A Dictionary of Cont..
A Dictionary of Cont..
A Dictionary of Cont..
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A<br />
DICTIONARYOF<br />
CONTEMPORARY<br />
by BERGEN EVANS<br />
and COR.NELIA EVANS<br />
RANDOM HOUSE NEW YORK
Fourteenth Printing<br />
@Copyright, 1957, by Bergen Evans and Cornelia Evans<br />
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American<br />
Copyright Conventions<br />
Published in New York by Random House, Inc., and<br />
simultaneously in Toronto, Canada by Random House<br />
<strong>of</strong> Canada Limited.<br />
Library <strong>of</strong> Congress Catalog Card Number: 57-5379<br />
Manufactured in the United States <strong>of</strong> America
When we speak or write we want to be<br />
understood and respected. We want to convey<br />
our meaning and we want to do it in a<br />
way that will command admiration. To<br />
accomplish these ends we must know the<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> words, their specific meanings<br />
and their connotations, implications and<br />
overtones, and we must know how to combine<br />
words effectively into sentences.<br />
A dictionary can help us to understand<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> a word. But the only way<br />
to understand a word fully is to see it in<br />
use in as many contexts as possible. This<br />
means that anyone who wants to improve<br />
his vocabulary must read a great deal and<br />
must make sure that he understands what<br />
he reads. There is no short cut to this kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> knowledge. If a man thinks that noisome<br />
and noisy are synonyms, if he uses focus<br />
and nexlls interchangeably, if he sees no<br />
difference between refute and deny and if<br />
he assumes that disinterested means uninterested,<br />
he will not say what he means.<br />
Indeed, he may even say the exact opposite<br />
<strong>of</strong> what he means.<br />
Respectable English is a much simpler<br />
matter. It means the kind <strong>of</strong> English that<br />
is used by the most respected people, the<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> English that will make readers or<br />
listeners regard you as an educated person.<br />
Doubts about what is respectable English<br />
and what is not usually involve quest:ions<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar. There are some grammatical<br />
constructions, such as that there dog and<br />
he ain’t come yet, that are perfectly intelligible<br />
but are not standard English. Such<br />
expressions are used by people who are not<br />
PREFACE<br />
interested in “book learning.” They are not<br />
used by educated people and hence are<br />
regarded as “incorrect” and serve as the<br />
mark <strong>of</strong> a class. There is nothing wrong<br />
about using them, but in a country such as<br />
ours where for a generation almost everybody<br />
has had at least a high school education<br />
or its equivalent few people are willing<br />
to use expressions that are not generally<br />
approved as “correct.”<br />
A man usually thinks about his work in<br />
the language that his co-workers use. Turns<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech that may have been natural to a<br />
statistician when he was a boy on a farm<br />
simply do not come to his mind when he is<br />
talking about statistics. Anybody whose<br />
work requires intellectual training-and<br />
this includes everybody whose work involves<br />
any amount <strong>of</strong> writing-speaks<br />
standard English naturally and inevitably,<br />
with possibly a few insignificant variations.<br />
But many people who speak well write<br />
ungrammatical sentences. There seems to<br />
be some demon that numbs their fingers<br />
when they take hold <strong>of</strong> a pen, a specter<br />
called “grammar” which they know they<br />
never understood in school and which rises<br />
to fill them with paralyzing uncertainty<br />
whenever they stop to think.<br />
The only way to exorcise this demon is<br />
to state some <strong>of</strong> the fundamental facts <strong>of</strong><br />
language. And one <strong>of</strong> the most fundamental<br />
is that language changes constantly. People<br />
living in the United States in the middle <strong>of</strong><br />
the twentieth century do not speak the<br />
English <strong>of</strong> Chaucer or <strong>of</strong> Shakespeare.<br />
They don’t even speak the English <strong>of</strong>
vi PREFACE<br />
Woodrow Wilson. The meanings <strong>of</strong> words<br />
change and the ways in which words are<br />
used in sentences change. Silly once meant<br />
“holy,” fond meant “foolish,” beam meant<br />
“tree” and tree meant “beam,” and so on<br />
through many thousands <strong>of</strong> words. The<br />
pronoun you could once be used with a<br />
singular verb form, as in Was you ever in<br />
Baltimore? Today we must say were you.<br />
The word news could once be used as a<br />
plural, as in These news were suddenly<br />
spread throughout the city. Today we must<br />
treat it as a singular and say This news was<br />
spread.<br />
Since language changes this much, no<br />
one can say how a word “ought” to be<br />
used. The best that anyone can do is to<br />
say how it is being used, and this is what<br />
a grammar should tell us. It should give us<br />
information on what is currently accepted<br />
as good English, bringing together as many<br />
details as possible under a few general rules<br />
or principles, so that it will be easier for us<br />
to remember them.<br />
The older grammars, by some one <strong>of</strong><br />
which almost every adult today was bewildered<br />
in his school days, were very full<br />
<strong>of</strong> the spirit <strong>of</strong> what “ought” to be done<br />
and drew the sanction <strong>of</strong> their “oughts”<br />
from logic rather than from what people<br />
actually said. Thus in such a sentence as<br />
There is an apple and a pear in the basket<br />
most school grammars up until a generation<br />
ago would have said that one “ought”<br />
to use are and not is. And the schoolchildren<br />
(some <strong>of</strong> whom later became schoolteachers)<br />
docilely accepted the pronouncement.<br />
However the child would have heard<br />
the minister, the doctor, and even the<br />
schoolteacher out <strong>of</strong> school, say is, and<br />
since he couldn’t bring himself to say that<br />
the book was wrong in school or these<br />
eminent people wrong out <strong>of</strong> school, he<br />
would probably conclude that he didn’t<br />
“understand” grammar. Unfortunate as that<br />
conclusion might have been, it was at least<br />
intelligent and preferable to attempting all<br />
the rest <strong>of</strong> his life to speak and write in<br />
the unreal manner recommended by the<br />
textbook.<br />
The first grammars published in English<br />
were not intended to teach English but to<br />
get a child ready for the study <strong>of</strong> Latin.<br />
They were simplified Latin grammars with<br />
English illustrations. Of course they were<br />
incomprehensible, though they probably<br />
made Latin easier when the child got to it.<br />
Later, when Latin was no longer an important<br />
part <strong>of</strong> education, the schools continued<br />
to use books <strong>of</strong> this kind on the<br />
theory that they taught “superior” English,<br />
that is, English that resembled Latin.<br />
But the rules <strong>of</strong> Latin grammar require<br />
constructions that are absurd and affected<br />
in English, totally unsubstantiated by English<br />
usage. And they <strong>of</strong>ten condemn constructions<br />
that the greatest writers <strong>of</strong><br />
English use freely. The common man, even<br />
the common educated man, has had no<br />
desire to be “superior” in some mysterious<br />
way and these Latin rules have had very<br />
little effect on the way English is actually<br />
used by educated adults. But the rules have<br />
had this effect, that millions <strong>of</strong> adults believe<br />
that what seems natural to them is<br />
probably wrong.<br />
In analyzing the language the old-fashioned<br />
textbooks use concepts, or terms,<br />
that are valid when applied to Latin but<br />
are almost meaningless when applied to an<br />
uninflected language such as modern English.<br />
The difference between a noun and an<br />
adjective, or between an adjective and an<br />
adverb, for example, is plain in Latin but<br />
not in English. No grammar can explain<br />
these differences in English without becoming<br />
too involved for an elementary student.<br />
Instead <strong>of</strong> explaining them, therefore, the<br />
authors <strong>of</strong>ten write as if no explanation<br />
were needed, as if the differences were<br />
obvious to all but the dullest. And most <strong>of</strong><br />
us succumb to this. We get tired <strong>of</strong> feeling<br />
stupid and decide, for instance, that an<br />
adverb ends in -ly, such as really, and an<br />
adjective doesn’t, such as real. This leads us<br />
to feel uneasy at Swing low, sweet chariot,<br />
to wonder how road commissioners can be<br />
so illiterate as to urge us to drive slow, and<br />
to get all hot and bothered in fifty useless<br />
ways. The child who leaves school knowing
that he doesn’t know the ditierence between<br />
an adjective and an adverb is unusualIy<br />
strong minded and lucky.<br />
For the last fifty years, however, certain<br />
grammarians have been making a scientific<br />
study <strong>of</strong> English. They have been finding<br />
out how English is really used by different<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> people, instead <strong>of</strong> theorizing<br />
about how it might be used or dogmatizing<br />
about how it ought to be used. The investigations<br />
<strong>of</strong> these men have shown us which<br />
grammatical forms are used by educated<br />
people and which are not. They make it<br />
possible to define and analyze what is<br />
standard speech and what is not.<br />
They show us that standard English<br />
allows a certain amount <strong>of</strong> variation. That<br />
is, there is <strong>of</strong>ten more than one acceptable<br />
way <strong>of</strong> using the same words. The most<br />
obvious variations are geographical, Some<br />
words are used differently in different parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the country, but each use is respectable<br />
in its own locality. Some variations are<br />
peculiar to a trade or pr<strong>of</strong>ession (such as<br />
the medical use <strong>of</strong> indicate). These are as<br />
respectable as the group that uses them but<br />
they are likely to be unintelligible to the<br />
general public. When they are used solely<br />
to mark a difference, to give an esoteric<br />
flavor, they constitute a jargon.<br />
There are also differences between formal<br />
and informal English. Formal English<br />
is solemn and precise. It dots all the i’s<br />
and crosses all the t’s. Informal or colloquial<br />
English is more sprightly and leaves<br />
more to the imagination. Forty years ago<br />
it was considered courteous to use formal<br />
English in speaking to strangers, implying<br />
they were solemn and important people.<br />
Today it is considered more flattering to<br />
address strangers as if they were one’s intimate<br />
friends. This is a polite lie, <strong>of</strong><br />
course; but it is today’s good manners.<br />
Modern usage encourages informality wherever<br />
possible and reserves formality for<br />
very few occasions.<br />
This dictionary is intended as a reference<br />
book on current English in the United<br />
States. It is designed for people who speak<br />
standard English but are uncertain about<br />
PREFACE<br />
some details. lr attempts to list the que-stions<br />
that most people ask, or should ask,<br />
about what is now good practice and to<br />
give the best answers available. It also contains<br />
a full discussion <strong>of</strong> English grammar,<br />
a discussion which does not assume that<br />
the student can already read and write<br />
Latin.<br />
If any reader wants to make a systematic<br />
study <strong>of</strong> English grammar he should begin<br />
with the entry parts <strong>of</strong> speech and follow<br />
through alI the cross references. Some <strong>of</strong><br />
these may prove difficult, but no one needs<br />
to study it who is not interested. One can<br />
use good English without understanding the<br />
principles behind it just as one can drive<br />
a car without understanding mechanics.<br />
The individual word entries do not assume<br />
that the reader is interested in grammatical<br />
principles. They assume that he<br />
wants the answer to a specific question in<br />
the least possible time. The information in<br />
them has been drawn chiefly from the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong>, the seven-volume<br />
English grammar <strong>of</strong> Otto Jespersen, and<br />
the works <strong>of</strong> Charles Fries. This has been<br />
supplemented by information from A <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> American English, edited by Sir<br />
William Craigie and James Hulbert, A <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Americanisms, by Mitford M.<br />
Mathews, The American Language, with<br />
its two supplements, by H. L. Mencken,<br />
and The American College <strong>Dictionary</strong>. Further<br />
information has been drawn from articles<br />
appearing in American Speech over<br />
the past twenty years and from the writings<br />
<strong>of</strong> George 0. Curme, John Lesslie Hall,<br />
Robert A. Hall, Jr., Sterling A. Leonard,<br />
Albert H. Marckwardt, Robert C. Pooley,<br />
Thomas Pyles, and others. Some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
statements concerning differences in British<br />
and American usage are based on the writings<br />
<strong>of</strong> H. W. Fowler, Eric Partridge, Sir<br />
Alan Herbert, Ivor Brown, Sir Ernest Gowers<br />
and H. W. Horwih.<br />
The authors want to thank George ElIison,<br />
Sarah Bekker, Bernice Levin, Irene Le<br />
Compte and James K. Robinson for help<br />
in assembling and organizing this material.<br />
They also want to thank Esther Sheldon for
. . .<br />
VII1 PREFACE<br />
many helpful comments, Jess Stein and<br />
Leonore C. Hauck for the contributions<br />
they made in editing this work, and Joseph<br />
M. Bernstein for his thoughtful pro<strong>of</strong>reading.<br />
Throughout the book the authors have<br />
tried to present the facts about current<br />
usage fairly and accurately. They are aware<br />
that there is more than one kind <strong>of</strong> English.<br />
As children, living in the north <strong>of</strong> England,<br />
they spoke a dialect that was in many ways<br />
nearer to the English <strong>of</strong> Chaucer than to<br />
that <strong>of</strong> the New York Times. They have,<br />
therefore, a personal affection for forms<br />
that are older than our current Iiterary<br />
forms. As adults they have both had occasion,<br />
over many years, to read a great deal<br />
<strong>of</strong> manuscript English, the unedited writings<br />
<strong>of</strong> college students and adults working<br />
in various pr<strong>of</strong>essions. They are therefore<br />
familiar with current tendencies in English.<br />
They hope that this wide acquaintance with<br />
the language has kept them from giving too<br />
much weight to their personal preferences.<br />
But they have a personal bias, and this<br />
should be stated clearly. The authors are<br />
prejudiced in favor <strong>of</strong> literary forms. They<br />
prefer the forms used by the great writers<br />
<strong>of</strong> English to forms found only in technical<br />
journals. This means that if they list a nonliterary<br />
form as acceptable there is conclusive<br />
evidence that it is accepted. But<br />
they may have listed some forms as questionable<br />
that are standard in some areas or<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essions. The reader must decide these<br />
things for himself. To anyone who has a<br />
serious interest in the language that he<br />
hears and uses, the authors would like to<br />
say, in the words <strong>of</strong> Socrates, “Agree with<br />
me if I seem to speak the truth.”
A<br />
DICTIONARY OF<br />
CONTEMPORARY<br />
AMERICAN<br />
USAGE<br />
To Aunt Cornelia
a and an are two forms <strong>of</strong> the same word. The<br />
form an is used before a vowel sound, as in an<br />
umbrella, an honest man. The form a is used<br />
before a consonant sound, as in a European, a<br />
one-horse town, a historical novel, a hotel. The<br />
form a should be used before an h that is pronounced,<br />
as in history and hotel. Formerly these<br />
h sounds were not pronounced and an historical<br />
novel, an hotel, were as natural as an honorable<br />
man, an hour, an heiress. This is no longer true<br />
and these archaic an’s, familiar from English<br />
literature, should not be repeated in modem<br />
writing.<br />
A, an, and any are all derived from the same<br />
source. A (or an) is called the indefinite article.<br />
Actually. -_ it is used to indicate a definite but un-<br />
specified individual, as in a man in our town, a<br />
library book. In this sense the individual may<br />
represent the type, or the entire class, as in a cat<br />
has nine lives. When we wish to refer indefinitely<br />
to a single person or thing we say any, as in<br />
any man in our town, any library book. A may<br />
also be used to mean one, as in wait a minute<br />
and in a day or two. In its first sense, a may be<br />
be used before the word one, as in we did not<br />
find a one. This is acceptable English whenever<br />
there is good reason to stress the idea <strong>of</strong> oneness.<br />
But some people consider the construction<br />
improper, or unreasonable, and claim that it is<br />
better to say a single one. It is hard to see why<br />
it should be wrong to express the idea <strong>of</strong> unity<br />
twice (a, one) and right to do so three times<br />
(a, single, one).<br />
The word a (or an) stands before other qualifying<br />
words, as in a very large sum <strong>of</strong> money,<br />
except words or phrases which indicate an extreme<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> something. These are adverbial<br />
phrases and precede the word a, as in so very<br />
large a sum <strong>of</strong> money and too small a sum <strong>of</strong><br />
money.<br />
abandoned; depraved; vicious. An abandoned person-when<br />
the word is used with moral implications-is<br />
one who has given himself up, without<br />
further concern for his reputation or welfare, to<br />
immoral courses, one hopelessly sunk in wickedness<br />
and the indulgence <strong>of</strong> his appetites (an<br />
abandoned woman, hardened in sin). It usually<br />
suggests a passive acceptance <strong>of</strong> immorality (Is<br />
he so abandoned as to feel no shame at such an<br />
accusation?). A depraved person is one so dis-<br />
A<br />
torted in character, so vitiated, debased, and<br />
corrupt that he seeks out evil (These dens are<br />
the haunts <strong>of</strong> the worst and most depraved men<br />
in the city). When applied to character, as it<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten is, it again suggests a wilful corruption,<br />
springing from a distorted or perverted nature<br />
(Only a depraved taste could regard these daubs<br />
as art). A vicious person is addicted to vice,<br />
malignant and aggressive in his wickedness,<br />
violent and dangerous (Drunkenness does not<br />
make men vicious, but it shows those who are<br />
to be so).<br />
abbreviations are shortened or contracted forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> words or phrases, used as a symbol <strong>of</strong> the<br />
whole. They are designed for the eye as acronyms<br />
are designed for the ear. In written<br />
language the abbreviation has always been valuable,<br />
for scribes must save time and space<br />
whether they write on papyrus, paper or stone.<br />
The most famous abbreviation <strong>of</strong> antiquity,<br />
perhaps <strong>of</strong> all time, was SPQRSenatus Populusque<br />
Romanus-the great insigne <strong>of</strong> Rome.<br />
In general, a reader coming across an abbrevation<br />
visualizes or sounds the whole word<br />
represented by it, as in Dr. Co., mfg., cf., pres.<br />
and so on. Many abbreviations, however, have<br />
been taken over into speech, probably, as a rule,<br />
when the original word or phrase was cumbersome,<br />
as in C.O., DP, IQ, S.R.O., R.S.V.P.,<br />
G.A.R., D.A.R., and the like. This tendency to<br />
enunciate the abbreviation, rather than the full<br />
word or phrase for which it stands, is increasing.<br />
College students talk <strong>of</strong> math, lit, poly sci and<br />
econ courses without any feeling <strong>of</strong> being breezy<br />
or slangy. What was once the province <strong>of</strong> vulgar<br />
speech and the literary domain <strong>of</strong> such writers<br />
as Ring Lardner and S. J. Perelman now freely<br />
serves the popular press where the full forms <strong>of</strong><br />
V.I.P., MC. (<strong>of</strong>ten written emcee), G.I., and<br />
scores <strong>of</strong> other abbreviations would now seem<br />
very strange.<br />
Some names and terms are so unpronounceable<br />
that abbreviations are always used in both<br />
writing and speaking. Indeed the original forms,<br />
so far as the general public is concerned, are<br />
completely unknown: DDT for dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane,<br />
ACTH for adrenocorticotropic<br />
hormone, KLM for the Dutch airline<br />
Koninklijke Luchtvaart Maat-schaapij voor<br />
Nederland en Kolonien N.V.
abdomen 4<br />
Probably the commonest type <strong>of</strong> abbreviation<br />
today, and one that seems to be growing<br />
ever more common, consists <strong>of</strong> the initials <strong>of</strong><br />
the words <strong>of</strong> a name or a phrase: PTA, R.F.D.,<br />
r.p.m., p.o.w. The government and the army<br />
have contributed many <strong>of</strong> these new abbreviations.<br />
There is no general rule, but there is a<br />
tendency, which in time may establish a rule,<br />
to omit periods in the names <strong>of</strong> government<br />
agencies but to include them in other cases.<br />
This would at least allow us to distinguish AAA<br />
(Agricultural Adjustment Administration) from<br />
A.A.A. (American Automobile Association).<br />
Another common form <strong>of</strong> abbreviation is the<br />
shortening <strong>of</strong> words: capt., diam., treas. In<br />
many instances the shortened forms have been<br />
taken over into the vernacular and occasionally<br />
even into standard usage. Ad, especially for a<br />
short advertisement (as a want ad), must now<br />
be accepted as standard, as also must vet for<br />
veterinnry, though it is still colloquial for<br />
veteran except in certain combined forms like<br />
Amvets. Co-op is now so universally employed<br />
that it would be pedantic to insist on cooperative.<br />
Some abbreviations are formed by contraction:<br />
supt., patd., arty. or by the retention<br />
<strong>of</strong> only the key consonants: blvd., hdqrs., tsp.<br />
Latin phrases are frequently abbreviated, and<br />
in the same ways that English words and phrases<br />
are abbreviated. Some appear only as initials:<br />
c., e.g. Q.E.D., by the way, is always capitalized.<br />
Some are shortened: id., et al., cet. par., aet.<br />
Some are contracted: cf., pxt. VOX pop is an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> a shortened Latin phrase that has<br />
crept into common English speech. Ad Zibitrrm<br />
(“at pleasure,” that is, at the discretion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
performer) was originally primarily applied to<br />
music. As an abbreviation-ad lib.-it moved<br />
over into the drama, took on broader connotations<br />
and is now accepted as a noun, verb, or<br />
adjective.<br />
Here are some abbreviations which fall outaide<br />
the ordinary patterns:<br />
G.Z.The initials <strong>of</strong> a phrase (“government<br />
issue”) which have taken on a meaning different<br />
from the original term but wryly related to it.<br />
AlStrictly speaking not an abbreviation,<br />
since it is not a shortening <strong>of</strong> anything but simply<br />
a symbol.<br />
IOU-A phrase put in terms <strong>of</strong> initials, although<br />
they are not literally the initials <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words they represent. This is one abbreviation<br />
which is based on sound rather than on sight.<br />
There is a euphemistic use <strong>of</strong> abbreviationin<br />
such expressions as g.d. and s.o.b.-which<br />
seeks to make certain phrases not ordinarily<br />
used in polite conversation less <strong>of</strong>fensive. To<br />
some ears, however, the abbreviation is an added<br />
<strong>of</strong>fense, heaping timidity or affected gentility on<br />
indecency or pr<strong>of</strong>anity.<br />
The ultimate in abbreviation-the abbreviation<br />
<strong>of</strong> an abbreviation-is furnished by<br />
CSCN/CHSA which is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong><br />
COMSUBCOMNEl..M/COMHEDSUPPACl?<br />
which is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> Commander, Subordinate<br />
Command, U. S. Naval Forces East-<br />
ern Atlantic and Mediterranean, Commander,<br />
Headquarters Support Activities.<br />
abdomen. See belly.<br />
aberration means wandering from the usual way<br />
or from the normal course. There are various<br />
technical uses <strong>of</strong> the word in biology, optics,<br />
and other sciences, but the most common popular<br />
use is in the phrase an aberration <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mind, where it means a departure from a sound<br />
mental state. It does not mean mere absentmindedness.<br />
It should always be used with a<br />
qualifying adjective or prepositional phrase descriptive<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> the aberration.<br />
abhor. See hate.<br />
abide. The past tense is abided or abode. The<br />
participle is also abided or abode.<br />
Abode is preferred to abided when the word<br />
means dwelled, as in he abode in Boston almost<br />
all <strong>of</strong> his life. When the word is used in its<br />
broader meaning abided is preferred, as in he<br />
abided by his promise. But both forms can be<br />
used in both senses.<br />
Abide is heavyweight for remain or stay.<br />
It is properly used in the great hymn “Abide<br />
With Me.” It is no lighter when used in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> live or dwell. In all <strong>of</strong> these uses it<br />
retains an obsolescent, medieval quality.<br />
This very quality, however, gives the note <strong>of</strong><br />
solemnity that certain occasions deserve. When<br />
it means to stand by a person, or one’s word, or<br />
to await the consequences <strong>of</strong> some momentous<br />
act (Abide the event. Others abide the question:/Thou<br />
art free), the very quality which<br />
makes it improper for lesser uses makes it valuable.<br />
Nations abide by the terms <strong>of</strong> a treaty.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the phrase can’t abide to express<br />
dislike (I can’t abide that mnn!) is commonly<br />
disparaged. But it has force and flavor. Its use to<br />
describe situations, or more <strong>of</strong>ten persons, that<br />
are intolerable and not to be endured strikes the<br />
proper note <strong>of</strong> vehemence that certain old English<br />
words and words associated with Scripture<br />
convey.<br />
ability; capacity. Ability is the power to do, capacity<br />
is the power to receive. Ability can be<br />
acquired; capacity is innate. Ability is improved<br />
by exercise; capacity requires no exercise. A<br />
pump has an ability to pump a certain amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> fluid. A tank has the capacity to hold a certain<br />
amount. A boxer has the ability to hit, the capacity<br />
to take punishment.<br />
abject apology. When Milton spoke <strong>of</strong> the fallen<br />
angels rolling in the fires <strong>of</strong> hell thick bestrown,<br />
abject and lost, he was using abject in<br />
its original sense <strong>of</strong> cast out or rejected. In<br />
the hackneyed phrase an abject apology it is<br />
not the apology that is abject but the one who<br />
is making the apology. But since there is something<br />
contemptible in one who abases himself<br />
too much, a feeling perhaps that he is sacrificing<br />
his dignity in the hope <strong>of</strong> escaping a<br />
possible punishment, abject in this phrase, as it<br />
reflects on the one apologizing, has come to<br />
have a connotation <strong>of</strong> despicable. It is an overworked<br />
phrase and should be used sparingly.<br />
abject poverty is poverty so severe or so prolonged<br />
that the sufferer from it feels cast
out from human society. Here, again, there is<br />
a feeling that human dignity has been impaired<br />
and there is something slightly despicable in<br />
the excess <strong>of</strong> humility exhibited. Dire poverty<br />
(from the Latin dirus, terrible) is poverty so<br />
extreme that it is terrible to behold.<br />
Both phrases have been weakened by repetition<br />
and should be used only when they convey<br />
the exact meaning that the speaker or writer<br />
desires to express.<br />
abjure and adjure belong, with quiddities and quillets,<br />
to the solemnity <strong>of</strong> the legal brief and the<br />
juridical charge. Abjure, virtually undigested<br />
from the Latin abjurure, means to solemnly forswear,<br />
to renounce, to repudiate. The prefix ab-<br />
(as in absent, abdicate, etc.) negates an oath<br />
that has been sworn.<br />
Conversely, the prefix ad- atlirms the act <strong>of</strong><br />
swearing (as it affirms ministration in administration<br />
and monition in admonition) in adjure,<br />
which means to command solemnly, under<br />
oath or the threat <strong>of</strong> a curse.<br />
Neither word is to be used lightly, and it is<br />
paramount that their similarity <strong>of</strong> sound should<br />
not confuse their completely opposite meanings.<br />
ablative case. The ablative is a Latin case used principally<br />
to show that a noun or pronoun stands<br />
in some qualifying relation to the verb. In modern<br />
English the ablative relationships are shown<br />
principally by prepositions. Old English did not<br />
have an ablative and for this reason the word is<br />
not used in English grammars as <strong>of</strong>ten as the<br />
other Latin case names.<br />
ablution; washing. Ablutions are performed in a<br />
church; washing is done in a sink or bathroom.<br />
Ablution now refers exclusively to the use <strong>of</strong><br />
water for cleansing in religious rites, the ceremonial<br />
bathing <strong>of</strong> the body or the rinsing <strong>of</strong><br />
sacred vessels. To describe anyone’s washing <strong>of</strong><br />
his hands and face as performing his ablutions<br />
is to be ponderously jocular and slightly sacrilegious.<br />
Keats, in the last poem that he wrote, used<br />
the word correctly when he spoke <strong>of</strong> the<br />
moving waters at their priestlike task/ Oj pure<br />
ablution round earth’s human shores.<br />
abnormal; subnormal; supernormal. Abnormal, in<br />
the strictest sense, denotes any deviation from<br />
the normal. An abnormally pretty girl or an<br />
abnormally pleasant day would certainly be<br />
understood. In general, however, the deviation<br />
is towards imperfection. Abnormal driving conditions<br />
will not mean exceptional visibility but,<br />
rather, fog, ice, irregular pavement or something<br />
<strong>of</strong> that sort. Abnormal behavior may be<br />
exceptional, but it is never exemplary. College<br />
courses in Abnormul Psychology devote little<br />
time to the exceptionally brilliant or the ttnusually<br />
happy.<br />
Subnormal denotes things below the average<br />
(Subnormal intelligence is characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
morons. Hibernating animals have subnormal<br />
temperatures). A chilly day in Florida or<br />
southern California is certain to be described<br />
as subnormal.<br />
Supernormal is not <strong>of</strong>ten used-and just as<br />
well, for it is awkward. However, it could be<br />
used to describe superior intelligence, superhuman<br />
capabilities, and supernatural occurrences.<br />
Certain visionaries may be said to have<br />
had supernormal powers <strong>of</strong> sight or hearing.<br />
It might be insisted that a fever is a supernormal<br />
temperature, but here abnormal, with<br />
its suggestion <strong>of</strong> an undesirable deviation, is<br />
used.<br />
aboard (on board), to board and boarding were<br />
originally sea terms. In America, where the<br />
tradition <strong>of</strong> the sea and respect for its terms<br />
(except in the Navy where the insistent retention<br />
<strong>of</strong> nautical terms in land stations <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
seems absurd to the landlubber) was not as<br />
strong as it was in England, the term was<br />
transferred to railroad trains. Where our conductor<br />
calls “All aboard!” the English stationmaster<br />
says, “Take your seats, please!”<br />
The airplane has taken over many nautical<br />
terms, and being welcomed aboard by the<br />
stewardess has a mildly adventurous sound<br />
without seeming affected. The wings and the<br />
motors have to be tersely designated and port<br />
and starboard, inboard and outboard seem<br />
natural and sensible. (It is a nice illustration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> language that although<br />
motor and engine are synonymous in popular<br />
usage, an outboard motor and an outboard<br />
engine are wholly different things.)<br />
abode. An abode was formerly merely a waiting<br />
or an abiding (Through his body his sword<br />
glodeJ Dead he fell, without nbode). Later<br />
it came to mean the place in which the abiding<br />
was done. Milton calls Paradise Adam’s abode.<br />
The body was <strong>of</strong>ten called the abode <strong>of</strong> the<br />
spirit. But to apply the word today to an<br />
ordinary house is affectation or heavy jocularity.<br />
See abide.<br />
abominate. This word may be followed by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I abominate dancing,<br />
but not by an infinitive, as in I abominate to<br />
dunce. The construction with the infinitive fs<br />
not standard.<br />
about. The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> about is around or<br />
circling. It may mean physically around, as in<br />
there are spies about and he walked about the<br />
garden, or it may mean approximately, as in<br />
there are about a hundred people. A compound<br />
verb including about is always weaker or<br />
vaguer than the original verb, as I know him<br />
and Z know about him, 2 had forgotten that<br />
and I had forgotten about that. About may be<br />
followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he<br />
thought about leaving, or by an infinitive, ti<br />
in he was about to leave. When followed by<br />
an infinitive, about means on the point <strong>of</strong>.<br />
The compound at about, as in he arrived at<br />
about 3 o’clock, is condemned by some grammarians<br />
on the grounds that it is redundant.<br />
This is not a reasonable claim. At is frequently<br />
followed by words showing degree, as in ut<br />
almost, at nearly, at exactly, and there is no<br />
reason why about should not be used in the<br />
same way. About is used after a great many<br />
other prepositions, as in for about an hour, in<br />
about a week, by about Christmas, and the<br />
compound at about is sometimes required, as
above 6<br />
in they sold at about $3 n share. It is true that<br />
in expressions <strong>of</strong> time about can be used without<br />
a preposition, as in he arrived about<br />
3 o’clock. But there is no reason why anyone<br />
should feel compelled to use it in this way.<br />
At about 3 o’clock is well established, reputable<br />
English.<br />
above is used in written English to mean mentioned<br />
earlier, as in the above examples. Some<br />
grammarians object to the above examples<br />
on the grounds that above is an adverb and<br />
should not stand immediately before a noun.<br />
Such people have no objection to the abovementioned<br />
examples or the examples above.<br />
And they should not object to the above<br />
examples. Above is accepted as an adjective<br />
by the best English scholars and writers. It is<br />
used in this way by Franklin, Hawthorne,<br />
Scott, Dickens, Thackeray, Quiller-Couch,<br />
H. W. Fowler, Bertrand Russell, Gilbert<br />
Murray, and by most <strong>of</strong> the grammarians who<br />
condemn it, when they are <strong>of</strong>f their guard.<br />
abrogate; arrogate. To abrogate is to annul summarily,<br />
to abolish authoritatively or formally<br />
(The power which formed the laws may abrogate<br />
them). The word cannot properly be<br />
applied to anything but established custom or<br />
usage. When Sir Nathaniel in Love’s Labour’s<br />
Lost beseeches Hol<strong>of</strong>ernes to abrogate scurrility,<br />
the use is probably intended to be<br />
humorous.<br />
To arrogate is to claim presumptuously as<br />
a right some dignity or authority to which one<br />
is not entitled (groups which arrogate to themselves<br />
the right to use coercion).<br />
abscissa. The plural is abscissas or abscissae.<br />
absolute. When used as a grammatical term,<br />
absolute means grammatically independent. The<br />
word is applied to forms <strong>of</strong> speech that ordinarily<br />
are not independent, such as participles,<br />
adjectives, transitive verbs, and phrases. The<br />
words in small capitals are absolute in: a<br />
HORSE! a HORSE! my KINGDOM for a horse and<br />
THIS SAID, he formed thee, ADAM!, thee, o MAN!<br />
DUST <strong>of</strong> the ground!<br />
Adjectives which name a “complete” quality,<br />
such as perfect, and unique, are sometimes<br />
called “absolutes.” For a discussion <strong>of</strong> this,<br />
see comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives and adverbs.<br />
For a discussion <strong>of</strong> absolute phrases, see<br />
participles.<br />
absolutely and positively are synonyms, containing<br />
the same degree <strong>of</strong> emphasis, interchangeable<br />
in any given case, and similarly<br />
abused. The meaning <strong>of</strong> wholly, unconditionally,<br />
and completely (He is absolutely determined<br />
to go through with it. He is positively<br />
obsessed with the idea <strong>of</strong> death) ought not be<br />
degraded into helping to form second-rate<br />
superlatives (absolutely swell, positively magnificent),<br />
or, by themselves, into becoming inflated<br />
substitutes for yes.<br />
abstract nouns. Some grammarians distinguish<br />
between concrete and abstract nouns, defining<br />
concrete nouns as those that refer to physical<br />
things, such as house, mud, child, and abstract<br />
nouns as those that refer to qualities which<br />
physical things may have but which do not<br />
exist by themselves, such as redness, beauty,<br />
childhood. This distinction raises interesting<br />
philosophical questions. How should one classify<br />
heat? or the equator? Fortunately, one does<br />
not have to answer these questions in order to<br />
use the words correctly because this distinction<br />
has no bearing on English grammar. An<br />
abstract noun is grammatically like any other<br />
noun. See mass nouns.<br />
But abstract may also mean more general,<br />
less specific. In this sense container is more<br />
abstract than barrel, and resources more abstract<br />
than money. The more abstract a word<br />
is, the more objects it refers to and the less<br />
it tells us about them. The more specific a<br />
word is, the more information it conveys. It is<br />
very easy to use words that are too general.<br />
In fact, this is the most obvious characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> ineffective writing. A good writer fits his<br />
words as closely as possible to his meaning. He<br />
will use container only if he is talking about<br />
several kinds <strong>of</strong> containers. If he is talking<br />
about a barrel, he will call it a barrel.<br />
A poor writer who would like to be better<br />
should ask himself constantly: Does what I<br />
have written cover more ground than I meant<br />
to cover? Writing with this question always<br />
in mind will do more to develop a respectable<br />
style than all the grammar books and vocabulary<br />
builders in the world.<br />
abuse; inv’ective; obloquy; scurrility; vituperation.<br />
These words convey various degrees <strong>of</strong> bitterness<br />
and roughness in verbal attack.<br />
Abuse and vituperation are synonymous and<br />
mean coarse and insulting language, used,<br />
generally, in some private quarrel or attack<br />
Vituperation has come to have a slight sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> greater fierceness in the reviling. This may<br />
be due. as V. H. Collins suaaests. to the fact<br />
that the five syllables “conned the idea <strong>of</strong> a<br />
torrential flow” or it may be due to an echoic<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> viper in the sound <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
Znvective may be vehement and violent and<br />
railing, but it may also, differing from abuse,<br />
be polished. Indeed, when it is coarse that<br />
adjective is usually employed to mark the fact.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the most elegant orations ever delivered<br />
have been invectives, though from less<br />
able speakers we are likely to have more spite<br />
than elegance.<br />
Obloquy is censure or blame, or even<br />
abusive language, but it is public and general.<br />
It is condemnation by many people rather than<br />
an attack by one person (They held their convictions<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> obloquy). Abuse causes<br />
anger and resentment; obloquy causes shame<br />
and disgrace.<br />
Scurrility is abuse characterized by coarseness<br />
and jocularity. It is railing marked by<br />
indecency and couched in buffoonery.<br />
The exact meaning <strong>of</strong> any one <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words is affected, <strong>of</strong> course, by one’s point <strong>of</strong><br />
view. Emerson probably felt himself abused<br />
when Swinburne referred to him as “a gap
toothed and hoary ape . . . coryphaus <strong>of</strong><br />
[a] Bulgarian tribe <strong>of</strong> auto-coprophagous<br />
baboons,” but Swinburne insisted he was merely<br />
making a scientifically accurate description.<br />
What to the speaker may seem polished<br />
invective may strike the one spoken d as<br />
vituperation and even scurrility.<br />
abysmal; abyss; abyssal. Abyss means a bottomless<br />
space. It was below the thunders elf the<br />
upper deep/ Far, far beneath in the abysmal<br />
sea that Tennyson’s Kraken slept. But science<br />
has now taken soundings and, in consequence,<br />
abysmal and abyss are relegated to figu:rative<br />
uses (Her air <strong>of</strong> attentiveness conceal’s an<br />
abysmal ignorance). Abyss is allowed in Milton’s<br />
imaginary landscape <strong>of</strong> Chaos and other<br />
old-fashioned literary imaginings or, with abysmal,<br />
to describe the geography <strong>of</strong> the mind<br />
(Despair opened an abyss before his mind’s<br />
eye).<br />
Abyssal is a technical term used in de:seriptions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ocean floor or <strong>of</strong> depths below<br />
three hundred fathoms. The steep descent from<br />
the continental shelf is also called the abyss.<br />
Academe. If used seriously, Academe refers to<br />
Plato’s Academy in ancient Athens. As a term<br />
for a place <strong>of</strong> instruction, Academe is a pomposity,<br />
as in Mary McCarthy’s satirical :novel<br />
<strong>of</strong> faculty life, Groves <strong>of</strong> Academe. So used,<br />
the word is self-destructive and can survive<br />
only in cynical uses. The best policy is to use<br />
Academe with historical accuracy or not at all.<br />
accede. See allow.<br />
accelerate and exhilarate are like two people who<br />
are unrelated but look alike and have become<br />
good friends. Acceleration means going faster;<br />
exhilaration means getting gladder (Much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
exhilaration <strong>of</strong> driving is due to the acceleration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the car).<br />
The confusion between going faster and<br />
getting happier is one <strong>of</strong> the fundamental<br />
errors <strong>of</strong> our time and it is not surprising that<br />
it has extended to the words. But exhilaration<br />
is always a mental state, connoting a dlegree<br />
<strong>of</strong> excitement. Acceleration describes matter increasing<br />
the rapidity <strong>of</strong> its motion-though it<br />
is possible to conceive <strong>of</strong> a figurative, mental<br />
application <strong>of</strong> the word, such as the acceleration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the learning process with practics.<br />
accent; accentual; accentuate. Accent is the characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> a vowel or a syllable, having .to do<br />
with the degree or pattern <strong>of</strong> stress placed on it.<br />
When we say that a foreigner speaks with an<br />
accent we mean that he knows the words but<br />
that his speech is distinguishable because he does<br />
not use the same pattern <strong>of</strong> stresses that native<br />
speakers employ.<br />
Like so many useful words, however, accent<br />
has been engulfed in its figurative extensions.<br />
Advertisements, especially <strong>of</strong> products designed<br />
for women, would be lost without the word in<br />
their own special application <strong>of</strong> it. Mascara<br />
accents the eyebrows, tight skirts accent the<br />
hips, and so on.<br />
Accentuate is reserved in England, as Fowler<br />
notes, for the figurative sense <strong>of</strong> accent and<br />
7 access<br />
is so used by Americans who find the over-use<br />
<strong>of</strong> accent distasteful. Its use should be re+<br />
stricted, however, to the amenities, the trivia,<br />
and the esthetics <strong>of</strong> ordinary life. The prairies<br />
do not accentuate the grandeur <strong>of</strong> the Rockies,<br />
but it is permissible to accentuate the color<br />
<strong>of</strong> the floral centerpiece with the whiteness <strong>of</strong><br />
the table linen.<br />
Accentual is a technical word, reserved for<br />
the description <strong>of</strong> a rhythm or a pattern <strong>of</strong><br />
stresses (The accentual peculiarities <strong>of</strong> free<br />
verse lie in its apparent irregularities).<br />
accept; except. The essential confusion between<br />
accept and except is one <strong>of</strong> sound and where<br />
there is a doubt which is meant only the<br />
context can determine it. Accept means to<br />
receive willingly (I accept your <strong>of</strong>fer). Except<br />
means to omit or exclude (Brown was excepted<br />
from the list <strong>of</strong> those to be pardoned).<br />
acceptance; acceptation. Acceptance, a noun,<br />
means the act <strong>of</strong> accepting or <strong>of</strong> being accepted<br />
(His acceptance <strong>of</strong> the gift found acceptance<br />
with his superiors).<br />
Acceptation has been restricted to questions<br />
<strong>of</strong> interpretation, principally the interpretation<br />
<strong>of</strong> words (The original acceptation <strong>of</strong> “communism”<br />
as a political theory differs greatly<br />
from its present general acceptation). More<br />
and more, however, acceptance tends to take<br />
the place <strong>of</strong> acceptation which is now, by some<br />
authorities, classified as an archaism.<br />
access; accession. The difference between access<br />
and accession is largely the difference between<br />
the act as a possibility and its accomplishment.<br />
As Princess, Queen Elizabeth had access to<br />
the throne. Her accession followed upon her<br />
father’s death.<br />
While the opportunity or possibility <strong>of</strong> entering<br />
as it is expressed in access (See access;<br />
excess) remains flexible, accession is limited to<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> entering into a higher rank or a<br />
new status, as in the accession <strong>of</strong> a territory<br />
to statehood or <strong>of</strong> a senator to the presidency.<br />
access; excess. Confusion between access and excess<br />
is chiefly due to the similarity <strong>of</strong> their<br />
sound, but there is a band <strong>of</strong> meaning in which<br />
they overlap.<br />
Access is a noun meaning an approach, a coming<br />
into, or the means by which entry is obtained.<br />
Access to a house is by way <strong>of</strong> the door.<br />
Access to a great man requires money or influence.<br />
Excess means going out, the direct opposite<br />
<strong>of</strong> access. In the sense <strong>of</strong> going out <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
mind or beyond one’s means, excess has come<br />
to mean immoderation (He drinks to excess);<br />
superfluity, in the sense <strong>of</strong> more than enough,<br />
overflowing (Children are full <strong>of</strong> excess<br />
energy); the extent to which one thing is more<br />
than another (His appetite is in excess <strong>of</strong> his<br />
capacity); it has also come to stand in a pejorative<br />
sense as a generic term for any immoral,<br />
licentious extravagances (Oscar Wilde’s epigram:<br />
Nothing succeeds like excess).<br />
Access is sometimes used for “a coming into”<br />
an emotional storm, a sudden outburst <strong>of</strong>
accessa ry 8<br />
passion (In an access <strong>of</strong> rage he stabbed his<br />
friend). Here excess might be used, and some<br />
English authorities deny the correctness <strong>of</strong><br />
access in this context. But the Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong> accepts it. Many distinguished English<br />
authors have so used it. And it is certainly<br />
sanctioned by American usage.<br />
accessory and accessory are linguistic lovers,<br />
perpetually exchanging vowels. In American<br />
usage accessary is recognized only as a noun, but<br />
accessory is accepted as both noun and adjective.<br />
Accessury is limited, with us, chiefly to<br />
the legal significances <strong>of</strong> the word, though,<br />
even there, accessory can be used.<br />
In law an accessary or accessory plays a<br />
minor part in a crime. An accessory before<br />
the fact is one who helped, or at least had<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> and did not hinder, the committing<br />
<strong>of</strong> a crime but was not present when<br />
the act was done; an accessory ufter the fact<br />
knowingly assists or conceals another who has<br />
committed a felony.<br />
In common usage accessory means something<br />
added or attached for convenience or<br />
attractiveness and it emphasizes the subordinate<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> the contribution (The accessory<br />
details <strong>of</strong> the building). It is an interesting<br />
illustration <strong>of</strong> the confusion latent in the most<br />
common words that this word which is in daily<br />
use amongst us has different meanings for men<br />
and women. To most American women<br />
accessories means the portable or detachable<br />
additions to her costume-hat, bag, earrings,<br />
scarf, and so on. To most American men<br />
accessories means additions to the car-radio,<br />
heater, spotlight, and so on.<br />
accident. See mishap.<br />
accidents will happen. The suggestion, in many<br />
forms, that “time and chance happeneth to all”<br />
is common to all languages and where, as in<br />
Ecclesiastes, it is a sincere comment, the bitter<br />
fruit <strong>of</strong> observation and experience, it can<br />
have dignity and force.<br />
But accidents will happen. apart from being a<br />
clichC, has an exasperating levity to it and a<br />
patronizing air <strong>of</strong> unfeeling consolation-<br />
esneciallv . if the almost inevitable “in the best-<br />
regulated families” is tacked on to it.<br />
All clichCs are tedious, but those that are<br />
used when real feeling is expected-as in consolation-are<br />
dangerous in that their cut-anddried<br />
nature makes one suspect the sincerity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the emotion expressed. This may be unfair,<br />
for many worthy people express sincere feelings<br />
in cliches and quotations, pathetic in their<br />
inarticulateness and more pathetic in the likelihood<br />
<strong>of</strong> being misunderstood.<br />
accommodation; accommodations. With the preposition<br />
to, accommodation is the act <strong>of</strong> adapting<br />
or being adapted to (The accommodation <strong>of</strong><br />
modern furniture to the human figure).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word to designate lodgings<br />
or food and lodgings is expressed in American<br />
usage by the plural, accommodations, and in<br />
English usage by the singular, accommodation.<br />
Originally the English used accommodation.<br />
Othello demanded for his wife such accommo-<br />
dation and besort as levels with her breeding.<br />
Later they used accommodations. Defoe,<br />
Boswell, and Jane Austen so used it. But they<br />
have now reverted to the singular, and the<br />
plural in this sense is unknown among them.<br />
In America the plural is now universally<br />
used. One wires a hotel for accommodations<br />
when only a single room is desired. Pullman<br />
accommodations may be a roomette, a bedroom,<br />
or several sleeping sections thrown together.<br />
Hotels have “Accommodations Desks.”<br />
accompanist has supplanted accompanyist in<br />
general preference as one who accompanies in<br />
the musical sense.<br />
according; accordingly. Accordingly is the form<br />
used alone to qualify a verb, as in he wrote<br />
accordingly. The form according is required<br />
before to, as in he wrote according to orders.<br />
According may also be used to qualify a noun,<br />
as in the according hearts <strong>of</strong> men, and with<br />
as to introduce a clause, as in according as it<br />
is understood or not, but these last constructions<br />
are not <strong>of</strong>ten heard today.<br />
accountable means responsible, liable. But since<br />
only a human agent can be called on to<br />
account for his actions (animal trials having<br />
ceased in the eighteenth century), the word<br />
can only be used to describe human liability<br />
(The dog was responsible for tearing the coat<br />
and its owner was held accountable for the<br />
damage).<br />
accredit. See credit.<br />
accrue. Although accrue has long carried the<br />
general sense <strong>of</strong> to happen or result as a<br />
natural growth, to arise in due course, to come<br />
or fall as an addition or increment, it is most<br />
safely used in a specifically legal context,<br />
meaning to become a present and enforceable<br />
right or demand (Interest accrues at the rate<br />
<strong>of</strong> two percent per annum). It is ostentatious<br />
and inaccurate to use accrue as a synonym for<br />
result or happen when there are no legal or<br />
financial implications, as in It is unlikely that<br />
benefits will accrue from such a belligerent<br />
policy.<br />
accumulative has been replaced in almost all uses<br />
by cumulative, surviving only in the sense generally<br />
expressed by acquisitive (Zfis accumulative<br />
instinct led him to buy real estate).<br />
accusative case. The accusative is a Latin case<br />
used principally to mark the object <strong>of</strong> a verb.<br />
In modern English this relationship is shown<br />
by position. See object <strong>of</strong> a verb and objective<br />
pronouns.<br />
accuse. See charge.<br />
accustom. This word may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in I am not accustomed to lie,<br />
or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition<br />
to, as in I am not accustomed to lying.<br />
Both forms are standard.<br />
acid test. Gold, chemically inactive, resists the<br />
action <strong>of</strong> acids that corrode other metals. The<br />
acid test was, therefore, a test calculated to<br />
distinguish gold from other substances such a.~<br />
iron or copper pyrites. As a term for a severe<br />
test, the acid test has become a clich6.<br />
acknowledge. See confess.
acquaint. See tell<br />
acquaintanceship. The suffix -ship denotes a state,<br />
condition, or quality (as in friendship or<br />
scholarship), an <strong>of</strong>fice or pr<strong>of</strong>ession (as in<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essorship), an art or skill (as in the new<br />
humorous word gamesmanship), something<br />
embodying a quality or state (as in courtship),<br />
or one entitled to a specified rank (as in his<br />
lordship).<br />
Since the word acquaintance means not only<br />
one who is known to a certain degree (He is<br />
an old acquaintance <strong>of</strong> mine) but also the state<br />
<strong>of</strong> being acquainted (The cultured man will<br />
have some acquaintance with mathematics),<br />
the adding <strong>of</strong> the suffix to form acquaintanceship<br />
is totally unnecessary. It means nothing<br />
that acquaintunce does not mean and probably<br />
came into existence as a false analogy to<br />
friendship, fellowship.<br />
acquirement and acquisition are both nouns<br />
that designate things gained by the expenditure<br />
<strong>of</strong> effort or cash. But an acquirement is something<br />
that has been developed in a persona<br />
faculty, a skill, a talent. An acquisition, on<br />
the other hand, is a material object bought, or<br />
obtained by some other means, by a person<br />
(Petronius Arbiter’s acquirements in taste<br />
qualified him to direct Nero’s acquisitions <strong>of</strong><br />
art treasures).<br />
Acquirement is acceptable in the singular<br />
and the plural (acquirements), although it is<br />
more frequently used in the plural, indicating<br />
a diversity <strong>of</strong> things which collectively make<br />
up a talent or faculty.<br />
acronyms are acrostic words formed from the<br />
initial letters <strong>of</strong> other words, or from initial<br />
letters or syllables <strong>of</strong> the successive parts <strong>of</strong> a<br />
compound term, or from initial letters plus<br />
final letters <strong>of</strong> the final part <strong>of</strong> a compound<br />
term.<br />
They serve the same purpose as abbreviations,<br />
but are primarily designed for speech<br />
and appeal more to the ear than to the eye.<br />
They are a form <strong>of</strong> word play. Some seem<br />
to be happy accidents-such as WRENS, from<br />
Women’s Royal Naval Service. Others seem<br />
more self-conscious; they were obviously made<br />
up first and the compound term then derived<br />
from them. WAVES certainly seem to be<br />
chickens that came before the egg. The acronym<br />
suggests the sea effectively but it is hard<br />
to imagine that the coiners first thought <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tong form, Women Accepted for Voluntary<br />
Emergency Service. The name <strong>of</strong> the Women’s<br />
Reserve <strong>of</strong> the United States Coast Guard<br />
Reserve, SPAR, is among the most ingenious<br />
<strong>of</strong> acronyms. It derives from the Coast Guard<br />
motto and its translation, “Semper Paratus-<br />
Always Ready,” or perhaps simply from the<br />
first letter <strong>of</strong> the first word <strong>of</strong> the motto and<br />
the 6rst three letters <strong>of</strong> the second word. In<br />
the case <strong>of</strong> WASP some liberties had to be<br />
taken to make the acronym from the phrase<br />
Women’s Air Forces Service Pilots.<br />
Among the most unfortunate <strong>of</strong> acronyms<br />
was CINCUS (pronounced “sink us”) for the<br />
Commander in Chief <strong>of</strong> the United Sta:tes<br />
9 act<br />
Navy. In the reorganization <strong>of</strong> the command<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Navy following Pearl Harbor it was<br />
dropped from use.<br />
The acronym seems largely an outgrowth <strong>of</strong><br />
World War II, though WRENS was coined in<br />
World War I. Out <strong>of</strong> the second conflict came<br />
such salty acronyms as SNAFU and TARFU,<br />
usually translated as “Situation Normal-All<br />
Fouled Up” and “Things Are Really Fouled<br />
Up.” There were also technical acronyms such<br />
as the British ASDZC for Anti-Submarine Detection<br />
Investigation Committee, and the<br />
American SONAR for Sound NAvigation<br />
Ranging. On both sides <strong>of</strong> the Atlantic there<br />
was RADAR for RAdio Detecting And<br />
Ranging.<br />
A WOL was an abbreviation in World War I<br />
and became an acronym in World War II.<br />
That is, in World War I it was pronounced as<br />
four letters; in World War II, it was pronounced<br />
as a word (B’wol). It is still military<br />
slang and not accepted as standard English,<br />
however.<br />
There seems to be no generally applicable<br />
rule as to which abbreviations become acronyms<br />
and which do not. Pronounceability <strong>of</strong><br />
the abbreviation is not the sole deciding factor,<br />
else why NATO, for instance, but not OPA?<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the older abbreviations, such as<br />
F.O.B. and G.A.R., are probably too established<br />
to be changed. Acronyms represent a<br />
new tendency in the language.<br />
Certainly unpronounceability or uncertainty<br />
regarding pronunciation rules out some abbreviations<br />
as acronyms. Thus Pun-Am (for<br />
Pan-American Airways) is obvious, but BOAC<br />
(for British Overseas Airway Corporation)<br />
is not.<br />
Commercial enterprises and products that<br />
have acronyms for names have an important<br />
advertising advantage over their less-easilyremembered<br />
competitors. Alcoa and Nabisco<br />
are two examples that come immediately to<br />
mind.<br />
acropolis. The plural is acropolises or acropoles.<br />
across; acrost. Across is the only acceptable form.<br />
Although acrost is formed on the same pattern<br />
as amongst and whilst, both <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
acceptable it has never been literary English.<br />
act; action. The distinction between these two<br />
words is difficult to define. Often they are<br />
completely synonymous (His heroic act was<br />
long remembered. His heroic action was long<br />
remembered), but there are many places where<br />
one would not be substituted for the other<br />
(Rapid action is needed if we are to be saved.<br />
It was his act and he must accept the consequences).<br />
Fowler points out that action alone has the<br />
collective sense (We must look to Congress<br />
for action in this crisis) and that where there<br />
is doubt action tends to displace act. (As he<br />
says, we would now be inclined to speak not<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Acts <strong>of</strong> the Apostles but <strong>of</strong> their<br />
Actions). In the sense where the reference is<br />
to the nature <strong>of</strong> a deed or the characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
a deed (An act <strong>of</strong> thoughtfulness; the act <strong>of</strong>
act 1<br />
a busybody) act is invariably used; but where<br />
it is simply a deed or where the meaning<br />
expressed in the noun phrase is expressed in<br />
an adjective, action is preferred (the act <strong>of</strong> a<br />
careless person; a careless action).<br />
A deed referred to at the immediate moment<br />
<strong>of</strong> its doing (in the very act <strong>of</strong> making <strong>of</strong>f<br />
with it) or contrasted with words or thought<br />
(acts, not words, are what we need) is likely<br />
to be referred to as an act, but even here if<br />
the sense is collective action will probably be<br />
used (speech and action are different things).<br />
act; play. Used as a verb in the same sense as<br />
ploy (play the fool), act has a serious handicap,<br />
that <strong>of</strong> ambiguity. Its importance as a verb<br />
meaning to do, to perform, to execute, and so<br />
on, overshadows its theatrical connotations <strong>of</strong><br />
pretense and dissimulation. The command to<br />
act the man means something different, and<br />
more, than to play the man. Therefore where<br />
pretense is meant, play is preferable.<br />
In slang act, as a noun, has come almost<br />
entirely to mean pretense (Oh, he’s just putting<br />
on an act). The extension <strong>of</strong> this usage no<br />
doubt reffects the cynicism <strong>of</strong> the age but it is<br />
dangerous and corrosive, for how shall we<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> acts <strong>of</strong> kindness, <strong>of</strong> generosity, <strong>of</strong><br />
courage, and <strong>of</strong> love?<br />
activate; actuate. To activate is to make active<br />
(It was believed that the Sibyl was activated<br />
by the Devil). In physics it means to render<br />
radioactive. In the United States Army it<br />
means to place a military unit in an active<br />
status by assigning to it <strong>of</strong>ficers, enlisted men,<br />
and all necessary equipment for war strength<br />
and training for war service.<br />
To actuate is to move mechanical things to<br />
action (The electro-magnet actuated the armature)<br />
or to incite human beings to action by<br />
acting upon the will, as motives do (His<br />
motives differed from those by which his predecessor<br />
had been actuated. The murderer had<br />
not, apparently, been actuated by the desire for<br />
money, for over a thousand dollars was found<br />
in the dead man’s wallet).<br />
active voice. A verb is said to be in the active<br />
voice when it represents its subject as active,<br />
that is, as doing, being, or becoming something,<br />
as in he believes the story and this is<br />
true. A verb is said to be in the passive voice<br />
when it represents its subject as acted upon,<br />
or passive, as in the story is believed. See passive<br />
voice.<br />
actress. See poet; poetess.<br />
actually; really. Actually is an adverb synonymous<br />
with really used in questions to connote<br />
disbelief (Did you actually see the rope trick?);<br />
in replies to questions in which doubt has been<br />
expressed, re-affirming the original assertion<br />
(Yes, Z actually saw it!); and in statements<br />
which pr<strong>of</strong>ess to reveal hitherto concealed<br />
truths concerning a matter under discussion<br />
(Actually, it is no great mystery; it’s simply a<br />
clever deception).<br />
The last example is a worn-out import from<br />
England, a verbal swagger stick used in polite<br />
0<br />
conversation to point up minor revelations<br />
(Jones is a bore, but actually he means well).<br />
The suggestion it carries <strong>of</strong> superior knowledge<br />
on the part <strong>of</strong> the speaker and the air<br />
<strong>of</strong> condescension that so <strong>of</strong>ten accompanies<br />
the revelations make it an irritating word. It<br />
can become a nuisance, actually. See also precisely.<br />
actuate. See activate.<br />
adapt; advpt. The confusion between adapt and<br />
adopt may be avoided if one recognizes apt<br />
in the second syllable <strong>of</strong> the first word. Apt<br />
means suited to the purpose. Adapt means to<br />
make suitable, to adjust to. We say that an<br />
object is adapted to its purpose, an animal to<br />
its environment. (To adapt an apt proverb:<br />
A bassoon is an ill wind that nobody blows<br />
good).<br />
To adopt, on the other hand, is to choose<br />
or to make one’s own by selection or assent<br />
(American women eagerly adopt the styles<br />
which New York dressmakers adapt from<br />
French fashions).<br />
adapted; suitable. Adapted is not a synonym for<br />
suitable. Appropriate or fitting would be better<br />
for suitable. Adapted means that something has<br />
been changed to fit and, unless the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
change or adaptation is in the thought, it would<br />
be better to use another word.<br />
addendum. The plural is addendums or addenda.<br />
addicted; devoted. Although both words mean<br />
habitual attachment, addicted now means being<br />
attached to something which the speaker regards<br />
as undesirable (He is addicted to lying).<br />
Sometimes it is used for humorous effect <strong>of</strong><br />
things that the ordinary person would not<br />
consider undesirable in order to show that the<br />
speaker does (He is addicted to artichokes.<br />
He is addicted to good works),<br />
Devoted means attachment or habitual action,<br />
but to good things (She is devoted to her<br />
mother).<br />
add(ing) insult to injury. The saying is very old.<br />
There are several Latin and Greek passages<br />
that reflect on the exacerbation that contumely<br />
gives to an injury. But the very things that<br />
make it a saying-its obviousness, its rhythm,<br />
and the balance <strong>of</strong> the two in-‘s-make it a<br />
cliche, something that slips into the mind easily<br />
and is used without further consideration <strong>of</strong><br />
its appropriateness. If this is exactly what is<br />
meant, if it is an insult and not a further<br />
injury that has been added, and if this way <strong>of</strong><br />
saying seems the proper way, despite the fact<br />
that it has been expressed this way many<br />
millions <strong>of</strong> times. then sav it this wav. But it<br />
is wiser to avoid the phrase.<br />
addle. An addle (or addled) egg is a rotten egg<br />
and an addlebrain or addlehead is not only<br />
confused, but sterile and stinking. It is not<br />
only muddled but muddy. The term is a contemptuous<br />
one and not to be used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
featherheaded or giddy.<br />
Dizzy, by the way, which is now used<br />
widely as a slang term for ludicrously stupid<br />
(a dizzy blond) originally meant stupid. Slang,
which <strong>of</strong>ten has a fine feeling for the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> words, has brought it full circle.<br />
address; speech; lecture. An address is more formal<br />
than a speech (the inaugural address). A<br />
lecture was originally something which was read.<br />
It, too, is formal, though not so formal as an<br />
address, and it has acquired the connotation <strong>of</strong><br />
instruction. This latter meaning has given lecture<br />
the further meaning <strong>of</strong> a tedious reprimancl.<br />
adduce is to bring forward but only in the<br />
metaphorical sense <strong>of</strong> to bring forward in<br />
argument, to cite as pertinent or conclusive<br />
(He adduced Joe Louis as pro<strong>of</strong> that a man<br />
could be a champion prizefighter and still a<br />
modest man). It is sometimes used erroneously<br />
for deduce (as in From that I adduce you<br />
ugree with me).<br />
adept. This word is preferably followed by in<br />
rather than at, as in adept in getting out <strong>of</strong> work.<br />
adequate enough is tautological. Since both<br />
words mean the same thing nothing is gained<br />
by bringing them together.<br />
adherence; adhesion. In general, adherence is figurative,<br />
adhesion literal. We speak <strong>of</strong> a person’s<br />
adherence to a party or a principle and a th:ing’s<br />
adhesion to something else. None the less, adhesion<br />
to a principle or a party would not be<br />
incorrect.<br />
adherent. See appositive.<br />
adherent adjectives. See position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
adieu. The plural is adieus or adieux.<br />
adjacent; contiguous. Things that are adjacent to<br />
each other are near to each other (Austria<br />
and Switzerland are adjacent countries). They<br />
may touch each other, but it is not necessary.<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>iguous means touching, in actual contact.<br />
Adjacent houses might have a yard between<br />
them; contiguous houses would have a common<br />
wall.<br />
However, contiguous is sometimes used to<br />
mean in close proximity without actually touching<br />
and has come to be so used to the extent<br />
that this use cannot be considered an err_or. On<br />
the whole, though, contiguous suggests that two<br />
things are closer than if they were only adjucent.<br />
adjectivally is to be preferred to adjectively.<br />
adjectives. An adjective is a word that is neither<br />
singular nor plural and that is used to qualify<br />
a noun, as in true love, green grass, early bird.<br />
Most adjectives have three forms, known as<br />
the positive, the comparative, and the superlative,<br />
as in green, greener, greenest. See comparison<br />
<strong>of</strong> adjectives and adverbs.<br />
In an inflected language such as Latin (but<br />
not in English), adjectives have special endings<br />
corresponding to various noun endings<br />
and these show which noun in the sentence the<br />
adjective is qualifying, or belongs with. An<br />
adjective-like word that has not been made to<br />
“match” some neighboring noun is not attached<br />
to any noun and is therefore not an adjective.<br />
Any qualifying word that is not an adjective is<br />
an adverb. This is all very simple, and with<br />
just a little knowledge <strong>of</strong> an inflected langusage<br />
one can tell an adjective from an adverb<br />
without knowing the meaning <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
11 adjectives<br />
But in English, adjectives look just like adverbs.<br />
It is not true that a word is an adverb<br />
if it ends in -1~. Kindly, sickly, deadly, are<br />
normally adjectives. Early and leisurely are<br />
both adjectives and adverbs, and so are hard,<br />
fast, slow. Perhaps the distinction between<br />
adjectives and adverbs should be abandoned<br />
in English. But if we are to maintain it with<br />
our present definitions <strong>of</strong> the words, we can<br />
only say that a word <strong>of</strong> this kind is an<br />
adjective if it can be used to qualify a noun,<br />
and an adverb if it can be used to qualify any<br />
<strong>of</strong> the other parts <strong>of</strong> speech or the sentence as<br />
a whole.<br />
Nouns, and therefore pronouns, can also be<br />
used to qualify nouns, as goose in goose<br />
feathers. Such words do not have a comparative<br />
and superlative form but neither do all<br />
adjectives, and it is sometimes hard to say<br />
whether a word in a particular sentence is an<br />
adjective or a noun or pronoun being used aa<br />
an adjective. But this is a question <strong>of</strong> terminology<br />
and does not affect the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words. (See nouns as adjectives.) Sometimes<br />
an adjective is used “absolutely,” that is,<br />
without naming the noun which it qualifies, as<br />
in the brave deserve the fair, where the nouns<br />
men and women are understood. Here the<br />
adjective is being used as if it were a noun.<br />
This sometimes creates a question as to<br />
whether the word is to be treated as a singular<br />
or as a-plural. (An adjective may also become<br />
a true noun, as in the alert sounded.) See<br />
adjectives as nouns.<br />
An adjective that is qualifying one noun<br />
may also have another noun as its “object.”<br />
Usually this relationship is shown by the word<br />
<strong>of</strong>, as in fearful <strong>of</strong>, mindful <strong>of</strong>. capable <strong>of</strong>.<br />
Sometimes another preposition is used, as in<br />
impatient with, comparable to, anxious about.<br />
Which preposition is used depends partly on<br />
convention and partly on the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word. (See the individual prepositions.) A few<br />
adjectives, such as like and worth, may be<br />
followed immediately by an object without the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> a preposition.<br />
Adjectives can be made from nouns by<br />
adding any <strong>of</strong> a great number <strong>of</strong> endings,<br />
such as -ish, -like, -ly, -y, -en, -al, -ar, -ory.<br />
Adjectives ending in -ish are <strong>of</strong>ten derogatory,<br />
as childish and womanish, and other forms,<br />
such as childlike and womanly, are used when<br />
speaking with approval. Only a woman can<br />
be mannish. A man would necessarily be<br />
manly. The ending -ish may also be added to<br />
adjectives to mean “approaching” or “like,”<br />
as in greenish, oldish, smallish. The -y ending<br />
also means “like” and can be used in making<br />
adjectives from nouns or from verbs, as in<br />
flowery, creepy, slinky. The -en is used most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten with names <strong>of</strong> materials, such as golden,<br />
leaden, woolen, oaken. The endings -al, -ar,<br />
-ory, are used chiefly for more learned words<br />
that suggest a Latin origin, such as autumnal,<br />
spectacular, transitory. There is a strong tendency<br />
in current English to drop both the -en
adjectives 12<br />
and the -al endings and use the noun form<br />
itself as a qualifier, as in oak table, wool shirt,<br />
autumn leaves, coast line.<br />
Phrases and even full clauses may sometimes<br />
stand before a noun as if they were<br />
simple adjectives, as in the man with the<br />
l-turn-the-crank-<strong>of</strong>-the-universe air. For more<br />
commonplace examples <strong>of</strong> this, see compound<br />
words. See also clauses.<br />
KINDS OF ADJECTNES<br />
The function <strong>of</strong> an adjective depends to a<br />
great extent upon its position in a sentence.<br />
Adjectives are classified according to position<br />
as (1) adherent (when they stand before the<br />
noun they qualify), (2) appositive (when they<br />
follow the noun), (3) predicate (when they<br />
follow a verb), and (4) factitive or “objective<br />
complement” (when they follow the object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb with a special sense). Adjectives are said<br />
to be either limiting or descriptive, but this too<br />
depends upon their position in the sentence. See<br />
position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
Adjectives may be classified in many ways<br />
according to meaning, but only a few <strong>of</strong> these<br />
classifications have any bearing on the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the words. Adjectives that are made from<br />
proper nouns are called proper adjectives and<br />
are written with a capital letter. (See proper<br />
nouns.) The two participles <strong>of</strong> a verb are<br />
usually adjectives, as in falling rock and fallen<br />
rock, and are called verbal adjectives. (See<br />
participles.) Number words are usually adjectives.<br />
These include the cardinal numbers, such<br />
as two, twenty, and such related words as<br />
dozen, few, many; and the ordinal numbers,<br />
such as third, fifth. and such related words as<br />
first, last, other. (See number terms.) A great<br />
many pronouns may also be used as adjectives.<br />
When used to qualify a noun, the words this,<br />
that, fhwe, those, are called demonstrative<br />
adjectives, and the possessive pronouns, my,<br />
his, their, and so on, are called possessive<br />
adjectives. The articles a, an, the, are also<br />
adjectives. These last three groups together with<br />
the indefinite pronominal adjectives, such as<br />
some, any, each, every, and the genitive case<br />
<strong>of</strong> nouns, such as father’s, are sometimes<br />
classed together as definitives, because they<br />
make the reference as definite or specific as<br />
the facts allow. (See definitive adjectives.)<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> these classifications are reflected in<br />
the order that is followed when several adjectives<br />
qualify the same noun.<br />
ORDER IN A SERIES<br />
A noun may be qualified by more than one<br />
adjective. Izaak Walton wrote that he would<br />
consider the lilies, and also those very many<br />
other various little living creatures that are fed<br />
by the goodness <strong>of</strong> the God <strong>of</strong> nature.<br />
In piling up his adjectives in this way,<br />
Walton had no choice about the order in<br />
which he must use them. Words such as very,<br />
which apply to only one word in the series,<br />
are adverbs and always stand next to the word<br />
they qualify. True adjectives may be joined<br />
by and, as in strong and beautiful children, or<br />
they may be set <strong>of</strong>f from one another by<br />
commas, as in strong, happy, beautiful children.<br />
In either case, they are said to be<br />
“leveled” and all <strong>of</strong> them have exactly the<br />
same relation to the noun they qualify. Otherwise,<br />
in a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives each word qualifies<br />
or limits the meaning <strong>of</strong> all the words that<br />
follow, up to and including the noun. That is,<br />
the words which restrict the total meaning<br />
most stand first and there is a gradual progression<br />
through wider and wider meanings<br />
until the noun is reached.<br />
This is so much a part <strong>of</strong> the natural order<br />
in an English sentence that it will ordinarily<br />
take care <strong>of</strong> itself. One does not have to know<br />
which kinds <strong>of</strong> adjectives come first and which<br />
second in order to use them properly. But the<br />
rules are relatively rigid and can be described<br />
in detail.<br />
With certain exceptions which will be mentioned<br />
later, the definitive adjectives must<br />
stand first. Two words <strong>of</strong> this kind never<br />
qualify the same noun unless they are leveled.<br />
Number terms come next, and frequently more<br />
than one <strong>of</strong> them is used. For the order that<br />
must be followed when several words <strong>of</strong> this<br />
class qualify the same noun, see number terms.<br />
These are followed by words implying a judgment,<br />
such as beautiful, terrible, expensive,<br />
true, diflerent. There may be several words <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind. If there are, they are always leveled<br />
and it makes no difference what order they are<br />
used in. Finally there are the purely descriptive<br />
words. Here some variation is allowed, but as<br />
a rule the order is size, shape, other characteristics.<br />
The other characteristics are usually<br />
listed with the most obvious first. Then comes<br />
the noun, which may be additionally qualified<br />
by a following phrase or clause.<br />
No one is likely to use all the kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
adjectives there are in the same phrase. But<br />
the ones that are used will have to follow this<br />
order if the sentence is to lie flat. In the<br />
Walton sentence quoted above, the word<br />
various is likely to jump to the modem ear.<br />
He meant by the word “<strong>of</strong> different kinds” or<br />
“to be classified differently.” It is therefore<br />
a judgment word and belongs where he placed<br />
it. But if we hear it as meaning “several” it<br />
belongs in place <strong>of</strong> “very many.” If we hear<br />
it as “‘varied” or “having different appearances,”<br />
it is a general descriptive word and<br />
should follow little.<br />
The orderly progression <strong>of</strong> adjectives just<br />
described may be disturbed for any <strong>of</strong> three<br />
reasons. (1) Certain words, such as dear little<br />
children and nice old lady, are used together<br />
so constantly that they may come to be felt as<br />
a single idea and one may hesitate to break<br />
into a compound <strong>of</strong> this sort. As a result, one<br />
might say these curly-headed dear little children<br />
or that little nice old lady. (2) The words<br />
all, both, and the names <strong>of</strong> some fractions, may<br />
stand before a definitive as if they were being<br />
used with the word <strong>of</strong>, although the <strong>of</strong> actually<br />
is not there, as in all the day, both the boys,<br />
half the price. (3) Words used to mean “in a<br />
high degree” are being used as adverbs. They
cannot qualify a noun directly, but they may<br />
qualify a definitive adjective and so have the<br />
force <strong>of</strong> qualifying the noun. When they<br />
qualify a definitive adjective they stand before<br />
it, as in many a day, what a man, such a<br />
storm. When a word <strong>of</strong> this kind, or the interrogative<br />
adverb how, applies to a particular<br />
adjective it will bring that adjective forward<br />
with it, as in so rich a man, too rainy a day,<br />
how sad a case. But with these exceptions, the<br />
order <strong>of</strong> adjectives outlined above is always<br />
followed.<br />
adjectives as adverbs. Almost any word that can<br />
be used to qualify a noun can also be used to<br />
qualify some words that are not nouns. There<br />
are some words in English, such as slow, high,<br />
even, early, that can be used with a noun and<br />
also with a verb. These words are clearly<br />
adverbs as well as adjectives. But there are<br />
other adjective-like words which cannot be used<br />
to qualify a verb but can be used to qualify<br />
the positive form <strong>of</strong> adjectives, such as dark,<br />
black, and bitter, in a dark blue dress, a blackeyed<br />
child, a bitter cold night.<br />
There are several things a grammarian might<br />
say about this situation. He-might say that-in<br />
Ennlish adiectives mav __ sualifv _ adjectives. . This<br />
represents the facts, but it would require a<br />
new definition <strong>of</strong> an adjective and very few<br />
grammarians take such a stand. On the other<br />
hand, he might recognize all these words as<br />
adverbs, and this is what most grammarians<br />
do. But this means that practically all adjectives<br />
are also adverbs and the classification<br />
ceases to have much value. That is, the fact<br />
that a dictionary lists a given word as an<br />
adverb tells nothing about whether or not that<br />
word can be used to qualify a verb. Some<br />
grammarians follow a middle course. They find<br />
special explanations for some <strong>of</strong> these adjective<br />
combinations, and those that they can’t explain<br />
they condemn as an improper use <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
An adjective before a color word is always<br />
acceptable, as in a dark blue dress, a greenish<br />
yellow car. Some grammarians say that the<br />
color word is here a noun, and therefore properly<br />
qualified by an adjective. Others say that<br />
the two words, such as dark blue, are actually<br />
one compound adjective. This difference <strong>of</strong><br />
opinion may determine whether or not. a<br />
hyphen is used in such terms. In any case, the<br />
adjective before a color word is normal English<br />
today. An adverb may also be used here and<br />
is sometimes preferred when the adjective form<br />
is ambiguous. For example, in roll on, thou<br />
deep and dark blue ocean, the words deep and<br />
dark may refer to blue or they may refer to<br />
ocean. On the other hand, when the sea is<br />
described as darkly, deeply, beautifully blue,<br />
the adverb forms can only refer to the word<br />
blue. But these are problems <strong>of</strong> poetry and<br />
exalted prose. In everyday English, a darkly<br />
blue dress would suggest something mysterious<br />
and exotic, certainly nothing as prosaic as a<br />
dress that is dark blue.<br />
A combined noun and adjective, such as<br />
warm heart, noble mind, clear sight, empty<br />
13 adjectives<br />
head, may be made into an adjective by adding<br />
-ed to the noun, as in warm hearted, noble<br />
minded, clear sighted, empty headed. These are<br />
usually classed as compound adjectives and are<br />
usually hyphenated in deference to this fact.<br />
Whether they really are compounds or not is<br />
debatable. When the two words are treated as<br />
one in making a comparative or superlative<br />
form, as in a warm-hearteder, the emptyheadedest,<br />
we clearly have a compound adjective.<br />
Forms <strong>of</strong> this kind do appear but they<br />
are rare. We more <strong>of</strong>ten treat the first word as<br />
an independent adjective (or adverb) and say<br />
u warmer hearted, the emptiest headed. In this<br />
case it is impossible to say that the two words<br />
are a compound, and a hyphen is never used<br />
when the first element has a comparative or<br />
superlative form. The number <strong>of</strong> words that<br />
can be used in this way is almost unlimited.<br />
We say white haired, blue eyed, quick witted,<br />
decent sized, good natured, and so on indefinitely.<br />
The past participle <strong>of</strong> a verb is sometimes<br />
merely a descriptive adjective and when it is,<br />
it too may be qualified by an adjective-like<br />
word, as in native born, foreign made, s<strong>of</strong>f<br />
spoken, fresh oiled, new laid eggs, new mown<br />
hay. Sometimes the participle keeps its verbal<br />
force and in this case a clearly adverbial form<br />
is required to qualify it, as in warmly dressed,<br />
well behaved, highly priced, deeply rooted.<br />
Often the speaker may use whichever form<br />
suits him best and say s<strong>of</strong>t spoken or s<strong>of</strong>tly<br />
spoken, high priced or highly priced. But the<br />
adverbial form always gives the following word<br />
a verb-like feeling. A beautiful colored object<br />
is an object that has beautiful color. But a<br />
beautifully colored object is an object that has<br />
been colored beautifully.<br />
Adjective forms are also used before adjectives<br />
as qualifiers, as red in red hot and stark<br />
in stark naked. These words are clearly “adverbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> degree” and cannot be explained<br />
away. Faced with such combinations, anyone<br />
who has been claiming that there is an innate<br />
difference between an adjective and an adverb<br />
must either recognize that there is something<br />
wrong with his system or conclude that the<br />
language itself is wrong. Some have decided<br />
that it must be the language.<br />
Constructions <strong>of</strong> this kind are common ln<br />
the finest literary English, as in and it grew<br />
wondrous cold and St. Agnes’ Eve-ah, bitter<br />
chill it was! Some words that were originally<br />
adjectives, such as very and pretty, are used<br />
in this way so consistently that no one would<br />
think <strong>of</strong> objecting to them. Others have now<br />
disappeared from the language, or at least<br />
have a decidedly nineteenth century flavor, as<br />
an uncommon fine fellow, devilish handsome,<br />
deuced uncomfortable. Some are still in use<br />
but are not considered standard, as dreadful<br />
sorry, Clementine. But there are a great many<br />
more that are in standard use and pass unnoticed.<br />
We may still say icy cold and bitter<br />
cold though we no longer say it is cruel cold.<br />
We may still use the -ing adjectives in this
adjectives 14<br />
way, as burning hot, howling drunk. We may<br />
still say dead tired and dead certain. Some<br />
words <strong>of</strong> this kind are now in use but are<br />
under attack, such as mighty fine, real clever,<br />
awful nice, right smart, sure good. Whether<br />
they remain standard English or not will depend<br />
on who uses them and who doesn’t. There is no<br />
question <strong>of</strong> logic, or <strong>of</strong> grammatical principles,<br />
involved. If the respected members <strong>of</strong> the community<br />
use these words, the words are respectable,<br />
and if they do not, the words are not.<br />
(See the individual words.)<br />
adjectives as nouns. Nouns may be made from<br />
adjectives, or adjectives may be used as if they<br />
were nouns. Both kinds <strong>of</strong> words can be seen<br />
in the sentence by Fielding, we moderns are to<br />
the ancients what the poor are to the rich. The<br />
words moderns and ancients are made from<br />
adjectives but they are true nouns, if only<br />
because they have been given the ending s<br />
which does not belong to the adjective. A<br />
great many nouns are formed from adjectives<br />
in this way, such as news, slacks, heroics,<br />
economics. In the case. <strong>of</strong> moderns and ancients<br />
the words also have a singular form and the<br />
plural form can be used with a numeral, as in<br />
any modern is worth a hundred ancients. Words<br />
that have both a singular and a plural form<br />
are nouns. Words that have been formed from<br />
adjectives by adding s are also nouns, even<br />
when they do not have the two forms. Neither<br />
<strong>of</strong> these things is true <strong>of</strong> the words rich and<br />
poor. They have the simple form <strong>of</strong> the adjective.<br />
And we cannot speak <strong>of</strong> an individual<br />
one or use the words with a number term<br />
unless we supply the missing noun man, as in<br />
this poor man and three rich men. Adjectives<br />
that appear to be nouns because the noun they<br />
qualify is not expressed are said to be “adjectives<br />
used absolutely.” When the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
the word depends upon the context, as in the<br />
same, the like, the latter, some grammarians<br />
say that the adjective is being used “pronominally.”<br />
As we have seen, a noun can be qualified<br />
by an adjective even when the noun is not<br />
expressed. The fact that we can use an adjective<br />
before a word, as in the miserable poor,<br />
the fortunate rich, does not prove that the<br />
word is a noun. The adjectives, miserable and<br />
fortunate, may apply to an unexpressed noun<br />
such as men. On the other hand, a noun cannot<br />
be qualified by an adverb and an adjective<br />
can. The fact that adverbs can be used before<br />
such words, as in the miserably poor, the<br />
extremely rich, shows that they are still felt as<br />
adjectives. Sometimes this is the only test <strong>of</strong><br />
whether or not a word has become a noun.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the adjectives that are used as<br />
nouns either (1) name a quality, such as the<br />
small, the pleasant, the new, and refer to<br />
everything that has that quality, or (2) name<br />
a group <strong>of</strong> human beings having a certain<br />
characteristic, such as the wise, the powerful,<br />
the unborn. Adjectives in the first class, that<br />
name a quality, are always treated as singulars<br />
although they refer to countless examples <strong>of</strong><br />
the quality. At one time such words were felt<br />
as plurals. Pope said, be not the first by whom<br />
the new are tried. But today we say the best<br />
is the cheapest in the long run, the unknown<br />
is always frightening, the familiar is comfortable.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> the second class also name a<br />
quality. But they refer to a group <strong>of</strong> human<br />
beings who are identified by this characteristic.<br />
They do not refer to the quality itself or to the<br />
individuals as instances <strong>of</strong> the quality. Words<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind are usually treated as plurals, as<br />
in the lament, the best lack all conviction<br />
while the worst are full <strong>of</strong> passionate intensity<br />
and in there the wicked cease from troubling<br />
and there the wear? are at rest. Bums uses the<br />
singular form in the rigid righteous is a fool,<br />
but this is very rare.<br />
The group that an adjective identifies is not<br />
necessarily as broad, or as timeless, as the<br />
rich, the poor, the wicked, the weary. It may<br />
represent an actual, countable, number <strong>of</strong><br />
people, as it does in the wounded were removed.<br />
When a word has this limited meaning<br />
it may be used with a numeral in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
some members <strong>of</strong> the group, as in twenty<br />
wounded were removed. When the word is<br />
unlimited in its application it can only be used<br />
in speaking about the entire group. It cannot<br />
be used with a numeral or in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
some members <strong>of</strong> the group. We cannot say<br />
five wise or five foolish.<br />
There are ten adjectives which are also used<br />
as nouns to name a nationality group. We<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> the British, the English, the Irish, the<br />
Cornish, the Spanish, the Welsh, the Scotch,<br />
the Dutch, the French. and the Manx. (In<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> other nationality groups we use<br />
words which are primarily nouns, such as<br />
the Poles, the Swedes, the Chinese.) Formerly,<br />
the ten adjective-nouns could be qualified by<br />
a numeral, as in twenty thousand Cornish bold,<br />
but this is no longer true. In present-day<br />
English these words always represent the entire<br />
nation. We may speak <strong>of</strong> the Irish or the<br />
French but not <strong>of</strong> six Irish or six French. In<br />
order to speak <strong>of</strong> the individuals we must<br />
introduce a true noun, such as man, woman,<br />
person.<br />
There are a few adjectives in English that<br />
represent a single individual, such as the accused,<br />
the departed, the beloved. These words<br />
do not have plural forms and under some circumstances<br />
they may be qualified by adverbs,<br />
as in dearly beloved and the lately departed.<br />
This makes them adjectives according to the<br />
definitions adopted in this dictionary and an<br />
exception to the rule that the English adjective<br />
is used to indicate groups and not individuals.<br />
Under a different system <strong>of</strong> definitions these<br />
words could be classed as singular nouns. But<br />
another system would have other problems and<br />
other types <strong>of</strong> words would have to be listed as<br />
exceptions to the rules.<br />
Nouns may be used before other nouns as<br />
qualifiers, as sea in sea wall and horse in
horse race. in this case one may say that the<br />
noun is being used as an adjective or that it is<br />
the first element in a compound. Nouns that<br />
have been formed from adjectives, such as<br />
criminal and juvenile, and adjectives that are<br />
being used as nouns, such as the sick, the<br />
insane, the condemned, may also be used in<br />
this way without losing their noun meanings,<br />
as in criminal law, a juvenile court, a sick<br />
room, an insane asylum, condemned cells. This<br />
is a standard English construction. Occasionally<br />
someone notices that the first element in one<br />
<strong>of</strong> these compounds can be read as an adjective.<br />
This is all very well as a source <strong>of</strong><br />
innocent merriment. But anyone who concludes<br />
that the compound is a grammatical<br />
mistake and solemnly goes about condemning<br />
it and those who use it, is being ridiculous.<br />
These words are part <strong>of</strong> the fabric <strong>of</strong> the<br />
language and anyone who hopes to get rid <strong>of</strong><br />
them will have to remake the language. The<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is <strong>of</strong>ten used in this way.<br />
These may be true nouns, as in a dining room,<br />
a landing field, or they may be an adjective<br />
used as a noun, as in a dying wish. In either<br />
case, the construction is normal English and<br />
needs no apology. See -ing.<br />
adjudicate. See judge.<br />
adjure. See abjure.<br />
administer. One sense <strong>of</strong> administer is to give<br />
(He administered the medicine which the doctor<br />
had prescribed), but the word in this sense<br />
is generally restricted to the giving <strong>of</strong> things<br />
which are helpful. It is true that we <strong>of</strong>ten hear<br />
<strong>of</strong> a rebuke or even a blow being administered;<br />
but unless it is implied that these were salutary<br />
corrections (and, <strong>of</strong> course, most people who<br />
bestow rebukes and blows on others think they<br />
are salutary), the use, while not incorrect, is<br />
not a happy one.<br />
administration; ministry. In America the government<br />
in power is called the administration. In<br />
England it is called the ministry or simply the<br />
Government.<br />
admission; admittance. Much ink has been expended<br />
to prove that admittance refers to<br />
physical entrance and admission to an entrance<br />
into rights and privileges, but with the exception<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sign No Admittance, admittance is<br />
rarely seen or heard. Admission serves in all<br />
cases (The thief gained admission through a<br />
broken window. Admission to the club is<br />
eagerly sought).<br />
admit. This word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he admits having seen us,<br />
or by a clause, as in he admits he saw us. It<br />
is not followed by an infinitive and constructions<br />
such as he admits to have seen us are not<br />
standard.<br />
admit; admit <strong>of</strong>. Admit, to allow to enter (Many<br />
colleges will admit only those who have done<br />
well in the entrance examinations), to allow as<br />
valid (He admits the justness <strong>of</strong> your claim), to<br />
acknowledge or confess, and so on. In contemporary<br />
usage admit <strong>of</strong> is rarely heard,<br />
though it is quite proper in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
1 5 adverbial<br />
leaving room for (His conduct will not admit<br />
<strong>of</strong> any other construction). See confess.<br />
adopt; assume. To adopt is to take to oneself, to<br />
make one’s own. It is sometimes used as if it<br />
meant to feign (He adopted I guise <strong>of</strong> humility).<br />
But this is unfortunate. The word should<br />
be assume. To adopt a position or an interpretation<br />
would be to take it sincerely as one’s<br />
own. To assume it is, in this context, merely<br />
to pretend that it is one’s own. See also adapt.<br />
adopted; adoptive. When a child has been taken<br />
as one’s own by a formal legal act, it is an<br />
adopted child. But what are the parents? To<br />
say that they are foster parents may not express<br />
the exact meaning because foster parents<br />
have not necessarily made a legal adoption.<br />
In American usage they are commonly called<br />
adopted parents, but this is awkward since<br />
there is the feeling that they have adopted the<br />
child, not the child them. Adoptive (which the<br />
British use for the relationship either way) is<br />
used by many and seems a happy solution<br />
(The adopted child became very fond <strong>of</strong> her<br />
adoptive parents).<br />
adorable. See amatory.<br />
adore. See reverence.<br />
adumbrate, meaning to foreshadow or to prefigure,<br />
is a word too confined to literature to<br />
be used in ordinary speech or writing without<br />
risking the charge <strong>of</strong> affectation.<br />
advance; advancement. In the sense <strong>of</strong> promotion<br />
advancement is the word (His being made<br />
president <strong>of</strong> the company was a great advancement<br />
for him). In the sense <strong>of</strong> moving forward<br />
or upward, the act <strong>of</strong> advancing, or progress,<br />
advance is proper. The advance <strong>of</strong> civilization<br />
is the forward progress <strong>of</strong> civilization. The<br />
advancement <strong>of</strong> civilization would be an act<br />
whereby the advance would be facilitated.<br />
advanced (in years). See old.<br />
advantage. See possession, vantage.<br />
advent; arrival. Advent, possibly because <strong>of</strong> its<br />
religious uses (when capitalized it refers to the<br />
coming <strong>of</strong> Christ into the world), marks a high<br />
and solemn attitude <strong>of</strong> mind towards an arrival.<br />
We speak <strong>of</strong> the arrival <strong>of</strong> a plane or a<br />
bus, but (if we are minded to view it solemnly)<br />
<strong>of</strong> the advent <strong>of</strong> Spring, or the advent <strong>of</strong><br />
death, and so on.<br />
adventure. See venture.<br />
adverbial accusative. Under some circumstances<br />
a noun may be used directly as an adverb<br />
without first being made part <strong>of</strong> a prepositional<br />
phrase, as years in three years she grew<br />
in sun and shower. When such nouns are in<br />
the common case, that is, when they are not<br />
genitives, the construction is called an adverbial<br />
accusative. See nouns as adverbs.<br />
adverbial genitive. At one time the genitive form<br />
<strong>of</strong> certain words could be used as an adverb.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> our adverbs that end in an s (or z)<br />
sound, such as nowadays, since, sometimes,<br />
upwards, are survivals from this period. The<br />
final s in on all fours, at sixes and sevens, and<br />
in needs in he needs must, is also a sign <strong>of</strong><br />
the adverbial genitive. Today there is no feeling
adverbs 16<br />
that this is a genitive relationship and an<br />
apostrophe is never used in words <strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
Although the construction is no longer<br />
understood, the habit <strong>of</strong> forming adverbs on<br />
the old genitive pattern is not entirely dead.<br />
It shows itself in certain final s’s and substitute<br />
<strong>of</strong> phrases, such as I work evenings and I work<br />
<strong>of</strong> an evening. (See genitive case.) Some<br />
grammarians object to these forms on the<br />
grounds that the construction ought to be<br />
dead. It is dead in England, where both types<br />
<strong>of</strong> expression are unacceptable and the onIy<br />
acceptable form is in the evening.<br />
But the old genitive is very much alive in<br />
the United States. When it leads to an extra s<br />
on a word that is already an adverb, as in<br />
somewheres, it is not standard, at least in written<br />
material. But the genitive is in good repute<br />
and thoroughly acceptable for expressions <strong>of</strong><br />
repeated time, such as I like to read <strong>of</strong> a rainy<br />
afternoon and Wednesdays 2 work in the<br />
garden. See also way and nouns as adverbs.<br />
adverbs. A qualifying word that is not qualifying<br />
a noun is an adverb. This means that a great<br />
many different kinds <strong>of</strong> words with different<br />
functions in a sentence will all be adverbs.<br />
Adverbs are sometimes defined as qualifying<br />
words that indicate time, place, manner, or<br />
degree. When, now, soon, are adverbs <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
and where, here, there, are adverbs <strong>of</strong> place.<br />
Quickly, suddenly, sweetly, and how, are adverbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> manner. ‘Degree” is not as clear cut<br />
a concept as the others, but exceedingly, excessively,<br />
very, are ordinarily adverbs <strong>of</strong> degree.<br />
Frequently a word that is an adverb <strong>of</strong><br />
degree in a particular sentence has other uses<br />
in other sentences. For example, great is an<br />
adverb <strong>of</strong> degree in a great many people were<br />
there, but it is an adjective in he is a great<br />
man. Any qualifying word that indicates time,<br />
place, manner, or degree, is being used as an<br />
adverb. But there are some words that are<br />
unquestionably adverbs and that do not fit<br />
easily into any one <strong>of</strong> these four groups, such<br />
as why, not, only, twice.<br />
All adverbs, linguistic scholars believe, were<br />
originally nouns, pronouns, or adjectives. They<br />
are words that were used adverbially so much<br />
<strong>of</strong> the time that they lost all other uses. The<br />
word very is moving in this direction at present.<br />
Originally it was an adjective, as it is in<br />
this very morning, but it is now used more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten as an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree, as in he is very<br />
tired. Eventually, it might lose its adjective<br />
meaning entirely.<br />
Today we use nouns as adverbs in certain<br />
situations. Sunday is an adverb <strong>of</strong> time in we<br />
were there Sunday, and air mail is an adverb<br />
<strong>of</strong> manner in send it air mail. (See nouns<br />
as adverbs.) Adjectives are frequently used<br />
as adverbs <strong>of</strong> degree, as red in a red hot poker<br />
and bitter in a bitter cold night. (See adjectives<br />
as adverbs.) We may also form adverbs from<br />
nouns by adding -ways or -wise, as in endwuys<br />
and endwise; and from adjectives by adding -ly,<br />
as in bitterly, artistically, thoughtfulfy. For-<br />
merly, adverbs might be formed from adjectives<br />
by adding s, as in backwards.<br />
Groups <strong>of</strong> words may also function as<br />
adverbs, as in it came at the right time, we<br />
were waiting in the garden, he wus not in the<br />
least worried. See clauses.<br />
KINDSOF’ADVERBS<br />
The ideas which are expressed by means <strong>of</strong><br />
adverbs can be classified approximately under<br />
the words time, place, manner, and degree. But<br />
in order to discuss how words <strong>of</strong> this kind are<br />
used, we need a different grouping. They can be<br />
handled most conveniently if they are divided<br />
into five classes: ( 1) interrogative adverbs, (2)<br />
relative adverbs, (3) negative adverbs, (4) adverbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> direction, and (5) descriptive adverbs.<br />
1. The words whezz, where, how, why, are<br />
interrogatives when they are used to ask a<br />
question, as in when is he coming back? These<br />
words are also interrogatives when they introduce<br />
an indirect, or a “buried,” question, as in<br />
he didn’t tell me when he would be back. (It<br />
should be noticed that these four words can<br />
also be used without any implication <strong>of</strong> a<br />
question, as in he told me when he wns here<br />
and how he laughed! When that is the case<br />
they are not called interrogatives.)<br />
2. Any adverb that introduces a subordinate<br />
clause is a relative adverb. This class<br />
includes the words when, where, how, and<br />
why (whether they are being used as interrogatives<br />
or not); the word as; and some time<br />
words, such as before, after, since. Relative<br />
adverbs serve the purpose <strong>of</strong> conjunctions.<br />
3. The negative adverbs include the obvious<br />
negatives, such as not and never, and<br />
also words which are negative in intention,<br />
such as hardly and scarcely. These words are<br />
negative because they are used to mean<br />
“almost not,” “not quite,” “probably not.” For<br />
example, little is a negative adverb in the<br />
world will little note.<br />
4. Adverbs <strong>of</strong> direction exist in pairs, such<br />
as up and down, in and out, over and under,<br />
buck and forth. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind were originally<br />
the second element in a compound verb<br />
and are still used in this way a great deal<br />
<strong>of</strong> the time. In pick up the paper, we say that<br />
pick up is a compound verb (similar to lift)<br />
with a direct object the paper. But these detached<br />
elements tend to lose their connection<br />
with the verb and to be treated as independent<br />
words with an “object” <strong>of</strong> their own. When<br />
this happens the word has become a preposition.<br />
In stand by the door, for example, stand<br />
is considered the full verb and by a preposition<br />
introducing an adverbial phrase <strong>of</strong> place.<br />
When no object follows, as in stand by for<br />
half an hour and it stands out like a sore<br />
thumb, it is obvious that we have a compound<br />
verb. When there is an object, the difference<br />
between an adverb and a preposition is not<br />
as easy to see. But in cut <strong>of</strong>f an inch the last<br />
three words do not form a prepositional<br />
phrase. Instead, the word <strong>of</strong>l is an adverb<br />
qualifying cut, and an inch is the object <strong>of</strong>
the compound verb cur <strong>of</strong>f. This is the proper<br />
interpretation whenever it is possible to place<br />
the object between the verb and the other word<br />
without altering the sense, as in cut an inch<br />
<strong>of</strong>f. Zn step <strong>of</strong>f the rug, on the other hand, the<br />
word <strong>of</strong>i is a preposition and has its own<br />
object rug. This is the proper interpretation<br />
when we cannot place the object immediately<br />
after the verb and say step the rug 08.<br />
Compound verbs, such as pick up and cut<br />
08 are natural English. They are simple and<br />
forceful and are generally preferred to their<br />
Latin equivalents. So give up is <strong>of</strong>ten preferred<br />
to relinquish; give in to acquiesce: call out to<br />
evoke; take up to assume; bring in to introduce.<br />
The form fits our speech rhythm so well<br />
that we <strong>of</strong>ten use these extra syllables when<br />
they add nothing to the meaning, as in fill up,<br />
eat up, drink down. The independent element<br />
in a compound verb which is not affected by<br />
changes in tense is an adverb, although it is<br />
not used exactly as other adverbs are.<br />
5. Any adverb that does not belong in one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the preceding groups is to be classed as a<br />
descriptive adverb. Adverbs <strong>of</strong> degree, such as<br />
too, so, very, pretty, are included in this class.<br />
A great many descriptive adverbs are formed<br />
from adjectives by adding -ly, as in quickly,<br />
slowly, highly, hardly. Some <strong>of</strong> these adverbs<br />
have two forms: with and without the -ly, as<br />
in drive slow, drove slowly; come quick, come<br />
quickly. Descriptive adverbs may also have<br />
three forms known as the positive, the comparative,<br />
and the superlative. See comparison<br />
<strong>of</strong> adjectives and adverbs.<br />
USES OF ADVERBS<br />
1. The principal function <strong>of</strong> an adverb<br />
is to qualify a verb, as in run quickly, speak<br />
louder. Since the verb is the essential element<br />
in a statement and not a detachable part <strong>of</strong><br />
it, an adverb in this role normally qualifies<br />
the entire statement. For example, in I never<br />
saw a purple cow the word never applies to<br />
suw a purple cow and not to the single word<br />
saw. Adverbs used in this way are called sentence<br />
adverbs. They may stand in any <strong>of</strong><br />
several positions in a sentence, but each position<br />
has its special limitations or special<br />
emphasis and as a rule there is very little<br />
choice about where a particular adverb should<br />
be placed. The most important problems in the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> adverbs have to do with placing sentence<br />
adverbs. See sentence adverbs.<br />
In some situations an adverb may qualify<br />
the verb itself rather than the entire statement.<br />
Adverbs <strong>of</strong> direction are not sentence adverbs.<br />
They affect the meaning <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
itself and cannot be used in the various<br />
positions that are characteristic <strong>of</strong> sentence<br />
adverbs. In modern English an adverb <strong>of</strong><br />
direction that stands before the verb is usually<br />
written as a solid compound with it, as in<br />
undertake, overturn, upset. Occasionally an<br />
adverb that is actually the second element, and<br />
not the first, is placed before the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb, as in up he got and down he came. This<br />
17 adverbs<br />
word order is so unusual that it is felt as “poetic<br />
license.” In natural English, an adverb <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind that is treated as an independent word must<br />
follow the verb.<br />
Even then, there is very little choice about<br />
where it can be placed. The indirect object <strong>of</strong><br />
a compound verb must always stand between the<br />
two parts <strong>of</strong> the compound, as Mother in send<br />
Mother up some tea and her in send her up<br />
some. If an indirect object is undesirable in<br />
this position for any reason, it must be re<br />
placed by a prepositional phrase, as in send<br />
some up to Mother. (See indirect object.) A<br />
pronoun usually stands between the two elements<br />
even when it is a direct object as in send<br />
it up. A noun that is the direct object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
compound verb may stand between the two<br />
elements or may follow the second, as in send<br />
the box up and send up the box.<br />
People who claim that “a preposition cannot<br />
follow its object” sometimes do not recognize<br />
the difference between a preposition and the<br />
second element in a compound verb. In their<br />
anxiety to be correct, they may misplace these<br />
adverbs. In a construction <strong>of</strong> this kind it is<br />
always proper for the adverb to follow the<br />
object. And if the object is a pronoun, that<br />
is the preferred position for the adverb. Send<br />
up it is not literary English!<br />
Occasionally an adverb belonging to one <strong>of</strong><br />
the other groups is used to qualify the verb<br />
itself rather than the full statement. In this<br />
case, the adverb stands immediately before<br />
the element in the verb that it qualifies. This<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten one <strong>of</strong> the positions for a sentence<br />
adverb. The fact that the adverb is qualifying<br />
only one word is shown in speech by a heavy<br />
stress on that one word. For example, if a<br />
special stress is given to said in Z never said<br />
he was a fool, the implication is I only thought<br />
so. In this case never qualifies the isolated<br />
word said. But this is an unusual construction.<br />
In written English the words will be read<br />
without stress and the adverb taken as a<br />
sentence adverb unless it is made clear that<br />
this is not the proper interpretation.<br />
2. An adverb may qualify an adjective. As<br />
a rule, an adverb that qualifies an adjective<br />
is an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree, as in a very red face,<br />
a mildly hot day, an astonishingly thin child.<br />
Occasionally it may show manner, as in a<br />
charmingly naive reply, an attractively stout<br />
matron. A predicate adjective or an appositive<br />
adjective may sometimes be followed by a<br />
qualifying adverb, as in it is lukewarm only,<br />
I am sick almost, a piece <strong>of</strong> rope longer still.<br />
But the normal position for any adverb except<br />
a sentence adverb is immediately before the<br />
word it qualifies. In this role it normally qualities<br />
the following word and no others.<br />
Adverbs <strong>of</strong> degree, however, may qualify<br />
the word a or an, and so have the effect <strong>of</strong><br />
qualifying the following noun and any intervening<br />
adjectives. For example, in a quite<br />
small child, quite is an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree qualifying<br />
small. But in quite a small child it
adversary 18<br />
qualifies the article and so has the effect <strong>of</strong><br />
qualifying the phrase a small child. An adverb<br />
<strong>of</strong> degree combined with an adjective may<br />
function as a compound adverb and qualify<br />
a or an in exactly the same way, as in<br />
so short a time, too low a price, so young<br />
and pretty a woman, no more remarkable a<br />
man.<br />
3. Adverbs may also qualify adverbs, and<br />
in this way one sometimes gets an accumulation<br />
<strong>of</strong> adverbs, as in quite hopelessly entangled,<br />
not so very well done. This is very<br />
different from an accumulation <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
(See adjectives.) In a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives each<br />
word qualifies the noun, as qualified by all<br />
the intervening words. But in a series <strong>of</strong> adverbs<br />
each word qualifies only the word that<br />
immediately follows it. The relationship is very<br />
simple and the position <strong>of</strong> each word depends<br />
entirely on the meaning.<br />
4. Since adverbs qualify adverbs and some<br />
adverbs easily turn into prepositions, it is not<br />
surprising that an adverb sometimes qualifies<br />
a preposition, as jlcst in just across the street<br />
and nearly in nearly fhrough the door. Here<br />
the adverb may be interpreted as qualifying<br />
the entire prepositional phrase.<br />
5. Certain adverbs may be treated as if they<br />
were nouns, principally adverbs <strong>of</strong> time and<br />
place. They may be qualified by adjectives, as<br />
in this once, every now and then. They may<br />
be the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition, as in by now,<br />
nntil then, from there, or even the object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in leave here, reach there. This is so<br />
far removed from the functions <strong>of</strong> an adverb<br />
that some grammarians say that any word<br />
that can be used in this way is a noun, in<br />
addition to being an adverb.<br />
adversary. See antagonist.<br />
adverse. See contrary.<br />
advert; avert. To advert means to refer to in the<br />
course <strong>of</strong> a speech or conversation. To averi<br />
means to turn away or aside (The auditor<br />
adverted to the deficit and the treasurer<br />
averted his eyes). Avert also means to prevent<br />
(Many superstitious practices seek to avert<br />
evil).<br />
advertising. From radio, newspaper, billboard,<br />
car card, television, from the backs <strong>of</strong> taxis,<br />
the sides <strong>of</strong> trucks, from skywriting airplanes<br />
-from every inch <strong>of</strong> space that can be painted<br />
over, through every moment <strong>of</strong> the day and<br />
night, we are besought, implored, flattered,<br />
cajoled, and threatened by advertising. It<br />
would be astonishing if the language <strong>of</strong> this<br />
clamorous din did not in some way have a<br />
lasting effect on our speech.<br />
In so far as advertising English fulfills one<br />
<strong>of</strong> its two chief functions, letting us know<br />
what has been produced, it differs little from<br />
any other factual writing. Federal, state, and<br />
local laws see to it that there is a reasonable<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> accuracy in describing a product<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered for sale. The manufacturer’s-or his<br />
sales department’s-only way around this is<br />
to give some common substance or performante<br />
an unusual name, so that the public will<br />
think that in this mcomprehensible ttung they<br />
are obtaining mysterious excellence. And so<br />
we have irium and gardol and Xg4 and cationic<br />
action which may sell the product but<br />
are, fortunately, barred by common sense from<br />
entering the language.<br />
It is in its fulfilling <strong>of</strong> its second and major<br />
function, urging us to buy, beseeching us to<br />
indulge ourselves, to gratify our whims and<br />
vanities, that advertising strains the language.<br />
For every product must not only insist that it<br />
is the best <strong>of</strong> its kind but that it is even<br />
superior to its own self <strong>of</strong> six months ago.<br />
Superlatives have long since been exhausted<br />
and intensives relaxed with overuse and the<br />
desperate copy writers have fallen back upon<br />
comparisons that do not compare: “Blitz contains<br />
32.5% more cleansing action.” “Moues<br />
guarantee 3.1416% more s&faction.” One is<br />
not told than what. It is simply assumed that<br />
the reader is an idiot or is too worn out to<br />
care.<br />
The evil effect is actually not very great,<br />
for advertising engenders its own anti-toxin,<br />
but it must contribute somewhat to the deadening<br />
<strong>of</strong> expression by exaggeration. On the other<br />
hand, it is likely to be sensitive to the idiom <strong>of</strong><br />
spoken English. For, except for one or two<br />
products, most things that advertise extensively<br />
are dependent upon the mass market and seek<br />
to appeal to it in the everyday language <strong>of</strong> the<br />
people., A schoolteacher who said “like” where<br />
the grammars recommend “as” might be reprimanded;<br />
a copy writer for a cigarette advertisement<br />
who used “as” in such a context<br />
would be fired.<br />
advice; advise; inform. Advice is an opinion,<br />
recommended or <strong>of</strong>fered as worthy to be followed.<br />
To advise is to pr<strong>of</strong>fer such an opinion.<br />
The first is a noun, the second a verb. (Zr is<br />
good advice not to advise people too freely).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> ro advise in business letters (beg<br />
to advise) meaning to inform is happily falling<br />
into disuse. To inform is to communicate certain<br />
facts, but to advise is to suggest that a<br />
course <strong>of</strong> conduct be followed. Since such a<br />
suggestion must, <strong>of</strong> necessity, imply that whatever<br />
course <strong>of</strong> conduct was being followed<br />
before the advice was received was either inadequate<br />
or wrong, the suggestion is patronizing<br />
and may be resented. See also tell.<br />
Advise may be followed by an infinitive, as<br />
in I advise him to start at once, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I advise his starting at<br />
once. It may also be followed by a that clause.<br />
But in this case, if advise means recommend,<br />
the clause verb must be a subjunctive or a<br />
subjunctive equivalent, as in I advise that he<br />
go at once. The infinitive construction is preferred.<br />
If advise is used to mean merely inform,<br />
the clause verb is in the indicative, as in<br />
I advised him I was going.<br />
advisedly; intentionally. That which is done advisedly<br />
is done deliberatelv. after due consideration.<br />
That which is ddne intentionally is<br />
done by design, with an object, a purpose, an<br />
end in view, But human nature being what it
is, the two things are far from the same. All<br />
first-degree murders are done intentionally; few<br />
are done advisedly.<br />
aegis. In Greek mythology the aegis is the shield<br />
<strong>of</strong> Zeus. There is only one aegis and in its<br />
classical sense the word does not have a plural.<br />
Anyone, therefore, who feels the need for a<br />
plural should use the English form aegises,<br />
rather than the pseudo-classical aeges.<br />
aerie is the preferred spelling for the nest <strong>of</strong> a<br />
bird <strong>of</strong> prey, though aery, eyrie, and eyry are<br />
also acceptable.<br />
aesthetics means the philosophy <strong>of</strong> the beautiful.<br />
The adjective aesthetic, which is older than the<br />
noun aesthetics, means responsive to the beautiful.<br />
Darwin wrote: Birds appear to be the<br />
most aesthetic <strong>of</strong> all animals, excepting <strong>of</strong><br />
course man. and they have nearly the same<br />
taste for the beautiful as we have. Today<br />
aesthetic may also be used to mean conforming<br />
to the principles <strong>of</strong> aesthetics, and one may<br />
hear <strong>of</strong> aesthetic wallpaper. This makes some<br />
people wish that we had the second adjective<br />
aesthetical in common use, in order to distinguish<br />
between these very different meanings<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
affect; effect. These are totally different words.<br />
Affect is always a verb (except in a special use<br />
in psychology where it denotes a feeling or<br />
emotion). It means to act on, to impress, to<br />
produce a change in, and it also means to<br />
pretend, to feign, to make a show <strong>of</strong> (Music<br />
affects some people very strongly. She affects<br />
great delicacy). See also pretend.<br />
The verb effect means to produce as a<br />
result, to bring about, to accomplish, to make<br />
happen (He etfected his escape by slugging a<br />
guard).<br />
The noun effect means result or consequence<br />
(The effect <strong>of</strong> her scolding was to make the<br />
boy angry); power to produce results (His<br />
pleas were <strong>of</strong> no effect); a mental impression<br />
produced by painting or a speech or music or<br />
some other art or skill (The decorations made<br />
quite an eflect).<br />
Efiects, the plural, means personal possessions<br />
(The dead soldier’s effects were sent to<br />
his family).<br />
The adjectives stemming from effect are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten confusing. There are four <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
Eficacious means that which produces a<br />
desired effect (The treatment was eficacious<br />
and the patient recovered). Eficient means<br />
adequate in performance, having and using the<br />
requisite knowledge and skill, competent (The<br />
diesel engine is highly eficient. He was an<br />
efficient man and soon got the job done).<br />
Effectual means adequate, capable <strong>of</strong> producing<br />
the desired effect (The hydrogen bomb is an<br />
effectual weapon only against a few very<br />
large cities). Ineffectual, applied to persons,<br />
has come to mean vaguely and generally incompetent<br />
and useless. Effective means producing<br />
an intended result (The tax was effective<br />
in limiting incomes) or it can mean<br />
actuallv in effect (Prohibition became effective<br />
in 1919).<br />
19 afraid<br />
affection; affectation. In its most general sense,<br />
uflection means settled good will, love, warm<br />
attachment (His affection for his children was<br />
touching to see). Affectation means the striving<br />
for the appearance <strong>of</strong> some quality or ability<br />
not actually possessed, pretense, artificiality <strong>of</strong><br />
manner or conduct, an attempt to attract attention<br />
by an assumed manner, and so on.<br />
(An affectation <strong>of</strong> manner can easily alienate<br />
aflection).<br />
Formerly the words were interchangeable.<br />
Sheridan in The School for Scandal sueaks <strong>of</strong><br />
a gross affection <strong>of</strong> good. manners and Gibbon<br />
refers, with obvious approbation, to a lady’s<br />
affectation <strong>of</strong> the manners, the language, and<br />
the literature <strong>of</strong> France.<br />
affiliate; affiliation. To aflliate is to assume the<br />
relation <strong>of</strong> a child to a parent. This meaning<br />
is retained in law where the term means to<br />
affix the paternity <strong>of</strong> a child (The mother<br />
a#iliated the child upon Richard Roe). Branch<br />
banks are affiliated witb the parent bank and<br />
in England (where the word is restricted<br />
almost exclusively to this meaning) colleges<br />
are affiliated with the university.<br />
In America the term is used loosely for<br />
joining, accepting membership in, or even for<br />
merely associating or being friendly with (He<br />
afhliated with the Baptist Church. Our nearest<br />
neighbors live several miles away, and we don’t<br />
afiliate with them much). There is an element<br />
<strong>of</strong> pompousness in these uses, however, and<br />
unless a closer relationship than just joining or<br />
associating with is meant, it is better to avoid<br />
afiliate.<br />
affinity. Since nfinity means an attraction to or<br />
a natural liking for, the use <strong>of</strong> to or for with<br />
it is redundant. Affinity is with a thing, between<br />
two things or persons.<br />
affirm. See declare.<br />
affix. An afix. in grammar, is any meaningful element<br />
(prefix, infix, suffix) added to a stem or<br />
base, as -ed is added to kill to make killed or<br />
intra- is prefixed to mural to make intramural.<br />
afflatus. The plural is aflatuses or afflatus, not<br />
aflati.<br />
afflict. See inflict.<br />
affluent. See rich.<br />
afford may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I can’t af7ord to go every night, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I can’t afford going every<br />
night. The infinitive is generally preferred.<br />
a fortiori is not the same as a priori. A priori<br />
is arguing from cause to effect, from a<br />
general law to a particular instance (its<br />
opposite, a posteriori, is arguing back from<br />
effects to causes). A fortiori is stating a fact<br />
which must be even more obviously true if one<br />
already accepted is true. Thus if it is accepted<br />
that so-and-so drank a gallon <strong>of</strong> beer, it is an<br />
a fortiori fact that he must have drunk two<br />
quarts. See also a priori.<br />
afraid. This adjective cannot be used immediately<br />
before a noun. We may say the man wus afraid<br />
but not the afraid man.<br />
Afraid may be followed by a clause, as in<br />
he is afraid he will die, or by an infinitive, as
African 20<br />
in he is afraid to die. These two constructions<br />
do not mean exactly the same thing. Afraid<br />
may also be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb with the preposition <strong>of</strong>, as in he is afraid<br />
<strong>of</strong> dying. This construction may mean just what<br />
the clause means, or just what the infinitive<br />
means.<br />
African. In England and America an African is<br />
a Negro, a member <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the black races<br />
inhabiting Africa. An Afrikaner, however, in<br />
Afrikaans, the language <strong>of</strong> the Afrikaners, is<br />
a white man <strong>of</strong> Boer descent living in South<br />
Africa. The English form <strong>of</strong> Afrikaner is<br />
Afrikander. A South African, in either English<br />
or Afrikaans, is a white citizen <strong>of</strong> any European<br />
descent who claims South Africa as his<br />
homeland.<br />
Native is the <strong>of</strong>ficial term for Negro in the<br />
Union <strong>of</strong> South Africa. Most natives call themselves<br />
natives, but the educated among them<br />
dislike the term and call themselves Africans.<br />
This is in accord with English and American<br />
usage, but it conflicts with Afrikaans in which<br />
Afrikaner means a white, not a black. In<br />
English as used in South Africa no white man<br />
is a native (even though native) and no black<br />
man is a South African (even though he and<br />
his ancestors have lived in South Africa for<br />
many generations). See also Caucasian, European,<br />
mulatto, Negro.<br />
after. This word may be used as a simple adverb,<br />
as in fill came tumbling after; as a preposition<br />
with an object, as in after you, my dear; or as<br />
a conjunction introducing a clause, as in after<br />
yo~c leave. It is also well established as an<br />
adjective, as in the after life, in after years.<br />
The adjective has a superlative form aftermost,<br />
which can also be used as a noun.<br />
The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> after 1s behind or<br />
later. This easily becomes following, as in they<br />
throng after him. From the sense <strong>of</strong> following,<br />
after has come to show the aim or object <strong>of</strong><br />
certain actions, as in look after the cats and<br />
strive after sl/ccess. This use <strong>of</strong> after is not<br />
very widespread; in many cases for is preferred.<br />
When after is used as a conjunction, the<br />
subordinate verb (in the after clause) may be<br />
in the simple present tense or the simple past<br />
tense instead <strong>of</strong> in the present perfect or past<br />
perfect tense. That is, we may say Z will tell<br />
them after you leave instead <strong>of</strong> after you have<br />
left, and I told them after you left instead <strong>of</strong><br />
after yolc had left. In Ireland a similar construction<br />
is sometimes heard in the principal verb in<br />
a sentence, as in Z am after saying instead <strong>of</strong><br />
Z have been saying, but this is not standard English<br />
in either the United States or Great Britain.<br />
aftermath. An aftermath was a second mowing<br />
<strong>of</strong> a crop <strong>of</strong> grass from the same land in the<br />
same season (The aftermath seldom or never<br />
equals the first herbage). Except as a deliberate<br />
archaism this literal use is now never heard.<br />
The word is now used solely in a figurative<br />
sense, meaning results, and usually unpleasant<br />
results <strong>of</strong> some disastrous occurrence (the<br />
aftermath <strong>of</strong> war, the aftermath <strong>of</strong> the storm).<br />
To use it to mean merely anything that follows<br />
is to use it loosely (as in The ancient football<br />
rivalry between Washington State College and<br />
the University <strong>of</strong> Zdaho includes a timehonored<br />
custom. As an aftermath <strong>of</strong> each game<br />
students from the losing school must walk to<br />
the winning campus for appropriate ceremonies).<br />
This whole quotation, by the way,<br />
illustrates the pretentiousness and exaggeration<br />
so common in sports writing, in which aftermath<br />
is a favorite word. Since one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
colleges mentioned was founded in 1889 and<br />
the other in 1890, “ancient” and “timehonored”<br />
are a little strained.<br />
Any careful use <strong>of</strong> aftermath will at least<br />
suggest its literal meaning. Pestilence may<br />
properly be called the aftermath <strong>of</strong> war if it<br />
is caused by the dislocation during war <strong>of</strong><br />
peacetime protections against disease, because<br />
it is a second, bitter harvest. The San Francisco<br />
fire was an aftermath <strong>of</strong> the earthquake.<br />
after my own heart. The expression He is a man<br />
after my own heart is a clich6. The careful<br />
writer will avoid it. After here means like or<br />
after the nature <strong>of</strong>. It is a biblical echo (who<br />
walk not after the flesh, but after the spirit)<br />
and should not be used except when its exact<br />
meaning is fully understood.<br />
afterward; afterwards. Both forms are used in the<br />
United States, where afterward is generally<br />
preferred. Afterwards is the only form used in<br />
England.<br />
again; against. At one time these words were<br />
used interchangeably but they now have different<br />
meanings and different uses. Again now<br />
means once more and does not have an object,<br />
as in he ran again. Against means opposed to<br />
and always has an object, as in he ran against<br />
a wall.<br />
Again usually, but not necessarily, follows<br />
its verb, as in he ran again. When it precedes<br />
the verb it may mean “on the other hand” or<br />
“speaking again,” as in he fell, but then again<br />
he ran.<br />
agate, meaning a printing type (5% point) <strong>of</strong> a<br />
size between pearl and nonpareil, is the American<br />
term for what in England is called ruby.<br />
agendum. An agendum is something to be done.<br />
The word has two plural forms, agendums and<br />
agenda. Agenda may also be used to mean a<br />
list <strong>of</strong> agendums and it is then treated as a<br />
singular, as in the agenda is being prepared.<br />
In this sense agenda has its own plural<br />
agendas, meaning several such lists, as in the<br />
agendas were compared.<br />
agent. In various specialized uses the word agent<br />
has different meanings in America and<br />
England. The American ticket agent is in<br />
England a booking clerk. The English newsagent<br />
is in America a newsdealer.<br />
In the early days <strong>of</strong> the West a road agent<br />
was a highwayman. It was <strong>of</strong>ten shortened to<br />
agent. The designation was probably originally<br />
intended to be humorous and sometimes<br />
appeared within quotation marks.<br />
aggravate; annoy; irritate: exasperate; provoke. To<br />
aggravate means to make heavier. It can be<br />
used properIy only <strong>of</strong> the augmentation or in-
tensification <strong>of</strong> some evil, some sorrow, grievance,<br />
or oBense (The failure <strong>of</strong> his business<br />
aggravated Mr. Domhey’s grief for the death<br />
<strong>of</strong> his son). Its common use to mean annoy<br />
(Don’t aggravate me, child) and still more<br />
common adjectival use (He’s such an aggrc;Nvatiflg<br />
man) are colloquialisms (“feminine or<br />
childish,” Fowler sternly calls them) not used<br />
in formal speech or writing.<br />
Annoy is simply the French word ennui<br />
which now means boredom and that is all<br />
annoy meant at first, though it now expresses<br />
a somewhat stronger feeling <strong>of</strong> discomfort.<br />
To irritate is to fret, to chafe, to gall, to<br />
excite to impatience or to feelings <strong>of</strong> anger,<br />
though not <strong>of</strong> any great depth or <strong>of</strong> any great<br />
duration. We speak <strong>of</strong> a wound as being irritated<br />
when through the chafing or rubbing <strong>of</strong><br />
a coarse bandage it has been superficially<br />
inflamed.<br />
Exasperate is a stronger word than irritate<br />
(though it is sometimes weakened to a mere<br />
synonym for annoy). The Latin root word<br />
asper means rough and harsh. A man is exasperated<br />
when he has been annoyed or irritated<br />
to the point where his self-control is threatened<br />
or lost. An exasperated man is a dangerous man.<br />
To provoke is to stir up (literally, to call<br />
forth) sudden and strong feelings <strong>of</strong> anger<br />
or resentment, usually by some unwarrantable<br />
act or wanton annoyance (The rage which<br />
Oswald’s impertinence provoked in Lear,<br />
already annoyed by the delay <strong>of</strong> his dinner,<br />
was aggravated to fury by Goneril’s insole.nce<br />
und the exasperated man rushed wildly from<br />
the palace).<br />
gnostic; atheist; heathen; infidel; pagan. The word<br />
agnostic was coined in 1869 by Thomas Henry<br />
Huxley to describe one who, like himself, :felt<br />
that the ultimate nature <strong>of</strong> things, including<br />
the existence <strong>of</strong> a God, is unknown and<br />
probably unknowable.<br />
An atheist is one who denies the existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> God or <strong>of</strong> gods (Socrates was accused <strong>of</strong><br />
atheism because he did not believe in Zeus).<br />
An infidel is an unbeliever. The word was<br />
rather specialized among Christians in former<br />
times to apply to Mohammedans and among<br />
Mohammedans to Jews and Christians. In<br />
recent years there has been a tendency in<br />
America to give the word a wider significance<br />
and have it apply to agnostics and atheists.<br />
Indeed many Americans if they felt that a<br />
Mohammedan was a devout believer in his own<br />
religion would be reluctant to call him an<br />
infidel.<br />
The unconverted <strong>of</strong> other religions were<br />
called heathens or pagans, both words meaning<br />
originally country dwellers, i.e., rustic, backward<br />
folk who clung to their own religion after<br />
Christianity had been accepted in the cities.<br />
Both words, in current usage, tend to be used<br />
in slightly comic contexts. Heathen is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used jestingly <strong>of</strong> one who shows gross ignorance<br />
<strong>of</strong> some tenet <strong>of</strong> his pr<strong>of</strong>essed faith.<br />
Pagan is <strong>of</strong>ten used to suggest a gay abandon<br />
and frank sensuality, such as is imagined at<br />
2!I<br />
agreement<br />
least to have been enjoyed before the dominance<br />
<strong>of</strong> Christian ethics.<br />
agony; agonize. Agony is one <strong>of</strong> the strongest<br />
words in English. It means extreme, and<br />
generally prolonged, pain and suffering. And<br />
to agonize means to writhe with such pain<br />
(The agony <strong>of</strong> the injured man was dreadful<br />
to see. He agonized for months over the<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> his son’s execution). To use it-as<br />
it is so <strong>of</strong>ten used-as a term for mere discomfort<br />
(I was in agony in those new shoes)<br />
doesn’t even convey, as it is probably meant<br />
to, a feeling <strong>of</strong> one’s suffering because the<br />
listener, hearing so violent a word and knowing<br />
from the speaker’s appearance <strong>of</strong> health<br />
that it can’t be justified, at once discounts it.<br />
The speaker is usually aware <strong>of</strong> this and in<br />
his turn seeks to bolster the word with extreme<br />
emphasis, usually prolonging the sound <strong>of</strong> the<br />
initial a into a wail. But it doesn’t do much<br />
good. My feet hurt would most likely be more<br />
effective.<br />
agree may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
he agreed to go, or by a clause, as in he agreed<br />
that he would go. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
is used we must say agree on, as in he agreed<br />
on going.<br />
agreement: pronouns. See pronouns.<br />
agreement: verbs. A verb is said to “agree with<br />
its subject in number and person.” Number<br />
means the distinction between singular and<br />
pltiral. Person means the distinction between<br />
the speaker (called the first person), the person<br />
spoken to (called the second person), and the<br />
person or thing spoken about (called the third<br />
person). English verbs do not show number<br />
or person in the past tense. We say I spoke,<br />
he spoke, they spoke. In the present tense the<br />
first and second person in the singular and all<br />
three persons in the plural have the same form.<br />
We say I. we, you, and they speak. But the<br />
third person singular has a distinctive final s,<br />
as in he speaks. There are a few defective<br />
verbs, such as may, can, might, which do not<br />
show number or person in any tense. The verb<br />
to be is the only other exception to what has<br />
just been said. In the past tense it has two<br />
forms, was and were. In the present tense it<br />
has a distinctive first person singular (am) as<br />
well as a third person singular (is) and a<br />
general plural form (are). (For archaic forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb, see thee; thou.) In American<br />
English, there is no difference in number or<br />
person in the future tense. (In Great Britain<br />
shall and will are used differently in different<br />
persons. See shall; will.)<br />
NUMBER<br />
Since we can get along with only one form<br />
in the past tense, it is obvious that we do not<br />
need two forms in the present, but we have two<br />
forms and, whether we want to or not, we must<br />
decide whether a present tense verb is to be<br />
singular or plural. We cannot avoid committing<br />
ourselves one way or the other.<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> an English verb is determined<br />
by the actual meaning <strong>of</strong> the subject<br />
or by the grammatical form <strong>of</strong> the subject
agreement 22<br />
element standing closest to the verb. In the<br />
King James Bible there is a sentence, light and<br />
understanding and excellent wisdom is found in<br />
thee. Here the singular form is may have been<br />
used because the writer felt that one thing had<br />
been mentioned three times rather than three<br />
separate things, or because the word wisdom<br />
is singular. In a recent translation <strong>of</strong> the Bible<br />
this sentence reads: light and understanding<br />
and excellent wisdom are found in thee. Here<br />
the plural form are following the singular<br />
form wisdom abruptly reminds us that more<br />
than one thing is being talked about. The<br />
reader who has not realized this must go back<br />
and ponder over the meaning <strong>of</strong> the preceding<br />
words.<br />
Usually, as in the last example, a compound<br />
subject that involves the word and is plural.<br />
This is always the case when two distinct<br />
things are meant even though only one word<br />
is used, and that a singular, as in the red and<br />
the white rose are both beautiful. When obviously<br />
only one thing is meant, as in the sum<br />
and substance is, a plural verb is ridiculous.<br />
Between these extremes is a middle ground<br />
where the speaker can decide which form he<br />
wants to use, as in the tumult and the shouting<br />
dies.<br />
A compound subject involving or is usually<br />
treated as singular if the separate elements are<br />
singular and the statement is affirmative, as in<br />
either Dorothy or Andy is at home. But if the<br />
second element is plural, the verb too will be<br />
plural, as in one or two friends are coming.<br />
Constructions in which the first element is<br />
plural and the second singular are avoided. In<br />
a negative statement, a compound subject involving<br />
or or nor is usually treated as plural,<br />
as in neither Dorothy nor Andy are at home.<br />
(Some grammarians object to this and claim<br />
that a singular verb is required in this construction<br />
but neither current usage nor literary<br />
tradition support their claim.)<br />
A singular subject followed by a parenthetical<br />
phrase may be treated as a singular, as in<br />
the island <strong>of</strong> Australia together with Tasmania<br />
constitutes the commonwealth <strong>of</strong> Australia, or<br />
as a plural, as in the sherifl with all his men<br />
were at the door. If an affirmative and a negative<br />
idea are combined, the verb agrees with the<br />
affirmative, as in justice, not better jobs, is our<br />
goal.<br />
Measures or quantity words that are grammaticaIly<br />
singular may be treated as singulars<br />
or as plurals, depending on whether the quantity<br />
spoken about is thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit or as<br />
a collection <strong>of</strong> separate items, as in one half<br />
<strong>of</strong> the country is desert and one half <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population are illiterate. A plural verb is<br />
usually preferred in speaking about human<br />
beings. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind that are grammatically<br />
plural may also be treated as singulars<br />
when what is mentioned is thought <strong>of</strong> as a<br />
unit, as in ten days is a long time and two<br />
paces <strong>of</strong> the vilest earth is room enough.<br />
Sometimes a subject that would have a<br />
singular verb if it and the verb were standing<br />
together is given a plural verb because a plural<br />
word is standing between them. For example,<br />
a singular verb is used in no one was listening<br />
and there is a pile <strong>of</strong> books on the table. But<br />
the verb is made plural in not one <strong>of</strong> them<br />
were listening and a pile <strong>of</strong> books were on the<br />
table. Although some people protest, there is<br />
nothing objectionable about this use <strong>of</strong> a plural<br />
verb. A statement <strong>of</strong> this kind is actually about<br />
a group <strong>of</strong> people or things, which may be considered<br />
as a singular or as a plural. In cases <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind we usually settle for the form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word that is standing closest to the verb.<br />
Titles <strong>of</strong> books which have a plural form,<br />
such as Canterbury Tales and Dickenf American<br />
Notes, may be treated as singular or as<br />
plural.<br />
Even when the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb is a single<br />
word, the number <strong>of</strong> the verb will depend<br />
upon the meaning rather than the form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
subject. Singular nouns are sometimes used in<br />
a plural sense and some nouns which have a<br />
plural form are nevertheless singular in meaning.<br />
(For special problems <strong>of</strong> this kind, see<br />
adjectives as nouns, generic nouns, group<br />
names, mass nouns, plural nouns, singular<br />
nouns, and the individual words.)<br />
An interrogative pronoun is usually treated<br />
as a singular. That is, we may say who is<br />
coming? and what is in the box? regardless <strong>of</strong><br />
how many people or things are to be expected.<br />
Who and which may also be followed by a<br />
plural verb. We may say who are coming? and<br />
which are finished? But a great many people<br />
dislike this construction and feel obliged to<br />
insert a plural word, as in who all are coming?,<br />
which ones are finished?. A relative pronoun is<br />
singular or plural depending upon its antecedent.<br />
That is, we say the man who was here<br />
and the men who were here.<br />
PERSON<br />
AI1 nouns and almost all pronouns are third<br />
person and their problems are taken care <strong>of</strong><br />
under questions <strong>of</strong> number. The only exceptions<br />
are the personal pronouns I, me, we, us, you,<br />
and interrogatives or relatives representing one<br />
<strong>of</strong> these. The words me and us cannot be used<br />
as the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb. The word we is plural<br />
and the word you is always treated as a plural.<br />
In American English no verb shows person in<br />
the plural. This means that questions <strong>of</strong> person<br />
are reduced to the question <strong>of</strong> what form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb should be used with I or a word standing<br />
for I. In all verbs except to be, I has the form<br />
that is used in the plural. We say I have, they<br />
have, Z do, they do. In the verb to be, Z has the<br />
present tense form am and the past tense form<br />
was.<br />
As a rule, the verb following an interrogative<br />
pronoun is in the third person. But when<br />
an interrogative who or what is followed by a<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be and a persona1 pronoun,<br />
the interrogative is felt to be the cornplement<br />
rather than the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
and the form <strong>of</strong> the verb is determined by the
personal pronoun, as in who am I?, who is he?,<br />
who are you?. The interrogative which ma:y be<br />
used in the same way. That is, we might say<br />
which are you? or which am I?, meaning to<br />
which group do you belong or do I belong?<br />
But which may also be felt as the subject <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb and treated as a third person singular.<br />
That is, in looking at a picture <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong><br />
people, we might say which is you?<br />
Theoretically, the relative pronouns who,<br />
which, and that require the form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
that would be used with the antecedent. That<br />
is, one should say it is silly to ask me who<br />
know nothing about it and it is silly to ask<br />
you who know nothing about it because one<br />
would say Z know, you know. In practice, a<br />
great many people treat the relatives who,<br />
which, and that as third person pronouns<br />
which may be singular or plural but which<br />
do not carry over any difference in person.<br />
That is, many people would say it is silly to<br />
ask me who knows nothing about it. This is<br />
not literary English. But very few people hear<br />
it as a grammatical mistake and some feel<br />
uncomfortable when the technically correct<br />
literary form is used.<br />
An explanatory noun following Z or you does<br />
not affect the person <strong>of</strong> the verb. That is, we<br />
say I, your teacher, am aware and ~014, my<br />
teacher, are aware, and not is aware.<br />
When a verb has both an afhrmative and a<br />
negative subject, it follows the person <strong>of</strong> the<br />
affirmative, as in Z, not you, am to blame and<br />
you, not I, are to blame. Theoretically, with any<br />
other kind <strong>of</strong> compound subject the person <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb is determined by the word standing<br />
nearest it, as in death and I am found eternal<br />
and neither he nor Z am timid. In practice, most<br />
people treat these compound subjects as plural<br />
wherever possible. They may be treated as plural<br />
when the compound is made with and, as in<br />
death and Z are found eternal, or is negative,<br />
as in neither he nor Z are timid.<br />
A compound subject involving either - - or<br />
is much harder to handle. According to the<br />
rules, the last pronoun is the decisive one and<br />
we should say either he or I am responsible<br />
and either you or I am responsible. This<br />
“correct” form is seldom heard. Some people<br />
would use is and some people would use are<br />
in each <strong>of</strong> these constructions. But most people<br />
would avoid the question by saying either he<br />
is responsible or I am. One grammarian, cornmenting<br />
on this, says, “most people dodge the<br />
necessity <strong>of</strong> making a choice between the two<br />
persons as though it were an educational test<br />
which they dreaded to meet.” But it might be<br />
that we dodge it because there is no satisfactory<br />
answer. Problems <strong>of</strong> persons are so<br />
rare in English that any construction which<br />
calls attention to them seems unnatural.<br />
agree to disagree. The value <strong>of</strong> antithesis is that<br />
it rho& us into attention. Pope’s description<br />
<strong>of</strong> a huge, pretentious, but basically commonplace<br />
country mansion as a heap <strong>of</strong> liftleneq<br />
or his statement that Man ia the glory, jest, and<br />
23 airplane<br />
riddle <strong>of</strong> tlze world fix themselves in our minds<br />
by the striking contrast <strong>of</strong> the opposing ideas<br />
that he brings together. But when repetition<br />
has removed the element <strong>of</strong> surprise, indispensable<br />
to the shock, antithesis is likely to be<br />
annoying, because it suggests that the speaker<br />
thinks he can be clever without making any<br />
effort <strong>of</strong> his own. One can q/tote a brilliant<br />
antithesis, since the acknowledgment removes<br />
any suggestion that one is claiming the wit as<br />
one’s own, but one must always bear in mind<br />
that a little quoting goes a long way.<br />
Agree to disagree is a cliche, clever when<br />
first thought <strong>of</strong> but long since worn out, along<br />
with the patience <strong>of</strong> those who must hear it.<br />
aid. See help.<br />
ailment. See sickness.<br />
aim. When aim is used in a physical sense, the<br />
place is introduced by at, as in aim the gun at<br />
the barn door. In the United States, when aim<br />
is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> intend it is followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in I aim to be friendly.<br />
When used in this sense in Great Britain, it is<br />
followed by a? and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> the verb,<br />
as in Z aim at being friendly.<br />
ain’t. This word may mean am not, is n<strong>of</strong>, are<br />
not, have not, or has not. It is heard in I ain’t<br />
ready, that ain’t true, they ain’t here, Z ain’t<br />
got it, he ain’t got it, and so on. It is not considered<br />
standard in any <strong>of</strong> these cases, with the<br />
possible exception <strong>of</strong> am not used in a question,<br />
that is, ain’t I?<br />
In the United States most people consider<br />
ain’t I? in a class with he ain’t and the other<br />
unacceptable forms. But a few bold spirits<br />
insist on using it because the language needs<br />
an expression <strong>of</strong> this sort. Am I not? is much<br />
too stiff for ordinary conversation and amn’f<br />
I? is practically impossible to say. In England<br />
aren’t I? is considered acceptable spoken<br />
English. But in England the r in aren’t is not<br />
pronounced. What is actually said is more like<br />
aunt I? The difference between the English<br />
aren’t I? and the American ain’t I? is simply<br />
the difference that we have in the two pronunciations<br />
<strong>of</strong> tomato. However, some Americans<br />
who would not say ain’t I? feel that aren’t<br />
I?, pronounced with its full American r, is<br />
very respectable. Others consider it affected<br />
or “kittenish.”<br />
air line. The phrase air line, which today in<br />
American usage means a company furnishing<br />
air transport (usually in scheduled flights),<br />
meant up until fifty years ago what we now<br />
call a bee line, i.e., a straight line, as through<br />
the air (Take any common map . . . and<br />
rule an air line across it from Baltimore to<br />
St. Louis). Several railroads incorporated the<br />
term into their names to remind the public <strong>of</strong><br />
the economical directness <strong>of</strong> their routes. Of<br />
these the best known now is the Seaboard<br />
Air Line.<br />
ah-plane is now the universal American spelling<br />
and pronunciation. The English still use aeroplane,<br />
though airplane is becoming increasingly<br />
common among them.
airship 2:4<br />
airship, when used at all, designates what is now<br />
more generally called a dirigible, a lighterthan-air<br />
craft which, in contradistinction to a<br />
free-floating balloon, may be navigated.<br />
aisle. The English, for the most part, restrict aisle<br />
to the lateral division <strong>of</strong> a church separated<br />
from the nave by piers or columns or to the<br />
passageway between the seats in a church. In<br />
America both <strong>of</strong> these meanings are known<br />
and used, but the word is extended to denote<br />
any kind <strong>of</strong> passageway between seats, as in<br />
theaters and public conveyances. Two on rhe<br />
aisle, which would be incomprehensible to the<br />
English, or suggest a marooned couple, means<br />
to an American two especially desirable seats<br />
in a theater.<br />
alas, poor Yorick! It is sad that “a fellow <strong>of</strong><br />
infinite jest, <strong>of</strong> most excellent fancy” should<br />
be known to us only through such a threadbare<br />
quotation. Alas, indeed, poor Yorick!<br />
There is another line from Hamlet that should<br />
always be uttered after this one: “What, has<br />
this thing appear’d again tonight?” Or, if one<br />
perceives that it is about to be spoken, appeal<br />
to the speaker’s better nature: “Refrain tonight,<br />
and that shall lend a kind <strong>of</strong> easiness to the<br />
next abstinence.” And if he does forbear: “For<br />
this relief, much thanks.”<br />
albino. The plural is albinos, not albinoes. A<br />
female albino used to be called an albiness,<br />
but the word has fallen into disuse. Sex distinctions<br />
have nothing to do with albinism.<br />
albumen; albumin. Albumen is the white <strong>of</strong> an<br />
egg. Albumin is a biochemical term for any<br />
<strong>of</strong> a class <strong>of</strong> water-soluble proteins. The chemical<br />
term is sometimes spelled albumen, but the<br />
white <strong>of</strong> an egg is never spelled albumin.<br />
alcoholic. See drunkard.<br />
alga. The plural is algae.<br />
alias means another. The legal term alias dictus,<br />
<strong>of</strong> which the common term is an abbreviation,<br />
means called at another time or place. Thus<br />
Smith alias Jones indicates that a man who<br />
now calls himself Smith had at some other<br />
time or place called himself or had been called<br />
Jones.<br />
alibi in law means the defense <strong>of</strong> having been<br />
somewhere else when a crime <strong>of</strong> which one<br />
stands accused was committed (The fact f/rat<br />
he was speaking before a large audience in<br />
Boston, three hundred miles away from the<br />
scene <strong>of</strong> the crime, at the time the murder<br />
was committed proved a perfect alibi). By a<br />
natural extension it has come to be used in<br />
common speech as a synonym for excuse and,<br />
as a verb, to <strong>of</strong>fer an excuse. Ring Lardner’s<br />
Alibi Ike was a baseball player who always<br />
had a self-exculpating excuse for anything<br />
wrong that he did. When Life referred to a<br />
certain prizefighter (July 26, 1954) as un<br />
inveterate alibier, it meant that he could always<br />
explain away his failures. When, however,<br />
George Orwell (in “England Your England”)<br />
says that the wealthy ship-owner or cottonmiller<br />
set up for himself an alibi as a country<br />
Rentleman, he may mean that the businessman<br />
wished to prove that he could not have been<br />
responsible for the crimes <strong>of</strong> his business, since<br />
he was tending his acres, an innocent bucolic,<br />
at the time they were committed. Or he may<br />
have meant alias, that is that the ship-owner<br />
or cotton operative wished to go under the<br />
then more respectable name <strong>of</strong> a country<br />
gentleman.<br />
Cynicism and the common man’s distrust <strong>of</strong><br />
the law have tinged alibi with a suggestion <strong>of</strong><br />
improbability and even <strong>of</strong> dishonesty. Purists<br />
insist that it should be restricted to its legal<br />
meaning, and those who wish to be formally<br />
correct will so restrict it. In so doing, however,<br />
they will lose the connotation <strong>of</strong> cunning and<br />
dishonesty which distinguishes it from excrdse.<br />
alight. The past tense is alighted or alit. The<br />
participle is also alighted or alit. Alighted is<br />
the preferred form for the past tense and the<br />
participle. Alit is archaic.<br />
Alight means to come down deliberately, or<br />
with dignity, and we may say he alighted from<br />
the plane. Things which are not under their<br />
own control, such as stones and snow flakes,<br />
are said to light, and not to alight, and we<br />
therefore say he lighted (or lit) on his head.<br />
Alight was once also used in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
kindle. This usage has completely disappeared<br />
except for the adjective alight, as in my candle<br />
is alight.<br />
alike. Thirty or forty years ago some textbooks<br />
on English claimed that alike could not be<br />
used to mean similarly, as in he treats everyone<br />
alike. There is no justification for this<br />
cIaim. Alike has been used in this way at Ieast<br />
as long as we have had printed books.<br />
alit. See alight.<br />
alJ may be used with a singular noun, as in all<br />
flesh is mortal, or with a plural noun, as in<br />
all men are brothers. When used with a singular,<br />
all means “the whole <strong>of</strong> it.” With a plural,<br />
all was originally used collectively to mean the<br />
entire number taken as a whole or unit, as in<br />
all the angles in a triangle are equal to 180<br />
degrees. Later, it was also used distributively<br />
to mean every one <strong>of</strong> the individuals referred<br />
to, as in all the angles in a triangle are less<br />
than 180 degrees. Today, all with a plural noun<br />
usually means “every” but it may-also mean<br />
“the total.” Conceivably, _ this could create a<br />
misunderstanding in some situations.<br />
All is primarily an adjective and qualifies a<br />
noun, as in all things to all men. It usually<br />
precedes its noun, as in all children believe,<br />
but may also follow it, as in children all<br />
believe. When it precedes the noun it also<br />
precedes all other qualifiers, as in all these dear<br />
little children.<br />
All is sometimes used as a noun, as in one<br />
who gave all. It may be used after an objective<br />
pronoun, as in us all, which is grammatically<br />
comparable to us men; and either before or<br />
after a subjective pronoun. Formerly it frequently<br />
came before a subjective pronoun, as<br />
in all we like sheep have gone astray. This<br />
order is still acceptable, but in current English
the all is more <strong>of</strong>ten placed second, as in we<br />
all have strayed. When used with the pronoun<br />
it, cdl must be placed second, as in it all came<br />
to nothing. We can no longer say all it. In<br />
literary English all is not used with what, as<br />
in what all did he say? This is an Americanism.<br />
It is acceptable spoken English in the United<br />
States but does not <strong>of</strong>ten appear in print.<br />
The phrase all <strong>of</strong>, as in all <strong>of</strong> us, is a relatively<br />
new construction and fifty years ago was<br />
considered rare except with pronouns. It is<br />
formed on the pattern <strong>of</strong> none <strong>of</strong>, some <strong>of</strong>,<br />
any <strong>of</strong>, where <strong>of</strong> means belonging to or lpart<br />
<strong>of</strong>. Some grammarians feel that it is illogical<br />
to treat the whole as a part, but it is hard to<br />
see why this is any more illogical than treating<br />
none as a part. In any case, the grammatical<br />
form is now well established and is freely used<br />
with nouns as well as pronouns, as in ulr! <strong>of</strong><br />
the people.<br />
In literary English the word all does not<br />
form a genitive. We do not say ulPs opinion<br />
but the opinion <strong>of</strong> all or everybody’s opinion.<br />
This is also true when all is combined with a<br />
pronoun. You all’s is heard in the South and<br />
is respectable English in some areas, But it is<br />
condemned by many Southerners who are<br />
nevertheless proud to say you all. We all’s, as<br />
in we all’s house, is not standard anywhere.<br />
All never qualifies a possessive pronoun. In<br />
it was all our fault, the all attaches itself to it;<br />
in all our faults, it attaches to faults. If what<br />
is meant is it was the fault <strong>of</strong> us all, the idea<br />
cannot be expressed by a genitive or a possessive<br />
pronoun.<br />
All may be used as an adverb (qualifying<br />
words that are not nouns) whenever the word<br />
entirely could be substituted, as in His Royal<br />
Highness was all smiles and his consort all<br />
diamonds: the heart, ull exhausted by doubt;<br />
and the familiar phrases all powerful, all too<br />
soon. In they were all dressed up, the meaning<br />
is not “entirely” but “very much.” Some grammarians<br />
object to this -use <strong>of</strong> all but-it is<br />
accepted spoken English in the United States<br />
today. All but means “everything short <strong>of</strong>”<br />
and can be used to mean “almost,” as in the<br />
all but overpowering urge.<br />
All the before a comparative form, as in<br />
they laughed all the louder and she was all the<br />
better for it, is standard English whenever the<br />
comparative itself is justified, as in they<br />
laughed louder, she was better. This is not the<br />
case with that’s all the further it goes and is<br />
that all the later it is? Forms like these were<br />
used in English literature until about 1600, and<br />
they can still be heard in the speech <strong>of</strong> educated<br />
Americans. But they are now considered<br />
nonstandard by most grammarians and do not<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten appear in print. In literary English one<br />
says that’s us far as it goes and isn’t it czny<br />
later than that?<br />
Not all is and all is not usually mean exactly<br />
the same thing. Some grammarians claim that<br />
the last part <strong>of</strong> the line What though the field<br />
be lost? All z’s not lost! is a slovenly construc-<br />
2 allege<br />
tion which, in strict logic, means that none is<br />
lost. By the same reasoning, not all the water<br />
in the rough rude sea can wash the balm from<br />
an anointed king, is held to mean, again speaking<br />
strictly, merely that some cannot. There<br />
is no foundation at all for this distinction.<br />
In both cases, regardless <strong>of</strong> where it appears,<br />
not negatives the entire sentence. In the strictest<br />
logic, both sentences mean: it is not true<br />
that all is lost or that all the water can wash<br />
and so on. The sentences as they stand are<br />
not ambiguous. If they had been, the critic<br />
could not have been so sure that they did<br />
not say exactly what they meant. Distinctions<br />
such as this, between all is not and not all is,<br />
appeal to a fictitious logic and seem to have<br />
been invented for the purpose <strong>of</strong> proving other<br />
people in the wrong. They are not good for<br />
much else. Certainly no one should be encouraged<br />
to think that all is not lost is one<br />
way <strong>of</strong> saying nothing is lost. See also at all<br />
and still and all.<br />
alI right. The form alright sometimes appears in<br />
print. It is as justifiable, on theoretical grounds,<br />
as already and would allow us to make the<br />
distinction between the unswers are ulright<br />
(satisfactory) and the answers are all right<br />
(every one <strong>of</strong> them). But at present most<br />
people object to the form ulright and prefer<br />
to see it written as two words.<br />
all things considered. This cautious introduction<br />
is better replaced with some specific suggestion<br />
or objection.<br />
all things to all men. All men seek in complaisance<br />
to adapt their words and <strong>of</strong>ten their<br />
actions and opinions to suit those whose favor<br />
or friendship they desire. In ourselves this is<br />
tact or adaptability. In others it is servility,<br />
hypocrisy, or downright villainy. The cliche<br />
all things to all men which commonly describes<br />
this tendency has in its ordinary use a derogatory<br />
tinge, though St. Paul, from whose<br />
writings it is taken (I Corinthians, 9:22),<br />
makes it a boast.<br />
all to the good. Originally spoken <strong>of</strong> something<br />
not good in itself but which conduced to a<br />
whole that was good, all to the good is now<br />
a hackneyed phrase that has lost all meaning<br />
except as an expression <strong>of</strong> approval at the<br />
accretion <strong>of</strong> something desirable. It has little<br />
specific meaning and should be avoided.<br />
allege; assert. To allege originally meant to state<br />
under oath (If thou canst ought allege that<br />
may be against him, come before the judge).<br />
Then it came to mean to state positively<br />
(Tertullian alleges the contrary). In current<br />
usage it means to state something without adequate<br />
pro<strong>of</strong> (But men in love with their<br />
opinions may not only suppose what is in<br />
question, but allege wrong mutter <strong>of</strong> fact).<br />
To assert now has the older meaning <strong>of</strong> to<br />
allege: to state as true (She asserted her innocence<br />
in the strongest terms. It is not directly<br />
asserted, but it seems to be implied).<br />
It is alleged is sometimes used as a disclaimer<br />
<strong>of</strong> responsibility, but those who so use
ah3ory<br />
it should know that its use does not confer<br />
immunity from prosecution for libel. The law<br />
punishes the publication <strong>of</strong> a libel and publication,<br />
in the legal sense, means making public.<br />
If you repeat a libel in print, with or without<br />
disclaimers, you have published it; you do not<br />
have to originate the statement to be liable<br />
for it. (See also publish.)<br />
allegory. An allegory is a sustained metaphor, a<br />
narrative in which the characters and actions<br />
are veiled representations <strong>of</strong> meanings implied<br />
but not stated. The best known allegories in<br />
English are the parables <strong>of</strong> the Gospels. The<br />
longest and most intricate is Spenser’s The<br />
Faerie Oueene. The wittiest is Swift’s A Tale<br />
<strong>of</strong> a Tcb. One <strong>of</strong> the most successful recent<br />
allegories is George Orwell’s Animal Farm.<br />
The virtue <strong>of</strong> allegory is that it leads the<br />
reader to think for himself, or at least to<br />
think that he has thought for himself and so<br />
to accept the author’s conclusions as his own.<br />
The fault <strong>of</strong> allegory is that its implications<br />
may be lost in the story and a false moral<br />
deduced instead <strong>of</strong> the intended one. Thus a<br />
child told that the early bird gets the worm<br />
may identify himself with the worm and not<br />
be incited to rise betimes. Then, like all metaphors,<br />
allegories easily become ludicrous if one<br />
or more <strong>of</strong> the details is inappropriate.<br />
allergic; antipathetic. An allergy is an abnormal<br />
sensitivity to certain things, such as dust,<br />
molds, pollens, and foods. A generation ago<br />
the word was a medical term, almost unknown<br />
to the layman. But with the growth <strong>of</strong> popular<br />
interest in allergies, the term allergic has come<br />
into use among the educated as a humorous<br />
term for a violent antipathy. The fact that<br />
sufferers from allergies on the ingestion or inhalation<br />
<strong>of</strong> even microscopic quantities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
substance to which they are allergic break out<br />
in hives, itch, sneeze, and weep makes the term<br />
both strong and ludicrous. Antipathetic<br />
(though it also means having a constitutional<br />
aversion) is too long and too serious, too<br />
pompous, for the purposes to which allergic is<br />
applied. It is still a slang term, but it shows<br />
every sign <strong>of</strong> becoming standard, though with<br />
humorous connotations.<br />
alliance. See liaison.<br />
alliteration is the repetition <strong>of</strong> the same sound<br />
(vowel or consonant, though the term is usually<br />
applied to the repetition <strong>of</strong> consonants) at<br />
the beginning <strong>of</strong> two or more consecutive or<br />
near words or stressed syllables. It was very<br />
common in older English poetry (Then from<br />
the moorlands, by misty- headlands,/ With<br />
God’s wrath laden, Grendel came. In the habit<br />
<strong>of</strong> a hermit, unholy <strong>of</strong> works,/ I went wide in<br />
the world, wonders to hear). It was a part <strong>of</strong><br />
the highly artificial style called euphuism which<br />
Lyly’s-Ehphues made a vogue in Elizabethan<br />
Eneland (“wherein there is small <strong>of</strong>fence by<br />
lightness given to the wise, and less occasion<br />
<strong>of</strong> looseness pr<strong>of</strong>fered to the wanton”). The<br />
romantic poets revived it and some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century poets carried it almost to<br />
26<br />
the limits <strong>of</strong> endurance (The fair breeze blew,<br />
the white foam flew,/ The furrow followed<br />
free. The moan <strong>of</strong> doves in immemorial elms,/<br />
and murmuring <strong>of</strong> innumerable bees).<br />
Apt alliteration’s artful aid is now rarely<br />
invoked. Serious poetry, in its reaction against<br />
the stylistic excesses <strong>of</strong> the poetry <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century, shuns it, but popular<br />
poetry still uses it (He hit Tom Hall with a<br />
bursting ball/ A hand’s breadth over the knee.<br />
It takes a heap o’living and some love to make<br />
a home). Serious prose avoids it as strenuously<br />
now as it once sought it, but humor employs<br />
it and it is useful for emphasis and euphony.<br />
Because it is one <strong>of</strong> the strongest <strong>of</strong> mnemonic<br />
devices, it is used a great deal by advertisers<br />
who hope to have their slogans stick in the<br />
public mind (Not a cough in a carload. A<br />
treat instead <strong>of</strong> a treatment).<br />
Like rhyme, however, <strong>of</strong> which it is a kind,<br />
alliteration can easily be overdone. To contemporary<br />
taste, it is one <strong>of</strong> those things <strong>of</strong><br />
which “a little more than a little is by much<br />
too much.” The safe rule is never to use it<br />
without a definite purpose and to be sure that<br />
the purpose could not be as well served in any<br />
other way.<br />
allow. When this word means permit it may be<br />
followed by an object and an infinitive, as in<br />
he allows us to smoke, or, when there is no<br />
personal object, by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in he allows smoking. When the word<br />
means admit it may be followed by a clause,<br />
as in he allowed that we were right.<br />
allow <strong>of</strong>; allow for. To allow <strong>of</strong> is to permit<br />
(His weakened condition would not allow <strong>of</strong><br />
his being questioned by the police). To allow<br />
for is to leave a margin <strong>of</strong> time or space, to<br />
make a concession or to bear in mind as an<br />
extenuating circumstance (You can’t make it<br />
in an hour; you must allow for the detour. He<br />
allowed for her great age and was very patient<br />
in listening to her complaints). Allow for, like<br />
allow <strong>of</strong>, may be followed by the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in allow for his being late.<br />
allow; permit; consent; let; accede. Allow implies<br />
the absence <strong>of</strong> any intent to hinder (Does your<br />
mother allow you to go alone this way?).<br />
Permit is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym <strong>of</strong> allow<br />
but it has a connotation <strong>of</strong> more formality in<br />
the authorization. There must be a permission<br />
(Though some things are commanded us and<br />
others forbidden, we are in many others permitted<br />
to follow our inclinations). Let is the<br />
common everyday word for allow and permit.<br />
If it has a special connotation it is <strong>of</strong> allowing<br />
something to remain as it is or to suffer it to<br />
continue or proceed if it is already in motion.<br />
To consent is to yield when one has the<br />
right to oppose, or at least to refrain voluntarily<br />
from opposing (My poverty, but not my<br />
will, consents). Accede is closely synonymous<br />
to consent, but it <strong>of</strong>ten implies a more active<br />
agreement, a joining oneself to or sharing in<br />
that which is consented to (There are many<br />
who would accede without the faintest re-
luctance to a barbarous custom, but would be<br />
quite incapable <strong>of</strong> un equally barbarous act<br />
which custom had not consecrated).<br />
allspice is the name <strong>of</strong> a particular spice, pimento,<br />
and should not be called allspices.<br />
allude; refer. To allude is to refer casually or<br />
indirectly. It calls attention covertly. When a<br />
man is alluded to he is not named; it is simply<br />
obvious that the remark is applicable to him<br />
(He alludes to enterprises which he cannot<br />
reveal but with the hazard <strong>of</strong> his life).<br />
To refer is to direct attention specifically.<br />
One refers to a book by its title and author<br />
and to a passage in it by the page. When one<br />
seeking employment gives a reference, he<br />
names a particular person from whom his<br />
prospective employer may obtain information<br />
about him.<br />
allure; lure; attract; invite; entice. Allure, like<br />
attract, has a neutral connotation. One may be<br />
allured or attracted to things harmful or beneficial<br />
(The thirst for glory has allured many a<br />
man to his death. The beauty <strong>of</strong> the day<br />
allured the ladies into the garden). To lure,<br />
however, to attract as by a falconer’s lure or<br />
decoy, has a suggestion <strong>of</strong> evil. One is lured<br />
to ruin or lured away from one’s work (The<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>fered toleration was merely a bait to lure<br />
the Puritan party to destruction). So also<br />
entice, to excite hope or desire by presenting<br />
pleasurable motives or ideas, is almost always<br />
used in a bad sense. The twisting and squirming<br />
<strong>of</strong> live bait, says gentle, lovable old Laak<br />
Walton, much enticeth the fish to bite without<br />
suspicion. One is rarely enticed to good.<br />
Znvite when applied to persons means to<br />
ask them to come, to solicit their company,<br />
and carries a suggestion <strong>of</strong> kindness or courtesy.<br />
But when applied to things or conditions,<br />
it has an invidious connotation with ironical<br />
overtones (Recklessness invites disaster. Not to<br />
resent these insults is to deserve and to invite<br />
them).<br />
Attract, as has been said, is neutral (His<br />
vices have attracted much attention. Adorned<br />
she was indeed, and lovely to attract thy love),<br />
but attractive is favorable, except in the legal<br />
phrase an attractive nuisance where the adjective<br />
has been tainted by its noun.<br />
allusion; illusion; elusion; delusion. The words<br />
allusion and illusion are <strong>of</strong>ten pronounced alike<br />
and this has led to confusion. An allusion is<br />
a passing or casual reference, an incidental<br />
mention <strong>of</strong> something, whether directly or by<br />
implication (These frequent allusions to the<br />
details <strong>of</strong> his private life eventually compelled<br />
him to pr<strong>of</strong>fer his resignation. The angry flush<br />
that at once overspread his face showed that<br />
he understood the allusion). An illusion is<br />
something that deceives by producing a f.alse<br />
impression, a deception, a mockery (Zt was<br />
only an optical illusion). An elusion is an<br />
avoidance <strong>of</strong> something, an escape (The planting<br />
<strong>of</strong> flowers on Fanny’s grave had been but<br />
a species <strong>of</strong> elusion <strong>of</strong> the primary grief). It<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten has the connotation <strong>of</strong> a clever escape.<br />
27<br />
It is a rare word but its adjective, elusive, is<br />
common and easily confused with allusive and<br />
illusive.<br />
A delusion differs from an ilLsion in that<br />
it is accepted without question (some juggler’s<br />
delusion. The unhappy woman labored under<br />
the delusion that her dead son was working in<br />
the next room and would appsar within a few<br />
minutes). That the sun goes around the earth<br />
is accepted today by educated people as an<br />
illusion: our senses say that it is so, but we<br />
know that it is not. Those who accept the<br />
appearance <strong>of</strong> its motion as a reality are<br />
deluded. Most <strong>of</strong> us have heard, at one time<br />
or another, why the appearance <strong>of</strong> the sun’s<br />
motion is illusory, but we cannot remember<br />
the exact explanation; it has eluded our<br />
memories.<br />
almighty. See mighty.<br />
almighty dollar. When Washington Irving, in<br />
1836, first used this expression to describe “the<br />
great object <strong>of</strong> universal devotion throughout<br />
our land,” he coined an effective phrase because<br />
the word then most commonly associated<br />
with almighty was “God” and he was saying,<br />
in effect, that our commercialism was idolatrous.<br />
Few who use it today think <strong>of</strong> its<br />
implied rebuke for false worship. It is thought<br />
to describe the power which our wealth exercises<br />
in domestic and international affairs. But<br />
even in this sense it has been worn out. It is<br />
better not to use it at all.<br />
almost ordinarily qualifies a verb, as in he almost<br />
fell, or an adjective, as in he was almost<br />
certain. It may also be used to qualify a noun,<br />
as in the almost oblivion and in almost terror;<br />
This is an extremely literary construction but it<br />
is used by Hawthorne, Coleridge, Thackeray,<br />
and others and is recognized by the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong>.<br />
almost and nearly both mean within a small<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> or within a short space <strong>of</strong>, but<br />
almost designates a smaller degree or a shorter<br />
space than nearly. A book that is almost completed<br />
is nearer its completion than one that<br />
is nearly completed.<br />
In America almost is used with the negative<br />
(There was almost no snow that winter). In<br />
England hardly any or scarcely any would be<br />
more commonly used. See also practically.<br />
alms. Originally this word was a singular, as in<br />
this alms is given for the sick. This construction<br />
may still be used but it has an archaic<br />
flavor. Today the word is usually treated as a<br />
plural, as in these alms are given for the sick.<br />
But there is no singular form an alm and we<br />
cannot speak <strong>of</strong> several alms. The form alms<br />
is used as the first element in a compound, as<br />
in an alms box.<br />
alone. See lonely.<br />
along; along&. Along is the only acceptable<br />
form; alongst is not standard now. At one time<br />
alongst too was standard, as in he sent his<br />
gallies alongst the coast, but it has not been<br />
used in literary English for more than a<br />
hundred years.
alpha 28<br />
alpha and omega. See from A to Z.<br />
already. See yet.<br />
alright. See all right.<br />
altercation; fight. An altercation is a fierce dispute,<br />
a contentious debate (A judicious reader<br />
looks for arguments und loathes altercations),<br />
but it is a verbal encounter. It may easily lead<br />
to a fight, or physical encounter, but it isn’t<br />
one. To say In the altercation noses were<br />
bloodied and eyes were blackened is to misuse<br />
the word, though it may be done humorously.<br />
alternatively; alternately. Alternatively means the<br />
choosing <strong>of</strong> one or the other <strong>of</strong> two things or<br />
courses (Alternatively, if you do not choose to<br />
fight you may run away). Alternately means<br />
the coming <strong>of</strong> things <strong>of</strong> two kinds one after<br />
the other (The black and white squares on a<br />
checker board are arranged alternately), or<br />
turn and turn about (We work our shifts<br />
alternately).<br />
alternatives. Some people feel that alternative<br />
means “one <strong>of</strong> two” and that it should never<br />
be used in any other sense. But a great many<br />
more people do use it to mean “one <strong>of</strong> any<br />
number.” Gladstone, writing in 18.57, said:<br />
My decided preference is for the fourth and<br />
last <strong>of</strong> these alternatives.<br />
although. See though.<br />
altogether; all together. Altogether is an adverb<br />
meaning wholly, entirely, completely (He was<br />
altogether in the wrong), or in all (Altogether<br />
there were six <strong>of</strong> us) or on the whole (Altogether,<br />
it’s just as well you didn’t argue with<br />
him).<br />
All together means that the members <strong>of</strong> a<br />
group are or were or will be gathered together<br />
in one place (I have put the bolts all together<br />
in the lower drawer. The family will be all<br />
together at Thanksgiving for the first time in<br />
ten years.<br />
aluminum is the American form, aluminium the<br />
British. Some American chemists use aluminium<br />
to conform to the analogy <strong>of</strong> sodium,<br />
beryllium, potassizcm, and so on.<br />
alumnus; alumni; alumna; alumnae. Learning, or<br />
the lack <strong>of</strong> it, was for centuries enshrouded<br />
in Latin and everything about a college had<br />
to be dignified with a Latin name. In Europe<br />
college graduates were known by the degrees<br />
they held, but in America a great many people<br />
went to college who never got degrees but<br />
who--to the delight and amazement <strong>of</strong> fundraising<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficials-were <strong>of</strong>ten more vociferous<br />
and even more generous in their support <strong>of</strong><br />
the college than many who had obtained<br />
degrees. It was plainly desirable to include<br />
them in a group that contained the graduates<br />
and to find a solemn name for the lot. The<br />
Latin word alumnus, foster son, was chosen<br />
for the individual and alltmni for the group.<br />
The term had been used in England earlier,<br />
but it was and has remained rare there.<br />
Alumnus is a masculine word, but that was<br />
all right at first because almost all college<br />
students were men, but when women started<br />
going to college it was felt that they ought to<br />
have a special designation and the feminine<br />
form, alumna, with the plural alumnae was<br />
adopted (She is an alumna <strong>of</strong> Wilson College,<br />
in Chambersburg, Pa. The statistics <strong>of</strong> the<br />
comparative death rates <strong>of</strong> the alumnae and<br />
alumni <strong>of</strong> Oberlin . . .). This usage is exclusively<br />
American but anyone who wants to use<br />
it is correct in doing so. However, the masculine<br />
applies to all former students in general<br />
(All alumni are invited and urged to bring<br />
their husbands and wives) and it is not an<br />
error to refer to a female graduate as an<br />
alumnus and to include women with men in<br />
the general group <strong>of</strong> alumni. It is an error,<br />
however, to use alumna as a plural or alumni<br />
as a singular. If you insist on talking Latin,<br />
it is not unreasonable to hold you to at least<br />
an elementary knowledge <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
While some women’s colleges may stress<br />
their femininity by referring to their Alumnae<br />
Guest House or Alumnae Magazine, alumni is<br />
the usual plural in combinations (Alumni Day,<br />
alumni trustees, alumni banquet).<br />
When women were first admitted to American<br />
colleges there was a great to-do about<br />
their degrees. Logicians and feminists agreed<br />
that girls could not be bachelors <strong>of</strong> arts or <strong>of</strong><br />
science and it was proposed, at various times<br />
and places, that they should be called Maids<br />
<strong>of</strong> Philosophy, Laureates <strong>of</strong> Science, or Vestals<br />
<strong>of</strong> Arts. But, as it so <strong>of</strong>ten does in linguistic<br />
matters, usage triumphed over logic and every<br />
year thousands <strong>of</strong> young ladies become bachelors<br />
<strong>of</strong> arts and <strong>of</strong> science without anyone<br />
thinking them a whit less feminine for doing<br />
so.<br />
always; all ways. Always is an adverb meaning<br />
all the time, perpetually, uninterruptedly (1’11<br />
be loving you, always. There’ll always be an<br />
England. The faucet always drips that way;<br />
we can’t turn it clear <strong>of</strong>f) or every time, as<br />
opposed to occasionally or sometimes (He<br />
always takes the biggest share. He always<br />
leaves the house by six o’clock).<br />
At one time there was a word alway, but<br />
this is now archaic and confined to poetry.<br />
Both words are used in the King James Bible,<br />
and with the same meaning, as in ye have the<br />
poor with you always and I am with you alway,<br />
even unto the end <strong>of</strong> the world.<br />
All ways means all possible ways (All ways<br />
to cure him have been tried).<br />
am. See be.<br />
a.m.; p.m. A.M. (also a.m. and A.M.), in its<br />
commonest meaning is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong><br />
ante meridiem, before noon. Nine a.m. is correct.<br />
Nine a.m. in the morning is redundant.<br />
Nine o’clock a.m. is overworded. To say<br />
I’ll see you in the a.m. is dreary jocosity.<br />
P.M. (also p.m. and P.M.), is an abbreviation<br />
<strong>of</strong> post meridiem, after noon. All the above<br />
comments on A.M. apply also to P.M.<br />
Sometimes, in writing the phrase out, meridian<br />
is written for meridiem. This is an understandable<br />
blunder, since meridian also means<br />
midday and post meridian means after noon.
