enferma. “I haven’t seen her today. She must be ill.” 

Alternative Forms of Future 

In English the future tense is often replaced by a more informal construction 

using the verb to go, particularly when the future being referred to is not too 

distant: 

future: I will do my homework tomorrow. 

near-future: I am going to do my homework tomorrow. 

The same substitution also occurs in Spanish, using the verb ir (“to go”) plus the 

preposition a: 

future: Mañana haré mis deberes. 

El próximo año compraremos un nuevo auto. 

near-future: Mañana voy a hacer mis deberes. 

El próximo año vamos a comprar un nuevo auto. 

As noted earlier, the present tense is also used at times to replace the future, particularly 

with regard to the verb ir. 

future: Mañana iremos a la playa. 

present: Mañana vamos a la playa. 

“Tomorrow we will go [we go] to the beach.”

Future Perfect 

The Spanish use of the future perfect parallels that in English: 

Lo habré terminado para el viernes. “I will have finished it by Friday.” 

Si llegamos tarde, ya se habrá ido. “If we arrive late, he will have left already.” 

Conditional Tense 

The conditional tense initially developed to fulfill the role of a future in the past 

and only later was extended to situations in the present and future. Its major uses 

include: 

Future in the Past 

He said: I will be there at noon. 

Dijo que estaría allí a mediodía. “He said he would be there at noon.” 

Similarly, 

Pensaba que llegarías más temprano. “I thought that you would arrive earlier.” 

Present Conditional Meaning 

Supongo que te gustaría comer “I suppose that you would like to eat 

un helado. an ice cream.” 

Yo no lo haría. “I wouldn’t do it.” 

Politeness 

Podrías pasarme la mantequilla? “Could you pass me the butter?” 

Querrías ir al cine conmigo? “Would you like to go to the cinema with me?” 

In this use the conditional is in competition with the imperfect subjunctive 

(Chapter 12). Note also that the conditionals for the verbs poder and querer are 

irregular. 

If-Then Clauses 


The conditional tense is used very frequently in if-then clauses, of the form 

Si fueras mejor estudiante, recibirías “If you were a better student, (then) 

mejores notas. you would receive better grades.”


As the verb in the “if ” clause is in the imperfect subjunctive, we will defer discussion 

of this type of phrase until Chapter 12. 

Conditional Perfect 

Me habría gustado estar allí. “I would have liked to be there.” 

The most common use of the conditional perfect is in si clauses, and will be dealt 

with in Chapter 12. With the verbs deber, poder, and querer an alternative form of 

the conditional perfect is more commonly employed when an infinitive immediately 

follows, using the construction conditional haber past participle: 

Debería haber hecho mis deberes. “I should have done my homework.” 

vs Habría debido hacer mis deberes. 

Podría haber ido a París. “I could have gone to Paris.” 

vs Habría podido ir a París. 

Querría haber ido a París. “I would have liked to go to Paris.” 

vs Habría querido ir a París. 

Reflexive Verbs 

Many verbs used with a reflexive pronoun—i.e., one which refers to the 

subject—have become so identified with a particular meaning that the two have 

become permanent partners in a union known as a reflexive verb. 4 Some dictionaries 

provide separate entries for these, others include them as part of 

the overall definition of the verb. While often the meaning is simply that of 

the simple verb used reflexively, in other cases there is a substantially different 

nuance. A few common examples: 

simple verb reflexive 

acordar “to agree” acordarse “to remember” 

acostar “to put to bed” acostarse “to go to bed” 

casar “to marry” (others) casarse “to marry” (one another) 

dormir “to sleep” dormirse “to fall asleep” 

ir “to go” irse “to go away”, “to leave” 

4 The Spanish more accurately call these verbos pronominales (“pronominal verbs”) because in a 

number of cases there is no direct reflexive action, e.g., irse (“to leave”).

levantar “to lift” levantarse “to get up” (out of bed) 

llamar “to call” llamarse “to be named” 

restablecer “to reestablish” restablecerse “to recover” (from illness) 

sentar “to seat” sentarse “to sit (down)” 

volver “to return” volverse “to become” 

El sacerdote casa a Juan y a María. “The priest marries Juan and Maria.” 

Juan se casa con María. “Juan marries Maria.” 

Acordamos comenzar el trabajo mañana. “We agree(d) to start the work 

tomorrow.” 

¿No te acuerdas de mí? “Don’t you remember me?” 

La policía restablece el orden en la ciudad. “The police restore order in the city.” 

Se restablece lentamente de sus heridas. “He recovers slowly from his injuries.” 

Hoy voy a la piscina. “Today I go to the swimming pool.” 

Se va sin decir nada. “He leaves without saying anything.” 

Llamo al médico. “I am calling the doctor.” 

Me llamo Carlos. “My name is Carlos.” 

The following example shows that it is sometimes necessary to determine from 

the context whether the meaning is that of a reflexive verb or of a simple verb 

used with a normal direct object pronoun. 

Me levanto a las seis. “I get up at six (from the bed).” 

Me levanto del sofá. “I raise myself from the sofa.” 

Reflexive verb constructions often serve to eliminate the need for possessive 

pronouns: 

Se pone el sombrero. “He puts on his hat.” 

Me lavo las manos. “I wash my hands.” 

Me duele la cabeza. “My head hurts.” 

Reflexive verbs can also translate the idea of reciprocity: 


Los dos hermanos se abrazan. “The two brothers 5 embrace each other.” 

5 Or “The brother and sister . . .”


Reflexive constructions can allow transitive verbs to be used intransitively: 

El tren se detuvo en la estación. “The train stopped in [or at] the station.” 

The verb detener (“to stop”) normally requires a direct object (“to stop something”) 

which in this case is provided by the reflexive pronoun acting as a direct 

object (“the train stopped itself”). 

Some verbs canonly be used reflexively, in which case they are normally shown 

in dictionaries with the reflexive pronoun attached at the end of the verb, e.g., 

arrepentirse “to repent” 6 

Note on Use of Haber 

Sometime during the “Golden Age” of Spanish haber lost its primary role as the 

verb of possession to tener so that today one says 

Tengo muchos amigos. “I have many friends.” 

rather than 

*He muchos amigos. (French: J’ai beaucoup d’amis.) 

At the same time, however, haber consolidated its role as the only auxiliary verb 

in Spanish (unlike French where both avoir and être “to be” are used). As we have 

seen in Chapter 6, all compound Spanish verb tenses are formed with haber: 

verb form (form of ) haber past participle 

compound past present 

past perfect imperfect 

past anterior (rare) simple past 

future perfect future 

conditional perfect conditional 

compound past subjunctive present subjunctive 

past perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive 

6 In general, the smaller a dictionary is, the more likely that for a given verb all of the definitions 

will involve reflexive uses, and hence the more likely it is that the verb will be shown in its reflexive 

form. For example, most dictionaries show abstener (“to abstain”) and atener (“to keep to”) in their 

reflexive forms (abstenerse and atenerse) while the more complete RAE and Moliner show them in 

their “normal” forms.

Apart from its role as an auxiliary, haber is used very frequently in constructions 

of the form “there is” or “there are”. Until the Golden Age, this would have been 

written using the old Spanish adverb y: 7 

Ha y 40 personas en mi casa. “There are 40 people in my house.” 

En Inglaterra ha y mucha lluvia. “In England there is much rain.” 

The adverb y disappeared from Modern Spanish but remained fixed in expressions 

like this, so that one now says and writes: 

Hay 40 personas en mi casa. 

En Inglaterra hay mucha lluvia. 

In other words, the y has become “glued” to ha to produce the form hay. This is 

the only context in which such agglutination with haber occurs, and only in the 

present tense: in “yesterday there were 40 people in my house” the simple past of 

haber (hubo) is used with no y either as part of the verb or elsewhere. 

Ayer hubo 40 personas en mi casa. 

Similarly, 


Mañana habrá 40 personas en mi casa. “Tomorrow there will be ...” 

Note that in all cases the third person singular is used in such expressions, so that 

one is literally saying there is/was 40 persons. 

7 As in modern French: “Il y a 40 personnes dans ma maison.”

CHAPTER 11 

Special Topic: Ser versus Estar 

The Latin origins of these verbs can provide some assistance in understanding 

their different uses. Ser represents a merger of the Latin verbs “to be” (esse) and 

“to be seated” (sedere). esse is the ultimate origin of English essence and essential, 

sedere of sedentary and residence. Estar is derived from the Latin verb “to 

stand” (stare), the origin of English state and status and, via Old French, the 

verb to stay. 

Thus one can think of ser as applying to the essence of an object, a characteristic 

which is seated or innate, as opposed to the less permanent state (or status) 

of an object represented by estar. The basic distinction, admittedly not always 

clear, is thus that: 

Ser expresses the fundamental essence of a thing or being, as well as 

its defining characteristics: 

physical or moral characteristics 

nature 

nationality, religion 

profession 

form 

color 

weight 

what it is made from 

ownership 

ser o no ser “to be or not to be” 

un ser humano “a human being” 

es decir “i.e.”, “that is to say” 

“La insoportable levedad del ser” “The Unbearable Lightness of Being” 

(una novela por Milan Kundera) (a novel by Milan Kundera) 

Soy francés. “I am French.” 

Somos estudiantes. “We are students.” 

Es médico. “He is a doctor.” 

Eres muy alto. “You are very tall.” 

Dos por cuatro son ocho. “Two times four is eight.” 

Ya son las nueve. “It is already nine o’clock.” 

El avión es muy grande. “The airplane is very big.”

La bandera es azul. “The flag is blue.” 

Es más pesado que un saco de plomo. “It is heavier than a lead sack.” 

El libro es mío. “The book is mine.” 

Esta casa es de mi tío. “This is my uncle’s house.” 

Mi reloj es de oro. “My watch is (made) of gold.” 

Soy de Filadelfia. “I am from Philadelphia.” 

Estar expresses the state or status in which something exists: 

location, whether permanent or temporary 

state of mind or being 

situation 

Los Alpes están en Europa. “The Alps are in Europe.” 

Hoy está en casa. “Today he/she is at home.” 

Estoy de pie. “I am standing.” (literally “I am on my feet”) 

Estamos sin dinero “We are without money.” 

Estoy enfermo. “I am ill.” 

Estás cansada. “You (fem.) are tired.” 

Estoy bien. “I am well.” 

Estoy mal. “I am not well.” (“I am sick.”) 

El que no está contra nosotros, “For he that is not against us is for us.” (Mark 

está con nosotros. 9:40, American Standard Version) 

El café está muy caliente. “The coffee is very hot.” 

El cielo está encapotado. “The sky is overcast.” 

El vino está a un euro el litro. “Wine is one euro per liter.” 

Estamos en verano. “We are in summer.” 

Estamos de vacaciones. “We are on vacation.” 

Hoy estamos a 28 de enero. “Today is January 28.” (“We are at January 28.”) 

but: Hoy es 28 de enero. (ser) “Today is January 28.” (fundamental quality) 

Consider a piece of green (verde) paper which happens to be wrinkled (arrugado). 

This particular piece of paper by its very nature is green; this is an essential 

characteristic. On the other hand, the fact that it is wrinkled reflects its status 

rather than its essence. It presumably hasn’t always been wrinkled and it is at least 

in principle possible that at some point in the future it might return to an unwrinkled 

state. Thus 

El papel es verde. “The paper is green.” 

but 

El papel está arrugado. “The paper is wrinkled” 

SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 129


The same adjective can generally be used with ser and estar, often merely with an 

“essence-status” distinction: 

Es una chica tranquila. “She is a calm girl.” (essence) 

Hoy estás un poco más tranquilo. “Today you are a bit calmer. (status) 

Este niño es muy impaciente. “This child is very impatient.” (essence) 

Estoy muy impaciente por verlos. “I am very impatient to see them.” (status) 

For some adjectives, however, the meaning can be considerably changed: 

El hombre es rico. “The man is rich.” 

Los tomates están ricos. “The tomatoes are delicious.” 

Other examples of adjectives whose meanings can differ: 

adjective with ser with estar 

aburrido “boring” “bored” 

bueno “good” “healthy”, “tasty”, “in good condition” 

cansado “tiring” (e.g., journey) “tired” 

completo “complete” “full” 

consciente “conscious” (of something) “conscious” (state) 

divertido “amusing” “amused” 

listo “intelligent” “ready” 

malo “bad” “ill”, “deteriorated” 

orgulloso “haughty” “proud (of )” 

verde “green” (color) “unripe” 

vivo “alive” (vivid) “alive” (living) 

La manzana es verde. “The apple is green.” 

La manzana está verde. “The apple is unripe.” 

Esta manzana aunque roja está verde. “This apple although red is not ripe.” 

Eres aburrido. “You are boring.” 

Estás aburrido. “You are bored.” 

El ritmo de esta música es muy vivo. “The rhythm of this music is very vibrant.” 

El fuego todavía está vivo. “The fire is still burning.”

SPECIAL TOPIC: SER VERSUS ESTAR 131 

One common difficulty lies with expressions relating to the location where an 

event takes place. While it might seem that the verb employed should be estar, 

which after all refers to the location of things, it is instead ser which normally is 

employed: 

El concierto es en el aula principal. “The concert is in the main hall.” 

La exhibición es en el museo. “The exhibition is in the museum.” 

La Copa del Mundo es en Francia. “The World Cup is in France.” 

compared to: 

El cine está en el centro comercial. “The cinema is in the shopping center.” 

La Mona Lisa está en el museo. “The Mona Lisa is in the museum.” 

El estadio donde juegan la Copa del “The stadium where they play the World 

Mundo está en Francia. Cup is in France.” 

The second group of examples refers to the physical location of a tangible object 

and hence uses the verb estar. The first group refers to the realization of an event, 

and there is an implicit verb indicating “taking place” which effectively transforms 

the phrase into a passive construction requiring the verb ser (see Passive 

and “False Passive” Constructions, below): 

“The concert is [taking place] in the main hall.” 

There are also a number of seeming exceptions to the rules. Thus for the two 

similar adjectives feliz (as in Feliz Navidad “Merry Christmas”) and contento 

(“happy”) one typically says 

Soy feliz. “I am happy.” 

but 

Estoy contento. “I am happy.” 

Being alive is temporary; by analogy so is being dead, whether literally or 

figuratively: 

Está muerto. “He is dead.” 

Está muerto de risa. “He is dying of laughter.”


Is one permanently or temporarily married? Most commonly estar is used with 

casado, divorciado, separado: 

Está casada con un francés. “She is married to a Frenchman.” 

Está divorciado/separado. “He is divorced/separated.” 

but 

Es soltero. “He is single.” 

Notes: 

1. Usage of ser and estar with adjectives relating to el estado civil (marriage status) 

is far from uniform. 

2. The basic reason for the distinction casado/soltero is that casado is a past 

participle of a verb (casar) and thus expresses the result of a process (that of getting 

married), while soltero is an ordinary adjective describing an inherent state. 

This, more than the analogy with vivo, is perhaps the better explanation for estar 

muerto. 1 This will be discussed in more detail below when we deal with passive 

constructions, one of the major areas of confusion between ser and estar. 

3. In a legal or administrative sense one normally uses ser with casado and 

divorciado. 

No podemos casarnos por la Iglesia porque eres divorciado. 

“We can’t get married in the Church because you are divorced.” 

4. Soltero and virgen, which in the past have always been associated with ser because 

they describe innate conditions, are now used increasingly with estar. This 

presumably reflects both the analogy with casado and divorciado and the recognition 

that as with other conditions susceptible to change, estar is more appropriate. 

The same logic would suggest that one might say *estoy estudiante, but this 

is rarely if ever heard. 

5. One of the relatively few things which can be said with some confidence is 

that bien and mal are used only with estar. 2 

6. There is considerable regional variation in usage, and one person’s ser is 

often another’s estar. Usage frequently is not in accord with “the law.” 

1 Muerto is the irregular past participle of morir (“to die”). 

2 In the expressions“todo fue bien” and“todo me fue bien”, fue represents the past tense of the verb 

ir rather than that of ser (so that the literal meaning is “all went well”). In a phrase like “el mensaje fue 

bien recibido”, the adverb “bien” modifies the past participle “recibido”, not the past tense “fue”.

Passive and “False Passive” Constructions 


As in English, the past participle of transitive verbs can be used adjectivally in 

passive constructions: 

active 

Cervantes escribió “Don Quijote” “Cervantes wrote “Don Quixote” in the 

en el siglo XVII. seventeenth century.” 

passive 

El libro fue escrito en el siglo XVII. “The book was written in the seventeenth 

century.” 

Este edificio fue construido en 1842. “This building was constructed in 1842.” 

Las abejas son atraídas por las flores. “Bees are attracted by flowers.” 

In each of these examples, the passive construction can be converted into an 

active one (and vice versa) in the same tense, e.g., “flowers attract bees” (present), 

“[somebody] constructed the house in 1842” (past). 

There is a related type of construction, sometimes called false passive, which 

involves the result (status, condition) of an action completed in an earlier time 

period. Compare the first four sentences below which describe the action of shutting 

a door— 

1. The door is shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, present 

2. The door was shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, simple past 

3. The door has been shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, compound past 

4. The door had been shut by the doorkeeper. true passive, past perfect 

with the next two sentences which describe the status of the door— 

5. The door is shut. false passive, present 

6. When I arrived, the door was shut. false passive, past (“imperfect”) 

The fifth sentence describes the present status of a past action, the sixth the past 

status of a prior action. In contrast to each of the first four sentences, 3 neither can 

be converted into an active form without changing the tense. 

3 The doorkeeper shuts/shut/has shut/had shut the door.


In English the distinction between true and false passives is of little practical 

importance, since both are constructed using the verb to be. In Spanish the 

difference assumes much greater significance because true passives are constructed 

with ser, while false passives use estar. Spanish thus avoids the inherent 

ambiguity in the English passive (the door is shut, the door was shut) but at the cost 

of making one choose explicitly between ser and estar. Thus, 

passive (ser) 

1. La puerta es cerrada por el portero. “The door is [being] shut by the 

(present) doorkeeper.” 

2. La puerta fue cerrada por el portero. “The door was shut by the doorkeeper.” 

(simple past) 

3. La puerta ha sido cerrada por “The door has been shut by the 

el portero. doorkeeper.” 

(compound past) 

4. La puerta había sido cerrada por “The door had been shut by the 

el portero. doorkeeper.” 

(past perfect) 

false passive (estar) 

5. La puerta está cerrada. “The door is shut.” 

(present) 

6. Cuando llegué, la puerta estaba “When I arrived the door was shut.” 

cerrada. 

(imperfect) 

Similarly, 

La casa está construida con ladrillos. “The house is of brick construction 

[is constructed with bricks].” 

La casa es construida con ladrillos “The house is (being) constructed with 

[por la empresa Jiménez]. bricks [by Jiménez Co.].” 

El nuevo museo fue inaugurado la “The new museum was inaugurated last 

semana pasada; esta semana está week; this week it is open every day.” 

abierto todos los días. 

Los actores son aplaudidos por todos; “The actors are applauded by everyone; 

están cubiertos de sudor. they are covered with sweat.”

A potential confusion arises if one compares: 


La casa está construida con ladrillos El reloj es de oro. (“The watch is of 

gold.”) 

Both appear to relate to an essential, embedded, nature of an object, yet the first 

uses estar, the second ser. The fundamental difference is that in the first case the 

introduction of an explicit verb (construir) forces one to make a choice between 

process (ser) and outcome (estar). 

There are a number of stative verbs which relate essentially to a process and 

have no definite outcome, e.g. love, like, hate, envy, esteem, admire, search, contemplate, 

listen, know. These are (in principle at least) used only with ser: 

El Prado es muy conocido. “The Prado is very well known.” 

La reina es amada por todos. “The queen is loved by everyone” 

The following is normally a safe way to determine which verb to use: 

If there is an explicit agent introduced with por, or if one can add the 

agent without changing the sense (“The Prado is very well known . . . by 

all connoisseurs of art”), then a true passive is involved and ser is used. 

However, there are some verbs with a seeming agent introduced by por which 

nonetheless can be, and often have to be, used with estar. These include verbs 

whose English translation would be occupied, surrounded, covered, composed of, 

formed. 

La ciudad está rodeada por altas “The city is surrounded by high mountains.” 

montañas 

El senado está constituido por un “The Senate consists of (is constituted by) 

diputado de cada distrito del país. one deputy from each district of the 

country.” 

El suelo está cubierto por dos metros “The ground is covered by (with) two meters 

de nieve. of snow.” 

El tercer piso del hotel está ocupado “The third floor of the hotel is occupied by 

por turistas ingleses. English tourists.” 

In each of these examples, the noun following por is not really an active agent and 

in most cases could be replaced by another preposition (generally de or con) 

without changing the meaning.


Most of these verbs can also be used with ser, when the focus is on the process 

rather the result or status, something which is much easier to conceive when one 

is looking backward and hence uses the past tense: 

En menos de dos días, la ciudad fue “In less than two days, the city was 

rodeada por el ejército enemigo. surrounded by [true passive] the enemy 

army.” 

versus 

Cuando llegué la ciudad estaba “When I arrived the city was 

rodeada por el ejército enemigo. surrounded by [false passive] the 

enemy army.” 

Similarly, 

En 15 minutos el suelo fue totalmente “In 15 minutes the ground was covered 

cubierto por la nieve (de nieve). by snow.” 

El edificio fue ocupado por dos mil “The building was occupied by 2,000 

estudiantes para protestar contra la students to protest against the war.” 

guerra. 

This distinction between the use of ser and estar in “true” and “false” passive constructions 

is relatively recent. Thus in Don Quijote, one finds the phrase 

—Luego, ¿no es baptizada?—replicó “Then, she is not baptized?” replied 

Luscinda. 4 Luscinda. 

where the verb ser is used in a false passive construction (she was baptized in the 

past, she is presently in the state or condition of having been baptized). In Modern 

Spanish this would be expressed as: 

—Luego, ¿no está bautizada?—replicó false passive, present of estar 

Luscinda. 

or 

—Luego, ¿no fue bautizada?—replicó true passive, simple past of ser 

Luscinda. 

or 

—Luego, ¿no ha sido bautizada?— true passive, compound past of ser 

replicó Luscinda. 

4 Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra, El Ingenioso Hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha (Bogota: 

Panamericana, 1998), p. 365 (primera parte, capítulo 37).


Passive constructions are far less common in Spanish than English, as Spanish often 

replaces them with either an active or reflexive construction. Thus, the passive 

I am very surprised by your visit can be reformulated actively as: 

Me sorprende mucho tu visita. “Your visit greatly surprises me.” 

When no obvious subject is in sight, a reflexive or “pseudo-passive” construction 

is frequently employed using the reflexive pronoun se. 

literal meaning practical meaning 

Aquí se habla inglés. “Here English speaks “English is spoken 

itself.” here.” 

Aquí se construye una casa. “Here a house builds “Here a house is being 

itself.” built.” 

Se prohibe entrar. “To enter prohibits “It is prohibited to 

itself.” enter.” 

¿Cómo se hace esto? “How does this do “How does one do 

itself ?” this?” 

Note that with this type of construction the verb is always in the singular: se 

hablan (en) inglés would mean “they speak English among themselves.” Hablan 

inglés, without the pronoun, would be an acceptable substitute: “they speak English” 

(in general, not only among themselves). 

The popularity of this “pseudo-passive” has led to its expansion to areas of active 

meaning: 

Se me ocurre una idea. “An idea occurs to me.” 

Se le olvidó hacer sus deberes. “He forgot to do his homework.” 

Se nos robó el carro. “They robbed us of our car.” 

The literal translations of these phrases are “an idea occurs itself to me”, “to do 

his homework forgot itself to him”, and “the car robbed itself to us”.

CHAPTER 12 

Subjunctive 

Only traces of the subjunctive remain in Modern English: 

(a) the third person singular, where the present indicative ending -s contrasts 

with the “null” subjunctive ending (he does versus he do); 

(b) the verb to be, whose present subjunctive for all six conjugations is “be” 

(if I be, if you be, etc.); and 

(c) the use of were rather than was in statements of the form if I were, if he 

were, were he to (past subjunctive of to be). 

Consider, for example, the following phrase pairs: 


He is here; he was here. I wish that he were here. 

He does it. It is essential that he do it. 

He is punished. I demand that he be punished. 

He leaves. It is my desire that he leave at once. 

He is elected. God forbid that he be elected. 

The king lives. Long live the king. 

It is so; it was so. If only it were so! 

He understands. In order that he understand ... 

I am wicked. “If I be wicked, woe unto me . . .” (Job 10:15) 

It pleases the court. “If it please the court . . .” 

If John was at the meeting last night he certainly maintained a very low profile. 

versus 

If John were at the meeting, it would make a big difference. 

Some General Comments on the Use of the Subjunctive 

The subjunctive is often explained as representing the expression of an opinion 

or state of mind of the speaker, in the form of a wish, order, sentiment, or judgment. 

Its use in Spanish (as well as its traces in English) generally obeys these

SUBJUNCTIVE 139 

precepts. The difficulty for the student of Spanish, and the advanced practitioner 

as well, is that in its finer detail the use of subjunctive does not represent a fully consistent 

system. This can perhaps best be illustrated by contrasting the use of subjunctives 

in Spanish, French, and Italian, each of which derived both the form and 

use of its subjunctives from a common source. Consider the following sentences: 

1.When I am rich I will buy a house. 

2. I think that you are right. 

3. He is the richest man that I know. 

4. I will call you when I arrive. 

5.Take an umbrella, in case it rains. 

6. If I were rich, I would buy a castle. 

7. I wonder if this is true. 

8. Although it is raining, I will go for a walk. 

9. Even if it rains, I will go for a walk. 

Translated into the three languages, these phrases would typically employ the 

following moods for the italicized verb: 

Spanish French Italian 

1. subjunctive indicative (future) indicative (future) 

2. indicative indicative subjunctive 

3. indicative subjunctive subjunctive 

4. subjunctive indicative (future) indicative (future) 

5. subjunctive indicative (conditional) subjunctive 

6. subjunctive (imperfect) indicative (imperfect) subjunctive (imperfect) 

7. indicative indicative subjunctive 

8. indicative subjunctive subjunctive 

9. subjunctive indicative subjunctive 

In each case, the Spanish usage differs from one or both of the others; nor is there 

uniformity between the French and Italian forms. Any “logical” explanation of 

why the subjunctive is used as it is in one of these languages is unlikely to convince 

practitioners of the other two. 

The uses of the subjunctive in Spanish fall into two general categories, depending 

upon whether such use is obligatory or optional. Contrary to what might 

be one’s initial thought, its correct use is more important in the second case than 

in the first. That is, an error with an obligatory subjunctive does not impede the 

accurate conveyance of what the person is trying to say, whereas in an optional 

one it is likely to do so.


Thus in English if one incorrectly says 

*I wish that he leaves. rather than I wish that he leave. 

this will not prevent anyone understanding what the speaker is trying to say. Converse 

examples (i.e., of optional subjunctives) are rather hard to come up with in 

English, but consider the following pair of sentences: 

subjunctive Though I be sick I will go to school tomorrow 

(i.e., I am not sick at the moment but even if I am sick tomorrow 

I will still go to school). 

indicative Though I am sick I will go to school tomorrow 

(i.e., I am sick at the moment but still intend to go to school 

tomorrow). 

While archaic, the first phrase is grammatically correct (native English speakers 

would almost certainly say “Even if I am sick” . . .). The incorrect use of one of 

these forms in place of the other would convey inaccurate information as to the 

current health of the speaker. 

Numerous books have been written on the Spanish subjunctive 1 (as well as the 

French, Italian, etc.) to attempt to come up with a coherent theory for its use. The 

following is a somewhat typical explanation: 2 

...podemos decir que el indicativo presupone la afirmación o negación 

de un hecho, esto es, el hablante se compromete con la verdad de lo que 

dice, en tanto que el subjuntivo carece de semejante presuposición, el 

hablante adopta una postura neutra acerca de la verdad de lo dicho; 

esto es particularmente claro, por ejemplo, en la alternancia 

Aunque no sabe nada, aprobará/Aunque no sepa nada, aprobará, 

donde la carencia de conocimientos tan solo se constata en el primer caso. 

which can be translated as: 

...we can say that the indicative presupposes the affirmation or negation of 

a fact, i.e., the speaker commits himself to the truth of what he says, while 

the subjunctive lacks a similar presumption, the speaker adopting a neutral 

1 The reader is recommended at an appropriate stage to refer to one of the Spanish-language texts 

on the subjunctive having exercises and answers, e.g., Borrego, Asencio, and Prieto (1992) or Porto 

Dapena (1991), both of which also contain extensive bibliographies. 

2 Porto Dapena, pp. 33 –34.


posture with regard to the truth of what is said; this is particularly clear, for 

example, in the alternation 

Although I know nothing I will approve (it) / Although I might not know anything, 

I will approve (it), 

where the lack of knowledge is evident [and hence the indicative is used] 

only in the first case. 

Imperfect Subjunctive I versus Imperfect Subjunctive II 

So why are there two different forms for the imperfect subjunctive, and how, if at 

all, does their usage differ? The easiest way to answer these questions is to look at 

the historical origins of the two forms: 

Spanish form Latin origin 

imperfect subjunctive I (-ra form) indicative past perfect 

imperfect subjunctive II (-se form) subjunctive past perfect 

The imperfect subjunctive I thus started off life as an indicative form and has undergone 

the following metamorphoses: 

indicative past perfect S indicative conditional S imperfect 

subjunctive 

While passing through these stages, it maintained, at least in part, its previous 

meanings, so that in Modern Spanish, apart from its principal use as an imperfect 

subjunctive, the -ra form continues to have residual uses both as a conditional 

and as an indicative past perfect. The -se form cannot be used in either of 

these two manners; in all other (i.e., subjunctive) uses the -se and -ra forms can 

be used interchangeably. 

-ra Form Used with Conditional Meaning 

In the past, the -ra forms of all verbs could be used with conditional meaning. 