But blunder it is, even though it will pass uanoticed<br />
by most readers.<br />
amanuensis. The plural is amanuenses.<br />
amateur; novice. An amateur is one who t.akes<br />
an interest in something, usually in an art or<br />
sport, for the pure love <strong>of</strong> it. The gentlemen<br />
amateurs in the early days <strong>of</strong> boxing were not<br />
necessarily practicers <strong>of</strong> the “manly art” themselves,<br />
but its patrons and spectators. Today the<br />
word implies an interest sufficiently strong to<br />
include some participation. There is about it<br />
a faint flavor <strong>of</strong> bungling and a strong flavor<br />
<strong>of</strong> enthusiasm. It is <strong>of</strong>ten used in condescension<br />
and derogation (Zt was not Eikely that an<br />
amateur . . . should convict these astronomers<br />
<strong>of</strong> gross ignorance).<br />
A novice is a beginner, whether pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
or amateur. A man may be a novice at his<br />
trade or at a game, if he is only mastering<br />
the rudiments. In ecclesiastical usage novice<br />
has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> one who is on<br />
probation or under training.<br />
Amateur in American usage has a rather<br />
specialized application to sports, where: it<br />
means an athlete who has never competed for<br />
money. When such an athlete does receive<br />
money, he is said to have lost his amateur<br />
standing.<br />
amatory; amorous; loving; lovable; adorable.<br />
Amatory and amorous have a more frankly<br />
sexual connotation than loving. Aphrodisiacs<br />
have been called amorous medicines, ama,tory<br />
fascinations, and amatories. An amatory glance<br />
is not the same thing as a loving look. IPerhaps<br />
it is due to an association <strong>of</strong> amorous<br />
with the French amour (everything French is<br />
“sexy” in the popular imagination) or, perhaps,<br />
to its frequent riming, in popular song,<br />
with glamorous [q.v.].<br />
Loving is chaste as an adjective (I will make<br />
him a true and loving wife) but concupiscent<br />
as a noun in popular usage (I need loving,<br />
that’s what Z need!).<br />
Lovable is almost entirely divorced from<br />
direct sexual connotation and, synonymous<br />
with amiable and winning, is reserved for the<br />
elderly, the charming, and the whimsical (The<br />
humorous pity that is so lovable a quality in<br />
Chaucer). The amatory synonym, in popular<br />
parlance, is adorable; though the sexual meaning<br />
is lacking, at least at the conscious level,<br />
when the word is applied to children, especially-as<br />
it so <strong>of</strong>ten is-to little girls. It may<br />
then be considered as the superlative <strong>of</strong> cute.<br />
Purists who insist that words must mean<br />
“what they say” and refuse to accept the fact<br />
that usage changes their meanings, should ask<br />
themselves whether adorable which was applied<br />
exclusively to religious meanings so recently<br />
that the Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
recognizes no other applications <strong>of</strong> it could<br />
now be applied to God, in America, without<br />
moving the devout to uneasiness and the irreverent<br />
to levity?<br />
amaze; surprise; astonish; startle; dumbfound.<br />
To be amazed is, literally, to be lost in a maze,<br />
29 ambiguity<br />
to be bewildered, overwhelmed, confused,<br />
stunned. A writer in 1586 said <strong>of</strong> a woman<br />
that she struck her head so hard against a wall<br />
that she fell down amazed. To be surprised is<br />
to be come upon unexpectedly, to be taken<br />
unawares (. . . the surprise and combustion <strong>of</strong><br />
Troy). To be astonished is, literally, to be<br />
changed to stone, as if one had seen Medusa.<br />
There is an Elizabethan reference to certain<br />
medicinal waters that have the power to revive<br />
the astonished and benumbed parts <strong>of</strong> the body<br />
and another to those sick who lie apoplectical<br />
and astonished. To be startled is to be so taken<br />
by surprise as to make an involuntary start or<br />
sudden movement (After the first startle she<br />
stood still). To be dumbfounded is to be<br />
stricken dumb with amazement. The word<br />
seems to have been coined as a blend <strong>of</strong> dumb<br />
and confound. But the -found in dumbfound<br />
has no meaning; it is purely fantastic, like the<br />
-mufin in ragamuffin.<br />
Words do not, <strong>of</strong> course, always keep their<br />
literal original meanings, but these particular<br />
words keep enough <strong>of</strong> theirs to make the<br />
careful writer, one who wishes to express the<br />
exact shade <strong>of</strong> his meaning, choose among<br />
them and not use them indiscriminately. There<br />
is an apocryphal story told about Dr. Samuel<br />
Johnson, the wit and lexicographer, which,<br />
while it gives an erroneous picture <strong>of</strong> him,<br />
illustrates the essential difference in meaning<br />
between at least two <strong>of</strong> these words. The story<br />
is that Johnson’s wife came unexpectedly upon<br />
him kissing the maid and exclaimed, “I am<br />
surprised!” “No, Madam,” he is reputed to<br />
have answered, “I am surprised; you are<br />
astonished.”<br />
ambiguity. The English language, with its immense<br />
vocabulary, its paucity <strong>of</strong> inflections, its<br />
thousands <strong>of</strong> homonyms, its flexible grammar<br />
and loose syntax, <strong>of</strong>fers endless danger <strong>of</strong> (or<br />
opportunity for) ambiguity. Ours is a language<br />
in which almost every statement must be<br />
watched lest it be open to another interpretation<br />
than the intended or the seeming one.<br />
Unintentional ambiguity, <strong>of</strong> course, has<br />
nothing to commend it. It only baffles the<br />
reader or listener and leads to endless confusion<br />
and irritation or even disaster. Sometimes<br />
the ambiguity resides in a single word.<br />
When we are told, for example, that Newtonian<br />
science makes us grasp only certain connections<br />
in nature, are we to understand certain<br />
as meaning “unquestionable” or “selected”?<br />
More <strong>of</strong>ten the ambiguity emerges from a<br />
whole construction. The biggest <strong>of</strong>fender in<br />
this respect in common speech and writing is<br />
the pronoun in indirect discourse. In such a<br />
sentence as “He told his brother that he had<br />
been talking too much,” the whole meaning<br />
is dependent upon the antecedent <strong>of</strong> the second<br />
“he” and the antecedent is not clear. Pronouns,<br />
as a group, are probably responsible for more<br />
unintentional ambiguity than any other part<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech. Were our pronouns inflected, most<br />
<strong>of</strong> this would disappear. But since they are
ambiguous 30<br />
not, one <strong>of</strong> the cardinal requirements for clarity<br />
in English speech is to make sure that the<br />
antecedents <strong>of</strong> all pronouns are clearly perceived.<br />
A great charitable foundation which must<br />
solicit millions <strong>of</strong> dollars from the public in<br />
order to carry out its work among those<br />
afllicted with infantile paralysis had as its<br />
slogan at the time <strong>of</strong> its drive a few years ago<br />
the sentence “You’ll never walk alone” under<br />
the picture <strong>of</strong> a child with leg braces and<br />
other supports. The meaning was that a child<br />
so afflicted need not be in despair; he would<br />
always have the foundation beside him in his<br />
difficult years ahead. But the sentence could<br />
also mean “You will never again walk unaided<br />
by braces,” a thought, especially when backed<br />
by the prestige <strong>of</strong> the foundation, that must<br />
have reduced many sufferers to pitiable despondency,<br />
thus doing the very opposite <strong>of</strong> what<br />
it was intended to do.<br />
Other sources <strong>of</strong> ambiguity are dangling<br />
modifiers and participles (After graduating<br />
from high school my father gave me a job<br />
selling cars), misplaced modifiers (I said when<br />
the short subject was over Z would leave the<br />
theater) and incomplete comparisons. The assertionl<br />
like Joe us well as Jack could mean<br />
Z like Joe as well as Jack likes Joe or Z like<br />
Joe as well as Z like Jack or Z like Jack and<br />
Joe.<br />
Intentional ambiguity, the deliberate wording<br />
<strong>of</strong> a statement in such a way that two or<br />
more meanings may be drawn from it, has its<br />
literary and practical uses. Literary ambiguity<br />
serves to give extension to meaning, to open<br />
up several avenues <strong>of</strong> thought for the mind to<br />
explore, to give overtones to writing in the<br />
same way that symbols do. Like symbols,<br />
literary ambiguity makes the reader a creative<br />
partner <strong>of</strong> the writer rather than a mere passive<br />
receptor.<br />
Practical ambiguity, by blurring meaning,<br />
serves diplomacy and humor. In serious use its<br />
intent is to evade, to avoid commitment; hence<br />
it is <strong>of</strong>ten found in political, diplomatic, advertising,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional and <strong>of</strong>ficial language. It<br />
sometimes enables the speaker to speak the<br />
truth while allowing the listener to deduce a<br />
falsehood. More <strong>of</strong>ten it enables the speaker<br />
to avoid responsibility for his words by insisting<br />
that the meaning accepted was not the one<br />
intended.<br />
The master <strong>of</strong> diplomatic ambiguity, setting<br />
a standard that has never been raised (or<br />
lowered), was the Oracle at Delphi. Some <strong>of</strong><br />
its famous utterances-as Pyrrhus the Romans<br />
shall, Z say, subdue-have never been improved<br />
on. Either side could take such a prediction<br />
as favorable and the oracle could<br />
always be wise after the event and side with<br />
the winner. Coolidge. up to the point <strong>of</strong> siding<br />
with the winner, was in the Delphic tradition<br />
with his Z do not choose to run.<br />
Every pr<strong>of</strong>ession has its own cliches <strong>of</strong><br />
evasion which the layman is expected to take<br />
at face value. Such diagnoses as “upper respir-<br />
atory infection” for a cold or “gastro-enteritis’*<br />
for a stomach ache pacify the patient with<br />
polysyllables and leave the doctor uncommitted.<br />
A successful Chicago physician used<br />
to reassure patients who were worried about<br />
their hearts: Your heart will last as long as<br />
you will. One <strong>of</strong> the spiritual oracles <strong>of</strong> our<br />
day, in his syndicated column, informed his<br />
readers that all nervous troubles “not organic<br />
or functional” were due to a lack <strong>of</strong> faith.<br />
Anyone who has to evaluate another’s work<br />
or behavior and make a public report <strong>of</strong> his<br />
evaluation-as in work reports, book reviews,<br />
students’ report cards-must practice ambiguity<br />
to a certain extent in order to preserve the<br />
peace. To say, for instance, that a child is<br />
“not over-aggressive in the group” may avoid<br />
an argument with both the principal and the<br />
parent.<br />
Ambiguity serves modesty. It serves to avoid<br />
a conflict <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficial position with personal<br />
conviction. And it permits ignorance to hide<br />
itself in vagueness.<br />
Any pronouncement <strong>of</strong> policy or procedure<br />
that emanates from an <strong>of</strong>ficial source-governmental<br />
or private-is likely to suffer in<br />
clarity from having passed through many<br />
revising hands. Generally, no one wants or is<br />
able to take full or specific responsibility, and<br />
no one wants to make it so rigid as to prevent<br />
adaptation to circumstances as yet unknown<br />
or unforeseen. Typically, the result is qualification<br />
piled on qualification, evasion under<br />
evasion, and the meaning faint and obscure.<br />
For humor, ambiguity is the favorite resource<br />
<strong>of</strong> the wisecracker. When asked whether<br />
she had had anything on when the picture<br />
was taken, Miss Monroe replied, “The radio.”<br />
ambiguous and equivocal both mean having<br />
different meanings equally possible, susceptible<br />
<strong>of</strong> a double interpretation. The difference between<br />
them is that in equivocal the deception<br />
possible in the confusion <strong>of</strong> a double meaning<br />
is intentional. In ambiguous the deception may<br />
or may not be intentional. Equivocation is a<br />
word <strong>of</strong> strong condemnation; it means not<br />
only a lie but a carefully worded and, at the<br />
same time, a cowardly lie.<br />
amend; emend. Amend means to alter for the<br />
better (Do thou amend thy face, Falstaff says<br />
to the red-nosed Bardolph, and 1’11 amend my<br />
life). Its commonest current usage is a specialized<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> altering a motion or bill or<br />
the Constitution by due legal and parliamentary<br />
procedure. Such amendments are presumably<br />
alterations for the better but since,<br />
in most cases, this presumption is disputed by<br />
those who oppose the amendment, the word<br />
to many people has come to mean merely to<br />
change. Certainly the Eighteenth and the<br />
Twenty-first Amendments to the Constitution<br />
<strong>of</strong> the United States cannot both be improvements<br />
since one nullifies the other.<br />
Emend was once only another spelling <strong>of</strong><br />
amend but it has become specialized and now<br />
means to amend a text by removing errors<br />
(Theobald’s substitution <strong>of</strong> “a’ babbled <strong>of</strong>
green fields” for the First Folio’s “a Table <strong>of</strong><br />
greene fields,” in Henry V, II. iii. 17-18, is<br />
probably the most brilliant emendation in our<br />
language).<br />
amends, meaning reparation for an injury, may<br />
be treated as a singular, as in a full amends<br />
was made and every possible amends has been<br />
made, or as a plural, as in these amends were<br />
due us but he was in no hurry to make them.<br />
Both <strong>of</strong> these constructions are standard English.<br />
But the word is not a true plural and<br />
we cannot speak <strong>of</strong> several amends. A singular<br />
form amend was once in use, as in a full<br />
amend was made. This is now obsolete or<br />
nonstandard.<br />
America; The United States <strong>of</strong> America. It does<br />
seem a little hard on Canada and all the other<br />
countries that comprise the Western Hemisphere<br />
for the United States <strong>of</strong> America to be<br />
called America, as if it were all. But, if it’s<br />
any comfort to those who resent it, the usage<br />
is founded on a lazy disinclination to pronounce<br />
the longer name rather than arrogance<br />
and it has no <strong>of</strong>ficial sanction. Dominant countries<br />
have always either taken over the name<br />
<strong>of</strong> an entire region or imposed their own names<br />
on the regions around them. Nothing can be<br />
done about it and it’s silly to complain. After<br />
all, it can never equal the original injustice<br />
<strong>of</strong> calling two whole continents after Amerigo<br />
Vespucci.<br />
amiable; amicable. People are usually spoken <strong>of</strong><br />
as amiable; attitudes, dispositions, arrangements<br />
and settlements as amicable (An amiable<br />
man is usually willing to make an amicable<br />
settlement). An amiable person is sweet tempered,<br />
kind, gentle, thoughtful <strong>of</strong> others.. He<br />
differs from a lovable person in that he does<br />
not so much invite as give affection. An<br />
amicable settlement usually means no more<br />
than a peaceful one: the parties need not be<br />
amiably disposed towards each other; it is<br />
enough that they are not in open conflict.<br />
amid; amidst. Both forms are acceptable, but<br />
both are bookish. In the United States lzmid<br />
is considered a little less bookish than amidst.<br />
In Great Britain it is the other way around<br />
and amidst is considered the more natural<br />
word <strong>of</strong> the two. See also among.<br />
ammunition. See munitions.<br />
amoeba. The plural is amoebas or amoebae.<br />
amok. See amuck.<br />
among; amongst. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
Among is the preferred form in the United<br />
States, where amongst is <strong>of</strong>ten considered<br />
“over-refined.” But amongst is also correct and<br />
is tbe preferred form in England.<br />
Among is related to the word mingle. It<br />
means, roughly, in the midst <strong>of</strong> or surrounded<br />
by, and implies a group. It therefore cannot be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> only two objects, as the word<br />
between can. But nor can it be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> three or more objects unless these are<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as a group. Between must be used<br />
if we want to suggest a relation or a difference<br />
between individuals, no matter how<br />
31 ample<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong> says: “Between has been<br />
from its earliest appearance extended to more<br />
than two. . . . It is still the only word available<br />
to express the relation <strong>of</strong> a thing to<br />
many surrounding things severally and individually;<br />
among expressing a relation to them<br />
collectively [as a group] and vaguely.” That<br />
is, we may say the house stood among the<br />
trees but we cannot define a triangle as the<br />
space lying among three points; we may say<br />
he sat among the candidates but we cannot say<br />
he must choose among six candidates. We<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a treaty between three nations because<br />
each nation is bound individually to<br />
each <strong>of</strong> the others. We say the five diplomats<br />
settled the question between them in order to<br />
emphasize the fact that each member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
group agreed individually with each <strong>of</strong> the<br />
others. On the other hand, if we say the three<br />
men had $30 among them, we are treating the<br />
three men as a group and leaving the possibility<br />
open that one man had $30 and the<br />
other two had nothing at all.<br />
Among cannot be followed by a subjective<br />
pronoun or any word or group <strong>of</strong> words that<br />
is obviously singular. However, it is sometimes<br />
followed by each other or one another where<br />
literary English requires themselves or ourselves,<br />
as in they agreed among each other.<br />
This is not at present acceptable in written<br />
English.<br />
Although among and amid are sometimes<br />
used interchangeably, among is more likely to<br />
mean surrounded by or in relation to many<br />
things and is followed by a plural word<br />
(among friends). Amid, strictly, describes a<br />
middle position between two other things or<br />
groups <strong>of</strong> things and hence is followed by a<br />
singular word (Amid the confusion, he stood<br />
calm).<br />
amoral. See immoral.<br />
amorous. See amatory.<br />
amount; number. Amount means bulk, sum<br />
total, aggregate, quantity (The sheer amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> rubble was appalling. The amount <strong>of</strong> 2<br />
and 2 is 4. The amount <strong>of</strong> resistance he met<br />
astonished him). In accounting it has the<br />
special meaning <strong>of</strong> the sum <strong>of</strong> the principal<br />
and interest <strong>of</strong> a loan (What is the full<br />
amount I owe you?) which has led to its being<br />
used as a synonym for total.<br />
Number (in such uses as are likely to be<br />
confused with amount) applies to separable<br />
units (There were a great number <strong>of</strong> bricks in<br />
the street. There was a vast amount <strong>of</strong> debris<br />
in the street).<br />
ampersand. The ampersand is the character &.<br />
It should be used only in the writina <strong>of</strong> business<br />
addresses which- include it (if a firm<br />
calls itself Smith & Jones, it should be so<br />
addressed; if it calls itself Smith and Jones,<br />
the ampersand should not be used), in formulas,<br />
and so on. The ampersand should not<br />
be used for and in ordinary writing.<br />
ample; enough. That is enough which is adequate<br />
or sufficient to the need (There is enough<br />
many individuals are involved. The Oxford treason mere to hang a dozen men). That
ample 3 2<br />
which is ample is more than enough, enough<br />
and to spare (But Knowledge to their eyes her<br />
ample page/Rich with the spoils <strong>of</strong> time did<br />
ne’er unroll). But since more than enough<br />
must include enough, and since what constitutes<br />
enough is <strong>of</strong>ten disputable and temperaments<br />
differ in their estimates, one cannot<br />
quarrel with those bold souls who make<br />
enough synonymous with ample or those timid<br />
souls who make ample synonymous with<br />
enough. Any qualifying <strong>of</strong> ample, however,<br />
such as barely ample, is absurd.<br />
Fowler insists that ample, when used attributively<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> plenty <strong>of</strong>, must be<br />
confined to nouns denoting immaterial or<br />
abstract things. Careful writers and precise<br />
thinkers would do well to heed his delicate and<br />
discerning distinctions, but the common man<br />
will be safe from all but philosophic grammarians<br />
if he merely remembers that ample<br />
is more than enough.<br />
For all practical purposes abundance would<br />
be a satisfactory synonym for ample and suficient<br />
for enough.<br />
amnle onnortunitv has become a cliche. Usuallv<br />
- _^<br />
opportunity or opportunities will suffice.<br />
amuck; amok. The Malayans have a special<br />
nervous malady that induces, or a special social<br />
custom that sanctions, wild fits <strong>of</strong> murderous<br />
frenzy. Those who are subject to these dangerous<br />
seizures are said, when the fit is upon<br />
them, to be amoq, furious. The word came<br />
into English in various spellings as early as<br />
the 16th century and finally settled down, in<br />
the 17th century, as amuck, especially in the<br />
phrase to run amuck which was used to describe<br />
someone having an uninhibited tantrum<br />
or rushing headlong into some injudicious<br />
course <strong>of</strong> action.<br />
In recent times, when Conrad and Somerset<br />
Maugham had made us conscious <strong>of</strong> Malaya,<br />
those in the know preferred the spelling amok.<br />
There’s no law against it, but it’s pretentious<br />
and invites an embarrassing probe <strong>of</strong> the user’s<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> Malayan.<br />
an. See a.<br />
anabasis. The plural is anabases.<br />
anacoluthon is a term in rhetoric and grammar<br />
for a construction involving a break in grammatical<br />
sequence. Usually it is the product <strong>of</strong><br />
ignorance or haste or confusion, but it may be<br />
employed as a rhetorical device when the<br />
author wants to suggest that the emotion <strong>of</strong><br />
the speaker is so great that he cannot wait to<br />
finish the sentence he began (as in Milton’s<br />
If thou beest he-But, 0, how fall’n! how<br />
changedl) .<br />
A famous example <strong>of</strong> anacoluthon in the<br />
King James Version <strong>of</strong> Luke 5:14-And he<br />
charged him to tell no man: but go, and shew<br />
thyself to the priest-is rectified in the Revised<br />
Standard Version by the insertion <strong>of</strong> quotation<br />
marks: And he charged him to tell no one;<br />
but “go and show yourself to the priest.”<br />
analogous. See similar.<br />
analysis. The plural is analyses.<br />
-<br />
analyst; annalist. An analyst is one who analyzes<br />
(Mr. Russell Lynes, our analyst <strong>of</strong> taste), a<br />
chemist or mathematician, or, more recently,<br />
a psychoanalyst (As an analyst Dr. Horney’s<br />
views were not always strictly Freudian). An<br />
annalist is a historian, or one who writes<br />
annals, events year by year in chronological<br />
order (The pedantic historian can easily sink<br />
into the annalist).<br />
anaphora is a term in rhetoric for a repetition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same word or words at the beginning <strong>of</strong><br />
two or more successive verses, clauses, or<br />
sentences. It is a common device in oratory<br />
and much used in the Bible (Where is the<br />
wise? where is the scribe? where is the disputer<br />
<strong>of</strong> this world?) but it should be employed,<br />
particularly in political speeches, with great<br />
care. One repetition too many and the audience<br />
may laugh and there is always the danger<br />
that some quick-witted, irreverent wag will<br />
shout out a ludicrous answer.<br />
anastrophe is a term in rhetoric or grammar<br />
designating a reversal <strong>of</strong> the usual order <strong>of</strong><br />
words (Came the dawn for The dawn came).<br />
It was once much employed by poets but is<br />
now definitely out <strong>of</strong> fashion among good<br />
writers, though writers <strong>of</strong> popular romances<br />
are addicted to it under the impression, apparently,<br />
that it gives their work a fine archaic<br />
flavor.<br />
anathema. The plural is anathemasor anathemata,<br />
not anathemae.<br />
ancestor; ancestress. Our ancestors include our<br />
ancestresses. If we attribute some saying to<br />
our ancestors or speak poetically <strong>of</strong> one who<br />
sleeps among his ancestors, there is no implied<br />
differentiation <strong>of</strong> male from female. An<br />
ancestress is just as much an ancestor as a<br />
male forebear. But if for some reason one<br />
wishes to indicate that a particular ancestor<br />
was a woman, ancestress is useful. Thus when<br />
Sir Arthur Helps in his Social Pressure said<br />
that The ladies <strong>of</strong> the present day . . . sufler<br />
[tolerate] much more waste in their households<br />
than their ancestresses did, the word permits<br />
him to make it plain that he is referring to<br />
extravagance wholly within the province and<br />
control <strong>of</strong> the lady <strong>of</strong> the house.<br />
ancient. See old.<br />
and is a conjunction and is used to connect<br />
words or groups <strong>of</strong> words that are grammatically<br />
alike, as he and I, him and me, coming<br />
and going. The subject <strong>of</strong> a verb is sometimes<br />
made up <strong>of</strong> words connected by and. When<br />
these represent more than one person or thing<br />
the verb is plural, as in love and hate are<br />
strong. When they represent the same thing<br />
the verb is singular, as in my friend and advisor<br />
is dead. Between these two examples is<br />
a large middle ground where the verb may be<br />
singular or plural according to the intention <strong>of</strong><br />
the speaker, as in the grouping <strong>of</strong> the horses,<br />
and the beauty, correctness, and energy <strong>of</strong><br />
their delineation, is remarkable. See agreement:<br />
verbs.<br />
In certain constructions, and may be used
in place <strong>of</strong> to after come, go, run, and try.<br />
(For a fuller discussion <strong>of</strong> this, see the individual<br />
verbs.) In the United States it is<br />
occasionally used in this way with other verbs,<br />
as in be sure and cask, take care and see he<br />
gets it, remember and tell me. These forms are<br />
acceptable English in this country.<br />
Good and is sometimes used as an intensifier,<br />
as in I’m good and tired, it’s good and<br />
cold out. The construction is condemned by<br />
some grammarians but is acceptable spoken<br />
English in the United States. Nice and is used<br />
in much the same way, except that it .always<br />
implies approval, as in nice and cold. This is<br />
not similarly condemned because it is always<br />
possible to believe that the words are meant<br />
separately and independently, and that the<br />
speaker might equally well have said cold and<br />
nice.<br />
And could once be used with the sense <strong>of</strong> if,<br />
as in 1’11 speak to them and they were Popes.<br />
Today, and is only used in this way as a<br />
deliberate archaism and when it is, it is usually<br />
spelled an.<br />
and how! To agree has always been the most<br />
obvious way <strong>of</strong> being agreeable. But the line<br />
between affability and servility is fine. The<br />
“yes man” is something worse than merely<br />
agreeable.<br />
American energy and love <strong>of</strong> exaggeration<br />
demand something more than agreement. The<br />
listener must express not only assent to our<br />
wisdom but amazement at it. He must seize<br />
the speaker’s assertion and push it forward,<br />
implying that the other is far too modelst and<br />
reserved in his utterances. And so we: hear<br />
You can say that again! and And how!<br />
The fault in the use <strong>of</strong> such phrases is not<br />
grammatical but moral. Those who use them<br />
do not need dictionaries so much as clean<br />
hands and pure hearts.<br />
and/or. This word form is very popular today.<br />
It is seen in the most respectable places and<br />
is therefore acceptable current English. But it<br />
should be recognized that and/or is a legalism,<br />
equivalent to each and every, all and sundry,<br />
that it is commonly used in non-legal English<br />
where the simple word or would carry exactly<br />
the same meaning, and that when it is; used<br />
in this way it is verbiage and not evidence <strong>of</strong><br />
the precise thinker.<br />
In most sentences the meaning <strong>of</strong> two words<br />
joined by or includes the meaning <strong>of</strong> those: same<br />
two words joined by and. For example, almost<br />
anything we say about people who read French<br />
or German is also true <strong>of</strong> people who read<br />
French and German, since anyone who reads<br />
both languages also reads one <strong>of</strong> them. Similarly,<br />
when we say he does not read French or<br />
German we have also said that he does not<br />
read French and German. The use <strong>of</strong> and/or<br />
in sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind adds nothing but<br />
confusion.<br />
Sometimes the physical facts themselves are<br />
exclusive and prevent or from carrying the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> and, as in up or down, dead or<br />
33 anomalous<br />
alive. Sometimes the facts are not exclusive<br />
but we want to limit the choice to one. At<br />
present we show this by saying “one or the<br />
other but not both.” It is practically never<br />
necessary to point out that or includes and,<br />
but it <strong>of</strong>ten is necessary to point out that or<br />
does not include nnd. We can’t accomplish<br />
this by using and/or in some other situation.<br />
Perhaps it would help if we took to writing<br />
students may elect French or/notand German!<br />
anent. Except in a highly restricted legal sense,<br />
anent is archaic and had better be left in the<br />
oblivion to which time has consigned it. Those<br />
who use it as a synonym for about or concerning<br />
(in such sentences as Anent the real<br />
power <strong>of</strong> the faculty, there can be little doubt;<br />
it doesn’t exist) display a stiffness, a selfconsciousness,<br />
and a pompousness that reflect<br />
on the sincerity <strong>of</strong> what they have to say.<br />
angle is a standard term for point <strong>of</strong> view in<br />
American usage, but it is woefully strained<br />
and abused when used, as it so <strong>of</strong>ten is in<br />
journalism, to mean interpretation or even<br />
<strong>of</strong>icial position (as in O.K., what’s the angle?<br />
What are we supposed to say?). Purists, tilting<br />
at a geometrical windmill in the hopes <strong>of</strong><br />
stopping a grammatical error, have complained<br />
that you cannot approach anything from an<br />
angle (as in Yes, but you’ve got to approach<br />
it from his angle), that you have to approach<br />
at an angle. But this is a futile plaint. The<br />
term may be killed by its own excesses. Sir<br />
Ernest Gowers quotes a matter <strong>of</strong> personal<br />
angularity for point <strong>of</strong> view.<br />
Anglo-Indian. See mulatto.<br />
angry. See mad.<br />
animalculum. The plural is animalcula. Animalcula<br />
is sometimes treated as a singular and<br />
given a new plural form animalculae. This<br />
won’t do. A singular animalcula with a regular<br />
plural animalculas would make good English.<br />
But when the word carries the learned ending<br />
ae it has to be condemned as bad Latin.<br />
annalist. See analyst.<br />
annoy. See aggravate.<br />
anomalous; irregular; defective. That which is<br />
anomalous deviates from the ordinary rule,<br />
type, or form. It is irregular and does not<br />
conform to fixed principles or established procedures.<br />
An amusing instance <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the word, amusing in the extremity <strong>of</strong> its correctness,<br />
was Sir Thomas Browne’s statement<br />
in his Pseudodoxia Epidemica that Eve anomalously<br />
proceeded from Adam.<br />
To the formalist all irregularity is a fault<br />
but there are many, less strict, to whom some<br />
anomalies are virtues. But that which is dejective<br />
must in all vocabularies be imperfect.<br />
Anomalous vision might mean eyesight <strong>of</strong> unusual<br />
acuity, but defective vision can only<br />
mean faulty and imperfect vision.<br />
Anomalous is sometimes confused with<br />
anonymous, but this is simply a blunder <strong>of</strong><br />
ignorance, a malapropism so glaring that<br />
humanity dictates that one pretend not to have<br />
heard it. Anonymous means nameless. Of
answer 34<br />
course an anonymous work can be anomalous.<br />
The Tale <strong>of</strong> a Tub was.<br />
answer; reply; rejoinder; response; retort; riposte.<br />
Answer and reply, the everyday words, are<br />
almost synonymous. A rejoinder is an answer<br />
to a reply and since tempers are likely to rise<br />
when answers begin to be bandied there is in<br />
rejoinder <strong>of</strong>ten the suggestion <strong>of</strong> incisiveness.<br />
Retort has a definite connotation <strong>of</strong> retaliation.<br />
It is cutting, severe, witty, a definite counter<br />
to a statement or argument.<br />
A riposte is a quick thrust in fencing, given<br />
after parrying a lunge, and its application to<br />
a maneuver in conversation frankly acknowledges<br />
the encounter to be a duel. However,<br />
the fact that it is not an English word, the fact<br />
that it is drawn from a sport (for Englishspeaking<br />
people have not taken dueling seriously<br />
for more than a hundred years), and<br />
perhaps the fact that most people do not think<br />
<strong>of</strong> conversation as a contest, gives a riposte<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> a studiedly clever but not very<br />
crushing retort. Repartee, also a term from<br />
fencing, implies an even lighter answer, though<br />
a witty one.<br />
antagonist; opponent; adversary. An opponent is<br />
one who opposes, who takes the opposite side,<br />
usually in a controversy or a debate (My distinguished<br />
opponent, whom I regret to see<br />
among his present associates . . .). An antagonist,<br />
in the strict sense, is one who opposes<br />
in a physical struggle (He that wrestles with<br />
us . . . our antagonist . . .). It is not always<br />
restricted to its strict sense but in extension it<br />
carries with it the suggestion <strong>of</strong> opposition in<br />
a hostile spirit, <strong>of</strong>ten in a particular contest or<br />
struggle (But at lust in Johnson, Macpherson<br />
found a formidable antagonist). The desire <strong>of</strong><br />
journalists to heighten the drama <strong>of</strong> everyday<br />
events and, especially, to add to the tension<br />
and resentment <strong>of</strong> every disagreement has led<br />
to the abuse <strong>of</strong> antagonist. It is too <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
as a mere synonym for opponent. See also<br />
protagonist.<br />
Adversary suggests an enemy who fights<br />
determinedly and continuously and relentlessly<br />
(Satan, adversary <strong>of</strong> God and man).<br />
antagonize; oppose. Though to antagonize can<br />
mean to oppose (The Democrats are resolved<br />
to antagonize this and all other bills . . .),<br />
this meaning is now rare and it has come,<br />
particularly in America, to mean to cause to<br />
oppose, to arouse hostility in (The passage <strong>of</strong><br />
the bill is certain to antagonize the labor<br />
unions). It is something more, too. Those who<br />
are antagonized are not only aroused to opposition<br />
but are made irritable and resentful. To<br />
be so affected is, perhaps, in all but the most<br />
philosophic, an inescapable concomitant <strong>of</strong><br />
being opposed and this suggestion in the word<br />
illustrates nicely the manner in which words<br />
acquire added shades <strong>of</strong> meaning.<br />
ante-; anti-. Ante- means before, either in place<br />
or time. An antechamber is a small room that<br />
comes before a large one. Antediluvian times<br />
were times before the Flood and antebellum<br />
means before the war. (In American usage<br />
antebellum means almost exclusively the decades<br />
immediately preceding the Civil War and,<br />
for some reason, is applied chiefly to the<br />
South.)<br />
Anti- means opposed to. An antitoxin opposes<br />
the effect <strong>of</strong> a toxin or poison. An<br />
anticlimax opposes the effect <strong>of</strong> a climax.<br />
Anticipate is an exception. Here anti- equals<br />
ante-. It is simply an established variant in<br />
spelling.<br />
antecedent. When used as a grammatical term<br />
antecedent means the word or group <strong>of</strong> words<br />
referred to by a pronoun. It does not necessarily<br />
come before the pronoun and it may<br />
not be mentioned at all. For example, leaf is<br />
the antecedent <strong>of</strong> its in the one red leaf, the<br />
last <strong>of</strong> its clan. But mastiff is the antecedent<br />
<strong>of</strong> her in outside her kennel the mastifl old<br />
lay fast asleep, and the antecedent <strong>of</strong> what in<br />
what can ail the mastiff bitch? is unknown.<br />
Under some circumstances certain pronouns<br />
cannot be used without an antecedent which<br />
actually precedes them. These words are said<br />
to “carry back” or to be “anaphoric.” For example,<br />
them, some, any, are anaphoric when<br />
they do not refer to human beings. Anaphoric<br />
pronouns must be handled carefully. In a carelessly<br />
constructed sentence they sometimes pick<br />
up an antecedent that was not intended. In<br />
the figure <strong>of</strong> speech he put his foot in it, the<br />
pronoun it has a general or indefinite reference.<br />
But in everytime he opens his mouth he<br />
puts his foot in it, the it suddenly becomes<br />
anaphoric and carries back to mouth.<br />
A pronoun is said to agree with its antecedent<br />
in number. That is, the pronoun should<br />
be singular if the antecedent is singular and<br />
plural if the antecedent is plural. In English,<br />
the number <strong>of</strong> the pronoun depends on the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the antecedent more than on its<br />
strict grammatical form. See indefinite pronouns<br />
and agreement: verbs.<br />
antelope. The plural is antelopes or antelope.<br />
antenna. The plural is antennas or antennae. In<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> radios, antennas is the only plural<br />
form used. In speaking <strong>of</strong> insects, either form<br />
may be used but antennae is generally preferred.<br />
antepenult. The antepenult (a shortened form <strong>of</strong><br />
antepenultima) is the last syllable but two in<br />
a word, as syl in monosyllable. See penult.<br />
anticipate; expect; hope; await. Anticipate, in its<br />
strictest sense, meant to seize or take possession<br />
<strong>of</strong> beforehand. (The Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
quotes, under the date <strong>of</strong> 1623, a soldier who<br />
feared that his enemy might anticipate the tops<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mountains and hence have him at a<br />
disadvantage.) From this sense it was a natural<br />
development to conceive <strong>of</strong> emotions, whether<br />
pleasant or unpleasant, being experienced<br />
before the event, so that one could, in anticipation,<br />
foretaste experiences (Some lives do<br />
actually anticipate the happiness <strong>of</strong> heaven).<br />
To expect means to believe that something<br />
will occur. The greatness <strong>of</strong> Nelson’s famous
signal, England expects every man to do his<br />
duty, lay in the calm assurance that the duty<br />
would be done. Expect, especially when spoken<br />
with shrill emphasis by harassed parents or<br />
executives uncertain <strong>of</strong> their authority, meaning<br />
require or order (I expect this to be done<br />
by the time I get back!) is a weak bluster<br />
word, for the emphasis belies the assurance<br />
which is the word’s strength. To anticipate<br />
means to look forward eagerly to the event, to<br />
picture it in the mind’s eye, to seize in<br />
advance, as it were, the experience to come. So<br />
that to make anticipate merely a synonym <strong>of</strong><br />
expect is to deprive it <strong>of</strong> much <strong>of</strong> its meaning.<br />
This has already been done in American usage<br />
to such an extent that it can hardly be regarded<br />
as a serious fault. But enough <strong>of</strong> distinct<br />
meanings remains for the discriminating writer<br />
to prefer one to the other.<br />
TO hope is to wish that some favo:rable<br />
event will take place, with some expectation<br />
that it will. When Swift, in his dreadful last<br />
years, on parting from a friend, said quietly<br />
I hope we may never meet again, the anguish<br />
<strong>of</strong> his pessimism and the depth <strong>of</strong> his weariness<br />
with life were brilliantly expressed by<br />
thrusting hope with all its common conmotations<br />
into this unexpected context.<br />
To await simply means to be prepared to<br />
accept something when it comes (We await<br />
your reply). One hopes for good. One awaits<br />
good or evil.<br />
anticlimax. The word climax derives from a<br />
Greek word for ladder. In rhetoric it signifies<br />
a figure in which the meaning rises in a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> images each <strong>of</strong> which exceeds the one before<br />
it in dignity, splendor, or passion. In popular<br />
use the word means the last step in a rising<br />
series, the point <strong>of</strong> highest development, though<br />
in the eternal search for more superlative superlatives<br />
that marks popular speech and<br />
writing, capping the climax has come to mean<br />
much what climaxing meant.<br />
An anticlimax is that which is opposed (in<br />
spirit or by its nature) to a climax. It opposes,<br />
that is, the climactic effect which the climax<br />
sought to achieve. Since an anticlimax must<br />
come after the climax (otherwise the climax<br />
would be the climax still, though possibly impaired),<br />
it consists <strong>of</strong> a ludicrous descent when<br />
the rhythm or the sense or the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> the action leads the listener or the reader<br />
to expect a continued ascent.<br />
Of course, whether something is a climax<br />
or an anticlimax depends on the values <strong>of</strong> the<br />
one who judges it. Thus when an enthusiastic<br />
Scotch bard apostrophized one Dalhousie, a<br />
warrior, as the great God <strong>of</strong> War,/ Lieutenant-<br />
Colonel to the Earl <strong>of</strong> Mar, the order <strong>of</strong> titles<br />
seems to one unfamiliar with the Earl <strong>of</strong> Mar<br />
to be improper. But by standards <strong>of</strong> Scottish<br />
loyalty it may not be. When Hugh Kingsmill,<br />
after commenting unfavorably on a poem <strong>of</strong><br />
Joseph Cottle’s, said that Cottle’s other works<br />
are three epic poems and a new kin(d <strong>of</strong><br />
blacking, the anticlimax was intentional and<br />
35 antonomasia<br />
meant to drag the luckless bookseller-author<br />
down with it. Fowler cites I Kings, 15:23, as<br />
an example <strong>of</strong> anticlimax: The rest <strong>of</strong> all fhe<br />
acts <strong>of</strong> Asa, and all his might, and all that he<br />
did, and the cities which he built, are they not<br />
written in the book <strong>of</strong> the chronicles <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Kings <strong>of</strong> Judah? Nevertheless in the time <strong>of</strong><br />
his old age he was diseased in his feet. But<br />
Asa’s sore feet were a matter <strong>of</strong> great interest<br />
to the various historians <strong>of</strong> the Old Testament.<br />
He is never mentioned without a reference to<br />
them. And it may have been that the allusion<br />
to them was meant as an anticlimax, a humbling<br />
<strong>of</strong> his greatness.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the most-quoted anticlimaxes in<br />
English literature is the conclusion <strong>of</strong> Enoch<br />
Arden: So past the strong heroic soul away./<br />
And when they buried him, the little port/<br />
Had seldom seen a costlier funeral. Well, the<br />
Victorians attached great importance to funeral<br />
expenses.<br />
antithesis (the plural is antitheses) is a term in<br />
rhetoric for setting contrasting phrases opposite<br />
to each other for emphasis (as Bacon’s Crafty<br />
men contemn studies: simple men admire them;<br />
and wise men use them or Dryden’s description<br />
<strong>of</strong> a parsimonious zealot: Cold was his kitchen,<br />
but his h&ad was hot). The great master <strong>of</strong><br />
antithesis (as <strong>of</strong> almost every other rhetorical<br />
device) in English is Alexander Pope. And<br />
perhaps his most effective use <strong>of</strong> it is in his<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the affected and effeminate but<br />
brilliant and in many ways attractive Lord<br />
Hervey: Amphibious thing! that acting either<br />
part,/ The trifling head, or the corrupted<br />
heart;/ Fop at the toilet, flatterer at the board,/<br />
Now trips a lady, and now struts a lord./ . . .<br />
Beauty that shocks you, parts that none will<br />
trust,/ Wit that can creep, and pride that licks<br />
the dust.<br />
The virtuosity <strong>of</strong> the lines lies in the startling<br />
contrasts <strong>of</strong> the juxtaposed phrases, but their<br />
transcendent art lies in the fact that they are<br />
used to describe one who (in Pope’s estimation)<br />
was himself one vile antithesis.<br />
antonomasia means a “calling instead.” It consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> using an epithet or appellative other<br />
than his personal name to identify an individual,<br />
or <strong>of</strong> using a proper name to identify<br />
an individual with a certain class <strong>of</strong> persons.<br />
An example <strong>of</strong> the first sort <strong>of</strong> antonomasia<br />
is the use <strong>of</strong> a title instead <strong>of</strong> person’s name:<br />
“his grace” for a duke; “the reverend” for a<br />
clergyman (colloq.); “his nibs” for an important<br />
person (slang). There has been quite<br />
a vogue for antonomasia <strong>of</strong> this kind in<br />
twentieth century America. Clara Bow was “the<br />
It girl,” John Barrymore “The Pr<strong>of</strong>ile,” Frank<br />
Sinatra “The Voice,” Marie McDonald “The<br />
Body” and Stan Musial “The Man.” In highland<br />
Scotland the male head <strong>of</strong> the house has<br />
been “himself” for centuries.<br />
Of the second form, the substitution <strong>of</strong> a<br />
personal name as an epithet, many examples<br />
are in current use. F. Scott Fitzgerald recalls<br />
a familiar one in The Great Gatsby when he
antonym 3 6<br />
has the owl-eyed man describe Gatsby as an<br />
impresario because he has real books in his<br />
librarv: This fella’s a regular Belasco. Even<br />
the most illiterate are likely to know that a<br />
Jonah brings bad luck, a Scrooge is a tightwad,<br />
a Shylock an extortionate usurer, a Solomon a<br />
wise man, a Barney Oldfield a fast driver, an<br />
Einstein a scientific genius, an Adonis a handsome<br />
young man, a Romeo a romantic young<br />
lover, a Casanova or a Don Juan a ladykiller,<br />
a Mentor a teacher or adviser, a Micawber an<br />
incurable optimist, a Hercules a strong man.<br />
Very few women’s names have acquired<br />
symbolic or generic stature. A Bernhardt, to<br />
describe an actress, is one <strong>of</strong> the very few.<br />
American literature has contributed surprisingly<br />
few names to describe a general characteristic.<br />
Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom is<br />
one, though Mrs. Stowe would be aghast to<br />
learn that it is now an epithet <strong>of</strong> contempt.<br />
Perhaps the best known is Sinclair Lewis’s<br />
Babbitt. Faulkner’s Snopes, for a rising<br />
Southern poor white, and Sartoris, for a declining<br />
Southern gentleman, deserve currency.<br />
antonym. An antonym is a word opposed in<br />
meaning to another. Good is the antonym <strong>of</strong><br />
bad, hot <strong>of</strong> cold. Antonym is the antonym <strong>of</strong><br />
synonym.<br />
anxious; eager. One who is anxious is full <strong>of</strong><br />
anxiety, troubled solicitude, uneasiness (Why<br />
didn’t you telephone? You knew how anxious,<br />
how frantic, Z was!) One who is eager is<br />
ardently desirous (I am eager fo see the check.<br />
He only said it would be “big”). Originally<br />
eager meant pungent or sharp (Shakespeare<br />
refers to condiments as eager compounds that<br />
urge the palate, and there is the famous reference<br />
in Hamlet to a nipping and an eager air<br />
on the icy battlements <strong>of</strong> Elsinore). An element<br />
<strong>of</strong> this sharpness still remains in the<br />
strictly proper use <strong>of</strong> eager. The anxious person<br />
is in a state <strong>of</strong> suspense. The eager person<br />
strains in thought towards the coming event.<br />
The anxious are fearful, the eager hopeful.<br />
With such fundamental differences in meaning,<br />
it would not seem likely that the two<br />
words would ever become synonymous or confused.<br />
But though eager is never used where<br />
anxious is meant, anxious is <strong>of</strong>ten used for<br />
eager (The child is anxious to go with you).<br />
The use has been protested, but protests are<br />
<strong>of</strong> little avail against usage and usage has a<br />
psychological if not a linguistic justication<br />
here: for all anxietv is eager for relief and all<br />
eagerness, looking forward, has an element <strong>of</strong><br />
uncertainty, and in all uncertainty there is a<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> anxiety.<br />
any. This word may be used as an adjective<br />
qualifying a noun, or as a pronoun standing<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> a noun. When used as a singular<br />
it means “one, no matter which.” When used<br />
as a plural, it means “some, no matter which.”<br />
As an adjective, it may qualify a singular noun,<br />
as in any child, or a plural noun, as in any<br />
children. As a pronoun, it could once be used<br />
as a singular, as in unseen <strong>of</strong> any. This is now<br />
archaic. In current English the pronoun any<br />
is always treated as a plural, as in if any think<br />
they are wise.<br />
With certain limitations, any may also be<br />
used as an adverb, to qualify words that are<br />
not nouns. In Great Britain any is acceptable<br />
before a comparative form, as in any nearer,<br />
any less true, any the worse for it: before<br />
too, as in any too much time; and before more,<br />
as in have you any more money and he doesn’t<br />
come here any more. In the United States any<br />
may also be used alone with a verb, as in did<br />
you sleep any? Here the pronoun any is being<br />
used instead <strong>of</strong> the adverbial phrase at all.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> any is comparable to the use <strong>of</strong><br />
everyplace for everywhere and what time for<br />
when. It is acceptable English in the United<br />
States.<br />
Any may be used as an adverb in a<br />
question, an if clause, or a statement that is<br />
negative at least by implication, such as I’m<br />
surprised you come here any more. In literary<br />
English it cannot be used in a simple affirmative<br />
statement. In some parts <strong>of</strong> the United<br />
States any is used in affirmative statements,<br />
such as we go there <strong>of</strong>ten any more (where<br />
any more means “now”). This is not standard<br />
in most parts <strong>of</strong> the country.<br />
anybody; anyone. These words are singular and<br />
take a singular verb, as in has anybody called?<br />
Since it usually isn’t known whether the<br />
“anybody” spoken about is a man or a woman,<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the pronoun they are generally preferred<br />
to forms <strong>of</strong> he when referring back to<br />
anybody, as in if anybody calls tell them Z<br />
have gone. This is less true <strong>of</strong> anyone. Forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> they are used in speaking <strong>of</strong> anyone, but<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> he are also heard frequently.<br />
anyhow; anyhows. The only acceptable form is<br />
anyhow. Anyhows is not standard.<br />
anyone. See anybody.<br />
anyplace. The use <strong>of</strong> anyplace as a substitute for<br />
anywhere, as in Z could not find it anyplace, is<br />
condemned by many grammarians because the<br />
noun place is here being used instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adverb where. This usage is not acceptable in<br />
Great Britain but it occurs too <strong>of</strong>ten in the<br />
United States, in written as well as in spoken<br />
English, to be called nonstandard. It is acceptable<br />
English in this country.<br />
anytime. In Great Britain the word anytime is<br />
never used as an adverb, as it is in the sentence<br />
he will see you anytime, and a preposition is<br />
required, as in he will see you at any time. But<br />
the construction without at is standard in the<br />
United States and can be heard in the most<br />
impressive <strong>of</strong>fices.<br />
anyway; anyways; anywise. Both -way forms are<br />
standard English in such constructions as if<br />
you are anyway concerned and if they are<br />
anyways useful. In the United States anyway<br />
is preferred to anyways. The form anywise is<br />
also standard English, but it is not <strong>of</strong>ten heard<br />
in this country.<br />
Some grammarians condemn the use <strong>of</strong><br />
anyway as a connective between sentences, as
in anyway, he didn’t come. Here anyway is<br />
perhaps short for anyway you look at it. The<br />
construction is acceptable in spoken English<br />
and in written English that hopes to capture<br />
the force and charm <strong>of</strong> speech.<br />
anywhere; anywheres. Anywhere is the only acceptable<br />
form in written English. In the United<br />
States anywheres is <strong>of</strong>ten heard in the speech<br />
<strong>of</strong> well educated people, but it does not alppear<br />
in print.<br />
Anywhere is <strong>of</strong>ten used with an unnecessary<br />
that, as in anywhere that a mule can go. This<br />
construction has been in use for a very short<br />
time but it is accepted English in the United<br />
States. .<br />
apartment. In the United States a suite <strong>of</strong> rooms<br />
is called an apartment and treated as a singular,<br />
as in a three-room apartment. In Great<br />
Britain this use <strong>of</strong> the word is consildered<br />
archaic; an apartment there means one room,<br />
and a suite <strong>of</strong> rooms is treated as a plural and<br />
called apartments. If treated as a singular it is<br />
called a flat. What Americans call an apartment<br />
hotel is known in England as a block <strong>of</strong><br />
service flats.<br />
apex. See top, The plural is apices.<br />
aphis. The plural is aphides, not aphes. A new<br />
singular, aphid, with a regular plural aphids,<br />
is in use and is generally preferred to the<br />
classical aphis, aphides.<br />
apiece; a piece. apiece means one to each or each<br />
by itself, as Our cakes are a dollar apiece. A<br />
piece is a fragment, as Our cake is ten cents<br />
a piece.<br />
apocrypha. This word, meaning a collection <strong>of</strong><br />
writings <strong>of</strong> doubtful authenticity, was originally<br />
plural but is now regularly treated as a<br />
singular, as in the apocrypha is not included.<br />
It has a regular plural, apocryphas, meaning<br />
more than one such collection.<br />
When the form apocrypha was used as a<br />
plural, meaning a number <strong>of</strong> documents, there<br />
was a singular form apocryphon, meaning one<br />
document. This is no longer heard in the<br />
United States.<br />
apocryphal means <strong>of</strong> doubtful authenticity, spurious<br />
(The apocryphal books <strong>of</strong> the Bible are<br />
those not included in the canon). It is used <strong>of</strong><br />
anecdotes and legends which cannot be shown<br />
to be genuine (The story <strong>of</strong> his kissing the<br />
maid is apocryphal).<br />
apologia. The word is a singular, but is sometimes<br />
mistaken for a plural. If a plural form<br />
is used, it should be apologias.<br />
apology; excuse. An apology implies that one has<br />
been, at least apparently, in the wrong. It is<br />
a formal word and expresses the hope <strong>of</strong> setting<br />
things right by explaining the circumstanc:es or<br />
by acknowledging a fault and expressing regret<br />
for it. There is usually an element <strong>of</strong> humiliation<br />
in having to make an apology.<br />
An excuse is a plea in extenuation <strong>of</strong> a<br />
more trivial fault; and where an apology<br />
accepts guilt and seeks to make reparation, an<br />
excuse seeks, rather, to shift the blame: and<br />
repudiate guilt.<br />
37 apostrophe<br />
Since excuses and apologies are <strong>of</strong>ten farfetched<br />
and do not always seem sincere to the<br />
injured, insulted, or inconvenienced person,<br />
both excuse and apology are used facetiously<br />
to mean makeshift. When so used they are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten preceded by poor, shabby, or some other<br />
derogatory adjective (a poor excuse for a<br />
house).<br />
Pardon me is a little stilted when used<br />
where excuse me would be better. Excuse me<br />
is simply a polite request to someone to let<br />
us pass or to overlook some minor, accidental<br />
breach <strong>of</strong> etiquette. Pardon me implies that the<br />
other person has power over our fate and<br />
has to be besought to forgive us.<br />
a posteriori. See a priori.<br />
apostles. See disciples.<br />
apostrophe. The apostrophe is used primarily to<br />
show that letters have been omitted, as in<br />
we’re coming and don’t hurry. <strong>Cont</strong>ractions<br />
such as these represent normal spoken English<br />
and there is no reason why they should not<br />
be used in writing. In speech we do not say<br />
we are coming or do not hurry unless we want<br />
to make the point emphatic, and the practice<br />
<strong>of</strong> not using the contracted form in writing<br />
sometimes gives the writing a didactic or<br />
quarrelsome tone.<br />
An apostrophe is sometimes used in forming<br />
plurals <strong>of</strong> figures, letters, and words that are<br />
not nouns but are being treated as nouns, as<br />
in the 1920’s, your p’s and q’s, the why’s and<br />
wherefore’s. Many publishers today omit these<br />
apostrophes and write the 192Os, the ps and qs,<br />
the whys and wherefores.<br />
An apostrophe is also used to show the<br />
genitive case <strong>of</strong> nouns, as in the horse’s mouth,<br />
a snail’s pace, America’s heritage. It is never<br />
used with a possessive pronoun. An apostrophe<br />
following a personal pronoun always indicates<br />
an omitted letter and usually a contracted is<br />
or are. It’s means it is; who’s means who is;<br />
they’re means they are; and you’re means you<br />
are. There is no difference in spoken English<br />
between the words boys, boy’s, and boys’. Since<br />
we do not need to hear a difference in these<br />
words in order to understand what is said, it is<br />
obvious that we do not need to see a difference<br />
when the words are written. The apostrophe is<br />
entirely a printer’s problem and has nothing to<br />
do with the language itself. It was first used to<br />
indicate a genitive singular about 1680, and to<br />
indicate a genitive plural about a hundred years<br />
later. It is now in the process <strong>of</strong> disappearing.<br />
Bernard Shaw helped to speed this by disregarding<br />
apostrophes in his own writing. In<br />
using a proper name it is courteous to observe<br />
the established form, as in Teacher’s College,<br />
the Court <strong>of</strong> St. James’s, Harpers Ferry. Otherwise,<br />
the fewer apostrophes one uses the better.<br />
If you use an apostrophe where it does not<br />
belong, it shows that you do not know what you<br />
are doing. If you omit an apostrophe where one<br />
is usually expected, it may only prove that you<br />
admire Bernard Shaw.<br />
For the formation <strong>of</strong> genitive singular and
apostrophe 3<br />
plurals, see genitlve case. For the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
apostrophe in measure terms, see measures.<br />
apostrophe (rhetoric). As a term in rhetoric<br />
apostrophe designates a digressive address, the<br />
interruption <strong>of</strong> the course <strong>of</strong> a speech or a<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> writing to address some person or<br />
persons, whether present or absent, real or<br />
imaginary (At the close <strong>of</strong> his argument, he<br />
turned to his client in an affecting apostrophe).<br />
By extension it is also applied to any abrupt<br />
interjectional speech. Lear, pleading passionately<br />
with his daughters that it is not a question<br />
<strong>of</strong> his physical needs, interrupts his argument<br />
with an apostrophe to the gods: But, for true<br />
need-/ You heavens, give me that patience,<br />
patience I need!/ You see me here, you gods,<br />
a poor old man,/ As full <strong>of</strong> grief as age;<br />
wretched in both. . . .<br />
apotheosis. The plural is apotheoses.<br />
apparatus. The plural is apparatuses or apparatus,<br />
not apparafi.<br />
apparent; obvious; evident; patent. Obvious<br />
meant, originally, that which stood in the way<br />
and was, therefore, unavoidable to view or<br />
knowledge. That which is evident is that which<br />
is made unquestionable by demonstrable facts.<br />
A thing or proposition which is patent is open<br />
to the view or comprehension <strong>of</strong> all.<br />
The difficulty with apparent is that it has<br />
two meanings. It can mean capable <strong>of</strong> being<br />
clearly seen or understood and it can mean<br />
seeming (as opposed to real): It is apparent<br />
that the apparent honesty <strong>of</strong> some criminals<br />
is their greatest asset.<br />
An heir apparent is one whose right to an<br />
inheritance is indefeasible if he survives the<br />
ancestor. The plural is heirs apparent.<br />
A patent is a document conferring certain<br />
privileges. The word means that it is open for<br />
all to see, a public document, and since all may<br />
see it no one can claim that he could not know<br />
<strong>of</strong> its provisions. Yet because patents are taken<br />
out to cover the manufacturing rights <strong>of</strong> proprietary<br />
medicines and mechanical devices<br />
whose construction before the issuing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
patent was <strong>of</strong>ten a closely guarded secret, the<br />
word has, in popular usage, the connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> secrecy, the exact opposite <strong>of</strong> its standard<br />
meaning.<br />
appeal. In American usage appeal is intransitive<br />
and transitive. (She appeals to me. The convicted,<br />
if dissatisfied with the verdict, can<br />
appeal his case to a higher court.) In British<br />
usage the transitive form is obsolete.<br />
appear. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he appeared to leave, but not by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb. Appear may be<br />
followed by an adjective describing what<br />
appears, as in he appeared sad, or by an<br />
adverb describing the appearing, as in he<br />
appeared suddenly.<br />
appendix. The plural is appendixes or app,endices.<br />
apperception. See perception.<br />
apple <strong>of</strong> one’s eye (the pupil <strong>of</strong> the eye) was<br />
formerly thought to be a solid, spherical body.<br />
The phrase is an echo <strong>of</strong> the eighth verse <strong>of</strong><br />
the seventeenth Psalm (Keep me as the apple<br />
<strong>of</strong> the eye) which, in turn, is probably an echo<br />
<strong>of</strong> the tenth verse <strong>of</strong> the thirty-second chapter<br />
<strong>of</strong> Deuteronomy (He led him about, he instructed<br />
him, he kept him as the apple <strong>of</strong> his<br />
eye). As a term for something exceedingly<br />
precious and dear it has been worn to meaninglessness<br />
by repetition. As an image, in fact,<br />
it seems repulsively bloodshot and grotesque.<br />
appointment ; assignment; <strong>of</strong>fice; post; station.<br />
Appointment and assignment in the sense <strong>of</strong> a<br />
position or a task to be performed are closely<br />
synonymous, though Americans are inclined<br />
to use assignment in many instances where the<br />
English use appointment. A newspaper reporter’s<br />
assignment and the daily assignment<br />
allotted to a class, together with the assignment<br />
<strong>of</strong> wages in payment <strong>of</strong> a debt are peculiarly<br />
American uses.<br />
An <strong>of</strong>fice, like a position, suggests an employment<br />
<strong>of</strong> some trust and importance. O$ce,<br />
with us, is largely confined to a political<br />
position. Post in the United States means a<br />
military or some other public position; in<br />
England it is used almost as a synonym for<br />
job. Station refers to the sphere <strong>of</strong> duty or<br />
occupation (his station in life) or to the location<br />
<strong>of</strong> the task (He was stationed at<br />
Albuquerque).<br />
appositive. A word, or group <strong>of</strong> words, which<br />
follows immediately after another word or<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words and which means the same<br />
thing is called an appositive, as our first President<br />
in George Washington, our first President,<br />
lived in Virginia. An appositive may be set <strong>of</strong>f<br />
by commas. When commas are not used, as in<br />
Peter the Hermit and the poet Keats, the<br />
second word or group is sometimes called an<br />
adherent. When there is no punctuation, the<br />
second part is felt as closer to the first and<br />
necessary to it. When commas are used, they<br />
sometimes make the second element seem like<br />
a parenthetical aside.<br />
appositive adjectives. See position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
appreciate means to form an estimate <strong>of</strong>, usually<br />
favorable and marked by sensitivity and delicate<br />
perceptions in the appreciator. It also<br />
means to increase in value (Gold has appreciated<br />
steadily for two hundred years). In this<br />
sense it is the antonym <strong>of</strong> depreciate.<br />
Originally appreciate, in the first <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
meanings just given, meant to make an estimate,<br />
even an unfavorable one. Burke said:<br />
We must appreciate these dreadful hydras, and<br />
it is to be hoped that college courses in<br />
Musical Appreciation do not teach their<br />
students to approve <strong>of</strong> every piece they hear.<br />
But this meaning is now rare.<br />
The word is used chiefly, in several ways, as<br />
an elaborate and slightly grudging means <strong>of</strong><br />
saying Thank you or Z will thank you. Early<br />
visitors to America were struck by the fact<br />
that in the West, at least, people were reluctant<br />
to say Thank you, preferring various<br />
circumlocutions such as Much obliged, Well<br />
now, that’s mighty good <strong>of</strong> you, and 1’11 do the<br />
same for you some day. Apparently plain<br />
thanks was felt to be undemocratic. Perhaps
it was thought to imply an acknowledgment <strong>of</strong><br />
at least temporary inferiority, an acknowledgment<br />
which the frontiersman was in no way<br />
and at no time inclined to make.<br />
In its commonest contemporary use, uppreciute<br />
has a vestige <strong>of</strong> this feeling. I appreciate<br />
what you’ve done for me does not directly say<br />
Thanks. It says, I have formed a just estimate<br />
(with my customary keen insight and delicate<br />
perception) <strong>of</strong> your act and [by implication]<br />
I am favorably impressed by it. Now -this is<br />
lordly. A king could not be more graciously<br />
condescending. But it’s a little dishone:st (as<br />
most circumlocutions are) in that it twists<br />
matters in such a way that the recipient <strong>of</strong><br />
the favor seems to be bestowing it. Of course<br />
the ordinary man has very little awareness <strong>of</strong><br />
all this when he uses the phrase; but he must<br />
have some perception <strong>of</strong> it-he must appreciate<br />
it, to some extent-because he so <strong>of</strong>ten seeks<br />
to bolster the assurance with supporting emphasis<br />
(I certainly appreciate what you’ve done<br />
for me! I sure do appreciate it!).<br />
Where appreciation is intended, appreciate<br />
should be used, but when gratitude has to be<br />
expressed it is better to swallow one’s pride<br />
and say Thank you.<br />
apprehend; comprehend. As synonyms <strong>of</strong> understand<br />
(the only one <strong>of</strong> their many meanings<br />
in which they are likely to be confused),<br />
apprehend means getting hold <strong>of</strong> and comprehend<br />
means embracing fully. What one cannot<br />
apprehend one cannot even know about. (A<br />
child does not apprehend danger in an er’ectric<br />
wire.) What one cannot comprehend one is<br />
simply unable to understand fully.<br />
Comprehensive means inclusive. Apprehensive<br />
means perceptive, but apparently, what<br />
the perceptive perceive in life is alarming, for<br />
it also means anxious, uneasy, and fearful.<br />
apprise; apprize. Apprise means to inform or to<br />
notify (He was apprised <strong>of</strong> the danger. He was<br />
apprised <strong>of</strong> his appointment to the pr<strong>of</strong>essorship).<br />
It is a rather formal word, <strong>of</strong>ten overworked<br />
in business correspondence. (See also<br />
tell.)<br />
Apprize means to put a value upon, to appraise.<br />
Actually it is the same word as appraise,<br />
although it has had a different history. Apprize<br />
is not used very much, being confined largely<br />
to legal matters.<br />
Since apprise is sometimes spelled apprize<br />
and since apprize is sometimes spelled apprise,<br />
any attempt to distinguish between them is<br />
absurd. It is simply better-as most people<br />
do-to use appraise when “to put a value<br />
upon,” is the meaning.<br />
approach. When used as a noun approach is<br />
followed by to, as in the approach to the<br />
house. The verb is used without to, as in<br />
they approached the house.<br />
appropriate; expropriate; impropriate. The verb<br />
appropriate is distinguished from rake or give<br />
in that it means to give for a particular rlerson<br />
or purpose or to take from a particular person<br />
or for a particular purpose. Congress appropriates<br />
money because it supplies money only<br />
39 apt<br />
to meet the purposes <strong>of</strong> definite bills that have<br />
been enacted.<br />
The widespread erroneous use <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
may have had its beginning in the grandiloquent<br />
humor <strong>of</strong> the frontier where a man<br />
seeing something that he wanted might say,<br />
1’11 just appropriate that, meaning I will assign<br />
it to my own particular use.<br />
To expropriate is to take, by legal action,<br />
land from a private person for the general use.<br />
The rare word impropriate is limited to ecclesiastical<br />
writings. It means the bestowal <strong>of</strong><br />
church property (as at the time <strong>of</strong> the dissolution<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monasteries in England) upon<br />
private individuals.<br />
approximate- That which is approximate is nearly<br />
exact; it approaches closely to something or<br />
brings it near. To approximate is to approach<br />
closely.<br />
It is desirable to avoid using the word as if<br />
it meant to resemble or to make resemble.<br />
That which approximates something comes<br />
close to it but does not necessarily appear to<br />
be it.<br />
a priori; prima facie. A priori means from cause<br />
to effect, from a general law to a particular<br />
instance, valid independently <strong>of</strong> observationas<br />
opposed to a posteriori (We cannot a priori<br />
determine the value <strong>of</strong> anything wholly new.<br />
We should be guided by observational evidence<br />
and not by a priori principles. Knowledge a<br />
posteriori is a synonym for . . . knowledge<br />
from experience).<br />
A priori is sometimes misused for prima<br />
facie, which means at first view, on the first<br />
impression, before making an investigation,<br />
especially in the phrase an a priori case. The<br />
two phrases are not the same. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
technical philosophical terms, especially in a<br />
foreign language, lays one open to the accusation<br />
<strong>of</strong> pedantry anyway and to misuse them<br />
will quickly get one convicted <strong>of</strong> both pedantry<br />
and ignorance.<br />
apropos. This word is sometimes followed by to,<br />
but <strong>of</strong> is preferrable, as in this is apropos <strong>of</strong><br />
what you were saying.<br />
apt; likely. Apt and likely are close synonyms,<br />
but the careful speaker or writer will make a<br />
distinction between them. Apt, in its primary<br />
sense, means fit or suitable. Likely indicates a<br />
probability arising from the nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
situation. Of a witty and cutting reply to<br />
some insolent remark it might be said that<br />
It was an apt answer: just the sort <strong>of</strong> thing<br />
that so-and-so would be likely to say.<br />
When applied to persons, apt means inclined<br />
or prone; when applied to things, it means<br />
habitually liable. Apt is <strong>of</strong>ten applied to the<br />
general situation, likely to the specific. We say,<br />
Snow is apt to fall in Chicago in late November.<br />
On a day in late November in Chicago<br />
when the weather conditions indicate that there<br />
probably will be snow, we say, It is likely to<br />
snow today.<br />
Apt, when used in the sense <strong>of</strong> prone or<br />
liable, may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
hP is apt to forget, but not by the -ing form
aquarium 40<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb. When it means capable, it ma.y be<br />
followed by at and the -ing form, as in he is<br />
upr ar painting, but not by an infinitive.<br />
aquarium. The plural is aquariums or aquaria.<br />
Arab; Arabian; Arabic. Arab pertains to the<br />
Arabs, Arabian to Arabia, and Arabic (with<br />
the exception <strong>of</strong> gum arabic and the names <strong>of</strong><br />
certain shrubs) to the languages which have<br />
developed out <strong>of</strong> the language and culture <strong>of</strong><br />
the Arabians at the time <strong>of</strong> Mohammed Ior to<br />
the standard literary and classical language<br />
established by the Koran.<br />
There is a tendency to call the inhabitants <strong>of</strong><br />
Arabia Arabians to distinguish them from the<br />
Arabs <strong>of</strong> North Africa. We call our numerals<br />
arabic because we acquired them from the<br />
Arabs at the great period <strong>of</strong> their culture.<br />
arbiter; arbitrator. An arbiter is one who has<br />
power to decide according to his own pleasure.<br />
We speak <strong>of</strong> a social arbiter, one whose social<br />
preeminence is so widely acknowledged that<br />
his word suffices to settle disputes <strong>of</strong> precedence<br />
and custom. Byron spoke <strong>of</strong> Napole80n as<br />
the arbiter <strong>of</strong> others’ fate,/ A suppliant for<br />
his own.<br />
An arbiter differs from a judge in that, once<br />
chosen or appointed, his decision in the disputed<br />
matter can be purely personal and is not<br />
subject to review. He need <strong>of</strong>fer no explanation<br />
for it. It is, as we say, arbitrary.<br />
Arbiter and orbitrutor were formerly synonymous<br />
and are still recognized as such by most<br />
dictionaries. But the use <strong>of</strong> the latter term in<br />
recent years to designate one assigned to settle<br />
labor disputes has led to a change in its<br />
meaning. When labor was weak and disorganized<br />
an arbitrator might proceed in an arbitrary<br />
manner, but now that labor is stron,g and<br />
organized he is expected to be conciliatory<br />
and to bring the conflicting parties, as diplomatically<br />
as possible, to accept a compromise.<br />
So that arbitrator now carries-in popular<br />
usage-a definite suggestion <strong>of</strong> tactfulness and<br />
patience. The distance the word has moved<br />
from arbiter in the past generation is made<br />
plain by the reflection that an arbitrary man<br />
would be most unsuitable today as an<br />
arbitrator.<br />
arboretum. The plural is arboretums or arboreta.<br />
arcanum. The plural is arcanums or arcana.<br />
archaism. When a word is described as an<br />
archaism it means that it is old-fashioned and<br />
no longer used in general, informal writing.<br />
An obsolete word is one that has fallen<br />
completely into disuse. Swink, a verb meaning<br />
to work hard, is an example. Chaucer uses<br />
it consistently (Let Austin have his swink to<br />
him reserved). But it has not been in use now<br />
for centuries and would be meaningless to all<br />
but a few scholars.<br />
An archaic word would probably be understood,<br />
but it would seem strange. Forsooth,<br />
belike, and parlous are examples. Educated<br />
people have encountered most <strong>of</strong> them in<br />
poetry and usually know their meanings; but<br />
they would regard their use in ordinary prose<br />
or speech as an affectation.<br />
Of course if a skilled writer or speaker<br />
chooses to use an archaic word for a distinct<br />
purpose-to add a touch <strong>of</strong> the ridiculous, to<br />
indicate affectation in another, or even just<br />
to give an archaic flavor-he is free to do<br />
so; but he runs the risk <strong>of</strong> having his subtlety<br />
misunderstood and himself scorned.<br />
archives. This word may mean a collection <strong>of</strong><br />
documents, as in he rummaged among the<br />
archives, or a building in which such documents<br />
are kept, as in the Archives are on<br />
Constitution Avenue. In either case, the word<br />
is treated as a plural.<br />
A singular form archive was once in use<br />
and could mean one document or one building.<br />
This is now obsolete in the United States.<br />
are. See be.<br />
arena. The plural is arenas or arenae.<br />
aren’t I?. See ain’t.<br />
Argentina; Argentine. The country is Argentina<br />
or, formally, The Argentine Republic. An<br />
Argentine is one <strong>of</strong> its inhabitants. It is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
called the Argentine, as the United States is<br />
called the States, and the term which on its<br />
introduction had an air <strong>of</strong> knowing familiarity<br />
about it has increased in popularity to the<br />
point where it cannot be regarded as wrong.<br />
But those who use it should bear in mind that<br />
it is an informal designation.<br />
argot; jargon. An argot is a language, usually<br />
esoteric, used by a peculiar group, class, or<br />
occupation. It was originally thieves’ cant, a<br />
form <strong>of</strong> speech which deliberately employed<br />
extravagant slang and strange terms in order<br />
to conceal its true meaning from outsiders.<br />
Jargon means unintelligible writing or talk.<br />
It originally meant a twittering sound and<br />
poets have referred to the sweet jargoning <strong>of</strong><br />
birds. Of course argot is jargon to those who<br />
do not understand it, but to accuse the special<br />
vocabulary <strong>of</strong> some branch <strong>of</strong> science or <strong>of</strong><br />
some sect <strong>of</strong> being unintelligible is risky since<br />
in so doing one lays one’s self open to the<br />
counter charge <strong>of</strong> being unintelligent. Jargon<br />
is a term <strong>of</strong> contempt and must be used<br />
carefully.<br />
arise. The past tense is arose. The participle is<br />
arisen.<br />
arise; rise. Arise in the literal sense <strong>of</strong> getting up<br />
from a sitting or lying position (Arise, and<br />
take up thy bed and walk. My lady sweet,<br />
arise) is now rather archaic. We say rise, as<br />
Farmers rise early, The sun rises in the east,<br />
and so on.<br />
Arise is used in preference to rise in metaphorical<br />
senses, when something is coming<br />
into being (as How did this quarrel arise?)<br />
or when something results or proceeds from<br />
something else (as Enmities <strong>of</strong>ten arise from<br />
jests).<br />
arm; sleeve. A reference to the sleeve <strong>of</strong> a<br />
garment as its arm is a natural extension and<br />
would be understood by anyone and, surely,<br />
it is as much the arm <strong>of</strong> the garment as the<br />
arm <strong>of</strong> a chair is its arm. None the less it is<br />
not accepted in formal usage: A man puts his<br />
arm into the sleeve <strong>of</strong> his coat,
armed to the teeth. This expression would se:em<br />
to refer to pirates or sailors who in a naval<br />
engagement, pistols and knives thrust in their<br />
belts, held their cutlasses in their teeth at the<br />
moment <strong>of</strong> boarding, so that they might have<br />
their hands free to clutch the rigging or the<br />
gunwales. Or at least they are occasionally<br />
so depicted in romantic drawings and stories.<br />
The excess <strong>of</strong> ferocity <strong>of</strong> such overloading with<br />
implements <strong>of</strong> war has about it-at least from<br />
the safety <strong>of</strong> our distance from it-something<br />
comic, and the phrase is almost always used<br />
now with a humorous intention. Indeed, it<br />
strikes us as incongruous to find the phrase<br />
used seriously, as in William Cullen Bryant’s<br />
apostrophe to Freedom: Armed to the teeth,<br />
art thou.<br />
It has, however, been more than a century<br />
now since pirates have boarded ships, with or<br />
without cutlasses in their teeth, and the phrase<br />
is stale and should be avoided.<br />
arms. When referring to weapons, this is a mass<br />
word with plural form. It is followed by a<br />
plural verb but cannot be used with a numeral<br />
or a numeral word such as many or few. It<br />
has no singular form an arm.<br />
This does not apply to the compound firearms.<br />
This is treated as a regular plural, as<br />
in he had three firearms. The singular form<br />
a firearm is rare but can be used.<br />
aroma. An aroma was originally a spice. The<br />
Ancren Riwle, an old English religious work,<br />
says that the three Maries brought aromas for<br />
to smear our Lord. Then it came to mean .the<br />
odor <strong>of</strong> spices and then, its current meaning,<br />
a spicy odor or bouquet.<br />
Our forefathers, much given to euphemism<br />
and jocularity, <strong>of</strong>ten used aroma facetiously<br />
as a synonym for smell and, their humorous<br />
intention forgotten, some continue to use it in<br />
this way seriously, though they still keep<br />
enough <strong>of</strong> the proper meaning to apply it to<br />
pleasant smells. But, even so, it is better to<br />
restrict it to its specific meaning.<br />
The plural is aromas or aromata, not aromae.<br />
arose. See arise.<br />
around; round. In the United States round is<br />
used to describe an object, as in this round<br />
world, but otherwise the form around is preferred,<br />
as in they flew around the world and<br />
the earth turns around. In Great Britain around<br />
has almost disappeared from speech and round<br />
is generally preferred, as in they flew round<br />
the-world and sleeping the clock round. The<br />
British form is unusual in the United States<br />
but it is acceptable. It should not be written<br />
with an apostrophe, as in ‘round.<br />
In Great Britain round always suggests a<br />
circle. It means circular or surrounding. In<br />
the United States around can also be used to<br />
mean within a certain area, as in they traveled<br />
around Europe, and approximately, as in he<br />
is worth around a million. These uses have<br />
been standard in the United States for at least<br />
seventy-five years.<br />
arrange. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I arranged to meet him at five,<br />
41 artillery<br />
If the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used it must be<br />
introduced by the preposition for, as in I<br />
arranged for meeting him at five. Arrange may<br />
also be followed by a clause, but the clause<br />
verb must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in I arranged that 1. should<br />
meet him at five. The infinitive construction is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
arrant. See errant.<br />
arresting; striking; impressive. Arresting is recognized<br />
by almost all dictionaries as a synonym<br />
for striking, in the sense <strong>of</strong> impressive. But<br />
the careful writer will, as always, try to select<br />
the adjective that gives the exact meaning he<br />
wants to express. An arresting occurrence is<br />
one that stops and holds the attention. Impressive<br />
(perhaps merely in its sound, which<br />
is a considerable reason) suggests a more<br />
massive impact than striking.<br />
arrival. See advent.<br />
arrive on the scene. It is better just to arrive.<br />
The histrionics, obvious in the phrase, have<br />
been overworked.<br />
arrogance. See pride.<br />
arrogate; arrogant. See abrogate.<br />
art; artifice; artful; artificial; arty. The ordinary<br />
man mistrusts the skilled man, assuming<br />
(probably with full justification) that he will<br />
employ his skill unscrupulously to his own<br />
advantage. And the man who lacks a skill has<br />
a tendency to revenge himself upon anyone<br />
who has it by despising him. Hence although<br />
art keeps its primary meaning <strong>of</strong> skill or the<br />
product <strong>of</strong> a skill, it has a secondary meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> wiliness or trickery, and in most <strong>of</strong> its<br />
derivatives the derogatory meaning has come<br />
to predominate.<br />
An artifice is now almost always a cunning<br />
or crafty stratagem. (Both cunning and crafty<br />
were once quite innocent words, meaning<br />
simply knowing and able.) It was not always<br />
so; formerly God himself was <strong>of</strong>ten called the<br />
Great Artificer <strong>of</strong> the universe.<br />
Artful is now definitely condemnatory, suggesting<br />
one who takes unfair advantage, though<br />
it once meant wise or admirably clever. Dickens’<br />
Artful Dodger seems a more proper expression<br />
to us today than Milton’s artful strains.<br />
Artificial, as opposed to natural, has always<br />
been condemnatory, though, amusingly, handmade<br />
(which means the same thing) has come<br />
in our machine age to be a term <strong>of</strong> high<br />
approbation with much <strong>of</strong> the estimation<br />
attached to natural. See also synthetic.<br />
Arty is slang. The suffix expresses contempt.<br />
Sometimes the contempt is just for art itself<br />
but there is usually at least a pretense that it<br />
is for exaggerated or deliberately contrived<br />
effects that are more obvious than true skill<br />
would have made them.<br />
articles. In English grammar there are two<br />
“articles” -the word a or an, which is called<br />
the indefinite article, and the word the, which<br />
is called the definite article. Articles qualify<br />
nouns and are therefore a kind <strong>of</strong> adjective.<br />
artillery. When referring to men this word usually<br />
takes a plural verb, as in the artillery were
artist 42<br />
lo the righr <strong>of</strong> us. When referring to the guns<br />
it always takes a singular verb, as in the<br />
artillery was lefr behind.<br />
artist; artiste; adsa& An artist is anyone who<br />
follows any pursuit or employment in. which<br />
a high degree <strong>of</strong> skill is obtainable. The<br />
modern tendency to restrict the word to those<br />
engaged in the fine arts, especially in painting,<br />
has led to the introduction, or more accurately<br />
the re-introduction, <strong>of</strong> the French word artiste<br />
to describe a public performer, suclh as a<br />
dancer or singer.<br />
There are many others, <strong>of</strong> course, who think<br />
they have carried their occupation to the point<br />
<strong>of</strong> its being an art and they-especially in<br />
such employments as dressmaking, cooking,<br />
and hairdressing that have, in the popular<br />
estimation, their best practitioners in France<br />
-<strong>of</strong>ten refer to themselves or are referred to<br />
as artistes also. But it is better, and really<br />
more complimentary, to call them ar,Gsts.<br />
An artisan was originally an artist, one who<br />
cultivated an art. But he is now one employed<br />
in the industrial arts, a mechanic or handicraftsman.<br />
nrtless; ignorant. Artless used to be used as a<br />
close synonym <strong>of</strong> ignorant. Johnson refers to<br />
the artless industry which many contemptuously<br />
assume is all that is needed to write a dictionary.<br />
But with the gradual strengthening <strong>of</strong><br />
the derogatory in so many meanings <strong>of</strong> art,<br />
artless has come to mean innocent, ingenuous,<br />
unaffected. The artless prattle <strong>of</strong> children<br />
conveys the modern meaning. When applied<br />
to’style, artless means simple and sincere.<br />
With the immense increase in the world’s<br />
knowledge in the past century and the demand<br />
for a considerable amount <strong>of</strong> it in the iactivities<br />
<strong>of</strong> the commonest person, ignorant has been<br />
acquiring increasing condemnation. It was once<br />
pitying; it is now almost abusive. See also<br />
unsophisticated.<br />
as is a conjunction. It is used to introduclP clauses<br />
<strong>of</strong> various kinds and to make a comparison<br />
between things that are claimed to be equal<br />
in some respect.<br />
ACCEPTABLE USES<br />
As is primarily an adverbial conjunction. It<br />
can be used to introduce almost any kind <strong>of</strong><br />
adverbial clause, that is, almost any clause that<br />
does not qualify a noun or pronoun, or stand<br />
in the place <strong>of</strong> a noun. A single as can be used<br />
to introduce clauses <strong>of</strong> manner (do as Z do),<br />
<strong>of</strong> time (as Z was leaving), and <strong>of</strong> cause (as Z<br />
was tired, Z went to bed). As if alwa.ys introduces<br />
an unreal condition, as in you l’ook as if<br />
you were dead, and therefore requires a past<br />
subjunctive verb form, that is, a past tense verb<br />
used with present tense meaning or one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
past subjunctive auxiliaries, such as. should,<br />
would, might. We do not say you look as if you<br />
may be tired. See subjunctive mode.<br />
As may also be used as a relative. That is,<br />
it may refer back to and qualify any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
four words, as, so, the same, such. (If the<br />
same or such is being used as a pronoun, as<br />
is said to be a relative pronoun. Otherwise, it<br />
is called a relative adverb.)<br />
A comparison logically involves the form<br />
as - - as, as in there are as good fish in the<br />
sea (IS ever came out <strong>of</strong> it and she’s as pretty<br />
us a picture. In current English we <strong>of</strong>ten drop<br />
the first as, as in it is clear as crystal. In this<br />
sense as can be said to introduce clauses <strong>of</strong><br />
degree. Occasionally the second half <strong>of</strong> a comparison<br />
may be dropped because it is obvious,<br />
as in Z can see as well from here, where as<br />
from there is understood. As - - as may also<br />
be used in making a concession, as in as<br />
universal a practice as lying is, and as easy<br />
a one as it seems, Z do not remember to<br />
have heard three good lies in all my conversation.<br />
Here too the first as may now be dropped,<br />
as in bad as it was, it could have been<br />
worse.<br />
A few phrases involving as - - as are peculiar<br />
in one way or another. In a clause<br />
introduced by as soon as a past tense form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb may be used instead <strong>of</strong> a past<br />
perfect (completed action) tense. That is, we<br />
may say as soon as he arrived instead <strong>of</strong> as<br />
soon as he had arrived. Similarly, a present<br />
tense form is always used instead <strong>of</strong> a future<br />
perfect form. That is, we say as soon as you<br />
arrive rather than as soon as you will have<br />
arrived. As long as is sometimes used to mean<br />
since, as in as long as you are here, we might<br />
as well begin; and as much as is sometimes<br />
used to mean practically, as in he as much as<br />
told me. These expressions are both acceptable<br />
spoken English, but they are not used in<br />
formal writing. As well as is ordinarily used<br />
after a full statement, as in Bob was there as<br />
well as Frank. But it is sometimes used to<br />
join two words, both <strong>of</strong> which are the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same verb. In this case, the verb may<br />
be either singular or plural, as in Bob as well<br />
as Frank was (or were) there.<br />
So and as come originally from the same<br />
word and so - - as can <strong>of</strong>ten be used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> as - - as. Some grammarians claim that<br />
as - - as cannot be used in a negative sentence,<br />
as in he is not as serene as his mother, and<br />
that so - - as is required here. This is not<br />
true. Either form may be used in a sentence<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind. But so is frequently used to mean<br />
in an unusually high degree, as in do you know<br />
anyone so capable as Irene? Here it has the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> an intensive, as if the voice was being<br />
raised. Most good writers and speakers, therefore,<br />
prefer as - - as in a negative as well<br />
as in an affirmative sentence, except when they<br />
want this heightened tone.<br />
Grammarians who claim that so - - as must<br />
be used in a negative statement sometimes<br />
explain their position by saying that as - - as<br />
can be used only in comparisons <strong>of</strong> equality<br />
and that so - - as is required in comparisons<br />
<strong>of</strong> inequality. This is confused and confusing.<br />
A comparison <strong>of</strong> inequality requires than, as<br />
in less serene than his mother, and the inequality<br />
may be either affirmed or denied,
Similarly, as - - as and so - - as both express<br />
equality, whether it is affirmed or denied.<br />
so - - as may be used with an infinitive to<br />
show purpose or result, as in it was so loud<br />
as to be deafening. Formerly, it could be used<br />
to introduce a full clause <strong>of</strong> purpose or result,<br />
as in this so amazed our men as they forsook<br />
their commanders. This construction is now<br />
obsolete. In current English a full clause <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind must be introduced by that and not as.<br />
The same may always be followed by as.<br />
We may say I read the same books as you or<br />
I read the same books as you do. When, as<br />
in the first example, no verb follows, the word<br />
that cannot be used and as is required. When,<br />
as in the second example, there is a following<br />
verb, either that or as may be used. In current<br />
English, that is the preferred form, as in I read<br />
the same books that you do.<br />
Similarly, the word such can always be<br />
followed by as. We may say on such a night<br />
as this or opinions should be such as could<br />
be discussed pleasantly at dinner, not such as<br />
men would fight for. When, as in the first<br />
example, no verb follows, that cannot be used<br />
and as is required. When, as in the second<br />
example, as is followed by a full clause containing<br />
a verb, the word that and a personal<br />
pronoun may be used instead <strong>of</strong> as, as in such<br />
that they could be discussed and such that men<br />
would fight for them. The construction with<br />
us is preferred.<br />
UNACCEPTABLE USES<br />
As could once be used to introduce a clause<br />
which was the object <strong>of</strong> say, think, know, or<br />
see, as in I don’t say as you are right. In current<br />
English, that is required here and the construction<br />
with as is not generally standard. But a few<br />
survivals <strong>of</strong> the old form, such as Z don’t know<br />
as Z can, are still used by educated people in the<br />
United States and are acceptable spoken English<br />
in this country.<br />
In current English, as cannot refer back to<br />
any word except one <strong>of</strong> the four mentioned<br />
above. It cannot refer to or represent a noun<br />
or any pronoun except the same or such. This<br />
was not always true. At one time as could<br />
refer to those, as in those <strong>of</strong> the foot soldiers<br />
as had not found a place upon the ship. This<br />
construction was used in the United States<br />
after it had become obsolete in England, as<br />
in the ballad, those as don’t like me can leave<br />
me alone. But it is now nonstandard in both<br />
countries. Similarly, as can no longer be used<br />
to refer to a personal pronoun, as in let them<br />
marry you as don’t know you. It cannot be<br />
used to introduce a clause that qualifies a noun.<br />
We may say I know such a man as you<br />
describe, because here as refers to such. But<br />
we cannot say I know a man as has a horse,<br />
where us refers directly to man.<br />
SUBJECTIVE OR OBJECTIVE PRONOUN<br />
In literary English, as does not affect the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> the following word. That is, a pronoun after<br />
OS in a comparison has the same form that it<br />
would have if it were standing alone without the<br />
43 ascribe<br />
comparison. For example, he is used in scrch<br />
men as he are intolerable because he would<br />
be used in he is intolerable; and him is used<br />
in I cannot tolerate such men as him because<br />
him would be used in I cannot tolerate him.<br />
Some grammarians say that a subjective<br />
pronoun is allowable after as whenever it is<br />
possible to read “a suppressed verb” into the<br />
sentence, as in I cannot tolerate such men as<br />
he (is). This is theoretically permissible, but<br />
people who have learned English from literature<br />
rather than from textbooks will usually<br />
hear it as a grammatical mistake. In the best<br />
modern English a subjective pronoun is not<br />
used after as unless it is followed by a verb,<br />
as in I work as hard as he does. If it is impossible<br />
to use a following verb, as in I blame<br />
you as much as him, or if the following verb<br />
sounds silly, as in such men as he is, an objective<br />
pronoun is used instead.<br />
Very <strong>of</strong>ten a comparison with as involves<br />
some form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be. It is still true<br />
that the pronoun has the same form that it<br />
would have if it were standing alone without<br />
the comparison. The question here is, which<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun is to be used after a<br />
linking verb. The formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar<br />
require a subjective pronoun, as in is she as<br />
tall as I? But an objective pronoun, as in is<br />
she as tall as me?, is generally preferred. See<br />
linking verbs.<br />
As is sometimes used to mean in the capacity<br />
<strong>of</strong>, as in he appeared on the stage us<br />
me. In this sense, it is followed by an objective,<br />
and never by a subjective, pronoun.<br />
He appeared on the stage as I would be understood<br />
to mean as I did. See also because.<br />
as a matter <strong>of</strong> fact. A cliche sometimes interjected<br />
into the conversation in order to give<br />
the interjecter time to think <strong>of</strong> some way <strong>of</strong><br />
evading the facts.<br />
ascend up. Despite the fact that the phrase<br />
occurs three times in the King James version<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Bible, ascend up is redundant. The “up”<br />
is implicit in ascend.<br />
ascent; ascension. The English use ascent where<br />
Americans keep the older form ascension. An<br />
English fair would announce a balloon ascent,<br />
an American circus a balloon ascension.<br />
Gibbon speaks <strong>of</strong> a man’s ascent to one <strong>of</strong><br />
the most eminent dignities <strong>of</strong> the republic:<br />
H. F. Pringle, an American historian, speaks<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ascension to power <strong>of</strong> Woodrow Wilson.<br />
When the initial letter is capitalized the<br />
word refers exclusively to the bodily passing<br />
<strong>of</strong> Christ from earth to heaven.<br />
ascribe; attribute. To ascribe something is to add<br />
it (originally in writing) to an account. It<br />
now means, generally, to impute, assign, or<br />
refer (The disaster was ascribed to his negligence).<br />
Attribute means to consider as belonging<br />
<strong>of</strong> right (Mercy is attributed to God).<br />
In grammar an attribute is a word or phrase<br />
subordinate to another and serving to limit its<br />
meaning. In the brown cow, brown limits the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> cow; it is an attribute <strong>of</strong> cow.
ash 44<br />
ash; ashes. These words mean exactly the same<br />
thing. Ash is grammatically singular and ashes<br />
grammatically plural, but both are mass nouns.<br />
Ashes does not mean any more <strong>of</strong> the stuff<br />
than ash does.<br />
Some grammarians claim that the form ash<br />
is only used in speaking <strong>of</strong> ash from tobacco<br />
and in compounds such as bone ash and volcanic<br />
ash, and that other substances, such as<br />
coal and trash, are always said to leave ashes.<br />
This distinction is not observed in the United<br />
States. We sometimes speak <strong>of</strong> the ash ia a<br />
furnace and sometimes <strong>of</strong> cigarette ashes.<br />
Only the form ash is used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in ash tray, ash can.<br />
ask. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I asked him to leave. It may also be<br />
followed by a that clause, but the clause verb<br />
must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive equivalent,<br />
as in I asked that he leave. The infinitive<br />
construction is generally preferred. risk for<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in I asked for him<br />
to leave, is heard frequently but is considered<br />
unacceptable by some people.<br />
When not followed by a verb, ask and ask<br />
for are equally acceptable, as in ask mercy and<br />
ask for mercy. Ask for is generally preferred<br />
in this construction. See inquire.<br />
asparagus. The plural is asparaguses or asparagi.<br />
The plural form is used only in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
the plants. The food is always treatled as a<br />
singular, as in this asparagus is good and how<br />
long did you cook it?<br />
aspect. See phase.<br />
aspiration, See inspiration.<br />
aspire may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
he aspires to write poetry. It is also heard with<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he aspires to<br />
writing poetry, but this is not standard usage.<br />
assay; essay. Both words originally meant the<br />
same thing, to test or try. Essay got its meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a short literary composition by the<br />
accident <strong>of</strong> Montaigne’s modestly calling his<br />
meditations essais or “attempts” at. setting<br />
down his thoughts. Bacon took over the word<br />
from Montaigne and the success <strong>of</strong> his Essays<br />
fixed this meaning on the word in English.<br />
The older meaning still lingers on. James<br />
Russell Lowell speaks <strong>of</strong> essaying a tusk, but<br />
it is close to an archaism now. Assay is now<br />
confined entirely to the testing <strong>of</strong> metals.<br />
assembly; assemblage. Assembly applies to a<br />
company <strong>of</strong> persons gathered together (the<br />
General Assembly <strong>of</strong> the United Nations). An<br />
assemblage can be <strong>of</strong> persons or things; when<br />
it is applied to persons it suggests a more<br />
informal group than an assembly (a,4 assemblage<br />
<strong>of</strong> bird watchers, an assemblage <strong>of</strong> wires<br />
and switches). It is a less respectful te.rm.<br />
assert. See allege; claim; declare.<br />
asset; assets. Assets is a singular noun with a<br />
plural form. It comes from the French asset,<br />
enough, and was originally a law term meaning<br />
(property) enough (to satisfy certain<br />
claims). Asset is a false form, baseld on the<br />
mistaken assumption that assets is plural. The<br />
Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong> does not recognize<br />
its existence. Fowler regards it with stern disapproval<br />
and adjures his readers to shun it.<br />
Yet it is a common word in our language now<br />
and a useful one. It is an asset to the language.<br />
That it is a false singular is <strong>of</strong> no importance;<br />
so is pea, a false singular from Pease. To say<br />
<strong>of</strong> such-and-such a member that he is an asset<br />
to the club or <strong>of</strong> another that his good nature<br />
is his chief asset is to express oneself concisely<br />
in terms that are certain to be understood.<br />
See also possession.<br />
assignation, when used to designate a tryst,<br />
carries the suggestion that the meeting is illicit.<br />
Houses <strong>of</strong> prostitution were formerly, especially<br />
in America, called assignation houses or<br />
houses <strong>of</strong> assignation and this probably fixed<br />
the meaning, though its over-elegance would,<br />
in itself, suggest that there was something inelegant<br />
being hidden behind it. The colloquial<br />
date, which has replaced in common speech<br />
almost every other word for an appointment,<br />
has, when applied to lovers’ meetings, a<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> innocence. This may be due to<br />
its having been introduced by teen agers.<br />
assignment. See appointment.<br />
assist may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, introduced by the preposition in, as in<br />
he assisted us in screening the applicants. It is<br />
sometimes heard with a to-infinitive, as in he<br />
assisted us to screen the applicants, or with the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he assisted us<br />
screen the applicants, but these forms are not<br />
standard usage. See help.<br />
assonance. See pun.<br />
as such is <strong>of</strong>ten interposed in a sentence with<br />
solemn gravity yet in a way that is meaningless.<br />
Thus in such sentences as The threat, as<br />
such, may be disregarded or The house, as<br />
such, adds nothing to the value <strong>of</strong> the property,<br />
it is hard to see what as such adds. If the<br />
threat may be disregarded as a threat, it may<br />
be disregarded. If the house does not add value<br />
to the property as a house, could it possibly<br />
add it any other way? In the very rare case<br />
where it might be a shrine or a ruin so<br />
picturesque that people would pay to see it,<br />
it might add to the value <strong>of</strong> the property. But<br />
such a possibility is highly uncommon and<br />
as such is all too common.<br />
assume. See adopt.<br />
assume; presume. In the sense <strong>of</strong> infer, suppose,<br />
or take for granted, assume and presume are<br />
closely synonymous and <strong>of</strong>ten interchangeable.<br />
The maker <strong>of</strong> fine discriminations, however,<br />
will use presume when he wishes to express a<br />
strong conviction <strong>of</strong> likelihood, assume when<br />
merely advancing an hypothesis. (I presume<br />
he is not guilty conveys my belief that he is<br />
probably innocent. You may assume whatever<br />
you choose has an element <strong>of</strong> scorn in it, since<br />
assume may include any supposition, however<br />
wild. One would never, in scorn, say You may<br />
presume whatever you choose.)<br />
The primary meaning <strong>of</strong> assume is to feign<br />
(He assumed the guise <strong>of</strong> a fool). Here
presume cannot be used as a synonym. And<br />
assume cannot be used as a synonym <strong>of</strong><br />
presume when presume means to use unwarrantable<br />
boldness, to thrust oneself forward<br />
(Ne presumed to walk at the head <strong>of</strong> the<br />
procession). The presumptuous person always<br />
encroaches upon the rights <strong>of</strong> others but<br />
presume should not be used when encroach<br />
should be used, She presumes upon my<br />
patience is not as acceptable as She encroaches<br />
upon my patience.<br />
assumption; presumption. A presumption is a<br />
supposition based on probable evidence; whereas<br />
an assumption can be made without any<br />
evidence at all, merely as the beginning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
chain <strong>of</strong> reasoning.<br />
When assumption is capitalized it refers to<br />
the bodily taking up into heaven <strong>of</strong> the Virgin<br />
Mary after her death.<br />
assurance; insurance. Assurance is the older term,<br />
now almost completely replaced in the United<br />
States by insurance. In Canada and England<br />
assurance is still used to some extent and the<br />
term is fixed in the names <strong>of</strong> some large insurance<br />
companies there.<br />
assure; ensure; insure. The commonest meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> assure is to tell a person confidently that<br />
something exists or will happen, so that he<br />
may be encouraged and rely on it with full<br />
trust (I assured him <strong>of</strong> my undying aflection).<br />
To ensure is to make sure or certain (The<br />
very mention <strong>of</strong> his name will ensure you a<br />
respectful hearing. Snow tires will ensure safer<br />
driving in winter).<br />
Insure is a variant spelling <strong>of</strong> ensure which<br />
is applied, in its commonest use, to the securing<br />
<strong>of</strong> indemnity in case <strong>of</strong> loss or death by<br />
the payment <strong>of</strong> stated sums, premiums, at<br />
definite intervals or by the payment <strong>of</strong> a lump<br />
sum. (To be well insured ensures peace <strong>of</strong><br />
mind and is vastly assuring.)<br />
asterisks are used primarily in reference work.<br />
The main uses are:<br />
1. To mark material for footnotes when so<br />
few footnotes are used that numbering is unnecessary.<br />
The asterisk goes after the period<br />
<strong>of</strong> the statement to be footnoted, and again. at<br />
the bottom <strong>of</strong> the text at the beginning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
footnote.<br />
2. To indicate omission in a quotation,<br />
though three dots are used more <strong>of</strong>ten. See<br />
ellipsis.<br />
3. To indicate hesitation or passage <strong>of</strong> time<br />
in narrative writing. See ellipsis.<br />
as the crow flies. This clichC for going in a<br />
straight line without regard to topographical<br />
obstacles had some meaning at its introduction<br />
a hundred years or so ago when roads twisted<br />
and wound and the slow, low-winging flight <strong>of</strong><br />
the crow was known to everyone. But it is<br />
sometimes affected today, especially in America<br />
where four-fifths <strong>of</strong> the roads west <strong>of</strong> lhe<br />
Alleghenies go straighter than any crow ever<br />
flew and where the methods <strong>of</strong> flight <strong>of</strong><br />
various birds are totally unknown to the<br />
common man. It lingers on only as a part <strong>of</strong><br />
45 at<br />
the earthy rusticity which becomes an increasing<br />
affectation as our lives become increasingly<br />
urbanized.<br />
astonish. See amaze.<br />
at. This word is a preposition and requires an<br />
object. We may say what hotel are you staying<br />
at? but not where are you staying at? The<br />
second sentence is wrong, not because it ends<br />
with a preposition, but because the word where<br />
is an adverb meaning “at which place,” and<br />
cannot be used as the object <strong>of</strong> at. It would<br />
not improve matters in the least to say at<br />
where are you staying?<br />
The simple tenses <strong>of</strong> the verb to be may be<br />
followed by at but not by to. We say they were<br />
at church, and they were to church is not<br />
standard. But the perfect (that is, the completed<br />
action) tenses may be followed by either<br />
at or to, as in they had been at church and<br />
they had been to church. At suggests the place<br />
while they were there; to suggests the journey<br />
to and from the place and suggests that they<br />
are no longer there.<br />
At and in can sometimes be used interchangeably,<br />
as in the meeting was held at the<br />
hotel, and the meeting was held in the hotel.<br />
In suggests that something was surrounded or<br />
contained in a way that at does not. In the<br />
theater suggests the inside <strong>of</strong> the building; at<br />
the theater suggests a spectator. As a rule, in<br />
is preferred in speaking <strong>of</strong> cities. We may say<br />
he was at the conference, but we would say<br />
he was in New York.<br />
When at is combined with a verb, it usually<br />
means that the action <strong>of</strong> the verb was attempted<br />
rather than accomplished, as in catch at,<br />
strike at, guess at. For this reason, curse at<br />
is milder than curse.<br />
at all. This phrase can be used in a question, an<br />
if clause, and a statement that is by implication<br />
negative, such as I’m surprised you<br />
came at all. It could once be used in an<br />
affirmative statement and meant “wholly,” as<br />
in they were careless at all. This is no longer<br />
possible. The construction is heard in some<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the United States but is now nonstandard<br />
or unintelligible.<br />
at a loose end; at loose ends. To be at a loose<br />
end generally seems to mean to be without<br />
anything planned or without anything to do.<br />
Partridge thinks the expression is derived<br />
“from a horse whose tether has broken or<br />
slipped.” But Heywood in his Proverbs (1546)<br />
gives: Some loose or od ende will come man,<br />
some one daie, a version which suggests some<br />
other origin.<br />
In American English one <strong>of</strong>ten hears at<br />
loose ends and the phrase is meant to convey<br />
not only having nothing to do but bewilderment<br />
and perplexity. Some think it refers to<br />
the loose ends <strong>of</strong> a tangled skein <strong>of</strong> yarn and<br />
the difficulty <strong>of</strong> unraveling it.<br />
Whatever its origin and meaning, the phrase<br />
is a clich6.<br />
at death’s door. Whether one lies at death’s door<br />
or simply is there or has been brought there
ate 46<br />
by disease or villainy, the phrase usually should<br />
be avoided. The meaning <strong>of</strong> the phrase is<br />
obvious but as a metaphor it is obscure.<br />
Perhaps it owes its existence entirely to its<br />
alliteration. At any rate, it is a phrase that<br />
may well be left at oblivion’s door.<br />
ate. See eat.<br />
atJwJst. See aguostlc.<br />
at long last. That the Duke <strong>of</strong> Windsor was able<br />
to charge these words with such deep feeling<br />
at the opening <strong>of</strong> his abdication radio speech<br />
(Dec. 11, 1936) only shows that special circumstances<br />
and passionate sincerity can infuse<br />
meaning into any phrase, however hackneyed<br />
in ordinary use. In the speech <strong>of</strong> most other<br />
men, however, who have not had to endure<br />
the prolonged ordeal <strong>of</strong> his extreme perplexity,<br />
the phrase is a clichC and to be avoided. The<br />
Duke’s very use <strong>of</strong> it makes it all the more to<br />
be avoided since the echo <strong>of</strong> his use is in our<br />
minds and makes its use with lesser provocation<br />
all the more empty and stilted.<br />
at one fell swoop. The phrase is taken from<br />
Macduff’s cry in Macbeth (Act IV, Scene 3,<br />
1. 218) when he is told that his wife and<br />
children have been murdered at Macbeth’s<br />
command: Did you say all/ 0 hell-kite! All?/<br />
What, all my pretty chickens and their dam/<br />
At one fell swoop?<br />
A kite is a hawk [the toy is named after the<br />
hovering bird] that preys on rodents and<br />
smaller, weaker birds. The phrase conveys not<br />
only Macduff’s sense <strong>of</strong> the suddenness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
murderous descent, <strong>of</strong> his wife and children’s<br />
innocence and helplessness against the tyrant’s<br />
attack, but also <strong>of</strong> his detestation <strong>of</strong> Macbeth,<br />
for a kite is not one <strong>of</strong> the nobler falcons.<br />
The word fell in the phrase mean:s fierce,<br />
savage, cruel, and ruthless. It is akin not to<br />
the past <strong>of</strong> fall but to felon and has connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> wickedness and bitter savagery. It is,<br />
plainly, exactly the word that Macduff wanted<br />
and, fortunately, Shakespeare was right there<br />
to supply it for him.<br />
But the phrase is now worn smooth <strong>of</strong><br />
meaning and feeling. Anyone who uses it deserves<br />
to be required to explain publicly just<br />
what he thinks it means.<br />
at one’s wit’s end. The wit <strong>of</strong> this tired phrase<br />
is the same as in scared out <strong>of</strong> his wits. It<br />
means mind, not repartee.<br />
atop. In literary English this word is used without<br />
an object, as in from the fluted spine atop.<br />
When an object is required, it is introduced by<br />
<strong>of</strong>, as in the greensward atop <strong>of</strong> the clitf. These<br />
constructions are over-literary and should be<br />
avoided. In the United States, atop is used with<br />
an object, as if it were a preposition, as in<br />
he stood otop the house. This is not literary<br />
English and not spoken English, but it seems<br />
to be well established journalese.<br />
atrocious; bad. The atrocious is that Iwhich is<br />
characterized by savagery <strong>of</strong> exceptional violence<br />
and brutality. It is something extraordinarily<br />
wicked, exceptionally cruel.<br />
Plainly this is one <strong>of</strong> the strongest terms <strong>of</strong><br />
disapprobation in the language and, equally<br />
plainly, to use it as a mere synonym for bad<br />
is to weaken it. Those who do so belong for<br />
the most part to the fashionable world and<br />
perhaps hope to imply, in the excess <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word’s opprobrium, the excess <strong>of</strong> their own<br />
sensitiveness and uerceutivitv. He that finds<br />
a pun or a play “a&cio;s” &at another would<br />
regard as only “bad” must have au exceptional<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> badness. Or perhaps he’s just<br />
a fool.<br />
attached hereto; attached together. Attached hereto<br />
is not only redundant but a little pompous.<br />
Attached by itself does just as well. Attached<br />
together is also redundant, since to attach<br />
things is to join one to the other.<br />
attain; accomplish. To attain is to reach, achieve,<br />
or accomplish by continued effort (He attained<br />
success. He attained maturity). Attain to<br />
connotes an unusual effort or a l<strong>of</strong>ty accomplishment<br />
(He attained to greatness. He<br />
attained to fame).<br />
To accomplish is to carry out, perform, or<br />
finish a distinct task (Mission accomplished.<br />
One must accomplish much before one attains<br />
success).<br />
attempt. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he attempted to lie, or by an<br />
-ing form, as in he attempted lying. The infinitive<br />
is more forceful and carries a stronger<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> action than the -ing. But the two<br />
forms are equally acceptable. See endeavor.<br />
attend. See tend.<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> one’s tether. As a phrase signifying<br />
the extreme limit <strong>of</strong> one’s resources or powers<br />
<strong>of</strong> endurance, the cliche is plainly drawn from<br />
the condition <strong>of</strong> a tethered animal. Dr. Charles<br />
Funk believes that there has come into the<br />
phrase a secondary, more sinister meaningthat<br />
someone has reached the end <strong>of</strong> the hangman’s<br />
rope. But whatever it means, it is a<br />
worn phrase and should be used with care.<br />
at the lirst blush. Blush in this old and worn<br />
phrase means glance. That is the older meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word. We are told in fourteenthcentury<br />
writings that King Arthur blushed on<br />
a young knight, that a man in flight blushed<br />
backwards towards the sea, that a King looking<br />
through a window blushed on a beautiful<br />
damsel, and so on. The meaning now attached<br />
to the word, <strong>of</strong> a sudden reddening <strong>of</strong> the face<br />
through modesty, is a later development. The<br />
old meaning stays on in our vocabularies in<br />
this one phrase only, like a fossil, and it seems<br />
a pity to attempt to dislodge it, but the phrase<br />
is a clichC and should be avoided in ordinary<br />
speech.<br />
attic. See garret.<br />
attorney; lawyer. An attorney is one empowered<br />
to act for another. Power <strong>of</strong> attorney can be<br />
assigned to anyone; he does not have to be a<br />
lawyer. It simply means that he is duly<br />
appointed to act for another. A lawyer is one<br />
who practices law and such a one is best<br />
qualified to be an attorney at law. In America<br />
the term attorney is almost synonymous with
lawyer. In England lawyers are today classified<br />
as barristers and solicitors. A barrister is a<br />
counselor admitted to plead at the bar in any<br />
court. A solicitor is a lawyer who advises<br />
clients, represents them before the lower courts<br />
and prepares cases for the barristers to try<br />
in the higher courts. An attorney in England<br />
is a lawyer considerably beneath a barrister in<br />
dignity. For some reason the name became<br />
tainted with opprobrium and is rarely used,<br />
solicitor being preferred. Samuel Johnson’s<br />
remark, <strong>of</strong> one who had just left the room,<br />
that he did not care to speak ill <strong>of</strong> any man<br />
behind his back, but he believed the gentleman<br />
was an attorney would strike an American as<br />
a gratuitous insult. An English lawyer, on the<br />
other hand, would be taken aback at the sign<br />
in many American <strong>of</strong>fice buildings, even in the<br />
courts, Solicitors not allowed, for solicitor in<br />
America does not mean a lawyer at all but one<br />
who solicits, usually for charities.<br />
attract. See allure.<br />
attributive, as a grammatical term, means expressing<br />
an attribute and is applied especially<br />
to adjectives and adverbs preceding the words<br />
which they modify. Thus funeral, most<br />
commonly now thought <strong>of</strong> as a noun, is also<br />
an adjective. But it has been used as a noun<br />
so long that it can now be used as an adjective<br />
only attributively (funeral director,<br />
funeral hymns). Any noun may be used as an<br />
adjective attributively and the custom <strong>of</strong> so<br />
using nouns is growing.<br />
attributive adjectives. See position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
audience; spectators. Literally an audience is<br />
composed <strong>of</strong> those who listen. There is no<br />
question that those who attend a concert<br />
comprise an audience, But do those who attend<br />
a moving picture? Purists have insisted that<br />
where looking is the sole or chief activity <strong>of</strong><br />
those being instructed or amused they should<br />
be called spectators, and it’s no crime to make<br />
the distinction. But it is a waste <strong>of</strong> time and<br />
energy to try to make others make it. Those<br />
extraordinary people who attended the studios<br />
to watch the production <strong>of</strong> radio shows were<br />
called the studio audience as those who were<br />
listening elsewhere were called the radio audience.<br />
Television has taken over the term and<br />
an audience they will be, collectively, whether<br />
hearing or seeing.<br />
Sports have kept, at least for those attending<br />
in person, the homely term crowd, though<br />
those who watch and listen over television and<br />
radio are an audience.<br />
auditorium. The plural is auditoriums or auditoria.<br />
aught; naught. Originally these words meant, respectively,<br />
“anything” and “nothing,” as in if<br />
aught but death part thee and me and she<br />
naught esteems my aged eloquence. In these<br />
senses they have a decidedly archaic tone and<br />
are not used in natural speech today except in<br />
a few set phrases, such as for aught I care and<br />
it came to naught. Our common word not is<br />
a modern form <strong>of</strong> naught.<br />
Both aught and naught are used today to<br />
4 17 author<br />
mean a cipher, or zero. This is understandable<br />
for naught, which means “nothing,” and the<br />
form aught is supposed to have grown out <strong>of</strong><br />
pronouncing a naught as an aught. Literary<br />
people sometimes object to the use <strong>of</strong> nught<br />
for zero, because they consider it a corruption.<br />
People who work with figures <strong>of</strong>ten prefer<br />
aught, because it seems to them to suggest the<br />
symbol 0. In the United States today, both<br />
forms are acceptable. Aught is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
Both words, aught and naught, may be<br />
spelled with an ou instead <strong>of</strong> au, as in ought<br />
and nought. The au forms are preferred in<br />
the United States.<br />
aura. The plural is auras or aurae. The essential<br />
thing about an aura is that it is an emanation,<br />
a “flowing out from.” In the setting sun cast<br />
u golden aura upon her head, the word is misused,<br />
being confused, apparently, with aureole.<br />
If there is a proper aura <strong>of</strong> mystery about a<br />
man, it will have to proceed from him, not<br />
from what others think about him.<br />
aural; oral. Aural means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to the<br />
ear. An aural aid would be a hearing device.<br />
Oral means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to the mouth. It<br />
can refer to the mouth as a part <strong>of</strong> the body,<br />
as oral hygiene or medicine taken orally, or<br />
it may refer to spoken words in distinction<br />
to written, as oral testimony. See also oral;<br />
verbal.<br />
aurora borealis is singular, though the English<br />
name for the phenomenon, the northern lights,<br />
is, <strong>of</strong> course, plural.<br />
auspices. A singular form <strong>of</strong> this word, auspice,<br />
exists. It is not used as much today as formerly<br />
but it is still accentable Enrrlish. Under the<br />
auspice <strong>of</strong> the Student Council would be unusual<br />
but still standard. The plural auspices is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
authentic and genuine are synonymous in many<br />
uses, both meaning reliable or trustworthy.<br />
But in specific uses they are different.<br />
Authentic means not fictitious, corresponding<br />
to the known facts. Genuine means sincere,<br />
not spurious. An authentic historical novel<br />
would be one that truthfully portrayed the<br />
manners, customs, personages and scenery <strong>of</strong><br />
the age it was concerned with. A genuine<br />
diamond is one that is a true diamond, not a<br />
zircon or a cleverly mounted piece <strong>of</strong> glass.<br />
Perhaps the essential difference is that in<br />
authentic there is a sense <strong>of</strong> correspondence;<br />
in genuine, a sense <strong>of</strong> actual being.<br />
To use authentic as meaning good or admirable<br />
(He has an authentic style) is undesirable.<br />
author; authoress. It has now been almost a<br />
century since a literate woman was sufficiently<br />
a curiosity to have the fact <strong>of</strong> her sex noted<br />
every time her literary activities were mentioned,<br />
and so authoress is obsolescent. Fowler<br />
thought it “a useful word” and thought the<br />
public would “keep it in existence,” but no one<br />
could have foreseen, fifty years ago, that<br />
women were soon to do so much that men
authoritative 48<br />
had thought they alone could do that to<br />
attempt to call attention to it would burden<br />
the language. See also man <strong>of</strong> letters.<br />
authoritative; authoritarian. That which is<br />
nuthoritative has the sanction or weight <strong>of</strong><br />
authority; or it has the air <strong>of</strong> authority; it is<br />
peremptory, dictatorial. Authoritarian is favoring<br />
the principle <strong>of</strong> subjection to authority,<br />
opposing the principle <strong>of</strong> individual :freedom.<br />
Or it can be one who so favors or opposes.<br />
auto; automobile. As a noun auto is less heard<br />
now than it used to be. It has been almost<br />
completely replaced by car. One hears it in<br />
adjectival uses (the auto industry) but this is<br />
almost shop-talk and in even semi-formal contexts<br />
automobile is used.<br />
autograph. See signature.<br />
automaton. The plural is automatons or automatn.<br />
autumn; autumnal. In the United States autumn<br />
is formal or poetic for the third season <strong>of</strong> the<br />
year. In England it is the usual word. Of the<br />
two adjectival forms, autumn, in the general<br />
usage, is more informal (autumn fruits, autumn<br />
flowers, aufumn days). Autumnal is more<br />
formal and poetic, is applied more to figurative<br />
extensions, and seems, possibly because <strong>of</strong> its<br />
poetic associations, to suggest the more sombre<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> autumn (The tumult <strong>of</strong> thy mighty<br />
harmonies/ Will take from both a deep,<br />
autumnal tone).<br />
auxiliary verbs. English has two simple tenses.<br />
One form, such as he walks, shows that we<br />
are talking about the present; and the other,<br />
such as he walked, shows that we are talking<br />
about what is no longer present. (See present<br />
tense and past tense.) All other distinctions<br />
are expressed in verbal phrases. When it suits<br />
us we can also turn these simple tenses into<br />
phrases by using a form <strong>of</strong> the verb do, as in<br />
he does walk and he did walk.<br />
The last element in a verbal phrase is an<br />
infinitive or participia1 form <strong>of</strong> a meaningful<br />
verb. The preceding elements have no independent<br />
meaning but add refinements to the<br />
total statement. These preceding elements are<br />
called auxiliaries. The first auxiliary always<br />
shows tense and person, as in he has walked,<br />
they are walking. Any intervening elements are<br />
infinitive or participial forms <strong>of</strong> an auxiliary<br />
verb, as in he will hnve been walking. Grammatically,<br />
the verb forms following an auxiliary<br />
are exactly like the object <strong>of</strong> a transitive<br />
verb or the complement <strong>of</strong> the verb to be.<br />
(See participles and infinitives.)<br />
The principal auxiliary verbs are: be, have,<br />
do, will and would, shall and should, can and<br />
could, may and might, must. The verbs need<br />
and dare are also listed as auxiliaries by some<br />
grammarians.<br />
The word ought and the word used function<br />
like auxiliary verbs, as in he ought to know<br />
and he used to know, but the fact that they<br />
require the preposition to after them puts them<br />
grammatically in a different class. That is,<br />
technically ought and used are independent<br />
verbs and a following verb, such as know, is<br />
really the object <strong>of</strong> the preposition to. This is<br />
not an important difference. Some grammarians<br />
treat these words as auxiliaries and some do<br />
not. Similarly the verb let and the verb get<br />
in some <strong>of</strong> its uses serve the purpose <strong>of</strong> auxiliaries,<br />
as in let’s start soon and I’ve got to<br />
finish this first. But they are not always classified<br />
as such. (See the individual words.)<br />
avenge; revenge; vengeance; vengeful. Vengeance<br />
is retributive punishment (Lord God, to whom<br />
vengeance belongeth) and the verb that goes<br />
with it is to avenge. We avenge the wrong<br />
done another and the suggestion <strong>of</strong> disinterestedness<br />
and wild justice that this conveys has<br />
given the word an exaIted connotation. We<br />
revenge ourselves for a wrong done to us and<br />
here noun and verb are the same-revenge.<br />
But since in exacting revenge men make themselves<br />
judge and executioner, thus violating a<br />
fundamental principle <strong>of</strong> justice, and since we<br />
are inclined to exaggerate the wrongs done to<br />
us and to feel that no penalty is too severe<br />
for those who have <strong>of</strong>fended us, revenge has<br />
connotations <strong>of</strong> violence and cruelty.<br />
The words are <strong>of</strong>ten confused because the<br />
feelings and the situations are <strong>of</strong>ten confused.<br />
Men frequently seek revenge under the guise<br />
<strong>of</strong> vengeance and champion another whose<br />
wrongs are similar to their own.<br />
Vengeful has very little <strong>of</strong> the idea <strong>of</strong> seeking<br />
justice in it. It has come to mean vindictive,<br />
persistent in seeking revenge.<br />
There is a fine use <strong>of</strong> the word revenge in<br />
King Lear (Act III, Scene 5) when the haughty<br />
and ferocious Duke <strong>of</strong> Cornwall, hearing that<br />
the old Earl <strong>of</strong> Gloucester has befriended the<br />
sick and distracted Lear, says: I will have my<br />
revenge ere I depart his house. Now no wrong<br />
has been done Cornwall. He has nothing whatever<br />
to avenge or revenge. He has indicated<br />
that Lear is to suffer the consequences <strong>of</strong> his<br />
obstinacy and the vaIue <strong>of</strong> the word is its<br />
revelation <strong>of</strong> the fact that he chooses to regard<br />
an act <strong>of</strong> kindness towards one who is in his<br />
displeasure as a deliberate wrong against him,<br />
something to be revenged!<br />
avenue; street. An nvenue was originally the<br />
approach to a country seat, bordered with<br />
trees planted at regular intervals, and in<br />
England it is still felt that a street is not an<br />
avenue unless it is tree-lined.<br />
In America the term is used to describe a<br />
major thoroughfare, with or without trees and<br />
increasingly without. In many American cities<br />
avenues and streets run at right angles to each<br />
other; if the streets run east and west, the<br />
avenues will run north and south. This has<br />
exasperated visiting philologists, but the untutored<br />
natives find the practice a convenience<br />
and are likely to persist in it.<br />
avenue, explore every. Since an avenue is, strictly,<br />
a broad, straight, tree-lined approach to a<br />
country house and, by extension, a main<br />
thoroughfare <strong>of</strong> a city, it is hard to conceive<br />
<strong>of</strong> anything less suitable for exploration. Yet<br />
avenues are “explored” every day and some
<strong>of</strong> them very strange avenues indeed. Sir Alan<br />
Herbert quotes from the preface to a cookbook<br />
a statement that, in the interests <strong>of</strong> advancing<br />
our knowledge <strong>of</strong> nutrition, a trapdoor<br />
had been fitted in the stomach <strong>of</strong> a cow<br />
in order that her digestive processes might be<br />
observed. The preface assured the reader that<br />
every avenue had been explored. Well, one<br />
may doubt the avenue but certainly not the<br />
exploration.<br />
The phrase will be avoided by the sensible<br />
because it is absurd and by the sensitive because<br />
it is a clich&<br />
average; common; ordinary; typical; mean. An<br />
average is an arithmetical mean, a quantity<br />
intermediate to a set <strong>of</strong> quantities. If there<br />
are two bushels, one weighing 56 lbs. and one<br />
weighing 58 lbs., the average is 57 lbs., though<br />
it is to be noted that the average, in this<br />
example (as in so many others), is nonexistent.<br />
Common is that which belongs equally<br />
to all or is shared alike, as a common denominator.<br />
It marks things which are widespread,<br />
familiar, and usual. It is generally<br />
synonymous with ordinary. Typical is that<br />
which marks a type. The mean is that which<br />
is intermediate between extremes.<br />
It should be plain, then, that average should<br />
not be used as a synonym for comm,on,<br />
ordinary, typical, or mean. One <strong>of</strong>ten hears <strong>of</strong><br />
the average man, when the common ([or<br />
ordinary) man is intended. The typical Norwegian,<br />
for example, is thought <strong>of</strong> as blond.<br />
But since there are many brunettes in Norway,<br />
the average would be between light and dark<br />
and hence in no way typical.<br />
Since everyone strives to be superior and<br />
most forms <strong>of</strong> courtesy gratify our wish to be<br />
thought unusual and excellent, common and<br />
ordinary have acquired a slightly derogatory<br />
meaning. Since they are synonyms, it is redundant<br />
to use them together, but common<br />
ordinary is widely used colloquially.<br />
averse; adverse; aversion. Both adjectives averse<br />
and adverse mean opposed. Adverse winds or<br />
adverse circumstances are winds or circumstances<br />
opposed to those we would like,<br />
Averse means disinclined or reluctant and<br />
this introduction <strong>of</strong> the idea <strong>of</strong> feelings is the<br />
chief distinction. We claim to be averse to<br />
flattery and despise barbarians for being averse<br />
to learnireg. What female heart can gold despise?/Whnt<br />
Cut’s averse to fish? asked Gray.<br />
An adverse witness is averse to testifying in<br />
our favor.<br />
Averse may be followed by from or to, with<br />
exactly the same meaning, as in men averse<br />
from war and men averse to wur. Both forms<br />
have a long literary history and both are acceptable<br />
today, but to is generally preferred.<br />
Aversion may also be followed by from, but<br />
this is rarely heard today. It is more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used with to or for. Both words may be followed<br />
by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb introduced<br />
by a preposition, as in averse to fighting, an<br />
aversion to fighting. Averse may also be fol-<br />
49 avouch<br />
lowed by an infinitive, as in we are not averse<br />
to acknowledge. The -ing form is heard more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten.<br />
aviator; aviatress; aviatrix. An aviator is one who<br />
pilots an airplane. In the early days when a<br />
woman’s doing it seemed amazing it was<br />
thought necessary to emphasize her sex, but<br />
aviatress and aviatrix are falling into disuse<br />
and the one word applies to all.<br />
avid, keenly desirous, greedy, intensely eager, is<br />
a word more <strong>of</strong>ten read than heard. And<br />
because <strong>of</strong> its meaning <strong>of</strong> excessive desire, it<br />
is well to use it sparingly. All men desire<br />
praise, but only a few are avid for it and the<br />
word should be reserved for them.<br />
avocation; vocation. In America the older meanings<br />
<strong>of</strong> the words are kept: A man’s vocation<br />
is his ordinary occupation, business, or pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
(that particular state or function to<br />
which it has pleased God to call him). His<br />
avocation is that which calls him away from<br />
his vocation-some minor occupation or<br />
hobby.<br />
Colloquially in America and more frequently<br />
in England, avocation is sometimes used as if<br />
it meant vocation, but this is wrong.<br />
Vocational has acquired a special meaning<br />
in education. Vocational guidance means guidance<br />
in selecting one’s life work. It can, and<br />
usually does, mean that a student with the<br />
ability and inclination is advised to enter one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>essions. But a vocational school<br />
means a school, <strong>of</strong>ten a high school, that<br />
teaches its students “practical” courses-manual<br />
training, home economics, stenography,<br />
automobile repairing, and the like. A vocational<br />
school is a trade school, a terminal<br />
school. In this sense the word has come a<br />
long way from its original meaning <strong>of</strong> “calling.”<br />
Vocation was at first a calling from<br />
God, such as that experienced by the youthful<br />
Samuel, and for a long time it was applied<br />
only to a religious occupation and was conceived<br />
as something wholly apart from ability<br />
or inclination. There had to be a definite<br />
supernatural summons before one entered the<br />
ministry and the word vocation (and especially<br />
its homely translation “calling”) still has this<br />
meaning in some <strong>of</strong> its uses. But it is hard to<br />
conceive <strong>of</strong> any supernatural injunction to<br />
repair cars or to fix television sets. See also<br />
calling, business.<br />
avoid. This word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he avoided saying. It<br />
could once be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
he avoided to say, but this is now obsolete.<br />
avoid like the plague. See plague.<br />
avouch; avow; vouch for. To nvouch is to assert<br />
positively, to assume responsibility for, to<br />
guarantee (His death was avouched by three<br />
separate messengers). The word is now falling<br />
into disuse and is generally replaced by the<br />
phrase vouch for.<br />
To avow is to declare frankly or openly<br />
(The Senator avowed his devotion to his constituenfs)<br />
.
await 50<br />
await. See anticipate.<br />
awake; awaken. See wake.<br />
award; reward. The verb award means to assign<br />
or bestow according to adjudged merit. The<br />
noun award means that which is so assigned<br />
or bestowed. In its proper uses it is a l<strong>of</strong>ty<br />
and dignified word. When there is not sufficient<br />
dignity in the gift or the judges, it is a<br />
slightly pompous word better replaced by gift.<br />
A reward is something given in recompense<br />
for service. It is pay, compensation, or retribution<br />
and punishment. (Honor is the reward <strong>of</strong><br />
virtue).<br />
aware. See conscious.<br />
awful; dreadful. Until recently these words both<br />
meant inspiring respectful fear and both are<br />
now used to mean very disagreeable, as in<br />
that dreadful cat, that awful child. Some<br />
people object to the second use <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
but it is thoroughly established in American<br />
speech today.<br />
Technically, awful and dreadful are adjectives<br />
and qualify nouns. But they are also used<br />
as simple intensives before another adjective,<br />
as in it came awful close and dreadful sorry,<br />
Clementine. This use <strong>of</strong> dreadful is not standard<br />
now, although dreadfully sorry is acceptable.<br />
But some educated people still use awful<br />
rather than awfully before an adjective. They<br />
feel that this is the popular idiom and that,<br />
since the purists will not forgive them for<br />
using the word as an intensive anyway, there<br />
is nothing to be gained by a compromise such<br />
as awfully close. See adjectives as adverbs.<br />
awoke; awaken. See wake.<br />
axe to grind, to have an. A cliche and therefore<br />
to be avoided and the more to be avoided<br />
because, like so many cliches, it doesn’t have<br />
a clear meaning.<br />
In so far as it has a meaning, it implies a<br />
hidden personal interest in a seemingly dis-<br />
babe; baby. Baby is now the standard word,<br />
though it is a diminutive <strong>of</strong> the former standard<br />
word bnbe (and, behold, the babe wept-Exodus<br />
2:6) which was itself, probably, a diminutive<br />
<strong>of</strong> an earlier baban. When babe was the<br />
standard word for child, baby, its diminutive,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten meant a doll. The two words seem continually<br />
to be interchanging, as in modem slang.<br />
Babe is still retained to imply innocence, guilelessness,<br />
and simplicity (I know no more than a<br />
babe unborn) and baby, as both a noun and a<br />
verb, to denote an undesirable infantilism (He’s<br />
a big baby. Don’t baby him). See also infant.<br />
bacillus. The plural is bacilli.<br />
B<br />
interested proposal. But just how it came to<br />
have even this much meaning is somewhat <strong>of</strong><br />
a mystery. Some (the Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
among them) attribute the origin <strong>of</strong><br />
the phrase to a story by Benjamin Franklin,<br />
but Franklin’s story, <strong>of</strong> a man who wanted<br />
his axe ground until the whole surface was as<br />
bright as the edge and agreed to turn the<br />
grindstone while the smith so ground it, carries,<br />
rather, the moral <strong>of</strong> “Don’t bite <strong>of</strong>f more<br />
than you can chew.” More reliably the phrase<br />
has been traced to Charles Miner’s Who’ll<br />
Turn the Grindstone? In this anecdote, first<br />
published in 1810, a boy is flattered into turning<br />
the grindstone while a stranger sharpens<br />
his axe. The boy finds the task much harder<br />
than he thought it would be and is dismissed<br />
at its conclusion not with thanks but with a<br />
threat that he’d better not be late to school.<br />
But here, again, there is no suggestion <strong>of</strong> a<br />
hidden private interest in an apparently altruistic<br />
suggestion. The stranger makes his intention<br />
plain from the beginning. If the story<br />
has a moral it is, “Don’t expect gratitude just<br />
because you work hard.”<br />
The saying probably lingers on because it<br />
isn’t understood. It has an earthy, rustic flavor.<br />
The user appears to be a son <strong>of</strong> toil and the<br />
soil and the poor listener daren’t ask “What<br />
does that mean?”<br />
ixiom. See commonplace.<br />
axis. The plural is axes.<br />
ty; aye or aye; ay. The two adverbs, one meaning<br />
always, continually, at all times (And aye<br />
she sighed) and the other yes (Aye, ‘tis true),<br />
are pronounced differently though each is<br />
spelled either way. Aye meaning “always” is<br />
pronounced like the a in race. Aye meaning<br />
“yes” is pronounced like the i in mice.<br />
Aye in the sense <strong>of</strong> “yes” is also a noun (The<br />
ayes have it).<br />
back formation is a term used in grammar to describe<br />
the formation <strong>of</strong> a word from one that<br />
looks like its derivative or to describe any word<br />
so formed. The verb to typewrite was so formed<br />
from typewriter. Peddler is a classic example.<br />
Usually in English an agent noun is formed by<br />
adding the suffix -er (or -or or -ar) to the verb<br />
stem, as builder from build and singer from sing.<br />
But in the case <strong>of</strong> peddler the noun existed first<br />
and the verb to peddle was formed from the<br />
noun. Sometimes (as in the singular Chinee) the<br />
irregularity <strong>of</strong> the word is felt and it is not used<br />
seriously, but many others have passed into<br />
standard usage (as pea from Pease and diagnose
from diagnosis). It is interesting that among<br />
such formations whose irregularity would, he<br />
felt, be too obvious for anyone to make serious<br />
use <strong>of</strong> them, Fowler lists donate, now a fully<br />
accepted word.<br />
back <strong>of</strong>; in back <strong>of</strong>. Both <strong>of</strong> these phrases are<br />
standard English in the United States. A survey<br />
<strong>of</strong> American usage made about twenty-five years<br />
ago found that back <strong>of</strong> was thoroughly established<br />
but that in back <strong>of</strong> was “disputable.” Since<br />
then, in back <strong>of</strong> has been accepted in the finest<br />
circles. It appears in foreign-language dictionaries<br />
and vocabulary lists compiled by the most<br />
reputable institutions, and in publications <strong>of</strong> the<br />
United States Office <strong>of</strong> Education. (No one any<br />
longer questions the propriety <strong>of</strong> in front <strong>of</strong>.)<br />
backward; backwards. Backward is the only form<br />
that can be used to qualify a following noun, as<br />
in u backward glance. Either form may be used<br />
in any other construction, as in move backwards<br />
and move backward. In the United States the<br />
form backward is generally preferred.<br />
Bacon, the essayist, may be called Francis Bacon,<br />
Sir Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam <strong>of</strong> Verulam,<br />
Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, or Lord<br />
St. Albans. Few men have had as many legitimate<br />
names. It is an error, however, to call him<br />
Lord Bacon.<br />
bacteria is a plural form and traditionally requires<br />
a plural verb.<br />
In general English bacteria is treated as a<br />
plural when it refers to a collection <strong>of</strong> individuals,<br />
as in these bacteria are dead and all bacteria<br />
are larger than viruses. But when it refers to a<br />
class or a variety, it may also be treated as a<br />
singular, as in this particular bacteria is harmless<br />
and a new bucteria has appeared. In this sense,<br />
a regular plural in s is sometimes heard, as in<br />
not enough is known aboat the bacterias. This is<br />
acceptable. But a double Latin plural, bacteriue,<br />
is not.<br />
The Latin singular bacterium is very rare. It<br />
is not heard in general English and is now too<br />
vague a term to be used in the laboratory. A<br />
technician who had isolated one <strong>of</strong> these organisms<br />
would call what he had found something<br />
more specific than a bacterium. The word occurs<br />
chiefly when this form <strong>of</strong> life is being discussed<br />
in connection with a virus.<br />
bad. The comparative form is worse. The superlative<br />
form is worst. At one time bad also had the<br />
forms budder and baddest, but these are no<br />
longer standard.<br />
A few generations ago, the word bud was an<br />
adjective and could only be used to qualify a<br />
noun; the word badly was an adverb and was<br />
the form required to qualify any word that was<br />
not a noun. This means that the form bud was<br />
required in sentences such as I felt bud, he<br />
looked bud, and so on, where it refers to, or<br />
qualifies, the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb. On the other<br />
hand, the form badly was required in sentences<br />
such as it hurt badly, because here the word<br />
refers to or qualifies the verb, that is, it tells how<br />
it hurt.<br />
51 baggage<br />
But today many people believe that I felt<br />
badly is a “nicer” expression than I felt bud.<br />
This technically incorrect form has now become<br />
acceptable English. We may say Z felt bad or<br />
Z felt badly. Having established itself after the<br />
verb feel, badly has begun to appear after other<br />
linking verbs, such as he looks badly, it smells<br />
badly, where bud is the traditionally correct<br />
form. Badly is not yet as well established after<br />
these other verbs as it is after feel. It sounds<br />
like a grammatical mistake to many people. But<br />
it is acceptable to many others and will probably<br />
be thoroughly established in time.<br />
As badly took over some <strong>of</strong> the functions <strong>of</strong><br />
bud, the form bad began to be used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
badly, as in it hnrt bud. This construction, once<br />
standard English, had been obsolete for several<br />
centuries when this revival began. Many people<br />
still object to this use <strong>of</strong> bad but it has not been<br />
attacked as energetically as the adjective use <strong>of</strong><br />
badly and will probably be standard English in<br />
time.<br />
Worse and less are the only comparative<br />
forms in English that do not end in r, and less<br />
now has the duplicate form lesser. The word<br />
worser, as in the worser sort, my worser self,<br />
was formerly as acceptable as lesser now is, but<br />
at present it is out <strong>of</strong> use and considered unacceptable<br />
by many people. The words worse and<br />
worst are both adverbs as well as adjectives.<br />
Only the form worst can be used before <strong>of</strong>,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> how many things are being talked<br />
about, as in in the collision between the convertible<br />
and the truck, the convertible got the worst<br />
<strong>of</strong> it. Worse <strong>of</strong> is unidiomatic English, and the<br />
fact that only two objects are being compared is<br />
irrelevant.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> worst for most, as in what I need<br />
worst is money, is objectionable to most people.<br />
bad blood between tbem. To say <strong>of</strong> those who<br />
have long nursed grudges against each other,<br />
who have an ingrained dislike and resentment<br />
<strong>of</strong> each other, that there is bud blood between<br />
them is to employ an anemic cliche.<br />
bade. See bid.<br />
bag and baggage. Baggage has a specialized meaning,<br />
the impedimenta <strong>of</strong> an army. With bag and<br />
baggage-with the property <strong>of</strong> the army as a<br />
whole and the properties <strong>of</strong> the individual soldiers-was<br />
sometimes one <strong>of</strong> the terms <strong>of</strong> an<br />
honorable retreat.<br />
The phrase, meaning “with one’s whole belongings,<br />
completely,” probably remained in<br />
popular use because <strong>of</strong> its alliteration. It is now<br />
a cliche with all <strong>of</strong> its original meaning lost and<br />
should be avoided in ordinary speech or writing.<br />
baggage; luggage. Baggage used to be the American<br />
word, luggage the English. But in recent<br />
years luggage has come into currency in America<br />
too. Airplanes and trains have luggage racks<br />
and what used to be called the trunk <strong>of</strong> an automobile<br />
is now <strong>of</strong>ten called the luggage compartment.<br />
In almost all combinations, however, it remains<br />
baggage: baggage room, baggage agent,
aggage check, baggage car. He would be a<br />
bold man who, west <strong>of</strong> the Hudson, dared refer<br />
to it as the luggage van.<br />
bagpipe. In traditional English, one <strong>of</strong> these instruments<br />
is called a bagpipe no matter how<br />
many pipes it may have, as in he played on a<br />
bagpipe. In Scotland, the plural form bagpipes<br />
is commonly used in referring to one instrument,<br />
as in he played on the bagpipes, and the<br />
plural form may even be treated as a singular,<br />
as in give the lad a bagpipes instead <strong>of</strong> a rattle.<br />
Either form is acceptable in the United States.<br />
bail; bale. You bail out a boat with a bail (from<br />
Old French baille “bucket”). You bale hay into<br />
a bale (from Old High German ball4 “ball”).<br />
baker’s dozen. There are several explanations <strong>of</strong><br />
why thirteen should be called a baker’s dozen.<br />
Bakers are said to have been notoriously dishonest<br />
(there are a number <strong>of</strong> proverbs that<br />
connect the baker with the pillory) and the extra<br />
loaf added to every dozen (called the vantage<br />
loaf or inbread) insured full weight. Or the<br />
added loaf in twelve is said to have been the<br />
legal pr<strong>of</strong>it allowed those who bought at wholesale<br />
from the bakery and sold at retail.<br />
Whatever the derivation, the phrase is now a<br />
clich6 and is generally to be avoided.<br />
balance. When this word refers to a weighing instrument<br />
it means the entire instrument and the<br />
plural balances means more than one <strong>of</strong> these.<br />
At one time this word was confused with the<br />
word scales. The instrument itself was thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> as a plural, as in thou art weighed in the<br />
balances, and the singular balance was used to<br />
mean one <strong>of</strong> the pans, as in a pair <strong>of</strong> balances<br />
in his hand. This usage is based on a misunderstanding<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word balance. It can still be<br />
heard today, but is no longer acceptable English.<br />
balance; remainder; rest; residue. Though described<br />
bv the Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong> as<br />
%.ommerEial slang” and conhemned by Fowler<br />
as “a slipshod extension,” balance is used so<br />
widely in America for remainder that it must<br />
be accepted as standard (Lee, with the balance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the army, was to hold <strong>of</strong>f McClellan).<br />
Those who wish to make fine distinctions<br />
(though they may not be followed or even<br />
understood by the balance <strong>of</strong> their countrymen)<br />
will use balance only when they have in mind<br />
the difference between two amounts that have to<br />
be compared. That is, you may say I’ll pay you<br />
the balance when I get my pay check because,<br />
apparently, something has been paid and the<br />
amount to be received in the pay check will at<br />
least equal what is yet to be paid. Certainly a<br />
bank balance, though properly a remainder, is<br />
now standard.<br />
Remainder or rest is what is left and either<br />
is to be preferred to balance in ordinary use. It<br />
is better to say I had the rest <strong>of</strong> the time to<br />
myself than to say I had the balance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
time to myself.<br />
Residue is what remains after some process<br />
has taken place (The residue was a light gray<br />
ash). The balance <strong>of</strong> an army might be that<br />
proportion whose preponderant weight decided<br />
52<br />
an up-to-that-time evenly matched engagement.<br />
The remainder <strong>of</strong> an army might be any part<br />
left after the main sections had been dispersed.<br />
The residue <strong>of</strong> an army would be that remaining<br />
after an engagement or a disastrous retreat.<br />
baleful and baneful both mean destructive, pernicious.<br />
Baleful can also mean malignant and<br />
baneful can also mean poisonous but in these<br />
two particular meanings the words are not interchangeable.<br />
Baneful is generally applied to<br />
things that cause death, baleful to menacing<br />
influences.<br />
bambino. The plural is bambinos or bambini.<br />
ban. The necessity <strong>of</strong> using short words in headlines<br />
and the fact that headlines are coming to<br />
be more and more the sole reading matter <strong>of</strong><br />
millions have made headlines a serious force<br />
in the shaping <strong>of</strong> popular speech. Among the<br />
most popular <strong>of</strong> words in headlines is ban. In<br />
standard English it means prohibit or interdict.<br />
A book is banned if it is prohibited by the<br />
authorities. It is so used in the headlines but<br />
it is also used to signify almost any kind <strong>of</strong><br />
disapproval or refusal.<br />
banal. See commonplace.<br />
bandit. See thief; robber; burglar.<br />
banister; baluster. The word banister is simply a<br />
corruption <strong>of</strong> baluster. A baluster is the upright<br />
support, with a curved or molded outline.<br />
The balusters together form the balustrade<br />
which supports the railing and it is this that<br />
children slide down when they slide down the<br />
banisters. It is hard to conceive <strong>of</strong> any purist<br />
so pure, however, that he would say The<br />
children slid down the railing supported by the<br />
balustrade, and banisters serves for balusters,<br />
railing and all, in domestic and colloquial use.<br />
Of course anyone writing about architecture or<br />
ordering specific parts for a staircase would do<br />
well to use the terms exactly.<br />
bank on (to rely on) derives not from putting<br />
money in a bank and so having it to rely on, but<br />
from making bank at a gaming table. You can<br />
bunk on that means “You can be so sure <strong>of</strong><br />
that that you can wager any sum on it against<br />
all comers.”<br />
banns. This word, meaning a notice <strong>of</strong> an intended<br />
marriage, is used only in the plural form, as<br />
in the banns were published yesterday. In order<br />
to speak <strong>of</strong> more than one such notice it is<br />
necessary to say the banns <strong>of</strong> several couples.<br />
banquet. See repast.<br />
baptismal name. See first name.<br />
barbarian; barbaric; barbarous; barbarism; barbarity.<br />
A barbarian was originally simply a non-<br />
Greek. The Greeks couldn’t understand the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> the northern nations and didn’t<br />
think it much worth while to try. To them it<br />
sounded as if they were simply saying bar-bar<br />
over and over again and they called them<br />
barbarians.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> nouns and adjectives stem<br />
from this root, each embodying some aspect or<br />
quality, or supposed aspect or quality, <strong>of</strong> uncivilized<br />
and unlettered people with rough<br />
manners.
Barbarian when used as an adjective simply<br />
means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to barbarians, without<br />
any emotional coloring. A barbarian custom is<br />
a custom <strong>of</strong> barbarians.<br />
Barbaric has a favorable connotation and is<br />
used <strong>of</strong> those things among barbarians that<br />
civilized men find admirable or at least not<br />
repulsive. It alludes to the nai’vet6 <strong>of</strong> barbarians,<br />
their rude vigor, their childlike love <strong>of</strong><br />
splendor, etc. (The barbaric dissonances <strong>of</strong><br />
Tchaikowsky’s Marche Slave).<br />
Barbarous alludes to the cruel and unpleasant<br />
things associated with barbarians (The<br />
slaughter <strong>of</strong> the prisoners was a barbarous act).<br />
It is a word inclined to be overworked since its<br />
use is self-laudatory in that it implies that the<br />
speaker or writer definitely regards himself as<br />
civilized in comparison to those <strong>of</strong> whom he is<br />
speaking.<br />
Barbarism means an uncivilized condition<br />
(They lived in a state <strong>of</strong> barbarism) and, by<br />
extension from this, uncultivated taste, and a<br />
special meaning, an illiterate expression (“They<br />
was” is a barbarism).<br />
Barbarity means some brutal or inhuman<br />
conduct (The barbarities practiced upon the<br />
wounded are too dreadful to describe). This<br />
word, too, is used, by figurative extension, to<br />
describe faults in taste or solecisms in grarnmar,<br />
but its violence is likely to engender resentment<br />
and the implied cultural superiority<br />
<strong>of</strong> its user is likely to engender scorn.<br />
bard was one <strong>of</strong> an ancient Celtic order <strong>of</strong> poets.<br />
When Tom Moore in The Minstrel Boy referred<br />
to the boy as the warrior bard he was<br />
using the word correctly, but opportunities to so<br />
use it are rare and hard to contrive. To use it<br />
facetiously as a term for any poet is to indulge<br />
in a low grade <strong>of</strong> frigid jocularity. To call Shakespeare<br />
the Bard <strong>of</strong> Avon is to come feebly into<br />
the rear <strong>of</strong> an outworn fashion with a lamentable<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> stilted nonsense.<br />
bare. See mere.<br />
barely. See hardly.<br />
barker to denote someone who stands before a<br />
store or theater urging passers-by to enter (A<br />
good barker is indispensable to a sideshow) is<br />
so universal that its use would be fully understood<br />
anywhere in the United States.<br />
barn means different things in England and<br />
America. The English restrict it to its original<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a storage place for grain. In America<br />
it also includes shelters or stalls for animals,<br />
especially for cows. We speak <strong>of</strong> locking the<br />
barn door after the horse has been stolen,<br />
whereas in England the proverb is always the<br />
stable door. Barn in American usage has a<br />
specialized meaning <strong>of</strong> a storage place for streetcars<br />
(car barn) and a generalized meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
a large, bleak room or building (The house was<br />
a perfect barn <strong>of</strong> a place).<br />
barracks. At one time a singular form barrack<br />
was used in speaking <strong>of</strong> one building, as in he<br />
lived in a barrack, and the plural barracks meant<br />
a collection <strong>of</strong> such buildings. In the United<br />
States today one building is usually called a<br />
53 Basic<br />
barracks. The word may be followed by a plural<br />
verb, as in the barracks are crowded, or by a<br />
singular verb, as in the barracks is crowded. The<br />
singular form barrack is still preferred as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in barrack room<br />
and barrack yard.<br />
barracuda. The plural is barracudas or barracuda,<br />
not barracudae.<br />
barrage is properly a curtain <strong>of</strong> shelling, the shells<br />
so laid down as to make a given line impassable.<br />
Military procedures and the terms that<br />
describe them are not always clear to the civilian,<br />
however, and the word has come in<br />
standard usage to mean an overwhelming quantity<br />
(The speaker was greeted with a barrage <strong>of</strong><br />
questions).<br />
bar sinister. The use <strong>of</strong> the term bar sinister<br />
(chiefly by romantic novelists-including Sir<br />
Walter Scott) to denote illegitimate birth is not<br />
only hackneyed and pretentious but erroneuus.<br />
The persistence <strong>of</strong> the error may be due to<br />
the connotations <strong>of</strong> bar and sinister. They carry,<br />
between them, a vague suggestion that illegitimate<br />
sons are barred from inheriting and have<br />
something evil and sneaking about them. The<br />
latter idea is very strong: bastard is still the<br />
commonest term, in the vernacular, for anyone<br />
who has been cruel or underhanded.<br />
The proper term-if any novelist wishes to<br />
mend his ways-is bend. A bar, in the jargon<br />
<strong>of</strong> heraldry, is “an honorable ordinary, formed<br />
(like the fess) by two parallel lines drawn horizontally<br />
across the shield, and including not<br />
more than its fifth part.” A bend is “an ordinary<br />
formed by two parallel lines drawn from the<br />
dexter chief to the sinister base <strong>of</strong> the shield.”<br />
It, too, includes no more than a fifth part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
shield, though (if the novelist really wants to<br />
be recondite) it may contain the third part <strong>of</strong><br />
the shield “if charged.”<br />
It’s much simpler to say, “He was a bastard.”<br />
bartender. The American bartender (colloquially<br />
barkeeper or barkeep) is in England a barman.<br />
For the English barmaid there is no American<br />
equivalent, in name or person. American mores<br />
have never permitted ladies to dispense alcoholic<br />
beverages to the public and American courtesy,<br />
prudery, democracy, or just plain love <strong>of</strong> highfalutin<br />
language, has given us a vocabulary deficient<br />
in standard terms for female human<br />
beings who are not ladies.<br />
basal and basic mean fundamental. Their use<br />
should be restricted to specialized meanings, and<br />
fundamental, or even the good, solid bottom,<br />
used at other times. Basal, in common usage, is<br />
almost a nonce word, being confined to the<br />
physiological basal metabolism. Basic, however,<br />
is increasingly common (basic facts, basic ingredients,<br />
basic principles) and will probably<br />
oust the older words if, indeed, it has not already<br />
done so.<br />
bashful. See modest.<br />
Basic English is a scientific selection <strong>of</strong> English<br />
words chosen for maximum efficiency <strong>of</strong> expression<br />
and for ease <strong>of</strong> learning. Conceived by<br />
C. K. Ogden <strong>of</strong> Cambridge, it was worked out
asis<br />
by Ogden and his colleague, I. A. Richards,<br />
while thev were writing The Meaning <strong>of</strong> Meaning<br />
(192j). Ogden has continued to promote it<br />
in England at the Orthological Institute, while<br />
Richards since the late 1930’s has been its<br />
sponsor at the Language Research Institute at<br />
Harvard.<br />
It is called Basic not only because it operates<br />
with the most essential words but also because<br />
Ogden conceives <strong>of</strong> it as an auxi1iary international<br />
language which can easily be learned<br />
by anyone anywhere. Although the name was<br />
probably not coined as an acronym, the fly-leaf<br />
opposite the title-page is set up thus:<br />
B-British<br />
A-American<br />
S-Scientific<br />
I-International<br />
C-Commercial<br />
It is English because, according to Ogden,<br />
English is <strong>of</strong> all existing languages the most SUSceptible<br />
<strong>of</strong> simplification and because English is<br />
becoming, more and more, a world-wide second<br />
language.<br />
Of the 850 words in Basic over 600 are<br />
regularly used by a child <strong>of</strong> six and the other<br />
250 are common. There are 600 nouns and<br />
150 adjectives. Verbs are minimized and called<br />
“operations,” <strong>of</strong> which there are 16. Prepositions<br />
(20) are called “directives”; they are essential<br />
auxiliaries to the operations. The remaining<br />
words also assist to put the nouns and adjectives<br />
into operation. With the restriction <strong>of</strong> the verbs,<br />
grammar is greatly simplified.<br />
In addition to the basic 850 there are 100<br />
more general science words, which may be augmented<br />
by 50 more in any particular field <strong>of</strong><br />
science. There are also 250 “word groups”<br />
(actually idioms), which must be learned as<br />
such.<br />
Basic English is primarily utilitarian. Some<br />
translations into Basic (such as “Blood, facewater<br />
and eye-water” for “Blood, sweat and<br />
tears”) seem ludicrous, but any translation can<br />
be made to seem ludicrous. The vocabulary is<br />
limited and Basic English is, therefore, lacking<br />
in nuance. A more serious difficulty, in the light<br />
<strong>of</strong> its avowed purposes, is that for all its simplification<br />
there are still a lot <strong>of</strong> very difficult<br />
combinations to master.<br />
Here is an example from Ogden’s book <strong>of</strong><br />
what happens on translating into Basic. The<br />
selection is from Franklin D. Roosevelt’s speech<br />
on the bank closings, on March 12, 1933. The<br />
greater length and stylistic awkwardness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Basic translation is typical.<br />
ORIGINAL<br />
I recognize that the many proclamations from<br />
State Capitols and from Washington, the legislation,<br />
the Treasury regulations, etc., couched<br />
for the most part in banking and legal terms,<br />
ought to be explained for the benefit <strong>of</strong> the<br />
average citizen. I owe this in particular because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the fortitude and the good temper with which<br />
54<br />
everybody has accepted the inconvenience and<br />
the hardships <strong>of</strong> the banking holiday.<br />
Public orders have been given out in great<br />
numbers from State Capitols and from Washington;<br />
there have been new laws, Treasury decisions<br />
and so on. Most <strong>of</strong> them have been in the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> banking or <strong>of</strong> the law, and it is right<br />
for their purpose to be made clear in the interests<br />
<strong>of</strong> the common man. There is a special need<br />
for me to do this, because <strong>of</strong> the high hope and<br />
good feeling with which everyone has taken the<br />
loss <strong>of</strong> comfort and the troubles caused by the<br />
fact that banking business has been stopped for<br />
a time.<br />
These limitations are but trifles, however,<br />
compared to the immense benefits that would<br />
accrue from the adoption <strong>of</strong> some working basic<br />
international language, as a second language,<br />
that was simple enough to be easily mastered.<br />
basis. The plural is bases. A new singular base<br />
has developed out <strong>of</strong> the plural bases. The two<br />
words base and basis mean exactly the same<br />
thing. In most contexts base is the preferred<br />
form, but basis is still favored in speaking about<br />
the grounds for an opinion or judgment.<br />
bastinado. The plural is bastinadoes.<br />
bathos; pathos. Bathos means a sudden and ludicrous<br />
descent from the sublime to the commonplace,<br />
from the terrible to the flat, from any<br />
intense emotion to vapidity. A classic example<br />
is a quatrain from Congressman H. C. Canfield’s<br />
Elegy on the Loss <strong>of</strong> V. S. Submarine S4:<br />
Entrapt inside a submarine,<br />
With death approaching on the scene,<br />
The crew composed their minds to dice,<br />
More for the pleasure than the vice.<br />
Or a couplet from Grainger’s The Sugar Cane:<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the skilful teach, and some deny,<br />
That yams improve the soil.<br />
Bathos is sometimes used as a synonym for<br />
anticlimax (q.v.) but there is this difference, that<br />
anticlimax is <strong>of</strong>ten intentional, whereas bathos<br />
is always inadvertent.<br />
Pathos is the quality or power in speech or<br />
music <strong>of</strong> evoking a feeling <strong>of</strong> tender pity and<br />
sympathetic sadness. Its adjective, pathetic, is<br />
much used-too much, indeed. Bathos and its<br />
adjective bathetic are rarely used except by<br />
literary critics.<br />
battle royal, a general engagement, a fight in<br />
which several combatants engage, each against<br />
all, is a term from cockfighting. It has become a<br />
clichC and should be avoided.<br />
bawling out. A bawling out is not merely a scolding,<br />
but one delivered in a loud voice and a<br />
bullying manner (She bawled him out in public<br />
for forgetting her cigarettes). It is not used in<br />
formal speech or writing.<br />
bay window; bow window. A bay window makes<br />
a bay out from the room. It may be a bay <strong>of</strong> any<br />
kind-rectangular, polygonal, or curved. A bow
window is curved. Thus buy is the generic, bow<br />
the specific term.<br />
be. The verb to be is the only really irregular verb<br />
in English. It is made up <strong>of</strong> remnants <strong>of</strong> three<br />
separate verbs which meant, primarily, to occupy<br />
space. Today, the present tense <strong>of</strong> this verb is<br />
am when the subject is Z; is when the subject is<br />
singular but not I or you: and are when the<br />
subject is you or plural. The past tense is was for<br />
a singular subject (except the word you) and<br />
otherwise were. The past participle is been, and<br />
the -ing form is being. The infinitive, imperative,<br />
and present subjunctive is be. In the past subjunctive<br />
were may be used as a singular or as a<br />
plural, or the singular may be expressed by was.<br />
See subjunctive mode and was; were.<br />
Thomas Jefferson and his contemporaries<br />
used the form yolc was in speaking to a single<br />
person and you were in speaking to more than<br />
one, but you was is no longer standard. (See<br />
you; ye.) Formerly ain’t used in place <strong>of</strong> am not<br />
was more acceptable than it is today. It is not<br />
generally considered standard in the United<br />
States, although a contraction <strong>of</strong> some sort is<br />
badly needed here, especially in questions. (See<br />
ain’t.)<br />
The word do may be used with be to form an<br />
imperative, as in do be quiet. But do, does, and<br />
did cannot be used with be to make present or<br />
past tense forms, as they can with other verbs.<br />
In standard English we cannot say they do be<br />
rich or they did be angry. The perfect tenses <strong>of</strong><br />
to be, formed with the auxiliary words have, has,<br />
or had, may be used with the preposition to, as<br />
in he has been to school, he will have been to<br />
school. But the simple tenses cannot be used with<br />
to in its literal, physical sense. In standard<br />
English these require the preposition at. We<br />
must say he is at school, he was at school, and<br />
not he was to school.<br />
To be is frequently used as an auxiliary verb.<br />
It is used to form the progressive tenses. For this<br />
we use the appropriate form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be<br />
followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> the meaningful<br />
verb, as in he was talking, he will have been<br />
talking, to be talking. (For special uses <strong>of</strong> the<br />
progressive forms, see past tense and present<br />
tense.) It is also used to form the passive voice.<br />
For this we use the appropriate form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb to be followed by the past participle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
meaningful verb, as in it was broken, it will have<br />
been broken, to be broken. (See passive voice.)<br />
At one time to be was used to form the perfect<br />
tenses <strong>of</strong> intransitive verbs, as in the king was<br />
gone to Camelot, but these forms are now<br />
archaic. (See perfect tenses.)<br />
When a form <strong>of</strong> to be is used as a full verb<br />
and not as an auxiliary for some other verb it<br />
merely links its subject and its complement. The<br />
complement may be a noun or noun equivalent,<br />
as in he is a philosopher, or it may be an adjective,<br />
as in he is wise. See linking verbs and<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb.<br />
If one is writing English according to the rules<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latin grammar, a personal pronoun following<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> the verb io be has the form that it<br />
55 bear<br />
would have if it were standing on the other side<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb. That is, it has the form that it would<br />
have if it were in the subject position instead <strong>of</strong><br />
the position <strong>of</strong> complement. This means that the<br />
subjective pronoun would be required after a<br />
true verb form, such as it is I. The problem is<br />
more complicated with to be and being.<br />
A word that is the subject <strong>of</strong> an infinitive is<br />
usually also the object <strong>of</strong> some other verb or <strong>of</strong><br />
a preposition, such as him in I asked him to<br />
come and there is no reason for him to come.<br />
When the subject <strong>of</strong> to be is the object <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
or preposition, a personal pronoun following<br />
to be must have an objective form, as in Z took<br />
it to be him. Sometimes the subject <strong>of</strong> an infinitive<br />
is also the subject <strong>of</strong> a passive verb, as in<br />
he was asked to come. When the subject <strong>of</strong> to be<br />
is also the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, a personal pronoun<br />
following lo be would have a subjective form<br />
according to these rules, as in it was thought to<br />
be he.<br />
The rules for the word being are the same. If<br />
being is attached to a word that is the object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb or preposition a following pronoun must<br />
have the objective form, as in Z can’t imagine it<br />
being him and I like to think <strong>of</strong> it being him.<br />
Otherwise, the Latin rules require a subjective<br />
form. A genitive or possessive form before being<br />
is interpreted as a subject and would therefore<br />
be followed by a subjective form, as in Z can’t<br />
imagine its being he.<br />
The rules just given represent correct Latin.<br />
They do not represent good English. In the best<br />
English, written as well as spoken, the subjective<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a pronoun is used immediately before<br />
a verb and the objective form in any other position.<br />
See objective pronouns, subjective pronouns,<br />
-ing, and participles.<br />
bear. The past tense is bore. The participle is<br />
borne or born.<br />
Bare is an old literary past tense that is now<br />
obsolete. Had bore, which was once a literary<br />
form, is still heard but is no longer standard.<br />
This verb may mean to bring forth. The participle<br />
born (without an e) is used only in this<br />
sense, only <strong>of</strong> mammals, only <strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>fspring,<br />
and only in the passive, as in the child was born<br />
on January 12th. When speaking <strong>of</strong> the mother,<br />
the participle used is always home (with the e),<br />
as in she had borne n child. This distinction between<br />
born and borne dates from the latter part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century, and is thoroughly artificial.<br />
But it is also thoroughly established and<br />
therefore has to be observed. At one time there<br />
was an attempt to limit born to the human young<br />
and a meticulous person would write the calf<br />
was borne in the morning. But this refinement<br />
has been abandoned.<br />
The participle born may be followed by an<br />
adjective describing the creature, as in born wise,<br />
or by an adverb describing the process, as in<br />
born easily.<br />
When the verb has any other meaning than<br />
bring forth, only the participle borne can be<br />
used, as in air-borne diseases.<br />
Beor may be followed by an infinitive, as in
ear 56<br />
can you bear to hear about it again? or by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in can you bear hearing<br />
about it again? The -ing form may also be used<br />
with a passive meaning, as in it will bear repeating.<br />
Bear may be followed by a clause, as in I<br />
cannot bear you should suffer, but this is now<br />
felt to be stiff and an infinitive construction, such<br />
as I cannot bear to have you suffer, is preferred.<br />
An infinitive with for, as in I cannot bear for<br />
you to suffer, is heard frequently in educated<br />
speech but is considered “incorrect” by some<br />
people.<br />
bear a charmed life. All conception <strong>of</strong> a charm<br />
as a verse or formula with magic powers has<br />
faded from the popular vocabulary and this once<br />
powerful and even dreadful-the terrible incantation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the witches in Macbeth is called a<br />
charm-word is now reduced to mean a sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> placid attractiveness in women. To bear a<br />
charmed life was, once, to be protected against<br />
harm by the force <strong>of</strong> secret and sometimes sinister<br />
incantations. But this meaning has been lost<br />
and the phrase lingers on as a clich6.<br />
beard the lion in his den has come to be pretty<br />
well restricted to boldly facing some feared<br />
person in his home or <strong>of</strong>fice. Some authorities<br />
trace the saying to the youthful David’s exploit<br />
<strong>of</strong> taking a lion by the beard and slaying it<br />
(I Samuel 17:35). Others think it is the remnant<br />
<strong>of</strong> an old proverb (to which Shakespeare<br />
alludes in King John) that says the timid hare<br />
will boldly pluck a dead lion by the beard; but<br />
if this is its origin, all feeling <strong>of</strong> satire has been<br />
lost in the modern use.<br />
beastly. See brutal.<br />
beat. The past tense is beat. The participle is beat<br />
or beaten.<br />
beat; beat up. See thrash.<br />
beat about the bush, in its figurative sense <strong>of</strong><br />
hemming and hawing and approaching what<br />
one wants to say in timid circumlocution is now<br />
hackneyed and should be avoided in ordinary<br />
speech or writing.<br />
beaten. See beat.<br />
beaten track. The beaten track has been trod by<br />
unimaginative writers for more than three centuries<br />
now and is, in consequence, pretty flat.<br />
It survives today chiefly in <strong>of</strong>f the beaten track<br />
but even so it should be avoided.<br />
beau has the plural beaus or beaux. But beauxarts,<br />
meaning fine arts, is French, not English,<br />
and must keep the French plural in x.<br />
beau ideal. In the French id&al is the adjective,<br />
not the noun, and the phrase means ideal beauty,<br />
not a beautiful ideal. The English word ideal<br />
means exactly what the French benu ide’al means<br />
and nothing is gained from using the French<br />
phrase instead <strong>of</strong> the English word.<br />
Despite original meanings, however, the<br />
phrase has come to mean “a model <strong>of</strong> excellence”<br />
as well as “a conception <strong>of</strong> perfect<br />
beauty” and may legitimately be used in this<br />
sense. Just because it may be done, however, is<br />
no reason why it should be done.<br />
because. The phrase because <strong>of</strong> functions as a<br />
preposition and is followed by a simple object,<br />
as in because <strong>of</strong> him. But the word because<br />
standing alone is a conjunction and introduces<br />
a full clause. In most cases the clause qualifies<br />
a verb, as in he left because it was late, and<br />
because is said to be an adverbial conjunction.<br />
Some grammarians claim that because cannot<br />
be used in any other way, that is, that it cannot<br />
introduce a clause that is functioning as a noun,<br />
as it does in because you think so doesn’t make<br />
it true. Here the clause introduced by because<br />
is the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb make and is therefore<br />
a noun clause.<br />
Because may certainly introduce a noun<br />
clause that is joined to it, this, or that by some<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, as in if you are hungry<br />
it is because you didn’t eat. This has been<br />
standard English for centuries and the very<br />
grammarians who condemn the use <strong>of</strong> because<br />
in a noun clause do not hesitate to write this is<br />
because.<br />
As a rule, the example given <strong>of</strong> the misuse <strong>of</strong><br />
because is a sentence containing the reason or<br />
the reason why, as in rhe reason why he failed<br />
was because he tried to do loo much. It is<br />
claimed that only the word that can be used<br />
here. If the claim is based on theory, there is no<br />
reason why because should not refer back to a<br />
noun, such as reason, as well as to a pronoun,<br />
such as if, this, that. And if it can refer to a<br />
noun, there is no reason why the clause cannot<br />
functiqn as a noun. If the claim is based on<br />
practice, the facts are that this construction is<br />
relatively new, that it <strong>of</strong>fends some people, but<br />
is used freely by the best modern writers.<br />
Because could once be followed by that, as in<br />
I abhor death because thaf thou must die. This<br />
construction is now obsolete.<br />
because, since, as, inasmuch as, all imply a<br />
reason for something’s happening, having<br />
happened, or going to happen. Because, simply<br />
a slurred pronunciation <strong>of</strong> the earlier form by<br />
cause, introduces a direct reason (I’m sorry that Z<br />
spelled the word,/ Because-because I love you!<br />
He put on his mittens because it was cold). As<br />
and since are more casual. They suggest that the<br />
circumstances to which they relate are merely<br />
attendant upon the main statement (As-or<br />
since-it was cold, he put on his mittens). Inasmuch<br />
as implies a concession. The main statement<br />
is true or reasonable or justified in view <strong>of</strong><br />
the circumstances introduced by this phrase (Znasmuch<br />
as it was cold, he thought it best to put<br />
on his mittens, even though he disliked wearing<br />
them). Znasmuch as is an awkward way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
since and can usually be replaced to advantage<br />
by one <strong>of</strong> the other words.<br />
For the difference between because and for,<br />
see for.<br />
become. The past tense is became. The participle<br />
is become.<br />
Become may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in the milk<br />
became sour. It may also be qualified by an<br />
adverb describing the becoming, as quickly, in<br />
the milk quickly became sour.<br />
According to the rules <strong>of</strong> Latin grammar<br />
become, when used in its ordinary sense, may be<br />
followed by a subjective pronoun, as in Mr.
Hyde became I, but not by an objective pronoun<br />
such as me. This is so contrary to the spirit<br />
<strong>of</strong> English that the construction must be avoided.<br />
One must either accept the facts <strong>of</strong> English usage<br />
and say Mr. Hyde became me or find a substitute<br />
expression, such as Mr. Hyde turned into<br />
me. (See linking verbs.) Become is sometimes<br />
used in the sense <strong>of</strong> “be becoming to” and in<br />
this sense is followed by an objective pronoun,<br />
as in nothing in his life became him like the<br />
leaving it.<br />
Become followed by a past participle, as in it<br />
became known, it became torn, is equivalent in<br />
meaning to a passive verb. But grammatically<br />
became is still a linking verb and the participle<br />
a simple adjective describing the subject.<br />
bed <strong>of</strong> Procrustes, as a term <strong>of</strong> disapproval for<br />
some forced uniformity, is an esoteric cliche.<br />
Procrustes (the name means “The Stretcher”)<br />
was a legendary robber <strong>of</strong> Attica who made his<br />
guests sleep on an iron bed. If they were longer<br />
than the bed, he cut <strong>of</strong>f their feet. If they were<br />
shorter than the bed, he stretched them till they<br />
fitted it. To those who know the legend, the<br />
metaphor is hackneyed. To those who don’tthe<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> mankind-it is meaningless. One<br />
sometimes suspects that this and similar recondite<br />
figures <strong>of</strong> speech are used only that they<br />
may be explained later as a means <strong>of</strong> calling<br />
attention to the author’s erudition.<br />
bed <strong>of</strong> roses. We are never assured that anything<br />
is a bed <strong>of</strong> roses but that it is not. As a fact, it<br />
is inconceivable. As a figure, it is far fetched and<br />
artificial. As an expression, it is worn and flat.<br />
bee io his bonnet. To describe a crank with a<br />
fixed idea as someone with a bee in his bonnet<br />
was once clever. Not only is there the persistent,<br />
angry buzzing <strong>of</strong> the idea, excluding all other<br />
considerations, but there is the excited, energetic,<br />
erratic behavior <strong>of</strong> such people, with the possibility<br />
that, at any moment, they may be stung<br />
and rush wildly or dangerously about.<br />
But the phrase has been in use a long time.<br />
Quotations show that it was not a Scotch phrase<br />
originally and, except in Scotland, bonnet has<br />
not been the name for men’s headgear for more<br />
than two hundred years. And in two or three<br />
hundred years <strong>of</strong> constant use the cleverness<br />
wears <strong>of</strong>f a phrase. This one deserves an honorable<br />
retirement.<br />
beef. When this word refers to cattle the plural is<br />
usually beeves, though beefs is also acceptable.<br />
When the word refers to complaints, the only<br />
plural is beefs. In the latter sense, whether as a<br />
noun or as a verb, beef is slang.<br />
been. See be.<br />
beet. The plural in America is beets. In England<br />
this has been superseded by beetroot.<br />
beeves. See beef.<br />
befall. The past tense is befell. The participle is<br />
befallen.<br />
Though befall once meant simply to happen<br />
(in the Towneley Mysteries a crown byfals a<br />
man, and Thackeray says that Ethel Newcome’s<br />
birthday befell in the Spring), in modem usage<br />
it refers almost exclusively to unfavorable<br />
happenings ( Whate’er befall, the disaster which<br />
then befell the human race, and it befell that<br />
they quarreled).<br />
before may be used as a simple adverb, as in I had<br />
been there before: or as a preposition with an<br />
object, as in I left before him; or as a conjunction<br />
introducing a full clause, as in I left before<br />
he arrived. In a clause introduced by before, a<br />
past tense form <strong>of</strong> the verb may be used instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> a past perfect (completed action) tense, as in<br />
I left before he came and I left before he had<br />
come. In such a clause a present tense verb form<br />
must be used instead <strong>of</strong> a future perfect form.<br />
That is, we say I will leave before he comes<br />
rather than I will leave before he will have<br />
come.<br />
beg may<br />
begged<br />
be followed by an infinitive, as in Z<br />
him to leave. It may also be followed bv<br />
a that clause, but the clause verb must be a sudjunctive<br />
or a subjunctive equivalent, as in I<br />
begged that he leave. The infmitive construction<br />
is generally preferred. Beg for followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I begged for him to leave, is heard<br />
frequently but is condemned by some people.<br />
When not followed by a verb, beg and beg for<br />
are both standard, as in beg money and beg for<br />
money. Beg for is generally preferred in this<br />
construction.<br />
beg the question does not mean, as it is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
assumed to mean, to evade giving a direct<br />
answer. It means to assume without pro<strong>of</strong>, to<br />
take for granted the very conclusion in dispute.<br />
Thus he who challenges the doctrine <strong>of</strong> organic<br />
evolution and begins by assuming Special Creation<br />
has begged the question.<br />
beg-o. See begin.<br />
beget. The past tense is begot. The participle is<br />
begotten or begot.<br />
A past tense <strong>of</strong> this verb, begat, is used in the<br />
King James Bible but is now obsolete.<br />
In the United States, both forms <strong>of</strong> the participle<br />
may be used, as in he has begotten and<br />
he has begot. The form has begot is rare and<br />
begotten is generally preferred. In Great Britain<br />
the form has begot is unknown and begotten is<br />
the only form <strong>of</strong> the participle used. This is the<br />
reverse <strong>of</strong> British practice in the case <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
get, where got is the preferred form and gotten<br />
is considered archaic.<br />
begin. The past tense is begun. The participle is<br />
begun.<br />
A past tense begun, as in he begun to make<br />
excuses, was once literary English but is no<br />
longer standard.<br />
Begin may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
he began to pace the room, or by the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he begun pacing the room. The<br />
two constructions are equally acceptable.<br />
begin; commence; start. Begin is the everyday<br />
working word for entering upon an action, taking<br />
the first step, arising, coming into existence<br />
(He began to eat his breakfast. If YOU bepin at<br />
this end, it will be easier. That’s when the trouble<br />
begun). Like most very simple words, it is capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> great dignity (In the beginning God<br />
created the heaven and the earth. Begin, then,<br />
Sisters <strong>of</strong> the Sacred Well).<br />
Commence is a more formal word, suggesting
eginner 58<br />
usually a more elaborate entry into some action.<br />
One commences an action at law or commences<br />
a long course <strong>of</strong> study. Commence should not be<br />
applied to trivial things (Commence to eat your<br />
breakfast). When there is any doubt, it is safer<br />
to use begin.<br />
Start has the sense <strong>of</strong> a sudden beginning, the<br />
actual making <strong>of</strong> a move and setting the process<br />
into motion. One starts a watch after it has<br />
stopped and, in a like manner, there is a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> immediate action from a state <strong>of</strong> rest in<br />
the word. One who started to eat his breakfast<br />
would be conceived <strong>of</strong> as going about it with<br />
more briskness than one who merely began to<br />
eat his breakfast.<br />
beginner. See neophyte.<br />
beginning <strong>of</strong> the end. There is not enough cleverness<br />
in the paradox to justify any reprieve for<br />
this clichC.<br />
begot; begotten. See beget.<br />
begrudge; grudge. Grudge as a verb is now almost<br />
a rarity. Begrudge is stronger-he begrudged<br />
him even the little that he had seems more<br />
forceful than he grudged him the little that he<br />
had-and since the concept grudging doesn’t<br />
want a weaker word the simpler form has been<br />
crowded almost out <strong>of</strong> use.<br />
beguiling. See insidious.<br />
begun. See begin.<br />
behold. The past tense is beheld. The participle is<br />
also beheld.<br />
An old participle beholden (curiously enough,<br />
the same word) survives today, but only as an<br />
adjective meaning under obligation, as in 2 was<br />
beholden to him.<br />
behoove; behove. Behoove, to be needful or proper<br />
for or incumbent on (chiefly in impersonal<br />
use), is the American form. Behove is widely<br />
used in England, and is usually given the preference<br />
in British dictionaries.<br />
belated. See late.<br />
believe. This word may be followed b; a clause,<br />
as in I believe they are ripe, or by ;I; infinitive,<br />
as in I believe them to be ripe. The clause construction<br />
is preferred when the verb believe is<br />
active, as in the examples just given. When<br />
believe is passive, only the infinitive construction<br />
can be used, as in they are believed to be ripe.<br />
believe it or not. As an introductory formula this<br />
expression is intended to warrant credence even<br />
though that which is about to be related will<br />
seem incredible. It is, really, not a fair <strong>of</strong>fer.<br />
Anyone who said, Well, since you say I may<br />
believe it or not, I think I will not, would probably<br />
incur the enmity <strong>of</strong> the speaker. Meanwhile<br />
he, by simply using the phrase, has aroused the<br />
annoyance <strong>of</strong> all discriminating listeners.<br />
believe (or can’t believe) one’s own eyes. Those<br />
who protest that they can’t believe their own<br />
eyes are likely at another time to affirm that<br />
seeing is believing. Both expressions are clichts<br />
and those who use either are not those whose<br />
powers <strong>of</strong> questioning would justify much respect<br />
anyway.<br />
belittle; disparage. Belittle is a milder word than<br />
disparage. Belittle simply means to make something<br />
seem less (He belittles everything I do). It<br />
is generally used figuratively. Disparage has the<br />
added suggestion <strong>of</strong> bringing reproach upon the<br />
person whose accomplishments or possessions<br />
are belittled, or lowering his reputation or dignity<br />
(These disparaging remarks have made<br />
him much despised).<br />
Belittle appears to have originated in the<br />
United States, thereby incurring Fowler’s disapproval.<br />
He proposes a number <strong>of</strong> words which<br />
he thinks better, among them minimize and<br />
poohpooh, but few lexicographers would be inclined<br />
to agree with him on this.<br />
bellicose; belligerent; pugnacious; quarrelsome.<br />
Bellicose means inclined to war, warlike, and<br />
should, therefore, properly be restricted to a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> nations or peoples. It has been<br />
applied in humorous exaggeration to individuals<br />
so <strong>of</strong>ten, however, that it is <strong>of</strong>ten used seriously<br />
as a synonym for pugnacious which is the proper<br />
adjective for an individual who wants to start a<br />
fight. The difference between quarrelsome and<br />
pugnacious is that a quarrelsome person confines<br />
his aggression to words-unless, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
he happens to start a quarrel with a pugnacious<br />
person!<br />
Belligerent strictly means engaged in warfare<br />
(The belligerent nations refused the <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>of</strong><br />
arbitration). Since war, like jealousy, grows by<br />
what it feeds on, people at war are usually warlike<br />
or bellicose, so that it is not astonishing that<br />
belligerent has come to have the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
bellicose. There may also be an ellipsis in the<br />
use (Nis attitude was [that <strong>of</strong> a] belligerent).<br />
bellows. When this word means an instrument for<br />
blowing air it is usually followed by a plural<br />
verb, as in the bellows are ready. But it may also<br />
be used with a singular verb, as in the bellows is<br />
ready, and as a true plural, as in sixty bellows<br />
are ready. These forms are acceptable. But in<br />
literary English a pair <strong>of</strong> bellows is ready and<br />
sixty pairs <strong>of</strong> bellows are ready would generally<br />
be preferred. The double plural bellowses is<br />
not standard.<br />
belly; abdomen; stomach; tummy; guts. Belly is a<br />
good, sensible, established, time-honored word<br />
for that part <strong>of</strong> the human body which extends<br />
from the breastbone to the pelvis and contains<br />
the abdominal viscera. Its dignity could not be<br />
better illustrated than in Sir Winston Churchill’s<br />
proposal that the Allies invade Europe through<br />
the Balkans, striking the Nazis in their s<strong>of</strong>t<br />
underbelly.<br />
Many feel the word to be improper or coarse.<br />
This feeling is stronger in England than in America<br />
where, in the vernacular and in slang, the<br />
word is a part <strong>of</strong> many effective phrases (bellyache<br />
for “complain,” bellylaugh, belly dancer,<br />
to do a belly smacker in diving, and so on).<br />
Abdomen is the medical term. Its use in anything<br />
but clinical conversations or reports is<br />
pompous and mealy-mouthed.<br />
Stomach describes a particular organ, a saclike<br />
enlargement <strong>of</strong> the alimentary canal. It is<br />
sometimes used <strong>of</strong> a larger area (as in stomach<br />
ache) and has figurative applications (I cannot<br />
stomach his insulting behavior), but the word<br />
is not applicable to the entire belly and every
eader or hearer knows it. That defeats the purpose<br />
<strong>of</strong> using it, because when a euphemism is<br />
obvious then the unpleasantness that it seeks to<br />
hide is emphasized rather than minimized.<br />
Tummy is simply disgusting when used by<br />
anyone over the age <strong>of</strong> four. It was hatched in<br />
English nurseries and the sole purpose that it<br />
serves is to illustrate the futility <strong>of</strong> attempting<br />
through euphemisms to avoid the facts <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
For tummy is a euphemism for stomach which<br />
(in the sense in which tummy is used; for even<br />
the most delicate never refer to a tummy pump<br />
or a tummy ulcer) is already a euphemism. If<br />
anything could make the word worse than it<br />
already is, it is its coy use in advertisements <strong>of</strong><br />
ladies’ underwear.<br />
Guts, when used literally, describes the entrails.<br />
By inescapable association it is a coarse<br />
and unpleasant word, but where a coarse and<br />
unpleasant word is wanted it is the word to use.<br />
For its figurative uses, see guts. Its singular form<br />
is less <strong>of</strong>fensive than the plural.<br />
belong. In English usage when belong is followed<br />
by a preposition, it is followed by to. American<br />
usage, retaining the basic idea <strong>of</strong> “having a<br />
rightful place,” permits any preposition that indicates<br />
place (The book belongs in the library.<br />
The cups belong on the shelf. The pan belongs<br />
under the sink).<br />
bend. The past tense is bent. The participle is also<br />
bent.<br />
An old participle bended survives today but<br />
is used only as an adjective, as in on bended<br />
knee. Even as an adjective, bent is used more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than bended, as in a bent wire.<br />
Bent, meaning “determined,” may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in he was wholly bent to<br />
make his kingdom and his people happy. But<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition on,<br />
as in he was bent on making them happy, is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
bends. As a name for caisson disease, the bends<br />
is limited to the United States.<br />
beneath contempt. Since contempt is generally<br />
l<strong>of</strong>ty and haughty, the phrase would not seem<br />
very effective. Its meaning is probably elliptical:<br />
the act or whatever is being spoken <strong>of</strong> is so bass<br />
that it is beneath consideration, even <strong>of</strong> contempt.<br />
The phrase is usually spoken in a manner<br />
that suggests strong contempt and conveys the<br />
embarrassing implication that the speaker is<br />
actually far more deeply <strong>of</strong>fended than he likes<br />
to admit. It is just as well not to use it at all.<br />
benedick; benedict. The bachelor who in Shakespeare’s<br />
Much Ado About Nothing gloried in<br />
his unwedded freedom-until he fell in love with<br />
Beatrice-was called Benedick, and the writer<br />
who wishes to show that he is aware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
origin <strong>of</strong> the term will so spell it. And, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, any direct reference to the character<br />
must be so spelled, and with a capital B. But<br />
-ict and -ick are only variant spellings and anyone<br />
who in cheerful ignorance or disregard <strong>of</strong><br />
the etymology chooses to write <strong>of</strong> a benedict<br />
has committed no grievous error,<br />
beneficent; benign: benevolent; munificent. A beneficent<br />
person is one who does good for others.<br />
59 beside<br />
A benevolent person is one <strong>of</strong> good will who<br />
wishes others well (There are far more <strong>of</strong> the<br />
benevolent than the beneficent in the world).<br />
A benign person is one who is kind and gracious,<br />
<strong>of</strong> an even and pleasant disposition.<br />
Munificence is sometimes the consequence <strong>of</strong><br />
benevolence, but it need not be. It simply means<br />
extreme liberality in giving and that is sometimes<br />
prompted by vanity. When in Browning’s<br />
“MY Last Duchess” the duke. sueakina to the<br />
,- I<br />
envoy, refers icily to the Count your master’s<br />
known munificence no one assumes that benevolence<br />
is involved. Munificent is sometimes used<br />
as if it meant magnificent or splendid, and, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, munificence can make splendor and<br />
magnificence if it chooses, but this use is an<br />
error.<br />
The antonyms to beneficent, benign, and benevolent<br />
are maleficent, malign, and malevolent.<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> the doubt. To regard a man as innocent<br />
because, despite strong evidence against<br />
him, he has not yet been proved guilty is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
-all too <strong>of</strong>ten-referred to as giving him the<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> the doubt. The phrase is now a cliche<br />
and should be avoided in ordinary speech or<br />
writing.<br />
bent. See bend.<br />
bereave. The past tense is bereaved or bereft. The<br />
participle is also bereaved or bereft.<br />
Bereaved is used more <strong>of</strong>ten than bereft in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the loss <strong>of</strong> a person and bereft is<br />
more usual in other contexts, as in the bereaved<br />
family, bereft <strong>of</strong> joy. This distinction is not<br />
rigidly observed and the two forms may be used<br />
interchangeably.<br />
bereavementi loss. Reuve means to tear away<br />
forcibly. A man bereft <strong>of</strong> reason is one whose<br />
rationality has been rudely taken from him by<br />
some violent excess <strong>of</strong> grief, passion, or misfortune.<br />
For the past three centuries it has been<br />
used <strong>of</strong> the loss <strong>of</strong> immaterial possessions.<br />
Compared to this, loss, the mere deprivation<br />
<strong>of</strong> something one once had, seems a mild word,<br />
yet in its simplicity there is sometimes a force<br />
exceeding that <strong>of</strong> the emotionally charged bereavement.<br />
Bereavement is used, particularly,<br />
<strong>of</strong> the loss sustained by the death <strong>of</strong> someone<br />
loved. It seems more stately, more fitted to<br />
funereal solemnities. Yet this fact is a little evident<br />
and the word is slightly tainted with artificiality:<br />
My loss is greater than I can bear is<br />
moving; My bereavement is greater than I cun<br />
bear would make the discerning listener slightly<br />
uncomfortable.<br />
beseech. The past tense is besought or beseeched.<br />
The participle is also besought or beseeched.<br />
Besought is generally preferred for both the<br />
past tense and the participle. Beseeched is an<br />
old form no longer used in Great Britain but<br />
still heard in respectable American speech.<br />
Beseech may be followed by an infinitive, as<br />
in I besought him to tell me the truth. It could<br />
once be followed by a that clause, as in beseeching<br />
God that he would give them the victory,<br />
but this construction is now archaic.<br />
beside; besides. At one time these words had the<br />
same meaning and could be used interchange-
esought 60<br />
ably, but today they mean different things.<br />
Beside now means “next to” and always has an<br />
object, as in standing beside me. In some situations,<br />
<strong>of</strong> course, “next to” is not near enough,<br />
as in beside the mark and beside himself. The<br />
form besides now means “in addition to” and<br />
may or may not be followed by an object, as in<br />
three people were there, besides me and she is<br />
stunid. and ualv besides. When besides is followed’by<br />
an object, it is called a preposition;<br />
when it is not, it is called an adverb.<br />
Besides may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in what has he done, besides reading<br />
the paper? The simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb may also<br />
be used after the verb do, and is generally preferred<br />
in this construction, as in what has he<br />
done besides read the paper?<br />
besought. See beseech.<br />
bespeak. The past tense is bespoke. The participle<br />
is bespoken.<br />
best. See good.<br />
bestial. See brutal.<br />
bestir is always used reflexively (Zf he would bestir<br />
himself he would soon finish the fob). Kent’s<br />
sneer at Oswald, in King Lear (You have so<br />
bestirr’d your valor), would not be used today.<br />
best laid schemes o’ mice an’ men. Usually distorted<br />
to the best laid plans <strong>of</strong> mice and men,<br />
Burn’s poignant line is usually given with a<br />
jocular lilt when some trifle has gone awry. The<br />
damage is done and even as a quotation it<br />
should now be let alone.<br />
bestride. The past tense is bestrode or bestrid.<br />
The participle is bestridden or bestrid.<br />
Bestrode is the preferred form for the past<br />
tense. Bestridden is preferred for the participle,<br />
but bestrid is also standard in both cases. The<br />
participle had bestrode is also used in Great<br />
Britain.<br />
bet. The past tense is bet or betted. The participle<br />
is also bet or betted.<br />
In the United States bet is preferred for both<br />
the past tense and the participle, but betted is<br />
also heard and is acceptable. Both forms are<br />
also heard in Great Britain. It is said that bet is<br />
used when speaking <strong>of</strong> a specific event, as in<br />
I bet $500, and betted when speaking in a more<br />
general manner, as in they betted a great deal<br />
in those days.<br />
bBte noire. If you must describe some particular<br />
bugbear, some object <strong>of</strong> extreme aversion, in<br />
French, the term is b2te noire, not be^te noir or<br />
bete noir.<br />
betimeq before it is too late, soon, early in the<br />
morning, and so on (Up betimes, and after a<br />
little at my viol, to my <strong>of</strong>ice-Pepys; Unless he<br />
net betimes, all will be lost), while standard<br />
usage, now smacks <strong>of</strong> the consciously literary<br />
and would be regarded as an affectation.<br />
better. See good.<br />
between indicates a relation involving two things,<br />
and only two. But it does not follow that we<br />
cannot use the word whenever more than two<br />
things are mentioned. We say the difference between<br />
the three men when we are thinking <strong>of</strong><br />
each man compared with each <strong>of</strong> the others,<br />
separately and individually. But we would say<br />
the three men quarreled among themselves because<br />
we are then thinking <strong>of</strong> them as a group<br />
<strong>of</strong> three, and not as a series <strong>of</strong> pairs. For further<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> the difference between between<br />
and among, see among.<br />
Between cannot be followed by a subjective<br />
pronoun. Logically, it cannot be followed by a<br />
word or group <strong>of</strong> words that is singular. But it<br />
may be followed by each or every with a singular<br />
noun, as in between each house, between<br />
every pause, where the meaning is “between<br />
each one and the adjoining.” Some grammarians<br />
object to this, but the construction is used by<br />
many great writers, including Shakespeare,<br />
Pope, Fielding, Goldsmith, Scott, Eliot, Dickens,<br />
and is acceptable to most educated people<br />
today.<br />
When the two items are mentioned after<br />
between, they must be joined by and, and not<br />
to. We say between the ages <strong>of</strong> five and twelve,<br />
and not between the ages five to twelve.<br />
between the devil and the deep sea (sometimes<br />
the deep blue sea and sometimes [formerly]<br />
the dend sea) as a term for being between two<br />
difficulties equally dangerous is a proverb <strong>of</strong><br />
great age and much use. Like many sayings, it<br />
may owe its vitality to its alliteration. It is now<br />
spoken humorously and deserves to be retired.<br />
between you and I is not standard English, but<br />
this particular expression has such a long and<br />
honorable history and has been used by so many<br />
great writers that it cannot be classed as a<br />
mistaken attempt to speak “elegant” English.<br />
betwixt and between. English is rich in pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
rhythmical, <strong>of</strong>ten alliterative, synonyms, joined<br />
by and: kith and kin, safe and sound, might and<br />
main. Often, as in bag and baggage (q.v.), there<br />
is, or once was, a difference in the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
the two words. But one suspects that scholarship<br />
has sometimes been overzealous-and oversuccessful-in<br />
discovering these differences. They<br />
probably got fixed in our speech more because<br />
<strong>of</strong> their rhythm and alliteration than because <strong>of</strong><br />
any combination <strong>of</strong> fine shades <strong>of</strong> meaning.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> them, especially those from the English<br />
translations <strong>of</strong> the Bible, may have been the<br />
fruit <strong>of</strong> the translators’ uncertainty in the face<br />
<strong>of</strong> their desire to be exact. Where they were not<br />
sure <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> a word, they <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
synonymous pairs to be sure <strong>of</strong> getting the full<br />
meaning somewhere between the two meanings<br />
(defender and keeper, meek and lowly, gladden<br />
and delight). Similarly in legal phraseology<br />
there are many synonymous repetitions (metes<br />
and bounds, ways and means, will and testament)<br />
which were no doubt intended to make<br />
the meaning absolutely clear and-also no doubt<br />
-in many instances led to endless quibbling and<br />
controversy.<br />
Betwixt and between is such a phrase. It is<br />
now a cliche and says nothing that is not said<br />
in between. It would be wrong, however, to call<br />
it an error. In informal speech its rhythm might<br />
be just what was needed, or its additional syllables<br />
might afford the speaker just the pause or
vantage that he wanted. In a formal speech,<br />
though, it would seem pompous or wordy, as it<br />
would also in formal writing.<br />
bevy. The old names for companies <strong>of</strong> men or<br />
animals were strange and wonderful. As a company<br />
<strong>of</strong> sheep are known as a flock and a company<br />
<strong>of</strong> cattle as a herd, a company <strong>of</strong> geese<br />
were known as a gaggle and a company <strong>of</strong><br />
pheasants as an eye. Companies <strong>of</strong> roes, quails,<br />
larks, maidens and ladies were known as a bevy.<br />
The term lingers on chiefly in the cliches a bevy<br />
<strong>of</strong> belles and a bevy <strong>of</strong> beauties. Since these<br />
now have a mincing affectation about them and<br />
since the word cannot seriously be applied to<br />
any other sort <strong>of</strong> collection or company, it seems<br />
certain to become obsolete.<br />
beware. In present-day English this verb has only<br />
an imperative and an infinitive form.<br />
beyond the pale. Pale, the dismal region to which<br />
we assign those whom we regard as beyond<br />
the bounds <strong>of</strong> moral or social decency-is the<br />
word which we know best in its collective<br />
paling, a fence <strong>of</strong> stakes or pickets. Pale, originally<br />
that which was enclosed with pales (the<br />
cathedral pale), came to mean any territory<br />
within a certain limit that was under the protection<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Church or <strong>of</strong> some kingdom and<br />
that enjoyed certain privileges. The pale or<br />
the English pale was the cotmtry immediately<br />
around Dublin within which the English held<br />
sway before Cromwell subdued the entire island.<br />
When first used as a metaphor, it was a brilliant<br />
extension, but it is now overused and its<br />
literal meaning is almost completely lost.<br />
biannual; biennial. Biannual seems to have been<br />
a late nineteenth century coinage. It means halfyearly<br />
and is unfortunately and <strong>of</strong>ten confused<br />
with biennially which means every two years.<br />
It is said that the words were confused in a<br />
revision <strong>of</strong> the constitution <strong>of</strong> the state <strong>of</strong> New<br />
Jersey with the result that the legislators, who<br />
had adopted the revision, found themselves<br />
bound to meet every six months instead <strong>of</strong> every<br />
twenty-four, as they had intended.<br />
It is simply better to say “every six months”<br />
or “every two years.” The words, even when<br />
properly used, are cumbrous and have a flavor<br />
<strong>of</strong> documents and fine print.<br />
Biblical English. By Biblical English is usually<br />
meant English as used in the so-called Authorized<br />
Version <strong>of</strong> the Bible, published in 1611 by<br />
special command <strong>of</strong> King James I <strong>of</strong> England.<br />
It is this version <strong>of</strong> the Bible which has given to<br />
English speech and writing so many memorable<br />
phrases and distinctive rhythms. While later versions<br />
or translations <strong>of</strong>ten render the Hebrew or<br />
Greek originals more accurately, they rarely<br />
have a superior power or literary grace.<br />
Compare, for instance, several versions <strong>of</strong><br />
Matthew 5:6-<br />
King James (16 11) : Blessed are they which<br />
do hunger and thirst after righteousness: for<br />
they shall be filled.<br />
Smith and Goodspeed (193 1) : Blessed are<br />
those who are hungry and thirsty for uprightness,<br />
for they will be satisfied!<br />
61<br />
Biblical<br />
James M<strong>of</strong>fatt (1935) : Blessed are those who<br />
hunger and thirst for goodness: they will be<br />
satisfied.<br />
American Revised Standard Version ( 195 1) :<br />
Blessed are those who hunger and thirst for<br />
righteousness, for they shall be satisfied.<br />
It is difficult for the common reader to see in<br />
what way these-and countless other-rewordings<br />
in the various versions are an improvement.<br />
Uprightness is far less modern than righteousness,<br />
and goodness has connotations that make<br />
it a weak synonym for righteousness. The common,<br />
simple, everyday word for having eaten<br />
enough is to be full. Satisfied suggests a desire<br />
to add a touch <strong>of</strong> gentility. Revising is a difficult<br />
task and requires many things <strong>of</strong> the reviser.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the most important are enumerated in<br />
Psalms 24 :4.<br />
The language <strong>of</strong> the King James Version is<br />
archaic. It was archaic even when it first appeared,<br />
for its wording is sometimes that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Wycliffite versions <strong>of</strong> the late fourteenth century<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten that <strong>of</strong> the various versions<br />
published during the middle fifty years <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sixteenth century-Tyndale’s version, Coverdale’s<br />
version, and the versions known as the<br />
Geneva Bible and the Bishops’ Bible. The indebtedness<br />
to Tyndale’s version (15251535) is<br />
so great that all Protestant versions <strong>of</strong> the books<br />
on which Tyndale worked are more revisions <strong>of</strong><br />
his version than independent translations. Thus<br />
Z Corinthians 13: 1 reads in Tyndale: Though Z<br />
speake with the tonges <strong>of</strong> men and angels and<br />
yet had no love I were even as soundynge brasse:<br />
and a tynklynge Cymball. In the King James<br />
Version it reads: Though Z speak with the<br />
tongues <strong>of</strong> men and <strong>of</strong> angels, and have not<br />
charity, I am become as sounding brass, or a<br />
tinkling cymbal. The King James Version is the<br />
more felicitous, but it is still only a happy revision.<br />
In the Revised Standard Version (which<br />
states in its preface that one <strong>of</strong> its aims is “to<br />
put the message <strong>of</strong> the Bible in simple, enduring<br />
words”) this passage reads: Zf 2 speak in the<br />
tongues <strong>of</strong> men and <strong>of</strong> angels, but have not love,<br />
Z am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal.<br />
Although the literary quality <strong>of</strong> the Bible is<br />
uneven, certain characteristics <strong>of</strong> its style may<br />
be noted.<br />
Throughout, there is an elevation <strong>of</strong> language.<br />
“I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning<br />
and the ending,” saith the Lord, which<br />
is, and which was, and which is to come, the<br />
Almighty.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word and at the beginning <strong>of</strong><br />
sentences gives a sense <strong>of</strong> continuity to narratives,<br />
but it also conveys a feeling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
endlessness <strong>of</strong> existence, the rise and fall <strong>of</strong><br />
life. Of the twenty-five verses <strong>of</strong> the second<br />
chapter <strong>of</strong> Second Kings, only two do not<br />
begin with and.<br />
. _.<br />
3. Repetition <strong>of</strong> word or meaning is used to<br />
heighten effect: Turn in, my lord, turn in to<br />
me. Bless me, even me also, 0 my father.<br />
Thou dost but hate me and lovest me not.
id 62<br />
4. Doublets and triplets contribute to the<br />
rhythms and enhance the poetry: And gladness<br />
is taken away, and joy out <strong>of</strong> the plentiful<br />
field; and in the vineyards there shall be<br />
no singing, neither shall there be shouting.<br />
Let darkness and the shadow <strong>of</strong> death claim<br />
it for their own; let a cloud dwell upon it;<br />
let all that maketh black the day terrify it.<br />
5. The constant use <strong>of</strong> the question emphasizes<br />
the seeking quality in the Bible, the searching<br />
for the ways <strong>of</strong> God and answers to the mystery<br />
<strong>of</strong> life. It also <strong>of</strong>ten suggests sadness and<br />
plaintiveness: What is man, that thou art<br />
mindful <strong>of</strong> him? and the son <strong>of</strong> man, that<br />
thou visitest him? Or it may heighten anger<br />
or denunciation: Wilt thou hunt prey for the<br />
lion? or fill the appetite <strong>of</strong> the young lions,<br />
When they couch in their dens, and abide in<br />
the covert to lie in wait?<br />
The imagery <strong>of</strong> the Bible draws on objects <strong>of</strong><br />
daily use. Death is the pitcher broken at the<br />
fountain, the wheel broken at the cistern. Amos<br />
says that the sins <strong>of</strong> the people <strong>of</strong> Israel press<br />
upon him as a cart is pressed that is full <strong>of</strong><br />
sheaves. Man is born unto trouble as the sparks<br />
fly upwards and his days are swifter than a<br />
weaver’s shuttle.<br />
The majority, accepted view is that the King<br />
James Version has <strong>of</strong>fered a powerful and desirable<br />
stimulus to English prose style. And certainly<br />
it would be hard to find any English writer<br />
<strong>of</strong> stature whose style is wholly free from the<br />
influence <strong>of</strong> the Bible. Pr<strong>of</strong>essor John Livingston<br />
Lowes, in an essay entitled “The Noblest Monument<br />
<strong>of</strong> English Prose,” has spoken brilliantly<br />
in support <strong>of</strong> the majority view. A minority<br />
opinion is <strong>of</strong>fered by Somerset Maugham in<br />
The Summing Up (1938): “To my mind King<br />
James’s Bible has been a very harm51 influence<br />
on English prose. I am not so stupid as to deny<br />
its great beauty. It is majestical. But the Bible<br />
is an oriental book. Its alien imagery has nothing<br />
to do with us. Those hyperboles, those luscious<br />
metaphors, are foreign to our genius. I cannot<br />
but think that not the least <strong>of</strong> the misfortunes<br />
that the Secession from Rome brought upon the<br />
spiritual life <strong>of</strong> our country is that this work for<br />
so long a period became the daily, and with<br />
many, the only, reading <strong>of</strong> our people. Those<br />
rhythms, that powerful vocabulary, that grandiloquence,<br />
became part and parcel <strong>of</strong> the<br />
national sensibility. The plain, honest English<br />
speech was overwhelmed with ornament. Blunt<br />
Englishmen twisted their tongues to speak like<br />
Hebrew prophets . . . Ever since, English prose<br />
has had to struggle against the tendency to<br />
luxuriance.” Maugham goes on to say that English<br />
writers have much to learn from Americans,<br />
since American writing has escaped the tyranny<br />
<strong>of</strong> the King James Bible and has formed its style<br />
on living speech.<br />
bid. The past tense is bade or bid. The participle<br />
is bidden or bid or bade.<br />
In American usage bid, as a noun, means not<br />
only the <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>of</strong> the sum that one-especially<br />
at an auction-is willing to pay (His bid was<br />
the highest and the vase became his) but also<br />
what in England is called a tender, the statement<br />
<strong>of</strong> the price at which one is willing to<br />
do a piece <strong>of</strong> work or supply specified goods<br />
(Army Regulations state that when sealed bids<br />
are required, the time <strong>of</strong> opening them shall be<br />
specified).<br />
By an extension <strong>of</strong> the first <strong>of</strong> these meanings<br />
bid has come in America to mean an attempt to<br />
gain some <strong>of</strong>fice or power or to fulfill some<br />
purpose (His bid for the Senate was unsuccessful).<br />
In colloquial use it means an invitation<br />
(She hoped for a bid to the Beta formal).<br />
In the sense <strong>of</strong> a command or greeting or<br />
saying farewell, the preferred form for the past<br />
tense <strong>of</strong> bid is bade (pronounced bad) or bad<br />
(He bade him heed hii words. We bade them a<br />
tearful farewell), although bid may also be used.<br />
The preferred form for the past participle is<br />
bidden but bid and bade are also used (He had<br />
already bidden the executioner to do his worst<br />
when the reprieve arrived. Do as you are bid).<br />
In the sense <strong>of</strong> command, the active voice is<br />
followed by the infinitive without to (I bid him<br />
speak), the passive with to (He was bidden to<br />
speak).<br />
In the sense <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fering a sum <strong>of</strong> money or<br />
making any other sort <strong>of</strong> a tender, bid is the<br />
past and the past participle (He bid more than<br />
anyone else. I have bid all I can afford).<br />
biennium. The plural is bienniums or biennia.<br />
big; great; large. Great has come to mean size<br />
connected with some emotion about the size.<br />
Big and large refer more directly to mere size<br />
and quantity. A great wave would suggest, for<br />
example, something more than just a big wave<br />
or a large wave. It would suggest the writer’s<br />
or speaker’s awe at the size <strong>of</strong> the wave.<br />
Great means “a high degree <strong>of</strong>” when applied<br />
to abstract things that vary in degree (It was<br />
great ignorance, Gloucester’s eyes being out,/<br />
To let him live). Large was formerly used with<br />
such abstractions as charity, tolerance, satisfaction,<br />
and so on, but it has now been almost<br />
entirely replaced by great. Big is sometimes used<br />
here, but usually with an intent to be humorous<br />
and in a slangy way. Great satisfaction would<br />
be vulgarized into big kick.<br />
Where one <strong>of</strong> a class is singled out for emphasis,<br />
as being possessed <strong>of</strong> the attributes <strong>of</strong><br />
that class to an unusually high degree, great is<br />
most likely to be used, though big, in American<br />
usage, is coming more into popularity. Where<br />
the English would be inclined to say a great fool,<br />
Americans would say a big fool. A great friend<br />
(He’s a great friend <strong>of</strong> mine, i.e., an especial<br />
friend) would never be replaced by a big friend.<br />
A great talker would mean not only one who<br />
talks a lot but one who talks well; whereas a<br />
big talker (not likely to be heard at all) would<br />
have the pejorative suggestion <strong>of</strong> one whose<br />
words were greater than his deeds.<br />
Big is used almost entirely in America now<br />
to signify one <strong>of</strong> importance (He’s a big man in<br />
Hadleyburg) or <strong>of</strong> high-souled generosity (A
ealty big man overlooks these little annoyantes)<br />
.<br />
Large is limited to physical size and to great<br />
scope or range (a large order, a man <strong>of</strong> large<br />
scope and vision).<br />
big as life. Sometimes the wit who has described<br />
something or someone as as big as life will cap<br />
his jocularity by adding and twice as natural.<br />
But he has not really relieved the tedium; the<br />
simile is a clicht in either form.<br />
bill, used in America in the sense <strong>of</strong> a piece <strong>of</strong><br />
paper, is in England a note. We say a five-dollar<br />
bill. The English say a five-pound note. The slip<br />
received from the waiter or waitress in a restaurant,<br />
stating the amount owed, is becoming increasingly,<br />
in America, the check. For some<br />
reason it is felt to be more genteel.<br />
billet-doux. The plural is billets-doux. In the singular,<br />
the final x is silent. In the plural the added<br />
s in billets is silent and the final x in doux is<br />
pronounced with a z sound. As a result, so far<br />
as speech goes this word has a regular plural in<br />
s. The irregularity is entirely a matter <strong>of</strong> spelling.<br />
billiards, although plural in form, always takes a<br />
singular verb, as in billiards is great fun. The<br />
singular form, billiard, is used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in elliptical billiard<br />
balls.<br />
biliingsgate. There seems to be-or to have been<br />
-something about dealing in fish that coarsened<br />
the vocabulary. One cannot scold more abusively,<br />
according to the proverb, than a fishwife.<br />
Billings Gate was a famous fishmarket in London,<br />
famous for its fish and famous also for its<br />
colorfully abusive language. Pepys and Boswell<br />
have both left accounts <strong>of</strong> it so startling that<br />
but for their testimony it would scarce be<br />
credited.<br />
As a term for abusive language, billingsgate<br />
would seem literary and a little affected to<br />
Americans. We lack traditions in these matters.<br />
See blasphemy; pr<strong>of</strong>anity; cursing; swearing;<br />
etc.<br />
billion, in American usage, is a thousand millions.<br />
In English usage it is a million millions. The<br />
American meaning (which is also that <strong>of</strong> France<br />
and Germany) is made clear in a quotation<br />
from the Congressional Record: Mr. Speaker,<br />
I should like to strike the word “billion” out <strong>of</strong><br />
the English language. . . . I prefer the actual<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> a thousand millions. The British<br />
word for a thousand millions is milliard.<br />
Fifty years ago the difference <strong>of</strong> meaning<br />
attached to the word by the two countries was<br />
purely a theoretical matter, but today, when a<br />
billion seems to be the basic unit <strong>of</strong> government<br />
expenditure, it must cause considerable misunderstanding<br />
and our appropriations must seem<br />
even more startling to the ordinary Englishman<br />
than they do to us.<br />
The word billion is used in the same way that<br />
million is. The singular form is treated as an<br />
adjective and used without <strong>of</strong>, as in three billion<br />
yearA, except when it refers to part <strong>of</strong> a specified<br />
whole, as in two billion <strong>of</strong> these years. Expres-<br />
i3 bison<br />
sions involving billion usually reter to money<br />
and are usually treated as singulars, as in three<br />
billion dollars was set aside. But they may also<br />
be treated as plurals, as in three billion dollars<br />
were set aside.<br />
The plural form billions cannot be qualified<br />
by a numeral. It is a noun and requires <strong>of</strong> when<br />
followed by the name <strong>of</strong> anything countable, as<br />
in billions <strong>of</strong> dollars; the <strong>of</strong> is omitted only<br />
before a degree word such as more, less, too<br />
many, as in billions more dollars.<br />
Few usually takes the adjective construction,<br />
as in a few billion dollars; many usually takes<br />
the noun construction, as in many billions <strong>of</strong><br />
dollars. But either form may be used with either<br />
word.<br />
bimonthly; semimonthly. Bimonthly means every<br />
two months. It also means twice a month. Ambiguity<br />
in a term that measures time is preposterous.<br />
The imagination staggers at the thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> the committees that have met in vain, the<br />
reports that have not been ready or, being ready,<br />
have contained only one-fourth <strong>of</strong> the expected<br />
information-all because <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> this word.<br />
In the interests <strong>of</strong> punctuality and sanity, it<br />
should be abandoned.<br />
Some have tried to solve the problem by using<br />
semimonthly for “twice a month” and bimonthly<br />
for “every two months.” Aside from the awkwardness<br />
<strong>of</strong> semimonthly, this does no good so<br />
long as others continue to use the ambiguous<br />
bimonthly. It’s a pity that we have never accepted<br />
fortnightly (an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> fourteennightly,<br />
every two weeks) into general use. It is<br />
sensible, clear, and established. To Americans,<br />
however, it has a “literary” taint.<br />
bind. The past tense is bound. The participle is<br />
also bound.<br />
And old participle bounden survives, as in<br />
our bounden duty, but it is heard only in ecclesiastical<br />
English.<br />
Bind may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I bind myself to keep the peace. It is not<br />
followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb. A construction<br />
such as I bind myself to keeping the peace<br />
is not standard English.<br />
birds <strong>of</strong> a feather. Three hundred years before<br />
the beginning <strong>of</strong> the Christian era, Aristotle listed<br />
in his Rhetoric, as an instance <strong>of</strong> an established<br />
proverb, Birds <strong>of</strong> a feather flock together.<br />
The proverb, for those who need the support <strong>of</strong><br />
the ages to state the obvious, remains in full<br />
vigor. Its initial phrase, however, birds <strong>of</strong> a<br />
feather, is now a clicht and should be avoided,<br />
though its use is a very mild crime.<br />
biscuit. What the English call a biscuit, the Americans<br />
call a cracker (though one <strong>of</strong> the largest<br />
and best known <strong>of</strong> the American companies that<br />
manufacture crackers calls itself The National<br />
Biscuit Company). The American biscuit, a kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> bread in small, s<strong>of</strong>t cakes, raised with baking<br />
powder or soda, or sometimes yeast, is more like<br />
the English scone, but it is lighter, never sweet,<br />
and almost always served hot.<br />
bishopric. See see.<br />
bison. The only plural is bison.
ite 64<br />
bite. The past tense is bit. The participle is bitten<br />
or bit.<br />
The participles bitten and bit are equally acceptable<br />
in the United States. In Great Britain<br />
had bitten is preferred and had bit is considered<br />
unacceptable by many people.<br />
bite <strong>of</strong>f more than one can chew. The warning<br />
not to bite <strong>of</strong>f more than you can chew is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> those homely bits <strong>of</strong> superficial wisdom that<br />
continue to be repeated out <strong>of</strong> sheer inertia.<br />
This one seems to have originated in America<br />
in the late nineteenth century and from the frequent<br />
use <strong>of</strong> thaw in the earlier versions probably<br />
originated in the custom <strong>of</strong> letting another<br />
man bite <strong>of</strong>f a free thaw from a plug <strong>of</strong> tobacco.<br />
It was considered amusing for the biter to take<br />
the biggest bite he possibly could (Mark Twain<br />
says the invariable counter to the jest was for the<br />
donor to look ruefully at what was left <strong>of</strong> the<br />
plug and say sarcastically, “Here, gimme the<br />
thaw, and you take the plug”), and the saying<br />
was probably part <strong>of</strong> the ritual.<br />
It has long ago worn out what little humorous<br />
and philosophical value it had and should be<br />
abandoned.<br />
bitter end. Scholars have found the origin <strong>of</strong> this<br />
phrase in the bitter or turn <strong>of</strong> the cable or ship’s<br />
ropes about the bitts and explain it to mean<br />
being at the end <strong>of</strong> one’s rope. It may be, but<br />
since bitter is an established word, in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> having a harsh or disagreeable taste, and since<br />
the termination <strong>of</strong> some series <strong>of</strong> calamities or<br />
a disastrous course is particularly bitter in the<br />
thought that it is now irremediable, and since<br />
the phrase is at least as old as the Book <strong>of</strong><br />
Proverbs (Her end is bitter as wormwood), the<br />
scholars seem all at sea.<br />
Whatever its origin, however, the phrase is<br />
now a cliche and generally should be avoided.<br />
black; blacken; denigrate. Black is used as a verb<br />
in the literal sense <strong>of</strong> making black (He blacked<br />
his face for the minstrel show. He blacked the<br />
blackguard’s eye). All other senses are expressed<br />
by blacken (The bones had blackened with age.<br />
He never misses an opportunity to blacken his<br />
uncle’s reputation. The sky was blackening omi-<br />
Iwusly ) .<br />
Denigrate is a ponderous synonym for<br />
blacken in the sole sense <strong>of</strong> defaming.<br />
Blackfoot. The plural <strong>of</strong> the Blackfoot is Blackfoot<br />
or Blackfeet.<br />
Originally Blackfoor was the name <strong>of</strong> a tribe<br />
and was used with a plural verb, as in the Bluckfoot<br />
are there. By extension it was also used as<br />
a singular and as a true plural, to mean one or<br />
more members <strong>of</strong> the tribe, as in a Blackfoot is<br />
here or many Blackfoot are there. Today many<br />
people say Blackfoot when speaking <strong>of</strong> one<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the tribe and Blackfeet when speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one. Since even one person has<br />
two feet, the distinction has nothing to do with<br />
physical facts but grows out <strong>of</strong> a grammatical<br />
problem. Apparently people find it difficult to<br />
use a plural verb after the word foot, or a singular<br />
verb after the word feet. At present either<br />
form for the plural is acceptable.<br />
blame. At one time people who devoted themselves<br />
to making English grammar “logical” objected<br />
to the expression Z am to blame on the<br />
grounds that what was meant was “I am to be<br />
blamed.” But Z am to blame, meaning “I am at<br />
fault,” is standard English and has been standard<br />
for at least five hundred years. It is so well established<br />
that the unfamiliar form, I am to be<br />
blamed, can only be understood as referring to<br />
a future event. Logic is not as popular as it once<br />
was and this issue seems to have died. But the<br />
word blume is not to be allowed to rest. Today<br />
some people claim that he blamed it on me is<br />
not good English and that one should always say<br />
he blamed me for it. He blamed it on me is<br />
standard English; that is, it is used by well educated<br />
people. It is at least a hundred years old.<br />
And it is a very convenient expression. It says<br />
simply that he claimed I was responsible for it,<br />
and does not imply that he blamed me in the<br />
least. He may even have approved <strong>of</strong> whatever<br />
it was. The statement, therefore, is not equivalent<br />
to he blamed me for it. It would be a pity<br />
to lose such a useful expression merely because<br />
someone, for no obvious reason, had decided<br />
that it was not the standard idiom.<br />
blank; form. Blank in the sense <strong>of</strong> a printed form<br />
with spaces to be filled in is one <strong>of</strong> those words<br />
that keeps its older meaning in America while<br />
it has been replaced in England by the word<br />
form. Shakespeare uses it in the American sense<br />
-and in an extraordinarily modern context-in<br />
Richard II: And daily new exactions are devis’d,/<br />
As blanks, benevolences, and I wot not<br />
wet. But the last recorded instance <strong>of</strong> this use<br />
in England was in 1780.<br />
Form is also used in this sense in America<br />
and is gaining on blank, but blank is still universally<br />
used and understood in the United<br />
States.<br />
blasphemy; pr<strong>of</strong>anity; cursing; swearing; indecency;<br />
obscenity; vulgarity. Coarse and violent<br />
talk rarely confines itself to one category and<br />
the fact that several words are usually applicable<br />
to any such outburst may have helped to create<br />
a vagueness in the popular conception as to the<br />
exact meaning <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the words used to<br />
describe it.<br />
Such talk is <strong>of</strong>ten genteelly called vulgar. But<br />
vulgar originally meant simply characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
the common people. The vulgar tongues were<br />
the common languages as distinguished from<br />
Latin and there was even a vulgar Latin, the<br />
language spoken by the people as opposed to<br />
the literary language written by the cultivated.<br />
The Vulgate simply means the popular edition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Bible, published, that is, for the populace.<br />
With the growth <strong>of</strong> democracy vulgar in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> marked by ignorance and want <strong>of</strong> good<br />
breeding is not used as much as it formerly was.<br />
A fane is a temple and an act or word is<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ane when it uses sacred things that belong<br />
in the temple irreverently. Pr<strong>of</strong>ane also has the<br />
innocuous meaning <strong>of</strong> “secular” (Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong><br />
Sacred and Pr<strong>of</strong>ane History). It is pr<strong>of</strong>anity to<br />
take the name <strong>of</strong> God “in vain.” Blasphemy is
pr<strong>of</strong>anity, an impious utterance or action concerning<br />
God or sacred things. It was blasphemous<br />
in the eyes <strong>of</strong> many Jews to pronounce one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the four-letter symbols for God rather than<br />
using one <strong>of</strong> the substitute words, to call Him<br />
jaweh or jehovah, that is, instead <strong>of</strong> adonai or<br />
lord. This is interesting because it shows that<br />
one sect’s reverence may be another sect’s blasphemy.<br />
Cursing and swearing are frequently used together,<br />
as if they meant the same thing. But they<br />
are quite different. A curse is the expression <strong>of</strong><br />
a wish that evil befall another, To swear is to<br />
make a solemn declaration with an appeal to<br />
God or some other supernatural being or object<br />
to confirm the declaration, <strong>of</strong>ten binding the<br />
appeal with an oath. An oath is a formally<br />
affirmed statement which also invokes supernatural<br />
sanction and <strong>of</strong>ten invites penalties in<br />
the event <strong>of</strong> non-fulfillment or prevarication.<br />
Neither is improper unless pr<strong>of</strong>anely uttered.<br />
Indecency is simply impropriety, an <strong>of</strong>fense<br />
against recognized standards <strong>of</strong> good taste. And<br />
since the standards <strong>of</strong> good taste proscribe pr<strong>of</strong>ane<br />
cursing and swearing, blasphemy, pr<strong>of</strong>anity,<br />
coarse vulgarity, and obscenity, indecency<br />
may be properly used to cover them all.<br />
Obscene is a strong word for an impropriety.<br />
It refers to those things-particularly those connected<br />
with excretion and reproduction-which<br />
are highly <strong>of</strong>fensive and disgusting. Obscenity is<br />
the language relating to these things. Pornography<br />
is obscene literature or art.<br />
blatant; flagrant. Blaturn means loud-mouthed,<br />
<strong>of</strong>fensive, noisy and, by a natural extension,<br />
obtrusive (A vuzss <strong>of</strong> humrrn beings whose want,<br />
misery, and filth are patent to the eye and<br />
blatant to the ear). The word was coined by<br />
Edmund Spenser to describe, in The Faerie<br />
Queene, the beast upon which Envy and Detraction<br />
rode.<br />
Flugrunt means glaring, notorious, scandalous.<br />
The root word has to do with burning and<br />
the word means flaming in the sense that flames<br />
are widely visible. Flagrante delict0 means, literally,<br />
“while the crime is blazing.” Blatancy in<br />
one inclined to crime makes flagrancy highly<br />
probable.<br />
blaze a trail. A blaze was originally a white spot<br />
on the forehead <strong>of</strong> a horse. It was transferred in<br />
America to the white mark made on trees, to indicate<br />
a path, by chipping <strong>of</strong>f a slice <strong>of</strong> bark.<br />
To blaze a trail by chipping <strong>of</strong>f pieces <strong>of</strong> bark<br />
from the trees alongside the trail is a perfectly<br />
good phrase when used in its literal sense. In<br />
figurative uses, however, it is badly worn.<br />
bleed. The past tense is bled. The participle is also<br />
bled.<br />
blend. The past tense is blended or blent. The participle<br />
is also blended or blent.<br />
Blended is the preferred form for both the<br />
past tense and the participle. Blent is acceptable<br />
but is slightly archaic, or poetic.<br />
bless. The past tense is blessed or blest. The participle<br />
is also blessed or blest.<br />
Blessed and blest are equally acceptable in<br />
65 bloody<br />
verb forms. One is not preferred above the<br />
other. But blessed is the only form used before<br />
a noun, as in this blessed day. A verb form<br />
followed by an adjective form is seen in then<br />
God be blest, it is the blessed sun. When used<br />
alone as if it were a noun, blest is preferred to<br />
blessed, as in the islands <strong>of</strong> the blest, and the<br />
blest in Christ shall gather/ over on the other<br />
shore.<br />
blessing in disguise, as a term for some seeming<br />
evil that turned out to be good, is a cliche and<br />
should be avoided.<br />
blew. See blow.<br />
bliss. See happiness.<br />
bloc; block; square. In European usage a political<br />
bloc is a coalition <strong>of</strong> factions or parties to<br />
achieve some particular measure or purpose. In<br />
American politics a bloc is a group <strong>of</strong> legislators,<br />
usually <strong>of</strong> both parties, who vote together<br />
for some particular interest (the farm bloc, the<br />
oil bloc).<br />
Block in English usage, as applied to buildings,<br />
consists <strong>of</strong> a large building divided into<br />
separate houses, shops, etc., and this usa8e is<br />
also found in small American towns where a<br />
large building whose tenancy is divided among<br />
several shops and apartments will be known as<br />
so-and-so’s block (He rented a store in the Conover<br />
block). The commonest American use <strong>of</strong><br />
the word, <strong>of</strong> course, is to describe a portion <strong>of</strong><br />
a city or town enclosed by four neighboring<br />
streets that intersect at right angles. Formerly<br />
it was <strong>of</strong>ten called a square, though this is now<br />
largely reserved for an open space in a city. In<br />
Philadelphia, however, the older usage persists.<br />
Block is also used to describe the length <strong>of</strong> one<br />
side <strong>of</strong> a city block.<br />
blond; blonde. Blond is the adjective for lightcolored<br />
hair and skin and the noun for a person<br />
having light-colored hair and skin. It may be<br />
used <strong>of</strong> either sex. Blonde is used less frequently<br />
than it was. When it is used, it can be applied<br />
only to women with light hair and skin.<br />
blood-curdling yell. In the old Wild West thrillers,<br />
where much had to be made <strong>of</strong> the war whoop<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Indians, the blood-curdling yell was indispensable.<br />
By the turn <strong>of</strong> the century the violence<br />
<strong>of</strong> its exaggeration (and the extermination<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Indians) made it a humorous phrase. But<br />
now it is utterly worn out, devoid <strong>of</strong> thrill or<br />
humor, and deserves to be unheard.<br />
bloody but unbowed. “Invictus” (Latin for unconquered),<br />
a poem written in a tuberculosis<br />
hospital by W. E. Henley and published in 1888,<br />
was immensely popular. The second quatrain<br />
reads:<br />
In the fell clutch <strong>of</strong> circumstance<br />
I have not winced nor cried aloud.<br />
Under the bludgeonings <strong>of</strong> chance<br />
My head is bloody, but unbowed.<br />
The last three words <strong>of</strong> the last line became<br />
a catchphrase which was so overworked by<br />
millions who had suffered no particular<br />
bludgeoning that it became jocular. A serious<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the phrase is now barred by its jocuhu
loom 66<br />
use and its jocular use has long since lost its<br />
jocularity. It had better be abandoned except in<br />
quotations <strong>of</strong> the full poem-or at least <strong>of</strong> the<br />
quatrain.<br />
bloom; blossom; flower. Flower is the good,<br />
everyday word (Full many a flower is born to<br />
blush unseen/ And waste its sweetness on the<br />
desert air) and, though somewhat overworked<br />
in inspirational and memorial addresses, is the<br />
most dignified <strong>of</strong> the figurative extensions (The<br />
flower <strong>of</strong> our youth).<br />
Bloom, whether it be <strong>of</strong> an actual flowering<br />
plant or, figuratively, <strong>of</strong> youth, or hope, is the<br />
flower or the act <strong>of</strong> flowering, the coming into<br />
full beauty or achievement (Burst to bloom, you<br />
proud, white flower, as an unusually poetic poet<br />
apostrophized Chicago). It has, usually, some<br />
connotation, too, <strong>of</strong> the flower’s fragility and<br />
impermanence.<br />
There is another, specialized, botanical meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> bloom: a whitish powdery deposit or<br />
coating on the surface <strong>of</strong> certain fruits and<br />
leaves. This is best known in the bloom on a<br />
peach and may affect the hackneyed reference<br />
to the bloom <strong>of</strong> youth when it is specifically<br />
located on the cheeks.<br />
Blossom refers, specifically, to the flower <strong>of</strong> a<br />
fruit-bearing tree. As a verb (she blossomed out<br />
overnight) it is usually used figuratively to<br />
describe a sudden flowering, overpowering in<br />
its efflorescence and <strong>of</strong>ten carrying a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the promise <strong>of</strong> fruit to come.<br />
bloomers. The plural form refers to one garment<br />
but is always treated as a plural, as in these<br />
bloomers are small. In order to use the word<br />
with a singular verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more than<br />
one <strong>of</strong> these garments, it is necessary to say this<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> bloomers is small or several pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
bloomers. A singular form bloomer is used as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in bloomer<br />
elastic.<br />
blow. The past tense is blew. The participle is<br />
blown.<br />
A regular past tense and participle, blowed, is<br />
heard, as in the wind she blowed a hurricane,<br />
but is generally condemned. It is also heard in<br />
the exclamation 1’11 be blowed! Here it would<br />
be fatal to try to correct this and say I’ll be<br />
blown!<br />
blow <strong>of</strong>f steam. With the supplanting <strong>of</strong> steam<br />
engines by diesels, the once familiar spectacle <strong>of</strong><br />
an engine blowing <strong>of</strong>f excess steam has become<br />
almost unknown and the figurative use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phrase to blow <strong>of</strong>f steam is rapidly losing the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> literal meaning which any metaphor<br />
must have if it is to stay alive.<br />
blue, as an adjective meaning depressed in spirits,<br />
dismal, downhearted, has passed from slang into<br />
standard usage (All alone and feeling blue).<br />
Blue in the sense <strong>of</strong> indecent, however, remains<br />
slang, though it is interesting to see so<br />
staid a work as The (London) Times Literary<br />
Supplement (Nov. 28, 1952, p. 779) take cognizance<br />
<strong>of</strong> its existence: Voltaire in his later<br />
years retained a repertoire <strong>of</strong> “blue” stories that<br />
he loved to retail.<br />
The word blue occurs in an extraordinary<br />
number <strong>of</strong> slang and colloquial phrases. Eric<br />
Partridge, in his <strong>Dictionary</strong> <strong>of</strong> Slang and Unconventional<br />
English, lists over a hundred.<br />
blueprint can be used as a trope for plan (The<br />
Mayor’s blueprint for the future <strong>of</strong> the city<br />
drew a tremendous ovation from the audience),<br />
but it is well to remember that a blueprint is the<br />
final stage in design and should, therefore, be<br />
used to designate only a finished and detailed<br />
scheme or proposal.<br />
board. There are a number <strong>of</strong> differences between<br />
American and English use <strong>of</strong> the word board. In<br />
both countries, for example, it can mean to provide<br />
or receive food and lodging but in America<br />
this has been extended to include a similar provision<br />
for horses and dogs. One sees boarding<br />
stables and boarding kennels widely advertised<br />
-the latter <strong>of</strong> which in particular might strike<br />
a visiting Englishman as the announcement <strong>of</strong><br />
an unusually frank low-grade rooming house.<br />
F.O.B. (Freight On Board or Free On Board)<br />
means in England that at the stipulated price the<br />
goods will be loaded on an ocean-going vessel.<br />
In America it means that they will be loaded in<br />
or on a railroad car. This has at times led to a<br />
serious misunderstanding.<br />
The Board <strong>of</strong> Trade is a department <strong>of</strong><br />
the English government corresponding to the<br />
American Department <strong>of</strong> Commerce. In America<br />
a board <strong>of</strong> trade is an un<strong>of</strong>ficial association<br />
<strong>of</strong> business men.<br />
Boardwalk is an American invention, both<br />
the thing and the word for it. Ludwig Lewisohn’s<br />
statement that The Anglo-American mind hides<br />
the edges <strong>of</strong> the sea <strong>of</strong> life with a boardwalk <strong>of</strong><br />
ethical c0ncept.r would be completely incomprehensible<br />
to an Englishman.<br />
boat. See ship.<br />
boat, be in the same. The use <strong>of</strong> we’re all in<br />
the same boat to acknowledge a complicity or<br />
common danger is a cliche and usually should<br />
be avoided.<br />
bode. See bide.<br />
bodily. See corporal.<br />
body. See corps.<br />
bogey; bogie; bogy. All three spellings are used<br />
interchangeably, though bogy (plural bogies)<br />
is preferred for something that frightens, a<br />
specter, and bogey for par at golf or for one<br />
stroke above par on a hole.<br />
bogus is an Americanism for counterfeit, sham.<br />
Mark Twain speaks <strong>of</strong> one who had appeared<br />
at a masquerade in red cambric and bogus<br />
ermine, as some kind <strong>of</strong> a king. It is not used<br />
in England but has become standard in the<br />
United States.<br />
Bogus is frequently replaced by the slang<br />
word phony, also an American coinage. Whether<br />
our richness in such words indicates an unusual<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> fraud and sham among us or an unusually<br />
high sense <strong>of</strong> rectitude that makes us<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> it is a problem more for the social<br />
philosopher than for the lexicographer.<br />
bohemian as an adjective, referring to one with<br />
artistic tendencies who acts with a disregard for
conventional standards <strong>of</strong> behavior (from the<br />
erroneous assumption that gypsies came from<br />
Bohemia), has a distinctly literary flavor. As a<br />
synonym for wicked or promiscuous (her bohemian<br />
way <strong>of</strong> life), it is dated, suggesting the<br />
stern, mustached father <strong>of</strong> the eighteen-nineties.<br />
bolt. In American political terminology bolt has<br />
a special meaning <strong>of</strong> breaking away from or<br />
refusing to support one’s party (Senator Wayne<br />
Morse bolted the Republican party). To say that<br />
so-and-so bolted his ticket would convey to an<br />
American the idea that So-and-so, identified with<br />
a definite political party, suddenly refused to<br />
permit his name to appear on the list <strong>of</strong> candidates<br />
for election put forward by that party and<br />
either went over to the other party or ran for<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice as an independent. To an Englishman, as<br />
Horwill remarks, it would convey the idea that<br />
so-and-so had “gulped down a bit <strong>of</strong> pasteboard<br />
without chewing it.”<br />
bolt from the blue, as a figurative expression for<br />
an unannounced and unexpected blow, has become<br />
hackneyed and should be avoided.<br />
B. F. J. Schonland, in his The Flight <strong>of</strong><br />
Thunderbolts, Oxford, 1950, believes that under<br />
certain weather conditions people in a deep<br />
valley might see lightning and hear thunder from<br />
a distant cloud, and the lightning might even<br />
strike in the valley, although the sky immediately<br />
above was blue.<br />
bona fide, originally adverbial and still so used<br />
(Was the contract made bona fide?), is usually<br />
used adjectivally (Was it a bona-fide contract?).<br />
bone. The American slang term bone up, for<br />
studying hard and fast is, in English slang, to<br />
SWOI or to swot up. An American bonehead is in<br />
England, and in America too, a blockhead. The<br />
American boner, slang for a foolish blunder, is<br />
in England a howler.<br />
bone <strong>of</strong> contention, as a figure for a cause <strong>of</strong> discord,<br />
is obviously drawn from the dogs and, by<br />
overuse, has gone back to them.<br />
book. See volume.<br />
bookish is today uncomplimentary. It implies that<br />
a man knows books but not life. If the term is<br />
applied to his style, it means that it is stilted and<br />
pedantic. All <strong>of</strong> this holds equally for booklearned.<br />
To us there is something inexpressibly<br />
pathetic in the great Negro leader’s choosing the<br />
name Booker for himself because <strong>of</strong> his humble<br />
respect for books.<br />
boon companions is restricted now to the forcedly<br />
jocular and the studiedly literary, and any<br />
term so restricted were well abandoned.<br />
boot; shoe. A boot in America is a covering,<br />
usually <strong>of</strong> leather, for the foot and leg, reaching<br />
at least to the middle <strong>of</strong> the calf and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
to the knee or higher. Almost all other forms <strong>of</strong><br />
covering for the feet have come to be called<br />
shoes in the United States-sometimes high<br />
shoes, or low shoes, or specifically, sneakers<br />
(rubber and canvas shoes), moccasins, oxfords,<br />
and so on, but generically, aside from boots,<br />
shoes.<br />
In England the word boot means what in<br />
America is designated a shoe, or more widely,<br />
67 boss<br />
a high shoe, that is a shoe that comes just<br />
above the ankle. In both countries shoe is the<br />
term for the foot covering usually worn nowadays,<br />
ending at or below the ankle.<br />
The term bootblack, while still understood in<br />
America, has been almost universally replaced<br />
by shoe-shine boy or shoe-shine man.<br />
bore. See bear.<br />
bored to death; thrilled. To be bored to death or<br />
to tears or to extinction is to be boring, for the<br />
term is now a cliche, as dreary as anything it<br />
seeks to designate.<br />
It is an interesting reflection on the ways <strong>of</strong><br />
language that to thrill originally meant what to<br />
bore originally meant: to pierce. And even yet<br />
the two words, in their figurative senses, are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten applied to the same thing; what one person<br />
finds thrilling another finds boring. And thrilled<br />
to death, like bored to death. has become a<br />
clich6.<br />
born; borne. See bear.<br />
bosom, as an anatomical term, was a nineteenth<br />
century elegancy, and while still used, is restricted,<br />
with a sort <strong>of</strong> prurient modesty, to the<br />
breasts <strong>of</strong> a female. In the sense <strong>of</strong> “intimate”<br />
it is still standard in the phrase a bosom friend<br />
but otherwise would not be understood (as in<br />
Regan’s statement to Oswald, in King Lear,<br />
concerning Goneril: I know you are <strong>of</strong> her<br />
bosom). The old religious phrase in A bruham’s<br />
bosom lingers on in hymns, sermons, and literature,<br />
but few that hear or use it know that it<br />
means “in Abraham’s embrace.”<br />
Shirt bosom was once the regular commercial<br />
term (Shirts made to order, with beautifully<br />
embroidered bosoms-ad in the New York<br />
Times, 1872) but it has been replaced by shirt<br />
front. The fronts <strong>of</strong> dress shirts were called<br />
bosoms long after the term had been discontinued<br />
in relation to everyday shirts, but even<br />
that has now been abandoned.<br />
boss; master. Boss is an English spelling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Dutch word baas, master (formerly uncle; the<br />
Dutch, apparently, having as strong a dislike as<br />
we <strong>of</strong> acknowledging mastership). It is used<br />
colloquially throughout America. The word<br />
master, in this sense, is never heard, possibly<br />
because it was used by the slaves. We will speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> mastering a subject or <strong>of</strong> a master mechanic<br />
and, facetiously, <strong>of</strong> masterminds, but no American<br />
would apply the word master to anyone for<br />
whom he worked. An American worker in a<br />
shop has no feeling whatever about the Dutch<br />
word. You’ll have to see the boss about that<br />
comes out without a qualm. But he would die a<br />
thousand deaths before he would say, You’ll<br />
have to see the muster about that. It is inconceivable<br />
that an American maid, answering the<br />
door, would say that the master was not at<br />
home.<br />
Save at a few Eastern preparatory schools,<br />
where there is <strong>of</strong>ten a conscious effort to use<br />
English terms, Americans do not refer to<br />
teachers as masters. The word is occasionally<br />
used in addressing a letter to a boy, but this<br />
is now done far less than it used to be.
Boston 68<br />
In U. S. political usage, the term boss for one<br />
who controls the party organization is standard.<br />
Boston accent. Our grandfathers, particularly<br />
those living in and around Boston, were <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opinion that the English spoken in Boston was<br />
the “purest” in the who!e country. Aside from<br />
civic pride and Yankee self-assurance, this may<br />
have been based on the distinguished literary<br />
figures that flourished there, the proximity <strong>of</strong><br />
Harvard College, or the assumption that the<br />
Cabots, in speaking to God, would naturally<br />
employ an impeccable diction.<br />
The idea is not wholly extinct. Miss Theresa<br />
A. Dacey, Director <strong>of</strong> speech improvement for<br />
the Boston School Department, was quoted in<br />
the Boston Herald for March 10, 1948 as saying<br />
that “Bostonians speak the purest cultural<br />
English <strong>of</strong> any section <strong>of</strong> the country” and that<br />
their so doing made them objects <strong>of</strong> undisguised<br />
admiration throughout the land. She herself, she<br />
recollected, had been “loudly applauded” by a<br />
group <strong>of</strong> New York high-school students for the<br />
purity <strong>of</strong> her diction. She attributed her own<br />
and her fellow townsmen’s superiority <strong>of</strong> speech<br />
to their “geographic location near the ocean.”<br />
“The salt in the air,” she said, “makes our speech<br />
more forceful, gives it more strength.”<br />
Waiving such facts as that Bostonians are not<br />
alone in living near the ocean, that the effect <strong>of</strong><br />
salt on the vocal cords is conjectural, that there<br />
are several Boston accents and that certain surly<br />
folk might be found who refuse to be enraptured<br />
by any <strong>of</strong> them, there still remains room for<br />
doubt.<br />
Philologists-at least those who do not live so<br />
near Scollay Square as to be prejudiced-maintain<br />
that in pronunciation, as in spelling and<br />
meaning, usage is the last court <strong>of</strong> appeal. There<br />
is no “correct” or “perfect” pronunciation <strong>of</strong><br />
any language, in the absolute sense. A language<br />
is as it is spoken, and by a happy dispensation<br />
most groups are inclined to regard their own<br />
twang or drawl or slur as divinely ordained and<br />
all deviations from it as deserving <strong>of</strong> contempt<br />
and even death. Were not forty and two thousand<br />
Ephraimites slain at the passages <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Jordan because they mispronounced the first<br />
syllable <strong>of</strong> Shibboleth? Did not Jack Straw and<br />
his following, roaming London during the<br />
Peasants’ Rebellion, kill any man who pronounced<br />
bread and cheese otherwise than they<br />
did? And did not thousands <strong>of</strong> Americans vote<br />
for Hoover because AI Smith said raddio?<br />
Yet a very slight acquaintance with literature<br />
suffices to show us that some dreadful mispronunciations<br />
(by Boston’s standards) have had<br />
their day. Shakespeare rhymed halter with<br />
daughter and Pope rhymed tea with obey and<br />
ioin with line. Even in Boston ti in such words<br />
as attention and pronunciation is pronounced<br />
“sh,” though it was not always so pronounced.<br />
The inhabitants <strong>of</strong> Baltimore refer to their beloved<br />
city as Bol’m’r and who shall say that<br />
they are wrong? We are amused at Cockney<br />
“dropping” <strong>of</strong> h’s and putting them in where<br />
they don’t “belong”; but only an illiterate would<br />
pronounce the h in heir; and not aspirating the<br />
h in humble, hotel and historical is with some<br />
the very touchstone <strong>of</strong> refinement.<br />
The question <strong>of</strong> man’s “natural” and “proper”<br />
speech has long been agitated. It is said that<br />
James I <strong>of</strong> Scotland (author <strong>of</strong> The Kingis<br />
Quair) sought to settle the matter by having<br />
two children reared on an island in the care<br />
<strong>of</strong> a deaf mute-and was vastly pleased when<br />
his emissaries reported that the children were<br />
speaking Hebrew. He was happy because he<br />
was <strong>of</strong> the opinion that God spoke Hebrew<br />
and the children’s reported performance showed<br />
that Hebrew was our “natural” language.<br />
A similar story is told <strong>of</strong> various other rulers,<br />
among them Psammetichus <strong>of</strong> Egypt who by the<br />
same experiment in the fifth century B.C. (so<br />
Herodotus tells us) found the original language<br />
to have been Phrygian.<br />
In modern times the problem has not been<br />
taken so seriously but there have been several<br />
minor conjectures. De Lawd in Marc Connelly’s<br />
The Green Pastures spoke with a Negro accent,<br />
with the intent <strong>of</strong> suggesting that the colored<br />
folk conceived <strong>of</strong> God as one <strong>of</strong> themselves.<br />
But this, though dramatically sound, is psychologically<br />
questionable. It is more likely that God<br />
is always conceived <strong>of</strong> as belonging to the dominant<br />
group. If He no longer speaks in Hebrew<br />
or Latin, He at least has a Boston accent.<br />
both may be used as an adjective, as in both<br />
houses are old, or as a pronoun, as in both have<br />
been remodeled. When used in these ways, both<br />
means two and only two. But it can also be used<br />
as a conjunction, as in both Mary and Don. In<br />
this construction both may refer to more than<br />
two, as in he prayeth well who loveth well, both<br />
man and bird and beast.<br />
In current English, both follows any isolated<br />
(that is, any single) pronoun that it qualifies,<br />
except a possessive pronoun, as in we both went<br />
and we saw them both. Formerly, it <strong>of</strong>ten preceded<br />
the pronoun, as in both they went. This<br />
construction is now obsolete except in the case<br />
<strong>of</strong> both which, which is seldom heard any more<br />
but is still acceptable English.<br />
As a rule, both precedes a single noun that it<br />
qualifies, as in both children laughed. However,<br />
if the noun is also qualified by a definitive adjective,<br />
such as the, these, those, a possessive<br />
pronoun, or another noun in the genitive, both<br />
may either stand before the definitive adjective<br />
or immediately after the noun itself, as in both<br />
the children laughed or the children both<br />
laughed. To place both between a definitive<br />
word and its noun, as in the both children, his<br />
both hands, is not standard today. When it is<br />
placed after the noun, both is made emphatic.<br />
When both qua.lifies two words joined by and,<br />
it ordinarily stands before the first word, even<br />
when this is a pronoun, as in both he and I saw<br />
it. However, when two words joined by and<br />
are the subject <strong>of</strong> the same verb, both may stand<br />
immediately after the second word, as in men
and women both enjoy dancing and he and I<br />
both enjoy it. In this position, too, both is emphatic.<br />
When both follows two words joined by<br />
and that are not the subject <strong>of</strong> the same verb, as<br />
in it is good for him and me both and he can<br />
sing and dunce both, it is considered ungrammatical<br />
by many people.<br />
Both may always follow a linking verb, as in<br />
the men were both rich; or an auxiliary verb,<br />
as in the men had both made money.<br />
Both may be used in a genitive form, as in<br />
both’s witnesses. This construction is archaic in<br />
Great Britain but is still in use, and acceptable,<br />
in the United States. Both may also be used with<br />
a possessive pronoun. Formerly, it might follow<br />
the pronoun, as in to their both dishonor. This<br />
word order is now obsolete. It might also precede<br />
the pronoun, as in a plague on both your<br />
houses and were you both our mothers. The last<br />
example means the mother <strong>of</strong> both <strong>of</strong> us, and<br />
for this reason the noun should, technically, be<br />
the singular morher. A faulty plural here is condemned<br />
by most modern grammarians, but the<br />
quotation is from Shakespeare. When used with<br />
due regard for number, as in it is both our<br />
fault, this construction is still considered literary<br />
English. When used in speech it almost invariably<br />
has a plural noun, as in it is both our faults.<br />
But the construction is avoided, at least in the<br />
United States, and a prepositional phrase, such<br />
as the fault <strong>of</strong> both <strong>of</strong> us, is generally preferred.<br />
Both followed by a possessive pronoun is still<br />
used before the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in both<br />
their leaving. But even here a prepositional<br />
phrase, such as both <strong>of</strong> them leaving, seems<br />
more natural to most people.<br />
Both <strong>of</strong> can be used before pronouns, as in<br />
both <strong>of</strong> them, both <strong>of</strong> us, and has been so used<br />
since Elizabethan times. Some grammarians<br />
trouble themselves about this because both here<br />
means “all” and the <strong>of</strong> implies “part <strong>of</strong>.” But<br />
whether logical or not, this is a standard English<br />
idiom. Both <strong>of</strong> before nouns, as in both <strong>of</strong> the<br />
children, is still condemned by many grammarians.<br />
But it is accepted usage in the United<br />
States.<br />
bottleneck. As a word for a place where that<br />
which should be flowing freely is choked and<br />
its flow retarded, bottleneck is a good figure <strong>of</strong><br />
speech (The shortage <strong>of</strong> steel is the real bottleneck<br />
that is holding up the promised stream <strong>of</strong><br />
new curs). World War II. with its manv critical<br />
shortages, made the term popular and it became<br />
a vogue word and in its overuse the original,<br />
literal meaning was <strong>of</strong>ten lost sight <strong>of</strong>, with<br />
some ludicrous results. A metaphor does not<br />
have to express its original meaning at all times,<br />
but if it expresses something incompatible with<br />
the original meaning it may reduce a whole<br />
passage to absurdity. Lord Conesford, writing<br />
to the London Times, listed an extraordinary<br />
number <strong>of</strong> such absurdities in the use <strong>of</strong> this<br />
figure. In his collection were the biggest bottleneck<br />
(which meant the smallest bottleneck),<br />
bottlenecks must be ironed out, the most drastic<br />
.<br />
bottleneck, a vicious circle <strong>of</strong> interdependent<br />
bottlenecks and a worldwide bottleneck.<br />
bottom dollar was a common nineteenth century<br />
phrase in America for last dollar (Z’m down to<br />
my bottom dollar). It has carried over into the<br />
twentieth century, probably because <strong>of</strong> the preservative<br />
power <strong>of</strong> alliteration, only in the cliche<br />
1’11 bet my bottom dollar or you can bet your<br />
bottom dollar and should be abandoned.<br />
bought; boughten. See buy.<br />
boulevard was, originally, a ring <strong>of</strong> ramparts<br />
around a city. These, planted with trees, became<br />
a favorite promenade and the name was, by a<br />
natural extension, applied to any broad, main<br />
street planted with trees. Pr<strong>of</strong>essor A. B. Hart,<br />
writing in 1903, refers to the growth <strong>of</strong> systems<br />
<strong>of</strong> boulevards, broad, winding, and well<br />
surfaced, reaching from park to park and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
from city to city. But M. McKernan, in Life in<br />
the V. S., misuses the word when he refers to<br />
the monotony <strong>of</strong> the Kansas-Colorado boulevard.<br />
bound; bounden. See bind.<br />
bourgeois; bourgeoise; bourgeoisie. Bourgeois<br />
and bourgeoisie, two <strong>of</strong> the milder communist<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> abuse, simply mean “a member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
middle class” and “the middle class.” resuectively;<br />
but Since there is no longer an’upper class,<br />
they also mean a member <strong>of</strong> the dominant class<br />
in a capitalist society and that class as a whole.<br />
The words have been used with such persistent<br />
malignance that it is astonishing that they are<br />
not more tainted than they are, but even so a<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the middle class would not describe<br />
himself, except in defiance, as a bourgeois or a<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the bourgeoisie. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact,<br />
so few Americans think <strong>of</strong> society in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
classes that bourgeois and bourgeoisie are unknown<br />
to the masses and sound doctrinaire <strong>of</strong><br />
pedantic even to the educated.<br />
Bourgeoise is the feminine form <strong>of</strong> bourgeois,<br />
though bourgeois may be used <strong>of</strong> either sex.<br />
bourn; boume. A bourn or bourne was a boundary.<br />
Froissart speaks <strong>of</strong> the bounds and bournes<br />
fixed by the treaty <strong>of</strong> Calais. Cleopatra, in<br />
Antony and Cleopatra, says, 1’11 set a bourn how<br />
far to be beloved. And it was in this sense that<br />
Shakespeare used it in Hamlet’s famous solilo<br />
auv:<br />
But that the dread <strong>of</strong> something after death-<br />
The undiscover’d country, from whose bourn<br />
No traveller returns. . . .<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word, however, in this context<br />
gave it (when it next appeared, for it was not<br />
seen again in English print for two hundred<br />
years), in figurative and poetic writing-which<br />
is all it is used in-the meaning <strong>of</strong> the limit <strong>of</strong><br />
a journey, a destination, a goal. And this meaning<br />
must now be accepted as standard. That’s<br />
what poets do to a language!<br />
There’s another word bourn, meaning stream<br />
(Scotch burn) or river (Come o’er the bourn,<br />
Bessie, to me). The two words are etymologitally<br />
unrelated.
owels<br />
bowels <strong>of</strong> the earth. Only in the cliche the<br />
bowels <strong>of</strong> the earfh does modem delicacy permit<br />
any extra-clinical use <strong>of</strong> the once dignified and<br />
passionate word bowels (the bowels <strong>of</strong> pity, in<br />
the bowels <strong>of</strong> Christ, child <strong>of</strong> my bowels).<br />
However, the phrase is worn out. It has been<br />
in constant service since 1593 and should be<br />
retired.<br />
bowing and scraping as a contemptuous designation<br />
for being excessively courteous, too ceremonious<br />
and eager in a demonstration <strong>of</strong> politeness,<br />
is now a cliche and should be avoided.<br />
Probably not one user <strong>of</strong> the phrase out <strong>of</strong> a<br />
hundred knows what the word scraping means<br />
in this context. It alludes to a particularly elaborate<br />
bow (used especially in the conga’, or leave<br />
taking) in which not only was the head inclined<br />
but one knee slightly bent and the foot <strong>of</strong> the<br />
other leg drawn back with a scrape along the<br />
ground. It was sometimes called making a leg<br />
and <strong>of</strong>fered all sorts <strong>of</strong> opportunities for writhing<br />
self-abasement.<br />
bowl; basin. Except in certain technical applications<br />
in geology and physical geography (a<br />
river basin), basin in American usage is generally<br />
confined to a container used for washing the<br />
hands. There is some <strong>of</strong> the feeling that a basin<br />
is shallower than a bowl and bowl, despite its<br />
particular use in the phrase toilet bowl, is the<br />
more dignified <strong>of</strong> the two words. A special<br />
American use <strong>of</strong> bowl is to describe the great<br />
amphitheaters or stadiums in which the champion<br />
football teams <strong>of</strong> various sections <strong>of</strong> the<br />
country play each other.<br />
bowls. When referring to the game, the plural<br />
word bowls takes a singular verb, as in bowls is<br />
good exercise. When used with a plural verb,<br />
bowls means the balls, as in bowls are not<br />
always spherical.<br />
At one time the singular form bowl was used<br />
as the first element in a compound, as in the<br />
following sentence written in 1628: A Bowl<br />
Alley is the place where there are three things<br />
thrown away beside Bowls, to wit, time, money,<br />
and curses. This is now archaic and the form<br />
bowling is preferred, as in a bowling alley.<br />
boyish. See infantile.<br />
brace. When this word means a pair, or a couple,<br />
it has the same form in the singular and the<br />
plural, as in a brace <strong>of</strong> greyhounds, four or five<br />
brace <strong>of</strong> greyhounds. Bruce cannot stand immediately<br />
before a following noun, as a numeral<br />
does, but must be joined to it by <strong>of</strong>.<br />
braces. When used to mean an article <strong>of</strong> clothing,<br />
braces is the British equivalent <strong>of</strong> the American<br />
suspenders. The singular brace means one strap<br />
and the plural braces, more than one strap. For<br />
this reason two braces means only one pair and<br />
it is necessary to say two pairs <strong>of</strong> braces if that<br />
is what is meant. See also suspenders.<br />
brackets are seldom used except as editorial<br />
marks. Their main uses are:<br />
1. To indicate a comment or explanation<br />
added by a writer to material he is quoting, as in<br />
“These are the times [the 1770’s] that try men’s<br />
souls:’<br />
2. To indicate action accompanying speech<br />
or dialogue, as in Churchill is half American and<br />
all English. [Laughter]<br />
3. To indicate editorial corrections, omissions<br />
or additions, as in He was born February 2<br />
[actually on the morning <strong>of</strong> February 31; You<br />
will be pleased [to] hear that we have finished;<br />
The President [Lincoln] did not appear concerned.<br />
4. In mathematical work and formulas, to<br />
enclose numbers and symbols which should be<br />
treated as a unit, that is, as parentheses around<br />
material that already contains parentheses, as<br />
in a[a+b( b-c)].<br />
5. As parentheses within parentheses-rarely<br />
used, but found in legal documents and reference<br />
works, as in (See Wafter Wilson, Bugs is<br />
Bugs [New York, 19.521, p. 35.)<br />
6. In documents, whole portions to be omitted<br />
are enclosed in brackets. When more than<br />
one paragraph is to be bracketed, each paragraph<br />
should start with a bracket, but only the<br />
last paragraph should end with a bracket.<br />
brag may be followed by a that clause, as in he<br />
brags that he has robbed a bank. If the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used it must be introduced by<br />
the preposition <strong>of</strong> or about, as in he brags <strong>of</strong><br />
having robbed a bank. The constmction with <strong>of</strong><br />
is generally preferred.<br />
brain and brains. Both forms <strong>of</strong> this word may<br />
be used to mean either the physical organ inside<br />
the skull or a man’s intellectual capacity. It is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten impossible to say which is intended. In<br />
many cases the speaker may not feel that there<br />
is any difference between the organ and the<br />
capacity. The physical organ is obviously what<br />
is meant in a large brain and he blew out his<br />
brains. Something more abstract is probably intended<br />
in rack your brain or rack your brains.<br />
In both senses, the singular form, brain, seems<br />
to have a more scientific tone and the plural,<br />
brains, to be more popular and vivid.<br />
When speaking <strong>of</strong> more than one individual,<br />
brains is a true plural and can be used with a<br />
numeral, as in two brains are better than one.<br />
When speaking <strong>of</strong> one individual, the plural<br />
form brains is a mass noun and not a true plural.<br />
It is followed by a plural verb but cannot be<br />
qualified by a numeral or a word implying<br />
number. When not the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, it may<br />
have singular qualifiers, as in he hasn’t much<br />
brains or he has very little brains. Plural constructions,<br />
such as he hasn’t many brains, are<br />
intended to be witty.<br />
When the contents <strong>of</strong> an animal’s skull are<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as food, only the plural form brains<br />
is used. This too is a mass noun and cannot be<br />
used with a numeral. We cook brains, not a<br />
brain or two or three brains.<br />
Only the singular form brain is used as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in bruin size,<br />
brain work, brain trust.<br />
brainy, for clever, is an Americanism (No pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
is so singled out by ambitious, brainy<br />
young men, as that <strong>of</strong> the law) and is dismissed<br />
by Fowler with disdain. But it is hard to see why
it is any more improper a coinage than handy,<br />
in analogy with which it was probably made.<br />
And, anyway, the argument is academic; the<br />
American populace has long ago accepted the<br />
word into standard usage.<br />
In America it is spoken in admiration, an<br />
adjective <strong>of</strong> untainted praise, differing from<br />
clever, which has a light suggestion <strong>of</strong> shiftiness<br />
and unscrupulousness about it, or intellectual<br />
which has a connotation <strong>of</strong> self-esteem.<br />
Perhaps the British dislike <strong>of</strong> brainy is, at<br />
bottom, a dislike <strong>of</strong> brains (If you were a patriot<br />
you read Blackwood’s Magazine and thanked<br />
God you were “not brainy”-George Onvell,<br />
Such, Such were the Joys, 1953).<br />
brake; break. Brake meaning a place overgrown<br />
with bushes or cane (Down in the canebrake,<br />
the other side <strong>of</strong> the mill) is still used in Southeastern<br />
United States, though not too well<br />
known elsewhere. A similar application in England,<br />
which seems to have died out in the late<br />
nineteenth century, seems to have been limited<br />
to a growth <strong>of</strong> bracken, or heavy ferns, <strong>of</strong> which,<br />
indeed, the word in this sense is an abbreviation.<br />
A car much like an American station wagon<br />
is in England sometimes called a shooting brake.<br />
The uses <strong>of</strong> break, both as a verb and as a<br />
noun, are much the same in England and America<br />
except for the American colloquial use <strong>of</strong><br />
break to mean opportunity or lucky chance<br />
(Hard work isn’t everything: you’ve got to have<br />
the breaks too) and, sometimes, something very<br />
close to forgiveness (Sometimes a cop will give<br />
you a break and tear up the ticket).<br />
brand. America is a commercial nation, cheerful<br />
and unashamed, and our unblushing use <strong>of</strong> commercial<br />
terms in all departments <strong>of</strong> life has <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
caused the English acute discomfort. Thus our<br />
use <strong>of</strong> reckon, figure, and calculate, as synonyms<br />
for think (as though all thought worthy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
name was confined to casting up an account)<br />
and It doesn’t pay to signify our strongest moral<br />
disapproval seem to many Englishmen to betray<br />
too engrossing an attention to getting and spending.<br />
Among these words is brand when used figuratively<br />
as a trademark or brand <strong>of</strong> goods distinguished<br />
by a trademark. They do not mind<br />
theliteral usk (The ale was <strong>of</strong> a superior brand.<br />
I think vou’ll like this brand <strong>of</strong> cheese) but feel<br />
that our metaphorical uses, particularly, <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
our humorous uses (They don’t like our brand<br />
<strong>of</strong> humor), are improper. Thus Partridge feels<br />
that Samuel Putnam’s statement that Margaret<br />
<strong>of</strong> Navarre had her own brand <strong>of</strong> services in<br />
her own private chapel is “highly inappropriate.”<br />
An American might feel it a little breezy; it<br />
would depend on what he happened to think <strong>of</strong><br />
Margaret <strong>of</strong> Navarre and her metaphysics.<br />
bran-new; brand-new. Bran-new is standard and<br />
acceptable, not just a slovenly pronunciation;<br />
but brand-new is the preferred form.<br />
bravado; bravery. Bravado is a boastful, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
threatening, display <strong>of</strong> false courage, an expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> strutting vanity intended to defy and<br />
intimidate. Bravery is true courage, admirable<br />
71 break<br />
and praiseworthy (The man <strong>of</strong> true bravery is<br />
not frightened by a display <strong>of</strong> bravado).<br />
breach and breech, though pronounced exactly<br />
alike, are in no sense synonymous. Breuch is<br />
the act or result <strong>of</strong> breaking, a rupture, the<br />
violation <strong>of</strong> a law, trust, faith, or promise, and<br />
the like. Breech is the lower part <strong>of</strong> the trunk <strong>of</strong><br />
the body behind or, in ordnance, the mass <strong>of</strong><br />
metal behind the bore <strong>of</strong> a cannon or the small<br />
arm back <strong>of</strong> the barrel <strong>of</strong> a gun or rifle.<br />
breadth; broadness; width; wideness; latitude. The<br />
mathematical sense <strong>of</strong> breadth is its basic meaning:<br />
the measure <strong>of</strong> the second principal diameter<br />
<strong>of</strong> a surface or solid, the first being length,<br />
and the third (in the case <strong>of</strong> a solid) thickness.<br />
In the sense <strong>of</strong> freedom from restraint or narrowness<br />
(breadth <strong>of</strong> mind) width, which is<br />
synonymous in the basic meaning, is never used.<br />
Breadth implies a freedom from restraint <strong>of</strong><br />
which the speaker or writer approves; broadness,<br />
when used at all, may imply coarseness, or a<br />
freedom from restraint which is not approved.<br />
Width and wideness are both restricted now to<br />
definite measurements and used rarely in a<br />
figurative sense, though wideness used to be<br />
(There’s a wideness in God’s mercy/Like the<br />
wideness <strong>of</strong> the sea) and with great dignity.<br />
Latitude when used as a synonym for breadth,<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> freedom from restriction or liberality,<br />
is now confined more to thought than<br />
action and expresses something more tolerated<br />
than approved (He has interpreted the rules<br />
with considerable latitude).<br />
break. The past tense is broke. The participle is<br />
broken.<br />
A past tense brake is <strong>of</strong>ten used in nineteenth<br />
century poetry but it has not been standard<br />
spoken English for more than three hundred<br />
years. In the seventeenth and eighteenth century<br />
broke was <strong>of</strong>ten used for the participle, as in<br />
he had broke the box. This is archaic today,<br />
except in the passive where it now means “without<br />
money,” as in he is, was, and always will<br />
be broke. For a break, see brake.<br />
breakdown in the sense <strong>of</strong> “analysis” is a technical<br />
term taken over from chemistry, It is a vogue<br />
word at the moment, much used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
classification (The breakdown <strong>of</strong> the votes by<br />
counties revealed that the victor’s margin was<br />
much slimmer than it appeared from the total).<br />
As Sir Ernest Gowers points out, the word can<br />
be inept and ludicrous when used <strong>of</strong> things that<br />
can actually and physically be broken down.<br />
Thus if one were to speak <strong>of</strong> the breakdown <strong>of</strong><br />
trucks in the government service one would<br />
hardly get a serious hearing for whatever classification<br />
one wanted to make. Sir Ernest gives, as<br />
one example: Statistics have been issued <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population <strong>of</strong> the United States, broken down<br />
by age and sex.<br />
break the ice, as a figure <strong>of</strong> speech, is still sometimes<br />
used in its older sense <strong>of</strong> making a beginning<br />
in an enterprise, though, for the most part,<br />
it is fixed in its nineteenth century special application<br />
to breaking through the reserve <strong>of</strong> some<br />
cold person (And your cold people are beyond
ed 72<br />
all price,/ When once yozz’ve broken their confounded<br />
ice). In all <strong>of</strong> its figurative meanings.<br />
however, the term is now a cliche and to be us&l<br />
with care.<br />
bred. See breed.<br />
breeches. The plural form refers to one garment<br />
but is always treated as a plural, as in these<br />
breeches are torn. In order to use the word with<br />
a singular verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more than one <strong>of</strong><br />
these garments, it is necessary to say rhis pair <strong>of</strong><br />
breeches is torn or several pairs <strong>of</strong> breeches.<br />
The form breeches is also used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in his breeches pocket.<br />
The singular breech is now used only for the<br />
rear end <strong>of</strong> a gun.<br />
breed. The past tense is bred. The participle is also<br />
bred.<br />
breezy; fresh; lively. Breezy, when applied figuratively<br />
to persons, means airy, flippant, and gay.<br />
Lively is more complimentary. A lively mind is<br />
one <strong>of</strong> quick apprehensions, full <strong>of</strong> vivid and<br />
rapidly changing images, rapid in its comprehension<br />
(Mercutio had a breezy way, but Hotspur’s<br />
mind was lively). Fresh in American<br />
usage, when used <strong>of</strong> a person, means forward or<br />
presumptuous, impertinent, <strong>of</strong>ten with a hint <strong>of</strong><br />
sexual aggressiveness.<br />
brethren. See brothers.<br />
bridesmaid. Traditionally, the form bride was<br />
used in this compound, as it still is in the re-<br />
Iated word bridegroom. But the irregular form<br />
bridesmaid has been standard English since the<br />
latter part <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century.<br />
brief; short. Brief applies to time only and sometimes<br />
implies a condensation. We had only rime<br />
for a brief talk implies not only that the talk<br />
was <strong>of</strong> short duration but that it was intense<br />
and concentrated. A short talk would have<br />
lacked this latter implication. Short refers to<br />
either time or space, but when it refers to the<br />
former it suggests a curtailment, <strong>of</strong>ten rude or<br />
painful (He cut him <strong>of</strong>f short). It sometimes<br />
extends this meaning so far as to mean “lacking”<br />
(as in short rations, he was short in his accounts).<br />
In its legal sense, there is a difference between<br />
the American and Enrtlish usage <strong>of</strong> brief. In<br />
England a brief is soleli a summary <strong>of</strong> the facts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the case prepared by a solicitor for the counsel<br />
who is conducting the case. It is a private<br />
document. In America it can be this (He briefed<br />
him in his arguments). This is also the brief <strong>of</strong><br />
briefcase. But it is more <strong>of</strong>ten a summary <strong>of</strong><br />
arguments filed by counsel in an appellate court,<br />
minted. nublic, and <strong>of</strong>ten voluminous (I had<br />
ihe hono; to be one <strong>of</strong> the attorneys in the case,<br />
and filed a brief against the bonds). See also<br />
outline.<br />
bright and early is a cliche and to people <strong>of</strong> normal<br />
habits <strong>of</strong> rising, an irritating one. Even its<br />
factual accuracy may be challenged. The airlines<br />
report more delays because <strong>of</strong> fog in their<br />
early morning flights than at any other time <strong>of</strong><br />
the day.<br />
bring. The past tense is brought. The participle is<br />
also brought.<br />
Brung is heard for the past tense and for the<br />
participle, as in he had brung it, bur this is not<br />
standard English.<br />
Bring may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
you will never bring me to admit it, or by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition IO, as<br />
in you will never bring me to admitting it. The<br />
infinitive construction is preferred.<br />
bring; take; fetch. To brizzg is to cause to come<br />
with oneself. To take is to get into one’s hands<br />
and to convey away. To fetch is to go and bring<br />
something to the speaker (Take that box and<br />
bring it with you, or if it’s too heavy for you<br />
I’ll send Joe to fetch it).<br />
Fetch has a special meaning <strong>of</strong> to allure<br />
(What a fetching bonnet!). When the rascally<br />
duke, in Huckleberry Finn, added the line<br />
“Ladies and Children not Admitted” to his advertisement<br />
<strong>of</strong> The Royal Nonesuch, he paused<br />
to admire his handiwork: There, says he, if that<br />
line don’t fetch them, I don’t know Arkansaw!<br />
Here fetch means to allure and to bring in. This<br />
meaning is now a little old-fashioned and rustic,<br />
but still current.<br />
Briton; Britisher. A Briton can be either one <strong>of</strong><br />
the ancient Celtic inhabitants <strong>of</strong> England or a<br />
modern inhabitant. Britisher was an American<br />
term that had a currency in the United States in<br />
the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries but<br />
is practically never heard today. The ordinary<br />
American would never use the term Briton. He<br />
accords the Irish separate recognition, but all<br />
other male inhabitants <strong>of</strong> the British Isles are<br />
Englishmen to him. If a Scoi insisted on being<br />
identified as a member <strong>of</strong> a special nation, his<br />
insistence would be humored, but most Americans<br />
wouldn’t make the distinction if someone<br />
else did not make it first. An English woman<br />
would be used to designate a single English<br />
female, and English women would be its plural.<br />
But an Englishwoman, as the female <strong>of</strong> Englishman,<br />
would not be much used, though it would<br />
be understood. The collective plural the English<br />
is used most commonly when generalizing, and<br />
Americans love to generalize about the English<br />
almost as much as the English love to generalize<br />
about Americans.<br />
brittle. See fragile.<br />
broad; wide. Everyone is aware that broad and<br />
wide are synonymous, but a moment’s reflection<br />
calls to mind what seems a bewildering confusion<br />
in their idiomatic uses. We speak <strong>of</strong><br />
broad shoulders, but <strong>of</strong> a wide mouth. One<br />
who has traveled far and wide will probably<br />
have a broad outlook. We give a man a broad<br />
hint and a wide berth. The Pilgrims crossed the<br />
broad Atlantic and their descendants the wide<br />
Missouri.<br />
Fowler, in a brilliant analysis <strong>of</strong> the usage <strong>of</strong><br />
these two words, concludes that “wide refers to<br />
the distance that separates the limits, and broad<br />
to the amplitude <strong>of</strong> what connects them.”<br />
Some things seem to have had broad, as a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> their amplitude, affixed to them<br />
arbitrarily (broad daylight) ; others have a secondary<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> generosity or disregard <strong>of</strong><br />
the trivial (a broad outline, a Broad Churchman)<br />
or <strong>of</strong> unrestraint (a broad fake).
Sometimes the words are interchangeable.<br />
There is little or no difference between a broad<br />
grin and a wide grin. A wide discussion, however,<br />
is one that covers many topics; a broad<br />
discussion, one that does not confine itself<br />
within severe limits <strong>of</strong> propriety or orthodoxy.<br />
When in doubt, consider wide the more literal,<br />
broad the more figurative use.<br />
broadcast. The past tense is broadcast or broadcasted.<br />
The participle is also broadcast or broadcasted.<br />
Broadcast is the traditional form for the past<br />
tense and the participle. But the broadcasters<br />
have now made broadcasted standard. In substituting<br />
a regular verb for an irregular one they<br />
have done a service to the language.<br />
broadcloth, In American usage broadcloth means<br />
a cotton shirting or dress material, usually mercerized.<br />
It is what the English call poplin. Broadcloth<br />
to an Englishman means a napped and<br />
calendered woolen cloth, usually black, from<br />
which men’s coats are made.<br />
broadness. See breadth.<br />
broke, broken. See break.<br />
bronchia. This word is plural and should not be<br />
given an additional plural ending, as in bronchiae.<br />
brothers; brethren. Brothers is the standard term<br />
for sons <strong>of</strong> the same mother. The singular is<br />
used a great deal in America as a semi-facetious<br />
form <strong>of</strong> address (You said it, brother!), as an<br />
introduction to an informal supplication (Brother,<br />
can you spare a dime?) and, <strong>of</strong>ten, just as an<br />
exclamation (Brother! You should have seen<br />
that guy!). All <strong>of</strong> these uses are slang.<br />
Brethren, the archaic plural, is rarely used<br />
except for members <strong>of</strong> religious bodies. President<br />
Eisenhower, addressing the World Council<br />
<strong>of</strong> Churches Assembly, in Evanston, Illinois,<br />
August 19, 1954, besought the delegates to aid<br />
the cause <strong>of</strong> peace together with your brethren<br />
<strong>of</strong> other faiths. It was not a term he would have<br />
used had he been addressing, say, the Brotherhood<br />
<strong>of</strong> Locomotive Engineers.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the term among lodge members<br />
and in rhetorical sermons has caused it to be a<br />
humorous word among the irreverent.<br />
brought. See bring.<br />
brown as a berry. No one knows a brown berry.<br />
Some have suggested that a c<strong>of</strong>fee berry is<br />
meant, but Chaucer used the phrase (His palfrey<br />
was as broun as is a berye) more than two hundred<br />
years before c<strong>of</strong>fee had been heard <strong>of</strong> in<br />
England. Anyway, this pointless comparison has<br />
been repeated ceaselessly for more than five<br />
hundred years and is entitled to at least that<br />
long a rest.<br />
brown study. The brown in the clichC a brown<br />
study has an obsolete meaning <strong>of</strong> gloomy; the<br />
study has an obsolete meaning <strong>of</strong> reverie. The<br />
whole phrase, brown study, however, has now<br />
lost even the meaning <strong>of</strong> a gloomy reverie. It is<br />
usually employed to designate an idle or purposeless<br />
reverie, a fit <strong>of</strong> abstraction. The phrase<br />
should be avoided.<br />
brunch. See lunch,<br />
brung. See bring.<br />
brush. Certain uses <strong>of</strong> brush, as a verb and a<br />
noun, may be regarded as Americanisms, though<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them were formerly standard in England:<br />
a brief, hostile encounter (He had a brush<br />
with the customs men); lopped or broken<br />
branches (He brought in an armload <strong>of</strong> brush);<br />
a forceful dash (There were a good many nags<br />
about that could beat him on a brush, but for<br />
long drives he had few equals).<br />
To brush up or to brush up on, in the figurative<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> to refresh your knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
(He said he had to brush up on his history<br />
before the examination. The President said that<br />
the House ought to brush up its economics)<br />
must be accepted as standard.<br />
brutal; brutish; brute; beastly; bestial. Brute, most<br />
commonly used as an adjective in the clichd<br />
brute force, means having the quality <strong>of</strong> some<br />
nonhuman animal. Brutish means gross, carnal,<br />
like an animal, lacking in civilized refinement<br />
(When thou didst not, savage,/Know thine own<br />
meaning, but wouldst gabble/Like a thing most<br />
brutish). It refers most <strong>of</strong>ten, in modern usage,<br />
to character.<br />
Brutal, the most commonly used <strong>of</strong> all these<br />
words, means cruel, inhuman, coarse. It is never<br />
used without an implication <strong>of</strong> moral condemnation;<br />
whereas brute, and sometimes brutish,<br />
are free from this. Brute is usually applied to<br />
strength, brutal to actions, brutish to thoughts<br />
or manners.<br />
Bestial, like brutal, implies moral condemnation,<br />
but it is applied more to lust, uninhibited<br />
sexuality, than to ferocity (The bestial appetites<br />
<strong>of</strong> the brutal invaders). Beastly in standard<br />
American usage is a synonym for bestial. The<br />
English colloquial usage <strong>of</strong> it to mean nasty or<br />
disagreeable (Let us not be beastly to the Hun)<br />
is not known in America except as a humorous<br />
mimicking <strong>of</strong> English speech.<br />
buck. See hart.<br />
bug; bugbear; bugaboo; buggy. Bug in American<br />
everyday usage means almost any kind <strong>of</strong> insect<br />
(lightning bug). In English usage, in this sense,<br />
it is restricted to what in America is called a<br />
bedbug and, for reasons not clear to Americans,<br />
is an indecent word. No one in America boasts<br />
<strong>of</strong> having bedbugs, but the bitten traveler would<br />
not hesitate to use the word in airing his grievance.<br />
But in England, it is not so; it is almost<br />
an unmentionable word, possibly because <strong>of</strong> a<br />
klang association (q.v.) with bugger (q.v.).<br />
In America bug has come to mean defect or<br />
difficulty (They haven’t worked all the bugs out<br />
<strong>of</strong> the new model yet), an enthusiasm which<br />
amounts to a disease (He’s got the tennis bug<br />
and is on the courts all day), and a pyromaniac<br />
(a firebug). None <strong>of</strong> these is standard.<br />
Bug in the sense <strong>of</strong> defect and the -bug in<br />
firebug are probably forms <strong>of</strong> bugaboo, a bogy,<br />
some imaginary (or real) thing that causes fear<br />
or worry. Americans retain the old form bugaboo,<br />
while English usage has changed to bugbear.<br />
Bug is an old form <strong>of</strong> bugaboo. The fifth<br />
verse <strong>of</strong> the ninety-first Psalm in the King James<br />
version reads: Thou shalt not be afraid for the<br />
terror by night. In the Coverdale version (1535)
ugger 74<br />
it read: Thou shalt not need to be afraid for<br />
any bugs by night. An interesting illustration <strong>of</strong><br />
misunderstandings that lie in wait for the uninstructed<br />
reader is found in King Edward’s<br />
remark. in Shakespeare’s Third Part <strong>of</strong> Kinn<br />
Henry iI, that W&wick was a bug tha; fear’><br />
us all. To the common reader in America today<br />
that line would convey the idea that Warwick<br />
was an insect, a crawling creature, who was<br />
afraid <strong>of</strong> everybody. Whereas it means that Warwick<br />
was a terror that frightened them all.<br />
Buggy, in horse and buggy, may be related to<br />
bug in its meaning <strong>of</strong> “bogy.” It is not absolutely<br />
certain, but it is believed that when these light<br />
vehicles were first made they were humorously<br />
called bogies because they went so fast they were<br />
a terror.<br />
bugger in British usage means a sodomite, being<br />
the linguistic residue <strong>of</strong> a piece <strong>of</strong> medieval<br />
religious propaganda to the effect that the Bulgarians,<br />
who were heretics, were also sodomites.<br />
In England the aord is indecent, both as a noun<br />
and a verb, though it is used, as many scurrilous<br />
terms are, by the lower classes as a term <strong>of</strong><br />
endearment for children.<br />
In American usage it is a much milder word.<br />
Only the educated know <strong>of</strong> its darker meanings.<br />
As a slang term for a fellow, person, or mischievous<br />
child it is now falling into disuse. As a<br />
verb it is still used widely, in slang, to mean to<br />
frustrate or to reduce the confusion (He came<br />
in with his bright ideas again and buggered the<br />
works).<br />
build. The past tense is built. The participle is<br />
also built.<br />
A regular form builded was once literary<br />
English for both the past tense and the participle,<br />
but it is now confined largely to poetry.<br />
building. In American usage building, as a term<br />
for a block <strong>of</strong> business <strong>of</strong>fices, always pretixed<br />
with the (the Empire State Building, the Chrysler<br />
Building), is used where in England house is<br />
preferred (South Africa House, Imperial Chemicals<br />
House). In America, particularly in former<br />
days, house would mean hotel (The Palmer<br />
House, The Parker House).<br />
built. See build.<br />
bulk, properly magnitude in three dimensions (A<br />
building <strong>of</strong> great bulk loomed before us), has,<br />
despite the protests <strong>of</strong> many grammarians, come<br />
in standard usage to mean the greater part, the<br />
main mass or body (The bulk <strong>of</strong> the lumber<br />
was stored in an abandoned shed. The bulk <strong>of</strong><br />
the army was held in reserve). It still has enough<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sense <strong>of</strong> three-dimensional mass about it,<br />
however, to seem inappropriate if applied to<br />
trifling things. The bulk <strong>of</strong> the page was devoted<br />
to a re-statement <strong>of</strong> the facts would seem absurd.<br />
And a discriminating speaker or writer would<br />
avoid using it as a synonym for majority. The<br />
bulk <strong>of</strong> the army suggests a mass. The bulk <strong>of</strong><br />
those present voted against the proposal would<br />
not be as good as the majority <strong>of</strong> those present.<br />
bull. The word bull, especially when used in combinations,<br />
has a number <strong>of</strong> peculiarly American<br />
meanings. As a slang term for boasting, bluffing,<br />
and talking pretentious nonsense it is almost universal<br />
in the United States. In college slang bull<br />
session is a half-contemptuous term for a sophomoric<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> sex, religion, philosophy,<br />
and the mysteries <strong>of</strong> life in general.<br />
Bulldoze is slang for intimidate. A bulldozer<br />
used to be one who bulldozed. Now it refers,<br />
almost exclusively, to a powerful caterpillar<br />
tractor having a vertical blade at the front end<br />
for moving earth, stumps, rocks, and so on, or<br />
to the operator <strong>of</strong> such a tractor. Indeed, the<br />
verb to bulldoze would now mean, to more<br />
Americans than not, the use <strong>of</strong> such a tractor<br />
(The man said he’d be here tomorrow to bulldoze<br />
that black dirt around the new house). The<br />
noun is generally listed in the dictionaries as<br />
slang and the verb, in this sense, is not listed at<br />
all. But in the vast building boom following<br />
World War II both words achieved a currency<br />
which if continued will compel their acceptance<br />
as standard usage.<br />
bull in a china shop. As a simile for destructive<br />
blundering, like a bull in a china shop must have<br />
been amusing when it was first thought <strong>of</strong>, but<br />
it is now wearisome and should be avoided.<br />
It is not even necessarily apt. In 1939 Mr.<br />
Fred Waring, in payment <strong>of</strong> a wager to Mr. Paul<br />
Douglas, led a bull into Plummer’s China Shop<br />
on Fifth Avenue, in New York, after posting<br />
bond to cover any damage that might be done.<br />
Ttie bull was led up and down the aisles and led<br />
out without having done any damage. Mr. Waring<br />
himself unfortunately knocked over a small<br />
table <strong>of</strong> china.<br />
bum. In American speech a bum is a shiftless or<br />
dissolute person, an habitual loafer and tramp.<br />
To bum is to get for nothing, to borrow with<br />
no expectation <strong>of</strong> returning. To go on the bum<br />
is to become a tramp and live an idle and dissolute<br />
life. As an adjective, bum means poor or<br />
wretched. The word is never employed formally<br />
but it is known and used universally in informal<br />
speech. Its American meanings seem to have<br />
been influenced by the German Bumm and<br />
bummeln.<br />
In English usage bum is an impolite word for<br />
the buttocks (A sorrel gelding with some white<br />
hairs on his bum. Many a tatter’d rag hanging<br />
over my bum).<br />
bumblebee is the sole American form. In England<br />
it is sometimes called a humblebee, not from<br />
any humility but because <strong>of</strong> the humming sound<br />
that it makes. The bum- <strong>of</strong> bumblebee is from<br />
the booming sound that it makes, and since the<br />
scientific name <strong>of</strong> the family is Bombidae, bumblebee<br />
would seem the preference <strong>of</strong> lay and<br />
learned alike.<br />
bumper; fender. A bumper in its commonest use<br />
in America now signifies a horizontal bar affixed<br />
to the front or rear <strong>of</strong> an automobile to give<br />
protection in collisions. In England this is called<br />
a fender; whereas what the Americans call a<br />
fender is called a wing. Americans and English<br />
alike call a piece <strong>of</strong> timber or a bundle <strong>of</strong> rope<br />
or the like, hung over the side <strong>of</strong> a vessel to<br />
lessen shock or prevent chafing, a fender.
The shock absorbers at the end <strong>of</strong> the line in<br />
railroad stations and between railroad cars are<br />
called bumpers in America, buffers in England.<br />
bunch is a connected group or cluster (A bunch <strong>of</strong><br />
grapes hung from rhe vine). By a natural extension<br />
it came to mean a group <strong>of</strong> similar things<br />
(a bunch <strong>of</strong> keys). Its application to human<br />
beings (A bunch <strong>of</strong> people gathered at the scene<br />
<strong>of</strong> the accident) is still considered questionable,<br />
however; and the use <strong>of</strong> the word as a synonym<br />
for lot (That’s a bunch <strong>of</strong> baloney) is definitely<br />
wrong.<br />
bundle <strong>of</strong> nerves. The idea that one is nothing<br />
but a bundle <strong>of</strong> nerves tied together with ligaments<br />
was, at its conception, an amusing and<br />
effective piece <strong>of</strong> humorous exaggeration. It has<br />
long since worn out its humor.<br />
burden <strong>of</strong> pro<strong>of</strong> is the taking over into everyday<br />
life <strong>of</strong> a special legal term onus probandi<br />
which means the obligation to <strong>of</strong>fer evidence in<br />
support <strong>of</strong> a contention which will convince a<br />
judge or jury, with the understanding that if the<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong>fered fails to convince, the party will<br />
lose the case. In common use it simply means<br />
the obligation, in an argument, to make out a<br />
case in the affirmative. It is a clicht and should<br />
be used carefully.<br />
bureau. The plural is bureaus or (less <strong>of</strong>ten)<br />
bureaux.<br />
As a name for a piece <strong>of</strong> household furniture,<br />
a bureau in America means a chest <strong>of</strong> drawers<br />
for holding clothing. There is <strong>of</strong>ten a mirror<br />
attached. In England a bureau is a desk or<br />
writing table with drawers for papers, an escritoire.<br />
-burger. The last two syllables <strong>of</strong> hamburger,<br />
ground steak, or a roll or a bun containing<br />
ground steak, usually with relish or mustard<br />
(and named, presumably, after the city <strong>of</strong> Hamburg<br />
as frankfurters are named after Frankfurt<br />
and wieners after Vienna or Wien), have become<br />
detached. Almost anything edible that can<br />
be ground up and put between the halves <strong>of</strong> a<br />
roll may now be designated a -burger: cheeseburgers,<br />
nutburgers, pizzaburgers, oliveburgers<br />
and turtleburgers are all <strong>of</strong>fered to the passing<br />
public. How many <strong>of</strong> these coinages will remain<br />
in the language no one knows. Cheeseburger,<br />
cheese grilled on top <strong>of</strong> a meat pattie, is the best<br />
established so far.<br />
burglar. See thief; robber; etc. And see steal; purloin;<br />
pilfer; etc.<br />
burglarize seems a clumsy substitute for the ancient<br />
and honorable term to rob. It is journalistic<br />
and, happily, doesn’t seem to be making much<br />
headway towards standard usage.<br />
burlesque; caricature; parody; travesty; lampoon.<br />
A burlesque is an artistic composition, especially<br />
literary or dramatic, which, for the sake<br />
<strong>of</strong> laughter, vulgarizes l<strong>of</strong>ty material or treats<br />
ordinary material with mock dignity (And the<br />
sad truth which hovers o’er my desk/Turns whut<br />
was once romantic to burlesque.-Byron).<br />
In America burlesque has a special meaning,<br />
one probably much better known to the masses<br />
than its older meaning: a theatrical entertain-<br />
75<br />
ment featuring coarse comedy and dancing. Of<br />
late years strip tease, an exhibition in which a<br />
woman walking to and fro in what is at least<br />
intended to be a voluptuous rhythm, slowly<br />
divests herself <strong>of</strong> her clothes, down to a g-string,<br />
a small triangle <strong>of</strong> cloth covering the mans<br />
Veneris, has become so indispensable a part <strong>of</strong><br />
all burlesque shows that strip tease and burlesque<br />
are now almost synonymous.<br />
A caricature is a picture, or a description,<br />
ludicrously exaggerating the peculiarities or defects<br />
<strong>of</strong> a person or a thing (The caricatures <strong>of</strong><br />
Mussolini, whatever their intent, flattered him;<br />
for they made him seem more knave than fool).<br />
A parody is a humorous imitation <strong>of</strong> a serious<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> literature (Lewis Carroll’s “I Met an<br />
Aged, Aged Man” is a brilliant parody <strong>of</strong><br />
Wordsworth’s “Resolution and Independence”).<br />
The word is also applied to burlesque imitations<br />
<strong>of</strong> musical compositions.<br />
Travesty is closely synonymous to parody. It<br />
is a more serious word, however, implying a<br />
deliberate debasing, <strong>of</strong>ten intentional, <strong>of</strong> which<br />
the speaker disapproves (The Russiun account<br />
<strong>of</strong> the incident was a travesty). An unfair or<br />
strongly biased court decision is <strong>of</strong>ten referred<br />
to as a travesty <strong>of</strong> justice.<br />
A lampoon is a malicious or virulent satire<br />
upon a person. Parodies, burlesques, and even<br />
caricatures can be good natured, but a lampoon<br />
never is.<br />
bum. The past tense is burned or burnt. The participle<br />
is also burned or burnt.<br />
In the United States burned is the preferred<br />
form for the past tense and the participle but<br />
burnt is also heard, especially when the word<br />
is used before a noun, as in a burnt match. In<br />
Great Britain burnt is the preferred form in all<br />
uses and burned is considered “slightly archaic<br />
and somewhat formal.”<br />
Burn may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the fire, as in the fire burned red, or<br />
it burned bright. It may also be followed by an<br />
adverb describing the process, as in it burned<br />
quickly.<br />
burn; bum down; bum up. The down and up <strong>of</strong><br />
burn down and burn up are intensives. Either,<br />
if applied to a house, would mean total combustion:<br />
the house was reduced to the level <strong>of</strong><br />
the ground, or it went up into the air in the<br />
smoke and gases <strong>of</strong> combustion. Burn down is<br />
limited to structures and candles; burn up, however,<br />
can be used <strong>of</strong> anything when one wishes<br />
to convey the idea that the destruction was<br />
complete. It is not used <strong>of</strong> trivial things, though;<br />
one burns rubbish and burns up papers <strong>of</strong> importance.<br />
burn the candle at both ends. At first a saying concerned<br />
with material wastefulness, burning the<br />
candle at both ends is, today, applied to the<br />
wasting <strong>of</strong> one’s physical strength by twocourses<br />
<strong>of</strong> action, such as hard work by day and dissipation<br />
by night, either one <strong>of</strong> which would be<br />
sufficient to consume the energies <strong>of</strong> a normal<br />
person. It is not always a phrase <strong>of</strong> condemnation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the person, since it is <strong>of</strong>ten used <strong>of</strong> one
um 76<br />
who is destroying himself by excessive work or<br />
overdevotion to some good cause or high ideal.<br />
Perhaps this hackneyed phrase should be used<br />
only by the wicked. Certainly, it should be used<br />
only after careful consideration.<br />
burn the midnight oil as a term for studying late<br />
at night is a cliche and should be avoided.<br />
burning issue has long ago cooled and should be<br />
used sparingly.<br />
burnish. See polish.<br />
burnt. See burn.<br />
burst. The past tense is burst. The participle is<br />
also burst.<br />
Bursred was once literary English but is no<br />
longer considered standard.<br />
Bust, meaning “burst,” is a deliberate playing<br />
with the language. It is therefore slang rather<br />
than uneducated English.<br />
Bust is used in the army to mean reduce in<br />
rank. In this sense it is not even slang. It is the<br />
normal word for that event and is used by all<br />
but the most pompous.<br />
bury the hatchet. Frontiersmen and scouts who<br />
had lived so intimately among the Indians that<br />
they had adopted-or affected to have adopted<br />
-the speech and imagery <strong>of</strong> the noble savages<br />
no doubt caused many a gape <strong>of</strong> astonishment<br />
when they first used bury the hatchet as<br />
a term for making peace. But generations ago<br />
the gape became a yawn as the phrase became<br />
a clicht. It should be quietly buried in forgetfulness.<br />
bus was printed as ‘bus in America as late as<br />
1923, but all thought <strong>of</strong> its being a shortening<br />
<strong>of</strong> omnibus has vanished as completely as all<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> omnibus as a Latin dative plural,<br />
meaning “for all,” has vanished. Omnibus, for<br />
a public vehicle, would be understood by anyone<br />
in America, but it would be used only by the<br />
most old-fashioned.<br />
A peculiarly American use <strong>of</strong> bus is in the<br />
phrase bus boy. To an Englishman this might<br />
suggest a youngster employed in some capacity<br />
or other on or around buses. To an American<br />
it means a waiter’s helper in a restaurant, one<br />
who carries out the dirty dishes and does other<br />
menial tasks. It, too, derives from omnibus and<br />
a bus boy was once known as an omnibus.<br />
Omnibus has come back into general use in<br />
America as a designation for a volume <strong>of</strong> reprinted<br />
works by a single author or a volume <strong>of</strong><br />
works related in interest or nature or simply a<br />
miscellany (i.e., something “for all”) and, most<br />
recently, as the title <strong>of</strong> a television show which<br />
presents a wide range <strong>of</strong> entertainment.<br />
business; employment; occupation. An occupation<br />
is anything which occupies the time. One may<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> an idle occupation or the occuparion <strong>of</strong><br />
an idle hour. It need not be gainful or even<br />
useful. It is used, however, <strong>of</strong> useful and gainful<br />
employment since that also occupies time. Employment<br />
was used formerly more than now as<br />
a synonym for occupation but it has come to<br />
be restricted to gainful occupation and, in popular<br />
usage, to the labor <strong>of</strong> skilled and unskilled<br />
artisans. An educated person would understand<br />
the statement that the employment <strong>of</strong> a doctor’s<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession took all his time. But we would not<br />
think <strong>of</strong> a doctor or other pr<strong>of</strong>essional man<br />
seeking employment. Idle employment would<br />
today seem a paradox.<br />
Business, though originally that which kept a<br />
man busy, is now restricted to gainful employment,<br />
usually to do with manufacture or the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> buying and selling. See also<br />
avocation, calling, job, pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
business; busyness. Since business has come to be<br />
fixed in a number <strong>of</strong> specialized meaningsone’s<br />
occupation or trade, the purchase and<br />
sale <strong>of</strong> goods, volume <strong>of</strong> trade, one’s place <strong>of</strong><br />
work, movements or gestures by actors on the<br />
stage, and so on-a need has been felt for a<br />
word to express its original meaning, the state<br />
<strong>of</strong> being busy, and for this the word busyness<br />
has come into standard use.<br />
business vocabulary. The stilted and stereotyped<br />
usages <strong>of</strong> business English have long been notorious,<br />
but happily a new trend has been making<br />
itself felt. Many large companies are hiring<br />
correspondence experts to give training in business<br />
writing. Some have appointed permanent<br />
supervisors to oversee communications. Concise,<br />
direct language is being recognized as valuable<br />
not only for its effectiveness but also for the<br />
savings it brings.<br />
The worst type <strong>of</strong> business vocabulary, obsequious<br />
on the one hand (beg to remain, your<br />
esteemed fuvor to hand) and pompous on the<br />
other (We will ascertain the facts and advise<br />
you accordingly) is probably a reflection <strong>of</strong><br />
insecurity in status, left over from the early days<br />
<strong>of</strong> business communications. Until a century<br />
ago, it was expected <strong>of</strong> the tradesman that he<br />
would assume a proper humility in his dealings<br />
with his customers, and as long as business<br />
sought to cater chiefly to the carriage trade there<br />
was a social distinction, recognized by both sides,<br />
between the shopman and his patrons. An eighteenth-century<br />
manual for the ambitious young<br />
businessman states that he must be “master <strong>of</strong><br />
a handsome bow and cringe” in order to ingratiate<br />
himself with his customers. The tradesman<br />
complied but resented the necessity <strong>of</strong> doing so<br />
and sought to bolster his pride by being l<strong>of</strong>ty<br />
and inflated in his dealings with his equals and<br />
inferiors. Even today an American is startled<br />
and amused at the tone and wording <strong>of</strong> a communication<br />
from an English tailor, “At once<br />
crawling on his knees and shaking his fist,”<br />
Max Beerbohm described it.<br />
A survey conducted by Fortune (“The Language<br />
<strong>of</strong> Business,” November, 1950) revealed<br />
a startling uniformity in the use <strong>of</strong> words and<br />
phrases by business people. Many a meaningless<br />
stereotyped phrase has been perpetuated in the<br />
symbols <strong>of</strong> shorthand and carried into the<br />
stream <strong>of</strong> correspondence by products <strong>of</strong> business<br />
schools. Secretaries, as a group, have<br />
smaller vocabularies than business men and in<br />
the process <strong>of</strong> dictation the larger vocabulary<br />
is confined within the limits <strong>of</strong> the smaller. It<br />
is easier to use words you know the stenographer<br />
understands than to interrupt dictation to explain<br />
your meaning. And it’s safer; strange
words increase the chance <strong>of</strong> dangerous and<br />
expensive errors and misunderstandings.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the stereotyped phrases <strong>of</strong> business<br />
correspondence seem to serve as a jumping-<strong>of</strong>f<br />
point for an insecure writer, giving him something<br />
to brace himself against before he plunges<br />
into the unfamiliar specific material <strong>of</strong> the<br />
letter. Others, like take under consideration, in<br />
the process <strong>of</strong>, company policy and at this time,<br />
function as protection from commitment. They<br />
are deliberate evasions <strong>of</strong> coming to the point.<br />
This type <strong>of</strong> phrasing is also characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
joint reports and statements <strong>of</strong> policy and procedure.<br />
Business vocabulary has also absorbed words<br />
from a number <strong>of</strong> related fields, particularly<br />
the gobbledegook <strong>of</strong> government: expedite, implement,<br />
activnte, effectuate. The advertising<br />
and sales departments have gone completely<br />
overboard at the siren song <strong>of</strong> the social sciences:<br />
projective techniques, social dynamics,<br />
depth interviewing and, above all, in all a’f its<br />
wonderful combinations, the mighty and magic<br />
psychology.<br />
The spoken language <strong>of</strong> business, in contrast<br />
to the written, while just as stereotyped, is direct<br />
and vigorous, <strong>of</strong>ten so terse as to seem to be in<br />
code. It is characteristically down-to-earth and<br />
is designed to give the impression <strong>of</strong> enormous<br />
executive ability, <strong>of</strong> a capacity to act. The<br />
speaker usually emphasizes his forthrightness;<br />
he is not going to pussyfoot, beat around the<br />
bush, pull any punches, or use any two-dollar<br />
words. None the less if what he has to say deals<br />
with policy and he has not yet been informed<br />
what policy his superiors have adopted, he will<br />
attempt to protect himself by an assurance, usually<br />
couched in disarmingly humorous terms,<br />
that he is not so presumptuous as to advance an<br />
opinion. He is merely throwing it up for grubs,<br />
kicking it around, thinking 08 the top <strong>of</strong> his<br />
head, sharing his thinking, etc., etc.<br />
Speeches, as distinguished from conversation,<br />
rely heavily on analogy and metaphor. The<br />
favorite figures for comparison with the stat.e <strong>of</strong><br />
business are a highway, a river, a boat, a bridge,<br />
a train, an airplane and-far and away the most<br />
popular-a football team. The last is so established<br />
as to be more commonly spoken <strong>of</strong> as<br />
“the team” and there are few banquets at which<br />
the quarterback, the line, the signals, and goals<br />
are not referred to. Curiously and conspicuously<br />
lacking from these metaphors, however, is any<br />
mention <strong>of</strong> a referee.<br />
bust. See burst.<br />
busy. The American get busy is the equivalent <strong>of</strong><br />
the English stir yourself, look alive. The American<br />
telephone expression the line is busy is the<br />
equivalent <strong>of</strong> the English the number is engaged.<br />
bnt. This word sometimes makes a statement negative<br />
and sometimes does not. It is sometimes<br />
used as a conjunction introducing a clause and<br />
sometimes as a preposition with a simple object.<br />
NEGATIVES<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the principal uses <strong>of</strong> but is to indicate<br />
an exception to what is being said, and in this<br />
Sense it may be part <strong>of</strong> an aflirmative or part <strong>of</strong><br />
77 but<br />
a negative statement, as in everybody thinks so<br />
but you and nobody thinks so but you. But is<br />
used in exactly this way in sentences such as<br />
I haven’t but a minute to spare and I won’t be<br />
but 4 minute. These are not double negatives.<br />
What has happened here is that some words, such<br />
as “any time,” have been dropped from between<br />
the verb and but. The construction is always<br />
understood and is used freely by well educated<br />
people. So there is no reason in logic or in practice<br />
for objecting to it.<br />
But may also be used to mean “only.” At one<br />
time the English negative was a simple ne or n’<br />
standing before the verb. One might then say he<br />
n’is but 4 child, where but means “except.” When<br />
this lightly pronounced n disappeared such statements<br />
were still understood and he is but a child<br />
meant the same thing. Here but is carrying the<br />
negative idea that was once attached to the verb.<br />
This construction is still in use and makes it<br />
possible for us to say I have but a minute.<br />
Undoubtedly, the fact that both constructions<br />
are in existence is what leads some people to<br />
think that the one using not must be a double<br />
negative. Actually it is the simpler <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
constructions, closer to the usual meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
but, and the better established. Today, but used<br />
to mean “only,” as in Z have but, is likely to<br />
sound archaic or affected.<br />
But may be used to introduce a parallel and<br />
contrasting statement, as in he went but he did<br />
not stay and he did not go but he telephoned.<br />
Here but is a coordinating conjunction. It means<br />
no more than “on the other hand” and can be<br />
used in either negative or affirmative statements.<br />
But is <strong>of</strong>ten used to introduce a clause that is<br />
dependent on a negative statement. In (there<br />
wns) not a man but felt the terror in his hair,<br />
the word but still means “except” and the sentence<br />
can be analyzed as no man existed except<br />
those who felt and so on. Ordinarily it is said<br />
that in this construction but represents that . . .<br />
not. This is a neater way <strong>of</strong> saying the same<br />
thing but may be confusing to people who have<br />
difficulty combining negatives. In the sentence<br />
just given there is no double negative. But there<br />
are too many negatives, and they cancel each<br />
other, in it is not impossible but such u day may<br />
come. Logically, this sentence says that nothing<br />
is impossible except that such a day should<br />
come. Actually, it is a tortured and twisted<br />
statement that fails to make a strong impression.<br />
When we are dealing with verbs that are affirmative<br />
in form but negative in meaning, such<br />
as deny, doubt, question, we have a different<br />
situation. Here sentences that, logically speaking,<br />
contain too many negatives, such as 1 don’t<br />
doubt but that you are surprised, are literary<br />
English. They are good English because they<br />
are found in good literature and when they are<br />
heard they recall good literature. Why good<br />
writers like this extra negative is more difficult<br />
to explain. Apparently they feel that making the<br />
affumative form <strong>of</strong> a verb <strong>of</strong> this kind negative<br />
is not enough to make its negative meaning<br />
affirmative, and that the additional negative in<br />
but is needed to accomplish this. If these dip-
utcher 78<br />
tinctions seem too subtle to be true, one should<br />
notice that it is not unlikely does not mean it is<br />
likely. (For cannot help but, see hell,. For Z<br />
don’t know but what, see what.)<br />
SUBJECTIVE AND OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS<br />
When but is followed by a simple object, such<br />
as a noun or pronoun, it may be considered a<br />
preposition. In that case, if the object is a personal<br />
pronoun it will have the objective form, as<br />
me in no one saw it but me. On the other hand,<br />
but may be considered a conjunction. In that<br />
case, the object is interpreted as part <strong>of</strong> a condensed<br />
clause, and if it is a persona1 Ipronoun<br />
it is given the form it would have if the whole<br />
clause had been expressed, as in no one saw it<br />
but Z (saw it). In current American English but<br />
is interpreted as a preposition whenever possible,<br />
and an objective form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun is always<br />
used unless the word is the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
that is actually expressed.<br />
Thirty or forty years ago it was customary to<br />
say that but should always be interpreted as a<br />
conjunction. This meant that such unnatural<br />
sentences as they were all there but Z were being<br />
recommended. A grammarian writing at that<br />
time, after bravely laying down rules and giving<br />
examples that must certainly have <strong>of</strong>fended his<br />
ear, concludes by advising us not to use the<br />
unpleasant word and points out that it can “be<br />
replaced by except or save, thus avoiding any<br />
suspicion <strong>of</strong> impropriety.” Unfortunately, the<br />
arguments against using but as a preposition<br />
have also been brought against except and save.<br />
And faced with giving up but or the grammar<br />
books, most people would give up the grammar<br />
books. See also except.<br />
butcher, a shortening <strong>of</strong> butcher boy, has a special<br />
meaning in the United States <strong>of</strong> a person who<br />
sells candy and magazines on trains (As he rode<br />
toward the Great City he smoked a Baby Mine<br />
cigar, purchased <strong>of</strong> the Butcher-George Ade).<br />
The term is <strong>of</strong>ten shortened to hutch which, possibly<br />
because <strong>of</strong> this association, has become a<br />
slang name for any boy whose real name is<br />
unknown.<br />
Butcher or hutch in the sense <strong>of</strong> a vendor is<br />
now old-fashioned and seems to be passing out<br />
<strong>of</strong> use.<br />
butter wouldn’t melt in her mouth. She looks as<br />
if butter wouldn’t melt in her mouth, that is,<br />
she seems so demure (cold) that even butter<br />
wouldn’t melt in her mouth; but actually (by<br />
inference) she is far from being as demure, cold,<br />
or good as she seems.<br />
Heywood listed this as a proverb in 1546 and<br />
Swift (by including it in his Polite Conversations)<br />
classed it as a cliche in 1738. It is still in<br />
general use, though most <strong>of</strong> those who use it<br />
would be unable to give a very clear statement<br />
<strong>of</strong> its meaning. It is better avoided.<br />
buxom, when spoken <strong>of</strong> a woman, means full-bosomed,<br />
plump and attractive, radiant in health.<br />
The common use <strong>of</strong> the word as a mere synonym<br />
for fat fails to exploit its full resources.<br />
buy. The past tense is bought. The participlie is also<br />
bought.<br />
The participle boughten is not literary English,<br />
but was widely used in the United States a<br />
few generations ago to mean “not homemade,”<br />
as in a boughten dress, and still has a certain<br />
frontier charm. See purchase.<br />
buy a pig in a poke. A poke is a bag less in size<br />
than a sack. (A pocket is a small poke.) A pig<br />
is, properly, a very young swine. The expression,<br />
for buying something unseen or committing<br />
oneself to an agreement without making sure <strong>of</strong><br />
what one is to receive in return, is very old.<br />
The pig in the poke is the English version <strong>of</strong><br />
it. All the rest <strong>of</strong> the European languages have<br />
it a cat.<br />
The proverb today has a suggestion <strong>of</strong> that<br />
deliberate rusticity which is frequently affected<br />
as a mark <strong>of</strong> distinction from the city dweller.<br />
And since no man affects a distinction without<br />
implying superiority, such phrases are annoying.<br />
This one is still useful, but should be used only<br />
after careful consideration.<br />
buy; buyer. Buy as a noun, meaning a purchase,<br />
especially a bargain (I got a buy in eggs today.<br />
It’s not a good buy at that price), is not standard.<br />
Buyer keeps its standard sense <strong>of</strong> one who<br />
buys from a store or other retail outlet (Let the<br />
buyer beware. This is not a buyer’s market), but<br />
a secondary sense <strong>of</strong> one who buys for a store,<br />
especially one who buys at wholesale the things<br />
that the store sells at retail, is gaining in popularity,<br />
so much so that one has to be careful in<br />
its use if one is to make one’s meaning clear.<br />
Certainly in department stores and the retail<br />
clothing business, especially in women’s wear,<br />
this is now the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> buyer. One<br />
who buys materials and supplies for a manufacturing<br />
concern may be known informally as the<br />
buyer, but in his forma1 title he would probably<br />
be the purchasing agent. In a department store,<br />
however, he would be the buyer.<br />
Buyer is always the word when, as in discussions<br />
<strong>of</strong> economics, one wants the opposite <strong>of</strong><br />
seller. And it is retained in popular usage, in<br />
preference to customer and even purchaser,<br />
when a single transaction, especially one <strong>of</strong><br />
some size or importance, is in mind (He’s been<br />
trying to find a buyer for that place for twenty<br />
years). See also patron; customer.<br />
by may be used as a preposition, that is, with an<br />
object, as in stand by the gate, or it may be used<br />
as an adverb, without an object, as in stand by.<br />
The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> by is “near.” It is used<br />
in this sense in the road passes by our house.<br />
When it is applied to time, it always means “not<br />
later than,” as in Z will finish by five o’clock.<br />
By is also used to show the means or agent <strong>of</strong><br />
an action, as in we went by plane and it was<br />
made by a carpenter.<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> these basic meanings have come several<br />
others. By may show the circumstances surrounding<br />
an event, as in by lamplight, by day. It<br />
may mean “conforming to,” as in by law. And it<br />
is used in expressing measures, as by the day, by<br />
the pound.<br />
By may also be used to contrast “near” with<br />
“actually there.” In this sense it has a negative
force and may combine with verbs <strong>of</strong> motion to<br />
mean “avoid” or “ignore,” as in dear/r had passed<br />
me by. Sometimes one cannot tell whether by is<br />
being used in a direct sense or with this negative<br />
force, as in go by Pittsburgh.<br />
by and large. In the sense <strong>of</strong> “generally speaking,<br />
in every aspect,” by and large (By and large the<br />
worries <strong>of</strong> summer residents concerning snakes<br />
are far out <strong>of</strong> proportion to the dangers that<br />
exist) is standard in American usage, though not<br />
caboose. In America a caboose is the last car on<br />
a freight train (or, as the English would say, the<br />
brake-van on a goods train), the car, usually<br />
painted red, with a little square lookout on top,<br />
whose passing brings a sigh <strong>of</strong> relief from a line<br />
<strong>of</strong> exasperated automobile drivers queued up at<br />
a grade crossing. In England a caboose is a<br />
galley, a kitchen on the deck <strong>of</strong> a ship.<br />
cacao; coca; cocoa; coca. Cucao is a small evergreen<br />
tree, native to tropical America, cultivated<br />
for its seeds, from which, roasted, husked, and<br />
ground, is made cocoa. Coca is applied to two<br />
species <strong>of</strong> shrubs, native in the Andes and cultivated<br />
in Java, from the dried leaves <strong>of</strong> which<br />
(chewed by millions <strong>of</strong> people for their stimulant<br />
properties) is made cocaine. Coca is a tall,<br />
slender tropical palm which produces the coconut.<br />
cache; hide; stash. A cache is, in its strictest sense,<br />
a secret place <strong>of</strong> deposit used by explorers. It is a<br />
French word and came to us from the French-<br />
Canadian woodsmen and explorers. The verb<br />
fo cache means to place in a cache (We decided<br />
to cache our packs and begin our return to the<br />
cabin).<br />
Purists have objected to the use <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
as a synonym for hide, but it is a natural extension,<br />
especially since hiding is associated with<br />
children, misers, and the furtive, and has passed<br />
into standard use.<br />
The slang stash may be a telescoped form <strong>of</strong><br />
to st(ick in a c)ache, with an echo <strong>of</strong> cash lin it.<br />
cactus. The plural is cactuses or cacti.<br />
cad; cadet; caddie; caddy. Under the harsh custom<br />
<strong>of</strong> primogeniture the lot <strong>of</strong> the younger son<br />
(French cadet) was not a happy one. He cc&d<br />
get a low rank in the army and be a cadet. He<br />
could run errands and carry packages, such as<br />
a golf bag, and be a caddie. But he got no thanks<br />
for his labors. His elder brother, lolling genteelly<br />
at the ‘varsity, suspected him (with full iustification,<br />
probably) <strong>of</strong> being resentful, mean,<br />
underhand, mendacious, aggressive, and unscrupulous,<br />
and despised him as a cad.<br />
The English tea caddy has no connection .with<br />
this grim story. It is a variant <strong>of</strong> catty, a trans-<br />
79 calculus<br />
very <strong>of</strong>ten used in England. Apparently it is becoming<br />
more common there, for Sir Ernest<br />
Gowers states that this “current usage . . . exasperates<br />
the sailor” who knows the true meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the phrase-“alternately close to the wind<br />
and with the wind abeam or aft.”<br />
An even stronger reason for avoiding the<br />
phrase than the fear <strong>of</strong> exasperating sailors is<br />
that it is <strong>of</strong>ten meaningless, used simply as conversational<br />
filler.<br />
literation <strong>of</strong> Malayan knti, a weight equal to a<br />
little over a pound.<br />
cake (you can’t have your cake and eat it too).<br />
There would seem to be no better way to have<br />
one’s cake than to eat it, but have in the proverb<br />
plainly means to keep. The French version, You<br />
can’t have the cloth and the money, is better. The<br />
English version used to be you can’t eat your<br />
cake and have it. That is better but even so Swift<br />
listed it as a cliche in 1738. The expression has<br />
just the right modicum <strong>of</strong> obvious wisdom and<br />
homely simplicity to appeal to those who find<br />
cliches irresistible.<br />
calculate; think. Our fathers were fond <strong>of</strong> using<br />
terms from mathematics as synonyms for think.<br />
Not that they were especially mathematical. It<br />
is probable that they innocently assumed the<br />
jargon <strong>of</strong> the counting house to be the ultimate<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> ratiocination. Mark Twain, in<br />
several places, has Huckleberry Finn use cipher<br />
for think.<br />
Of course there is a legitimate use <strong>of</strong> calculate<br />
in connection with the expression <strong>of</strong> an opinion.<br />
If a ship’s <strong>of</strong>ficer says that he calculates the shin<br />
is at such and such a position, it is assumed that<br />
his statement is the result <strong>of</strong> calculation. So a<br />
man might say that, given this and that circumstance,<br />
he calculates to make such and such a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>it. But to say I calculate Aunt Mary won’t<br />
stay more than two days is to misuse the word.<br />
Concern, however, is not justified, for this sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word is passing out <strong>of</strong> use.<br />
calculus. The plural is calculi or calculuses. In<br />
medicine calculus means a small stone. In this<br />
sense it usually has the plural form calculi. Calculus<br />
may also mean some system <strong>of</strong> calculating<br />
or reasoning, and in this sense it is likely to have<br />
the plural calculuses.<br />
When calculus means a particular branch <strong>of</strong><br />
mathematics developed by Leibnitz and Newton,<br />
it is a mass word and does not have a plural. It<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten qualified by the, as in a history <strong>of</strong> the<br />
calculus. This use <strong>of</strong> the article the is obsolete<br />
for other branches <strong>of</strong> mathematics and for the<br />
sciences generally. It may have been retained in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the caiculus in order to stress the
calendar 80<br />
fact that there is only one-no matter what<br />
words, such as “differential,” “integral,” “infinitesimal,”<br />
may be used to describe it.<br />
calendar; calender; colander. A calendar is a<br />
tabular arrangement <strong>of</strong> the days <strong>of</strong> each month<br />
and week in a year. A calender is a machine in<br />
which cloth, paper, or the like, is smoothed,<br />
glazed, etc., by pressing between revolving cylinders.<br />
It is also one who does such pressing.<br />
John Gilpin’s good friend the calender was not,<br />
as a modern reader might assume, an astrologer<br />
but one who operated such a machine or did the<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> work such a machine did. A colander is<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> sieve used for draining OK liquids,<br />
especially in cookery (The calender marked on<br />
his calendar the day when the tinker would<br />
return his colander).<br />
calf. The plural is calves. The expression calves<br />
foot jelly contains an old form <strong>of</strong> the genitive<br />
and is equivalent to calf’s foot jelly. This is not<br />
an instance <strong>of</strong> a plural noun used as the first element<br />
in a compound.<br />
caliber is the diameter <strong>of</strong> something <strong>of</strong> circular<br />
section, as a bullet, or especially that <strong>of</strong> the inside<br />
<strong>of</strong> a tube, as the bore <strong>of</strong> a gun. In ordnance<br />
it is the diameter <strong>of</strong> the bore <strong>of</strong> a gun taken as<br />
a unit in stating its length, as a fifty caliber 14<br />
inch gun.<br />
Purists have been unhappy over the figurative<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> the word to mean degree <strong>of</strong> capacity<br />
or ability, personal character, or merit or<br />
importance (A man <strong>of</strong> his caliber is an asset to<br />
the community). But it is now standard and<br />
must be accepted.<br />
calico in the United States means a printed cotton<br />
cloth, superior to percale. In Britain it means a<br />
white cotton cloth. What is called calico in<br />
England is called muslin in America.<br />
calix. The plural is calices.<br />
call a halt to something, like to put a stop to it,<br />
implies that the speaker possesses dictatorial<br />
powers in the particular situation and has exercised<br />
them or is prepared to exercise the:m vigorously.<br />
However, it is worn and hackneyed and<br />
should be avoided.<br />
call a spade a spade. There have been a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> objects whose simple designation has been<br />
proverbial, among different nations, for plain<br />
speaking. The Greeks said to call a fig a fig and<br />
a boat a boat and regarded such direct talk as<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> the uncultivated Maceedonians.<br />
In English, for centuries, it has been ;a spade.<br />
Why, no one knows.<br />
Amusingly, the phrase is itself a contradiction<br />
<strong>of</strong> what it advocates. No one objects to calling<br />
a spade a spade; it is coarser and less in<strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
things that are usually glossed over with euphemisms.<br />
However derived or justified, the phrase is<br />
now, except in jest, to be avoided.<br />
calling; vocation. A calling was originally a summons<br />
from God to enter His service or the inward<br />
conviction <strong>of</strong> such a summons. The child<br />
Samuel had a true calling. The word still retains<br />
this sense in relation to the ministry where such<br />
a summons is felt to be requisite. From this<br />
association the word has derived a feeling <strong>of</strong> dignity,<br />
a devotion to some great duty that transcends<br />
one’s personal material interests (The<br />
conscious warrant <strong>of</strong> a high calling sustained<br />
him through these dreadful years). It has come<br />
to be used, however, more and more (apart from<br />
its special use in relation to the ministry) in the<br />
mere sense <strong>of</strong> occupation (He prostituted himself<br />
to the base callinn <strong>of</strong> a hired scribbler). but<br />
it has a slightly archaic and pompous kavor<br />
here.<br />
Vocation, which is simply the Latin for calling,<br />
and would, one assumes, therefore be even<br />
more formal, is less formal. The religious connotation<br />
does not cling to it and, at least in the<br />
United States, it is standard for a man’s occupation,<br />
business, or pr<strong>of</strong>ession. It has (except<br />
when used as an adjective in such special, almost<br />
technical, contexts as vocational guidance) a<br />
tinge <strong>of</strong> pomposity. See also avocation, business,<br />
job.<br />
callipers. The singular form calliper may be used<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> these instruments, as in<br />
this calliper is mine, and the plural form cailipers<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> several instruments, as in we<br />
have three callipers. The plural form may also<br />
be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> one instrument, as in<br />
these callipers are the ones, and three instruments<br />
may be called three pairs <strong>of</strong> callipers.<br />
Both constructions are standard English today.<br />
Only the singular form calliper is used as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in a callipersquare.<br />
callus; callous. Callus is a noun and means a hard<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> flesh, as in he has three calluses on his<br />
hand. The only ulural is calluses. Callous is an<br />
adjective and means callus-like or hard, as in his<br />
callous hands, his callous attitude. The verb,<br />
meaning to harden, is formed from the adjective,<br />
as in his hands were calloused by toil. A verb<br />
may also be formed from the noun but this<br />
means only to turn into a callus, as in the spot<br />
callused.<br />
calm before the storm. People speak <strong>of</strong> the calm<br />
before the storm as though it were an invariable<br />
phenomenon. However, it is not. In its figurative<br />
uses, the phrase is a cliche and to be avoided.<br />
calumny. See libel.<br />
calves. See calf.<br />
calyx. The plural is calyxes or calyces.<br />
came. See come.<br />
campus English. There are, <strong>of</strong> course, a few<br />
hardy campus perennials which are readily comprehensible<br />
to the general public, such as dot,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>, dorm, frat, quad. But whether there is anything<br />
else that may definitely be classified as<br />
college slang is open to doubt. It is true that<br />
there are feature stories in a number <strong>of</strong> magazines<br />
every year on the current campus expressions,<br />
but one suspects that these are whipped up<br />
seasonally, by their authors, at the editors’ demands,<br />
like the stories on Groundhog Day. If<br />
the students have the linguistic originality and<br />
playfulness attributed to them in these articles,<br />
they skilfully conceal it in most <strong>of</strong> their compositions.