This usage has now largely been restricted to the auxiliary verb haber and the 

“modal” verbs querer, poder, and (more rarely) deber. Thus, 

often instead of 

hubiera hecho habría hecho “I (he) would have done” 

Quisiera vino. Querría vino. “I (he) would like wine.” 

Pudiera haberlo hecho. Podría haberlo hecho. “I (he) could have done it.” 

Habría podido hacerlo.


less often 

Debiera hacerlo. Debería hacerlo. “I (he) should do it.” 

Many students become confused with this conditional use of the -ra form and 

make the mistake of employing the -se form, e.g., 

*Quisiese un vino tinto, por favor. “I would like a red wine, please.” 

To avoid this problem, one can either constantly remind oneself of the fundamental 

rule that 

the -se form can never be used in situations where its value is not 

subjunctive 

or one can avoid all confusion by using only the -ra form. This is certainly the 

recommended strategy for the new student, particularly since outside of Spain 

the large majority of Spanish speakers seem to use this form exclusively. Within 

Spain there are many who continue to use the -se form and it is not unusual to 

find authors, particularly those affecting a literary style, using both forms, sometimes 

even in the same sentence. 

-ra Form Used with Meaning of Indicative Past Perfect 

Unlike the use of -ra forms with conditional meanings, this use is relatively rare 

and is generally discouraged by grammarians, e.g., 

Se utiliza cantaras como arcaísmo o dialectismo en lugar de la forma compuesta 

habías cantado, con valor modal de indicativo e indicando anterioridad 

a un punto del pretérito. 3 

Cantaras is used as an archaism or dialectalism in place of the compound 

form [i.e., indicative past perfect] habías cantado, with the “value” of the indicative 

mode and indicating [action] prior to a point in the past. 

3 Alarcos Llorach (p. 199).


Nonetheless, one occasionally finds examples in literary and journalistic 

works, e.g., 

Confirmó las noticias que ya diera el ministro hace unos días. 

instead of 

Confirmó las noticias que ya había dado el ministro hace unos días. 

“He confirmed the news which the minister had given several days earlier.” 

Correspondence of Tenses 

We have seen that Spanish has five simple tenses in the indicative: present, simple 

past, imperfect, future, and conditional. As there are only two tenses for the subjunctive, 

it is clear that these have double (or treble) duty. In general, indicative 

tenses correspond to subjunctive ones in the following manner: 


present 

future 

S present 

imperfect 

simple past S imperfect (I or II) 

conditional 

These correspondences extend to compound tenses as well: 

compound past he notado 

future perfect habré notado 

past perfect había notado 

conditional perfect habría notado 

Uses of the Subjunctive 


S haya notado 

S hubiera/hubiese notado 

The major uses of the subjunctive can be broadly divided among the following 

categories: 

1. desire, fear, order 

2. sentiment or judgment


3. possibility, probability, doubt 

4.”if . . . then” and other conditional clauses 

5. Excluding phrases: unless, instead of, etc. 

6. adjectival clauses: indefinite or negative 

7. adverbial clauses ( purpose, temporal, although, as if, if only) 

1. Desire, Fear, Order 

The unifying idea in this group is that of contrasting the actual situation with a 

hypothetical version: a desired one, a feared one, etc. Examples using the present 

and compound past subjunctive: 

(a) Wish/Desire/Fear 

Quiero que salga de aquí inmediatamente. “I wish that he leave immediately.” 

Desea que nosotros hagamos todo el 

trabajo. 

“He wishes that we do all the work.” 

Espero que España gane la Copa del 

Mundo. 

“I hope Spain wins the World Cup.” 

Temo que España no gane la Copa del “I fear that Spain will not win the 

Mundo este año. World Cup this year.” 

Espero que ya hayas leído este libro. “I hope that you have already read 

this book.” 

Espero que hayas leído este libro dentro “I hope that in a week you will 

de una semana. have read this book.” 

(b) Command/Request/Permission 

Nos manda que salgamos de aquí. “He orders that we leave.” 

Te aconsejo que hagas tus deberes hoy. “I advise that you do your homework 

today.” 

Te pido que me des tu dinero. “I request that you give me your money.” 

Me mandan que yo asista en su lugar. “They order that I take his place.” 

Note that because of the double duty of the present subjunctive, there can be ambiguity 

as to the precise meaning, e.g., hayas leído, which can refer either to the 

past (you have read) or the future (you will have read).


As with English, in many cases an infinitive construction can be used in place 

of the subjunctive. This is obligatory in the case of wish /desire verbs when the two 

clauses have the same subject: 

Quiero salir de aquí inmediatamente. “I want to leave from here 

immediately.” 

not *Quiero que (yo) salga de aquí. 

Espero ganar una medalla de oro. “I hope to win a gold medal.” 

not *Espero que (yo) gane una medalla 

de oro. 

Command/request /permission verbs in principle do not normally permit the subjects 

of the two clauses to be the same (*I order that I do it) and hence are not subject 

to the above rule. Nevertheless, with these verbs an infinitive construction is 

almost always possible and frequently preferred, although it is not wrong to use 

the subjunctive. 

Nos manda salir de aquí. “He orders us to leave.” 

Te aconsejo hacer tus deberes hoy. “I advise you to do your homework today.” 

Te pido darme tu dinero. “I request you to give me your money.” 

Me mandan asistir en su lugar. “They order me to take his place.” 

Some examples using the imperfect and past perfect subjunctive: 

Esperaba que España ganara la “I was hoping that Spain would win the the 

Copa del Mundo. World Cup.” 

Esperaba que llegaran a tiempo. “I was hoping that they arrived/would 

arrive on time.” 

Me mandaron que yo asistiera en “They ordered that I take his place.” 

su lugar. 

(or Me mandaron asistir en su lugar.) 

Esperaba que ya hubieras acabado “I was hoping that you had already finished 

con tus deberes antes de llegar. your homework before arriving.” 

Esperaba que hubieras acabado “I was hoping that you would have finished 

con tus deberes antes del próximo your homework before the coming 

fin de semana. weekend.” 

The last pair of examples illustrate that the subjunctive past perfect (hubieras 

acabado) can correspond to either an indicative past perfect (habías acabado) or 

to an indicative conditional perfect (habrías acabado).


It is also worth noting that esperar is one of the more semantically charged 

verbs in Spanish: apart from “to hope” it can also mean “to expect” or “to wait 

for.” Thus the first phrase above could also be translated as “I was expecting that 

Spain would win the World Cup.” 

2. Sentiment or Judgment 

(a) Sentiment 

Me alegra que te encuentres mejor. “I am glad that you are (find yourself ) 

better.” 

Me molesta que lo hagas. “It bothers me that you do it.” 

Me molestaba que lo hicieras. “It bothered me that you were doing it / 

did it.” 

Me extraña que María esté ausente. “I am surprised that Maria is absent.” 

Note again the potential ambiguities: in the last phrase for example, I may have 

just been informed that Maria will not be at the meeting tomorrow, in which case 

the English translation would be “I am surprised that Maria will be absent.” 

(b) Judgment or Valuation 

These are frequently of the form “it is ...” 

Es normal que llueva en el verano. “It’s normal that it rain(s) in the 

summer.” 

Es preciso que terminemos hoy. “It’s necessary that we finish today.” 

Fue necesario que termináramos ayer. “It was necessary that we finish 

yesterday.” 

Hace falta que compres leche. “It is necessary that you buy milk.” 

Parece injusto que seamos tan pobres. “It seems unjust that we are so poor.” 

Parecía injusto que fuéramos “It seemed unjust that we were 

tan pobres. so poor.” 

Lo mejor es que nos lo digas. “The best thing is that you tell us.” 

Es horrible que todavía no lo “It’s horrible that they still have 

hayan hecho. not done it.” 

We shall see below that parecer (“to appear, seem”) is most commonly used with 

the indicative; here the subjunctive is used because the expression parece injusto 

expresses a judgment or evaluation and is essentially equivalent to es injusto. 

As with the first group, when the subjects of the two clauses are the same, 

an infinitive construction is preferred, if not required. This is also the case for 

impersonal constructions (“it is necessary”, etc.)


Me molesta no poder ir al cine. “It bothers me not to be able to go to the 

cinema.” 

Te hace falta comprar leche. “You have to buy milk.” 

Es necesario terminar antes “It is necessary to finish by eight o’clock.” 

de las ocho. 

Lo mejor es no decirles nada. “The best thing is to tell them nothing.” 

3. Possibility, Probability, Doubt 

Consider the following hierarchy of likelihood: 

impossible S improbable S possible S probable S certain 

Spanish generally uses the subjunctive with all except the last. 

Era imposible que viniera. “It was impossible that he come.” 

Es posible que vengamos. “It’s possible that we will come.” 

Puede ser que venga mañana. “It’s possible that he will come tomorrow.” 

Es probable que vaya al parque. “It’s likely that I will go to the park.” 

Yo dudo que lo haya hecho. “I doubt that he has done/will have done it.” 

Dudaba que ella llegara a tiempo. “I doubted that she would arrive on time.” 

but 

Estoy seguro que ella llegará “I am certain that she will arrive tomorrow.” 

mañana. 

Note: 

(i) The use of llegara (imperfect subjunctive) and llegará (future) in the last 

two examples is differentiated only by a written accent. 4 

(ii) In several of the expressions there is ambiguity as to whether the verb 

refers to third person singular or first person singular. 

There are a number of adverbs which mean “perhaps” or “possibly”: 

quizás (or quizá), literally “who knows” (from Old Spanish qui sabe) 

tal vez 

posiblemente 

acaso 

a lo mejor 

4Orally, the two forms are of course distinguished by differing stress accent: on the final syllable 

for llegará, on the penultimate for llegara.


All except a lo mejor generally take the subjunctive when they are used before 

the verb: 

Quizás no fueran minutos sino “Perhaps it was not minutes but 

segundos. seconds.” 

Tal vez lo hagamos mañana. “Perhaps we will do it tomorrow.” 

Posiblemente sea la mejor novela “It is possibly the best novel of 

del año. the year.” 

Acaso estemos todos equivocados. “Perhaps we are all wrong.” 

They are always used with the indicative when they follow the verb. 

¿No entiendes, acaso, lo que te “Perhaps you don’t understand what we 

decimos? are saying to you?” 

Esta solución es quizás la mejor. “This solution is perhaps the best.” 

A lo mejor always takes the indicative, regardless of position. 

A lo mejor vendrá mañana. “Perhaps he will come tomorrow.” 

When one “thinks” something, the process apparently involves fewer doubts 

in Spanish than in Italian, and the indicative rather than the subjunctive is thus 

(almost always) used: 

Creo que vendrá mañana. “I think he will come tomorrow.” 

Similarly, the indicative is used in expressions of the form parece que (“it appears 

that”) when this refers to likelihood and not to appearance. 

Parece que lloverá mañana. “It looks like it will rain tomorrow.” 

Parece que han descubierto un “It seems that they have discovered a 

nuevo planeta. new planet.” 

When constructions in the “certainty” range are put in negative form, they move 

into the uncertainty range and are generally used with the subjunctive: 

No creo que venga mañana. “I don’t think he will come tomorrow.” 

No creía que Dios existiera. “He didn’t believe God existed.” 

No estoy seguro que venga mañana. “I am not sure that he will come 

tomorrow.” 

No me parece que sea verdad. “It doesn’t seem (likely) to me that 

it is true.”


When some expressions of the “doubtful” type are put in the negative, they become 

expressions of (near) certainty and hence are used with the indicative. Thus, 

Dudo que venga mañana. “I doubt that he will come tomorrow.” 

but 

No dudo que vendrá mañana. “I do not doubt that he will come tomorrow.” 

4.”If . . . then” and Other Conditional Clauses 

In Spanish, as in English, there are essentially three types of conditional phrases, 

two in the present (possible and purely hypothetical) and one in the past (hypothetical 

only); the latter can in turn be subdivided into two categories, depending 

upon whether the main (resultant) clause refers to the past or present. 

ENGLISH 

possible hypothetical 

present If I win the lottery I will If I were rich I would buy a 

buy a new house. new house. 

past — (a) If I had won the lottery, I would 

have bought a new house. 

(b) If I had won the lottery, today 

I would be a very rich man. 

SPANISH 

present Si gano la loto compraré Si fuera rico compraría una 

una nueva casa. nueva casa. 

past — (a) Si hubiera ganado la loto, habría 

comprado una nueva casa. 

(b) Si hubiera ganado la loto, hoy 

sería un hombre muy rico. 

The use of Spanish verb tenses in such phrases, which to a certain extent parallels 

the English usage, is as follows: 

if then 

present possible present indicative future (less commonly present 

or imperative) 

present hypothetical imperfect subjunctive conditional 

past hypothetical past perfect subjunctive (a) conditional perfect 

(b) conditional


Since 

past perfect subjunctive imperfect subjunctive of haber past participle 

conditional perfect conditional of haber past participle 

the use of verb tenses can be summarized as: 

if then 

possible present indicative future 

hypothetical imperfect subjunctive conditional 

It is essential to keep in mind that the indicative future or conditional can never 

be used in the if clause, although they are often used in the corresponding English 

phrases: 

Si me ayudas mañana, te daré 50 pesos. “If you will help me tomorrow, 

I will give you 50 pesos.” 

(not *ayudarás) 

Si estudiaras más, recibirías mejores notas. “If you would study more, you 

would get better grades.” 

(not *estudiarías) 

We remarked previously that the -ra form of the subjunctive is often used in place 

of the conditional for several verbs, including haber. Thus in place of the perfect 

conditional (habría comprado) one frequently finds the past perfect subjunctive 

(hubiera comprado): 

Si hubiera ganado la loto, hubiera “If I had won the lottery, I would 

comprado una nueva casa. have bought a new house.” 

One of the obvious advantages of this alternative is that the identical verb form 

is then used in both the if and then clauses. 


Si llueve mañana no iré al parque. “If it rains tomorrow I will not go to 

the park.” 

Será un desastre si llueve mañana. “It will be a disaster if it rains 

tomorrow.” 

Sería un desastre si lloviera mañana. “It would be a disaster if it were to rain 

tomorrow.”


Si has leído todos estos libros, el “If you have read all these books the test 

examen será fácil para ti. will be easy for you.” 

Habría (hubiera) sido un desastre “It would have been a disaster if that 

si ese hombre hubiera ganado man had won the elections.” 

las elecciones. 

Si hubieras estudiado más cuando “If you had studied more when young, 

joven, ahora serías médico. today you would be a doctor.” 

Conditional Phrases with Conjunctions Other than “If” 

As in English, conditional phrases can also be expressed with conjunctions other 

than if, e.g., 

en (el) caso de que “in case that”, “if ” 

a condición de que “on condition that” 

siempre y cuando, siempre que 5 “provided that” 

con tal (de) que “provided that” 

The rules are the same as for conditional clauses with si, with the exception 

that in a present “possible” conditional the present subjunctive is used in the 

conditional part of the phrase rather than the present indicative. Thus the correspondences 

are: 

if then 

present possible present subjunctive future 

present hypothetical imperfect subjunctive conditional 

past hypothetical past perfect subjunctive (a) conditional perfect 

(b) conditional 

En caso de que llueva esta noche, “In the event that it rains tonight I will 

no iré al parque mañana. not go to the park tomorrow.” 

En caso de que haya llovido anoche, “In the event that it rained last night 

no iré al parque hoy. [it may have, but I haven’t looked outside 

yet] I will not go to the park today.” 

En el caso de que ese hombre “In the event that that man were to win the 

ganara las elecciones, sería un elections it would be a disaster for the 

desastre para el país. country.” 

5 Siempre que can also be used in temporal clauses (“whenever”), in which case the verb can be 

either subjunctive or indicative; see number 7(b).


En el caso de que ese hombre “In the event that that man had won the 

hubiera ganado las elecciones, elections it would have been a great 

habría (hubiera) sido un gran disaster for the country.” 

desastre para el país. 

Compraré los tiquetes a condición “I will buy the tickets provided that you 

de que (con tal de que, siempre y give me sufficient money.” 

cuando, etc.) me des el dinero 

suficiente. 

5. Excluding Phrases 

There are a range of “excluding” conjunctions governing phrases which express 

a condition or something contrary to reality, in both cases calling for the use of 

the subjunctive: 

a menos que “unless” 

a no ser que “unless” 

sin que “without” 

lejos de que “far from” 

en lugar de que “instead of ” 

en vez de que “instead of ” 

A no ser que uno se convierta en perro, “Unless one converts oneself into a dog, 

nunca entenderá lo que ellos piensan. one will never understand what they 

think.” 

Argentina no pagará la deuda a menos “Argentina will not pay (its) debt unless 

que haya un acuerdo con el FMI. there is an agreement with the IMF.” 

En este país no se pueden comprar “In this country one can’t buy certain 

ciertos artículos a no ser que se sea articles unless one is a foreigner or 

extranjero o se obtenga autorización obtains authorization from the 

del gobierno. government.” 

Se fue sin que nadie lo supiera. “He left without anyone noticing it.” 

There are several excluding conjunctions which are used with the subjunctive 

when they have a conditional or counter-reality sense, but with the indicative 

when referring to a real situation: 

excepto que “except”, “unless” 

salvo que “unless”, “save that”

subjunctive 


No quiero nada, salvo que salgas de “I don’t want anything, except that you 

aquí inmediatamente. leave immediately.” 

O’Neal descarta jugar en Atenas ’04 “O’Neal rules out playing in Athens 

salvo que el técnico sea Phil Jackson. ’04 unless the coach is Phil Jackson.” 

indicative 

Ningún problema, salvo que he perdido “No problem, except that I have lost my 

mi pasaporte y todo mi dinero. passport and all my money.” 

6. Adjective Clauses: Indefinite or Negative 

An adjective clause is typically introduced by que or quien (pl. quienes). When it 

is specific and non-negative the indicative is used: 

Tengo un secretario que habla inglés. “I have a secretary who speaks English.” 

But when the reference is either nonspecific or negative the subjunctive is generally 

used: 

Busco un secretario que hable inglés. “I am looking for a secretary who 

speaks (would speak) English.” 

No conozco ningún secretario que “I don’t know any secretary who speaks 

hable inglés. (would speak) English.” 

Similarly, 

Quiero una habitación que tenga balcón. “I want a room which has a balcony.” 

Quise una habitación que tuviera balcón “I wanted a room which had a balcony.” 

¿Le dieron una habitación que tenga “Did they gave him a room which 

balcón? has a balcony?” 

The subjunctive is required in the last phrase because the person who is asking 

the question presumably is not referring to a specific room. In either of the cases 

below the indicative would be used: 

Le dieron una habitación que tenía “They gave him a room which had a 

balcón. balcony.” 

¿Le dieron la habitación que tiene “Did they give him the room which 

balcón? has a balcony?”


In the first case the reference is to a historical fact (he was given a room with balcony) 

while in the second the question refers to a specific room, i.e., the (only) 

one with a balcony. 

Other examples with the subjunctive: 

Cualquier cosa que haga este hombre “Whatever (thing) this man makes 

es mal hecha. (or does) is poorly made (done).” 

Quería ir de vacaciones a un lugar “I wanted to go for vacation to a place 

donde hubiera sol. where there was sun.” 

En este país no hay ningún político “In this country there isn’t any 

en quien uno pueda tener confianza. politician in whom one can have 

confidence.” 

7. Adverbial Clauses 

These are generally of the form: 

Main Clause Conjunction Adverbial Clause 

where the adverbial clause provides information relating to the how, why, when of 

the main clause. Adverbial clauses can be a bit tricky, because some conjunctions 

govern the subjunctive, others the indicative and yet others (the largest number) 

can be used with either depending on the meaning they are meant to convey. 

(a) Purpose versus Consequence 

Consider the following two sentences: 

Consequence: Mary spoke in such a manner that all were able to understand. 

Purpose: Mary spoke in such a manner so that John could understand. 

The first sentence says nothing about why Mary spoke the way she did; perhaps 

it is her natural speaking style. The fact that others were able to understand her 

is a consequence of her speaking style but we cannot say with certainty that this 

was its purpose. The situation is entirely different with the second sentence. Here 

Mary has made a concerted effort to speak in a manner in which John would understand 

her, and in fact we can make this even clearer in the form: 

Mary spoke in such a manner so that John would be able to understand. 

Spanish similarly distinguishes between these two types of phrases, using the 

indicativeforthefirst(consequence)andthesubjunctiveforthesecond(purpose).

Conjunctions of Purpose Always Followed by Subjunctive: 


para que 

a fin de que, con el fin de que 

con el objeto de que, con el propósito de que, con la finalidad de que 

María hizo un esfuerzo especial para “Mary made a special effort so that John 

que Juan pudiera comprender. could understand.” 

Saldremos muy temprano a fin de “We will leave very early in order that we 

que lleguemos a la hora. will arrive on time.” 

Conjunctions of Consequence Generally Followed by Indicative 

así que “so that” 

conque “so then”, “now then” 

luego “therefore” 

por consiguiente, en consecuencia “consequently”, “accordingly” 

por eso “for that reason” 

por lo tanto “therefore” 

pues “since”, “therefore” 

de manera que “in a manner that” 

de modo que " 

de forma que " 

Pienso, luego existo. “I think, therefore I am.” (Descartes) 

María habló de manera que “Mary spoke in a manner that everyone 

todos pudieron comprender. was able to understand.” 

The last three conjunctions, particularly when accompanied by the adverb tal 

(“such”), can also refer to the purpose of an action in which case they require a 

verb in the subjunctive: 

de tal manera que “in such a manner that” 

de tal modo que " 

de tal forma que " 

María habló de tal manera que “Mary spoke in such a manner that 

todos pudieran comprender. everyone was (would be) able to 

understand.”


This would perhaps be a good point to note that causal conjunctions, like those 

of consequence, are normally used with the indicative. 

porque “because” 

puesto que “since” 

ya que “since”, “as” 

como “since”, “as” 

Juan comprende lo que dice María “John understands what Mary says because 

porque habla lentamente. she speaks slowly.” 

Ya que llueve no iré al parque. “Since it is raining, I won’t go to the park.” 

Como era muy tarde no te llamé. “As it was very late I didn’t call you.” 

Como can be used in a number of other senses as well, some requiring the subjunctive, 

e.g., 

Puedes hacerlo como quieras. “You can do it however you (might) like.” 

In negative expressions in which the cause is called into doubt, porque can be 

used with the subjunctive: 

María está ausente hoy, no porque esté “Maria is absent today, not because she is 

enferma, sino porque está cansada. ill, but because she is tired.” 

The second verb (esté) is in the subjunctive because the speaker is not committing 

himself as to the state of Maria’s health. The third verb is in the indicative: 

the speaker not only affirms that Maria is tired but that this is the reason for her 

absence. 

(b) Temporal 

When the action governed by the conjunction is situated at a future point, with 

respect to either the present or a fixed point of reference, the subjunctive is used. 

In all other cases the indicative is used. The basic distinction is thus between 

something that has not yet occurred and hence is uncertain, and an event which 

is either occurring contemporaneously or has already taken place. 

cuando “when”, “whenever” 

antes de que “before” 

apenas “as soon as” (“scarcely”) 

después de que “after” 

en cuanto “as soon as”

hasta que “until” 

mientras “while”, “so long as” 

siempre que “whenever” 

tan pronto como “as soon as” 

With Subjunctive: 


Vendré cuando termine mis deberes. “I will come when I have finished my 

homework.” 

Cuando sea grande, me haré futbolista. “When I grow up (will be older), 

I will be a soccer player.” 

Te llamaré en cuanto llegue. “I will call you as soon as I arrive.” 

Te llamaré en cuanto haya llegado. “I will call you as soon as I will have 

arrived.” 

Deberías salir, antes de que sospechen “You should leave, before they 

de ti. suspect you.” 

Esperemos hasta que lleguen. “We (will) wait until they arrive.” 

Mientras estemos en París, visitaremos “While we are in Paris we will visit 

el Arco de Triunfo. the Arc of Triumph.” 

Siempre que puedas, ven a verme. “Whenever you are able, come see me.” 

Dijo que vendría en cuanto “He said that he would come as 

terminara sus deberes. soon as he finished his homework.” 

Salí antes de que llegaran mis amigos. “I left before my friends (had) 

arrived.” 

Antes de que refers to a future event (with reference to the main clause) and 

hence, at least in theory, always requires the subjunctive. The other conjunctions 

can at times be used with the indicative, particularly in recounting events which 

already have occurred or which are habitual. 

Salí después de que llegaron mis amigos. “I left after my friends arrived.” 

Esperé hasta que llegaron. “I waited until they arrived.” 

Salimos cuando terminó sus deberes. “We left when he finished his 

homework.” 

Me saludaba siempre que me veía. “He greeted me whenever he saw me.” 

Me saluda siempre que me ve. “He greets me whenever he sees me.” 

Tan pronto como lo hice, supe que “As soon as I did it, I knew it was a big 

fue un gran error. mistake.” 

Cuando hay sol no hay lluvia. “When there is sun there is no rain.” 

Siempre cuando no hago mis deberes “Always when I do not do my 

el profesor hace un examen. homework the teacher gives an 

exam.”


Used in a future sense después de que normally takes the subjunctive: 

Limpiaré la casa después de que todos “I will clean the house after everyone 

se hayan ido. leaves (will have left).” 

In the past tense the indicative should theoretically be required since in this case 

después de que refers to a prior action with regard to the fixed point of reference. 

Nonetheless, probably through confusion with antes de que, which always takes 

the subjunctive, it is not uncommon to find the subjunctive: 

Limpié la casa después de que todos “I cleaned the house after everyone left.” 

se fueron/se fueran. 

(c) Although 

“Although” clauses take the form: 

Although [condition], [action] 

The most important of the various conjunctions denoting “although” is aunque. 

The general rule is that if the condition specified by aunque (or equivalent) is real 

rather than hypothetical the indicative is used; if the condition is counter to fact 

(or the speaker is not vouching for its veracity) the subjunctive is used. Several 

conjunctions are used only with real conditions and hence always require the 

indicative. 

“Although” clauses thus distinguish between conditions which exist, and are 

hence obstacles, and those which do not exist. The latter are differentiated in turn 

according to whether they are possible or unlikely/impossible. The tense used 

in the “although” clause is shown below: it depends on both the nature of the 

“although” and whether the “action” in the main clause takes place in the present 

/future or past. 

main clause tense used in although clause 

real (obstacle) possible unlikely/impossible 

indicative subjunctive subjunctive 

present /future present /future present imperfect 

past imperfect /simple past / — past perfect 

compound past / 

past perfect


When the imperfect or past perfect subjunctive is used in the although clause, the 

verb in the main clause is usually in one of the forms of the conditional (present 

or perfect). 

Conjunctions Used with Either Subjunctive or Indicative 

aunque “although” 

aun cuando “even though” 

a pesar de que “in spite of ” 

por [adverb, adjective] que “for all the . . .” 

real obstacle, hence indicative 

Aunque eres mi hijo no te daré “Although you are my son, I will not 

ningún dinero. give you any money.” 

Aunque llueve iré al parque. “Although it is raining I will go to the 

park.” 

Aunque ayer llovía (llovió) fui al parque. “Although yesterday it was raining 

(rained) I went to the park.” 

Aunque hoy he trabajado mucho, “Although I have worked a lot today, 

no he logrado terminar. I have not managed to finish.” 

Aunque estará muy decepcionado no “Although he will be very disappointed 

iré a la playa con él mañana. I will not go to the beach with him 

tomorrow.” 

A pesar de que estaba (estuve) “Despite the fact that I was sick 

enfermo seguí trabajando. I continued working.” 

A pesar de que había estado muy “Despite the fact that I had been very 

enfermo en mayo, en junio fui al sick in May, in June I went to the 

polo norte. North Pole.” 

Por más que trabaja nunca tiene “For all that he works he never has 

el dinero suficiente. enough money.” 

possible, hence present subjunctive 

Aunque llueva voy (iré) al parque hoy. “Even if it rains (should rain) I will 

go to the park today.” 

La reconocerás aunque no la hayas “You will recognize her even if you 

visto en muchos años. have not seen (will not have seen) 

her for many years.” 

Por mucho que trabaje nunca será rico. “For all that he may work (will work) 

he will never be rich.”


unlikely or impossible, hence imperfect or past subjunctive 

Aunque fueras mi hijo no te daría “Even if you were my son I wouldn’t 

ningún dinero. give you any money.” 

Aunque ayer hubiera llovido, habría “Even if yesterday it had rained I would 

(hubiera) ido al parque. have gone to the park.” 

Aunque hubiera estado enfermo, “Even if I had been sick I would have 

habría (hubiera) terminado con finished the project.” 

el proyecto. 

Conjunctions Used Only with Indicative 

si bien “while”, “though” 

y eso que “even though” 

(aun) a sabiendas de que “knowingly”, “consciously” 

These conjunctions refer to real conditions, hence their use with the indicative. 

Si bien no es todo lo que esperaba, “Even if it is not everything I was 

estoy muy contento. hoping for, I am very happy.” 

Voy al partido a sabiendas de que van “I am going to the match even though 

a perder otra vez. I know they are going to lose again.” 

(d) As If 

You look as if you had just been hit by a train. 

By their very nature as if clauses present things which are counterfactual and 

hence are presented in the subjunctive. The principal conjunction used with this 

meaning is como si; others include cual si, lo mismo que si, and igual que si. The 

use of tenses is similar to the “unlikely/impossible” although clauses, i.e. 

setting subjunctive form 

present or future imperfect 

past past perfect (or imperfect) 

Me mira (miró) como si estuviera “He looks (looked) at me as if I were 

loco. crazy.” 

(or as if he were crazy) 

Mañana trabajaré lo mismo que si “Tomorrow I will work just the same as 

no fuera un día festivo. if it were not a holiday.” 

Estaba tan pálido como si hubiera “He was as pale as if he had seen 

visto un fantasma. a ghost.”


With expressions of the form “it seems that”, the situation is a bit different. As 

noted earlier, parece que is used with the indicative when it is conveys information, 

albeit in an attenuated fashion. 

Parece que está durmiendo. “It seems he’s finally sleeping.” 