However, like the veiled woman in black who<br />
finally appeared in reality to lay a flower on<br />
Valentine’s grave after the papers had invented<br />
her, some collegians seem to feel that a measure<br />
<strong>of</strong> inventiveness is required <strong>of</strong> them and various<br />
colleges claim that certain words have at least<br />
a temporary currency among their students.<br />
Some idea <strong>of</strong> the variations in campus talk<br />
may be given by recording some words claimed<br />
to have been in use at Princeton in 1941, !some<br />
North Texas Agricultural College terms in 11948,<br />
and some Northwestern University and Wayne<br />
University terms in 1955.<br />
To the Princetonian-so the Princelon Alumni<br />
Weekly <strong>of</strong> February, 1942, said-a spook was<br />
a young lady, a mingle a game, red hots were<br />
stags, hooching was having a drink, to flour’ one<br />
was to cash a check and to s<strong>of</strong>t-sole WSLS to<br />
dance. The Texas terms were less elegant. A<br />
beast was an unattractive female and a sod suck<br />
one whose amatory ardors left something to be<br />
desired. Date bait was an attractive girl, dream<br />
bait a handsome person <strong>of</strong> either sex. Leather<br />
express meant walking. Ofice was the term for<br />
a favorite hideout, rape fluid for perfume. Upstream,<br />
used as a verb, designated the unethical<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> thumbing a ride ahead <strong>of</strong> an alreadywaiting<br />
group <strong>of</strong> hitchhikers.<br />
At Wayne University, in 1955, beating the<br />
bushes was looking for a date, a body snatcher<br />
was one who stole another’s date, a campus roar<br />
was an egotistical pr<strong>of</strong>essor, one who took all<br />
easy (pipe) courses was a plumbing major, and<br />
a wow was a worn-out wolf. At Northwestern<br />
University, in the same year, a Mickey Mouse<br />
was a notoriously easy course, a four-wheel<br />
friend was one devoted to your car, a clo,otch<br />
a girl and a brain a serious-minded and, possibly,<br />
intelligent student.<br />
can. This is the present tense. The past teme is<br />
could.<br />
He can does not have the s ending that we<br />
ordinarily expect in the present tense. This is<br />
because can is an ancient past tense form. But it<br />
had come to be felt as a present tense before<br />
English became a written language. Could is a<br />
new past tense form that was created for it.<br />
Today, could is sometimes used as the past tense<br />
<strong>of</strong> can, as in he could read before he wus four<br />
years old; but it has also acquired a present tense<br />
meaning, as in could you help me now?.<br />
This verb has no imperative, no infinitive, no<br />
past participle, and no -ing form. Because the<br />
words can and could are grammatically past<br />
tense forms, just as the word went is, they cannot<br />
follow (that is, they cannot be dependent on)<br />
another verb. We can no more say will can, may<br />
can, used to could, than we can say will went,<br />
may went, used to went. Since we cannot use<br />
auxiliaries, such as do, be, have, we form negative<br />
statement-s and ask questions in the old<br />
direct way that is now obsolete for most verbs,<br />
as in he could not and why can’t he?.<br />
Can and could themselves are always used as<br />
auxiliaries and require another verb to complete<br />
their meaning. This may be the simple form <strong>of</strong><br />
81 can<br />
the verb, as in he can leave, or have and the<br />
past participle, as in he can have left. In the first<br />
case, the statement refers to a present situation.<br />
In the second case, it refers to a past event. The<br />
complementary verb must be actually stated or<br />
easily supplied from the context, as in can you<br />
take this apart? and I could yesterday.<br />
When could is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the past it<br />
means “was able to,” as in I could yesterday, and<br />
is the past indicative form <strong>of</strong> can. When it is<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the present or the future, as<br />
in could you help me tomorrow, it is a past subjunctive.<br />
In a direct statement could have is a<br />
past indicative when it means “was able to at<br />
that time,” and a past subjunctive when it means<br />
“it is now possible that at that time. . . .” It may<br />
have either meaning in he could have told her<br />
yesterday. The subjunctive could can be used in<br />
a conditional clause without the word if. In that<br />
case, it must stand before the subject, as in co&<br />
I find the paper, I would . . . and could I have<br />
found the paper, I would have. . . . (See subjunctive<br />
mode.)<br />
The auxiliary verb can has grown out <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb meaning to know, and is related to such<br />
words as canny and cunning. It has no relation<br />
at all to the verb meaning to put up in cans,<br />
which is perfectly regular and has the past tense<br />
and participle canned. Having one simple sound<br />
for two such different ideas makes it possible<br />
for the farmer’s wife to say: We eat what we can<br />
and what we can’t we can.<br />
can; may. Both <strong>of</strong> these verbs may be used to<br />
express possibility, as in he can come (or he<br />
could come) and he may come (or he might<br />
come). But here can or could means “it is physically<br />
possible that” and may or might means<br />
“there is a chance that.” Can and may are never<br />
used interchangeably in speaking about a possibility.<br />
But may is also used to ask for or grant permission,<br />
as in may I come in? Some grammarians<br />
claim that can should never be used in a<br />
sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind, since can asks about what<br />
is physically possible and not about what is permissible.<br />
Actually, this question takes us out<br />
<strong>of</strong> the realm <strong>of</strong> language and into the intricacies<br />
<strong>of</strong> politeness. Can is <strong>of</strong>ten used in place <strong>of</strong> may<br />
to suggest that the decision is not merely a<br />
personal whim but something based on objective<br />
facts.<br />
In refusing permission, you may not is felt to<br />
be disagreeably personal and dictatorial and<br />
you cannot is almost universally preferred. In<br />
discussing a decision, or in arguing about it, can<br />
is required. We never say why mayn’t I? or<br />
mayn’t I? but always why can’t I? or can’t I?,<br />
since we are assuming that something more than<br />
a whim is involved, In granting permission may<br />
is still used occasionally, as in you may keep it<br />
till Friday. But most people now feel that it is<br />
more courteous, less autocratic, to say you can<br />
keep it till Friday. In asking permission, may is<br />
generally felt to be more polite than can, as in<br />
may I look at it? but can is also used here, as in<br />
can Z look at it? Since the speaker knows very
candelabrum 82<br />
well that he is able to look at it, this use <strong>of</strong> can<br />
is simply carrying politeness one step further by<br />
refusing to question the other person’s good<br />
will. In time, this too may be accepted1 as the<br />
more polite form, but that is not yet the case.<br />
candelabrum. The plural is candelubrums or cnndelabra.<br />
Candelabra is also used as a singular<br />
with a regular plural candelabras. Thesle forms<br />
are equally acceptable.<br />
candid. See frank.<br />
candidacy; candidature. Americans refer to the<br />
state or term <strong>of</strong> being a candidate as candidacy<br />
(During his candidacy he had the support <strong>of</strong> the<br />
labor unions). The English use candida,ture.<br />
candy; sweets; dessert. In America candy is the<br />
word for any <strong>of</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong> confections made<br />
with sugar, syrup, and so on, combined with<br />
other ingredients, and for a single piece <strong>of</strong> such<br />
a confection. The plural, candies, refers ‘to more<br />
than one variety (Mixed candies) rather than to<br />
more than one piece. When one wishes to speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one piece <strong>of</strong> candy it has to be expressed<br />
as so many pieces <strong>of</strong> candy.<br />
In England candy is what used to be called<br />
sugar candy, crystallized sugar, boiled and<br />
evaporated. In America this is <strong>of</strong>ten called rock<br />
candy. There is no plural to the English candy.<br />
The English term for candy in general is<br />
sweets. But the sweet is their word for what<br />
Americans call dessert. Sometimes it is called<br />
Ihe sweet course and the various puddings, ices,<br />
and so on, then served would, collectively, be<br />
called sweets. The English reserve the word<br />
dessert for fruit (fresh or candied), nuts, and<br />
raisins, served as a last course after the sweet.<br />
canine. Except in its special zoological meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> any member <strong>of</strong> the C&due (dogs, wolves,<br />
jackals, hyenas, coyotes, foxes), or as a $;hortening<br />
<strong>of</strong> canine tooth, canine ought to be used with<br />
care. It is acceptable as a term for a dog, but if<br />
used seriously it is pompous and if used humorously<br />
(in mockery <strong>of</strong> the pompous use) it is<br />
threadbare.<br />
cannon. The plural is cannons or cannon. That is,<br />
one may say only three cannons were left or<br />
only three cannon were left.<br />
canon; cafion; canyon; cannon. Canon refers to<br />
ecclesiastical law, to the sacred books <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Bible, or other sacred books (canon law; the<br />
Euistle to the Hebrews is not a work <strong>of</strong> St. Paul,<br />
b;t it is prefminently worthy <strong>of</strong> its honored<br />
place in the Canon), or (chiefly British) is the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> any one <strong>of</strong> a body <strong>of</strong> dignitaries or prebendaries<br />
attached to a cathedral or a collegiate<br />
church (Sir, it is a grent thing to dine with the<br />
Canons <strong>of</strong> Christ-Church).<br />
C&on is the Spanish spelling <strong>of</strong> canyon, a<br />
deep valley with steep sides, <strong>of</strong>ten with a. stream<br />
flowing through it (The Grund Canyon <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Colorado is in Arizona).<br />
A cannon is a mounted gun for firing heavy<br />
projectiles and other uses extended from this.<br />
More and more it is being replaced in usage by<br />
gun.<br />
The English have a special use <strong>of</strong> cannon as<br />
a verb: to make a carom in billiards.<br />
cant derives, ultimately, from canture, to sing. It<br />
originally meant the whining, singsong speech<br />
<strong>of</strong> beggars and then the special language or<br />
jargon spoken by thieves or gypsies. Linguists<br />
use the word in this sense today.<br />
A more popular meaning, however, is an<br />
affected or insincere use <strong>of</strong> religious or pietistic<br />
phraseology. It may have been helped to this<br />
meaning by the Reverend Andrew Cant (d.<br />
1663), a Presbyterian minister whose sermons<br />
were so larded with the jargon <strong>of</strong> his sect at that<br />
time that they were incomprehensible to most<br />
men and were delivered in a whining singsong<br />
which was then esteemed by many as the height<br />
<strong>of</strong> pulpit eloquence.<br />
From this use it has come to its most common<br />
meaning: stock phrases full <strong>of</strong> pretentious highmindedness<br />
or pseudo-pr<strong>of</strong>undity, repeated me<br />
chanically because they are fashionable, without<br />
being genuine expressions <strong>of</strong> sentiment. Highly<br />
successful books are <strong>of</strong>ten no more than tissues<br />
<strong>of</strong> cant, but there is nothing that the good writer<br />
abhors more. Johnson’s admonition to Boswell,<br />
Clear your mind <strong>of</strong> cant, is the beginning <strong>of</strong><br />
honesty as it is <strong>of</strong> wisdom.<br />
canvas; canvass. The cloth is cunvus. The close<br />
inspection, scrutiny, soliciting <strong>of</strong> votes or <strong>of</strong><br />
orders, is canvass.<br />
capacity. See ability.<br />
capitalization. Capitals are used for two purposes<br />
in writing. The first is to indicate the beginning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a statement. The second is to indicate a particular<br />
person, place, or thing as distinct from<br />
a general class. Within the first use, the conventions<br />
are few and the rules can mostly be predicted<br />
by reason. Within the second use, however,<br />
the conventions are numerous.<br />
Each publisher has his own rules <strong>of</strong> capitalization<br />
from which he deviates only with reluctance.<br />
Each writer will find that his own<br />
capitalization habits change with the kind <strong>of</strong><br />
material he is handling and the audience for<br />
whom he is writing-devotion to simplicity and<br />
the lower case will have a hard struggle when<br />
PTA minutes are to be kept or government<br />
letters written. Creative writing can be almost<br />
without capitals if the author chooses, though<br />
the conventional capital for the first word <strong>of</strong><br />
the sentence will be appreciated by most readers.<br />
Descriptive writing on government, political<br />
and religious matters, especially organizational<br />
matters, will invariably require a good many<br />
capitals. This is partly because a capital has become<br />
a mark <strong>of</strong> respect, and partly because it is<br />
needed to prevent the name <strong>of</strong> a particular thing<br />
from being understood as a common noun.<br />
Organized bodies <strong>of</strong>ten have names which, if<br />
not capitalized to show their special meaning,<br />
will gi;e a completely different impression-for<br />
instance. Odd Fellow and odd fellow. In general.<br />
fewer capitals make for easierieading; however;<br />
any time the reader could be confused by its<br />
omission, a capital should be used.<br />
CAPITALS USED TO INDICATE A BEGINNING:<br />
1. At the beginning <strong>of</strong> any sentence.<br />
2. After a colon, but only if a complete
formal statement follows or if a partial statement<br />
is to be emphasized, as in The result was<br />
4s expected: Two reckless drivers and one<br />
dangerous curve could only result in an accident.<br />
and Verdict: Not guilty.<br />
3. At the beginning <strong>of</strong> a complete sentence in<br />
parentheses within another sentence, if the<br />
writer desires to emphasize the parenthetical<br />
matter, as in There are two possible ways <strong>of</strong><br />
filing application for fellowships (See our letter<br />
<strong>of</strong> January I, 1956) : First, . . . Generally, however,<br />
a sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind begins with a lowercase<br />
letter. (The sentence enclosed does not have<br />
a final period.)<br />
4. At the beginning <strong>of</strong> a direct quotation (and<br />
within the quotation, any capitals used in the<br />
source quoted), as in It is in the third act<br />
that Portia says “The quality <strong>of</strong> mercy is not<br />
strain’d.” A fragmentary quotation, however,<br />
is written with a lower-case letter, as in He said<br />
he “could not support such an action.”<br />
5. At the beginning <strong>of</strong> every line <strong>of</strong> poetry<br />
(unless the original has used lower-case there).<br />
When quoting poetry, capitalize and punctuate<br />
exactly as the poet has done.<br />
6. Following a clause introducing an enactment<br />
or resolution, as in Resolved, That. . . and<br />
Be it enacted, That. . . .<br />
CAPITALS USED TO INDICATE AN INDIVIDUAL<br />
PERSON OR THING:<br />
1. Names and Titles <strong>of</strong> Persons. A person’s<br />
name is always capitalized and so is any title<br />
preceding his name, as in John Doe, Mr. John<br />
Doe, Admiral John Doe. However, titles following<br />
the name or titles standing alone are not<br />
capitalized unless the person referred to will be<br />
unmistakably recognized by the title, or the<br />
writer wishes to show great respect, as in the<br />
King and the President (<strong>of</strong> the United States),<br />
but the president <strong>of</strong> the Krackly Krunch Korporation.<br />
Hereditary titles are always capitalized, and<br />
so are the titles <strong>of</strong> all heads <strong>of</strong> nations and tbeir<br />
deputies, regardless <strong>of</strong> whether the title is standing<br />
before or after a name or alone, as in<br />
Edward, Prince <strong>of</strong> Wales and he was at that time<br />
Prime Minister.<br />
Governmental, military, judicial, and ecclesiastical<br />
titles referring to one specific person may<br />
be capitalized. But most publishers capitalize<br />
titles <strong>of</strong> subordinate <strong>of</strong>ficials only when the title<br />
precedes the name, as in Judge John Doe, John<br />
Doe, fudge and Doe had then been a judge for<br />
ten years.<br />
Titles <strong>of</strong> respect, such as Your Honor, Mr.<br />
Chairman, are always capitalized.<br />
Academic degrees, pr<strong>of</strong>essorial titles, fellowship<br />
titles, and the like, and also their abbreviations,<br />
are always capitalized, as in John Doe,<br />
Doctor <strong>of</strong> Philosophy and John Doe, Ph.D.<br />
A term that is merely descriptive <strong>of</strong> a poshion<br />
and not an <strong>of</strong>ficial title should not be capitalized.<br />
We would write John Doe, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Ancient<br />
Languages but John Doe, Greek pr<strong>of</strong>essor.<br />
2. Names <strong>of</strong> the Deity. Names representing<br />
the Deity are always capitalized. This is some-<br />
83 capitabati<strong>of</strong>i<br />
times extended to the personal pronouns he,<br />
him, his, and, less <strong>of</strong>ten, to the relatives who,<br />
whom, whose. Opinion is divided as to whether<br />
the devil should be honored by a capital letter,<br />
and some people would therefore write neither<br />
God nor the devil. However, a personal name,<br />
such as Satan or Lucifer, requires a capital.<br />
Gods in which one does not believe are referred<br />
to as gods and not as Gods. Their individual<br />
names, however, are capitalized by people interested<br />
enough to have made their acquaintance.<br />
3. Names and Titles <strong>of</strong> Groups and Group<br />
Members. All names <strong>of</strong> nations and nationalities<br />
are capitalized, whether used as adjectives or as<br />
nouns, as in the Chinese people and he is a<br />
Chinese. Governmental bodies and their boards,<br />
commissions or committees are capitalized when<br />
referred to individually, as in House <strong>of</strong> Representatives,<br />
United Nations, Ways and Means<br />
Committee, Supreme Court. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
are not capitalized when used in a general sense.<br />
We would write a Representative should be a<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> his people, 4 Senate committee,<br />
a district court. Descriptive terms for<br />
special types <strong>of</strong> government organization, such<br />
as empire, monarchy, republic, are not capitalized.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> societies and organizations are<br />
capitalized, even when used to identify an individual<br />
member. This is <strong>of</strong>ten necessarv in<br />
order to distinguish these names from the same<br />
words used in their ordinary sense, as in the<br />
Democratic Party and a Democrat (who may<br />
or may not be a democrat); the Lions Club and<br />
a Lion (who may be a social lion, but not a<br />
feline one). Full titles <strong>of</strong> religious denominations<br />
and organized bodies are capitalized, such<br />
as the Methodist Conference. But we would<br />
write the Methodists will hold a conference.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> unions are capitalized, but not the<br />
word union when it is merely descriptive and<br />
not part <strong>of</strong> the true title, as in United Steelworkers<br />
<strong>of</strong> America union, the A.F. <strong>of</strong> L. union.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> business firms, manufacturers, and<br />
the like are always capitalized, as are copyright<br />
and trademark names.<br />
4. Names <strong>of</strong> Places. The words north, south,<br />
east, and west, and their compounds, are not<br />
capitalized except when they are part <strong>of</strong> a recognized<br />
name for a particular area, such as the<br />
Deep South, the Middle West. the Far West.<br />
Similarly, words for natural divisions <strong>of</strong> land<br />
and water are not capitalized except when they<br />
are part <strong>of</strong> a recognized title, such as the Atlantic<br />
Ocean, Great Salt Lake, Treasure Island.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> streets, avenues, and the like, are also<br />
capitalized only when part <strong>of</strong> a proper name, as<br />
in 3236 Prospect Street, I9483 Hartwell Avenue,<br />
MacArthur Boulevard. Whenever a common<br />
noun forms part <strong>of</strong> a proper name it should be<br />
capitalized, but not otherwise.<br />
5. Names <strong>of</strong> Other Physical or Conceptual<br />
Things. Names <strong>of</strong> famous buildings and <strong>of</strong> particular<br />
rooms in them are capitalized, such as<br />
the White House, the Blue Room, Old Vie,<br />
the Washington Cathedral. The names <strong>of</strong> the
capitalize 84<br />
planets are capitalized, but the words sun.<br />
moon, and enrth are written without capitals<br />
except when listed with the planets.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> the months and <strong>of</strong> the days <strong>of</strong> the<br />
week are capitalized, but not the names <strong>of</strong> the<br />
seasons. Names <strong>of</strong> holidays and <strong>of</strong> religiously<br />
significant dates, such as Labor Day and St.<br />
Agnes’ Eve, are capitalized, but not other identifying<br />
names such as election day.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> historical significance, such as<br />
Magna Cartn, the Dark Ages, Code Napoleon,<br />
are capitalized, as are outstanding sport events,<br />
such as the Kentucky Derby, Sadie Hawkins<br />
Day.<br />
6. Substitute Names and Personifications. In<br />
general, any words that are used to individualize<br />
are given a capital letter. Nicknames, such as<br />
Billy the Kid, Old Hickory, and popular names<br />
<strong>of</strong> organizations, such as the GOP, the Quakers,<br />
are always capitalized. A common noun used as<br />
a substitute for a proper noun is capitalized,<br />
as the Administration. the Cape (Caue Cod),<br />
Father. This applies to the words the Co&;<br />
when used to mean the judge <strong>of</strong> the court, as<br />
in The Court denied the appeal.<br />
When inanimate objects, geographical divisions,<br />
and aspects <strong>of</strong> nature are spoken <strong>of</strong> as if<br />
they were persons, or are given fanciful titles,<br />
the names are capitalized, as in Old Faithful,<br />
Mother Nature, the Bluegrass, the Badlands,<br />
the Skull and Crossbones, the Red, Whmite, and<br />
Blue. In this sense the names <strong>of</strong> the seasons are<br />
sometimes capitalized, although they are ordinarily<br />
written without a capital.<br />
SPECIAL PROBLEMS<br />
1. Titles <strong>of</strong> books, songs, lectures, movies,<br />
pictures, plays, newspapers, and <strong>of</strong> sections or<br />
subdivisions <strong>of</strong> written material are capitalized.<br />
In these titles the first word and all nouns, pronouns,<br />
verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and interjections<br />
are given an initial capital. Prepositions<br />
and conjunctions are capitalized: (1) when they<br />
contain four or more letters, (2) when Ithey are<br />
<strong>of</strong> equal importance with another word in the<br />
title which is capitalized, or (3) wh’en they<br />
would otherwise be the only lower-care word<br />
in the title. Foreign-language titles should be<br />
capitalized according to the practice in that<br />
language.<br />
2. When a proper noun has lost its original<br />
meaning and become a common noun, it should<br />
be written without a capital, as in sandwich,<br />
kelly green, bourbon whiskey, madras cloth.<br />
Similarly, adjectives derived from proper nouns<br />
are capitalized as long as they retain their original<br />
meanings, as in Elizabethan, Freudian, but<br />
are written without a capital when the original<br />
meaning is no longer significant, as in caesarean.<br />
In scientific classifications, a species derived<br />
from the name <strong>of</strong> the classifier is always put in<br />
lower case, as in Magnolia watsoni.<br />
3. Single letters used as syllables are: always<br />
capitalized, as in X-ray, vitamin B, the pronoun<br />
I and the exclamation 0.<br />
4. When two names or titles have a common<br />
element they may be written together as a plural<br />
title, as in First and Elm Streets, Presidents<br />
Roosevelt and Truman.<br />
5. The word the may be capitalized in order<br />
to adhere to an authorized form, as in The<br />
Hague, or in order to confer greater honor, as<br />
in The King. This is unusual, however, and is<br />
found only in very formal writing.<br />
6. In expressions <strong>of</strong> time, it was once customary<br />
to capitalize the letters A.M. and P.M.<br />
Today, the lower-case forms a.m. and p.m. are<br />
preferred.<br />
7. A common noun used with a date, number,<br />
or letter, as a reference may be capitalized or<br />
not according to taste, as in Article V or article<br />
V, Chapter 3 or chapter 3.<br />
8. Hyphenated words are capitalized as they<br />
would be if they were written without a hyphen.<br />
9. When documentary accuracy is required,<br />
the capitalization in the original text should be<br />
retained.<br />
capitalize. In the literal sense one can capitalize,<br />
convert into capital, only something that already<br />
belongs to him. If one has shares he can capitalize<br />
on them by giving them as collateral for<br />
a loan or by selling them. If he has a factory he<br />
can capitalize a corporation by selling stock.<br />
Something <strong>of</strong> this idea carries over into the<br />
metaphorical uses <strong>of</strong> the word, though it is not<br />
always borne in mind. A man may capitalize on<br />
his misfortunes, for example, by narrating them<br />
over the radio or exhibiting himself on a television<br />
show. But the producer and announcer <strong>of</strong><br />
the show do not capitalize on the misfortunes<br />
<strong>of</strong> others; they exploit them.<br />
caption has given some purists a conniption. In the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> a heading or title and, even more, the<br />
legend under a picture, it is an Americanism.<br />
“Rare in British use,” grumps Fowler, “& might<br />
well be rarer.” Partridge thinks it is all right to<br />
use it for words above a picture (“as it should<br />
be”) but feels it is “misused” to mean a legend<br />
underneath. But why? It doesn’t come from the<br />
Latin cap&, head, anyway; but from capere, to<br />
take. Americans spend a lot <strong>of</strong> time looking at<br />
pictures and they have to have a convenient<br />
term for the bit <strong>of</strong> printing that sometimes goes<br />
along with them. Caption is now standard usage.<br />
captor; capturer. Capturer sounds a little awkward,<br />
but it is as correct as captor if anyone<br />
wants to use it.<br />
carcass. See corps.<br />
carcinoma. The plural is carcinomas or carcinomata,<br />
not carcinomae.<br />
care. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I do not care to go. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb is used it must be introduced by the preposition<br />
about, as in I do not care about going.<br />
care a rap, not to. A rap was a counterfeit farthing.<br />
A farthing is worth about half a cent. It<br />
seems incredible that anyone would go to the<br />
trouble <strong>of</strong> counterfeiting a coin <strong>of</strong> so little value<br />
-especially when the penalty was death-but<br />
it is a measure <strong>of</strong> the poverty and desperation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Irish that in the eighteenth century they<br />
did. Copper halfpence or farthings . . . have<br />
been for some time very scarce, Swift wrote in
The Drapier Letters (1724), and many counterfeits<br />
passed about under the name <strong>of</strong> raps.<br />
So the phrase once had meaning; if you were<br />
not concerned even so much as a rap(‘s worth),<br />
you had little concern indeed. But who knows<br />
the meaning now? Or cares a rap for it? It is a<br />
clichC, and should be used with care.<br />
carefree; careless. To be carefree is to be free <strong>of</strong><br />
care in an admirable, or at least an enviable, way<br />
(For a carefree vacation, come lo Camp Zdlewild).<br />
To be careless is to be lacking in adequate<br />
care, heedless, negligent, unconcerned about<br />
things which merit concern (Careless people<br />
are exasperating companions). The careless are<br />
rarely carefree, because their carelessness makes<br />
so much trouble for them.<br />
cargo; shipment. Weseen’s joke, that goods sent<br />
by ship are called a cargo and goods sent by car<br />
are called a shipment, will at least serve to taunt<br />
the purists. Shipment has the added suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> goods that are definitely consigned to someone<br />
(Your shipment has definitely been sent <strong>of</strong>f<br />
today. II forms part <strong>of</strong> the cargo <strong>of</strong> the steamship<br />
Santa Maria). See also freight.<br />
caricature. See burlesque.<br />
caries. This is a singular noun, equivalent to decay,<br />
and not a plural equivalent to cavities. We<br />
say caries is preventable, not are preventable.<br />
carom, a term from billiards, a shot in which the<br />
ball struck with the cue is made to hit two balls<br />
in succession, is in use in America but is no<br />
longer used in England where it has been replaced<br />
by cannon.<br />
carousal; carousel; carrousel. A carousal, a noisy<br />
or drunken feast, derives from the German<br />
phrase Car aus!, “completely out,” a command,<br />
equivalent to “Bottoms up!” to drinkers to<br />
empty their cups completely in one mighty swill.<br />
A carrousel, in America a merry-go-round,<br />
in most <strong>of</strong> Europe a tournament, derives from<br />
an Italian word garosella, a tournament, diminutive<br />
<strong>of</strong> garoso, quarrelsome.<br />
The two words are easily confused because<br />
a carousal could easily include a ride in a<br />
carrousel and both make noise which those involved<br />
regard as music. Then carrousel is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
and legitimately spelled carousel and carou.sal.<br />
In pronunciation, the word for revelry has the<br />
accent on the second syllable, the merry-goround<br />
word on the last.<br />
carry. The use <strong>of</strong> carry to mean keep in stock<br />
(The new store will carry a full line <strong>of</strong> merchandise),<br />
to print or to present (The newspapers all<br />
carried the story on the front page), and to sustain<br />
or to bear a leading part in singing (He<br />
curried the melody) is peculiarly American. All<br />
<strong>of</strong> these uses are standard.<br />
The American mail carrier is the English<br />
postman. A carrier in England is one who conveys<br />
parcels, with us the expressman, though in<br />
legal and business phraseology we use the term<br />
common carrier.<br />
cart before the horse. Anyone who spoke <strong>of</strong><br />
some reversal <strong>of</strong> the usual order <strong>of</strong> doing thinp;s<br />
8s putting the cart before the horse would, iE It<br />
were the first time the phrase had ever bxn<br />
85<br />
heard, earn for himself the reputation <strong>of</strong> a.n<br />
earthy fellow, with a gift for homely metaphor.<br />
But since Cicero used the phrase (already a<br />
proverb) in 61 B.C., and since horses and carts<br />
now play very little part in most Americans’<br />
lives, the man who uses the phrase today runs<br />
the risk <strong>of</strong> seeming unoriginal, repetitious, and<br />
tedious.<br />
carte blanche (literally a white or blank sheet <strong>of</strong><br />
paper) is a signed paper left blank for the<br />
person to whom it is given to fill in his own<br />
conditions. By extension, it means unconditional<br />
authority, full power. It is a clichi and, like all<br />
foreign phrases introduced unnecessarily into<br />
English speech, pretentious.<br />
The plural, if anyone is conceivably interested,<br />
is cartes blanches, though the man who<br />
would use that phrase in English speech has<br />
carried affectation almost to splendor.<br />
caryopsis. The plural is caryopsises or caryopsides,<br />
not caryopses.<br />
case has so many uses that it is not surprising that<br />
it also has abuses.<br />
Etymologically, there are two words. There<br />
is the word for a receptacle, from a Norman<br />
French word, ultimately from the Latin word<br />
capl’re, to take hold. From this case are derived<br />
casement, case knife, a tray <strong>of</strong> wood or metal<br />
for holding types for the use <strong>of</strong> the compositor,<br />
the contents <strong>of</strong> a case (I’d like a case <strong>of</strong> soap<br />
flakes), and a hundred extensions and applications<br />
<strong>of</strong> the idea <strong>of</strong> the container. There is very<br />
little confusion in the use <strong>of</strong> words <strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
Then there is the other case, meaning originally<br />
that which befalls, from the French cas and<br />
ultimately the Latin casualis. And this is the<br />
word that has everyone confused, from stenographers<br />
to lexicographers. It means an instance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the occurrence <strong>of</strong> something (Zt was a<br />
plain case <strong>of</strong> premeditated murder), the actual<br />
state <strong>of</strong> things (That is not the case, and you<br />
know it!), a question or problem <strong>of</strong> moral conduct<br />
(a case <strong>of</strong> conscience), a situation, condition,<br />
or plight (His hat was in a sorry case when he<br />
picked it up), a state <strong>of</strong> things requiring consideration<br />
or decision (This is u case for the<br />
dean), a statement <strong>of</strong> facts or reasons (He made<br />
a strong case for his side), an instance <strong>of</strong> disease<br />
requiring medical attention (Zt was apparent the<br />
child had a bad case <strong>of</strong> measles), and by a<br />
natural extension from this, a patient (The<br />
doctor saw his bed cases in the morning). In law<br />
a case is a suit or action at law (The attorney<br />
said he would take the case), or the facts supporting<br />
a claim or supporting a defense against<br />
a claim (He had a strong case and the attorney<br />
had litrle concern about the decision). In grammar<br />
case denotes a category in the inflection <strong>of</strong><br />
nouns, pronouns, and adjectives, establishing the<br />
relation <strong>of</strong> these words to other words in the<br />
sentence. It also denotes a set <strong>of</strong> such categories,<br />
or the meaning <strong>of</strong>, or typical <strong>of</strong>, such a category,<br />
or such categories or their meaning collectively.<br />
See case in grammar.<br />
Then there are idiomatic phrases containing<br />
case. In any case means under any circum-
CaSe 86<br />
stances, anyhow. In case means if. In case <strong>of</strong><br />
means in the event <strong>of</strong>.<br />
And as if all this weren’t enough, there are<br />
slang uses, such as He’s a case, he is! or They<br />
sent Joe up to case the joint first.<br />
Now where one sound represents twso words<br />
and each word has a score <strong>of</strong> meanings and the<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the words concern ca.tegories<br />
and abstractions, there is, plainly, danger <strong>of</strong> confusion.<br />
And in this case the danger is heightened<br />
by the widespread temptation to make the<br />
second <strong>of</strong> the two cases a catchall. Despite its<br />
score <strong>of</strong> legitimate uses, case is continually being<br />
used when it has practically no meaning at all,<br />
when the sentence would be just as effective if<br />
it were omitted entirely. In such a sentence as<br />
This sort <strong>of</strong> pacifism has been presented before,<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> All Quiet on the Western Front,<br />
“the case <strong>of</strong>” could be omitted. It adds nothing<br />
and says nothing. In such a sentence a,s In the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> retail selling, there must, <strong>of</strong> course, be<br />
a different sort <strong>of</strong> advertising, “the case <strong>of</strong>”<br />
could, and should, be omitted.<br />
Case is not to be avoided, but it is to be used<br />
only when needed and when the user is sure that<br />
no other word will express his meaning so<br />
exactly.<br />
case in grammar. In an inflected language, such<br />
as Latin or Old English, nouns, pronouns, and<br />
adjectives have special endings, or special forms,<br />
which show how these words are related to other<br />
words in a sentence. One ending will show that<br />
a word is the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, another t.hat it is<br />
an object, and so on. Latin had six classifications<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind. In modern English, the relation that<br />
one word has to the others is shown chiefly by<br />
its position in the sentence. If a child should say,<br />
Him hit she, we would understand that him had<br />
done the hitting because that word stands in the<br />
proper place for the doer, or agent. But if we<br />
depended on case rather than position, wse would<br />
think that she had done the hitting, because that<br />
word is in the case used to show the agent.<br />
Old English had almost as many case forms<br />
as Latin, but few are left in present-day English.<br />
All nouns, and some pronouns, have a<br />
genitive case formed with a final s, as in the<br />
horse’s mouth and anybody’s guess. Wlhen not<br />
in the genitive, such words are said to be in the<br />
common case. Except for the genitive, all that<br />
has survived from the old case system is six<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> pronouns, the subjective I, we, .he, she,<br />
they, who and their objective counterparts, me,<br />
us, him, her, them, whom. These words still<br />
follow the old rules to some extent, and there<br />
are places where one form must be used and the<br />
other must not. The rules are complex and the<br />
question <strong>of</strong> when to use the subjective form and<br />
when to use the objective is one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
difficult problems in English.<br />
Many grammarians use the term case IO mean<br />
the function that a word has in the sentence, or<br />
the case that it would have in a completely inflected<br />
language. This is useful in studying the<br />
history <strong>of</strong> English and its relation to the other<br />
Indo-European languages. But it involves concepts<br />
and distinctions that have no meaning for<br />
the person who speaks only English. It makes<br />
the study <strong>of</strong> English grammar extremely difficult<br />
and takes up time which should be put on the<br />
important questions <strong>of</strong> position and the use <strong>of</strong><br />
prepositions.<br />
In this book the term case is used in the strict<br />
sense to mean a special word form, either the<br />
genitive or one <strong>of</strong> the twelve paired pronouns.<br />
Other words are considered to have no case, or<br />
not to show case.<br />
case; instance; example; illustration. Case is a<br />
genera1 word, meaning a fact or occurrence or<br />
situation that is typical <strong>of</strong> a class (His reply<br />
was a case <strong>of</strong> sheer insolence). An instance<br />
is a concrete factual case which is adduced to<br />
explain a general idea (General Kutuzov’s<br />
answer furnished an excellent instance <strong>of</strong> what<br />
I mean by “military intelligence”). An example<br />
is one typical case, taken from many similar<br />
ones and used to make some principle clear<br />
(The Louisiana Purchase is an example <strong>of</strong><br />
peaceful acquisition <strong>of</strong> territory). An illustration<br />
(in this sense) is also an example, used to<br />
make some principle clear, but it differs from<br />
an example in that it may be hypothetical<br />
(Squatters’ rights would be an illustration <strong>of</strong> a<br />
legal right based on bad faith).<br />
casket, originally a small, <strong>of</strong>ten ornamented, chest<br />
or box used for storing jewels or other precious<br />
things, has come in America to mean, primarily,<br />
a c<strong>of</strong>fin (The casket, enveloped in the Confederate<br />
flag, was placed in the center <strong>of</strong> the room).<br />
But it will not work. Death, the one great fact<br />
<strong>of</strong> life that cannot be vulgarized, glossed over,<br />
or concealed in words, will not-so long as men<br />
love life-be denied its grimness. Those who<br />
bury the dead, whether they disguise themselves<br />
in vagueness as undertakers or exalt themselves<br />
in technical efficiency as morticians, are still<br />
those who bury the dead. Cemetery means sleeping<br />
place, but no one is comforted thereby. The<br />
bruised heart was never yet “pierced through<br />
the ear.” Casket must have seemed a brilliant<br />
euphemism to the man who first conceived it,<br />
but the solemnity and horror <strong>of</strong> death has settled<br />
on it and tainted it. When American high-school<br />
students now come to the casket scene in The<br />
Merchant <strong>of</strong> Venice they think <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fins (especially<br />
since the golden casket contains “a<br />
carrion Death”) and either attach an unintended<br />
gruesomeness to the scene or giggle, as their<br />
natures move them.<br />
cast. The past tense is cast. The participle is also<br />
cast. See throw.<br />
east the first stone. In lohn 8:7, where the challenge<br />
He that is without sin among you, let him<br />
first cast a stone at her first appeared, it had<br />
great power. It was then literal. The woman had<br />
been taken in adultery and, as the scribes and<br />
Pharisees pointed out, the Mosaic law commanded<br />
that she should be stoned. But the sin<br />
which she had committed was a common one<br />
and her indignant accusers, at Christ’s statement,
slunk away. Outside <strong>of</strong> this famous passage,<br />
however, the phrase has become worn and hackneyed<br />
and should be used sparingly.<br />
cast; caste. Casfe now designates a rigid system<br />
<strong>of</strong> social distinctions. (He was (1 high-caste<br />
Hindu; the upper caste). In all other uses the<br />
word, as a verb or a noun, is spelled cast.<br />
caster; castor. He who or that which casts should<br />
be a caster (He was an excellent caster w,ith a<br />
fly rod. The sculptor who would cast in bronze<br />
must have a good caster). The small wheel on<br />
a swivel, set under a piece <strong>of</strong> furniture, to facilitate<br />
moving it, a bottle or cruet for holding a<br />
condiment, and a stand containing a set <strong>of</strong> such<br />
bottles are also casters, though the swivel, the<br />
cruet, and the holder are also called castors.<br />
Castor is the name <strong>of</strong> the beaver, <strong>of</strong> the secretion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the beaver used in medicine and perfumery,<br />
and is the popular name <strong>of</strong> the oil ased<br />
as a cathartic and lubricant.<br />
castles in Spain; castles in the air. It is not known<br />
why the edifices <strong>of</strong> fancy should be built in<br />
Spain, but they have been for at least seven<br />
hundred years. But whether in Spain or merely<br />
in the air, the phrase is a clichC, the worse that<br />
it affects usually to be a sprightly sally.<br />
Of course even the most worn phrase can be<br />
put to original use. When James Boswell said<br />
that other people built castles in the air but that<br />
he was the first man that ever tried to live in<br />
them, the remark was a penetrating piece <strong>of</strong> selfanalysis,<br />
wryly humorous and quaintly cha.rming.<br />
Bulwer-Lytton’s observation that castles in<br />
the air are cheap to build but expensive to keep<br />
up is pr<strong>of</strong>ound.<br />
casualty is properly something which happened<br />
casually, by chance or accident. It has come to<br />
mean something unpleasant, particularly a bodily<br />
injury or death. Purists have objected to its<br />
transfer from the event to the person suffering<br />
the event, but military usage has become standard,<br />
and soldiers killed, wounded, or captured<br />
as a result <strong>of</strong> enemy action are now correctly<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> as casualties and by extension the<br />
term includes civilians injured in some disaster<br />
(The tornado took a fearful toll <strong>of</strong> casualties).<br />
It is not used <strong>of</strong> one or two persons injured in,<br />
say, an automobile accident, though if it were<br />
a bus-train collision and the number were great,<br />
it might be used.<br />
catachresis is the employment <strong>of</strong> a word under a<br />
false form through misapprehension in regard to<br />
its origin. Of course if the false form continues<br />
long enough in use among enough people, it will<br />
become proper. Thus causeway is a corruption<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word causey which was the English form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Norman French caucie, a paved road.<br />
Since it was a roadway, the last syllable was<br />
altered to way. Similarly the old French crevice<br />
became crayfish (since it lived in water) and,<br />
further, crawfish (since it crawled). See also<br />
folk etymology.<br />
catalysis. The plural is catalyses.<br />
catch. The past tense is caught. The participle is<br />
also caught.<br />
87 caucus<br />
Catched is an old form <strong>of</strong> the verb, used by<br />
George Washington and other eighteenth century<br />
gentlemen. It is no longer standard.<br />
catch (a disease). See contract.<br />
catchup; ketchup; catsup. Any one <strong>of</strong> the three<br />
forms may be used to designate the spiced<br />
tomato sauce. The most common now, in general<br />
use, is ketchup.<br />
catchword. See slogan.<br />
category; class. A class is a number <strong>of</strong> persons or<br />
things regarded as forming a group through the<br />
possession <strong>of</strong> similar qualities, any division <strong>of</strong><br />
persons or things according to rank or grade<br />
(Boys <strong>of</strong> his class usually attend a private preparatory<br />
school). A category is a class or<br />
division in any general scheme <strong>of</strong> classification,<br />
sometimes scientific but most <strong>of</strong>ten philosophical.<br />
Though its use as a synonym for class is<br />
now standard in the United States, the discriminating<br />
will always be aware <strong>of</strong> the difference<br />
and reserve category for its more particular<br />
meaning.<br />
catholic; Roman Catholic. When spelled with a<br />
small c, the adjective catholic means universal<br />
in extent, having sympathy with all (The ntom<br />
bomb is <strong>of</strong> catholic concern. She is one <strong>of</strong><br />
catholic tastes). When spelled with a capital C<br />
it is a noun that means one thing to Roman<br />
Catholics and another thing to other churches<br />
such as the Old Catholics or the Anglo-Catholics.<br />
In common American usage, however,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> the theological or historical or<br />
etymological arguments to the contrary, it refers<br />
to Roman Catholics as opposed to Protestants<br />
and the adjective with a capital C means <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to Roman Catholics or the Roman<br />
Catholic Church.<br />
cattle. In the United States today this word is a<br />
true plural, although it has no singular form.<br />
We may say these cattle are thirsty or he has ten<br />
thousand cattle.<br />
The word has been used in this way for many<br />
centuries but until recently these constructions<br />
were considered ungrammatical. In literary English<br />
cattle was a mass word like sugar or water.<br />
It was possible to speak <strong>of</strong> much cattle but not<br />
<strong>of</strong> many cattle. In order to have a singular or a<br />
true plural it was necessary to say one head <strong>of</strong><br />
cattle or three head <strong>of</strong> cattle. Today the usual<br />
singular is one animal.<br />
Caucasian. The use <strong>of</strong> the word Caucasian as a<br />
euphemism for white, in its racial sense (Members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Caucasian race only served here),<br />
is vulgar, <strong>of</strong>fensive to humanity, language, and<br />
ethnology.<br />
caucus. The American word cuucus has been taken<br />
over by the English but, perhaps because <strong>of</strong> a<br />
misunderstanding <strong>of</strong> the way American political<br />
parties work, has been changed in the transfer.<br />
In the United States a caucus is a meeting <strong>of</strong><br />
the local members <strong>of</strong> a political party to nominate<br />
candidates, elect delegates to a convention,<br />
etc., or <strong>of</strong> the members <strong>of</strong> a legislative body<br />
who belong to the same party to determine upon<br />
action in that body. In England it is a local com-
caught 88<br />
mittee <strong>of</strong> a political party exercising a certain<br />
control over its affairs or actions.<br />
caught. See catch.<br />
causative verbs. Many English verbs that name a<br />
particular action, such as he walked and he<br />
swam across the river, can also be used to mean<br />
“cause something to perform that action,” as in<br />
he walked the dog, he swam his horse across the<br />
river. Sometimes we use cause, make, or have to<br />
express this idea, as in I had him swim across<br />
the river. Sometimes we use the syllable en to<br />
form verbs meaning “cause to be,” as in blacken<br />
and enfeeble. Verbs <strong>of</strong> this kind are called<br />
causatives.<br />
At one time English had a great many pairs<br />
<strong>of</strong> verbs, each having a different form, one <strong>of</strong><br />
which was a causative and one <strong>of</strong> which was<br />
not. Today we are more likely to use one verb<br />
in both senses, as is the case with walk and<br />
swim. Some <strong>of</strong> the old pairs are now felt to be<br />
completely unrelated verbs, for examplle drench<br />
which was the causative <strong>of</strong> drink, and fell, the<br />
causative <strong>of</strong> fall, as in he felled the tree. Others<br />
have survived into the modern period as pairs.<br />
Three <strong>of</strong> these, lay and lie, set and sit, raise and<br />
rise, are confusing to many people. As a matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> fact, they are no longer the simple pairs they<br />
once were. For a discussion <strong>of</strong> when one <strong>of</strong> these<br />
forms is to be used and when the other, see the<br />
causatives lay, set, raise. In addition, some irregular<br />
verbs, such as shine, shone, have parallel<br />
regular forms, such as shine, shined, that are<br />
causatives, as the light shone on the water and<br />
he shined the light on the water. All such verbs<br />
are listed in this dictionary. As a rule the usual<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb, in this case shone, may also be<br />
used as a causative, as in he shone the light on<br />
the water. Some grammarians object to this<br />
practice, but it is acceptable to most people.<br />
cause. When used as a verb, this word may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in it caused me to go.<br />
It may also be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in it caused my going, but the infinitive<br />
construction is preferred. Formerly cause might<br />
be followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
I have caused him kill a virtuous queen. This<br />
is no longer natural Engiish, and a to- infinitive<br />
is now required here.<br />
cause. See source.<br />
cavalry; Calvary. It would seem ludicrous to point<br />
out that these words have different meanings,<br />
were it not that they are frequently confused<br />
(In New York City there is exactly one good<br />
cop. . . . He’s in Cavalry Cemetery-facetiously<br />
quoted in The World, The Flesh, and H. Allen<br />
Smith, 1954). Cavalry is mounted soldiers collectively.<br />
Calvary is the place where Jesus Christ<br />
was crucified, though the name is sometimes<br />
applied to an open-air representation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Crucifixion.<br />
caviar to the general. Hamlet, speaking to the<br />
players at Elsinore, recollects a play that was<br />
never acted or, if acted, only once, for the play<br />
. . . pleas’d not the million, ‘twas caviar to the<br />
general. That is, it was like caviar (a strange<br />
delicacy for which a taste must be acquired),<br />
esteemed by epicures but repugnant to the generality,<br />
to what is now called “the masses.”<br />
This is a cliche <strong>of</strong> the literary. It is intended,<br />
presumably, to show that they lcnow Hamlet,<br />
that they know the true meaning <strong>of</strong> a passage<br />
which the uneducated would misunderstand, and<br />
it implies that they, too, are members <strong>of</strong> a discriminating<br />
minority. Actually, its use marks<br />
them as unoriginal and pretentious.<br />
Incidentally, such fragments as we have <strong>of</strong> the<br />
play that Prince Hamlet so esteemed are incredibly<br />
bad.<br />
cay. See quay.<br />
cease. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he ceased to go there, or by the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he ceased going there. The -ing<br />
construction is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten than the infinitive.<br />
See end and stop.<br />
cedilla. See diacritical mark.<br />
ceiling is an overhead interior lining <strong>of</strong> a room<br />
(The chandelier was suspended from the ceiling).<br />
The word has recently been used metaphorically<br />
(perhaps through its aeronautical<br />
application where the ceiling is the distance<br />
between the earth and the base <strong>of</strong> the lowest<br />
cloud bank, or, sometimes, the maximum height<br />
to which a specific aircraft can rise) to mean<br />
the top limit (A new ceiling has been fixed on<br />
rents).<br />
In America this metaphorical usage has become<br />
so common that it must be accepted as<br />
standard. But like all vogue words it is being<br />
overworked and like all metaphors is liable to<br />
ludicrous application and misuse. Sir Ernest<br />
Cowers quotes an <strong>of</strong>ficial document in which it<br />
is said that under certain circumstances a fixed<br />
ceiling will be “waived.” But you can’t waive a<br />
ceiling and the term is too near to its literal<br />
sense to be so completely detached from it. He<br />
quotes another document in which a ceiling on<br />
floor space is established in a certain construction<br />
project. Limit would certainly have been a<br />
happier word.<br />
celebrant; celebrator. To celebrate is to make<br />
known, to glorify, honor, praise (For the grave<br />
cannot praise thee, death cannot celebrate thee).<br />
A celebrated beauty is one whose beauty has<br />
gained wide renown. Among the ways <strong>of</strong> glorifying<br />
is to commemorate, with demonstrations<br />
<strong>of</strong> joy or sorrow or respect. Thus we celebrate<br />
birthdays, wedding anniversaries, the Sabbath,<br />
and so on. Among the most solemn <strong>of</strong> glorifications<br />
is the performance <strong>of</strong> religious rites and<br />
ceremonies. The Mass is celebrated. Marriages<br />
and funerals are celebrated.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> the gaiety attendant upon most<br />
minor commemorations, celebrate has come, in<br />
its most common contemporary sense, to mean<br />
to be gay and lively and boisterous, <strong>of</strong>ten to<br />
drink and to revel. One who is so enjoying himself<br />
is a celebrator or a celebrater. Celebrant is<br />
usually reserved for an <strong>of</strong>ficiating priest in the<br />
celebration <strong>of</strong> the Eucharist or a participant in<br />
some public religious rite. Such statements as
Thousands <strong>of</strong> New Year’s Eve Celebrant,s See<br />
Wild Drama <strong>of</strong> Gunfire or Chief Police Inspector<br />
Stephen P. Kennedy put the number <strong>of</strong><br />
celebrants at 500,000 are at the best ambiguous.<br />
celebrity; celebrated; fame; notoriety; renown.<br />
Celebrity is the state <strong>of</strong> being publicly kn,own.<br />
It is a noisier, more ephemeral state than fame<br />
which is an enduring renown, a favorable estimation<br />
that is widespread and lasting (Mauhew<br />
Arnold said that Spinoza’s successors had celebrity,<br />
Spinoza has fame). The use <strong>of</strong> celebrity to<br />
describe a well-known person is standard but<br />
greatly overworked. Since celebrity is today a<br />
marketable commodity, there is a whole industry<br />
devoted to manufacturing celebrities and the<br />
public, though it always pays the passing tribute<br />
<strong>of</strong> a gawk and a gasp, is dimly aware that many<br />
<strong>of</strong> its celebrities are synthetic, and so the word<br />
has suffered.<br />
Celebrated, on the other hand, though it has<br />
two meanings, “much talked about” (Lake<br />
Michigan is celebrated for its whitefish) and<br />
“famous. in a limited wav” I The celebrated Mrs.<br />
Huggins; whose preserves are known throughout<br />
the state), has not suffered the deterioration <strong>of</strong><br />
celebrity.<br />
Renown is close to fame (The inheritors <strong>of</strong><br />
unfulfilled renown, Shelley called those men <strong>of</strong><br />
genius who died before their greatness could be<br />
shown), but there is in it a suggestion <strong>of</strong> more<br />
<strong>of</strong> the present glory than <strong>of</strong> the lasting esteem.<br />
Renown is <strong>of</strong>ten applied to great military leaders.<br />
The Bible speaks <strong>of</strong> mighty men which in<br />
old time were men <strong>of</strong> renown.<br />
Notoriety means the state <strong>of</strong> being well<br />
known. A notorious fact means one that is obvious,<br />
publicly known, one <strong>of</strong> which an ordinary<br />
man could not convincingly claim to be ignorant.<br />
When applied to persons, notorious is<br />
always condemnatory. It means that the person<br />
is well known for some bad trait or deed (Mrs.<br />
Rudd, the notorious murderess, escaped hanging<br />
at Tyburn. To low minds notoriety is as good<br />
as glory).<br />
cement; concrete. Cement is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym<br />
for concrete and, when used as it usually<br />
is in reference to sidewalks or foundations, this<br />
use must be granted at least a colloquial standing.<br />
But actually cement (usually made by hurning<br />
a mixture <strong>of</strong> clay and limestone) is only the<br />
binding element in concrete which is a mixture<br />
<strong>of</strong> cement, sand, gravel, and crushed rock. (The<br />
road deteriorated rapidly because the contractor<br />
had not put enough cement in his concrete mixture.)<br />
In contemporary American usage cement, by<br />
a natural extension, has come to mean almost<br />
any binding substance which is liquid or .semiliquid<br />
when applied and hardens to a rocklike<br />
consistency.<br />
censor; censure; tenser; censorial; censorious. To<br />
censor is to act as a censor, an <strong>of</strong>ficial who<br />
examines books, plays, news reports, motion<br />
pictures, radio programs and in wartime even<br />
letters for the purpose <strong>of</strong> suppressing whatever<br />
89 cereal<br />
seems objectionable for moral, political, or military<br />
reasons (It is always the simplest cablegrams<br />
that the hardened censor suspects most).<br />
To censure is to express disapproval, to<br />
blame, to criticize adversely or hostilely (Lincoln’s<br />
lenience and humanity were severely censured<br />
by many at the time).<br />
Of, pertaining to, or characteristic <strong>of</strong> a ten.<br />
sor, is censorial. To be addicted to censure, to<br />
be severely critical or fault-finding, is to be<br />
censorious.<br />
A tenser is a container in which incense is<br />
burned. The verb is cerise.<br />
census. The regular plural is censuses. The learned<br />
plural is census, not censi.<br />
centenary and centennial are both adjectives and<br />
nouns meaning a hundredth anniversary or pertaining<br />
to a period <strong>of</strong> a hundred years or recurring<br />
once in every hundred years. English usage<br />
prefers centenary (The centenary <strong>of</strong> Darwin’s<br />
birth was celebrated in 1909), American usage<br />
prefers centennial (Northwestern University celebrated<br />
its centennial in 1951).<br />
center; middle; midst. Middle is the everyday<br />
working word, to be preferred to center except<br />
where center is specifically the word wanted.<br />
Middle indicates a point or part equidistant from<br />
or intermediate between extremes or limits in<br />
space or time (Keep to the middle <strong>of</strong> the road.<br />
Upon the middle <strong>of</strong> the night,/Waking she heard<br />
the night-fowl crow). Center, a more precise<br />
word, is proper in mathematical and metaphorical<br />
uses. It is the exact middle. The middle <strong>of</strong><br />
a room is a vague area equidistant from the<br />
walls; the center <strong>of</strong> a room is an exact point.<br />
Middle applies only to linear extension-even<br />
when linear extension is being used metaphorically<br />
(He’s always been a middle-<strong>of</strong>-the-roader).<br />
Center is ordinarily a point within circular,<br />
globular, or regular bodies (The center <strong>of</strong> the<br />
earth). Even metaphorically, -t suggests the core<br />
<strong>of</strong> a sphere. When we say that a man was the<br />
center <strong>of</strong> attraction, we imply that others clustered<br />
about him. Center as a political term, however,<br />
is the same as middle. When we say that<br />
someone is left <strong>of</strong> center we have a linear, not a<br />
solid, body in mind.<br />
Midst suggests that a person or thing is closely<br />
surrounded or encompassed on all sides, usually<br />
by something dense (In the midst <strong>of</strong> the storm),<br />
a fact demonstrated by the frequent substitution<br />
<strong>of</strong> thick (He was always in the thick <strong>of</strong><br />
things) for midst.<br />
cereal is, properly, any gramineous piant yielding<br />
an edible farinaceous grain. In English usage<br />
the word is confined to technical writings in<br />
which various agricultural products are classified.<br />
In American usage, however, the word has<br />
acquired an additional L,eaning: a breakfast<br />
food made from some cereal. Eat your cereal,<br />
child would be spoken to a child dawdling over<br />
corn flakes but not to one dawdling over stewed<br />
corn. A famous brand <strong>of</strong> rice has on its package,<br />
under the heading <strong>of</strong> Suggested Uses, As a<br />
cereal and, further down, As a vegetable. This
ceremonial 90<br />
really means, “For breakfast, sweetened” and<br />
“For lunch or dinner, unsweetened.” The problem<br />
<strong>of</strong> rice pudding is met by In desserts.<br />
ceremonial; ceremonious. Ceremonial means pertaining<br />
to, marked by, or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> ceremony<br />
(The centennial was a ceremoniSQl occasion).<br />
It applies only to things. Ceremonious<br />
can be applied to persons or things. When applied<br />
to persons it means overly polite, making<br />
too much ceremony for the occasion, punctilious<br />
(I find his ceremoniousness tiring).<br />
certain. When this word is followed by <strong>of</strong> and the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, it means that the person<br />
spoken about has no doubts, as in he is certain<br />
<strong>of</strong> returning. When it is followed by an infinitive,<br />
it means that there is no doubt about the<br />
fact itself, as in he is certain to return.<br />
cession; cessation; session. Cession is the act <strong>of</strong><br />
ceding, <strong>of</strong> yielding. Cessution is the act <strong>of</strong> ceasing.<br />
Session is the act <strong>of</strong> sitting together <strong>of</strong> a<br />
body for the transaction <strong>of</strong> business (The cession<br />
<strong>of</strong> territories cume to a cessation at
char& thnt a person did this or that (It wus<br />
charged that he aided und abetted the enemy).<br />
The former construction is sometimes used in<br />
America, but the latter is rarely used in England.<br />
charge; accuse. To charge is to make a formal<br />
accusation. It is <strong>of</strong>ten used <strong>of</strong> an accusation<br />
brought at law (Charge an honest woman with<br />
picking thy pocket?) or one delivered with the<br />
solemnity <strong>of</strong> an indictment. An accusation can<br />
be formal, but it can also be informal and even<br />
mild (The younger children accztsed John <strong>of</strong><br />
eating more than his share. Here charged him<br />
with eating more than his share would be ponderous).<br />
In an impersonal construction only charge<br />
can be used (It has been charged that Richard’s<br />
early associates corrupted his morals).<br />
chart. See map.<br />
charter. See hire.<br />
chartered; charted. One sometimes hears or even<br />
reads <strong>of</strong> unchartered seas. A chart is a map. A<br />
charter is a document that grants certain rights<br />
and privileges.<br />
chateau. The plural is chateaus or chateaux.<br />
cheap; inexpensive. Cheap was originally the process<br />
<strong>of</strong> buying and selling. (From this came<br />
Cheapside, a part <strong>of</strong> London in which the shops<br />
were congregated, what we would call a shopping<br />
center.) As late as 1727, Swift, in his “A<br />
Description <strong>of</strong> a City Shower,” wrote: To shops<br />
in crowds the daggled females fly/Pretend to<br />
cheapen goods, but nothing buy. It is only recently<br />
and in a very small part <strong>of</strong> the world that<br />
prices have been fixed. Formerly it was assumed<br />
that the purchaser would <strong>of</strong>fer less than what<br />
was asked and that the seller would, in time,<br />
accept less. Thus cheapen, from the buyer’s<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view, came to mean to lower the price<br />
and from this came all <strong>of</strong> our favorable meanings<br />
<strong>of</strong> cheap (Eggs are wonderfully cheap r~ow.<br />
If you want a cheap vacation, travel on an<br />
ocean freighter). From the seller’s point <strong>of</strong> view,<br />
however, it was necessary to lower the quality<br />
in order to gain by the transaction even if the<br />
price were lowered, and from this come our<br />
unfavorable meanings <strong>of</strong> cheap: shoddy, shabby,<br />
mean (Zt just looks sleazy and cheap. That<br />
was a cheap trick to play on a friend). Some<br />
purists have deplored this second use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word, but surely it is as inherent in its development<br />
as the first.<br />
Cheap suggests a low cost. One could say<br />
that a diamond necklace was cheap at a hundred<br />
thousand dollars. But the word would certainly<br />
not be used in its modern sense if one said that<br />
it was a cheap necklace. Inexpensive is now the<br />
commoner word to emphasize lowness <strong>of</strong> price<br />
and suggest that the value is fully equal toI the<br />
cost.<br />
Cheap has been used as an adverb as long as<br />
it has been used as an adjective. Cheaply can be<br />
used only as an adverb. But he sold it cheap is<br />
just as good English as he sold it cheaply.<br />
check. In the sense <strong>of</strong> a written order directing a<br />
bank to pay money, the English spell the word<br />
cheque, Americans spell it check.<br />
91 cheerful<br />
Check, as a verb and a noun, has some uses<br />
in America that it does not have in England.<br />
A piece <strong>of</strong> luggage is checked in America when<br />
it is sent to a destination under the privilege <strong>of</strong><br />
a passenger ticket. To check up or check up on<br />
is to make an inquiry or investigation for verification.<br />
To check out is to leave and pay for one’s<br />
quarters at a hotel (“I will have to check up on<br />
this check before you can check out,” said the<br />
desk clerk).<br />
check; curb; repress; restrain. Check implies the<br />
sudden arrest <strong>of</strong> a forward motion (He checked<br />
his horse sharply. The reform movement received<br />
a check when the council approved Alderman<br />
Smith’s resolzttion). Curb implies the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> a means such as a chain or strap,-a frame,<br />
or a wall, to guide or control or to force to<br />
stay within limits. Repress formerly meant only<br />
suppress, but now it also implies the prevention<br />
<strong>of</strong> an action or development which might<br />
naturally be expected (A child should not be<br />
repressed when he wants to express himself).<br />
Restrain implies the use <strong>of</strong> force to put someone<br />
or something under control, and chiefly to<br />
hold back (In his paroxysms two attendants<br />
could scarcely restrain him from doing himself<br />
harm).<br />
In New York City curb as a verb has acquired<br />
-through a combination <strong>of</strong> a city ordinance,<br />
euphemism, and a pun-a special meaning.<br />
Curb your dog, which is enjoined upon the citizens<br />
at almost every lamppost, means not only<br />
that the dog must be kept curbed by a leash but<br />
that it must be led to the curb (the edge <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sidewalk) to defecate into the gutter. The injunction<br />
hidden under the double meaning would<br />
not be understood in England where in this<br />
meaning the word is spelled kerb.<br />
checkers. The game which is America is called<br />
checkers is in England called draughts, where<br />
checker, spelled chequer, is an obsolete name<br />
for chess.<br />
When used as the name <strong>of</strong> a game, checkers<br />
takes a singular verb, as in checkers is played by<br />
two persons. A single piece is called a man and<br />
not a checker. But the singular form checker is<br />
preferred as the first element in a compound,<br />
as in checkerboard.<br />
cheek by jowl. Since the commonest meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
jowl is now a fold <strong>of</strong> flesh hanging from the<br />
jaw, especially <strong>of</strong> the aged corpulent and the<br />
shrunken fat, cheek by jowl no longer conveys<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> jolly intimacy that it did when jowl<br />
meant cheek. It is not only a clich6 but a misleading<br />
one and should be avoided.<br />
cheeky. See impertinent.<br />
cheerful; cheery. The cheerful man feels full <strong>of</strong><br />
cheer. The cheery man acts as if he did and<br />
attempts to promote cheer among others. Cheerfulness<br />
is internal and may not show. Cheeriness<br />
is external and, sometimes, may show what is<br />
not felt. Cheeriness <strong>of</strong> manner has become such<br />
an adjunct <strong>of</strong> salesmanship that the public has<br />
become wary <strong>of</strong> it and the word has acquired a<br />
tinge <strong>of</strong> disrepute (He was a cheery bird, enough<br />
to make the most cheerful man downhearted).
cherished 92<br />
cherished belief(s). That which we cnerish we<br />
hold or treat as dear, care for it tenderly, nurture<br />
it, and cling fondly to it. This is the manner<br />
in which we treat many <strong>of</strong> our deepest convictions,<br />
not accepting or rejecting them dispassionately<br />
on the basis <strong>of</strong> the evidence for or against<br />
them. Whoever, then, in the late nineteenth century,<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> this phrase had a vivid conception,<br />
and whoever immediately repeated it<br />
gained a reputation for such a conception from<br />
those who had never heard it before. But now<br />
everyone knows it, the original force has worn<br />
away with excessive use.<br />
cherub. The plural is cherubs or cherubim or<br />
cherubims. Cherubim is the Hebrew plural <strong>of</strong><br />
cherub and, according to some grammarians,<br />
the only acceptable plural. In the King lames<br />
Bible, however, the plural <strong>of</strong> cherub is always<br />
cherubims. This form is well established in literature,<br />
as well as in hymns, and so cannot be<br />
called incorrect. The singular form cherub inevitably<br />
produced an English plural cheru,bs, and<br />
this too is standard today. The plural form<br />
cherubims also produced an English singular,<br />
a cherubim. This form was in respecta‘ble use<br />
as late as Dickens but is not considered standard<br />
now.<br />
The word cherub has almost as many meanings<br />
as it has forms. The cherub? <strong>of</strong> the Old<br />
Testament are terrifying symbols <strong>of</strong> power,<br />
more like the winged bulls <strong>of</strong> Assyria than anything<br />
else we know. They are very large and it<br />
is said that the Lord God rode upon a cherub.<br />
Later cherubs were identified as angels <strong>of</strong> the<br />
second rank, excelling in wisdom, whlich <strong>of</strong><br />
course is a kind <strong>of</strong> power. In Paradise Lost the<br />
word is used with its ancient dignity; for example,<br />
Satan, who belonged to the highest rank<br />
<strong>of</strong> angels, disguises himself as a stripling cherub.<br />
During the Renaissance, cherubs were represented<br />
in art as rosy babies. This may have been<br />
anti-intellectualism on the part <strong>of</strong> the artists.<br />
They may have refused to believe that heavenly<br />
spirits had anything in common with a doctor<br />
<strong>of</strong> philosophy. That the little creatures symbolize<br />
wisdom <strong>of</strong> some kind is shown by the fact<br />
that they <strong>of</strong>ten have only a head. But as a result<br />
<strong>of</strong> these pictures, many people today feel that<br />
a cherub is a baby angel, or perhaps an iangelic<br />
baby.<br />
When a word has so many apparently different<br />
meanings and so many forms, one is tempted<br />
to tidy it up by pinning certain meanings to<br />
certain forms. Some grammarians have claimed<br />
that cherubim and cherubims are the correct<br />
words to use in speaking <strong>of</strong> the heavenly spirits,<br />
and that cherub and cherubs should be used<br />
when speaking figuratively <strong>of</strong> earthly creatures.<br />
Since the singular cherubim is no longer in use,<br />
this distinction could now be made only in the<br />
plural. But the distinction is entirely theoretical.<br />
In actual practice the three forms are used interchangeably.<br />
All that can be said is that cherubim,<br />
being a foreign plural, is not used as <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
in natural speech as cherubs, and is therefore<br />
pretty much confined to literary English,,<br />
Other grammarians feel that cherubim should<br />
be used as a collective, in speaking <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> them<br />
as a whole, and that cherubs should be used for<br />
the true plural, meaning more than one individual.<br />
But this distinction has not been established<br />
either, probably because the most familiar use<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word cherubim is in the Old Testament<br />
descriptions <strong>of</strong> the Ark <strong>of</strong> the Covenant, where<br />
there are quite clearly two <strong>of</strong> them and no<br />
more.<br />
Cheshire cat, grin like a. Lewis Carroll did not<br />
invent the Cheshire cat. When Alice encountered<br />
the creature in the Duchess’s kitchen its<br />
smile was already as mooted an enigma as the<br />
Mona Lisa’s. One <strong>of</strong> the sanest conjectures was<br />
that some painter <strong>of</strong> inn signs in Cheshire had<br />
depicted his lions rampant with snarls so amiable<br />
that they had been taken for smiles. However<br />
gay the phrase’s origin, its end is dismal.<br />
With all humor, absurdity, whimsy, and mystery<br />
worn out by repetition, the phrase is entitled,<br />
after long service in the cause <strong>of</strong> the gaiety <strong>of</strong><br />
nations, to an honorable retirement.<br />
chickenpox. This word is a plural form; the singular<br />
would be pock. But it is regularly treated as<br />
a singular. We say it is contagious, not they are<br />
contagious. The use <strong>of</strong> the article, as in the<br />
chickenpox, is old-fashioned or countrified.<br />
The form chickenpox is used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in a chickenpox rash.<br />
chicory. Horwill points out a pitfall against which<br />
the dictionaries <strong>of</strong>fer no definitive protection:<br />
what in America is called chicory is in England<br />
called endive, and what in America is called<br />
endive is in England called chicory.<br />
chide. The past tense is chided or chid. The participle<br />
is chided or chid or chidden. In the<br />
United States, chided is the preferred form for<br />
the past tense and the participle. In Great<br />
Britain, chid is preferred for the nast tense and<br />
chid or chidden-for the participle.<br />
chief. See primary; prime; premier, etc.<br />
chiefly. See largely.<br />
child. The plural is children. Traditionally, only<br />
the singular child can be used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in child prodigies and child<br />
laborers. But the plural children is being heard<br />
more and more in such compounds, as in children<br />
refugees and children berry-pickers. This<br />
is technically incorrect, but it is following the<br />
established pattern for man and woman and is<br />
acceptable in many places.<br />
Children is a double formation in which a<br />
plural ending en has been added to an old plural<br />
form childer. At one time children must have<br />
sounded as odd to some people as mites would<br />
sound today. See infant.<br />
childish; childlike. See infantile.<br />
chilled to the marrow. There is nothing in which<br />
the wits strive more for mastery than in describing<br />
their woes. And he who most has suffered,<br />
as Matthew Arnold observed, “takes dejectedly<br />
his seat upon the intellectual throne.” Sometime<br />
in the nineteenth century a cold but unoriginal<br />
wretch must have remarked that he was chilled<br />
to the bone. Whereupon a wit stole what little
admiration the hackneyed metaphor sought to<br />
invoke by declaring that he was chilled to the<br />
marrow. Deeper into the body a chill cannot go.<br />
The glory <strong>of</strong> the ultimate assertion was his and<br />
it is to be hoped that he had an appreciative<br />
audience to do him honor. But the splendor has<br />
long since faded and repetition has blunted rapture.<br />
The phrase is now retirable.<br />
Chinese. The singular and the plural are both<br />
Chinese. At one time this word had a distinct<br />
plural, as seen in Milton’s lines: where Ch,ineses<br />
drive with sails and wind. In time this dropped<br />
out <strong>of</strong> the language and the remaining form<br />
Chinese was used for both singular and plural.<br />
Later, this was felt to be a simple plural and<br />
attempts were made to form a new singular,<br />
such as a Chinee and a Chinaman. A Chinee<br />
was never standard English, but a Chinantan is<br />
accepted in Great Britain today. In the United<br />
States the preferred form is Chinese, as in one<br />
Chinese and two Chinese.<br />
chip <strong>of</strong> the old block. How well dost thou appear<br />
to be a chip <strong>of</strong> the old block? wrote John<br />
Milton in 1642, accepting the English version<br />
<strong>of</strong> the saying. Theocritus (270 B.C.) had it a<br />
chip <strong>of</strong> the old flint, but then he was nearer to<br />
the Old Stone Age, where the figure no doubt<br />
originated. The saying, calling attention to a<br />
likeness between son (occasionally a daughter)<br />
and father, usually in a favorable way and jocularly,<br />
is a cliche and is to be avoided.<br />
choice. See nice; see option.<br />
choose. The past tense is chose. The participle is<br />
chosen. The form choosed is sometimes heard<br />
but is not standard.<br />
Choose may be followed by an infinitive, as<br />
in I do not choose to run, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in I do not choose running. The infinitive<br />
construction is preferred. Choose may also<br />
be followed by a that clause but the clause verb<br />
must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive eq,uivalent,<br />
as in Z do not choose that he run. An infinitive<br />
construction, such as Z do not choose to<br />
have him run, is generally preferred.<br />
chord; cord. A combination <strong>of</strong> three or more<br />
tones in harmonic relation is spelled chord. So<br />
<strong>of</strong> course is any figurative extension <strong>of</strong> the: idea<br />
(His proposal struck a responsive chord) ,, The<br />
string <strong>of</strong> a musical instrument and the geometric<br />
term for that part <strong>of</strong> a straight line between two<br />
<strong>of</strong> its intersections with a curve are also spelled<br />
chord.<br />
A string or small rope composed <strong>of</strong> several<br />
strands twisted or woven together is spelled<br />
cord, as is any extension <strong>of</strong> the idea (an electric<br />
cord, a cord cloth). One hundred and twentyeight<br />
cubic feet <strong>of</strong> firewood is also spelled cord.<br />
In America the spinal cord and the vocal<br />
cords are now so spelled almost always. In England<br />
they are sometimes spelled chord and<br />
chords.<br />
chose, chosen. See choose.<br />
Christian name. See first name.<br />
chronic means habitual, inveterate, constant, having<br />
continued a long time (Being a chronic<br />
smoker, he had a chronic cough. Mrs. Jone,s was<br />
city<br />
a chronic invalid and the house was filled with<br />
her chronic complaining). Chronic should not<br />
be used as a mere intensive or a synonym for<br />
severe. It is the exact opposite <strong>of</strong> acute.<br />
chrysalis. The plural is chrysalises or chrysalides,<br />
not chrysales. A new singular chrysalid, with a<br />
regular plural chrysahds, is also in use. It is not<br />
as well established as the similar formation<br />
orchid, but it is thoroughly acceptable.<br />
cinema. See motion pictures.<br />
circle (“social group”). See clique.<br />
circumlocution. See locution.<br />
circumstances, under the. It is sometimes objected<br />
that since circumstances are those things or<br />
conditions that lie around us, we cannot be<br />
under them. But that is silly. Things can be conceived<br />
as ensphering us as well as surrounding<br />
us on a plane. The weather, as Fowler points<br />
out, is certainly a circumstance and we are<br />
certainly under it when it is inclement. Many<br />
people, especially in England, prefer to say in<br />
the circumstances and the phrase is correct. But<br />
so is under the circumstances.<br />
cirrus. The plural is cirri.<br />
cite and quote are synonymous in one meaning:<br />
to repeat a passage from a book or a speech by<br />
way <strong>of</strong> authority. Quoting, strictly, means repeating<br />
the actual words and citing means mentioning<br />
them, referring to them, or bringing<br />
them forward as pro<strong>of</strong> or confirmation. But<br />
since the processes are inextricable, usage does<br />
not, and cannot, draw a fixed distinction between<br />
the two words in this sense.<br />
Each word has other meanings, however, in<br />
which they are not synonymous. To cite has an<br />
old meaning <strong>of</strong> to rouse to action (cited to the<br />
field <strong>of</strong> battle) and a special military meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> to mention in orders, as for gallantry (He<br />
n’as cited for bravery under tire). To quote<br />
means to enclose words within quotation marks<br />
(He quoted the general directly in his report)here<br />
cited would be incorrect-and to state a<br />
price or to state the current price <strong>of</strong> (He quoted<br />
him ten cents a pound).<br />
city; town. To say that a town is a collection <strong>of</strong><br />
inhabited houses and that a city is a large or<br />
important town isn’t <strong>of</strong> much help to someone<br />
who is in doubt which to call a specific place.<br />
Size is relative and importance is <strong>of</strong>ten subjective.<br />
In the United States a city is an incorporated<br />
municipality, usually governed by a<br />
mayor and board <strong>of</strong> aldermen or councilmen.<br />
In Canada it is a municipality <strong>of</strong> high rank and<br />
the distinction between it and a town is usually<br />
based on population. In England a city is a<br />
borough, usually the seat <strong>of</strong> a bishop, upon<br />
which the dignity <strong>of</strong> the title <strong>of</strong> city has been<br />
conferred by the Crown.<br />
The City in England is that part <strong>of</strong> London<br />
in which the commercial and financial interests<br />
are chiefly centered. It corresponds to New<br />
York’s Wall Street district.<br />
Idiomatically, city takes the definite article,<br />
town does not. We go to town, but to the city.<br />
We live in town, but in the city. We get out <strong>of</strong><br />
town, but out <strong>of</strong> the city, and so on.
city 94<br />
city fathers. To refer to members <strong>of</strong> the ‘Municipal<br />
Council or the Board <strong>of</strong> Aldermen as the<br />
city fathers is to strive a little too hard to be<br />
elegant. No such filial relation is now f’elt, if it<br />
ever was.<br />
civil. See polite.<br />
clad. See clothe.<br />
claque. See clique.<br />
clarinet is the preferred spelling, though c!urionet<br />
is also correct.<br />
class as a designation <strong>of</strong> students in a school or<br />
college ranked together or graduating the same<br />
year (The Class <strong>of</strong> 1899) is standard in American<br />
usage but not used in England.<br />
Class meaning excellence or merit (That girl’s<br />
got class!) is slang. See also category.<br />
classic and classical are synonymous, but use has<br />
accustomed us to one rather than the other in<br />
certain contexts. In medicine, for example, it is<br />
always classic (a clussic cuse <strong>of</strong> typhoid, one<br />
which conforms in every way to the standard)<br />
when referring to a disease. Certain great works<br />
are classics in their field, but if their authors<br />
were ancient Greeks or Romans, they are<br />
classicul authors. Sports writers label any game<br />
between two schools or teams that have played<br />
before a classic and in this sense the word is<br />
sadly overworked.<br />
In general, classical refers to Greek and Latin<br />
writers and to the art and culture <strong>of</strong> ancient<br />
Greece and Rome. Classic means <strong>of</strong> the first or<br />
highest class or rank, adhering to established<br />
standards.<br />
clauses. Any group <strong>of</strong> words that contains a true<br />
verb and its subject (or an imperative) is called<br />
a clause, such as I came in tell them I came.<br />
If a clause is part <strong>of</strong> a larger sentence, its<br />
relation to the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence may be shown<br />
in a number <strong>of</strong> ways. It may be shown by position,<br />
as in the example just given where Z came<br />
is standing in the position <strong>of</strong> the object <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb tell. Or it may be shown by a conjunction.<br />
A coordinating conjunction, such as and or but,<br />
shows that the two clauses which it joins have<br />
the same function in the sentence, as in tell them<br />
I came and no one answered. A clause used<br />
independently, that is, not as the subject or object<br />
<strong>of</strong> another verb or as a qualifier, is called a<br />
principal clause. Such a clause may be joined by<br />
a coordinating conjunction, or by mere position<br />
in a series, with other independent clauses, as in<br />
I came, I saw, I conquered. One can then say<br />
that the sentence has more than one principal<br />
clause. Any other complete statement inside a<br />
sentence is a subordinate clause. A subordinating<br />
conjunction shows that the clause which it introduces<br />
is functioning as a subordinate element in<br />
another statement. The subordinate clause may<br />
have the function <strong>of</strong> an adjective, an adverb, or<br />
a noun. Subordinate clauses may also show their<br />
function by position, or may be introduced by<br />
a relative pronoun, an adverb, a participle, or<br />
a noun with the force <strong>of</strong> an adverb. See conjunctions.<br />
ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB CLAUSES<br />
An adjective clause normally follows the word<br />
it qualifies. When placed before the word it has<br />
a slightly humorous effect and must be hyphenated<br />
in order to be understood, as in with an Idon’t-expect-to-be-believed<br />
look. As a rule, an<br />
adjective clause is introduced by a relative pronoun<br />
and qualifies the antecedent <strong>of</strong> the pronoun.<br />
When the relative pronoun is the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the clause verb it must be expressed, as who<br />
in the little man who wasn’t there; when it is the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> the clause verb or <strong>of</strong> a preposition it<br />
can usually be omitted, as in the mun Z love.<br />
That is, in a qualifying clause the object <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb or <strong>of</strong> a preposition does not always have<br />
to be expressed. The object usually cannot be<br />
omitted when the clause qualifies a proper noun<br />
or a common noun that identifies a single individual,<br />
as in my father, whom you met here yesterday,<br />
is coming again tomorrow.<br />
An adjective clause that is essential to the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the word it qualifies is said to be<br />
“defining” or “restrictive,” such as who was here<br />
yesterday in the man who wus here yesterday is<br />
coming again tomorrow. A clause <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
must not be separated from the word it qualifies<br />
by a comma or any other punctuation. An adjective<br />
clause that is not defining is said to be<br />
“descriptive,” such as the clause in my fnther,<br />
who was here yesterday, is coming again tomorrow.<br />
A descriptive clause gives some additional<br />
information that is not essential to the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> what is being said. It is usually set <strong>of</strong>f<br />
by commas. See also that; which.<br />
Any adverbial idea, such as time, place,<br />
manner, degree, may be expressed by a clause<br />
and the clause may stand in any position appropriate<br />
for an adverb. Adverbial clauses may also<br />
show the cause, purpose, or result <strong>of</strong> the action<br />
<strong>of</strong> the principal clause. These are introduced by<br />
conjunctions such as because, since, so. (See the<br />
individual conjunctions.) There are also adverbial<br />
clauses <strong>of</strong> “condition,” “concession,” and<br />
“supposition,” which are introduced by such<br />
words as if, unless, although. In clauses <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind the verb may have a subjunctive form. See<br />
subjunctive mode.<br />
An adjective or an adverbial clause will<br />
always qualify the nearest preceding word or<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words that the sense allows. In they<br />
think the men are angry because they are<br />
frightened, the because clause is attached to the<br />
men are angry, regardless <strong>of</strong> what was intended.<br />
If the clause is meant to apply to they think, this<br />
can be made clear by a comma between angry<br />
and because, which warns the reader that these<br />
two words are to be kept apart. Or the clause<br />
may be placed first in the sentence. In speech<br />
these things are taken care <strong>of</strong> by pitch and stress.<br />
But a writer must examine his sentences carefully<br />
to make sure that his clauses qualify the<br />
words he intended them to.<br />
NOUN CLAUSES<br />
A clause may also function as a noun. It may<br />
be the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in who made it is a<br />
mystery; or it may be the complement <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in I would like to know who made it. When<br />
the noun clause is an indirect question it may<br />
be introduced by an interrogative pronoun or<br />
adverb, or by the conjunction whether, as in I
wonder ,r.hether he will understand me. In a<br />
clause <strong>of</strong> this kind the subiect stands before the<br />
verb as it would in a declarative sentence, and<br />
not after the verb as it would in a direct question<br />
such as will he understand me? This construction<br />
is standard, literary English. But sentences<br />
such as I wonder will he understand me are also<br />
heard. Here the interrogative word has been<br />
omitted and the clause itself has the word order<br />
<strong>of</strong> a question. This construction is condemned<br />
by many grammarians, but it has been widely<br />
used since the middle <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century<br />
and is acceptable to most people today. In the<br />
older construction I wonder whether he will<br />
understand me, the clause should not be separated<br />
from the principal verb by a comma and<br />
should not be followed by a question mark. In<br />
the newer construction the comma and question<br />
mark are sometimes used but they are more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten omitted, especially in a long or involved<br />
sentence such as if you are asking me will 11 help<br />
you, the answer is no.<br />
A clause may also be the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition,<br />
as in his interest in who was coming, she<br />
said nothing about when she would return, he<br />
brooded over whether he should give up Amoking<br />
or not. This construction was almost unknown<br />
before the nineteenth century. But it is<br />
thoroughly acceptable today, provided the<br />
clause begins with how or one <strong>of</strong> the wh- words,<br />
such as who, when, whether. The construction<br />
is also heard with the word if, as in what about<br />
if I get married, but this is not at present<br />
standard English.<br />
For the case <strong>of</strong> the pronoun in a subordinate<br />
clause, see who; whom. For the person, number,<br />
and tense <strong>of</strong> the verb, see agreement: verbs and<br />
tense shifts.<br />
clean bill <strong>of</strong> health. A bill <strong>of</strong> health is a c~ertificate<br />
as to the health <strong>of</strong> a ship’s company at the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> her clearing <strong>of</strong> any port. A clean bill<br />
<strong>of</strong> health is an <strong>of</strong>ficial assurance that no member<br />
<strong>of</strong> the crew is afflicted with any one <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
diseases that would result in the ship’s being detained<br />
in quarantine in another port. As a way<br />
<strong>of</strong> saying that someone has been proved guiltless<br />
<strong>of</strong> certain charges or is free from the taint <strong>of</strong><br />
certain imputations, giving him a clean bill <strong>of</strong><br />
health is a clich&<br />
clean; cleanly; cleanse. As an adjective, clean<br />
means free from dirt. Cleanly. if anulied to<br />
things, means habitually clean iit wasa cleanly<br />
house would mean that it was a house that was<br />
clean all the time). If applied to persons it<br />
means always attempting to be and to remain<br />
clean (He was narurully a cleanly man and the<br />
dirt <strong>of</strong> his new surroundings depressed him). A<br />
boy can be clean, at least for a few seconds,<br />
without being in any way cleanly. Someone else<br />
may have got him clean, but he has no objection<br />
to becoming dirty again immediately.<br />
As verbs, clean and cleanse both mean to<br />
make clean. Cleanse is used for moral, spiritual,<br />
or ceremonial cleaning (Cleansed <strong>of</strong> guilt by<br />
contrition and atonement, he felt light <strong>of</strong> heart<br />
again). It may be this connotation <strong>of</strong> higher<br />
things that has led certain manufacturers to<br />
prefer cleanse to clean or cleanser (kitchen<br />
cleanser) to cleaner. Dry cleaners who charge<br />
a great deal for their work sometimes attempt<br />
to justify the added cost by describing themselves<br />
as cleansers and their work as cleansing,<br />
suggesting a delicacy and thoroughness approaching<br />
the spiritual. Cleansing tissues, for<br />
removing cosmetics, have made the word SO<br />
common that in that context the word seems<br />
common and natural and is standard usage.<br />
When clean means “entirely,” it can be used<br />
as an adverb, as in to make a real portrait <strong>of</strong><br />
Deity is clean impossible and I had clean forgotten.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> clean is now old-fashioned.<br />
The form cleanly can also be used as an adverb.<br />
It ordinarily means “entirely” or “precisely,” as<br />
in cleanly cut. It may also mean “without dirt,”<br />
as in she works cleanly, but this is rare.<br />
clear; clearly. In current English, clear qualifies a<br />
noun and clearly qualifies a word that is not a<br />
noun. In you make the point clear, the word<br />
clear describes the point. In you make the point<br />
clearly, the word clearly describes the making.<br />
There is a difference <strong>of</strong> meaning, or emphasis,<br />
here and one should choose the form that says<br />
what is intended. Sometimes there is no difference,<br />
as in the moon shone clear or clearly, and<br />
then either form can be used.<br />
Clear once meant “entirely,” and in this<br />
sense could be used to qualify any word that<br />
was not a noun, as in I had clear forgotten and<br />
that is clear another story. This use is now<br />
considered archaic or uneducated, except before<br />
prepositions or adverbs, such as away, <strong>of</strong>j, out,<br />
through, over, and so on. We must now say I<br />
clearly understood and I heard clearly, But we<br />
may say 1 read clear through the book, the tide<br />
goes clear out, he got clear away.<br />
cleave. The past tense is cleft or clove or cleaved.<br />
The participle is cleft or cloven or cleaved.<br />
When this word means to adhere to, it is a<br />
regular verb and only the form cleaved is used<br />
for the past tense or the participle. There was<br />
once a past tense clave used in this sense, but<br />
this is now obsolete. Occasionally a nineteenth<br />
century poet uses clove for clave but this has to<br />
be classed as a mistake.<br />
When the word means to split, any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
forms given above may be used. In the United<br />
States, cleft is preferred for the past tense and<br />
the participle. In Great Britain, the older forms<br />
clove and cloven are preferred. There is a tendency<br />
not to use cleaved in this sense, but this is<br />
not strictly observed.<br />
Two verbs are mixed here. They were once<br />
distinct but have come to be alike through<br />
changes in pronunciation. The similarity does<br />
not cause confusion because the words are used<br />
very little. When they are used it is almost<br />
always in a set phrase, each <strong>of</strong> which is a law to<br />
itself. For example, we always say a cloven ho<strong>of</strong><br />
but a cleft palate.<br />
clench and clinch are simply variant pronunciations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same word. Both mean to grasp,<br />
secure, or hold firmly. Yet each word has come<br />
to have certain fixed applications in which the<br />
other would be inappropriate. Thus we clench
our fist, a nail, our jaws, a rope, or anything<br />
held. But boxers c/inch when they grasp each<br />
other tightly and sailors clinch when they fasten<br />
by a clinch. We clinch an argument or a bargain<br />
and a statement that ties up an argumentative<br />
opponent is a clincher.<br />
While, as has been said, we clench a nail, the<br />
nail is clinched, especially if it is secured by<br />
having the point beaten down.<br />
clergy. Originally this word was a group name. It<br />
could be used with a singular or a plura.1 verb,<br />
as in the clergy was represented or the clergy<br />
were represented. But it meant the class as a<br />
whole and could not be treated as a true plural,<br />
as in twenty clergy were present. This; is no<br />
longer the case. The plural construction, twenty<br />
clergy, is standard English today and has been<br />
accepted by some grammarians who refuse to<br />
accept the similar construction twenty people.<br />
This new plural, clergy, does not have a singular.<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> just one member <strong>of</strong> the clergy we<br />
must still use clergyman. See also parson;<br />
preacher.<br />
clever. See brainy.<br />
clicbC is a French word meaning a stereotype<br />
block and is used in English to describe those<br />
phrases (there are thousands <strong>of</strong> them), originally<br />
idioms, metaphors, proverbs, or brief quotations,<br />
which overuse and, sometimes, changing<br />
circumstances have rendered meaningless.. Many<br />
<strong>of</strong> them just fill out the vacancies <strong>of</strong> thought<br />
and speech. A man goes to say far and he says<br />
fur and wide. Speech is a difficult thing. We<br />
spend more time learning to talk than anything<br />
else we do. It is an effort, an unceasing effort.<br />
There is strong resistance in us to it and the<br />
inertia which this resistance sets up is prlobably<br />
the chief cause <strong>of</strong> our use <strong>of</strong> cliches.<br />
Many cliches are alliterative, that is, their<br />
words begin with the same sound. We do not<br />
say we are cool, but cool as a cucumber. Unless<br />
one is slow and sure, things go to rack and ruin<br />
and he may be thrown out bag and baggage.<br />
Historical changes have made many cliches<br />
utterly meaningless. What does fell mean in one<br />
fell swoop? Or halcyon in halcyon days? Or<br />
moot in moot point? Yet these and hundreds <strong>of</strong><br />
other phrases, totally devoid <strong>of</strong> meaning to<br />
those who speak them, are heard every day.<br />
Many cliches were once original and clever,<br />
but repetition by millions, possibly billions, <strong>of</strong><br />
people for hundreds and even thousands <strong>of</strong> years<br />
in some instances, has worn all originality and<br />
cleverness away. They were fresh-minted once,<br />
but are now battered beyond acceptability. And<br />
their use is doubly bad because it characterizes<br />
the user as one who thinks he is witty, or would<br />
like to be thought witty, and yet is a mere parroter<br />
<strong>of</strong> musty echoes <strong>of</strong> long-dead wit. His very<br />
attempt to sound clever shows him to be dull.<br />
Our speech is probably more crammed with<br />
cliches today than ever before. The torrent <strong>of</strong><br />
printed and recorded matter that is dumped on<br />
us every day in newspapers and from radio and<br />
television is bound to be repetitious and stereotyped.<br />
The brightest day in the world’s history<br />
never produced one-millionth, in fresh, original,<br />
and honest expression, <strong>of</strong> the bulk <strong>of</strong> what cascades<br />
over us every day. All this stuff is prepared<br />
in furious haste. There is neither time nor energy<br />
for care or thought and the inevitable result is<br />
a fabric woven <strong>of</strong> stereotyped phrases. Ninety<br />
per cent <strong>of</strong> what the public reads and hears is<br />
expressed in these fossilized fragments and,<br />
naturally, ninety per cent <strong>of</strong> its own expression,<br />
apart from the necessities <strong>of</strong> life, is also expressed<br />
in them.<br />
This makes the task <strong>of</strong> the man who wants to<br />
speak and write clearly and honestly a difficult<br />
one. He must be on his guard all the time, especially<br />
against anything that seems particularly<br />
apt. That doesn’t mean that he is never to use a<br />
current phrase or even a hackneyed one. It may<br />
be, for example, that after consideration he<br />
really does want to say that the pen is mightier<br />
than the sword. And if he does, he’d better say<br />
it in the cliche form than in some labored circumlocution.<br />
But he mustn’t expect to be<br />
thought clever for saying it. And, <strong>of</strong> course, he<br />
may deliberately choose to speak in cliches in<br />
order that his speech may be common and<br />
familiar.<br />
Wits <strong>of</strong>ten use cliches as the basis <strong>of</strong> their wit,<br />
relying on the seeming familiarity <strong>of</strong> the phrase<br />
and the expectation <strong>of</strong> its inevitable conclusion<br />
to set the trap for the innocent reader-such as<br />
Oscar Wilde’s “Punctuality is the thief <strong>of</strong> time”<br />
or Samuel Butler’s “It’s better to have loved and<br />
lost than never to have lost at all”-but that is<br />
a wholly different thing.<br />
client; customer. Though, despite the protests <strong>of</strong><br />
the purists, a client and customer are listed as<br />
synonymous in most dictionaries, the distinction<br />
between one who purchases goods from another<br />
(customer) and one who applies to a lawyer for<br />
advice (client) is maintained in American usage.<br />
The term client has spread to those who seek<br />
other pr<strong>of</strong>essional services. Thus advertising<br />
agencies have (or hope to have) their clients as<br />
do many other advisory and consultative enterprises.<br />
No doubt in choosing this term they<br />
hoped to invest themselves with some <strong>of</strong> the awe<br />
that surrounds the lawyer. Physicians still keep<br />
their patients (derived from a Latin word meaning<br />
one who is suffering).<br />
That client and cusromer are not completely<br />
synonymous can be shown by the fact that client<br />
could not be substituted for customer in the advertising<br />
slogan The customer is always right.<br />
The advertising agencies would probably be willing<br />
to say so, but the lawyers would not.<br />
climate; clime; weather. Clime is poetic for a<br />
tract or region <strong>of</strong> the earth (Now in Injiu’s sunny<br />
clime,/ Where I used to spend my time) or for<br />
climate (This moist and foggy clime). Climate<br />
is the composite or generalization <strong>of</strong> the weather<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong> a region, as temperature, pressure,<br />
humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness,<br />
and winds, throughout the year, averaged over<br />
a series <strong>of</strong> years. It has been figuratively extended,<br />
in intellectual circles, <strong>of</strong> recent years to<br />
describe the general intellectual atmosphere <strong>of</strong>
a period, and we have such phrases as the<br />
climate <strong>of</strong> opinion.<br />
Weather is the state <strong>of</strong> the atmosphere with<br />
respect to wind, temperature, cloudiness, moisture,<br />
pressure, etc. Keep one’s weather eye open,<br />
as a term for being on one’s guard, is a clich6.<br />
It was not Mark Twain but Charles Dudley<br />
Warner who first said Everybody talks about the<br />
weather, but nobody does anything about it. Mr.<br />
Warner was witty. Those who repeat his saying<br />
are not.<br />
climatic; climactic; climacteric(a1). Climatic relates<br />
to climate (The climatic changes affected<br />
the vegetation). Climactic relates toclimax (The<br />
climactic scene had a tremendous impact on the<br />
audience). Climacteric (also climacterical) pertains<br />
to critical periods. There was formerly a<br />
theory that there were certain years in which important<br />
changes in health and fortune occurred.<br />
Of these the sixty-third year was the culmination<br />
(nine times seven) and it was called the<br />
grand climacteric. The word is also used very<br />
frequently to describe a period <strong>of</strong> decre:ase <strong>of</strong><br />
reproductive activity in men and women, culminating,<br />
in women, in the menopause.<br />
climax in popular usage is the culmination, the<br />
highest point (He was then at the climax <strong>of</strong> his<br />
fortunes). In rhetoric the word designates a<br />
series <strong>of</strong> related ideas so arranged that each one<br />
surpasses the preceding in force or intensity, or<br />
(more popularly) the last term or member <strong>of</strong><br />
such a figure.<br />
Originally a rhetorical climax required that<br />
the last important word <strong>of</strong> one clause be repeated<br />
as the first important word in the next (accumulated<br />
epanastrophe) but now all -that is<br />
required is that the intensity <strong>of</strong> expression or importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> meaning increase with each succeeding<br />
member term. Indeed, where there is a series<br />
<strong>of</strong> comments or evaluations it is commonly assumed<br />
that they are in a climactic order, so that<br />
the order in which they are placed is an indication<br />
<strong>of</strong> the values <strong>of</strong> the speaker or writer. Thus<br />
if it is said <strong>of</strong> a young lady that she is “young,<br />
rich, pretty, and intelligent,” it is assumed that<br />
the speaker has a different set <strong>of</strong> values from another<br />
who would describe her as “intelligent,<br />
pretty, young, and rich.”<br />
A fine example <strong>of</strong> climax, in the older as well<br />
as the modern form, is furnished by the third<br />
and fourth verses <strong>of</strong> the fifth chapter <strong>of</strong> Romans:<br />
“We glory in tribulations also: knowing that tribulation<br />
worketh patience; and patience, experience;<br />
and experience, hope; and hope maketh<br />
not ashamed.” See also anticlimax.<br />
climb up; climb down. Since all definitions <strong>of</strong><br />
climb involve the idea <strong>of</strong> ascent, there are those<br />
who insist that climb up is redundant and climb<br />
down a contradiction. But dictionaries follow<br />
language; they do not control it. In the word<br />
climb there is implicit an effort, a strenuous<br />
exertion which when exceptionally arduous is<br />
expressed in the related word clamber. In using<br />
climb up and climb down the common speaker<br />
is indicating in which direction this effort is<br />
being or is to be applied. So climb down o,f your<br />
97 clique<br />
high horse is more expressive than conze down<br />
<strong>of</strong>i your high horse in that it recognizes that such<br />
a descent may be difficult and undignified.<br />
The common speaker has the age-old support<br />
<strong>of</strong> writers. Thus in Cursor Mundi (1300 A.D.)<br />
we are told that we freli may climb up and dun.<br />
cling. The past tense is clung. The participle is<br />
also clung.<br />
clip means more than to cut; it means to cut <strong>of</strong>f or<br />
to cut out, as with shears. We clip something out<br />
<strong>of</strong> the paper if we want to save it. The American<br />
clipping bureau is the English press-cutting<br />
agency. Hair is cut if it is long, clipped if it is<br />
short. A hedge is invariably clipped.<br />
In informal speech clip means a rapid pace<br />
(He was coming down the road at a good fast<br />
clip when he saw the truck). This is largely an<br />
American use, though it is used in some English<br />
dialects. Clip in the sense <strong>of</strong> a sharp blow (He<br />
fetched him a clip on the ear) is slang.<br />
clipped words. See abbreviations.<br />
clippers. An instrument for clipping may be called<br />
a clipper and three <strong>of</strong> them may be called three<br />
clippers. But one instrument may be treated as<br />
a plural, as in are these clippers the ones?, or<br />
referred to as a pair <strong>of</strong> clippers. This is acceptable<br />
but not necessary. The singular form<br />
clipper is preferred as the first element in a<br />
compound, as in a clipper sharpener.<br />
clique; coterie; claque; set; circle. A clique is a<br />
small and exclusive group <strong>of</strong> people, usually <strong>of</strong><br />
some intellectual pretensions. It is a term <strong>of</strong> reproach<br />
or contempt (the word is simply the<br />
French for click and alludes derisively to the<br />
clicking and clucking sounds <strong>of</strong> mutual and selfapproval<br />
made by the members) for those who<br />
take unto themselves supreme authority in social<br />
or intellectual or artistic matters or who are<br />
thought to associate for selfish ends under the<br />
guise <strong>of</strong> some high aspirations or ideals (Addison<br />
had his clique at Button’s tavern).<br />
Coterie also describes an exclusive group, but<br />
it is more likely to be in society than in the arts<br />
and the term, while <strong>of</strong>ten contemptuous, is not<br />
always so and is less so than clique (The book<br />
was written for an exclusive coterie. He belonged<br />
to the most brilliant coteries <strong>of</strong> the day).<br />
A claque is a set <strong>of</strong> hired applauders at a<br />
theater, or any group <strong>of</strong> persons ready to applaud<br />
for interested motives. It is easily confused<br />
with clique because the members <strong>of</strong> a clique SO<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten form a claque to applaud each other. That<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the chief things that earns them the<br />
detestation <strong>of</strong> outsiders (The author’s friends<br />
formed a claque on the opening night to ensure<br />
the play’s success).<br />
Set refers to a number <strong>of</strong> persons <strong>of</strong> similar<br />
background, upbringing, interests, and so on. It<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten implies wealth or interest in social activities<br />
(the country club set, the Junior League<br />
set) but does not have the derogatory connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> clique. It is a word that has been much<br />
expanded by newspapers and is enjoying apartly<br />
humorous-vogue (the teen-age set, the<br />
kindergarten set, the marshmallow set).<br />
A circle is usually thought <strong>of</strong> as a pleasant
little group meeting chiefly for conversation<br />
(the sewing circle). It has a small-townish air<br />
about it now but nothing derogatory. In the<br />
plural it suggests a whole section <strong>of</strong> society interested<br />
in one mode <strong>of</strong> life, or one occupation<br />
(He moved in the best circles, In jazz circles he<br />
is considered a “square”).<br />
elomb is an old literary form <strong>of</strong> climbed, as in fill<br />
clomb above the eastern bar, the ho&d moon<br />
and the sun clomb Heaven’s eastern steep. It is<br />
now rarely seen except in poetry.<br />
Until recently it was heard in many rural<br />
areas-in the United States. It may have been<br />
retained as a sort <strong>of</strong> opposite to plumb, ,which<br />
meant “straight down,” (from a plumb line)<br />
and by extension “completely” as in plumb tuckered<br />
out.<br />
close; closely. Only the form close can be used to<br />
express “where,” as in stand close, he followed<br />
close behind. The use <strong>of</strong> closely in this way is<br />
ungrammatical. Close is also the only form that<br />
can be used to qualify a noun, as in a close<br />
shave.<br />
The form closely is used to qualify a true verb<br />
form, when what is meant is “how,” as in guard<br />
it closelv and tallow directions closely. Either<br />
form, ciose or closely, can be used in ihe sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> “how” to qualify a participle, as in close<br />
shaven, close shut.<br />
close; shut. To close is to block an opening (The<br />
peasants soon closed the breach in the a’yke).<br />
To shut is to close in such a way that nothing can<br />
thereafter get in or out (She shut the door and<br />
drew the bolt firmly). Close, which <strong>of</strong>ten has a<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> force (The mayor<br />
pledged himself to close all speakeasies) is the<br />
more general word: an account is closed, an incident,<br />
a store, etc. Shut is the more homely,<br />
more direct, and sometimes the more fo.rceful<br />
word. See also shut.<br />
close proximity. Since proximity means nearness<br />
-in place, time, or relation-close proximity is<br />
redundant. They lived in close proximity would<br />
be better expressed as either They lived close to<br />
one another or They lived in proximity to one<br />
another.<br />
close up and close down as emphatic expressions<br />
for closing mean much the same, but with nuances<br />
<strong>of</strong> difference. Where that which is closed<br />
down is something undesirable, such as gambling<br />
establishments, the term has a harshness<br />
about it and a suggestion <strong>of</strong> a use <strong>of</strong> force (The<br />
sheriff’s men closed down Steve’s Place last<br />
night) that is not as marked in a simple ,close.<br />
Shut down and close down both refer to the<br />
stoppage <strong>of</strong> production in a manufacturing plant<br />
but-possibly because <strong>of</strong> the suggestion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> force in close down-you shut down your<br />
own plant, others close it down.<br />
clothe. The past tense is clothed or clad. The participle<br />
is also clothed or clad.<br />
Clad is archaic and, like all archaic words, to<br />
be used with circumspection. If a man is clothed,<br />
we know that he has his clothing on. If he is<br />
clad, we want to know with what, so that<br />
one who is clad is always clad in somethingrighteousness,<br />
shining armor, the blue or the<br />
gray. Clad (perhaps because <strong>of</strong> the sound association<br />
with glad) always suggests noble, gay,<br />
or l<strong>of</strong>ty things (with verdure clad). A day would<br />
be clothed in mist, clad in sunshine. However,<br />
both forms are rather bookish.<br />
clothes is a mass noun with a plural form. It is<br />
always used with a plural verb, as in these<br />
clothes are new. But it is not a true plural. It<br />
has no singular form and cannot be used with<br />
a numeral. That is, we cannot speak <strong>of</strong> a clothe<br />
or <strong>of</strong> six clothes. Most words <strong>of</strong> this kind cannot<br />
be qualified by many but may be qualified by<br />
much under some circumstances. Clothes is an<br />
exception to this rule. We may speak <strong>of</strong> many<br />
clothes. We may also speak <strong>of</strong> much clothes or<br />
a good deal <strong>of</strong> clothes. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
Much clothes is the usual construction for<br />
words which cannot be used with a numeral, but<br />
many clothes is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten. See mass<br />
nouns.<br />
clove, cloven. See cleave.<br />
clue and clew are simply variant spellings <strong>of</strong> a<br />
word that originally meant a ball or skein <strong>of</strong><br />
thread. Theseus found his way out <strong>of</strong> the labyrinth<br />
after slaying the Minotaur by means <strong>of</strong> the<br />
unwound clew that Ariadne had given him.<br />
From this and similar legends it came to mean<br />
anything that serves to guide or direct in the<br />
solution <strong>of</strong> a problem, but in this meaning it is<br />
now almost always spelled clue, though clew is<br />
also correct. Clew is the preferred spelling for<br />
the nautical sense <strong>of</strong> the lower corner <strong>of</strong> a<br />
square sail or the after lower corner <strong>of</strong> a foreand-aft<br />
sail or for the verb meaning to haul the<br />
lower corners <strong>of</strong> a sail up fo the yard. The verb<br />
is followed by up (We had hardly time to haul<br />
down and clew up, says Richard Dana, describing<br />
the sudden onset <strong>of</strong> a gale, before it was<br />
upon us.)<br />
clung. See cling.<br />
coal oil. See kerosene.<br />
the coast is clear to indicate that the way is now<br />
open for some sortie or event is a clichC, to be<br />
used with care.<br />
coca. See cacao.<br />
coccyx. The plural is coccyxes or coccyges, not<br />
coccyces.<br />
cock. See rooster.<br />
cock <strong>of</strong> the walk. What is now called a chicken<br />
rLm was formerly called a walk. Life wasn’t so<br />
hurried in those days. And it is <strong>of</strong> this walk that<br />
the cock in the clichC is master. Few people who<br />
use the term could explain it.<br />
cocoa, car3. See cacao.<br />
codex. The plural is codexes or codices.<br />
coeval. See contemporary.<br />
cognomen, in its strictest sense, is the third name,<br />
the family name or surname <strong>of</strong> a Roman citizen.<br />
Thus Cicero was the cognomen <strong>of</strong> Marcus<br />
Tullius Cicero. The term was sometimes applied<br />
to an additional name or epithet, as Africanus<br />
was bestowed on Scipio.<br />
Cognomen is used today to mean either the<br />
surname (The name <strong>of</strong> Alexander . . . coupled<br />
with the gentle cognomen <strong>of</strong> Partridge) or the<br />
first name (Priscilla . . . this quaint and prim<br />
cognomen) or a nickname (Mr. Hunt, better
known by the cognomen <strong>of</strong> Golf-bag Sam). It<br />
is hard to see, however, what advantages it<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers over nume. If used seriously, it seems<br />
stilted. If used humorously, it seems ponde:rous.<br />
cognoscenti. The use <strong>of</strong> cognoscenti for “the<br />
knowing ones” shows that the user regards<br />
himself as among them, for hardly anyone else<br />
could be expected to know the term. It is limited<br />
in application to connoisseurs <strong>of</strong> artistic matters.<br />
(The cognoscenti had hailed his genius<br />
long before the masses knew his name). The<br />
singular-though the tribe seems to exist entirely<br />
in the plural-is cognoscente.<br />
coherence is natural or logical connection, consistency,<br />
particularly as applied to thouglht or<br />
language. The word is a figurative extension <strong>of</strong><br />
cohesion, which means a sticking together in a<br />
physical sense. It is the quality which gives<br />
speech or writing its order and logic. Ideas are<br />
presented coherently if they are in an order<br />
which makes sense.<br />
Coherence is achieved by the arrangement <strong>of</strong><br />
words in a sentence, sentences in a paragraph,<br />
and paragraphs in a composition so as to bring<br />
out properly the relationship <strong>of</strong> ideas. The<br />
essential elements <strong>of</strong> coherent construction<br />
are correct connective words and transitional<br />
phrases, precise reference <strong>of</strong> pronouns, and clear<br />
word order.<br />
There must be subjects and predicates in sentences<br />
and they should agree in number. Sentences<br />
and paragraphs are presented in coherent<br />
relationships by means <strong>of</strong> reference words (the<br />
former, the latter, the last-named), <strong>of</strong> reperition<br />
<strong>of</strong> ideas in either the same or different words, <strong>of</strong><br />
conjunctions (and, but), <strong>of</strong> conjunctive adverbs<br />
(also, however, indeed, as a matter <strong>of</strong> fact), and<br />
<strong>of</strong> pronouns.<br />
It is possible to write coherent sentences and<br />
coherent paragraphs without achieving a coherent<br />
whole. Where such a situation exists, however,<br />
it is likely that the speaker is confused in<br />
thought or has not been able to come to a definite<br />
conclusion in his thought.<br />
cohort was one <strong>of</strong> the ten divisions in an ancient<br />
Roman legion, numbering from 300 to 600 men.<br />
In historical writing it still means that. In<br />
general use it means any group <strong>of</strong> warriors or<br />
just any group or company.<br />
It is occasionally misapplied to single persons,<br />
especially an accomplice or an assistant (Banting<br />
[was] assisted by his young cohort, Dr.<br />
Charles H. Best. The culprit and his three<br />
cohorts quickly confessed). Perhaps this error<br />
is based on a false analogy to co-worker.<br />
coign <strong>of</strong> vantage is a projecting corner on a castle<br />
or fortification which would make an advantageous<br />
observation point. The phrase comes :from<br />
a minor scene in Macbeth. As King Duncan and<br />
his party are entering the fatal castle they remark<br />
on the pleasantness <strong>of</strong> its location and the<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tness <strong>of</strong> the air. Banquo notes that a great<br />
many martlets have made their nests on the<br />
castle walls: No futty, frieze,/ Buttress, nor<br />
coign <strong>of</strong> vantage,/ but is covered with them.<br />
Sir Walter Scott picked up the phrase (with<br />
acknowledgement) two hundred years later in<br />
99 collective<br />
The Heart <strong>of</strong> Midlothian and, for some reason,<br />
it caught on and became a popular phrase and<br />
remains an overpopular one, although vantage<br />
is obsolete and coign unknown.<br />
coincident. See synchronous.<br />
coiner. See counterfeiter.<br />
cold blood. The association <strong>of</strong> heat with passion<br />
is very old and has left its impress on many<br />
phrases (hot-tempered) as has, also, the belief<br />
that the blood is in some way the seat <strong>of</strong> emotions.<br />
In this day <strong>of</strong> clinical thermometers,<br />
plasma, and psychoanalysis most <strong>of</strong> the old<br />
phrases seem ludicrous and have fallen into<br />
disuse. Hot-blooded (Why, the hot-blooded<br />
France, that dowerless took/ Our youngest<br />
born.. .) is not much heard any more, but coldblooded,<br />
describing the deliberate and cruel<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> some unpleasant act, is still<br />
common. To act in cold blood is tedious through<br />
repetition and meaningless to most who use it.<br />
cold light <strong>of</strong> reason (a little chillier than the pale<br />
cast <strong>of</strong> thought) is <strong>of</strong>ten the dawn <strong>of</strong> the morning<br />
after for those who have looked on the wine<br />
when it was red or loved not wisely but too well.<br />
One cliche merely follows another.<br />
cold shoulder. As a term for letting someone know<br />
that he is not wanted, give the cold shoulder has<br />
been so restricted by usage in recent years to the<br />
discouragement <strong>of</strong> amatory advances that the<br />
phrase is assumed to describe a female shoulder<br />
coldly or disdainfully shrugged or drawn away<br />
in distaste. It derives, however, from the custom<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fering honored guests hot meat and serving<br />
those who had outstayed their welcome with a<br />
cold shoulder <strong>of</strong> mutton. This became proverbial<br />
and overuse has made it a cliche. It should be<br />
used with care.<br />
collaborate together. Since collaborate means to<br />
work, one with another, collaborate together is<br />
redundant.<br />
collation. See repast.<br />
collective nouns. Strictly speaking, a collective is<br />
a singular noun with a plural meaning, But the<br />
term is used loosely by many grammarians and<br />
may be applied to almost any noun that is not<br />
clearly singular or clearly plural.<br />
There are three ways in which a noun may be<br />
singular in one respect and plural in another.<br />
These are discussed in this dictionary under the<br />
following heads.<br />
1. GROUP NAMES. Some nouns, such as jury,<br />
family, herd, name a group <strong>of</strong> separate individuals.<br />
When such a group is thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit,<br />
the group name is followed by a singular verb,<br />
as in my family is a large one. When the group<br />
is thought <strong>of</strong> as a number <strong>of</strong> individuals, a<br />
plural verb is used, as in my family are early<br />
risers. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind are sometimes called<br />
nouns <strong>of</strong> multitude. See group names.<br />
2. GENERIC NOUNS. A singular noun may be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> all the individuals <strong>of</strong> a<br />
certain kind, as in the whale is a mammal and<br />
man is mortal. See generic nouns.<br />
3. MASS NOUNS. Some nouns, such as butter,<br />
milk, clothes, munitions, riches, are neither<br />
singular nor plural in meaning but name an un-
differentiated whole. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind that<br />
have a singular form are usually followed by a<br />
singular verb. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind that have a<br />
plural form are usually followed by a plural<br />
verb but are treated in other respects as singulars.<br />
See mass nouns.<br />
The difference between these three classes <strong>of</strong><br />
words is not always clear. Mass nouns are used<br />
generically more <strong>of</strong>ten than not and some generic<br />
singulars are indistinguishable from group<br />
names. For this reason, many grammarians use<br />
the term collective noun to mean all. three<br />
classes. Many others limit the term to what is<br />
called in this dictionary group names.<br />
Some grammarians include as collectives the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> any whole made up <strong>of</strong> similar parts,<br />
such as chain, library, forest. This is a philosophical<br />
distinction, not a grammatical one.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> this kind have no grammatical peculiarities<br />
and nothing is gained by putting them in<br />
a special class. Some grammarians also list as<br />
collectives any noun that has the same form in<br />
the singular and the plural, such as deer and<br />
grouse. But words <strong>of</strong> this kind are true singulars<br />
and true plurals. They have no peculiarities beyond<br />
the fact that the plural is formed irregularly.<br />
In this book a word like deer is considered<br />
as two forms, one singular and one plural,, which<br />
happen to be alike.<br />
college. See university.<br />
colloquialisms. Colloquial English does not mean<br />
English that is not standard. It means the iaccepted<br />
spoken idiom, in contrast to a formal, literary<br />
idiom. A grammar published in 1930 lists do<br />
you have swordfish? as a colloquial construction;<br />
the literary form is given as have you swordfish?<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the best contemporary writers and<br />
public speakers use colloquial English by preference.<br />
They avoid literary forms that could not<br />
be used in conversation.<br />
It used to be said that colloquial English was<br />
like a good business suit and literary English<br />
like formal dress. The analogy still holds. But<br />
one should remember that times have changed,<br />
that a good business suit is seldom out <strong>of</strong> place,<br />
and that formal dress, where it is not requiredat<br />
a picnic, for example-may be ridiculous.<br />
collusion; connivance. Collusion is secret agreement<br />
for fraudulent purpose. It is sometimes<br />
confused with collaboration but men act in collaboration<br />
for good ends, in collusion for bad<br />
(The fudge said that the witnesses were in collusion<br />
and dismissed the case).<br />
Connivance implies winking at wrongdoing,<br />
assenting to it guiltily, although without taking<br />
any active part in it. The word derives from a<br />
Latin word meaning to shut the eyes. M:en are<br />
in collusion. They connive at it.<br />
colon. The colon is used almost exclusively for<br />
formal writing. Its main function is to call attention<br />
to what follows. It is used:<br />
1. To introduce ideas in a series after an introductory<br />
phrase, as in these are the main exports:<br />
metals, primarily iron, copper and tin;<br />
grains, primarily wheat; and cotton.<br />
2. To introduce formally any subject, as in<br />
Mr. Brown moved that the following question<br />
be referred to the Committee: What are the<br />
effects <strong>of</strong> zoning laws on downtown building<br />
activity?<br />
3. To introduce a quotation <strong>of</strong> a full sentence<br />
or more, as in in his previous book the author<br />
stated: (Quotation follows).<br />
4. Between clauses when the second summarizes<br />
or restates the first, as in in spite <strong>of</strong> the<br />
politicians, it is the people who will finally decide<br />
the issue: they have always been the deciding<br />
factor ultimately.<br />
5. After the salutation in a formal letter, as<br />
in Dear Sir: (In some European countries an<br />
exclamation point is used after the salutation in<br />
a formal letter, and a c0mm.a in informal<br />
letters.)<br />
6. In formal bibliographies, between author<br />
and title, between place <strong>of</strong> publication and publisher,<br />
and between volume and page, as in<br />
Keynes, John Maynard: A Treatise on Probability.<br />
London: Macmillan and Co., 1921 and<br />
Foreign Affairs 32:353.<br />
7. To show clock time, as in 4:30 p.m.<br />
8. To show proportions, as in The paint<br />
should be mixed 1:4.<br />
Either a capital letter or a lower-case letter<br />
may be used after a colon. If a full sentence follows<br />
the colon, it generally starts with a capital,<br />
as in The following result was reported: Unanimous<br />
agreement was reached by the Council<br />
after a very short discussion period. But we<br />
write the result: unanimous agreement.<br />
When a colon follows an abbreviation there<br />
is no period before the colon, as in he took the<br />
following courses while studying for his M.A:<br />
history, psychology, anthropology. . . .<br />
A dash should not be used after a colon. In<br />
informal writing the dash can <strong>of</strong>ten take the<br />
place <strong>of</strong> the colon, but the two are no longer<br />
used together.<br />
colored. As a euphemism for Negro, colored sometimes<br />
has an element <strong>of</strong> condescension. It is not<br />
usually intended to be an <strong>of</strong>fensive word, for it<br />
carries a plain intention <strong>of</strong> politeness.<br />
In the Union <strong>of</strong> South Africa colored is the<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficial description <strong>of</strong> the man with mixed blood.<br />
No Bantu is there ever called colored; no man<br />
with a dark skin, not a full-blooded Negro, is<br />
there ever called a Negro-as he would be in<br />
the United States. The white South Africans<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten use colored as a noun, referring to a Colored.<br />
This is resented by the educated among<br />
those so referred to, though they do not feel so<br />
strongly when the word is used as an adjective.<br />
See African, Creole, mulatto, Negro.<br />
colossal. That is properly colossal which is like a<br />
colossus-<strong>of</strong> vast size, gigantic, huge, enormous<br />
(He was a man <strong>of</strong> colossal stature. Wagner’s<br />
colossal dramas).<br />
As a mere intensive, however, (a colossal<br />
liar) with a suggestion <strong>of</strong> the amusing or absurd<br />
(He was a colossal idiot) the word is not standard,<br />
being a catchword picked up from the<br />
Germans among whom, in the nineteen twenties<br />
and thirties, kolossal superseded almost every<br />
other adjective <strong>of</strong> admiration and wonder.<br />
colossns. The plural is colossuses or colossi.
combat; contest. A contest is a struggle for victory,<br />
a competition. It can be amicable and<br />
between friends. A combat is a fight. It is<br />
never amicable. When a sports writer refsers to<br />
a football game as a combat he is, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
choosing that word to imply that the game<br />
will be played with such determination to win<br />
on each side that it will have some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
qualities <strong>of</strong> a combat. But he should call it a<br />
contest. If it is a combat, it should n’ot be<br />
allowed.<br />
come. The past tense is came. The participle is<br />
come.<br />
Come used as a past tense, as in he come<br />
home last night, may be heard today but it<br />
has been considered uneducated usage for<br />
more than four hundred years.<br />
Come is <strong>of</strong>ten followed by a second verb<br />
which tells the purpose <strong>of</strong> the coming. This<br />
second verb may be an infinitive, as in Z come<br />
to bury Caesar, not to praise him, or it may<br />
be part <strong>of</strong> a clause, as in Z am come that they<br />
might have life. The form with the clause is<br />
now archaic and the infinitive construction is<br />
preferred.<br />
Come may be joined to a following verb<br />
with and, as in they came and had supper with<br />
us and they always come and see us when they<br />
are in town. Here the second verb may or may<br />
not show the purpose <strong>of</strong> the coming.<br />
Formerly, come might be followed by the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb without to or and, as in<br />
come live with me and be my love. This construction<br />
is still standard in the United States<br />
under certain circumstances. It may be used<br />
when come itself is an imperative, as in come<br />
have supper with us, or when come is dependent<br />
on some verb other than be or have. For<br />
example, come is dependent on will in wir’l you<br />
come have supper, and on want in Z want you<br />
to come have supper. This construction cannot<br />
be used when come is a simple present tense,<br />
as in Z come bury Caesar, or is compounded<br />
with be or have, as in he has come bury<br />
Caesar. (To say it technically, the simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb can be used only when come itself<br />
is an imperative or an infinitive.) The old<br />
forms without to, which are acceptable in the<br />
United States, are not considered standard now<br />
in Great Britain where an and is required to<br />
weaken the idea <strong>of</strong> purpose, as in come and<br />
have szcpper.<br />
Come may be followed by an adjective.<br />
This is especially true when come is used as<br />
the equivalent <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, as in it comes<br />
natural to me, or the verb become, as in it<br />
came undone. But it is also true when come<br />
is used with its regular meaning, as in come<br />
down heavy on tlze cast iron drill.<br />
How come is a survival from an older literary<br />
form. At one time, the normal way to form<br />
a question was to place the verb before its<br />
subject, as in what went ye out into the wilderness<br />
to see? Today we use the verb do for this<br />
purpose, as in what did you go to see. But the<br />
old question form may still be used with how<br />
come. When come has a personal subject, the<br />
expression is followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
how came you to be there. When used in the<br />
present tense without a subject, the construction<br />
is impersonal, meaning how comes it, and<br />
is followed by a clause, as in how comes you<br />
were there. Both constructions are standard in<br />
the United States today. An impersonal construction<br />
without s, as in how come you were<br />
there, does not have the same standing. It is<br />
used in speech but not in writing.<br />
come to grief. Grief, which is now restricted to<br />
meaning mental suffering or distress over aflliction<br />
or loss, was formerly a much broader term,<br />
including physical pain (in his famous catechism<br />
on honor Falstaff asks if honor can take away<br />
the grief <strong>of</strong> a wound). And it is this, now forgotten,<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> grief that is in the cliche<br />
to come fo grief, to come to disaster-as in<br />
only his glasses come to grief; he revives! what<br />
relief!<br />
come to the end <strong>of</strong> one’s rope (or tether). Whether<br />
this figure for having exhausted one’s resources<br />
comes, as some aver, from a grazing horse or,<br />
as others say, from the hangman’s rope, to come<br />
to the end <strong>of</strong> one’s rope (or tether) is a clichC<br />
and should be used sparingly.<br />
comforter. Men seek comfort in different ways.<br />
A comforter in England is a woolen scarf for<br />
wrapping around the neck in cold weather. In<br />
America a comforter is a quilted bedcover (She<br />
pulled buck the comforter and smoothed the<br />
blankets).<br />
comic and comical are almost, but not quite, synonymous.<br />
Both mean provoking laughter, amusing,<br />
funny (though even here comical has a<br />
slightly different application sometimes, meaning<br />
quaint, in a tender way: sztch a comical little<br />
face). But comic alone, now, means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining<br />
to the nature <strong>of</strong> comedy; comical in that<br />
sense is now obsolete. See also funny.<br />
comic strips. In an article entitled “Why lOO,-<br />
000,000 Americans Read Comics,” published in<br />
1943 in The American Scholnr, William Moulton<br />
Marston stated that in the “comics” or<br />
adventure strip American literature has reached<br />
a zenith <strong>of</strong> popularity never before achieved by<br />
any form <strong>of</strong> reading matter. Eighteen million<br />
comic magazines are sold on the newsstands<br />
every month and devoured, it is estimated, by<br />
70,000,OOO or more readers, at least half <strong>of</strong><br />
whom are adults. In addition, Moulton goes on<br />
to say, approximately one and one-half billion<br />
copies <strong>of</strong> four- or five-panel comic strips are circulated<br />
every week in the daily newspapers. Of<br />
the nation’s sizable dailies only two, the New<br />
York Times and the Christian Science Monitor,<br />
are without comics. Life believes that comic<br />
strips comprise “the most significant body <strong>of</strong><br />
literature in America today,” since they are read<br />
diligently by over 50% <strong>of</strong> the nation’s adults and<br />
perhaps 90% <strong>of</strong> the children who can read.<br />
The astonishing thing, however, is that despite<br />
this enormous number <strong>of</strong> readers, the comic<br />
strips have had very little noticeable effect on<br />
our speech and practically none on our writing.<br />
H. L. Mencken, with his customary zeal to support<br />
what he regarded as the unconventional,
declared in his First Supplement to the .4merican<br />
Language, that the comic-strip artist “had<br />
been a very diligent maker <strong>of</strong> terse and dramatic<br />
words.” But <strong>of</strong> the illustrations that he quotes<br />
(zowie, barn, socko, ytrrp, plop, wow, warn,<br />
glug, oaf, u/k, whap, bing, flooie and grr) less<br />
than half were originated in the comic strips and<br />
<strong>of</strong> those that were originated there, few if any<br />
have passed into the language as words. Never<br />
has so much balderdash been written so repeatedly<br />
for so many with so little lasting effect.<br />
Since comic strips are in the dramatic mode<br />
(consisting <strong>of</strong> speech, actions, and stage directions<br />
and noises), there are inevitably a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> exclamations. For the most part,<br />
though, despite the location <strong>of</strong> an increasing<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> their action in the future, amid interstellar<br />
dangers and villains, these exclamations<br />
tend to be a little old-fashioned-such as man!,<br />
golly, gosh, oh boy, whee, yipe, Jumpin’ Jupiter<br />
and dagnabit. One feels that their creators have<br />
kept not only the spirit but the dull lexicon <strong>of</strong><br />
youth.<br />
From all <strong>of</strong> this some two or three strips must<br />
be sharply excepted. The language <strong>of</strong> Li’l Abner,<br />
for instance, is a satire on the speech that sentimentality<br />
assigns to Southern rustics and the<br />
wonderful jargon <strong>of</strong> Pogo reflects not only an<br />
acute ear and a whimsical mind but an extraordinarily<br />
sensitive awareness <strong>of</strong> the shaping<br />
forces in our speech. And no criticism <strong>of</strong> the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> the comics can be made more trenchant<br />
than that which fills each issue <strong>of</strong> Mud<br />
Comics.<br />
comity means courtesy. The Comity <strong>of</strong> Nations is<br />
that courtesy by which nations recognize and<br />
give effect within their own territories to the institutions<br />
and laws <strong>of</strong> other nations, or, by extension,<br />
the friendly code whereby nations get<br />
on together. One sometimes finds the word used<br />
as if it meant the French comite, party, or even<br />
committee.<br />
command. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I command you to start at once. It<br />
may also be followed by a clause but the clause<br />
verb must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in I command he go at once.<br />
commands. See imperative mode and future tense.<br />
commas, together with colons and semicolons,<br />
were once used to show the grammatical relationship<br />
between different parts <strong>of</strong> a sentence.<br />
This is no longer true. In the United States<br />
today we use a comma to reflect a speech device,<br />
which sometimes shows gra,mmatical relationship<br />
but sometimes does not. Anyone who learns<br />
to hear a comma can use it correctly ever after.<br />
The comma break can be identified by comparing<br />
the sentence God rest you, merry gentlemen<br />
with its old form God rest you merry, gentlemen.<br />
(Here rest means keep or cause to remain.)<br />
The comma is not a pause, but an abrupt<br />
change in pitch.<br />
The most important fact about a comma is<br />
that there are places where it must not be used.<br />
That is, there are places where a comma *alters<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> a statement. Max Beerbohm was<br />
being witty when he used a comma in writing<br />
about Frank Harris, and many good writers.<br />
There are also a few places where a comma must<br />
be used in order to protect the meaning. These<br />
significant uses <strong>of</strong> the comma are discussed below.<br />
In addition, there are a good many places<br />
where one can use a comma or not as one<br />
pleases. The tendency today is to cut these to a<br />
minimum. The best overall piece <strong>of</strong> advice on<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> commas is given by H. W. Fowler:<br />
“Any one who finds himself putting down several<br />
commas close to one another should reflect<br />
that he is making himself disagreeable, and<br />
question his conscience, as severely as we ought<br />
to do about disagreeable conduct in real life,<br />
whether it is necessary.”<br />
DOUBLE COMMAS<br />
A pair <strong>of</strong> commas has very much the function<br />
<strong>of</strong> a parenthesis. Any parenthetical word,<br />
phrase, or clause, that is not actually part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence, but more or less <strong>of</strong> an aside, should be<br />
set <strong>of</strong>f by a pair <strong>of</strong> commas. This includes interrupting<br />
words, such as he said, exclamations,<br />
and the name <strong>of</strong> a person spoken to. When a<br />
parenthetical thought <strong>of</strong> this kind stands at the<br />
beginning or the end <strong>of</strong> a sentence, the first or<br />
the last comma is omitted, as in She said, “It’s<br />
late.” and Are you coming, Dorothy? Here only<br />
one comma appears, but it is functioning as one<br />
<strong>of</strong> a pair.<br />
A word or group <strong>of</strong> words that repeats the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a preceding word or word group is<br />
called an appositive, such as America in ihis<br />
land <strong>of</strong> ours, America. Appositives are usually<br />
set <strong>of</strong>f by a pair <strong>of</strong> commas. Sometimes the relation<br />
between an appositive and the preceding<br />
noun is so close that the two form a unified<br />
idea, such as the river Tiber and my brother<br />
Dick. In this case commas are not needed and<br />
if they are used have the effect <strong>of</strong> making the<br />
appositive word seem like an explanation or an<br />
aside.<br />
An antithetical or contrasting phrase that is<br />
not introduced by a conjunction is always enclosed<br />
in a pair <strong>of</strong> commas, as in it was Stanley,<br />
Rot Jackie, who told me.<br />
A defining phrase or clause that is essential<br />
to the meaning <strong>of</strong> a preceding word, such as the<br />
last three words in this is the house that Jack<br />
built, must not be set <strong>of</strong>f from the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence by a pair <strong>of</strong> commas. Commas here<br />
signify that the words standing between them<br />
are not essential. A purely descriptive clause,<br />
that is, a clause that is not essential to the meaning,<br />
can always be placed between commas.<br />
When there is any danger that a descriptive<br />
clause will be understood as defining, the commas<br />
should be used. But otherwise they do not<br />
have to be. A writer who wants to tie the<br />
description tightly to the subject may omit the<br />
commas, as in her hair that lay along her buck<br />
was yellow like ripe corn.<br />
SINGLE COMMAS<br />
A pair <strong>of</strong> commas mark an intrusion into a<br />
sentence and can occur at any point. The sentence<br />
itself stands as if the enclosed words did<br />
not exist. But a single comma affects the sentence<br />
itself. It is always a signal that the words
it stands between are independent <strong>of</strong> each<br />
other.<br />
1. A single comma is <strong>of</strong>ten required to prevent<br />
misreading. For example, a comma is required<br />
in not long after, he was ?akcn sick<br />
although none is needed in a week later he was<br />
taken sick. Words such as only and rather which<br />
sometimes qualify a preceding word may need<br />
a comma to keep them from qualifying a following<br />
word instead, as in men only, were invited.<br />
A comma may also be needed to keep a qualifying<br />
clause from becoming attached to the nearest<br />
available word. See clauses.<br />
2. A comma should not come between a verb<br />
and its object, as it does in Job cursed, the day<br />
that he was born. See object <strong>of</strong> a verb.<br />
3. A single comma that stands between a verb<br />
and its subject is generally considered poor punctuation.<br />
But sometimes this cannot be avoided.<br />
It cannot be avoided when words such as only<br />
follow and qualify the subject. And no one<br />
should feel that he must place a word <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind before the subject merely to avoid a punctuation<br />
problem. A comma may be required<br />
when the subject is a full clause, as in whatever<br />
is, is right. Very <strong>of</strong>ten a single comma separating<br />
a subject and a verb can be interpreted as the<br />
second in a pair <strong>of</strong> commas, <strong>of</strong> which the first<br />
has been omitted, as in the moonlight sparkling<br />
on the frosty window, reminded him <strong>of</strong> the wide<br />
fields. This is considered faulty punctuation, to<br />
be corrected by adding a comma after moonlight<br />
or by removing the comma after window.<br />
But it is an extremely common error. Most<br />
people who write punctuate in just this way and<br />
the first comma is added later by an editor or a<br />
typist.<br />
4. Commas are used in a series. That is, they<br />
are used to set <strong>of</strong>f words or groups <strong>of</strong> words<br />
that have the same function, as in Mr. Close,<br />
_-~ ,<br />
Mr. Black. and Mr. Jeter, were there. The first<br />
comma in this series is required but the comma<br />
before and and the comma that closes the series<br />
are optional. People who are interested in punctuation<br />
are likely to have very strong feelings<br />
about the comma before and in a series. But<br />
they are evenly divided for and against it. A<br />
sensible person will use this comma or not as he<br />
pleases, and will refuse to argue the point with<br />
anybody.<br />
When more than one adjective qualifies a<br />
noun in exactly the same way, they are -treated<br />
as a series and separated by commas, as in<br />
cheerful, friendly, clever Mildred. Here the final<br />
element in the series is never followed by a<br />
comma. See position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
5. It used to be said that two clauses joined<br />
by and, or, nor, but, or for, required a comma<br />
before the conjunction. If the conjunction was<br />
not actually used but only “understood,” the<br />
comma was considered insufficient and a semicolon<br />
was required. Today we frequently omit<br />
the comma before these conjunctions, and we<br />
use a comma rather than a semicolon when<br />
there is no conjunction expressed, as in beautiful<br />
is the mother, beautiful is her son.<br />
6. Any words which come before the :subject<br />
103 comment<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb may be set <strong>of</strong>f by a comma. If the<br />
phrase is short, the comma may be used or omitted.<br />
But when a great many words precede the<br />
subject, they should be followed by a comma in<br />
order to make the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb stand out<br />
clearly. When a clause is actually the complement<br />
<strong>of</strong> some form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, it too may<br />
be preceded by a comma, as in the truth is, he<br />
is lazy. Technically, this comma separates a verb<br />
and its complement. But it is necessary here to<br />
separate he from the preceding verb so that it is<br />
free to unite with the verb that follows.<br />
7. A comma may be used to show that certain<br />
words have been omitted, usually words that<br />
have already been used earlier in the sentence,<br />
as in one paid for the dinner and the other, for<br />
the entertainment. See ellipsis.<br />
TYPOGRAPHICAL USE8<br />
The comma has certain uses that have nothing<br />
to do with sentence structure.<br />
1. The comma is used to divide large numbers<br />
into groups <strong>of</strong> three figures each, as in<br />
4,910,355. It is not used in a number which<br />
represents a particular year, such as 1956. Some<br />
publishers do not use a comma in any number<br />
that has less than five figures and would write<br />
4910. In some European countries a period is<br />
used instead <strong>of</strong> a comma to group the figures,<br />
and a comma is used to represent the decimal<br />
point, as in 49.103,58.<br />
2. A comma is used in dates to separate the<br />
day <strong>of</strong> the month from the year, as in October<br />
29, 1929. If a date is incorporated in a sentence,<br />
the number <strong>of</strong> the year is enclosed in a pair <strong>of</strong><br />
commas, as in October 29, 1929, was a busy day,<br />
If the number <strong>of</strong> the year follows immediately<br />
after the name <strong>of</strong> the month, no punctuation is<br />
required, as in October 1929 marked the end <strong>of</strong><br />
an epoch.<br />
3. The comma is used to set <strong>of</strong>f parts <strong>of</strong> an<br />
address when these are used in a sentence, as in<br />
Tom is living in Franklin, Warren Co., Ohio, at<br />
present.<br />
4. It is used in bibliographies, indexes, and<br />
wherever words or phrases are listed in an inverted<br />
order, as in Butler, Samuel and Way <strong>of</strong><br />
All Flesh, The.<br />
5. It is used to set <strong>of</strong>f the salutation in an informal<br />
letter, as in Dear Blanche, and to set <strong>of</strong>f<br />
the complimentary close in any letter, whether<br />
informal or formal, as in Your friend, and Sincerely<br />
yours,<br />
6. A comma is not used in combination with<br />
a dash.<br />
7. If the word immediately before a parenthesis<br />
needs to be separated from the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence by a comma, the comma is placed after<br />
the parenthesis, as in if Joe is right (and he<br />
usually is), we can’t finish the work today.<br />
commence may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in he commenced studying law, or by<br />
an infinitive, as in he commenced to study law.<br />
The -ing construction is preferred by some people<br />
who feel that begin should be used if an<br />
infinitive is to follow, as in he begun to study<br />
law. See begin.<br />
comment (noun). See remark.
commentator 104<br />
commentator. It was probably inevitable that the<br />
people who make critical or explanatory remarks<br />
about news events over the radio should<br />
have chosen to be called commentntors rather<br />
than comm~nters. It is more grandi!oquent. A<br />
conzmenter (no such word exists in standard<br />
usage) would have been one who made comments.<br />
A commentator is one who makes commentaries<br />
and a commentary is an expository<br />
treatise consisting <strong>of</strong> a systematic series <strong>of</strong><br />
comments. It’s a pity the news commentators<br />
burdened themselves with such delusions <strong>of</strong><br />
grandeur, especially since ninety percent <strong>of</strong><br />
them only read the news anyway. You can hear<br />
them stumbling over the hard words.<br />
commit may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I have committed myself to go, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb introduced by the preposition to,<br />
as in I have committed myself to going. Some<br />
grammarians object to the use <strong>of</strong> an infinitive<br />
here and claim that only the -ing form is acceptable.<br />
But both constructions are standard in the<br />
United States.<br />
common. See average; frequent; mutual.<br />
common; ordinary; vulgar. Common means possessed<br />
or shared by all alike (Venus, says Robert<br />
Burton, was as common as a barber’s chair).<br />
When applied to persons it usually has a derogatory<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> cheapness or inferiority.<br />
Vulgar means belonging to the people and the<br />
meaning attached to it depends on how you view<br />
belonging to the common people. The common<br />
people themselves (though they probably do<br />
not view themselves as such) obviously don’t<br />
think much <strong>of</strong> it, since to them vulgar means<br />
coarse, indecent (His talk was just vulgar. I was<br />
ashamed to be with him). To a few uncommon<br />
intellectuals (who are, no doubt, tired <strong>of</strong> intellectuals)<br />
vulgar <strong>of</strong>ten means strong in a coarse<br />
way (He had a vulgar virility that <strong>of</strong>fset his<br />
coarse greed). Ordinary means what is to be expected<br />
in the usual order <strong>of</strong> things. It is slightly<br />
derogatory, but not much; just a tired admission<br />
from the sad wisdom <strong>of</strong> experience that the<br />
usual order <strong>of</strong> things, so far as human beings go,<br />
isn’t much.<br />
common noun. Any noun that is not a proper<br />
noun (that is, any noun that is not the name <strong>of</strong><br />
a particular person or thing) is a common noun.<br />
common or garden variety. Whoever first took<br />
this phrase from a seed catalog (it happened<br />
about 1895) and applied it figuratively deserved,<br />
and it is to be hoped obtained, applause for a<br />
sprightly wit. But it is now a common, or garden,<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> clich6, the bloom withered, the root<br />
broken and the stem pawed to a limp shred.<br />
commonplace; banal; hackneyed; stereotyped; trite.<br />
Commonplace means ordinary and, hence, dull<br />
and uninteresting. Before the romantic admiration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the unordinary, commonplace was <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used to signify something that was particularly<br />
interesting because it had a general or common<br />
application. Thus gentlemen <strong>of</strong> leisure kept<br />
Commonplace Books in which they copied<br />
passages <strong>of</strong> unusual interest and philosophic<br />
breadth that they came across in their reading.<br />
Banal was a French word meaning common-<br />
place. It had originally been a feudal term meaning<br />
communal. It was borrowed in the nineteenth<br />
century by English literary critics (who,<br />
as Fowler growls, had a dozen good words at<br />
home to choose from) and carries not only the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> commonplace but also the contempt<br />
for the commonplace felt by such superior people<br />
as those who borrowed it. It means inane,<br />
insipid, and hollowly pretentious.<br />
A hackney was originally “an ambling horse,<br />
for ladies to ride on,” then a horse for hire, then<br />
a horse used in coaches that were for hire<br />
(whence our hack). These horses were worn out<br />
and jaded and by a natural figurative extension<br />
the word was used to describe phrases that were<br />
worn out and jaded by overuse.<br />
Stereotyped emphasizes the fact that that<br />
phrase or idea is the exact response that a certain<br />
situation evokes. It is an automatic response,<br />
totally devoid <strong>of</strong> any originality.<br />
Trite derives from a Latin word meaning to<br />
rub. But in its current use it is not only something<br />
that has been rubbed smooth by use but<br />
something which, though originally pr<strong>of</strong>ound<br />
or apt, has lost all freshness through repetition<br />
(He was full <strong>of</strong> trite sayings).<br />
commonplace; platitude; triviality; truism; axiom.<br />
A commonplace is something regularly said on<br />
certain occasions (All men must die). It may<br />
be true or it may be false. It may be useful and<br />
sensible. The utterer <strong>of</strong> a commonplace does not<br />
seek the applause that is given to originality but<br />
the warmth that comes from the recognition <strong>of</strong><br />
a common humanity and common experience.<br />
A platitude is a dull, trite remark uttered as<br />
if it were original and important. The utterer <strong>of</strong><br />
platitudes expects the admiration accorded to<br />
wisdom and gets the contempt reserved for pompous<br />
folly.<br />
A trivialify is some trifling or insignificant<br />
remark uttered as if it were just suited to the<br />
occasion. It gains the utterer the reputation <strong>of</strong><br />
being silly.<br />
A truism is a self-evident or obvious truth,<br />
something which is incontrovertible in itself<br />
(Thus We all ought to do our duty is a truism<br />
because our duty is that which we ought to do).<br />
It is something which is indisputably true, needs<br />
no pro<strong>of</strong>, and can’t be contradicted, yet which<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten uttered in a positive, almost aggressive<br />
manner, as if the speaker regarded it as a daring<br />
proposition and was prepared to defend it<br />
against all attack. Such a statement is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
followed by a brief silence, not, as the speaker<br />
seems to think, <strong>of</strong> awe at its pr<strong>of</strong>undity, but <strong>of</strong><br />
bewilderment at its being spoken at all.<br />
An axiom is an established and universally<br />
accepted rule or principle. It is stated, with the<br />
full understanding that everyone assents to it,<br />
as the beginning <strong>of</strong> a chain <strong>of</strong> reasoning.<br />
compact (agreement). See pact.<br />
companionable; companionate. Companionable<br />
means sociable, fitted to be a companion (He<br />
was a companionable fellow, ideal to have along<br />
on a camping trip). Companionate, recognized<br />
in British dictionaries only as an obsolete word<br />
meaning companioned or accompanied, is used
in America to mean <strong>of</strong>, by or like companions,<br />
especially in the phrase companionate marriage,<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> trial marriage advocated, particularly<br />
in the late nineteen-twenties, by certain social<br />
reformers (Since a companionate marriage is<br />
to be a childless marriage, it may be questioned<br />
how far it will give true marriage a fair trial).<br />
company. Though company as a term for a guest<br />
or guests is <strong>of</strong>ten classified as questionable by<br />
purists, it has been standard English for many<br />
centuries (Jeremy Taylor, 1649: They had more<br />
company than wine. Samuel Johnson, 1775:<br />
Hector had company in his house). It is standard<br />
in current American usage (We had company<br />
and I couldn’t get away) and has been extended<br />
in many adjectival uses, such as company manners<br />
(meaning the more formal deportment<br />
appropriate when one has guests).<br />
comparative degree. See comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
and adverbs.<br />
comparatively; relatively. Since comparatively definitely<br />
implies a comparison, a careful speaker<br />
or writer does not employ it except when he has<br />
a fairly definite comparison in mind. That is, he<br />
would not say the weather was comparatively<br />
mild if he only meant that it was fairly mild,<br />
though he might say that after the unseasonable<br />
cold <strong>of</strong> last September, October was comparatively<br />
mild,<br />
Relatively, similarly, has to mean standing in<br />
relation to something. This something does not<br />
always have to be explicitly stated; it may be<br />
implied or generally understood. But it should<br />
be there. Relatively should not be used as a. mild<br />
intensive.<br />
compare; contrast. To compare things is to bring<br />
them together in order to note points <strong>of</strong> likeness<br />
or <strong>of</strong> difference. In this sense it is followed<br />
by with. He compared Washington with Paris<br />
would mean that he considered various aspects<br />
<strong>of</strong> both cities with a view to pointing out wherein<br />
they differed and wherein they were alike. To<br />
compare also means to represent as similar<br />
(Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day?); and<br />
in this sense it is followed by to. He compared<br />
Washington to Paris would mean that he found<br />
many things in Washington which, when taken<br />
together, made him feel that the city <strong>of</strong> Washington<br />
was much like the city <strong>of</strong> Paris. Zncomparable<br />
has this meaning <strong>of</strong> compare; it does<br />
not mean that nothing can be compared with<br />
the person or object, but that nothing can be<br />
compared to them. Incomparable almost always<br />
has a favorable connotation; the comparison<br />
cannot be made because the thing alluded to is<br />
unique and superior.<br />
To contrast is to examine with an eye to differences,<br />
or to place things together in such a<br />
way that their differences are obvious (He contrasted<br />
the luxury <strong>of</strong> the aristocrat with the<br />
penury <strong>of</strong> the peasant).<br />
comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives and adverbs. In making<br />
a comparison we may say that the things compared<br />
are equal in some respect or we may say<br />
that they are unequal. In a comparison <strong>of</strong><br />
equality we use as and the simple form <strong>of</strong> an<br />
adjective or adverb. The simple form <strong>of</strong> an<br />
105 comparison<br />
adjective or adverb is called the positive form.<br />
In a comparison <strong>of</strong> inequality we use a modified<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the word. There are two such forms.<br />
One is called the comparative and the other, the<br />
superlative.<br />
FORMATION<br />
We make the comparative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective<br />
or adverb by adding the syllable -er to the<br />
positive, and the superlative form by adding the<br />
syllable -est, as in green, greener, greenest. A<br />
few words are compared irregularly, such as<br />
good, better, best, and bad, worse, worst. All<br />
these have been listed in this dictionary under<br />
the positive form.<br />
We may qualify the positive form by more or<br />
less and make what is equivalent to a comparative,<br />
or by most or least and make what is equivalent<br />
to a superlative. In order to say that one<br />
thing is inferior to others in some respect, we<br />
must use the qualified form with less or least.<br />
In saying that something is superior to others we<br />
sometimes use the qualified form with more or<br />
most and sometimes the regular inflected form<br />
ending in -er or -est. The inflected form is native<br />
English. It is still considered the more natural<br />
and more vigorous <strong>of</strong> the two and is always used<br />
in vivid or excited speech. The form with more<br />
or most is due chiefly to French influence and<br />
did not come into general use until about four<br />
hundred years ago.<br />
The qualified form, with more and most, is<br />
required with (1) adverbs ending in -1~; (2) any<br />
word that can only be used predicatively, such<br />
as afraid, aware, content: (3) the word eager;<br />
(4) words that have an unusual or foreign form,<br />
such as antique, burlesque, bizarre. Otherwise,<br />
either form may be used, as in louder still and<br />
still more loud and among all forlornest things,<br />
the most forlorn.<br />
As a rule, the inflected form is preferred for<br />
short words, especially those ending in -d, -t, -r,<br />
or -y, such as loud, s<strong>of</strong>f, clear, happy. The form<br />
using more or most is preferred for longer<br />
words, especially those ending in (1) more than<br />
one unstressed syllable, such as tyrannical; (2)<br />
-ive or -ile, such as active and hostile; (3) -s,<br />
-ish, or -est, such as curious, foolish, honest; or<br />
(4) -ed or -ing, such as crooked and cunning.<br />
It is also preferred for words that are not <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used in comparisons, such as real, right, just.<br />
But this is a description <strong>of</strong> what usually happens,<br />
not <strong>of</strong> what must happen. Mark Twain<br />
wrote: the confoundedest, brazenest, ingeniousest<br />
piece uf fraud. And words such as wonderfulest,<br />
honestest, crookedest, lovingest, rightest,<br />
are also used occasionally in solemn prose.<br />
When the more and most forms were less well<br />
established than they are now, they were <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used with the older inflected forms, as in the<br />
most unkindest cut <strong>of</strong> all. This obvious double<br />
comparative, or double superlative, is not considered<br />
standard now.<br />
MEANING<br />
The comparative and superlative are forms<br />
used in comparing individuals in respect to a<br />
certain quality. The superlative form does not<br />
indicate a higher degree <strong>of</strong> the quality than the
comparison 106<br />
comparative, and neither indicates more than<br />
is expressed by the positive form. The oldest<br />
child in the family may be very young. And we<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> older men and dresses for larger women<br />
in order to avoid the really strong words old<br />
men and large women.<br />
Any quality in respect to which individuals<br />
can be compared may logically have a comparative<br />
and a superlative form. But it is sometimes<br />
claimed that certain adjectives should :not be<br />
used in making a comparison. A protest <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind may be based on either <strong>of</strong> two very different<br />
lines <strong>of</strong> reasoning.<br />
There are certain words in English, such as<br />
perfect, extreme, excellent, which imply “‘in the<br />
highest degree.” These words are somletimes<br />
qualified by more or most, as in a more ,oerfect<br />
example, the most extreme point <strong>of</strong> view. Theoretically,<br />
such expressions are comparable to<br />
more best, most worst. But only theoretically.<br />
In practice words <strong>of</strong> this kind, which lhave a<br />
superlative meaning but not an obvious superlative<br />
form, have always been used in this way<br />
and the construction is standard literary E.nglish.<br />
Those who object to it do so because they feel<br />
that to use more or mosf with such words is to<br />
debase their meaning.<br />
There are other words, sometimes called absolutes,<br />
which have no such superlative meaning<br />
but which, on the contrary, name characteristics<br />
that do not exist in degrees, such as unique,<br />
complete, equal. It is argued that words <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind cannot be used in a comparison because,<br />
for a thing to possess the quality at all it must<br />
possess it completely, and therefore all things<br />
that possess the quality possess it equally. This<br />
argument disregards the facts <strong>of</strong> life. ln this<br />
world we constantly do, and must, compare<br />
things in respect to qualities which, as seen from<br />
Olympus, they do not possess. We can and do<br />
say this is squarer than that, make them more<br />
equal, this is more accurate, this is most singular.<br />
Unique and complete are not in a class by<br />
themselves, and lists which begin with1 these<br />
words grow rapidly. One grammarian has noticed<br />
that chaste must be included. But there is<br />
no reason to stop ihere. True, false, i’ogical,<br />
emntv. should also be included. In fact this<br />
theory, if it was applied consistently, would<br />
make it impossible for us to think about anything<br />
but the most obvious facts.<br />
Sometimes the argument against more unique<br />
or more complete is misunderstood and put on<br />
the grounds that we cannot have “more” <strong>of</strong><br />
either <strong>of</strong> these characteristics than is expressed<br />
by the positive form <strong>of</strong> the word. It is said that<br />
less unique is permissible, but not more unique.<br />
This is not true. Less implies degrees as much as<br />
more does. And we can never have “more” <strong>of</strong> a<br />
quality than is expressed by the positive form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word. Nothing can be smaller than small,<br />
older than old, or whiter than white. (We express<br />
something approaching this with more<br />
than, as in you are more than kind and my dear<br />
friend, my more than brother. But here the<br />
more than is obviously something other than<br />
kind or brother, and the expression means<br />
“words fail me.” Certainly no comparison is<br />
being made.)<br />
Attacks on grammatical constructions made<br />
in the name <strong>of</strong> logic are usually bad logic. And<br />
they are always bad linguistics. The only question<br />
that has any bearing on the propriety <strong>of</strong> a<br />
form <strong>of</strong> speech is: Is it in reputable use? And<br />
the answer here is that educated people do say<br />
more unique and more complete. If they didn’t,<br />
these expressions would not be under attack so<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten. We do not at present say more previous,<br />
and so it does not occur to anyone to list these<br />
words among the things that we ought to avoid.<br />
USES<br />
In Latin the comparative form is used in a<br />
comparison involving two things and the superlative<br />
in a comparison involving more than two.<br />
Some grammarians claim that this ought to be<br />
the rule in English too, but the practice <strong>of</strong> our<br />
best writers does not bear them out. Lamb wrote:<br />
<strong>of</strong> two disputants, the warmest is generally in<br />
the wrong. We all say put your best foot forward<br />
and if you tangle withhim you’ll get the worst <strong>of</strong><br />
it. Shakesueare. Addison. Johnson. Goldsmith,<br />
Chesterfield, R&kin, Emerson, Hawthorne, Irving,<br />
Scott, Thackeray, all used the superlative<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> two only, as do many contemporary<br />
writers. In contemporary American English,<br />
only the comparative form can be used<br />
with than, regardless <strong>of</strong> how many things are<br />
being spoken about; and in any other construction,<br />
again regardless <strong>of</strong> the number involved,<br />
the superlative is generally preferred.<br />
A comparison made with the comparative<br />
form and than is said to be self-exclusive. That<br />
is, the thing compared is put in contrast to the<br />
thing or things it is compared with, as in he is<br />
taller than the others. A comparison made with<br />
the superlative, on the other hand, is usually<br />
self-inclusive. That is, the <strong>of</strong> has almost the<br />
force <strong>of</strong> among and the thing compared is seen<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> the group spoken about, as in he is the<br />
r&lest <strong>of</strong> the lot. This was not always true.<br />
Formerly the superlative with <strong>of</strong> could also be<br />
used in a contrast, as in this trade is held the<br />
most honorable <strong>of</strong> all others. Today we would<br />
be more likely to say more honorable than all<br />
others or most honorable <strong>of</strong> all. But the old<br />
construction is still heard occasionally, as in it<br />
was the richest <strong>of</strong> any university in America.<br />
The superlative may be used as a pure intensive,<br />
with no comparison intended, as in the<br />
rudest remark, a most beautiful woman. But we<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten use a colorful adverb and the positive<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the adjective for this purpose, as in<br />
an extremely rude remark, an astonishingly<br />
beautiful woman. To indicate a moderate degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> some quality we always use the positive form<br />
and a belittling qualifier, such as fairly, rather,<br />
somewhat, tolerably.<br />
The word the is sometimes used with a comparative<br />
form. If two individuals are being compared,<br />
this the is a simple adjective, -as in<br />
Shellev’s intellect was far the keener. What is<br />
meant here is the keener intellect. But the is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used with a comparative form where this<br />
is not the case, as in he will feel the better for it.
Here the is an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree and means “that<br />
much.” In literary English this adverbial the is<br />
not used unless something else is said somewhere<br />
in the context that has a bearing on “that<br />
much.” For this reason, adverbial the is sometimes<br />
called a conjunction. The “something else”<br />
may refer to the cause <strong>of</strong> the increase, as for if<br />
in the example given; or it may refer to the<br />
amount. The amount is frequently “none” or<br />
“all,” as in none the worse and all the .better.<br />
Sometimes a double adverbial the is used to<br />
show that two increases are equal, as .in the<br />
more the merrier, the more he gets the more he<br />
wants. A comparative form should not be used<br />
with both the and than. The adjective t.he requires<br />
or implies <strong>of</strong>, as in the keener <strong>of</strong> the two,<br />
the keener man. Adverbial the merely indicates<br />
that additional information is available, and is<br />
never used in making a comparison. A the which<br />
serves neither function should not be used, as it<br />
is in if you are not the politer I will slap you.<br />
Sometimes a comparison <strong>of</strong> equality, requiring<br />
as . . . as, and a comparison <strong>of</strong> inequality, requiring<br />
than, are combined in the same statement,<br />
as in he had as much or more troubl(e than<br />
I did and he had more or at least as much<br />
trouble as I did. In both cases the comparisons<br />
have been telescoped. In the first sentence a<br />
second as, needed for a comparison <strong>of</strong> equality,<br />
has been lost. In the second sentence a than,<br />
needed for the inequality, is lost. Some grammarians<br />
object to telescoped constructions <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind, but they are acceptable, and customary,<br />
English. If one wants to please the igrammarians<br />
he can avoid the problem by writing,<br />
for example, he had as much trouble as I a’id, or<br />
more.<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> words in English ending<br />
in -ior, such as superior, inferior, posterior,<br />
interior, senior, which are Latin comparatives.<br />
In English they are not felt as comparatives and<br />
may be qualified by more or less. But they may<br />
also be used alone in making comparisons.<br />
When they are, they require the preposition ro<br />
and not the conjunction than.<br />
A few words, such as former, latter, #elder,<br />
inner, upper, are English comparative forms that<br />
are no longer used in making comparisons. They<br />
are now felt as simple adjectives which name a<br />
relationship and describe or identify individuals.<br />
We may say the latter period, the elder man,<br />
but we cannot say this period is latter than, this<br />
man is elder than.<br />
comparisons are odious is a proverb, and no wise<br />
man would agree to exclude proverbs from his<br />
speech or writing. But he will take care to use<br />
them sparingly and only when the occasion calls<br />
without doubt for their use. This one is hackneyed-though<br />
<strong>of</strong> course its wisdom is pr<strong>of</strong>’ound<br />
and useful. That comparisons are odorous is<br />
from Much Ado About Nothing and no wise<br />
man will attempt to cheat Shakespeare <strong>of</strong> whatever<br />
honor there is in its wit.<br />
compasses. In referring to an instrument for drawing<br />
circles, the singular form compass may be<br />
used, as in fix one foot <strong>of</strong> the compass here, and<br />
the plural compasses in speaking <strong>of</strong> several such<br />
107 competent<br />
instruments, as in we have three compasses, But<br />
the plural form is also used in speaking <strong>of</strong> one<br />
instrument, as in fix one foot <strong>of</strong> the compasses<br />
here, and three instruments are called three pairs<br />
<strong>of</strong> compnsses. Both constructions are standard<br />
English today. Only the singular form compass<br />
is used as the first element in a compound, as in<br />
a compass leg.<br />
cumpel; impel. Compel and impel both mean the<br />
application <strong>of</strong> a force, physical or otherwise, to<br />
cause something to be done. Compel has now<br />
more the sense <strong>of</strong> coercion, <strong>of</strong> constraining someone<br />
to do something which he does not want to<br />
do (The failure <strong>of</strong> the bank compelled them to<br />
retrench severely and to adopt a wholly different<br />
way <strong>of</strong> living). To impel is to urge forward<br />
(The wave behind impelled the wave before)<br />
and in all figurative uses it has the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
constraining or inciting towards a goal (A sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> duty impels me to speak in favor <strong>of</strong> the<br />
measure). Both words may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in he compelled her to lead a dreary<br />
life, but not by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb. We<br />
cannot say he compelled her to leading a dreary<br />
life.<br />
compendious means concise, or containing the<br />
substance <strong>of</strong> a subject in brief form (A dictionary<br />
is u compendious work). It is sometimes<br />
misused, perhaps because <strong>of</strong> the similarity <strong>of</strong> its<br />
sound to stupendous and tremendous, to mean<br />
a large book or treatise. A compendious work<br />
may be large or small, but its compendiousness<br />
has nothing to do with its size.<br />
compendium. The plural is compendiums or compendia.<br />
compensate; compensation. To compensate is to<br />
counterbalance, to <strong>of</strong>fset, to make up for. The<br />
application <strong>of</strong> the term to payment for services<br />
rendered was originally a stilted piece <strong>of</strong> elaborate<br />
politeness, a way <strong>of</strong> saying “Of course we<br />
wouldn’t do anything so vulgar as to pay you;<br />
we <strong>of</strong>fer this sum merely to <strong>of</strong>fset the loss <strong>of</strong><br />
your time.” It is like calling a fee an honorarium,<br />
by which it is implied that the one <strong>of</strong>fering<br />
the sum could not hope to pay what the speaker’s<br />
time and wisdom are really worth and is making<br />
merely a token payment. In America the term<br />
compensation has been used so much for wages<br />
or salary that il is now standard in that sense,<br />
with none <strong>of</strong> the connotation <strong>of</strong> making amends<br />
for loss or damage (The salaries <strong>of</strong> American<br />
judges are rather low in comparison with the<br />
compensation <strong>of</strong>fered to judicial <strong>of</strong>ficers in<br />
Europe) that it would have in English usage.<br />
competent; competence. To be competent is to be<br />
properly qualified, to be adequate, to have abilities<br />
sufficient to the purpose. In regard to any<br />
great or difficult undertaking, it is plainly high<br />
praise to be competent; but in critical reviews,<br />
particularly <strong>of</strong> dramatic and musical performances,<br />
where superlatives are the rule, the word<br />
is almost condemnatory, meaning that the performer<br />
had abilities sufficient for the purpose<br />
but nothing more (Smith’s performance was<br />
competent but the applause <strong>of</strong> the evening was<br />
reserved for Jones).<br />
Competent may be followed by an infinitive,
compilation 108<br />
as in he is competent to judge, or by in or at and<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he is compeient in<br />
judging. In the first construction com,oetent<br />
means “qualified.” In the second, it means that<br />
he does it well.<br />
Competence means adequacy, the quality <strong>of</strong><br />
being competent. It has come also to have the<br />
special meaning <strong>of</strong> an income sufficient to furnish<br />
the necessities <strong>of</strong> life, without great luxury<br />
(His competence as an artist was not enough to<br />
enable him to earn a living but, fortunately for<br />
him, he had inherited a competence and so had<br />
no great concern about money).<br />
compilation is a book made up <strong>of</strong> materials taken<br />
from a number <strong>of</strong> other books. In its central syllable<br />
the word is related to pillage, though it has<br />
been influenced by pile (to pile up). It is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
misused to mean a symposium or a collection.<br />
complacence; complaisance. To be complacent is<br />
to be pleased, especially with one’s self. To be<br />
complaisant is to be affable, disposed to please<br />
others, obliging. The complacent are not always<br />
complaisant.<br />
complected was once used to mean complexioned,<br />
as in dark-complected Nancy Hanks. The form<br />
is not standard.<br />
complementary. See supplementary.<br />
complement; compliment. A complement iis that<br />
which completes or makes entire (Travel is<br />
the complement <strong>of</strong> schooling). In military and<br />
naval terminology it is the number <strong>of</strong> men required<br />
to fill out a company or man a conveyance<br />
(The addition <strong>of</strong> the recruits brought the<br />
regiment up to its full complement). It also<br />
means either <strong>of</strong> two parts or things needed to<br />
complete each other (The physical and the<br />
spiritual are complements <strong>of</strong> the complete character)<br />
. See also supp!ement.<br />
A compliment is an expression <strong>of</strong> praise (She<br />
paid you a very high compliment) or a formal<br />
act or expression <strong>of</strong> civility or courtesy (He<br />
sends you his compliments and hopes that you<br />
will wait upon him this afternoon). Except in<br />
the phrase compliments <strong>of</strong> the season, this use<br />
is now slightly archaic in America.<br />
complement in grammar. The term is used by<br />
grammarians to mean any word or group <strong>of</strong><br />
words that is needed to complete the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb. This includes the direct object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
transitive verb. The complement <strong>of</strong> a linking<br />
verb is sometimes called a subjective complement.<br />
A noun or pronoun used as the complement<br />
<strong>of</strong> a linking verb, such as rascal in he is a<br />
rascal, may also be called a predicate nominative.<br />
Some verb ideas are not complete without a<br />
word which stands after the direct object, such<br />
as ladies in they consider themselves ladies and<br />
trustworthy in we found him trustworthy.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> this kind are sometimes called an objective<br />
complement and sometimes a predicate<br />
objective.<br />
complete (verb). See end.<br />
complete; entire; whole; total. That is complete<br />
which has all its parts, is fully developed or perfected.<br />
The word is applied to a process or pur-<br />
pose that has been carried to fulfillment. When<br />
Hamlet’s father’s ghost appeared in complete<br />
steel, it was fully clad in armor, to the last warlike<br />
detail.<br />
Entire means whole, with the additional connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> unbroken unity, <strong>of</strong> one piece, undivided<br />
and continuous (He read the entire book<br />
at one sitting).<br />
Whole comprises the full quantity, extent,<br />
amount, or number, containing all the elements<br />
properly belonging, relating to a thing in its entirety<br />
(He told us the whole procedure).<br />
Total means whole, but it conveys the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
things added together to make up the whole<br />
(The total <strong>of</strong> his indebtedness, even after all<br />
assets were considered, was immense). See also<br />
perfect.<br />
complete verbs. See intransitive verbs.<br />
completed action tenses. See perfect tenses.<br />
complex. The use <strong>of</strong> complex to mean a fixed idea<br />
or obsession (He’s got a perfect complex on the<br />
subject!) is based on a misunderstanding <strong>of</strong> a<br />
technical term. In psychology the word means a<br />
group <strong>of</strong> related ideas, feelings, memories, and<br />
impulses which operate together and may be<br />
repressed or inhibited together. These groups <strong>of</strong><br />
thoughts and feelings are not necessarily morbid<br />
or abnormal.<br />
complex sentence. A sentence that contains a subordinate<br />
clause, such as she’ll be driving six<br />
white horses when she comes, is called a complex<br />
sentence. See sentences.<br />
compositor. See typesetter.<br />
compound sentence. A sentence consisting <strong>of</strong> two<br />
or more simple sentences (The night is dark<br />
and I am far from home) is called a compound<br />
sentence. A sentence made up <strong>of</strong> two or more<br />
independent statements one or more <strong>of</strong> which<br />
is complex is called a compound-complex sentence.<br />
The independent elements in a compound<br />
sentence must be separated by a coordinating<br />
conjunction, a comma, or a semicolon. See<br />
sentences.<br />
compound words. When two nouns stand together,<br />
the first may have exactly the force <strong>of</strong><br />
an adjective and qualify the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
second. This is the case, for example, in a family<br />
aflair. Here family is felt as an adjective very<br />
much like private. That we feel the word in this<br />
way is shown by the fact that we can use an<br />
adverb before it, just as if it were an adjective,<br />
as in a strictly family affair. In the case <strong>of</strong> sea<br />
horse this is not true. Here the two nouns are<br />
felt as a single compound noun representing a<br />
single idea. As a rule, when two words are felt<br />
as one they are pronounced as one. In a brown<br />
horse, the word horse has its own accent or emphasis.<br />
Rut in a sea horse it loses some <strong>of</strong> this<br />
emphasis and is pronounced like the second syllable<br />
in a two-syllable word. Similarly, man has<br />
the emphasis belonging to an independent word<br />
in an English man but loses it entirely in an<br />
Englishman. It should also be noticed that an<br />
Englishman is a certain kind <strong>of</strong> man, but a sea<br />
horse is not a certain kind <strong>of</strong> horse.<br />
Each <strong>of</strong> these factors may be considered in
deciding whether or not two nouns standing together<br />
are actually one word. If the compound<br />
can be qualified by an adverb, most grammarians<br />
would say that the first element is an adjective.<br />
If the compound has one major accent,<br />
they would say that it is being treated as a single<br />
word. If the compound has a meaning different<br />
from the meaning <strong>of</strong> the two words taken separately,<br />
they would say that it is a single wlord.<br />
Nouns are the principal but not the only parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech that form compounds. Adjectives may<br />
merge with nouns to form nouns. Here, if the<br />
two words actually merge the first element<br />
ceases to be felt as an adjective and cannot be<br />
qualified by an adverb. We may say a perfectly<br />
black bird but not a perfectly blackbird. On this<br />
principle old age is as much a single word as<br />
blackbird. We may say an extremely ol,d man<br />
but we do not say in extremely old age. Similarly,<br />
different parts <strong>of</strong> speech may be merged to<br />
form adjectives or to form verbs. In each case,<br />
the same tests can be applied: how is the compound<br />
treated grammatically? how is it pronounced?<br />
and what does it mean?<br />
The same principles are considered in deciding<br />
whether a compound should be written as<br />
one word or as two. But here the problem is<br />
additionally complicated by tradition or custom.<br />
Sea horse and old age, for example, should be<br />
written as two words simply because they always<br />
are written in this way. In general, pronunciation,<br />
or the accent that is given to a compound,<br />
is considered the most important factor<br />
in deciding how a word should be printed. How<br />
it is handled grammatically is considered the<br />
least important.<br />
SOLID COMPOUNDS<br />
1. A goldfish is not made <strong>of</strong> gold. A ladybird<br />
is not a bird. A butterfly is not made <strong>of</strong> butter<br />
and is not a fly. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind, that do not<br />
mean what the two parts considered separately<br />
would mean, are usually printed as solid compounds.<br />
2. Words that have such a strong acce:nt on<br />
the first element that the second element tends<br />
to disappear are always written as solid compounds,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
This principle is responsible for considerable<br />
confusion and variation in printing styles. ESverybody<br />
pronounces postman as one word and egg<br />
man as two, and this is reflected in all dimctionaries.<br />
But whether the man who delivers the milk<br />
is a milkman or a milk man depends on who is<br />
speaking. Everybody says bookkeeper and book<br />
review, but bookcase and book end vary. A<br />
writer should not consult a dictionary on questions<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind but should listen carefully to<br />
his own speech. When in doubt, he should separate<br />
the words. In this way, at worst he will seem<br />
old-fashioned. But if he joins words that other<br />
people do not join, he may be unintelligible.<br />
Style books sometimes give a great lmany<br />
rules for compounding, such as the number <strong>of</strong><br />
syllables in the first word, or the grammatical<br />
relation between the words. It may be pointed<br />
Out that calfskin is one word and alligator skin<br />
109 compound<br />
two, or that brick house is two words and brickwork<br />
one. These rules frequently have as many<br />
exceptions as examples, and it will be found that<br />
in almost every case accent is the determining<br />
factor. Where it is not, there is no agreement<br />
between one style book and another and it would<br />
be better to leave the words separated.<br />
The practice <strong>of</strong> combining all word pairs that<br />
have a single major accent sometimes makes for<br />
difficult reading. Counterattraction and counterespionage<br />
undoubtedly have a forward accent,<br />
but they are unwieldy words. And the accent in<br />
this case is intended to emphasize counter, not to<br />
submerge it. Both the meaning and the emphasis<br />
would be reflected better in counter attraction.<br />
However, in present practice these and similar<br />
combinations are written as one word.<br />
3. Sometimes words that have neither a<br />
special meaning nor a one-word accent are<br />
joined simply because they are like some other<br />
combination that is joined. For example, cow<br />
hand may be written as one word because cowboy<br />
is. If this occurs <strong>of</strong>ten enough in print the<br />
compound will find its way into dictionaries. But<br />
if this practice should become the rule it would<br />
cover almost all the normal combinations in<br />
English, and for this reason particular instances<br />
<strong>of</strong> it should be considered mistakes, no matter<br />
where they are found. See also prefixes and<br />
suffixes.<br />
HYPHENATED COMPOUNDS<br />
1. The hyphen is used when two normally<br />
distinct functions are united in one person or<br />
thing, as in secretary-treasurer, fighter-bomber,<br />
manic-depressive. Double terms that represent<br />
a single <strong>of</strong>fice, such as major general, are not hyphenated.<br />
Compound color terms are sometimes<br />
hyphenated and sometimes not. We may write<br />
blue-black or blue black. When nationality<br />
names are combined the first word is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
modified, as in Anglo-American, Franco-<br />
German. But the simple forms, English-American,<br />
French-German, and so forth, are also used<br />
today.<br />
2. English has a great many verbs that carry<br />
a preposition or adverb with them, such as flare<br />
up, take <strong>of</strong>i, set to. (See adverbs.) These are<br />
separate words, but when nouns or adjectives<br />
are made from them they are always hyphenated,<br />
as in a flare-up, a lean-to, a go-between,<br />
broken-down cars, built-up shoes. Similar nouns<br />
and adjectives are sometimes made from a verb<br />
and its object, as in know-all, do-nothing.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> this kind have the specialized meaning<br />
that would justify writing them as one word,<br />
but the second element does not lose its individual<br />
accent. They are therefore hyphenated. If<br />
the second element does lose its accent, the word<br />
is written as a solid compound, as in a setup.<br />
Accordingly makeup would be one word, and is<br />
so written by some publishers, but others make<br />
an exception and keep the hyphen after a<br />
silent e.<br />
3. A noun with a qualifying word, such as<br />
kind heart, horn rim, may be made into an adjective<br />
by adding -ed to the noun, as in kind.
comprehend 110<br />
hearted, horn-rimmed, saber-toothed. Compounds<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind are usually hyphenated, on<br />
the grounds that they are here being treated as<br />
a single word. But if the first element is the comparative<br />
or superlative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective, this<br />
interpretation will not hold and the hyphen must<br />
be omitted, as in kinder hearted, kindest hearted.<br />
See adjectives as adverbs.<br />
When the past participle <strong>of</strong> a verb is qualified<br />
by a noun or by an adjective-like word, it too is<br />
usually hyphenated, as in air-borne, new-born,<br />
perhaps because these words are so much like<br />
the ones just discussed. The adverb well is, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
treated as if it were an adjective and joined<br />
to a past participle with a hyphen, as in well-<br />
keot. well-guarded. The hyphens in these con-<br />
.I -<br />
structions serve no purposes but it is customary<br />
to use them here. Adverbs ending in -/y are<br />
not treated in this way. They are usually written<br />
without the hyphen, as in newly born, nicely<br />
kept.<br />
4. Fractions and compound numerals such as<br />
two-thirds and twenty-three are usually hyphenated.<br />
There is no need for this hyphen either,<br />
but it is customary to use one. When one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> a fraction is a compound number, the<br />
hyphen which indicates a fraction is dropped,<br />
as in two twenty-thirds, twenty-three thirtieths.<br />
5. Compounds beginning with serf are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
hyphenated, as in self-control, self-service, selfsupport.<br />
Some publishers, however, print these<br />
as two words, as in self support.<br />
6. When a suffix or prefix is added to an idea<br />
that is expressed in two or more words, the<br />
whole expression is joined by hyphens. The<br />
result is awkward looking, but the expressions<br />
themselves are awkward. Example: Christmastree-like,<br />
an ex-college-pr<strong>of</strong>essor.<br />
7. A hyphen is also used whenever it is needed<br />
to prevent ambiguity. This is an important<br />
rule. But its application depends on what we<br />
consider ambiguous.<br />
Style books <strong>of</strong>ten list walking stick or dining<br />
room as a type <strong>of</strong> word that requires a hyphen.<br />
The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb may be a noun or it<br />
may be an adjective. (See -ing.) We have a great<br />
many compounds in English in which the first<br />
element is an -ing noun, such as sleeping car,<br />
drinking glass, landing field, fainting fits, the<br />
boiling point. What is meant in compounds <strong>of</strong><br />
this sort is a stick for walking, a room for dining,<br />
the point <strong>of</strong> boiling, and so on-as practically<br />
everybody knows. But it is theoretically possible<br />
to read these words as adjectives. Some editors<br />
believe that a hyphen should be used here to<br />
show that the first element is the noun and not<br />
the adjective. That is, the hyphen warns the<br />
reader not to suppose that the stick is walking or<br />
the room eating dinner. Those with more confidence<br />
in the reading public are likely to see no<br />
need for this, and may even consider it an<br />
affront.<br />
It is hard to find examples <strong>of</strong> word combinations<br />
that are really ambiguous, independent <strong>of</strong><br />
their position in a sentence. (For this, see temporary<br />
compounds.) But since a silver box some-<br />
times means a box made <strong>of</strong> silver, the wooden<br />
box that holds the table silver should be called<br />
a silver-box, in any context that is open to both<br />
interpretations.<br />
8. The preceding seven rules cover all the<br />
“living” uses <strong>of</strong> the hyphen in America today.<br />
But there are some words that have hyphens<br />
merely because they always have had them. A<br />
writer should be familiar with these, and should<br />
write them with their hyphens, but they should<br />
not be used as patterns for new expressions.<br />
a. A few technical terms, that are properly<br />
one word by special meaning and accent but are<br />
not familiar to the general public, are written<br />
with a hyphen for easier reading, such as lightyear,<br />
east-southeast, and other complex points<br />
<strong>of</strong> the compass.<br />
b. Certain compounds that involve an apostrophe<br />
are hyphenated when used in a figurative<br />
sense, such as bird’s-eye, bull’s-eye, crow’s-feet,<br />
mare’s-nest. Because <strong>of</strong> their special meaning<br />
and their accent on the first element, these compounds<br />
might be treated as single words, and<br />
sometimes are, as in birdseye, crowsfeet.<br />
c. There are a number <strong>of</strong> three-word phrases<br />
that are always written with hyphens. These include<br />
four-in-hand, man-<strong>of</strong>-war, coat-<strong>of</strong>-arms,<br />
forget-me-not and the names <strong>of</strong> other flowers,<br />
and the in-law relationships. Mother-in-law does<br />
not need hyphens any more than delegate at<br />
large, which does not have them, but it is always<br />
written in this way because it always has<br />
been.<br />
d. The word great, too, is always hyphenated<br />
in family relationships because it always has<br />
been. But we now have two forms, great-aunt<br />
and grandaunt, both <strong>of</strong> which mean exactly the<br />
same thing.<br />
e. Words built on a letter <strong>of</strong> the alphabet,<br />
such as X-ray, and U-boat, are <strong>of</strong>ten hyphenated.<br />
But there is no need for the hyphen here<br />
and it is <strong>of</strong>ten omitted in scientific writing, as in<br />
a Y incision and the B vitamin.<br />
f. Some hyphens are simply mistakes. These<br />
will appear in the best edited material, but usually<br />
they are not copied and die <strong>of</strong>f. Sometimes,<br />
however, a mistake is copied so <strong>of</strong>ten that it becomes<br />
the established practice, as has happened<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> court-martial and post-mortem.<br />
On theoretical grounds, neither <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
should have a hyphen. But both <strong>of</strong> them do now<br />
have the hyphen.<br />
comprehend. See apprehend; know.<br />
comprehensible; comprehensive. Comprehensible<br />
means capable <strong>of</strong> being understood (His books<br />
are not comprehensible). Comprehensive means<br />
inclusive, <strong>of</strong> a large scope or mental grasp (Zt<br />
was a comprehensive scheme and included all<br />
points <strong>of</strong> view).<br />
A thing is comprehensible (or understandable)<br />
by one’s self. It is made comprehensible<br />
to others.<br />
comprise; constitute; include. To comprise is to<br />
include, contain, be composed <strong>of</strong> (The program<br />
comprised twelve events). To constitute is to<br />
compose or to form (Twelve events constitate
the program). A body comprises those things <strong>of</strong><br />
which it is constituted. Comprise and constitute<br />
should not be confused.<br />
It is better to use comprise when all <strong>of</strong> the<br />
constituent parts are enumerated or referred to<br />
and to use include when only some <strong>of</strong> them are.<br />
conceal. See hide.<br />
concealment. See secretion.<br />
concede. The use <strong>of</strong> concede in the common<br />
phrase concede the election, meaning to admit<br />
or recognize that the opposing candidate has<br />
won, is now standard in American usage. We<br />
use concede <strong>of</strong>ten where the English prefer<br />
admit or recognize.<br />
conceit. See pride.<br />
concensus. See consensus.<br />
concept; conception. See idea.<br />
concern. The phrase as concerns is impersonal and<br />
means as it concerns. The verb is therefore<br />
always in the singular. That is, we say us concerns<br />
these men and not as concern these
conductive 112<br />
conductive; conducive. Conductive, which used to<br />
be synonymous with conducive, has now become<br />
limited to the meaning it has in physicshaving<br />
the property <strong>of</strong> conducting or pertaining<br />
to the conduction <strong>of</strong> some form <strong>of</strong> energy, such<br />
as heat or electricity (Copper and silver are<br />
highly conductive metals).<br />
Conducive (followed by to, not by <strong>of</strong>) means<br />
contributive or helpful (Sound sleep is conducive<br />
to health. Such remarks are not conducive<br />
to good will).<br />
conductor. In America the <strong>of</strong>ficial in charge <strong>of</strong> a<br />
railroad train or streetcar is called a conductor.<br />
When there were two men on the buses, %he one<br />
who collected the fares was also called a conductor,<br />
but now that he has been abolished the<br />
one remaining man is called the drive,r, even<br />
though he has taken over the duties <strong>of</strong> the conductor.<br />
In England there are bus conductors and<br />
tram conductors but not railway conductors.<br />
The American conductor’s duties in England are<br />
divided between the gunrd and the ,stutionmuster;<br />
his dignity is assumed only by the<br />
stationmaster.<br />
On a freight train (in England a goods train)<br />
the American brakeman is in England a guard.<br />
A guard in America is a crossing watchman or<br />
a gateman.<br />
confess may be followed by a clause, as in I confess<br />
I have heard about it, or by the -irrg form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition to, as in Z confess<br />
to having heard about it. It is also frequently<br />
used with an infinitive, as in I confess to have<br />
heard about it, but this is not standard usage.<br />
confess; admit; acknowledge. To confess is not<br />
only to concede that a fact is true but also to<br />
accept, to some extent, a measure <strong>of</strong> responsibility<br />
for its being true. When a man says I confess<br />
I haven’t spoken to him, he acknowledges<br />
a certain guilt for not having spoken. To admit<br />
is to concede, usually under pressure, but, unless<br />
a statement <strong>of</strong> guilt is specifically made, an admission<br />
does not necessarily constitute a confession<br />
(He admitted that the charge had been<br />
made. He admitted that he was guilty). In law a<br />
confession is always an acknowledgement <strong>of</strong><br />
guilt.<br />
To acknowledge is to recognize or grant the<br />
existence <strong>of</strong> something, but there is in it a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> reluctance. To acknowledge a greeting<br />
is to receive it coolly and return it with brief<br />
formality. To acknowledge guilt is to admit it<br />
under pressure, usually after a previous denial<br />
<strong>of</strong> it.<br />
confidant; confident. A confidant is one to whom<br />
secrets are confided. The feminine is confidante,<br />
though it is acceptable to use confidant for either<br />
a man or a woman. Confident means having a<br />
strong belief or full assurance (He was confident<br />
that his confidant would keep his secret).<br />
confound is, basically, a very strong word. It<br />
means to confuse the very elements <strong>of</strong>,, to pour<br />
the basic constituents together into a formless<br />
mess. When Milton spoke <strong>of</strong> the fallen Angels<br />
as rolling in the fiery gulf/ Confounded, though<br />
immortal, he wished to convey an idea <strong>of</strong> complete<br />
defeat, <strong>of</strong> utter destruction this side <strong>of</strong> an-<br />
nihilation. So that at one time Confound you<br />
was a stronger imprecation than Damn you,<br />
though it is now felt to be milder. In the second<br />
verse <strong>of</strong> the British national anthem (God Save<br />
the King) God is besought to prostrate the<br />
knavish tricks and to confound the politics <strong>of</strong><br />
Britain’s enemies. The latter phrase, in this context,<br />
means to reduce to impotent confusion<br />
whatever nefarious schemes the enemies may be<br />
plotting.<br />
confusion worse confounded is a quotation from<br />
the second book <strong>of</strong> Paradise Lost (ruin upon<br />
ruin, rout on rout,/ Confusion worse confounded-a<br />
description <strong>of</strong> the defeated Angels hurtling<br />
downward through Chaos) and meant<br />
originally confusion made worse by the commingling<br />
<strong>of</strong> the very elements amid uproar and<br />
tumult. As a modern term for utter confusion<br />
it has become hackneyed.<br />
confute. See refute.<br />
congenial; genial. Genial means sympathetic,<br />
cheerful, cordial (His genial disposition made<br />
him many friends). Congenial means suited or<br />
adapted in spirit, feeling, temper, etc. (They<br />
were congenial and enjoyed each other’s company).<br />
Of course genial people are more likely<br />
to find congeniality than the sad or surly, for<br />
the majority <strong>of</strong> mankind, however unjustified,<br />
is moderately cheerful most <strong>of</strong> the time. But<br />
misery loves company too, and the despondent<br />
and resentful and others dominated by unpleasant<br />
moods find congeniality in their like.<br />
conjecture. See guess.<br />
conjugal. See matrimonial.<br />
conjunctions are words that show a grammatical<br />
relation between other words or groups <strong>of</strong><br />
words. This, in turn, may reflect a logical or<br />
conceptual relation, but not a physical one. For<br />
example, in Jack and Jill went up the hill, the<br />
conjunction and shows that the words Jack and<br />
Jill are together the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb went. If<br />
we want to say something about the people<br />
rather than about the words we must use a<br />
preposition or an adverb, as in Jack went with<br />
Jill or Jack and Jill went together.<br />
The relation between groups <strong>of</strong> words is<br />
sometimes made clear without using a true conjunction.<br />
Formerly, the mere fact that a relation<br />
existed was shown by juxtaposition, as in out <strong>of</strong><br />
sight out <strong>of</strong> mind and stuff a cold starve a fever.<br />
Today we want to be told more about the relation.<br />
We may show what the relation is by position,<br />
if a clause is standing where only the object<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb can stand or where only a phrase<br />
qualifying a noun can stand. Otherwise, we show<br />
the type <strong>of</strong> relation by the first word in the<br />
clause. This may be one <strong>of</strong> the relative pronouns,<br />
who, which, what, that, or as, or an adverb,<br />
such as when, where, how. Clauses may<br />
also be introduced by participles, such as supposing,<br />
provided, grunted. Sometimes they<br />
follow immediately after a noun that is being<br />
used as an adverb, such as minute in I remembered<br />
the minute I saw him; or that is part <strong>of</strong> an<br />
adverbial phrase, such as fear in they drove fast<br />
for fear they should be late.<br />
Grammarians make a distinction betweef~
elative pronouns and true conjunctions. In fhe<br />
man that sells balloons has left, the first word<br />
in the clause, that, is the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
sells and represents or means “the man.” It is<br />
therefore a relative pronoun. But in Z believe<br />
that he has left, the that has neither <strong>of</strong> these<br />
functions and merely introduces the clause. In<br />
this construction, it is a true conjunction.<br />
An adverb that introduces a clause is classed<br />
as a conjunction, although it does not lose any<br />
<strong>of</strong> its adverbial functions. An isolated adverb,<br />
such as before in it has happened before, is a<br />
true adverb. If an adverb brings a full clause<br />
with it, it has ceased to be an adverb and become<br />
a conjunction, as in it happened before Z<br />
arrived. If it forms a phrase with a noun or noun<br />
equivalent, it has ceased to be an adverb and<br />
become a preposition, as in it happened before<br />
dinner. See adverbs.<br />
The difference between a preposition and a<br />
conjunction is sometimes important. A subjective<br />
pronoun cannot be used as an object<br />
following a preposition. We say he did it for me<br />
and not he did it f,or I. But a pronoun following<br />
a conjunction may be subjective or objective depending<br />
upon its function in the sentence. If it is<br />
functioning as the subject <strong>of</strong> a following verb,<br />
an objective form cannot be used. For example,<br />
the subjective form Z is required in he works<br />
faster than Z do. When no verb actually follows,<br />
there is a difference <strong>of</strong> opinion as to which form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pronoun is required. Some grammarians<br />
claim that certain words, such as than, are<br />
always conjunctions and imply a relation to the<br />
verb, and that an objective pronoun should not<br />
be used where the word is functioning as the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb. According to these grammarians<br />
we are required to say he works faster *than<br />
I, whether the verb follows or not. In practice,<br />
we <strong>of</strong>ten do say he works faster than me. ‘This<br />
means that we are treating the word than :3s if<br />
it were a preposition rather than a conjunction.<br />
The construction is more acceptable for some<br />
words than it is for others. (See the individual<br />
prepositions or conjunctions.) When a following<br />
pronoun is functioning as the object <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
a subjective form cannot be used. We say Z know<br />
her better than (I do) him. In a case like this<br />
there is no need to say whether than is being<br />
used as a preposition or as a conjunction since<br />
we have the same result with either interpretation.<br />
Pronouns, adverbs, and nouns used adverbially<br />
may serve as conjunctions. In addition,<br />
there are certain words that are used merel:y as<br />
connectives. These pure conjunctions are: and,<br />
or, nor, bat, for, than, as, because, if, Jest,<br />
the@ or although, unless, whether, while, and<br />
that.<br />
COORDINATING AND SUBORDINATING<br />
CONJUNCTIONS<br />
Conjunctions are classified as coordinating<br />
or subordinating. A coordinating conjunction<br />
stands between two elements and indicates that<br />
they are grammatically equivalent. The elements<br />
may be words, phrases, or clauses. In he arrived<br />
and Z left, the coordinating conjunction ,and<br />
113 conjunctions<br />
stands between two complete and independent<br />
statements, called principal clauses. In Jack or<br />
Jill, the coordinating conjunction or stands between<br />
two nouns. A subordinating conjunction<br />
always joins two clauses and shows that the one<br />
which immediately follows the conjunction is<br />
functioning as an element in the other. In he<br />
arrived as Z left, there is only one independent<br />
statement, he arrived. The subordinating conjunction<br />
as shows that Z left is functioning as an<br />
adverb <strong>of</strong> time in the other clause.<br />
The words and, or, and nor, are always coordinating<br />
conjunctions and always stand between<br />
similar elements. Nothing as clear cut as this can<br />
be said about any <strong>of</strong> the other conjunctions.<br />
Bzct is sometimes coordinating and sometimes<br />
subordinating. There is a difference <strong>of</strong> opinion<br />
as to whether it may also be used as a preposition.<br />
The word for is ordinarily a preposition<br />
but it is sometimes used as a conjunction. When<br />
it is there is a difference <strong>of</strong> opinion as to whether<br />
it is coordinating or subordinating. The words<br />
than and as are usually subordinating but are<br />
considered coordinating in certain constructions<br />
by some grammarians. (For a further discussion<br />
<strong>of</strong> these problems, see the individual words.)<br />
At one time it was customary to use a comma<br />
between clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction,<br />
but this is no longer required.<br />
The remaining conjunctions are subordinating.<br />
Coordination is a much simpler relationship<br />
than subordination and the subordinating conjunctions<br />
have a variety <strong>of</strong> functions. (For this,<br />
see the individual words.) A subordinating conjunction<br />
is always the first word in the subordinate<br />
clause but the position <strong>of</strong> the clause itself<br />
in the sentence depends upon its function. (See<br />
clauses.) As a rule, a clause that is the subject<br />
or the object <strong>of</strong> a verb is not set <strong>of</strong>f from the<br />
rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence by a comma. Adjective and<br />
adverb clauses sometimes are and sometimes are<br />
not, In general, a clause has the same punctuation<br />
that a single word with the same function<br />
would have.<br />
Conjunctions are sometimes paired with another<br />
word, such as not only . . . but, either . . .<br />
or, if . . . then. These are called correlative conjunctions.<br />
They may be coordinating or subordinating,<br />
depending upon the conjunction itself.<br />
For a discussion <strong>of</strong> the word order in clauses <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind, see parallel constructions.<br />
SENTENCE CONJUNCTIONS<br />
Words which indicate that an inference or<br />
conclusion is to follow, such as therefore, consequently,<br />
accordingly, then, are called “conjunctive<br />
adverbs” or “illative conjunctions.”<br />
They are conjunctions in the sense that they<br />
show a relation between sentences. But grammatically,<br />
they are treated as adverbs. That is,<br />
these words do not have a fixed position in relation<br />
to the statement they introduce. The clause<br />
in which they appear is not, as a rule, joined to<br />
another, but is separated by a period or a semicolon.<br />
See sentence adverbs.<br />
Coordinating conjunctions, such as and, or.<br />
but, may also be used to show a relation between<br />
independent sentences. Actually, this is only a
connected 114<br />
question <strong>of</strong> punctuation, <strong>of</strong> where we put a<br />
period and a capital letter. A sentence which<br />
begins with a coordinating conjunction could<br />
have been printed as a continuation <strong>of</strong> the preceding<br />
sentence. In current English we like short<br />
sentences, and a long sentence is sometimes<br />
easier to read if it is printed as two independent<br />
sentences.<br />
connected. See identified.<br />
connection. The spelling connection, deplored in<br />
British style manuals, is standard in America.<br />
Connexion is now so rare in the United States<br />
that it would be regarded as a ludicrous misspelling.<br />
connotation; denotation. To denote is to mark,<br />
indicate, designate (The silver bars denoted their<br />
wearer to be a captain). To connote is to signify<br />
in addition to the primary meaning, to :involve<br />
as a condition <strong>of</strong> accompaniment. A word den&es<br />
the indispensable minimum <strong>of</strong> definition.<br />
A word connotes all <strong>of</strong> the attributes which are<br />
not denoted but which are associated with it.<br />
Thus the word pig denotes a young swine <strong>of</strong><br />
either sex. It connotes filth and gluttony and<br />
high-pitched squealing, the little pig that ‘went to<br />
market, the one that built his house <strong>of</strong> bricks,<br />
various characters in literature that have gone<br />
by that nickname, and whatever else, in addition<br />
to its basic denotation, the word may conjure up<br />
in the mind <strong>of</strong> one who hears or reads it.<br />
connubial. See matrimonial.<br />
conscious; aware. To be conscious <strong>of</strong> something<br />
is to have an inner realization <strong>of</strong> it. We are conscious<br />
<strong>of</strong> guilt or innocence, <strong>of</strong> exhaustion (He<br />
was hardly conscious <strong>of</strong> his own motives. He<br />
was conscious <strong>of</strong> blushing), and so on. We are<br />
aware through our sense perceptions which lead<br />
to consciousness (Half awake, he was aware <strong>of</strong><br />
a hammering at the door and conscious <strong>of</strong> a<br />
rapidly rising panic fear).<br />
An act, the motives <strong>of</strong> which are conscious, is<br />
likely to be deliberate or purposive. We are not<br />
likely, that is, to blunder into it. But conscious<br />
should not be used loosely as a synonym for<br />
deliberate.<br />
consecutive; successive. Both consecutive and successive<br />
apply to things which follow one upon<br />
the other. But successive refers merely to the<br />
position <strong>of</strong> one thing in relation to another<br />
(Successive disasters reduced him to poverty);<br />
whereas consecutive denotes a close and uninterrupted<br />
sequence, sometimes with the implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> an established order. Three successive<br />
days would be any three days in which the last<br />
two followed the first and the last followed the<br />
second. Three consecutive days would ‘be three<br />
days in a row, such as January the lirst, second,<br />
and third, or Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday.<br />
consensus. The term for general agreement or<br />
concord is consensus, not concensus, as it is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten erroneously spelled, possibly because <strong>of</strong><br />
some confused notion that there has been a<br />
census <strong>of</strong> ideas and this is its final tabulation.<br />
Consensus <strong>of</strong> opinion is, strictly, a redundancy,<br />
since consensus means agreement <strong>of</strong><br />
opinion, but it is used so <strong>of</strong>ten that it must be<br />
accepted.<br />
consent (noun). See permission.<br />
consent. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I wilZ not consent to go, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition to, as in<br />
Z will not consent to going. Both forms are standard.<br />
See also allow.<br />
consequent; consequential. As adjectives consequent<br />
and consequential both mean following<br />
as an effect or result or as a logical conclusion<br />
(The rapid increase <strong>of</strong> trade and the consequent<br />
influx <strong>of</strong> wealth. These privileges will draw consequential<br />
dificulties in their train). Both words<br />
formerly also meant, <strong>of</strong> persons, important or<br />
self-important, those, that is, whose acts or<br />
wishes <strong>of</strong> necessity have consequences. But<br />
this meaning is now confined to consequential<br />
(Goldsmith was sometimes content to be treated<br />
with an easy familiarity, but upon occasions<br />
would be consequential and important. He is a<br />
consequential man and must be treated with<br />
respect). Indeed, this is now becoming the primary<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> consequential and we encounter<br />
it in its other, basic meaning less and less<br />
frequently.<br />
conservative. Fowler inveighs against the use <strong>of</strong><br />
conservative as an adjective to mean moderate<br />
when qualifying a noun such as figure or estimate<br />
as “perhaps the most ridiculous <strong>of</strong> slipshod<br />
extensions.” But the processes <strong>of</strong> language are<br />
indifferent to ridicule and have extended meanings<br />
in ways far more slipshod than this (as, for<br />
instance, in slipshod extension). When conservative<br />
(in its strict meaning <strong>of</strong> disposed to preserve<br />
existing conditions) became opposed in politics<br />
to liberal, it is not surprising to find it being used<br />
as an antonym in other senses. Certainly in<br />
American usage conservative is now standard<br />
in the meaning <strong>of</strong> moderate.<br />
consider is to contemplate, meditate, reflect upon.<br />
A considered opinion is one that has been<br />
weighed and mulled over. That consider should<br />
have become, even in standard use, a synonym<br />
for think is not astonishing, for vanity leads us<br />
to regard our most irrational impulses as pondered<br />
thoughts and courtesy leads us to at least<br />
imply as much for the figmentitious fancies <strong>of</strong><br />
our friends. But the careful speaker or writer<br />
will bear the distinction in mind and not write<br />
such sentences as He considered him an enemy,<br />
fhough he had no grounds for thinking so.<br />
Consider may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
especially a perfect infinitive with have, as in<br />
I consider him to have acted disgracefully, but<br />
a that clause is generally preferred, as in I consider<br />
that he has acted disgracefully.<br />
considerable. Traditionally, this word is used only<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> immaterial things, such as considerable<br />
trouble, considerable influence. Its use<br />
with material things, as in considerable money<br />
is not known outside the United States and is<br />
questionable here.<br />
In older American speech, though now almost<br />
never heard, the adjective considerable was used<br />
for the adverb considerably (He was considerable<br />
tired before he was through). This usage,<br />
from the contexts in which it appears, was<br />
plainly regarded as rustic. It was not an Amer-
icanism, however, but a survival in America <strong>of</strong><br />
an older English usage.<br />
consign to oblivion as a term for putting something<br />
out <strong>of</strong> one’s mind is a cliche, the worse for<br />
being used solely by the affected educated.<br />
consistence and consistency are interchangeable<br />
in most uses, though consistency is always used<br />
when “being consistent” (constantly adhering to<br />
the same principles) is meant (A foolish consistency<br />
is the hobgoblin <strong>of</strong> little minds). Consistence<br />
usually refers to the state, the degree <strong>of</strong><br />
density or viscosity (The mud had the cotzsisfence<br />
<strong>of</strong> pitch), and consistency to the quality <strong>of</strong><br />
uniformity.<br />
consistently; constantly. Consistently is sometimes<br />
misused for constazztly. One who constantl,y discusses<br />
a certain subject is one who talks about it<br />
incessantly, unremittingly, perpetually. One who<br />
consistently discusses a certain subject is one<br />
who at all times in his discussion <strong>of</strong> it maintains<br />
the same attitude towards it.<br />
consistently; persistently. To act consistently is to<br />
adhere constantly to the same principles, to hold<br />
the same course, not to contradict oneself (He<br />
was consistently disagreeable). To act persistently<br />
is to be pertinacious, to keep up an unremitting<br />
pressure, to endure in the face <strong>of</strong><br />
opposition (Desdemona persistently demanded<br />
Cassio’s reinstatement and thereby worked her<br />
ruin ) .<br />
consist <strong>of</strong>; consist in. Consist <strong>of</strong> applies to the<br />
component parts <strong>of</strong> a whole (A university consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> teachers, administrators, and students).<br />
Consist in auulies to inherent aualities (The libera1<br />
value <strong>of</strong> the scientific discipline consists in<br />
its fostering <strong>of</strong> the questioning spirit).<br />
conspicuous by his absence. When Tacitus in his<br />
Annals (115 A.D.) remarked that the images <strong>of</strong><br />
Brutus and Cassius were the more radiant at<br />
Junia’s funeral because they were not seen at all<br />
(magis praefulgebant qrcod non videbantur), he<br />
no doubt felt a glow <strong>of</strong> satisfaction at the brilliance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the oxymoron and inclined his head,<br />
one assumes, in acknowledgement <strong>of</strong> the murmurous<br />
plaudits <strong>of</strong> his admiring friends. It was<br />
a good thing, well said, and even Lord John<br />
Russell, seventeen hundred years later, deserved<br />
applause when, in addressing the Electors <strong>of</strong> the<br />
City <strong>of</strong> London (April 6, 1859), he observed<br />
that a certain provision in Lord Derby’s Reform<br />
Bill was conspicuous by its absence.<br />
But the thing is now a cliche. Its only justification<br />
is the surprise <strong>of</strong> its seeming contradiction<br />
and the possibility <strong>of</strong> surprise has long ago bmeen<br />
dissipated by repetition. It remains a cumbrous<br />
jocularity, a brazen piece <strong>of</strong> verbose dullness.<br />
constantly; continually; continuously; perpetually;<br />
incessantly. To do something constantly is to do<br />
it <strong>of</strong>ten (ffe is constantly tearing up what he has<br />
already written and beginning over again). To<br />
do something continually is to do it at short intervals<br />
(He is continually reminding nze <strong>of</strong> what<br />
I owe him). <strong>Cont</strong>inuously means uninterruptedly<br />
(The witzd blew continuously for three days).<br />
Perpetually properly means continuing or enduring<br />
for ever (The perpetual light <strong>of</strong> the stars.<br />
Graves for a fee will receive perpetual care),<br />
115 consul<br />
but it is also, in the exaggeration with which<br />
irritation relieves itself, used for continually,<br />
especially in expression <strong>of</strong> minor annoyance<br />
(The children are perpetually demanding to go<br />
to the zoo again. I have had no leisure; the<br />
phone has been ringing perpetually since you<br />
left). Incessantly means without ceasing and<br />
therefore in its strictest sense is a synonym <strong>of</strong><br />
continuously (an incessant noise) but it is used<br />
so much for continually as well that this meaning<br />
must be accepted now as standard.<br />
Of these words, continuous and continuously<br />
also apply to space (The property hne was continuous<br />
with the fence). See consistently.<br />
constitute. See comprise.<br />
constrain; restrain. To constrain a man is to compel<br />
him to do something. He may be constrained<br />
to appear in court or to make good on some<br />
contractual obligation. To restrain him is to hold<br />
him back from an action, to keep him in check,<br />
even by imprisonment.<br />
Constrain may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he constrained them to tell the truth and<br />
I am constrained to believe him, but not by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb. We do not say I am constrained<br />
to believing him. Restrain may be followed<br />
by from and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, but<br />
not by an infinitive.<br />
constructive; implicit; virtual. One <strong>of</strong> the meanings<br />
<strong>of</strong> constructive is inferential, so construed,<br />
deduced by construction. There is a constructive<br />
permission to use a private road, for example,<br />
if it is not marked as private and is left open.<br />
Constructive treason is an act that may be construed<br />
as treasonable.<br />
Anything is implicit which is implied without<br />
being stated. It describes a less formal deduction<br />
than that suggested by constructive. There is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten an implicit consent in the lack <strong>of</strong> an express<br />
denial.<br />
That is virtual which is such in power, force,<br />
or effect, though not actually or expressly such.<br />
Thus dictators are the virtual rulers <strong>of</strong> their<br />
countries, though many <strong>of</strong> them ostensibly hold<br />
secondary positions.<br />
constructive criticism. The demand for constructive<br />
rather than destructive criticism (usually<br />
with an exaggerated emphasis on the first syllable<br />
<strong>of</strong> each adjective) has become one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cant phrases <strong>of</strong> the day. It is true that under the<br />
guise <strong>of</strong> criticism mockery and hatred <strong>of</strong>ten vent<br />
their spite, and what pr<strong>of</strong>esses to be a fair and<br />
even helpful analysis <strong>of</strong> a situation or policy is<br />
sometimes a malignant attack. But the proper<br />
answer to that is to expose the malignance and<br />
so point out that it is not criticism at all.<br />
Most whining for constructive rather than destructive<br />
criticism is a demand for unqualified<br />
praise, an insistence that no opinion is to be<br />
expressed or course proposed other than the one<br />
supported by the speaker. It is a dreary phrase,<br />
avoided by fair-minded men.<br />
consul; counsel; council. The government agent<br />
who resides in a foreign state and discharges<br />
certain administrative duties is a consul. To call<br />
him a counsel or council is a mark <strong>of</strong> sheer<br />
ignorance.
consume 116<br />
A consul was at one time either <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
chief magistrates <strong>of</strong> the ancient Roman republic.<br />
The emperors did not abolish the (consulships,<br />
but placed themselves in power over the<br />
consuls and from that moment the dignity and<br />
greatness <strong>of</strong> the name began to decline until<br />
now it stands for merely a minor commercial<br />
agent. Almost all titles depreciate in v,alue in<br />
time. A prince was once the principal man, a<br />
duke was the leader, a count ruled a county, a<br />
marquis guarded the marches, or borders. The<br />
American custom <strong>of</strong> bestowing many alf these<br />
titles (especially Earl and Duke) as first names<br />
will no doubt greatly speed the process <strong>of</strong> devaluation.<br />
consume is to use up, to destroy (The fire consumed<br />
the house), to eat or drink up (He consumed<br />
n large menl), to spend money or time<br />
wastefully, or to absorb or engross (Football<br />
consumed his energy. The book consumed his<br />
time). The economists have made it a synonym<br />
for use and in their world it probably must be<br />
so accepted as standard, but in ordinary use the<br />
careful speaker or writer will reserve it. for its<br />
special meaning.<br />
contact. In the sense <strong>of</strong> to get in touch with a<br />
person (I’ll contact Jones and get his reaction)<br />
contact was once a fighting word. The purists,<br />
particularly English purists, made an issue <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
Here was an abomination, an Americanism<br />
hideously repugnant. But it was a useful figure<br />
(after all, get in touch with is also a metaphor<br />
and several times as long) and very few business<br />
men even knew that the purists existed. Its fault<br />
was not so much its impropriety as that it was<br />
for a while grossly overworked. It is certainly<br />
accepted in spoken English today and will probably<br />
become the usual term in written English<br />
as well.<br />
The noun contact, in the sense <strong>of</strong> one with<br />
whom one is in touch (The F.B.I. has its contacts<br />
in the Communist Party) is now on the<br />
threshold <strong>of</strong> becoming standard.<br />
contagious; infectious. In medical usage, an infectious<br />
disease is one communicable by infection,<br />
a contagious disease one that is spread by<br />
physical contact. In popular usage the words are<br />
interchangeable, in their metaphorical uses,<br />
though contagious has come to have a slight<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> rapidity in spreading (The luughter<br />
was contagious. Mistrust is infectious and<br />
once started may weaken an entire nation).<br />
contain; include. To contain is to have within itself.<br />
To include is to contain as a part or member,<br />
or among the parts and members, <strong>of</strong> a<br />
whole. A whole contains its parts and includes<br />
any or all <strong>of</strong> its parts. Thus one might say <strong>of</strong> a<br />
certain package that it contained six reams <strong>of</strong><br />
paper and that among these six reams were included<br />
two <strong>of</strong> blue paper and one <strong>of</strong> yellow.<br />
contemplate; meditate; premeditate. In the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> considering in the mind as something to be<br />
done, contemplate, meditate, and premeditate<br />
imply different degrees <strong>of</strong> intention. One contemplates<br />
many things that one has no serious<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> doing, but they still have to be more<br />
likely to happen than those things which we<br />
merely imagine. One meditates more seriously.<br />
The word suggests deeper absorption in the possibility,<br />
a more searching examination <strong>of</strong> ways<br />
and means (meditating revenge, under brows <strong>of</strong><br />
dauntless courage). Both contemplate and meditate<br />
apply to stages <strong>of</strong> consideration in which a<br />
decision to act or not to act is possible, but<br />
premeditate is used now exclusively to refer to<br />
cogitations preceding something that actually<br />
did happen (His crime was premeditated: he<br />
cannot pretend that it was done on thoughtless<br />
impulse). In the law premeditation implies sufficient<br />
forethought to impute deliberation and<br />
intent to commit the act.<br />
contemporary; contemporaneous; coeval. <strong>Cont</strong>emporary<br />
and contemporaneous both refer to<br />
things that exist or occur at the same time, but<br />
contemporary is applied more to people and<br />
contemporaneous to objects (Keats was a contemporary<br />
<strong>of</strong> Shelley’s. The first volume <strong>of</strong><br />
Gibbon’s Decline and Fall and the first volume<br />
<strong>of</strong> Adam Smith’s Wealth <strong>of</strong> Nations were contemporaneorts).<br />
Where contemporary is used<br />
without any comparison being made, it refers<br />
to the present time (<strong>Cont</strong>emporary styles in<br />
women’s clothing permit great freedom <strong>of</strong> movement)<br />
.<br />
Coeval also means existing at the same time,<br />
but it implies that the contemporaneousness has<br />
gone on for a long time or existed in times <strong>of</strong><br />
the remote past (Tyranny is coeval with servility.<br />
Rome and Greece were coeval). Where<br />
coeval is used <strong>of</strong> a person, it is usually humorous,<br />
implying a contemporaneousness <strong>of</strong> such<br />
duration that it must be measured in terms <strong>of</strong><br />
history or geology. Lamb says <strong>of</strong> a superannuated<br />
man: He is forlorn among his coevals; his<br />
funiors cannot be his friends.<br />
Cotemporary and cotemporaneous, by the<br />
way, are permissible variants, not misspellings.<br />
See also synchronous.<br />
contemptible; contemptuous. When Pedro, in Much<br />
Ado About Nothing, says <strong>of</strong> Benedick that the<br />
man hath a contemptible spirit, it is apparent<br />
from the context that he does not mean that<br />
Benedick had a spirit deserving <strong>of</strong> contempt but<br />
one manifesting contempt, a haughty and disdainful<br />
spirit. But contemptible is no longer<br />
synonymous with contemptuous. It now means<br />
deserving <strong>of</strong> contempt and contemptuous means<br />
bestowing <strong>of</strong> contempt (It is true that his attitude<br />
towards the project is contemptuous, but<br />
it must be granted that many <strong>of</strong> those engaged<br />
in it are contemptible).<br />
content; contented. These adjectives can both follow<br />
a linking verb, as in the man was content<br />
and the man was contented. But only the form<br />
contented can stand before the noun it qualifies.<br />
We can say the contented man but not the content<br />
man.<br />
It may be hair-splitting, but in common use<br />
content suggests more <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> satisfied<br />
and contented more <strong>of</strong> pleased in sntisfaction.<br />
content; contents. In current English, the singular<br />
word content is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the significant<br />
material contained in a piece <strong>of</strong> work, and
one may say it has no content. The plural word<br />
contents means the topics treated, or more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
a list <strong>of</strong> these topics. When it means a list, it is<br />
treated as a singular, as in is there a contents?<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> a physical container, the plural<br />
form contents means what is contained in it, and<br />
the singular content means its capacity. The<br />
singular may also be used to mean amount as<br />
in the ulcoholic content. When used with a<br />
physical meaning, the plural contents requires<br />
a plural verb, as in the contents were surprising,<br />
but it is not a true plural and cannot be used<br />
with a numeral.<br />
contentious. See controversial.<br />
contest. In England a contested election is one in<br />
which there is more than one candidate. In<br />
America it is that (It was a hotly contested election)<br />
but it is also an election in which the<br />
validity <strong>of</strong> the returns is challenged (<strong>Cont</strong>ested<br />
elections are determined by Congress).<br />
In sports, the American contestant is the<br />
English competitor, though the American usage<br />
(which is standard in England but simpby not<br />
employed very much) is coming into use in<br />
England more and more.<br />
context means that part <strong>of</strong> a discourse or writing<br />
which precedes and follows a given passage or<br />
word, which gives the passage or word its exact<br />
meaning. Where a word has many meaningsand<br />
some words in English have twenty or thirty<br />
meanings and thousands have two or more meanings-it<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten only the context that can tell us<br />
just which meaning is to be understood.<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> context, whole passages can be misunderstood.<br />
Thus Iago’s great speech in Othello,<br />
beginning<br />
Good name in man and woman, dear my lord,<br />
Is the immediate jewel <strong>of</strong> their souls<br />
is taught to millions <strong>of</strong> children as a noble and<br />
high-minded utterance. And so, taken by itself,<br />
it is. But in the context <strong>of</strong> the play it is pr<strong>of</strong>oundly<br />
cynical.<br />
To quote out <strong>of</strong> context with the deliberate<br />
intention <strong>of</strong> misleading is a moral, not a grammatical,<br />
fault. But it is very common, especially<br />
in the advertising <strong>of</strong> books and theatrical performances.<br />
Thus a notice before a theater may<br />
inform the public, on the authority <strong>of</strong> a distinguished<br />
critic, that this is “Miss W’s most<br />
brilliant performance.” Whereas the critic had<br />
written “Miss W’s most brilliant performance<br />
falls short <strong>of</strong> most other actresses’ mumbling in<br />
their sleep.”<br />
contiguous. See adjacent.<br />
continually; continuously. See constantly.<br />
continuance; continuation. Though continuance<br />
and continuation are synonymous in meaning<br />
the act or fact <strong>of</strong> continuing, continuance means<br />
duration or time <strong>of</strong> continuing (His continuance<br />
in <strong>of</strong>ice was made endurable only by the devotion<br />
<strong>of</strong> his friends). <strong>Cont</strong>inuation means prolongation,<br />
either <strong>of</strong> time or space. Thus the continuance<br />
<strong>of</strong> a house would refer to the time <strong>of</strong> its<br />
continual standing. The continuation <strong>of</strong> a house<br />
could refer to an extension, such as a wing, or<br />
to the future time in which it would be permitted<br />
117 contrive<br />
to remain standing (The continuation <strong>of</strong> its<br />
occupancy <strong>of</strong> this site was debatable).<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>inuance has a special legal meaning in<br />
American usage: the adjournment <strong>of</strong> a step in<br />
a proceeding to a future day (At the attorney’s<br />
request a continuance was granted).<br />
continue may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
continue to talk, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as<br />
in continue talking. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>inue may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing what continues, as in he continued<br />
silent. It may also be followed by an adverb<br />
describing the continuing, as in he continued<br />
silently. See also resume.<br />
continuing action tenses. See progressive tenses.<br />
contract; catch; get. One <strong>of</strong> the many meanings<br />
<strong>of</strong> contract is to acquire, as by habit or contagion<br />
(He contracted the habit <strong>of</strong> smoking.<br />
He contracted enormous debts). In reference to<br />
the acquirement <strong>of</strong> a disease, it is a little stilted,<br />
though widely used. To catch or to get a cold is<br />
better than to contract one, though the rarer<br />
diseases or the more common diseases under<br />
their rarer names are more fittingly contracted.<br />
One contracts tuberculosis, one gets a sty or a<br />
boil. A child will probably get a light case <strong>of</strong><br />
measles, but contract a severe one.<br />
contradictory; contradictious. Ideas, statements,<br />
and terms that are opposed, admitting no middle<br />
ground, and mutually exclusive, are contradictory.<br />
Persons who delight in having ideas<br />
and making statements that are contradictory to<br />
those expressed by their associates are contradictious.<br />
They are not, however, <strong>of</strong>ten so called.<br />
Quarrelsome, captious, perverse, argumentative,<br />
cantankerous are terms more generally employed<br />
to describe such people. <strong>Cont</strong>rary is used<br />
a great deal colloquially.<br />
contrary; opposite; adverse; reverse. Opposite<br />
means symmetrical antithesis in position, action<br />
or character. It and contrary, adverse, and reverse<br />
refer to two things that differ from each<br />
other in such a way as to suggest a relationship.<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>rary, except when specifically applied to<br />
persons, describes something impersonal whose<br />
opposition happens to be unfavorable (a contrary<br />
opinion, contrary winds). Reverse describes<br />
that which faces or moves in the opposite<br />
direction (a reverse judgment, the reverse <strong>of</strong> a<br />
page). Adverse suggests something hostile in its<br />
opposition, being not merely opposite but opposing.<br />
Adverse fortune is worse than ill fortune<br />
in that it implies an active malignance in the<br />
bad luck.<br />
contrary-to-fact statements. See subjunctive mode<br />
and infinitives.<br />
contrast. See compare.<br />
contribute may sometimes be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in it contributed to save our lives.<br />
The construction is found in older literature but<br />
is rare today. The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the<br />
preposition to, as in it contributed to saving our<br />
lives, is generally preferred.<br />
contrive may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I contrived to meet him. It may also be followed<br />
by a that clause. But in this case, the clause verb<br />
must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive equiva-
controversial 118<br />
lent, as in I contrived that 1 should meet him.<br />
The infinitive construction is generally preferred.<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>rive is not followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb. We do not say I contrived meeting him.<br />
controversial; contentious. That which is :subject<br />
to controversy is controversial, He who is given<br />
to controversy is contentious (A contentious<br />
man will find every issue controversial).<br />
conversation. See dialogue.<br />
convict. The verb convict is sometimes usedmore<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten in speech than in writing-for convince<br />
(No use talking, you can’t convict me).<br />
To convict is to prove guilty <strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong>fense, especially<br />
after a legal trial. To convince is to persuade<br />
by argument.<br />
convinced. See satisfied.<br />
cookbook. The American cookbook is in Elngland<br />
a cookery book.<br />
cool as a cucumber. Cucumbers are cool. Scientists<br />
with thermometers have finally confirmed<br />
what has been known for thousands <strong>of</strong> years.<br />
But they have come too late to save thle hackneyed<br />
metaphor as cool as a cucumber meaning<br />
self-possessed, unemotional, collected. It is a<br />
cliche and should be used sparingly.<br />
cooperate together. Since cooperate means ‘to work<br />
together, cooperate together is a tautology.<br />
copula means “connective.” Some grammarians<br />
mean by “the copula” only the verb be. Others<br />
use the term for any verb that merely links a<br />
subject and a complement, such as become,<br />
seem, appear. See linking verbs.<br />
copy (noun). See replica.<br />
copy (verb). See recopy.<br />
copyright; copyrighted. In America a book is copyright,<br />
in England it is copyrighted.<br />
corn means whatever cereal is the chief crop in<br />
the country. In America corn means maize, in<br />
England wheat, in Scotland oats. The compounds<br />
and derivatives <strong>of</strong> corn in America are<br />
many (cornfield, corn pone, corn cob, corn<br />
syrup, etc.). Corn is used alone as an abbreviation<br />
<strong>of</strong> corn whisky and as a slang term for trite<br />
sentimentality and forced, obvious humor. This<br />
last usage seems to derive from cornfed which<br />
a generation ago was a slang term for bucolic<br />
or rustic.<br />
comerways; comerwise. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
cornucopia. The plural is cornucopias, not cornucopiae.<br />
The form cornucopiae is an old-fashioned<br />
English singular, made from a Latin<br />
genitive meaning “horn <strong>of</strong> plenty.” It had a regular<br />
English plural cornucopiaes. The form<br />
cornucopia is preferred today.<br />
corpora. See corpus.<br />
corporal; corporeal; physical; bodily. Corporal,<br />
bodily, is now confined almost exclusively in<br />
ordinary speech and writing to the phrase corporal<br />
punishment. This is sometimes called<br />
corporeal punishment, but that is an error today.<br />
Corporeal and corporal used to be synonymous,<br />
but corporeal has now become a philosophic<br />
and theological word meaning <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong><br />
matter. Theologians speak <strong>of</strong> fhe Corporeal<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> Christ in the Eucharist.<br />
Physical indicates the animal or human body<br />
as a material organism (The physical strength<br />
<strong>of</strong> men in delirium is not as great as folklore<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten represents if). Bodily, which has now replaced<br />
corporal in all but the one phrase, means<br />
belonging to, or concerned with, the human<br />
body, as distinct from mind or spirit (Bodily<br />
pain is <strong>of</strong>ten overlooked in times <strong>of</strong> mental<br />
suffering).<br />
corps. The singular form corps means an organized<br />
military body (The Medical Corps, The<br />
Marine Corps). The plural form, meaning more<br />
than one such body, is also written corps.<br />
In the United States a singular verb is ordinarily<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> just one corps, as in<br />
the cadet corps is orz its way. But since this<br />
represents a body <strong>of</strong> men, a plural verb may also<br />
be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a single corps, as in the<br />
cadet corps are on their way.<br />
corpse; body; carcass; carrion. Corpse is a dead<br />
body, usually <strong>of</strong> a human being. The dead body<br />
<strong>of</strong> an animal is called a carcass. Carrion describes<br />
a putrefying carcass. Body refers to the<br />
material organism <strong>of</strong> an individual man or animal,<br />
living or dead (A glow <strong>of</strong> health suffused<br />
his magnificent body. The body lay where it had<br />
fallen, inert and lifeless).<br />
corpulent. See fat.<br />
corpus. The plural is corpora, not corpi.<br />
corrective <strong>of</strong>; corrective for. Though corrective<br />
<strong>of</strong> is preferable (Greed is not necessarily a corrective<br />
<strong>of</strong> sloth), corrective for is standard in<br />
American usage (His biting irony was a good<br />
corrective for the lush and sentimental rhetoric<br />
they were addicted to). The construction is unavoidable<br />
as corrective comes to be used more<br />
and more as a synonym for remedy.<br />
correlative conjunctions. See parallel constmctions.<br />
correspondence; correspondents. Correspondence<br />
is communication by exchange <strong>of</strong> letters. Corresponderzts<br />
are those who exchange correspondence.<br />
correspondent; corespondent. A correspondent is<br />
one who communicates by ‘letters. A corespondent<br />
is a joint defendant, especially in a divorce<br />
proceeding, where one charged with adultery is<br />
made a joint defendant. Many an indiscreet correspondent<br />
has found himself a corespondent.<br />
corrugated; coruscated. That is corrugated which<br />
is drawn or bent into folds or alternate furrows<br />
and ridges. A plowed field is corrugated. Sheets<br />
<strong>of</strong> iron used for facing buildings or for making<br />
drain pipes and culverts are <strong>of</strong>ten corrugated.<br />
To coruscate is to emit vivid flashes <strong>of</strong> light,<br />
to sparkIe or to gleam (The coruscations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tiara were brilliant. His wit fairly coruscated).<br />
cost. The past tense is cost. The participle is also<br />
cost.<br />
cost a pretty penny. To say <strong>of</strong> something expensive<br />
that it cost a pretty penny is to be allured<br />
by alliteration into a cliche. It is an affected.<br />
mincing phrase.<br />
costive; costly. Mathews quotes several instances<br />
<strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> costive for costly (A scarcity <strong>of</strong><br />
ice has been a great hardship heret<strong>of</strong>ore, and to<br />
ship it from Denison made it very costive). But<br />
since costive means constipated and costly means
expensive, the confusion could be the result <strong>of</strong><br />
either ignorance or sly facetiousness (as in another<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mathews’ quotations wherein a lady’s<br />
poodle is referred to as pretty but costive).<br />
There is a gag in Hollywood <strong>of</strong> a famoua producer<br />
who when told that a certain successful<br />
novel would never do for a movie because it was<br />
“too caustic” said “Never mind the cost! If it’s<br />
good, we’ll buy it.”<br />
costly; dear: expensive. Expensive implies a price<br />
beyond what a thing is worth and beyond what<br />
the purchaser can afford to pay (Since it got<br />
him fired, it turned out to be an expensive indulgence).<br />
Costly implies that much was paid<br />
or must be paid because <strong>of</strong> the high value <strong>of</strong> the<br />
object ((I costly jewel), but it, too, is used, like<br />
expensive, to imply that too much was paid<br />
(That was a costly joke). Dear in America, in<br />
this sense, means high-priced (It would have<br />
been dear at half the price).<br />
coterie. See clique.<br />
couched. The use <strong>of</strong> couched for expressed (The<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer was couched in the most Pattering terms),<br />
while not an affectation, is too much a literary<br />
word for everyday use.<br />
could. See can.<br />
council; counsel. A council is a deliberative: assembly<br />
<strong>of</strong> persons (His election to the council<br />
assured the citizens <strong>of</strong> better government).<br />
Counsel is advice, opinion (When we need your<br />
counsel, we shall send for you). The two w(ords<br />
are pronounced alike, but it is an illiterate error<br />
to confuse them.<br />
The advocate engaged in the direction <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cause in court, or any legal adviser, is counsel.<br />
When used as such the plural form is counsel,<br />
as in the counsel were able to agree. When the<br />
word means advice or opinion, it has the regular<br />
plural counsels, as in more moderate counsels<br />
prevailed.<br />
councilor; counselor. A councilor is a member <strong>of</strong><br />
a council. A counselor is one who gives counsel<br />
or advice. Of course a councilor could also be a<br />
counselor.<br />
Counselor has the special meaning, in America,<br />
<strong>of</strong> one in a position <strong>of</strong> minor authority at a<br />
summer camp for boys or girls.<br />
counsel. See council.<br />
countenance. See face.<br />
counterfeiter; coiner. Counterfeiter is the general<br />
term in America for one who makes base or<br />
imitation coins or paper money. The British<br />
term is coiner (My father was I know not where/<br />
When I was stamp’d; some coiner with his<br />
tools/ Made me u counterfeit), though the false<br />
coin or bill itself is called a counterfeit. The<br />
word coiner is kept in American usage, at least<br />
by those in the government services that deal<br />
with counterfeiting, for one who makes coumerfeit<br />
coins, in distinction to one who makes<br />
counterfeit bills, who is a counterfeiter (“Coiners<br />
aren’t a menace, but they sure are a nuisance,”<br />
Secret Service chief U. E. Baughman summed<br />
it up).<br />
In England and America coiner can also mean<br />
a minter or stamper <strong>of</strong> money or one who coins,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> words or phrases (Hardy wus an inveterute<br />
119 covet<br />
coiner <strong>of</strong> words; he felt that he had a right to<br />
make up any word that expressed his meaning).<br />
counterpart is sometimes used as if it meant opposite;<br />
whereas it means duplicate, almost the<br />
opposite <strong>of</strong> opposite. Originally a counterpart<br />
was the opposite part <strong>of</strong> an indenture and from<br />
this has come not only its contemporary meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> duplicate but its equally valid, though less<br />
commonly used, meaning <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> two parts<br />
which fit each other or one <strong>of</strong> two things which<br />
are complementary (The unexpected visitor was<br />
the exact counterpart <strong>of</strong> the photograph he had<br />
been shown the night before. Deep-sea valleys<br />
. . . are the counterparts <strong>of</strong> the mountain<br />
chains).<br />
countless, if it is to mean anything, must mean<br />
numbers so great that they are incapable <strong>of</strong><br />
being counted. To use it, then, as a mere synonym<br />
for many is to defeat emphasis by exaggeration.<br />
Thus one <strong>of</strong>ten encounters the phrase<br />
countless generations, but, allowing thirty years<br />
to a generation, all the generations within the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> recorded history could be counted in two<br />
or three minutes.<br />
coup; coup& A coup is an unexpected and successful<br />
stroke, usually a political maneuver or a<br />
seizure <strong>of</strong> political power by a military group.<br />
A coupe’ (more <strong>of</strong>ten now a coupe) is a closed<br />
automobile with a body somewhat shorter than<br />
that <strong>of</strong> a sedan <strong>of</strong> the same line. The coop <strong>of</strong><br />
hencoop, whence also the slang word for jail, is<br />
an entirely different word, being related to cup.<br />
couple. In the United States couple is <strong>of</strong>ten placed<br />
immediately before a noun, as in a couple<br />
dollars, u couplz months. This is following the<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> dozen and may be established in time,<br />
but it is not yet standard English. In standard<br />
English couple must be joined to a following<br />
noun by <strong>of</strong>, as in a couple <strong>of</strong> chairs. This <strong>of</strong> is<br />
omitted only before degree words such as more,<br />
less, too many, as in bring a couple more chairs.<br />
Couple may be used with either a singular or<br />
a plural verb. The plural construction is heard<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than the singular. This is especially<br />
true when the word refers to human beings, a5<br />
in the couple were dancing.<br />
Court <strong>of</strong> St. James (St. James’s). From 1697 to<br />
1809 St. James’s Palace in London was the royal<br />
residence. The palace was so named because its<br />
site was once occupied by St. James’s hospital<br />
for leprous women. The court, to which our ambassadors<br />
are still accredited, is, strictly, the<br />
Court <strong>of</strong> St. James’s, and this spelling may be<br />
insisted on by those who want to be letter<br />
perfect and historically accurate. The Court <strong>of</strong><br />
St. James is, however, not only a recognized and<br />
accepted variant but is preferred by those who<br />
feel that the extra ‘s serves no purpose except to<br />
display the erudition <strong>of</strong> those who employ it.<br />
The palace, by the way, is always St. James’s<br />
Palace.<br />
courteous. See polite.<br />
courtesy. See curtesy.<br />
covet means to desire, but to desire excessively or<br />
wrongfully. This may be due to its use in the<br />
tenth commandment. There are also connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> envy and secrecy in the word. Illicit de-
cowardly<br />
sires would naturally be kept secret, but this<br />
meaning may be strengthened by its similarity<br />
in sound to covert. But simple desire it is not.<br />
We would not think <strong>of</strong> using it today as it is used<br />
in a quotation, dated 1634, in the Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>: Boys go up and down with flugons<br />
<strong>of</strong> wine, and fill to fhose that covet it. See also<br />
envy.<br />
cowardly; timid. An act is cowardly when it is<br />
lacking in normal courage and basely timid (It<br />
was a cowardly thing to leave his post just becauSe<br />
he smelled smoke). An act is timid when<br />
it shows a lack <strong>of</strong> boldness or self-confidence.<br />
The timid are frightened when there is no real<br />
danger (The child was too timid to ask anyone<br />
which bus she should take). Because men who<br />
are cowards when they are in danger are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
bullies when they feel secure, and because much<br />
has been made <strong>of</strong> this in popular psychology,<br />
many acts are described as cowardly which<br />
should be described as arrogant, over’bearing,<br />
insolent, brutal, tyrannical, or the like. Thus to<br />
say It was a cowardly thing for that big man to<br />
hit that defenseless boy may show a knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the human heart but it shows an ignorance <strong>of</strong><br />
the English language.<br />
coy. See modest.<br />
cracker. See biscuit.<br />
craft. When this word means a boat, the standard<br />
plural is craft, but a regular plural (crafts is<br />
sometimes heard in this sense.<br />
When the word means a skill or trade, the<br />
plural is always crtrfts. In this sense, both craft<br />
and crafts are used as the first element in a compound,<br />
as in craftroom and craftsroom. Only<br />
the form with s is used in craftsman.<br />
crave. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in Z crave to hear his voice. It may also be<br />
followed by a clause with the clause verb a subjunctive<br />
or a subjunctive equivalent, as in Z cruve<br />
that he come. The infinitive construction is<br />
preferred.<br />
crawfish: crayfish. Any <strong>of</strong> numerous fresh-water<br />
decapod crustaceans <strong>of</strong> the suborder Mncruca<br />
are called crayfish by zoologists and the British,<br />
but in common American usage they are called<br />
cruwfish. Both, by the way, are folk-etymological<br />
corruptions <strong>of</strong> the old French crevice. The crawmay<br />
have been affected by crawl.<br />
The verb to crawfish, to crawl or back out <strong>of</strong><br />
an undertaking, is slang, not standard.<br />
crawl. See creep.<br />
credence; credit. Credence means belief. To give<br />
credence is to believe. (I could not place much<br />
credence in his narrative). Credit also means<br />
believe (I could not credit his narrative). The<br />
credit which one has at a store is the amount<br />
which the store believes one will pay. But from<br />
both <strong>of</strong> these meanings credit branches <strong>of</strong>f into<br />
other meanings. Credit means financial status,<br />
the amount <strong>of</strong> money at one’s disposal in the<br />
bank, acknowledgement <strong>of</strong> merit (Much credit<br />
accrued to him because <strong>of</strong> his speech before the<br />
joint session), and source <strong>of</strong> honor (Dr. Bunche<br />
is a credit not only to the Negro race but to the<br />
human race). Thus in the meaning <strong>of</strong> belief<br />
credence has the advantage (because it means<br />
only one thing) <strong>of</strong> being free from any possible<br />
ambiguity.<br />
credible; creditable; credulous. Credible means<br />
believable, worthv <strong>of</strong> belief or confidence (His<br />
story was credible. Z have it on the authority <strong>of</strong><br />
a credible witness). Creditable means bringing<br />
<strong>of</strong> honor or esteem (Nis refusal to accept the<br />
bribe was a creditable action).<br />
The negative <strong>of</strong> credible is incredible. The<br />
negative <strong>of</strong> creditable is discreditable.<br />
Credulous once meant merely inclined to believe.<br />
Bishop Hall said (1605) that a credulous<br />
and plain heart is more acceptable to God than<br />
a curious [i.e., inquiring] head. But in general<br />
usage today credulous means over-inclined to<br />
believe, gullible. Buckle refers to an ignorant<br />
and therefore a credulous age.<br />
credit; accredit. To credit is to believe (I credit<br />
your *story implicitly). To accredit is to invest<br />
with authority (He was accredited ambassador<br />
to Italy) or to certify as meeting certain <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
requirements (The board failed to accredit Podunk<br />
Normal College). Accredit also means to<br />
ascribe or attribute (The invention <strong>of</strong> the submarine<br />
was accredited to Fulton. He was accredited<br />
with the witticism, whether he actually said<br />
it or not).<br />
Of course where something creditable is ascribed<br />
or attributed to someone, where, that is,<br />
it may be thought <strong>of</strong> as being put to the person’s<br />
credit (The invention <strong>of</strong> the submarine is credited<br />
to Fulton) credit may be used for accredit.<br />
But accredit may be used for the ascription or<br />
attribution <strong>of</strong> discreditable things; whereas<br />
credit may not.<br />
creek. In the United States (as also in Canada and<br />
Australia) a creek is a small stream, as a branch<br />
<strong>of</strong> a river. In English usage it is a narrow recess<br />
in the shore <strong>of</strong> the sea, an inlet or bay. This is<br />
the meaning that Chaucer had in mind when he<br />
said that his Shipman knew every cryke in<br />
Britaigne and in Spayne.<br />
Although it would be understood if encountered<br />
in reading and although it is incorporated<br />
into thousands <strong>of</strong> place names (meant in the<br />
more recent ones to lend an upper-class or<br />
romantic air), brook is very rarely used in<br />
America in ordinary speech.<br />
creep. The past tense is crept. The participle is also<br />
crept. A form creeped is heard but is not<br />
standard.<br />
creep and crawl, as terms for moving along the<br />
ground, are frequently interchangeable, but<br />
crawl suggests a more prostrate motion and it<br />
aIone has the suggestion <strong>of</strong> abasement (He’ll<br />
come crawling to ask my forgiveness). Creep<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten has a sinister connotation (At night when<br />
you’re asleep/ Into your tent 1’11 creep. Day by<br />
day the Indian tiger/ Louder yelled and nearer<br />
crept), while crawl suggests the movement <strong>of</strong><br />
loathsome rather than <strong>of</strong> dangerous things (Yea,<br />
slimy things did crawl with legs/ Upon a slimy<br />
sea).<br />
crematorium. The plural is crematoriums or crematoria.<br />
creole means various things in various places and<br />
various punctuations. In the West Indies and
Spanish America it means one born in the region<br />
but <strong>of</strong> European, usually Spanish, ancestry. In<br />
Louisiana and elsewhere, when spelled with a<br />
capital C, it means a person born in the region<br />
but <strong>of</strong> French ancestry. It also means the F:rench<br />
language <strong>of</strong> Louisiana, especially that spoken,<br />
or formerly spoken, by white persons in New<br />
Orleans. When the initial C is not capitalized, it<br />
means a person <strong>of</strong> mixed Creole and Negro ancestry<br />
speaking a form <strong>of</strong> French or Spanish, or<br />
a native-born Negro as distinguished from a<br />
Negro brought from Africa.<br />
crept. See creep.<br />
crevice; crevasse. A crevice is a crack form.ing an<br />
opening, a rift, a fissure. A crevasse is also a<br />
fissure, but a special kind. It is a deep cleft in<br />
the ice <strong>of</strong> a glacier and, in the United States, a<br />
breach in an embankment or levee.<br />
crew. See crow.<br />
cricket. Only Americans seeking to ape or to ridicule<br />
the English ever say it’s not cricket and they<br />
are likely to be bores. We have clichts enough<br />
<strong>of</strong> our own without importing them.<br />
The phrase originated in the fact that cricket,<br />
largely an upper-class game, a “gentleman’s”<br />
game, “is a game full <strong>of</strong> forlorn hopes and<br />
sudden dramatic changes <strong>of</strong> fortune, and its<br />
rules are so ill-defined that their interpretation<br />
is partly an ethical business” (George Orwell).<br />
Then it values form or style more highly than<br />
success. Thus to say that something is not cricket<br />
doesn’t mean that it is dishonest or criminal, but<br />
that it simply doesn’t measure up to the highest<br />
ethical standards.<br />
crime; sin. A crime is an act committed or a duty<br />
omitted whose commission or omission is injurious<br />
to the public welfare and for the commission<br />
or omission <strong>of</strong> which punishment is prescribed<br />
by law and imposed in a judicial proceeding.<br />
Sin is the serious breaking <strong>of</strong> a moral or<br />
divine law. Thus it is a crime, but not a sin, to<br />
drive through a red light. It is a sin, but not a<br />
crime, to hate your neighbor or to covet his wife.<br />
It is a sin to tell a lie, but it is a crime only if<br />
you are under oath. Of course many things, such<br />
as murder and theft, are both sins and crimes.<br />
The words are used interchangeably, lightly and<br />
loosely, for emphasis or humor (It’s a crime,<br />
the way he makes her work after hourx. It’s<br />
sinful to work on a day like this; we ought to be<br />
outdoors).<br />
crisis. The plural is crises or crisises.<br />
criterion. The plural is criterions or criteria.<br />
critical has two meanings. One, inclined to find<br />
fault, to judge with severity, involving skilful<br />
judgment (The critical opinions <strong>of</strong> the play were<br />
unanimously favorable. Don’t be so critical; you<br />
have to make allowances for a beginner. His<br />
critical analysis was helDfuZ) . . derives from critics<br />
and their criticisms. Two, <strong>of</strong> decisive importance<br />
in respect to the outcome, crucial, involving<br />
risk, suspense, or peril (He was taken to the<br />
hospital in a critical condition. It was a critical<br />
decision in his life) derives from crisis. Since a<br />
crisis is <strong>of</strong>ten a time or condition <strong>of</strong> danger,<br />
critical in this sense means dangerous, but critical<br />
is, <strong>of</strong> course, not a synonym for dangerous,<br />
121 cross<br />
and the careful speaker and writer will use it to<br />
mean dangerous only when the danger is one<br />
latent in a crisis.<br />
criticism; critique. As a term for a critical examination<br />
or review, especially <strong>of</strong> a literary or<br />
artistic work, critique is a pretty highfalutin<br />
word. Fowler’s hope, a generation ago, that the<br />
word was dying out, has not been realized. It has<br />
a justification in the fact that criticism is ambiguous:<br />
it may mean a discrimination or discussion<br />
<strong>of</strong> merit, character or quality, or the exercise or<br />
application <strong>of</strong> critical judgment, but it may a!so<br />
mean faultfinding. Among ordinary people, in<br />
their ordinary use <strong>of</strong> the word, that is what it<br />
does mean (Z’m doing the best I can and I resent<br />
his criticism). But ordinary people don’t know<br />
the word critique at all. Those who use it, use it<br />
almost entirely in works that will be read by<br />
those who presumably understand the proper<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> criticism. Review is a good word for<br />
a short examination and study for a longer one.<br />
In referring to the standard or rules <strong>of</strong> critical<br />
judgment, as in Kant’s Critique <strong>of</strong> Pure Reason,<br />
the word has a more established validity.<br />
crochet and crotchet were once the same word,<br />
but their pronunciations are different and one<br />
has become specialized and the other has extended<br />
its meaning into senses not shared by the<br />
first. Crochet now refers to a special kind <strong>of</strong><br />
needlework done with a needle which has a<br />
small hook at one end which serves to draw the<br />
thread or yarn into intertwined loops. A crotchet<br />
is a small hook or any one <strong>of</strong> various devices<br />
and instruments with a small hook at one end. In<br />
its most commonly used sense it means an odd<br />
fancy or whimsical notion-something, that is,<br />
that has hooked on to the mind like a burr (Mr.<br />
Dick’s crotchet about King Charles’s head was<br />
one <strong>of</strong> Dickens’s better fancies). Since people<br />
with crotchets are <strong>of</strong>ten difficult to deal with,<br />
crotchety is frequently a synonym for cantunkerous.<br />
crocodile tears. It was anciently believed, or at<br />
least asserted, that the crocodile wept and made<br />
mournful noises to attract passers-by that he<br />
might devour those whom pity brought within<br />
his reach. Moreover, he shed tears as he devoured<br />
them. No wonder that these tears became<br />
a trope for hypocritical expressions <strong>of</strong><br />
sympathy and regret. But we no longer believe<br />
the fable, and sophistication has long ago exhausted<br />
even the quaintness <strong>of</strong> it. It is now a<br />
pure clichC, an allegory best left on the banks<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Nile where Pliny’s fancy found it.<br />
cross as a bear. Despite cuddly Christmas presents<br />
for children, animated cartoons, and scores <strong>of</strong><br />
juvenile picture books, a bear, as our ancestors<br />
well knew, is not an amiable creature. Directors<br />
<strong>of</strong> zoos regard their bears as more dangerous<br />
than the big cats. None the less, the simile,<br />
though justified, is hackneyed and should be<br />
avoided as a clicht.<br />
cross the Rubicon. The Rubicon was a small<br />
stream which in ancient Italy formed the boundary<br />
between Italy and the province <strong>of</strong> Cisalpine<br />
Gaul. When, in 49 B.C., Julius Caesar, who had<br />
been placed in command <strong>of</strong> the Gallic legions
crossways 122<br />
but had no military authority in Italy itself,<br />
crossed this stream at the head <strong>of</strong> his troops he<br />
knew that by so doing he had declared war<br />
against Pompey and the Senate. Plutarch tells<br />
us that when Caesar came to the river “hle communed<br />
with himself for a long time in silence.<br />
. . . But finally, with a sort <strong>of</strong> passion, . . . uttering<br />
the phrase with which men usually prelude<br />
their plunge into desperate and daring fortunes,<br />
‘Let the die be cast,’ he hastened to cross the<br />
river.”<br />
To use crossing the Rubicon, then, as a term<br />
for taking a step which definitely commits one<br />
to an irreversible course <strong>of</strong> action, is to show<br />
oneself acquainted with Plutarch and with the<br />
minutiae <strong>of</strong> Roman history. But after two thousand<br />
years and many millions <strong>of</strong> repetitions,<br />
allusions cease to elicit the awestruck or appreciative<br />
responses they once brought out. This<br />
one is now stale, flat, and unpr<strong>of</strong>itable and<br />
should be avoided.<br />
crossways and crosswise. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
Crossword-puzzle English. Though the fever <strong>of</strong><br />
crossword puzzles has abated, the malady lingers<br />
on. At the time <strong>of</strong> the full frenzy there was much<br />
discussion <strong>of</strong> their educational value. Mr. Arthur<br />
Maurice, former editor <strong>of</strong> Bookmun, claimed<br />
that forty dormant words had been edging their<br />
way back into controversial currency because<br />
<strong>of</strong> their frequent appearance in crossword<br />
puzzles. Among the forty were mar, cite, abet,<br />
sate, ire, goad, emit, leer, aver, foment, eke, pry,<br />
efan, carp (verb), inert and apt. Certa.inly all<br />
addicts have learned that em and en are printers’<br />
measures, that a period <strong>of</strong> time may be an age,<br />
an eon or an era, and that among real and<br />
imaginary animals there are or have been the<br />
emu, the ai, the gnu, the yak, the boa, the rot<br />
and the asp. But the chief advantage <strong>of</strong> learning<br />
crossword-puzzle words is that it enables one<br />
who has learned them to solve other crossword<br />
puzzles. There are few other places in the world,<br />
for instance, where it is <strong>of</strong> any value to know<br />
that an Anglo-Saxon serf was sometimes called<br />
an esne.<br />
Mr. Maurice appended to his essay defending<br />
crossword puzzles an imaginary conversation to<br />
show how the new words acquired might be<br />
used in everyday speech. A short sample will<br />
suffice :<br />
Mrs. B.: Are you making that ebon garment<br />
for yourself ?<br />
Mrs. A.: Yea. Just a black dress for every day.<br />
Henry says I look rather naif in black.<br />
Mrs. B.: Well, perhaps, but it’s a bit too anile<br />
for me. Give me something in indigo,<br />
say, or ecru.<br />
Mrs. A.: Quite right. There is really no neb in<br />
such solemn vestments.<br />
Mrs. B.: Stet.<br />
crow. The American phrase for being compelled<br />
to make a humiliating retraction or confession<br />
<strong>of</strong> error, to eat crow, is expressed in England by<br />
the phrase to eat humble pie. Both are con-<br />
sidered nauseating dishes, for the humble <strong>of</strong> the<br />
English phrase is the umbles or unsavory inwards<br />
<strong>of</strong> the deer. See humble pie.<br />
A crow to pick (the English use the phrase<br />
which the Americans use too, a bone to pick)<br />
means to have an unpleasant matter to discuss<br />
with someone.<br />
crow. The past tense is crowed or crew. The participle<br />
is crowed.<br />
In the United States crowed is the only form<br />
commonly used for the past tense but crew is<br />
still heard in Great Britain. An old participle<br />
crown is heard in this country, as in when the<br />
cock had crown, but this is now archaic or countrified.<br />
An interesting illustration <strong>of</strong> the manner in<br />
which usage can become fixed is supplied by<br />
crowed and crew. The educated man would say<br />
that a child crowed with delight and that so-andso<br />
crowed over his enemies in triumph, but he<br />
might say that a cock crew. If asked to explain<br />
his retention <strong>of</strong> an archaic preterit in this particular<br />
application <strong>of</strong> the verb, he would probably<br />
be unable to do so. Yet the usage, in relation<br />
to cocks, was established by the fact that<br />
in all four <strong>of</strong> the Gospels, immediately upon<br />
Peter’s denial <strong>of</strong> Christ, the cock crew.<br />
crowd isa large number <strong>of</strong> persons gathered closely<br />
together. Like throng, but unlike multitude, it<br />
suggests an uncomfortable jostling (The heat<br />
and pressure <strong>of</strong> the crowd was frightening). To<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong> friends as a crowd (The old<br />
crowd was there; we had a wonderful time) is<br />
acceptable spoken English and quite sensible<br />
when it is meant to suggest a crowding together.<br />
But as a term for a clique (They’re a rotten<br />
crowd-Scott Fitzgerald) it is not standard.<br />
As a verb, crowd means to push or press<br />
against physically (They were crowded to the<br />
wall and in grave danger) ; but there is no reason<br />
why, like hundreds <strong>of</strong> other such verbs, it should<br />
not be extended metaphorically (The new executives<br />
soon crowded him out <strong>of</strong> the company) so<br />
long as the pushing together <strong>of</strong> a group is meant<br />
to be conveyed. To say that one is crowded for<br />
time is to carry the metaphor to its permissible<br />
limits, and to use crowd merely as a synonym<br />
for pushing (He was always crowding in where<br />
he wasn’t wanted) is wrong.<br />
truces. See crux.<br />
crumble; crumple; rumple. To crumble is to break<br />
into small fragments or crumbs (The rock<br />
crumbled under his hands and he fell from the<br />
clifl). To crumple is to draw or press into irregular<br />
folds, or to wrinkle heavily (Angrily he<br />
crumpled the letter and threw it into the wastebasket).<br />
To rumple is to crumple, but lightly and,<br />
usually, playfully (He affectionately rumpled<br />
the child’s hair. The coverlets were all rumpled<br />
with the horseplay).<br />
Crumb, the basis <strong>of</strong> crumble, was originally<br />
the s<strong>of</strong>t inner part <strong>of</strong> the loaf, as distinguished<br />
from the crust (He that keeps nor crust nor<br />
crumb/ Weary <strong>of</strong> all, shall want some).<br />
crumby; crummy. Crumby, full <strong>of</strong> crumbs, <strong>of</strong><br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> crumbs, friable (though this is
usually expressed by cnlmbly), was formerly<br />
also spelled crummy. The slang crummy, mean,<br />
shabby (What a crummy joint!) seems to stem<br />
from an earlier slang meaning lousy which, in<br />
turn, may have derived from the idea t.hat a<br />
louse looked like a crumb.<br />
crux is a cross. The term came to be applied figuratively<br />
to anything that torments by its puzzling<br />
nature, particularly philosophical and textual<br />
difficulties (The unity <strong>of</strong> opposites was the crzzx<br />
<strong>of</strong> ancient thinkers. The consideration <strong>of</strong> a<br />
textual crux sharpens the wits). In modern usage<br />
it has come to be applied almost solely to a<br />
vital, basic, or decisive point, especially in the<br />
rather tired phrase the crux <strong>of</strong> the matter. It is<br />
a word that has been confined, heret<strong>of</strong>ore, to<br />
literary problems so that it has distinctly an<br />
academic flavor and should be avoided by all<br />
who wish to avoid the imputation <strong>of</strong> peda.ntry.<br />
(The plural is crrdxes or truces.)<br />
cry; weep. Cry is the everyday word. It has in it<br />
the suggestion <strong>of</strong> a passionate, inarticulate but<br />
loud lament, an open expression <strong>of</strong> sorrow. In<br />
all meanings <strong>of</strong> cry there is an implication <strong>of</strong><br />
great noise. Weep is a more poetic word (Weep<br />
no more, my lady). It suggests a quieter expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> grief, though the grief may be as<br />
deep (When the poor have cried, Caesar hath<br />
wept). Sobbing is weeping or crying with a convulsive<br />
catching <strong>of</strong> the breath. A wail is a prolonged<br />
inarticulate, mournful cry, usually highpitched<br />
(Then from the jail/ Came the wail/<br />
Of a downhearted frail). A low-pitched wail<br />
would be a moan.<br />
cry over spilt milk, no use to. There’s no use<br />
telling those who think this a fresh and original<br />
way <strong>of</strong> expressing the folly <strong>of</strong> vain regret that<br />
it has been a cliche for a century and a proverb<br />
for two centuries before that. But it has.<br />
cry wolf. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who raises needless<br />
alarms that he is crying wolf is to employ a<br />
cliche. The phrase is a hackneyed reference to<br />
Aesop’s fable <strong>of</strong> the shepherd boy who shouted<br />
“Wolf! Wolf!” as a joke or just to get attention<br />
and then failed to get help when the wolf really<br />
came because his cry for help was no longer<br />
taken seriously.<br />
cryptic is a mysterious word for mysterious,<br />
hidden, secret, occult, and unless one wishes to<br />
risk the contempt and resentment which, as well<br />
admiration, is sometimes bestowed on those who<br />
use strange words, he would do well to use one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the commoner synonyms.<br />
cue; queue. There used to be distinctions between<br />
these words. The actor’s indication and the rod<br />
used in pool and billiards were invariably cue.<br />
The pigtail and people waiting in line were<br />
queue, and this spelling still holds for these<br />
uses in England. But in America. although it<br />
is known that the law-abiding Engiish queue up<br />
in queues, cue is the accepted spelling for all<br />
senses, except that queue is sometimes used for<br />
the pigtail.<br />
cumulus. The plural is cumuli.<br />
cups that cheer. Those who refer to alcoholic<br />
beverages as the cups that cheer are guilty <strong>of</strong> a<br />
123 curtesy<br />
number <strong>of</strong> errors. In the first place, the full<br />
phrase, taken from Cowper’s The Tusk (1783),<br />
is the cups that cheer but not inebriate, and it<br />
refers to tea. And if, as seems likely, Cowper<br />
was echoing a passage from Bishop Berkeley, it<br />
referred originally to tar water. Just how an<br />
infusion <strong>of</strong> tar in water cheered him or anyone<br />
else, the Bishop did not say; it was probably part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mystery <strong>of</strong> his philosophy, Subjective<br />
Idealism. The phrase is a clich6, worn out and<br />
misunderstood and should be avoided.<br />
curate. See rector.<br />
curb; kerb. For the protective margin <strong>of</strong> the sidewalk,<br />
the American spelling is curb, the English<br />
kerb. For curb in the sense <strong>of</strong> restrain, see check.<br />
curious; inquisitive. Curious can mean desirous<br />
<strong>of</strong> knowing or that which makes us desirous <strong>of</strong><br />
knowing (Children are very curious, eager to<br />
find out anything that they think is being concealed<br />
from them by their parents. His behavior<br />
seemed curious and occasioned a great deal <strong>of</strong><br />
speculation in the village).<br />
In popular usage curious in the first <strong>of</strong> these<br />
senses has come to mean almost entirely an<br />
eagerness to know something that is not properly<br />
one’s concern. Like inquisitive, with which it<br />
is largely synonymous, it implies a prying into<br />
other people’s affairs. Of the two words, inquisitive<br />
suggests more action, in the form <strong>of</strong><br />
asking impertinent questions or investigating in<br />
some way. One can be curiozrs without doing<br />
anything more than wondering (She was curious<br />
about what was going on in her neighbor’s<br />
house and soon became inquisitive among the<br />
children).<br />
currently. See presently.<br />
curriculum. The plural is curriculums or curricula.<br />
curry favor. To curry favor, as an expression for<br />
ingratiating oneself with another by flattery or<br />
complaisance, is a standard expression not used<br />
enough to be condemned as a clich6. But,<br />
although its general meaning is plain, it may be<br />
doubted if one out <strong>of</strong> ten thousand who use it<br />
have any idea <strong>of</strong> its spedific meaning, and it<br />
stands as a striking illustration <strong>of</strong> the ways <strong>of</strong><br />
language and the fact that usage can in time<br />
make any blunder acceptable.<br />
To curry is to groom, as with a currycomb.<br />
Favor is a corruption <strong>of</strong> favel (until the sixteenth<br />
century the saying was to curry favel), which is<br />
the English form <strong>of</strong> the Old French fauvel,<br />
fallow-golored. Fauvel, a fallow horse, was the<br />
rascally hero <strong>of</strong> a romance, the Roman de<br />
Fuuvel (1310). Whether a fallow horse was a<br />
symbol <strong>of</strong> dishonesty before the romance or<br />
whether the idea came from the story is not<br />
clear, but the thought <strong>of</strong> currying this cunning<br />
rogue as a means <strong>of</strong> gaining his favor became<br />
proverbial, though the rascality <strong>of</strong> the one<br />
curried is not in the modern usage.<br />
curse. The past tense is cursed or curst. The paticiple<br />
is cursed. Cuss and cussed are <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
by educated people as a s<strong>of</strong>tened form <strong>of</strong> curse.<br />
cursing. See blasphemy.<br />
curtesy; curtsey; curtsy; courtesy. Curtesy is a<br />
legal term meaning the life tenure formerly en-
cuspidor 124<br />
joyed by a husband in his wife’s land inheritance<br />
after her death, provided they had issue able to<br />
inherit. It is plainly a word that only the historian<br />
<strong>of</strong> land tenure would have much use for<br />
today.<br />
Clcrtsey and curfsy are variant spellings <strong>of</strong><br />
each other and <strong>of</strong> courtesy, which may be used<br />
for them. They, however, are fixed in their<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> one particular act <strong>of</strong> courtesy, a<br />
bow by women in recognition or respec:t, consisting<br />
<strong>of</strong> bending the knees and lowering the<br />
body (The pretty little Miss dropp’d me a<br />
curtsy).<br />
Courtesy means politeness, excellence <strong>of</strong><br />
manners (He was a model <strong>of</strong> courtesy). It also<br />
means a courteous act or expression or :3 favor<br />
graciously conferred (He did me a c’ourtesy<br />
once and I don’t like to be rude to him). And<br />
it can mean consent or indulgence (By courtesy<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mnnagement).<br />
cuspidor. The substitution <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese cuspidor<br />
for the already fairly ornate American<br />
spittoon must mark a height <strong>of</strong> vulgar elegance<br />
exceeded only by the derivative cuspidorian bestowed<br />
upon its caretaker.<br />
cuss. See curse.<br />
custom; habit; practice. Custom, habit, and practice<br />
all mean an established way <strong>of</strong> doing things.<br />
Custom, when applied to a community or to an<br />
individual, means a more or less permanent<br />
continuance <strong>of</strong> a social usage (It is the custom<br />
to dye eggs at Easter. Such is the custom <strong>of</strong><br />
Branksorne Half). Habif applies more to the individual<br />
and implies that the same action has<br />
been repeated so <strong>of</strong>ten that there is a tendency<br />
to perform it spontaneously. There can be good<br />
habits as well as bad habits, but the word carries<br />
a suggestion <strong>of</strong> the undesirable that is lacking in<br />
custom (He has a habit <strong>of</strong> twitching his left eye,<br />
but it is customary among well-bred people not<br />
to seem to notice such things). Practice applies<br />
to a set <strong>of</strong> fixed habits or an ordered procedure<br />
in conducting activities (It was his practice to<br />
open all <strong>of</strong> his mail before he read any <strong>of</strong> it).<br />
customary. See usual.<br />
customer. See buy; buyer and patron.<br />
customs. When this word means a toll or duty<br />
paid on imports, it is now always used in the<br />
plural with a plural verb, as in the customs were<br />
paid. But the word is not a true plural and<br />
cannot be used with a numeral. One does not<br />
pay two customs, although one may pay the<br />
customs more than once. Formerly the word<br />
was <strong>of</strong>ten used in the singular form, with a<br />
singular verb, as in the custom was paid. This is<br />
now obsolete.<br />
The old singular is seen in custom house,<br />
which is still the literary name for such a building.<br />
But we always say customs <strong>of</strong>icer and<br />
customs duty, and the new form customs house<br />
appears too <strong>of</strong>ten to be called anything but<br />
standard.<br />
cut. The past tense is cut. The participle is also<br />
cut.<br />
cut a long story short. The phrase to cut a long<br />
story short has raised false hopes amlong the<br />
victims <strong>of</strong> the verbose too <strong>of</strong>ten to have any<br />
validity any more. It is an empty, mocking<br />
phrase. The laconic do not need it and the talkative<br />
do not mean it. It is a knife turned in the<br />
wound <strong>of</strong> boredom, a warning <strong>of</strong> continuance<br />
when the soul <strong>of</strong> the listener is crying out for<br />
release. If the dictates <strong>of</strong> humanity do not suffice<br />
to suppress it, those <strong>of</strong> style should.<br />
cut 0.8 one’s nose to spite one’s face. Almost all<br />
lang.%ages have a proverb or saying about those<br />
who do themselves an injury in order to be<br />
revenged on an enemy, such as burning their<br />
house down to set his on fire; and most <strong>of</strong> them<br />
touch with grim humor on the fact that in the<br />
passion <strong>of</strong> hatred a man will do himself a great<br />
damage to do his enemy a small one. But <strong>of</strong><br />
them all, the English version-cutting <strong>of</strong>f one’s<br />
nose to spite one’s face-is the best, the homeliest,<br />
the most humorous, and stresses most<br />
grimly the immense disproportion between the<br />
self-inflicted injury and its reward. Unfortunately,<br />
however, the pungent old saying has been<br />
weakened by overuse. It has been applied to<br />
every trifling inconvenience until hundreds <strong>of</strong><br />
millions <strong>of</strong> repetitions, without real appositeness,<br />
have robbed it <strong>of</strong> its force and made it a clichC.<br />
It is too good to be abandoned, but it should<br />
be allowed to rest.<br />
cute. Acute means sharp (an acute angle). It was<br />
a natural extension to apply it to mental sharpness<br />
(That was an acute observation). Mental<br />
sharpness, even if it were just a bit on the shady<br />
side, was much admired by our ancestors and<br />
cute, meaning shrewd, cunning, crafty was a<br />
common word in America a century ago (Zeke<br />
was too cute for them city fellers). In this sense,<br />
however, it is now obsolete, being replaced, to<br />
a considerable extent, in slang, by sharp.<br />
It is far from obsolete, though, in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> pleasing (a cute kid; a cute hut; a cute idea;<br />
gee, honey, you’re cute, and so on to acute<br />
nausea) in a pretty, dainty, or droll way. It is<br />
interesting that a word meaning crafty, shrewd,<br />
penetrating, words that indicate the seeking <strong>of</strong><br />
one’s own interests, should have come to mean<br />
attractive or charming, for usually those to<br />
whom the earlier meanings apply are unattractive<br />
and repellent. Yet the same thing has<br />
happened in England with the word cunning<br />
which is now used almost, though not quite, as<br />
much as we use cute (a cunning nipper). The<br />
bridge for the shift <strong>of</strong> meaning was probably<br />
children, in whose attractiveness there is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
an element <strong>of</strong> shrewdness and whose penetrating<br />
observations are amusing.<br />
But cute as a general term <strong>of</strong> approval is overworked<br />
now to the point <strong>of</strong> being an abomination.<br />
cyclone; tornado; typhoon; hurricane. A cyclone<br />
is an atmospheric pressure system characterized<br />
by relatively low pressure at its center, and by<br />
counterclockwise wind motion in the northern<br />
hemisphere and clockwise in the southern. The<br />
name is also applied to tropical hurricanes, especially<br />
in the Indian Ocean. A hurricane is a<br />
violent tropical cyclonic storm. It is called a<br />
typhoon in the western Pacific area, in the China<br />
seas, and in India, The term tornado is applied
to destructive rotary storms in the middle 1Jnited<br />
States, storms which usually appear as a whirling,<br />
advancing funnel hanging from a mass <strong>of</strong><br />
black cloud. It is also applied to violent squalls<br />
or whirlwinds <strong>of</strong> small extent which appear in<br />
summer along the west coast <strong>of</strong> Africa.<br />
dabble in the occult. To dabble meant, originally,<br />
to wet by splashing, to play about in shallow<br />
water or mud; hence figuratively, and contemptuously,<br />
to be busied, intermittently and in a<br />
dilettante way, in some business or pursuit.<br />
What makes to dabble in the occult a clichf.<br />
is the inevitability <strong>of</strong> the combination. Those<br />
who use it would never think <strong>of</strong> saying to trifle<br />
with the occult or to employ oneself intermittently<br />
with the occult. They do not even dabble<br />
in the dictionary; invariably and wearyinglly, the<br />
two words are combined.<br />
daemon; demon. A daemon is a subordinate deity<br />
in Greek mythology, an intermediary between<br />
gods and men. It is <strong>of</strong>ten thus distinguished in<br />
spelling from demon, which is an unclean, evil<br />
spirit, a devil.<br />
daily; diurnal. Though daily and diurnal both<br />
mean <strong>of</strong> or belonging to each day, diurnal, referring<br />
to the motion <strong>of</strong> the heavenly bodies and<br />
having special applications in botany and the<br />
church service, is too heavy a word to be used<br />
in complete synonymity with daily. Thfe sun<br />
makes its diurnal round, but the milkman and<br />
the paper boy make their daily round.<br />
dainty. See nice.<br />
dam; damn; damned; damnably. A dam may be<br />
a barrier to obstruct the flow <strong>of</strong> water, or a body<br />
<strong>of</strong> water obstructed by such a barrier, or a<br />
female animal parent (now confined largely to<br />
quadrupeds; if applied to a human being done<br />
so with derogatory intent), It was formerly the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> a single one <strong>of</strong> the pieces used in the<br />
game <strong>of</strong> checkers.<br />
Damn, the curse, is pronounced exactly like<br />
dam and used to be spelled that way. MlDdern<br />
writers, wishing to be toughly realistic and at<br />
the same time gently safe, <strong>of</strong>ten spell God *damn<br />
as goddam. In defense they would probably allege<br />
that “That’s the way it’s pronounced.” But<br />
damn has always been pronounced dam. People<br />
who say It’s damn cold or I’m damn well tired<br />
<strong>of</strong> it al!, distress not only moralists but 1ing;uists;<br />
for they should say damned or damnably, according<br />
as they wish to suggest that the cold<br />
or the general situation has been condemned or<br />
is worthy to be condemned. Such people, however,<br />
can hardly be held to the niceties <strong>of</strong><br />
grammar. The purists must get what comfort<br />
they can from the thought that at least they no<br />
longer use damnafion as an adverb, as millions<br />
125 dare<br />
D<br />
cyclops. The plural is cyclopses or Cyclopes. A<br />
singular cyclop, with a regular plural cyclops,<br />
has also been in use for several centuries. It is<br />
not heard as <strong>of</strong>ten as the singular cyclops, plural<br />
cyclopses, but it is thoroughly acceptable.<br />
cynosure. See nexus.<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammatically and morally unprincipled<br />
wretches did in the nineteenth century.<br />
damn with faint praise. When Alexander Pope<br />
said <strong>of</strong> “Atticus” (probably Addison) that he<br />
would Damn with faint praise, assent with civil<br />
leer,/And, without sneering, teach the rest to<br />
sneer he exposed felicitously the workings <strong>of</strong><br />
the timid malice that so <strong>of</strong>ten underlies a cold<br />
virtue. But the felicity <strong>of</strong> his phrase has been<br />
its ruin. A paradox, however brilliant, can astonish<br />
us but once and after the billionth repetition<br />
there is no more delighted amazement, only<br />
weariness.<br />
dandy, in the sense <strong>of</strong> something fine or first-rate,<br />
was formerly a much-overworked word in colloquial<br />
American usage. Horwill quotes a man<br />
as saying that he had just given his mother-inlaw<br />
a dandy funeral. Its serious use has declined<br />
but there has been an ironical revival that has<br />
brought it back into general use among the<br />
smarter young set. But irony is even more perishable<br />
than innocent enthusiasm.<br />
dangling participles. See participles.<br />
dare. The past tense is dured or durst. The participle<br />
is dared.<br />
This verb was once in a class with ca~z and<br />
may and may still be used just as these verbs<br />
are. The word dare was an ancient past tense<br />
form, meaning “have courage,” which had come<br />
to be felt as a present tense by the time English<br />
became a written language. Durst was a new<br />
past tense form that had been created for it,<br />
which had also come to be felt as a present<br />
tense. As a result, neither word had the characteristic<br />
s ending in the third person singular.<br />
Both were followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb and not by a to-infinitive. One might say<br />
he dare go or he durst go. The verb had no imperative,<br />
no infinitive, no past participle, no -ing<br />
form, and could not follow, or be dependent on,<br />
another verb. One could not say will dare, did<br />
dare, or used to dare.<br />
During the last five or six hundred years, the<br />
verb has gradually moved out <strong>of</strong> this class. It<br />
has developed full, regular forms with a past<br />
tense and participle dared and an -ing form. It is<br />
now possible to say will dare, did dart, used to<br />
dare. The new verb dare has an s in the third<br />
person singular and is followed by a to-infinitive.<br />
as in he dares to go.<br />
In present day English durst is archaic. But
dash 126<br />
dare may be used with or without an 3: in the<br />
third person singular and may be followed by<br />
the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a to-infinitive.<br />
It may enter into compounds like any other<br />
regular verb or it may be treated as if this was<br />
impossible. We may say I do not dare and do<br />
you dare?, or we may use the older forms and<br />
say I dare not and dare you? Some gramrnarians<br />
feel that this is license enough and object when<br />
the new forms are used in the old construction,<br />
that is, without the to <strong>of</strong> the infinitive, as in he<br />
dares go, he dured go, I don’t dare go. Sotne also<br />
insist that the old forms cannot be used when<br />
the word has its relatively new meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
“challenge,” as in I dare you jump. But the best<br />
writers and speakers have not agreed with them.<br />
Combinations <strong>of</strong> the old and the new forms are<br />
used by outstanding writers today, as in do I<br />
dare disturb the universe? (where the purist requires<br />
dare I disturb or do I dare to disturb).<br />
Now that the verb dare has moved out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
class <strong>of</strong> can and may, acquiring an s in the third<br />
nerson singular and a to-infinitive following it,<br />
ihe regula; verb need seems to be moving in.<br />
Need <strong>of</strong>ten drops its s and its to, as in r’ze need<br />
not answer. See need.<br />
dash. The dash marks a sharp break in the sentence,<br />
an introduction <strong>of</strong> some surprise element.<br />
It is a comfortable punctuation mark since even<br />
the most rigorous critic can seldom claim that<br />
any particular example <strong>of</strong> it is a misuse. Its<br />
overuse is its greatest danger, and the writer<br />
who can’t resist dashes may be suspected <strong>of</strong> uncoordinated<br />
thinking.<br />
The primary uses <strong>of</strong> the dash are:<br />
1. To indicate a sharp break in the sentence,<br />
as in Then he-would you believe it?--ran to<br />
the corner grocery.<br />
2. To show interruption <strong>of</strong> a sentence or<br />
word, especially in dialogue, as in “But you<br />
must have th--” and “Well, the only reason<br />
I-“.<br />
3.<br />
Iv in<br />
As a replacement for parentheses, especiaiinformal<br />
writing. In this case the dashes<br />
are, <strong>of</strong> course, used >n pairs, as in AI1 those<br />
things-the sound <strong>of</strong> the apples sputtering, the<br />
smell <strong>of</strong> the cinnamon, the glow <strong>of</strong> the firesuddenly<br />
made him decide to stay.<br />
4. To summarize, emphasize, or contrast with<br />
what has been said earlier in the sentence, as in<br />
A good five-cent cigar-this is what the country<br />
needs and wants and He could always find a job<br />
when he wanted to-he just never wanted to.<br />
5. After a word or phrase, when followed by<br />
several phrases set in separate lines that require<br />
this word or phrase to complete their meaning,<br />
as in:<br />
I wish they would-<br />
See him nominated.<br />
Get him elected.<br />
Support his policy.<br />
6. To suggest pr<strong>of</strong>anity without <strong>of</strong>fending<br />
anyone’s sensibilities, as in Why, you-!, You<br />
S-! It is considered old-fashioned to combine a<br />
dash with a comma, a colon, or a semicolon, as<br />
in Dear Sir:-<br />
dastardly means cowardly, meanly base, and<br />
should not be applied to acts, however vicious,<br />
in which there is not at least an element <strong>of</strong><br />
cowardice. Thus the act <strong>of</strong> the Puerto Rican<br />
terrorists who, in November 1950, attempted to<br />
assassinate President Truman, though it was<br />
shocking, desperate, ferocious, mad, misguided,<br />
and murderous, was not, as many papers called<br />
it, “dastardly.” Whatever else the assassins were,<br />
they were not cowards: the attack was made<br />
openly in full daylight; they attacked the armed<br />
guards directly, with the almost inevitable certainty<br />
<strong>of</strong> being killed themselves.<br />
data. This word is commonly used to mean the information<br />
at hand-verbal or statistical reports<br />
or laboratory observations. In this sense data<br />
may be treated as a singular or a plural.<br />
In the social sciences data is usually treated as<br />
a singular. Specialists in these fields characteristically<br />
refer to their data as it and talk about<br />
much data and very little data. These are singular<br />
constructions. They are perfectly acceptable,<br />
provided they are not followed by a plural<br />
verb. In the physical sciences data is more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
treated as a plural. This too is acceptable, provided<br />
it is done consistently. But it is not enough<br />
to use a plural verb. If data is a plural it should<br />
be referred to as they and not as it and should<br />
have plural qualifiers such as these, many, few,<br />
and not singulars such as this, much, little.<br />
A singular construction such as the data is<br />
now in, but we have not examined much <strong>of</strong> it is<br />
perfectly good English. A plural construction<br />
such as the dutu are now in, but we have not<br />
examined many <strong>of</strong> them is also acceptable. But<br />
mixed forms such as much <strong>of</strong> the data are new<br />
and little data are available are simply wrong.<br />
No one should think that he must treat data as<br />
a plural merely because Julius Caesar may have<br />
done so. Many English singulars have foreign<br />
plural forms, such as stamina. There are even<br />
words with English plural forms, such as news<br />
and the United States, that are nevertheless<br />
treated as singulars.<br />
The form data may be used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in data sheets.<br />
dative case. The dative is a Latin case. It is thought<br />
to have originally carried the meaning <strong>of</strong> “to”<br />
or “toward” and was used broadly in classical<br />
Latin to show that a noun or pronoun had some<br />
intrinsic relation to the verb other than that <strong>of</strong><br />
nominative or accusative. Most <strong>of</strong>ten this was<br />
the relation <strong>of</strong> indirect object. Modern English<br />
shows the dative relationships by position or by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> prepositions. See indirect object and<br />
objective pronouns.<br />
davenport. An American who announced casually<br />
that he was just going to lie down on the davenport<br />
would fill an English visitor with consternation<br />
or at least curiosity, for davenport, which<br />
in the United States means a large s<strong>of</strong>a, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
one that can be converted into a bed, means in<br />
England a small writing table.<br />
dawn on. To say that something dawned on a<br />
person, meaning that he began to perceive the<br />
import <strong>of</strong> a remark or an event, is a phrase to<br />
be used sparingly.
day before; day after. The omission <strong>of</strong> the definite<br />
article before day before or day nfter (Day<br />
after tomorrow is their anniversary) is accepted<br />
usage.<br />
dead as a doornail seems to have been established<br />
as a proverbial expression by the time<br />
(13.50) it first appeared in writing, yet no one<br />
knows why a doornail should be deader than<br />
any other inanimate thing. It has been conjectured<br />
that the particular nail referred to was the<br />
one upon which the knocker fell and that its<br />
deadness may have been a whimsical assumption<br />
from the pounding it received. It has also been<br />
conjectured that its deadness may have been<br />
suggested by the silence with which such pounding<br />
was <strong>of</strong>ten received; for until the policed and<br />
electrically lighted security <strong>of</strong> modern times people<br />
did not open their doors, especially after<br />
dark, merely because someone knocked. This<br />
latter guess is supported by the fact that it was<br />
sometimes as dumb as a doornail or as deaf as<br />
a doornail or (IS dour as a doornail. But at the<br />
best these are only theories. No one has ever<br />
found a context that throws any light on the<br />
problem. No one really knows what the simile<br />
means, and a figure <strong>of</strong> speech that has been used<br />
daily for six hundred years without anyone’s<br />
knowing what it means must surely be granted<br />
to be a clich6.<br />
dead; deadly. Deadly means death-dealing, as in<br />
a deadly weapon. It is an adjective and is used<br />
to qualify a noun. Dead also qualifies a noun<br />
when it is used in its literal sense, as in a dead<br />
horse. But it may mean deathlike or deathly,<br />
and in this sense is used to qualify adjectives, as<br />
in dead white. We therefore say I was dead tired<br />
and the conversation was deadly.<br />
The adjective dead may be used as if it were<br />
a noun meaning all people who have died, as the<br />
second dead in and dead the dead will stay. Unlike<br />
most adjectives, dead may also be used in<br />
speaking about a particular group <strong>of</strong> people, as<br />
in from these honored dead we take increased<br />
devotion. It may also be used with a numeral,<br />
as in there were twenty dead. At one time the<br />
dead could be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a single individual,<br />
as in blessed is the dead that the rain<br />
rains on and the dead raising himself the third<br />
and last time. This use <strong>of</strong> the dead as a singular<br />
is still heard in some parts <strong>of</strong> the United States,<br />
but it is now rare in literary English.<br />
deadly in the sense <strong>of</strong> awful or terrible or excessive<br />
was once a fairly common colloquialism. Pepys<br />
quaintly says that he was compelled on one<br />
occasion to sign a deadly number <strong>of</strong> pardons<br />
and one <strong>of</strong> the characters in She Stoops to Conquer<br />
tells another that he is a deadly deal wrong.<br />
deal. The past tense <strong>of</strong> the verb is dealt. The participle<br />
is alsodealt. The noun deal means amount<br />
and could once be used in just the way we now<br />
use lot, as in they talked a deal <strong>of</strong> nonsense and<br />
it wns a deal <strong>of</strong> trouble. It replaced the word<br />
heap, which had once been used in this way, and<br />
is now itself being replaced by lot.<br />
In current English deal is used in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
lot only in the expressions a good deal and a<br />
great deal, These phrases require <strong>of</strong> immediately<br />
127 deceit<br />
before a noun, as in a great deal <strong>of</strong> money. But<br />
they may be used without <strong>of</strong> before degree words<br />
such as more, less, too much, too many, as in<br />
a great deal more money. They may also be used<br />
to qualify adjectives or adverbs in the comparative,<br />
as in a good den1 cheaper, a great deal<br />
faster.<br />
At one time these phrases could be used before<br />
plural nouns, as in a great deal <strong>of</strong> pieces <strong>of</strong><br />
timber. Today, they are only used before mass<br />
words. We say a great deal <strong>of</strong> china but a great<br />
many plates.<br />
dear; dearly. Dear is both an adjective and an<br />
adverb. It has been used as an adverb from the<br />
earliest times, both in the sense <strong>of</strong> at a high<br />
price, as in By God, he said, that bought me<br />
dear, and in the sense <strong>of</strong> with deep affection, as<br />
in Rosaline that thou didst love so dear. The<br />
form dearly is never used to qualify a noun.<br />
See also costly.<br />
dear; my dear. Prefixing my to the usual dear in<br />
the salutation <strong>of</strong> a letter intensifies either the<br />
formality or the informality. My dear son is<br />
more informal than Dear Son, but (in American<br />
usage, not in English) My dear Mr. Smith is<br />
more formal than Dear Mr. Smith.<br />
dearth (scarcity, lack) is in most vocabularies restricted<br />
entirely to the phrase a dearth <strong>of</strong> information.<br />
It is hardly a clichC, since its meaning<br />
is clear to all who use it and it doesn’t roll effortlessly<br />
<strong>of</strong>f every tongue, but it is worn and should<br />
be watched.<br />
deathless. See undying.<br />
debar; disbar. To debar is to exclude, either literally<br />
or figuratively (He was debarred from the<br />
factory grounds. His lameness debarred him<br />
from taking part in athletics). To disbar is a<br />
technical legal term meaning to expel from the<br />
legal pr<strong>of</strong>ession or from the bar <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
court (Disbarment proceedings were instigated<br />
at once against the attorneys who had <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
the bribe).<br />
debenture. In England debenture is <strong>of</strong>ten used for<br />
what in the United States is commonly called a<br />
bond. In America a debenture or debenture<br />
bond is merely a certificate <strong>of</strong> indebtedness.<br />
decant; descant. To decant is to pour <strong>of</strong>f gently,<br />
without disturbing the sediment. Wines are decanted<br />
from the bottle into a decanter (Attend<br />
him daily as their chief/ Decant his wine and<br />
carve his beef).<br />
A descant is a melody or counterpoint accompanying<br />
a simple musical theme and usually<br />
written above it (You are too flat,/ And mar the<br />
concord, with too harsh a descant). In part singing<br />
it is the soprano (Children neigh forth the<br />
descant. Composed for three voices--descant,<br />
tenor, and buss). It also means to make comments<br />
on, to discourse at length and with variety<br />
(To see my shadow in the sun,/ And descant on<br />
mine own deformity. Johnson never accustomed<br />
himself to descant on the ingratitude <strong>of</strong> mankind).<br />
decease. See die.<br />
deceit; deception. Deceit is the quality <strong>of</strong> being<br />
false (Deceit lay deep in his nature, hidden<br />
under a semblance <strong>of</strong> hearty frankness), the act
decide 128<br />
or practice <strong>of</strong> deceiving or <strong>of</strong> concealing or perverting<br />
the truth with intention to mislead<br />
(Pope’s love <strong>of</strong> deceit seemed to grow with the<br />
passing years; he hid himself in ever more subtle<br />
mazes <strong>of</strong> guile), or that which deceives, a lie,<br />
an artifice, or cunning trick (My lips shall not<br />
speak wickedness, nor my tongue utter deceit).<br />
Deception is properly the act, and not the<br />
quality, <strong>of</strong> deceiving (This deception shall cost<br />
him dear). It can mean the state <strong>of</strong> being deceived<br />
(The extent <strong>of</strong> their deception is fantastic;<br />
they are besotted with the charlatan).<br />
decide may be followed by an infinitive, as in he<br />
decided to go, or by a clause, as in he decided<br />
he would go. It may also be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition on, as in<br />
he decided on going.<br />
decided; decisive. Decided means unquestionable,<br />
free from ambiguity (He showed decide(d signs<br />
<strong>of</strong> dementia praecox. Anton’s weight gave him<br />
a decided advantage in the ring over his slighter<br />
opponent. He was n decided man: everything<br />
was black and white to him; he recognized no<br />
doubts or shades <strong>of</strong> gray).<br />
Decisive means having the power or quality<br />
<strong>of</strong> determining, putting an end to controversy<br />
by swaying the balance definitely and finally in<br />
one direction. Decided signs <strong>of</strong> dementia praecox<br />
would be definite, unmistakable signs. Decisive<br />
signs would be signs that made it plain<br />
that a case about which there had been uncertainty<br />
was beyond doubt one <strong>of</strong> dementia praecox.<br />
Decisive applies ordinarily to things, events,<br />
or decrees. A decided victory would be one in<br />
which one side triumphed so completely that<br />
there could be no question in anyone’s mind as<br />
to which was the winner. A decisive victory<br />
would be one that settled a conflict.<br />
Decisive is not usually applied to persons but<br />
it may be. When it is, it has the same meaning<br />
as decided: characterized by, or displaying, decision<br />
(He had a decisive character). Decided,<br />
however, cannot be used for decisive.<br />
decide; decree; determine; resolve. To decide is<br />
to make up one’s mind, promptly and firmly.<br />
To determine is to make up one’s mind and<br />
then doggedly-sometimes obstinately-to stick<br />
to the settled purpose. To resolve is to settle a<br />
disputed or uncertain matter by deliberate choice<br />
and will; there is in the word an implication <strong>of</strong><br />
the expenditure <strong>of</strong> considerable time and 1 hought<br />
in the process <strong>of</strong> reaching the conclusion. A matter<br />
may be decided almost instantaneously but<br />
it can be resolved only after cogitation. To<br />
decree is to ordain or promulgate an edict. A<br />
decree can be issued only by someone in authority<br />
(The President was determined to end<br />
the confusing situation. After talking it over<br />
with his advisers he resolved to act. He
(To decry the previous age is an established<br />
procedure in liberal criticism).<br />
To descry is to discover by observation, to<br />
make out by looking (The boy on the mast<br />
descried land lying about three leagues <strong>of</strong>f the<br />
port bow).<br />
decumbent. See recumbent.<br />
dedicate. A dedication was a setting apart and consecrating<br />
to a deity. In England the word (except<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> ascribing or addressing a<br />
book to someone) is never used except when<br />
there has been a religious ceremony. But in<br />
America the word now <strong>of</strong>ten has merely the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> open. When we are told that a new<br />
Stock Exchange Building or a new sausage factory<br />
has been dedicated, with the mayor <strong>of</strong>ficiating<br />
and a party for the employees following<br />
the dedication, we are not meant to suppose that<br />
thereafter the structure is to be regarded as<br />
dedicated.<br />
deduce; infer. Deduce and infer both mean to<br />
come to a conclusion after a process <strong>of</strong> reasoning<br />
from premises or evidence. Deduce is the<br />
more serious <strong>of</strong> the two words. An inference is<br />
something lighter, <strong>of</strong>ten arrived at with less sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> responsibility, than a deduction. One hears <strong>of</strong><br />
rash, foolish, false, unjustified, or shallow inferences<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than one hears <strong>of</strong> deductions<br />
<strong>of</strong> these sorts. Deduce is used more than infer<br />
in scientific and philosophic matters.<br />
deduction. See induction.<br />
deem. See think.<br />
deer. The plural is usually deer, but the regular<br />
form deers is also heard and is acceptable. Compounds<br />
ending in deer follow the same pattern,<br />
with the exception <strong>of</strong> reindeer which has the<br />
regular plural reindeers more <strong>of</strong>ten than not.<br />
See also elk.<br />
defamation. See libel.<br />
defective; deficient. That is defective which has a<br />
defect. That is deficient which has a deficit. Food<br />
would be defective if it were spoiled. It ,would<br />
be deficient if there were not enough <strong>of</strong> it. It<br />
might, <strong>of</strong> course, be both; and its defectiveness<br />
might be the cause <strong>of</strong> its deficiency. In some<br />
things quantity and quality are indistinguishable;<br />
a lack <strong>of</strong> humor, for example, m.ay be<br />
either a defect or a deficiency in a man’s character.<br />
In dealing with the handicapped, particularly<br />
children, the two words have become idiomatically<br />
or technically fixed in certain meanings. We<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> the physically defective and the mentally<br />
deficient. Even where an arm or a leg was<br />
missing, it would be spoken <strong>of</strong> as a defect not<br />
as a deficiency. See also anomalous.<br />
defer may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in he deferred going, but not by an infinitive.<br />
He deferred to go is not standard English.<br />
definite article. See the.<br />
definite; definitive. Definite means clearly defined<br />
or determined, precise, clear in its meaning,<br />
exact (A definite answer must be returned by<br />
noon or it will be assumed that he does not wish<br />
to negotiate). Definitive means conclusive, having<br />
the function <strong>of</strong> deciding or settling a matter,<br />
the fixed and final form. A definite statement is<br />
129 de gustibus<br />
one which is clear. A definitive statement is one<br />
from which there can be no appeal. A definite<br />
edition is one particular edition. A definitive<br />
edition is one that leaves nothing more in the<br />
way <strong>of</strong> editing to be done.<br />
Definite and definitely are greatly overworked<br />
today and in many instances are nothing more<br />
than intensives. In such a sentence as There wus<br />
definitely a vague premonition <strong>of</strong> trouble in the<br />
air, definitely cannot have its proper meaning.<br />
And when someone answers, Yes, definitely,<br />
when asked if he intends to do something, he<br />
can only mean certainly or assuredly or indeed,<br />
and these are not standard meanings <strong>of</strong> defynitely.<br />
Whereas were someone to answer Yes,<br />
definitely when asked if he had marked a road<br />
map for another’s guidance, and meant thereby<br />
that he had marked the map in such a way that<br />
the route would be clear, he would have used<br />
the word correctly.<br />
definitive adjectives. Certain adjectives ordinarily<br />
stand first in a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives qualifying the<br />
same noun. These are called definitives because<br />
they make the noun idea as definite or specific<br />
as the facts allow.<br />
The definitives include: the articles a, an, the;<br />
the possessives, such as my, his, whose, and any<br />
noun in the genitive case, such as father’s; the<br />
demonstratives this, that, these, those; the relatives<br />
and interrogatives what and which; the<br />
indefinites any, each, every, either, neirher, no<br />
or none, some; and the words such and enough.<br />
Two kinds <strong>of</strong> adjectives may sometimes precede<br />
a definitive. (1) The names <strong>of</strong> some fractions<br />
and the words all and both, which might<br />
be treated as nouns and joined to the following<br />
words by <strong>of</strong> as in half <strong>of</strong> the chocolate cake and<br />
all <strong>of</strong> my large books, may also be used without<br />
the <strong>of</strong> as adjectives standing before a definitive,<br />
as in half the chocolate cake, all my large books.<br />
The words all and both, but not the fractions,<br />
may also function as definitives themselves, as<br />
in all men, both men. (2) An adverb cannot<br />
qualify a noun, but it can qualify a definitive<br />
which is an adjective, and in this way have the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> qualifying the noun. Words used to<br />
mean “in a high degree” are being used as adverbs<br />
and may therefore stand before a definitive,<br />
as in such a sad story and what a terrible<br />
thing. When a degree word applies to one adjective<br />
in a series, it may bring that word forward<br />
with it, as in so great a man, how sad c tale.<br />
With these two exceptions, the definitives precede<br />
all other kinds <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
defy. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I defy you to tell me, but not by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a clause.<br />
degenerate. See deteriorate.<br />
de gustibus non est disputandum (taste should not<br />
be discussed). Modern American taste definitely<br />
prefers that we express ourselves in English.<br />
When every educated person studied a little<br />
Latin, an occasional Latin phrase in one’s speech<br />
or writing served to mark one as above the herd<br />
that knew, at best, only the three R’s. But tOdaY<br />
it serves only to mark one as either a hopeless<br />
pedant or an affected ass.
deism; theism. Deism is the belief in the existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> a God on the evidence <strong>of</strong> reason and nature<br />
only. It rejects supernatural revelation. Theism<br />
is the belief in one God as the creator and ruler<br />
<strong>of</strong> the universe, but it does not reject supernatural<br />
revelation.<br />
delay. This word may be used with the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he delayed starting. It is sometimes<br />
used with an infinitive, as in he delayed to<br />
start, but this is not standard practice.<br />
delectable. See delightful.<br />
deliberate falsehood. To refer to some untrue<br />
statement as a deliberate falsehood is to be at<br />
once trite and redundant. The phrase is hackneyed<br />
and since a falsehood must be deliberate<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> intentional, otherwise it would<br />
be simply a mistake, it is redundant.<br />
delicacy; dainty. See tidbit.<br />
delightful; delicious; delectable. That is G!elightful<br />
which affords delight. That is delicious which<br />
pleases the senses <strong>of</strong> taste or smell-though<br />
these, especially the sense <strong>of</strong> taste, are extended<br />
figuratively. A delightful meal would be one at<br />
which there was pleasant company, in pleasant<br />
surroundings and at which, presumably, the food<br />
would be delicious. But it is conceivable that<br />
delicious food could be served at a meal which<br />
was not delightful if the company was unpleasant<br />
or the surroundings disagreeable.<br />
Delectable is a poetic form <strong>of</strong> delightful. Bunyan<br />
referred to the Delectable Mountains in<br />
what is perhaps the most famous use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word. Fowler says that it is now used in &gland<br />
only in an ironical sense but in America, where<br />
it is a club-woman gush word, it is used largely<br />
as a synonym for delicious.<br />
delimit. See limit.<br />
delirium. The plural is deliriums or deliria.<br />
deliver. When this word is used in connection with<br />
childbirth, it means “to set free” and lnot “to<br />
hand over.” Although it would seem that birth<br />
sets the baby free even more than it d’oes the<br />
mother, this hasn’t been the opinion <strong>of</strong> people<br />
old enough to talk about the matter. In literary<br />
English, therefore, it is the mother, and not the<br />
child, who is delivered. In the United States one<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten hears <strong>of</strong> babies being delivered. This is<br />
probably a survival from the stork period when<br />
delivered had to be understood as handed over.<br />
deliverance; delivery. Delivery refers to transfer<br />
or conveyance, the utterance <strong>of</strong> speech, or the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> giving birth (Its delivery was rapid. His<br />
delivery was sonorous and clear. The delivery<br />
was normal at term). Deliverance was once<br />
synonymous in these meanings, but it ia, now a<br />
legal and ecclesiastical term and means :primarily<br />
a rescue or release from some undesirable<br />
state (Prayer brings deliverunce from g,uilt).<br />
delusion. See allusion.<br />
delve, in the literal sense <strong>of</strong> digging with a spade,<br />
is known today chiefly in John Ball’s fierce<br />
rhyme :<br />
When Adam dolve and Eve span,<br />
Who was then the gentleman?<br />
-usually misspoken, for clarity, as “When<br />
Adam delved.” In the figurative sense <strong>of</strong> intel-<br />
lectual digging (Not in the cells where frigid<br />
learning delves/ In Aldine folios mouldering on<br />
their shelves) it is slightly pedantic and affected.<br />
demand; claim; require. TO demand is to ask in<br />
a bold, authoritative way (He demanded immediate<br />
admission). To claim is to assert a right to<br />
something (He claimed the respect due his rank<br />
and would accept no less). To reqztire is to ask<br />
for something as being necessary (The army<br />
requires obedience; it could not function without<br />
it) or to compel (His lordship required them<br />
to be up before daylight and on before him).<br />
See also inquire.<br />
demean. There is a verb demean which means to<br />
conduct or behave oneself (No man who engaged<br />
in the rebellion demeaned himself throughout<br />
its course so honorably and so humanely).<br />
There is also, despite the protests <strong>of</strong> the purists,<br />
another verb demean which means to lower<br />
in dignity or standing, to debase (Zt was, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, Mrs. Sedley’s opinion that her son would<br />
demean himself by a marriage with an artist’s<br />
daughter). This may have originated in a misconception<br />
<strong>of</strong> the other verb demean in certain<br />
contexts. It may be modeled from the adjective<br />
mean as an analogy to debase, but the fact<br />
remains that it is here. It has been used by some<br />
<strong>of</strong> the best writers and is used by the common<br />
speaker far more <strong>of</strong>ten than the other verb.<br />
Indeed, the common speaker is <strong>of</strong>ten astonished<br />
to learn (from the purist) that there is another<br />
verb. It is now standard usage.<br />
demise is a word <strong>of</strong> highly special meanings which,<br />
in grandiloquence or as a euphemism, is sometimes<br />
put to improper uses. Originally it was a<br />
law term, signifying the conveyance or transfer<br />
<strong>of</strong> an estate by will or lease. Then it came to<br />
refer to the transference <strong>of</strong> sovereignty on the<br />
death or deposition <strong>of</strong> a sovereign, and here we<br />
have such phrases as death or demise and the<br />
demise <strong>of</strong> the crown. When Edward the Fourth<br />
was driven from his throne for a few months<br />
this period was called his demise. In most cases,<br />
however, the sovereignty has been demised by<br />
the death <strong>of</strong> the sovereign, and so it is a natural<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> the word to speak <strong>of</strong> a ruler’s death<br />
as his demise. To speak <strong>of</strong> an ordinary man’s<br />
death as his demise, however, is probably erroneous,<br />
since no sovereignty is transferred by the<br />
act. And it is certainly grandiloquent. One might<br />
as well speak <strong>of</strong> his accession to a job or his<br />
abdication on being tied.<br />
demolish. See destroy.<br />
demonstrative pronouns and adjectives. Most<br />
grammarians mean by demonstrative pronouns<br />
simply the words this, that, these, and those.<br />
Some grammarians feel that any pronoun which<br />
“points out” may be called a demonstrative,<br />
such as the former, the latter, the first, the one,<br />
the other, the same. In either case, these same<br />
words can also be used to qualify nouns. When<br />
they are, they are called demonstrative adjectives.<br />
See this; that.<br />
demur. See object.<br />
den (a room in a house). See sanctum.<br />
denigrate. See black.<br />
denominate. See name.
denotation. See connotation.<br />
denote. To denote is to be a mark or sign, <strong>of</strong>, to<br />
represent by a symbol or to stand as a symbol<br />
for. A rapid pulse <strong>of</strong>ten denotes a fever. A clinical<br />
thermometer shows it. An expensive car<br />
may denote its owner to be a man <strong>of</strong> wealth. His<br />
bank account shows it.<br />
dent and dint were originally simply variant spellings<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same word, meaning a stroke or blow<br />
with a sharp instrument. Dint keeps this meaning<br />
in figurative uses (By dint <strong>of</strong> argument) but<br />
in literal uses both words now mean whotlly the<br />
consequences <strong>of</strong> such a stroke or blow. Dent is<br />
confined exclusively to a literal sense, but dint<br />
may be used either literally or figuratively. A<br />
fender may have a dent or a dint, but a reputation<br />
or one’s self-esteem can only have a dint.<br />
deny; repudiate. In the sense <strong>of</strong> declaring to be<br />
false, repudiate is a stronger word than deny,<br />
which <strong>of</strong>ten has an adverb to give it emphasis.<br />
Repudiate, <strong>of</strong> course, has other meanings that<br />
deny is not synonymous for, such as to cast <strong>of</strong>f<br />
or disown (He repudiated his son) or to refuse<br />
to pay debts because they are disowned (He<br />
repudiated his wife’s debts). See also refute.<br />
Deo volente; D.V.; God willing. Though the truly<br />
pious are fully aware <strong>of</strong> the uncertainty <strong>of</strong> all<br />
human plans, they are not as frequently lmoved<br />
as the pharisaical and the superstitious to call<br />
public attention to their awareness. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
the phrase “D.V.,” the initials <strong>of</strong> Deo volenfe,<br />
or the English form God willing, as an interjection<br />
after an expressed intention is a verbal<br />
counterpart <strong>of</strong> knocking on wood and has about<br />
the same value. As a clichC, it should certainly<br />
not be used at all. As a serious expression, one<br />
hardly need say, it should be confined to serious<br />
occasions. Used, as it is, to suggest that ar commercial<br />
radio program continues from day to<br />
day solely by Divine permission, it fails to convey<br />
quite the pious humility that it so ostentatiously<br />
intends.<br />
dependant; dependent. Though dependent is now<br />
standard for all uses, dependant for the noun is<br />
acceptable.<br />
depleted, reduced. Though one meaning <strong>of</strong> deplete<br />
is to reduce the fulness <strong>of</strong>, deple8!ed in<br />
common usage means emptied or exhausted, not<br />
merely “reduced.” Depletion almost always suggests<br />
an injurious reduction. A garrison, for<br />
example, may be depleted by sickness; whereas<br />
it may be reduced by order and for its own<br />
advantage.<br />
deplore means to weep for, to bewail, to ,grieve<br />
over, to regret deeply. Yet in the past two or<br />
three generations it has been used so much in<br />
more-in-sorrow-than-in-anger reproaches that<br />
we are a little startled when we come across it<br />
in its simple sense. When we read Tennyson in<br />
his Ode on the Death <strong>of</strong> the Duke <strong>of</strong> Wellington<br />
asking Where shall we lay the man whom we<br />
deplore? we are taken aback. One does not,<br />
today, allude to deplorable things in a eulogy.<br />
Whether the word will purge <strong>of</strong>f this new iaccretion<br />
<strong>of</strong> meaning or whether high-minded. condescension<br />
has done its deplorable work re:mains<br />
to be seen. See also regret.<br />
131 derring<br />
depot; station. Those who insist that a distinction<br />
must be made between depot and station may<br />
know their etymology but they don’t know their<br />
railroads. It is true that a depot is properly a<br />
place <strong>of</strong> deposit for freight and a sfation the<br />
place where a train stops to pick up and deposit<br />
passengers. But in all except a very few large<br />
cities the depot and the station were the same<br />
building and since freight is a far more important<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the business <strong>of</strong> most railroads than<br />
passengers, the term for the freight warehouse<br />
was naturally applied to the whole.<br />
There’s more to it than that, though, and a<br />
linguistic lesson to boot. Depot is, to be sure, a<br />
rather highfalutin name, but in the early days<br />
railroads were highfalutin things and deserved<br />
the best. But depots, once rather grand, became<br />
shabby, dingy places, gritty, with potbellied<br />
stoves, hard benches, fetid air, and long, long,<br />
dreary hours <strong>of</strong> waiting. The glory and elegance<br />
went out <strong>of</strong> the word and it, too, became dingy<br />
(All those loafers alwuys hanging around the<br />
depot) and finally, as <strong>of</strong>ten happens to words<br />
<strong>of</strong> unusual elegance, became, as it now is, rustic<br />
and provincial. Soon it will become quaint and<br />
then charming.<br />
depravation; depravity. Depravation is the act <strong>of</strong><br />
corrupting, depravity the state <strong>of</strong> being corrupted.<br />
Depravity, <strong>of</strong> course, encourages deppravuiion<br />
and depruvution produces depravity.<br />
depraved. See abandoned.<br />
deprecate; depreciate. Deprecute means to express<br />
earnest disapproval <strong>of</strong>, usually regretfully (He<br />
deprecated the tendency <strong>of</strong> younger scholars to<br />
publish in haste). To depreciate is to belittle, to<br />
lessen the value <strong>of</strong>, to present as <strong>of</strong> little value<br />
(the depreciation <strong>of</strong> currency. Goldsmith had<br />
an unhappy tendency to depreciate the writings<br />
<strong>of</strong> all orher authors <strong>of</strong> his day).<br />
derby in America is a stiff felt hat with a rounded<br />
crown and a narrow brim, worn chiefly by men.<br />
In England it is called a bowler. There is a race<br />
called the Derby in both countries. In England<br />
it is run annually at Epsom Downs, near London.<br />
In America it is run annually at Churchill<br />
Downs, Kentucky.<br />
derelict properly means left or abandoned by the<br />
owner. Its use in America to mean delinquent<br />
or remiss in the performance <strong>of</strong> a duty (The<br />
commitlee has been derelict in its duty-Mark<br />
Twain) is a peculiar linguistic phenomenon. It<br />
may have originated in sheer ignorance, have<br />
been a blunder for dereliction. But whatever its<br />
origin, it has been in use in the United States<br />
for almost a century among the best writers and<br />
speakers and is definitely standard. See flotsam.<br />
derring do, as a term for heroic deeds and daring,<br />
is pseudo-archaic and is usually used in a mildly<br />
satiric way.<br />
The history <strong>of</strong> derring do, traced by the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong>, serves to demonstrate,<br />
once again, that usage makes anything standard.<br />
It all began with Chaucer who said (in 1374)<br />
that the knight Troylus was in no degre secounde,/<br />
In dorrying don that longeth to a<br />
knyghi, that is that he was second to no one in<br />
“daring to do” whatever it belonged to a knight
descant 132<br />
to do. Fifty-six years later John Lydgate, a<br />
minor poet who imitated Chaucer, said that<br />
Troylus was a second Hector in manhood, deed,<br />
and dorrying do. Whether he was just careless<br />
and left the final “n” <strong>of</strong>f and didn’t bother with<br />
an object to the verb, or whether he thought<br />
dorrying don was some quality <strong>of</strong> mauliness<br />
that Zongefh lo a knyght will never be known.<br />
And things were made worse by the fact that<br />
when his book was printed (in 1513 and 1555)<br />
“dorrying do” was misprinted as “derrynge do.”<br />
In this form it was picked up, in 1579, by Edmund<br />
Spenser, a great poet and a great pedant,<br />
who was looking for archaic words to ,give a<br />
rustic flavor to his poem The Shepherd’s Calendar.<br />
Spenser, in the manner later employed<br />
by T. S. Eliot, went out <strong>of</strong> his way to be o’bscure<br />
and then went further out <strong>of</strong> his way to add a<br />
glossary in the footnotes to enlighten the reader<br />
he had bewildered in the text. And in this glossary<br />
he defined derring doe (whose spelling he<br />
had “modernized”) as “manhood and chevalrie.”<br />
He was, apparently, enchanted with the allliteration<br />
and incomprehensibility <strong>of</strong> the term because<br />
he used it four other times (once even<br />
referring to “Dreadful derring dooers”) in his<br />
poems.<br />
Sir Walter Scott, a great purveyor <strong>of</strong> Wardour<br />
Street English, found the phrase in Spenser and<br />
transferred it to Ivanhoe, though he still felt it<br />
necessary to gloss it in a note as “des;perate<br />
courage.” From Scott, whose popularity alone<br />
was enough to give it currency, it passed to the<br />
dime novels, the westerns, and the literary critics.<br />
descant. See decant.<br />
describe; narrate. To describe is to convey an impression<br />
or image in words. A description seeks<br />
particularly to reveal the appearance and the<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> things that exist in space (He described<br />
the strange old hotel at which he and his sister<br />
hnd spent their vacation). To narrate is to recount<br />
an occurrence, usually by giving the<br />
details <strong>of</strong> an event in the order in which they<br />
happened in time (He narrated the adventures<br />
which had befallen them on their vacxtion).<br />
The two words are easily confused because they<br />
refer to processes which are usually mixed. A<br />
narrative is more meaningful if the scene in<br />
which it took place has been described.<br />
descry; discern; notice; perceive. To descry is to<br />
catch sight <strong>of</strong>, especially from a distancl: (Tlte<br />
English sentinels do keep good watch; if they<br />
descry us all our labor’s lost) or to discover<br />
from observation (Milton speaks <strong>of</strong> Galileo<br />
looking at the moon through his telescope To<br />
descry new Lands, Rivers or Mountains in her<br />
spotty Globe). It is a literary word today and<br />
would seem a little strange or affected in ordinary<br />
speech or writing. See also decry.<br />
To discern is to perceive by the sight or some<br />
other sense or by the intellect, to apprehend<br />
clearly, or to distinguish differences. Discern<br />
sueeests -- distinauishing - (sometimes with diffi-<br />
culty) a thing for what it really is under confusing<br />
or misleading appearances (But wait, I<br />
discern a fault in your argument).<br />
To notice is to become aware <strong>of</strong> something<br />
which has caught one’s attention (Suddenly I<br />
noticed that the man was moving).<br />
To perceive, which is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a formal<br />
substitute for “see” and “notice,” also has the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> understanding meanings and implications<br />
(After a short while, however, he perceived<br />
what they were really up to).<br />
deserve. The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb following deserve<br />
usually has a passive meaning, as in he deserves<br />
waiting on, he deserves helping. An infinitive<br />
after deserve usually has an active meaning, as<br />
in he deserves to wait on us, he deserves to help.<br />
Deserve may also be followed by a clause, as in<br />
he deserves that we should help him, but this<br />
construction is felt to be stiff and an infinitive,<br />
such as he deserves to have us help him, is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
desideratum. The plural is desiderutums or desiderata.<br />
designate is not properly a complete synonym for<br />
describe. To designate is to indicate or show.<br />
An <strong>of</strong>ficer’s insignia designates his rank. To say<br />
I would designate such a remark as pure insolence<br />
is not as correct as to say Z would describe<br />
such a remark as pure insolence or Z would call<br />
such a remark, etc.<br />
desirable; desirous. Desirable means worthy to be<br />
desired (a very desirable site for a house).<br />
Desirous means having desire, longing, wishful<br />
(We never find ourselves so desirous to finish, as<br />
in the latter part <strong>of</strong> our work).<br />
desire. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he desired to tell them, but not by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb. We do not say he desired telling<br />
them. The noun desire may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in the desire to read, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb introduced by for, as in the desire<br />
for reading. The preposition <strong>of</strong> following desire<br />
shows a genitive, or possessive, relation, as in<br />
the desire <strong>of</strong> the moth for the star. Either the<br />
verb or the noun may be followed by a clause<br />
but the clause verb must be a subjunctive or a<br />
subjunctive equivalent, as in he desired Z should<br />
tell you and the desire that Z should tell you.<br />
See want.<br />
desperate. See hopeless.<br />
dessert. See candy.<br />
destroy; demolish; raze. To destroy something is<br />
to scatter it into useless pieces, to take away its<br />
powers and functions so completely that it cannot<br />
be restored. It can refer to tangibles or intangibles.<br />
It can be sudden and violent or slow<br />
and unperceived (The hurricane destroyed the<br />
entire village. In time drink destroyed his will<br />
and malnutrition undermined his strength). Demolish<br />
applies to organized bodies or structures<br />
and implies destruction by the complete sep<br />
aration <strong>of</strong> parts. A machine is demolished, a<br />
formal structure <strong>of</strong> logic is demolished, a building<br />
is demolished. To raze is to level down to<br />
the ground. It is related to razor and means,<br />
basically, to scrape. It is applied almost entirely<br />
to buildings, though there are some figurative<br />
extensions.<br />
deteriorate; degenerate. Both words mean to make<br />
or become worse. There is a perfectly good English<br />
verb worsen, but it might sound strange to
most ears now. Deteriorate is usually applied to<br />
changes for the worse in abstractions (conditions<br />
are always deteriorating and so are relations)<br />
or in things in whose worsening there is<br />
no sense <strong>of</strong> moral condemnation. The weather<br />
deteriorates. So do houses and health. Degenerate<br />
usually carries a sense <strong>of</strong> moral condemnation<br />
(Degenerate bastard, 1’11 not trouble<br />
thee) or implies that in the worsening there has<br />
been the loss <strong>of</strong> some virtuous quality once<br />
essential to the person or thing spoken <strong>of</strong>. Benedict<br />
Arnold degenerated from a brave soldier<br />
to a buccaneer. Arguments frequently degenerate<br />
into squabbles.<br />
determine. See decide.<br />
detest. See hate.<br />
detract; distract. Both detract and distract mean<br />
to draw away from. But detract has come to<br />
mean, in most common uses, the taking away<br />
from a good reputation, depreciation (Claudius’s<br />
drunkenness detracted greatly from his kingly<br />
dignity. To listen to detraction is as much an<br />
act <strong>of</strong> detraction as to speak it). Distract has<br />
come to mean the drawing <strong>of</strong> things away from<br />
the mind, especially the drawing <strong>of</strong> attention or<br />
fixed purpose away from its aim (These diversions<br />
distract us from our graver purposes).<br />
Distraction and distracted can mean that the<br />
mind has been so far drawn from any settled<br />
purpose, or so confused by various drawings<br />
away, that it can no longer function in an orderly<br />
manner (The minds <strong>of</strong> men were too distracted<br />
for so deliberate a plan. He ran about<br />
like one distracted).<br />
detritus. The plural is detrituses or detritus, not<br />
detriti.<br />
develop. To develop (sometimes develope) is to<br />
unfold, to bring out, to progress from a simple<br />
to a more complex form, to advance from a<br />
latent to an active stage. That is, in all its meanings<br />
there is the implication that there was something<br />
there in the first place which has come<br />
gradually into existence or operation. Hence to<br />
use develop as a synonym for originate (Many<br />
things wholly new have developed in the past<br />
generation. New states that developed after the<br />
war) is to misuse it. A man catches a cold if<br />
he has been totally free from one. He develops<br />
a cold if he allows a slight one to become<br />
severe.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> develop to mean to bring to light,<br />
or to come to light, to transpire (A new feature<br />
<strong>of</strong> the shooting developed today, when it was<br />
discovered that. . . . It develops now that he<br />
never intended to join us), now obsolete in England,<br />
is standard usage in the United States.<br />
deviate; digress; divagate; diverge; swerve. To deviate<br />
is to turn aside from the set path in a<br />
wandering and <strong>of</strong>ten purposeless way (The resf<br />
to some faint meaning make pretence,/ But<br />
Shadwell never deviates into sense). To digress<br />
is to wander from the main topic, in speech or<br />
writing, usually for the purpose <strong>of</strong> explaining or<br />
illustrating (I have too long digressed, and<br />
therefore shall return to my subject). Divagate<br />
is a synonym for both deviate and digress, . more.<br />
inclining to the former, but is so unusual and<br />
133 deviser<br />
literary a word that it could be used only before<br />
a select audience if one were to avoid the charge<br />
<strong>of</strong> affectation. Things diverge which proceed<br />
from a common point in such directions that<br />
the distance between them increases (Two roads<br />
diverged in a wood, and I--/ I took the one less<br />
traveled by). It is the opposite <strong>of</strong> converge. To<br />
swerve is to make a sudden or sharp turn from<br />
a line or course (The cur, traveling at great<br />
speed, swerved from the road and plunged over<br />
the embankment), though it also <strong>of</strong>ten has the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> returning to the course as well (The<br />
car swerved around the heavy truck and continued<br />
at breakneck speed).<br />
These meanings all carry over into figurative<br />
uses. Thus one who deviated from the path <strong>of</strong><br />
rectitude would be one who wandered from it.<br />
One who diverged would be one who left it and<br />
got farther from it as he continued. One who<br />
swerved from it would be one who left it with<br />
suddenness, under some stress or necessity, and<br />
it might mean one who so left it but almost immediately<br />
returned to it.<br />
device; devise. Device is always a noun. It means<br />
an invention or contrivance, a plan, a crafty<br />
scheme, or a trick (What is needed is a device<br />
for turning <strong>of</strong>f the alarm before it rings. That’s<br />
a cunning device, but it won’t save him now). In<br />
the plural, device has a special meaning <strong>of</strong> desire<br />
or inclination, in the hackneyed phrase “left to<br />
his own devices.” Presumably the idea arose<br />
from the tricks or contrivances which desire<br />
would invent.<br />
Devise is used as a noun only in the special<br />
legal meanings <strong>of</strong> a will that disposes <strong>of</strong> real<br />
property, the act <strong>of</strong> so disposing, or the property<br />
so disposed <strong>of</strong>. As a verb devise means to invent<br />
or contrive (He devised a machine that would<br />
use the same water over and over. He devised<br />
a way <strong>of</strong> getting out <strong>of</strong> paying his debts without<br />
at the same time losing face in the community).<br />
devilry; deviltry. Deviltry is a variant <strong>of</strong> devilry,<br />
the extraneous t having been inserted, presumably,<br />
to match it with gallantry, peasantry, and<br />
the like. Though both words can mean extreme<br />
wickedness or cruelty and both can mean hilarity<br />
or daring-the impish side <strong>of</strong> devilish<br />
doings--deviliry is now used almost exclusively<br />
to mean mischievous high spiritedness (What<br />
deviltry are you fellows up to there with those<br />
masks and that bucket <strong>of</strong> paint?).<br />
devil’s advocate. In the Roman Catholic Church,<br />
where the term had its origin, the devil’s advocare<br />
is one appointed to present the arguments<br />
against a proposed canonization as a saint. He<br />
is, indeed, therefore, as Fowler insists, “the<br />
blackener <strong>of</strong> the good” rather than “the whitewasher<br />
<strong>of</strong> the wicked.” None the less the general<br />
uublic. lamentably ignorant <strong>of</strong> holiness in all<br />
its ways and forms, uses the phrase to mean the<br />
advocate <strong>of</strong> a bad cause or one who injures a<br />
cause by his advocacy <strong>of</strong> it, and has so used it<br />
so long that these meanings must be accepted<br />
as standard.<br />
deviser; devisor; divisor. He who devises something,<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> inventing it, is its deviser.<br />
He who devises property to a devisee is a de-
devote 134<br />
visor. That number by which the divid.end is<br />
divided is the divisor.<br />
devote may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
with the preposition to, as in he devoted himself<br />
to earning a living, but not by an in:6nitive<br />
or a clause.<br />
devoted. See addicted.<br />
dexterous; dextrous. Both forms, meaning adroit,<br />
are correct. Dexterous has the advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
being more clearly related to dexterity. Dextrous<br />
has the advantage <strong>of</strong> being shorter.<br />
diabolical rage differs, apparently, from ordinary<br />
rage in the malevolence <strong>of</strong> its fury and the<br />
menace <strong>of</strong> its hostility. The Devil was thought<br />
to be given to special tantrums at the thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> lost bliss and the sight <strong>of</strong> man’s inrmcence<br />
and expectations <strong>of</strong> felicity to come. But people<br />
-at least not many <strong>of</strong> those who employ fivesyllable<br />
words-no longer believe in a literal<br />
devil who gnashes actual teeth and stamps and<br />
screams in ill temper. The term has become a<br />
cliche and is generally to be avoided. (So also<br />
with diabolical skill and diabolical cunnhg.)<br />
diacritical mark is a mark, point, or sign added<br />
or attached to a letter or character to distinguish<br />
it from another <strong>of</strong> similar form, to give it a<br />
particular phonetic value, to indicate stress, etc.<br />
The chief diacritical marks are the dieresis<br />
(or diaeresis) in English (the sign * * placed over<br />
the second <strong>of</strong> two adjacent vowels to indicate<br />
separate pronunciation, as in cooperate), the<br />
tilde in Spanish [see tilde], the cedilla in French<br />
and Portuguese (a mark placed under c before<br />
a, o, or I(, as in facade, to show it has the sound<br />
<strong>of</strong> s), the umlaut in German [see umlaut] and<br />
various accent marks (‘, ‘, h, “, etc.) used to<br />
indicate pronunciation and stress.<br />
diagnosis. The plural is diagnosises or diagnoses.<br />
dialect. See vernacular.<br />
dialectal; dialectical. Dialectal means <strong>of</strong> a dialect<br />
or characteristic <strong>of</strong> a dialect (A dialectal peculiarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> Scotch is the pronunciation as 0% <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sound that appears in English as ou, in house or<br />
mouse).<br />
Dialectical or dialectic means <strong>of</strong> or per’taining<br />
to the nature <strong>of</strong> logical argumentation (Pure<br />
reason is always dialectical. His subtle intellect<br />
concerned itself more and more excl(usively<br />
with the dialectical splitting <strong>of</strong> dogmatical<br />
hairs). Dialectical is <strong>of</strong>ten used for dialectal, so<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten that this use is now standard. But dialectal<br />
cannot be used for dialectical.<br />
dialogue; duologue; monologue; soliloquy; conversation;<br />
talk. A dialogue is a conversation between<br />
two or more persons, especially in a play<br />
or a novel (The action was good but the dialogue<br />
was forced). Duologue is a conversation<br />
between two persons only. The only use it has,<br />
and that is rare, is as a special name for a dramatic<br />
piece in the form <strong>of</strong> a dialogue limlited to<br />
two speakers. A monologue is a prolonged talk<br />
or discourse by a single speaker, a composition<br />
in which a person speaks alone, or a form <strong>of</strong><br />
dramatic entertainment by a single speaker<br />
(Browning was a master <strong>of</strong> the dramatic monologue.<br />
Bea Lillie’s monologues are incompar-<br />
able). Some insist that a monologue cannot be<br />
a soliloquy (that is, talking when alone), that it<br />
may consist <strong>of</strong> one person speaking but someone<br />
else must be present, as in Browning’s famous<br />
dramatic monologues. But in America today, it<br />
is used a great deal <strong>of</strong> one person speaking alone,<br />
used more that way, indeed, than in its earlier<br />
sense, in standard speech and writing. Conversation<br />
is an exchange <strong>of</strong> thoughts in spoken<br />
words. If more than two persons take part, it<br />
may be called a colloquy and if it is extraordinarily<br />
stuffy and pompous it may be called a<br />
colloquium. A conversation is informal but not<br />
quite so familiar as talk. When Samuel Johnson,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the greatest <strong>of</strong> conversationalists, said<br />
Yes, sir, we had good talk, he meant that the<br />
conversation had been particularly easy and<br />
relaxed, lively, interesting, rapid and gay. The<br />
spellings dialog, duolog, and monolog are acceptable.<br />
dialysis. The plural is dialyses.<br />
diamond in the rough. To say <strong>of</strong> someone <strong>of</strong><br />
sterling worth but uncouth manners or exterior<br />
that he is a diamond in the rough or a rough<br />
diamond is to employ a cliche. Do so if you wish,<br />
but know that you are doing so.<br />
dice. The singular and the plural are both dice.<br />
Originally dice was the plural <strong>of</strong> die, which<br />
meant one <strong>of</strong> the cubes used in games <strong>of</strong> chance.<br />
In this sense one has very little occasion to use<br />
the word in the singular. But when the occasion<br />
does arise the form dice is now used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
the old singular die, as in he did not touch Q<br />
dice. Dice is also the form used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in dice playing and<br />
dice box. The plural dices has been in existence<br />
for several centuries but has never become<br />
standard.<br />
Today the old singular die is used only in the<br />
derived sense <strong>of</strong> a stamp or mold, and in this<br />
sense it has a regular plural dies. The expression<br />
the die is cast originally meant the dice have<br />
been thrown. Most Americans today hear this<br />
in the new sense <strong>of</strong> die, as if it meant the mold<br />
has been formed. Either metaphor accounts for<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> the expression, which is that it is<br />
now too late to change one’s mind. As a way <strong>of</strong><br />
saying that a decision has been irrevocably<br />
made, the die is cast is a cliche.<br />
dickens is employed in many contexts for devil<br />
(What the dickens do you mean? Who the<br />
dickens is that? I’ll give him the very dickens<br />
when Z see him). It is now <strong>of</strong>ten thought to be<br />
a euphemistic substitution <strong>of</strong> the last name <strong>of</strong><br />
the author, Charles Dickens, employed simply<br />
for alliteration. This is not so, however. The<br />
word was so employed centuries before Charles<br />
Dickens was born (I cannot tell what the dickens<br />
his name is-Shakespeare, The Merry Wives <strong>of</strong><br />
Windsor). It has been suggested that it is a form<br />
<strong>of</strong> devilkin, or little devil, but there is no pro<strong>of</strong>.<br />
diction is the element <strong>of</strong> style which depends on<br />
choice <strong>of</strong> words, as distinguished from sentence<br />
structure or arrangement <strong>of</strong> material. Good<br />
diction conveys ideas with clarity and precision<br />
<strong>of</strong> effect, whatever the style may be.