But when the verb is used not to convey information but rather the state of mind 

of the speaker about what the situation appears to be or seems to be like, the 

subjunctive can be employed—present in present situations, imperfect with 

the past. 

Parece que esté durmiendo. “It (almost) appears as if he were asleep.” 

Por fin llegamos a la cumbre “At last we arrived at the summit of the 

de la montaña; era preciosa, mountain; it was beautiful, it seemed 

parecía que estuviéramos en un like we were in a giant bowl.” 

vaso gigante. 

In such (relatively rare) use parece que has a similar meaning to como si, but with 

the difference that while como si always requires an imperfect subjunctive, with 

parece que the present subjunctive is also possible. 

(e) Hopefully and If Only 

Ojalá is a very commonly used expression to convey a wish that something happen, 

or a regret that something didn’t happen as one would have wished. The use 

of subjunctive tenses is parallel to that of although clauses: present for the possible, 

imperfect for the unlikely/impossible, and past perfect for past regrets. 

¡Ojalá todavía estén esperando! “Hopefully, they are still waiting.” 

(or “they will still be waiting”) 

¡Ojalá no haya lluvia! “Hopefully it did not rain (will not 

have rained).” 

¡Ojalá llueva mañana! “Hopefully it will rain tomorrow.” 

¡Ojalá sea verdad! “Hopefully it is true.” 

¡Ojalá fuera verdad! “If only it were true!” 

¡Ojalá hubiera sido verdad! “If only it had been true!” 

¡Ojalá ganara la loto esta semana! “If only I would win the lottery this week!” 

¡Ojalá hubiera terminado mis “If only I had finished my homework 

deberes ayer! yesterday!”


In “popular” language, que or y is often inserted: 

¡Ojalá que no llueva! “Hopefully, it won’t rain.” 

¡Ojalá y no llueva! " 

Appendix 

Future Subjunctive 

In conditional clauses, using si or other conjunctions, there is at times ambiguity with regard 

to the meaning of a verb in the present tense (indicative or subjunctive), reflecting its 

use to represent both present and future possibilities: 

indicative Si no cumples esta ley, irás inmediatamente a la cárcel. 

subjunctive En caso de que no cumplas esta ley, irás 

inmediatamente a la cárcel. 

These can mean either 

(a) ”If you are (at this moment) not in compliance with this law, then you 

will (now) go immediately to jail.” 

(b) ”If (at some future moment) you will not be in compliance with this law, then you 

will (then) go immediately to jail.” 

This ambiguity did not always exist, as until the eighteenth century Spanish commonly 

employed a future subjunctive which allowed it to distinguish between these two 

meanings: 

Si no cumplieres esta ley . . . If (at some future time) you do not comply 

with this law ... 

En caso de que no cumplieres ... 

Many texts on Spanish either make no mention of the future subjunctive or simply indicate 

that it is now obsolete. While this is essentially correct for the spoken language, one 

not infrequently encounters the future subjunctive in both legal and administrative texts, 

as well as in a wide range of fixed expressions of the form: 

Sea lo que fuere. “What will be will be.” 

Fuera lo que fuere. " 

Venga lo que viniere. " 

Pase lo que pasare. " 

Venga de donde viniere. “Let it come from wherever.” 

siempre que fuere necesario “whenever it will be necessary”


Consider, for example, the part of La Constitución Española (1978) 6 which deals with the 

possibilities of a future king being either a child or incapacitated: 

Cuando el Rey fuere menor de edad, el padre o la madre del Rey y, en su defecto, el 

pariente mayor de edad más próximo a suceder en la Corona, según el orden establecido 

en la Constitución, entrará a ejercer inmediatamente la Regencia y la 

ejercerá durante el tiempo de la minoría de edad del Rey. 

Si el Rey se inhabilitare para el ejercicio de su autoridad y la imposibilidad fuere reconocida 

por las Cortes Generales, entrará a ejercer inmediatamente la Regencia el 

Príncipe heredero de la Corona, si fuere mayor de edad. Si no lo fuere, se procederá de 

la manera prevista en el apartado anterior, hasta que el Príncipe heredero alcance la 

mayoría de edad. 

An official translation reads: 

In the event of the King being under age [i.e., If the King will be under age], the King’s 

father or mother or, in default thereof, the oldest relative of legal age who is nearest 

in succession to the Crown, according to the order established in the Constitution, 

shall immediately assume the office of Regent, which [he] shall exercise during the 

King’s minority. 

If the King becomes [will become] unfit for the exercise of his authority, and this 

incapacity is [will be] recognized by the Cortes Generales, the Crown Prince shall 

immediately assume the Regency, if he is [will be] of age. If he is not [will not be], the 

procedure outlined in the foregoing paragraph shall apply until the coming of age 

of the Crown Prince. 

In modern Spanish, the future subjunctives would all have to be replaced by present 

subjunctives or indicatives, leading to potentially ambiguous statements (as in English) 

such as: 

which could mean 

Cuando el Rey sea menor “When the [current?] king is under age” 

Si el Rey se inhabilita “If the [current?] king is unfit” 

A text which suggests that an existing king (as opposed to a hypothetical future king) is 

unfit was not considered acceptable. The problem of course with legal texts is that they 

uniformly seek to avoid conditional tenses, saying whatwill happen rather than whatwould 

happen. In this case there is no alternative to the use of the “archaic” future subjunctive. 

6 Artículo 59. The Spanish Constitution (and English translation) can be found on the Constitution’s 

“official” website: .


Similarly, if one compares a “classical” with a “modern” version of the Bible, one will 

find that the elimination of the future subjunctive has led to a loss in precision in meaning 

in certain passages, such as the following: 

REINA VALERA VERSION: 

E hizo Jacob voto, diciendo: Si fuere Dios conmigo, y me guardare en este viaje que 

voy, y me diere pan para comer y vestido para vestir ...(Génesis 28: 20–22) 

Then Jacob made a vow, saying,“If God will be with me and will keep me in this way 

that I go, and will give me bread to eat and clothing to put on . . .” (English Standard 

Version) 

TYPICAL MODERN TRANSLATION: 

...Si Diosestá 7 conmigo . . . me guarda ...meda alimento...(La Biblia de las Américas) 

...If Godis with me . . .keeps me . . .gives me food. . . (author’s translation of La Biblia 

de las Américas) 

The Real Academia Española has tried on various occasions to revive the future subjunctive, 

but without success. It remains alive and well, however, in neighboring Portuguese. 

7 While there might appear to be a contradiction between the newer está (estar) and previous 

fuere, fuere was likely being used as the future subjunctive of ir rather than ser, so that a literal translation 

would be “if God will go with me . . .”

PART III 

ANNEXES


ANNEX A 

Models of Verb Classes and Sub-classes 1 

Perfectly Regular 

1. cantar 1-1 tocar 1-2 pagar 1-3 averiguar 

1-4 cazar 1-5 aislar 1-6 aullar 

1-7 descafeinar 1-8 rehusar 1-9 amohinar 

1-10 ahincar 1-11 cabrahigar 1-12 enraizar 

1-13 europeizar 1-14 actuar 1-15 enviar 

2. comer 2-1 vencer 2-2 coger 2-3 leer 

2-4 empeller 2-5 tañer 2-6 romper 

3. subir 3-1 fruncir 3-2 dirigir 3-3 distinguir 

3-4 delinquir 3-5 bullir 3-6 bruñir 

3-7 reunir 3-8 prohibir 3-9 abrir 

3-10 cubrir 3-11 escribir 3-12 imprimir 

3-13 pudrir 3-14 abolir (defective) 

Diphthongs (e S ie, o S ue) 

4A. pensar 4A-1 negar 4A-2 empezar 4A-3 errar 

4B. mostrar 4B-1 trocar 4B-2 colgar 4B-3 forzar 

4B-4 agorar 4B-5 desosar 4B-6 avergonzar 

5A. perder 

5B. mover 5B-1 cocer 5B-2 oler 5B-3 resolver 

5B-4 volver 

Diphthongs (e S ie, o S ue) and/or Umlauts (e S i, o S u) 

6A. sentir 6A-1 erguir 

6B. pedir 6B-1 elegir 6B-2 seguir 6B-3 ceñir 

6B-4 reír 

6C. dormir 6C-1 morir 

1 Italicized sub-classes (e.g., 2.6 romper) are identical to their class model (comer for romper) apart 

from their irregular past participle. Freír has an irregular past participle but is not listed as a separate 

sub-class of reír (6B-4).

168 ANNEX A 

1st Person Singular -zco 

7A. conocer 7A-1 yacer 7A-2 placer 

7B. lucir 

“Add -y except before -i” 

8. construir 

Irregular 1st Singular -go (Otherwise Largely Predictable) 

9. caer 9-1 raer 9-2 roer 

10. oír 

11. salir 

12. valer 

13. asir 

Mixed Patterns 

14. ver 14-1 prever 

15. discernir 

16. jugar 

17. adquirir 

18. argüir 

Fundamentally Irregular 

19. ser 

20. estar 

21. haber 

22. saber 

23. caber 

24. ir 

25. dar 

26. poder 

27. querer 

28. decir 28-1 predecir 28-2 bendecir 

29. hacer 29-1 rehacer 29-2 satisfacer 

30. poner 30-1 suponer 

31. tener 31-1 obtener 

32. venir 32-1 convenir

33. traer 

34. -ducir 

35. andar 

On the following pages the complete conjugations for all of the above verb classes are presented. 

For the sub-classes, in general only tenses where one or more conjugations differ 

from the class model are shown; for 2-3 (leer), 3-14 (abolir), 6A-1 (erguir), 6B-1 (elegir), 

6B-2 (seguir), 6B-3 (ceñir), 6B-4 (reír) and 14-1 (prever) the full conjugations are shown. 

For all verbs apart from ser, haber, and ir, the relevant irregularities and/or orthographic 

modifications are presented in summary form at the top of the page. Note that: 

(i) For a number of verbs, changes occur in conjugations in which the stress accent 

falls on the stem (root) syllable: present indicative (1s/2s/3s/3p), present subjunctive 

(1s/2s/3s/3p), and imperative (2s). 

(ii) An irregular first person singular present indicative always implies an irregular 

present subjunctive. 

(iii) An irregular simple past implies a (precisely) corresponding irregular imperfect 

subjunctive. 

1 CANTAR TO SING 

INDICATIVE 

Present Simple Past Imperfect Future Conditional 

canto canté cantaba cantaré cantaría 

cantas cantaste cantabas cantarás cantarías 

canta cantó cantaba cantará cantaría 

cantamos cantamos cantábamos cantaremos cantaríamos 

cantáis cantasteis cantabais cantaréis cantaríais 

cantan cantaron cantaban cantarán cantarían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 

Present Imperfect (I) Imperfect (II) 

cante cantara cantase 

cantes cantaras cantases 

cante cantara cantase 

cantemos cantáramos cantásemos 

cantéis cantarais cantaseis 

canten cantaran cantasen 

IMPERATIVE canta cantad 

PAST PARTICIPLE cantado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE cantando 

MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 169

170 ANNEX A 

1-1 C S QU TOCAR TO TOUCH 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SIMPLE PAST IMPERATIVE 

Present Present 

toque toqué 

toques tocaste 

toque tocó 

toquemos tocamos 

toquéis tocasteis 

toquen tocaron 

1-2 G S GU PAGAR TO PAY 



pague pagué 

pagues pagaste 

pague pagó 

paguemos pagamos 

paguéis pagasteis 

paguen pagaron 

1-3 GU S GÜ AVERIGUAR TO ASCERTAIN 



averigüe averigüé 

averigües averiguaste 

averigüe averiguó 

averigüemos averiguamos 

averigüéis averiguasteis 

averigüen averiguaron 

1-4 Z S C CAZAR TO HUNT, CHASE 



cace cacé 

caces cazaste 

cace cazó 

cacemos cazamos 

cacéis cazasteis 

cacen cazaron

MODELS OF VERB CLASSES AND SUB-CLASSES 171 

1-5 AI S AÍ 1 AISLAR TO ISOLATE, 

INSULATE 



aíslo aísle 

aíslas aísles aísla 

aísla aísle 

aislamos aislemos 

aisláis aisléis aislad 

aíslan aíslen 

1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-5. 

1-6 AU S AÚ 1 AULLAR TO HOWL 



aúllo aúlle 

aúllas aúlles aúlla 

aúlla aúlle 

aullamos aullemos 

aulláis aulléis aullad 

aúllan aúllen 

1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. Other verbs in 1-6: 

ahumar, aunar, aupar, maullar. 

1-7 EI S EÍ 1 DESCAFEINAR TO DECAFFEINATE 



descafeíno descafeíne 

descafeínas descafeínes descafeína 

descafeína descafeíne 

descafeinamos descafeinemos 

descafeináis descafeinéis descafeinad 

descafeínan descafeínen 

1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. The only other verb in 1-7 is 

sobrehilar.

172 ANNEX A 

1-8 E(H)U S E(H)Ú 1 REHUSAR TO REFUSE 



rehúso rehúse 

rehúsas rehúses rehúsa 

rehúsa rehúse 

rehusamos rehusemos 

rehusáis rehuséis rehusad 

rehúsan rehúsen 


1-9 O(H)I S O(H)Í 1 AMOHINAR TO ANNOY 



amohíno amohíne 

amohínas amohínes amohína 

amohína amohíne 

amohinamos amohinemos 

amohináis amohinéis amohinad 

amohínan amohínen 


1-10 C S QU 

A(H)I S A(H)Í 

AHINCAR TO URGE 

1 



ahínco ahínQUe ahinQUé 

ahíncas ahínQUes ahincaste ahínca 

ahínca ahínQUe ahincó 

ahincamos ahinQUemos ahincamos 

ahincáis ahinQUéis ahincasteis ahincad 

ahíncan ahínQUen ahincaron 

1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-10.

1-11 G S GU CABRAHIGAR TO CAPRIFICATE 

A(H)I S A(H)Í 1 



cabrahígo cabrahíGUe cabrahiGUé 

cabrahígas cabrahíGUes cabrahigaste cabrahíga 

cabrahíga cabrahíGUe cabrahigó 

cabrahigamos cabrahiGUemos cabrahigamos 

cabrahigáis cabrahiGUéis cabrahigasteis cabrahigad 

cabrahígan cabrahíGUen cabrahigaron 


1-12 Z S C ENRAIZAR TO TAKE ROOT 

AI S AÍ 1 



enraízo enraíCe enraiCé 

enraízas enraíCes enraizaste enraíza 

enraíza enraíCe enraizó 

enraizamos enraiCemos enraizamos 

enraizáis enraiCéis enraizasteis enraizad 

enraízan enraíCen enraizaron 

1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. Other verbs in 1-12: desenraizar, he- 

braizar, judaizar 

1-13 Z S C EUROPEIZAR TO EUROPEANIZE 

EI S EÍ 1 




europeízo europeíCe europeiCé 

europeízas europeíCes europeizaste europeíza 

europeíza europeíCe europeizó 

europeizamos europeiCemos europeizamos 

europeizáis europeiCéis europeizasteis europeizad 

europeízan europeíCen europeizaron 

1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. There are no other verbs in 1-13.

174 ANNEX A 

1-14 U S Ú 1 ACTUAR TO ACT, ACTUATE 



actúo actúe 

actúas actúes actúa 

actúa actúe 

actuamos actuemos 

actuáis actuéis actuad 

actúan actúen 

1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. All -uar verbs not ending in -cuar 

or -guar are in 1-14. 

1-15 I S Í 1 ENVIAR TO SEND 



envío envíe 

envías envíes envía 

envía envíe 

enviamos enviemos 

enviáis enviéis enviad 

envían envíen 

1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. About 30% of verbs ending in -iar 

are in 1-15, the rest (e.g., cambiar) are conjugated like cantar (1). 

2 COMER TO EAT 

INDICATIVE 


como comí comía comeré comería 

comes comiste comías comerás comerías 

come comió comía comerá comería 

comemos comimos comíamos comeremos comeríamos 

coméis comisteis comíais comeréis comeríais 

comen comieron comían comerán comerían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


coma comiera comiese 

comas comieras comieses 

coma comiera comiese 

comamos comiéramos comiésemos 

comáis comierais comieseis 

coman comieran comiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) come comed 

PAST PARTICIPLE comido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE comiendo 

2-1 C S Z VENCER TO VANQUISH 



venzo venza 

vences venzas 

vence venza 

vencemos venzamos 

vencéis venzáis 

vencen venzan 

2-2 G S J COGER TO GRASP, CATCH 



cojo coja 

coges cojas 

coge coja 

cogemos cojamos 

cogéis cojáis 

cogen cojan 


2-3 UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y 

ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT 

LEER TO READ 

INDICATIVE 


leo leí leía leeré leería 

lees leíste leías leerás leerías 

lee leyó leía leerá leería 

leemos leímos leíamos leeremos leeríamos 

leéis leísteis leíais leeréis leeríais 

leen leyeron leían leerán leerían

176 ANNEX A 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


lea leyera leyese 

leas leyeras leyeses 

lea leyera leyese 

leamos leyéramos leyésemos 

leáis leyerais leyeseis 

lean leyeran leyesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) lee leed 

PAST PARTICIPLE leído 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE leyendo 

2-4 LL IE S LLE EMPELLER TO PUSH, 

LL IO S LLO SHOVE 

SIMPLE PAST SUBJUNCTIVE 

Imperfect (1) Imperfect (2) 

empellí empellera empellese 

empelliste empelleras empelleses 

empelló (not *empellio) empellera empellese 

empellimos empelléramos empellésemos 

empellisteis empellerais empelleseis 

empelleron (not *empellieron) empelleran empellesen 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE empellendo (not *empelliendo) 

2-5 Ñ IE S ÑE 

Ñ IO S ÑO 

TAÑER TO PLAY (A MUSICAL INSTRUMENT) 



tañí tañera tañese 

tañiste tañeras tañeses 

tañó (not *tañio) tañera tañese 

tañimos tañéramos tañésemos 

tañisteis tañerais tañeseis 

tañeron (not *tañieron) tañeran tañesen 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE tañendo (not *tañiendo) 

2-6 ROMPER TO BREAK PAST 

PARTICIPLE: 

ROTO

3 SUBIR TO RAISE, TO CLIMB 

INDICATIVE 


subo subí subía subiré subiría 

subes subiste subías subirás subirías 

sube subió subía subirá subiría 

subimos subimos subíamos subiremos subiríamos 

subís subisteis subíais subiréis subiríais 

suben subieron subían subirán subirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


suba subiera subiese 

subas subieras subieses 

suba subiera subiese 

subamos subiéramos subiésemos 

subáis subierais subieseis 

suban subieran subiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sube subid 

PAST PARTICIPLE subido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE subiendo 

3-1 C S Z FRUNCIR TO WRINKLE 

(BROW, NOSE) 



frunzo frunza 

frunces frunzas 

frunce frunza 

fruncimos frunzamos 

fruncís frunzáis 

fruncen frunzan 

3-2 G S J DIRIGIR TO DIRECT 



dirijo dirija 

diriges dirijas 

dirige dirija 

dirigimos dirijamos 

dirigís dirijáis 

dirigen dirijan 


178 ANNEX A 

3-3 GU S G DISTINGUIR TO DISTINGUISH 



distingo distinga 

distingues distingas 

distingue distinga 

distinguimos distingamos 

distinguís distingáis 

distinguen distingan 

3-4 QU S C DELINQUIR TO TRANSGRESS 



delinco delinca 

delinques delincas 

delinque delinca 

delinquimos delincamos 

delinquís delincáis 

delinquen delincan 

3-5 LL IE S LLE BULLIR TO BOIL, BUBBLE 

LL IO S LLO 



bullí bullera bullese 

bulliste bulleras bulleses 

bulló (not *bullio) bullera bullese 

bullimos bulléramos bullésemos 

bullisteis bullerais bulleseis 

bulleron (not *bullieron) bulleran bullesen 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE bullendo (not *bulliendo) 

3-6 Ñ IE S ÑE BRUÑIR TO BURNISH 

Ñ IO S ÑO 



bruñí bruñera bruñese 

bruñiste bruñeras bruñeses 

bruñó (not *bruñio) bruñera bruñese 

bruñimos bruñéramos bruñésemos 

bruñisteis bruñerais bruñeseis 

bruñeron (not *bruñieron) bruñeran bruñesen 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE bruñendo (not *bruñiendo)


3-7 EU S EÚ 1 REUNIR TO REUNITE 



reúno reúna 

reúnes reúnas reúne 

reúne reúna 

reunimos reunamos 

reunís reunáis reunid 

reúnen reúnan 

1Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. The only other verb in 3-7 is 

rehundir. 

3-8 O(H)I S O(H)Í 1 PROHIBIR TO PROHIBIT 



prohíbo prohíba 

prohíbes prohíbas prohíbe 

prohíbe prohíba 

prohibimos prohibamos 

prohibís prohibáis prohibid 

prohíben prohíban 

1 Written accents in conjugations stressed on stem syllable. The only other verb in 3-8 is cohibir. 

3-9 ABRIR TO OPEN PAST PARTICIPLE: ABIERTO 

3-10 CUBRIR TO CLOSE PAST PARTICIPLE: CUBIERTO 

3-11 ESCRIBIR TO WRITE PAST PARTICIPLE: ESCRITO 1 

3-12 IMPRIMIR TO PRINT PAST PARTICIPLE: IMPRESO/IMPRIMIDO 

3-13 PUDRIR TO PUTREFY PAST PARTICIPLE: PODRIDO 

1 The RAE also accepts the “old” forms ending in -scripto for all -scribir verbs apart from escribir, 

rescribir, reescribir and manuscribir: inscripto, suscripto, transcripto, etc. 

3-14 DEFECTIVE ABOLIR TO ABOLISH 

INDICATIVE 


— abolí abolía aboliré aboliría 

— aboliste abolías abolirás abolirías 

— abolió abolía abolirá aboliría 

abolimos abolimos abolíamos aboliremos aboliríamos 

abolís abolisteis abolíais aboliréis aboliríais 

— abolieron abolían abolirán abolirían

180 ANNEX A 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


— aboliera aboliese 

— abolieras abolieses 

— aboliera aboliese 

— aboliéramos aboliésemos 

— abolierais abolieseis 

— abolieran aboliesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) — abolid 

PAST PARTICIPLE abolido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE aboliendo 

Note: All conjugations are regular, but only those where the post-stem vowel is -i (or diphthong 

-ie/-io) are used. 

4A DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 PENSAR TO THINK 

INDICATIVE 


pienso pensé pensaba pensaré pensaría 

piensas pensaste pensabas pensarás pensarías 

piensa pensó pensaba pensará pensaría 

pensamos pensamos pensábamos pensaremos pensaríamos 

pensáis pensasteis pensabais pensaréis pensaríais 

piensan pensaron pensaban pensarán pensarían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


piense pensara pensase 

pienses pensaras pensases 

piense pensara pensase 

pensemos pensáramos pensásemos 

penséis pensarais pensaseis 

piensen pensaran pensasen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) piensa pensad 

PAST PARTICIPLE pensado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE pensando 

1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable.

4A-1 DIPHTHONG E S IE NEGAR TO DENY 

G S GU 



niego nieGUe neGUé 

niegas nieGUes negaste niega 

niega nieGUe negó 

negamos neGUemos negamos 

negáis neGUéis negasteis negad 

niegan nieGUen negaron 

4A-2 DIPHTHONG E S IE EMPEZAR TO BEGIN 

Z S C 




empiezo empieCe empeCé 

empiezas empieCes empezaste empieza 

empieza empieCe empezó 

empezamos empeCemos empezamos 

empezáis empeCéis empezasteis empezad 

empiezan empieCen empezaron 

4A-3 DIPHTHONG E S YE ERRAR TO ERR, TO WANDER 



yerro yerre 

yerras yerres yerra 

yerra yerre 

erramos erremos 

erráis erréis errad 

yerran yerren 

4B DIPHTHONG O S UE 1 MOSTRAR TO SHOW 

INDICATIVE 


muestro mostré mostraba mostraré mostraría 

muestras mostraste mostrabas mostrarás mostrarías 

muestra mostró mostraba mostrará mostraría 

mostramos mostramos mostrábamos mostraremos mostraríamos 

mostráis mostrasteis mostrabais mostraréis mostraríais 

muestran mostraron mostraban mostrarán mostrarían

182 ANNEX A 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


muestre mostrara mostrase 

muestres mostraras mostrases 

muestre mostrara mostrase 

mostremos mostráramos mostrásemos 

mostréis mostrarais mostraseis 

muestren mostraran mostrasen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) muestra mostrad 

PAST PARTICIPLE mostrado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE mostrando 

1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable. 

4B-1 DIPHTHONG O S UE 

C S QU 

TROCAR TO EXCHANGE 



trueco trueQUe troQUé 

truecas trueQUes trocaste trueca 

trueca trueQUe trocó 

trocamos troQUemos trocamos 

trocáis troQUéis trocasteis trocad 

truecan trueQUen trocaron 


G S GU 

COLGAR TO HANG 



cuelgo cuelGUe colGUé 

cuelgas cuelGUes colgaste cuelga 

cuelga cuelGUe colgó 

colgamos colGUemos colgamos 

colgáis colGUéis colgasteis colgad 

cuelgan cuelGUen colgaron

4B-3 DIPHTHONG O S UE FORZAR TO FORCE 

Z S C 




fuerzo fuerCe forCé 

fuerzas fuerCes forzaste fuerza 

fuerza fuerCe forzó 

forzamos forCemos forzamos 

forzáis forCéis forzasteis forzad 

fuerzan fuerCen forzaron 

4B-4 DIPHTHONG GO S GÜE AGORAR TO PREDICT 

(SUPERSTITIOUSLY) 



agüero agüere 

agüeras agüeres agüera 

agüera agüere 

agoramos agoremos 

agoráis agoréis agorad 

agüeran agüeren 

4B-5 DIPHTHONG O S HUE DESOSAR 1 TO BONE 



deshueso deshuese 

deshuesas deshueses deshuesa 

deshuesa deshuese 

desosamos desosemos 

desosáis desoséis desosad 

deshuesan deshuesen 

1 Desosar is the “old” form of deshuesar by which it has largely been supplanted. 

4B-6 DIPHTHONG GO S GÜE 

Z S C 

AVERGONZAR TO SHAME 



avergüenzo avergüenCe avergonCé 

avergüenzas avergüenCes avergonzaste avergüenza 

avergüenza avergüenCe avergonzó 

avergonzamos avergonCemos avergonzamos 

avergonzáis avergonCéis avergonzasteis avergonzad 

avergüenzan avergüenCen avergonzaron

184 ANNEX A 

5A DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 PERDER TO LOSE 

INDICATIVE 


pierdo perdí perdía perderé perdería 

pierdes perdiste perdías perderás perderías 

pierde perdió perdía perderá perdería 

perdemos perdimos perdíamos perderemos perderíamos 

perdéis perdisteis perdíais perderéis perderíais 

pierden perdieron perdían perderán perderían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


pierda perdiera perdiese 

pierdas perdieras perdieses 

pierda perdiera perdiese 

perdamos perdiéramos perdiésemos 

perdáis perdierais perdieseis 

pierdan perdieran perdiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pierde perded 

PAST PARTICIPLE perdido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE perdiendo 


5B DIPHTHONG O S UE 1 MOVER TO MOVE 

INDICATIVE 


muevo moví movía moveré movería 

mueves moviste movías moverás moverías 

mueve movió movía moverá movería 

movemos movimos movíamos moveremos moveríamos 

movéis movisteis movíais moveréis moveríais 

mueven movieron movían moverán moverían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


mueva moviera moviese 

muevas movieras movieses 

mueva moviera moviese 

movamos moviéramos moviésemos 

mováis movierais movieseis 

muevan movieran moviesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) mueve moved 

PAST PARTICIPLE movido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE moviendo 




C S Z 

COCER TO COOK 



cueZo cueZa 

cueces cueZas cuece 

cuece cueZa 

cocemos coZamos 

cocéis coZáis coced 

cuecen cueZan 

5B-2 DIPHTHONG O S HUE OLER TO SMELL 



huelo huela 

hueles huelas huele 

huele huela 

olemos olamos 

oléis oláis oled 

huelen huelan 

5B-3 RESOLVER TO RESOLVE, SOLVE PAST PARTICIPLE: RESUELTO 

5B-4 VOLVER TO TURN PAST PARTICIPLE: VUELTO

186 ANNEX A 

6A DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 SENTIR TO FEEL 

UMLAUT E S I 2 

INDICATIVE 


siento sentí sentía sentiré sentiría 

sientes sentiste sentías sentirás sentirías 

siente sintió sentía sentirá sentiría 

sentimos sentimos sentíamos sentiremos sentiríamos 

sentís sentisteis sentíais sentiréis sentiríais 

sienten sintieron sentían sentirán sentirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


sienta sintiera sintiese 

sientas sintieras sintieses 

sienta sintiera sintiese 

sintamos sintiéramos sintiésemos 

sintáis sintierais sintieseis 

sientan sintieran sintiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) siente sentid 

PAST PARTICIPLE sentido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE sintiendo 


2 In conjugations not stressed on stem syllable, when next vowel is not (simple) -i. 

6A-1 LIKE SENTIR OR PEDIR1 GU S G 

ERGUIR TO RAISE, LIFT UP 

INDICATIVE 


yerGo or irGo erguí erguía erguiré erguiría 

yergues or irgues erguiste erguías erguirás erguirías 

yergue or irgue irguió erguía erguirá erguiría 

erguimos erguimos erguíamos erguiremos erguiríamos 

erguís erguisteis erguíais erguiréis erguiríais 

yerguen or irguen irguieron erguían erguirán erguirían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


yerGa or irGa irguiera irguiese 

yerGas or irGas irguieras irguieses 

yerGa or irGa irguiera irguiese 

yerGamos 2 or irGamos irguiéramos irguiésemos 

yerGáis 2 or irGáis irguierais irguieseis 

yerGan or irGan irguieran irguiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) yergue or irgue erguid 

PAST PARTICIPLE erguido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE irguiendo 

1 Sentir model more common; diphthongs are written “ye”, as for errar (4A-3). 

2 The forms yergamos and yergáis are irregular, since a diphthong does not normally occur in an 

unstressed syllable. They are not recognized by the RAE but appear elsewhere (e.g., Moliner). 

6B UMLAUT E S I 1 PEDIR TO REQUEST 

INDICATIVE 


pido pedí pedía pediré pediría 

pides pediste pedías pedirás pedirías 

pide pidió pedía pedirá pediría 

pedimos pedimos pedíamos pediremos pediríamos 

pedís pedisteis pedíais pediréis pediríais 

piden pidieron pedían pedirán pedirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


pida pidiera pidiese 

pidas pidieras pidieses 

pida pidiera pidiese 

pidamos pidiéramos pidiésemos 

pidáis pidierais pidieseis 

pidan pidieran pidiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pide pedid 

PAST PARTICIPLE pedido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE pidiendo 

1 In conjugations in which next vowel is not (simple) -i. 


188 ANNEX A 

6B-1 UMLAUT E S I ELEGIR TO ELECT 

G S J 

INDICATIVE 


eliJo elegí elegía elegiré elegiría 

eliges elegiste elegías elegirás elegirías 

elige eligió elegía elegirá elegiría 

elegimos elegimos elegíamos elegiremos elegiríamos 

elegís elegisteis elegíais elegiréis elegiríais 

eligen eligieron elegían elegirán elegirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


eliJa eligiera eligiese 

eliJas eligieras eligieses 

eliJa eligiera eligiese 

eliJamos eligiéramos eligiésemos 

eliJáis eligierais eligieseis 

eliJan eligieran eligiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) elige elegid 

PAST PARTICIPLE elegido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE eligiendo 

6B-2 UMLAUT E S I 

GU S G 

SEGUIR TO FOLLOW 

INDICATIVE 


siGo seguí seguía seguiré seguiría 

sigues seguiste seguías seguirás seguirías 

sigue siguió seguía seguirá seguiría 

seguimos seguimos seguíamos seguiremos seguiríamos 

seguís seguisteis seguíais seguiréis seguiríais 

siguen siguieron seguían seguirán seguirían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


siGa siguiera siguiese 

siGas siguieras siguieses 

siGa siguiera siguiese 

siGamos siguiéramos siguiésemos 

siGáis siguierais siguieseis 

siGan siguieran siguiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sigue seguid 

PAST PARTICIPLE seguido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE siguiendo 

6B-3 UMLAUT E S I 

Ñ IE S ÑE, Ñ IO S ÑO * 

CEÑIR TO GIRD 

INDICATIVE 


ciño ceñí ceñía ceñiré ceñiría 

ciñes ceñiste ceñías ceñirás ceñirías 

ciñe ciñó * ceñía ceñirá ceñiría 

ceñimos ceñimos ceñíamos ceñiremos ceñiríamos 

ceñís ceñisteis ceñíais ceñiréis ceñiríais 

ciñen ciñeron * ceñían ceñirán ceñirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


ciña ciñera * ciñese * 

ciñas ciñeras * ciñeses * 

ciña ciñera * ciñese * 

ciñamos ciñéramos * ciñésemos * 

ciñáis ciñerais * ciñeseis * 

ciñan ciñeran * ciñesen * 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ciñe ceñid 

PAST PARTICIPLE ceñido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE ciñendo * 


190 ANNEX A 

6B-4 UMLAUT E S I REÍR TO LAUGH 

II S I * 


INDICATIVE 


río reí reía reiré reiría 

ríes reíste reías reirás reirías 

ríe rió * reía reirá reiría 

reímos reímos reíamos reiremos reiríamos 

reís reísteis reíais reiréis reiríais 

ríen rieron * reían reirán reirían 

Under new orthographic rules, rió can be written rio. Similarly for freír: frió can be written 

frio. For multi-syllable verbs a written accent is always required (sonrió, refrió, sofrió, 

deslió, engrió). 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


ría riera * riese * 

rías rieras * rieses * 

ría riera * riese * 

riamos riéramos * riésemos * 

riáis rierais * rieseis * 

rían rieran * riesen * 

Under new orthographic rules, riáis can be written riais. Similarly for freír: friáis can be 

written friais. For multi-syllable verbs a written accent is always required (sonriáis, etc.). 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ríe reíd 

PAST PARTICIPLE 1 reído 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE riendo * 

1 Freír (to fry) has an irregular past participle frito beside the (rarer) regular form freído. The 

compound verbs refreír and sofreír similarly have dual past participles. 

6C DIPHTHONG O S UE 1 DORMIR TO SLEEP 

UMLAUT O S U 2 

INDICATIVE 


duermo dormí dormía dormiré dormiría 

duermes dormiste dormías dormirás dormirías 

duerme durmió dormía dormirá dormiría 

dormimos dormimos dormíamos dormiremos dormiríamos 

dormís dormisteis dormíais dormiréis dormiríais 

duermen durmieron dormían dormirán dormirían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


duerma durmiera durmiese 

duermas durmieras durmieses 

duerma durmiera durmiese 

durmamos durmiéramos durmiésemos 

durmáis durmierais durmieseis 

duerman durmieran durmiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) duerme dormid 

PAST PARTICIPLE dormido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE durmiendo 


2 In conjugations not stressed on stem syllable, when next vowel is not (simple) -i. 

6C-1 MORIR TO DIE PAST PARTICIPLE: MUERTO 

7A C S ZC CONOCER TO KNOW, BECOME 

ACQUAINTED WITH 

INDICATIVE 


conozco conocí conocía conoceré conocería 

conoces conociste conocías conocerás conocerías 

conoce conoció conocía conocerá conocería 

conocemos conocimos conocíamos conoceremos conoceríamos 

conocéis conocisteis conocíais conoceréis conoceríais 

conocen conocieron conocían conocerán conocerían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


conozca conociera conociese 

conozcas conocieras conocieses 

conozca conociera conociese 

conozcamos conociéramos conociésemos 

conozcáis conocierais conocieseis 

conozcan conocieran conociesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) conoce conoced 

PAST PARTICIPLE conocido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE conociendo 


192 ANNEX A 

7A-1 ALTERNATE FORMS YACER TO LIE (AT REST) 

INDICATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 


yazco or yazgo or yago yazca or yazga or yaga 

yaces yazcas or yazgas or yagas 

yace yazca or yazga or yaga 

yacemos yazcamos or yazgamos or yagamos 

yacéis yazcáis or yazgáis or yagáis 

yacen yazcan or yazgan or yagan 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) yace or yaz yaced 

7A-2 ALTERNATE FORMS PLACER TO PLEASE 

INDICATIVE SIMPLE PAST 


plazco plací 

places placiste 

place plació or plugo 

placemos placimos 

placéis placisteis 

placen placieron or pluguieron 1 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


plazca placiera placiese 

plazcas placieras placieses 

plazca or plegue or plega 1 placiera or pluguiera placiese or pluguiese 

plazcamos placiéramos placiésemos 

plazcáis placierais placieseis 

plazcan placieran placiesen 

1 The old forms pluguieron, plegue, and plega are not recognized by the RAE, nor are any of the 

alternate forms for complacer. They nonetheless can be found in various other sources. 

7B C S ZC LUCIR TO SHINE 

INDICATIVE 


luzco lucí lucía luciré luciría 

luces luciste lucías lucirás lucirías 

luce lució lucía lucirá luciría 

lucimos lucimos lucíamos luciremos luciríamos 

lucís lucisteis lucíais luciréis luciríais 

lucen lucieron lucían lucirán lucirían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


luzca luciera luciese 

luzcas lucieras lucieses 

luzca luciera luciese 

luzcamos luciéramos luciésemos 

luzcáis lucierais lucieseis 

luzcan lucieran luciesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) luce lucid 

PAST PARTICIPLE lucido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE luciendo 


Note: Verbs ending in -ducir have in addition an irregular simple past tense (and hence imperfect 

subjunctive) and are treated as a separate class (no. 34). 

8 ADD -Y EXCEPT BEFORE -I CONSTRUIR TO CONSTRUCT 

UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y 

INDICATIVE 


construyo construí construía construiré construiría 

construyes construiste construías construirás construirías 

construye construyó construía construirá construiría 

construimos construimos construíamos construiremos construiríamos 

construís construisteis construíais construiréis construiríais 

construyen construyeron construían construirán construirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


construya construyera construyese 

construyas construyeras construyeses 

construya construyera construyese 

construyamos construyéramos construyésemos 

construyáis construyerais construyeseis 

construyan construyeran construyesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) construye construid 

PAST PARTICIPLE construido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE construyendo 

Note: For huir and fluir, the new orthographic rules allow the 1s simple past and 2p present 

indicative to be written without accents: e.g., hui, huis instead of huí, huís.

194 ANNEX A 

9 -GO CAER TO FALL 



INDICATIVE 


caigo caí caía caeré caería 

caes caíste caías caerás caerías 

cae cayó caía caerá caería 

caemos caímos caíamos caeremos caeríamos 

caéis caísteis caíais caeréis caeríais 

caen cayeron caían caerán caerían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


caiga cayera cayese 

caigas cayeras cayeses 

caiga cayera cayese 

caigamos cayéramos cayésemos 

caigáis cayerais cayeseis 

caigan cayeran cayesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) cae caed 

PAST PARTICIPLE caído 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE cayendo 

9-1 ALTERNATE FORMS RAER TO WEAR AWAY 



raigo or rayo 1 raiga or raya 

raes raigas or rayas 

rae raiga or raya 

raemos raigamos or rayamos 

raéis raigáis or rayáis 

raen raigan or rayan 

1 The regular form rao is sometimes found as well.

9-2 ALTERNATE FORMS ROER TO GNAW 



roo or roigo or royo roa or roiga or roya 

roes roas or roigas or royas 

roe roa or roiga or roya 

roemos roamos or roigamos or royamos 

roéis roáis or roigáis or royáis 

roen roan or roigan or royan 

10 -GO OÍR TO HEAR 

ADD -Y EXCEPT BEFORE -I 



INDICATIVE 


oigo oí oía oiré oiría 

OYES oíste oías oirás oirías 

OYE oyó oía oirá oiría 

oímos oímos oíamos oiremos oiríamos 

oís oísteis oíais oiréis oiríais 

OYENoyeron oían oirán oirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


oiga oyera oyese 

oigas oyeras oyeses 

oiga oyera oyese 

oigamos oyéramos oyésemos 

oigáis oyerais oyeseis 

oigan oyeran oyesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) OYE oíd 

PAST PARTICIPLE oído 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE oyendo 


196 ANNEX A 

11 -GO SALIR TO EXIT 

FUTURE STEM: SALDR- 

IMPERATIVE: SAL 

INDICATIVE 


salgo salí salía saldré saldría 

sales saliste salías saldrás saldrías 

sale salió salía saldrá saldría 

salimos salimos salíamos saldremos saldríamos 

salís salisteis salíais saldréis saldríais 

salen salieron salían saldrán saldrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


salga saliera saliese 

salgas salieras salieses 

salga saliera saliese 

salgamos saliéramos saliésemos 

salgáis salierais salieseis 

salgan salieran saliesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sal salid 

PAST PARTICIPLE salido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE saliendo 

12 -GO 

FUTURE STEM: VALDR- 

VALER TO BE WORTH 

INDICATIVE 


valgo valí valía valdré valdría 

vales valiste valías valdrás valdrías 

vale valió valía valdrá valdría 

valemos valimos valíamos valdremos valdríamos 

valéis valisteis valíais valdréis valdríais 

valen valieron valían valdrán valdrían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


valga valiera valiese 

valgas valieras valieses 

valga valiera valiese 

valgamos valiéramos valiésemos 

valgáis valierais valieseis 

valgan valieran valiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) vale valed 

PAST PARTICIPLE valido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE valiendo 

13 -GO ASIR TO GRASP 

INDICATIVE 


asgo así asía asiré asiría 

ases asiste asías asirás asirías 

ase asió asía asirá asiría 

asimos asimos asíamos asiremos asiríamos 

asís asisteis asíais asiréis asiríais 

asen asieron asían asirán asirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


asga asiera asiese 

asgas asieras asieses 

asga asiera asiese 

asgamos asiéramos asiésemos 

asgáis asierais asieseis 

asgan asieran asiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ase asid 

PAST PARTICIPLE asido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE asiendo 

Note: Forms with -g are generally avoided. 


198 ANNEX A 

14 VER TO SEE 

VEO 

IMPERFECT 

PAST PARTICIPLE: VISTO 

INDICATIVE 


veo vi veía veré vería 

ves viste veías verás verías 

ve vio veía verá vería 

vemos vimos veíamos veremos veríamos 

veis visteis veíais veréis veríais 

ven vieron veían verán verían 

Note: veis, vi, vio have no written accent since they have only one syllable. 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


vea viera viese 

veas vieras vieses 

vea viera viese 

veamos viéramos viésemos 

veáis vierais vieseis 

vean vieran viesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ve ved 

PAST PARTICIPLE visto 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE viendo 

14-1 ADDITIONAL WRITTEN ACCENT PREVER TO FORESEE 

INDICATIVE 


preveo preví preveía preveré prevería 

prevés previste preveías preverás preverías 

prevé previó preveía preverá prevería 

prevemos previmos preveíamos preveremos preveríamos 

prevéis previsteis preveíais preveréis preveríais 

prevén previeron preveían preverán preverían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


prevea previera previese 

preveas previeras previeses 

prevea previera previese 

preveamos previéramos previésemos 

preveáis previerais previeseis 

prevean previeran previesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) prevé preved 

PAST PARTICIPLE previsto 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE previendo 

Note: Written accents are required on forms which have only one syllable in ver and end in 

-n, -s, or a vowel; e.g., *preves (without written accent) would be pronounced pre•ves rather than 

pre•vés 

15 DIPHTHONG E S IE 1 DISCERNIR TO DISCERN 

INDICATIVE 


discierno discerní discernía discerniré discerniría 

disciernes discerniste discernías discernirás discernirías 

discierne discernió discernía discernirá discerniría 

discernimos discernimos discerníamos discerniremos discerniríamos 

discernís discernisteis discerníais discerniréis discerniríais 

disciernen discernieron discernían discernirán discernirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


discierna discerniera discerniese 

disciernas discernieras discernieses 

discierna discerniera discerniese 

discernamos discerniéramos discerniésemos 

discernáis discernierais discernieseis 

disciernan discernieran discerniesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) discierne discernid 

PAST PARTICIPLE discernido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE discerniendo 


1 In conjugations stressed on stem syllable. Discernir is thus conjugated like perder (5A) apart 

from 4 forms: infinitive; present indicative (1p/2p); imperative (2p)

200 ANNEX A 

16 DIPHTHONG U S UE 1 JUGAR TO PLAY 

GSGU 

INDICATIVE 


juego juGUé jugaba jugaré jugaría 

juegas jugaste jugabas jugarás jugarías 

juega jugó jugaba jugará jugaría 

jugamos jugamos jugábamos jugaremos jugaríamos 

jugáis jugasteis jugabais jugaréis jugaríais 

juegan jugaron jugaban jugarán jugarían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


jueGUe jugara jugase 

jueGUes jugaras jugases 

jueGUe jugara jugase 

juGUemos jugáramos jugásemos 

juGUéis jugarais jugaseis 

jueGUen jugaran jugasen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) juega jugad 

PAST PARTICIPLE jugado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE jugando 


17 DIPHTHONG I S IE 1 ADQUIRIR TO ACQUIRE 

INDICATIVE 


adquiero adquirí adquiría adquiriré adquiriría 

adquieres adquiriste adquirías adquirirás adquirirías 

adquiere adquirió adquiría adquirirá adquiriría 

adquirimos adquirimos adquiríamos adquiriremos adquiriríamos 

adquirís adquiristeis adquiríais adquiriréis adquiriríais 

adquieren adquirieron adquirían adquirirán adquirirían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


adquiera adquiriera adquiriese 

adquieras adquirieras adquirieses 

adquiera adquiriera adquiriese 

adquiramos adquiriéramos adquiriésemos 

adquiráis adquirierais adquirieseis 

adquieran adquirieran adquiriesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) adquiere adquirid 

PAST PARTICIPLE adquirido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE adquiriendo 


18 LIKE CONSTRUIR (8) 

EXCEPT GÜY S GUY 

ARGÜIR TO ARGUE 

INDICATIVE 


arguyo argüí argüía argüiré argüiría 

arguyes argüiste argüías argüirás argüirías 

arguye arguyó argüía argüirá argüiría 

argüimos argüimos argüíamos argüiremos argüiríamos 

argüís argüisteis argüíais argüiréis argüiríais 

arguyen arguyeron argüían argüirán argüirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


arguya arguyera arguyese 

arguyas arguyeras arguyeses 

arguya arguyera arguyese 

arguyamos arguyéramos arguyésemos 

arguyáis arguyerais arguyeseis 

arguyan arguyeran arguyesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) arguye argüid 

PAST PARTICIPLE argüido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE arguyendo 


202 ANNEX A 

19 SER TO BE 

INDICATIVE 


soy fui era seré sería 

eres fuiste eras serás serías 

es fue era será sería 

somos fuimos éramos seremos seríamos 

sois fuisteis erais seréis seríais 

son fueron eran serán serían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


sea fuera fuese 

seas fueras fueses 

sea fuera fuese 

seamos fuéramos fuésemos 

seáis fuerais fueseis 

sean fueran fuesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) sé sed 

PAST PARTICIPLE sido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE siendo 

20 ESTAR TO BE 

ESTOY 

STRESS SHIFT * 

IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST 

INDICATIVE 


ESTOY estuve estaba estaré estaría 

estás * estuviste estabas estarás estarías 

está * estuvo estaba estará estaría 

estamos estuvimos estábamos estaremos estaríamos 

estáis estuvisteis estabais estaréis estaríais 

están * estuvieron estaban estarán estarían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


esté * estuviera estuviese 

estés * estuvieras estuvieses 

esté * estuviera estuviese 

estemos estuviéramos estuviésemos 

estéis estuvierais estuvieseis 

estén * estuvieran estuviesen 

IMPERATIVE está * estad 

PAST PARTICIPLE estado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE estando 

21 HABER TO HAVE 

INDICATIVE 


he hube había habré habría 

has hubiste habías habrás habrías 

ha hubo había habrá habría 

hemos hubimos habíamos habremos habríamos 

habéis hubisteis habíais habréis habríais 

han hubieron habían habrán habrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


haya hubiera hubiese 

hayas hubieras hubieses 

haya hubiera hubiese 

hayamos hubiéramos hubiésemos 

hayáis hubierais hubieseis 

hayan hubieran hubiesen 

IMPERATIVE he habed 

PAST PARTICIPLE habido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE habiendo 


204 ANNEX A 

22 SABER TO KNOW 

SÉ 


FUTURE STEM: SABR- 

SUBJUNCTIVE STEM: SEP- 

INDICATIVE 


sé supe sabía sabré sabría 

sabes supiste sabías sabrás sabrías 

sabe supo sabía sabrá sabría 

sabemos supimos sabíamos sabremos sabríamos 

sabéis supisteis sabíais sabréis sabríais 

saben supieron sabían sabrán sabrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


sepa supiera supiese 

sepas supieras supieses 

sepa supiera supiese 

sepamos supiéramos supiésemos 

sepáis supierais supieseis 

sepan supieran supiesen 

IMPERATIVE sabe sabed 

PAST PARTICIPLE sabido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE sabiendo 

23 CABER TO FIT 

QUEPO 


FUTURE STEM: CABR- 

INDICATIVE 


quepo cupe cabía cabré cabría 

cabes cupiste cabías cabrás cabrías 

cabe cupo cabía cabrá cabría 

cabemos cupimos cabíamos cabremos cabríamos 

cabéis cupisteis cabíais cabréis cabríais 

caben cupieron cabían cabrán cabrían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


quepa cupiera cupiese 

quepas cupieras cupieses 

quepa cupiera cupiese 

quepamos cupiéramos cupiésemos 

quepáis cupierais cupieseis 

quepan cupieran cupiesen 

IMPERATIVE cabe cabed 

PAST PARTICIPLE cabido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE cabiendo 

24 IR TO GO 

INDICATIVE 


voy fui iba iré iría 

vas fuiste ibas irás irías 

va fue iba irá iría 

vamos fuimos íbamos iremos iríamos 

vais fuisteis ibais iréis iríais 

van fueron iban irán irían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


vaya fuera fuese 

vayas fueras fueses 

vaya fuera fuese 

vayamos fuéramos fuésemos 

vayáis fuerais fueseis 

vayan fueran fuesen 


IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ve id 

PAST PARTICIPLE ido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE yendo [regular orthographic change: initial ie S ye]

206 ANNEX A 

25 DAR TO GIVE 

DOY 


WRITTEN ACCENTS IN SUBJUNCTIVE 

INDICATIVE 


doy di daba daré daría 

das diste dabas darás darías 

da dio daba dará daría 

damos dimos dábamos daremos daríamos 

dais disteis dabais daréis daríais 

dan dieron daban darán darían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


dé diera diese 

des dieras dieses 

dé diera diese 

demos diéramos diésemos 

deis dierais dieseis 

den dieran diesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) da dad 

PAST PARTICIPLE dado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE dando 

Note: dais, deis, di, dio have no written accent since they have only one syllable. 

26 PODER CAN 

DIPHTHONG O S UE1 IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST 

FUTURE STEM: PODR- 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE: PUDIENDO 

INDICATIVE 


puedo pude podía podré podría 

puedes pudiste podías podrás podrías 

puede pudo podía podrá podría 

podemos pudimos podíamos podremos podríamos 

podéis pudisteis podíais podréis podríais 

pueden pudieron podían podrán podrían

SUBJUNCTIVE 


pueda pudiera pudiese 

puedas pudieras pudieses 

pueda pudiera pudiese 

podamos pudiéramos pudiésemos 

podáis pudierais pudieseis 

puedan pudieran pudiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) puede poded 

PAST PARTICIPLE podido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE pudiendo 


27 QUERER TO WANT 

DIPHTHONG E S IE1 IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST 

FUTURE STEM: QUERR- 

INDICATIVE 


quiero quise quería querré querría 

quieres quisiste querías querrás querrías 

quiere quiso quería querrá querría 

queremos quisimos queríamos querremos querríamos 

queréis quisisteis queríais querréis querríais 

quieren quisieron querían querrán querrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


quiera quisiera quisiese 

quieras quisieras quisieses 

quiera quisiera quisiese 

queramos quisiéramos quisiésemos 

queráis quisierais quisieseis 

quieran quisieran quisiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) quiere quered 

PAST PARTICIPLE querido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE queriendo 



208 ANNEX A 

28 DECIR TO SAY 

DIGO 

UMLAUT E S I * 


FUTURE STEM: DIR- 

PAST PARTICIPLE: DICHO 

IMPERATIVE: DI 

J IE S JE † 

INDICATIVE 


digo dije decía diré diría 

dices * dijiste decías dirás dirías 

dice * dijo decía dirá diría 

decimos dijimos decíamos diremos diríamos 

decís dijisteis decíais diréis diríais 

dicen * dijeron † decían dirán dirían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


diga dijera † dijese † 

digas dijeras † dijeses † 

diga dijera † dijese † 

digamos dijéramos † dijésemos † 

digáis dijerais † dijeseis † 

digan dijeran † dijesen † 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) di decid 

PAST PARTICIPLE dicho 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE diciendo * 

28-1 PREDECIR TO PREDICT 

In imperative 2s, predecir is regular where decir is not. Otherwise conjugations are 

identical. 1 

decir predecir 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) di decid predice predecid 

1 Conjugation according to RAE. Other references (e.g., Moliner, VOX) show regular future 

(predeciré, etc.) and conditional (predeciría).

28-2 BENDECIR TO BLESS 

In future, conditional, imperative 2s and past participle, bendecir is regular where decir 

is not. 

INDICATIVE 

decir bendecir 

Future Conditional Future Conditional 

diré diría bendeciré bendeciría 

dirás dirías bendecirás bendecirías 

dirá diría bendecirá bendeciría 

diremos diríamos bendeciremos bendeciríamos 

diréis diríais bendeciréis bendeciríais 

dirán dirían bendecirán bendecirían 

decir bendecir 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) di decid bendice bendecid 

PAST PARTICIPLE dicho bendecido 

29 HACER TO DO, MAKE 

HAGO 


FUTURE STEM: HAR- 

PAST PARTICIPLE: HECHO 

IMPERATIVE: HAZ 

C S Z * 

INDICATIVE 


hago hice hacía haré haría 

haces hiciste hacías harás harías 

hace hiZo * hacía hará haría 

hacemos hicimos hacíamos haremos haríamos 

hacéis hicisteis hacíais haréis haríais 

hacen hicieron hacían harán harían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


haga hiciera hiciese 

hagas hicieras hicieses 

haga hiciera hiciese 

hagamos hiciéramos hiciésemos 

hagáis hicierais hicieseis 

hagan hicieran hiciesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) haZ * haced 

PAST PARTICIPLE hecho 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE haciendo 


210 ANNEX A 

29-1 E(H)I S E(H)Í 1 REHACER TO REDO 



rehíce 

rehiciste 

rehízo 

rehicimos 

rehicisteis 

rehicieron 

1 In the two simple past conjugations in which the stem syllable is stressed. 

29-2 SATISFACER TO SATISFY 

Conjugated identically to hacer (satisfago, satisfaces, etc.) except for imperative: 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) satisfaz or satisface satisfaced 

30 PONER TO PUT 

PONGO 


FUTURE STEM: PONDR- 

PAST PARTICIPLE: PUESTO 

IMPERATIVE: PON 

INDICATIVE 


pongo puse ponía pondré pondría 

pones pusiste ponías pondrás pondrías 

pone puso ponía pondrá pondría 

ponemos pusimos poníamos pondremos pondríamos 

ponéis pusisteis poníais pondréis pondríais 

ponen pusieron ponían pondrán pondrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


ponga pusiera pusiese 

pongas pusieras pusieses 

ponga pusiera pusiese 

pongamos pusiéramos pusiésemos 

pongáis pusierais pusieseis 

pongan pusieran pusiesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pon poned 

PAST PARTICIPLE puesto 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE poniendo

30-1 SUPONER TO SUPPOSE 

For imperative 2s suponer has a written accent where poner does not. 

poner suponer 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) pon poned supón suponed 

31 TENER TO HAVE 

TENGO 

DIPHTHONG E S IE * 


FUTURE STEM: TENDR- 

IMPERATIVE: TEN 

INDICATIVE 


tengo tuve tenía tendré tendría 

tienes * tuviste tenías tendrás tendrías 

tiene * tuvo tenía tendrá tendría 

tenemos tuvimos teníamos tendremos tendríamos 

tenéis tuvisteis teníais tendréis tendríais 

tienen * tuvieron tenían tendrán tendrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


tenga tuviera tuviese 

tengas tuvieras tuvieses 

tenga tuviera tuviese 

tengamos tuviéramos tuviésemos 

tengáis tuvierais tuvieseis 

tengan tuvieran tuviesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ten tened 

PAST PARTICIPLE tenido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE teniendo 

31-1 OBTENER TO OBTAIN 


For imperative 2s obtener has a written accent where tener does not. 

tener obtener 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ten tened obtén obtened

212 ANNEX A 

32 VENIR TO COME 

VENGO 

DIPHTHONG E S IE * 

UMLAUT E S I: PRESENT PARTICIPLE 


FUTURE STEM: VENDR- 

IMPERATIVE: VEN 

INDICATIVE 


vengo vine venía vendré vendría 

vienes * viniste venías vendrás vendrías 

viene * vino venía vendrá vendría 

venimos vinimos veníamos vendremos vendríamos 

venís vinisteis veníais vendréis vendríais 

vienen * vinieron venían vendrán vendrían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


venga viniera viniese 

vengas vinieras vinieses 

venga viniera viniese 

vengamos viniéramos viniésemos 

vengáis vinierais vinieseis 

vengan vinieran viniesen 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ven venid 

PAST PARTICIPLE venido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE viniendo 

32-1 CONVENIR TO CONVENE, AGREE, BE SUITABLE 

For imperative 2s convenir has a written accent where venir does not. 

venir convenir 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) ven venid convén convenid

33 TRAER TO BRING, 

-GO 


UNSTRESSED -I BETWEEN VOWELS S -Y * 


J IE S JE † 

CARRY 

INDICATIVE 


traigo traje traía traeré traería 

traes trajiste traías traerás traerías 

trae trajo traía traerá traería 

traemos trajimos traíamos traeremos traeríamos 

traéis trajisteis traíais traeréis traeríais 

traen trajeron † traían traerán traerían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


traiga trajera † trajese † 

traigas trajeras † trajeses † 

traiga trajera † trajese † 

traigamos trajéramos † trajésemos † 

traigáis trajerais † trajeseis † 

traigan trajeran † trajesen † 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) trae traed 

PAST PARTICIPLE traído 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE traYendo * 


34 C S ZC 


J IE S JE * 

-DUCIR (E.G., CONDUCIR) 

INDICATIVE 


conduzco conduje conducía conduciré conduciría 

conduces condujiste conducías conducirás conducirías 

conduce condujo conducía conducirá conduciría 

conducimos condujimos conducíamos conduciremos conduciríamos 

conducís condujisteis conducíais conduciréis conduciríais 

conducen condujeron * conducían conducirán conducirían

214 ANNEX A 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


conduzca condujera * condujese * 

conduzcas condujeras * condujeses * 

conduzca condujera * condujese * 

conduzcamos condujéramos * condujésemos * 

conduzcáis condujerais * condujeseis * 

conduzcan condujeran * condujesen * 

IMPERATIVE (2s/2p) conduce conducid 

PAST PARTICIPLE conducido 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE conduciendo 

35 IRREGULAR SIMPLE PAST ANDAR TO WALK 

INDICATIVE 


ando anduve andaba andaré andaría 

andas anduviste andabas andarás andarías 

anda anduvo andaba andará andaría 

andamos anduvimos andábamos andaremos andaríamos 

andáis anduvisteis andabais andaréis andaríais 

andan anduvieron andaban andarán andarían 

SUBJUNCTIVE 


ande anduviera anduviese 

andes anduvieras anduvieses 

ande anduviera anduviese 

andemos anduviéramos anduviésemos 

andéis anduvierais anduvieseis 

anden anduvieran anduviesen 

IMPERATIVE anda andad 

PAST PARTICIPLE andado 

PRESENT PARTICIPLE andando

ANNEX B 

Index by Class and Sub-class for 4,818 Verbs 

Verbs are listed according to the post-1994 rules under which ch and ll are now treated, for 

purposes of alphabetization, as simple letter combinations c h, l l (previously ch had 

been treated as a separate letter immediately following c in the alphabet, and likewise ll a 

separate letter following l). The ñ continues to be treated as a separate letter, following n. 