Certain words are associated with particular<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> diction. O’er and yestereve, for instance,<br />
are poetic terms. Whereas, aforementioned,<br />
party <strong>of</strong> the first part and hereinafter are legal.<br />
The world <strong>of</strong> sport has its own special vocabulary.<br />
But diction cannot always be classified as<br />
to type. It is good or bad to the degree that it is<br />
appropriate or inappropriate to the subject.<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> the aesthetic quality <strong>of</strong> style inheres<br />
in the diction.<br />
dictum. The plural is dictums or dicta.<br />
did. See do.<br />
die. This verb may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the one who dies, as in he died happy.<br />
It may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the dying, as in he died quickly.<br />
die a natural death. Our concept <strong>of</strong> what is natural<br />
and what is unnatural has undergone great<br />
changes in the past fifty years or so. The phrase<br />
is redundant and hackneyed and with the development<br />
<strong>of</strong> new weapons may even become<br />
outmoded. In a sense, all deaths are natural or<br />
we wouldn’t die them.<br />
die; decease; pass away (or on); perish. Die is the<br />
grim, everyday word (Ay, but to die, and go we<br />
know not where:/ To lie in cold obstruction and<br />
to rot). It is used <strong>of</strong> all living things and used<br />
figuratively <strong>of</strong> anything that has displayed an<br />
activity that may be likened to life (When a<br />
lovely flame dies. . . . Music, when s<strong>of</strong>t voices<br />
die, lingers in the memory).<br />
Decease is a legal term. It refers only to<br />
human beings. Sometimes an individual who is<br />
dead will be referred to euphemistically as the<br />
deceused in a eulogy or a news story, but it is<br />
an awkward and not very successful attempt to<br />
avoid an unpleasant reality. Those who have<br />
died are usually referred to in the plural as the<br />
dead. Nothing has been able to lessen the dignity<br />
and solemnity <strong>of</strong> the term. To speak <strong>of</strong> pnssing<br />
away or passing on, with its implication <strong>of</strong> a<br />
continuation <strong>of</strong> life elsewhere, is a vulgarity.<br />
True faith has never blinked the reality <strong>of</strong> death.<br />
To perish is to become utterly extinct (shall<br />
not perish from the earth). It is a literary term.<br />
When applied to human beings it implies a cruel<br />
or unusual death, as by hunger, cold, or neglect<br />
(He perished on the scaffold. Thirfy thousand<br />
people perished in the Lisbon earthquake).<br />
Perish the thought (i.e., don’t even think about<br />
it any more, let the very thought become extinct)<br />
is a clicht.<br />
dieresis. The plural is diereses. See diacritical mark.<br />
dies. See dice.<br />
difference; differentiation. The difference between<br />
two things is the quality or extent or degree to<br />
which they are not the same (The difference in<br />
weight between the two packages was only half<br />
an ounce. There is a great difference between<br />
dying in hot blood like Romeo and going <strong>of</strong>f<br />
like a frog in a frost). Differentiation is the<br />
action <strong>of</strong> distinguishing between two things, the<br />
distinguishing <strong>of</strong> their difference and sometimes<br />
the making <strong>of</strong> differences (A careful diflerentiution<br />
<strong>of</strong> their claims showed Anstley’s to be<br />
the better founded. Long continued isolation<br />
135 different<br />
would <strong>of</strong>ten lead to the differentiation <strong>of</strong><br />
species).<br />
difference; discrepancy; disparity. Difference refers<br />
to a complete or partial lack <strong>of</strong> identity (Though<br />
they were brothers, the difference between them<br />
was as great as could be. The difference between<br />
the two estimates was less than a dollar). Discrepancy<br />
usually refers to a difference or inconsistency<br />
between things that should agree<br />
(There wns always a discrepancy between what<br />
he promised and what he did. The discrepancy<br />
in his accounts was serious). Disparity implies<br />
inequality (There was a disparity in their<br />
height), <strong>of</strong>ten where a greater approximation<br />
to equality might reasonably be expected (The<br />
disparity in their accomplishments was puzzling<br />
when one reflected that they had the same advantages<br />
and opportunities).<br />
difference and distinction may be used interchangeably<br />
when they both refer to perceivable<br />
dissimilarities (There is a distinction between a<br />
compound and a double fracture or There is a<br />
difference between a compound and a double<br />
fracture). Distinction, however, usually suggests<br />
that the perception <strong>of</strong> the dissimilarity has been<br />
the result <strong>of</strong> analysis and discrimination (That<br />
is a fine distinction to make). Difference refers<br />
only to the condition <strong>of</strong> being dissimilar (There<br />
is a difference there that is surely obvious to all<br />
but the wilfully blind).<br />
When used with the preposition <strong>of</strong> as a term<br />
<strong>of</strong> praise (a book <strong>of</strong> distinction), distinction is<br />
vague and uncertain. It means rather distinguished<br />
than distinct and implies a certain merit<br />
<strong>of</strong> perception in those applying the term. The<br />
“Man <strong>of</strong> Distinction” <strong>of</strong> the advertisements was<br />
meant, apparently, to be both distinguished and<br />
discriminating.<br />
different; diverse; various; distinct. Various<br />
stresses a similarity underlying superficial differences<br />
in several kinds <strong>of</strong> the same general thing.<br />
To say that various accounts <strong>of</strong> the incident were<br />
reported means that the accounts agreed, at<br />
least to the point that it was recognizable that<br />
they alluded to the same incident, but differed,<br />
or varied, in particulars. The word different is<br />
applied to either a single thing differing in<br />
identity or character from another, or to two or<br />
more things differing thus from one another.<br />
To say that diflerent accounts <strong>of</strong> the incident<br />
were reported would be to imply that the<br />
accounts were more divergent than the various<br />
accounts. They might even disagree in fundamental<br />
facts. Diverse implies a sharper contrast<br />
than different. Distinct implies a lack <strong>of</strong> connection<br />
between things which, however, may<br />
possibly be alike or similar. Two distinct<br />
accounts <strong>of</strong> the incident might agree or disagree<br />
in their relation <strong>of</strong> what had happened, but they<br />
would be wholly separate observations.<br />
different from; different than. Walter Page, who<br />
was undoubtedly one <strong>of</strong> the most conservative<br />
writers <strong>of</strong> English in the twentieth century,<br />
wrote to his son: see that you use no word in a<br />
different sense than it was used in a hundred<br />
years ago. The great purist did not make a
differentiate 136<br />
mistake. As he knew very well, diqerenr than<br />
can be found in the writings <strong>of</strong> Addison, Steele,<br />
Defoe, Richardson, Goldsmith, Coleridge, De<br />
Quincey, Carlyle, Thackeray, and a great many<br />
others. Cardinal Newman wrote: it bar: possessed<br />
me in a different way than ever before.<br />
John Maynard Keynes, another master <strong>of</strong> clear<br />
and beautiful prose, wrote: how different things<br />
appear in Washington than in London.<br />
In the examples just given than introduces a<br />
condensed clause. It could not be replaced by<br />
the single word from but would require from<br />
that which or even more words. There is no<br />
doubt that the best writers and speakers generally<br />
prefer than to an elaborate construction such<br />
as from that which. When what follow,s is a<br />
simple noun or pronoun and not a clause, as in<br />
different from mine, different than mine, most<br />
people prefer from, but than is also acceptable.<br />
In Great Britain the word to is <strong>of</strong>ten used here,<br />
as in diflerent to mine. This is comparable to<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> to with Latin comparative forms, such<br />
as inferior, anterior, senior, and is accepta.ble in<br />
Great Britain.<br />
The notion that from was the correct word to<br />
use after different, and that than and to were<br />
incorrect, dates from the eighteenth century. The<br />
idea may have been based on nothing mor’e than<br />
the fact that the Latin word differre means sepurate.<br />
In English than is the normal word to use<br />
in comparing things that are dissimilar. It is true<br />
that than can only be used with the comparative<br />
form <strong>of</strong> an adjective. It cannot be used with a<br />
positive form. We may say greener than but not<br />
Preen than. And the word different looks like a<br />
positive form. But the posit&e form <strong>of</strong> an adjective<br />
cannot be qualified by degree words, such<br />
as much, fur, a great deul, and the word di#erent<br />
can. We may say much different and fur different,<br />
just as we say much greener and fur greener.<br />
Different therefore has the standing <strong>of</strong> a comparative<br />
adjective, independently <strong>of</strong> its use with<br />
than, and far different from may be as disturbing<br />
to the speech instinct as far greener from.<br />
Different from is established in current<br />
English and anyone who likes these words may<br />
use them in any construction. But no one has<br />
any grounds for condemning others who would<br />
rather say diferent than, since this construction<br />
is used by some <strong>of</strong> the most sensitive writers <strong>of</strong><br />
English and is in keeping with the fundamental<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> the language.<br />
differentiate. See distinguish.<br />
ditlident. See modest.<br />
dig. The past tense is dug or digged. The participle<br />
is also dug or digged.<br />
Though digged is still acceptable as the past<br />
tense and participle <strong>of</strong> dig (The man in the parable<br />
who had received but one talent went and<br />
digged in the earth, und hid his lord’s money),<br />
dug has become so much more common that<br />
digged would seem to many Americans a<br />
childish error.<br />
digress. See deviate.<br />
dilemma. See predicament.<br />
dilettante. The plural is dilettantes or dilettanti.<br />
diminish; minimize. To diminish is to make less;<br />
to minimize is to make least or reduce to the<br />
smallest possible amount or degree. Minimize<br />
is used, however, to mean belittle (She always<br />
said “Have you a minute to rinse out a few<br />
things?” to minimize the effort <strong>of</strong> doing the<br />
laundry); whereas diminish is rarely, if ever, so<br />
used. Diminish is more likely to be applied to<br />
material things (The puck was diminished by<br />
the amount <strong>of</strong> two pairs <strong>of</strong> shoes and a tarpaulin).<br />
Minimize is more likely to be applied<br />
to qualities and abstractions (It is unwise to<br />
minimize the danger; it is great and must be<br />
faced).<br />
dint. See dent.<br />
diocese. See see.<br />
dip. The past tense is dipped or dipt. The participle<br />
is also dipped or dipt. Dipped is generally<br />
preferred to dipt.<br />
diploma. The plural is diplomas or diplomata, not<br />
diplomue.<br />
dipper. Though dipper as a term for a longhandled<br />
ladle or drinking cup had a brief career<br />
in England (Mason in his Supplement to Johnson’s<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>, 1801, mentions it as “a modern<br />
invention”), it is now almost exclusively an<br />
American word in this sense. It is also used in<br />
America, and in America only, as a name for<br />
the configuration <strong>of</strong> stars in Ursa Major called<br />
in England “the Plough” or “Charles’s Wain”<br />
and for a similar configuration in Ursa Minor.<br />
These are popularly called the Big Dipper and<br />
the Little Dipper respectively in the United<br />
States.<br />
dipt. See dip.<br />
direct; directly. Direct may be used as an adjective<br />
(He favors the direct approach) or an<br />
adverb (He ~‘20~ direct to New York). Where<br />
the meaning is in a direct line <strong>of</strong> authority or<br />
responsibility, directly must be used (He was<br />
directly invqlvrd). So also with exactly, absolutely,<br />
and precisely (The farmhouse was directly<br />
in the line <strong>of</strong> Sherman’s fire).<br />
In the sense <strong>of</strong> without delay, immediately<br />
(I’ll be there directly), directly is an Enalish<br />
isage rather than an-American: It was so ised<br />
formerly more in America than it is now, but<br />
even then there was the difference that in<br />
America it signified “soon” rather than “at<br />
once” (When you say you will do a thing<br />
“directly” you mean “immediately”; in the<br />
American language-generally speaking-the<br />
word signifies “after a little”-Mark Twain). As<br />
a conjunction meaning “as soon as” (Directly on<br />
arriving, he issued orders for the man’s arrest),<br />
directly is, again, largely an English usage.<br />
For the last hundred years the word directly<br />
has also been used as a conjunction, that is, to<br />
introduce a clause, as in directly he arrived, I<br />
left. Here the word means “as soon as.” The only<br />
possible objection to this construction is that it<br />
is relatively new. Most conjunctions have developed<br />
from adverbs in just this way, and this<br />
particular one has been established in English<br />
literature by Dickens, Thackeray, and Matthew<br />
Arnold.
When direct is used as a verb and means<br />
order, it may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
we directed him to return. When it means aim<br />
at it may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
with the preposition to or at, as in he directed<br />
his energies to improving conditions.<br />
disassemble; dissemble. To disassemble is to take<br />
apart (The mechanic disassembled the motor).<br />
To dissemble is to give a false semblance to,<br />
to conceal the real nature <strong>of</strong> something (usually<br />
one’s emotions or motives) under a semblance<br />
<strong>of</strong> something else (She dissembled her annoyance<br />
under a smiling face).<br />
disaster. See holocaust; tragedy.<br />
disbar. See debar.<br />
disbeliever. See agnostic; skeptic.<br />
discern. See descry.<br />
disciples; apostles. A disciple is one who is taught.<br />
An apostle is one who is sent forth to teach<br />
others. Since Christ’s disciples were also, with<br />
one exception, the first apostles <strong>of</strong> Christianity,<br />
there is some natural confusion in the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the terms. The twelve disciples are: SS. Peter<br />
(also called Simon), Andrew, James (the<br />
Greater), John, Thomas (also called Didymus),<br />
James (the Less), Jude (also called Judas,<br />
Thaddeus, and Lebaeus), Philip, Bartholomew<br />
(identified with Nathanael), Matthew (also<br />
called Levi), Simon (called Zelotes), and Judas<br />
Iscariot. The twelve apostles are the same except<br />
that Matthias replaces Judas Iscariot. St. Paul<br />
is always called an apostle and so are a few<br />
others, such as St. Barnabas. The chief missionary<br />
to a country is sometimes called its apostle.<br />
Thus St. Patrick is <strong>of</strong>ten called the apostle <strong>of</strong><br />
Ireland.<br />
In the Mormon Church an apostle is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the council <strong>of</strong> twelve <strong>of</strong>ficials presiding over the<br />
Church and administering its ordinances. Disciples<br />
<strong>of</strong> Christ, sometimes called Campbellites,<br />
is a Protestant religious body founded in the<br />
United States in the nineteenth century.<br />
disclose; expose; reveal; divulge. To disclose is<br />
to allow to be seen, to make known, to lay open<br />
and thereby to invite inspection <strong>of</strong>, something<br />
which had been concealed (He smiled, and<br />
opening out his milk-white palm,/ Disclosed a<br />
fruit <strong>of</strong> pure Hesperian gold. The Gunpowder<br />
Plot was disclosed by a letter from one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
conspirators to a friend urging him not to<br />
attend Parliament on the fatal day). See also<br />
discover.<br />
To expose is to exhibit openly, to display to<br />
public gaze (The wind had ripped away the clapboards<br />
and exposed the studding), to so display<br />
with a view to unmasking or holding up to ridicule<br />
or repro<strong>of</strong> (He saw the deception and<br />
exposed it). To reveal is to uncover as if by<br />
drawing away (For a moment the mask <strong>of</strong><br />
benevolence fell and the real man was revealed.<br />
Daylight will reveal the disposition <strong>of</strong> their<br />
troops). To divulge is to communicate what was<br />
intended to be confidential, secret (Those apprehended<br />
hastened to save themselves by divulging<br />
all they knew<br />
_.<br />
<strong>of</strong><br />
.._<br />
Torrio’s plans). It is a word<br />
that would probably sound a little affected to<br />
137 discreet<br />
the common ear; telling would seem more natural<br />
than divulging.<br />
disclosure. See revelation.<br />
discomfit; discomfort. To discomfit is to defeat,<br />
to rout utterly (Thrice hath this Hotspur,<br />
Mars in swathing clothes,/ Discomfited great<br />
Douglas), or to throw into confusion or utter<br />
dejection, to disconcert (Dombey was quite discomfited<br />
by the question). To discomfort means<br />
to disturb the comfort or happiness <strong>of</strong>, to make<br />
uneasy. One might be discomforted by tight<br />
shoes or a hard bench or a mosquito in the bedroom,<br />
but the word, which is rarely used in its<br />
proper sense, is frequently misused for discomfit<br />
(as in The Turks, discomforted with the invincible<br />
courage <strong>of</strong> these old soldiers, betook themselves<br />
to flight). Since, <strong>of</strong> course, he who is discomfited<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten discomforted in the process,<br />
there are many instances in which one cannot<br />
be certain that the wrong word has been used.<br />
Thus when Stephen Spender writes, When Z<br />
asked myself these questions, Z had to admit<br />
that what Z really wanted was that others should<br />
live as Z did, not that Z should “join the<br />
workers”: a prospect which discomfited me, we<br />
have no way <strong>of</strong> knowing whether the prospect<br />
utterly routed him or merely made him uneasy.<br />
The latter seems more likely and, if so, discomforted<br />
should have been used.<br />
discover; disclose. In the sense <strong>of</strong> removing a<br />
covering (Zf the house be discovered by tempest,<br />
the tenant must in convenient time repair it),<br />
discover is now obsolete, having been replaced<br />
by uncover. In the sense <strong>of</strong> exposing to view,<br />
revealing, or showing what was up to that time<br />
kept secret (ZZis refusal to sit at the same table<br />
with Carver discovered an unexpected narrowness)<br />
it is rare, having been replaced by disclose,<br />
reveal, or expose. In Elizabethan England to<br />
have discovered a plot would have been to have<br />
revealed its existence. In modern English it<br />
would be to find it out, probably by accident.<br />
discover; invent. Discover is used chiefly now to<br />
suggest the bringing to light <strong>of</strong> something which<br />
had previously been in existence but had hitherto<br />
been unknown (The discovery <strong>of</strong> gold in the<br />
Klondike. . . . Columbus’s discovery was at<br />
first misunderstood). To invent is to make or<br />
create something new, especially, in modern<br />
usage, something ingeniously devised to perform<br />
mechanical operations (The invention <strong>of</strong> calculating<br />
machines has extended the whole field<br />
<strong>of</strong> conjecture). Where that which.is created is<br />
an idea or a system <strong>of</strong> thought or an abstraction,<br />
such as a new way <strong>of</strong> doing something, it is said<br />
to have been originated. Idiomatically, however,<br />
a lie is always invented-perhaps in recognition<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mechanical nature <strong>of</strong> most prevarications.<br />
discreet; discrete. Discreet means wise or judicious<br />
in avoiding mistakes, prudent, circumspect,<br />
cautious, not rash (His wife being very<br />
reserv’d and discreet in her husband’s presence,<br />
but in his absence more free and jolly . . .).<br />
Discrete means separate, detached from others,<br />
distinct by itself (The grains <strong>of</strong> sand were clean<br />
and discrete, not stuck together in wetness).
discrepancy 138<br />
Discrete is pretty much a literary and philosophical<br />
word, unknown to the common speaker<br />
and writer, and stands as a temptation to the<br />
learned to use it that they may explain it is not<br />
discreet. This is a temptation, needless ‘to say,<br />
to be resisted. The negatives <strong>of</strong> both words are<br />
formed by prefixing in-.<br />
discrepancy. See difference.<br />
discriminate. See distinguish.<br />
disease. See sickness.<br />
disenfranchise. Though disenfranchise is a legitimate<br />
word, disfrancllise is to be preferred. Since,<br />
however, the franchise and its recision are<br />
matters dear to politicians, to whom also are<br />
dear extra syllables and orotund phrases, disenfranchise<br />
is gaining in favor over its simpler<br />
synonym.<br />
disgruntled. See unsatisfied.<br />
disinterested; uninterested. Though disinterested<br />
was formerly a synonym for unintereste#d, it is<br />
not now so used. To be uninterested in somlething<br />
is to be unconcerned about it, indifferent, showing<br />
no feeling <strong>of</strong> interest (I told him (<strong>of</strong> our<br />
plans, but he seemed uninterested). Disinterested<br />
suggests impartiality, freedom from any selfinterest<br />
or the seeking <strong>of</strong> personal advantage<br />
(His disinterested kindness to us in our days <strong>of</strong><br />
misfortune can never be forgotten).<br />
dislike. This word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he dislikes working. It may<br />
also be followed by an infinitive, as in jlle dislikes<br />
ro work, but the -ing construction is generally<br />
preferred. (See also hate.)<br />
disorganized. See unorganized.<br />
disparity. See difference.<br />
dispatch. See forward.<br />
disperse; disburse. To disperse is to scatter abroad.<br />
To disburse is to pay out money (The young<br />
man soon dispersed what his father hod so painfully<br />
acquired and so grudgingly disbursed).<br />
displace; misplace. To displace is to put out <strong>of</strong><br />
the usual or proper place. It is confined now,<br />
chiefly, to the idea <strong>of</strong> moving from its proper<br />
place something solid and comparatively immovable<br />
and moving it in such a way that its<br />
displacement is likely to be permanent (The<br />
impact displaced the foundations <strong>of</strong> the house).<br />
It is also used to mean to take the place <strong>of</strong>, to<br />
replace (Juliet soon displaced Rosaline in<br />
Romeo’s affections).<br />
To misplace is to put some object, usually a<br />
portable one, in a wrong place so that it is difficult<br />
to find (He has misplaced his glasses and is<br />
in a tizzy).<br />
disnosal: disaosition. Though disDosa1 and disposit&<br />
a;e sometimes used interchangeably in<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> arrangement, American usage tends<br />
to use disposal more for getting rid <strong>of</strong>, as by gift,<br />
sale, or throwing away (The disposal #<strong>of</strong> the<br />
things not sold at the bazaar presented the ladies<br />
with quite a problem). Disposition has more to<br />
do with arranging and ordering, especially in<br />
conformity with a preconceived plan. We speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> the disposition <strong>of</strong> troops in the field, the disposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> houses and shops in a model city.<br />
In general, disposition is related to dispose, disposal<br />
to dispose <strong>of</strong>.<br />
dispose. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in this disposed him to take <strong>of</strong>lense, but<br />
not by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb. We do not say<br />
this disposed him to taking <strong>of</strong>fense.<br />
One disposes <strong>of</strong> something when he deals with<br />
it definitely, gets rid <strong>of</strong> it. One may dispose <strong>of</strong><br />
an unwanted coat, for example, by burning it,<br />
giving it away, or selling it. But dispose <strong>of</strong> is not<br />
a synonym for sell and to use it as such (as in<br />
Have you disposed <strong>of</strong> all your bread today, or<br />
have you any loaves left? when asked in a<br />
bakery) is an attempt to be genteel, to avoid<br />
commercial language as something low and unfitted<br />
to the transaction. So when someone says,<br />
Z will dispose <strong>of</strong> it for a trifle, he wishes to imply<br />
that the exchange he is suggesting is <strong>of</strong> such<br />
advantage to the other party that it cannot<br />
possibly be considered an ordinary commercial<br />
transaction. Sometimes, <strong>of</strong> course, this may be<br />
the proper wording; the transaction may be far<br />
from an ordinary commercial one. But when it<br />
is an ordinary commercial transaction ordinary<br />
commercial language is more fitting and sell<br />
is the better word. Then dispose <strong>of</strong>, having<br />
many possible meanings, is more likely to be<br />
ambiguous.<br />
disqualified. See unqualified.<br />
disquisition. See inquisition.<br />
dissatisfied. See unsatisfied.<br />
dissemble and dissimulate, to disguise or conceal<br />
under a false appearance, are synonymous and<br />
any insistence that there is a distinction between<br />
them is unwarranted.<br />
dissenter; dissentient. Dissenter is the common<br />
and dissentient the uncommon word in America<br />
for one who dissents (Don’t mind his not agreeing;<br />
he likes to be a dissenter). In English usage<br />
dissenter, sometimes capitalized, has the special<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> one who dissents from the service<br />
and worship <strong>of</strong> the Church <strong>of</strong> England (Dr.<br />
Arnold drew up a disquieting scheme for allowing<br />
Dissenters into the Church, though it is true<br />
that he did not go quite so far as to contemplate<br />
the admission <strong>of</strong> Unitarians). Dissenters in<br />
England are now thought <strong>of</strong> entirely as Protestants,<br />
though formerly the term included Roman<br />
Catholics.<br />
dissimulate; simulate. One dissimulates to conceal<br />
under a feigned semblance something that<br />
one has or is. One simulates that which one is<br />
not or has not, pretending to be or to have it.<br />
See also dissemble.<br />
dissociate; disassociate. Dissociate is the preferred<br />
form, though disassociate is not incorrect (Such<br />
things are done only by men dissociated from<br />
the interests <strong>of</strong> party),<br />
distinct; distinctive. That is distinct which is clear<br />
in its identity, unmistakably itself, plain, definite,<br />
easily perceived. If a man has a distinct<br />
utterance, he speaks clearly and with precision.<br />
Distinctive means that which distinguishes something<br />
from other things <strong>of</strong> the same general<br />
kind, that highly characteristic <strong>of</strong> the speaker.<br />
It is conceivable that a man’s way <strong>of</strong> speaking<br />
might be distinctive because it was not distinct.<br />
See also different.<br />
distinction. See difference.
distinctive; distinguished. Distinctive means characteristic,<br />
peculiar, idiosyncratic. Distinguished,<br />
though it can be used and occasionally is used<br />
to mean conspicuous or marked, usually means<br />
noted, eminent, famous, having an air <strong>of</strong> distinction.<br />
The two words are not to be confused.<br />
Many are distinctive but few are distinguished.<br />
distinguish; discriminate; differentiate. To distinguish<br />
is to recognize those features <strong>of</strong> a thing<br />
that establish its separate identity (Zl is not hard<br />
to distinguish a hawk from a crow). To discriminate<br />
is to perceive fine distinctions between<br />
things, to determine wherein these differences<br />
consist and to estimate their significance (A tea<br />
taster can discriminate as many as twenty brands<br />
<strong>of</strong> tea, each from the other). The commonest<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the word today is in reference to making<br />
adverse distinction with regard to certain people<br />
and, especially, to unfair treatment on the sole<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> such distinctions (There shall be no<br />
discrimination because <strong>of</strong> race, creed, color, or<br />
country <strong>of</strong> origin). Although discrimination<br />
could be in someone’s favor, it is almost always<br />
conceived <strong>of</strong> as in someone’s disfavor; and<br />
although special treatment on the basis <strong>of</strong><br />
certain distinctions might be justified, the word<br />
now refers almost entirely to some special treatment<br />
that is unjustified.<br />
To differentiate is to point out exactly and<br />
in detail the differences between two things (Zt<br />
is not always easy to differentiate between shyness<br />
and rudeness).<br />
distract. See detract.<br />
ditch (verb). In England to ditch means to make<br />
ditches or to provide with a ditch (Her yard was<br />
ditched all about with a dry ditch). This meaning<br />
is known in America but not much used.<br />
The commoner meaning is “to throw in a ditch”<br />
(The train left the rails and was ditched six<br />
miles west <strong>of</strong> Clinton) and the commonest <strong>of</strong><br />
all is the slang use “to get rid <strong>of</strong>” (After the<br />
holdup the thieves ditched the car in an alley.<br />
He ditched her in Albuquerque and went on<br />
alone).<br />
diurnal. See daily.<br />
divagate. See deviate.<br />
dive. The past tense is dived or dove. The participle<br />
is also dived or dove. Dove is no longer<br />
heard in Great Britain but it is still acceptable<br />
in the United States, where dived strikes many<br />
people’s ears as “something from the Bible.”<br />
diverge. See deviate.<br />
divers and diverse, though originally the same<br />
word, have now, in different spellings, become<br />
fixed in different meanings. Divers means various,<br />
several, sundry (There are directions to be<br />
given to divers workmen before I start). Diverse<br />
means unlike, <strong>of</strong> a different kind or form or<br />
character, or <strong>of</strong> various kinds or forms, multiform<br />
(With habits so diverse, we may well expect<br />
corresponding diversity in their forms. The<br />
diverse and multiform nature <strong>of</strong> pleasure . . .).<br />
Divers is a literary word, with a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> straining to be elegant in its use. Anyone<br />
today who would seriously say, with Captain<br />
Cook, fish <strong>of</strong> divers sorts would lay himself open<br />
to some pleasantries.<br />
139 division<br />
diverse. See different.<br />
divide. In the United States, Canada, South Africa,<br />
and Australia, divide as a noun has the special<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> mountains or high land forming a<br />
watershed (I got a home in Wyomin’/ Far<br />
across the Greaf Divide). In England as a verb<br />
divide has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> voting by<br />
separating into two groups (Mr. B. expressed<br />
his intention <strong>of</strong> dividing the House on the<br />
motion). See also separate.<br />
dividend. The extension <strong>of</strong> dividend, the financial<br />
return upon an investment in stocks, to figurative<br />
uses (Kindness pays dividends) probably<br />
began as an attempt to seem practical and<br />
worldly in dealing with matters that are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
thought to be impractical and unworldly. It is<br />
much overworked but use has not made it easy;<br />
it always sounds a little forced. It’s not very<br />
appropriate, either: five percent is a pretty good<br />
dividend and if that’s a good return for a virtuous<br />
act one had better either invest one’s energies<br />
in something more pr<strong>of</strong>itable or abandon<br />
the hope <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it and allow virtue to be its own<br />
reward.<br />
dividers. The measuring or drawing instrument<br />
may be called a divider, and more than one <strong>of</strong><br />
them may be called several dividers. But one<br />
instrument may also be treated as a plural, as in<br />
these dividers are the ones, or referred to as a<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> dividers. This is acceptable but not necessary.<br />
The singular form divider is preferred as<br />
the first element in a compound. _ as in a divider<br />
point.<br />
division <strong>of</strong> words. When it is necessary to break<br />
a word at the end <strong>of</strong> a line, the break should be<br />
made between syllables and should be marked<br />
by a hyphen, which is attached to the first fragment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word. Syllables are the sound units<br />
that make up a word. If you cannot hear where<br />
one syllable ends and another begins, you can<br />
look it up in a dictionary. But the rules given<br />
below cover most <strong>of</strong> the problems you will meet.<br />
First, some do&s:<br />
1. Do not divide a proper name.<br />
2. Do not divide abbreviations or letter<br />
words, such as A.B., SOS.<br />
3. Do not divide figures, such as 1,386,422.<br />
4. Do not divide a hyphenated word except<br />
at the hyphen.<br />
5. Except in printing, a certain amount <strong>of</strong><br />
unevenness in the right hand margin is preferable<br />
to broken words. Therefore, never separate<br />
one or two letters from the rest <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
6. Each part <strong>of</strong> the broken word must be<br />
pronounceable. Therefore never break <strong>of</strong>f letters<br />
that do not include a sounded vowel, such as<br />
spl- or -ble.<br />
7. Do not break words that have only one<br />
real vowel sound in them, such as people,<br />
watched.<br />
8. Never separate two consonants or two<br />
vowels that represent only one sound, such as<br />
th, ch, wh, oi, au.<br />
If these don’ts are observed, the remaining<br />
rules for dividing words are not as difficult as<br />
they look:<br />
1. Regardless <strong>of</strong> how a word is pronounced,
divorc6 140<br />
-ing, -ish, -ed, -er, -est. are usually treated as<br />
independent syllables and do not unite with a<br />
preceding consonant, as in tell-ing, tall-ish,<br />
great-est. There are two exceptions. (1.) If a<br />
consonant has been doubled before -ing, -er,<br />
etc., divide between the double letters, as in<br />
run-ning, tip-per. (But do not divide in this way<br />
when the word naturally ends with a double<br />
letter, as in the examples above, tell-ing and<br />
tall-ish.) (2.) When -ing, -er, or any <strong>of</strong> these<br />
syllables follows two consonant sounds, the<br />
second <strong>of</strong> which is 1, divide according to sound,<br />
as in gig-gling, tin-gling, tick-led.<br />
2. When two true vowel sounds come together,<br />
divide between the vowels, as in mediate.<br />
But do not divide such words as appe-ase,<br />
where the ea represents one sound.<br />
3. When a single consonant sound stands between<br />
two vowels, the consonant remains with<br />
the preceding vowel if that is short and has a<br />
stress, as in rdp-idly, product, crit-icai!. (The<br />
vowel is long in pro-gram, pecli-liar, pro&-dure,<br />
and it is unstressed in sepa-rate, dmi-nous,<br />
m&ha-nism.) If you cannot decide how this<br />
rule applies in a particular case, and you do not<br />
have a dictionary, keep the consonant with the<br />
vowel that follows.<br />
4. Except in the three cases discussed above,<br />
a syllable always begins with a consonant.<br />
Several points follow from this. (1.) The syllables<br />
which have an sh sound, such as -cial,<br />
-tion, -ture, are never broken. Write: com-mercial,<br />
at-ten-tion, ad-venture. (2.) Wh’en two<br />
separate consonant sounds come together, divide<br />
between them, as in for-get. (But do not divide<br />
bet-ween, because tw is one sound.) (3.) You<br />
can always divide between double letters, as in<br />
hol-low, except in the special case <strong>of</strong> -ing, -ish,<br />
-er, -est, -ed, discussed in rule 1.<br />
divorc6; divorcke; divorcee. A divorce’ is a divorced<br />
man. A divorcee is a divorced woman.<br />
A divorcee is a divorced person <strong>of</strong> either sex.<br />
Divorce has become so common that no one<br />
thinks <strong>of</strong> it any more as something French or<br />
feels any need to cloak the mention <strong>of</strong> it or <strong>of</strong><br />
the persons affected by it under a foreign term.<br />
In common American usage divorcee for either<br />
a divorced man or a divorced woman is now<br />
almost universal.<br />
divulge. See disclose.<br />
do. The past tense is did. The participle is done.<br />
During the nineteenth century it was acceptable<br />
English to use the form don’t in place <strong>of</strong><br />
doesn’t, as in he don’t care a straw. This is no<br />
longer considered standard.<br />
Do is a basic verb, meaning to act or to<br />
accomplish something. It is the natural verb to<br />
use in speaking <strong>of</strong> an action that has noI name,<br />
as in he did a good deed and he has done a lot<br />
for me. It is also used as a substitute for a verb<br />
that has just been mentioned, as in 1 must interrupt<br />
you, as you did me. Today it is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
inside various trade groups in place <strong>of</strong> a more<br />
specific verb which has not been mentioned. For<br />
example, doctors speak <strong>of</strong> doing an ex.amination,<br />
musicians <strong>of</strong> doing a concert, and writers<br />
<strong>of</strong> doing a book. These expressions are natural<br />
English inside the particular group but they are<br />
usually objected to by outsiders. The writer who<br />
is doing an article on medicine may wince<br />
when the doctor speaks about doing a physical<br />
examination.<br />
The words do, does, and did, are also used<br />
as auxiliary verbs. English verbs are usually<br />
phrases made up <strong>of</strong> several elements. The only<br />
exceptions to this are the simple present tense,<br />
such as he walks, and the simple past, such as<br />
he walked. In present-day English there are<br />
certain constructions in which the verb must<br />
have at least two elements. In order to express<br />
the simple present or the simple past in these<br />
constructions we use do or does for the present<br />
tense and did for the past, followed by the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> the meaningful verb, as in he<br />
does walk, he did walk. It is necessary to have<br />
at least two elements to the verb in a question,<br />
such as where did he walk? and in a negative<br />
statement, such as he did not walk. We must<br />
also have two elements in the verb when a<br />
sentence begins with a negative or restrictive<br />
adverb, as in little did he think. At one time it<br />
was possible to say walked he?, he walked not,<br />
and little thought he, but these constructions are<br />
now archaic and good contemporary English<br />
requires a verbal phrase.<br />
In the United States the only exception to<br />
the above rule is to be. This verb is never used<br />
with the auxiliary do except in an imperative.<br />
Do must be used in a negative imperative, as in<br />
don’t be silly, and may be used in an affirmative,<br />
as in do be quiet. Otherwise we say where was<br />
he?, he was not here, and neither were you. The<br />
verb to have is sometimes treated like to be, as<br />
in have you a pencil?, but in the United States<br />
it is more likelv to be used with the auxiliarv. as<br />
in do you have a pencil?. In Great Britain the<br />
auxiliary do is not used with to be or to have<br />
(except in an imperative) nor with used to.<br />
See used to.<br />
The same combinations <strong>of</strong> the verb to do and<br />
the simple form <strong>of</strong> the meaningful verb are used<br />
to make a simple present or simple past tense<br />
statement emphatic, as in <strong>of</strong> course Z do believe<br />
you and if Z did cry, it would not be from grief.<br />
The word do is also used to make an imperative<br />
emphatic, as in do come. Do can be used in this<br />
way even when the imperative itself is the verb<br />
do, as in do do something about it.<br />
dock. In its strictest sense a dock is the space or<br />
waterway between two piers or wharves (Beyond<br />
thnt lay a wharf and the thick muddy<br />
water <strong>of</strong> a dock). Only with this sense in mind<br />
would drydock have any meaning. None the less,<br />
by a quite natural extension, the word dock has<br />
been applied to the pier or wharf (Jordan . . .<br />
had drifted away from the dock when the explosion<br />
occurred) so <strong>of</strong>ten that its synonymity for<br />
them is accepted as standard in American usage.<br />
docker. See longshoreman.<br />
docket. In England docket signifies an <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
memorandum or entry <strong>of</strong> proceedings in a legal<br />
cause, or a register <strong>of</strong> such entries. In the United
States it signifies a list <strong>of</strong> causes in court for<br />
trial, or the names <strong>of</strong> the parties who have<br />
causes pending (Court dockets are crowded).<br />
Sports writers, seeking indefatigably to lend an<br />
air <strong>of</strong> freshness to their otherwise monotonous<br />
subject, have taken over the word as a term for<br />
a list <strong>of</strong> impending athletic contests (Three<br />
games are on the docket for the Minute Men<br />
and Coach Erle Witty’s boys).<br />
doctor. The use <strong>of</strong> unwarranted titles <strong>of</strong> respect<br />
has long been an element <strong>of</strong> American humor<br />
and even politeness, and Doe and Pr<strong>of</strong>essor and<br />
Judge and Colonel are prodigally bestowed<br />
amongst us. But doctor, in its fulness, is reserved<br />
for those who are presumed to have had a doctorate<br />
conferred upon them by some institution<br />
<strong>of</strong> higher learning. It may be an obscure and<br />
shadowy institution and it may have been conferred<br />
for pr<strong>of</strong>iciency in some field such as Baby<br />
Sitting or the Care <strong>of</strong> Bunions, which is not<br />
admitted to the curriculum <strong>of</strong> such conservative<br />
places as Oxford and Cambridge. But a degree<br />
is supposed to have been conferred.<br />
American and English usage <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
differ. The members <strong>of</strong> the American Medical<br />
Association might have to apply sedatives to<br />
themselves after reading in a recent authoritative<br />
English work that “any member <strong>of</strong> the medical<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession . . . whether he holds the degree <strong>of</strong><br />
Doctor <strong>of</strong> Medicine or not” should be “addressed<br />
as doctor.” And an American surgeon would<br />
be doubly <strong>of</strong>fended to read in the same work<br />
that a surgeon “whether holding a doctor’s degree<br />
or not, should be addressed as Mr. or Mrs.<br />
or Miss.” With us no one can be a licensed practitioner<br />
unless he holds a doctorate and all surgeons<br />
are doctors and, along with other members<br />
<strong>of</strong> their pr<strong>of</strong>ession, are so addressed.<br />
Dr. is the abbreviation for doctor. It may be<br />
used before a full name or before a surname<br />
only, as in Dr. Samuel Johnson and Dr. Johnson.<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> two men known as Dr. Johnson<br />
we may say the Dr. Johnsons. But if we distinguish<br />
two doctors in any way we must make the<br />
title plural, as in Drs. Samuel and William Johnson<br />
and Drs. Fulton and Price.<br />
The form Dr. should not be used before a<br />
name that is followed by letters representing an<br />
academic degree, such as Ph.D. or M.D. The<br />
word doctor may be used without a proper<br />
name as a form <strong>of</strong> address, as in do you agree<br />
with me, doctor?. It may also be used in speaking<br />
about anyone who has this title, as in the<br />
doctor will see you in a few minutes.<br />
doe. See hart.<br />
does. See do.<br />
d<strong>of</strong>f and don (coalesced forms <strong>of</strong> do <strong>of</strong>f and do<br />
on) for “take <strong>of</strong>I”’ and “put on” have not been in<br />
general use for three hundred years. They are<br />
now literary and affected.<br />
dogma. The plural is dogmas or dogmata, not<br />
dogmae.<br />
dog’s life, lead a. Dogs fare ill in proverbs. They<br />
are greedy, fierce, filthy, and servile. They defile<br />
cisterns, return to their vomit, drive the patient<br />
ox from the manger, bark at their own fleas,<br />
141 domestic<br />
eat each other, bay the moon, suffer under a bad<br />
name, get themselves hanged and beaten, and<br />
whine, snarl, cringe, fawn, and slaver in a<br />
myriad dangerous and disgusting ways. Dogs are<br />
mentioned many times in the Bible, but only<br />
with abhorrence. That they licked Lazarus’ sores<br />
was intended not as an indication <strong>of</strong> their pity<br />
but <strong>of</strong> his degradation. They fare even worse in<br />
Shakespeare than in the Scriptures; their combined<br />
servility, ferocity, and filthiness seems to<br />
have fascinated the poet with revulsion.<br />
Until fairly recently the dog was a scavenger.<br />
His food consisted exclusively <strong>of</strong> garbage and<br />
his residence was the kennel or channel, the<br />
loathsome trickle down the center <strong>of</strong> the street<br />
into which refuse was thrown. Great houses,<br />
having much garbage, had many dogs, and there<br />
was a regular functionary, the dog whipper, to<br />
keep them in subjection. Blows and kicks were<br />
the rule and for the slightest <strong>of</strong>fense dogs were<br />
hanged. Sometimes just for the fun <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
In such an atmosphere and under such a<br />
regime a dog’s life was, no doubt, a wretched<br />
one to lead. To go to the dogs was to descend<br />
low indeed, and to die like a dog to make a miserable<br />
end. The sayings might be trite, even<br />
then, but at least they had meaning.<br />
But all has changed. No exact date can be set<br />
for the metamorphosis <strong>of</strong> the blatant beast into<br />
the lovable pet, but the assertion, in an address<br />
to a jury, by Senator George C. Vest, at Warrensburg,<br />
Missouri, in 1876, that “a man’s best<br />
friend’s his dog,” may definitely be regarded as<br />
a milestone on the way. Certainly today, with<br />
the veterinarian’s bill <strong>of</strong>ten exceeding the pediatrician’s,<br />
with canine psychiatrists, with dog sitters,<br />
with vitamin-enriched canned dog food,<br />
with quilted coats and fur-lined booties, with<br />
rubberfoam mattresses, boarding houses, schools<br />
<strong>of</strong> etiquette and even orphanages, a dog’s life<br />
can no longer serve as the trope <strong>of</strong> wretchedness<br />
and all phrases that so imply must be discarded<br />
as clichCs. This does not mean, however, that the<br />
dog need be driven utterly from folk sayings.<br />
There is a hackneyed term about living the life<br />
<strong>of</strong> Reilly. No one knows just who Reilly was or<br />
why his existence was thought to be enviable and<br />
the phrase has become idle and empty. Let<br />
Fido be substituted for Reilly and it will again<br />
be filled with meaning.<br />
doldrums may mean a state <strong>of</strong> depression, or the<br />
dumps; the similar state that a ship is in when<br />
she can make no headway; or the part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
earth where ships most <strong>of</strong>ten got into this condition.<br />
Originally, the word meant the nervous<br />
state. Later it was applied, either in humor or<br />
through misunderstanding, to the areas near the<br />
equator. A singular, doldrum, is sometimes used,<br />
in both senses, but it is very rare.<br />
domestic. Those English visitors who are amused<br />
at the American use <strong>of</strong> domestic to mean <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to our own country, internal, not<br />
foreign (domestic postage, domestic affairs)<br />
have forgotten their own literature. Macbeth<br />
lists malice domestic, foreign levy among the ills<br />
that can no longer touch the dead Duncan, and
domicile 142<br />
Macaulay. in 1849, referred to The whlole domestic<br />
and foreign policy <strong>of</strong> the English government.<br />
domicile. Though domicile does mean home, it is<br />
better left to the lawyers and the social scientists<br />
and, in some special uses, to the zoologists. In<br />
everyday use it is pompous if serious, tedious if<br />
jocular. See house; home.<br />
dominate; domineer. To dominate is to rule over,<br />
govern, control (His stepmother dominated<br />
him), or to tower above and so to give {control<br />
<strong>of</strong> (The Rock <strong>of</strong> Gibraltar dominates the<br />
straits). To domineer is to rule despotic,ally, to<br />
tyrannize over, to bully (Oligarchies, wherein a<br />
few rich men domineer). Domineer is also used<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> commanding by towering above<br />
(The grim castle on its naked rock domineered<br />
the town). Whether to use dominate or domineer<br />
in this sense is dependent upon the degree to<br />
which one wishes to stress unfavorable feelings<br />
towards the dominance. Of course no one likes<br />
to be dominated and dominate, sometimes, has<br />
unpleasant connotations. Domineer always has.<br />
dominoes. When referring to the game, the plural<br />
word dominoes takes a singular verb, as in<br />
dominoes is fun. A single piece is a domino and<br />
dominoes used with a plural verb means more<br />
than one <strong>of</strong> these, as in dominoes are usually<br />
black and white.<br />
Domino may also mean a kind <strong>of</strong> garment,<br />
especially one worn in a masquerade, as in she<br />
wore a pink domino. This word may have the<br />
plural dominos or dominoes. It is thought that<br />
the pieces in the game were called dominoes<br />
because the backs looked like people in dlomino<br />
cloaks.<br />
donate; give. To donate is to make a gift. It is a<br />
back formation from donation and has long<br />
been an object <strong>of</strong> scorn and ridicule as “a pretentious<br />
and magniloquent vulgarism” among<br />
English purists. Sir Alan Herbert, who insists<br />
that it is merely a snob word, that the rich donate<br />
and the poor give, has a great deal <strong>of</strong> fun<br />
translating various well-known passages to include<br />
donate: Donate us this day our daily<br />
bread. ‘Tis more blessed to donate than to receive.<br />
‘Twas all he donated, ‘twas all he had to<br />
donate. And certainly it is better to use give<br />
wherever one can. It is not only simpler:; it has<br />
more dignity. None the less donate is now standard<br />
in the United States where even pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar hungrily hope that someone will<br />
donate the funds to support a chair in their specialty.<br />
done. See do.<br />
do or die. Men have done entirely too much dying<br />
in the past generation to be lulled by alliteration<br />
into feeling any thrill at the clicht do or die.<br />
The phrase, chiefly expressed by poets and<br />
princes, neither <strong>of</strong> whom as a class were much<br />
given to either doing or dying in the attempt, is<br />
now confined almost entirely to ironic uses.<br />
When or where the odds against dying were<br />
large, it is conceivable that men might have<br />
been moved by exhortation and rhetoric to take<br />
the chance <strong>of</strong> dying; where or when the odds in<br />
favor <strong>of</strong> dying are high, the adjuration is likely<br />
to prove an incentive to not do.<br />
double entendre. There is no use pointing out that<br />
double entendre does not exist in French or<br />
existed only a long time ago and that the proper<br />
phrase for a double meaning, one <strong>of</strong> them<br />
usually indelicate, is double entente. The proper<br />
phrase in English from at least Dryden’s time,<br />
however erroneous its basis, has been double<br />
entendre and three hundred years <strong>of</strong> use will<br />
usually make an error standard.<br />
Double meaning is a better phrase, anyway.<br />
There is no point nor honesty in pretending that<br />
indelicate matters ought to be spoken <strong>of</strong> in<br />
French. In indecency we can hold our own with<br />
any nation.<br />
double geuitives.<br />
POSSESSIVES<br />
As a rule, a noun in the genitive case or a<br />
possessive pronoun can be replaced by an <strong>of</strong><br />
phrase in which <strong>of</strong> is followed by the common<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the noun or the objective form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pronoun, as in the sun’s heat, the heat <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sun; his picture, a picture <strong>of</strong> him. But when the<br />
genitive or possessive represents ownership, as in<br />
a child’s toy, a dog’s bone, it keeps its form even<br />
when it follows the preposition <strong>of</strong>, as in a toy <strong>of</strong><br />
the child’s, a bone <strong>of</strong> the dog’s.<br />
This is a curious and interesting construction.<br />
It is never misused and no one needs to understand<br />
it in order to use it properly. That is fortunate,<br />
because it is almost impossible to understand.<br />
Some grammarians say that it is a partitive,<br />
that it always implies that there is more <strong>of</strong> the<br />
same, and that in an expression such as that<br />
mother <strong>of</strong> his it is derogatory for that reason.<br />
But actually this double genitive does not carry<br />
a partitive meaning, even where that would be<br />
applicable. When we say he left the party with<br />
some <strong>of</strong> his friends, we do have a partitive and<br />
an implication that there may have been others<br />
who did not leave with him. When we say he<br />
left with some friends <strong>of</strong> his, the statement<br />
merely describes or classifies the people he left<br />
with.<br />
This double genitive is essentially a defining<br />
or classifying expression. It is used with words<br />
such as a, some, any, and numerals, which indicate<br />
that the following noun is not completely<br />
specified. And it is used with one kind <strong>of</strong> the<br />
and not with the other. The word the usually<br />
means “that which is already defined.” We are<br />
using this the in: There was once a king in Thule,<br />
and when the king was old . . . . But there is<br />
another the which is simply the sign that a clause<br />
is to follow, and which means “more information<br />
is coming.” We have this the in the man<br />
who came to dinner. The second the may be<br />
used with the double genitive, as in the friend<br />
<strong>of</strong> yours who is going abroad told me . . . . But<br />
the first the, which says that what follows is<br />
already defined, cannot be used in this construction.<br />
We cannot say the friend <strong>of</strong> yours told<br />
me . . . .<br />
The double genitive is required whenever a
word indicating ownership is placed after <strong>of</strong>. For<br />
example, he found u bone <strong>of</strong> the dog’s and he<br />
found D bone <strong>of</strong> the dog mean different things;<br />
and he found a toy <strong>of</strong> the child is meaningless.<br />
In fact, a genitive form or a possessive pronoun<br />
that does not keep its form after <strong>of</strong> does not<br />
represent ownership.<br />
At this point it would seem reasonable to say<br />
that the double genitive defines a particular<br />
thing by saying to whom it belongs. That is, the<br />
genitive relation <strong>of</strong> ownership is used again in<br />
the primary genitive function <strong>of</strong> a classifying<br />
word. (See genitive case.) This would be a satisfactory<br />
explanation if the double genitive always<br />
implied ownership. There is no doubt that ownership<br />
after <strong>of</strong> has to be expressed in this way,<br />
but it does not follow that everything that is<br />
expressed in this way is ownership.<br />
If we assert that the double genitive always<br />
implies ownership, some curious things follow.<br />
Since we say a bone <strong>of</strong> the dog when we mean<br />
a bone from its own body, it would follow that<br />
we think the dog is his body and not the owner<br />
<strong>of</strong> it. A human being, on the other hand, must<br />
always be spoken <strong>of</strong> as the owner and not as the<br />
body itself, as in that Zeg <strong>of</strong> John’s is hurting him<br />
again. But man does not seem to own his appearance,<br />
or likeness, since we say a picture <strong>of</strong> him.<br />
The expression this life <strong>of</strong> mine would seem to<br />
imply that we own our lives; for the life <strong>of</strong> me<br />
would not.<br />
There is no doubt that the construction can<br />
be used for personal relationships, and without<br />
any derogatory implication, as in a son <strong>of</strong> his.<br />
What makes that mother <strong>of</strong> his an expression <strong>of</strong><br />
contempt is the word that and not any implications<br />
<strong>of</strong> the partitive genitive. The form is<br />
equally contemptuous in situations where the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> “one <strong>of</strong> many” is not insulting, as in that<br />
son <strong>of</strong> yours. This is so universally true that in<br />
suburban English a pleasant word is usually<br />
added to counteract the ill effect <strong>of</strong> that, as in<br />
that dear child <strong>of</strong> yours has ruined my Iawn.<br />
PARTITIVES<br />
The partitive relation is represented in Latin<br />
by a genitive. In English it is always represented<br />
by a prepositional phrase, which, like other prepositional<br />
phrases, can be followed by a genitive<br />
‘s, as in which <strong>of</strong> you gentlemen’s name is Snodgrass?.<br />
No difficulties arise until the word following<br />
<strong>of</strong> is an objective pronoun, as in one <strong>of</strong><br />
them, one <strong>of</strong> US, one <strong>of</strong> you. If we followed the<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> other prepositional phrases we would<br />
say one <strong>of</strong> them’s mother, one <strong>of</strong> us’s mother,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> you’s mother. This is unacceptable with<br />
us and you. The construction is heard with them<br />
but is condemned by most grammarians. On<br />
the other hand, a possessive pronoun is not used<br />
here. We do not say one <strong>of</strong> their mother or even<br />
one <strong>of</strong> their mothers. Partitive phrases involving<br />
a personal pronoun are the only type <strong>of</strong> expression<br />
we have that cannot be handled simply in<br />
the genitive, and for this reason people <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
stumble over them. At present there is nothing<br />
to do but recast the sentence and use a second<br />
<strong>of</strong> phrase, as in the mother <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
143 double<br />
double negatives. In English, two negatives in the<br />
same sentence generally reinforce one another.<br />
Z didn’t say nothing is an emphatic denial and<br />
no one who speaks English can misunderstand<br />
it. This is the normal way <strong>of</strong> strengthening a<br />
negative in all Teutonic languages, <strong>of</strong> which<br />
ours is one. In the past, double, triple, quadruple<br />
negatives were quite acceptable; Sir Launcelot<br />
was speaking the purest English when he said,<br />
I never treacherously slew no man.<br />
Today, this repeated negative is considered a<br />
shocking vulgarism. Negative pronouns (such<br />
as no one and nothing), negative adverbs (such<br />
as hardly and scarcely), and negative conjunctions<br />
(such as neither and nor), when used with<br />
a negative verb put a man beyond the pale, provided<br />
the sentence is short enough. No one who<br />
values public opinion can afford to say Z didn’t<br />
hardly hear you or you didn’t hear me, neither.<br />
If the sentence is longer, a supplementary<br />
negative added as an afterthought is not felt to<br />
be a serious <strong>of</strong>fense. He couldn’t sleep, not even<br />
with a sedative contains a redundant not, since<br />
what is meant is he couldn’t sleep even with a<br />
sedative. Sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind are contrary to<br />
the theoretical rules <strong>of</strong> grammar and are avoided<br />
by some writers and editors. But they are not the<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> sentence children are drilled in and they<br />
are not contrary to the spirit <strong>of</strong> English. As a<br />
result, very few people are <strong>of</strong>fended by them. On<br />
the other hand, the sentence no one thought so,<br />
even you is wrong. Here the phrase after the<br />
comma requires a negative and should be not<br />
even you. (The difference between the two sentences<br />
is easier felt than described. In the first,<br />
even with a sedative is an adverbial phrase; it<br />
tells in what way the man could not sleep. In<br />
the second, not even you is an elaboration <strong>of</strong> no<br />
one and becomes the subject <strong>of</strong> thought so. Even<br />
you thought so is not what was meant.) The<br />
writer who used even when he meant not even<br />
undoubtedly dropped the not because he thought<br />
it was a double negative. In attempting to show<br />
that his English is “purer” than it really is, he<br />
has succeeded in showing how worried he is<br />
about it. Mistakes <strong>of</strong> this kind are inevitable<br />
when one tries to apply a rule that runs counter<br />
to one’s speech habits. It is much safer to trust<br />
one’s ear, and to be satisfied to speak and write<br />
the language used by the great majority <strong>of</strong> educated<br />
people.<br />
The person who says I shouldn’t be surprised<br />
if it didn’t rain may mean Z expect it to rain.<br />
Here we have a negative in a main clause repeated<br />
in a subordinate construction. This type<br />
<strong>of</strong> repetition is required in many languages, and<br />
so cannot be called unreasonable. Although it<br />
is condemned by some English grammarians, it<br />
is used by many <strong>of</strong> the best writers <strong>of</strong> English.<br />
Jane Austen, for example, writes: there was<br />
none too poor or too remote not to feel an interest;<br />
and Charles Darwin: it never occurred<br />
to me to doubt that your work would not advance<br />
our common object. See also but.<br />
Whenever two negatives make an affirmative<br />
the double negative is a thoroughly respectable
doubletalk 144<br />
construction, chiefly because it was a standard<br />
Latin construction. In Latin, two negatives in<br />
the same sentence always amounted to an affirmation<br />
and nobody does not believe was an<br />
emphatic and elegant way <strong>of</strong> saying everybody<br />
believes. In English, two negatives make an affirmative<br />
when one directly qualifies the other,<br />
as in I urn not unhappy. Even here the words do<br />
not completely cancel each other. This double<br />
negative expresses rather, the weakest possible<br />
positive attitude.<br />
doubletalk. See persiflage.<br />
doubtless. See undoubtedly.<br />
dove. See dive.<br />
dove. See pigeon.<br />
dower; dowry. Dower is a legal term for the portion<br />
<strong>of</strong> a deceased husband’s real property<br />
allowed to his widow for her life. A dowry is the<br />
money, goods, or estate which a woman brings<br />
to her husband at marriage. In former tiimes the<br />
two words were <strong>of</strong>ten used interchangeably but<br />
today they are kept to their separate meanings.<br />
down is primarily an adverb meaning toward a<br />
lower position, as in look down; but it may also<br />
be used as an adjective to qualify a noun, as in<br />
a down stroke. The adjective has a superlative<br />
form downmost but no comparative. Down is<br />
sometimes used as a preposition, as in down the<br />
hill, and sometimes as a verb, as in he downed<br />
them all.<br />
Down has the same range <strong>of</strong> meanings that<br />
lower has. It may mean physically lower, as in<br />
step down, or it may mean lower in some other<br />
sense, as in mark down the price, run down one’s<br />
friends, call down the hired help. It is also used<br />
as the opposite <strong>of</strong> up, to mean passing from<br />
greater to less energy or from a stronger to a<br />
weaker state, as in quiet down, tone down, s<strong>of</strong>ten<br />
down. For differences between up and down,<br />
see up.<br />
Down is also used in speaking <strong>of</strong> geographical<br />
directions. In Great Britain it may mean toward<br />
the coast, as in I must down to the seas again; or<br />
it may mean toward a place <strong>of</strong> less importance.<br />
That is, one goes down from London or down<br />
from any city to the country. In the United<br />
States the first meaning survives in down East,<br />
meaning the Maine coast, but otherwise is lost.<br />
In general, down is used in this country to mean<br />
“south,” or toward the bottom <strong>of</strong> an ordinary<br />
map. People living in Kingston go “down” to<br />
New York City.<br />
down at the heel(s), like out at the elbow, as a<br />
term for being destitute, is no longer descriptive.<br />
downward; downwards. Downward is the only<br />
form that can be used to qualify a following<br />
noun, as in a downward glance. Either form may<br />
be used in any other construction, as in he<br />
glanced downwards and he glanced downwurd.<br />
In the United States the form downward is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
dozen. Originally the word dozen was always joined<br />
to a following noun by <strong>of</strong>, as in a dozen <strong>of</strong> eggs.<br />
This construction is not considered standard<br />
now except where it has been preserved as an<br />
elegance, as in P dozen <strong>of</strong> sherry. In current<br />
English, dozen is treated as if it were a numeral.<br />
It stands immediately before a following noun,<br />
as in a dozen eggs, except when it refers to a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> some specified group, as in a dozen <strong>of</strong><br />
these eggs, in which case the <strong>of</strong> must be used.<br />
Only the singular form dozen can be used after<br />
a numeral. We say get three dozen and not get<br />
three dozens.<br />
The plural form dozens cannot be used after a<br />
numeral and cannot be treated as if it were a<br />
numeral. It must always be joined to a following<br />
noun by <strong>of</strong>, as in dozens <strong>of</strong> eggs. The <strong>of</strong> is not<br />
used before degree words, such as more, less,<br />
too many, and we may speak <strong>of</strong> dozens more.<br />
But we do not like to complete this expression<br />
by adding another noun. We avoid saying dozens<br />
more eggs.<br />
Dr. See doctor.<br />
draft; draught. Though draft and draught are<br />
merely variant spellings, common usage has<br />
fixed them to separate meanings. Draft is used<br />
for a drawing or design, for the preliminary<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a piece <strong>of</strong> writing, the act <strong>of</strong> drawing or<br />
pulling or that which is drawn or pulled, the<br />
taking <strong>of</strong> supplies, forces, or money from a given<br />
source, the selection <strong>of</strong> persons for military<br />
service, a written order drawing on another person<br />
‘or a bank for money, a drain or demand<br />
made on anything. Draft and draught are used<br />
for a current <strong>of</strong> air. Draught is used for a device<br />
for regulating the flow <strong>of</strong> air or gas, the drawing<br />
<strong>of</strong> a liquid from its receptacle (as Beer on<br />
draldght-though in American usage draft is<br />
rapidly gaining in this sense), drinking, or a<br />
drink or potion, a take <strong>of</strong> fish, the dnpth a vessel<br />
sinks in water, and (in the plural construed as<br />
singular) the game <strong>of</strong> checkers. When used as<br />
another name for checkers, however, the word<br />
takes a singular verb, as in draughts is played by<br />
two persons. The preferred name for this game<br />
in the United States is checkers.<br />
drank. See drink.<br />
draw. The past tense is drew. The participle is<br />
drawn.<br />
draw; drag; haul. To draw is to move something<br />
by a force in the direction from which the force<br />
is exerted (the draw <strong>of</strong> a magnet; chariots drawn<br />
by horses. Drawing her father aside for a moment,<br />
she begged him to leave). To drug is to<br />
draw with great force some object over a surface<br />
upon which it rests, the movement being hindered<br />
bv friction (The bodv had olainlv been<br />
drugged-across the‘yurd to ;he ditdh). To haul<br />
is to transport a heavy object slowly with sustained<br />
effort. Boats are hauled across land.<br />
Heavy freight is hauled. The slang use <strong>of</strong> haul<br />
as a noun (a rich haul) implies a heavy take, so<br />
heavy that it would be difficult to move.<br />
draw in one’s horns. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who at<br />
a threat suddenly abates his truculence that he<br />
has drawn in his horns is to employ a venerable<br />
but not very sound metaphor, since the figure is<br />
based on the sudden shrinking into its shell <strong>of</strong><br />
an alarmed snail, one <strong>of</strong> the least truculent <strong>of</strong><br />
creatures and one whose “horns,” the delicate<br />
antennae or tentacles which bear its eyes, have
no menace. The phrase is now a clichi and<br />
should be used sparingly.<br />
drawers. When this word means an article <strong>of</strong><br />
clothing, the plural form refers to one garment<br />
but is always treated as a plural, as in these<br />
drawers are warm. In order to use the word with<br />
a singular verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more than one<br />
such garment, it is necessary to say this pair <strong>of</strong><br />
drawers is warm or several pairs <strong>of</strong> drawers.<br />
The form drawers is used as the first element in<br />
a compound, as in drawers material.<br />
drawing pin. See thumbtack.<br />
drawn. See draw.<br />
draw the line at something, marking it as a limit<br />
beyond which one is prepared to fight or to take<br />
or accept other drastic action, is a clicht. It<br />
seems to be based on the habit <strong>of</strong> pugnacious<br />
frontiersmen, now relegated to boys, <strong>of</strong> drawing<br />
a line in the dirt and defying one’s opponent to<br />
step across it.<br />
draw the long bow. The long bow, as every boy<br />
who has read his Robin Hood stories knows,<br />
was a mighty weapon employed in mighty feats<br />
by mighty men before villainous saltpeter was<br />
digged out <strong>of</strong> the bowels <strong>of</strong> the harmless earth<br />
to destroy many a good tall fellow so cowardly.<br />
Apparently the boasts <strong>of</strong> old bowmen exceeded<br />
credence and their narratives became a term for<br />
large exaggeration, a euphemism for boastful<br />
lying. But the term is now a clich6. It has been<br />
many a century since anyone has been annoyed<br />
by the boasting <strong>of</strong> a longbowman and there is<br />
such a richness <strong>of</strong> contemporary boasting to<br />
choose a new figure from that continued use <strong>of</strong><br />
the old one amounts to neglect <strong>of</strong> our national<br />
resources.<br />
dread may be followed by an infinitive, as in he<br />
dreads to go, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as<br />
in he dreads going. It may also be followed by<br />
a clause. Formerly, this was introduced by Zest<br />
and the clause verb was a subjunctive, as in<br />
I dread lest he go. This is now extremely bookish.<br />
A that clause with the verb in the indicative,<br />
as in Z dread that he will go, is sometimes heard<br />
but an infinitive construction, such as I dread to<br />
see him go or I dread to have him go, is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
dreadful. See awful; horrible.<br />
dream. The past tense is dreamed or dreamt. The<br />
participle is also dreamed or dreamt. In the<br />
United States dreamed is preferred for the past<br />
tense and the participle. Dreamt is preferred in<br />
Great Britain. Dream may be followed by a<br />
clause, as in he dreams he is there. If the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb follows dream it must be introduced<br />
by the preposition <strong>of</strong>, as in he dreams <strong>of</strong><br />
being there.<br />
dregs is a mass word with a plural form. It is regularly<br />
used with a plural verb, as in the dregs<br />
are bitter. But it is not a true plural and we<br />
cannot speak <strong>of</strong> three or four dregs. However,<br />
a singular form dreg exists and may be used to<br />
make the absence <strong>of</strong> dregs, or the smallness,<br />
emphatic, as in leave no dreg and if any dreg<br />
remain. We may speak <strong>of</strong> many dregs or <strong>of</strong><br />
much dregs.<br />
145 drought<br />
dress. The past tense is dressed or drest. The participle<br />
is also dressed or drest. Dressed is the<br />
preferred form for the past tense and the participle.<br />
dressed up to the nines. No one is quite sure<br />
what the “nines” in dressed up to the nines<br />
means. It has been suggested that nine being a<br />
mystical number it means dressed up to perfection,<br />
but that fails to account for the plural, if<br />
the word is the plural <strong>of</strong> the number nine. The<br />
phrase sometimes appears as to the nine. Burns<br />
wrote that a certain action would please him<br />
to the nine and Charles Reade refers to men or<br />
women being clad in snowy cotton and japanned<br />
to the nine. It has been conjectured that the<br />
phrase may derive from to then eyne, i.e., to the<br />
eyes, and this would make sense in the common<br />
phrase but it would not account for the final s<br />
there and elsewhere. No context has been found<br />
that makes any meaning absolutely clear, and<br />
plenty have been found that make any explanation<br />
yet advanced untenable. It is one <strong>of</strong> those<br />
phrases to which no specific meaning can be<br />
attached, a clichC, to be avoided. Dressed fit to<br />
kill has a more obvious meaning, -. but it, , too. Iis<br />
hackneyed.<br />
dresser. Though the word dresser used to mean in<br />
America what it still means in England. a sideboard<br />
or set <strong>of</strong> shelves for dishes-and cooking<br />
utensils (The bland illumination filled the entire<br />
apartment.. . making the scoured milk pans and<br />
the white crockery on the large “dresser”shine-<br />
1848. With a nice dinner ready cooked for ‘em,<br />
and set out in the dresser-l 875)) it now means<br />
solely a dressing table or bureau (In this crib<br />
there’s just n few pieces <strong>of</strong> furniture which consist<br />
<strong>of</strong> a bed, washstand . . . a dresser and maybe<br />
two chairs-1947).<br />
drest. See dress.<br />
drew. See draw.<br />
drink. The past tense is drunk. The participle is<br />
drunk or drank. Drunk is the usual participle<br />
today, but drank, as in he had drank deep, is<br />
still acceptable in many parts <strong>of</strong> the United<br />
States. This construction was popular with nineteenth<br />
century writers, perhaps because drank<br />
does not suggest too much alcohol as much as<br />
drunk does. An older participle drunken is still<br />
in use as an adjective, as in a drunken sailor, but<br />
we also say a drunk sailor.<br />
drive. The past tense is drove. The participle is<br />
driven. Drive may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he drove her to admit it, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition to, as in<br />
he drove her to admitting it. The -ing construction<br />
is generally preferred. Forty years ago many<br />
people felt that drive could not be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> an automobile, but this attempt to preserve<br />
“pure” English has now been abandoned.<br />
droll. See funny.<br />
drop. The past tense is dropped or dropt. The par-,<br />
ticiple is also dropped or dropt. Dropped is the<br />
preferred form for the past tense and the participle.<br />
drought and drouth, pronounced as spelled, are<br />
simply variants. Drouth is now dialectal in Eng-
drove 146<br />
land but is standard in the United States where<br />
it is used interchangeably with drought.<br />
drove. See drive.<br />
drown is a regular verb and the past tense :and the<br />
participle are drowned. In the United States an<br />
extra d is <strong>of</strong>ten heard in this word, as in he will<br />
drownd and he was drownded last night. These<br />
were once literary forms but are now considered<br />
as uneducated usage, at least when they appear<br />
in print.<br />
drug. See drag.<br />
drug on the market. What drug? And in what<br />
pharmacopoeia to be found? Or is it a drug at<br />
all? Is it, perhaps, dreg, which is pronounced<br />
drug in some dialects? Or a drugget? Or some<br />
confusion <strong>of</strong> drag or drogue?<br />
Nobody knows. All the dictionaries can say<br />
is what the phrase makes evident: something<br />
which is no longer in demand, something unsaleable.<br />
Dryden said that virtue shall a drug<br />
become. In a way, it is; and a drag. Sir William<br />
Temple said, in 1763, that horses in Ireland are<br />
a drug. Robinson Crusoe laughed at the coins<br />
he found in the wreck: 0 Drug! said I aloud,<br />
what art thou good for? The term may have<br />
originated in some now-forgotten pun, but however<br />
it originated it is now a clich6, an expression<br />
that we repeat without knowing exactly<br />
what it means. Indeed, it is, perhaps, supreme in<br />
its kind, for there is no evidence, from the<br />
moment <strong>of</strong> its first appearance in 166 1, that anyone<br />
has ever known exactly what it means.<br />
drug store. The nearest thing to a drug store that<br />
an American will find in England is a chemist’s<br />
shop. They both fill prescriptions and sell medicines,<br />
cosmetics, and sick-room supplies; but the<br />
soda fountains, lunch counters, magazine racks,<br />
and toy and novelty departments that grace and<br />
clutter the drug store are unknown in the: chemist’s<br />
shops.<br />
drunk. See drink.<br />
drunkard; alcoholic; sot. Drunkard is the everyday<br />
word, strongly tinged with the disgust, contempt,<br />
and amusement that drunkenness inspires<br />
in those that have to deal with it (A Man that<br />
is now and then guilty <strong>of</strong> Intemperance is not<br />
to be called a Drunkard-Steele). Sot, originally<br />
a fool or an idiot, is an angry word for an<br />
habitual drunkard (bursten-bellied sots . . . this<br />
horrid sot . . . who cannot sleep at ni,ght till<br />
dosed with drink). Alcoholic is the newest and<br />
politest term <strong>of</strong> all, carrying a nobly understanding<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> psychological and physiological<br />
illness. It has replaced dipsomaniac,<br />
which used to be the understanding word but<br />
fell short <strong>of</strong> perfection because <strong>of</strong> undignified<br />
suggestions in -maniac.<br />
There are so many slang terms for drinking,<br />
drunkenness, and drunkards that almost any<br />
term to be found in a dictionary is comparatively<br />
dignified.<br />
drunk; drunken; inebriated; intoxicated. When applied<br />
to persons, drunk is now the commonest<br />
form in America, both predicate and attributive<br />
(After one more drink he was distinctly drunk.<br />
The drunk soldier was plainly looking for a<br />
quarrel). As applied to persons, drunken now<br />
seems a little archaic and poetic (What shall we<br />
do with a drunken sailor? A drunken man seems<br />
to bear a charmed life), though it is still used to<br />
describe states and actions that pertain to, proceed<br />
from, or are marked by, intoxication (This<br />
drunken babbling amused some but disgusted<br />
most. Weaving through trafic in drunken disregard<br />
<strong>of</strong> all regulations . . .). (See also drink.)<br />
Inebriated is simply a highfalutin word for<br />
drunk. It is used as a pompous circumlocution<br />
or humorously (as in Disraeli’s famous reference<br />
to Gladstone as a sophistical rhetorician,<br />
inebriated with the exuberance <strong>of</strong> his own verbosity).<br />
Intoxicated means poisoned. It was possible<br />
formerly to speak <strong>of</strong> intoxicated weapons or <strong>of</strong><br />
serpents that intoxicated by their bite: and the<br />
word toxic, poisonous, is in everyday use. But<br />
intoxicated, when used literally, now means to<br />
be poisoned by drinking an excess <strong>of</strong> ethyl<br />
alcohol. Used finurativelv (intoxicated with success,<br />
intoxicatedwith happiness), it means drunk<br />
but carries less censure than the coarser, downright<br />
word. To be drunk with success suggests<br />
just a shade greater likelihood <strong>of</strong> doing something<br />
<strong>of</strong>fensive or dangerous in one’s elation<br />
than if one were intoxicated with success.<br />
dry goods, textile fabrics and related articles <strong>of</strong><br />
trade, in distinction from groceries, hardware,<br />
and so on, is now an old-fashioned word in<br />
America, though still current and standard.<br />
There is no equivalent in England. The word<br />
embraces what is there called drapery, mercery,<br />
and haberdashery.<br />
dry out. An American, soaked in a downpour,<br />
wants to dry out his clothes. An Englishman<br />
wants to dry <strong>of</strong>f his. Perhaps the English climate<br />
has made him resign himself to a surface dryness<br />
only.<br />
d.t.‘s must now be accepted, at least in informal<br />
speech and writing, as a standard abbreviation<br />
<strong>of</strong> delirium tremens.<br />
dual words. Modern English has only two forms<br />
to indicate whether a word is being used in<br />
reference to one thing or to more than one:<br />
the singular, showing one, and the plural, showing<br />
more than one. Some primitive languages<br />
have grammatical forms for one, two, three, and<br />
more than three things. Old English, like Greek,<br />
had forms to indicate one, two, and more than<br />
two. There still are in modern English a few<br />
words, such as neither, alternative, both, the<br />
latter, that carry a dual meaning to some extent,<br />
that is, that seem to refer to two rather than to<br />
more than one.<br />
The tendency in modern English is to free<br />
these words from the specific reference to two.<br />
Neither, for example, was used broadly as early<br />
as the seventeenth century, as seen in neither<br />
death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities,<br />
nor powers, nor things present, nor things to<br />
come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other<br />
creature. In the nineteenth century, Gladstone<br />
felt at liberty to say: my decided preference is<br />
for the fourth and last <strong>of</strong> these alternatives. Not
all dual words have been used so freely in such<br />
high places as neither and alternative, and anyone<br />
writing today is obliged to follow the accepted<br />
usage <strong>of</strong> today. For example, one cannot<br />
say both were there and be understood to mean<br />
all three were there. But the distinction between<br />
two and more than two is logically out <strong>of</strong> place<br />
in the twentieth century. It belongs to a simpler<br />
culture than ours. And no one should try to<br />
preserve it, or reinstate it, where custom is allowing<br />
it to disappear. For more detailed information,<br />
see the individual dual words.<br />
ductus. The plural is ductuses or ductus, not ducti.<br />
dues. The American dues, the amount payable to<br />
a club to maintain membership, is in England<br />
subscription.<br />
due to may be used to qualify a noun, as in a<br />
mistake due to carelessness. This use <strong>of</strong> due to<br />
was listed by Dr. Johnson as “proper, but not<br />
usual.” Since then it has become a familiar form<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech and no one thinks <strong>of</strong> objecting to it.<br />
But the words are also used today to qualify a<br />
verb, as in he failed, due to carelessness. This<br />
construction is relatively new and is condemned<br />
by some grammarians.<br />
In both cases the words due to are being used<br />
as owing to might be used. It is claimed that<br />
due to is acceptable in the first case but not in<br />
the second, and that only the form owing to may<br />
be used with a verb. This distinction cannot be<br />
defended on theoretical grounds, since due to<br />
and owing lo are grammatically alike. The<br />
critics usually content themselves with saying<br />
that “due to cannot be used to qualify a verb.”<br />
But it is used to qualify a verb, millions <strong>of</strong> times<br />
every day. And it is used in this way in very<br />
respectable places. A tablet in front <strong>of</strong> the Old<br />
State House in Philadelphia reads: Here the<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>inental Congress sat from the date it convened,<br />
May 10, 177.5, until the close <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Revolution, except when, in 1776-77, it sat in<br />
Baltimore, and in 1777-78, in Lancaster and<br />
York, due to the temporary occupation <strong>of</strong> Philadelphia<br />
by the British army. (See also owe.)<br />
dug. See dig.<br />
dull as ditch water. Ditch water today would be<br />
unsavory but nothing like the foul mess it was<br />
before there was any public sanitation. It seems<br />
to have impressed itself, quite understandably,<br />
on the senses and vocabularies <strong>of</strong> our forebears<br />
who made it the basis <strong>of</strong> three unpleasant similes:<br />
as proud [digne] as ditchwater, as light as<br />
ditchwater, and as dull as ditchwater. The first<br />
two were presumably ironic, though their exact<br />
significance is now puzzling. Perhaps as proud<br />
as ditchwater may have meant “stinking proud,”<br />
except for stinking’s being a general term <strong>of</strong><br />
abuse that doesn’t make much sense.<br />
The dullness <strong>of</strong> ditchwater. in the simile that<br />
has survived, may have referred to its opacity or<br />
its lack <strong>of</strong> good taste. The latter would apply to<br />
uncontaminated standing water. Our ancestors<br />
attached considerable importance to the taste <strong>of</strong><br />
various waters. There is a fine apostrophe in<br />
MarkTwain’s Tom Sawyer Abroad to Mississippi<br />
River water as the best <strong>of</strong> all drinking waters,<br />
147 Dutch<br />
being far superior, by virtue <strong>of</strong> its silt, to the<br />
water <strong>of</strong> the Ohio or the Missouri. But dull as<br />
ditch water (or its <strong>of</strong>ten-heard variant, dull as<br />
dishwater) is now a sodden simile, pretty much<br />
devoid <strong>of</strong> meaning.<br />
dumb. The American use <strong>of</strong> dumb for stupid (I<br />
can’t teach my dog tricks; he’s too dumb to<br />
learn) is probably the German dumm, rather<br />
than a corruption <strong>of</strong> the old word for speechless,<br />
which is retained in standard American usage.<br />
Dumbbell, a stupid person, is slang.<br />
dumbfound. See amaze.<br />
dumbwaiter. In the United States a dumbwaiter<br />
is a conveyor <strong>of</strong> framework with shelves drawn<br />
up and down in a shaft. It was used more in<br />
former days, especially in town houses where<br />
the dining room was on the floor above the<br />
kitchen. In England a dumbwaiter is a small<br />
stand, <strong>of</strong>ten with revolving shelves, placed near<br />
a dining table.<br />
Were servants garrulous, especially while waiting<br />
on the table, that so much is made <strong>of</strong> the<br />
silence <strong>of</strong> things meant to replace them? Cf.<br />
silent butler.<br />
duologue. See dialogue.<br />
durance vile. Durance is now archaic for endurance<br />
or duration. It survives only in the forcedly<br />
jocular cliche in durance vile, meaning in forced<br />
constraint or prison. Shakespeare, by putting the<br />
phrase into Pistol’s mouth,implied, as early as<br />
1597, that it was a cliche. bombastic and ludicrous.<br />
After almost four hundred years <strong>of</strong><br />
further use even the humor has worn out.<br />
durst. See dare.<br />
Dutch; Dutchman. A Dutchman may mean a man<br />
from Holland, but in the United States it <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
means a German, or a German-speaking American.<br />
For this reason, Hollander is the preferred<br />
term in this country for a native <strong>of</strong> Holland.<br />
In England, since about 1600, the word Dutch<br />
has been applied only to the language or the<br />
people <strong>of</strong> Holland. But the Dutch word duitsch<br />
and the German word deutsch both mean German,<br />
and not Hollandish. In many parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
United States the English word Dutch has kept<br />
this meaning, especially in areas settled by Germans<br />
or Hollanders. The expression Pennsylvania<br />
Dutch is an example <strong>of</strong> this American<br />
usage.<br />
Many dictionaries label this use <strong>of</strong> Dutch and<br />
Dutchman as “careless” or incorrect, which it is<br />
by British standards. But being correct is small<br />
consolation for being misunderstood and the<br />
“careful” speaker will bear in mind what his<br />
words are likely to mean to his hearers.<br />
The Dutch means the entire people. It is<br />
always followed by a plural verb, but it cannot<br />
be used with a numeral. We do not speak <strong>of</strong><br />
three Dutch, but <strong>of</strong> three Dutchmen.<br />
Rivalry in trade and jealousy and fear in naval<br />
matters bred a resentment <strong>of</strong> the Dutch in England<br />
in the seventeenth century which soon<br />
disappeared when England’s supremacy was<br />
established but which lingers on in the language<br />
in a number <strong>of</strong> phrases such as Dutch courage<br />
(the courage lent by drunkenness), Dutch con-
duty<br />
solution (the assurance that things might have<br />
been worse), Dutch bargain (not likely to be<br />
kept), and other derisive and opprobrious terms.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> these have been retained in American<br />
speech and a number <strong>of</strong> new ones, mostly<br />
humorous and lightly contemptuous, added.<br />
Among them are It beats the Dutch, Well, I’m<br />
a Dutchman, and Dutch treat or going Dutch.<br />
The common term to talk like a Dutch Uncle,<br />
meaning to talk sternly and to lay down the<br />
law, to scold, warn, reprimand, may have hidden<br />
in it the fact that the word boss is the Dutch<br />
baas which originally meant uncle. So also with<br />
to cry uncle, i.e., to admit defeat, to concede<br />
that the other man is baas or boss.<br />
duty. See service.<br />
“D . V . ” See Deo volente .<br />
each. At one time each and every were two forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same word and could be used interchangeably<br />
to refer to the individual members <strong>of</strong> a<br />
group. Today every is used when the members<br />
are thought <strong>of</strong> as a group or whole, and each<br />
when they are thought <strong>of</strong> individually. The rule<br />
is that “every totalizes, and each individualizes.”<br />
Every cannot be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong><br />
less than three. Each may be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> only two, but it may also be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> any larger number.<br />
Each may be used as an adjective, as in each<br />
man. It may also be used as a pronoun and in<br />
this construction may be followed by <strong>of</strong>, as in<br />
each <strong>of</strong> them. When used as an adjective, each<br />
may stand before a singular noun or after a<br />
plural noun or pronoun, as in each nran, the<br />
men each, they each. When qualifying a plural<br />
noun or pronoun it may also stand after a linking<br />
verb or an auxiliary verb, as in they tzre ench<br />
right, they have each decided.<br />
When each is used as an adjective and qualifies<br />
a singular noun the combination is always<br />
singular, as in each man carries his ow’n pack.<br />
When each qualifies, or refers to, a plural noun<br />
or pronoun and precedes the meaningful element<br />
in the verb, the combination is plural and<br />
is used with a plural verb and plural pronoun,<br />
as in we each have our own opinion and they<br />
have each done their duty. The use <strong>of</strong> a singular<br />
pronoun, such as his, in a construction <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind is a grammatical mistake. It is the sort <strong>of</strong><br />
mistake that would only be made by a. person<br />
who was over-anxious about his grammar. When<br />
each follows the meaningful element <strong>of</strong> the verb,<br />
as in they have tried, each in a different way, it<br />
is independent <strong>of</strong> the subject, a pronoun and<br />
not an adjective.<br />
When functioning as a pronoun, each is usually<br />
treated as a singular, as in each carried his<br />
148<br />
E<br />
dwarf. The plural is dwarfs, never dwarves.<br />
dwell. The past tense is dwelt. The participle is<br />
also dwelt. Dwelled is no longer used in standard<br />
English, but it was once a literary form, as in<br />
Lot dwelled in the cities <strong>of</strong> the plain. See also<br />
reside.<br />
dyed in the wool. A woolen fabric is dyed in the<br />
wool if its color was imparted to it while it was<br />
yet in the state <strong>of</strong> unspun wool. Another term<br />
for it, now obsolete, was dyed in grain, so that<br />
in the figurative senses engrained and dyed in<br />
the wool mean the same thing-a conviction or<br />
characteristic that is ineradicable because it is<br />
in the very basic stuff <strong>of</strong> its holder’s being. This<br />
tired phrase is used far more today in America<br />
than in England.<br />
dyes. See dice.<br />
own pack, and some grammarians claim that it<br />
must always be treated so. But in literary English<br />
there are a number <strong>of</strong> exceptions to this<br />
rule. When each refers indefinitely to both men<br />
and women the word their is sometimes used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> his, as in each carried their own puck.<br />
(See they.) When a plural word stands between<br />
the pronoun each and its verb, the verb may be<br />
singular or plural, as in each <strong>of</strong> them is and<br />
each <strong>of</strong> them are; the plural is generally preferred.<br />
When each refers to more than one<br />
singular word joined by and, there is more difference<br />
<strong>of</strong> opinion about the number <strong>of</strong> the verb.<br />
H. W. Fowler says that the hymn lines, soon<br />
will you and I be lying, each within our narrow<br />
bed, cannot properly be sung except by married<br />
couples. But to most people’s taste, calling what<br />
is yours and mine his is a deeper outrage than<br />
calling it ours, whether we own it in common or<br />
not. The adjective each may qualify a singular<br />
noun in the genitive case, as in each boy’s jacket.<br />
But it cannot qualify a plural noun in the genitive<br />
or a singular noun that follows a genitive,<br />
as in the boys’ each facket. The pronoun each<br />
itself does not have a genitive form. We cannot<br />
say each’s.<br />
In current English the word each is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
to mean “each and the next one,” as in between<br />
each row. Some grammarians object to this new<br />
meaning, or new use <strong>of</strong> the word, and say that<br />
between the rows is required here. But each is<br />
used in this way by Kipling, Sackville-West, and<br />
other modern writers.<br />
Euch cannot be used with a negative verb. We<br />
may say each failed but we cannot say each did<br />
not succeed. The negative <strong>of</strong> each is neither, no<br />
one or not every one.<br />
each other; one another. These expressions have<br />
the same meanings and are used in the same
ways. Either can be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> only<br />
two or in speaking <strong>of</strong> a larger number. We may<br />
say the two men shook hands with one an<strong>of</strong>her<br />
and the people in the room all knew each other.<br />
The claim that one another should not be used<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> only two and that each other<br />
should not be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> more than<br />
two is an attempt to improve on the language<br />
and not a report <strong>of</strong> how the words are used or<br />
have been used in the past.<br />
Both expressions have a genitive form, as<br />
each other’s, one another’s Both can be used in<br />
any object position, as they knew one another<br />
and gave each other presents. But neither expression<br />
can be used as the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb.<br />
We cannot say we know what each other thinks,<br />
we know how one another is getting along. In<br />
statements <strong>of</strong> this kind, the each should be<br />
attached to the subject word, as in we each know<br />
what the other thinks and how the other is getting<br />
along.<br />
eager. See anxious.<br />
early; soon. Early was first an adverb but it developed<br />
adjective uses more than seven hundred<br />
years ago. It is now used in both ways, as in<br />
the early bird and start early.<br />
That is early which comes before the usual<br />
or appointed time. Soon means within a short<br />
period after a definite time or event (He arrived<br />
early and had to waif for the others, but once<br />
the clock had struck they soon appeared). In<br />
reference to a future event, early means in the<br />
near future (An early date has been set for the<br />
wedding), soon means the same (They will soon<br />
be married).<br />
earth; globe; world. Earth is the word <strong>of</strong> commonest<br />
use and at the same time, because <strong>of</strong> its<br />
literary and especially its Biblical associations,<br />
the most dignified (The earth is the Lord’s, and<br />
the fulness there<strong>of</strong>. 0 mother Earth! The earth<br />
abideth for ever). It is used especially in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a condition <strong>of</strong> existence contrasted with<br />
that in heaven or in hell (While we are yet on<br />
earth, let us be mindful, etc. This earthly life).<br />
Globe was used as a synonym when the roundness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the earth first began to impress itself<br />
upon men’s minds (to circumnavigate the globe.<br />
. . . the great globe itself,/ Yea, all which it inherit,<br />
shall dissolve). It is coming, however, to<br />
be used with increasing frequency to refer to the<br />
inhabitants <strong>of</strong> the earth and their general activities,<br />
though world is the commoner <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
words in such a meaning (The whole world<br />
hopes for peace). This world serves, like earth,<br />
to distinguish the terrestrial state from the celestial<br />
or infernal (We give too much thought to<br />
ihe r/zings <strong>of</strong> this world) and sometimes just<br />
world carries the same meaning (The world is<br />
too much with us).<br />
earthen; earthly; earthy; global; mundane; terrestrial;<br />
worldly. Earthen means composed <strong>of</strong><br />
earth, made <strong>of</strong> baked clay (an earthen pitcher).<br />
Earthly means <strong>of</strong> this earth as opposed to<br />
heaven (our earthly existence, the earthly paradise,<br />
all earthly things above), Earthy means <strong>of</strong><br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> or characteristic <strong>of</strong> earth as a<br />
material substance (The cellar WUJ damp and<br />
149 eat<br />
had an earthy smell). I Corinthians 15:47 says<br />
that The first man is <strong>of</strong> the earth, earthy and<br />
the latter part <strong>of</strong> this famous passage has become<br />
a cliche meaning, usually, that someone<br />
is broad in his speech.<br />
Global, an adjective so much used now as to<br />
be almost a vogue word, means pertaining to<br />
the whole earth (Global strategy requires, etc.<br />
. . . Those who are global minded are aware,<br />
etc. . . .).<br />
Terrestrial is the Latin equivalent <strong>of</strong> earthly.<br />
It applies to the earth as a planet, to it as a place<br />
distinct from heaven (which in smooth parlance<br />
is referred to as celestial when opposed to terrestrial),<br />
and to the land surface <strong>of</strong> the earth as<br />
opposed to the watery surface (The terrestrial<br />
area <strong>of</strong> the earth’s surface covers 57,469,928<br />
square miles).<br />
Worldly is commonly used in a derogatory<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> being concerned with material, earthly<br />
matters, vanity, social position, and the like, to<br />
the exclusion <strong>of</strong> spiritual interests or thoughts <strong>of</strong><br />
the life to come (Our sense <strong>of</strong> the vanity <strong>of</strong><br />
worldly honors increases as we grow older).<br />
Mundane is the Latin equivalent <strong>of</strong> worldly. It<br />
suggests that which is bound to the earth, not<br />
exalted, and therefore commonplace (Entangled<br />
with the birdlime <strong>of</strong> fleshly passions and mundane<br />
vanity. It was a mundane affair).<br />
east. The adjective may be east or eastern. There<br />
is only one comparative form, more eastern, and<br />
one superlative form, easfernmost.<br />
east; orient. In British usage the easf is a common<br />
term for Asia (Once did She hold the gorgeous<br />
east in fee); whereas the orient is poetic and<br />
literary. Americans know and use the east in this<br />
sense (the mysterious wisdom <strong>of</strong> the East) and<br />
are sufficiently aware <strong>of</strong> it to feel that the west<br />
(which would, for them, be a more accurate<br />
term) would be inappropriate. Then to most<br />
Americans the East means the Atlantic seaboard<br />
states, especially the northern ones, and the West<br />
means the states from the Rockies to the Pacific.<br />
So that in American usage the orient is a practical,<br />
everyday word for Eastern Asia (He was<br />
sent as consul to the Orient).<br />
easy; easily. Easy can always be used to qualify<br />
a noun, as in a green and easy world. The form<br />
easily is used only as an adverb and cannot<br />
qualify a noun. Easy is sometimes used as an<br />
adverb, as in take it easy. This construction is<br />
acceptable spoken English, in the United States<br />
and in Great Britain, but it does not appear in<br />
formal writing. At one time the comparative and<br />
superlative forms <strong>of</strong> easy could also be used as<br />
adverbs, as in all the easier led away by bad examples,<br />
and fhe good man can easiest persuade<br />
himself that God is good. These constructions<br />
are now condemned in Great Britain. In the<br />
United States they would merely be considered<br />
bookish or affected. See also facile.<br />
eat. The past tense is ate. The participle is eaten.<br />
In Great Britain the past tense is pronounced<br />
er. It is usually spelled ate, but the spelling eat is<br />
also acceptable there.<br />
Ate used as a participle, as in had ate, was<br />
once literary English but is no longer considered
eatable 150<br />
acceptable. Coleridge uses had ear (probably<br />
pronounced et) in it ate the food it ne’er had<br />
eat. This too was once good English but is no<br />
longer used.<br />
eatable; edible. In the sense <strong>of</strong> something that<br />
can be eaten, eatable and its Latin form edible<br />
are synonymous and both are correct. Usage<br />
has imposed a faint but unmistakable difference<br />
upon them, however, in certain contexts or circumstances.<br />
When we say that something is<br />
eatable, we usually mean that it is not very<br />
appetizing but is probably not harmful and can<br />
be gotten down (Bread mixed with sea water in<br />
time becomes so bitter as not to be eatable).<br />
Edible, the more formal word <strong>of</strong> the two, is<br />
generally used in reference to substances which<br />
may be eaten with safety but which may be so<br />
uncommon or so generally conceived <strong>of</strong> as one<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> similar things that may not be<br />
eaten that their edibility has to be stressed<br />
(edible berries, edible mollusks). The fixing <strong>of</strong><br />
the two words in these meanings (which1 is not<br />
absolute) is fairly recent. But Southey’s reference<br />
to the theory <strong>of</strong> the eatability <strong>of</strong> cats would<br />
certainly today be edibility.<br />
eaten. See eat.<br />
eat one’s heart out, as a term for silent longing<br />
or regret, is a cliche.<br />
eats. Used to mean food, this word is slang.<br />
eaves. This word was originally a singular, but is<br />
now treated as a plural, as in the eaves are<br />
dripping. There is no word an eave and the<br />
singular form with s is seen in the compound<br />
eavesdrop-which once meant the ground over<br />
which the eaves dripped and, later (used as a<br />
verb) to stand in this space and spy on the<br />
people in the house.<br />
echo. The plural is echoes.<br />
eclectic is sometimes used as if it meant a discriminating<br />
choosing <strong>of</strong> the best. But its meaning<br />
is somewhat broader than that. It means<br />
selecting from diverse sources, not following<br />
any definite system.<br />
economic; economical. The adjective economical<br />
is used only in the sense <strong>of</strong> money-saving. The<br />
adjective economic may mean money-saving or<br />
it may mean belonging to the science <strong>of</strong> economics.<br />
We speak <strong>of</strong> an economic attache and<br />
<strong>of</strong> an economic housewife.<br />
economical; thrifty; frugal; stingy; miserly. Economical<br />
implies a prudent planning in the disposition<br />
<strong>of</strong> resources so as to avoid unnecessary<br />
waste and to effect savings (The young housewife<br />
cannot be too economical if she is to help<br />
her husband in his career). In almost all uses<br />
the word has favorable connotations. Thrifty is<br />
an older, more homely word. It is related to the<br />
verb to thrive, to grow and flourish, and adds<br />
to the sense <strong>of</strong> saving active industry and management<br />
(Caleb was a thrifty lad and soon was<br />
independent). Too vigorous a concern with<br />
one’s own welfare, however, has its moral dangers<br />
and thrifty, especially in ironical uses (for<br />
it was for centuries a word extolling one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
greatest <strong>of</strong> virtues), had some unpleasant connotations<br />
(Disown the debt you cannot pay./<br />
You’ll find if far the thriftiest way). Frugal<br />
means careful or sparing, opposing luxury. It<br />
definitely connotes austerity and sometimes<br />
meanness (The uncovered boards with their<br />
frugal strip <strong>of</strong> carpet. And then there was a<br />
corncob that hung upon a string,/ For Father<br />
was a frugal man, and would not waste a thing).<br />
With stingy, however, saving passes (at least in<br />
the estimation <strong>of</strong> the speaker or writer employing<br />
the word) from the admirable or necessary<br />
to the unpleasant. Stinginess is frugality with a<br />
sting in it. It is penuriousness that hurts, painful<br />
niggardliness (The stingy wretch denied his own<br />
children food). Miserly carries stinginess so far<br />
that the frugal one himself is now miserable.<br />
Miserly means that one is able to afford things<br />
which one denies oneself unnecessarily. Frugality<br />
has become avarice.<br />
eczema. The plural is eczemas or eczemata, not<br />
eczemae.<br />
edgeways; edgewise. These forms are equally acceptable.<br />
edible. See eatable.<br />
edifice; building. Unless the reference is to an unusually<br />
large and imposing structure, edifice is<br />
a pompous word for building. In the figurative<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> an elaborate and imposing political or<br />
intellectual structure, however, edifice is the<br />
proper word (The edifice which Napoleon had<br />
so carefully constructed was, at bottom, largely<br />
a provision for his relatives).<br />
edition; impression; printing. An edition is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> printings <strong>of</strong> the same book,<br />
newspaper, etc., issued at different times and<br />
differing from another by alterations, additions,<br />
etc. It is the making <strong>of</strong> changes that differentiates<br />
an edition from an impression or printing,<br />
which is simply one <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> printings<br />
made at different times from the same set <strong>of</strong><br />
type without alterations.<br />
editor. Because the financial district <strong>of</strong> London is<br />
called “the City,” the city editor in England<br />
means what in America is called the financial<br />
editor. In America the city editor is the man in<br />
charge <strong>of</strong> local news. The English prefer leader<br />
to editorial and leader writer to editorial writer.<br />
educator (usually “a great educator”) is a pompous<br />
word. It is interesting to note that it is<br />
rarely used <strong>of</strong> teachers but is reserved in joumalistic<br />
prose almost exclusively for administrators<br />
(That great educator, Samuel T. Fellenmacher,<br />
long head <strong>of</strong> the Boys Industrial Home).<br />
effect. See affect.<br />
effective; effectual; efficacious; efficient. The word<br />
effective means that something has the power<br />
to produce, or actually does produce, a desired<br />
effect (Zt was an effective rejoinder and reduced<br />
his opponent to silence). In American usage<br />
eflective has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> actually in<br />
effect. Thus when it is said that a certain law<br />
“will become effective” or “became effective”<br />
at a certain time, it does not mean, as it would<br />
to an Englishman, that at that time the law<br />
accomplished its purpose, but only that it will<br />
become or did become operative at that time.<br />
Effectual is a word <strong>of</strong> praise applied to that
which produces the desired effect. An effectual<br />
measure or remedy is one that does what was<br />
hoped would be done. A law is effective when<br />
it is in operation, eflectual if it accomplishes its<br />
purpose.<br />
Eficient also means producing the desired<br />
effect, but it has the added connotation, in<br />
modern usage, <strong>of</strong> doing so with a high ratio <strong>of</strong><br />
return for expenditure. It differs from eflectual<br />
in carrying this suggestion and in the fact that it<br />
is applied to persons as well as to things (An<br />
eficient secretary is an eflectual agent for one<br />
who would make his will effective).<br />
Eficacious suggests the capability <strong>of</strong> achieving<br />
a certain end, a capability <strong>of</strong>ten manifested<br />
only when actually employed (an efficacious<br />
drug in the cure <strong>of</strong> these infections). It, too, is<br />
applied only to things, not to persons. See also<br />
affect.<br />
effeminate. See female.<br />
effete is a literary word for exhausted, worn out,<br />
applied to something or someone no longer<br />
creative (an effete generation). Originally it applied<br />
to animals and meant that they were no<br />
longer capable <strong>of</strong> producing young. It is not to<br />
be confused with effeminate.<br />
eft. See newt.<br />
egoism; egotism. Egoism is the name for the philosophical<br />
belief that self-interest is the true end<br />
<strong>of</strong> moral actions. As such, it is opposed to<br />
altruism. The egoist relates all questions to himself.<br />
He may believe, that is, that there is no<br />
pro<strong>of</strong> that anything exists but his own mind,<br />
that all other people are perhaps figments <strong>of</strong> his<br />
imagination (Subjective idealism is basically<br />
egoism. The mature man, hardened into skeptical<br />
egoism, knows no monition but thnt <strong>of</strong> his<br />
own frigid cautions).<br />
Egotism, the too frequent use <strong>of</strong> I in conversation,<br />
hence boastfulness, too much interest in<br />
one’s own doings to an exclusion <strong>of</strong> interest in<br />
others, self-conceit, selfishness, is the more common<br />
word (His absorbing egotism was annoying<br />
to all who had to associate with him).<br />
Egoism and egotism do not, necessarily, have to<br />
have anything to do with each other. A selfeffacing<br />
man may be an egoist. An egotist may<br />
have no interest in any philosophy whatsoever.<br />
egregious originally meant out <strong>of</strong> the common,<br />
eminent, outstanding, exceptional; but it has<br />
become entirely pejorative, meaning now distinguished<br />
for some bad quality, flagrant in the<br />
extreme (The man is an egregious ass. His<br />
egregious lies are embarrassing to listen to).<br />
either may be used as an adjective before a singular<br />
noun, as in either one, or standing alone as<br />
a pronoun, as in either will do, or together with<br />
the word or as a conjunction, as in either Sarah<br />
or Babs wrote it.<br />
Either originally meant “each <strong>of</strong> two” or<br />
“both,” as in the trees on either side <strong>of</strong> the river.<br />
The word is used in this sense in English literature<br />
from King Alfred down to Tennyson, Rossetti,<br />
and Stevenson, and including the King<br />
James Bible. Another meaning <strong>of</strong> the word, “one<br />
<strong>of</strong> two, no matter which,” is about five hundred<br />
151 eke<br />
years old. In Great Britain, either in the original<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> “both” is now considered archaic or<br />
Biblical. In the United States it is still natural<br />
English. Either is used in this country in both<br />
senses and both are acceptable.<br />
When either means “both” or “each” it is followed<br />
by a plural verb, as in either <strong>of</strong> them are<br />
enough to drive a man to distraction. Since the<br />
word is not used in this way in Great Britain, the<br />
plural verb is characteristically American. When<br />
what is meant is “only one,” the verb is usually<br />
singular, as in either <strong>of</strong> them is good enough.<br />
But there are exceptions to this. In a negative<br />
statement either is usually treated as a plural, as<br />
in I do not think either <strong>of</strong> them are at home.<br />
The pronoun you is normally followed by a<br />
plural verb form, and we usually say if either <strong>of</strong><br />
you are ready. When words <strong>of</strong> different number<br />
are contrasted, the verb agrees with the nearest<br />
word, as in either he or they are to blame. When<br />
singular pronouns are being contrasted, the strict<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> grammar require the form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
that would be appropriate for the last pronoun<br />
mentioned, as in either you or I am to blame.<br />
This is an extremely literary construction. In<br />
practice, some people would treat the combined<br />
words as they and say are and some would treat<br />
them as orie and say is, but most people would<br />
undoubtedly avoid the problem and say either<br />
you are to blame or I am.<br />
Either may be used with any number <strong>of</strong> words<br />
in a series, as in either past, present or future.<br />
It could be argued that in a construction <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind the comma represents the word or. But<br />
either may also be used simply with the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> “any one,” as in either <strong>of</strong> these three. It has<br />
been used in this way for more than three hundred<br />
years. The construction is rare, and disapproved<br />
by some grammarians; but it is found in<br />
the writings <strong>of</strong> Poe, Emerson, 0. W. Holmes,<br />
and is recognized as standard by the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong>. Writers who use it apparently<br />
feel that any one is too indefinite for their<br />
purposes.<br />
Either is followed by the word or, and never<br />
by the word nor. In current English, the form<br />
either, and not the form neither, should be used<br />
after a verb that has already been made negative<br />
by some other word, as in no one can prevent<br />
me, either and he never told me either. This was<br />
not always true. Shakespeare writes no, nor Z<br />
neither. The old neither can still be heard, but it<br />
is now considered archaic.<br />
The pronoun either has a genitive form, as in<br />
either’s house. The adjective can be used to qualify<br />
a genitive noun, as in either man’s house, but<br />
it cannot follow a genitive noun or any other<br />
definitive, as in the man’s either house. To express<br />
this idea we must use the pronoun form<br />
and say either <strong>of</strong> the man’s houses. See also<br />
double genitives.<br />
eke out. Eke is an Old English word, now archaic,<br />
meaning also (The king himself did eat there<strong>of</strong><br />
/And eke the court beside). To eke yut is, therefore,<br />
to add to something in such a way as to<br />
make it suffice, or at least to make it do better
elapse 152<br />
or last longer than it would without the addition.<br />
Thus one may eke out an insufficient income<br />
by doing extra work, though the phrase<br />
has the definite meaning that that which is added<br />
is in itself inferior, inadequate, and hard come<br />
by. But to say that someone eked out a, miserable<br />
existence by doing this or that, whl:re it is<br />
merely meant that he so prolonged a miserable<br />
existence, is not a correct use <strong>of</strong> the term.<br />
elapse; lapse. Elapse is now solely a verb. It means<br />
to pass or slip away and is applied exclusively<br />
to time (Six months had elapsed since she made<br />
her resolution).<br />
Lapse, used as a noun, means a slip or slight<br />
error (a lapse <strong>of</strong> memory), a failure or miscarriage<br />
through some fault, or slip, or negligence<br />
(a lapse <strong>of</strong> justice), a gliding or passing away,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> time (The lapse <strong>of</strong> years had wrought many<br />
changes). As a verb it means to pass slowly,<br />
silently, or by degrees (He lapsed into silence.<br />
For years the buses no longer ran alon;? Alton<br />
Street and in time the franchise lapsed), to fall<br />
or sink to a lower grade or condition, to glide,<br />
especially downward (The sick man lapsed into<br />
unconsciousness).<br />
elder; eldest. See old.<br />
elect, when it means choose, and not specifically<br />
choose by voting, may be followed by a.n infinitive,<br />
as in he elected to go himself, or by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he elected going himself.<br />
It may also be followed by a clause with<br />
the clause verb a subjunctive or a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in he elected I should go. The infinitive<br />
construction is preferred.<br />
-elect. See suffixes.<br />
elective. In the terminology <strong>of</strong> education, Americans<br />
employ elective where the English use optional.<br />
electric; electrical. Though electric and electrical<br />
are synonymous, the former is now by far the<br />
more common and in all figurative senses (The<br />
atmosphere <strong>of</strong> the hall was electric with anticipation)<br />
must be used. Electrical is confined now<br />
almost entirely to the sense <strong>of</strong> “concerned with<br />
electricity” (Electrical engineers are much in demand)<br />
; whereas electric can mean derived from,<br />
produced by, pertaining to, or transmitting electricity,<br />
or electrifying in the figurative senses <strong>of</strong><br />
thrilling, exciting, or charged.<br />
electrocute. Fowler’s assurance that this “barbarism”<br />
jars the nerves <strong>of</strong> Latinists “much more<br />
cruelly than the operation denoted jars those <strong>of</strong><br />
its victim” must be accepted as a linguist’s grim<br />
humor. More humorous, though unintended, is<br />
his conjecture, in attempting to account for the<br />
whole “bad business,” that whoever made up the<br />
word “took -cut- (from quatere) instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
indivisible secut- (from sequi) for the stem <strong>of</strong><br />
execution, and derived it from executere.” The<br />
American journalist who invented the Iterm, in<br />
1889, probably never heard <strong>of</strong> either quatere or<br />
sequi. The process was new. It was about to be<br />
applied to one Kemmler, a murderer, and a<br />
name was,needed for it. Electrocute, a portmanteau<br />
corn&nation <strong>of</strong> electricity and execute, was<br />
imagined and adopted. Electricute was tried a<br />
few times, but electrocute won out and is now<br />
standard despite the anguish <strong>of</strong> Latinists.<br />
It is interesting to think that electrify, when<br />
applied to persons, means to make unusually<br />
alert and lively.<br />
elegant. That is elegant which is excellently simple,<br />
tastefully fine, or associated with luxury. To use<br />
it as a synonym for pleasing is vulgar or tediously<br />
humorous. Its unsuitableness for such use<br />
is apparently felt by many <strong>of</strong> those who so use<br />
it, for they <strong>of</strong>ten try to give it a force which it<br />
should not have by reinforcing it with “perfectly”<br />
( We had a perfectly elegant time). However,<br />
to say that so-and-so has elegant manners<br />
or that this or that object <strong>of</strong> art or piece <strong>of</strong> furniture<br />
is elegant, rather than merely pleasing,<br />
fine, or choice, is to make a significant distinction.<br />
elegy; eulogy. An elegy is a mournful, melancholy,<br />
or plaintive poem, especially a funeral<br />
song or lament for the dead. A eulogy is a<br />
speech or writing in praise <strong>of</strong> a person or thing,<br />
especially a set oration in honor <strong>of</strong> a dead person.<br />
An elegy <strong>of</strong>ten mingles eulogy with its lament<br />
and a eulogy in verse might be indistinguishable<br />
from an elegy, but there are many<br />
contexts in which the two words are not interchangeable.<br />
See also panegyric.<br />
elemental; elementary. Though elementnl and elementary<br />
were once synonymous, they are now<br />
differentiated in common usage. Elemental is<br />
now generally restricted to the four elements, or<br />
to the agencies, forces, or phenomena <strong>of</strong> nature<br />
(elemental fire, the elemental grandezrr <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sunset, the elemental fury <strong>of</strong> the storm), or to<br />
what is primary. Elementary is now generally<br />
restricted to that which is introductory, or simple<br />
(the elementary schools. Elementary, my dear<br />
Watson).<br />
elevator. Fowler’s classification <strong>of</strong> elevator as a<br />
“superfluous word,” his designation <strong>of</strong> it as “a<br />
cumbrous and needless Americanism,” and his<br />
stern suggestion that it be at least restricted to<br />
“its hardly avoidable commercial sense <strong>of</strong> grainhoist,”<br />
fall on modern ears with all the tinkline<br />
quaintness <strong>of</strong> a harpsichord. It is now standards<br />
in American usage, established beyond challenge,<br />
too common to be cumbrous. Lift, which<br />
Fowler would have used in its stead, is, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, so used in England, but even to traveled<br />
Americans it seems comic and to most Americans<br />
it would simply be incomprehensible.<br />
elf. The plural is usually elves, though elfs may<br />
also be used.<br />
elicit; extract; extort. To elicit information is to<br />
draw out, without any suggestion <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong><br />
force, what was latent or implicit. When information<br />
is elicited from someone, it is brought<br />
out indirectly by questioning. It is possible for<br />
information to be elicited from someone without<br />
his knowing that he has given it up. To extract<br />
information is to get it more forcibly and directly,<br />
by importuning and threatening (Thirddegree<br />
methods may <strong>of</strong>fend the high-minded,
ut they extract the facts the police want). To<br />
extort is to get information in much the same<br />
manner as to extract it, though there is a connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> more violence and ruthlessness. Illegal<br />
demands, such as ransoms in kidnapping<br />
cases, are extortions. When information is said<br />
to have been extorted, there is a suggestion that<br />
there has been strong resistance to giving it up.<br />
elicit; illicit. Nothing but sheer ignorance could<br />
confuse elicit and illicit. Elicit is a verb, meaning<br />
to draw out (figuratively), to educe, to evoke<br />
(Clever auestioninp further elicited the fact that<br />
he had ieen at G&nston several times before<br />
this “first visit”). Illicit is an adjective meaning<br />
unlawful (illicit love).<br />
elk; deer; wapiti; moose. The animal which in the<br />
United States is called the elk is the wapiti, a<br />
species <strong>of</strong> deer (Cervus canadensis) with long,<br />
slender antlers. Its equivalent in England,<br />
scarcely distinguishable, is the red deer, the male<br />
<strong>of</strong> which is the stag. By the word elk the English<br />
designate an animal (Alces alces) closely resembling<br />
what in America is called a moose<br />
(Alces americanus or the Alaskan variety Alces<br />
gigas), the male <strong>of</strong> which has large palmate<br />
antlers. And if this is not confusing enough, the<br />
word moose is sometimes used in England to<br />
designate the European elk (Alces machlis). Ten<br />
minutes spent in trying to unravel this and half<br />
a dozen other popular names for birds and<br />
mammals will show the layman why scientists<br />
use Latin names for species.<br />
ell in common English usage is solely a measure<br />
<strong>of</strong> distance. This meaning is known in<br />
America but is now restricted almost entirely<br />
to the saying Give him an ell and he’ll take a<br />
mile. An ell in America (or an el) more generally<br />
means the extension <strong>of</strong> a building, usually<br />
at right angles to one end (Grandfather<br />
built the ell after Aunt Susan got married and<br />
came to live with him on the furm). Some believe<br />
that this is derived from the fact that the<br />
addition and the main building then form a<br />
letter L, and so it may be, but Old English uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word in this sense, for it was formerly<br />
known in England, though it survives only in<br />
dialects, suggest that it may have derived from<br />
aisle, which meant wing.<br />
El is used a great deal in America as an abbreviation<br />
for elevated railroad. This meaning<br />
is unknown in England.<br />
ellipse; ellipsis. An ellipse is a term used in geometry.<br />
It means a plane curve such that the sums<br />
<strong>of</strong> the distances <strong>of</strong> each point in its periphery<br />
from two fixed points, the foci, are equal. It is<br />
a conic section formed by the intersection <strong>of</strong> a<br />
right circular cone by a plane which cuts<br />
obliquely the axis and the opposite sides <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cone.<br />
Ellipsis is a term used in grammar. It means<br />
the omission from a sentence <strong>of</strong> a word or words<br />
that are essential to its grammatical completeness,<br />
though not necessarily to the completeness<br />
<strong>of</strong> its sense.<br />
Some authorities would have elliptic the ad-<br />
153 ellipsis<br />
jective for ellipse and elliptical for ellipsis, but in<br />
American usage elliptic is simply a rare form <strong>of</strong><br />
elliptical.<br />
ellipsis. The plural is ellipses.<br />
This term is used by some grammarians to<br />
refer to words that do not actually occur in a<br />
sentence but which they feel are needed in making<br />
a certain kind <strong>of</strong> grammatical analysis or to<br />
explain a grammatical construction. These words<br />
are sometimes described as “words which the<br />
hearer easily supplies.”<br />
There is no doubt that English allows us to<br />
omit a great many words that we could have<br />
used without changing the meaning in any way.<br />
For example, some verb which is known to the<br />
hearer has obviously been omitted from the end<br />
<strong>of</strong> the statement he doesn’t want to. Some grammarians,<br />
abusing the privilege <strong>of</strong> putting words<br />
into another person’s mouth, recognize no limit<br />
to the number <strong>of</strong> words which they may read<br />
into a sentence. It has been claimed that the<br />
word fire! satisfies a certain definition <strong>of</strong> a sentence<br />
because it represents an ellipsis, which may<br />
be (there is a) fire (here) or (you men) fire<br />
(your guns). It is sometimes said that a sentence<br />
such as no one saw it but me is ungrammatical<br />
and should be no one saw it but I because there<br />
is an ellipsis <strong>of</strong> the word sa~v. The answer to<br />
arguments <strong>of</strong> this kind is to say: “If I had meant<br />
saw, I would have said I saw.” No one should<br />
allow himself to be convicted <strong>of</strong> bad grammar<br />
on the basis <strong>of</strong> words he has not used.<br />
On the other hand, some grammarians seem<br />
to think that the composer <strong>of</strong> a sentence may not<br />
omit any word which does not appear elsewhere<br />
in the sentence in the same grammatical form.<br />
It is claimed that Z was young, they old is ungrammatical<br />
because the word to be supplied is<br />
were and not was. All writers and speakers <strong>of</strong><br />
English, including these very grammarians themselves,<br />
omit words which never will be missed,<br />
whether they have already been used in the sentence<br />
or not. This is never objectionable unless<br />
the sentence becomes misleading, that is, unless<br />
the omitted words actually are missed. English<br />
that leaves nothing at all to the imagination becomes<br />
tiresome, and even insulting.<br />
Speech is highly elliptical. It would scarcely<br />
be endurable otherwise. Ellipsis is indispensable<br />
to the writer or speaker who wants to be brief<br />
and pithy, but it can easily cause confusion and<br />
obscurity and must be used with skill.<br />
ellipsis marks have the following uses:<br />
To indicate omissions in a quotation, as in<br />
Give me liberty or . . . death! If in a longer<br />
quotation the ellipsis includes the end <strong>of</strong> a sentence,<br />
the period joins the ellipsis and makes a<br />
total <strong>of</strong> four dots.<br />
To show hesitation or the passage <strong>of</strong> time in<br />
dialogue or narrative, as in Please, please . . .<br />
you mustn’t leave and The time passed very<br />
slowly. . . and Sarah became sleepier and sleepier.<br />
Ellipses are now shown by three periods. They<br />
were once shown by three asterisks, and aster
isks are still used in very formal writing, but<br />
even here the periods are also acceptable. Some<br />
newspapers and magazines use three asterisks in<br />
a separate line to show quotation omissions <strong>of</strong> a<br />
paragraph or more in length.<br />
else’s, is the standard form for the oossessive <strong>of</strong> a<br />
pronoun followed by else, as in somebody else’s<br />
dog.<br />
The practice <strong>of</strong> putting the possessive slign after<br />
else instead <strong>of</strong> after the pronoun itself is relatively<br />
new and seems to owe its position in literature<br />
to Dickens. Other nineteenth century writers,<br />
such as Thackeray, Mark Twain, Henry<br />
James, wrote somebody’s else. During the transition<br />
from this to the modern form a compromise,<br />
somebody’s else’s, was <strong>of</strong>ten used.<br />
The old form may still be used with n4O when<br />
there is no following noun, but not otherwise.<br />
That is, we must now say who else’s signature<br />
did you get?, but we may also say whose else<br />
could 1 get?<br />
elucidate. See explain.<br />
elude. See escape.<br />
elusion; elusive. See allusion.<br />
elves. See elf.<br />
emanate is to flow from, to proceed from as a<br />
source or origin. It is used exclusively <strong>of</strong> nonmaterial<br />
things. Ideas, plans, hopes, fears, and<br />
so on, emanate from certain persons or conditions;<br />
but it would be a mistake to say that a<br />
river or a street emunated. Since the word means<br />
to flow as from a source or point <strong>of</strong> origin, it is<br />
natural to use it as a synonym for originate, but<br />
unless the sense <strong>of</strong> flowing out from the point<br />
<strong>of</strong> origination is kept this use is careless and<br />
should be avoided. An idea or an attitude may<br />
emanate from someone; it cannot emanate with<br />
him.<br />
embargo. The plural is embargoes.<br />
emend. See amend.<br />
emerge; issue. To emerge is to rise or come forth,<br />
as from water or some other liquid, especially to<br />
come forth into view or notice from concealment.<br />
Thus when a question or a problem<br />
emerges in the course <strong>of</strong> action or discussion, it<br />
arises, unforeseen, out <strong>of</strong> the situation (Pe~usrrs<br />
emerged from the b!ood <strong>of</strong> Medusu. The periscope<br />
barely emerged, with a faint feathering <strong>of</strong><br />
the surface, before the gun was brought to bea/<br />
upon it. Cromwell, who entered the Cilril War<br />
as Lieutenant-General <strong>of</strong> the Horse, emerged uhsolute<br />
ruler <strong>of</strong> Englund. On piecing the vurioas<br />
pieces <strong>of</strong> evidence together, the facts gradually<br />
emerged).<br />
To issue is also to come forth, but it is used<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> persons or a mass <strong>of</strong> matter, OI<br />
a volume <strong>of</strong> smoke, coming through an o:ltlet or<br />
outlets, and <strong>of</strong>ten with the suggestion <strong>of</strong> a forceful<br />
or tumultuous coming forth after having<br />
been shut up or enclosed (The army, breaking<br />
through the defile, issued out upon the subjacent<br />
plain. The smoke issued from the chimney in<br />
rolling clolrds). See also immerge.<br />
emigrant; immigrant. An emigrant is one who<br />
leaves one country to settle in another. An immigrant<br />
is one who comes into a new country to<br />
settle. Thus a man is an emigrant from the country<br />
<strong>of</strong> his birth or previous residence, an immigrant<br />
as he comes into the new country.<br />
eminent. To be eminent is to be conspicuous,<br />
prominent, exalted in station or public estimation.<br />
But since these things are comparative and<br />
death is a leveler, no man can be eminent after<br />
he is dead. He is then either famous or forgotten.<br />
Of course eminent may be used <strong>of</strong> a man when<br />
the reference is to what he was when he was<br />
alive. Strachey’s Eminent Victorians were eminent<br />
in the Victorian age. At least one <strong>of</strong> them<br />
is now famous. See also fame, immanent.<br />
emphasis. The plural is emphases.<br />
emphatic tenses. See do.<br />
employ is obsolescent for employment in England<br />
but is still current in the United States in the<br />
rather stilted phrase being in someone’s employ.<br />
As a verb employ stresses the service performed,<br />
whereas hire stresses the wages to be<br />
paid for the performance <strong>of</strong> the service (She was<br />
employed at her needlework. Is not the laborer<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> his hire?), though the words are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used interchangeably.<br />
employee. Anyone who is employed is, in the<br />
United States, an employee. No orthographical<br />
distinction is now made between a hired male<br />
worker and a hired female worker.<br />
emporium. The plural is emporiums or emporia.<br />
An emporium is a place, a town or a city, which<br />
is the principal center <strong>of</strong> trade for a region (The<br />
vast regions <strong>of</strong> the northwest, for which Chicugo<br />
is the commercial emporium). It is used grandiloquently<br />
as a term for a large store selling a<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> articles (When Z was working in the<br />
paper-box factory I thought I loved a clerk in<br />
Kuhn’s Emporium). Since the latter meaning<br />
has, in common usage, almost entirely replaced<br />
the former, anyone who insists on using the<br />
word is confronted with the choice <strong>of</strong> being<br />
either grandiloquent or obscure.<br />
empty; vacant. That which is empty contains nothing.<br />
It is devoid <strong>of</strong> its usual or appropriate contents.<br />
An empty house would be one devoid <strong>of</strong><br />
furniture. Empty hands carry nothing. An empty<br />
mind is free <strong>of</strong> thought. Though vucurzt is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used interchangeably with empty, it is usually<br />
applied to that which is temporarily unoccupied.<br />
A vacant house could be one from which the<br />
family is temporarily absent, though the furnishings<br />
remain. A vacant store would be one that<br />
is empty at the moment but for which a new<br />
tenant is expected or at least hoped. When a<br />
position is said to be vacant, it is assumed that<br />
it will soon be filled. Empty would never be<br />
used in such a context. A vacant stare is one<br />
devoid <strong>of</strong> expression; perhaps there is a kind<br />
suggestion that the intellectual vacuity back <strong>of</strong><br />
it is only temporary.<br />
enclose; enclosure. Enclose is now preferred to<br />
inclose and enclosure to inclosure.<br />
enclosed herewith; under separate cover. Enclosed<br />
herewith (or herein) is a redundancy,<br />
since that which is enclosed must <strong>of</strong> necessity<br />
be therewith or therein. The phrase is a piece<br />
<strong>of</strong> outmoded commercial jargon which, fortu-
nately, one doesn’t encounter much any more.<br />
Some object on the same grounds to under separate<br />
cover, maintaining that if something is<br />
being sent it obviously is not enclosed and hence<br />
is being sent separately. But-although the actual<br />
wording may seem hackneyed-there is<br />
some justification for such a phrase if the object<br />
referred to is such that it might conceivably be<br />
enclosed in the letter. It’s silly to say in a letter,<br />
I’m sending you a crate <strong>of</strong> oranges under sepnrute<br />
cover, but it may be reassuring to say I’m<br />
sending you the check (or the pamphlet) under<br />
separate cover; though it might be better simply<br />
to say separately.<br />
enclosed please find. Whether find means to come<br />
upon by chance or to obtain by search, the combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> request and command in the common<br />
phrase enclosed please find has an element<br />
<strong>of</strong> absurdity in it. You cannot command anyone<br />
to do that which can only happen by chance. It<br />
would be more accurate grammatically (and<br />
considering the number <strong>of</strong> things which are said<br />
to be enclosed in letters but are not, more accurate<br />
factually) to say enclosed please try to<br />
find. Best <strong>of</strong> all is not to use the phrase. The<br />
proper procedure, now followed more and more,<br />
is to state in the body <strong>of</strong> the letter what is to be<br />
enclosed and to have “enclosure” or “encl.”<br />
typed at the bottom as a directive to the stenographer<br />
and an indication to the recipient that the<br />
enclosure was at least ordered.<br />
encomium. The plural is encomiums or encomia.<br />
end may be used as an adjective. When it is, it has<br />
no comparative form but it has a superlative<br />
form endmost.<br />
end; stop; cease; finish; complete; conclude; terminate.<br />
English is rich in terms for bringing to a<br />
stop. Many can be used interchangeably, yet<br />
many are restricted to certain senses, and many<br />
have special idiomatic meanings. To list them<br />
all and to trace and differentiate their meanings,<br />
with illustrations, would take many pages. Only<br />
a few may be mentioned here and those briefly,<br />
just enough to show the variety <strong>of</strong> possibilities.<br />
A speaker, for example, might end, stop, or<br />
cease his remarks for a number <strong>of</strong> reasons. He<br />
might have said all he had to say or he might<br />
have been interrupted or silenced. If he finishes,<br />
completes, or concludes his remarks, however,<br />
he has not been interrupted, since he has been<br />
able to put the final touches on his subject, assemble<br />
all its component parts, or bring it to its<br />
planned end. To terminate them could be to<br />
bring them to a planned limit or just to stop<br />
them (He terminated his remarks with a flourish<br />
or At the sight <strong>of</strong> the dead cat coming<br />
through the air, the Senator terminated his remarks<br />
abruptly). In the latter use there is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
a touch <strong>of</strong> jocularity.<br />
endeavor; strive; try; attempt. To try is the everyday<br />
verb. To see the folly <strong>of</strong> pompousness one<br />
only has to substitute endeavor, strive, or attempt<br />
for try in Zf at first you don’t succeed, try,<br />
try, again. None the less, endeavor has its special<br />
uses and advantages. To try means many<br />
things, from straining patience or endurance to<br />
155 endorse<br />
rendering the oil out <strong>of</strong> something; whereas to<br />
endeavor means only one thing: to make a continuous<br />
effort in the face <strong>of</strong> difficulties. Then its<br />
very ponderousness gives endeavor an onomatopoeic<br />
advantage in some contexts, for it suggests<br />
the strenuous trying, the energetic attempting<br />
that the word connotes (One should know<br />
God’s word and endeavor to live by it is far<br />
more effective than and try to live by it or and<br />
uttempt to live by it).<br />
To strive is to exert oneself earnestly, with<br />
strenuous effort, towards the accomplishment <strong>of</strong><br />
something difficult and laborious (When Ajax<br />
strives some rock’s vast weight to throw).<br />
To atttempt is more formal than to try and<br />
implies the expenditure <strong>of</strong> somewhat more<br />
effort.<br />
As a noun, try is used colloquially, and more<br />
in England than in America (I’ll have a try at<br />
it). Endeavor and attempt are the everyday<br />
nouns, with endeavor being the more common,<br />
especially in more general senses (The endeavor<br />
was commendable. A man <strong>of</strong> high endeavor).<br />
Attempt is more likely to be used <strong>of</strong> a specific<br />
try (His attempt to break the record for the<br />
hundred yard dash was bound to fail under such<br />
weather conditions).<br />
ended; ending. That is ended which has come to<br />
an end at some time in the past (His advances<br />
ended when he found them repulsed). That is<br />
ending which is coming to an end or about to<br />
end (We are ending our engagement at the Garrick<br />
Theater tomorrow). All this is quite clear,<br />
and those who wish to be unambiguous or unconfused<br />
can stick to it. But ending may be used,<br />
as a historic present, to designate something<br />
that is now definitely ended but was not ended<br />
at a time in the past (Zf you will refer to the<br />
inventory for the year ending March 31, 191.5,<br />
you will find, etc.).<br />
endemic. See epidemic.<br />
endless. See eternal.<br />
endless; innumerable. Endless mean boundless,<br />
infinite, interminable, continuous (as in endless<br />
belt). To use it for innumerable, which means<br />
too many to count (The dishes were just endless;<br />
Z never saw so many to wash) is exaggeration.<br />
Of course exaggeration has its place in<br />
humorous talk and writing, but this particular<br />
exaggeration has been made so <strong>of</strong>ten that it has<br />
lost most <strong>of</strong> its meaning, a fact made evident by<br />
the stress which is so <strong>of</strong>ten laid on the word to<br />
strengthen it. Then there are instances where the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> endless for innumerable is ambiguous.<br />
When it is said <strong>of</strong> so-and-so that he told endless<br />
stories, does it mean that his stories lacked endings,<br />
were pointless, or that the list <strong>of</strong> them<br />
lacked ending, that they were too many to count,<br />
innumerable?<br />
endorse; indorse. Endorse, both in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
writing on the back <strong>of</strong>, approving, supporting,<br />
or sustaining is now preferred to indorse, although<br />
indorse is correct and is used more in<br />
America than in England.<br />
Endorse was formerly a purely commercial<br />
word. Writing in 1883, E. A. Freeman said that
endorse<br />
thirw-five years before that the application <strong>of</strong><br />
such a commercial word to agreement or disagreement<br />
on philosophical or theological matters<br />
would have seemed “irresistibly ludicrous.”<br />
Now even purists endorse each other’s protests,<br />
policies, and aspirations without a qualm.<br />
endorse on the back. Since the second syllable<br />
<strong>of</strong> endorse means back (as in the dorm fin <strong>of</strong> a<br />
fish), to endorse on the back is a redundancy.<br />
But since endorse has the common meiming <strong>of</strong><br />
write your name on, only scholars are aware<br />
that it is a redundancy and the common speaker<br />
or writer is justified in using it.<br />
endurance. See patience.<br />
endure may be followed by an infinitive,, as in Z<br />
cannot endure to hear about it, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z cannot endure hearing<br />
about it. The two forms are equally acceptable.<br />
Endure may also be followed by a clause but the<br />
clause verb must be a subjunctive or a Isubjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in I cannot endure you should<br />
go. An infinitive construction, such as 1 cannot<br />
endure to see you go or to have you go, is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
endways; endwise. These forms are equally acceptable.<br />
enema. The plural is enemas or enemata, not<br />
enemae.<br />
enemy, when it refers to individuals, is a regular<br />
English noun with a regular plural in s,
Enough may be followed by an infinitive, as<br />
in there is enough to go around and there is<br />
enough for everybody to have some. It cannot<br />
be followed by a that clause. We should not<br />
say the fragments are large enough that their<br />
structure can be determined. This sentence<br />
should read the fragments are large enough for<br />
their structure to be determined or the fragments<br />
are so large that their structure can be determined.<br />
See also ample.<br />
enquire; inquire. In American usage inquire has<br />
almost superseded enquire, though, if we may<br />
trust Partridge, the situation is reversed in England.<br />
See inquire.<br />
enquiry; inquiry. In America inquiry is now the<br />
almost universal spelling. Enquiry is recognized<br />
as a variant, but it is rarely used. In England<br />
however, according to Sir Ernest Cowers, a useful<br />
distinction is developing between the two<br />
words: an enquiry is a question, an inquiry is an<br />
investigation. One may therefore, he says, make<br />
an enquiry concerning an inquiry. See also<br />
very.<br />
enraged; infuriated; incensed. A man is enraged<br />
when he has been provoked to violent anger<br />
(Enraged at the deliberate insult, he struck the<br />
young mun full in the face). When a man is infuriated,<br />
his anger has been aroused to the point<br />
<strong>of</strong> frenzy. His rage borders upon or even passes<br />
into delirium. Many terms that describe anger<br />
(as the common mrrd) stress the similarity or relationship<br />
between vindictive resentment and insanity.<br />
Infuriated is a somewhat stronger word<br />
than enraged (Upon receipt <strong>of</strong> the news he was<br />
infuriated and fell upon the messenger with<br />
blows and curses). To be incensed is to be inflamed<br />
with anger, but the word suggests far<br />
more dignity and self-control than enrugcd or<br />
infuriated (Sir John was incensed at the remark<br />
and could main&n even the appearance <strong>of</strong> composure<br />
with the utmost dificulty). There is also<br />
in incensed, possibly because <strong>of</strong> its connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> restraint, an implication <strong>of</strong> great provocation<br />
and usually <strong>of</strong> unjust or improper provocation.<br />
Zncensed is used to describe one who is angry<br />
when we sympathize with his anger.<br />
ensure; insure. In the sense to make sure, to secure,<br />
to make sure or certain to come, ensure<br />
and insure are interchangeable; in the sense to<br />
guarantee against risk <strong>of</strong> loss or harm, insure is<br />
now the only word and its increasing use in this<br />
sense is tending to fix it so that its use in other<br />
senses seems improper. See also assure.<br />
entail. See involve.<br />
enter, when used as a stage direction, is an imperative.<br />
It should not be used in a sentence with<br />
a singular subject, as in enter John and walks to<br />
the window. This should read John enters and<br />
walks to the window.<br />
enthuse. A back formation from enthusiasm, enthuse,<br />
meaning to become enthusiastic or to<br />
move others to enthusiasm (They enthused immediately<br />
upon this subject-Frank Norris), is<br />
colloquial speech in the United States. Its fault<br />
-if it has one-is not in its being a back formation<br />
but in its being used to mean to get excited<br />
157 envelop<br />
rather than to mean-as it should if it really<br />
means to become enthusiastic or to arouse enthusiasm-to<br />
get excited because <strong>of</strong> the absorbing<br />
possession <strong>of</strong> the mind by a certain pursuit<br />
or interest.<br />
enthusiastic has to mean more than just excited.<br />
It is the manifestation <strong>of</strong> a rapturous intensity<br />
<strong>of</strong> feeling in favor <strong>of</strong> a person or a principle,<br />
proceeding from an overwhelming conviction <strong>of</strong><br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> the person or principle (The<br />
enthusiastic eagerness with which he outlined<br />
his new system <strong>of</strong> philosophy. The candidate<br />
was greeted with shrill whistles and stampings<br />
<strong>of</strong> feet by his enthusiastic admirers).<br />
entice. See allure.<br />
entire. See complete.<br />
entitle may be followed by an infinitive, as in this<br />
entitles you to go. It is not followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in this entitles you to going.<br />
entomology; etymology. Entomology is the branch<br />
<strong>of</strong> zoology that treats <strong>of</strong> insects. Etymology is<br />
the branch <strong>of</strong> philology that treats <strong>of</strong> the derivations<br />
and histories <strong>of</strong> words.<br />
entrance and entry both mean the act <strong>of</strong> entering<br />
and the place <strong>of</strong> ingress. Both have special meanings.<br />
An actor’s appearance upon the stage is an<br />
entrance. Entrance also means the right <strong>of</strong> entering<br />
(as in entrance examinations and He has<br />
entrance to the best society). Entry has the special<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> something recorded in a book<br />
or register. In law it means the taking possession<br />
<strong>of</strong> lands or tenements or entering or setting foot<br />
on them (The landlord always retains the right<br />
<strong>of</strong> entry under certain conditions).<br />
Some authorities make fine distinctions between<br />
the two words in the senses in which they<br />
are synonymous. They say that where they mean<br />
a place <strong>of</strong> ingress, entrance implies only an<br />
opening, as a gate or doorway; whereas entry<br />
implies a passageway. This is more observed in<br />
English than in American usage. Where they<br />
mean the act <strong>of</strong> entering, entrance connotes the<br />
act and entry the result <strong>of</strong> the act, they say.<br />
Furthermore, entrance suggests the possibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> entering without supervision or permission<br />
(Entrance is by the main door). These distinctions<br />
are not rigid, however, and the common<br />
speaker and writer is probably little aware <strong>of</strong><br />
them.<br />
entreat may be followed by an infinitive, as in I<br />
entrent you to tell me. It may also be followed<br />
by a clause with the clause verb a subjunctive or<br />
subjunctive equivalent, as in entreat her that she<br />
ride with me, but this construction is now archaic<br />
and the infinitive is preferred.<br />
entrust. For “to invest with a trust or responsibility,<br />
to commit to someone’s care, to confide,”<br />
entrust is now preferred to intrust, though intrust<br />
is acceptable.<br />
entry and entrant are now used synonymously to<br />
designate a competitor in a contest, though entrant<br />
was formerly felt to be the only correct<br />
term.<br />
enure. See inure.<br />
envelop; envelope. As a verb, meaning to wrap UP<br />
as in a covering, envelop is now the standard
enviable<br />
form. As a noun, meaning a cover for a letter<br />
or the like, envelope is the standard form, though<br />
envelop is not incorrect.<br />
enviable; envious. That is enviable which excites<br />
envy or is to be envied (His position, so secure<br />
and honorable, is an enviable one). He is envious<br />
who feels envy (Envious <strong>of</strong> his friends<br />
success, he cast about for some means to humiliate<br />
him). Enviable is a much milder word than<br />
envious. It is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a term <strong>of</strong> praise. But<br />
envious suggests one in an unpleasant, ugly, and<br />
even dangerous condition.<br />
environs no longer has a singular form. The plural<br />
form is used with a plural verb, as in the environs<br />
are attractive, but it is not a true plural<br />
and cannot be used with a word implying number.<br />
We cannot speak <strong>of</strong> several environs.<br />
envisage; envision. To envisage is to confront, to<br />
look in the face, to face (Let us envisage the<br />
facts as they are), to contemplate or call up a<br />
mental picture or image (The Mayor, speaking<br />
before the Council, envisaged the new sewage<br />
disposal plant), or to perceive by intuition (Nature,<br />
to the Buddhist, is envisaged as a nexus <strong>of</strong><br />
laws).<br />
To envision (<strong>of</strong> 20th century coinage, by the<br />
way) is to see as in a vision (His blackest hypochondria<br />
had never envisioned quite so miserable<br />
a catastrophe) and is properly confined to<br />
those ecstatic or alarming foreshadowings that<br />
visions are made on. When the mayor envisaged<br />
the sewage disposal plant, it is assumed that he<br />
saw an actual plant in his mind’s eye and with<br />
prosaic efficiency communicated to the Council<br />
some concept <strong>of</strong> its mechanism, capacity, structure,<br />
and the like. Had he envisioned it, he would<br />
have been more poetic, seeing it from afar as a<br />
glorious fulfillment, some day to be realized, <strong>of</strong><br />
the citizens’ aspirations.<br />
envy; covet; begrudge. To envy is to feel spite<br />
and resentment because someone else possesses<br />
or has achieved something that one wishes he<br />
had himself (The award has made him envv vou.<br />
. .<br />
and he is no longer your friend). The word is<br />
used, with a milder connotation, indeed as a<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> strong compliment, in expressions where<br />
the context makes it plain that there is no malice<br />
or resentment (How Z envy you the hours you<br />
spent in his company!). Used with a negative, it<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten expresses a mild commiseration (I do not<br />
envy you the responsibilities you have undertaken).<br />
To covet is to desire jealously to possess what<br />
belongs to someone else (Thou shalt not covet<br />
thy neighbor’s house). There is a definite connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> culpability in the desiring it denotes.<br />
To begrudge is to be unwilling to allow another<br />
to have the possessions or honors or esteem<br />
that he is entitled to (He begrudged him<br />
the least comfort in his misery), or to give,<br />
when one must give, reluctantly and with grumbling.<br />
ephemeris. The plural is ephemerises or ephemerides,<br />
not ephemeres.<br />
ephemeron. The plural is ephemerons or ephemera.<br />
Ephemera is also used as a singular and has<br />
the regular plural ephemeras. Either <strong>of</strong> these<br />
forms is acceptable today. But a new learned<br />
plural ephemerae is not. It is not English, and<br />
it is not good Latin or Greek.<br />
epic. As a noun epic means a narrative, usually in<br />
verse, which celebrates the deeds <strong>of</strong> heroes <strong>of</strong><br />
history or legend. As an adjective it means<br />
something suitable for such a narration, or<br />
something <strong>of</strong> an imposing and heroic character.<br />
James Truslow Adams’s The Epic <strong>of</strong> America<br />
was not inappropriately named, for the history<br />
<strong>of</strong> America is a saga <strong>of</strong> unparalleled achievement,<br />
full <strong>of</strong> wild poetry, true grandeur, great<br />
heroes and heroic deeds. It has the material for<br />
twenty epics. But the word is sadly abused in<br />
journalism, especially by sports writers whose<br />
eternal striving for intensives leads one to suspect,<br />
sometimes, that their actual material must<br />
be dull and uninspiring. Thus when Life (October<br />
18, 1954), refers to a long putt, successfully<br />
sunk by Mr. Bobby Jones at Mamaroneck, New<br />
York, in 1929, as an “epic” putt, the immense<br />
word is ludicrously ill-supported by the achievement<br />
to which it is applied. The reader is misled,<br />
the language is impaired, and Mr. Jones, whose<br />
putt was really a very good putt, is made to<br />
seem absurdly pretentious. No one gains.<br />
epical; epochal. Epical means <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong><br />
epic poetry, something worthy to be told in the<br />
old epic manner. Epochal means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining<br />
to an epoch, a particular period <strong>of</strong> time<br />
marked by some distinctive character. When one<br />
speaks <strong>of</strong> an event as epochal, it is generally<br />
meant that the event itself was <strong>of</strong> such tremendous<br />
import and so far-reaching in its effects<br />
that it serves to mark an epoch.<br />
epicure; epicurean. See hedonist.<br />
epidemic; endemic; pandemic. A disease is epidemic<br />
when it affects a large number <strong>of</strong> persons<br />
at the same time in a locality in which it is not<br />
permanently prevalent (The Spanish Znjluenzu<br />
was epidemic in the United States in 1918). A<br />
disease is endemic when it is habitually prevalent<br />
in a certain locality or habitually peculiar to a<br />
certain people (Sleeping sickness is endemic<br />
wherever the tsetse fly is unchecked. Snobbery<br />
is endemic to country clubs). That is pandemic<br />
which is universal and afflicts all people. (The<br />
fear o j the hydrogen born b is pandemic).<br />
episode. See event; happening.<br />
epistle is a letter, but it is a formal and didactic<br />
letter, and to use the word as a synonym for<br />
letter (The unclaimed epistles were pinned on a<br />
board in the Post Ofice) is pretentious if serious<br />
and ponderous if intended to be humorous.<br />
epitaph; epigraph. An epitaph is, one might say,<br />
a specialized epigraph. An epigraph is an inscription,<br />
especially on a building, a statue or the like.<br />
It can be on a tomb. An epitaph is a commemorative<br />
inscription on a tomb or any brief writing<br />
resembling such an inscription.<br />
epithets. An epithet may be a meaningful appellation<br />
(witch-hunter, egghead) or a descriptive<br />
term suggesting the quality <strong>of</strong> a person or thing<br />
(Richard the lion-hearted, Harry the Horse,<br />
rock-bound coast).