“DEF” (defective) indicates a verb which is used only in certain conjugations— 

generally the infinitive, participles, and third person (singular and plural) forms. A number 

of weather verbs (including llover “to rain”, nevar “to snow”, tronar “to thunder”) are 

frequently treated as defective, as they tend to be conjugated only impersonally (i.e., in the 

third person). They nonetheless have complete conjugations, since they also have rarer 

“personal” uses (I thundered at the unwanted intruder.) 

Verbs which can only be used reflexively are shown with the reflexive pronoun se in 

parentheses, e.g., arrepentir(se). 

Verb Class (Sub-class) # 

abajar cantar 1 

abalanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

abalar cantar 1 

abalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aballar cantar 1 

abanar cantar 1 

abanderar cantar 1 

abandonar cantar 1 

abanicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

abaratar cantar 1 

abarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

abarquillar cantar 1 

abarrotar cantar 1 

abastecer conocer 7A 

abatir subir 3 

abdicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

abetunar cantar 1 

abigarrar cantar 1 

abismar cantar 1 

abjurar cantar 1 

ablandar cantar 1 

abnegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

abobar cantar 1 


abocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

abocetar cantar 1 

abochornar cantar 1 

abocinar cantar 1 

abofetear cantar 1 

abogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

abolir subir (abolir) 3-14 

abollar cantar 1 

abombar cantar 1 

abominar cantar 1 

abonar cantar 1 

abordar cantar 1 

aborrecer conocer 7A 

aborregar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2 

abortar cantar 1 

abotargar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2 

abotonar cantar 1 

abovedar cantar 1 

abrasar cantar 1 

abrazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

abrevar cantar 1 

abreviar cantar 1 

abrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2

216 ANNEX B 


abrir subir (abrir) 3-9 

abrochar cantar 1 

abrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

abrumar cantar 1 

absolver mover (resolver) 5B-3 

absorber comer 2 

abstener(se) tener (obtener) 31-1 

abstraer traer 33 

abuchear cantar 1 

abultar cantar 1 

abundar cantar 1 

aburguesar cantar 1 

aburrir subir 3 

abusar cantar 1 

acabar cantar 1 

acaecer (DEF) conocer 7A 

acallar cantar 1 

acalorar cantar 1 

acampar cantar 1 

acanalar cantar 1 

acantonar cantar 1 

acaparar cantar 1 

acaramelar cantar 1 

acariciar cantar 1 

acarrear cantar 1 

acartonar(se) cantar 1 

acatar cantar 1 

acatarrar cantar 1 

acaudalar cantar 1 

acaudillar cantar 1 

acceder comer 2 

accidentar(se) cantar 1 

accionar cantar 1 

acechar cantar 1 

aceitar cantar 1 

acelerar cantar 1 

acendrar cantar 1 

acentuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

aceptar cantar 1 

acerar cantar 1 

acercar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

acertar pensar 4A 

achabacanar cantar 1 


achacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

achantar cantar 1 

achaparrar(se) cantar 1 

acharolar cantar 1 

achatar cantar 1 

achicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

achicharrar cantar 1 

achinar cantar 1 

achispar cantar 1 

achuchar cantar 1 

acicalar cantar 1 

acidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

acidular cantar 1 

aclamar cantar 1 

aclarar cantar 1 

aclimatar cantar 1 

acobardar cantar 1 

acodar cantar 1 

acoger comer (coger) 2-2 

acogotar cantar 1 

acolchar cantar 1 

acometer comer 2 

acomodar cantar 1 

acompañar cantar 1 

acompasar cantar 1 

acomplejar cantar 1 

acondicionar cantar 1 

aconsejar cantar 1 

acontecer (DEF) conocer 7A 

acoplar cantar 1 

acoquinar cantar 1 

acorazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

acorchar cantar 1 

acordar mostrar 4B 

acordonar cantar 1 

acorralar cantar 1 

acortar cantar 1 

acosar cantar 1 

acostar mostrar 4B 

acostumbrar cantar 1 

acotar cantar 1 

acrecentar pensar 4A 

acreditar cantar 1


acribillar cantar 1 

acrisolar cantar 1 

acristalar cantar 1 

activar cantar 1 

actualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

actuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

acuartelar cantar 1 

acuchillar cantar 1 

acuciar cantar 1 

acuclillar(se) cantar 1 

acudir subir 3 

acumular cantar 1 

acunar cantar 1 

acuñar cantar 1 

acurrucar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

acusar cantar 1 

adaptar cantar 1 

adecentar cantar 1 

adecuar cantar 1 

adelantar cantar 1 

adelgazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

adentrar(se) cantar 1 

aderezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

adeudar cantar 1 

adherir sentir 6A 

adicionar cantar 1 

adiestrar cantar 1 

adinerar cantar 1 

adivinar cantar 1 

adjetivar cantar 1 

adjudicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

adjuntar cantar 1 

administrar cantar 1 

admirar cantar 1 

admitir subir 3 

adobar cantar 1 

adocenar cantar 1 

adoctrinar cantar 1 

adolecer conocer 7A 

adoptar cantar 1 

adoquinar cantar 1 

adorar cantar 1 

adormecer conocer 7A 

INDEX BY CLASS AND SUB-CLASS 217 


adormilar(se) cantar 1 

adornar cantar 1 

adosar cantar 1 

adquirir adquirir 17 

adscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

aducir conducir 34 

adueñar(se) cantar 1 

adular cantar 1 

adulterar cantar 1 

adverbializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

advertir sentir 6A 

aerotransportar cantar 1 

afanar cantar 1 

afear cantar 1 

afectar cantar 1 

afeitar cantar 1 

afelpar cantar 1 

afeminar cantar 1 

aferrar cantar 1 

afianzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aficionar cantar 1 

afilar cantar 1 

afiliar cantar 1 

afinar cantar 1 

afincar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

afirmar cantar 1 

aflautar cantar 1 

afligir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

aflojar cantar 1 

afluir construir 8 

afofar(se) cantar 1 

afrancesar cantar 1 

afrentar cantar 1 

africanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

afrontar cantar 1 

agachar cantar 1 

agarrar cantar 1 

agarrotar cantar 1 

agasajar cantar 1 

agavillar cantar 1 

agazapar(se) cantar 1 

agenciar cantar 1 

agigantar cantar 1

218 ANNEX B 


agilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

agitanar cantar 1 

agitar cantar 1 

aglomerar cantar 1 

aglutinar cantar 1 

agobiar cantar 1 

agolpar cantar 1 

agonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

agorar mostrar (agorar) 4B-4 

agostar cantar 1 

agotar cantar 1 

agraciar cantar 1 

agradar cantar 1 

agradecer conocer 7A 

agrandar cantar 1 

agravar cantar 1 

agraviar cantar 1 

agredir subir (abolir) 3-14 

agregar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

agremiar cantar 1 

agriar 1 cantar (enviar) 1-15 

agrietar cantar 1 

agrisar cantar 1 

agrupar cantar 1 

aguantar cantar 1 

aguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

aguardar cantar 1 

agudizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aguijonear cantar 1 

agujerear cantar 1 

agusanar(se) cantar 1 

aguzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aherrojar cantar 1 

ahincar cantar (ahincar) 1-10 

ahogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

ahondar cantar 1 

ahorcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ahornar cantar 1 

ahorrar cantar 1 

ahuecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

1 Frequently conjugated without written accents (e.g., agrio rather than agrío). 


ahuevar cantar 1 

ahumar cantar (aullar) 1-6 

ahuyentar cantar 1 

aindiar(se) cantar 1 

airear cantar 1 

aislar cantar (aislar) 1-5 

ajamonar(se) cantar 1 

ajar cantar 1 

ajardinar cantar 1 

ajetrear cantar 1 

ajuntar cantar 1 

ajustar cantar 1 

ajusticiar cantar 1 

alabar cantar 1 

alabear cantar 1 

alambicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

alambrar cantar 1 

alardear cantar 1 

alargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

alarmar cantar 1 

albardar cantar 1 

albergar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

alborear cantar 1 

alborotar cantar 1 

alborozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

alcahuetear cantar 1 

alcalinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

alcantarillar cantar 1 

alcanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

alcoholizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aleccionar cantar 1 

alegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

alegrar cantar 1 

alejar cantar 1 

alentar pensar 4A 

alertar cantar 1 

aletargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

aletear cantar 1 

alfabetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

alfombrar cantar 1


algodonar cantar 1 

alhajar cantar 1 

aliar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

alicatar cantar 1 

alicortar cantar 1 

alienar cantar 1 

aligerar cantar 1 

alimentar cantar 1 

alinear cantar 1 

aliñar cantar 1 

alisar cantar 1 

alistar cantar 1 

aliviar cantar 1 

allanar cantar 1 

allegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

almacenar cantar 1 

almendrar cantar 1 

almibarar cantar 1 

almidonar cantar 1 

almohadillar cantar 1 

almohazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

almorzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3 

alocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

alojar cantar 1 

alquilar cantar 1 

alterar cantar 1 

alternar cantar 1 

alucinar cantar 1 

aludir subir 3 

alumbrar cantar 1 

alunizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

alzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

amadrinar cantar 1 

amaestrar cantar 1 

amagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

amainar cantar 1 

amalgamar cantar 1 

amamantar cantar 1 

amancebar(se) cantar 1 

amanecer conocer 7A 

amanerar cantar 1 

amansar cantar 1 

amañar cantar 1 



amar cantar 1 

amarar cantar 1 

amargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

amarillear cantar 1 

amarrar cantar 1 

amartelar cantar 1 

amartillar cantar 1 

amasar cantar 1 

amazacotar cantar 1 

ambicionar cantar 1 

ambientar cantar 1 

amedrentar cantar 1 

amenazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

amenizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

americanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

amerizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ametrallar cantar 1 

amigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

amilanar cantar 1 

aminorar cantar 1 

amnistiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

amodorrar(se) cantar 1 

amohinar cantar (amohinar) 1-9 

amojamar cantar 1 

amoldar cantar 1 

amonar(se) cantar 1 

amonestar cantar 1 

amontonar cantar 1 

amoratar(se) cantar 1 

amordazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

amorriñar(se) cantar 1 

amortajar cantar 1 

amortiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

amortizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

amostazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

amotinar cantar 1 

amparar cantar 1 

ampliar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

amplificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

amputar cantar 1 

amueblar cantar 1 

amuermar cantar 1 

amurallar cantar 1

220 ANNEX B 


analizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

anarquizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

anatematizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

anatomizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

anclar cantar 1 

andar andar 35 

anegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

anestesiar cantar 1 

anexionar cantar 1 

angostar cantar 1 

angustiar cantar 1 

anhelar cantar 1 

anidar cantar 1 

anillar cantar 1 

animalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

animar cantar 1 

aniñar(se) cantar 1 

aniquilar cantar 1 

anisar cantar 1 

anochecer conocer 7A 

anonadar cantar 1 

anotar cantar 1 

anquilosar cantar 1 

ansiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

anteceder comer 2 

anteponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

anticipar cantar 1 

antojar(se) cantar 1 

anudar cantar 1 

anular cantar 1 

anunciar cantar 1 

añadir subir 3 

añorar cantar 1 

apabullar cantar 1 

apacentar pensar 4A 

apaciguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

apagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

apalabrar cantar 1 

apalancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

apalear cantar 1 

apañar cantar 1 

aparcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 


aparear cantar 1 

aparecer conocer 7A 

aparejar cantar 1 

aparentar cantar 1 

apartar cantar 1 

apasionar cantar 1 

apear cantar 1 

apechar cantar 1 

apechugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

apedrear cantar 1 

apegar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2 

apelar cantar 1 

apellidar cantar 1 

apelmazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

apelotonar cantar 1 

apenar cantar 1 

apercibir subir 3 

apergaminar(se) cantar 1 

apesadumbrar cantar 1 

apestar cantar 1 

apetecer conocer 7A 

apiadar cantar 1 

apilar cantar 1 

apiñar cantar 1 

apisonar cantar 1 

aplacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

aplanar cantar 1 

aplastar cantar 1 

aplatanar cantar 1 

aplaudir subir 3 

aplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

apocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

apocopar cantar 1 

apodar cantar 1 

apoderar cantar 1 

apolillar cantar 1 

apologizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

apoltronar(se) cantar 1 

apoquinar cantar 1 

aporrear cantar 1 

aportar cantar 1


aposentar cantar 1 

apostar (1) 2 mostrar 4B 

apostar (2) 3 cantar 1 

apostatar cantar 1 

apostillar cantar 1 

apostrofar cantar 1 

apoyar cantar 1 

apreciar cantar 1 

aprehender comer 2 

apremiar cantar 1 

aprender comer 2 

apresar cantar 1 

aprestar cantar 1 

apresurar cantar 1 

apretar pensar 4A 

apretujar cantar 1 

aprisionar cantar 1 

aprobar mostrar 4B 

apropiar cantar 1 

aprovechar cantar 1 

aprovisionar cantar 1 

aproximar cantar 1 

apuntalar cantar 1 

apuntar cantar 1 

apuntillar cantar 1 

apuñalar cantar 1 

apurar cantar 1 

aquejar cantar 1 

aquietar cantar 1 

aquilatar cantar 1 

arañar cantar 1 

arar cantar 1 

arbitrar cantar 1 

arbolar cantar 1 

archivar cantar 1 

arder comer 2 

argüir argüir 18 

argumentar cantar 1 

armar cantar 1 

2 To bet. 

3 To station or post. 



armonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aromatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

arponear cantar 1 

arquear cantar 1 

arracimar(se) cantar 1 

arraigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

arramblar cantar 1 

arramplar cantar 1 

arrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

arrasar cantar 1 

arrastrar cantar 1 

arrear cantar 1 

arrebatar cantar 1 

arrebolar cantar 1 

arrebujar cantar 1 

arreciar cantar 1 

arredrar cantar 1 

arreglar cantar 1 

arrellanar(se) cantar 1 

arremangar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

arremeter comer 2 

arremolinar(se) cantar 1 

arrendar pensar 4A 

arrepentir(se) sentir 6A 

arrestar cantar 1 

arriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

arribar cantar 1 

arriesgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

arrimar cantar 1 

arrinconar cantar 1 

arrobar cantar 1 

arrodillar cantar 1 

arrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

arrojar cantar 1 

arrollar cantar 1 

arropar cantar 1 

arrostrar cantar 1 

arrugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

arruinar cantar 1

222 ANNEX B 


arrullar cantar 1 

arrumbar cantar 1 

articular cantar 1 

asaetear cantar 1 

asalariar cantar 1 

asaltar cantar 1 

asar cantar 1 

ascender perder 5A 

asear cantar 1 

asediar cantar 1 

asegurar cantar 1 

asemejar cantar 1 

asentar pensar 4A 

asentir sentir 6A 

aserrar pensar 4A 

asesinar cantar 1 

asesorar cantar 1 

asestar cantar 1 

aseverar cantar 1 

asfaltar cantar 1 

asfixiar cantar 1 

asignar cantar 1 

asilar cantar 1 

asimilar cantar 1 

asir asir 13 

asistir subir 3 

asociar cantar 1 

asolar (1) 4 mostrar 4B 

asolar (2) 5 cantar 1 

asomar cantar 1 

asombrar cantar 1 

aspar cantar 1 

asperjar cantar 1 

aspirar cantar 1 

asquear cantar 1 

astillar cantar 1 

4 To raze, devastate. 

5 To burn up, parch. 

6 To demolish. 

7 To terrify. 

8 To stuff. 

9 To attest. 


asumir subir 3 

asustar cantar 1 

atacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

atajar cantar 1 

atañer (DEF) comer (tañer) 2-5 

atar cantar 1 

atardecer (DEF) conocer 7A 

atarugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

atascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ataviar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

atemorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

atemperar cantar 1 

atenazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

atender perder 5A 

atener(se) tener (obtener) 31-1 

atentar cantar 1 

atenuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

aterrar (1) 6 pensar 4A 

aterrar (2) 7 cantar 1 

aterrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aterrorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

atesorar cantar 1 

atestar (1) 8 pensar 4A 

atestar (2) 9 cantar 1 

atestiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

atiborrar cantar 1 

atildar cantar 1 

atinar cantar 1 

atiplar cantar 1 

atirantar cantar 1 

atisbar cantar 1 

atizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

atocinar cantar 1 

atolondrar cantar 1 

atomizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

atontar cantar 1


atontolinar cantar 1 

atorar cantar 1 

atormentar cantar 1 

atornillar cantar 1 

atosigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

atracar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

atraer traer 33 

atragantar cantar 1 

atrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

atrapar cantar 1 

atrasar cantar 1 

atravesar pensar 4A 

atrever(se) comer 2 

atribuir construir 8 

atribular cantar 1 

atrincherar cantar 1 

atrofiar cantar 1 

atronar mostrar 4B 

atropellar cantar 1 

atufar cantar 1 

aturdir subir 3 

aturullar cantar 1 

atusar cantar 1 

auditar cantar 1 

augurar cantar 1 

aullar cantar (aullar) 1-6 

aumentar cantar 1 

aunar cantar (aullar) 1-6 

aupar cantar (aullar) 1-6 

aureolar cantar 1 

auscultar cantar 1 

ausentar cantar 1 

auspiciar cantar 1 

autenticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

autentificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

autocensurar cantar 1 

autoeditar cantar 1 

automatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

automedicar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

autorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

autosugestionar(se) cantar 1 

auxiliar cantar 1 

avalar cantar 1 



avanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

avasallar cantar 1 

avecinar cantar 1 

avecindar cantar 1 

avejentar cantar 1 

avenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

aventajar cantar 1 

aventar pensar 4A 

aventurar cantar 1 

avergonzar mostrar (avergonzar) 4B-6 

averiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

averiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

avezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

aviar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

aviejar cantar 1 

avinagrar cantar 1 

avisar cantar 1 

avispar cantar 1 

avistar cantar 1 

avituallar cantar 1 

avivar cantar 1 

avizorar cantar 1 

ayudar cantar 1 

ayunar cantar 1 

azarar cantar 1 

azogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

azotar cantar 1 

azucarar cantar 1 

azufrar cantar 1 

azulear cantar 1 

azuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

babear cantar 1 

babosear cantar 1 

bailar cantar 1 

bailotear cantar 1 

bajar cantar 1 

balancear cantar 1 

balar cantar 1 

balbucear cantar 1 

balbucir subir (abolir) 3-14 

balcanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

baldar cantar 1 

bambolear cantar 1

224 ANNEX B 


bandear cantar 1 

banderillear cantar 1 

bañar cantar 1 

baquetear cantar 1 

barajar cantar 1 

barnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

barrar cantar 1 

barrenar cantar 1 

barrer comer 2 

barritar cantar 1 

barruntar cantar 1 

basar cantar 1 

bascular cantar 1 

bastar cantar 1 

batallar cantar 1 

batear cantar 1 

batir subir 3 

bautizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

beatificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

beber comer 2 

becar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

bendecir decir (bendecir) 28-2 

beneficiar cantar 1 

berrear cantar 1 

besar cantar 1 

bestializar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

besuquear cantar 1 

bifurcar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

biografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

birlar cantar 1 

bisar cantar 1 

bisbisear cantar 1 

biselar cantar 1 

bizquear cantar 1 

blandir subir 3 

blanquear cantar 1 

blasfemar cantar 1 

blasonar cantar 1 

blindar cantar 1 

bloquear cantar 1 

bobear cantar 1 

bogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

boicotear cantar 1 


bombardear cantar 1 

bombear cantar 1 

bonificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

bordar cantar 1 

bordear cantar 1 

borrar cantar 1 

bosquejar cantar 1 

bostezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

botar cantar 1 

boxear cantar 1 

bracear cantar 1 

brear cantar 1 

bregar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

bribonear cantar 1 

brillar cantar 1 

brincar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

brindar cantar 1 

bromear cantar 1 

broncear cantar 1 

brotar cantar 1 

brujulear cantar 1 

bruñir subir (bruñir) 3-6 

brutalizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

bucear cantar 1 

bufar cantar 1 

bullir subir (bullir) 3-5 

burbujear cantar 1 

burilar cantar 1 

burlar cantar 1 

burocratizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

buscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

buzonear cantar 1 

cabalgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

cabecear cantar 1 

caber caber 23 

cablear cantar 1 

cablegrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

cabrahigar cantar (cabrahigar) 1-11 

cabrear cantar 1 

cabrillear cantar 1 

cacarear cantar 1 

cachear cantar 1 

caducar cantar (tocar) 1-1


caer caer 9 

cagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

calafatear cantar 1 

calar cantar 1 

calcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

calcetar cantar 1 

calcificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

calcinar cantar 1 

calcografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

calcular cantar 1 

caldear cantar 1 

calentar pensar 4A 

calibrar cantar 1 

calificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

caligrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

callar cantar 1 

callejear cantar 1 

calmar cantar 1 

calumniar cantar 1 

calzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cambiar cantar 1 

camelar cantar 1 

caminar cantar 1 

campar cantar 1 

campear cantar 1 

camuflar cantar 1 

canalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cancelar cantar 1 

canjear cantar 1 

canonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cansar cantar 1 

cantar cantar 1 

canturrear cantar 1 

cañonear cantar 1 

capacitar cantar 1 

capar cantar 1 

capear cantar 1 

capitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

capitanear cantar 1 

capitular cantar 1 

capotar cantar 1 

capotear cantar 1 

captar cantar 1 



capturar cantar 1 

caracolear cantar 1 

caracterizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

caramelizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

carbonatar cantar 1 

carbonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

carburar cantar 1 

carcajear cantar 1 

carcomer comer 2 

cardar cantar 1 

carear cantar 1 

carecer conocer 7A 

cargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

cariar cantar 1 

caricaturizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

carraspear cantar 1 

cartear cantar 1 

cartografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

casar cantar 1 

cascabelear cantar 1 

cascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

castañetear cantar 1 

castellanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

castigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

castrar cantar 1 

catalanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

catalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

catalogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

catapultar cantar 1 

catar cantar 1 

catear cantar 1 

categorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

catequizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

causar cantar 1 

cauterizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cautivar cantar 1 

cavar cantar 1 

cavilar cantar 1 

cazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cebar cantar 1 

cecear cantar 1 

ceder comer 2 

cegar pensar (negar) 4A-1

226 ANNEX B 


cejar cantar 1 

celar cantar 1 

celebrar cantar 1 

cenar cantar 1 

censar cantar 1 

censurar cantar 1 

centellear cantar 1 

centralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

centrar cantar 1 

centrifugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

centuplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ceñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

cepillar cantar 1 

cercar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

cercenar cantar 1 

cerciorar cantar 1 

cerner perder 5A 

cernir discernir 15 

cerrar pensar 4A 

certificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

cesar cantar 1 

chafar cantar 1 

chalar cantar 1 

chamullar cantar 1 

chamuscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

chancear cantar 1 

chancletear cantar 1 

chantajear cantar 1 

chapar cantar 1 

chapotear cantar 1 

chapucear cantar 1 

chapurrear cantar 1 

chapuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

chaquetear cantar 1 

charlar cantar 1 

charlatanear cantar 1 

charlotear cantar 1 

charolar cantar 1 

chascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

chasquear cantar 1 

chatear cantar 1 

chequear cantar 1 

chicolear cantar 1 


chiflar cantar 1 

chillar cantar 1 

chinchar cantar 1 

chinchorrear cantar 1 

chirigotear cantar 1 

chirriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

chismear cantar 1 

chismorrear cantar 1 

chispear cantar 1 

chisporrotear cantar 1 

chistar cantar 1 

chivar cantar 1 

chocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

chochear cantar 1 

choricear cantar 1 

chorrear cantar 1 

chotear cantar 1 

chulear cantar 1 

chupar cantar 1 

chupetear cantar 1 

churruscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

chutar cantar 1 

cicatear cantar 1 

cicatrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cifrar cantar 1 

cimbrear cantar 1 

cimentar pensar 4A 

cincelar cantar 1 

cinematografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

circuncidar cantar 1 

circunnavegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

circunscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

circunvalar cantar 1 

ciscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

citar cantar 1 

civilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cizañar cantar 1 

clamar cantar 1 

clamorear cantar 1 

clarear cantar 1 

clarificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

clasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

claudicar cantar (tocar) 1-1


clausurar cantar 1 

clavar cantar 1 

clavetear cantar 1 

climatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

clocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

clonar cantar 1 

cloquear cantar 1 

clorar cantar 1 

cloroformizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

coadyuvar cantar 1 

coagular cantar 1 

coaligar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2 

coartar cantar 1 

cobijar cantar 1 

cobrar cantar 1 

cocear cantar 1 

cocer mover (cocer) 5B-1 

cocinar cantar 1 

codear cantar 1 

codiciar cantar 1 

codificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

codirigir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

coercer comer (vencer) 2-1 

coexistir subir 3 

coger comer (coger) 2-2 

cohabitar cantar 1 

coheredar cantar 1 

cohesionar cantar 1 

cohibir subir (prohibir) 3-8 

coincidir subir 3 

cojear cantar 1 

colaborar cantar 1 

colacionar cantar 1 

colapsar cantar 1 

colar mostrar 4B 

colear cantar 1 

coleccionar cantar 1 

colectar cantar 1 

colectivizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

colegiar(se) cantar 1 

colegir pedir (elegir) 6B-1 

colgar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2 

colindar cantar 1 



colocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

colonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

colorear cantar 1 

columbrar cantar 1 

columpiar cantar 1 

comadrear cantar 1 

comandar cantar 1 

combar cantar 1 

combatir subir 3 

combinar cantar 1 

comedir(se) pedir 6B 

comentar cantar 1 

comenzar pensar (empezar) 4A-2 

comer comer 2 

comercializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cometer comer 2 

comisionar cantar 1 

compadecer conocer 7A 

compaginar cantar 1 

comparar cantar 1 

comparecer conocer 7A 

compartimentar cantar 1 

compartir subir 3 

compatibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

compeler comer 2 

compendiar cantar 1 

compenetrar(se) cantar 1 

compensar cantar 1 

competer comer 2 

competir pedir 6B 

compilar cantar 1 

complacer conocer (placer) 7A-2 

complementar cantar 1 

completar cantar 1 

complicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

componer poner (suponer) 30-1 

comportar cantar 1 

comprar cantar 1 

comprender comer 2 

comprimir subir 3 

comprobar mostrar 4B 

comprometer comer 2 

compulsar cantar 1

228 ANNEX B 


computadorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

computar cantar 1 

computarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

comulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

comunicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

concatenar cantar 1 

concebir pedir 6B 

conceder comer 2 

concelebrar cantar 1 

concentrar cantar 1 

conceptualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

conceptuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

concernir (DEF) discernir 15 

concertar pensar 4A 

conchabar cantar 1 

concienciar cantar 1 

conciliar cantar 1 

concitar cantar 1 

concluir construir 8 

concordar mostrar 4B 

concretar cantar 1 

concretizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

conculcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

concurrir subir 3 

concursar cantar 1 

condecorar cantar 1 

condenar cantar 1 

condensar cantar 1 

condescender perder 5A 

condicionar cantar 1 

condimentar cantar 1 

condoler(se) mover 5B 

condonar cantar 1 

conducir conducir 34 

conectar cantar 1 

conexionar cantar 1 

confabular cantar 1 

confeccionar cantar 1 

confederar cantar 1 

conferenciar cantar 1 

conferir sentir 6A 

confesar pensar 4A 

confiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 


configurar cantar 1 

confinar cantar 1 

confirmar cantar 1 

confiscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

confitar cantar 1 

conflagrar cantar 1 

confluir construir 8 

conformar cantar 1 

confortar cantar 1 

confraternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

confrontar cantar 1 

confundir subir 3 

congelar cantar 1 

congeniar cantar 1 

congestionar cantar 1 

conglomerar cantar 1 

congraciar cantar 1 

congratular cantar 1 

congregar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

conjeturar cantar 1 

conjugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

conjuntar cantar 1 

conjurar cantar 1 

conllevar cantar 1 

conmemorar cantar 1 

conmensurar cantar 1 

conminar cantar 1 

conmocionar cantar 1 

conmover mover 5B 

conmutar cantar 1 

connotar cantar 1 

conocer conocer 7A 

conquistar cantar 1 

consagrar cantar 1 

conseguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2 

consensuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

consentir sentir 6A 

conservar cantar 1 

considerar cantar 1 

consignar cantar 1 

consistir subir 3 

consolar mostrar 4B 

consolidar cantar 1


consonantizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

conspirar cantar 1 

constar cantar 1 

constatar cantar 1 

consternar cantar 1 

constipar cantar 1 

constituir construir 8 

constreñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

construir construir 8 

consultar cantar 1 

consumar cantar 1 

consumir subir 3 

contabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

contactar cantar 1 

contagiar cantar 1 

contaminar cantar 1 

contar mostrar 4B 

contemplar cantar 1 

contemporizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

contender perder 5A 

contener tener (obtener) 31-1 

contentar cantar 1 

contestar cantar 1 

contextualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

continuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

contonear(se) cantar 1 

contornear cantar 1 

contorsionar(se) cantar 1 

contraatacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

contradecir decir (predecir) 28-1 

contraer traer 33 

contrahacer hacer (rehacer) 29-1 

contraindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

contrapear cantar 1 

contrapesar cantar 1 

contraponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

contrariar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

contrarrestar cantar 1 

contrastar cantar 1 

contratar cantar 1 

contravenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

contribuir construir 8 

contristar cantar 1 



controlar cantar 1 

conturbar cantar 1 

contusionar cantar 1 

convalecer conocer 7A 

convalidar cantar 1 

convencer comer (vencer) 2-1 

convenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

converger comer (coger) 2-2 

conversar cantar 1 

convertir sentir 6A 

convidar cantar 1 

convivir subir 3 

convocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

convulsionar cantar 1 

cooperar cantar 1 

coordinar cantar 1 

copar cantar 1 

copear cantar 1 

copiar cantar 1 

coproducir conducir 34 

copular cantar 1 

coquetear cantar 1 

corear cantar 1 

coreografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

cornear cantar 1 

coronar cantar 1 

corregir pedir (elegir) 6B-1 

correr comer 2 

corresponder comer 2 

corretear cantar 1 

corroborar cantar 1 

corroer caer (roer) 9-2 

corromper comer 2 

cortar cantar 1 

cortejar cantar 1 

coscar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

cosechar cantar 1 

coser comer 2 

cosquillear cantar 1 

costar mostrar 4B 

costear cantar 1 

cotejar cantar 1 

cotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4

230 ANNEX B 


cotorrear cantar 1 

crear cantar 1 

crecer conocer 7A 

creer comer (leer) 2-3 

crepitar cantar 1 

criar 10 cantar (enviar) 1-15 

cribar cantar 1 

crispar cantar 1 

cristalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cristianar cantar 1 

cristianizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

criticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

croar cantar 1 

cromar cantar 1 

cronometrar cantar 1 

crucificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

crujir subir 3 

cruzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cuadrar cantar 1 

cuadricular cantar 1 

cuadruplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

cuajar cantar 1 

cualificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

cuantificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

cuartear cantar 1 

cubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10 

cuchichear cantar 1 

cuestionar cantar 1 

cuidar cantar 1 

culminar cantar 1 

culpabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

culpar cantar 1 

cultivar cantar 1 

culturizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

cumplimentar cantar 1 

cumplir subir 3 

cundir subir 3 

curar cantar 1 

curiosear cantar 1 


currar cantar 1 

cursar cantar 1 

curtir subir 3 

curvar cantar 1 

custodiar cantar 1 

damnificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

danzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

dañar cantar 1 

dar dar 25 

datar cantar 1 

deambular cantar 1 

debatir subir 3 

deber comer 2 

debilitar cantar 1 

debutar cantar 1 

decaer caer 9 

decantar cantar 1 

decapitar cantar 1 

decepcionar cantar 1 

decidir subir 3 

decir decir 28 

declamar cantar 1 

declarar cantar 1 

declinar cantar 1 

decodificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

decolorar cantar 1 

decomisar cantar 1 

decorar cantar 1 

decorticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

decrecer conocer 7A 

decretar cantar 1 

dedicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

deducir conducir 34 

defecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

defender perder 5A 

defenestrar cantar 1 

definir subir 3 

deforestar cantar 1 

deformar cantar 1 

10 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—crie/crié, crio/crió—as well 

as for the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—criais/criáis and crieis/criéis.


defraudar cantar 1 

degenerar cantar 1 

deglutir subir 3 

degollar mostrar (agorar) 4B-4 

degradar cantar 1 

degustar cantar 1 

deificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

dejar cantar 1 

delatar cantar 1 

delegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

deleitar cantar 1 

deletrear cantar 1 

deliberar cantar 1 

delimitar cantar 1 

delinear cantar 1 

delinquir subir (delinquir) 3-4 

delirar cantar 1 

demacrar(se) cantar 1 

demandar cantar 1 

demarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

demarrar cantar 1 

democratizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

demoler mover 5B 

demorar cantar 1 

demostrar mostrar 4B 

demudar cantar 1 

denegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

denigrar cantar 1 

denominar cantar 1 

denostar mostrar 4B 

denotar cantar 1 

denunciar cantar 1 

deparar cantar 1 

departir subir 3 

depauperar cantar 1 

depender comer 2 

depilar cantar 1 

deplorar cantar 1 

deponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

deportar cantar 1 

depositar cantar 1 

depravar cantar 1 

depreciar cantar 1 



depredar cantar 1 

deprimir subir 3 

depurar cantar 1 

derechizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

derivar cantar 1 

derogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

derramar cantar 1 

derrapar cantar 1 

derrengar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

derretir pedir 6B 

derribar cantar 1 

derrocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

derrochar cantar 1 

derrotar cantar 1 

derruir construir 8 

derrumbar cantar 1 

desabastecer conocer 7A 

desabollar cantar 1 

desabotonar cantar 1 

desabrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desabrochar cantar 1 

desacatar cantar 1 

desacelerar cantar 1 

desacertar pensar 4A 

desaclimatar cantar 1 

desacomodar cantar 1 

desaconsejar cantar 1 

desacoplar cantar 1 

desacostumbrar cantar 1 

desacreditar cantar 1 

desactivar cantar 1 

desacuartelar cantar 1 

desafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

desafinar cantar 1 

desagradar cantar 1 

desagraviar cantar 1 

desaguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

desahogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desahuciar cantar 1 

desajustar cantar 1 

desalar cantar 1 

desalentar pensar 4A 

desalinear cantar 1

232 ANNEX B 


desalinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desaliñar cantar 1 

desalojar cantar 1 

desalquilar cantar 1 

desamortizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desamparar cantar 1 

desamueblar cantar 1 

desanclar cantar 1 

desandar andar 35 

desangrar cantar 1 

desanudar cantar 1 

desaparecer conocer 7A 

desapasionar cantar 1 

desapegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desapretar pensar 4A 

desaprobar mostrar 4B 

desaprovechar cantar 1 

desarbolar cantar 1 

desarmar cantar 1 

desarmonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desarraigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desarreglar cantar 1 

desarrendar pensar 4A 

desarrimar cantar 1 

desarrollar cantar 1 

desarropar cantar 1 

desarrugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desarticular cantar 1 

desasir asir 13 

desasistir subir 3 

desasnar cantar 1 

desasosegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

desatar cantar 1 

desatascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desatender perder 5A 

desatornillar cantar 1 

desatrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desautorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desayunar cantar 1 

desazonar cantar 1 

desbancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desbarajustar cantar 1 

desbaratar cantar 1 


desbarbar cantar 1 

desbarrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desbarrar cantar 1 

desbastar cantar 1 

desbloquear cantar 1 

desbocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desbordar cantar 1 

desbravar cantar 1 

desbrozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descabalar cantar 1 

descabalgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

descabellar cantar 1 

descabezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descacharrar cantar 1 

descafeinar cantar (descafeinar) 1-7 

descalabrar cantar 1 

descalcificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

descalificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

descalzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descamar cantar 1 

descambiar cantar 1 

descansar cantar 1 

descaperuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descapotar cantar 1 

descargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

descarnar cantar 1 

descarriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

descarrilar cantar 1 

descartar cantar 1 

descasar cantar 1 

descascarillar cantar 1 

descastar cantar 1 

descender perder 5A 

descentralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descentrar cantar 1 

descerebrar cantar 1 

descerrajar cantar 1 

descifrar cantar 1 

desclasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desclavar cantar 1 

descocar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

descodificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

descolgar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2


descollar mostrar 4B 

descolocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

descolonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descompasar cantar 1 

descompensar cantar 1 

descomponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

descomprimir subir 3 

desconcertar pensar 4A 

desconchar cantar 1 

desconectar cantar 1 

desconfiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

descongelar cantar 1 

descongestionar cantar 1 

desconocer conocer 7A 

desconsiderar cantar 1 

descontaminar cantar 1 

descontar mostrar 4B 

descontentar cantar 1 

descontextualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descontrolar cantar 1 

desconvocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

descorazonar cantar 1 

descorchar cantar 1 

descorrer comer 2 

descoser comer 2 

descoyuntar cantar 1 

descreer comer (leer) 2-3 

descremar cantar 1 

describir subir (escribir) 3-11 

descuadrar cantar 1 

descuajar cantar 1 

descuajeringar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

descuartizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

descubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10 

descuidar cantar 1 

desdecir decir (predecir) 28-1 

desdeñar cantar 1 

desdibujar cantar 1 

desdoblar cantar 1 

desdramatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desear cantar 1 

desecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desechar cantar 1 



desembalar cantar 1 

desembarazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desembarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desembargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desembarrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desembarrar cantar 1 

desembocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desembolsar cantar 1 

desembragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desembrollar cantar 1 

desembrujar cantar 1 

desembuchar cantar 1 

desempacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desempalmar cantar 1 

desempañar cantar 1 

desempapelar cantar 1 

desempaquetar cantar 1 

desemparejar cantar 1 

desempatar cantar 1 

desempedrar pensar 4A 

desempeñar cantar 1 

desempolvar cantar 1 

desempotrar cantar 1 

desenamorar cantar 1 

desencadenar cantar 1 

desencajar cantar 1 

desencajonar cantar 1 

desencallar cantar 1 

desencaminar cantar 1 

desencantar cantar 1 

desencapotar cantar 1 

desencarcelar cantar 1 

desencasquillar cantar 1 

desenchufar cantar 1 

desenclavar cantar 1 

desencolar cantar 1 

desencorvar cantar 1 

desencuadernar cantar 1 

desenfadar cantar 1 

desenfocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desenfrenar cantar 1 

desenfundar cantar 1 

desenfurruñar cantar 1

234 ANNEX B 


desenganchar cantar 1 

desengañar cantar 1 

desengrasar cantar 1 

desenhebrar cantar 1 

desenjaular cantar 1 

desenladrillar cantar 1 

desenlazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desenmarañar cantar 1 

desenmascarar cantar 1 

desenraizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12 

desenredar cantar 1 

desenrollar cantar 1 

desenroscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desensibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desensillar cantar 1 

desentablillar cantar 1 

desentender(se) perder 5A 

desenterrar pensar 4A 

desentoldar cantar 1 

desentonar cantar 1 

desentrañar cantar 1 

desentrenar cantar 1 

desentumecer conocer 7A 

desenvainar cantar 1 

desenvolver mover (volver) 5B-4 

desequilibrar cantar 1 

desertar cantar 1 

desertificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desertizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desescombrar cantar 1 

desesperar cantar 1 

desestabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desestimar cantar 1 

desfalcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desfallecer conocer 7A 

desfasar cantar 1 

desfavorecer conocer 7A 

desfigurar cantar 1 

desfilar cantar 1 

desflecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desflorar cantar 1 

desfogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desfondar cantar 1 


desforrar cantar 1 

desgajar cantar 1 

desgañitar(se) cantar 1 

desgarrar cantar 1 

desgasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desgastar cantar 1 

desglosar cantar 1 

desgraciar cantar 1 

desgranar cantar 1 

desgravar cantar 1 

desguarnecer conocer 7A 

desguazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

deshabitar cantar 1 

deshacer hacer 29 

deshelar pensar 4A 

desheredar cantar 1 

deshidratar cantar 1 

deshilachar cantar 1 

deshilvanar cantar 1 

deshinchar cantar 1 

deshojar cantar 1 

deshollinar cantar 1 

deshonrar cantar 1 

deshuesar cantar 1 

deshumanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

designar cantar 1 

desigualar cantar 1 

desilusionar cantar 1 

desimantar cantar 1 

desincrustar cantar 1 

desinfectar cantar 1 

desinflar cantar 1 

desinformar cantar 1 

desinhibir subir 3 

desinsectar cantar 1 

desintegrar cantar 1 

desinteresar(se) cantar 1 

desintoxicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desistir subir 3 

deslavazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

deslegalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

deslegitimar cantar 1 

desleír pedir (reír) 6B-4


desliar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

desligar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

deslindar cantar 1 

deslizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

deslomar cantar 1 

deslucir lucir 7B 

deslumbrar cantar 1 

desmadejar cantar 1 

desmadrar cantar 1 

desmagnetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desmandar cantar 1 

desmantelar cantar 1 

desmaquillar cantar 1 

desmarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desmayar cantar 1 

desmejorar cantar 1 

desmelenar cantar 1 

desmembrar pensar 4A 

desmentir sentir 6A 

desmenuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desmerecer conocer 7A 

desmigajar cantar 1 

desmigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desmilitarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desmineralizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desmitificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desmochar cantar 1 

desmontar cantar 1 

desmoralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desmoronar cantar 1 

desmotivar cantar 1 

desmovilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desnacionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desnatar cantar 1 

desnaturalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desnivelar cantar 1 

desnortar(se) cantar 1 

desnucar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desnuclearizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desnudar cantar 1 

desnutrir(se) subir 3 

desobedecer conocer 7A 

desobstruir construir 8 



desocupar cantar 1 

desodorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desoír oír 10 

desojar cantar 1 

desollar mostrar 4B 

desorbitar cantar 1 

desordenar cantar 1 

desorejar cantar 1 

desorganizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desorientar cantar 1 

desosar mostrar (desosar) 4B-5 

desovar cantar 1 

desovillar cantar 1 

desoxidar cantar 1 

despabilar cantar 1 

despachar cantar 1 

despachurrar cantar 1 

despampanar cantar 1 

despanzurrar cantar 1 

desparasitar cantar 1 

desparejar cantar 1 

desparramar cantar 1 

despatarrar cantar 1 

despechugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

despedazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

despedir pedir 6B 

despegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

despeinar cantar 1 

despejar cantar 1 

despellejar cantar 1 

despelotar cantar 1 

despenalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

despendolar(se) cantar 1 

despeñar cantar 1 

despepitar cantar 1 

desperdiciar cantar 1 

desperdigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desperezar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

despersonalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

despertar pensar 4A 

despiezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

despilfarrar cantar 1 

despiojar cantar 1

236 ANNEX B 


despistar cantar 1 

desplanchar cantar 1 

desplantar cantar 1 

desplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desplegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

desplomar cantar 1 

desplumar cantar 1 

despoblar mostrar 4B 

despojar cantar 1 

despolitizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desportillar cantar 1 

desposar cantar 1 

desposeer comer (leer) 2-3 

despotricar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

despreciar cantar 1 

desprender comer 2 

despreocupar(se) cantar 1 

desprestigiar cantar 1 

despresurizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desprivatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desprogramar cantar 1 

desproveer 11 comer (leer) 2-3 

despuntar cantar 1 

desquiciar cantar 1 

desquitar cantar 1 

desratizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desriñonar cantar 1 

desrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

destacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

destapar cantar 1 

destaponar cantar 1 

destejer comer 2 

destellar cantar 1 

destemplar cantar 1 

destensar cantar 1 

desteñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

desternillar(se) cantar 1 

desterrar pensar 4A 

destetar cantar 1 

destilar cantar 1 

11 Past participle: desprovisto/desproveído. 


destinar cantar 1 

destituir construir 8 

destornillar cantar 1 

destrenzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

destripar cantar 1 

destronar cantar 1 

destrozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

destruir construir 8 

desubicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

desunir subir 3 

desusar cantar 1 

desvalijar cantar 1 

desvalorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desvanecer conocer 7A 

desvariar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

desvelar cantar 1 

desvencijar cantar 1 

desvendar cantar 1 

desvergonzar(se) mostrar (avergonzar) 4B-6 

desvestir pedir 6B 

desviar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

desvincular cantar 1 

desvirgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

desvirtuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

desvitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

desvivir(se) subir 3 

detallar cantar 1 

detectar cantar 1 

detener tener (obtener) 31-1 

detentar cantar 1 

deteriorar cantar 1 

determinar cantar 1 

detestar cantar 1 

detraer traer 33 

devaluar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

devanar cantar 1 

devastar cantar 1 

devengar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

devenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

devolver mover (volver) 5B-4


devorar cantar 1 

diagnosticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

diagramar cantar 1 

dializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

dialogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

dibujar cantar 1 

dictaminar cantar 1 

dictar cantar 1 

diezmar cantar 1 

difamar cantar 1 

diferenciar cantar 1 

diferir sentir 6A 

dificultar cantar 1 

difuminar cantar 1 

difundir subir 3 

digerir sentir 6A 

digitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

dignar(se) cantar 1 

dignificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

dilapidar cantar 1 

dilatar cantar 1 

diligenciar cantar 1 

dilucidar cantar 1 

diluir construir 8 

diluviar (DEF) cantar 1 

dimanar cantar 1 

dimitir subir 3 

dinamitar cantar 1 

dinamizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

diplomar cantar 1 

diptongar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

dirigir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

dirimir subir 3 

discernir discernir 15 

disciplinar cantar 1 

discordar mostrar 4B 

discrepar cantar 1 

discriminar cantar 1 

disculpar cantar 1 

discurrir subir 3 

discutir subir 3 

disecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

diseccionar cantar 1 



diseminar cantar 1 

disentir sentir 6A 

diseñar cantar 1 

disertar cantar 1 

disfrazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

disfrutar cantar 1 

disgregar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

disgustar cantar 1 

disimilar cantar 1 

disimular cantar 1 

disipar cantar 1 

dislocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

disminuir construir 8 

disociar cantar 1 

disolver mover (resolver) 5B-3 

disparar cantar 1 

disparatar cantar 1 

dispensar cantar 1 

dispersar cantar 1 

disponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

disputar cantar 1 

distanciar cantar 1 

distar cantar 1 

distender perder 5A 

distinguir subir (distinguir) 3-3 

distorsionar cantar 1 

distraer traer 33 

distribuir construir 8 

disuadir subir 3 

divagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

divergir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

diversificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

divertir sentir 6A 

dividir subir 3 

divinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

divisar cantar 1 

divorciar cantar 1 

divulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

doblar cantar 1 

doblegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

doctorar cantar 1 

documentar cantar 1 

dogmatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4

238 ANNEX B 


doler mover 5B 

domar cantar 1 

domeñar cantar 1 

domesticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

domiciliar cantar 1 

dominar cantar 1 

donar cantar 1 

dopar cantar 1 

dorar cantar 1 

dormir dormir 6C 

dormitar cantar 1 

dosificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

dotar cantar 1 

dragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

dramatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

drenar cantar 1 

driblar cantar 1 

drogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

duchar cantar 1 

dudar cantar 1 

dulcificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

duplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

durar cantar 1 

echar cantar 1 

eclipsar cantar 1 

economizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

edificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

editar cantar 1 

educar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

edulcorar cantar 1 

efectuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

ejecutar cantar 1 

ejemplarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ejemplificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ejercer comer (vencer) 2-1 

ejercitar cantar 1 

elaborar cantar 1 

electrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

electrizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

electrocutar cantar 1 

electrolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

elegir pedir (elegir) 6B-1 

elevar cantar 1 


elidir subir 3 

eliminar cantar 1 

elogiar cantar 1 

elucidar cantar 1 

elucubrar cantar 1 

eludir subir 3 

emanar cantar 1 

emancipar cantar 1 

emascular cantar 1 

embadurnar cantar 1 

embalar cantar 1 

embaldosar cantar 1 

embalsamar cantar 1 

embalsar cantar 1 

embarazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

embarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

embargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

embarrancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

embarrar cantar 1 

embarullar cantar 1 

embaucar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

embazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

embeber comer 2 

embelesar cantar 1 

embellecer conocer 7A 

embestir pedir 6B 

embetunar cantar 1 

emblanquecer conocer 7A 

embobar cantar 1 

embolsar cantar 1 

emborrachar cantar 1 

emborrascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

emborronar cantar 1 

emboscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

embotar cantar 1 

embotellar cantar 1 

embotijar cantar 1 

embozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

embragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

embravecer conocer 7A 

embrear cantar 1 

embriagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

embridar cantar 1


embrollar cantar 1 

embromar cantar 1 

embrujar cantar 1 

embrutecer conocer 7A 

embuchar cantar 1 

embutir subir 3 

emerger comer (coger) 2-2 

emigrar cantar 1 

emitir subir 3 

emocionar cantar 1 

empacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

empachar cantar 1 

empadronar cantar 1 

empalagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

empalar cantar 1 

empalidecer conocer 7A 

empalmar cantar 1 

empanar cantar 1 

empantanar cantar 1 

empañar cantar 1 

empapar cantar 1 

empapelar cantar 1 

empapuzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

empaquetar cantar 1 

emparedar cantar 1 

emparejar cantar 1 

emparentar 12 pensar 4A 

empastar cantar 1 

empatar cantar 1 

empavonar cantar 1 

empecer conocer 7A 

empecinar(se) cantar 1 

empedrar pensar 4A 

empeller comer (empeller) 2-4 

empeñar cantar 1 

empeorar cantar 1 

empequeñecer conocer 7A 

emperejilar cantar 1 

emperifollar cantar 1 

12 Can also be conjugated without diphthongs, like cantar. 



emperrar(se) cantar 1 

empezar pensar (empezar) 4A-2 

empinar cantar 1 

empitonar cantar 1 

emplastecer conocer 7A 

emplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

emplear cantar 1 

emplomar cantar 1 

emplumar cantar 1 

empobrecer conocer 7A 

empollar cantar 1 

empolvar cantar 1 

emponzoñar cantar 1 

emporcar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1 

empotrar cantar 1 

emprender comer 2 

empujar cantar 1 

empuñar cantar 1 

emular cantar 1 

emulsionar cantar 1 

enajenar cantar 1 

enaltecer conocer 7A 

enamorar cantar 1 

enamoriscar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enarbolar cantar 1 

enarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enardecer conocer 7A 

enarenar cantar 1 

encabalgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

encabestrar cantar 1 

encabezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

encabritar(se) cantar 1 

encabronar cantar 1 

encadenar cantar 1 

encajar cantar 1 

encajonar cantar 1 

encalar cantar 1 

encallar cantar 1 

encallecer conocer 7A

240 ANNEX B 


encallejonar cantar 1 

encamar cantar 1 

encaminar cantar 1 

encanar(se) cantar 1 

encandilar cantar 1 

encanecer conocer 7A 

encanijar cantar 1 

encantar cantar 1 

encanutar cantar 1 

encañonar cantar 1 

encapotar cantar 1 

encaprichar(se) cantar 1 

encapsular cantar 1 

encapuchar cantar 1 

encaramar cantar 1 

encarar cantar 1 

encarcelar cantar 1 

encarecer conocer 7A 

encargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

encariñar cantar 1 

encarnar cantar 1 

encarnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

encarpetar cantar 1 

encarrilar cantar 1 

encartar cantar 1 

encartonar cantar 1 

encasillar cantar 1 

encasquetar cantar 1 

encasquillar cantar 1 

encastrar cantar 1 

encausar cantar 1 

encauzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

encebollar cantar 1 

encelar cantar 1 

enceldar cantar 1 

encenagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

encender perder 5A 

encerar cantar 1 

encerrar pensar 4A 

encestar cantar 1 

encharcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enchufar cantar 1 

encintar cantar 1 


encizañar cantar 1 

enclaustrar cantar 1 

enclavar cantar 1 

encocorar cantar 1 

encofrar cantar 1 

encoger comer (coger) 2-2 

encolar cantar 1 

encolerizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

encomendar pensar 4A 

encomiar cantar 1 

enconar cantar 1 

encontrar mostrar 4B 

encopetar cantar 1 

encorajinar cantar 1 

encorbatar cantar 1 

encordar mostrar 4B 

encorsetar cantar 1 

encorvar cantar 1 

encrespar cantar 1 

encuadernar cantar 1 

encuadrar cantar 1 

encubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10 

encuestar cantar 1 

encumbrar cantar 1 

encurtir subir 3 

endemoniar cantar 1 

enderezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

endeudar(se) cantar 1 

endilgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

endiñar cantar 1 

endiosar cantar 1 

endomingar(se) cantar (pagar) 1-2 

endosar cantar 1 

endulzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

endurecer conocer 7A 

enemistar cantar 1 

enervar cantar 1 

enfadar cantar 1 

enfajar cantar 1 

enfangar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

enfatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

enfermar cantar 1 

enfervorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4


enfilar cantar 1 

enflaquecer conocer 7A 

enfocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enfoscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enfrascar(se) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enfrentar cantar 1 

enfriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

enfundar cantar 1 

enfurecer conocer 7A 

enfurruñar(se) cantar 1 

engalanar cantar 1 

enganchar cantar 1 

engañar cantar 1 

engarabitar cantar 1 

engarzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

engastar cantar 1 

engatusar cantar 1 

engendrar cantar 1 

englobar cantar 1 

engolar cantar 1 

engolfar cantar 1 

engolosinar cantar 1 

engomar cantar 1 

engominar(se) cantar 1 

engordar cantar 1 

engranar cantar 1 

engrandecer conocer 7A 

engrasar cantar 1 

engreír pedir (reír) 6B-4 

engrescar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

engrosar cantar 1 

enguachinar cantar 1 

enguantar cantar 1 

enguarrar cantar 1 

engullir subir (bullir) 3-5 

engurruñar cantar 1 

enharinar cantar 1 

enhebrar cantar 1 

enjabonar cantar 1 

enjaezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

enjalbegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

enjaretar cantar 1 

enjaular cantar 1 



enjoyar cantar 1 

enjuagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

enjugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

enjuiciar cantar 1 

enladrillar cantar 1 

enlatar cantar 1 

enlazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

enlodar cantar 1 

enloquecer conocer 7A 

enlosar cantar 1 

enlucir lucir 7B 

enlutar cantar 1 

enmadrar(se) cantar 1 

enmarañar cantar 1 

enmarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enmascarar cantar 1 

enmendar pensar 4A 

enmohecer conocer 7A 

enmoquetar cantar 1 

enmudecer conocer 7A 

ennegrecer conocer 7A 

ennoblecer conocer 7A 

ennoviar(se) cantar 1 

enojar cantar 1 

enorgullecer conocer 7A 

enquistar cantar 1 

enrabietar cantar 1 

enraizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12 

enrarecer conocer 7A 

enredar cantar 1 

enrejar cantar 1 

enriquecer conocer 7A 

enrocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

enrojecer conocer 7A 

enrolar cantar 1 

enrollar cantar 1 

enronquecer conocer 7A 

enroscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ensalzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ensamblar cantar 1 