There has come to be a faintly negative connotation<br />
to the word epithet. It is more commonly<br />
associated with unfavorable characterization,<br />
with pr<strong>of</strong>anity and with name-calling<br />
than with favorable characterization or praise.<br />
Expressions like dirty dog, damned liar and<br />
double-crossing crook are more likely to come<br />
to mind when epithets are mentioned than winedark<br />
sea or curly-headed baby.<br />
Epithet is a common weapon in argument,<br />
especially in political campaigning, for all the<br />
force <strong>of</strong> connotation can be brought to bear to<br />
substitute for or to counteract logic. In fact most<br />
political labels carry so much emotion that they<br />
have lost their original meaning and are used as<br />
opprobrious designations by members <strong>of</strong> the opposing<br />
group: communist, fascist, Red, capitalist,<br />
bourgeois, etc. In the 1956 presidential campaign<br />
the Republicans, insisting on calling their<br />
opponents the Democrat Party, to avoid the favorable<br />
implications <strong>of</strong> democratic, managed to<br />
make even democrat seem unpleasant.<br />
equal is sometimes followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
he felt equal to meet them, but the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb is preferred, as in he felt equal to meeting<br />
them.<br />
equally as. Since as implies equation (He is as<br />
tall as you are), equally as (in such sentences<br />
as He was equally as astonished as the others)<br />
is redundant. Fowler sternly calls it “an illiterate<br />
tautology,” but in the United States it is accepted,<br />
and used, by people who certainly are<br />
not illiterate.<br />
equilibrium. The plural is equilibriums or equilibria.<br />
equipment. In the jargon <strong>of</strong> the airlines equipment<br />
is used, at least in public dealings with passengers,<br />
as a synonym for airplane (This delay is<br />
caused by the late arrivul <strong>of</strong> incoming equipment).<br />
Whether this is thought to be more elegant<br />
or whether it corresponds to some classification<br />
within the business, it is certainly not<br />
standard, though, <strong>of</strong> course, if it is continued it<br />
may become so.<br />
The adjective mechanical is used by the airlines<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> such phrases as mechanical<br />
failure or mechanical trouble (On f7ight two<br />
ninety-eight there’s mechanical, but it ought to<br />
leave before six o’clock). This may be the mere<br />
adoption <strong>of</strong> an abbreviated technical expression,<br />
but one suspects it is at least in part a euphemistic<br />
desire, in dealing with passengers, to<br />
avoid anything as disturbing as mechanical failure<br />
or mechanical trouble. And, indeed, these<br />
phrases might very well convey a false impression,<br />
since the passenger would probably transfer<br />
to them his associations with the automobile<br />
where mechanical trouble usually means a cessation<br />
<strong>of</strong> function or at least a serious impairment<br />
<strong>of</strong> it; whereas on a plane it might signify<br />
only what on a car would be called “a need for<br />
adjustment” or “regulation.” This use <strong>of</strong> mechanical<br />
shows a new industry groping for a new<br />
word and attempting to divest an old word <strong>of</strong><br />
its connotations.<br />
equivocal. See ambiguous.<br />
159 escape<br />
errant; arrant. Errant means wandering, as a<br />
knight errant traveling in search <strong>of</strong> adventure.<br />
By a natural extension it came also to mean<br />
deviant from rectitude or propriety (The famous<br />
beauty and errant lady, the Duchess <strong>of</strong> Mazarin)<br />
.<br />
Arrant was originally a variant spelling <strong>of</strong><br />
errant (and errant is still used for arrant sometimes,<br />
though never the reverse). It came to be<br />
applied especially to vagabonds and other wandering<br />
ruffians <strong>of</strong> whom former times stood in<br />
particular fear-arrant rogues, arrant rascals,<br />
arrant thieves. From this application the word<br />
came to have the force <strong>of</strong> an opprobrious intensive.<br />
That is, the thievery and the roguery and<br />
the rascality <strong>of</strong> these wandering ones (many <strong>of</strong><br />
them men made desperate by being driven from<br />
their farms and villages which were destroyed<br />
to make room for grazing lands) was transferred<br />
to the adjective wandering. So that Swift’s<br />
allegation that Every servant is an arrant thief<br />
as to victuals and drink has nothing to do with<br />
the servant’s being or not being a wanderer.<br />
Then it came to mean thorough and unmitigated,<br />
and this meaning, with enough <strong>of</strong> the opprobrious<br />
retained to prevent its ever being used<br />
in a favorable sense is its current one (an arrant<br />
ass, an arrant fool).<br />
Errant is now archaic and literary. Arrant is<br />
fixed in a few opprobrious terms, most <strong>of</strong> which<br />
are cliches. Both words may well be avoided.<br />
erratum. Errata, the plural, is also used as a singular<br />
to mean a list <strong>of</strong> errors or corrections and<br />
has a regular plural erratas, meaning more than<br />
one such list. This is an English word and should<br />
not be given a Latin plural, as in erratue.<br />
error. See mistake.<br />
ersatz. See synthetic.<br />
eruption; irruption. An eruption is a violent bursting<br />
out (The eruption <strong>of</strong> Vesuvius filled the sky<br />
with smoke and flames). An irruption is a violent<br />
bursting in (The Goths . . . making irruptions<br />
into Gaul).<br />
escape; elude; evade. To escape can mean to get<br />
free from confinement, to regain liberty (No<br />
more dramatic escape from a prison camp has<br />
been recorded). It can also mean to avoid danger,<br />
pursuit, observation, or the like, even by<br />
sheer luck. A man may escape danger or observation<br />
by accident, though there is usually some<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> intention (By taking the back<br />
way he escaped being seen. He escaped death<br />
by the mere chance <strong>of</strong> stopping to lace his shoe).<br />
To elude is to escape by means <strong>of</strong> dexterity or<br />
artifice (He eluded pursuit by a series <strong>of</strong> amazing<br />
disguises). When we say that something<br />
eluded our attention, we imply that we almost<br />
perceived it, or admit that we should have perceived<br />
it. There is a suggestion that the thing<br />
itself, by some pixyish sleight or movement,<br />
ducked out <strong>of</strong> sight for a second. There’s an element<br />
<strong>of</strong> slyness in it. A fox eludes the hounds.<br />
To evade is to escape by trickery or cleverness,<br />
to get around something that intends to<br />
stop us, to avoid doing something or to avoid<br />
answering directly. When a man evades a ques-
escape 160<br />
tion, he does not refuse to answer it. He seems<br />
to answer it but actually does not, or he manages<br />
to change the subject or pretends to misunderstand<br />
the question and gives an irrelevant answer.<br />
escape; escapade. An escape is an act <strong>of</strong> escaping<br />
(The escape was poorly planned and failed) or<br />
the means <strong>of</strong> escaping (Our only escape lay directly<br />
down the face <strong>of</strong> the cliff). An escapade<br />
was originally an escape, but it now means a<br />
reckless prank (Such escapades might have been<br />
forgiven a boy, but they were inexcusable in a<br />
man <strong>of</strong> his age).<br />
esoteric; exoteric. Esoteric means understood by<br />
or meant for a select few, hence pr<strong>of</strong>ound, recondite.<br />
Exoteric means suitable to be communicated<br />
to the general public, not pertaining to the<br />
inner circle, hence popular, simple, or commonplace.<br />
Exoteric is a fairly rare word and sometimes<br />
used erroneously for exotic [q.v.]. The<br />
terms esoteric and exoteric were originally applied<br />
to groups <strong>of</strong> disciples <strong>of</strong> sages <strong>of</strong> antiquity.<br />
The esoteric disciples were the small inner group<br />
to whom the master divulged his deeper meanings.<br />
The exoteric were the larger group <strong>of</strong> followers,<br />
not admitted to intimacy, to whom was<br />
divulged only so much as they were thought<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> understanding.<br />
especial; especially. See special.<br />
espousal, either in its primary sense <strong>of</strong> the plighting<br />
<strong>of</strong> a troth, a marriage or an engagement, or<br />
in its derivative sense <strong>of</strong> the advocacy <strong>of</strong> a cause<br />
or the adoption <strong>of</strong> someone’s interests or welfare,<br />
is now bookish or archaic.<br />
Esquire, abbreviated as Esq., is a title <strong>of</strong> courtesy<br />
widelv used in England and Ireland (though its<br />
use is beginning 70 decline under the feeling<br />
that the term is snobbish and now devoid <strong>of</strong><br />
meaning) but not elsewhere even among English-speaking<br />
peoples. Originally it referred to a<br />
definite social rank and designated one belonging<br />
to the order <strong>of</strong> English gentry just below a<br />
knight, but this significance has been lost and it<br />
now has the same meaning as Mr. It is used<br />
solely in written addresses and when so used it<br />
follows the surname, as<br />
Richard Roe, Esq.,<br />
Roe Hall<br />
Roehampton<br />
When esquire or its abbreviation is used, no<br />
title should- be prefixed. That is, Mr. Richard<br />
Roe, Esq. would be incorrect. But titles may be<br />
suffixed. Richard Roe, Esq., LL.D., or<br />
Richard Roe, Esq., Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Numismatics<br />
Mary Roe College<br />
Roehampton<br />
would be proper.<br />
essay. See assay.<br />
essential: inherent: intrinsic. That is essential<br />
which’is a part <strong>of</strong> the very being or existence <strong>of</strong><br />
a thing. Hence that which is essential is necessary<br />
if the thing is to maintain its identity. The<br />
essential characteristics <strong>of</strong> a thing are those<br />
characteristics which mark its identity, its difference<br />
from other things. In popular usage that<br />
is essential which is indispensable to the functioning<br />
<strong>of</strong> something (Clean spark plugs are<br />
essential to the proper running <strong>of</strong> the car).<br />
That is inherent which is inborn or fixed from<br />
the beginning as a permanent quality or constituent<br />
(Separation <strong>of</strong> church and state is inherent<br />
in our Constitution. Certain properties<br />
are inherent in iron).<br />
Zntrinsic means belonging to a thing by its<br />
very nature, without regard to external considerations<br />
or accidentally added properties (There<br />
is an intrinsic merit in the proposal, despite the<br />
opposition it is bound to arouse). (For essential<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> that which cannot be dispensed<br />
with, see necessary.)<br />
essentially; substantially. Setting aside the philosophic<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> the words, which rarely concern<br />
the common man, essentially and substantially<br />
are in most uses interchangeable. It does<br />
not matter whether one says that A’s story was<br />
essentially in agreement with B’s or substantially<br />
in agreement with it. Yet there are some slight<br />
differences, most <strong>of</strong> them based on the common<br />
association <strong>of</strong> substance with materiul in its<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> solid, tangible, and <strong>of</strong>-this-world as<br />
against the ethereal, spiritual, or other-worldly.<br />
Thus if it were said <strong>of</strong> someone that although<br />
he had retired from active participation in the<br />
management <strong>of</strong> a business he was still substantially<br />
the boss, there would be more <strong>of</strong> a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> his ownership <strong>of</strong> the business and a feeling<br />
that weighty questions must still be referred<br />
to him than if it were said that he is still essentially<br />
the boss. The latter would imply that he<br />
was still the boss, but would suggest a more<br />
remote, less forcible or immediate control.<br />
Essential and substantial, however-such are<br />
the ways <strong>of</strong> language-have clearly different<br />
meanings in popular usage. An essential citizen<br />
would be one without whom the community<br />
would not function. A substantial citizen is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> solid means, respectable and respected, a<br />
pillar, but not necessarily an indispensable pillar,<br />
<strong>of</strong> the community.<br />
estimate; estimation. An estimate is an approximate<br />
judgment or calculation <strong>of</strong> the value,<br />
amount, weight, or the like, <strong>of</strong> something, especially,<br />
in business usage, <strong>of</strong> what would be<br />
charged for certain work to be done (His estimate<br />
<strong>of</strong> success must be carefully considered,<br />
for he is unusuallv well informed in the matter.<br />
The lowest estimate for the concrete work was<br />
more than two million). Estimation is, properly,<br />
the forming <strong>of</strong> an estimate (My estimation <strong>of</strong><br />
the damages will require some time as its full<br />
extent cannot be known until the waters have<br />
receded). Estimate and estimation are used synonymously<br />
so much that the practice must be<br />
accepted as standard, but the careful writer will<br />
bear the distinction in mind. And he will also<br />
bear in mind that as a mere substitute for opinion<br />
(as in my estimation) where no estimating,<br />
or calculation <strong>of</strong> value or degree, has taken<br />
place, the word is being debased. Estimation has<br />
also the meaning <strong>of</strong> esteem (as to hold one in<br />
high estimntion), possibly because <strong>of</strong> the similarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> sound.
eternal; everlasting; endless; incessant; perpetual.<br />
In its religious and other dignified uses, eternal<br />
means lasting forever, implying not only that<br />
that which is spoken <strong>of</strong> will last for ever but has<br />
lasted from eternity up to the time <strong>of</strong> speaking<br />
(The eternal hills that silent wait . . . ). In less<br />
dignified contexts it means constantly recurring<br />
to the point <strong>of</strong> being wearisome (The eternal<br />
racket those kids make is driving me crazy).<br />
Endless never stops, but goes on continually<br />
as if in a circle (My . . . time-bewasted light/<br />
Shall be extinct with age, and endless night).<br />
Indeed, as in an endless belt, the word is applied<br />
today to a number <strong>of</strong> devices that move in a<br />
circle. It, too, is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> ceaselessly<br />
recurring (Endless snowstorms prolonged the<br />
winter into April) and, more <strong>of</strong>ten than eternal,<br />
in a pejorative sense (His endless stories bored<br />
everyone in the house).<br />
Except in some religious contexts (from everlasting<br />
to everlasting), everlasting connotes endurance<br />
through all future time from this time<br />
forward. It, too, has the dichotomy <strong>of</strong> expressing<br />
awe or rapture in metaphysical contemplations<br />
and irritation in mundane (That everlasting<br />
complaining <strong>of</strong> his!). Apparently a very little<br />
everlastingness in actual matters is hard to take.<br />
Incessant means continuing without interruption<br />
(Incessant application to his studies finally<br />
brought the longed-for reward), and though it<br />
can be applied to pleasant things (incessant delights)<br />
it is so much more frequently applied to<br />
unpleasant things that it also has, except where<br />
the context makes it otherwise plain, a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> irritation.<br />
Perpetual implies a continued renewing (The<br />
graves will receive perpetuul care. The perpetual<br />
stream <strong>of</strong> visitors consumed his strength).<br />
eternal triangle. In the hackneyed phrase the eternal<br />
triangle, used to describe lovers or married<br />
couples with an intrusive third party, either man<br />
or woman, who stirs up jealousy and discontent,<br />
the word eternal is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> incessant<br />
or recurring. The situation is scarcely more unendurable<br />
than the phrase.<br />
eternal verities. As a term for the unchanging<br />
truths that presumably lie at the basis <strong>of</strong> the<br />
moral order, the eternal verities is a cliche.<br />
ethics and the singular form ethic are both used<br />
in speaking about a theoretical system <strong>of</strong> morals,<br />
and in this sense both words take a singular<br />
verb, as in his ethics is unique. In speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
an actual system <strong>of</strong> morals that a man lives by,<br />
only the form ethics is used and only with a<br />
plural verb, as in his ethics are peculiar. The<br />
adjective form is always ethical, and not ethic.<br />
ethics; morals. Ethics and morals were once completely<br />
synonymous, one being Greek and the<br />
other Latin, but in common usage they have<br />
come to have distinctions. Fowler trenchantly<br />
summarizes the matter by saying that ethics is<br />
the science <strong>of</strong> morals, and morals are the practice<br />
<strong>of</strong> ethics. He believes that the impression<br />
that ethics is less definitely connected with religion<br />
than morals are is “unfounded,” and so it<br />
may be in philosophy but in the common usage<br />
<strong>of</strong> words it is pretty well established. And more<br />
161 euphemism<br />
and more, in the United States at least, morals<br />
have a sexual connotation. Thus if it were said<br />
<strong>of</strong> one that he was a man <strong>of</strong> the highest ethics,<br />
the implication would be that he was strictly<br />
honorable in regard to the truth and to financial<br />
matters; but if it were said that he was a man<br />
<strong>of</strong> the highest morals, the implication would be<br />
that he was not guilty <strong>of</strong> sexual laxity and would<br />
not condone it in others.<br />
et seq. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin words<br />
et sequentes or et sequentia and means and the<br />
following.<br />
eulogy. See elegy.<br />
euphemism means “speaking fair.” It is a term<br />
to describe the substitution <strong>of</strong> a mild, indirect,<br />
or vague expression for a harsh, direct, plain, or<br />
terrifying one. The use <strong>of</strong> euphemisms (for the<br />
term is applied to the words substituted as well<br />
as to the process <strong>of</strong> substituting them) is widespread<br />
in every language and is motivated by<br />
reverence, kindness, decency, fear, and prudery.<br />
The excretory and reproductive organs and<br />
functions <strong>of</strong> the body are almost always spoken<br />
<strong>of</strong> euphemistically in polite society. So is death.<br />
And so are most incurable bodily and mental<br />
ills. All <strong>of</strong> this was once regarded as “genteel”<br />
or polite, but there has been a tendency in<br />
the past two or three generations, particularly<br />
marked among the educated, to speak more<br />
plainly. The ribald associations <strong>of</strong> the Anglo-<br />
Saxon words for urinating, defecating, fornicating,<br />
and breaking wind will probably prevent<br />
their becoming acceptable in everyday uses, but<br />
in many other things related to the body the<br />
plainness <strong>of</strong> modern talk would probably be<br />
shocking to our grandmothers and grandfathers<br />
(though not to our great-great grandmothers<br />
and grandfathers; there are cycles and fashions<br />
in these matters). Thus the word pregnant is<br />
now acceptable to the politest ears and “in a<br />
family way” would seem vulgarly genteel and<br />
“with child” quaint.<br />
In regard to death, the speech <strong>of</strong> the educated<br />
today is more direct than that <strong>of</strong> the uneducated<br />
and semi-educated, who still speak <strong>of</strong> passing on<br />
for dying, refer invariably to the c<strong>of</strong>fin as the<br />
casket and the funeral as the service. The educated,<br />
however, in their turn have fears from<br />
which they wish to hide in words and have developed,<br />
especially in relation to sicknesses,<br />
some new euphemisms. Thus the fashionably<br />
delicate word for a stroke nowadays is an accident<br />
and the most elaborate circumlocutions are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten devised to avoid mentioning the dreaded<br />
name <strong>of</strong> cancer.<br />
The trouble with all euphemisms, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
is that the unpleasant fact is still there, for all<br />
its pleasant name, and will in time infect the<br />
euphemism. Thus cemetery, now frequently replaced<br />
by memorial park, was originally a<br />
eunhemism (it means “sleeping - . place”) for<br />
graveyard, but the grinning face showed through.<br />
So toilet, originally merely a dressing room<br />
where one made one’s toilet, has become a semiindecent<br />
word in the United States and bathroom,<br />
especially when referred to with any urgency,<br />
is becoming one. In England, by the way,
euphemism 162<br />
where excretory and bathing facilities are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
not placed in the same room, an American<br />
guest’s whispered request, in midday, to be<br />
shown to the bathroom sometimes elicits astonishment,<br />
astonishment almost as great as that <strong>of</strong><br />
the guest’s when he is shown to a bathroom.<br />
The opposite <strong>of</strong> euphemism is dysphemism. If<br />
it is plain talk to call a spade a spade and a<br />
euphemism to call it a delving instrument, it is<br />
a dysphemism to call it a bloody shovel.<br />
euphemism; euphuism. Euphemism is the substitution<br />
<strong>of</strong> a fair-sounding word for one that is,<br />
for any reason, objectionable. Euphuism (a very<br />
rare word which no one but the student <strong>of</strong> Elizabethan<br />
literature has any occasion to use) describes<br />
the style which Cohn Lyly employed in<br />
Euphues: Or the Anatomy <strong>of</strong> Wit (1579) and<br />
E&hues and his England- (l.%‘SO). It was.characterized<br />
by alliteration, a long series <strong>of</strong> antitheses,<br />
and elaborate similes based on fabulous<br />
natural history. It became a vogue and for a<br />
decade or so had many imitators.<br />
euphony is the harmonious arrangement <strong>of</strong> words,<br />
with special reference to pleasing sound, rhythm<br />
and appropriateness <strong>of</strong> meaning. As the word<br />
itself implies, it is an aspect <strong>of</strong> spoken rather<br />
than <strong>of</strong> written language, but its appeal to the<br />
mind’s ear in prose as well as in poetry is an<br />
important element in style. It is euphony, for<br />
example, that demands that we say an apple instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> the harsh and difficult a apple.<br />
A euphonious style is to be achieved in part<br />
by the avoidance <strong>of</strong> unnecessarily harsh sounds<br />
(Who prop, thou ask’s& in these bad days, my<br />
mind?), too many consonants together, combinations<br />
<strong>of</strong> easily confused sounds (She sells sea<br />
shells by the seashore), and words that rime<br />
where rime is not intended (He was under the<br />
dominion <strong>of</strong> his father’s opinion). Even roughness,<br />
however, if it heightens meaning, may be<br />
considered euphonious (What recks it them?<br />
What need they? They are sped;/ And, when<br />
they list, their lean and flashy songs/ Grate on<br />
their scrannel pipes <strong>of</strong> wretched straw. It is the<br />
place <strong>of</strong> the howling winds, the hurrying <strong>of</strong> the<br />
leaves in old October, the hard clean falling to<br />
the earth <strong>of</strong> acorns).<br />
Eurasian. See mulatto.<br />
European. In America and England a Europeun<br />
is a native or an inhabitant <strong>of</strong> Europe. In the<br />
Union <strong>of</strong> South Africa, however, European designates<br />
one who is white, separating him from<br />
all the other native non-whites or non-Europeans<br />
as they are there called. Non-whites from<br />
other countries are referred to as American<br />
non-Europeans or Hawaiian non-Europeans or<br />
whatever they may be. A French Negro would<br />
be called French non-European and-such are<br />
the ways <strong>of</strong> speech-a Negro from some nonspecified<br />
country <strong>of</strong> Europe would be a European<br />
non-European.<br />
European plan is an American term for that method<br />
<strong>of</strong> conducting a hotel according to which<br />
the fixed charge per day covers only lodging and<br />
service. It was formerly much more in use than<br />
now (It was the Alfalfa European Hotel, AZ-<br />
falfa because the name had a pleasing sound;<br />
European because no meals were served in the<br />
house.-Georae Ade. 1899). Hotels used to <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
their guests either the European Plan or the<br />
American Plan, the fixed charge in the latter<br />
covering meals as well as lodging.<br />
The virtual disappearance <strong>of</strong> the term has a<br />
value to the students <strong>of</strong> language and social history<br />
because it reminds them that the disappearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> a word or term may not mean that the<br />
thing designated had ceased to exist; it may<br />
have become so universal that no distinguishing<br />
name was any longer felt to be necessary.<br />
evacuate. Purists have been much agitated at the<br />
evacuation <strong>of</strong> wounded soldiers and <strong>of</strong> civilians<br />
from cities during the past two wars, pointing<br />
out that the term was properly a medical one,<br />
meaning a discharge or ejection through the<br />
excretory passages, especially from the bowe!s.<br />
But their exasperation was in part unfounded<br />
and in part (one fears) merely a pretext for displaying<br />
erudition. The term has been a military<br />
term for withdrawing from a town or fortress<br />
for almost two hundred and fifty years (The<br />
Army.. . would shortly evacuate Savoy--Steele,<br />
1710) and during the first world war passed into<br />
current use through its employment in the newspapers.<br />
Strictly it was the place that was evacuated<br />
<strong>of</strong> the troops. But the transference <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word to the troops or the civilians themselves (a<br />
transference that took place in non-military<br />
uses at least three hundred years ago-almost<br />
as long as the word has been used in this sense<br />
in English) did no greater violence to the language<br />
than had been done before by hundreds<br />
<strong>of</strong> idioms [Actually, we do not wipe a spot <strong>of</strong>f<br />
the floor: we wipe the floor and the spot comes<br />
<strong>of</strong>f]. In World War II movements <strong>of</strong> large bodies<br />
<strong>of</strong> children and civilians from the cities, <strong>of</strong><br />
troops from untenable positions, and wounded<br />
from hospitals became common and important<br />
in the news. A word was needed and evacuate<br />
lay to hand with established military associations.<br />
It is now standard in this sense, so much<br />
so that the man in the street would possibly<br />
regard the phrase evacuate the bowels as<br />
studied, or even unpatriotic. Evacuate differs<br />
from empty in its connotation <strong>of</strong> some forced<br />
or general, usually urgent, movement.<br />
evade may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in he evaded telling me. It cannot be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in he evaded to tell me. (See<br />
also escape.)<br />
eve; evening. Although eve may be used as a<br />
synonym for evening, which means the time<br />
about sunset (The stag at eve had drunk his<br />
fill/ But midnight found him drinking still), it<br />
means properly the preceding evening or even<br />
entire day. Christmas Eve is December the twenty-fourth;<br />
whereas Christmas evening would be<br />
late in the day <strong>of</strong> December twenty-fifth. And<br />
the eve <strong>of</strong> a battle is the period just before, not<br />
the night following.<br />
even; evenly. When used as an adjective, even<br />
means smooth, level, uniform, as in an even<br />
surface, an even share. When used as an adverb,
to qualify any word that is not a noun, it is a<br />
peculiar intensive. It says that a particular element<br />
in a statement is surprising but nevertheless<br />
true, as in even then and he even laughed.<br />
At one time even could be used as an adverb in<br />
all its senses, but today the form evenly is preferred<br />
when the adjective meanings <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
are being used adverbially, as in they shared<br />
evenly.<br />
even tenor <strong>of</strong> one’s way. It was along the cool,<br />
sequestered vale <strong>of</strong> life that Thomas Gray’s<br />
village Hampdens and inglorious Miltons kept<br />
the noiseless tenor <strong>of</strong> their way. Transformed<br />
to even tenor (possibly because a noiseless tenor<br />
would seem today, when tenor in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
course or progress is little known, paradoxical,<br />
even if desirable) the phrase has become a<br />
cliche and should be avoided.<br />
event; episode; incident; occurrence. An event is<br />
anything that happens (The minor events <strong>of</strong> the<br />
average day are too slight to deserve notice).<br />
But most commonly it means an important happening<br />
(Coming events cast their shadows before),<br />
especially one that comes out <strong>of</strong> and is<br />
connected with previous happenings (Political<br />
events can affect the prospects <strong>of</strong> candidates<br />
with alarming suddenness). It also means the<br />
outcome or end result <strong>of</strong> an action (In the event<br />
<strong>of</strong> his demise, she will inherit, . . . Whatever<br />
the event, you may rely on my friendship).<br />
An episode is one <strong>of</strong> a progressive series <strong>of</strong><br />
happenings. It is <strong>of</strong>ten distinct from the main<br />
course <strong>of</strong> events, but it arises naturally from<br />
them and has an interest and continuity <strong>of</strong> its<br />
own. To use it merely as a synonym for event<br />
is to debase the language. Cobbett’s reference to<br />
answering a hundred letters a week by way <strong>of</strong><br />
episode to his other labors would seem a little<br />
strange to moderns, though it is proper. The<br />
correct use is happily illustrated by Milman’s<br />
reference to the conquest <strong>of</strong> Constantinople by<br />
the Latins as that strange and romantic episode<br />
in the history <strong>of</strong> the Crusades.<br />
An incident is a minor event that takes place<br />
in connection with a more important event or<br />
series <strong>of</strong> events (I remember a curious incident<br />
that happened during the assault on Guadalcanal).<br />
An occurrence is something, usually <strong>of</strong> an<br />
ordinary nature (daily occurrences), that happens,<br />
without having any particular connection<br />
with or having been caused by antecedent circumstances<br />
(The occurrence <strong>of</strong> a shower delayed<br />
his arrival and so frustrated her plans).<br />
See also happening.<br />
eventuate seems to be an American coinage. As<br />
a term for happen or come to pass, it seems<br />
awkward and ponderous. It is a politician’s word<br />
and no doubt impresses some <strong>of</strong> his hearers with<br />
a sense <strong>of</strong> his grandeur; but it makes some<br />
others wonder if he is not just reverberating<br />
while trying to think <strong>of</strong> what to say next.<br />
ever means “at any time.” It must be used instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> never in a negative statement such as no one<br />
ever told me or as an alternative to a negative,<br />
as in not then or ever. Ever cannot be used as<br />
163 every<br />
an alternative to an affirmative idea. We must<br />
say seldom or never, not seldom or ever. If ever,<br />
on the other hand, may be used with either an<br />
affirmative or a negative, as in seldom if ever,<br />
not <strong>of</strong>ten if ever. Ever could once be used with<br />
or to mean “before,” as in or ever the silver<br />
cord be loosed, but this construction is now<br />
archaic.<br />
The “empty” ever, or the use <strong>of</strong> ever as an<br />
intensive, dates from the middle <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth<br />
century. This is acceptable as long as the<br />
word clearly qualifies a verb, as in what ever<br />
possessed him? and Tristram’s misfortunes begun<br />
nine months before ever he came into the<br />
world.<br />
Ever may be combined with relative pronouns<br />
to make them indefinite, as in whoever says that<br />
is a fool and take whichever you like. But it<br />
should not be combined with an interrogative<br />
pronoun as a pure intensive, as in whoever can<br />
it be?, whatever did he want?. This use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word is heard in Great Britain more <strong>of</strong>ten than<br />
in the United States, but it is generally condemned<br />
in both countries. Some grammarians<br />
recommend writing these expressions as two<br />
words, as in who ever can it be?, what ever did<br />
he want?, but this does not solve the problem,<br />
since the word remains attached to who or what<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> how it is printed. The isolated<br />
word ever is <strong>of</strong> course standard English when<br />
it can be understood as qualifying a verb, as in<br />
who ever thought that?<br />
In the United States ever is used as an intensive<br />
after a superlative, as in the finest ever.<br />
This is acceutable Enalish in this countrv but<br />
in Great Britain is considered an Americanism.<br />
everlasting. See eternal.<br />
every means “all, taken separately.” But the word<br />
all may also be used in this sense, as in all the<br />
babies weighed less than ten pounds. In modern<br />
English all is more <strong>of</strong>ten used in this distributive<br />
sense than it is in a collective sense and there is<br />
frequently no difference between the words all<br />
and every. It would sometimes be convenient if<br />
this were not so, but all now has this meaning<br />
and no one can say that every is the only ac-<br />
ceptable word in statements <strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
Each also means “all, taken separately.” In<br />
modern English the principal difference between<br />
every and each is that every is used when the<br />
members <strong>of</strong> a group are thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit,<br />
and each when they are thought <strong>of</strong> individually,<br />
as in every boy was there and each did his part.<br />
At one time, each was used in speaking about a<br />
countable number <strong>of</strong> individuals and every in<br />
making a universal statement. This distinction<br />
survives today to some extent and may explain<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> every rather than each in what every<br />
woman knows, and the first but not the second<br />
every in every particle <strong>of</strong> mutter attracts every<br />
other particle. Both distinctions are subtle and<br />
neither is strictly observed. Many people who<br />
use language sensitively shift from one word<br />
to the other simply for variety. Nothing is ever<br />
gained by saying each and every.<br />
Every is used only as an adjective and onIY
everybody 164<br />
before a singular noun, as in every man. It may<br />
be used before a genitive, as in every man’s<br />
opinion, or following a genitive or a possessive<br />
pronoun, as in Dick’s every thought, his every<br />
whim. It is unquestionably accepted English to<br />
use every with the word between, as in between<br />
every mouthful, although some grammarians<br />
condemn this. Every may be used with other to<br />
mean “all others,” as in every other person here<br />
agrees with me, or it may be used to mean<br />
“every second one,” as in she only comes every<br />
other day. See other.<br />
Every is not equivalent to the adverb ever.<br />
The phrase ever so <strong>of</strong>ten means “frequently.”<br />
The phrase every so <strong>of</strong>ten means “every now<br />
and then.” Both are standard English when they<br />
are used to mean what they do mean.<br />
A noun qualified by every is usually followed<br />
by a singular verb, as in every man and woman<br />
is aware. It is also followed by a singular pronoun<br />
when there is no question whether it is<br />
males or females that are being talked about, as<br />
in every soldier carries his own pack and every<br />
woman does her own cooking. But when the<br />
reference is to both men and women, or the sex<br />
is unknown, a plural pronoun is generally preferred,<br />
as in every member brings their own<br />
lunch, although some grammarians insist on the<br />
generic his. The plural pronoun is required in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> something owned in common, as in<br />
every English man and woman has good reason<br />
to be proud <strong>of</strong> the work done by their forefathers.<br />
everybody; everyone. These words are usually followed<br />
by a singular verb but they are usually<br />
referred to by the plural pronoun they, rather<br />
than the singular pronoun he. Cardinal Newman<br />
said that a gentleman strives to make<br />
everyone at their ease. This has been standard<br />
English for the word everybody for more than<br />
four hundred years, and for the word everyone<br />
for more than two hundred years. A singular<br />
pronoun cannot be used when it stands in a coordinate<br />
clause, as he does in Everyone clapped<br />
and I was glad he did and Everyone came but he<br />
has gone home.<br />
every effort is being made. The assurance that<br />
every effort is being made has become a formula<br />
to soothe those whose demands for action must<br />
be listened to but need not, or cannot, be satisfied.<br />
The fact that it is a cliche, worn smooth by<br />
glib repetition, adds to the exasperation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
importunate and in matters <strong>of</strong> great seriousness<br />
-and in any lesser matters the dishonesty <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phrase is apparent-only the stupid, the callous,<br />
or the brutal still employ it.<br />
Of course, like other cliches, it has a meaning,<br />
and exceptional circumstances and exceptional<br />
strength <strong>of</strong> feeling and depth <strong>of</strong> sincerity can<br />
make that meaning ring true. It is conceivable<br />
that someone, somewhere, sometime, somehow<br />
could even put conviction back into Early to bed<br />
and early to rise or Who steals my purse, steals<br />
trash, but the ordinary man does well to avoid<br />
such hackneyed phrases, especially in his moments<br />
<strong>of</strong> sincere feeling, for they will fail him.<br />
everyhow is standard English as used by Hawthorne<br />
in crags, all shattered and tossed about<br />
everyhow. But it is seldom heard and everyway<br />
is generally preferred.<br />
every mother’s son, as a term for every man,<br />
is a cliche. It has the tinny ring <strong>of</strong> a pseudopr<strong>of</strong>undity,<br />
a false earthiness about it.<br />
everyone. See everybody.<br />
everyplace. The use <strong>of</strong> everyplace as a substitute<br />
for everywhere, as in I looked everyplace, is<br />
condemned by many grammarians because the<br />
noun place is here being used instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adverb where. This usage is not acceptable in<br />
Great Britain but it occurs too <strong>of</strong>ten in the<br />
United States, in written as well as in spoken<br />
English, to be called anything but standard. It<br />
is acceptable English in this country.<br />
everyway. Unlike the similar words, anyway and<br />
noway, everyway does not have the related<br />
forms everyways and everywise. These words<br />
simply don’t appear. Every which way is an<br />
Americanism and is considered unacceptable in<br />
Great Britain. It is no longer current English in<br />
this country. But when it is heard it is considered<br />
old-fashioned rather than unacceptable<br />
and has a certain rustic charm.<br />
everywhere; everywheres. Everywhere is the only<br />
acceptable form in written English. In the<br />
United States everywheres is <strong>of</strong>ten heard in the<br />
speech <strong>of</strong> well educated people, but it does not<br />
appear in print. Everywhere is <strong>of</strong>ten used with<br />
an unnecessary that, as in everywhere that he<br />
has been. This construction has been in use for<br />
a very short time but it is accepted English in<br />
the United States.<br />
evidence; testimony; pro<strong>of</strong>. Evidence is grounds<br />
for belief, that which makes evident, that which<br />
tends to prove or disprove something. It may be<br />
that which someone says, or it may be derived<br />
from documents or inferred from the nature <strong>of</strong><br />
things (The witness gave his evidence in a<br />
strong, clear voice. The evidence <strong>of</strong> the fngerprint<br />
led the jury to disbelieve his protestation<br />
<strong>of</strong> innocence).<br />
Testimony is the statement <strong>of</strong> a witness. In<br />
law, <strong>of</strong> course, the witness is under oath, but the<br />
word is used loosely for any declaration relevant<br />
to a disputed issue (The testimony <strong>of</strong> the arresting<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficer carried great weight. Zf you accept<br />
the one child’s testimony, the other must be<br />
lying). Testimony is <strong>of</strong>ten used for evidence,<br />
sometimes carelessly and sometimes with the<br />
poetic assumption that “the facts speak for themselves”<br />
as in the mute testimony <strong>of</strong> the fossils.<br />
But, for the most part, it is better to use evidence<br />
for the immediate grounds for belief and testimony<br />
for some person’s statement about the<br />
facts.<br />
Pro<strong>of</strong> is evidence that is so complete and<br />
convincing as to put a conclusion beyond reasonable<br />
doubt (The evidence and the testimony<br />
constituted overwhelming pro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> his guilt).<br />
evident. See apparent.<br />
evil. The words worse and worst are said to be<br />
the comparative and superlative forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adjective evil. But we are more likely to use
the forms more evil and most evil. The simple<br />
forms in -er and -est are rare but are also acceptable,<br />
as in the evilest thoughts <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
mind.<br />
evince; exhibit; manifest. To evince originally<br />
meant to overcome or subdue (They will keep<br />
their hold until they be evinced or cast out).<br />
Its modern meaning <strong>of</strong> to show (He evinced<br />
dissatisfaction with your work) is <strong>of</strong>ten an unnecessary<br />
and unsuitable elegancy. It should be<br />
reserved for such presentations <strong>of</strong> evidence as<br />
make a convincing inference (The ruins . . .<br />
suficiently evince that anciently there were<br />
great buildings in this place). The word, because<br />
it is an elegancy, has, in some contexts,<br />
a slight tinge <strong>of</strong> mockery and gives the “showing”<br />
a suggestion <strong>of</strong> “showing <strong>of</strong>f” (He evinced<br />
great spirit but little skill).<br />
To exhibit is to put something in plain view,<br />
usually in a favorable view for particular observation<br />
(He exhibited an unexpected graciousness).<br />
It, too, has the connotation <strong>of</strong> showing<br />
Off.<br />
To mnnifest is to make plain to the eye or<br />
clear to the understanding. It is a strong word<br />
and carries the connotation <strong>of</strong> conviction. That<br />
which is manifest is shown beyond any reasonable<br />
doubt (Caught in a manifest lie, he broke<br />
down and confessed all).<br />
evolute; evolve. Evolute exists as a noun in geometry<br />
and an adjective in botany, but as a verb,<br />
a back formation apparently from evolution, it<br />
is an ignorant blunder. The verb is evolve.<br />
example; instance. An example is one <strong>of</strong> a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> things, or a part <strong>of</strong> something, taken to<br />
show the character <strong>of</strong> the whole (No criticism<br />
can be instructive which is not full <strong>of</strong> examples).<br />
It has several other meanings, such as a model<br />
to be imitated or a punishment so severe as to<br />
serve as a deterrent to others.<br />
An instance is an example put forth in pro<strong>of</strong><br />
or illustration. The word does not apply to the<br />
objects or incidents directly but only to them as<br />
they serve to illustrate some point (A better<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> his recklessness it would be hard to<br />
find).<br />
The words are fixed in several idiomatic uses.<br />
For instance and for example are interchangeable,<br />
but a meritorious person or act serves as<br />
a good example, not as a good instance and a<br />
punishment is an example not an instance in so<br />
far as it is intended to deter others. It could,<br />
however, be an instance <strong>of</strong> the judge’s severity.<br />
In the phrase ancient saws and modern instances,<br />
the word instances has become fixed in a context<br />
where we would today use examples, but<br />
we could not now substitute examples for instances<br />
in that phrase. See also case; ideal.<br />
example; sample; specimen. In the sense <strong>of</strong> an<br />
individual phenomenon taken as a representative<br />
<strong>of</strong> a type, or <strong>of</strong> a part as representative <strong>of</strong><br />
the whole, example, sample, and specimen are<br />
synonymous. But there are differences in their<br />
meanings and, as with many synonyms, the<br />
recognition <strong>of</strong> these differences and the employment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the proper word to give the exact shade<br />
165 except<br />
<strong>of</strong> meaning intended is one <strong>of</strong> the chief helps to<br />
good writing.<br />
An example is an object, or an activity, or a<br />
condition, or the like, which is assumed to illustrate<br />
a certain law or principle or general assertion<br />
(What better example <strong>of</strong> their perfidy could<br />
you want?). A sample (an example is merely<br />
a sample taken out) usually refers to concrete,<br />
tangible things, and means a small portion <strong>of</strong><br />
a substance, or a single representative <strong>of</strong> a group<br />
or type, which is intended to show what the rest<br />
<strong>of</strong> the substance, or the group, is like (The man<br />
who, having a house to sell, carried about with<br />
him a brick as a sample . . .). Sample is largely<br />
restricted now to commercial uses and when it<br />
is used metaphorically, in place <strong>of</strong> example, it<br />
has a suggestion <strong>of</strong> contempt or mockery (There,<br />
that’s a sample <strong>of</strong> his kindness for you!).<br />
Specimen usually suggests that the sample<br />
chosen is intended to serve a scientific or technical<br />
purpose (The doctor will require a blood<br />
specimen). It, too, when used more generally,<br />
may have an element <strong>of</strong> contempt or mockery<br />
(What a specimen he is! If you want a real<br />
specimen <strong>of</strong> ingratitude, here’s one!).<br />
exasperate. See aggravate.<br />
exceeding; exceedingly. The use <strong>of</strong> exceeding for<br />
exceedingly, when prefixed to adjectives or adverbs,<br />
formerly quite common (Rejoice and be<br />
exceeding glad), is now an archaism and a<br />
stately affectation.<br />
exceedingly; excessive(ly). Until well into the last<br />
century exceedingly and excessively were interchangeable,<br />
but since then there has been a<br />
differentiation in their meanings. Exceedingly<br />
now means extremely, very much, to an unusual<br />
degree (I am exceedingly grateful for the many<br />
kindnesses you have shown my son); whereas<br />
excessive now means exceeding the proper limit<br />
or degree, too much, characterized by excess<br />
(The bill was excessive. It is excessively hot for<br />
this time <strong>of</strong> year).<br />
excellent. See splendid; superlative.<br />
excelsior. The solecism in Latin grammar with<br />
which the young man in Longfellow’s famous<br />
poem startled the Alpine village has startled<br />
even more several generations <strong>of</strong> American<br />
school-children to whom the word excelsior<br />
means exclusively s<strong>of</strong>t wood shavings used for<br />
stuffing dolls or protecting fragile objects in<br />
shipment.<br />
except. See accept.<br />
except. When not used as a verb, except introduces<br />
a contradiction to something that has just been<br />
said. It may introduce a full clause beginning<br />
with that, as in she knew nothing except that he<br />
was there: a to-infinitive, as in it had no effect<br />
except to make him angry; or the simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb after some form <strong>of</strong> do, as in she did<br />
nothing except weep. Except cannot be qualified<br />
by not, when used in this way. In order to deny<br />
an exception, the word excepting must be used,<br />
as in all were there, not excepting him.<br />
Formerly, except could be used in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> “unless,” and could introduce a clause without<br />
using the word that, as in I will not let thee
go except thou bless me. This construction is<br />
now archaic or Biblical.<br />
Often the contrasting word introduced by<br />
except is a personal pronoun. Some grammarians<br />
say that, in current English, an objective<br />
form should always be used here, as me in<br />
everyone except me ran away. Others say that<br />
except is in a class with but and that a following<br />
pronoun which is placed in contrast to the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb should be subjective, as the Z in<br />
everybody is to meet him except I. In practice,<br />
most educated people use an objective form <strong>of</strong><br />
the pronoun, as in except me, in all constructions<br />
and a subjective form, such as except I,<br />
will usually be considered a mistaken effort to<br />
be “correct.”<br />
except; but; save. Except, but, and save all indicate<br />
something excluded from a general statement.<br />
Except stresses the excluding (You may<br />
have any one you choose except this one). But<br />
simply states the exclusion (AU but one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
survivors were in good healfh). Save, in this<br />
sense, is poetic. (See the individual words.)<br />
exception proves the rule. With what irritating<br />
complacency do minor oracles assure us that<br />
the exception proves the rule-usually as an impudent<br />
way <strong>of</strong> reconciling their own contradictions<br />
and inconsistencies.<br />
Were not those who so use the expression<br />
armed with triple brass, they might be abashed<br />
to know that there are few phrases in the language<br />
concerning whose exact meaning there is<br />
so much dispute. But amid all the discussion,<br />
there is at least this much agreement: it does not<br />
mean what it is popularly misused to meannamely,<br />
that the exception supports the rule.<br />
Various other explanations have been <strong>of</strong>fered,<br />
<strong>of</strong> which the most generally accepted is that the<br />
exception tests the rule. To test is one meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> to prove (Prove all things: hold fast that<br />
which is good. He saw a gentleman cheapening<br />
and proving swords) and this meaning is retained<br />
in a few phrases and names, such as the<br />
Aberdeen Proving Grounds where new military<br />
weapons are tested. But, for the most part, to<br />
prove today means to demonstrate, to evince, to<br />
establish as true.<br />
Of course there is one sense in which an exception<br />
does demonstrate the existence <strong>of</strong> a rule.<br />
The very admission that something is exceptional<br />
implies a rule or norm, and this may be<br />
taken to show that the exception proves there<br />
is a rule, but it’s fairly far-fetched. And certainly<br />
at no time does an exception support,<br />
strengthen, or demonstrate the actual working<br />
<strong>of</strong> a rule. If the exception is valid, it shows that<br />
the rule cannot be universal and must be accepted<br />
as an approximation at the best.<br />
To take exception to something is to make<br />
an objection, to demur (Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Angstrom<br />
took exception to the dean’s assertion that the<br />
entire faculty desired the proposed change).<br />
To take exception at is to be <strong>of</strong>fended (Some <strong>of</strong><br />
the more haughty <strong>of</strong> !he aristocracy did take<br />
exception at his neglecting to raise his cap to<br />
them).<br />
exceptional; exceptionable. That is exceptional<br />
which is unusual, extraordinary (Zt is an exceptional<br />
day on which he does not walk five miles.<br />
The founding fathers were exceptional men).<br />
That is exceptionable which is objectionable or<br />
liable to objection (No one could take <strong>of</strong>lense<br />
at his remarks; there was nothing exceptionable<br />
in them. His management <strong>of</strong> the business has<br />
been most exceptionable and cannot be further<br />
tolerated!). See also unique.<br />
excess. See access.<br />
exclamation points are used to show strong emotion<br />
in statements, and to emphasize commands<br />
and warnings, as in “Oh!” he gasped, “Zt’s magnificent!”<br />
Look out! Throw me the ball! They<br />
should be reserved for true exclamations and<br />
not wasted on sentences where commas would<br />
serve as well.<br />
Exclamation points can be used inside or outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> quotation marks, depending upon the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the sentence, as in He shouted “AU<br />
aboard!” and Fancy him shouting “All aboard”!<br />
If a question ends with an exclamation, the<br />
question mark can be omitted following the exclamation<br />
point, as in Who yelled “Fire!“.<br />
exclamations. An exclamation is presumably a<br />
spontaneous expression <strong>of</strong> strong emotion. In<br />
speech, the fact that a statement is an exclamation<br />
is shown by pitch. In writing this is indicated<br />
by an exclamation point at the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sentence.<br />
A sentence that begins with how, what, or<br />
why, and that has the subject before the verb<br />
is an exclamation, as in how far that little candle<br />
throws his beams!, what a surprise this is!, why,<br />
you really got here! But an exclamation may<br />
have the form <strong>of</strong> a declarative sentence, as in<br />
he is here!, or it may have the form <strong>of</strong> a question,<br />
as in are you here! Surprise and questioning<br />
are closely related and a true exclamation is<br />
likely to take the question form. The pitch<br />
leaves no doubt as to what is intended. But some<br />
people will always pretend that an exclamation<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind is a question and then point out that<br />
it is a stupid question. This is a harmless way <strong>of</strong><br />
being unpleasant and should be ignored if possible.<br />
Exclamations are frequently incomplete expressions,<br />
such as if only Z had come sooner!<br />
and that he should be such a fool! The clause<br />
that is needed to complete the thought may<br />
remain unexpressed because it is self-evident or<br />
because it is too difficult to express and words<br />
fail the speaker. When an exclamation contains<br />
a verb and no subject, as in bless his heart.’ and<br />
strike me pink!, it is usually because the subject<br />
God has been suppressed, either by the speaker<br />
or by those who taught him that form <strong>of</strong> speech.<br />
Whether to use a subjective or an objective<br />
pronoun in fragmentary exclamation is a matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> taste. The objective is more usual, but the<br />
subjective is also heard, as in me too!, lucky<br />
them!, Z dance!, me marry!, not he!, not him!,<br />
dear me!. Some grammarians claim that the pronoun<br />
should have the form that it would have<br />
if the exclamation was turned into a full dc-
ciarative sentence. But this is not borne out in<br />
speech. The practice <strong>of</strong> using either form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pronoun, with a preference for the objective, is<br />
very old in English. It is also characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
good Latin.<br />
exclusive; select. It is certainly a reflection upon<br />
our pr<strong>of</strong>essions <strong>of</strong> democracy that the word<br />
exclusive, in its commonest popular sense, in<br />
the United States today means fashionable, highclass,<br />
desirable (She belonged to the most exclusive<br />
clubs. BUY a lot in exclusive Mudflnt<br />
Heights, no down payment!). It is said that<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the most exclusive New York clubs<br />
maintain their right to the adjective by arbitrarily<br />
excluding from time to time some <strong>of</strong><br />
those who are seeking admission, <strong>of</strong>ten-just<br />
to be democratic-on an eeny-meeny-miny-mo<br />
basis.<br />
The word that implies superiority because <strong>of</strong><br />
the virtues <strong>of</strong> those included rather than the<br />
misfortune <strong>of</strong> those excluded is select. It sometimes<br />
requires a little courage to use this word<br />
in a democracy, however.<br />
excursus. The plural is excursuses or excldrsus, not<br />
excursi.<br />
excuse. See apology.<br />
excuse me; pardon me. Excuse me is the proper<br />
term by which to ask someone to overlook a<br />
minor fault, to allow someone to pass, and so<br />
on. Pardon me is a stronger term, implying a<br />
greater sense <strong>of</strong> guilt and a desire for forgiveness.<br />
Its substitution for excuse me is a mark <strong>of</strong><br />
vulgar gentility.<br />
execrable; inexecrable. Execrable means deserving<br />
to be execrated, detestable, damnable, abominable<br />
(The treatment <strong>of</strong> enlisted men on the<br />
base was execrable). Inexecrable is an obsolete<br />
form which, according to the Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>, is either an intensive for execrable<br />
(that is, very execrable) or a misprint for inexorable,<br />
unyielding, not to be moved by prayers<br />
or entreaty (In The Merchant <strong>of</strong> Venice we<br />
read: 0 be thou damn’d, inexecrable dogge).<br />
Since the word is now obsolete, it doesn’t much<br />
matter which.<br />
executive. In England executive as a noun is used<br />
solely (or was until recently; the American<br />
usage is appearing there) to designate that<br />
branch <strong>of</strong> the government which carries out the<br />
laws. In America it means this, but it is also<br />
applied to an <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> a business organization,<br />
especially to a high <strong>of</strong>ficer who has important<br />
duties. Already, however, it is being debased<br />
or broadened to include many who but two<br />
generations ago would have ignominiously been<br />
dubbed clerks.<br />
An interesting special development <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adjective executive in the United States to mean<br />
private, in the term executive session, is traced<br />
by Horwill. When the United States Senate proceeds<br />
to deal with executive, as apart from<br />
legislative, business-when it considers, that is,<br />
nominations for <strong>of</strong>fice, the conclusion <strong>of</strong> treaties,<br />
or other executive matters-it goes into executive<br />
session, and from such sessions the public<br />
and the press are excluded. From this fact the<br />
167 exhibit<br />
term came to be applied to all private sessions<br />
and the original meaning, in this context, seems<br />
to have been lost. Horwill quotes a passage from<br />
the Intimate Papers <strong>of</strong> Colonel House in which<br />
Colonel House refers to a private conversation<br />
he had with Woodrow Wilson, when Wilson had<br />
“closed his study door so as not to be interrupted,”<br />
as an executive session.<br />
executor has now almost entirely replaced executer<br />
and executioner as the term for one who executes<br />
or carries out or accomplishes. Executioner<br />
has been relegated to its special meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who inflicts capital punishment in pursuance<br />
<strong>of</strong> a legal warrant. Executor is thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> chiefly in its legal sense <strong>of</strong> one named by a<br />
decedent il his will to carry out the provisions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the will, but it is also now the term for a<br />
general executing agent, executer being rarely<br />
seen or heard any more.<br />
exegesis. The plural is exegeses.<br />
exemplar; exemplary. As a term for a model, or<br />
a pattern to be copied, or an example or typical<br />
instance, exemplar has been replaced almost<br />
entirely in popular use by example. The word<br />
would be understood, but it would be felt to be<br />
affectedly literary.<br />
Exemplary, which means worthy <strong>of</strong> imitation,<br />
or serving for a model or pattern or a warning<br />
(His courage made him an exemplary soldier.<br />
The penalty was severe but exemplary) is sometimes<br />
used as if it meant excellent. It may mean<br />
that, <strong>of</strong> course, but unless the element <strong>of</strong> establishing<br />
a pattern, a model, or a warning is in<br />
the meaning, it should not be employed.<br />
exercise; exorcise. Exercise is the use, practice, or<br />
performance <strong>of</strong> something (The exercise <strong>of</strong> a<br />
virtue strengthens it), especially <strong>of</strong> the body<br />
(Daily exercise is recommended as healthful by<br />
almost all physicians). Exorcise, a much rarer<br />
word, is the expulsion <strong>of</strong> an evil spirit by adjuration<br />
and religious ceremonies.<br />
exercises. The term exercises is applied in the<br />
United States to numerous formal ceremonies<br />
(The prrlduation exercises will be in the Hiah<br />
khoor auditorium and will begin promptly bt<br />
eight) but in England the term is limited to<br />
religious exercises.<br />
exert; exercise. Though exert and exercise are<br />
interchangeable in some contexts, exert has<br />
come to mean the putting forth <strong>of</strong> more energy<br />
in a particular activity as against the idea <strong>of</strong> a<br />
constant and repeated activity in exercise (Zf<br />
you would only exert yourself, you could do it<br />
easily. What good is a virtue unexercised?).<br />
exhausted. See tired.<br />
exhausting; exhaustive. Exhausting means using<br />
up completely, especially the using up <strong>of</strong> physical<br />
energy to the point <strong>of</strong> fatigue (Zt was an<br />
exhausting day). Exhaustive means thorough,<br />
testing all possibilities (He mode an exhaustive<br />
srtr,‘ey. His study <strong>of</strong> verb endings was exhaustive<br />
and exhausting; the subject was thoroughly<br />
canvassed and he and everybody who had to<br />
listen to him were thoroughly worn out by the<br />
time it was done).<br />
exhibit. See evince.
exhilarate 168<br />
exhilarate. See accelerate.<br />
exist; subsist. To exist is to be, to have life or<br />
animation, to continue to live (Life could not<br />
exist without the sun. The idea that a heretic<br />
might have any civil rights simply did not exist).<br />
To subsist connotes to exist dependently. One<br />
could not say The idea that a heretic might have<br />
any civil rights simply did not subsist, but one<br />
could say Superstition subsists upon ignorance,<br />
meaning that it maintains or supports itself by<br />
this means (Some animals subsist upon vegetables.<br />
From that time on he subsisted on his<br />
writings).<br />
exit is the third person singular present <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Latin verb exire, to go out. Its use in stage directions<br />
has led to its being employed as a noun<br />
meaning a going out or a place <strong>of</strong> going out.<br />
It is sometimes used with ponderous facetiousness<br />
as a verb (Exit Joe Doakes), even as a<br />
plural (There was a moment’s silence, then exit<br />
Sam and Edna). If one must speak Latin, it<br />
should be exeunt in the plural. Best, except as<br />
a stage direction, is not to use it at all.<br />
exoteric. See esoteric.<br />
exotic; outlandish; uncouth. Exotic means <strong>of</strong> foreign<br />
origin, not native, introduced from abroad<br />
but not-yet acclimatized. When Murphy in his<br />
translation <strong>of</strong> Tacitus ( 1793) said that a certain<br />
people invited an exotic king’to reign over them,<br />
he simply meant a king from another country.<br />
A clear instance <strong>of</strong> this, the primary meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word, is given in an article in The Nutional<br />
Geographic Magazine (August 1954).<br />
The author had been discussing the sudden appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the cattle egret in places where it<br />
had not been seen before. After experiences<br />
with such introduced species as the house sparrow<br />
and starling, he says, we naturally view<br />
exotic birds with a jaundiced eye.<br />
Certainly the sparrow is not generally thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> as an exotic bird, for the word in its common<br />
use does not mean “introduced from abroad”<br />
but suggests the glamorous (see glamor) and<br />
romantic (see romantic) things which the naive<br />
associate with “imported.” The strange is colorful,<br />
rich, attractive, rare and wonderful. It<br />
is usually expensive and (perhaps therefore)<br />
slightly wicked. And all <strong>of</strong> these meanings, mingled<br />
in varying degrees, are in exotic in its popular<br />
uses. The dictionaries still give “<strong>of</strong> foreign<br />
origin” the primacy in definition but-at least<br />
for American usage-they are behind the times.<br />
The word is rarely heard now in that sense. The<br />
sentence quoted above from The National Geographic<br />
Magazine would probably be a little<br />
puzzling to the common reader. An American<br />
tailor who assured a customer that he had some<br />
fine, new, exotic flannels and worsteds would,<br />
if the customer were a man, probably lose a sale.<br />
That which comes from a foreign land is also,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten, repellent in its strangeness, absurd and<br />
ridiculous. And these meanings, which were<br />
once in exotic (entering the city in that exotick<br />
and barbarous garb) have now been transferred<br />
to its homely Anglo-Saxon equivalent, outlandish.<br />
Uncouth originally meant unknown. The old<br />
proverb Uncouth unltissed, which might now<br />
serve as an advertisement for a book <strong>of</strong> etiquette,<br />
simply meant that those who were not<br />
known would go unwooed. It was an earlier way<br />
<strong>of</strong> saying that full many a flower is born to<br />
blush unseen and waste its sweetness on the<br />
desert air. But all idea <strong>of</strong> the unknown has now<br />
faded from uncouth and only the ideas <strong>of</strong><br />
strange, rough, and alien remain.<br />
expect may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
England expects every man to do his duty, or by<br />
a clause, as in I expect he will come. Expect is<br />
sometimes used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a present or past<br />
event, as in I expect you’re hungry and I expect<br />
he was there. This was once literary English and<br />
the word is still used in this way by educated<br />
people in the United States. In Great Britain<br />
this use is condemned as an Americanism.<br />
expectorate; spit. The practice <strong>of</strong> euphemism can<br />
be dangerous for the unwary and the uninformed.<br />
Sometimes in seeking to be refined<br />
and elegant they choose a worse word than the<br />
one they seek to avoid. Spit, for example, is a<br />
perfectly good word to describe a natural and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten necessary act; whereas expectorate, which<br />
is sometimes preferred to it by those who think<br />
they are being more delicate, is not only ponderous<br />
but more unpleasant. For to spit is, properly,<br />
to eject saliva from the mouth, but to<br />
expectorate is to bring up and expel phlegm<br />
from the lungs by coughing, hawking, or spitting.<br />
Thus a directive <strong>of</strong> the Breen <strong>of</strong>fice, which is<br />
concerned with Hollywood’s manners as well as<br />
its morals but not, apparently, with its sense <strong>of</strong><br />
style, suggested that directors Eliminate, wherever<br />
it occurs, the action <strong>of</strong> actually expectorating<br />
Spit (Time, Oct. 25, 1954). Eliminate<br />
spitting would probably have been more accurate<br />
and certainly would have been more direct.<br />
Anyone actually expectorating Spit would be<br />
choking and strangling. Time, which has its own<br />
standards <strong>of</strong> style, refers to the directive as<br />
blunt.<br />
expedient. See politic.<br />
expensive. See costly.<br />
experiment (noun). See trial.<br />
expire; terminate. As a transitive verb expire<br />
means to breathe out (He expired his last<br />
breath just at the turning <strong>of</strong> the tide). As an<br />
intransitive verb it means to come to an end<br />
(The lease expired in lanuary) . For a transitive<br />
verb meaning to bring to an end, terminate<br />
serves for many <strong>of</strong> the uses <strong>of</strong> expire (The<br />
landlord says that he will terminate the lease in<br />
January).<br />
explain; elucidate; expound; interpret. To explain<br />
is used sometimes as if it meant merely to<br />
show. It means to make clear or intelligible<br />
(Explaining metaphysics to the nation./ I wish<br />
he would explain his explanation-Byron on<br />
Coleridge).<br />
To elucidate is to throw light on, usually by<br />
illustration or commentary, sometimes by elaborate<br />
explanation (His notes elucidate the text.
These actions elucidate his policy far better than<br />
words). The word is now used in a figurative<br />
sense only.<br />
To expound is to give a methodical, scholarly<br />
explanation. It is used now almost entirely in<br />
reference to the Scriptures, to doctrines, to philosophy.<br />
It is a grave and ponderous word and<br />
therefore lends itself to humor (For four hours<br />
he expounded the text, under thirty-six separate<br />
and edifying headings. She . . . quaintly could<br />
expound/ The Chicken-feeding power <strong>of</strong> every<br />
crumb she found).<br />
To interpret is to give the meaning <strong>of</strong> something<br />
by paraphrase, translation, or explanation.<br />
It is <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong> a systematic nature and <strong>of</strong>ten includes<br />
the interpreter’s own opinions (This interpretation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the poem caused considerable<br />
consternation among the older pr<strong>of</strong>essors who<br />
had always believed it to be a mere description<br />
<strong>of</strong> a summer’s day).<br />
explicit; express. Explicit means that nothing is<br />
implied, that everything meant is expressed<br />
clearly and unequivocally (It was explicitly<br />
stated that you were in no way obligated to<br />
him). Express also means clearly stated rather<br />
than implied (There was an express stipulation<br />
to that effect). But, as Fowler points out, with<br />
his incomparable clarity and subtlety, there is a<br />
useful distinction between the words: explicit<br />
means that something has been expressed clearly<br />
and in detail, with nothing left to implication;<br />
express means that and in addition means that<br />
it is worded with intention. That which is promised<br />
explicitly is unmistakable in its meaning;<br />
that which is promised expressly binds the maker<br />
<strong>of</strong> the promise inescapably.<br />
exploit. See use.<br />
explore every avenue. See avenue.<br />
expose. See disclose.<br />
expos6; exposure. The French noun expose’ means<br />
an exposure <strong>of</strong> something discreditable. The<br />
English exposure can mean the revealing or<br />
uncovering <strong>of</strong> anything, good or bad (The exposure<br />
<strong>of</strong> the bone showed the depth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wound), that has hitherto been covered or concealed<br />
from sight. Since virtues are rarely concealed<br />
and vices and crimes almost always are,<br />
usage has weighted the word, in its application<br />
to human motives and actions, towards the discreditable.<br />
It is hard to conceive <strong>of</strong> any context<br />
in which the French form would be essential<br />
and it is a safe rule not to use foreign words<br />
where they do not serve a purpose that cannot<br />
be served by an English word.<br />
expound. See explain.<br />
express. See explicit.<br />
express (an opinion). See voice.<br />
extemporaneous; impromptu; improvised. Extemporaneous<br />
and extemporary are adjectives, extempore<br />
an adjective and an adverb, meaning<br />
on the spur <strong>of</strong> the moment, <strong>of</strong>fhand, without<br />
premeditation or preparation. They are applied<br />
especially to speeches given from an outline or<br />
notes. Impromptu applies to a speech or an<br />
artistic performance <strong>of</strong> some kind which one is<br />
called upon to give at the moment, without<br />
169 exterior<br />
warning (For an impromptu effort, it was brilliant).<br />
Improvised is applied to something composed,<br />
or recited, sung, or acted, on a particular<br />
occasion and which is, at least in part, made up<br />
as the speaker or performer goes along (The<br />
improvised variations on the theme were much<br />
admired). See also impromptu; temporize.<br />
extemporize. See temporize.<br />
extend. To extend is to stretch or draw out and its<br />
use is proper any place that this meaning is<br />
intended or implied or latent in a metaphor.<br />
To extend a hand in welcome has a literal meaning<br />
which is latent in extending a welcome. But<br />
what is meant in the common usage <strong>of</strong> extending<br />
sympathy? One can conceive, <strong>of</strong> course, <strong>of</strong><br />
sympathy being extended to include those <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
excluded from it, as a philosopher or a sentimentalist<br />
might extend his sympathy from the victim<br />
to the murderer himself, but in ordinary usage<br />
extend here means nothing more than ogler or<br />
send. This is particularly an American fault: we<br />
extend thanks, when we only give them, and<br />
extend calls (to fill pulpits) when we only make<br />
them. Back <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> these uses may be a<br />
faint and blurred idea <strong>of</strong> extending the hand in<br />
fellowship or beckoning, but the word is so<br />
useful in its proper meaning (The congregation,<br />
on further thought, extended the call to include<br />
Dr. Thompson, Dr. Albert’s assistant) that it is<br />
too bad to debase it.<br />
extended; extensive. That is extended which is<br />
stretched out, continued or prolonged, spread<br />
out (Thus Satan . . ./ Prone on the flood, extended<br />
long and large,/ Lay floating many a<br />
rood). Extensive, when applied to spatial dimensions,<br />
means <strong>of</strong> great extent, wide, broad (Lord<br />
Byron’s extensive domains . . .). When applied<br />
to remarks or conversation or discussions, however,<br />
extended means prolonged and extensive<br />
means far-reaching, comprehensive, thorough<br />
(His extended remarks grew very tedious. His<br />
extensive knowledge makes him a delightful<br />
conversationalist).<br />
extent; extant. Extent is a noun meaning the space<br />
or degree to which a thing extends. Extant is an<br />
adjective meaning that something is in existence,<br />
not lost or destroyed (The extent to which<br />
Shakespeare’s manuscripts were extant at the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> the compiling <strong>of</strong> the First Folio is a<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> dispute).<br />
extenuate. To extenuate is, properly, to make<br />
thin, or to reduce the consistency or density <strong>of</strong>.<br />
It has come to be applied figuratively to faults,<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> representing them in as favorable<br />
a light as possible by finding excuses for them<br />
(Such cruelty cannot be extenuated by claiming<br />
that it was only thoughtlessness. Extenuating<br />
circumstances. Speak <strong>of</strong> me as I am; nothing<br />
extenuate,/ Nor set down aught in malice).<br />
One cannot extenuate behavior or conduct; it<br />
has to be bad behavior and bad conduct. And<br />
one cannot use extenunte merely to mean making<br />
excuses for.<br />
exterior; external. The exterior is the outer surface,<br />
and exterior, as an adjective, refers to that<br />
which is outside or on the outside (The exterior
extort 170<br />
surface <strong>of</strong> the pumpkin is smooth and hard.<br />
The exterior decorations <strong>of</strong> the building were<br />
not in keeping with its dignity). External is the<br />
opposite <strong>of</strong> internal. It is the outer part <strong>of</strong> something,<br />
as contrasted with its inner part, not<br />
merely the outer surface, and it is that which<br />
is apart from something else by being outside <strong>of</strong><br />
it (The external structure <strong>of</strong> the building did<br />
not prepare one for the inner arrangement <strong>of</strong> its<br />
space. External influences affect the child far<br />
less the first three years <strong>of</strong> its life than, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, they will later).<br />
extort. See elicit.<br />
extract. See elicit.<br />
extraneons; extrinsic. That is extraneous which<br />
does not belong to a thing but has been introduced<br />
or has come in from the outside. Fossils<br />
were once called extraneous shells because it<br />
was felt that they could not naturally belong<br />
in the rocks in which they were found but must<br />
have been introduced in some mysterious manner.<br />
An extraneous consideration is a thought<br />
brought into a discussion that has no real place<br />
in it, that did not arise in the course <strong>of</strong> the<br />
discussion.<br />
Extrinsic exists now wholly as an antithesis to<br />
intrinsic. It means something operating or coming<br />
from the outside. Intrinsic merit is inherent<br />
virtue; extrinsic merit would be some virtue or<br />
fabrication. See fiction.<br />
fabulous, which originally meant told about in<br />
fables (the fabulous voyage <strong>of</strong> Ulysses) and<br />
known only through myths and legends (the<br />
fabulous Golden Age in Greece), has come to<br />
mean, chiefly, almost incredible (My dear, she<br />
paid a simply fabulous price for it). As such it<br />
it a vogue word, overworked and weakened<br />
from overwork, and should be allowed to rest.<br />
face; countenance; physiognomy. The face is the<br />
front part <strong>of</strong> the head, from the forehead to<br />
the chin, with special reference to its composite<br />
features (But Lancelot mused a little<br />
space./ He said, “She hath a lovely face”). The<br />
countenance is the face with special reference<br />
to its expression (God made your features, but<br />
you made your countenance. His countenance<br />
fell at the news). The verb to countenance,<br />
meaning to support, to regard with favor (I beseech<br />
you sir,/ To countenance William Visor<br />
<strong>of</strong> Wonscott, against Clement Perkes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hill) is derived from turning a favorable countenance<br />
upon.<br />
Physiognomy, when used seriously, refers to<br />
the face as an index <strong>of</strong> character (His physiognomy<br />
reflected great benevolence). However,<br />
since many believe that “there is no art to find<br />
F<br />
evaluation imposed from without, unrelated to<br />
an inner merit. The intrinsic value <strong>of</strong> a certain<br />
cancelled stamp might be inestimably small,<br />
whatever so little a piece <strong>of</strong> old paper was worth;<br />
but its extrinsic value, if it were a rare item,<br />
might be enormous.<br />
eyeglasses. Until recently, the word eyeglasses<br />
meant spectacles that did not have side pieces<br />
going over the ears. In the United States today<br />
these things are called eyeglasses so long as the<br />
frames have a modern design, ear pieces or no<br />
ear pieces. The word spectacles suggests the very<br />
old. The singular eyeglass means one lens and is<br />
used in this way when speaking <strong>of</strong> a scientific<br />
instrument, such as a telescope. The pair <strong>of</strong><br />
lenses ordinarily worn for reading is treated as<br />
a plural, as in these eyeglasses are too strong.<br />
In order to treat this object as a singular or to<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> more than one <strong>of</strong> them, it is necessary<br />
to say this pair <strong>of</strong> eyeglasses is too strong or<br />
three pairs <strong>of</strong> eyeglasses.<br />
Theoretically, the singular form eyeglass<br />
should be used as the first element in a compound,<br />
even when referring to reading glasses,<br />
as in an eyeglass case. But in actual practice,<br />
the word is always shortened to glasses and this<br />
form is used in compounds, as in my glasses<br />
case.<br />
the mind’s construction in the face,” it should<br />
be used seriously with caution. Facetiously used,<br />
it is ponderous and tedious.<br />
face the music, as a term for standing up to<br />
trouble, accepting punishment, is a cliche, and,<br />
as in many cliches, the figure is not certain.<br />
Some think it refers to a singer’s facing the<br />
orchestra as he or she faces the audience. But<br />
this is not entirely satisfactory, since very few<br />
performers regard facing the music in this way<br />
as trouble or punishment. Some think it has to<br />
do with being drummed out <strong>of</strong> a regiment in<br />
disgrace.<br />
facies has the same form in the singular as in the<br />
plural and may be used with either a singular<br />
or a plural verb.<br />
facile; easy. As a synonym for easy, facile has a<br />
disparaging sense (With no facile labor did I<br />
gather these materials). There is a feeling that<br />
since “nothing great is lightly won,” that which<br />
is done facilely is not much worth the doing. A<br />
facile pen is the counterpart <strong>of</strong> a glib tongue.<br />
facility; faculty. A facility is something which<br />
makes possible the easier performance <strong>of</strong> an<br />
action, freedom from difficulty, ease, opportunities<br />
or conditions which make an easier performance<br />
possible (Every facility was placed at
his disposal. The transportation facilities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
metropolitan area make suburban living pleasant<br />
and convenient here).<br />
A faculty (in the sense in which the word<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten confused with facility) is an ability,<br />
natural or acquired, for a particular kind <strong>of</strong><br />
action (Boswell’s astonishing faculty for making<br />
friends). It also designates one <strong>of</strong> the mental<br />
powers, as memory, reason, and so on (AIthough<br />
now in his ninety-third year, he had<br />
full possession <strong>of</strong> all his faculties).<br />
fact. The phrase the fact that may be used to<br />
introduce a noun clause, especially after a preposition<br />
or a verb that cannot take a clause as<br />
object, as in I am impressed by the fact that you<br />
were there and I don’t like the fact that you<br />
were there. This construction is natural enough<br />
so long as we are talking about a real event in<br />
the past or present. The word it performs this<br />
same function after many prepositions and a<br />
few verbs and is preferred in literary English<br />
for statements about a future or imaginary<br />
event, as in Z don’t like it that you are going<br />
away and see to it that you are on time.<br />
The fact that is a favorite expression in scientific<br />
writing and is greatly overworked. It is<br />
preferred to the literary it and is <strong>of</strong>ten inserted<br />
where that is all that is required, as in he demonstrated<br />
the fact that fwo and two make four<br />
and he remembered the fact that supper would<br />
be late. Sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind show that the<br />
writer has a scientific respect for facts, even<br />
though he cannot identify one.<br />
factious; factitious; fictitious. One is factious who<br />
is motivated solely by party spirit. He is a member<br />
<strong>of</strong> a faction (a small group within a larger<br />
group) and creates faction (party strife or intrigue).<br />
So that which is factious is caused by<br />
party spirit or strife (These factious quarrels<br />
have almost destroyed the party. The factious<br />
dread prosperity, for they live on discontent).<br />
That is factitious which is artificial. It used<br />
to have a literal meaning (Boyle spoke <strong>of</strong> Beer,<br />
Ale, or other factitious drinks) but it is now restricted<br />
to immaterial things (Luxury creutes<br />
factitious wants) and is applied to things that<br />
may have their origin in custom or habit but<br />
are not natural. It has the meaning also <strong>of</strong> conventional<br />
and it means something not spontaneous,<br />
something got up for a particular<br />
occasion (The use <strong>of</strong> gold and silver is in a great<br />
measure factitious. That the applause which<br />
greeted the candidate was wholly factitious was<br />
shown by the suddenness with which it stopped<br />
when the chairman motioned for silence).<br />
That is fictitious which is based on fiction,<br />
which is represented as real but is actually imaginary.<br />
Thus a factious claim would be one<br />
advanced solely in the interest <strong>of</strong> party or one<br />
designed to arouse party strife. A factitious<br />
claim is one that would not have been made but<br />
has been created and pushed forward to suit<br />
some private end. A fictitious claim is either<br />
one that has never actually been made or one<br />
that has an entirely imaginary basis.<br />
factitive adjectives. See position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
171 fairly<br />
factor is one <strong>of</strong> the elements that contribute to<br />
bring about a given result (Certainly his drinking<br />
was a factor in his ruin). Hence to speak <strong>of</strong><br />
a contributing factor is to be redundant. To use<br />
factor as if it meant simply an occurrence or an<br />
event (as in One <strong>of</strong> the most pleasant factors <strong>of</strong><br />
our trip was a visit to the Mammoth Cave) is<br />
incorrect.<br />
faculty. In England the word faculty, in its educational<br />
sense, retains the old meaning <strong>of</strong> one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the departments <strong>of</strong> teaching in a universitythe<br />
faculty <strong>of</strong> Medicine, <strong>of</strong> Law, <strong>of</strong> Theology,<br />
<strong>of</strong> Arts. In the United States it designates the<br />
entire teaching staff <strong>of</strong> a university and sometimes<br />
the administrative staff as well. When used<br />
in this sense, the word means the entire group<br />
and not an individual member <strong>of</strong> the group.<br />
The ulural form faculties would imulv more<br />
than one school. The singular word maybe used<br />
with a plural verb, as in the faculty are meeting<br />
this afternoon. But it should not be used with<br />
the article a or with a numeral as it is in three<br />
faculty were present. See also facility.<br />
faery; fairy. Fairies are supernatural beings, generally<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as diminutive humans, having<br />
magical powers which they exercise capriciously<br />
(The fairy footings on the grass). Their land is<br />
fairyland. Faerie was originally simply a variant<br />
spelling <strong>of</strong> fairy, but Spenser, in his The Faerie<br />
Queene, impressed on it a meaning <strong>of</strong> a dim,<br />
mysterious, romantic, imaginative land, beautiful<br />
but with shades <strong>of</strong> terror and despair,<br />
wholly purged <strong>of</strong> the undignified gamboling and<br />
hopping about <strong>of</strong> the fairies (None that breatheth<br />
living aire does know/ Where is that happy<br />
land <strong>of</strong> Fuery). Keats set the final seal <strong>of</strong> differentiation<br />
on the word in his reference to<br />
magic casements, opening on the foam,/ Of<br />
perilous seas, in faery lands forlorn.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> fairy as a slang term for a male<br />
homosexual is so widespread in America that<br />
it is almost impossible to use the word in public<br />
with any other meaning.<br />
fail may be followed by an infinitive, as in he<br />
failed fo notice it. It could once be followed by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he failed noticing<br />
it, but this construction is now obsolete.<br />
failing. See fault.<br />
fair and square is a hearty banality that has stuck<br />
like a bur in popular speech because it rimes.<br />
It is quite meaningless.<br />
fair; fairly. Fair has been an adverb as long as it<br />
has been an adjective and can be used to qualify<br />
a verb, as in play fair. Like many other adverbs,<br />
such as slow and hard, it cannot be used before<br />
the verb form. And it cannot be used, as fairly<br />
can, to mean “almost,” as in he fair jumped.<br />
Fairly is always an adverb and is not used to<br />
qualify a noun.<br />
fairly means justly, impartially, clearly, distinctly,<br />
handsomely (He will judge fairly between you.<br />
A fairly woven garment). It also means completely,<br />
positively, actually (His hobby has fairly<br />
run away with him). This use is <strong>of</strong>ten employed<br />
in exaggeration where the particular emphasis<br />
makes it plain that it means “almost as if”
faithfully 172<br />
rather than actually (The laughter fairly rocked<br />
the building). At the same time, it can mean<br />
moderately, passably, tolerably (Things are going<br />
fairly well with me now. You’re fairly safe,<br />
if you watch what you’re doing) and there are<br />
many written contexts in which one cannot be<br />
sure which <strong>of</strong> the two meanings i’s intended.<br />
There is never any doubt in speaking since the<br />
intonation <strong>of</strong> the voice will always make the<br />
meaning clear.<br />
faithfully. See sincerely.<br />
faker; fakir. A faker is one who fakes, a petty<br />
swindler (Both ladies then came to the conclusion<br />
that the fortune teller was a faker). A fakir<br />
is a Mohammedan or Hindu religious ascetic or<br />
mendicant monk. The two words are <strong>of</strong>ten confused,<br />
more out <strong>of</strong> ignorance presumably than<br />
skepticism.<br />
fall. The past tense is fell. The participle is fallen.<br />
Fall may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
with the preposition to, as in I fell to eating.<br />
It could once be used in this sense with an infinitive,<br />
as in I fell to eat, but this construction<br />
is now obsolete.<br />
Full may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
what falls, as in smiling, the boy fell dead.<br />
It may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the fall, as in it fell silently.<br />
fallacy. See mistake.<br />
fall between two stools. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who<br />
has failed because he was unable to choose<br />
between alternatives that he has fallen between<br />
two stools is to employ a cliche. The proverb<br />
once had considerable force and more robust<br />
expression (Between two stools the ars goeth to<br />
the ground) but it has been exhausted by overuse.<br />
fallen. See fall.<br />
fall to with a will, as a term for starting in to<br />
eat heartily, is trite.<br />
falsehood. See lie.<br />
falseness; falsity. Both falseness and falsity define<br />
a quality <strong>of</strong> nonconformance with the truth. But<br />
they cannot always be used interchangeably.<br />
Falseness applies to persons and implies an intentional<br />
departure from truth or loyalty (The<br />
falseness <strong>of</strong> the declaration was embarrassingly<br />
obvious. The guilt <strong>of</strong> falseness in their hearts).<br />
Falsity is usually applied to reports and documents,<br />
doctrines and opinions (Such reports<br />
bear their falsity upon their faces. This doctrine,<br />
whose falsity has been a dozen times exposed<br />
. . .). Falseness suggests more intentional<br />
untruthfulness than does falsity.<br />
fame. See celebrity.<br />
family is a group name and may be used with a<br />
singular verb, as in the family that has just<br />
moved in. But usually the speaker has in mind<br />
the individual members <strong>of</strong> a family, and in that<br />
case a plural verb is required. My family is all<br />
sick is not standard English because the all<br />
proves that the speaker is thinking <strong>of</strong> the individual<br />
members, and this in turn requires a<br />
plural verb.<br />
famous. See notable.<br />
fancy; fantasy; phantasy; imagination. Fancy is<br />
now confined to light and <strong>of</strong>ten playful imaginings<br />
(In the spring a young man’s fancy/ Lightly<br />
turns to thoughts <strong>of</strong> love). A fancy waistcoat<br />
would be one designed to please a fanciful taste.<br />
It would be a little out <strong>of</strong> the ordinary, but not<br />
much.<br />
Though Fowler and Partridge make a distinction<br />
between fantasy and phantasy, assigning to<br />
the former the sense <strong>of</strong> caprice and to the latter<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> a visionary notion, no such differentiation<br />
is maintained by American dictionaries.<br />
The two words are regarded as variants, with<br />
the preference being given to fantasy which is<br />
given the meaning <strong>of</strong> unrestrained or extravagant<br />
fancy bordering, sometimes, upon insanity<br />
(These fantasies are <strong>of</strong>ten dangerous). A fantastic<br />
waistcoat would be one so extravagant in<br />
design or material or both as to be ludicrous.<br />
Few words in our language have had their<br />
meanings so thoroughly discussed as imagination.<br />
Generations <strong>of</strong> Ph.D. candidates have<br />
sucked a thin aliment from the problem. And<br />
the best one can make <strong>of</strong> all the discussion is<br />
that imagination, as applied to artistic creation,<br />
means the blending <strong>of</strong> memories and experiences<br />
in the mind <strong>of</strong> the artist in such a way as<br />
to produce something that has never existed before,<br />
yet something that may have in it a vision<br />
or interpretation <strong>of</strong> reality hitherto unperceived<br />
(The lunatic, the lover, and the poet, [and, one<br />
might add, the literary critic when on this subject]<br />
/ Are <strong>of</strong> imagination all compact).<br />
far. The comparative form is further or further.<br />
The superlative form is furthest or farthest. The<br />
forms farther and furthest can only be used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> distance. The forms further and<br />
furthest can be used in this sense and also in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> additional, as in further details and<br />
further delay. Some grammarians would like to<br />
restrict further and furthest to figurative senses<br />
but this is a hope and not a description <strong>of</strong> current<br />
usage. It seems more likely that farther and<br />
farthest will be dropped from the language and<br />
further and furthest become the only acceptable<br />
forms. That has not yet happened, however.<br />
And to pronounce the positive form fur as if it<br />
were spelled fur is not standard at present.<br />
In Great Britain the word far is no longer<br />
used to qualify a noun, except in set phrases<br />
such as the fur north, a far cry. This is not true<br />
in the United States where fur is still used as an<br />
adjective in natural speech, as in put it in the<br />
far corner and open the far window. For all<br />
the further, see all.<br />
far be it from me, as a rhetorical disclaimer, is<br />
not only a cliche but, <strong>of</strong>ten, a piece <strong>of</strong> humbug.<br />
It is interesting that Joseph’s protestation <strong>of</strong> innocence<br />
in the business <strong>of</strong> the cup in his brother’s<br />
sack (Genesis, 44:17) which was prefaced in<br />
Wycliffe’s edition with Fer be it fro me that Z<br />
thus do, was changed in the Ring James version<br />
to read God forbid that Z should do so and then<br />
changed back in the Revised Standard Version<br />
to Far be it from me that I should do so. Appar-
ently the latest translators felt a little uneasy at<br />
letting Joseph invoke God to support him in a<br />
deception, however well intentioned.<br />
far from the madding crowd. One reason that<br />
the crowd is madding is that its members are<br />
addicted to clichCs, <strong>of</strong> which this (<strong>of</strong>ten misquoted<br />
as maddening) is one.<br />
fascination. To fascinate is to hold by enchantment<br />
(The fascination <strong>of</strong> her charms held him<br />
a happy slave). As a term <strong>of</strong> exaggerated compliment<br />
it is applied to pleasant things and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
has no more meaning than attractive (My dear,<br />
what a perfectly fascinating bracelet!). As SO<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten when exaggeration has defeated itself, a<br />
last desperate attempt to give the term meaning<br />
is made by accenting the word shrilly. When the<br />
word is used seriously and literally, it more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten applies to unpleasant things, to extreme<br />
terror (Helpless with fear, the rabbit stared,<br />
fascinated, at the approuching stoat).<br />
Something has a fascination for one. One is<br />
fascinated by a person and with an inanimate<br />
object. Fascination <strong>of</strong> by itself is ambiguous. If<br />
one speaks <strong>of</strong> the fascination <strong>of</strong> X by Y, the<br />
meaning is plain, but if one speaks merely <strong>of</strong><br />
the fascination <strong>of</strong> X it is not always clear whether<br />
it means that X was fascinated or fascinating.<br />
fashion; manner. Fashion is prevailing custom or<br />
style, conventional usage or conformity to it. It<br />
was also used formerly to mean manner and<br />
method (He huth importun’d me with love,/ In<br />
honourable fashion) but this use is now obsolescent<br />
or out <strong>of</strong> fashion. Manner is now used<br />
in reference to individuals and fashion reserved<br />
for the custom prevailing among people in general<br />
(He had a strange manner <strong>of</strong> speaking. It<br />
was the fashion to prolong the vowels and swullow<br />
the consonants).<br />
fast is as truly an adverb as it is an adjective. The<br />
specifically adverbial form fustly is now obsolete.<br />
fastidious; finical; squeamish. Fastidious means<br />
hard to please, excessively critical, over-nice<br />
(The lute nineteenth century was in many ways<br />
a fastidious age, full <strong>of</strong> false refinement. I must<br />
say he’s not at all fastidious about what he piles<br />
on his plate). Though its proper sense is pejorative,<br />
it is a point-<strong>of</strong>-view word; what seems excessively<br />
critical to one man may seem justly<br />
appraising to another. So that we sometimes<br />
find it used in an approving way (She’s very<br />
dainty and fastidious).<br />
Finical or more commonly finicky is never<br />
used praisingly. There is a connotation <strong>of</strong> contempt<br />
in it. The one who uses the word feels<br />
that there is no justification for the finicky one’s<br />
distaste (Yet after all that finicky revising there<br />
isn’t a well-written sentence in the book!).<br />
Squeamish is the strongest word <strong>of</strong> the three,<br />
for it means one whose repugnance to the improper<br />
or the distasteful is great enough to<br />
induce nausea. It is still used in its original<br />
sense (The very sight <strong>of</strong> a safety belt makes me<br />
squeamish) but chiefly employed figuratively<br />
(trijZes magnified into importance by a squeam-<br />
173<br />
ish conscience. I’ll warrant it’s some squeamish<br />
minx as my wife, that’s grown so dainty <strong>of</strong> lute,<br />
she finds fault even with a dirty shirt). See also<br />
nice.<br />
fat; corpulent; stout; plump. Fat is the informal,<br />
everyday word. It formerly connoted a good<br />
deal <strong>of</strong> jolliness, and still does to some extent,<br />
but increasingly it is coming to have unpleasant<br />
implications (Nobody loves a fat man. She’s too<br />
fat, she’s too jut, she’s too fat for me). Corpulent<br />
suggests fleshly bulk. It’s rather a stilted<br />
word. Falstaff calls himself a good portly man i’<br />
faith, and a corpulent, but he is burlesquing the<br />
sonorous dignity <strong>of</strong> Henry IV’s speech at the<br />
time. Stout, now a euphemism for fat, especially<br />
in reference to ladies and in the garment industry,<br />
suggests a heavily built but usually strong<br />
and healthy body. It was used much formerly<br />
to mean vigorous, brave, undismayed, <strong>of</strong> great<br />
staying power. Keats’s tribute to stout Cortes<br />
would be ludicrous if the modern meaning were<br />
read into it. Plump, also a euphemism for jut,<br />
connotes a pleasing roundness, an attractive<br />
fulness <strong>of</strong> flesh.<br />
fatal; fateful. The primary meaning <strong>of</strong> fateful is<br />
“involving momentous consequences.” The day<br />
on which a man began something <strong>of</strong> great import<br />
to him, whether <strong>of</strong> good or ill, would be a<br />
fateful day for him. That is fatal which causes<br />
or initiates death or ruin. A fatal day could only<br />
be one on which some disaster occurred or had<br />
its inception. Fateful may mean fatal; fatal<br />
cannot always be used for fateful.<br />
Father Time with his beard. bald head. scvthe I<br />
and hourglass, has been around a long time. He<br />
was apparently a venerable personification as<br />
long ago as 1594 when Sheakespeare alluded to<br />
him in The Comedy <strong>of</strong> Errors. The cartoonists<br />
cannot let him go, because at the end <strong>of</strong> every<br />
Old and the beginning <strong>of</strong> every New Year, he<br />
is their means <strong>of</strong> livelihood. But in writing and<br />
speaking, where he is a tired cliche, he may be<br />
allowed to settle in threadbare dustiness into the<br />
oblivion he has so long typified.<br />
fathom. Only the singular form fathom can be<br />
used as part <strong>of</strong> a compound adjective qualifying<br />
a following noun, as in a ten fathom cable.<br />
A ten fathoms cable is not standard English.<br />
Except in this construction, the plural form<br />
fathoms is preferred in this country when speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one.<br />
In English literature the singular form fathom<br />
is used whenever the word occurs with a numeral,<br />
whether it qualifies a following noun or not,<br />
as in full fathom jive thy father lies and under<br />
the keel nine fathom deep. This is still the usual<br />
practice in Great Britain, but not in the United<br />
States.<br />
fatigued. See tired.<br />
faucet; tap. The American faucet is the British<br />
tap.<br />
fault; failing; foible; weakness; vice. Fault is the<br />
common, everyday word for a moral shortcoming<br />
or imperfection. When applied to animals<br />
and inanimate things there is, <strong>of</strong> course, no
fauna 174<br />
implication <strong>of</strong> moral condemnation; it is there<br />
simply an imperfection. But in all applications<br />
to human beings (especially in the negative ZZ’S<br />
not my fault) there is an element, weak or<br />
strong, <strong>of</strong> condemnation. When the young man<br />
in Erewhon who has been condemned to death<br />
for having tuberculosis protests that it is not<br />
his fault, the judge answers sternly, Though it<br />
is not your fault, yet it is a fault in you.<br />
Failing, foible, and weakness all seek to extenuate<br />
or excuse the imperfection alluded to.<br />
Failing can describe a fairly serious fault (Drink<br />
is his failing. He just can? tell the truth; it’s his<br />
failing). Weakness suggests a giving way to an<br />
improper impulse, self-indulgence; yet it cannot<br />
be applied to major faults. A man may be said<br />
to have a weakness for liquor or pretty girls,<br />
but it would be inappropriate or facetious to<br />
refer to a weakness for taking other people’s<br />
property. Foible (which is an obsolete French<br />
word for weakness) is the mildest in its implied<br />
repro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> all the& terms. It suggests that the<br />
weakness is light and amusing, crotchety, more<br />
an eccentricity than a fault (He loves to talk<br />
about the Civil War; it’s his foible).<br />
Vice is a strong word. It may include sin and<br />
may describe a sin apart from him who has<br />
committed it (the vice <strong>of</strong> swearing). It is severely<br />
condemnatory.<br />
fauna is a singular group name, meaning all the<br />
animals <strong>of</strong> a certain place or time. It is usually<br />
followed by a singular verb, but a plural verb<br />
is also permissible. The plural, faunas or faunae,<br />
means more than one such group.<br />
favor; prefer. Weseen and Partridge insist that<br />
favor must not be used as a synonym for prefer.<br />
But since they grant that favor can mean to<br />
have a preference for, the distinction is too<br />
subtle to concern the common speaker or writer.<br />
If it is said that so-and-so favors something,<br />
it is not unreasonable to wonder in preference<br />
to what and not ungrammatical to satisfy the<br />
wonder in a comparison.<br />
faze. See phase.<br />
fear may be followed by an infinitive, as in they<br />
fear to go, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
they fear going, or by a clause, as in they fear<br />
they will go. The three forms are equally acceptable.<br />
The noun fear may be followed by<br />
a clause, as in rhe fear fhat they will go, or by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb introduced by <strong>of</strong>. as in<br />
the fear <strong>of</strong> going. The -ing form is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
fearful; fearsome. Fearful and fearsome are synonyms,<br />
meaning causing fear, but fearsome is<br />
now slightly archaic and literary. See also<br />
horrible.<br />
feasible. That is feasible which is capable <strong>of</strong> being<br />
done (His plan is feasible, and I see no reason<br />
why ii should not be put into operation immediarely).<br />
And since whatever is doable is possible,<br />
feasible can mean possible in one <strong>of</strong> possible’s<br />
meanings. But many things are possible which<br />
are not doable. It is possible, for example, but<br />
not feasible that it will rain tomorrow. And the<br />
true function <strong>of</strong> feasible (says Fowler) is to pre-<br />
vent ambiguity among the uses <strong>of</strong> possible, by<br />
making it clear, where the context may not do<br />
so, whether something is doable or just likely to<br />
happen. Certainly the use <strong>of</strong> feasible as a mere<br />
synonym for possible serves no good purpose.<br />
To say, He thought it quite feasible ihat at some<br />
future date we might send rockets to the moon<br />
is pompous or straining too hard to find an unusual<br />
word for a usual one. Of course He<br />
thought the sending <strong>of</strong> a rocker to the moon<br />
quite feasible is a different thing.<br />
feather in one’s cap. As a metaphor for a signal<br />
accomplishment, something to be proud <strong>of</strong>, a<br />
feather in one’s cap is now bedraggled and<br />
droopy and no feather in anyone’s stylistic<br />
cap.<br />
feather one’s nest. As a term for taking care <strong>of</strong><br />
one’s self, slyly laying by for the future, lo<br />
feather one’s nest is strictly for the birds.<br />
feature. The use <strong>of</strong> feature as a verb, meaning to<br />
give prominence to or to be prominent in (The<br />
case was featured on every front page. Chaplin<br />
featured in “The Gold Rush”) and as an attributive<br />
noun (He writes feature articles for the<br />
Sun-Times) or just an ordinary noun (When<br />
does the feature go on, please?), though viewed<br />
with alarm by the watchdogs <strong>of</strong> the language<br />
for thirty years has advanced steadily and is<br />
now solidly established in American usage. The<br />
movies had need for such a word and as they<br />
came to play such a large part in our civilization<br />
the word, quite naturally, proliferated.<br />
fed. See feed.<br />
fee. See honorarium.<br />
feed. The past tense is fed. The participle is also<br />
fed.<br />
feel. The past tense is felt. The participle is also<br />
felt. When feel means know by touching it may<br />
be followed by an object and the simple form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in I felt ii break, or by an object and<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I felt it breaking.<br />
When used in this sense the word cannot be<br />
followed by a to-infinitive. When feel is followed<br />
by a clause, as in 1 felt it was broken, it will be<br />
understood to mean believe or have the impression.<br />
In this sense feel may be followed by a<br />
to-infinitive, especially in a passive construction,<br />
as in it was felt to be wrong.<br />
Feel may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in I felt strong<br />
and Z felt different. It may also be followed by<br />
an adverb describing the action itself, as in 2<br />
felt strongly and Z felt differently. Sometimes<br />
the two forms mean different things and sometimes<br />
they do not. According to the traditional<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, 2 felt bad is the correct form<br />
for what people mean when they say I felt badly.<br />
But I felt badly is now also standard English in<br />
just this sense. This construction may have originated<br />
in the mistaken notion that a verb could<br />
not be followed by an adjective. But it has<br />
certainly been reinforced by the fact that to<br />
many people bad means wicked. In order to say<br />
that they are miserable without saying that they<br />
are guilty, they are compelled to use badly.<br />
There is no doubt that both forms, feel bad and
feel badly, are standard today. To condemn<br />
badly in the name <strong>of</strong> grammar is to misunderstand<br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> grammar. Grammatical<br />
rules are not something that has been revealed<br />
to us, but simply generalizations about the way<br />
people use words.<br />
Feel is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym for think (I<br />
feel YOU should do it this way). Much thinking,<br />
<strong>of</strong> course, is inseparable from feeling, in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> experiencing emotion, but the word<br />
should not be used in this way unless it is intended<br />
to convey the idea <strong>of</strong> strong emotion in<br />
the thought or a groping (as one feels one’s way<br />
along in the dark) towards a settled conviction<br />
(I feel that he’s wrong, but I would find it hard<br />
to give specific reasons for thinking so). See<br />
also sense.<br />
feel in one’s bones. As a metaphor for prelmonition,<br />
to feel something in one’s bones is hackneyed,<br />
Its origins are uncertain. Perhaps it is<br />
connected with the ability which many rheumatics<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess to have <strong>of</strong> being able to tell from<br />
twinges in their afflicted joints when there will<br />
be a change in the weather.<br />
feet <strong>of</strong> clay. Nebuchadnezzar dreamt that he saw<br />
a great image <strong>of</strong> which the head was <strong>of</strong> goled, the<br />
breast and arms <strong>of</strong> silver, the belly and thighs <strong>of</strong><br />
brass, the legs <strong>of</strong> iron, and the feet part <strong>of</strong> iron<br />
and part <strong>of</strong> clay. Feet <strong>of</strong> clay is a referen.ce to<br />
this and has become a figure for the weak,<br />
human, and unadmirable qualities <strong>of</strong> some great<br />
and admired person. With the decline <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Bible among the masses <strong>of</strong> the<br />
people, the figure has little meaning any more.<br />
felk&. See happiness.<br />
fell mav be the past tense <strong>of</strong> the verb fall. It may<br />
also be the present tense <strong>of</strong> the verb meaning<br />
cause to fall, which has the regular past tense<br />
and participle felled. See fall.<br />
felo-de-se. As a synonym for one who commits<br />
suicide, felo-de-se carries the suggestion <strong>of</strong> its<br />
literal meaning, one who commits a felony in<br />
respect to himself. The proper plural, just in<br />
case anyone is remotely interested, is felonesde-se,<br />
though felos-de-se is admitted.<br />
felt. See feel.<br />
female; feminine; effeminate; womanly. Female<br />
is the opposite <strong>of</strong> male (The female <strong>of</strong> the<br />
species is more deadly than the male). It i,s the<br />
scientific word and the everyday word for a nonmate<br />
animal, including a human being, and for<br />
things pertaining to such an animal (the female<br />
figure, the female organs).<br />
Feminine means pertaining to a woman. It is<br />
the opposite <strong>of</strong> masculine and is rarely used<br />
(except in such extensions as feminine gender in<br />
grammar and feminine rimes) to refer to the<br />
qualities or adjuncts <strong>of</strong> any female except the<br />
human. It suggests the s<strong>of</strong>ter and more delicate<br />
qualities <strong>of</strong> women (There was something<br />
almost feminine in the tender deference with<br />
which he appeared to listen).<br />
Effeminate is a term <strong>of</strong> contempt, applied to<br />
actions or qualities in a man which would be<br />
fitting in a woman (His effeminate giggle infuriated<br />
the other men in the bar). The word<br />
175 festal<br />
feminine used to be used in this sense but is not<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten so used now.<br />
Womanly suggests the stronger qualities <strong>of</strong> a<br />
woman. It is more homely than feminine and<br />
has more dignity (Womanly sobs were heard,<br />
and manly cheeks/ Were wet with silent tears).<br />
It also means having the characteristics <strong>of</strong> a<br />
woman as contrasted with those <strong>of</strong> a girl (The<br />
girl begins to be womanly). See also woman.<br />
fence (on the). To say <strong>of</strong> someone who is undecided<br />
or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, is refusing to commit<br />
himself to one side or another <strong>of</strong> a dispute, that<br />
he is on the fence is to employ a phrase worn<br />
out by overuse.<br />
fender. The American automobile fender is the<br />
British wing. The British fender is the American<br />
bumper.<br />
feral. As a word for wild (The dovecote pigeon . . .<br />
has become feral in several places-Darwin),<br />
feral is now solely a literary word. In its literal<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> “animal” it has been applied by some<br />
anthropologists to those children who are alleged<br />
to have been reared by wolves, bears,<br />
baboons, and the like, and if the supply <strong>of</strong><br />
children or credulity holds out it may become<br />
established as a technical term.<br />
ferment; foment. To ferment is literally to cause<br />
to undergo fermentation and since the process<br />
<strong>of</strong> fermentation gives <strong>of</strong>f gases that cause bubbling<br />
and the raising and swelling <strong>of</strong> such substances<br />
as dough and generally indicates intense<br />
internal action, to ferment is figuratively to<br />
seethe with excitement or to cause others to<br />
seethe with excitement (His mind was doubtless<br />
fermenting with projects; the Christianity which<br />
fermented Europe).<br />
To foment is literally to apply medicated<br />
lotions, usually warm (The leg may be conveniently<br />
fomented by putting it in a deep<br />
bucket <strong>of</strong> warm waler). Figuratively to foment<br />
is to foster, encourage, stimulate, instigate, especially<br />
in a bad sense (The rumor was fomented<br />
by those who hoped to pr<strong>of</strong>it from the resulting<br />
panic. These civil commotions were constantly<br />
fomented by the monarchs <strong>of</strong> Blefuscu).<br />
But since it is <strong>of</strong>ten a matter <strong>of</strong> opinion as to<br />
how an agitation was instigated, whether by the<br />
introduction <strong>of</strong> an inner ferment or the application<br />
<strong>of</strong> an outward foment, the two words, in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> causing trouble, are synonymous (He<br />
fermented the passions <strong>of</strong> the vicious or He fomented<br />
the passions <strong>of</strong> the vicious). But neither<br />
may be used for the other in its literal sense and<br />
even in the figurative uses there are occasions<br />
when the careful writer will prefer one to the<br />
other.<br />
ferrule; ferule. The metal ring or cap which is<br />
put around the end <strong>of</strong> a post or cane for strength<br />
or protection is spelled either ferrule or ferule.<br />
The rod or cane or flat piece <strong>of</strong> wood formerly<br />
used for punishing children by striking them on<br />
the hand is spelled ferule.<br />
festal; festive. Both festal and festive refer to a<br />
feast or a festival, but festal is usually confined<br />
to an actual feast or festival. When De Quincey<br />
says that the ball-room wore a festal air we
fetch 176<br />
assume that it was decorated for a feast or festival,<br />
but festive, although it can refer directly to<br />
a feast, can also refer to a general joyousness, a<br />
holiday spirit without any particular holiday<br />
(He wus in a festive mood).<br />
fetch. See bring.<br />
fever; temperature. The use <strong>of</strong> temperature for<br />
fever to describe a body temperature above the<br />
normal <strong>of</strong> 98.6” F. (He has had a temperature<br />
for nearly a week) probably began as a euphemism<br />
to avoid the once-frightening fever, but<br />
it is unfortunate because it adds nothing to<br />
make up for its extra syllables and it blurs the<br />
proper meaning <strong>of</strong> temperature. It is ironic that<br />
temperature originally meant to be in temper,<br />
to be free from the distemper that a fever<br />
indicates.<br />
few may be used to qualify a plural noun, as in<br />
few men believe, or alone as if it were a noun,<br />
as in few believe. When few is not qualified by<br />
a definitive adjective, such as a, the, this, it has<br />
the force <strong>of</strong> a negative statement and means<br />
not many. When qualified it has the force <strong>of</strong><br />
an affirmative statement and means a small<br />
number, as in a few men believe and a few<br />
believe. In all constructions it is plural and<br />
requires a plural verb. When used as a noun,<br />
few may be qualified by an adjective, as in an<br />
honest few. At one time the word good was used<br />
in this way, as in a good few. This can still be<br />
heard but is now considered old fashioned. Very<br />
is generally preferred, as in a very few. When<br />
used in a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives, few is treated as<br />
a numeral and placed before descriptive adjectives,<br />
as in a few honest men.<br />
few and far between. There was a proverb that<br />
the visits <strong>of</strong> angels were short and far between.<br />
Thomas Campbell in The Pleasures <strong>of</strong> Hope,<br />
seduced by alliteration, asked What though my<br />
winged hours <strong>of</strong> bliss have been/ Like angel<br />
visits, few and. far between? Hazlitt in his<br />
Lectures on the English Poets pointed out (to<br />
Campbell’s intense irritation) that in altering<br />
the expression Campbell had spoiled it, since<br />
few and far between are, in relation to visits,<br />
the same thing. None the less, the corrupted<br />
“improvement” has taken hold and the sensible<br />
original been forgotten.<br />
few; some; several; sundry. Some means unspecified<br />
but considerable in number, amount, or<br />
degree (They visited us for some weeks. She<br />
has some fever. There’s some left, enough for u<br />
meal). Few means not many (Few there are who<br />
can now remember that day) but a few means<br />
more than none (A few survived to tell the<br />
fale). And, just to confuse matters further, quite<br />
a few (which ought to mean emphatically only<br />
a few) means a fairly large number.<br />
Several means more than two or three but not<br />
many (There are several gentlemen waiting to<br />
see you), but it also means single or particular<br />
(I have called you on three several occasions but<br />
never received an answer) and various (There<br />
are several ways <strong>of</strong> doing it).<br />
Sundry is an archaic synonym for several<br />
(These benches formed the favorite resting place<br />
<strong>of</strong> sundry old men). It continues in general use<br />
in the phrase all and sundry (everyone collectively<br />
and individually) and the word sundries,<br />
miscellaneous items.<br />
fib. See lie.<br />
fiction; fabrication; figment. Fiction is something<br />
wholly invented, to deceive or to entertain (He<br />
has been playing <strong>of</strong>f a fiction on me. Dramatic<br />
fiction copies real life). A fabrication is a statement<br />
or series <strong>of</strong> statements, intended to deceive,<br />
in which, to carry more conviction, an element<br />
<strong>of</strong> truth is <strong>of</strong>ten interwoven (What is said to<br />
have happened might have been invented, and<br />
the occasion and motives for the fabrication<br />
may be conceived). A figment is a pure product<br />
<strong>of</strong> the imagination, something, usually, made<br />
up to explain, justify, or glorify oneself (All<br />
those noble relatives are figments <strong>of</strong> his imagination.<br />
Whence came this Whiffle and Whimzv<br />
within the circumference <strong>of</strong> thy Figmentitious<br />
Fancy?).<br />
fictional; fictitious; fictive. Fictitious now has the<br />
meaning, in common use, <strong>of</strong> counterfeit or fafse<br />
(That’s a fictitious name; you can tell by the<br />
sound <strong>of</strong> it), though it is still used and understood<br />
in the older sense <strong>of</strong> consisting <strong>of</strong> fiction,<br />
imaginatively produced (Those fictitious stories<br />
that so enchant the mind). So strongly has the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> falseness colored the word, however,<br />
that many prefer to use fictional or fictive when<br />
referring to fiction (Is it a fictional book, sir, or<br />
a history? What was there in such fictive woes/<br />
To thrill a whole theater?). thou& historicallv<br />
fictive has had much m&e <strong>of</strong>-the sense df<br />
“untrue” than “<strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> imaginary narration.”<br />
See also factions.<br />
fiddle; violin. Fiddles are still heard in the mountains<br />
and at country dances but only violins and<br />
viols at concerts and in orchestras. A fiddler is<br />
a merry andrew, to be paid with drinks and<br />
patronizing; a violinist is a musician, admired<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten richly rewarded. Puritan scorn has<br />
enriched the language (though impoverished<br />
our stock <strong>of</strong> harmless gaiety) with many opprobrious<br />
terms drawn from playing the fiddlefiddling<br />
around, to fiddle (playing aimlessly with<br />
the fingers), fiddlesticks, fiddle-faddle. Fowler<br />
incites us to rebel in the old word’s defense. If<br />
fiddle is now only in familiar or contemptuous<br />
use, as the Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong> states, he<br />
says, it is a matter for regret, and those who<br />
defy this canon deserve well <strong>of</strong> the language.<br />
Musicians among themselves refer to their violins<br />
as fiddles. But it is a lost cause and only in<br />
another land shall we hear again the fiddles<br />
tuned to solemn mirth.<br />
fiddle while Rome burns. As a term for being<br />
occupied with trifles in the face <strong>of</strong> a crisis to<br />
fiddle while Rome burns is one <strong>of</strong> the most venerable<br />
and deeply intrenched <strong>of</strong> clich6s. That it<br />
is at variance with the known facts is, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
irrelevant but it is not uninteresting. The incident<br />
upon which the clichC is founded is related<br />
by Suetonius who flourished more than fifty<br />
years after the event. He says that Nero set fire<br />
to the city <strong>of</strong> Rome to see what Troy looked
like when it was in flames and accompanied the<br />
conflagration by singing his own cdmposition<br />
The Suck <strong>of</strong> Ilium and plaving on the lvre.<br />
Tacitus whd was living -at -the time <strong>of</strong> -the<br />
fire, who knew Nero and who is a far more<br />
reliable authority than Suetonius, says that Nero<br />
was at his villa at Antium, fifty miles from<br />
Rome, when the fire broke out, that he hurried<br />
back, took every measure possible to check and<br />
control the fire, established shelters and relief<br />
measures for the victims, and rebuilt the city<br />
after the fire in an intelligent and mulch improved<br />
way.<br />
fiend. The fiend is Satan (because the fiend, our<br />
adversary, found him in such thoughts). L4 fiend<br />
is any evil spirit and, by extension, a diabolically<br />
cruel or wicked person (A frightful fiend/ Doth<br />
close behind him tread. The man is a perfect<br />
fiend). Colloquially, the term is used in jocular<br />
exaggeration <strong>of</strong> those who cause annoyance or<br />
do mischief (nutogmph fiends, fresh-air jiends)<br />
and applied to one hopelessly addicted to narcotics-(a<br />
dope fiend).<br />
fieht. The uast tense is fouzht. The Darticiule is<br />
-also fought. Fight on& hid a past tense ,it and<br />
a participle fitten but these have not been<br />
standard for a long time. A grammar published<br />
in 1765 lists them as “very familiar, or rather<br />
low.” See altercation.<br />
fight tooth and nail. As a term for going at something<br />
with ferocious vigor tooth and nail has<br />
been proverbial for four hundred years and a<br />
cliche for about one hundred. It needs a rest.<br />
figment. See fiction.<br />
figure (verb). The use <strong>of</strong> figure as a verb to denote<br />
computing or expressing in figures or adorning<br />
with figures or projecting into figures <strong>of</strong> speech,<br />
and the like, is standard. But to use it to mean<br />
to conclude or to judge (Well, I figured they<br />
didn’t want me around any more, so I just lit<br />
out for home) or to solve or understand (He’ll<br />
soon figure out what they meant) or to rely on<br />
(You can figure on Bill every time) is questionable.<br />
figure; number. A number is a word or symbol,<br />
or a combination <strong>of</strong> words or symbols, used in<br />
counting or to denote a total. A figure (in the<br />
sense in which it is <strong>of</strong>ten confused with a<br />
number) is a numerical symbol. A number may<br />
be expressed in figures, and an amount or value<br />
expressed in numbers may be called a figure<br />
(What’s a good round figure us an estimate?).<br />
See numerals.<br />
figure <strong>of</strong> speech. A figure <strong>of</strong> speech or a trope is<br />
a mode <strong>of</strong> expression in which words are used<br />
out <strong>of</strong> their literal sense, or out <strong>of</strong> ordinary locutions,<br />
to suggest a picture or an image or to<br />
secure some other special effect. Too deliberate<br />
and conscious a use <strong>of</strong> them is now felt to be<br />
overly literary. The chief figures <strong>of</strong> speech (each<br />
<strong>of</strong> which is discussed in a separate entry in its<br />
alphabetical order) are: allegory, anticlimax,<br />
antithesis, cliche’, climax, euphemism, hyperbole,<br />
irony, litotes, meiosis, metaphor, onomatopoeia,<br />
oxymoron, personification, synecdoche,<br />
syllepsis, zeugma.<br />
find<br />
filch. See steal.<br />
file; file away. In the sense <strong>of</strong> arranging papers<br />
methodically for preservation and convenient<br />
reference, Weseen protests against using file<br />
away, insisting that it is redundant and that file<br />
says the same thing. But in popular usage there<br />
is a slight difference. File alone usuallv means<br />
to arrange methodically for reference-and file<br />
away has more <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> preserving for<br />
future reference (Please file this under the letter<br />
N. They don’t read these things; they just file<br />
them away. You can be sure that remark is<br />
filed away in his memory).<br />
filibuster. In Eneland filibusterimz is confined to its<br />
original meaning <strong>of</strong> buccaneering. In America<br />
it is used primarily <strong>of</strong> one who impedes legislation<br />
by irregular or obstructive taciics, usually<br />
by making long speeches (You’re filibustering<br />
against the wrong bill, Senator).<br />
filthy lucre. The filthy llrcre <strong>of</strong> the Bible is best<br />
paraphrased as dishonorable gain. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
the term to designate money, now chiefly used<br />
jocularly, is a clich6.<br />
final completion. Since completion means “the<br />
state <strong>of</strong> being completed, conclusion, fulfillment,”<br />
the phrase final completion (He brought<br />
his book to a final completion this summer) is<br />
redundant. It is conceivable, <strong>of</strong> course, that a<br />
man may have announced the completion <strong>of</strong><br />
something half a dozen times and at last completed<br />
it, or circumstances may have compelled<br />
him to make new completions, so that a last,<br />
irrevocable, unchangeable completion might be<br />
called the final completion, or the term might be<br />
applied ironically. But even under such circumstances<br />
it would probably be better to say that<br />
he finally completed the work.<br />
final; finale. Final is chiefly an adjective, meaning<br />
the last in place, order, or time (The chief has<br />
the final say. This is your final chance). As a<br />
noun, usually in the plural, it is used in relation<br />
to athletic events and college examinations to<br />
mean the final event or test (He failed his finals.<br />
Smith was entered in the finals).<br />
Finale is a noun. It means the conclusion,<br />
especially <strong>of</strong> a musical composition or any performance<br />
or course <strong>of</strong> proceedings (though in<br />
reference to the last it is usually used humorously,<br />
suggesting that the business has been<br />
something in the nature <strong>of</strong> a stage performance).<br />
finally and ultimately are interchangeable in many<br />
contexts but not in all. In concluding a speech<br />
or a sermon, if one wishes to give his hearers<br />
hope, the word is finally (And, finally, my<br />
friends, I come to consider, etc., etc., etc., etc.).<br />
In referring to someone else’s speech, finally<br />
could refer to the order (The defense attorney<br />
finally said that . . . ); whereas ultimately could<br />
only mean after a long time. In philosophy,<br />
ultimate, through devious turnings <strong>of</strong> its meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> “beyond which it is impossible to proceed”<br />
can mean original, primary, first (ultimate<br />
causes).<br />
find, The past tense is found. The participle is also<br />
found. Find may be followed by an object and<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I found my atten-
fine 178<br />
tion wundering, or by a clause, as in I found my<br />
attention wandered. When used in an active<br />
form, find may be followed by an object and the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z found my attention<br />
wander; when find has a passive form, a<br />
to-infinitive must be used in place <strong>of</strong> the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in his attention was found<br />
to wander,<br />
fine. The use <strong>of</strong> fine to mean well, as in he is doing<br />
fine and it worked fine, was frowned upon a<br />
generation ago. Its status has improved since<br />
then but it is not yet literary English. See nice.<br />
finesse; fineness. Fineness is the quality or state <strong>of</strong><br />
being fine (He has a fineness <strong>of</strong> perception that<br />
makes him particularly well qualified to judge<br />
such tenuous distinctions). The use <strong>of</strong> fine to<br />
mean excellent or admirable has given fineness,<br />
in its most common popular use, the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> moral superiority (There is a fineness about<br />
him that makes it impossible for him to do anything<br />
petty or mean).<br />
Finesse once meant fineness in various <strong>of</strong> its<br />
senses, but is now restricted, in popular usage at<br />
least, to delicacy <strong>of</strong> execution or discrimination<br />
(The finesse <strong>of</strong> the French language is a source<br />
<strong>of</strong> never-failing delight) with, in many contexts<br />
(in consequence, apparently, <strong>of</strong> our mistrust <strong>of</strong><br />
the delicatelv skillful) a connotation <strong>of</strong> artifice<br />
or cunning -(She was not experienced in the<br />
finesse <strong>of</strong> love. Full <strong>of</strong> their Finesses, Serve<br />
their own Turns in others Businesses). Finesse<br />
has a special meaning in card games.<br />
finical; finicky; finicking; fin&in. Of the various<br />
terms for overfastidiousness-finical, finicky,<br />
finickina, and finikin-bnical is the earliest. Finicky<br />
is The commonest American form (Don’t<br />
be so finicky. Quit picking at your food. There’s<br />
nothing wrong with it!). Finicking and fintkin<br />
are used in England but rarely seen or heard in<br />
America. Fowler felt that finicking (because <strong>of</strong><br />
a similarity in sound to niggling and fiddling)<br />
best expressed “a hearty British contempt” for<br />
fussiness.<br />
The word, whatever form is preferred, seems<br />
to have derived from the adiective fine which.<br />
in turn, is a back formation from the verb finire,<br />
to finish. See also fastidious.<br />
finish may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in he finished speaking, but not by an infinitive<br />
or a clause. See also end.<br />
finite verbs. Any verb form that is “limited” in<br />
the sense that it has a specific tense, person,<br />
number, mode, and so on, is called a finite verb.<br />
In this dictionary a finite verb is called a true<br />
verb. All verb forms are finite except the infinitive,<br />
and the -ing form and past participIe when<br />
these are used alone as nouns or adjectives.<br />
fire. The American slang term for peremptory dismissal,<br />
to fire (possibly originally a pun on discharge)<br />
is in England to sack, or to get the sack.<br />
Reworks. The singular form, a firework, exists<br />
but is seldom heard in the United States. In<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> just one we are likely to use a more<br />
specific name, such as a roman candle, a pinwheel,<br />
a shooting cracker. But fireworks is a<br />
true plural. It is always followed by a plural<br />
verb, as in the fireworks were beautiful, and we<br />
may speak <strong>of</strong> many fireworks or several hundred<br />
fireworks. The form fireworks is used as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in a fireworks<br />
display.<br />
first originally meant foremost or earliest, and<br />
only later became the ordinal number for one,<br />
meaning the element that begins a series. The<br />
older senses are still in use, especially in the<br />
United States where we speak <strong>of</strong> the first lady<br />
<strong>of</strong> the land, the first families <strong>of</strong> Virginia, the<br />
first years <strong>of</strong> life. When they were first married<br />
refers to the early years <strong>of</strong> their marriage and<br />
does not suggest that they were married a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> times.<br />
Whenever first stands in the primary position<br />
for an adverb, that is, next to or inside the verb<br />
form, it has the old meaning <strong>of</strong> the early period,<br />
as in when you first cafne in. When first means<br />
the beginning <strong>of</strong> a series, it always stands in a<br />
position that is also open to adjectives, as in<br />
when you came in first. Here it can be argued<br />
whether first is more closely attached to came<br />
or to you.<br />
When first is combined with a cardinal<br />
number, it may stand in the position appropriate<br />
for foremost or earliest, as in the two first years;<br />
or it may stand in the position appropriate for<br />
the other ordinals, such as second and third, as<br />
in the first fwo years. Some grammarians claim<br />
that the order in the fwo first years is “illogical.”<br />
That would be hard to prove, since this is the<br />
order followed in French (les deux premiers)<br />
and in German (die zwei ersten), and the order<br />
seen in the first two years did not appear in<br />
English until the sixteenth century.<br />
Today, numbers greater than four usually<br />
follow first, as in the first hundred years. But the<br />
smaller numbers are frequently placed before<br />
first when the objects they refer to are thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> individually, as in the two first chapters were<br />
interesting. Many writers place the cardinal<br />
number after first only when one group is being<br />
compared with another, as in the first two<br />
chapters were more interesting than the second<br />
two.<br />
When the first thing is used as an adverb<br />
meaning simply first, the article the may be<br />
omitted, as in do it first thing in the morning.<br />
first and foremost has everything: it is alliterative,<br />
redundant, trite, and it usually doesn’t<br />
mean much <strong>of</strong> anything. It’s just a way <strong>of</strong> clearing<br />
the throat before you start to talk.<br />
first fine careless rapture. Though the wise thrush<br />
may, by singing each song twice over, convince<br />
us that he can recapture the first fine careless<br />
rupture, those who repeat Browning’s phrase fail<br />
to do so. Our most poetic phrase for glorious<br />
originality has become hackneyed, a demonstration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the very lack <strong>of</strong> that which it celebrates.<br />
firstly has been in the language at least since 1532.<br />
Today it is not used as <strong>of</strong>ten as the related words<br />
secondly, thirdly, and so on. Many speakers<br />
begin with first and then go on with secondly,<br />
thirdly. But firstly is respectable English.<br />
During the nineteenth century firstly was condemned<br />
as an innovation, although it had been<br />
in use for four hundred years. De Quincey
wrote: I de:est your ridiculous and most pedantic<br />
neologism <strong>of</strong> firstly. But many <strong>of</strong> the best<br />
writers <strong>of</strong> the period, Scott, Gladstone, Byron,<br />
Dickens, Thackeray, Kingsley, Carlyle, continued<br />
to use it and have handed it down to us<br />
as an established element in the language.<br />
first name; baptismal name; Christian name. With<br />
an increasing number <strong>of</strong> non-Christians in the<br />
population, baptismal name and Christia.rl name<br />
as a term for one’s personal name is being replaced<br />
by first name. To ask what is your Christian<br />
name? would seem a little strange now to<br />
many Americans.<br />
first saw the light <strong>of</strong> day. To refer to the place<br />
where one was born as the spot where one<br />
first saw the light <strong>of</strong> day is to employ an unusually<br />
moldy clichC. Those addicted to it should<br />
be compelled every birthday to read aloud the<br />
third chapter <strong>of</strong> lob.<br />
fish. The plural is fishes or fish. Until recently the<br />
word fish was used only as a singular. In the<br />
King James Bible, for example, the true plural<br />
is always fishes, as in five barley loaves and two<br />
small fishes. But the singular form fish was <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used to mean all fish, or all <strong>of</strong> a certain lot, as<br />
in let them have dominion over the fish <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sea and the fish that is in the river shall die.<br />
This is a singular noun used generically, or collectively,<br />
and not a true plural. In addition, the<br />
singular form fish may be used as a mass noun<br />
when the creatures are thought <strong>of</strong> as food, as in<br />
bout loads <strong>of</strong> fish and nets full <strong>of</strong> fish.<br />
These two uses <strong>of</strong> the singular undoubtedly<br />
gave rise to the feeling that fish was a plural<br />
form. This has become standard and the form<br />
fish may now be used as a true plural. That is,<br />
we may now say twenty fishes or twenty fish.<br />
This applies equally to compounds such as three<br />
goldfishes or three goldfish. But the movement<br />
toward regular plurals is very strong in modern<br />
English and the life expectancy <strong>of</strong> a new irregular<br />
plural, such as fish, is not very goodl.<br />
fish to frv. It was Motteux who rendered Rabelais’s<br />
Nous aurons bien ici autre chose d faire<br />
as We have other fi.sh to fry. The French say<br />
have other dops to whio. The frying <strong>of</strong> fi.sh as a<br />
term for having something better todo was definitely<br />
established as a proverb in English in the<br />
seventeenth century. It is now a clicht.<br />
fissionable, meaning capable <strong>of</strong> undergoing nuclear<br />
fission, has been accepted in America, in the<br />
phrase fissionable material without any great<br />
concern or even awareness that it raised linguistic<br />
problems. But the English, if we may<br />
judge from letters to the London Times, have<br />
been much agitated about it. Some feel that<br />
while fissionable is fashionable only fissible is<br />
admissible. Others feel that “in the terminology<br />
<strong>of</strong> fissility or fissileness” only fissive is admissive.<br />
Still others (See Time, January 4, 1954) would<br />
have it fissile. (The chief advantage is that the<br />
critical amount is very much smaller for coal<br />
than for any fissile material-Pr<strong>of</strong>essor 0. R.<br />
Frisch, <strong>of</strong> Cambridge, England).<br />
listula. The plural is fistulas or fistulae.<br />
lit. The past tense is fit or fitted. The participle is<br />
also fit or fitted. In the United States fit .is used<br />
179<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than fitted for the past tense, as in<br />
if fit lust year. Fit is not heard as <strong>of</strong>ten for the<br />
participle, as in it had fit the year before, but is<br />
acceptable here. Neither <strong>of</strong> these constructions<br />
is recognized in Great Britain, where fitted is<br />
always used. Fitted is preferred in the United<br />
States, for the past tense and for the participle,<br />
when the verb means make to fit, as in his<br />
studies had fitted him for the work, and is required<br />
when speaking <strong>of</strong> clothes, as in the tailor<br />
fitted the coat. In speaking <strong>of</strong> clothes fitted is<br />
also used in the sense <strong>of</strong> measured, as in he was<br />
fitted for a suit. Fit is also an adjective and<br />
when used in this way may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in he is fit to work.<br />
fit as a fiddle. A fiddle has been a symbol <strong>of</strong> fitness<br />
for more than three hundred years, but no<br />
one knows why. Perhaps just the gaiety and<br />
exuberance connected with its music. The term<br />
is now a clichC, retained from deserved oblivion<br />
only by inertia and alliteration.<br />
fit for a king. We know what was fit for a king.<br />
Kings wore ermine and jewelled crowns. They<br />
sat in their counting houses counting out their<br />
money. They had pipes and bowls and fiddlers<br />
three. For lunch they had blackbirds baked in a<br />
pie. Their horses and their men (though, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, they couldn’t do everything) marched<br />
up the hill and marched down again. But the<br />
glory <strong>of</strong> kings has departed. Except for three or<br />
four housebroken survivors, a monarch’s life<br />
today is not a happy one. What is now fit for a<br />
king? Shabby rooms in a hotel on the Riviera,<br />
overdue bills, the hissing conspirator, the yawning<br />
waiter, the sneering reporter, the gossip<br />
columnist, and in the shadow the assassin. Fit<br />
for a king is now a ghoul’s clicht. Let it be<br />
mercifully abandoned.<br />
6x. In American usage fix is a slatternly verb <strong>of</strong><br />
all work. It can mean repair, get ready, arrange<br />
matters with, cook, comb, concoct (Fix a tire.<br />
Fix yourself up. He’s fixed it with the cop.<br />
She’s fixing supper right now. Wait till I fix my<br />
hair. He’s really fixing a scheme this time.)indeed,<br />
almost any action, apparently, that is<br />
expected to terminate to the speaker’s or listener’s<br />
pleasure or advantage. We’ve been using<br />
the word this way for a long time; Captain<br />
Marryat noticed it as a feature <strong>of</strong> the American<br />
vocabulary when he visited the United States in<br />
1837. So used, it is a sloven’s word, avoiding<br />
even the faintest exertion towards precision <strong>of</strong><br />
meaning; but it carries the sloven’s rewards <strong>of</strong><br />
confusion <strong>of</strong> meaning and eternal exasperation<br />
at not being understood.<br />
As a noun the word is used colloquially to<br />
mean an unpleasant predicament, some situation<br />
from which it is difficult to escape (I’m in<br />
a fix. Jim; you’ve got to help me out).<br />
tlag (verb). See wane.<br />
flagrant. See blatant.<br />
flagrante delicto. See blatant.<br />
flair was originally a sense <strong>of</strong> smell, hence a<br />
capacity for getting on the trail <strong>of</strong> something,<br />
like a hunting dog (He has a flair for news<br />
He’s one <strong>of</strong> the best reporters alive). It is now<br />
generally used to mean talent, aptitude, a keen
flambeau<br />
perception (She has a flair for making costume<br />
jewelry) and even a fondness, though in this<br />
last sense, if the word is to mean anything, it<br />
ought to convey something more than a mere<br />
liking. To say that a woman has a flair for fine<br />
clothes suggests that she wears them unusually<br />
well, has an instinctive discernment <strong>of</strong> what<br />
sets her <strong>of</strong>f to the best advantage and with<br />
unerring taste selects from a mass <strong>of</strong> things the<br />
exact thing for her. The word is a vogue word<br />
now, much overused, and sometimes, apparently,<br />
confused with flare, a sudden burst <strong>of</strong><br />
flame.<br />
Rambeau. The plural is flambeaus or @ambeaux.<br />
flamboyant originally referred to the shape <strong>of</strong><br />
flames, the wavy flamelike tracery <strong>of</strong> the stonework<br />
in the windows <strong>of</strong> many Gothic cathedrals<br />
(Etchingam church, with its curious flamboyant<br />
window. The flamboyant penmanship admired<br />
by our ancestors). It has come, however,<br />
to refer to the color <strong>of</strong> flames, flaming rather<br />
than flamelike (the f7amboyant colors <strong>of</strong> autumn)<br />
and from this florid or showy. In this last<br />
sense it is slightly derogatory (The governor’s<br />
flamboyant rhetoric was <strong>of</strong>ten tiresome).<br />
flammable; inflammable. Some trucks that carry<br />
combustible materials are marked flammable,<br />
others inflommabze and the knowing will sometimes<br />
inform you that the one means combustible<br />
and the other explosive, that infiammable<br />
is intended as a stronger warning. But the Petroleum<br />
Institute issues a special dictionary <strong>of</strong> the<br />
terms employed in the industry which says the<br />
two words are completely synonymous, thereby<br />
agreeing with all other dictionaries. It’s just a<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> space or paint, a desire to use<br />
bigger letters, a stylistic preference, or a recommendation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the underwriters who found<br />
that many people thought that inflammable<br />
meant not flammable.<br />
flash in the pan. The pan was that part <strong>of</strong> a flintlock<br />
musket which held the priming, communicating<br />
with the charge by means <strong>of</strong> the<br />
touchhole. The pulling <strong>of</strong> the trigger struck the<br />
flint with a steel hammer and produced a spark<br />
which ignited the powder in the pan which then<br />
exploded the charge. That is, if all went well.<br />
But <strong>of</strong>ten it didn’t. Sometimes (like a cigaret<br />
lighter, which works on the same principle)<br />
there was no spark. And sometimes only the<br />
priming was ignited: it flared up or flashed in<br />
the pan, but because the main charge was wet<br />
or the touchhole stopped up the gun did not go<br />
<strong>of</strong>f (Like false fire in the pan <strong>of</strong> an uncharged<br />
gun, it gives a crack but hurts not. The pistol<br />
flashed in the pan, and a spark flew into the<br />
cask). Thus, for our ancestors a flash in the pan<br />
was a natural figure for an abortive outburst <strong>of</strong><br />
any kind. With us the phrase has come to be<br />
applied more to some momentary success that<br />
cannot be repeated, some meteorlike flash <strong>of</strong><br />
brilliance which compels admiration but does<br />
not inspire confidence.<br />
But flintlock guns are now confined to museums,<br />
their working understood only by antiquaries,<br />
and the famous metaphor, once full <strong>of</strong><br />
fire and meaning, is now quite cold.<br />
flat; flatly. The form flat may be used as an adjective,<br />
as in a flat ro<strong>of</strong>, or as an adverb, as in<br />
she told him flat. The adverbial use <strong>of</strong> flat is<br />
standard English and has always been standard.<br />
Flatly is an adverb only and cannot qualify a<br />
noun. Like the adverb fZat, it may mean in a<br />
downright manner, as in she told him flatly that<br />
she wouldn’t go. Unlike the adverb fiat, it may<br />
also mean in a dull and spiritless manner, as in<br />
he repeats flatly what other people have said<br />
well.<br />
flat as a pancake is a pretty worn simile for flatness<br />
though where, as in something that has<br />
been squashed, there is a s<strong>of</strong>tness or puffiness in<br />
the flatness, it has a suitability.<br />
flat-footed in the sense <strong>of</strong> taking or showing an<br />
uncompromising stand, being firm, explicit (The<br />
others hemmed and hawed but Andy came out<br />
flat-footed with it and said he wouldn’t have<br />
anything to do with the movement) was once<br />
slang but usage has surely made it standard by<br />
now.<br />
flatus. The plural is flatuses or fiatus, not flati.<br />
flaunt; flout. Flaunt, to parade or display oneself<br />
conspicuously or boldly (The Miss Lambs might<br />
now be seen flaunting along the street in French<br />
bonnets) is <strong>of</strong>ten confused with flout, to treat<br />
with disdain or contempt (Ah, you may flout<br />
and turn up your faces. From Fife, great King,/’<br />
Where the Norweyan banners flout the sky).<br />
The confusion is not as amazing as some writers<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess to find it because the two acts are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
related: one who flaunts unconventionality or<br />
immorality flouts the conventions or mores <strong>of</strong><br />
the community (Shall she flaunt that brat at the<br />
baby show and pout every respectable married<br />
woman in town?).<br />
flautist; flutist. The “proper” word for one who<br />
plays a flute is not flautist, as the overknowing<br />
sometimes insist. Flautist is an acceptable word,<br />
but it is a fairly recent importation ( 1860). The<br />
more sensible flutist had been in use for centuries<br />
before the Italianate variant appeared and<br />
has remained in use ever since.<br />
flay. To flay (participle flayed; in older writings<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten spelled flea and Dead) means to strip the<br />
skin <strong>of</strong>f (With her nails/ She’ll flay thy wolfish<br />
visage). Animals are flayed for their hides and<br />
formerly, as a barbarous punishment, men<br />
were flayed alive. By extension it came to mean<br />
to strip <strong>of</strong> money or property. By humorous<br />
exaggeration it came to mean to criticize or<br />
reprove with scathing severity (He flayed him<br />
with scorn, tearing away his pretences <strong>of</strong> honesty<br />
and pitilessly exposing him for the corrupt<br />
and cringing thing that he was). The shortness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word and the extreme violence <strong>of</strong> its<br />
meaning have made it a favorite word with<br />
headline writers whose abuse <strong>of</strong> it has now devitalized<br />
it. Attorney flays witness may only<br />
mean that the witness was censured or that the<br />
attorney doubted the accuracy <strong>of</strong> his testimony.<br />
The word has been so vitiated and overworked<br />
in this sense that it is to be avoided in all serious<br />
or effective writing.<br />
flee. The past tense is fled. The participle is also<br />
fled. This verb, flee, means to run away or
escape, as in like ghosts from an enchanter fleeing.<br />
Poe uses fly with this meaning when he says<br />
ah, let us not linger! ah, fly! let us fly! for we<br />
must. In the United States fly is no longer used<br />
to mean flee. But this is still standard practice<br />
in Great Britain, where flee is felt to be iarchaic<br />
or bookish. In Great Britain @own, the participle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb fir, is also frequently used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> fled, as in he found that the prisoner had<br />
flown.<br />
flesh and blood. As a term for human nature,<br />
flesh and blood (Flesh and blood can’t bear it)<br />
is a cliche. Also as a term for a relative (My<br />
own flesh and blood, to turn against me this<br />
way!).<br />
fleshly; fleshy. Fleshy now means having much<br />
flesh, plump, fat (There was something repulsive<br />
in his moist fleshy hands), or consisting <strong>of</strong><br />
or resembling flesh (These plants have thick<br />
fleshy leaves). Fleshly is now restricted to pertaining<br />
to the flesh in the sense <strong>of</strong> the .bodily,<br />
corporeal, physical as opposed to the spiritual.<br />
It means carnal, sensual, worldly (Adultery,<br />
fornication, incest, or any other fleshly incontinency.<br />
Simplicity and godly sincerity, as opposed<br />
to fleshly wisdom).<br />
flew. See fly.<br />
flight. See trip.<br />
fling. The past tense is flung. The participle is also<br />
Pw.<br />
floor; story. Though floor and story (<strong>of</strong>ten spelled<br />
storey in England) are both used to desig:nate a<br />
horizontal section <strong>of</strong> a building, story is commonly<br />
used in reference to height and floor in<br />
reference to a particular part <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
building (His o&e is on the lop floor <strong>of</strong> a<br />
thirty-szory building and has a wonderful view<br />
<strong>of</strong> the harbor).<br />
floorwalker. The American floorwalker is in England<br />
a shopwalker.<br />
flora is a singular group name, meaning all the<br />
plants <strong>of</strong> a certain place or time. It is usually<br />
followed by a singular verb, but a plural verb is<br />
also permissible. The plural, fioras or ,@orae,<br />
means more than one such group.<br />
flotsam and jetsam. As a metaphorical description<br />
<strong>of</strong> the remains <strong>of</strong> human shipwreck (Huddled<br />
in doorways one sees the flotsam and<br />
jetsam <strong>of</strong> humanity), flotsam and jetsam has<br />
been overworked and is a clichC.<br />
In law a distinction was formerly made between<br />
these now inseparable terms. A wreck<br />
was composed <strong>of</strong> flotsam, jetsam, lagan, and<br />
derelict. Flotsam was that part <strong>of</strong> the wreckage<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ship and its cargo floating on the surface<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sea. Jetsam was that part which hat1 been<br />
purposely thrown overboard, jettisoned, either<br />
to lighten the ship or to prevent its going down<br />
with the ship. Strictly it would have to have<br />
been dragged ashore and above the high-water<br />
line; otherwise it would be flotsam, which was<br />
whatever was found on the shore between highand<br />
low-water lines. Lagan was wreckage lying<br />
on the bottom <strong>of</strong> the sea, whether or not marked<br />
with a buoy. Derelict was the abandoned ship.<br />
The goods wherever found were findals. ‘These<br />
distinctions which are now only <strong>of</strong> antiquarian<br />
181 flurry<br />
interest were formerly important since they determined<br />
who got the spoil. Jetsam went to the<br />
lord <strong>of</strong> the manor, flotsam to the crown. The<br />
shipwrecked men were lucky to escape with<br />
their lives since if they were dead their clothes<br />
and personal belongings might be claimed as<br />
either flotsam or jetsam, depending on how far<br />
they had been able to crawl before they diedor<br />
were killed.<br />
flour; meal. Meal is the edible part <strong>of</strong> any grain<br />
(now usually excluding wheat) or pulse ground<br />
to a coarse powder and unbolted. In the United<br />
States the word particularly designates maize so<br />
ground, or cornmeal. Flour is bolted meal, meal<br />
that is from which the husks have been sifted<br />
out after grinding. It is likely to be more finely<br />
ground than meal. When used alone the word<br />
usually refers to wheat flour. Other flours, such<br />
as buckwheat flour or rye flour, are indicated<br />
by a qualifying prefix.<br />
flower. See bloom.<br />
flown is the participle <strong>of</strong> the verb fly. meaning to<br />
move through the air, as in he had flown from<br />
Chicago. But it is also used in Great Britain as<br />
the participle <strong>of</strong> flee, meaning to run away or<br />
escape, as in he saw that ihe prisoner had flown.<br />
In the United States, this use <strong>of</strong> flown is felt to<br />
be literary or archaic.<br />
The verb that describes the movement <strong>of</strong> a<br />
liquid, flow, is perfectly regular and has the past<br />
tense and the participle flowed. Today flown is<br />
never used in place <strong>of</strong> the participle flowed,<br />
although this was once acceptable.<br />
fluctuate; vacillate. Though pucfuate and vacillate<br />
are in many senses synonymous, they differ in<br />
that fluctuate, to change continually, to vary<br />
irregularly, can refer to persons or things (His<br />
income fluctuated between five and ten thousand<br />
a year. He was moody, temperamental, puctuating<br />
between hope and despair) while vacillate,<br />
to swing unsteadily, is now generally confined<br />
to persons or to the moods or conduct <strong>of</strong> persons.<br />
Furthermore, vacillate is slightly pejorative;<br />
it almost always suggests that the wavering<br />
was bad (He could not decide whether lo risk<br />
his inheritance by investing if in stocks or to<br />
play safe by putting it into government bonds.<br />
The fluctuation <strong>of</strong> the stock marker made him<br />
vacillate between the two plans).<br />
flung. See fling.<br />
flurry; fluster. A flurry is a sudden gust <strong>of</strong> wind,<br />
hence a commotion, sudden excitement, nervous<br />
hurry, and attendant confusion (The sudden<br />
flurries <strong>of</strong> snow-birds,/ Like brown leaves whirling<br />
by, His blunder flurried the other actors and<br />
put them <strong>of</strong>f their lines). To fluster is to fiurry,<br />
but there is in it a greater sense <strong>of</strong> confusion,<br />
akin to the confusion <strong>of</strong> too much drink (He<br />
was flustered by her unexpected appearance in<br />
the doorway and simply stood there, silly and<br />
speechless).<br />
Flustrate is recognized as a verb, but it is hard<br />
to see what it gains over fluster and it is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
confused with frustrate, on analogy to which it<br />
was probably formed. A Austrated person (the<br />
word is chiefly humorous) is frustrated by his<br />
confusion, but a frustrated person may be in
fly<br />
full possession <strong>of</strong> his faculties, calm, and quite<br />
clear in his purposes, simply unable to accomplish<br />
his ends.<br />
fly. The past tense is flew. The participle is flown.<br />
In the United States these words are used only<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> movement through the air, as in<br />
he flew from Chicago, or <strong>of</strong> something equally<br />
rapid, as in time flies. In Great Britain fly and<br />
flown are also used in the sense <strong>of</strong> escape or run<br />
away. (See flee.) In the United States there is a<br />
regular verb fly, flied, used in baseball (he flirt/<br />
into right field).<br />
fiy <strong>of</strong>f at a tangent, as a term for abruptly leaving<br />
one thing to pursue another, is a clich6.<br />
foam; froth. Foam and froth both mean an aggregation<br />
<strong>of</strong> bubbles and in many contexts may<br />
be used interchangeably. A man may foam at<br />
the mouth or froth at the mouth. But foam is<br />
usually employed when the connotations are<br />
pleasant, fro01 when they are unpleasant. Aphrodite<br />
arose from the foam. A billowing, lacy<br />
dress would probably be described as foamy.<br />
Where the lightness was thought ill <strong>of</strong>, froth<br />
would be more likely to be used (All that frothy<br />
talk, what does it mean?).<br />
fob; foist. A fraudulent imposition is fobbed <strong>of</strong>f<br />
on the public, or the public is fobbed <strong>of</strong>f with<br />
such an imposition. But a trick or cheat is foisted<br />
on the public. The public cannot be foisted 08<br />
with a trick.<br />
focus. The plural is focuses or foci. See nexus.<br />
foible. See fault.<br />
foist. See fob.<br />
-foId. See suffixes.<br />
folio is a sheet <strong>of</strong> paper folded once to make two<br />
leaves (four pages) <strong>of</strong> a book. The term is also<br />
applied to a volume made up <strong>of</strong> such sheets.<br />
Such volumes were likely to be large and in<br />
common use the word <strong>of</strong>ten means any large,<br />
old, leather-bound book. But this is a loose<br />
usage. Some quartos (books composed <strong>of</strong> sheets<br />
folded twice into four leaves) are larger than<br />
some folios. The essential distinction is not the<br />
size but the folding <strong>of</strong> the sheet.<br />
folk; folks. These words both mean people and<br />
both take a plural verb. At one time these words<br />
were used just as people and peoples were. The<br />
singular folk meant a nation and the plural folks<br />
meant several nations. The singular could also<br />
be used as a group name to mean the masses or<br />
the laity. These uses are now obsolete except in<br />
poetry. We may speak about the fairy folk but<br />
we do not speak about the Zroquois folks.<br />
In the United States today the singular folk<br />
is used as the first element in a number <strong>of</strong> compounds,<br />
such as folklore and folk dances. The<br />
plural folks is used affectionately in the young<br />
folks and the old folks. These uses are standard<br />
throughout the country.<br />
The plural form is also heard in my folks,<br />
poor folks, folks say, and similar expressions.<br />
These are standard English in some areas, principally<br />
in the South. In other areas they are acceptable<br />
but have a slightly old-fashioned or<br />
countrifled tone and the more usual word is<br />
people, as in my people, poor people, people<br />
182<br />
soy, and so on. The singular form folk when<br />
used in this sense carries a distinctly bookish<br />
tone.<br />
In some areas, principally the North East,<br />
folks is used in a special sense, meaning our<br />
kind, as in they are folks; and folksy, which<br />
once meant friendly, now means unpretentious.<br />
Folksy is also used derisively by some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
educated to mean self-consciously unpretentious.<br />
These expressions are standard in the areas<br />
where they are used.<br />
folk etymology is a term for a change in the form<br />
or pronunciation <strong>of</strong> words in order to make<br />
them similar to more familiar words on the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> a fancied derivation. Thus Welsh rabbit,<br />
melted cheese on toast, is <strong>of</strong>ten called Welsh<br />
rarebit. The old light, one-horse family carriage<br />
was called a carryall, a folk etymologizing <strong>of</strong><br />
its French name carriole. The tendency is active<br />
in all languages and some <strong>of</strong> our established<br />
words were so formed. Thus isinglass is a corruption<br />
<strong>of</strong> an obsolete Dutch word huysenblas,<br />
a sturgeon’s bladder. It is particularly noticeable<br />
in geographic names in regions where the<br />
original settlers spoke a different language from<br />
the one spoken by the present inhabitants. Thus<br />
the Purgafoire, a river in Colorado, has become,<br />
in local pronunciation, the Picketwire and Harriet<br />
Martineau records that when she visited<br />
Illinois in 1834, Joliet had been corrupted to<br />
Juliet and that nearby was a hamlet called<br />
Romeo.<br />
follow. See succeed.<br />
follow in the footsteps <strong>of</strong>, as a term for emulation,<br />
is a worn and wordy clich6. The phrase<br />
is elaborated inaptly in Longfellow’s<br />
Lives <strong>of</strong> great men all remind us<br />
We can make our lives sublime,<br />
And, departing, leave behind us,<br />
Footprints on the sands <strong>of</strong> time;<br />
Footprints, that perhaps another,<br />
Sailing o’er life’s solemn main,<br />
A forlorn and shipwrecked brother,<br />
Seeing, shall take heart again.<br />
Aside from the singular impermanence <strong>of</strong> footprints<br />
in the sand, the metaphor here calIs to<br />
mind the most famous <strong>of</strong> all footprints in sand,<br />
that <strong>of</strong> Man Friday in Robinson Crusoe. And<br />
one remembers that Crusoe did not “take heart”<br />
at the sight <strong>of</strong> them but was terrified.<br />
follows. As follows is an impersonal construction,<br />
with an understood subject if. The singular form<br />
follows must always be used. We say they are as<br />
follows and not they are as follow.<br />
fool. The use <strong>of</strong> fool as an adjective (AII boys get<br />
these fool notions in their heads at one time or<br />
another), though ignored by some authorities<br />
and condemned by others, has enough support<br />
in literature (Ev’n rho’ thrice again/ The red<br />
fool-fury <strong>of</strong> the Seine/ Should pile her barricades<br />
with dead-Tennyson) to be acceptable.<br />
foolish; fatuous; silly; stupid. All four wordsfoolish;<br />
fatuous; silly; stupid-mean lacking in<br />
intelligence and judgment and may be used inter-
changeably in many contexts. But they have<br />
their distinctions, especially when used to describe<br />
a person instead <strong>of</strong> some particular act.<br />
Foolish implies lack <strong>of</strong> common sense and,<br />
sometimes, a genuine mental weakness (Tliat<br />
was a foolish answer; you must have h,b help<br />
and it will antagonize him. A mild, foolish man,<br />
very lovable). Fatuous refers to complacent<br />
folly, folly which the foolish person mistakes<br />
for wisdom. It suggests pompous emptiness,<br />
oracular insipidity (These fatuous commonplaces,<br />
when one needs specific advice, are infuriating).<br />
Silly in Anglo-Saxon meant happy,<br />
and the word still has about it a suggestion <strong>of</strong><br />
that ebullience <strong>of</strong> gay folly that <strong>of</strong>ten marks and<br />
attends happiness. It also has about it the disapproval<br />
and annoyance at such conspicuous<br />
foolishness felt by those who do not share the<br />
happiness or approve <strong>of</strong> the folly (We were<br />
young and very silly. One <strong>of</strong> the silliest things<br />
I ever heard <strong>of</strong>, to act that way in the bi.Fhop’s<br />
presence0 Stupid implies a natural slowness and<br />
deficiency <strong>of</strong> intellect, a benumbed and dazed<br />
state <strong>of</strong> mind. It is usually an angry and abusive<br />
word. It carries with it a suggestion <strong>of</strong> the brutality<br />
that so <strong>of</strong>ten goes with obtusity (The<br />
stupid lout just stood there and didn’t <strong>of</strong>fer to<br />
lift a finger to help. The stupid Huns with their<br />
Schrecklichkeit). A person may be silly without<br />
being stupid.<br />
foot. The plural is feet. (When this word is being<br />
used in the special sense <strong>of</strong> foot soldiers, it has<br />
the unchanged piural foot, as in there were five<br />
thousand foot.)<br />
In literary English, only the singular form<br />
foot can be used to qualify a following noun,<br />
as in foot warmer, a two-foot ruler, a six-foothigh<br />
wall. The plural form feet is sometimes<br />
heard in this position, as in a feet warmer, a<br />
two-feet ruler. This is heard too <strong>of</strong>ten to be<br />
condemned, but it is not yet literary English and<br />
the singular foot is preferred.<br />
Formerly, the singular foot could always be<br />
used after a numeral, whether it qualified a following<br />
noun or not, as in he is six foot underground<br />
and she is five foot two. This old use <strong>of</strong><br />
the singular is still acceptable in the United<br />
States, but the plural form feet is now preferred<br />
when the measurement does not precede: the<br />
noun, as in a wall six feet high.<br />
Foot is also used as the second element in<br />
compound adjectives meaning having a certain<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> feet, as in barefoot hoy and many a<br />
lightfoot Zad. The form footed may also be used<br />
here and is required when what is being shown<br />
is “how many” feet, as in fourfooted beasts and<br />
the unfooted sea.<br />
foot the bill in the sense <strong>of</strong> “pay the reckoning”<br />
(Order what you want; he’ll foot the bilr’) is<br />
slang in American usage. It is used also, metaphorically,<br />
to mean to suffer the consequences.<br />
footless. In English usage footless can only mean,<br />
literally or metaphorically, having no feet, without<br />
footing or basis (Some footless stockings<br />
tied up at the ends, dreamful wastes where footless<br />
fancies dwell). These meanings are recog-<br />
183 for<br />
nized in America where it also can mean inapt<br />
or futile-possibly through confusion with<br />
bootless (The ordering out <strong>of</strong> the militia was<br />
about as footless a procedure as I ever heard<br />
tell <strong>of</strong>).<br />
footplatemen. The English term footplatemen<br />
(The locomotive union has about 70,000 footplatemen<br />
and the rival unions about 17,000<br />
footplatemen) comprises what in America are<br />
called locomotive engineers and firemen. The<br />
footplate is the platform on which the engineer<br />
and firemen <strong>of</strong> a locomotive engine stand.<br />
for may be used as a preposition requiring an<br />
object or as a conjunction introducing a full<br />
clause. The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> for is ahead. But<br />
the word has a great many uses, some <strong>of</strong> which<br />
overlap and some <strong>of</strong> which seem to be completely<br />
unrelated.<br />
1. Three <strong>of</strong> these uses only need to be listed,<br />
because they are clear cut and present no problems.<br />
For may be used to show distance, in time<br />
or in space, as in wait for a year and walk for<br />
a mile. It may show destination, as in we set out<br />
for or we left for Chicago. And it may mean<br />
in favor <strong>of</strong>, as in we are all for yore and we are<br />
for truth and justice.<br />
2. For may be used to show that one thing<br />
represents, is equivalent to, resembles, or corresponds<br />
to, another, as in he appeared for me,<br />
they took me for a fool, they left him for dead,<br />
and word for word, blow for blow. In these uses<br />
for sometimes approaches the meaning <strong>of</strong> as.<br />
For is used in a related sense to mean adapted<br />
to or suitable to, as in a genius for getting into<br />
trouble, an ear for music. In the weather is<br />
Severe for this time <strong>of</strong> year and he is still there,<br />
for all I know, for means in comparison with<br />
or as far as. These various uses <strong>of</strong> the word are<br />
hard to define but they all represent a correspondence<br />
<strong>of</strong> one kind or another. They are<br />
established in idiomatic English and as a rule<br />
do not give any trouble to a native speaker <strong>of</strong><br />
the language.<br />
3. For is used with a great many verbs to<br />
show the object <strong>of</strong> a feeling or an attitude, as<br />
in hope for, strive for, yearn for. In verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
forgiving or excusing, what is forgiven is the<br />
<strong>of</strong>fense, not the person, and this is <strong>of</strong>ten introduced<br />
by for. This might be expressed by a<br />
clause, as in forgive me that Z am late, but in<br />
current English we are more likely to say forgive<br />
me for being late or forgive my being late.<br />
Similarly, in trust Providence for the rest, the<br />
meaning is trust for the rest to Providence. In<br />
sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind, the person involved is<br />
treated as an indirect object. See indirect object.<br />
A noun or adjective that represents a feeling<br />
may have its object introduced by for. But this<br />
is also one <strong>of</strong> the functions <strong>of</strong> the genitive case<br />
and the word <strong>of</strong> is sometimes used with exactly<br />
the same sense. A great many words, such as<br />
thirsty, eager, greedy, which could once be followed<br />
by <strong>of</strong>, are now always used with for.<br />
Others, such as love, desire, appreciation, contempt,<br />
may be used with either <strong>of</strong> or for, as in<br />
lo1.e <strong>of</strong> money, love for money. In the case <strong>of</strong> a
forbade<br />
few words, such as afraid and apprehensive, for<br />
has the special function <strong>of</strong> showing that the<br />
feeling is in the interest <strong>of</strong> a particular person.<br />
We therefore say I am afraid <strong>of</strong> fire and I am<br />
afraid for him. When this function does not<br />
exist and for and <strong>of</strong> may be used interchangeably,<br />
for is generally preferred.<br />
4. For is used to show the person whose interests<br />
are affected by a given action, or the<br />
intended recipient <strong>of</strong> an action, as in things<br />
worked out badly for all <strong>of</strong> ~(s and we set a trap<br />
for them. In current English there is a strong<br />
tendency to use for when an action is advantageous,<br />
and to use on when it is disadvantageous,<br />
as in he lowered the rent for me and he<br />
raised the rent on me, he closed the door for me<br />
and he closed the door on me, This broad use<br />
<strong>of</strong> on is not established in literary English but<br />
it represents a valuable distinction that may become<br />
standard in time.<br />
5. For may be used to show purpose, as in<br />
he has gone to the store for groceries, or cause,<br />
as in he was notorious for covetousness and for<br />
parsimony, or reason, as in they shouted for joy<br />
and he couldn’t see the woods for the trees. It<br />
may also be used to show a preventive cause<br />
or a cause that didn’t operate. In this sense it is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten equivalent to in spite <strong>of</strong>, as in the owl, for<br />
all his feathers, was a-cold and he left, for all I<br />
could do to stop him.<br />
6. At one time for could be used before an<br />
infinitive, especially when it emphasized the idc,l<br />
<strong>of</strong> purpose, as in what went ye out for to see?.<br />
It was sometimes used in this position evei~<br />
when there was no question <strong>of</strong> purpose, as in<br />
he made the seas for to rage and roar. In cnrrent<br />
English for cannot stand immediately before<br />
an infinitive, and we use in order or SO a.y<br />
to stress the idea <strong>of</strong> purpose. The old construction<br />
can still be heard, as in Z wish for to see<br />
him, but it is no longer standard.<br />
In current English for is used to introduce, or<br />
to mark, the subject <strong>of</strong> an infinitive, as in there<br />
was no need for you to leave and I am glad for<br />
you to have it. When the infinitive and all the<br />
words that go with it are attached to a noun or<br />
an adjective, as they are in these examples, this<br />
use <strong>of</strong> for is unquestionably literary English.<br />
But sometimes they are the object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as<br />
in the doctor said for him to take a walk. Twenty<br />
or thirty years ago sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind were<br />
not considered standard and a that-clause, such<br />
as the doctor said that he should take a walk,<br />
was the only acceptable construction. But the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the infinitive has increased enormously<br />
during the last thirty or forty years. It seems<br />
to be replacing the that-clauses which require a<br />
subjunctive or subjunctive equivalent verb. In<br />
the United States for is now standard English<br />
when it introduces the subject <strong>of</strong> an infinitive<br />
that is being used in place <strong>of</strong> a that-clause. But<br />
it is not acceptable when the infinitive is not<br />
being used in this way. For example, we do not<br />
say Z want that you should come and therefore<br />
Z want for you to come is also unacceptable.<br />
7. Besides its many uses as a preposition, for<br />
may also be used as a conjunction. When used<br />
as a conjunction it introduces a full clause, as<br />
in forgive me, for Z am tired. Here for does not<br />
show the object <strong>of</strong> the feeling or attitude, as it<br />
does in forgive me for being tired. The conjunction<br />
for always shows that a following statement<br />
is being <strong>of</strong>fered as a reason for something that<br />
has just been said. This brings the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
for very close to the meaning <strong>of</strong> because, and at<br />
one time the two words could be used interchangeably,<br />
as in nor for he swelled with ire<br />
was she afraid. This sentence is no longer standard<br />
English because it disregards two differences<br />
which we now make between the words because<br />
and for.<br />
In the first place, these words now have<br />
slightly different meanings. The conjunction for<br />
introduces a reason, or an explanation for an<br />
opinion. The reason given may also be a cause,<br />
or an explanation for a fact, as in it is getting<br />
dark for it is going to rain. But this is not necessarily<br />
so. We may also say it is going to rain<br />
for it is getting dark. Here the for-clause gives<br />
the reason for the opinion. The word because,<br />
on the other hand, always introduces a cause.<br />
Most people would feel that it was ridiculous to<br />
say it is going to rain because it is getting dark.<br />
Very <strong>of</strong>ten the reason we give for an opinion<br />
is also intended to be an explanation <strong>of</strong> the fact,<br />
and we may then use either for or because. In<br />
current speech because is preferred to for whenever<br />
both are permissible, perhaps because we<br />
feel that facts are more interesting than opinions.<br />
For whatever reason, for when it is not<br />
actually required has an artificial or bookish<br />
tone.<br />
In the second place, there is a purely formal<br />
difference in the way these words are used. It is<br />
sometimes said that for is a coordinating conjunction,<br />
that is, that it joins two independent<br />
statements, and that because is a subordinating<br />
conjunction and always introduces a subordinate<br />
or qualifying statement. Actually no such distinction<br />
is felt in current English. There is no<br />
difference in emphasis between we hurried for<br />
it was getting dark and we hurried because it<br />
was getting dark. In both cases, we hurried is<br />
felt to be the sole principal clause. A clause<br />
introduced by because, like a clause introduced<br />
by a subordinating conjunction such as if or<br />
unless, may stand before or after the principal<br />
statement. We may say because it was getting<br />
dark, we hurried. The conjunction for, on the<br />
other hand, like the coordinating conjunction<br />
but, must always stand between the clauses that<br />
it joins. In current English a for-clause never<br />
precedes the other statement. This limitation<br />
makes for one <strong>of</strong> the coordinating conjunctions.<br />
But only in a technical sense. So far as the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> the word goes, for has as much subordinating<br />
force as the word because.<br />
forbade. See forbid.<br />
forbear. The past tense is forbore. The participle<br />
is forborne. Forbear may be followed by an
infinitive, as in 1 forbore to mention it. If the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used it must be introduced<br />
by from, as in I forbore from mentioning it.<br />
The infinitive is generally preferred.<br />
forbear; forebear. The verb meaning to restrain<br />
from, to hold back, to be patient, is forbear.<br />
The noun meaning ancestor may be either forebear<br />
or forbear, though forebear is preferred<br />
(I can’t forbear from laughing when he gets to<br />
boasting <strong>of</strong> his forebears).<br />
forbid. The past tense is forbade or forbid. The<br />
participle is forbidden or forbid. The form for.<br />
bade is always pronounced forbad, and may also<br />
be spelled that way. Forbid may be followed by<br />
an infinitive, as in he forbade her to speak, or<br />
by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he forbade her<br />
speaking. The infinitive is generally preferred.<br />
forbidden fruit. It would seem natural to connect<br />
the phrase forbidden fruit with the story <strong>of</strong><br />
Eve’s temptation, and this unquestionably has<br />
had to do with the phrase’s entrenchment lin the<br />
language. But the Romans and the Greeks both<br />
had sayings <strong>of</strong> much the same kind. This one<br />
was proverbial in Chaucer’s time and is a cliche<br />
in ours.<br />
forbore; forborne. See forbear.<br />
force. This verb may be followed by an infmitive,<br />
3s in they forced him to go. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb is used it must be introduced by the preposition<br />
into, as in they forced him into going.<br />
The infinitive construction is preferred.<br />
forceful; forcible. Forcible means effected by force<br />
or characterized by the use <strong>of</strong> force or violence<br />
(Finding all doors and windows locked, the<br />
police had no choice but to make a forcible<br />
entrance). Forceful means full <strong>of</strong> force. It is<br />
used chiefly in such phrases as a forceful’ personality<br />
or a forceful argument. It may be used<br />
as a synonym for forcible but such use is now<br />
archaic and literary.<br />
forceps is frequently treated as a plural in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> one instrument, as in these forceps are<br />
clean. Three instruments may be called three<br />
forceps or three pairs <strong>of</strong> forceps. These constructions<br />
are standard English today. But forceps<br />
is actually a Latin singular and a singular<br />
construction, such as a forceps or this forceps is<br />
clean, is acceptable but learned. The word has<br />
an English plural forcepses and a learned plural<br />
forcipes, neither <strong>of</strong> which is in common use<br />
today. A singular form forcep is sometimes<br />
heard but is not standard. The form forceps is<br />
always used as the first element <strong>of</strong> a compound,<br />
as in a forceps delivery.<br />
fore. The comparative form is former. The superlative<br />
form is foremost or first. The positive<br />
form fore is not <strong>of</strong>ten heard today (except on a<br />
golf course). The superlative foremost is generally<br />
used in its place. The comparative former<br />
has the meaning in some constructions <strong>of</strong> standing<br />
before something else, principally when used<br />
with the latter. But it is now more <strong>of</strong>ten usled to<br />
mean preceding in time. It can no longer be<br />
used in a comparison with than. We say earlier<br />
than and not former than.<br />
18.5<br />
The word first also retains something <strong>of</strong> the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> foremost, but is more <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
simply as the ordinal form <strong>of</strong> the cardinal number<br />
one. See first.<br />
forecast. The past tense is forecast or forecasted.<br />
The participle is also forecast or forecasted.<br />
Forecast is the literary form for the past tense<br />
and the participle, but forecasted is also acceptable<br />
in the United States.<br />
forego; forgo. To forego is to go before, to precede.<br />
To forgo is to abstain from (I must forgo<br />
the pleasure <strong>of</strong> foregoing him into the hall).<br />
Forgo, to abstain from, may be spelled forego;<br />
but forego, to precede, may not be spelled forgo.<br />
foregone conclusion. Iago, inflaming Othello’s<br />
mind with jealousy, tells him that he had heard<br />
Cassio talking in his sleep and that he had<br />
seemed to be making love to Desdemona and<br />
warning her to be cautious. Othello cries out in<br />
anguish and Iago hastens to insist “this was but<br />
his dream.” It may have been only a dream,<br />
Othello replies, but such a dream denoted a<br />
foregone conclusion. Scholars have debated the<br />
exact meaning <strong>of</strong> the phrase in this its original<br />
context, but it seems fairly obvious: It may have<br />
been only a dream, but the very nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dream makes it plain that the act <strong>of</strong> love had<br />
definitely been concluded between them some<br />
time before. In modern usage the phrase means<br />
an inevitable conclusion, an opinion or a decision<br />
formed in advance. It is a cliche.<br />
foreign. The use <strong>of</strong> the word foreign to designate<br />
a corporation chartered by another state but<br />
doing business in the state concerned is a proper<br />
legal term and not, as is sometimes assumed, an<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> belligerent provincialism.<br />
foreign plurals. We have in English a great many<br />
words that have Latin or Greek plural forms.<br />
In most cases, these words also have a regular<br />
English plural that has been in existence, side<br />
by side with the learned form, sometimes for<br />
centuries. There is nothing about the form <strong>of</strong><br />
these words that makes a classical plural more<br />
“natural” than an English one. Other words, <strong>of</strong><br />
exactly the same types, are used only with English<br />
plurals. We can set cameras against formzzlae,<br />
circzcses against alztmni, mzueums against<br />
memoranda, complexes against indices, trellises<br />
against pelves, electrons and paragons against<br />
phenomena and criteria.<br />
It would not be worthwhile to list all the<br />
words <strong>of</strong> this kind that may be used in scientific<br />
writing since these include, potentially, more<br />
words than exist in Greek or Latin. But several<br />
hundred <strong>of</strong> the most familiar ones can be found<br />
in this dictionary. These include all the words<br />
in general use for which the foreign plural is the<br />
only acceptable form, such as parentheses. They<br />
also include the words which are most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
seen with a wrong plural form. If a learned form<br />
is used at all, it must be the right one.<br />
Where two plural forms exist, one should<br />
choose the form that is most familiar. This<br />
means that a botanist and a physician might<br />
make different choices. Faced with choosing
forensic 186<br />
latexes or latices and fistulas or fistulae, the<br />
botanist might choose latices and fistulas, and<br />
the physician, latexes and fistulae. If the two<br />
plural forms are equally familiar, or equally<br />
unfamiliar, the English form is safer.<br />
A classical scholar might, perhaps, find it hard<br />
to talk about criterions. But the number <strong>of</strong><br />
Americans who know anything about Greek or<br />
Latin five years after they have left college is<br />
very small. And anyone who uses unfamiliar<br />
forms merely because he thinks they add a<br />
scholarly tone is likely to prove what an ignoramus<br />
he is. Not all words that end in a have a<br />
plural in ae, and not all words that end in x<br />
have a plural in ices. Some words that end in<br />
us have a plural in i and some have a plural<br />
in us. And some words are learned jokes that<br />
have become respectable nouns in English but<br />
that cannot possibly be given a plural in Latin.<br />
An English plural is safe. It can always be defended.<br />
A learned plural is sometimes out <strong>of</strong><br />
place. And if it is a wrong learned plural, it is<br />
very, very wrong.<br />
forensic means pertaining to, or connected with,<br />
or used in, courts <strong>of</strong> law. Forensic medicine, for<br />
example, is medicine in its relations to law. It<br />
also means pertaining to public discussion or<br />
debate, in such terms as forensic eloquence. But<br />
this usage is largely restricted to colleges and<br />
universities and has a touch not only <strong>of</strong> the<br />
academic but <strong>of</strong> the stilted. Sometimes in colleges<br />
the word is used as a noun for a debate or<br />
forensic contest. In the last century written<br />
speeches that could be used in debates were<br />
called forensics at Harvard.<br />
forest. See wood.<br />
foreword; preface: introduction. There was a<br />
vogue in the nineteenth century for replacing<br />
words <strong>of</strong> Latin origin with Saxon equivalents.<br />
Although preface had been in use for five centuries,<br />
foreword was coined to take its place and<br />
enjoyed great popularity among those who affected<br />
to be unaffected. All sense <strong>of</strong> its Teutonic<br />
strength and simplicity has departed and it is<br />
now simply a synonym for the older word.<br />
Fowler thought, in 1924, that it was already<br />
falling into disuse and allowed himself a paragraph<br />
<strong>of</strong> exultation. But his triumph was premature.<br />
The word is still in use, is accepted as<br />
standard by all dictionaries, and probably will<br />
stay. An introduction is likely to be more formal<br />
than a preface or a foreword, or to be more<br />
closely connected with what follows.<br />
forget. The past tense is forgot. The participle is<br />
forgotten or forgot. In the United States, both<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the participle are used, as in 2 have<br />
forgotten and I have forgot. Forgotten is generally<br />
preferred. In Great Britain, forgotten is<br />
the only form <strong>of</strong> the participle used and forgot<br />
is considered archaic or poetic. This is the reverse<br />
<strong>of</strong> British practice in the case <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
get, where got is the preferred form and gotten<br />
is considered archaic.<br />
Forget may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I forgot to mail the letter. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb is used it must be introduced by the prep-<br />
osition about, as in Z forgot about mailing the<br />
letter. Forget may also be followed by a clause,<br />
as in I forgot he had mailed it. See also misremember.<br />
forgetful. See oblivious.<br />
forgive. The past tense is forgave. The participle<br />
is forgiven. Forgive may be followed by a thatclause,<br />
as in forgive me that I didn’t come, or by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in forgive my not<br />
coming. But a phrase with the preposition for,<br />
as in forgive me for not coming, is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
forgo. See forego.<br />
forgot; forgotten. See forget.<br />
forlorn hope. Forlorn when spoken <strong>of</strong> persons<br />
means abandoned, forsaken, left all alone, desolate<br />
(This is the maiden all forlorn/ Who<br />
milked the cow with the crumpled horn). Hope<br />
in the phrase a forlorn hope originally meant<br />
a band <strong>of</strong> soldiers (The forlorn hope <strong>of</strong> each<br />
attack consisted <strong>of</strong> a sergeant and twelve Europeans-Wellington).<br />
The whole thing was actually<br />
merely an English spelling <strong>of</strong> the Dutch<br />
verloren hoop, “lost heap” or “lost troop,” a<br />
term applied to soldiers assigned to extremely<br />
perilous tasks, meaning, as it were, given up for<br />
lost because <strong>of</strong> the very nature <strong>of</strong> what they had<br />
to do. The French called them enfants perdus<br />
arrd the English “forlorn boys.”<br />
With the emergence <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> desperate<br />
or desolate for forlorn-the feeling that<br />
would follow upon being abandoned-the Dutch<br />
hoop was easily folk-etymologized into the English<br />
hope and the present meaning <strong>of</strong> the phrase,<br />
a vain expectation, an undertaking almost certain<br />
to fail, was established. As early as 1641<br />
the phrase was being used in its modern sense,<br />
though the old meaning persisted alongside <strong>of</strong><br />
the new one for two centuries. It is now a clicht.<br />
form. See blank.<br />
former. See fore.<br />
formula. The plural is formulas or formulae.<br />
formulate. To formulate is to reduce to or express<br />
in a formula, and a formula is a set form <strong>of</strong><br />
words used for stating or declaring something<br />
authoritatively or for indicating procedure to be<br />
followed. To use formulate for form, therefore<br />
(to formulate an opinion, to formulate a plan),<br />
is to misuse it, and even when used correctly,<br />
except in chemistry or mathematics, it is a fairly<br />
pompous word.<br />
fornication is voluntary sexual intercourse on the<br />
part <strong>of</strong> an unmarried person, though the term<br />
is used in the Bible as a synonym for adultery<br />
and sometimes as a synonym for idolatry.<br />
forsake. The past tense is forsook. The participle<br />
is forsaken.<br />
forsooth once had almost the solemnity <strong>of</strong> an oath<br />
(He confirmeth with a double oath, saying forsooth<br />
and forsooth-1547) but it is now used<br />
only ironically (And I, forsooth, am to stay<br />
home and wash the dishes while you go to the<br />
movies). Even this use, however, is now felt to<br />
be slightly affected.<br />
fort; fortress. In the military sense <strong>of</strong> an armed<br />
place surrounded by defensive works and occu-
pied by troops, forf and fortress are interchangeable.<br />
In common usage fortress is applied to<br />
larger forts or groups <strong>of</strong> forts or to the more<br />
heavily armed forts (the great Belgian fortress<br />
<strong>of</strong> Eben Emnel). There is an old joke that fortress<br />
is feminine and hence harder to silence.<br />
The fortified trading posts <strong>of</strong> the West were invariably<br />
called forts and the term survives today<br />
in many American place names. Of the two<br />
words only fortress is used metaphorically (A<br />
mighty fortress is our God).<br />
fortitude. See patience.<br />
fortnight, meaning the space <strong>of</strong> fourteen nights<br />
and days, is in everyday use in England but is<br />
archaic in the United States where two weeks is<br />
used instead (I gef a two weeks’ vacation! early<br />
in September). Fortnight is known in America,<br />
at least to the educated, but is rarely used.<br />
fortuitous. That is fortuitous which is accidental<br />
or happens by chance (This fortuitous encounter<br />
was the cause <strong>of</strong> his death). Some fortuitous<br />
events may be favorable but the word is not a<br />
synonym for fortunate and it is a mistake so to<br />
use it.<br />
forum. The plural is forums or fora.<br />
forward; forwards. Forward is the only form that<br />
can be used to qualify a following noun, :as in a<br />
forward thrust. It is also the only form used in<br />
the two expressions look forward and from that<br />
day forward. It is the preferred form in giving<br />
a command, as in those behind cried “Forward.“’<br />
and those before cried “Back!” Either<br />
form may be used in’any other construcf.on, as<br />
in move forwards and move forward. ln the<br />
United States the form forward is generally preferred.<br />
forward; dispatch; transmit. The use <strong>of</strong> forward<br />
and dispatch as simple synonyms <strong>of</strong> send has<br />
little justification, though it is common in commercial<br />
letters (We regret that a slight debzy will<br />
be necessary, but assure you that the goods will<br />
be forwarded as soon as possible. We have received<br />
your order and will dispatch within the<br />
week, etc.). A letter or package is certainly forwarded<br />
when it is sent ahead to an address at<br />
which the addressee will be and it is forwarded<br />
when it is sent on after him to another address.<br />
Transmit for send is labored elegance unless it<br />
carries the definite idea <strong>of</strong> passing something<br />
through or over an intermediary. Jones transmits<br />
a message or letter from Smith to Robinson.<br />
Though hasten is now an archaic meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
dispatch, the idea <strong>of</strong> haste is still in the word and<br />
it means to send <strong>of</strong>f promptly or quickly, with<br />
some sense <strong>of</strong> urgency.<br />
for your information. If that which follows is<br />
truly informative, the introductory phrarse for<br />
your information weakens its effect. If it is not,<br />
it is simply exasperating. Its use is chiefly ironical.<br />
It serves as a polite expression <strong>of</strong> annoyance<br />
at someone else’s assertiveness.<br />
In inter<strong>of</strong>fice communication, and Such like,<br />
it is <strong>of</strong>ten used to mean “You don’t have to do<br />
anything about this; we’re merely informing<br />
you . . . .” In this use it is an established and<br />
acceptable formula, <strong>of</strong>ten abbreviated to FYI.<br />
187 fractions<br />
fought. See fight.<br />
found. See find.<br />
fowl. The preferred plural is fowls. The singular<br />
form fowl is <strong>of</strong>ten used generically, or collectively,<br />
to mean all <strong>of</strong> them, as in the fowl <strong>of</strong> the<br />
air. It may also be used as a mass word meaning<br />
this kind <strong>of</strong> food, as in they ate fowl all winter.<br />
But only hunters use it as a true plural, as in<br />
several dead fowl.<br />
fraction. The use <strong>of</strong> fraction to mean a small piece,<br />
a remnant (He will recover only a fraction <strong>of</strong><br />
the cost), is over three hundred years old.<br />
Shakespeare so uses it. Troilus in Troilus and<br />
Cressida says bitterly <strong>of</strong> Cressida that The fractions<br />
<strong>of</strong> her faith, orts <strong>of</strong> her love,/ The fragments,<br />
scraps, the bits, and greasy relics/ Of her<br />
o’ereaten faith, are given to Diomed. It is true<br />
that the mathematical senses <strong>of</strong> one or more<br />
aliquot parts <strong>of</strong> a unit, the ratio between any two<br />
numbers, or a ratio <strong>of</strong> algebraic quantities analogous<br />
to the arithmetical vulgar fraction, are<br />
older by several centuries. But three hundred<br />
and fifty years <strong>of</strong> use by the best writers is surely<br />
enough to establish a usage as standard. None<br />
the less, with the spread <strong>of</strong> education the mathematical<br />
meaning has become the dominant one<br />
and those who object to using fraction to mean<br />
a small part (insisting that since 9/lOths is a<br />
fraction, a fraction need not necessarily be a<br />
small fragment) have a somewhat better case<br />
than they had fifty years ago. But still not a<br />
strong enough one, not yet at least, to insist that<br />
this common use <strong>of</strong> the word is an error. Partridge’s<br />
designation <strong>of</strong> it as “infelicitous” is about<br />
as far as anyone can now go.<br />
fractions. With the exception <strong>of</strong> half and quarter,<br />
the second term in a fraction is an ordinal number.<br />
such as third, fourth, fifth. But the fractions<br />
are’not ordinals. They represent quantities. Unlike<br />
the cardinals, they are primarily nouns, but<br />
today, especially in scientific work, they are taking<br />
on the adjective uses characteristic <strong>of</strong> cardinals.<br />
Because a fraction is a noun and represents a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> some whole, it is traditionally joined to<br />
a following noun by <strong>of</strong> and a definitive adjective<br />
(such as a, the, this, my, all), as in one-third <strong>of</strong><br />
the men, three-fifths <strong>of</strong> a mile. In current English<br />
this <strong>of</strong> may be dropped, but not the definitive<br />
adjective, as in one-third the men. This is<br />
more likely to occur with simple fractions, such<br />
as one-third, than with more complicated ones,<br />
but we also say it has nine-tenths the density <strong>of</strong><br />
water. When a pronoun follows a fraction, as in<br />
three-fourths <strong>of</strong> them, the <strong>of</strong> cannot be dropped.<br />
A generation ago the expression two miles<br />
and a quarter was considered finer English than<br />
two and a quarter miles, hecause in the second<br />
form the noun quarter is being used as an adjective.<br />
Today, the second form is generally<br />
preferred. Both are acceptable.<br />
One hyphen is used in a fraction, but not two.<br />
We write one-twentieth but one twenty-fourth.<br />
When fractions are expressed in figures, <strong>of</strong> and<br />
the definitive adjective are dropped and the<br />
following noun is made plural, as in 94 miles.