ensanchar cantar 1 

ensangrentar pensar 4A 

ensañar cantar 1

242 ANNEX B 


ensartar cantar 1 

ensayar cantar 1 

enseñar cantar 1 

enseñorear(se) cantar 1 

ensillar cantar 1 

ensimismar(se) cantar 1 

ensoberbecer conocer 7A 

ensombrecer conocer 7A 

ensordecer conocer 7A 

ensortijar cantar 1 

ensuciar cantar 1 

entablar cantar 1 

entablillar cantar 1 

entallar cantar 1 

entarimar cantar 1 

entelar cantar 1 

entender perder 5A 

entenebrecer conocer 7A 

enterar cantar 1 

enternecer conocer 7A 

enterrar pensar 4A 

entibiar cantar 1 

entintar cantar 1 

entoldar cantar 1 

entonar cantar 1 

entontecer conocer 7A 

entornar cantar 1 

entorpecer conocer 7A 

entrampar cantar 1 

entrañar cantar 1 

entrar cantar 1 

entreabrir subir (abrir) 3-9 

entrechocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

entrecomillar cantar 1 

entrecortar cantar 1 

entrecruzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

entregar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

entrelazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

entrelucir lucir 7B 

entremeter comer 2 

entremezclar cantar 1 

entrenar cantar 1 

entreoír oír 10 


entresacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

entretener tener (obtener) 31-1 

entrever ver (prever) 14-1 

entrevistar cantar 1 

entristecer conocer 7A 

entrometer comer 2 

entroncar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

entronizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

entubar cantar 1 

entumecer conocer 7A 

enturbiar cantar 1 

entusiasmar cantar 1 

enumerar cantar 1 

enunciar cantar 1 

envainar cantar 1 

envalentonar cantar 1 

envanecer conocer 7A 

envarar cantar 1 

envasar cantar 1 

envejecer conocer 7A 

envenenar cantar 1 

enviar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

enviciar cantar 1 

envidar cantar 1 

envidiar cantar 1 

envilecer conocer 7A 

enviudar cantar 1 

envolver mover (volver) 5B-4 

enyesar cantar 1 

enzarzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

epatar cantar 1 

epilogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

equidistar cantar 1 

equilibrar cantar 1 

equipar cantar 1 

equiparar cantar 1 

equivaler valer 12 

equivocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

erguir sentir (erguir) 6A-1 

erigir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

erisipelar cantar 1 

erizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

erosionar cantar 1


erotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

erradicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

errar pensar (errar) 4A-3 

eructar cantar 1 

esbozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

escabechar cantar 1 

escabullir subir (bullir) 3-5 

escacharrar cantar 1 

escachifollar cantar 1 

escalar cantar 1 

escaldar cantar 1 

escalfar cantar 1 

escalonar cantar 1 

escamar cantar 1 

escamotear cantar 1 

escampar cantar 1 

escanciar cantar 1 

escandalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

escanear cantar 1 

escapar cantar 1 

escaquear(se) cantar 1 

escarbar cantar 1 

escarchar cantar 1 

escardar cantar 1 

escarificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

escarmentar pensar 4A 

escarnecer conocer 7A 

escasear cantar 1 

escatimar cantar 1 

escayolar cantar 1 

escenificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

escindir subir 3 

esclarecer conocer 7A 

esclavizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

esclerosar cantar 1 

esclerotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

escobar cantar 1 

escocer mover (cocer) 5B-1 

escoger comer (coger) 2-2 

escolarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

escoltar cantar 1 

esconder comer 2 

escorar cantar 1 



escotar cantar 1 

escribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

escriturar cantar 1 

escrutar cantar 1 

escuchar cantar 1 

escudar cantar 1 

escudriñar cantar 1 

esculpir subir 3 

escupir subir 3 

escurrir subir 3 

esforzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3 

esfumar cantar 1 

esgrimir subir 3 

eslabonar cantar 1 

esmaltar cantar 1 

esmerar cantar 1 

esmerilar cantar 1 

espabilar cantar 1 

espachurrar cantar 1 

espaciar cantar 1 

espantar cantar 1 

españolear cantar 1 

españolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

esparcir subir (fruncir) 3-1 

especializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

especificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

especular cantar 1 

espejar cantar 1 

espeluznar cantar 1 

esperanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

esperar cantar 1 

espesar cantar 1 

espetar cantar 1 

espiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

espichar cantar 1 

espigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

espirar cantar 1 

espiritualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

espolear cantar 1 

espolvorear cantar 1 

esponjar cantar 1 

esponsorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

esposar cantar 1

244 ANNEX B 


esprintar cantar 1 

espulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

espumar cantar 1 

espurrear cantar 1 

esputar cantar 1 

esquejar cantar 1 

esquematizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

esquiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

esquilar cantar 1 

esquilmar cantar 1 

esquinar cantar 1 

esquivar cantar 1 

estabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

establecer conocer 7A 

estabular cantar 1 

estacionar cantar 1 

estafar cantar 1 

estallar cantar 1 

estampar cantar 1 

estampillar cantar 1 

estancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

estandarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

estar estar 20 

estatalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

estatuir construir 8 

estenografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

estercolar cantar 1 

estereotipar cantar 1 

esterilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

estibar cantar 1 

estigmatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

estilar cantar 1 

estilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

estimar cantar 1 

estimular cantar 1 

estipular cantar 1 

estirajar cantar 1 

estirar cantar 1 

estocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

estofar cantar 1 

estomagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

estoquear cantar 1 

estorbar cantar 1 


estornudar cantar 1 

estragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

estrangular cantar 1 

estraperlear cantar 1 

estratificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

estrechar cantar 1 

estrellar cantar 1 

estremecer conocer 7A 

estrenar cantar 1 

estreñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

estresar cantar 1 

estriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

estribar cantar 1 

estropear cantar 1 

estructurar cantar 1 

estrujar cantar 1 

estucar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

estuchar cantar 1 

estudiar cantar 1 

estuprar cantar 1 

eternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

etimologizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

etiquetar cantar 1 

europeizar cantar (europeizar) 1-13 

evacuar cantar 1 

evadir subir 3 

evaluar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

evangelizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

evaporar cantar 1 

evidenciar cantar 1 

evitar cantar 1 

evocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

evolucionar cantar 1 

exacerbar cantar 1 

exagerar cantar 1 

exaltar cantar 1 

examinar cantar 1 

exasperar cantar 1 

excarcelar cantar 1 

excavar cantar 1 

exceder comer 2 

exceptuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

excitar cantar 1


exclamar cantar 1 

exclaustrar cantar 1 

excluir construir 8 

excomulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

excretar cantar 1 

exculpar cantar 1 

excusar cantar 1 

execrar cantar 1 

exfoliar cantar 1 

exhalar cantar 1 

exhibir subir 3 

exhortar cantar 1 

exhumar cantar 1 

exigir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

exiliar cantar 1 

eximir subir 3 

existir subir 3 

exonerar cantar 1 

exorbitar cantar 1 

exorcizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

expandir subir 3 

expansionar cantar 1 

expatriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

expectorar cantar 1 

expedientar cantar 1 

expedir pedir 6B 

expeler comer 2 

expender comer 2 

experimentar cantar 1 

expiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

expirar cantar 1 

explayar cantar 1 

explicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

explicitar cantar 1 

explicotear(se) cantar 1 

explorar cantar 1 

explosionar cantar 1 

explotar cantar 1 

expoliar cantar 1 

exponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

exportar cantar 1 

expresar cantar 1 

exprimir subir 3 



expropiar cantar 1 

expugnar cantar 1 

expulsar cantar 1 

expurgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

extasiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

extender perder 5A 

extenuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

exteriorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

exterminar cantar 1 

extinguir subir (distinguir) 3-3 

extirpar cantar 1 

extorsionar cantar 1 

extractar cantar 1 

extraditar cantar 1 

extraer traer 33 

extralimitar(se) cantar 1 

extranjerizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

extrañar cantar 1 

extrapolar cantar 1 

extraviar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

extremar cantar 1 

exudar cantar 1 

exultar cantar 1 

eyacular cantar 1 

fabricar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

fabular cantar 1 

facilitar cantar 1 

facturar cantar 1 

facultar cantar 1 

faenar cantar 1 

fagocitar cantar 1 

fajar cantar 1 

faldear cantar 1 

fallar cantar 1 

fallecer conocer 7A 

falsear cantar 1 

falsificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

faltar cantar 1 

familiarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

fanatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

fanfarronear cantar 1 

fantasear cantar 1 

fardar cantar 1

246 ANNEX B 


farfullar cantar 1 

farolear cantar 1 

fascinar cantar 1 

fastidiar cantar 1 

fatigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

favorecer conocer 7A 

fechar cantar 1 

fecundar cantar 1 

federar cantar 1 

felicitar cantar 1 

fenecer conocer 7A 

feriar cantar 1 

fermentar cantar 1 

fertilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

festejar cantar 1 

festonear cantar 1 

fiar 13 cantar (enviar) 1-15 

fichar cantar 1 

figurar cantar 1 

fijar cantar 1 

filetear cantar 1 

filiar cantar 1 

filmar cantar 1 

filosofar cantar 1 

filtrar cantar 1 

finalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

financiar cantar 1 

fingir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

finiquitar cantar 1 

firmar cantar 1 

fiscalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

fisgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

fisgonear cantar 1 

flagelar cantar 1 

flambear cantar 1 

flamear cantar 1 

flanquear cantar 1 

flaquear cantar 1 


flechar cantar 1 

fletar cantar 1 

flexibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

flexionar cantar 1 

flirtear cantar 1 

flojear cantar 1 

florear cantar 1 

florecer conocer 7A 

flotar cantar 1 

fluctuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

fluidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

fluir 14 construir 8 

fluorar cantar 1 

focalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

foguear cantar 1 

foliar cantar 1 

follar cantar 1 

fomentar cantar 1 

fondear cantar 1 

forcejear cantar 1 

forestar cantar 1 

forjar cantar 1 

formalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

formar cantar 1 

formatear cantar 1 

formular cantar 1 

fornicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

forrajear cantar 1 

forrar cantar 1 

fortalecer conocer 7A 

fortificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

forzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3 

fosforescer conocer 7A 

fosilizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

fotocopiar cantar 1 

fotografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

fotosintetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

fracasar cantar 1 

13The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—fie/fié, fio/fió—as well as for 

the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—fiais/fiáis and fieis/fiéis. 

14The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s—flui /fluí—as well as for the 

present indicative 2p—fluis/fluís.


fraccionar cantar 1 

fracturar cantar 1 

fragmentar cantar 1 

fraguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

franquear cantar 1 

frasear cantar 1 

fraternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

frecuentar cantar 1 

fregar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

fregotear cantar 1 

freír 15 pedir (reír) 6B-4 

frenar cantar 1 

fresar cantar 1 

friccionar cantar 1 

frisar cantar 1 

frivolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

frotar cantar 1 

fructificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

fruncir subir (fruncir) 3-1 

frustrar cantar 1 

fugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

fulgurar cantar 1 

fulminar cantar 1 

fumar cantar 1 

fumigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

funcionar cantar 1 

fundamentar cantar 1 

fundar cantar 1 

fundir subir 3 

fusilar cantar 1 

fusionar cantar 1 

fustigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

gafar cantar 1 

galantear cantar 1 

galardonar cantar 1 

gallardear cantar 1 

gallear cantar 1 

galopar cantar 1 

galvanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

gamberrear cantar 1 

15 Past participle: frito/freído. 



ganar cantar 1 

gandulear cantar 1 

gangrenar(se) cantar 1 

gansear cantar 1 

gañir subir (bruñir) 3-6 

garabatear cantar 1 

garantizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

gargajear cantar 1 

gargarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

garrapatear cantar 1 

garrapiñar cantar 1 

gasear cantar 1 

gasificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

gastar cantar 1 

gatear cantar 1 

gemir pedir 6B 

generalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

generar cantar 1 

germanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

germinar cantar 1 

gestar cantar 1 

gesticular cantar 1 

gestionar cantar 1 

gibar cantar 1 

gimotear cantar 1 

girar cantar 1 

gitanear cantar 1 

glasear cantar 1 

globalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

gloriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

glorificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

glosar cantar 1 

gobernar pensar 4A 

golear cantar 1 

golfear cantar 1 

golosear cantar 1 

golpear cantar 1 

golpetear cantar 1 

gorgoritear cantar 1 

gorgotear cantar 1

248 ANNEX B 


gorjear cantar 1 

gorronear cantar 1 

gotear cantar 1 

gozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

grabar cantar 1 

graduar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

gramaticalizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

granar cantar 1 

granizar (DEF) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

granjear cantar 1 

granular cantar 1 

grapar cantar 1 

gratificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

gratinar cantar 1 

gravar cantar 1 

gravitar cantar 1 

graznar cantar 1 

grillar(se) cantar 1 

gripar cantar 1 

grisear cantar 1 

gritar cantar 1 

gruñir subir (bruñir) 3-6 

guardar cantar 1 

guarecer conocer 7A 

guarnecer conocer 7A 

guarnicionar cantar 1 

guarrear cantar 1 

guasear(se) cantar 1 

guerrear cantar 1 

guerrillear cantar 1 

guiar 16 cantar (enviar) 1-15 

guillotinar cantar 1 

guiñar cantar 1 

guipar cantar 1 

guisar cantar 1 

gulusmear cantar 1 

gustar cantar 1 

haber haber 21 

habilitar cantar 1 


habitar cantar 1 

habituar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

hablar cantar 1 

hacer hacer 29 

hacinar cantar 1 

halagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

hallar cantar 1 

haraganear cantar 1 

hartar cantar 1 

hastiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

hebraizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12 

hechizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

heder perder 5A 

helar pensar 4A 

helenizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

henchir pedir 6B 

hendir discernir 15 

heñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

heredar cantar 1 

herir sentir 6A 

hermanar cantar 1 

hermosear cantar 1 

herniar(se) cantar 1 

herrar pensar 4A 

herrumbrar cantar 1 

hervir sentir 6A 

hibernar cantar 1 

hidratar cantar 1 

higienizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

hilar cantar 1 

hilvanar cantar 1 

himplar cantar 1 

hincar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

hinchar cantar 1 

hipar cantar 1 

hipertrofiar(se) cantar 1 

hipnotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

hipotecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

hispanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

16 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—guie/guié, guio/guió—as well 

as for the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—guiais/guiáis and guieis/guiéis.


historiar cantar 1 

hocicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

hojaldrar cantar 1 

hojear cantar 1 

holgar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2 

holgazanear cantar 1 

hollar mostrar 4B 

homenajear cantar 1 

homogeneizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

homologar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

hondear cantar 1 

honrar cantar 1 

horadar cantar 1 

hormiguear cantar 1 

hornear cantar 1 

horripilar cantar 1 

horrorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

hospedar cantar 1 

hospitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

hostiar cantar 1 

hostigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

hostilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

hozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

huir 17 construir 8 

humanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

humar cantar 1 

humear cantar 1 

humedecer conocer 7A 

humidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

humillar cantar 1 

hundir subir 3 

hurgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

huronear cantar 1 

hurtar cantar 1 

husmear cantar 1 

idealizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

idear cantar 1 

identificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

idiotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 



idolatrar cantar 1 

ignorar cantar 1 

igualar cantar 1 

ilegalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ilegitimar cantar 1 

iluminar cantar 1 

ilusionar cantar 1 

ilustrar cantar 1 

imaginar cantar 1 

imantar cantar 1 

imbricar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

imbuir construir 8 

imitar cantar 1 

impacientar cantar 1 

impactar cantar 1 

impartir subir 3 

impedir pedir 6B 

impeler comer 2 

imperar cantar 1 

impermeabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

impersonalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

implantar cantar 1 

implementar cantar 1 

implicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

implorar cantar 1 

imponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

importar cantar 1 

importunar cantar 1 

imposibilitar cantar 1 

impostar cantar 1 

imprecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

impregnar cantar 1 

impresionar cantar 1 

imprimir subir (imprimir) 3-12 

improvisar cantar 1 

impugnar cantar 1 

impulsar cantar 1 

imputar cantar 1 

inaugurar cantar 1 

17The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s—hui /huí—as well as for the present 

indicative 2p—huis/huís.

250 ANNEX B 


incapacitar cantar 1 

incardinar cantar 1 

incautar(se) cantar 1 

incendiar cantar 1 

incensar pensar 4A 

incentivar cantar 1 

incidir subir 3 

incinerar cantar 1 

incitar cantar 1 

inclinar cantar 1 

incluir construir 8 

incomodar cantar 1 

incomunicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

incordiar cantar 1 

incorporar cantar 1 

incrementar cantar 1 

increpar cantar 1 

incriminar cantar 1 

incrustar cantar 1 

incubar cantar 1 

inculcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

incumbir subir 3 

incumplir subir 3 

incurrir subir 3 

incursionar cantar 1 

indagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

indemnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

independizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

indicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

indigestar(se) cantar 1 

indignar cantar 1 

indisciplinar(se) cantar 1 

indisponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

individualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

inducir conducir 34 

indultar cantar 1 

industrializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

infamar cantar 1 

infantilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

infartar cantar 1 

infectar cantar 1 

inferir sentir 6A 

infestar cantar 1 


infiltrar cantar 1 

inflamar cantar 1 

inflar cantar 1 

infligir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

influenciar cantar 1 

influir construir 8 

informar cantar 1 

informatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

infrautilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

infravalorar cantar 1 

infringir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

infundir subir 3 

ingeniar cantar 1 

ingerir sentir 6A 

ingresar cantar 1 

inhabilitar cantar 1 

inhalar cantar 1 

inhibir subir 3 

inhumar cantar 1 

inicializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

iniciar cantar 1 

injerir sentir 6A 

injertar cantar 1 

injuriar cantar 1 

inmigrar cantar 1 

inmiscuir construir 8 

inmolar cantar 1 

inmortalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

inmovilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

inmunizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

inmutar cantar 1 

innovar cantar 1 

inocular cantar 1 

inquietar cantar 1 

inquirir adquirir 17 

insalivar cantar 1 

inscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

inseminar cantar 1 

insensibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

insertar cantar 1 

insinuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

insistir subir 3 

insolentar cantar 1


insonorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

inspeccionar cantar 1 

inspirar cantar 1 

instalar cantar 1 

instar cantar 1 

instaurar cantar 1 

instigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

instilar cantar 1 

institucionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

instituir construir 8 

instruir construir 8 

instrumentalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

instrumentar cantar 1 

insubordinar cantar 1 

insuflar cantar 1 

insultar cantar 1 

insurreccionar cantar 1 

integrar cantar 1 

intelectualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

intensificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

intentar cantar 1 

interaccionar cantar 1 

interactuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

intercalar cantar 1 

intercambiar cantar 1 

interceder comer 2 

interceptar cantar 1 

interesar cantar 1 

interferir sentir 6A 

interiorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

intermediar cantar 1 

internacionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

internar cantar 1 

interpelar cantar 1 

interpolar cantar 1 

interponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

interpretar cantar 1 

interrelacionar cantar 1 

interrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

interrumpir subir 3 

intervenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

interviuvar cantar 1 

intimar cantar 1 



intimidar cantar 1 

intitular cantar 1 

intoxicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

intranquilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

intrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

intrincar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

introducir conducir 34 

intubar cantar 1 

intuir construir 8 

inundar cantar 1 

inutilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

invadir subir 3 

invalidar cantar 1 

inventar cantar 1 

inventariar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

invernar cantar 1 

invertir sentir 6A 

investigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

investir pedir 6B 

invitar cantar 1 

invocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

involucionar cantar 1 

involucrar cantar 1 

inyectar cantar 1 

ionizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ir ir 24 

irisar cantar 1 

ironizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

irradiar cantar 1 

irrigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

irritar cantar 1 

irrumpir subir 3 

islamizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

italianizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

iterar cantar 1 

izar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

jabonar cantar 1 

jactar(se) cantar 1 

jadear cantar 1 

jalar cantar 1 

jalear cantar 1 

jalonar cantar 1 

jamar cantar 1

252 ANNEX B 


jaranear cantar 1 

jarrear cantar 1 

jaspear cantar 1 

jerarquizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

jeringar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

joder comer 2 

jorobar cantar 1 

jubilar cantar 1 

judaizar cantar (enraizar) 1-12 

juerguear(se) cantar 1 

jugar jugar 16 

juguetear cantar 1 

juntar cantar 1 

juramentar cantar 1 

jurar cantar 1 

justificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

justipreciar cantar 1 

juzgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

kilometrar cantar 1 

labializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

laborar cantar 1 

labrar cantar 1 

lacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

lacerar cantar 1 

lacrar cantar 1 

lactar cantar 1 

ladear cantar 1 

ladrar cantar 1 

ladrillar cantar 1 

lagrimear cantar 1 

laicizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

lamentar cantar 1 

lamer comer 2 

laminar cantar 1 

lampar cantar 1 

lancear cantar 1 

languidecer conocer 7A 

lanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

lapidar cantar 1 


laquear cantar 1 

largar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

lastimar cantar 1 

lastrar cantar 1 

lateralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

latinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

latir subir 3 

laurear cantar 1 

lavar cantar 1 

lavotear cantar 1 

laxar cantar 1 

leer comer (leer) 2-3 

legalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

legar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

legislar cantar 1 

legitimar cantar 1 

legrar cantar 1 

lesionar cantar 1 

levantar cantar 1 

levar cantar 1 

levitar cantar 1 

lexicalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

liar 18 cantar (enviar) 1-15 

libar cantar 1 

liberalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

liberar cantar 1 

libertar cantar 1 

librar cantar 1 

licenciar cantar 1 

licitar cantar 1 

licuar cantar 1 

liderar cantar 1 

lidiar cantar 1 

ligar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

lijar cantar 1 

limar cantar 1 

limitar cantar 1 

limosnear cantar 1 

limpiar cantar 1 

18 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—lie/lié, lio/lió—as well as for 

the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—liais/liáis and lieis/liéis.


linchar cantar 1 

lindar cantar 1 

liofilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

liquidar cantar 1 

lisiar cantar 1 

lisonjear cantar 1 

listar cantar 1 

litigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

litografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

llagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

llamar cantar 1 

llamear cantar 1 

llanear cantar 1 

llegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

llenar cantar 1 

llevar cantar 1 

llorar cantar 1 

lloriquear cantar 1 

llover mover 5B 

lloviznar cantar 1 

loar cantar 1 

localizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

lograr cantar 1 

loquear cantar 1 

lubricar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

lubrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

luchar cantar 1 

lucir lucir 7B 

lucrar cantar 1 

lucubrar cantar 1 

lustrar cantar 1 

luxar cantar 1 

macerar cantar 1 

machacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

madrugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

madurar cantar 1 

magnetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

magnificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

magullar cantar 1 

majar cantar 1 

malacostumbrar cantar 1 

malcasar cantar 1 

malcomer comer 2 



malcriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

maldecir decir (bendecir) 28-2 

malear cantar 1 

maleducar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

malgastar cantar 1 

malherir sentir 6A 

malhumorar cantar 1 

maliciar cantar 1 

malinterpretar cantar 1 

malmeter comer 2 

malograr cantar 1 

maltear cantar 1 

maltraer traer 33 

maltratar cantar 1 

malvender comer 2 

malversar cantar 1 

malvivir subir 3 

mamar cantar 1 

manar cantar 1 

manchar cantar 1 

mancillar cantar 1 

mancipar cantar 1 

mancomunar cantar 1 

mandar cantar 1 

manducar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

manejar cantar 1 

mangar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

mangonear cantar 1 

maniatar cantar 1 

manifestar pensar 4A 

maniobrar cantar 1 

manipular cantar 1 

manosear cantar 1 

manotear cantar 1 

mantear cantar 1 

mantener tener (obtener) 31-1 

manufacturar cantar 1 

manumitir subir 3 

manuscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

maquetar cantar 1 

maquilar cantar 1 

maquillar cantar 1 

maquinar cantar 1

254 ANNEX B 


maquinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

maravillar cantar 1 

marcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

marchar cantar 1 

marchitar cantar 1 

marear cantar 1 

marginar cantar 1 

maridar cantar 1 

martillar cantar 1 

martillear cantar 1 

martirizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

masacrar cantar 1 

masajear cantar 1 

mascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

masculinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mascullar cantar 1 

masificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

masticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

masturbar cantar 1 

matar cantar 1 

matasellar cantar 1 

materializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

maternizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

matizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

matricular cantar 1 

matrimoniar cantar 1 

maullar cantar (aullar) 1-6 

maximizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mear cantar 1 

mecanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mecanografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

mecer comer (vencer) 2-1 

mechar cantar 1 

mediar cantar 1 

mediatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

medicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

medicinar cantar 1 

medir pedir 6B 

meditar cantar 1 

medrar cantar 1 

mejorar cantar 1 

mellar cantar 1 

memorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 


mencionar cantar 1 

mendigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

menear cantar 1 

menguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 

menoscabar cantar 1 

menospreciar cantar 1 

menstruar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

mensualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mentalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mentar pensar 4A 

mentir sentir 6A 

menudear cantar 1 

mercadear cantar 1 

mercantilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mercar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

merecer conocer 7A 

merendar pensar 4A 

mermar cantar 1 

merodear cantar 1 

mesar cantar 1 

mestizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mesurar cantar 1 

metabolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

metaforizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

metalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

metamorfosear cantar 1 

meteorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

meter comer 2 

metodizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mezclar cantar 1 

microfilmar cantar 1 

migar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

militar cantar 1 

militarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mimar cantar 1 

minar cantar 1 

mineralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

miniaturizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

minimizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ministrar cantar 1 

minusvalorar cantar 1 

mirar cantar 1 

mistificar cantar (tocar) 1-1


mitificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

mitigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

mixtificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

mocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

modelar cantar 1 

moderar cantar 1 

modernizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

modificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

modular cantar 1 

mofar cantar 1 

mojar cantar 1 

moldar cantar 1 

moldear cantar 1 

moler mover 5B 

molestar cantar 1 

momificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

mondar cantar 1 

monitorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

monologar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

monopolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

monoptongar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

montar cantar 1 

monumentalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

moquear cantar 1 

moralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

morar cantar 1 

morder mover 5B 

mordisquear cantar 1 

morigerar cantar 1 

morir dormir (morir) 6C-1 

mortificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

mosconear cantar 1 

mosquear cantar 1 

mostrar mostrar 4B 

motear cantar 1 

motejar cantar 1 

motivar cantar 1 

motorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mover mover 5B 

movilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

mudar cantar 1 

mugir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

mullir subir (bullir) 3-5 



multar cantar 1 

multicopiar cantar 1 

multiplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

municipalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

murar cantar 1 

murmurar cantar 1 

musicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

musitar cantar 1 

mustiar cantar 1 

mutar cantar 1 

mutilar cantar 1 

nacer conocer 7A 

nacionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

nadar cantar 1 

narcotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

narrar cantar 1 

nasalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

naturalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

naufragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

navegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

necesitar cantar 1 

negar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

negociar cantar 1 

negrear cantar 1 

neurotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

neutralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

nevar pensar 4A 

ningunear cantar 1 

niñear cantar 1 

niquelar cantar 1 

nivelar cantar 1 

nombrar cantar 1 

nominar cantar 1 

noquear cantar 1 

normalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

notar cantar 1 

notificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

novelar cantar 1 

nublar cantar 1 

nuclearizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

numerar cantar 1 

nutrir subir 3 

obcecar cantar (tocar) 1-1

256 ANNEX B 


obedecer conocer 7A 

objetar cantar 1 

objetivar cantar 1 

obligar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

obliterar cantar 1 

obnubilar cantar 1 

obrar cantar 1 

obsequiar cantar 1 

observar cantar 1 

obsesionar cantar 1 

obstaculizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

obstar cantar 1 

obstinar(se) cantar 1 

obstruir construir 8 

obtener tener (obtener) 31-1 

obturar cantar 1 

obviar cantar 1 

ocasionar cantar 1 

ociar cantar 1 

ocluir construir 8 

ocultar cantar 1 

ocupar cantar 1 

ocurrir subir 3 

odiar cantar 1 

ofender comer 2 

ofertar cantar 1 

oficializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

oficiar cantar 1 

ofrecer conocer 7A 

ofrendar cantar 1 

ofuscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

oír oír 10 

ojear cantar 1 

oler mover (oler) 5B-2 

olfatear cantar 1 

olisquear cantar 1 

olvidar cantar 1 

omitir subir 3 

ondear cantar 1 

ondular cantar 1 

operar cantar 1 

opinar cantar 1 

oponer poner (suponer) 30-1 


opositar cantar 1 

oprimir subir 3 

optar cantar 1 

optimar cantar 1 

optimizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

orar cantar 1 

ordenar cantar 1 

ordeñar cantar 1 

orear cantar 1 

organizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

orientar cantar 1 

originar cantar 1 

orillar cantar 1 

orinar cantar 1 

orlar cantar 1 

ornamentar cantar 1 

ornar cantar 1 

orquestar cantar 1 

osar cantar 1 

oscilar cantar 1 

oscurecer conocer 7A 

ostentar cantar 1 

otear cantar 1 

otorgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

ovacionar cantar 1 

ovalar cantar 1 

ovar cantar 1 

ovillar cantar 1 

ovular cantar 1 

oxidar cantar 1 

oxigenar cantar 1 

pacer conocer 7A 

pacificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

pactar cantar 1 

padecer conocer 7A 

pagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

paginar cantar 1 

paladear cantar 1 

palatalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

paliar cantar 1 

palidecer conocer 7A 

palmar cantar 1 

palmear cantar 1


palmotear cantar 1 

palpar cantar 1 

palpitar cantar 1 

panificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

papear cantar 1 

parabolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

parafrasear cantar 1 

paralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

parangonar cantar 1 

parapetar(se) cantar 1 

parar cantar 1 

parcelar cantar 1 

parchear cantar 1 

parcializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

parecer conocer 7A 

parir subir 3 

parlamentar cantar 1 

parlar cantar 1 

parlotear cantar 1 

parodiar cantar 1 

parpadear cantar 1 

parrandear cantar 1 

participar cantar 1 

particularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

partir subir 3 

pasar cantar 1 

pasear cantar 1 

pasmar cantar 1 

pastar cantar 1 

pasteurizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

pastorear cantar 1 

patalear cantar 1 

patear cantar 1 

patentar cantar 1 

patentizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

patinar cantar 1 

patrocinar cantar 1 

patrullar cantar 1 

pausar cantar 1 

pautar cantar 1 

pavimentar cantar 1 

pavonear cantar 1 

pecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 



pechar cantar 1 

pedalear cantar 1 

pedir pedir 6B 

pedorrear cantar 1 

pegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

pegotear cantar 1 

peinar cantar 1 

pelar cantar 1 

pelear cantar 1 

peligrar cantar 1 

pellizcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

pelotear cantar 1 

penalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

penar cantar 1 

pender comer 2 

pendonear cantar 1 

penetrar cantar 1 

pensar pensar 4A 

pensionar cantar 1 

peraltar cantar 1 

percatar(se) cantar 1 

percibir subir 3 

percutir subir 3 

perder perder 5A 

perdonar cantar 1 

perdurar cantar 1 

perecer conocer 7A 

peregrinar cantar 1 

perennizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

perfeccionar cantar 1 

perfilar cantar 1 

perforar cantar 1 

perfumar cantar 1 

pergeñar cantar 1 

periclitar cantar 1 

peritar cantar 1 

perjudicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

perjurar cantar 1 

perlar cantar 1 

permanecer conocer 7A 

permitir subir 3 

permutar cantar 1 

pernoctar cantar 1

258 ANNEX B 


perorar cantar 1 

perpetrar cantar 1 

perpetuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

perseguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2 

perseverar cantar 1 

persignar cantar 1 

persistir subir 3 

personalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

personar(se) cantar 1 

personificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

persuadir subir 3 

pertenecer conocer 7A 

pertrechar cantar 1 

perturbar cantar 1 

pervertir sentir 6A 

pervivir subir 3 

pesar cantar 1 

pescar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

pespuntear cantar 1 

pestañear cantar 1 

petar cantar 1 

petardear cantar 1 

peticionar cantar 1 

petrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

piafar cantar 1 

piar 19 cantar (enviar) 1-15 

picar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

picotear cantar 1 

pifiar cantar 1 

pigmentar cantar 1 

pillar cantar 1 

pilotar cantar 1 

pimplar cantar 1 

pincelar cantar 1 

pinchar cantar 1 

pintar cantar 1 

pintarrajear cantar 1 

pinzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

pirar(se) cantar 1 


piratear cantar 1 

piropear cantar 1 

pirrar(se) cantar 1 

piruetear cantar 1 

pisar cantar 1 

pisotear cantar 1 

pitar cantar 1 

pitorrear(se) cantar 1 

pivotar cantar 1 

placer conocer (placer) 7A-2 

plagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

plagiar cantar 1 

planchar cantar 1 

planear cantar 1 

planificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

plantar cantar 1 

plantear cantar 1 

plantificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

plañir subir (bruñir) 3-6 

plasmar cantar 1 

plastificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

platear cantar 1 

platicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

plegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

pleitear cantar 1 

plisar cantar 1 

pluralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

poblar mostrar 4B 

podar cantar 1 

poder poder 26 

podrir 20 subir (pudrir) 3-13 

poetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

polarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

polemizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

policromar cantar 1 

polinizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

politizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

polucionar cantar 1 

ponderar cantar 1 

19 The new orthographic rules allow alternative forms for the simple past 1s and 3s—pie/pié, pio/pió—as well as 

for the present indicative and subjunctive 2p—piais/piáis and pieis/piéis. 

20 Conjugation identical to that of pudrir apart from infinitive.


poner poner 30 

pontificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

popularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

pordiosear cantar 1 

porfiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

pormenorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

portar cantar 1 

portear cantar 1 

posar cantar 1 

poseer comer (leer) 2-3 

posesionar cantar 1 

posibilitar cantar 1 

posicionar cantar 1 

positivar cantar 1 

posponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

postergar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

postinear cantar 1 

postrar cantar 1 

postular cantar 1 

potabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

potar cantar 1 

potenciar cantar 1 

practicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

precaver comer 2 

preceder comer 2 

preciar cantar 1 

precintar cantar 1 

precipitar cantar 1 

precisar cantar 1 

preconcebir pedir 6B 

preconizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

predatar cantar 1 

predecir decir (predecir) 28-1 

predestinar cantar 1 

predeterminar cantar 1 

predicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

predisponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

predominar cantar 1 

preexistir subir 3 

preferir sentir 6A 

prefigurar cantar 1 

prefijar cantar 1 

pregonar cantar 1 



preguntar cantar 1 

prejuzgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

preludiar cantar 1 

premeditar cantar 1 

premiar cantar 1 

prendar cantar 1 

prender comer 2 

prensar cantar 1 

preñar cantar 1 

preocupar cantar 1 

preparar cantar 1 

preponderar cantar 1 

presagiar cantar 1 

prescindir subir 3 

prescribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

preseleccionar cantar 1 

presenciar cantar 1 

presentar cantar 1 

presentir sentir 6A 

preservar cantar 1 

presidir subir 3 

presintonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

presionar cantar 1 

prestar cantar 1 

prestigiar cantar 1 

presumir subir 3 

presuponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

presupuestar cantar 1 

presurizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

pretender comer 2 

pretextar cantar 1 

prevalecer conocer 7A 

prevaricar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

prevenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

prever ver (prever) 14-1 

primar cantar 1 

pringar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

priorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

privar cantar 1 

privatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

privilegiar cantar 1 

probar mostrar 4B 

proceder comer 2

260 ANNEX B 


procesar cantar 1 

proclamar cantar 1 

procrear cantar 1 

procurar cantar 1 

prodigar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

producir conducir 34 

profanar cantar 1 

proferir sentir 6A 

profesar cantar 1 

profesionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

profetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

profundizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

programar cantar 1 

progresar cantar 1 

prohibir subir (prohibir) 3-8 

proliferar cantar 1 

prologar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

prolongar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

promediar cantar 1 

prometer comer 2 

promocionar cantar 1 

promover mover 5B 

promulgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

pronosticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

pronunciar cantar 1 

propagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

propalar cantar 1 

propasar cantar 1 

propender comer 2 

propiciar cantar 1 

propinar cantar 1 

proponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

proporcionar cantar 1 

propugnar cantar 1 

propulsar cantar 1 

prorratear cantar 1 

prorrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

prorrumpir subir 3 

proscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

proseguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2 

21 Past participle: provisto/proveído. 


prosificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

prosperar cantar 1 

prosternar(se) cantar 1 

prostituir construir 8 

protagonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

proteger comer (coger) 2-2 

protestar cantar 1 

proveer 21 comer (leer) 2-3 

provenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

provocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

proyectar cantar 1 

psicoanalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

publicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

publicitar cantar 1 

pudrir subir (pudrir) 3-13 

puentear cantar 1 

pugnar cantar 1 

pujar cantar 1 

pulimentar cantar 1 

pulir subir 3 

pulsar cantar 1 

pulular cantar 1 

pulverizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

puntear cantar 1 

puntualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

puntuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

punzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

purgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

purificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

putear cantar 1 

quebrantar cantar 1 

quebrar pensar 4A 

quedar cantar 1 

quemar cantar 1 

querellar(se) cantar 1 

querer querer 27 

quintuplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

quitar cantar 1 

rabiar cantar 1 

racanear cantar 1


racionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

racionar cantar 1 

radiar cantar 1 

radicalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

radicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

radiodifundir subir 3 

radiografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

radiotelegrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

raer caer (raer) 9-1 

rajar cantar 1 

ralentizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rallar cantar 1 

ramificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ramonear cantar 1 

rapar cantar 1 

raptar cantar 1 

rarificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rasar cantar 1 

rascar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rasgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

rasguear cantar 1 

raspar cantar 1 

rastrear cantar 1 

rastrillar cantar 1 

rastrojar cantar 1 

rasurar cantar 1 

ratificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rayar cantar 1 

razonar cantar 1 

reabrir subir (abrir) 3-9 

reabsorber comer 2 

reaccionar cantar 1 

reactivar cantar 1 

readaptar cantar 1 

readmitir subir 3 

reafirmar cantar 1 

reagrupar cantar 1 

reajustar cantar 1 

realizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

realojar cantar 1 

realquilar cantar 1 

realzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

reanimar cantar 1 



reanudar cantar 1 

reaparecer conocer 7A 

rearmar cantar 1 

reasegurar cantar 1 

reavivar cantar 1 

rebajar cantar 1 

rebanar cantar 1 

rebañar cantar 1 

rebasar cantar 1 

rebatir subir 3 

rebelar(se) cantar 1 

reblandecer conocer 7A 

rebobinar cantar 1 

rebordear cantar 1 

rebosar cantar 1 

rebotar cantar 1 

rebozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rebrotar cantar 1 

rebuscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rebuznar cantar 1 

recabar cantar 1 

recaer caer 9 

recalar cantar 1 

recalcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

recalentar pensar 4A 

recalificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

recamar cantar 1 

recambiar cantar 1 

recapacitar cantar 1 

recapitular cantar 1 

recargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

recatar cantar 1 

recauchutar cantar 1 

recaudar cantar 1 

recelar cantar 1 

recetar cantar 1 

rechazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rechinar cantar 1 

rechistar cantar 1 

recibir subir 3 

reciclar cantar 1 

recidivar cantar 1 

recitar cantar 1

262 ANNEX B 


reclamar cantar 1 

reclinar cantar 1 

recluir construir 8 

reclutar cantar 1 

recobrar cantar 1 

recocer mover (cocer) 5B-1 

recochinear(se) cantar 1 

recoger comer (coger) 2-2 

recolectar cantar 1 

recomendar pensar 4A 

recomenzar pensar (empezar) 4A-2 

recomer(se) comer 2 

recompensar cantar 1 

recomponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

reconcentrar cantar 1 

reconciliar cantar 1 

reconcomer(se) comer 2 

reconducir conducir 34 

reconfirmar cantar 1 

reconfortar cantar 1 

reconocer conocer 7A 

reconquistar cantar 1 

reconsiderar cantar 1 

reconstituir construir 8 

reconstruir construir 8 

recontar mostrar 4B 

reconvenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

reconvertir sentir 6A 

recopilar cantar 1 

recordar mostrar 4B 

recorrer comer 2 

recortar cantar 1 

recoser comer 2 

recostar mostrar 4B 

recrear cantar 1 

recriminar cantar 1 

recrudecer conocer 7A 

rectificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

recuadrar cantar 1 

recubrir subir (cubrir) 3-10 

recular cantar 1 

recuperar cantar 1 

recurrir subir 3 


recusar cantar 1 

redactar cantar 1 

redefinir subir 3 

redimir subir 3 

redistribuir construir 8 

redoblar cantar 1 

redondear cantar 1 

reducir conducir 34 

redundar cantar 1 

reduplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

reedificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

reeditar cantar 1 

reeducar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

reelaborar cantar 1 

reeligir pedir (elegir) 6B-1 

reembarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

reembolsar cantar 1 

reemplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

reencarnar cantar 1 

reencontrar mostrar 4B 

reencuadernar cantar 1 

reenganchar cantar 1 

reensayar cantar 1 

reenviar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

reescribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

reestrenar cantar 1 

reestructurar cantar 1 

reexaminar cantar 1 

reexpedir pedir 6B 

reexportar cantar 1 

referir sentir 6A 

refinar cantar 1 

reflejar cantar 1 

reflexionar cantar 1 

reflorecer conocer 7A 

reflotar cantar 1 

refluir construir 8 

refocilar cantar 1 

reforestar cantar 1 

reformar cantar 1 

reforzar mostrar (forzar) 4B-3 

refractar cantar 1 

refregar pensar (negar) 4A-1


refreír 22 pedir (reír) 6B-4 

refrenar cantar 1 

refrendar cantar 1 

refrescar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

refrigerar cantar 1 

refugiar cantar 1 

refulgir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

refundir subir 3 

refunfuñar cantar 1 

refutar cantar 1 

regalar cantar 1 

regañar cantar 1 

regar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

regatear cantar 1 

regenerar cantar 1 

regentar cantar 1 

regionalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

regir pedir (elegir) 6B-1 

registrar cantar 1 

reglamentar cantar 1 

reglar cantar 1 

regocijar cantar 1 

regodear(se) cantar 1 

regresar cantar 1 

regular cantar 1 

regularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

regurgitar cantar 1 

rehabilitar cantar 1 

rehacer hacer (rehacer) 29-1 

rehogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

rehuir 23 construir 8 

rehumedecer conocer 7A 

rehundir subir (reunir) 3-7 

rehusar cantar (rehusar) 1-8 

reimplantar cantar 1 

reimportar cantar 1 

reimprimir subir (imprimir) 3-12 

reinar cantar 1 

reincidir subir 3 

reincorporar cantar 1 

22 Past participle: refrito/refreído. 

23 In conjugations where stem syllable is stressed, ehu → ehú (as for 1-8 rehusar). 



reingresar cantar 1 

reiniciar cantar 1 

reinscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

reinsertar cantar 1 

reinstalar cantar 1 

reintegrar cantar 1 

reinvertir sentir 6A 

reír pedir (reír) 6B-4 

reiterar cantar 1 

reivindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rejonear cantar 1 

rejuvenecer conocer 7A 

relacionar cantar 1 

relajar cantar 1 

relamer comer 2 

relampaguear cantar 1 

relanzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

relatar cantar 1 

relativizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

releer comer (leer) 2-3 

relegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

relevar cantar 1 

religar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

relinchar cantar 1 

rellenar cantar 1 

relucir lucir 7B 

relumbrar cantar 1 

remachar cantar 1 

remangar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

remansar(se) cantar 1 

remar cantar 1 

remarcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

remasterizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rematar cantar 1 

rembolsar cantar 1 

remedar cantar 1 

remediar cantar 1 

rememorar cantar 1 

remendar pensar 4A 

remeter comer 2

264 ANNEX B 


remitir subir 3 

remodelar cantar 1 

remojar cantar 1 

remolcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

remolonear cantar 1 

remontar cantar 1 

remorder mover 5B 

remover mover 5B 

remozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

remplazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

remunerar cantar 1 

renacer conocer 7A 

rendir pedir 6B 

renegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

renegociar cantar 1 

renombrar cantar 1 

renovar mostrar 4B 

renquear cantar 1 

rentabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

renunciar cantar 1 

reñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

reordenar cantar 1 

reorganizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

reparar cantar 1 

repartir subir 3 

repasar cantar 1 

repatear cantar 1 

repatriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

repeinar cantar 1 

repeler comer 2 

repensar pensar 4A 

repercutir subir 3 

repescar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

repetir pedir 6B 

repicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

repintar cantar 1 

repiquetear cantar 1 

replantar cantar 1 

replantear cantar 1 

replegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

replicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

repoblar mostrar 4B 

reponer poner (suponer) 30-1 


reportar cantar 1 

reposar cantar 1 

repostar cantar 1 

reprender comer 2 

representar cantar 1 

reprimir subir 3 

reprobar mostrar 4B 

reprocesar cantar 1 

reprochar cantar 1 

reproducir conducir 34 

reptar cantar 1 

repudiar cantar 1 

repugnar cantar 1 

repujar cantar 1 

repulir subir 3 

reputar cantar 1 

requebrar pensar 4A 

requerir sentir 6A 

requisar cantar 1 

resaltar cantar 1 

resarcir subir (fruncir) 3-1 

resbalar cantar 1 

rescatar cantar 1 

rescindir subir 3 

rescribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

resecar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

resentir(se) sentir 6A 

reseñar cantar 1 

reservar cantar 1 

resetear cantar 1 

resfriar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

resguardar cantar 1 

residir subir 3 

resignar cantar 1 

resinar cantar 1 

resistir subir 3 

resolver mover (resolver) 5B-3 

resonar mostrar 4B 

resoplar cantar 1 

respaldar cantar 1 

respetar cantar 1 

respingar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

respirar cantar 1


resplandecer conocer 7A 

responder comer 2 

responsabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

resquebrajar cantar 1 

restablecer conocer 7A 

restallar cantar 1 

restañar cantar 1 

restar cantar 1 

restaurar cantar 1 

restituir construir 8 

restregar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

restringir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

resucitar cantar 1 

resultar cantar 1 

resumir subir 3 

resurgir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

retar cantar 1 

retardar cantar 1 

retener tener (obtener) 31-1 

retentar pensar 4A 

reteñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

retirar cantar 1 

retocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

retomar cantar 1 

retoñar cantar 1 

retorcer mover (cocer) 5B-1 

retornar cantar 1 

retozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

retractar cantar 1 

retractilar cantar 1 

retraer traer 33 

retransmitir subir 3 

retrasar cantar 1 

retratar cantar 1 

retrepar(se) cantar 1 

retribuir construir 8 

retroceder comer 2 

retrotraer traer 33 

retumbar cantar 1 

reunificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

reunir subir (reunir) 3-7 

reutilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

revacunar cantar 1 



revalidar cantar 1 

revalorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

revaluar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

revelar cantar 1 

revender comer 2 

reventar pensar 4A 

reverberar cantar 1 

reverdecer conocer 7A 

reverenciar cantar 1 

revertir sentir 6A 

revestir pedir 6B 

revisar cantar 1 

revitalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

revivir subir 3 

revocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

revolcar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1 

revolotear cantar 1 

revolucionar cantar 1 

revolver mover (volver) 5B-4 

rezagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

rezar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rezongar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

rezumar cantar 1 

ribetear cantar 1 

ridiculizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rielar cantar 1 

rifar cantar 1 

rimar cantar 1 

rivalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

robar cantar 1 

robotizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

robustecer conocer 7A 

rociar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

rodar mostrar 4B 

rodear cantar 1 

roer caer (roer) 9-2 

rogar mostrar (colgar) 4B-2 

romanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

romper comer (romper) 2-6 

roncar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rondar cantar 1 

ronronear cantar 1

266 ANNEX B 


ronzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

roscar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rotar cantar 1 

rotular cantar 1 

roturar cantar 1 

rozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

ruborizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

rubricar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

rugir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

rular cantar 1 

rumiar cantar 1 

rumorear cantar 1 

runrunear cantar 1 

rutilar cantar 1 

saber saber 22 

sablear cantar 1 

saborear cantar 1 

sabotear cantar 1 

sacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

saciar cantar 1 

sacralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sacramentar cantar 1 

sacrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

sacudir subir 3 

sajar cantar 1 

salar cantar 1 

saldar cantar 1 

salir salir 11 

salivar cantar 1 

salmodiar cantar 1 

salpicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

salpimentar pensar 4A 

saltar cantar 1 

saltear cantar 1 

saludar cantar 1 

salvaguardar cantar 1 

salvar cantar 1 

sanar cantar 1 

sancionar cantar 1 

sanear cantar 1 

sangrar cantar 1 

santificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

santiguar cantar (averiguar) 1-3 


saquear cantar 1 

satinar cantar 1 

satirizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

satisfacer hacer (satisfacer) 29-2 

saturar cantar 1 

sazonar cantar 1 

secar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

seccionar cantar 1 

secretar cantar 1 

secretear cantar 1 

secuenciar cantar 1 

secuestrar cantar 1 

secularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

secundar cantar 1 

sedar cantar 1 

sedimentar cantar 1 

seducir conducir 34 

segar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

segmentar cantar 1 

segregar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

seguir pedir (seguir) 6B-2 

seleccionar cantar 1 

sellar cantar 1 

sembrar pensar 4A 

semejar cantar 1 

sensibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sentar pensar 4A 

sentenciar cantar 1 

sentir sentir 6A 

señalar cantar 1 

señalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

separar cantar 1 

sepultar cantar 1 

ser ser 19 

serenar cantar 1 

seriar cantar 1 

sermonear cantar 1 

serpentear cantar 1 

serrar pensar 4A 

servir pedir 6B 

sesear cantar 1 

sesgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

sestear cantar 1


sextuplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

significar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

silabear cantar 1 

silbar cantar 1 

silenciar cantar 1 

siluetear cantar 1 

simbolizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

simpatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

simplificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

simular cantar 1 

simultanear cantar 1 

sincerar cantar 1 

sincopar cantar 1 

sincronizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

singularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sintetizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sintonizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sisar cantar 1 

sisear cantar 1 

sistematizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sitiar cantar 1 

situar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

sobar cantar 1 

sobetear cantar 1 

sobornar cantar 1 

sobrar cantar 1 

sobrealimentar cantar 1 

sobreañadir subir 3 

sobrecargar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

sobrecoger comer (coger) 2-2 

sobredimensionar cantar 1 

sobreexcitar cantar 1 

sobrehilar cantar (descafeinar) 1-7 

sobrellevar cantar 1 

sobre(e)ntender perder 5A 

sobrepasar cantar 1 

sobreponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

sobresalir salir 11 

24 Past participle: sofrito/sofreído. 

25 Exists in all six persons but not used in future, conditional, or imperative. 



sobresaltar cantar 1 

sobrescribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

sobreseer comer (leer) 2-3 

sobrestimar cantar 1 

sobrevalorar cantar 1 

sobrevenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

sobrevivir subir 3 

sobrevolar mostrar 4B 

socarrar cantar 1 

socavar cantar 1 

sociabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

socializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

socorrer comer 2 

sofisticar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

soflamar cantar 1 

sofocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

sofreír 24 pedir (reír) 6B-4 

sojuzgar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

solapar cantar 1 

solazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

soldar mostrar 4B 

solear cantar 1 

solemnizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

soler (DEF) 25 mover 5B 

solfear cantar 1 

solicitar cantar 1 

solidarizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

solidificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

soliloquiar cantar 1 

soliviantar cantar 1 

sollozar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

soltar mostrar 4B 

solucionar cantar 1 

solventar cantar 1 

somatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sombrear cantar 1 

someter comer 2 

sonar mostrar 4B 

sondar cantar 1

268 ANNEX B 


sondear cantar 1 

sonorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

sonreír pedir (reír) 6B-4 

sonrojar cantar 1 

sonsacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

soñar mostrar 4B 

sopapear cantar 1 

sopar cantar 1 

sopesar cantar 1 

soplar cantar 1 

soportar cantar 1 

sorber comer 2 

sorprender comer 2 

sortear cantar 1 

sosegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

soslayar cantar 1 

sospechar cantar 1 

sostener tener (obtener) 31-1 

soterrar pensar 4A 

sovietizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

suavizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

subalternar cantar 1 

subarrendar pensar 4A 

subastar cantar 1 

subcontratar cantar 1 

subdelegar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

subdividir subir 3 

subestimar cantar 1 

subir subir 3 

subjetivar cantar 1 

sublevar cantar 1 

sublimar cantar 1 

subordinar cantar 1 

subrayar cantar 1 

subrogar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

subsanar cantar 1 

subsidiar cantar 1 

subsistir subir 3 

subsumir subir 3 

subtitular cantar 1 

subvencionar cantar 1 

subvenir venir (convenir) 32-1 

subvertir sentir 6A 


subyacer conocer (yacer) 7A-1 

subyugar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

succionar cantar 1 

suceder comer 2 

sucumbir subir 3 

sudar cantar 1 

sufragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

sufrir subir 3 

sugerir sentir 6A 

sugestionar cantar 1 

suicidar(se) cantar 1 

sujetar cantar 1 

sulfatar cantar 1 

sulfurar cantar 1 

sumar cantar 1 

sumariar cantar 1 

sumergir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

suministrar cantar 1 

sumir subir 3 

supeditar cantar 1 

superabundar cantar 1 

superar cantar 1 

superponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

supervalorar cantar 1 

supervisar cantar 1 

suplantar cantar 1 

suplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

suplir subir 3 

suponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

suprimir subir 3 

supurar cantar 1 

surcar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

surgir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

surtir subir 3 

suscitar cantar 1 

suscribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

suspender comer 2 

suspirar cantar 1 

sustanciar cantar 1 

sustantivar cantar 1 

sustentar cantar 1 

sustituir construir 8 

sustraer traer 33


susurrar cantar 1 

suturar cantar 1 

tabicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

tablear cantar 1 

tabular cantar 1 

tachar cantar 1 

tachonar cantar 1 

taconear cantar 1 

tajar cantar 1 

taladrar cantar 1 

talar cantar 1 

tallar cantar 1 

tambalear cantar 1 

tamborilear cantar 1 

tamizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

tanguear cantar 1 

tantear cantar 1 

tañer comer (tañer) 2-5 

tapar cantar 1 

tapear cantar 1 

tapiar cantar 1 

tapizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

taponar cantar 1 

taquigrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

taracear cantar 1 

tarar cantar 1 

tararear cantar 1 

tardar cantar 1 

tarifar cantar 1 

tarjetear(se) cantar 1 

tartajear cantar 1 

tartamudear cantar 1 

tasar cantar 1 

tatarear cantar 1 

tatuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

teatralizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

techar cantar 1 

teclear cantar 1 

tecnificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

tejer comer 2 

teledirigir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

telefonear cantar 1 

telegrafiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 



televisar cantar 1 

temblar pensar 4A 

temblequear cantar 1 

temer comer 2 

temperar cantar 1 

templar cantar 1 

temporizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

tender perder 5A 

tener tener 31 

tensar cantar 1 

tensionar cantar 1 

tentar pensar 4A 

teñir pedir (ceñir) 6B-3 

teologizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

teorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

terciar cantar 1 

tergiversar cantar 1 

terminar cantar 1 

terraplenar cantar 1 

tersar cantar 1 

testar cantar 1 

testificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

testimoniar cantar 1 

tildar cantar 1 

timar cantar 1 

timbrar cantar 1 

tintar cantar 1 

tintinear cantar 1 

tipificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

tiranizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

tirar cantar 1 

tiritar cantar 1 

tirotear cantar 1 

titilar cantar 1 

titubear cantar 1 

titular cantar 1 

titularizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

tiznar cantar 1 

tocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

toldar cantar 1 

tolerar cantar 1 

tomar cantar 1 

tonificar cantar (tocar) 1-1

270 ANNEX B 


tonsurar cantar 1 

tontear cantar 1 

topar cantar 1 

toquetear cantar 1 

torcer mover (cocer) 5B-1 

torear cantar 1 

tornar cantar 1 

tornasolar cantar 1 

tornear cantar 1 

torpedear cantar 1 

torrar cantar 1 

torturar cantar 1 

toser comer 2 

tostar mostrar 4B 

totalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

trabajar cantar 1 

trabar cantar 1 

traducir conducir 34 

traer traer 33 

traficar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

tragar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

traicionar cantar 1 

trajear cantar 1 

trajinar cantar 1 

tramar cantar 1 

tramitar cantar 1 

trampear cantar 1 

trancar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

tranquilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

transbordar cantar 1 

transcribir subir (escribir) 3-11 

transcurrir subir 3 

transferir sentir 6A 

transfigurar cantar 1 

transformar cantar 1 

transfundir subir 3 

transgredir subir (abolir) 3-14 

transigir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

transitar cantar 1 

transliterar cantar 1 

transmigrar cantar 1 

transmitir subir 3 

transmutar cantar 1 


transparentar cantar 1 

transpirar cantar 1 

transportar cantar 1 

trapacear cantar 1 

trapichear cantar 1 

traquetear cantar 1 

trasbordar cantar 1 

trascender perder 5A 

trasegar pensar (negar) 4A-1 

trashumar cantar 1 

trasladar cantar 1 

traslucir lucir 7B 

trasmutar cantar 1 

trasnochar cantar 1 

traspapelar cantar 1 

traspasar cantar 1 

trasplantar cantar 1 

trasponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

trasquilar cantar 1 

trastabillar cantar 1 

trastear cantar 1 

trastocar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

trastornar cantar 1 

trasvasar cantar 1 

tratar cantar 1 

traumatizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

travestir pedir 6B 

trazar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

tremolar cantar 1 

trenzar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

trepanar cantar 1 

trepar cantar 1 

trepidar cantar 1 

tributar cantar 1 

tricotar cantar 1 

trillar cantar 1 

trinar cantar 1 

trincar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

trinchar cantar 1 

triplicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

triptongar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

tripular cantar 1 

triturar cantar 1


triunfar cantar 1 

trivializar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

trizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

trocar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1 

trocear cantar 1 

trompetear cantar 1 

tronar mostrar 4B 

tronchar cantar 1 

tropezar pensar (empezar) 4A-2 

troquelar cantar 1 

trotar cantar 1 

trovar cantar 1 

trucar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

trufar cantar 1 

truncar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

tullir subir (bullir) 3-5 

tumbar cantar 1 

tundir subir 3 

tupir subir 3 

turbar cantar 1 

turnar cantar 1 

tutear cantar 1 

tutelar cantar 1 

ubicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ufanar(se) cantar 1 

ulcerar cantar 1 

ultimar cantar 1 

ultrajar cantar 1 

ulular cantar 1 

uncir subir (fruncir) 3-1 

ungir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

unificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

uniformar cantar 1 

unir subir 3 

universalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

untar cantar 1 

urbanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

urdir subir 3 

urgir subir (dirigir) 3-2 

usar cantar 1 

usufructuar cantar (actuar) 1-14 

usurar cantar 1 

usurpar cantar 1 



utilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vacar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

vaciar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

vacilar cantar 1 

vacunar cantar 1 

vadear cantar 1 

vagabundear cantar 1 

vagar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

vaguear cantar 1 

valer valer 12 

validar cantar 1 

vallar cantar 1 

valorar cantar 1 

valorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vampirizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vanagloriar(se) cantar 1 

vaporizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vapulear cantar 1 

varar cantar 1 

variar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

vaticinar cantar 1 

vedar cantar 1 

vegetar cantar 1 

vehicular cantar 1 

vejar cantar 1 

velar cantar 1 

vencer comer (vencer) 2-1 

vendar cantar 1 

vender comer 2 

vendimiar cantar 1 

venerar cantar 1 

vengar cantar (pagar) 1-2 

venir venir 32 

ventajear cantar 1 

ventear cantar 1 

ventilar cantar 1 

ventiscar (DEF) cantar (tocar) 1-1 

ventosear cantar 1 

ver ver 14 

veranear cantar 1 

verbalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

verdear cantar 1 

verificar cantar (tocar) 1-1

272 ANNEX B 


versar cantar 1 

versificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

vertebrar cantar 1 

verter perder 5A 

vestir pedir 6B 

vetar cantar 1 

vetear cantar 1 

viabilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

viajar cantar 1 

vibrar cantar 1 

viciar cantar 1 

vidriar cantar 1 

vigilar cantar 1 

vigorizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vilipendiar cantar 1 

vincular cantar 1 

vindicar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

violar cantar 1 

violentar cantar 1 

virar cantar 1 

virilizar(se) cantar (cazar) 1-4 

visar cantar 1 

visibilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

visionar cantar 1 

visitar cantar 1 

vislumbrar cantar 1 

visualizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vitorear cantar 1 

vitrificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

vituperar cantar 1 

vivaquear cantar 1 

vivificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

vivir subir 3 

vocalizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vocear cantar 1 

vociferar cantar 1 

volar mostrar 4B 

volatilizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 


volcar mostrar (trocar) 4B-1 

volear cantar 1 

voltear cantar 1 

volver mover (volver) 5B-4 

vomitar cantar 1 

vosear cantar 1 

votar cantar 1 

vulcanizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vulgarizar cantar (cazar) 1-4 

vulnerar cantar 1 

xerocopiar cantar 1 

xerografiar cantar (enviar) 1-15 

yacer conocer (yacer) 7A-1 

yantar cantar 1 

yermar cantar 1 

yodurar cantar 1 

yugular cantar 1 

yuxtaponer poner (suponer) 30-1 

zafar cantar 1 

zaherir sentir 6A 

zamarrear cantar 1 

zambullir subir (bullir) 3-5 

zampar cantar 1 

zanganear cantar 1 

zanjar cantar 1 

zapar cantar 1 

zapatear cantar 1 

zapear cantar 1 

zarandear cantar 1 

zarpar cantar 1 

zascandilear cantar 1 

zigzaguear cantar 1 

zonificar cantar (tocar) 1-1 

zorrear cantar 1 

zozobrar cantar 1 

zumbar cantar 1 

zurcir subir (fruncir) 3-1 

zurrar cantar 1

Selected References 

Alarcos Llorach, Emilio. 1999. Gramática de la lengua española. Madrid: Real Academia 

Española (Espasa Calpe). 

Borrego, J., Asencio, J. G., and Prieto, E. 1992. El subjuntivo. Valores y usos. Madrid: Sociedad 

General Española de Librería. 

Freysselinard, Eric. 1998. Ser y estar. Le verbe être en espagnol. Paris: Ophrys. 

Gómez Torrego, Leonardo. 2000. Ortografía de uso del español actual. Madrid: 

Ediciones SM. 

Lathrop, Thomas A. 2003. The Evolution of Spanish. Univ. of Delaware: Juan de la Cuesta. 

(Also available in Spanish translation.) 

Moliner, María. 1998. Diccionario de uso del español. Madrid: Editorial Gredos. (Also 

available on CD-ROM.) 

Penny, Ralph. 1991. A History of the Spanish Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University 

Press. (Also available in Spanish translation.) 

Porto Dapena, José Álvaro. 1991. Del indicativo al subjuntivo. Valores y usos de los modos 

del verbo. Madrid: Arco/Libros. 

Real Academia Española. 2001. Diccionario de la lengua española. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. 

(Also available at: .) 

———. [2004]. Diccionario panhispánico de dudas. Online: . 

———. 1999. Ortografía de la Lengua Española. Madrid: Espasa Calpe. 

VOX Diccionario para la enseñanza de la lengua española. 1997. Barcelona: Bibliograf.

Spanish Verbs Made Simple(r) - Hillcrest Elementary

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