fragile 188<br />
Decimals, which are a class <strong>of</strong> fractions, are<br />
aiways expressed in figures, as in 0.58 grams.<br />
A fraction may be treated as a singular or a<br />
plural, depending on whether it is thought <strong>of</strong><br />
as a unit or as a certain number <strong>of</strong> individuals,<br />
as in three-fourths <strong>of</strong> the surface <strong>of</strong> the earth is<br />
sea and three-fourths <strong>of</strong> the people are illiterate.<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> human beings a plural verb is<br />
generally preferred, and we say one percent are,<br />
one in ten are.<br />
Traditionally, a fraction that ends in s, and<br />
that is being used to indicate a physical distance,<br />
drops the s when it stands before another noun,<br />
as in three-eighth inch plate. It retains the s<br />
when it is used to measure anything except distance,<br />
as in a two-thirds reduction, a three-fifths<br />
majority. In the United States today these fractions<br />
usually retain the s, even in distance<br />
measurements, and the form without s is seldom<br />
heard. The word three-quarters is an exception<br />
to the rule. In literary English and in current<br />
speech, it may appear with or without the s, as<br />
in a three-quarter majority, a three-quarters inch<br />
board.<br />
Fractions may be used as adverbs <strong>of</strong> measure,<br />
as in the day is two-thirds gone, he is half dead.<br />
With the exception <strong>of</strong> half, a fraction used in<br />
this way must begin with a numeral or the word<br />
a. We may say it is one-quarter gone or a<br />
quarter gone, but not it is quarter gone.<br />
fragile: frail: brittle. That which is fragile is easilv<br />
broken, shattered, or damaged. it must bk<br />
handled with care to avoid breakage (These<br />
spun glass fiowers are extremely fragile). Frail<br />
is simply a variant <strong>of</strong> fragile and in many contexts<br />
the two words are interchangeable; whatever<br />
is fragile is frail. But frail has acquired<br />
some special meanings <strong>of</strong> its own; everything<br />
that is frail is not necessarily fragile. Frail, in<br />
particular, applies to health and to immaterial<br />
things (Though still active in his ninetieth year,<br />
he was very frail. Alas, her vows proved frail).<br />
Brittle applies to anything that breaks readily<br />
with a comparatively smooth fracture (Old<br />
bones arc brittle). It usually implies a hard outside<br />
finish on delicate material. It has always<br />
had metaphorical uses (One w<strong>of</strong>ul day sweeps<br />
children, friends and wife/ And all the brittle<br />
blessings <strong>of</strong> my life) and at the present is<br />
almost, in this use, a vogue word (brittle wit,<br />
bright and brittle conversation).<br />
fragile; frangible. That is frangible which is capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> being broken. The word is usually restricted<br />
to material objects and literal breakableness.<br />
That is fragile which is easily broken,<br />
delicate, brittle, or frail. It might be said that<br />
human bones are frangible but that the bones<br />
<strong>of</strong> the aged are fragile.<br />
frank, candid and outspoken imply a freedom<br />
from conventional reticence in speech, a blunt<br />
boldness, an uninhibited sincerity and plainness<br />
in speaking the truth. Virtues, surely, yet virtues<br />
that lend themselves so easily and so <strong>of</strong>ten as<br />
disguises for malice that the world, which doesn’t<br />
like them very much anyway, reinforces its<br />
natural distaste with a justified suspicion. Frank<br />
is the least tainted <strong>of</strong> the three. A frank and<br />
open countenance is wholly laudatory. A frank<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> the case, however, is plainly<br />
colored by the speaker’s agreement with the<br />
statement and a frank criticism may be a euphemism<br />
for a spiteful calumny. Candid suggests<br />
fairness, openness <strong>of</strong> mind, sincerity and truthfulness;<br />
yet there is <strong>of</strong>ten a suggestion <strong>of</strong> unpleasantness<br />
about the exercise <strong>of</strong> these admirable<br />
qualities. They are outspoken who express<br />
themselves freely, without reserve or concealment,<br />
even when it is inappropriate to do so.<br />
Such men, like Alceste in Moliere’s The<br />
Misanthrope, displace all mirth and break many<br />
a good meeting with admir’d disorder, and while<br />
they are praised by the simple, especially those<br />
among the simple whose resentments their behavior<br />
has gratified, they are disliked by the<br />
more sophisticated.<br />
Frankenstein. Properly Frankenstein was not the<br />
monster in Mary Shelley’s book but the creator<br />
<strong>of</strong> the monster, a sensitive, high-minded young<br />
student who accidentally stumbled on “the<br />
secret <strong>of</strong> life” and bitterly rued the day he did.<br />
And even the monster himself, for all his resentful<br />
homicides, was not intended to be wholly<br />
repulsive. The novel was written as a Rousseauistic<br />
treatise on education; the monster was bad<br />
because he was unloved. None the less the term<br />
is now established (“almost, but surely not quite,<br />
sanctioned by custom,” cries Fowler in a plea<br />
which he must have felt to be futile) as a name<br />
for any monstrous creation, especially one that<br />
threatens to destroy its creator (The Republicans<br />
have created this Frankenstein. They must deal<br />
with him). In the novel, by the way, the monster<br />
does not kill Frankenstein. Frankenstein dies<br />
from exposure while pursuing the fleeing monster<br />
across the arctic wastes.<br />
frankly. How our hearts sink at a prefatory<br />
frankly, for we know some brutality is to follow,<br />
and a craven brutality, too, that having by this<br />
preface claimed a simple plainness will feel free<br />
to recoil in shocked horror, aghast at our brutality<br />
or pitying our inability to face the truth,<br />
should we reply in kind.<br />
frantic; furious; rabid. To be frantic is to be wild<br />
with excitement, whether it be <strong>of</strong> passion, delight,<br />
fear, or pain, to be in a state <strong>of</strong> frenzy,<br />
bordering on delirium (As the night passed and<br />
the child could not be found the woman grew<br />
frantic and could scarcely be restrained by her<br />
neighbors from rushing out into the storm).<br />
Furious suggests great violence, the releasing <strong>of</strong><br />
tremendous (usually malignant) energies (At<br />
the bursting <strong>of</strong> the oil storage tank the flames<br />
surged furiously upwards and engulfed the remainder<br />
<strong>of</strong> the building). When applied to<br />
human beings, it suggests, like frantic, a state <strong>of</strong><br />
violence close to madness, but furious suggests<br />
a more outward-directed, aggressive violence,<br />
anger carried to the extreme (On receipt <strong>of</strong> the<br />
news he was furious and ordered the hostages<br />
to be massacred). Rabid means raving mad,<br />
irrational in the extreme, furious, raving, but<br />
it is usually applied to the carrying to excess <strong>of</strong><br />
some one concern (The rabid isolationists would<br />
have had us discontinue even commercial rela-
Cons with all other nations. he was rabid on<br />
the subject).<br />
free and easy. As an adjectival phrase meaning<br />
unconstrained, unaffected, or careless, free and<br />
easy, even though it may sometimes be used<br />
effectively, is hackneyed.<br />
free for nothing and <strong>of</strong>ten free, gratis, for nothing<br />
are once-humorous tautologies that have long<br />
ago lost their humor and should be avoided.<br />
free will; freewill. Free will is the term for voluntary<br />
decision or for the doctrine that the conduct<br />
<strong>of</strong> human beings is not utterly determined by<br />
physical or divine forces (He did it <strong>of</strong> his own<br />
free will. Nobody forced him to do it). Freewill<br />
is the adjective (n freewill <strong>of</strong>iering). It<br />
also applies to the doctrine <strong>of</strong> freedom <strong>of</strong> the<br />
will (The freewill controversy has long been<br />
agitated).<br />
freeze. The past tense is froze. The participle is<br />
frozen.<br />
freight; cargo; shipment. Freight means the ordinary<br />
conveyance <strong>of</strong> goods by common carriers, as<br />
opposed to express. Or the goods so carried. In<br />
English usage freight is applied only to goods<br />
transported by water. But in American usage,<br />
though this meaning would certainly be understood,<br />
the term is restricted almost entirely to<br />
goods carried on land or in the air (The amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> freight carried by the railroads and trucks. . .<br />
Air freight is becoming increasingly popular).<br />
Cargo is the term for goods carried by ship and<br />
a shipment is a quantity <strong>of</strong> goods destined for<br />
a particular place, no matter how sent (The<br />
Nancy’s cargo consisted <strong>of</strong> potatoes and sugar<br />
beets. We are sending you a shipment by air<br />
express tomorrow morning).<br />
frequent; common. Frequent now means occurring<br />
at short intervals <strong>of</strong> time (He made frequent<br />
trips to New York that winter) or <strong>of</strong> space<br />
(Burr oaks were frequent in the park). It also<br />
means constant or regular (William Jennings<br />
Bryan was a frequent visitor in my grandfather’s<br />
house). In the sense <strong>of</strong> common (in such a<br />
sentence as It is a frequent practice to speak <strong>of</strong><br />
socialism and communism as if they were the<br />
same thing), however, frequent is now quite<br />
rare. See also recurring.<br />
frequently. See <strong>of</strong>ten.<br />
fresh. In the sense <strong>of</strong> forward, impudent, conceitedly<br />
intrusive or familiar, fresh is purely<br />
American slang, probably the German frech<br />
(impudent, saucy) adapted to English pronunciation.<br />
At one time it was so common tbat it<br />
looked as though it were going to become<br />
standard but it is now a little outdated and<br />
though universally understood in the United<br />
States not so <strong>of</strong>ten heard. This may have been<br />
due to the fact that at its height it acquired so<br />
strong a connotation <strong>of</strong> unwanted sexual<br />
advances (Don’t get fresh with me or I’ll slap<br />
your face) that it became slightly indelicate.<br />
See also breezy.<br />
fresh as a daisy is a wilted metaphor.<br />
fret and fume. Fret is an intensive form <strong>of</strong> eat<br />
(cf: German fressen). It means to devour and,<br />
applied chiefly to the manner in which animals<br />
eat, came also to mean to gnaw. The thought <strong>of</strong><br />
Freudian<br />
worry, impatience, and frustration as eating one<br />
internally is, apparently, a natural thought. We<br />
have not only such poetic thoughts as “eating<br />
one’s heart out” but the slang term “What’s<br />
eating you?” or “What’s eating on you?” In<br />
addition to the idea <strong>of</strong> chafing (Falstaff frets like<br />
gummed velvet), there is in the word fret a<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> querulous complaining.<br />
To fume is to smoke, and the idea <strong>of</strong> heat<br />
also seems to be naturally associated with chafing,<br />
probably as a metaphorical carryover from<br />
the physical heat that accompanies physical<br />
chafing. And here again the idea is expressed in<br />
slang (Boy, was he burned up when he heard<br />
what she’d done! A slow burn) as well as in<br />
standard English, showing that it is still a vital<br />
idea.<br />
To fret and fume, to gnaw one’s own inwards<br />
with such fury that they smoke, was once, therefore,<br />
a powerful metaphor. But the alliteration<br />
that probably suggested the phrase in the first<br />
place has kept it, as alliteration <strong>of</strong>ten does, in<br />
use long after its vigor has been exhausted.<br />
Freudian. See Rabelaisian.<br />
Freudian English. The effect <strong>of</strong> Freud on the<br />
English language has been pr<strong>of</strong>ound, farreaching<br />
and, it would seem, enduring. His<br />
impact was first felt shortly after World War I<br />
when the avant-garde began using his special<br />
nomenclature and such words and terms as id,<br />
libido, superego, subconscious, Oedipus complex<br />
and inferiority complex became familiar. As<br />
time went on and more people acquired a<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> Freud’s principles and methods,<br />
words like hallucination, fixation and compulsion,<br />
which had formerly been confined to rather<br />
restricted and <strong>of</strong>ten technical use, found their<br />
way into common speech. In a generation there<br />
has been such a complete acceptance <strong>of</strong> these<br />
and other psychiatric terms, especially in relation<br />
to education, that any suburban PTA meeting<br />
would sound to our fathers like a psychiatric<br />
clinic.<br />
What is more, many words <strong>of</strong> general meaning<br />
have become so endowed with psychiatric<br />
connotations that the newer overtones have supplanted<br />
the older ones in many pr<strong>of</strong>essional and<br />
social circles. In such groups words like anxiety,<br />
hostility, dependency, aggressive and insecure<br />
are now more <strong>of</strong>ten used for their psychological<br />
import than for their original meanings.<br />
Along with use has gone misuse. As the<br />
terminology seeps down to the less educated, by<br />
way <strong>of</strong> Sunday supplements, digested articles,<br />
slick fiction and TV iokes. there is still some<br />
I I<br />
cachet to be derived from the use <strong>of</strong> psychiatric<br />
terms. There is always somebody, seemingly, on<br />
the next level lower down to be impressed. It<br />
is possibly this that has been responsible for the<br />
common misuse <strong>of</strong> phobia for obsession and<br />
moron for psychopath. In 1951 it was suggested<br />
at a meeting <strong>of</strong> the American Psychiatric Association<br />
that neurosis, psychosis and psychoneurosis<br />
be dropped as diagnostic terms because<br />
their original meaning [whatever that may have<br />
been] had been obscured through excessive and<br />
careless use.
friable 190<br />
Many a psychiatric term has becoma small<br />
change in social conversation: “She can’t decide<br />
between blue or green for the walls-she’s absolutely<br />
schizzy about it.” Or “I’m feeling goodthis<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> my manic days.” Or “All his hostilities<br />
come out >n games.” -<br />
Comedians and cartoonists have found<br />
psychiatry a fertile field. Mother-fixations, obsessions,<br />
compulsions and irrational fears have<br />
taken the place <strong>of</strong> the once popular but now<br />
strictly forbidden racial jokes. The psychiatrist<br />
and his couch are now as solid staples in The<br />
New Yorker as the bishop and his gaiters<br />
formerly were in Punch.<br />
friable means easily crumbled or reduced to<br />
powder (Sandstone is friable). If one had to<br />
refer to the suitability <strong>of</strong> some substance to be<br />
fried, the word would be fryable, though the<br />
absence <strong>of</strong> such a word from the dictionaries<br />
suggests that there is not much doubt in these<br />
matters.<br />
friend. See personal friend.<br />
friend in need. Although the proverb A friend in<br />
need is a friend indeed assumed that exact,<br />
jingling form as late as 1772, the idea-that he<br />
who befriends us in our hour <strong>of</strong> need thereby<br />
shows himself to be a true friend-is very old,<br />
some version <strong>of</strong> it existing in almost all languages.<br />
The saying is slightly ambiguous. To<br />
the cynical it could mean When a friend is in<br />
need,-then he makes much <strong>of</strong> his friendship. But,<br />
whatever the interpretation, the phrase has been<br />
thoroughly overworked.<br />
frighten; alarm; terrify; scare; intimidate. Frighten<br />
is the everyday working word. It can mean the<br />
arousing <strong>of</strong> many degrees and kinds <strong>of</strong> fear<br />
(Don’t frighten the children with these silly<br />
stories. The hydrogen bomb is a frightening<br />
thing). To alarm is to cause a milder degree <strong>of</strong><br />
fear than to frighten. It is, strictly, merely an<br />
alerting at the possibility <strong>of</strong> danger, but except<br />
in the most hardened veterans even that has<br />
always its element <strong>of</strong> fear (I don’t want to alarm<br />
you, but it seems to me that, etc. . . .). Terrify<br />
is a strong word. It means to create or communicate<br />
an intense, overmastering fear (At the<br />
sight <strong>of</strong> the onrushing train he became terrified<br />
and flung himself juriously against the jammed<br />
door). To scare is to strike with sudden terror.<br />
It was once a serious and even solemn word<br />
(Then thou scarest me with dreams, and terrifiest<br />
me through visions) but overuse has<br />
weakened it and humorous use, especially in<br />
America (scared out <strong>of</strong> his wits, more scared<br />
than hurt, scare the pants <strong>of</strong>f) has removed its<br />
dignity. To scare up, from frightening game out<br />
<strong>of</strong> cover, has become, in American usage, a<br />
term for discovering or bringing to light, usually<br />
used humorously (See if you can scare up a<br />
fourth for bridge. Zf you can scare up some cash<br />
we’ll join you). To intimidate can mean to<br />
frighten, but it’s rather formal in that sense; it<br />
usually means to deter by threats <strong>of</strong> violence<br />
(One party is bribed, the other intimidated. The<br />
parade, at that particular time, looked suspiciously<br />
like intimidation).<br />
frightened is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a particular event,<br />
as in he was frightened by a dog. In speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a chronic condition, we say afraid, as in he is<br />
afraid <strong>of</strong> dogs. The combination frightened <strong>of</strong><br />
is not standard English.<br />
frock (the origin <strong>of</strong> the word is unknown) was<br />
for centuries applied to a loose outer garment<br />
worn by men. Monks wore frocks. Disgraced<br />
priests were unfrocked. Peasants wore frocks<br />
and smocks and <strong>of</strong>ten both. Matthew Arnold<br />
refers to the smock-frocked boors. Then the<br />
term got applied to children’s clothes, coveralls<br />
<strong>of</strong> some kind, and finally settled down as a term<br />
for a little girl’s dress. Or at least one would<br />
have thought it had settled there but the dressmakers<br />
suddenly took it up about the turn <strong>of</strong><br />
the century as a chic term, one <strong>of</strong> those affected<br />
simplicities cultivated by expensive shops, for<br />
a woman’s dress, usually an elegant and expensive<br />
dress. Once that was established, however,<br />
the term was exploited for the benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
cheaper dresses. Fowler called it “a nurseryism<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same kind as nighty & shimmy” but it<br />
did no good. This sense is now standard and,<br />
indeed, the first meaning <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
from. The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> from is moving away.<br />
It can also be used to show cause or motive, as<br />
in to crumble jrom its own weight, and suffering<br />
from senile dementia; the grounds for a judg<br />
ment, as in it is clear from the language; or the<br />
distant source <strong>of</strong> an action, as in abuse from<br />
such men and dangerous cuts from a sabre.<br />
From frequently combines with the words<br />
out, out <strong>of</strong>, <strong>of</strong>l, which have similar meanings.<br />
These combinations should not be condemned<br />
as redundant because the words here strengthen<br />
and supplement each other. From out is used<br />
by almost all the great writers <strong>of</strong> English. From<br />
out <strong>of</strong> is found in the King James Bible and<br />
the writings <strong>of</strong> Bunyan, Thackeray, Wells,<br />
Galsworthy, James, Quiller-Couch, and others.<br />
From <strong>of</strong>l is also standard English but it is now<br />
felt to be archaic or poetic. One might say lift<br />
this weight from <strong>of</strong>f my heart, but under ordinary<br />
circumstances we would say will you take<br />
this <strong>of</strong>f my hands.<br />
Verbs <strong>of</strong> withholding or hiding are regularly<br />
used with from, as in don’t conceal it from me.<br />
Many verbs whose Latin meaning contains<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> from, such as depart, refrain, expel,<br />
dismiss, are given an additional from in current<br />
American speech, as in he was expelled from the<br />
university. When more people read Latin than<br />
do today, these verbs were <strong>of</strong>ten joined directly<br />
to the object, as in he was expelled the university.<br />
This is still heard in Great Britain, but<br />
in the United States it survives only in a few set<br />
phrases, such as to depart this life.<br />
from A to Z. As a term for thoroughly, from<br />
beginning to end, from A to Z has become a<br />
clich6. The rustic, backwoods form <strong>of</strong> the phrase,<br />
from A to izzard, is occasionally heard but it is<br />
either humorous or affected. Zzzard (or uzzard)<br />
was an old name for z or zed. Indeed Johnson<br />
in his dictionary (1755) referred to it as the<br />
“more common” form. Alpha and Omega, be-
cause <strong>of</strong> its Biblical origin and the solemnity <strong>of</strong><br />
its use in the Scriptures (Revelation, 1 :8), has<br />
more dignity, but it is also used too frequently.<br />
from the cradle to the grave, as a term for all<br />
<strong>of</strong> life, has become a clicht.<br />
from time immemorial. As a term for that which<br />
has endured from beyond memory or record,<br />
something <strong>of</strong> great antiquity, from time immemorial<br />
is hackneyed.<br />
front was originally the forehead (The ver)~ head<br />
and front <strong>of</strong> my <strong>of</strong>fending. How now, daughter?<br />
What makes that frontlet on? Methinks you are<br />
too much o’ late i’ th’ frown). To affront, by the<br />
way, is to strike on the forehead, to slap the<br />
face, and effrontery means being devoid <strong>of</strong> a<br />
forehead, i.e., having nothing to blush with.<br />
It was a natural extension for front to come<br />
to mean the entire face (Front to front bring<br />
this fiend <strong>of</strong> Scotland and myself) and then the<br />
foremost part or surface <strong>of</strong> anything. It is not<br />
desirable, however, to use it, as it is <strong>of</strong>ten used,<br />
to mean the beginning. The front <strong>of</strong> a book, for<br />
example, is the jacket or cover, not the first<br />
chapter.<br />
frontier. In English usage the word frontier means<br />
only that part <strong>of</strong> a country which borders on<br />
another country (We were stopped at the<br />
frontier and our luggage was searched). This is<br />
the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> the word in America,<br />
but we have another meaning which is almost<br />
as important, namely that part <strong>of</strong> a country<br />
which forms the border <strong>of</strong> its settled regions,<br />
outlying settlements (‘Tis wonderful how soon<br />
a piano gets into a log-hut on the frontier). This<br />
has been extended to include the incompletely<br />
developed regions <strong>of</strong> a field <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
(New frontiers <strong>of</strong> the mind. The frontiers <strong>of</strong><br />
physics are now the intellectuals’ great hunting<br />
grounds).<br />
froth. See foam.<br />
froze; frozen. See freeze.<br />
frugal. See economical.<br />
frustrate. See flurry.<br />
frustum. The plural is frustums or frusta.<br />
frying-pan into the fire, out <strong>of</strong> the. One <strong>of</strong> the<br />
oldest and most widespread <strong>of</strong> proverbs, based<br />
on the agonized struggles <strong>of</strong> a fish being cooked<br />
alive, out <strong>of</strong> the frying-pan into the fire has been<br />
overworked to the point where it must be classed<br />
as a clicht and the thoughtful writer or speaker,<br />
when expressing himself formally, will lint1 some<br />
other way <strong>of</strong> saying that someone’s efforts to<br />
get out <strong>of</strong> a bad situation have only precipitated<br />
him into a worse one.<br />
fulcrum. The plural is fulcrums or fulcra.<br />
full; -ful. Almost any container can be used as a<br />
measure <strong>of</strong> quantity, and this measure can be<br />
expressed in either <strong>of</strong> two ways. The name <strong>of</strong><br />
the container may be followed by the adjective<br />
full, as in a teaspoon full <strong>of</strong> water, or a new<br />
noun may be formed with the suffix -ful, as in<br />
a teaspoonful <strong>of</strong> water. In either case, the plural<br />
is formed by adding s to the noun, as two teaspoons<br />
full or two teaspoonfuls.<br />
There is no logical difference between these<br />
two forms. One may drink two glasses full <strong>of</strong><br />
191 fungus<br />
milk without dirtying two glasses, just as one may<br />
have another cup <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee without getting a<br />
second cup. The difference is one <strong>of</strong> tone or<br />
style. The newer form, with -ful, is generally<br />
preferred for familiar measures, such as teaspoonfuls,<br />
and the older form, with full, for less<br />
familiar ones, such as bins full. The newer form<br />
has a businesslike, matter-<strong>of</strong>-fact tone. But the<br />
older form is more vivid and it should always<br />
be used in an exaggeration or a metaphor, as in<br />
he bus buckets full <strong>of</strong> money.<br />
function. To function is to perform a function and<br />
a function is an act proper to a person, thing,<br />
or institution. A functionary is an <strong>of</strong>ficial who<br />
has a specific duty to perform. When we say<br />
The honors committee could not function if<br />
denied access to the registrar’s records, we are<br />
using the word correctly, because the committee<br />
could not perform its specific duty without these<br />
records. It could act without them. It might file<br />
a protest. It might vote its own dissolution. But<br />
in neither <strong>of</strong> these acts would it be functioning<br />
as the honors committee. Some, to be on the<br />
safe side, insist the word should be restricted to<br />
machinery or to “an organ that works like a<br />
machine” because these things can do only one<br />
thing and that thing is their function. But this<br />
is sacrificing expression on the altar <strong>of</strong> precision<br />
and grammatical safety and, fortunately, there<br />
isn’t the faintest hope or fear that the common<br />
speaker will ever comply.<br />
When used, as a noun, <strong>of</strong> a social gathering,<br />
function refers to some formal meeting or public<br />
ceremony (The Governor’s ball is the most important<br />
function <strong>of</strong> our social season). It is misusing<br />
the word to apply it to any informal<br />
gathering.<br />
funds are pecuniary resources, money on hand<br />
(His funds were insuficient to meet his creditors’<br />
demands). It is pompous to use the word merely<br />
as a synonym for cash or money.<br />
funeral; funereal. Funeral was originally an adjective.<br />
But it has been used as a substantive so<br />
long that it can now be used as an adjective<br />
only in the attributive position (funeral home,<br />
funeral procession). So much <strong>of</strong> funerals is<br />
ceremony and business and social that funereal<br />
has been set aside by usage to designate the<br />
dismal, melancholy, and mournful aspects <strong>of</strong> a<br />
funeral (Though the news was not unexpected,<br />
the company sank into funereal gloom at its<br />
announcement).<br />
If occasion should arise for an adjective<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to a funeral, but not<br />
pertaining to the melancholy and mournful<br />
aspects and not to be used attributively, the<br />
word would be either funebrial (or funebrious)<br />
or funerary.<br />
fungous; fungoid; fungal. Fungous means <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to, caused by, or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> or<br />
resembling a fungus. Fungal is a little-used<br />
synonym. Fungoid also means resembling, a<br />
fungus or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> a fungus, but it is<br />
largely restricted, as a technical term, to botany<br />
and pathology.<br />
fungus. The plural is funguses or fungi.
funny 192<br />
funny; comical; droll; ludicrous; ridiculous; laughable;<br />
risible. All <strong>of</strong> these words mean laughterprovoking,<br />
but they indicate different degrees<br />
and different kinds <strong>of</strong> laughter.<br />
Funny is the commonest word, the most<br />
general, the most innocent and the mildest (He’s<br />
a very funny man. It was so funny we laughed<br />
till we were helpless). In the plural, as a noun,<br />
funnies, the word is undergoing an interesting<br />
change in the United States. Applied to the<br />
comic strips which, originally, were or tried to<br />
be funny, it got established. But very few comic<br />
strips now make any pretense <strong>of</strong> being funny.<br />
They are simply illustrated serial stories <strong>of</strong> adventure<br />
or mishap, many <strong>of</strong> them gruesome and<br />
horrible. But the word sticks and that is the way<br />
language grows (I don’t like Jimmy to read all<br />
those funnies. They scare the boy to death and<br />
he has nightmnres).<br />
Comical keeps a slight suggestion <strong>of</strong> its derivation<br />
from comedy in that it is applied almost<br />
entirely to something seen (He had such a<br />
comical expression, I had to laugh. He was a<br />
comical little kid, the way he used to walk<br />
around with that old hat on). The laughter is<br />
described as kindly, but it is a little stronger<br />
word than funny.<br />
Droll is amusingly queer. It implies something<br />
odd or unfamiliar .(a droll fellow, a droll idea),<br />
even slightly absurd, but attractive in its absurdity.<br />
That is ludicrous which excites sport, is laughable<br />
for its singularity, or adapted to cause<br />
sportive laughter or ridicule. It is a stronger<br />
word than funny or comical but not wholly<br />
unkind (It was ludicrous <strong>of</strong> Shelley to assume<br />
that the Zrish would welcome him as a deliverer).<br />
It is <strong>of</strong>ten applied to people who do absurd<br />
things with good motives.<br />
Ridiculous also means exciting to laughter,<br />
but the laughter excited by ridicule is contemptuous<br />
and derisive. The word is a diminutive;<br />
it means “little laughter,” snickering, furtive<br />
laughter. We may tell ludicrous stories about<br />
our friends or relatives but ought not, in loyalty,<br />
to tell stories that make them seem ridiculous.<br />
Laughable plainly means that which elicits<br />
laughter and may be applied to any kind <strong>of</strong><br />
laughter. Usage has tinged it slightly with the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> derision. If it were used to mean innocent,<br />
happy laughter, that fact would have to be<br />
made clear in the context.<br />
Risible is a learned word for laughable but<br />
since the learned are particularly inclined to<br />
derision, it has a somewhat stronger suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> contempt, unless the context makes a kindly<br />
meaning plain (The mutual civilities <strong>of</strong> authors<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the most risible scenes in the farce <strong>of</strong><br />
life).<br />
funny; strange. The use <strong>of</strong> funny for strange or<br />
odd or peculiar (She was very funny about the<br />
whole business, seemed to want it done but<br />
seemed to not want it done at the same time.<br />
You know, it gave me a funny feeling, like being<br />
hit in the stomnch) is widespread and not with-<br />
out a charm in the innocent way in which it<br />
reveals the simpleton in us that finds the strange<br />
laughable.<br />
furious. See frantic.<br />
further; furthest. See far.<br />
future tense. In American English we can always<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a future event by using the word will<br />
followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he<br />
will speak tomorrow. (In England shall is used<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> will in some persons and some types<br />
<strong>of</strong> sentences. See shall; will.) This combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> verb forms is what we ordinarily mean when<br />
we speak <strong>of</strong> “the future tense.” It cannot be<br />
used with the auxiliary do to make an emphatic<br />
statement. We cannot say he does will speak.<br />
But with this one exception, all the variations<br />
found in the present and the past tenses can also<br />
be expressed in the future.<br />
To express action completed in the future we<br />
use will followed by have and the past participle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb, as in by then he will have spoken.<br />
This is called the future perfect tense. Both the<br />
simple future and the future perfect may be expressed<br />
as progressive or continuing action, as<br />
in he will be speaking tomorrow and by then he<br />
will have been speaking for an hour. And all<br />
four forms may be expressed in the passive<br />
voice, as in it will be discussed tomorrow, by<br />
then it will have been discussed, it will be being<br />
discussed tomorrow, and by then it will have<br />
been being discussed for an hour. The last form,<br />
with five elements in the verbal phrase, is an<br />
extremely complex construction. It frightens<br />
some writers, but it is acceptable English and<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used in speech without attracting attention.<br />
See passive voice.<br />
The word will itself is actually a present tense<br />
form and has the past tense would. When any’<br />
<strong>of</strong> these future tense phrases have to be shifted<br />
to a past tense, the will is changed to would, as<br />
in he promised me he would speak tomorrow<br />
and I knew that it would be being discussed<br />
tomorrow. See tense shifts and will; would.<br />
Speaking historically, English, like the other<br />
Germanic languages, has only two tense forms,<br />
a present and a past. We have several ways <strong>of</strong><br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> a future event but they all express<br />
the future by means <strong>of</strong> a present tense verb.<br />
In Old English a simple present tense was<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the future. This type<br />
<strong>of</strong> sentence is still popular, especially with verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion, as in the boat sails next Wednesday,<br />
the train leaves in an hour, he arrives tomorrow.<br />
Here the fact that we are speaking about a<br />
future event is not shown by the verb itself but<br />
by the time words that are used with it, such as<br />
next Wednesday and tomorrow. In current<br />
English the progressive form <strong>of</strong> the present tense<br />
is used freely in speaking <strong>of</strong> the future, with<br />
verbs <strong>of</strong> motion or any other kind <strong>of</strong> verb, as in<br />
we are seeing them next Wednesday and we are<br />
eating dinner with my parents tomorrow. Today<br />
a simple present tense form is required in conditional<br />
clauses and in temporal clauses that<br />
actually refer to the future, as in if he comes,
I will tell him and I will see him when he<br />
comes.<br />
In Old English the verb will was also used as<br />
an auxiliary to indicate the future, very much<br />
as it is in America today. This verb means<br />
primarily to desire or to be willing, but it loses<br />
this meaning when it is accepted as a conventional<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> the future tense. Later, the verb<br />
shall, with its past tense should, was used as the<br />
future auxiliary in literary English. This verb<br />
means primarily to be obliged or ought, but it<br />
too lost this meaning when it became a mere<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> the future, as in goodness and mercy<br />
shall follow me all the days <strong>of</strong> my life. Some <strong>of</strong><br />
these Middle English shall’s and should’s are<br />
still in use in Great Britain.<br />
In many languages (including Eskimo’) the<br />
future tense can be used as a courteous substitute<br />
for an imperative, as it is in you will report<br />
to the commanding <strong>of</strong>ficer at once. In the King<br />
James Bible shall is the future auxiliarv and has<br />
exactly the force <strong>of</strong> our present-day American<br />
will. The shall used in the Biblical command,.<br />
ments had the same tone for the translators <strong>of</strong><br />
the Bible that the will used in military orders<br />
has for us today. But it is likely that this use <strong>of</strong><br />
shall was confined to literary English and that<br />
for most people in the seventeenth century will<br />
was the sign <strong>of</strong> the future and shall kept its<br />
primary sense <strong>of</strong> obligation. For those who read<br />
very little except the Bible the word became a<br />
solemn and awful imperative, an imperative<br />
such as only God could use, in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact<br />
gall. In its standard figurztive use gall means bitterness<br />
<strong>of</strong> spirit or rancor (Such experiences<br />
change the milk <strong>of</strong> human kindness into gall).<br />
In its slang American use it means impudence<br />
or effrontery (Imagine him having the gull to<br />
tell me that he didn’t know anything about it!).<br />
gallon. The standard gallon in the United States<br />
is the old Winchester or wine-gallon. It contains<br />
231 cubic inches. The British Imperial gallon<br />
contains 27??/4 cubic inches. This is the gallon<br />
used in Canada.<br />
gallows. This word is both a singular and a plural.<br />
We may say there was a gallows and there were<br />
many gallows. The double plural gallowses is<br />
not standard.<br />
galore is a Gaelic word. In America it is standard<br />
use as a humorous word (Bargains galore!) but<br />
in Eneland. where the Irish influence is not<br />
so marked,’ its use is rarer, something <strong>of</strong> an<br />
affectation.<br />
gamble is slightly pejorative. Though the word<br />
means to play a game for stakes, it has the<br />
-<br />
193 gamesmanship<br />
G<br />
that the prophets frequently speak <strong>of</strong> what the<br />
Lord shall and shall not do. The words shall<br />
and should have kept a great deal <strong>of</strong> this meaning<br />
in American English. See shall; should.<br />
Forms <strong>of</strong> the verb to be followed by a foinfinitive,<br />
as in we are to see them tomorrow,<br />
have been used to indicate futurity since about<br />
the year 1200. Forms <strong>of</strong> to be followed by going<br />
and a to-infinitive, as in we are going to see<br />
them tomorrow, first appeared around 1450<br />
and did not become popular until two hundred<br />
years later. Today, the older form, without<br />
going, usually suggests necessity or obligation<br />
and is similar in meaning to shall. (See also<br />
have.) The newer form, with going, is equivalent<br />
to will. These verbal phrases can be used in the<br />
passive voice, as in the estate is to be divided<br />
and the estate is going to be divided. They are<br />
not used in progressive action or completed<br />
action tenses, although these are theoretically<br />
possible. They cannot be used with the auxiliary<br />
verb do. But they can be used to express what<br />
was future at some time in the past, or futurity<br />
in the past, as in he was to leave and he was<br />
going to leave. This is a valuable distinction that<br />
cannot be expressed with the auxiliaries will or<br />
shall. He would have left refers to the past, but<br />
it can only be used in a contrary to fact statement.<br />
In the United States today, is going to<br />
with its various forms is used more <strong>of</strong>ten than<br />
will in making a statement about the future.<br />
And is to with its forms is generally preferred<br />
t.o shall.<br />
connotation <strong>of</strong> playing for high stakes, <strong>of</strong> taking<br />
dangerous risks (a notorious gambler. Any man<br />
who cuts out <strong>of</strong> line on a hill is gambling with<br />
his life and the lives <strong>of</strong> those who are approaching).<br />
People who play bridge for a cent a point<br />
or put two dollars on a horse at the racetrack<br />
would be annoyed to be told that they were<br />
gambling. The milder term is to play for stakes.<br />
game. In America all wild animals, including birds<br />
and fishes, that are hunted or taken for sport or<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>it are called game (The streams and forests<br />
<strong>of</strong> the frontier were rich in game). In England<br />
the term is more restricted, being confined to<br />
hare, pheasant, partridge, grouse, and moor<br />
fowl.<br />
gamesmanship is the art <strong>of</strong> winning games without<br />
actually cheating, and is the most comprehensive<br />
<strong>of</strong> the skills analyzed by Stephen Potter.<br />
Its major subsidiaries are lifemanship (an<br />
adaptation <strong>of</strong> the principles <strong>of</strong> gamesmanship<br />
to the smaller world <strong>of</strong> life) and one-upmanship,<br />
the art <strong>of</strong> being one up on the other fellow by
making him feel that something has gone slightly<br />
wrong. They all have the same methods in<br />
common; and although certain physical gambits,<br />
ploys and accessories may be used, the basic<br />
strategy is intimidation by conversation.<br />
Gamesmanship encompasses such specialized<br />
fields as guestmanship, luncheonship, bridgemanship,<br />
losemanship, clothesmanship, clubmanship,<br />
etc. Each <strong>of</strong> these sub-classes has its<br />
own peculiar ploys, hampers and blocks, all designed<br />
to “break the flow” <strong>of</strong> the opponent’s<br />
success.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> O.K. words-those currently<br />
stylish with Highbrowmen-is <strong>of</strong> the utmost<br />
importance for one-upness. Mystique and<br />
classique, for example, were O.K. in 1951. Mr.<br />
Potter promised a monthly list <strong>of</strong> O.K. words,<br />
but this may have been merely a ploy, for no<br />
list has appeared. The New Criticism should be<br />
able to provide a host <strong>of</strong> such terms.<br />
There are also O.K. names and subjects, especially<br />
useful in writership, but here too it is<br />
imperative that they be up-to-date. It is some<br />
time now since T. S. Eliot had full O.K. status;<br />
Rilke and Kafka were very O.K. 1945-50, but<br />
their vogue is fading. But there is always someone<br />
new that the opponent has not yet had time<br />
to read.<br />
Related to writership is Reviewer’s Basic, requiring<br />
a special vocabulary but one which is<br />
perfectly clear to the cognoscenti. In accord<br />
with a fundamental tenet <strong>of</strong> gamesmanship,<br />
attacks are always friendly and begin with faint<br />
uraise. “I’m afraid . . .” is a good start. Certain<br />
A<br />
words are especially valuable. Thus catholic<br />
means too wide in treatment to be anything but<br />
superficial. Well-produced means badly written.<br />
Painstaking means dull. Any oblique praise can<br />
be effective. Chaucer’s description <strong>of</strong> the monk<br />
as “A manly man, to been an abbot able” was a<br />
masterly piece <strong>of</strong> early gamesmanship, as was<br />
also his praise <strong>of</strong> the Prioress’s French.<br />
Manya reviewer has been able to get one up<br />
on a famous writer by condemning him for not<br />
having enough <strong>of</strong> the quality he is distinguished<br />
for. Potter gives an example: “The one thing<br />
that was lacking, <strong>of</strong> course, from D. H.<br />
Lawrence’s novels, was the consciousness <strong>of</strong><br />
sexual relationship, the male and female element<br />
in life.” Such an utterance, made in a firm voice<br />
and accompanied by a fixed stare. is warranted<br />
to shake the stoutest conviction.<br />
Lowbrowmanship is a favorite device <strong>of</strong> the<br />
highbrow. If the opponent has boned up on<br />
Masaccio’s additions to Masolino’s frescoes,<br />
express a great interest in Li’l Abner. Though it<br />
would perhaps be well, in passing, to refer to<br />
Masolino by his real name <strong>of</strong> Tommaso di<br />
Crist<strong>of</strong>oro Fini iust to show that you passed that<br />
stage long ago. -Sometimes three- or four words<br />
wili suffice to get you one up. Potter suggests a<br />
splendid ploy: “What. _ YOU stayed for the<br />
Debussy?” -<br />
Well-readship is an area where there can be<br />
a good deal <strong>of</strong> cut-and-thrust. The new-<br />
194<br />
bookman must be on his toes to counter against<br />
the gamesman who has snatched a new book<br />
hot from the presses so that he can discuss it on<br />
publication day. He has the option <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
either “Let me lend you the American (or<br />
English) edition. It’s beautifully printed and<br />
hasn’t got that stupid cut on page 163” or “Good<br />
old Pontefract-still churning them out.” The<br />
former <strong>of</strong> the two is the better; it suggests not<br />
merely that the gamesman has already read<br />
the book but that he has collated several editions<br />
and is possessed <strong>of</strong> some particularly fine bit <strong>of</strong><br />
knowledge that the opponent, in his plodding<br />
way, missed.<br />
General conversation <strong>of</strong>fers the gamesman his<br />
finest opportunities however. There are many<br />
ploys, but two are worth special mention:<br />
“languaging up” and “the simple Canterbury<br />
block.” “Languaging up” consists <strong>of</strong> confusing,<br />
irritating or depressing the opponent by the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> foreign words, fictitious or genuine. And here,<br />
again, Chaucer shows the antiquity <strong>of</strong> the ploy<br />
and his own understanding <strong>of</strong> it when he has<br />
the Pardoner say that in his preaching he always<br />
brings in a little Latin “to saffron his predication.”<br />
The Canterbury biock is a device for deflating<br />
the expert and can best be explained by<br />
giving two <strong>of</strong> Potter’s examples. It consists <strong>of</strong><br />
going the expert one better by adding some little<br />
knowing touch to one <strong>of</strong> his most learned<br />
utterances.<br />
Expert (who has just come back from a fortnight<br />
in Florence): And I was glad to see<br />
with my own eyes that this Left-wing<br />
Catholicism is defirlitely on the increase in<br />
Tuscany.<br />
The Canterbury: Yes, but not in the Solrth.<br />
Expert: f’here can be no relationship based on<br />
a mutual dependency <strong>of</strong> neutral markets.<br />
Otto Hiisch would not have allowed that.<br />
He was in Vienna at the time . . .<br />
Lifeman (as if explaining to the rest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
audience): It was Hiisch who prevented the<br />
Archbishop jronz taking <strong>of</strong>ice in S<strong>of</strong>ia.<br />
Time is deft with this ploy. Mentioning, say,<br />
a George X. Marshall in their text, who has just<br />
been sentenced for embezzlement or mopery,<br />
they will direct the reader, by means <strong>of</strong> an<br />
asterisk and footnote. not to confuse this individual<br />
with General George C. Marshall, former<br />
Secretary <strong>of</strong> State, or George Q. Marshall who<br />
operates a laundromat in Xochimilco.<br />
gamp. See gimp.<br />
gangster. See thief; robber; burglar.<br />
gantlet. See gauntlet.<br />
gap; gape. A gap was originally a breach in a<br />
wall or hedge. To stop two gapps with one bush<br />
was once a proverb, akin to to kill two birds<br />
with one stone. It also meant an opening in a<br />
range <strong>of</strong> mountains, a use rare in England but<br />
common in the United States (The Delaware<br />
Water Gap, The Cumherland Gap. We reached
the gap, which was like a deep notch cut in the<br />
mountain-ridge). From all <strong>of</strong> this it is applied<br />
to any opening in an otherwise closed row or<br />
series (There was quite a gap where his tooth<br />
had been knocked out). The verb to gap, to<br />
make a gap in or to be subject to gaps, is rare.<br />
To gape is to open the mouth involuntarily,<br />
whether from hunger, sleepiness, or absorbed<br />
attention (The mouths <strong>of</strong> rhe hungry fledglings<br />
gaped frantically, ludicrously. He gaped and<br />
scrutched his head. “Time to turn in,” he said.<br />
Fickle changelings and poor discontents,/<br />
Which gape and rub the elbow at the news/ Of<br />
hurlyburly innovation). A gape is a breach or<br />
rent or the act <strong>of</strong> gaping. The gapes is a disease<br />
<strong>of</strong> poultry characterized by gaping.<br />
garb. The use <strong>of</strong> garb for clothing or garbed for<br />
clothed is slightly affected. Those who use it are<br />
seeking to be elegant or archaic or else, afflicted<br />
with a terrible fear that they might have to use<br />
clothing or clothed twice in one sentence or one<br />
paragraph, are desperate.<br />
garment for an article <strong>of</strong> dress is now rhetorical,<br />
forcedly elegant. It originally meant an overall<br />
outer vestment <strong>of</strong> some kind (This city now<br />
doth, like a garment, wear/ The beauty <strong>of</strong> the<br />
morning). Its very elegance and rhetorical<br />
nature has made it, in the term undergarments,<br />
a euphemism in the United States for underwear<br />
or underclothing. Even so, it is a little aflected.<br />
garnish; garnishee. To garnish is to lit out with<br />
something which adorns or decorates. Its commonest<br />
application is to the decoration <strong>of</strong> a dish<br />
or platter just before it is set on the table<br />
(Garnish with parsley and serve). It has a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> metaphorical uses (Vice garnishes<br />
her deeds with many a virtuous seeming).<br />
To garnishee is to attach money or property,<br />
usually wages, in claim <strong>of</strong> some debt. The word<br />
also applies to the person whose property is so<br />
attached. Garnish is also used in this sense, but<br />
rarely.<br />
garret; attic; l<strong>of</strong>t. A garret was originally a turret<br />
on top <strong>of</strong> or projecting from a fortification.<br />
Picturesque as these protuberances are, they<br />
were apparently squalidly miserable dwelling<br />
quarters, for garret, <strong>of</strong> all the words for the topmost<br />
story <strong>of</strong> a house, has a sordid connotation.<br />
Perhaps poets made too much <strong>of</strong> their poverty<br />
and <strong>of</strong> the fact, at the same time, that they lived<br />
in garrets. Attic to many people has a romantic,<br />
nostalgic connotation. They remember the interesting<br />
objects stored there, the musty smell,<br />
the joys <strong>of</strong> clandestine rummaging. A l<strong>of</strong>t is<br />
usually a space open to the rafters <strong>of</strong> the ro<strong>of</strong><br />
used for storing things, as a hayl<strong>of</strong>t over a barn,<br />
or a sail l<strong>of</strong>t.<br />
gas; gasoline. As an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> gasoline, gas<br />
is condemned by many authorities. But fifty<br />
million motorists are cheerfully unaware <strong>of</strong> this<br />
and would be completely indifferent if they were<br />
informed. The purists might as well attempt to<br />
chain the wind. The English, by the way, with<br />
their petrol don’t have the problem, though<br />
sentries on their linguistic ramparts have re-<br />
gender<br />
ported uneasily that step on the gas has been<br />
heard there. Gasolene is an accepted variant<br />
spelling, but gasoline is preferred.<br />
gauntlet; gantlet. There are two wholly different<br />
words spelled gauntlet. One, a diminutive <strong>of</strong> the<br />
French gunt, glove, is the medieval knight’s<br />
mailed glove which he threw down in challenge<br />
(And casting out, us it were, his gauntlet <strong>of</strong><br />
defionce). The word is also applied now to<br />
wristlets and to gloves with a cufflike extension<br />
to cover the wrist.<br />
The other word gauntlet or guntIet was earlier<br />
gantlope (so spelled as late as 1836), deriving<br />
from a Swedish word mtlouu in which put was<br />
a lane or narrow wa; and- iopp, a run- It described<br />
a military punishment in which the <strong>of</strong>fender<br />
had to run between two rows <strong>of</strong> men who<br />
struck at him with switches and even weapons<br />
as he ran-to run the guntlet.<br />
Though either word may be spelled either<br />
way, gauntlet is preferred for the glove and<br />
guntlet for the punishment.<br />
gave. See give.<br />
gay Lolhario. Occasionally a minor character in<br />
literature will become detached from the context<br />
in which he or she first appeared and attain<br />
an unexpected immortality by being fixed in the<br />
language. Yankee Doodle is, in a way, one <strong>of</strong><br />
these. Mrs. Grundy, a strait-laced and censorious<br />
neighbor <strong>of</strong> whose opinions farmer Ashfield’s<br />
wife (in Thomas Morton’s olav Sneed the<br />
Plough, 1748) stood in great awe, ias’become<br />
the type <strong>of</strong> nosy, middle-class respectability.<br />
Lothario, whose name when coupled with “gay”<br />
has become a clichC for a light-hearted libertine,<br />
was a character in Nicholas Rowe’s The Fair<br />
Penitent (1703). Dame Grundy, by the way,<br />
does not even appear on the stage. Fame is<br />
capricious even among shadows.<br />
gay nineties. The American term for the last decade<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century is the gay nineties.<br />
In England it is called the naughty nineties.<br />
Both phrases are tedious clichCs.<br />
geese. See goose.<br />
gender; sex. Gender is a grammatical device, used<br />
in inflected languages, for associating an adjective<br />
or a pronoun with the appropriate noun.<br />
English shows these relationships by the position<br />
<strong>of</strong> the words in the sentence. It does not have<br />
gender, although English grammarians sometimes<br />
use the term in connection with words<br />
showing sex distinctions (such as the pronouns<br />
he, she, etc.).<br />
Gender may have been based on physical distinctions<br />
originally, but it is hard to say what<br />
they were. In some languages round, square, and<br />
oblong seem to be basic characteristics. Some<br />
languages have more genders than others.<br />
French, for example, has two and the Bantu<br />
languages have twenty. In any case, gender is<br />
not a grammatical reflection <strong>of</strong> sex. In Old English,<br />
which had three genders, wife was neuter,<br />
woman masculine, moon masculine, and sun<br />
feminine.<br />
Sex distinctions, where they exist, are stronger
genera 196<br />
in English than in languages that have gender.<br />
In English he and his refer to actual males, she<br />
and her to actual females, and it and irs to things<br />
without personality. In languages that have gender,<br />
the pronouns do not have such a clear reference<br />
to sex and the masculine form can be<br />
used in speaking indiscriminately <strong>of</strong> both males<br />
and females. According to the theoretical rules<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar, this is also true in English and the<br />
sentence either the boy or the girl left his book<br />
is technically correct. But in actual practice this<br />
construction cannot be used. The pronoun his<br />
simply will not refer to girl, no matter what the<br />
rules in the grammar books say.<br />
According to some textbooks this problem<br />
can be solved by writing either the boy or the<br />
girl left his or her book. This is intolerable. In<br />
spoken English, the usual solution is to use the<br />
plural pronouns they and their, which do not<br />
make a sex distinction, and say either the boy<br />
or the girl left their book. The wrong number<br />
does not seem to disturb us as much as the<br />
wrong sex. This solution is unacceptable to<br />
some grammarians, who insist that a plural pronoun<br />
must not be used in referring to a singular<br />
noun. But the construction is now appearing in<br />
some <strong>of</strong> our best literature. Hemingway, for<br />
example, writes why does everybody think they<br />
can write?<br />
Sometimes things or ideas are personified and<br />
referred to as he or she. When this is done, the<br />
sex frequently corresponds to the Latin gender<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word. For example, the moon is made<br />
feminine and the sun, masculine. This is a purely<br />
literary device, a sort <strong>of</strong> metaphor, and not part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the grammar <strong>of</strong> the language.<br />
A faint trace <strong>of</strong> true gender, that is, a distinction<br />
which does not reflect sex or imply<br />
personification, is sometimes seen in English. In<br />
this more or less unconscious classification, it<br />
seems to refer to what does not interest us<br />
greatly. Things that we are interested in take a<br />
he or a she. If the things are inanimate they are<br />
referred to (especially by men) as she, as, in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> a train, here she comes, or <strong>of</strong> a car,<br />
fill her up, or <strong>of</strong> any machine, isn’t she a beauty.<br />
When the sex is unknown, interesting animals,<br />
such as a runaway horse or a bear one has seen,<br />
are usually referred to as he. This is a recent<br />
development. In Biblical English she and not he<br />
is used in this way. And in current English there<br />
are exceptions, <strong>of</strong> course. Cats are usually she.<br />
One grammarian explains this by saying: “In<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> a cat, the use <strong>of</strong> he would invoke<br />
a somewhat <strong>of</strong>fensive allusion to sex.”<br />
Some English nouns refer to one sex and not<br />
to the other, as do king and queen, boy and girl.<br />
Some nouns which refer to both sexes can be<br />
limited to the female only, by means <strong>of</strong> a suffix,<br />
as in the case <strong>of</strong> lion and lioness, aviator and<br />
aviatrix. At one time these female nouns were<br />
very popular, and people talked about poetesses<br />
and doctoresses. Today they are out <strong>of</strong> fashion.<br />
In current English the general term is preferred<br />
to the sex-limited one and women are called<br />
poets and doctors. Compounds ending in man<br />
can be applied to women, as in Madame Chairmalt<br />
and she was a good horseman or a good<br />
penman. It is even possible to say the boats were<br />
manned by women.<br />
genera. See genus.<br />
generic nouns. ,4ny noun, except possibly a proper<br />
name, can be used in a generic sense to make a<br />
statement about a type <strong>of</strong> thing rather than<br />
about some individuals <strong>of</strong> that type, as in the<br />
leopard shall lie down with the kid. What is true<br />
<strong>of</strong> the type is true <strong>of</strong> all the individuals, and<br />
this is therefore a statement about all leopards<br />
and all kids. Man is mortal and men are mortal<br />
mean the same thing. Both are generic statements<br />
because both say something about all<br />
men. (The claim that men perish but man shall<br />
endure is a play on words, and is probably false.<br />
The word men is here first used generically to<br />
mean all men and is then put grammatically in<br />
contrast to the generic name man. From this we<br />
are supposed to conclude that the type may be<br />
different from the individuals. This is one <strong>of</strong><br />
countless dilemmas that grow out <strong>of</strong> the notion<br />
that a grammatical distinction is necessarily a<br />
logical one.)<br />
Words that are true singulars (not mass<br />
nouns) require the article the when used generically,<br />
as in the whale is a mammal. (The<br />
singular forms man and woman are the only<br />
exceptions to this.) On the other hand, mass<br />
nouns and true plurals do not have an article<br />
when used generically, as in milk is good for you<br />
and whales are mammals. When words <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind are qualified by the, this, that, or any definitive<br />
adjective, they mean a particular lot and<br />
not the type generally, as in the milk is sour and<br />
the whales sounded. (Plural nouns referring to<br />
human beings are an exception. The Germans<br />
and the chemists may mean all <strong>of</strong> them or some<br />
<strong>of</strong> them, depending on the context.)<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> a singular noun in speaking about<br />
a large number <strong>of</strong> individuals is sometimes confusing.<br />
For example, the statement in Exodus<br />
7:18, the fish that is in the river shall die, is<br />
about all the fishes in the river. But children<br />
sometimes suppose that there was only one fish<br />
in the Nile at that time. Adults usually understand<br />
the plural meaning, but they sometimes<br />
conclude that the word itself is a plural. This is<br />
a mistake. Although a singular generic noun<br />
may refer to a number <strong>of</strong> individuals, it is a<br />
singular and is used with a singular verb, except<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> certain animal names.<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> animals that are hunted for<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>it, the singular name may be used generically<br />
with a plural verb, as in the bear are<br />
hibernating and the sea otter have disappeared.<br />
This does not apply to domestic animals, such<br />
as cows and dogs, or to animals that are a menace<br />
and are killed for self-protection, such as<br />
lions and weasels. For these animals we use a<br />
singular verb, as in the dog is a friend to man<br />
and the lion is dangerous. When the generic<br />
singular is used with a plural verb it is grammatically<br />
indistinguishable from a group name.<br />
In fact, the species is here being treated as a
group. The singular word refers to all <strong>of</strong> a given<br />
kind, collectively. It is not a plural word and<br />
cannot be used with a numeral. In standard<br />
English we do not speak <strong>of</strong> a few otter or three<br />
bear.<br />
Hunters sometimes use these singular nouns<br />
as if they were plurals. Of course, if enough<br />
people do this the singular form finally becomes<br />
an accepted plural, as in the case <strong>of</strong> fish. Singulars<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind, which have become standard<br />
plurals, are shown in this book, but no atlempt<br />
has been made to list all the singulars that may<br />
be treated as plurals by sportsmen.<br />
Adjectives can be used with the article the as<br />
if they were generic nouns when they refer to<br />
some quality which things possess, as in the<br />
beautiful is pleasing, the ugly is repellent. What<br />
is meant here is “all that is beautiful” and “all<br />
that is ugly.” When an adjective is used to identify<br />
a class <strong>of</strong> human beings, it is treated as a<br />
group name and used with a plural verb, as in<br />
the English are a notion <strong>of</strong> shopkeepers. See<br />
adjectives as nouns.<br />
generous to a fault. As a term for excessive generosity,<br />
liberality carried to such an excess that<br />
it may be regarded as a weakness, generous to<br />
a fad is a clichb. Of the phrase some wag has<br />
said “If it’s our own, we all are.” One <strong>of</strong> the few<br />
virtues <strong>of</strong> clichts is that they are <strong>of</strong>ten useful to<br />
wits.<br />
genial. See congenial.<br />
genie. See genius.<br />
genitive case. The word genitive is related to the<br />
word genus and the primary function <strong>of</strong> the<br />
genitive case is to show that one noun is being<br />
used to classify another noun. The genitive is<br />
sometimes called the adjective case. All English<br />
nouns have a genitive form, such as life’s, peopie’s.<br />
A few pronouns also have a genitive -form,<br />
such as nobody’s, the other’s: and so do a few<br />
adjectives that are being used as nouns, as in<br />
the accused’s identity. These particular pronouns<br />
and adjectives are included in everything that is<br />
said below about genitive nouns. The possessive<br />
pronouns, such as my, mine, his, hers, are equivrelent<br />
to the genitive form <strong>of</strong> nouns, but in this<br />
dictionary they are treated separately ansd are<br />
referred to as possessives. See possessive pronouns.<br />
FORMATION<br />
1. If a noun does not itself end in an s (or z)<br />
sound, the genitive is formed by adding ‘s. This<br />
is true whether the noun is singular or plural,<br />
as in child’s play and children’s games,<br />
2. If a plural noun ends in an s (or z) sound,<br />
the genitive is formed by adding only an apostrophe,<br />
as in the boys’ dormitory. An additional<br />
s (or z) sound on a plural noun, as in the boys’s,<br />
is not standard.<br />
3. There is no such uniformity in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
a singular noun ending in an s (or z) sound.<br />
One may say Keats’ poems or Keats’s poems.<br />
In older literary English it was not customary to<br />
add a genitive s to a word already ending in s.<br />
But thirty or forty years ago this practice was<br />
considered archaic for singular nouns and was<br />
197 genitive<br />
confined to classical or religious expressions,<br />
such as Achilles’ heel and St. Agnes’ Eve. For<br />
everyday matters the ‘s was used, even when it<br />
brought three s (or z) sounds together, as in<br />
the hostess’s son and Charles’s senior year. Today<br />
the extra s is usually omitted after a proper<br />
name, as in Charles’ senior year, but otherwise<br />
retained, as in the boss’s secretary.<br />
4. The word sake is a rule to itself. It may<br />
have one s sound before it but not two. We may<br />
say for pity’s sake, for conscience’ sake, but<br />
not for conscience’s sake. When no genitive s<br />
is added the apostrophe may be used, as in the<br />
examples, or it may be omitted, as in for appearance<br />
sake, for goodness sake.<br />
SUBSTITUTE FORMS<br />
A genitive can usually be replaced by a prepositional<br />
phrase (usually, but not always, with<br />
the preposition <strong>of</strong>), and frequently by the simple,<br />
uninflected form <strong>of</strong> the noun, as in the<br />
church ro<strong>of</strong>, the church’s ro<strong>of</strong>, the ro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> the<br />
church. (See nouns as adjectives.) These forms,<br />
in the order given, make the qualifying word,<br />
church, increasingly emphatic. The forms are<br />
also increasingly long. The shortest form available<br />
is preferred for rapid and concise English;<br />
a longer form is used for emphasis or solemnity,<br />
as in the committee report, the committee’s report;<br />
the man’s grave, the tomb <strong>of</strong> Cyrus. However,<br />
our ear will tolerate more <strong>of</strong>-phrases than<br />
it will ‘s genitives and this sometimes determines<br />
the choice. Three genitives become ridiculous in<br />
the woman’s first husband’s only child’s godfather,<br />
but six <strong>of</strong>-phrases almost pass unnoticed<br />
in the wife <strong>of</strong> a son <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the members <strong>of</strong><br />
the board <strong>of</strong> trustees <strong>of</strong> the university. Usually<br />
we mix these forms.<br />
The genitive always precedes the noun it qualifies<br />
and, except in two cases which are discussed<br />
below, it precedes all other words qualifying<br />
that noun. A prepositional phrase replacing a<br />
genitive normally follows the noun, and preferably<br />
without any intervening words. An uninflected<br />
form must stand immediately before the<br />
qualified word. The genitive may also be used<br />
independently, without a following noun, as in<br />
the things that are Caesar’s and we’re going to<br />
the doctor’s. In this construction the genitive is<br />
understood as qualifying a noun that can easily<br />
be supplied from the context (such as things<br />
or <strong>of</strong>ice). This is sometimes called the absolute<br />
genitive or the genitive used absolutely.<br />
MEANINGS AND USES<br />
Textbooks sometimes say that the only living<br />
function <strong>of</strong> the genitive is to represent ownership,<br />
and that when it is used for inanimate<br />
things (which are normally not owners) a personification<br />
is implied. But no ownership is intended<br />
in one’s elders, a man’s murderer, our<br />
son’s school, and no personification in tomorrow’s<br />
breakfast, the play’s success, the earth’s<br />
surface, the sun’s heat, the nation’s economy.<br />
It is a serious mistake to dismiss the genitive as<br />
the “possessive” case, because more than half<br />
the time it represents some other relation. Unless<br />
these relations are understood a speaker does
genitive 198<br />
not know when he can substitute a phrase for<br />
the genitive or the genitive for a phrase and is<br />
tied to stereotyped forms <strong>of</strong> expression. Three<br />
genitive relations are expressed without using a<br />
genitive form in Sandburg’s description <strong>of</strong> Chicago:<br />
Hog Butcher for the World, Tool Maker,<br />
Stacker <strong>of</strong> Wheat.<br />
1. Classifying or descriptive genitive. This is<br />
the basic genitive function, seen in the room’s<br />
furnishings, the airplane’s speed, the building’s<br />
foundations. In a count <strong>of</strong> the actual genitive<br />
forms appearing in a newspaper this group<br />
would not stand highest because it is usually<br />
possible to substitute the uninflected form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
noun for the genitive. When there is no reason<br />
for emphasizing the descriptive word, the simple<br />
uninflected form is preferred, and when there is<br />
reason, the <strong>of</strong>-phrase does it better.<br />
Sometimes we have no choice between the<br />
genitive and the uninflected form. This may be<br />
simply a matter <strong>of</strong> custom. For example, we<br />
may speak <strong>of</strong> state rights or state’s rights, but<br />
state’s prison is now old-fashioned and countrified.<br />
But there are two situations in which the<br />
genitive is required and the simple form cannot<br />
be used. If a descriptive word is inserted we<br />
must use a genitive. We may speak <strong>of</strong> New York<br />
streets and Alaska cities, but we must say New<br />
York’s smaller streets and Alaska’s southern<br />
cities. And we do not put a word that stands for<br />
something that has personality in the completely<br />
subordinate position <strong>of</strong> a simple qualifier; we<br />
always give it at least the dignity <strong>of</strong> a genitive.<br />
What has personality and what does not depends<br />
on one’s point <strong>of</strong> view. We are likely to<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> the dog hair on the neighbor’s rug and<br />
the dog’s hair on our own. When a person becomes<br />
a public character he apparently loses his<br />
personality. We say Robinson’s bank acco:rnt<br />
but the Astor fortune; Mr. Corsen’s hortse but<br />
the John D. Rockefeller mansion. Even the<br />
same individual may seem more or less human<br />
depending on the circumstances. We are likely<br />
to speak <strong>of</strong> the doctor’s advice and <strong>of</strong> the doctor<br />
bills.<br />
2. Possessive genitive. This is the genitive that<br />
indicates ownership. Obviously, it is only applicable<br />
to human beings, and by extension to<br />
pets or personified abstractions. Although it<br />
accounts for less than half <strong>of</strong> the genitive forms<br />
appearing in print, it is the largest single class.<br />
This is because it has no substitute forms. Since<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> personality is always to the front<br />
when we think <strong>of</strong> ownership, the uninflected<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the word cannot be used here. Nor can<br />
we substitute an <strong>of</strong>-phrase. We may use the<br />
word <strong>of</strong>, but the genitive keeps its form. That<br />
is, Irene’s coat becomes a coaf <strong>of</strong> Irene’s and<br />
not a coat <strong>of</strong> Irene. For a further discussion <strong>of</strong><br />
this, see double genitives.<br />
3. Subjective and objective genitive. Some<br />
nouns name an action. With a noun <strong>of</strong> this kind,<br />
either the subject or the object <strong>of</strong> the action may<br />
be expressed as a genitive. For example, the<br />
creation <strong>of</strong> Adam may be spoken <strong>of</strong> as God’s<br />
creation or man’s creation. Taken out <strong>of</strong> con-<br />
text, this genitive is <strong>of</strong>ten ambiguous. The <strong>of</strong>icer’s<br />
orders may mean what he has been ordered<br />
to do or what he has ordered someone else to<br />
do. But in context it is usually cIear which is<br />
intended.<br />
Both the subject and the object <strong>of</strong> the action<br />
may be named. In that case, since there is only<br />
one position for the genitive and they cannot<br />
both occupy it at the same time, one <strong>of</strong> them<br />
must be expressed by a prepositional phrase, and<br />
both may be. For example, we have a subjective<br />
genitive in mind’s control over matter and an<br />
objective in matter’s control by mind. Here the<br />
prepositions over and by make it clear which is<br />
which. An <strong>of</strong>-phrase may replace a subjective<br />
genitive, as in the control <strong>of</strong> mind over matter,<br />
and it may replace an objective, as in the control<br />
<strong>of</strong> matter by mind. It should not do both in<br />
the same sentence, as it does in fhe gift <strong>of</strong> a<br />
member <strong>of</strong> a hundred dollars. An <strong>of</strong>-phrase will<br />
be assumed to be objective unless there is some<br />
reason for not taking it in that way.<br />
Normally, a word representing something inanimate<br />
will be assumed to be an objective genitive,<br />
as in the idea’s discovery. A word representing<br />
a human being will be assumed to be<br />
subjective, as in the pr<strong>of</strong>essor’s discovery, except<br />
when the object <strong>of</strong> the action is more interesting<br />
than the agent, and then it will be assumed to be<br />
objective, as in the doctor’s rescue, the man’s<br />
trial, the woman’s release. At one time the pr<strong>of</strong>essor’s<br />
robbery could be given as an example<br />
<strong>of</strong> this. But in the United States today it is a<br />
question whether the robber or the robbed is<br />
the more interesting, and this expression would<br />
now be ambiguous out <strong>of</strong> context.<br />
If a subjective or objective genitive does not<br />
fit the description just given, it will be ambiguous<br />
and should be replaced by a prepositional<br />
phrase. This genitive cannot be freely replaced<br />
by an uninflected form, although the same relations<br />
are expressed by simple word combinations,<br />
as the subjective genitive in night fall and<br />
the objective in rope walker.<br />
4. Genitive <strong>of</strong> purpose. This genitive is found<br />
in Old English and not in Latin. It is unlike the<br />
other geni?ives in several ways: (1) It cannot<br />
be replaced by an <strong>of</strong>-phrase but requires for.<br />
(2) In the other types <strong>of</strong> genitive, the genitive<br />
noun is singular or plural depending upon its<br />
meaning. We say the child’s teacher or the children’s<br />
teacher, depending on whether we are<br />
talking about one child or more than one. In the<br />
genitive <strong>of</strong> purpose the genitive is singular or<br />
plural depending on the form <strong>of</strong> the noun that<br />
follows. We say he is writing a child’s book and<br />
he has written many children’s books. We speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> a man’s college and men’s colleges, a woman’s<br />
clab and women’s clubs. Therefore, if we were<br />
being meticulous about the apostrophe, we<br />
would write: he is teaching in a boy’s school<br />
and he has taught in several boys’ schools.<br />
(3) This genitive does not stand before the other<br />
qualifying words. In the example just given several<br />
stands before the genitive. In the child’s<br />
book that he is writing, the word the refers to
ook. In the child’s teacher, it refers to child’s.<br />
(The simple form <strong>of</strong> the noun cannot be freely<br />
substituted for this genitive, although the same<br />
relation exists in many word combination.s, such<br />
as fire screen.)<br />
5. Meusures and other adverbial genitives. At<br />
one time the genitive was used to make adverbs<br />
from nouns or adjectives. This genitive survives<br />
today in a few set phrases and expressions <strong>of</strong><br />
measure. See adverbial genitives and meiasures.<br />
6. Survivals. There are a few gcnitives in<br />
English that are survivals <strong>of</strong> an old genitive <strong>of</strong><br />
source, such as hen’s eggs. These are like the<br />
genitive <strong>of</strong> purpose in that they are attached to<br />
the noun and can be preceded by adjectives and<br />
definitive words such as a, the, this, and other<br />
genitives, as in my six hen’s eggs. Actually they<br />
are a kind <strong>of</strong> compound noun, though th[ey are<br />
usually written as two words. They do not justify<br />
setting up another class <strong>of</strong> genitives because<br />
this is not a living form. It belongs to a few<br />
individual words and cannot be transferred to<br />
other words <strong>of</strong> almost identical meanin.g. We<br />
may speak <strong>of</strong> a dozen hen’s eggs, but we (cannot<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a dozen ostrich’s eggs.<br />
I. Partitive and appositive genitive. In Latin,<br />
and in some European languages toda.y, the<br />
relation <strong>of</strong> whole to part is shown by a genitive.<br />
This is called the partitive genitive. It does not<br />
exist in English, but we express the same relation<br />
by means <strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong>-phrase, as in one <strong>of</strong> us, some<br />
<strong>of</strong> it. When two nouns, or phrases, stand together<br />
and the second merely describes the first,<br />
as president in the title president, the second is<br />
called an appositive. In Latin the genitive was<br />
sometimes used to indicate this relation and was<br />
then called an appositive genitive. The genitive<br />
is not used for this purpose in English, Ibut we<br />
can use an <strong>of</strong>-phrase to show the same relation,<br />
as in the title <strong>of</strong> president, the state <strong>of</strong> Ohio.<br />
SPECIAL PROBLEMS<br />
1. Joint possession. When one thing is owned<br />
jointly by more than one person, the genitive s<br />
may be placed after the last name and not after<br />
the preceding ones, as in Stan, Jeann,e, and<br />
Ann’s home. But the genitive s may also be<br />
placed after the preceding names and still indicate<br />
joint possession, as in Stan’s, Jeanne’s, and<br />
Ann’s home. When separate ownership is meant,<br />
the genitive s always follows each name, as in<br />
Jeanne’s and Ann’s clothes.<br />
It would be neater if the middle form described<br />
above did not exist, and some grammarians<br />
claim that it should not exist, that it is<br />
wrong to use two genitive forms to indicate<br />
joint possession. But there is no doubt that this<br />
form does exist and that it is used by educated<br />
people. What keeps it alive is the fact that the<br />
personal pronouns have to be used in this way.<br />
We cannot say he, she, and Ann’s home but are<br />
compelled to say his, hers, and Ann’s. And very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten we have both nouns and pronouns in the<br />
same statement.<br />
2. Appositives. When two words or phrases<br />
stand together and refer to the same person<br />
there may be a question about where to place<br />
199 genius<br />
the genitive s. Formerly it was placed after each<br />
element, as in his chaplain’s, Mr. Sampson’s,<br />
careless life. In contemporary English it is<br />
placed after the element that stands immediately<br />
before the qualified word and not after the<br />
others, as in by Mahomet my kinsman’s sepulcher.<br />
When the genitive is used absolutely and<br />
the qualified word does not appear, the genitive<br />
s may be placed after each element, as in would<br />
you tell us where Gaudy’s the grocer’s is?, or<br />
only after the final one, as in she may have a<br />
bed at her cousin the saddler’s.<br />
3. Phrases and clauses. In English the genitive<br />
s is not necessarily attached to the noun<br />
it actually belongs with. It may follow a prepositional<br />
phrase, as in the king <strong>of</strong> Spain’s daughter.<br />
This peculiar use <strong>of</strong> the s is thoroughly<br />
understood and phrases <strong>of</strong> this kind are almost<br />
never ambiguous. But it is possible to construct<br />
a sentence in which they are misleading. For<br />
example, it is quite true that theson <strong>of</strong> Pharaoh’s<br />
daughter is the daughter <strong>of</strong> Pharaoh’s son. See<br />
also double genitives.<br />
Traditionally, a descriptive phrase that contains<br />
no preposition and no verb form might<br />
stand between a noun and the genitive s, as in<br />
Peter: the Hermit’s teaching, or it might be<br />
placed after the completed genitive construction,<br />
as in it is Othello’s pleasure, our noble and<br />
valiant general and the words were Cicero’s, the<br />
most eloquent <strong>of</strong> men. A full clause qualifying<br />
a genitive or possessive form is more difficult<br />
to handle. In literary English it never stands<br />
before the qualified word but it sometimes follows<br />
the completed thought, as in his words who<br />
sent me and it is his who finds it. In longer sentences<br />
this construction is a dangerous one because<br />
the clause is likely to attach itself to the<br />
qualified word rather than to the genitive. Some<br />
grammarians say that the construction is always<br />
improper. But it has been used successfully by<br />
many great writers, including D. G. Rossetti,<br />
Browning, Holmes, Thackeray, George Eliot.<br />
In the United States today it is possible in<br />
speaking to place a full clause between the ‘s<br />
and the word it actually belongs with. It is possible<br />
to say the man you said was coming here<br />
from Chicago’s son jzlst called. Fifty years ago<br />
this was considered an indecorous way <strong>of</strong> speaking<br />
and only young and foolish people used it.<br />
Today it is heard everywhere. There is no literary<br />
tradition for it, but there probably will be<br />
in time.<br />
genius; talent. A genius in its original meaning<br />
was an attendant spirit, allotted to every person<br />
at birth to watch over him and shape his character<br />
and fortunes. It is in this sense that Macbeth<br />
uses the word when he says <strong>of</strong> Banquo<br />
There is none but he/ Whose being Z do fear;<br />
and under him/ My genius is rebuk’d, as it is<br />
said/ Mark Antony’s was by Caesar. Then it<br />
came to mean a natural endowment or aptitude,<br />
inclination, the sort <strong>of</strong> thing with which one’s<br />
genius would endow one or towards which it<br />
would guide (Different men have different geniuses.<br />
The squire, whose active genius was al-
genteel<br />
ways at some repair or improvement . . .). In<br />
the eighteenth century, when the word had quite<br />
a vogue, a man <strong>of</strong> genius was an ingenious man.<br />
But with the rise <strong>of</strong> the Romantic Movement,<br />
with its exaltation <strong>of</strong> the abnormal, its fantastic<br />
hero worship and its cult <strong>of</strong> the supernatural,<br />
genius came to be applied to intellectual powers<br />
which seemed almost to proceed from supernatural<br />
inspiration or demonic possession and<br />
which produced its works in a manner not comprehensible<br />
to the ordinary mind. It was at this<br />
time that the distinction between talent and<br />
genius, between a special capacity and an exceptional<br />
capacity, was drawn with the exaggerated<br />
emphasis which still colors the meanings <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words. De Quincey stated the difference with<br />
vehement vagueness in a definition that has become<br />
classical: Talent and genius, he said, are<br />
not merely different, they are in polar opposition<br />
to each other. Talent is intellectual power <strong>of</strong><br />
every kind, which acts and manifests itself . . .<br />
through the will and the active forces. Genius<br />
. . . is that much rarer species <strong>of</strong> intellectunl<br />
power which is derived from the genial nature<br />
-from the spirit <strong>of</strong> suffering and enjoyingfrom<br />
the spirit <strong>of</strong> pleasure and pain. It is a function<br />
<strong>of</strong> the passive nature. From this it was only<br />
a step to refer to one possessing genius as himself<br />
a genius, a person set apart from other men<br />
by a supra-natural gift.<br />
The word talent, an ancient weight <strong>of</strong> money,<br />
attained its present meaning <strong>of</strong> natural ability<br />
or mental endowment through its figurative use<br />
in the parable <strong>of</strong> the talents in Matthew 25:<br />
14-30. It is a very useful word to hold in mind<br />
when discussing the “real” meaning <strong>of</strong> words<br />
with purists. Up to and throughout the eighteenth<br />
century it was closely synonymous with<br />
genius, even including the idea <strong>of</strong> something<br />
divinely entrusted to one. It is interesting that<br />
Milton, who became one <strong>of</strong> the supreme exemplars<br />
<strong>of</strong> genius to the romantics, referred to his<br />
own powers (in his sonnet on his blindness beginning<br />
“When I consider how my light is<br />
spent”) as talent. But the romantic distinction<br />
did its work and talent, in the modern conception<br />
<strong>of</strong> it, which may be acquired by imitation<br />
and training, is now definitely thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
something infinitely inferior to genius. It is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the favorite damnings by faint praise in reviews<br />
<strong>of</strong> literary, musical, and artistic performances<br />
to say that they showed talent.<br />
Genius has two plurals. More than one supranatural<br />
ability or more than one person possessing<br />
such abilities are geniuses. Guardian<br />
spirits, attendant spirits-whether good or bad<br />
-and more than one jinni or genie, are genii.<br />
genteel; gentle; Gentile. The Latin word gentilis,<br />
from which all three <strong>of</strong> these words derive,<br />
meant <strong>of</strong> the same clan or tribe or family in the<br />
larger sense. Genteel once meant well-bred or<br />
elegant, showing, that is, the outward signs <strong>of</strong><br />
belonging to one <strong>of</strong> the better families, suited<br />
to a gentleman, characteristic <strong>of</strong> the upper<br />
classes (A man might be rich without being<br />
genteel. There was nothing vulgar about her;<br />
she was genteel and accomplished). But the<br />
200<br />
democratic revolution, or perhaps simply the<br />
behavior <strong>of</strong> those who prided themselves on<br />
their gentility, has made the word in current<br />
usage slightly derogatory, mildly sarcastic (shabby<br />
gentility), describing rather those who affect<br />
the ways and manners <strong>of</strong> the upper classes than<br />
those who actually have them (So genteel that<br />
she always called a leg a limb and a shirt a<br />
garment).<br />
Though gentle still keeps some <strong>of</strong> its older<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> characteristic <strong>of</strong> good birth, wellborn,<br />
in such terms as gentlemen and gentlefolk,<br />
the meaning is one more recognized than used.<br />
It would seem a little affected, archaic, or deliberately<br />
literary to employ it in conversation or<br />
writing. In current usage it means mild, kind,<br />
amiable (His gentle words soothed the angry<br />
boy. My mother’s gentle touch delighted everyone.<br />
Such gentle humor can never wound),<br />
moderate, or easily handled (Boil it over a gentle<br />
flame. Please chose a gentle horse for me;<br />
I am not a good rider).<br />
Gentile today has the primary meaning, derived<br />
from the Bible, <strong>of</strong> non-Jewish. In medieval<br />
Europe it meant heathen. Among the Mormons<br />
it has the meaning <strong>of</strong> non-Mormon. But Kipling’s<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the word in the famous passage<br />
in Recessional (Such boastings as the Gentiles<br />
use,/ Or lesser breeds without the Law) must<br />
be regarded as anomalous. The solemnity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
occasion called in his opinion for Biblical language<br />
and it was easy in 1897 to conceive <strong>of</strong><br />
the English as God’s chosen people but Gentiles<br />
in any accepted sense <strong>of</strong> the word at that time<br />
would have included the English and the lesser<br />
breeds.<br />
gentleman; gent; man. A gentleman was once a<br />
man <strong>of</strong> a definite social rank, above a yeoman.<br />
Shakespeare went to considerable trouble to get<br />
his father made a gentleman so that he might<br />
be the son <strong>of</strong> a gentleman. This meaning is now<br />
<strong>of</strong> purely historical interest. In popular usage<br />
the term means a man <strong>of</strong> good breeding, education,<br />
and manners. It can also mean a valet (a<br />
gentleman’sgentleman). In polite address (Indies<br />
and gentlemen) it means a man. Overuse has<br />
vulgarized the word (I’m next in line. I don’t<br />
believe the gentleman is taking his proper turn)<br />
and man remains the more dignified word.<br />
Gent and gents as abbreviations are either<br />
humorous (Step right up, gents, and say what<br />
you’ll have) or pathetically vulgar (Tables for<br />
ladies and gents).<br />
gentlewoman. See woman.<br />
gentry. When used seriously, this is a group name<br />
and may take a singular or a plural verb, as in<br />
the gentry was represented and the gentry were<br />
represented. It is not used as a true plural and<br />
plural constructions such as these gentry are<br />
ready to leave are meant to be witty or contemptuous.<br />
The word is seldom used seriously<br />
in the United States.<br />
genuine. See authentic.<br />
genus. The plural is genera, and occasionally<br />
genuses, but never geni.<br />
gerrymander is <strong>of</strong>ten erroneously written jerrymnnder.<br />
The word derives from Elbridge Gerry,
one <strong>of</strong> the signers <strong>of</strong> the Declaration <strong>of</strong> Independence,<br />
a member <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Cont</strong>inental Congress<br />
and later <strong>of</strong> the Congress <strong>of</strong> the United<br />
States, twice governor <strong>of</strong> Massachusetts and, at<br />
the time <strong>of</strong> his death, vice-president <strong>of</strong> the<br />
United States. Despite this distinguished and<br />
honorable career, his name is fixed in the language<br />
through his connivance (in an unsuccessful<br />
attempt to get himself elected governor <strong>of</strong><br />
Massachusetts for a third term) in a scheme to<br />
redistribute the electoral districts <strong>of</strong> the state in<br />
such a way that the strength <strong>of</strong> the party opposing<br />
him was concentrated in a few districts.<br />
Gilbert Stuart, the painter, seeing a map with<br />
the new districts marked on it thought it resembled<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> an animal, added head, claws,<br />
and wings and said it would do for a salamander.<br />
A gentleman present changed it to gerrymander,<br />
and the word stuck.<br />
gerunds; gerundives. See -ing.<br />
gesticulation; gesture. A gesture is a movement<br />
<strong>of</strong> the body, head, arms, or face, expressive <strong>of</strong><br />
an idea or emotion (The gesture <strong>of</strong> impatience,<br />
though slight, was not lost upon the young man<br />
who brought his narrative quickly to a close).<br />
A gesticulation is the making <strong>of</strong> a gesture, especially<br />
in an animated or excited manner (Their<br />
conversation was carried on with great vivacity<br />
and gesticulation). Gesticulation is the using <strong>of</strong><br />
gestures; a gesture is a single act <strong>of</strong> gesticulation.<br />
Gesture has within the past generation acquired<br />
the special meaning <strong>of</strong> an act or proceeding<br />
intended for effect, a demonstration (His<br />
<strong>of</strong>fering to remove the hedge if it impeded our<br />
view was a neighborly gesture that left us deeply<br />
moved).<br />
get. The past tense is goi. The participle is gotten<br />
or got. The original meaning <strong>of</strong> get was “seize”<br />
or “take hold <strong>of</strong>.” Today the verb is used in the<br />
broader sense <strong>of</strong> “acquire” and may mean acquiring<br />
actively or passively, literally or figuratively.<br />
Frequently get is the simplest,
Carlyle, and most <strong>of</strong> the great nineteenth century<br />
English authors. But it was strongly condemned<br />
by nineteenth century grammarians,<br />
especially American grammarians, and many<br />
people today condemn it. At present, it is more<br />
acceutable in Great Britain than it is in the<br />
United States. A past tense form meaning simply<br />
“had” as in the boy had got an apple in his<br />
hand, is heard in Great Britain but is almost<br />
unknown in this country.<br />
4. The phrase /:ave goi to or hns g<strong>of</strong> to is also<br />
used as a simple present tense equivalent to<br />
have fo or has to, meaning “must.” This construction<br />
is not more than a hundred years old<br />
but it has been used by such public characters<br />
as Alice in Wonderland and Franklin Delano<br />
Roosevelt. It is thoroughly acceptable 1~1 the<br />
United States but not in Great Britain. A past<br />
tense form, had got to, is heard less <strong>of</strong>ten but is<br />
also acceptable in this country.<br />
When have got is used with either <strong>of</strong> these<br />
last two meanings, the huvc is pronounced very<br />
lightly and may not be heard. This is acceptable<br />
spoken English in the United States. But it is<br />
not acceptable written English. The have or ‘ve<br />
(or has or ‘s) must always appear when the<br />
words are written down. That is, we got fime<br />
and we got io go now may be heard, but they<br />
should not be seen.<br />
In Great Britain got is the only form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
participle used and the older form gotten is<br />
considered archaic or Biblical. During the<br />
nineteenth century some American dictionaries<br />
claimed that gotten had also passed out <strong>of</strong><br />
standard speech in the United States. This must<br />
have been based on hope, for it certain!y was<br />
not based on fact. In the United States gotten<br />
is still the preferred form <strong>of</strong> the participle when<br />
it is used with lluve to express a completed<br />
action, as in I have just gotten a splinter in my<br />
hand. But only the form got is used with have as<br />
a simple present tense describing a condition or<br />
state, as in I’ve g<strong>of</strong> an apple in my hand and<br />
we’ve got to hurry. Englishmen use got in all<br />
constructions and believe that Americans always<br />
use gotten. As a result, Americans in British<br />
novels are likely to say I’ve gotten an apple in<br />
my hand and we’ve gotten to hurry. Gotten is<br />
never used in these constructions except in British<br />
novels.<br />
get; obtain. Get implies the coming into possession<br />
in any manner (I got this farm by hard<br />
work. You’ll gef sick. Come and gef it). Obfain<br />
suggests the putting forth <strong>of</strong> eifort to gain<br />
possession and therefore should not be used,<br />
although it <strong>of</strong>ten is, as a synonym for get. One<br />
does not obtain the measles; they just come. The<br />
merciful obtain mercy through the exercise <strong>of</strong><br />
or as a reward for their own mercifulness. The<br />
unmerciful, if they receive mercy, will simply<br />
get it, through no effort or merit <strong>of</strong> their own.<br />
See also secure.<br />
get up on the wrong side <strong>of</strong> the bed. To say <strong>of</strong><br />
someone who is surly and ill-humored in the<br />
morning that he got up on the wrong side <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bed is to employ a worn and meaningless clichC.<br />
It has been a jocular phrase for more than three<br />
202<br />
hundred years now and no one knows which is<br />
the right side <strong>of</strong> the bed or why getting up on<br />
(it wou!d be better if it were from) a particular<br />
side should be conducive to good or ill humor.<br />
gild. The past tense is gilded or gilt. The participle<br />
is aiso gilded or @it. As adjectives, gilt is now<br />
restricted to the hteral meaning (gilt-edged securities),<br />
whereas gilded, while it still has the<br />
literal meaning (the gilded goblet) or the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> anything so colored as to seem gilded<br />
(the little Pilded fly). is used finurativelv (Gilded<br />
i&asters were c&&l splendid-victories) 1<br />
gild the lily. As a term for applying unnecessary<br />
embellishment, gilding the lily is a clichC and,<br />
like so many clichts, not only hackneyed but<br />
meaningless or confused. Why should a lily be<br />
gilded? It is not gold-colored in the first place.<br />
The answer lies in the original passage from<br />
which the clichB has been drawn. The Earl <strong>of</strong><br />
Salisbury, in the second scene <strong>of</strong> the fourth act<br />
<strong>of</strong> Shakespeare’s King John, is protesting against<br />
the king’s second coronation:<br />
. . . to be possess’d with double pomp,<br />
To guard a title that was rich before,<br />
To gild refined gold, to paint the lily,<br />
To fhrow a perfume on the violet,<br />
To smooth the ice, or add an<strong>of</strong>her hue<br />
Unto the rainbow . . .<br />
Is wasteful and ridiculous excess.<br />
It is plain that gild jumped over from “refined<br />
gold” and displaced the more fitting paint from<br />
in front <strong>of</strong> “the lily.”<br />
gimp; yimpe; gamp. A gimp is a flat trimming<br />
<strong>of</strong> silk, wool, or other cord, sometimes stiffened<br />
with wire, for garments, curtains, furniture, etc.<br />
A guimpe is a kind <strong>of</strong> chemisette or yoke <strong>of</strong> lace,<br />
embroidery, or other material worn with a dress<br />
cut out at the neck. A gamp (named after Sarah<br />
Gamp, a talkative, disreputable nurse in Dickens’<br />
Martin Chuzzlewit who always carried a<br />
large cotton umbrella) is an umbrella, especially<br />
one tied untidily. The term is more used in<br />
England than in America.<br />
gipsy. See gypsy.<br />
giraffe; camel. In South Africa the giruffe is called<br />
a camel-short for camelopard, its old name.<br />
gird. The past tense is girded or girf. The participle<br />
is also girded or girt.<br />
girlish. See infantile.<br />
give. The past tense is gave. The participle is given.<br />
When give has a personal subject it may be followed<br />
by to believe, as in they gave me fo believe<br />
they were coming, and by other infinitives,<br />
such as to understand and to think, so long as<br />
these mean to believe. But the sentence it gives<br />
me to think is not English. It is a joke and is<br />
funny only to high-school students in their first<br />
year <strong>of</strong> French. See also donate.<br />
give a wide berth. As a term for avoiding someone,<br />
giving him a wide berth, a nautical term,<br />
is a clichC. It should be used with care.<br />
give the Devil his due. As a term for granting<br />
even an enemy his merits, to give the Devil his<br />
due is a clichC. It was formerly a proverb but<br />
has been overworked,<br />
given. See give.
given name. See first mime.<br />
gladiolus. The plural is gladiolus or gladioli.<br />
glamour; glamor. Glnmour is preferred to glamor<br />
as the word for alluring charm, witchery, fascination,<br />
magic and enchantment (She cast the<br />
spell <strong>of</strong> her glamour over the audience at once).<br />
There is <strong>of</strong>ten in the word a sense that the<br />
charm is illusory (How quickly the glamour <strong>of</strong><br />
the courting days fudes when a young couple<br />
must live together in a one-room aparlment)<br />
and, especially in the United States where the<br />
manufacture <strong>of</strong> female charm is a major industry,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten synthetic (They’ll take any tolcrablelooking<br />
healthy kid and turn her into a g!amour<br />
girl in a week). As a synonym for beautiful or<br />
lovely, when applied to women, glamorous (a<br />
common word in popular songs because it rimes<br />
with amorous) is a copywriter’s word, forced<br />
and hollow, worn and dishonest.<br />
Glamour is a Scotch corruption <strong>of</strong> grammar,<br />
brought into common English use by Sir Walter<br />
Scott. Grammar, than which nothing is less<br />
glamorous, meaning originally the study <strong>of</strong> language<br />
which deals with its inflectional forms,<br />
became a term for all learning in the day:s when<br />
the study <strong>of</strong> grammar formed a large part <strong>of</strong><br />
education. Learning has always been suspect to<br />
the unlearned, and under the variation <strong>of</strong><br />
gramarye or grammarie grammar became a<br />
term for occult learning, magic, or necromancers<br />
( Whate’er he did <strong>of</strong> gramarye/ was always<br />
done maliciously). And one <strong>of</strong> the ways necromancers<br />
worked was by casting a glamour over<br />
their victims. Hence our glamour.<br />
glance; glimpse. A gltrnce is a quick look. A<br />
glimpse is a momentary sight <strong>of</strong>. Tha.t is a<br />
glimpse which one sees in a glance. One has a<br />
glimpse <strong>of</strong> and gets a glance at (A glance at his<br />
face was all that was needed to confirm t.he bad<br />
news. The glimpse <strong>of</strong> his face, which was all<br />
that I could get in so brief a time, confirmed my<br />
fears). A glimpse suggests an imperfect view<br />
(I caught a glimpse <strong>of</strong> the letter as he was folding<br />
it, but cannot be sure that it was addressed<br />
to the general).<br />
glean. To glean does not mean merely to gather.<br />
It means to gather little bits slowly and laboriously.<br />
A meaning that has been gleaned, for<br />
example, has been hard come by, laboriously<br />
collected from a mass <strong>of</strong> chaff or rubbish over a<br />
vast area. The gleaners who come after the<br />
reapers get only the spilled grain or occasional<br />
stalks that have escaped the sickle. Thus gleaning<br />
has also the sense <strong>of</strong> thorough gathering up<br />
<strong>of</strong> that which others have disregarded. Samuel<br />
Johnson uses the word well in The Vanity <strong>of</strong><br />
Human Wishes where, speaking <strong>of</strong> the dangers<br />
attendant upon greatness and the advanta.ges <strong>of</strong><br />
obscurity, he says:<br />
Let history tell, where rival kings command,<br />
And dubious title shakes the mudded land,<br />
When statutes glean the refuse <strong>of</strong> the sword,<br />
How much more safe the vassal than the lord.<br />
glee; mirth; hilarity; merriment. Glee and mirth<br />
and, to a lesser extent, merriment are all slightly<br />
archaic and bookish and unless used with great<br />
203 I30<br />
care seem forced or affected. Glee suggests a<br />
spontaneous overflow <strong>of</strong> high spirits or exultation,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten expressed in playful or ecstatic gestures.<br />
It is used so <strong>of</strong>ten in the phrase childish<br />
glee that any more serious use <strong>of</strong> it (such as<br />
Wordsworth’s holy glee) would seem inappropriate.<br />
It has acquired the special meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
demonstration <strong>of</strong> malicious rejoicing over the<br />
mishaps <strong>of</strong> others, especially in the cliche<br />
fiendish glee.<br />
Mirth means spontaneous gaiety, but <strong>of</strong> a<br />
more decorous nature than that designated by<br />
glee (There was much mirth at this unexpected<br />
sally). Merriment denotes fun and a general,<br />
innocent good time.<br />
Hilarity implies noisy and boisterous fun,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten exceeding the limits <strong>of</strong> decorum (As the<br />
evening wore on and the glasses were refilled,<br />
the hilarity increased, until angry knockings on<br />
the walls reminded us that the neighbors did not<br />
approve).<br />
glimpse. See glance.<br />
global. See earthen.<br />
globe. See earth.<br />
gloomy; pessimistic. Gloomy means dark. When<br />
applied to persons or, rather, to their dispositions,<br />
for it is no longer applied as it used to be<br />
to the color <strong>of</strong> their skins, it means melancholy,<br />
depressing, sad (The expression <strong>of</strong> these gloomy<br />
thoughts soon put an end to what little cheerfulness<br />
remained). Pessimistic means characterized<br />
by pessimism, the philosophic belief that<br />
the world is essentially evil. Since such a belief<br />
is conducive to gloom, certainly in those who<br />
don’t share it, it is a natural development for<br />
pessimistic to mean gloomy. But it is not an<br />
absolute synonym. It means gloomy in the extreme,<br />
the gloomiest <strong>of</strong> all possible views. To<br />
use it lightly (as in You’re too nessimistic: it<br />
isn’t going to rain all afternoon)’ weakens the<br />
word and borders on the pompous.<br />
glorious. That is glorious which is delightful in<br />
the extreme, whose pleasure is accompanied by<br />
exaltation and splendor (Full many a glorious<br />
morning have I seen/ Flatter the mountain tops<br />
with sovereign eye). When used merely as a<br />
synonym for pleasant or delightful it is excessive.<br />
This excessiveness suggests that it is forced<br />
and the word, already too much for common<br />
occasions, is usually buttressed with such ineffectual<br />
intensives as simply or perfectly and<br />
the whole phrase uttered with a shrill emphasis<br />
that reveals its insincerity.<br />
glottis. The plural is glottises or glottides, not<br />
glottes.<br />
glutton. See gourmand.<br />
go. The past tense is went. The participle is gone.<br />
The past tense went has been taken over from<br />
the verb wend, which now has a regular past<br />
tense and participle wended. One form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
old past tense <strong>of</strong> go survives in the Scottish<br />
gaed.<br />
Go is sometimes followed by a second verb<br />
that tells the purpose <strong>of</strong> the going. This may be<br />
the simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in Z had the<br />
grace to go hear a sermon and go tell Aunt<br />
Rhody. This construction is found frequently in
go<br />
English literature and is standard in the United<br />
States today. But it is no longer standard in<br />
Great Britain, where an and is required between<br />
the two verbs as in go and call the cattle home.<br />
Neither construction can be used when go is a<br />
simple present tense or after any form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb except go. We may say I will go tell her<br />
but not I go tell her or I went tell her. These<br />
forms require a to-infinitive to express purpose.<br />
Went, gone, and the present tense <strong>of</strong> go, followed<br />
by and, are used before another verb to<br />
show indignation or surprise, as in he went and<br />
told her, he has gone and done it again, now he<br />
goes and gets married. This construction is very<br />
expressive, but it is not standard. When sentences<br />
like this are meant literally (that is, when<br />
the person actually moved), they are acceptable.<br />
But many people take care to break the pattern<br />
in some way, as in he went and he told her and<br />
he went quickly and told her.<br />
The word going, combined with some form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb be, is <strong>of</strong>ten used to indicate expectation.<br />
This is a favorite way <strong>of</strong> making a statement<br />
about the future. Used in this sense, going<br />
is always followed by a to-infinitive, as in Pm<br />
going to build a castle down in Newport. Here<br />
go does not carry any meaning <strong>of</strong> motion. We<br />
may say Z am going to sit still. When the following<br />
infinitive is to go it may be omitted, as in<br />
I’m going back and tell her which means I am<br />
going to go back and tell her. When going and<br />
some form <strong>of</strong> the verb be are used to mean<br />
motion they are never followed directly by an<br />
infinitive. We find some way to avoid this pattern,<br />
as in Pm going now to tell her.<br />
Go on may mean continue. When it does, it is<br />
always followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as<br />
in go on talking.<br />
Go may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
whatever it is that goes. Sometimes this is<br />
because go is being used as the equivalent <strong>of</strong><br />
be or become, as in go mad and it went hard<br />
with him. But it can also happen when go<br />
actually carries the meaning <strong>of</strong> movement, as in<br />
they go around naked. In this sense go may also<br />
be followed by an adverb describing the going,<br />
as in they go quietly.<br />
go in one ear and out the other. The assurance<br />
that something that has been said has gone in<br />
one ear and out the other is <strong>of</strong>ten spoken contemptuously<br />
by the person to whom the remark<br />
was addressed, meaning that he paid no attention<br />
to it. But it is a dangerous sneer because it<br />
carries the suggestion that there was nothing<br />
between the two ears to impede its passage. Even<br />
without such a consideration, however, the<br />
phrase should be avoided.<br />
go the whole hog. Dr. Charles Earle Funk, in<br />
his A Hog on Ice, believes that to go the whole<br />
hog, as an expression for stopping at nothing,<br />
carrying through regardless <strong>of</strong> cost, making<br />
every effort, supporting wholeheartedly, may<br />
derive from a passage in Cowper’s “The Love<br />
<strong>of</strong> the World Reproved; or Hypocrisy Detected.”<br />
It may also derive, he grants, from the fact that<br />
a ten-cent piece was once called a “hog” so that<br />
204<br />
to go the whole hog was an ironical phrase for<br />
the willingness <strong>of</strong> the parsimonious to spend<br />
their money in a cause to which they were<br />
devoted. Whatever the origin <strong>of</strong> the phrase, it<br />
is now overworked and to be avoided.<br />
gobbledegook was a term coined by the late Representative<br />
Maury Maverick to describe the<br />
language, characterized by circumlocution and<br />
jargon, <strong>of</strong> government reports, questionnaires,<br />
pronouncements and the like, and especially <strong>of</strong><br />
inter- and intra-departmental memoranda. He<br />
had in mind such phrases as “cause an investigation<br />
to be made with a view to ascertaining”<br />
for “find out” and “return a considered evaluation”<br />
for “give me your opinion.”<br />
This sort <strong>of</strong> writing, which seems to have<br />
been begotten upon the legalism <strong>of</strong> bureaucracy<br />
by the inflated vagueness <strong>of</strong> social science, is<br />
not peculiar to America. Every modern country<br />
has it and with the increasing part that government<br />
plays in the daily life <strong>of</strong> every individual<br />
it is a serious burden. Sir Ernest Gowers, himself<br />
a civil servant, speaks in his Plain Words:<br />
Their A B C <strong>of</strong> “the sense <strong>of</strong> despair” produced<br />
in the public mind by gobbledegook. The citizen<br />
in dealing with <strong>of</strong>ficials feels himself utterly lost<br />
and helpless in a fog <strong>of</strong> words. This involved<br />
and pompous verbosity, Sir Ernest believes, goes<br />
far to defeat the intention <strong>of</strong> a great deal <strong>of</strong><br />
social legislation.<br />
Various names have been suggested. Ivor<br />
Brown, in England, has <strong>of</strong>fered barnacrrlar and<br />
jarguntuan and pudder (from the reference in<br />
King Lear to the gods that keep this dreadful<br />
pudder o’er our heads), but gobbledegook has<br />
been accepted in the United States and seems to<br />
be on its way to acceptance in England and<br />
other parts <strong>of</strong> the British Empire. It was a happy<br />
coinage, combining the self-important, indignant,<br />
incomprehensible gobbling <strong>of</strong> a turkeycock<br />
with the idea <strong>of</strong> a sticky and loathsome<br />
muck into which the unhappy listener or reader<br />
sinks with a bubbling cry.<br />
George Orwell (“Politics and the English<br />
Language”) translates a passage from Ecclesiastes<br />
into gobbledegook:<br />
I returned and saw under the sun, that the<br />
race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the<br />
strong, neither yet bread to the wise, nor yet<br />
riches to men <strong>of</strong> understanding, nor yet favor<br />
to men <strong>of</strong> skill: but time and chance happeneth<br />
to them all<br />
became<br />
Objective consideration <strong>of</strong> contemporary phenomena<br />
compels the conclusion that success<br />
or failure in competitive activities exhibits no<br />
tendency to be commensurate with innate capacity,<br />
but that a considerable element <strong>of</strong> the<br />
unpredictable must be taken into account.<br />
But admirable as the parody is, Orwell’s sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> style and the necessity <strong>of</strong> following the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the original make it far clearer than most<br />
gobbledegook. Time (May 7, 1947) quotes,<br />
from a letter to a veteran who was inquiring
about a pension, a more classic specimen: “The<br />
non-compensable evaluation heret<strong>of</strong>ore assigned<br />
to you for your service-connected disability is<br />
confirmed and continued.” In other wards, he<br />
didn’t get the pension.<br />
God willing. See Deo volente.<br />
golf links; golf course. Links was originally a<br />
Scottish word for gently undulating sandy<br />
ground near the seashore and some <strong>of</strong> the more<br />
rigid purists insist that a go/f links must be by<br />
the sea and a golf course inland. But the distinction,<br />
however much it may mark one who observes<br />
it as knowing in either golf or grammar,<br />
is not likely to gain acceptance in America because<br />
golf links is falling into disuse. It is still<br />
known and occasionally used, but it is being<br />
replaced by golf ccmrse, just as the Yicottish<br />
names for the clubs-mashie, brassie, .niblick,<br />
and the like-have, with the exception <strong>of</strong> putter,<br />
been replaced by numbers (number five iron<br />
number six iron, and so on).<br />
Links was originally a plural (The golf links<br />
lie so near the mill . . .) but it may also be<br />
construed as singular (The entire links has been<br />
bought and will be cut up into lots).<br />
gone. See go.<br />
good. The comparative form is better. The superlative<br />
form is best. When good means holy it is<br />
likely to have the comparative form more good<br />
and the superlative most good, as in the most<br />
good, the most charming, the most perfect<br />
human creature that ever trod the earth.<br />
The word good is primarily an adjectiive and<br />
is used to qualify nouns. It may follow a linking<br />
verb, that is, any verb that is being used to mean<br />
“be, become, or appear,” as in it sounds good,<br />
it tastes good, it feels good to be alive, where<br />
the word good describes the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
and not the action. (See linking verbs.) It cannot<br />
be used to actually qualify the verb itself, as it<br />
is in he doesn’t hear good. Sentences <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind, such as he writes good, the engine is hitting<br />
good, are not standard. In standard English the<br />
word well is required here.<br />
Good may be used to qualify another adjective<br />
that is standing before a noun, as in a<br />
good long time, a good many men. The word<br />
very may also be used here and is preferred by<br />
some people. Very is now generally preferred<br />
before the word fe+v, as in a very few people.<br />
Good is still heard before few but this is now<br />
considered old fashioned. The words good and<br />
may be used in place <strong>of</strong> very to qualify an<br />
adjective or an adjective-like adverb that follows<br />
a verb, as in I am good and tired, they worked<br />
good and hard. Some grammarians object to this<br />
construction but it is accepted spoken English<br />
in the United States.<br />
Good may also be used as a noun meaning<br />
“what is good,” as in it is for your good. In he<br />
will do you good the word good is a noun, provided<br />
the sentence means “he will do 6or you<br />
something that is good.” But if it means “he will<br />
do you in thoroughly,” then good is being used<br />
to qualify the verb, and this is not standard<br />
English. When good means “what is good” it<br />
has only the singular form. But this may be<br />
followed by a plural verb when it refers to living<br />
creatures, as in the good are happy. The plural<br />
form goods may mean “possessions.” When it<br />
does it is treated as a plural, as in these goods<br />
are mine. It may also mean “cloth,” and it is<br />
then treated as a singular, as in this goods is<br />
mine. In these senses the plural form is used as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in a dry<br />
goods store.<br />
The words better and best are adverbs as well<br />
as adjectives and can be used in any way that<br />
the sense allows.<br />
Had better, or had best, means “would find<br />
advantageous” and is followed by the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as stop in you had better stop<br />
that foolishness, and let in you had better let<br />
sleeping dogs lie. This had may be pronounced<br />
so lightly that it is not heard, as in we better<br />
leave, but it must always be shown in written<br />
English, at least with an apostrophe and d, as<br />
in we’d better leave. In the nineteenth century<br />
the form would better was sometimes used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> had better, but it never became popular<br />
and is now disappearing. Had better is always<br />
tre, ed as a single idea and should not be broken<br />
into by another word. We say you had better<br />
not wait and not you hadn’t better wait. Had<br />
better can be used in passive constructions, such<br />
as what had better be done and sleeping dogs<br />
had better be left alone. Some grammarians<br />
object to this because it is not in keeping with<br />
the original use <strong>of</strong> the words. But it is in keeping<br />
with modern developments <strong>of</strong> the passive voice<br />
and is thoroughly acceptable English today.<br />
good, bad, and (or or) indifferent. As an allinclusive<br />
term, that is, good, bad, and indiflerent<br />
(i.e., neutral) is a clichC.<br />
goodly. This word means comely, or admirable in<br />
almost any respect. Today it is always used as<br />
an adjective qualifying a noun. For a period it<br />
was also used as an adverb but this is now<br />
obsolete.<br />
Good Samaritan. As a term for anyone distinguished<br />
for his charity, Good Samaritan is<br />
now a clicht. The Good Samaritan is the accepted<br />
designation <strong>of</strong> the “certain Samaritan”<br />
who in the parable (Luke 10:30-35) succored<br />
the man who had fallen among thieves, but it is<br />
interesting that nowhere in the Bible is he called<br />
the Good Samaritan.<br />
good will; goodwill. Though the distinction is not<br />
rigidly observed, good will is usually employed<br />
to denote a friendly disposition or benevolence<br />
(He has shown his good will towards me in<br />
many ways) and goodwill or good-will to denote<br />
the asset arising from the reputation <strong>of</strong> a business<br />
and its relations with its customers apart<br />
from the value <strong>of</strong> its stock.<br />
goody. A shortened form <strong>of</strong> goodwife, goody was<br />
formerly applied to an elderly woman <strong>of</strong> humble<br />
station (as in Wordsworth’s poem “Goody<br />
Blake and Harry Gill”). Swinburne’s referenck<br />
to Jane Welsh Carlvle as Carlvle’s “Goodv” was<br />
malicious but cleve; since Cariyle made sd much<br />
<strong>of</strong> his peasant origin. The word is now archaic
except at Harvard University where it is applied<br />
to the women who look after the students’<br />
rooms.<br />
goose. The plural is geese. The plural is still geese<br />
even when the word is qualified in some way,<br />
as in a flock <strong>of</strong> wild geese. The singular form<br />
goose is used as a mass word when speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
these birds as food, as in goose is expensive this<br />
year. We may also speak <strong>of</strong> hunting wild goose,<br />
but this is not a true plural and five wild goose<br />
is not standard English. A mongoose, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
is not a goose, and this word has a regular plural<br />
mongooses. The plural <strong>of</strong> the tailor’s goose and<br />
<strong>of</strong> the improper gesture is gooses.<br />
gopher. In the western United States the word<br />
gopher designates a number <strong>of</strong> closely related<br />
burrowing rodents, constituting the genera<br />
Geomys, Thomorny.r, and allied genera <strong>of</strong> the<br />
family Geomyidae. Some <strong>of</strong> these same animals<br />
are also found in southeastern United States,<br />
east to Georgia. But here they are called salamanders.<br />
In the prairie regions the word gopher<br />
is applied to numerous small ground squirrels,<br />
the spermophiles. Along the Gulf coast a gopher<br />
is a burrowing land tortoise (Gopheras polypkemus)<br />
and in the West and Southwest the<br />
name is also applied to the gopher snake (Drymarckon<br />
corais couperi). All <strong>of</strong> these applications<br />
stem from the French gaufre, meaning<br />
waffle or honeycomb, because each <strong>of</strong> the<br />
creatures honeycombs the ground with its<br />
burrowings.<br />
Gordian knot, to cut the. Gordius, king <strong>of</strong><br />
Phrygia, had connected the pole <strong>of</strong> a chariot<br />
with the yoke by a thong which was tied in an<br />
intricate knot. An oracle had declared that whoever<br />
untied this knot would become ruler <strong>of</strong><br />
all Asia. When Alexander the Great came to<br />
Gordium and found himself unable to untie the<br />
knot, he cut it with one blow <strong>of</strong> his sword.<br />
Hence to cut the Gordian knot has become a<br />
term for solving a perplexing difficulty by one<br />
bold stroke. But the picturesqueness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phrase or, perhaps, its flattering assumption that<br />
all who proceed rashly are Alexanders, has led<br />
to its being overworked.<br />
gorilla. See guerrilla.<br />
got. See get.<br />
gotten. See get.<br />
gourmand; gourmet; glutton. Gorrrmand and<br />
gourmet are both used to designate one who is<br />
fond <strong>of</strong> good eating and prides himself on his<br />
knowledee <strong>of</strong> the delicacies <strong>of</strong> the table. But<br />
gourmand is more <strong>of</strong>ten used in a disparaging<br />
sense for a glutton. The gourmet is more a connoisseur,<br />
a theoretician; the gourmand is more<br />
<strong>of</strong> a doer, a hearty eater <strong>of</strong> good things. A<br />
glutton is one who eats to excess and <strong>of</strong>ten with<br />
little delicacy <strong>of</strong> choice.<br />
government agencies, abbreviations <strong>of</strong> titles <strong>of</strong>.<br />
See abbreviations.<br />
grab bag. As a term for a receptacle from which<br />
one draws without knowing what he is getting,<br />
grab bag is an Americanism (There is not a<br />
line <strong>of</strong> this treaty hat does not suggest the outworn,<br />
discredited grab-bug diplomacy that<br />
caused this war). The English equivalent is<br />
lucky dip.<br />
graces. The use <strong>of</strong> the plural form <strong>of</strong> this word to<br />
mean favor, as in in her good graces, is a French<br />
idiom which has become standard English. At<br />
one time the singular was used here, as in in<br />
her good grace, but this construction is now<br />
obsolete.<br />
grade has a number <strong>of</strong> meanings in America that<br />
are not recognized in England. Thus our grude<br />
crossing is in England called a level crossing and<br />
the grade <strong>of</strong> our streets is there a gradient. Our<br />
grades, grade schools, grade-school pupils and<br />
grade-school teachers are unknown in England,<br />
where the classes below the high-school level<br />
are known as standards, The English grade eggs<br />
and other produce but not examination papers<br />
or people.<br />
graduate from. He graduated from college is<br />
better English than he was graduated from college.<br />
The first is the form used in most colleges<br />
today and was the only form heard in the<br />
United States until thirty or forty years ago, as<br />
in Admiral Peary graduated from Bowdoin in<br />
1877. It is still the only form heard in Great<br />
Britain.<br />
Whoever first thought that this expression<br />
ought to have a passive form had obviously not<br />
thought very much about the English language.<br />
We say the boat npset, the door closed, the hut<br />
b!ew away, the coat currgkt on a nail. the goods<br />
sold quickly, and so on indefinitely. In each case<br />
the verb is understood in a passive sense and we<br />
could say the boat was upset, the door was<br />
closed, and so on. The fact is that English has<br />
two ways <strong>of</strong> expressing a passive idea. One<br />
form, tke boat was upset, always suggests an<br />
agent. The other, the boat upset, is used when<br />
the fact that there was an agent is uninteresting.<br />
Most young people, and their families, feel that<br />
the college authorities can be forgotten in speaking<br />
about the fact <strong>of</strong> graduation.<br />
One may say he graduated in 1956. But if the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> the institution, or some substitute word,<br />
is used we must say from. He graduated college<br />
is not standard English and is not improved by<br />
being put in the passive, as in he was graduated<br />
college.<br />
grammar is a systematic description <strong>of</strong> the ways<br />
in which words are used in a particular language.<br />
The grammarian groups words that<br />
behave similarly into classes and then draws up<br />
rules stating how each class <strong>of</strong> words behaves.<br />
What classes are set up and how the rules are<br />
phrased is a matter <strong>of</strong> convenience. A grammarian<br />
is free to classify his material in any<br />
way that seems reasonable to him. But he is<br />
never free to say that certain forms <strong>of</strong> speech<br />
are unacceptable merely because there is no<br />
place for them in the system he has designed.<br />
THE CLASSES<br />
Most grammarians are interested in a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> languages. As a rule they set up classes that<br />
are useful in handling many languages but that<br />
may have very little meaning for a particular<br />
language. For example, the distinction between
the dative him and the accusative him is important<br />
in the Indo-European languages generally.<br />
But in a grammar designed solely to<br />
teach English, this distinction does not have to<br />
be made. Similarly, there is an etymological or<br />
historical difference between the Eilglish gerund<br />
in -ing and the participle in -inp. But it is sometimes<br />
impossible to say whether a given word<br />
is a gerund or a participle; for exam,ple, in<br />
journeys erld in lore~~ meeting. For this reason,<br />
some grammarians prefer to handle these forms<br />
together under one name, such as “participle”<br />
or “-ing.”<br />
The familiar terms <strong>of</strong> classical grammar are<br />
defined in this dictionary for the convenience <strong>of</strong><br />
persons who need to use these concepts. But a<br />
much simpler classification, based on the<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> present-day English, is employed in<br />
all the discussions <strong>of</strong> usage.<br />
THE RULES<br />
In order to say how words are used, the<br />
grammarian must examine large quantities <strong>of</strong><br />
spoken and written English. He will find some<br />
constructions used so consistently that the<br />
exceptions have to be classed as errors. But he<br />
will also find competing, and even contradictory,<br />
constructions, which appear too <strong>of</strong>ten to be<br />
called mistakes. He must then see whether one<br />
<strong>of</strong> these expressions is used by one kind <strong>of</strong><br />
person and not by another or in one kind <strong>of</strong><br />
situation and not in another. If he can find no<br />
difference <strong>of</strong> this sort he accepts the two constructions<br />
as interchangeable. In this way he<br />
assembles a body <strong>of</strong> information on how English<br />
words are used that may also show differences,<br />
such as those between one locality and another,<br />
or between spoken and written English, or<br />
between literary and illiterate speech. Studies <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind are called “scientific” or “descriptive”<br />
grammars. This is a relatively new approach<br />
to the problems <strong>of</strong> language and the information<br />
brought to light in this way is sometimes surprising.<br />
The first English grammarians, wriiing in the<br />
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, did not<br />
attempt to describe the English <strong>of</strong> their day.<br />
On the contrary, they were attempting to<br />
“improve” English and they demanded Latin<br />
constructions which were not characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
English. They objected to the expression I a/n<br />
mistaken, because if translated into Latin this<br />
would mean I am misunderstood. They claimed<br />
that unloose must mean tie, because WI is a<br />
Latin negative. They objected to the “double<br />
negative” which was good Old English, and also<br />
good Greek, but not good Latin.<br />
These eighteenth century rules <strong>of</strong> prescriptive<br />
grammar have been repeated in school books<br />
for two hundred years. They are the rules for<br />
a curious, Latinized English that has never been<br />
spoken and is seldom used in literature, but that<br />
is now highly respected in some places, principally<br />
in scientific writing. It should be recognized<br />
that these rules were not designed to<br />
“preserve” English, or keep it “pure.” They were<br />
designed to create a language which would be<br />
207 grandiloquent<br />
“better” simply because it was more like Latin.<br />
Dryden, writing in the seventeenth century,<br />
said: “I am <strong>of</strong>ten put to a stand in considering<br />
whether what I write be the idiom <strong>of</strong> the tongue<br />
or false grammar and nonsense, couched beneath<br />
that specious name <strong>of</strong> Anglicism, and<br />
have no other way to clear my doubts but by<br />
translating my English into Latin and thereby<br />
trying what sense the words will bear in a more<br />
stable language.” One result <strong>of</strong> this double translation<br />
was that Dryden went through his earlier<br />
works and rewrote all the sentences that had<br />
originally ended in a preposition or adverb. A<br />
generation later, Swift complained that the<br />
English <strong>of</strong> his day “<strong>of</strong>fends against every part<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar.” Certaicly this is blaming the foot<br />
because it doesn’t fit the shoe!<br />
Because some people would like to write the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> the textbooks, the entries in this<br />
dictionary not only tell what standing a given<br />
construction has in current English but also<br />
explain how the rules <strong>of</strong> the prescriptive grammarian<br />
would apply, wherever the rules and<br />
standard practice differ. But in such cases the<br />
rules are never simpie, and the person who has<br />
to use this type <strong>of</strong> English may feel that it<br />
would be easier to follow Drvden’s examole and<br />
write in Latin first.<br />
THIS BOOK<br />
The grammar entries in this book are designed<br />
for persons who speak standard English<br />
but who may be confused about certain isolated<br />
points. The entries are arrauged so that the<br />
answer to a particular problem can be found<br />
in the least possible time. But anyone who<br />
wishes to make a systematic study <strong>of</strong> English<br />
grammar, using this book, can do so by starting<br />
with the entry parts <strong>of</strong> speech and following the<br />
references to more and more detailed discussions<br />
<strong>of</strong> each concept.<br />
grand with the meaning <strong>of</strong> first-rate, splendid, or<br />
very good (as in We had a grand time. The<br />
n~raeiur wars grclrld 011 the t&e. He’s a grand<br />
fdlow; I krlo~ vo~‘lE like him) is a muchoverworked<br />
word. Grnr~? properly means imposing<br />
in size or appearance, stately, majestic,<br />
dignified, that which impresses upon the mind<br />
a sense <strong>of</strong> grandeur (The view from the north<br />
rim <strong>of</strong> the canyon is trblle-inspiring and grand<br />
beyond imagination. The coronation was a<br />
grcnd spectacle). The word has been so debased<br />
by exaggeration and overuse, however, that it<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten dificult to use it properly. It has become<br />
tinny.<br />
grand finale. As a humorous extension into other<br />
fields, grand finale, drawn from the terminology<br />
<strong>of</strong> concerts, is a clicht.<br />
grandiloquent; magniloquent. To be eloquent is<br />
to have the power <strong>of</strong> fluent, forcible and appropriate<br />
speech (This eloquent little book spoke to<br />
men’s hcnrts and moved them to contrition.<br />
Burke paid eloquent tribute to the memory <strong>of</strong><br />
Pitt. Ibis whole attitltde was eloquent <strong>of</strong> discoz/ragement).<br />
Grandiloquent and magniloquent<br />
are both disparaging terms. They suggest pompous<br />
and bombastic eloquence, unsuitable l<strong>of</strong>ti
grandiose<br />
ness <strong>of</strong> utterance (This miserable mudhole<br />
which he grandiloquently calls “the lake.” It was<br />
absurd to describe so slight a performance in so<br />
magniloquent a manner).<br />
grandiose can be used favorably to designate something<br />
which produces an effect <strong>of</strong> grandeur.<br />
Thus Emerson speaks approvingly <strong>of</strong> Carlyle’s<br />
grandiose style. More <strong>of</strong>ten, however, it has a<br />
disparaging sense <strong>of</strong> affected grandeur, pompousness.<br />
Augustine Birrell thought Milton our<br />
grandest author, Gibbon our most grandiose.<br />
Grandiose is confined almost entirely to matters<br />
<strong>of</strong> style.<br />
grateful; gratified. Grateful is an adjective meaning<br />
warmly appreciative <strong>of</strong> kindness or benefits<br />
(I am grateful for your assistance at a time<br />
when I know you have so much to do), actuated<br />
by or betokening gratitude (In a delicate and<br />
grateful speech he acknowledged his indebtedness<br />
to his old master) or pleasing to the mind<br />
and senses (Then in Oblivion’s grateful cup/<br />
I drown the galling sneer. The grateful shade<br />
that cools the laborer’s brow). This last sense is<br />
restricted to things and is a bookish word. It<br />
<strong>of</strong>fers a convenient riming antithesis to hateful.<br />
Gratified is the past tense <strong>of</strong> the verb to<br />
gratify, to give pleasure by satisfying desires or<br />
humoring inclinations (The old man was gratified<br />
beyond words at this unexpected compliment),<br />
to satisfy or indulge (He gratified his<br />
appetite to the full).<br />
gravamen. See onus.<br />
grave (verb). The past tense is graved. The participle<br />
is graven or graved. The participle graven<br />
is preferred to graved, probably because it is<br />
familiar to us in graven images. But the verb<br />
itself is extremely bookish. In everyday English<br />
we say carve, which is a regular verb with the<br />
past tense and the participle carved. An old<br />
form carven was used by nineteenth century<br />
poets but has not been normal English for four<br />
hundred years. The verb engrave is regular and<br />
has the past tense and participle engraved.<br />
gray; grey. The preferred spelling in America is<br />
gray, in England grey, though both spellings are<br />
used in both countries. Some who seek to create<br />
distinctions have claimed that gray indicates a<br />
darker shade than grey but their claims have<br />
remained unsubstantiated.<br />
Though grayhound is <strong>of</strong>ten seen, greyhound<br />
is definitely to be preferred, since the first syllable<br />
has no reference to color but is probably<br />
the Icelandic grey, dog, bitch.<br />
great. See immense, infinite, large.<br />
Great Britain; the United Kingdom; England.<br />
Since 1707 the term Great Britain has applied<br />
politically to England, Scotland, and Wales. The<br />
United Kinpdom consists <strong>of</strong> Great Britain and<br />
Northern Ireland. Up until 1922 it also included<br />
Eire. England, properly, includes all <strong>of</strong> Great<br />
Britain except Scotland and Wales, but to most<br />
Americans England means Great Britain.<br />
greatly. See materially.<br />
Grecian; Greek. Despite Keats’s “Ode on a<br />
Grecian Urn” and other poetic uses (And saw<br />
the merry Grecian coaster come,/ Freighted<br />
with amber grapes, and Chian wine), Grecian<br />
is now limited to the architecture <strong>of</strong> the ancient<br />
Greeks and to the features conventionalized in<br />
their statues. All else is now Greek.<br />
green-eyed monster. As a term for jealousy, the<br />
green-eyed monster is now a clichk. It is-taken<br />
from Shakespeare’s Othello, from Iago’s speech<br />
in the third act beginning:<br />
0, beware, my lord, <strong>of</strong> jealousy!<br />
It is the green-ey’d monster, which doth mock<br />
The meat it feeds on.<br />
Scholars have expended much ink and some<br />
thought on the passage. Some have insisted that<br />
the monster should have been yellow-ey’d and<br />
that mock should be make. Others have identified<br />
the monster, variously, as a crocodile, a<br />
tiger, a cat, a mouse, and a dragonfly. But when<br />
the dust <strong>of</strong> learned controversy has settled, two<br />
things are plain: although the general meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the passage is clear, its specific meaning<br />
remains uncertain; the phrase has been worn<br />
out by repetition and should be avoided.<br />
green house: greenhouse. A green house is a house<br />
that has been painted green or made <strong>of</strong> green<br />
materials. A greenhouse is a glasshouse for the<br />
cultivation or protection <strong>of</strong> tender plants (Behind<br />
the green house was a greenhouse).<br />
grew. See grow.<br />
grievous error. Grievous meant pressing heavily<br />
upon (grievous taxes and other burdens). It was<br />
commonly applied to sins <strong>of</strong> a grave nature, the<br />
guilt <strong>of</strong> which, presumably, pressed heavily<br />
upon those who had committed them (grievous<br />
crimes and flagitious facts daily committed).<br />
Then it came to mean atrocious, flagrant. And<br />
in this sense transferred to error in the phrase<br />
grievous error which has now become a clich6.<br />
grill. The use <strong>of</strong> grill to mean a severe and persistent<br />
questioning (Grill him! Beat it out <strong>of</strong><br />
him! Make him tell you where he’s hidden that<br />
bloodv poker. The police Frilled the suspect for<br />
twenty-jour hours bit learned nothing),‘a m&aphorical<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> grill in its sense <strong>of</strong> broiling<br />
on a gridiron, is slang.<br />
grin and bear it. The saying used to be to grin<br />
and abide. It was so quoted as a proverb in<br />
1802. It changed to grin and bear it during the<br />
nineteenth century and became a cliche towards<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> the century. One must bear it, but the<br />
grin has long since faded.<br />
grind. The past tense is ground. The participle is<br />
also ground.<br />
grisly; grizzly. That is grisly which is horrible to<br />
behold, gruesome, grim, and ghastly (Look<br />
down and see a grisly sight;/ A vault where the<br />
bodies are buried upright!). That is grizzly<br />
which is gray or grizzled. The term is used especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> hair and carries a suggestion <strong>of</strong><br />
roughness as well as grayness (He had a grizzly,<br />
jagged beard <strong>of</strong> some three weeks growth).<br />
Perhaps by the time one’s hair is gray one no<br />
longer bothers to keep it as sleek as formerly<br />
or perhaps it has grown stiffer with age. The<br />
grizzly bear (Ursus horribilis), so called from<br />
the color <strong>of</strong> its pelt, probably has a great deal<br />
to do with the blending <strong>of</strong> the two words.<br />
grit (pluck). See sand.
grits; groats. In Great Britain gvirs is considered<br />
a dialect form <strong>of</strong> grouts, but in the United States<br />
grits is the standard form and groats is almost<br />
unknown. Groats originally meant coarsely<br />
ground oats but may now be used also <strong>of</strong> other<br />
grains. In the United States grits usually means<br />
coarsely ground corn, or maize, but may also<br />
be used <strong>of</strong> other grains. It is a mass word with<br />
plural form and is always treated as a plural,<br />
as in these grits ore good and have some <strong>of</strong><br />
them. But it is not a true plural and does not<br />
have a singular. We cannot speak <strong>of</strong> many grits<br />
or <strong>of</strong> a grit.<br />
grocery. The use <strong>of</strong> grocery to designate a grocery<br />
store was until very recently universal in America.<br />
It is now being displaced, to a considerable<br />
extent, by the names <strong>of</strong> the great chains <strong>of</strong><br />
grocery stores, “the A & P,” “Kroger’s,”<br />
“National,” and so on. And the use <strong>of</strong> these<br />
has led to designating individual, independently<br />
owned stores by their specific names. Still,<br />
grocery is widely used. In England the term is<br />
the grocer’s, the greengrocer’s, or the grocery<br />
shop.<br />
groin; groyne. In America groin is the spelling<br />
for all uses <strong>of</strong> the word-anatomical, architectural,<br />
and in civil engineering. Groyn and<br />
groyne are recognized, but only as rare variants.<br />
In England groin is the spelling for the anatomical<br />
and architectural senses, but the breakwater<br />
is spelled groyne.<br />
groom. The use <strong>of</strong> grooln for bridegroom (The<br />
groom seemed nervous and kept asking the best<br />
mnn if he was sure that the bride had arrived)<br />
is standard American usage, though in England<br />
bridegroom is invariably used.<br />
As a verb to groom is used in America to<br />
mean to prepare a man for a position, especially<br />
a political position (He was being groomed for<br />
the presidency), probably as an extension <strong>of</strong> the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> a political contest as a race.<br />
gross. When this word means 144, it is a noun. It<br />
cannot stand immediately before another noun,<br />
as the word dozen can, but must be joined to it<br />
by <strong>of</strong>. Gross has the same form in the singular<br />
and the plural, as in a gross <strong>of</strong> eggs and many<br />
gross <strong>of</strong> red buttons.<br />
ground. See grind.<br />
ground; grounds. These words are used in several<br />
senses, all related to the idea <strong>of</strong> bottom or<br />
foundation. The singular form ground is used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the soil or part <strong>of</strong> the surface <strong>of</strong> the<br />
earth. The plural form grounds is used for<br />
decorative ground around a building. It is considered<br />
improper, or pretentious, to call farm<br />
lands grounds. But the plural form may be<br />
used for areas that have some other purpose,<br />
such as fishing grounds, burial grounds, picnic<br />
grounds.<br />
When the word means sediment, it is usually<br />
plural, as in c<strong>of</strong>fee grounds. The singular form<br />
is also used in this sense, as in not a single<br />
ground, but this is very rare.<br />
Either the singular or the plural may be used<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> the basis for an opinion or the<br />
basis <strong>of</strong> a science. A man may have good<br />
ground or good grounds for what he thinks.<br />
There is no difference in meaning. But only the<br />
singular ground can be used to mean a position.<br />
In an argument a man holds his ground, not his<br />
grounds.<br />
ground floor, to be let in on. At first thought,<br />
to be let in on the ground floor is puzzling since,<br />
except under unusual circumstances, this is the<br />
only floor one could be let in on. As an expression<br />
for being granted an interest in some enterprise<br />
on the same terms as those accorded the<br />
original investors, or being admitted to some<br />
enterprise before the general public, it may be,<br />
as Partridge suggests, a metaphor from being<br />
given an <strong>of</strong>fice on the ground floor <strong>of</strong> a new<br />
building. If this is so, it must date back to a<br />
time before elevators were in use when being on<br />
the ground floor was a decided advantage. The<br />
phrase has never been more than a colloquialism<br />
and is already jaded.<br />
group names. Some nouns, such as herd, flock,<br />
crowd, jury, family, nation, are names <strong>of</strong> groups<br />
<strong>of</strong> living things. They have plural forms, such<br />
as herds, juries, nations, which mean more than<br />
one such group. There is nothing unusual about<br />
these plural forms. But words <strong>of</strong> this kind when<br />
used in the singular may be followed by either<br />
a singular or a plural verb. When what is said<br />
applies to the group as a whole, a singular verb<br />
is used, as in my family is a large one and the<br />
jury was out for six hours. When what is being<br />
said applies to the individual members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
group, a plural verb is used, as in my family are<br />
early risers and the jury were unable to agree.<br />
In most cases, only the speaker knows which<br />
form suits his meaning best.<br />
The singular group name with a plural verb<br />
is used in England more <strong>of</strong>ten than it is in this<br />
country. Very few Americans would say the<br />
herd were thirsty. But this is permissible<br />
grammar for anyone who cares to use it. When<br />
the group is made up <strong>of</strong> human beings, the<br />
plural verb is usually preferred, even in this<br />
country. That is, it is more courteous to say the<br />
stuff were willing to work late than to say the<br />
staff was willing to work late.<br />
When the name <strong>of</strong> a group composed <strong>of</strong><br />
human beings is used with a singular verb, it is<br />
referred to as which; when used with a plural<br />
verb, it is referred to as who. Plural qualifiers,<br />
such as these, those, some, many, few, cannot<br />
be used with singular group names. On the other<br />
hand, singular qualifiers, such as this, that, one,<br />
any, each, cannot be used before a plural verb.<br />
But the group may be referred to as it or they,<br />
independently <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> the verb or <strong>of</strong><br />
a qualifying word, as is done in when . . . it<br />
becomes necessary for one people to dissolve<br />
the political bands which have connected them<br />
with another. Here them refers to the grammatically<br />
singular group one people.<br />
Many grammarians who allow both the<br />
singular and the plural construction with singular<br />
group names warn against using both constructions<br />
in the same sentence. This is probably<br />
good advice for a poor writer. But the best<br />
writers shift their form to fit their meaning.<br />
This shifting construction is used by most <strong>of</strong>
grouse 210<br />
the great writers <strong>of</strong> English and is found in such<br />
an impeccable document as the Constitution <strong>of</strong><br />
the United States. Article I, Section 5, <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Constitution reads: Each house shall keep a<br />
fournal <strong>of</strong> its proceedings, and from time to<br />
time publish the same, excepting such parts as<br />
may in their judgment require secrecy. Here<br />
proceedings, which belongs to the house as a<br />
unit, has the singular pronoun its, and judgment,<br />
which belongs only to individual men, has the<br />
plural their. This is not careless writing. Had<br />
the sentence been edited to read in its judgment,<br />
it would not have been as fine prose as it is.<br />
Although a singular group name may be used<br />
with a plural verb, it means the entire group<br />
and not some individuals in the group. It is not<br />
a plural noun and cannot be used with a<br />
numeral. That is, we do not say three jury were<br />
unconvinced. But occasionally a group name is<br />
used in this way so <strong>of</strong>ten that it finally becomes<br />
an accepted plural. This has happened, for<br />
example, with people and clergy. During the<br />
nineteenth century two people and forty clergy<br />
were considered unacceptable expressions, but<br />
they are now thoroughly acceptable. Today we<br />
have a few words, such as staff, which may be<br />
in transition from group names to plurals. We<br />
sometimes hear three staff were willing to work<br />
late. This is not yet standard English and is<br />
<strong>of</strong>fensive to many people.<br />
All group names that may be used with a<br />
numeral are listed in this dictionary as irregular<br />
plurals. Nouns that are <strong>of</strong>ten used in this way,<br />
in violation <strong>of</strong> our present standards, are also<br />
listed. If a group name cannot be found in this<br />
book, it is perfectly regular, that is, the singular<br />
form may be used with a plural verb but not<br />
with a plural qualifier.<br />
Some words that are not actually group names<br />
are used in much the same manner. Although<br />
we might say <strong>of</strong> non-human things fifty percent<br />
was destroyed, in speaking <strong>of</strong> people we would<br />
say fifty percent were illiterate. Here fifty percent<br />
is being treated as if it were a group name.<br />
Adjectives used to indicate a class <strong>of</strong> human<br />
beings, and the names <strong>of</strong> certain animals when<br />
used to represent the entire class, are also<br />
treated as group names and followed by a plural<br />
verb, as in the wise are happy and the sea otter<br />
have disappeared. See adjectives as nouns and<br />
generic nouns.<br />
grouse. The plural is grouse.<br />
grow. The past tense is grew. The participle is<br />
grown. A past tense and participle growed is<br />
heard but is not standard. The arbitrariness <strong>of</strong><br />
what constitutes standard English is seen very<br />
clearly when one compares this verb with crow.<br />
There the form crowed is now standard and<br />
crew, crown are no longer used.<br />
Grow may be used to mean become. In this<br />
sense it may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in he grew<br />
bald. We may even say it grew smaller. When<br />
used in this sense, grow may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in I grew to know them better. It<br />
is sometimes heard with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
and the preposition to, as in I grew to knowing<br />
them better, but this is not standard.<br />
grudge; spite. A grudge is a feeling <strong>of</strong> sullen resentment<br />
by one who suffers a real or fancied<br />
wrong and seeks retribution (He bore a grudge<br />
against his neighbor for many years because the<br />
neighbor once blocked his driveway). A grudge<br />
is usually caused by a trifling wrong. It is not<br />
so deep seated or permanent an enmity and is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten assuaged when the <strong>of</strong>fender has been “paid<br />
back.” Spite is a sharper, more active resentment,<br />
and is as likely to find satisfaction in<br />
mortifying the enemy as in injuring him. It can<br />
range from malice to pique. One who bears a<br />
grudge is likely to have a specific wrong over<br />
which he broods; one who harbors spite is<br />
likely to be more generally hostile. See also<br />
begrudge; malice.<br />
Grundy, Mrs. See gay Lothario.<br />
guarantee; guaranty. Guarantee is correct in all<br />
uses, as a noun and as a verb. Guaranty may be<br />
used for a warrant or p!edge or the act <strong>of</strong> giving<br />
security or, as a verb, to guarantee.<br />
From its sense <strong>of</strong> giving security for the carrying<br />
out <strong>of</strong> assurances, guarantee has come to<br />
mean making certain (The United States guarantees<br />
the territorial integrity <strong>of</strong> the Republic <strong>of</strong><br />
Cuba) or merely stating an opinion with conviction<br />
(I guarantee he’ll agree with us when<br />
he hears what we now know). See also warrant;<br />
warranty.<br />
guard in America has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> one<br />
who guards prisoners in a penal institution<br />
(During Jim Hall’s third term in prison he encountered<br />
a guard that was almost as great a<br />
beast as he). In England the term is warder.<br />
gobernatorial. The Latin gubernare meant to steer<br />
a ship. Hence references to functions or attributes<br />
<strong>of</strong> a governor as gubernatorial belong to<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most ancient, worn, and moldy <strong>of</strong><br />
all metaphors-the ship <strong>of</strong> state. It is an American<br />
word and has a rolling resonance dear to<br />
an older generation <strong>of</strong> political rhetoricians. It<br />
is a safe course to avoid it wherever governor’s<br />
or <strong>of</strong> the government can be used instead.<br />
In the days when a father was facetiously<br />
referred to as “the governor,” gubernatorial was<br />
sometimes substituted for paternal.<br />
guerrilla; gorilla. Guerrilla (also guerilla) means<br />
irregular warfare (He organized u series <strong>of</strong><br />
guerilla raids on and over the border. A sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> guerilla warfare went on constantly between<br />
the farmers and the teamsters. The celebrated<br />
guerilla leader was, in his way, a gallant man).<br />
English writers insist that the word can be used<br />
properly only <strong>of</strong> the warfare itself and that<br />
those who take part in it should be called<br />
guer(r)illeros, but American usage sanctions<br />
guer(r)illa for both the warfare and those who<br />
wage it (He put himself at the head <strong>of</strong> a band<br />
<strong>of</strong> guerillas. Villa’s guerrillas did not deserve<br />
the-name or the treatment <strong>of</strong> soldiers).<br />
Whether the slang word for a gangster’s<br />
slugger is guerrilla or gorilla is uncertain, since<br />
the two words are so <strong>of</strong>ten pronounced alike.<br />
Some scholars are inclined to think that it is
guerrilla, but this is a little fanciful, and if it<br />
ever was it has certainly become gorilla, expressing<br />
not so much the idea <strong>of</strong> an irregular<br />
warrior as <strong>of</strong> a powerful brute.<br />
guess; conjecture; surmise. To guess is to form a<br />
notion or imperfect opinion without certain<br />
knowledge but on the basis <strong>of</strong> probable indications<br />
(By the measure <strong>of</strong> my grief/ I leave thy<br />
greatness to be guessed). In its particular application<br />
to the solving <strong>of</strong> riddles and enigmas, it<br />
means to conjecture correctly (Can you guess<br />
exactly what 1 mean?). It is loosely used to<br />
mean think, suppose, or imagine and this use,<br />
though absurd when applied to a certainty (as<br />
in Well, I’m too tired to get uu, so 1 guess 1’11<br />
just go’ on sitting), is &nctidned by- English<br />
writers from Chaucer to Wordsworth. Chaucer<br />
says that he guessed he never heard sweeter<br />
music than some he alludes to. Shakespeare has<br />
Lord Talbot, in First Henry Sixth, say that he<br />
guesses it would be better for several scaling<br />
parties to assault the walls <strong>of</strong> Orleans separately.<br />
Sheridan uses the word this way and so does<br />
Wordsworth. The point has been labored a little<br />
because this use is frequently regarded as not<br />
standard and among English writers unfamiliar<br />
with their own literature and language condemned<br />
as an “Americanism.” In the United<br />
States guess, in this sense, is supposed to prove<br />
that one comes from north <strong>of</strong> the Potomac. But<br />
it is heard in many parts <strong>of</strong> the country, and is<br />
standard where it is used.<br />
To conjecture is to conclude or suppose from<br />
grounds insufficient to ensure reliability. Conjecture<br />
is from a Latin word meaning “to throw<br />
together” and there is in the word still a sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> a random throw, an arbitrary choice, guided<br />
chiefly by chance, <strong>of</strong> one opinion from many<br />
possible ones (As long as men have liberty to<br />
examine and contradict one another, one may<br />
partly conjecture, by comparing their words, on<br />
which side the truth is like to lie).<br />
Surmise is very close in meaning to conjecture,<br />
but it sometimes carries a connotation <strong>of</strong> suspicion,<br />
though not always unfavorable suspicion<br />
(My surmise, that he was not really an important<br />
military man, proved correct. The neighbors<br />
had long surmised that he was much wealthier<br />
than his shabby appearance and mean way <strong>of</strong><br />
living suggested).<br />
guide, philosopher, and friend. First applied by<br />
Alexander Pope to Henry St. John, Viscount<br />
Bolingbroke, guide, philosopher, and friend has<br />
now become a pompous cliche if used seriously<br />
and a feeble jest if used facetiously.<br />
guimpe. See gimp.<br />
gun. In English usage and in American traditional<br />
usage a gun is any portable firearm except a<br />
pistol or revolver. In current American usage,<br />
however, a gun is <strong>of</strong>ten a pistol or revolver or<br />
automatic (The bulge in the pocket suggested a<br />
gun). An interesting illustration <strong>of</strong> the manner<br />
in which the meaning <strong>of</strong> a word lies in its connotations<br />
is supplied by gunman and rifleman.<br />
Though a man’s a man and a rifle is a gun, a<br />
gunman is a sinister character <strong>of</strong> the underworld<br />
211<br />
and a rifleman is a skilled and honorabIe soldier<br />
or an accomplished sportsman.<br />
guts; pluck. Guts is now a coarse word, the mildest<br />
<strong>of</strong> the four-letter words but outside the<br />
realm <strong>of</strong> polite usage. It once had dignity (the<br />
Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong> quotes from a 14th<br />
century psalter: Clene hert make in me, God,<br />
and trewe,/ And right gaste in mi guttes newe)<br />
but is now, except when used in its literal sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> intestines, by fishmongers and hunters, used<br />
metaphorically for courage and fortitude. Even<br />
so, it is felt to be a strong or manly or deliberately<br />
rough word and is avoided by the refined.<br />
Those who avoid it, however, <strong>of</strong>ten use the<br />
word pluck (more in use among the English<br />
than in America) without knowing that it is an<br />
old word for the viscera <strong>of</strong> an animal.<br />
In American slang guts means impudence<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than courage (He’s got his guts,<br />
coming in here without knocking), though the<br />
two qualities are related. Gut, except when used<br />
anatomically to denote the alimentary canal<br />
between the pylorus and the anus or, as a verb,<br />
to remove the intestines, is a slang word, a<br />
facetious back-formation from guts (as in Z<br />
thought I’d bust a gut laughing at his antics).<br />
See also belly; sand.<br />
guy. Guy Fawkes was the man employed by the<br />
conspirators in the famous English Gunpowder<br />
Plot to blow up King James I and all the memhers<br />
<strong>of</strong> Parliament on November 5, 1605. The<br />
plot was discovered and most <strong>of</strong> those implicated<br />
were apprehended and executed. Fawkes<br />
became a symbol <strong>of</strong> hatred and November the<br />
fifth is still celebrated in England as Guy<br />
Fawkes Day. One <strong>of</strong> the features <strong>of</strong> this day<br />
is the burning <strong>of</strong> an effigy, “the guy,” a<br />
grotesque figure <strong>of</strong> old clothes stuffed with straw<br />
or rags. It is customary for children to drag the<br />
guy around with them for several days before<br />
the fifth, singing songs and demanding coppers.<br />
Hence guy, in England, means anyone SO<br />
grotesque in appearance that he or she might<br />
be compared to one <strong>of</strong> these effigies.<br />
In American usage the noun guy has no sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> disparagement and may derive from a wholly<br />
different word. It simply means man, fellow,<br />
chap-indeed any male who may be spoken <strong>of</strong><br />
without especial respect or reverence. In American<br />
usage a regular guy is a complimentary term,<br />
implying that the one complimented is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the people, in no way blighted by any innate or<br />
acquired excellences. In England the phrase<br />
would mean a veritable freak, an absolute fright,<br />
a truly grotesque person.<br />
The verb to guy, however, has the same meaning<br />
in the United States that it has in Englandto<br />
make fun <strong>of</strong> (His fraternity brothers guyed<br />
him unmercifully about his failure to get a date<br />
with her). The verb is not used excessively but<br />
the noun, though (like the verb) not standard,<br />
must be one <strong>of</strong> the most frequently used words<br />
in America. It is a lazy man’s word, reducing all<br />
adult males to simulacra among whom there<br />
is no need to make any distinction. Thomas<br />
Wolfe, who gloried in words more than almost
gymnasium<br />
any wriier <strong>of</strong> English since the Elizabethan age,<br />
uttered a wild cry <strong>of</strong> anguish, in Of Time and<br />
the River, at the stupefying use <strong>of</strong> this “terrible<br />
gray abortion <strong>of</strong> a word” which even then<br />
studded the speech <strong>of</strong> common men “with the<br />
numberless monotony <strong>of</strong> paving brick.” “Without<br />
it,” he wailed, “they would have been<br />
completely speechless and would have had to<br />
communicate by convulsions <strong>of</strong> their arms and<br />
hands and painful creakings from their tongueless<br />
throats--the word fell upon the spirit <strong>of</strong> the<br />
i&ener with the gray weariness <strong>of</strong> a cold inces-<br />
haberdashery. Among the Canterbury pilgrims<br />
there was a haberdasher. Just suddenly, like<br />
Venus from the sea foam, he appeared fully<br />
formed. But where he came from and whence<br />
he got his name, no one knows. Chaucer apparently<br />
assumed that the word was well known<br />
and does not expatiate upon it. The haberdasher<br />
tells no tale and does not appear after a mention<br />
in the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales. Some<br />
among the learned have connected the word<br />
with the French avoirdupois. Others have connected<br />
it with hapertas, a width <strong>of</strong> cloth. But no<br />
one knows for sure. Even today there is uncertainty.<br />
In England a haberdasher sells what in<br />
the United States would be called notionsthread,<br />
needles, buttons, ribbons, and tape. In<br />
America he sells men’s furnishings-shirts, collars,<br />
ties, hats, gloves, and underwear. Haberdashery<br />
is what a haberdasher sells and the shop<br />
in which he sells it.<br />
habit. See custom.<br />
habitable; inhabitable. Habitable applies chiefly<br />
to buildings or living spaces for human beings<br />
(The house was so overrun with rats as to be no<br />
longer habitable). Inhabitable refers to areas<br />
or countries in which men or animals can establish<br />
settled residence (Crusoe was relieved to<br />
find that the island was inhabitable. All evidence<br />
suggests that life as we know it could not inhabit<br />
any <strong>of</strong> the planets except our own).<br />
The older meaning <strong>of</strong> inhabitable, by the way,<br />
was uninhabitable (Jove has the Realms <strong>of</strong> Earth<br />
in vain / Divided by th’ inhabitable Main. The<br />
land was inhabitable because <strong>of</strong> the sterility and<br />
barrenness there<strong>of</strong>). This meaning is now obsolete,<br />
but it illustrates the pitfalls that await the<br />
unwary reader.<br />
habitual. See usual.<br />
hackneyed. See commonplace.<br />
had. See have.<br />
hail; hale. To hail is to call or shout from a distance<br />
in order to attract attention (I hailed a taxi<br />
and ordered the driver to take me at once to the<br />
airport). To hale is to haul, to pull, draw, constrain<br />
to go along (Witnesses to the accident<br />
212<br />
sant drizzle, it flowed across the spirit like a river<br />
<strong>of</strong> concrete; hope, joy, the power to feel and<br />
think were drowned out under the relentless and<br />
pitiless aridity <strong>of</strong> its flood.”<br />
gymnasium. The plural is gymnasiums or gymnasia.<br />
gypsy; gipsy. The preference in America is for<br />
gypsy. In England it is for gipsy. The word<br />
should be capitalized whenever the people or the<br />
language is &ant (The old Gypsy uttered the<br />
usual gypsy’s warning). The plural is Gypsies or<br />
Gipsies.<br />
hailed a policeman who haled the drunken driver<br />
into court).<br />
To hail from, to come from (Our passengers<br />
hailed from fifteen states), is standard, though<br />
it now has an old-fashioned and slightly rustic<br />
flavor.<br />
hale and hearty. Hale means healthy, vigorous,<br />
robust. By usage it has come to be attached to<br />
the old. One never hears a young person, however<br />
healthy, spoken <strong>of</strong> as hale. Hale and hearty<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> those alliterative reduplications which<br />
so easily become clichCs and this one has not<br />
escaped the general fate. Hearty originally meant<br />
courageous and the phrase may once have signified<br />
health in mind and body, but all precise<br />
meaning has long ago been drained out <strong>of</strong> it by<br />
repetition.<br />
half. The plural is usually halves, but halfs is also<br />
used. Half may be treated as a noun or as an<br />
adjective or as a compromise between the two.<br />
It is a noun when it stands alone, as in divide it<br />
in halves, and when it is followed by <strong>of</strong> and another<br />
noun that is qualified by a definitive adjective<br />
(such as a, the, this, my, some) as in half<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world, half <strong>of</strong> my apple. It is an adjective<br />
when it stands immediately before another noun,<br />
as in a half hour, a half apple. When used with<br />
a pronoun, half must always be treated as a<br />
noun and followed by <strong>of</strong>, as in half <strong>of</strong> us, half <strong>of</strong><br />
if. But when used with a noun, this <strong>of</strong> may be<br />
dropped, as in half an apple, half a league onward.<br />
This is an unusual word order, but the<br />
construction has been standard English for at<br />
least a thousand years. As a rule it makes no<br />
difference where the word half stands. Half a<br />
league is a half league.<br />
When used as an adjective, half may qualify<br />
either a singular or a plural noun. Whether a<br />
following verb is singular or plural depends upon<br />
the noun, as in half the apples are bad, half<br />
the apple is bad. The singular form half standing<br />
alone may also be followed by a plural verb<br />
when it refers to a number <strong>of</strong> countable things,<br />
as in half are finished.<br />
Half may be used as an adverb to qualify a
verb or adjective, as in he ha!f finished the work.<br />
It is used in this way in expressions <strong>of</strong> time, such<br />
as at half past five. We may also say one half or<br />
a half in sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind, but the qualifying<br />
word is not necessary and is usually omitted.<br />
One half may be written with or without a hyphen.<br />
7wo halves is not a fraction and should<br />
not bc hyphenated.<br />
half-breed; half-caste. See mulatto.<br />
half the battle. Said <strong>of</strong> something which contributes<br />
largely to success, it is half the battle is<br />
already a clichC, even though the earliest occurrence<br />
<strong>of</strong> the phrase (Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong>)<br />
is 1849, in Captain Marryat’s Valerie (Youth<br />
. . . is more than half the battle).<br />
hallelujah, “praise ye the Lord,” is the preferred<br />
spelling. But halleluiah, alleluia, alleluiah, and<br />
alleluia are also recognized.<br />
halloo. See hello.<br />
halves. See half.<br />
hammer and tongs, to go at something. As a term<br />
for attacking something, usually a piece <strong>of</strong> work<br />
or an argument, with great force and violence<br />
and an attendant clatter, to go at it hammer and<br />
tongs is now a clicht. A term from the smithy<br />
has very little actuality for most English-speaking<br />
people now and is bound to be hollow as<br />
well as worn out.<br />
hamstring. The past tense is hamstringed or hamstrung.<br />
The participle is also hamstringed or<br />
hamstrung. Theoretically this verb, which means<br />
to cut the hamstring, should be formed regularly,<br />
with the past tense and participle hamstringed.<br />
But it has been influenced by the verb string and<br />
the form hamstrung is now generally preferred<br />
to hamstringed. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
hand in glove. To say <strong>of</strong> those in intimate association<br />
that they are hand in glove is to employ<br />
a clichC. The older form was hand and glove and<br />
this makes better sense-i.e., they are as close<br />
as hand and glove. Hand in glove may have been<br />
a confusion <strong>of</strong> hand and glove and hand in hand.<br />
There is a suggestion in hand in glove that the<br />
intimacy is slightly nefarious, conspiratorial, up<br />
to no good.<br />
handicap; hindrance. Handicap is a shortening <strong>of</strong><br />
hand-in-the-cap, an old game <strong>of</strong> wagering and<br />
forfeits in which the contestants put their hands<br />
in a cap and drew out various amounts <strong>of</strong> money.<br />
The game is described unmistakably in Piers<br />
Plowman (1362-1399) under the name <strong>of</strong> Newe<br />
Faire, though the earliest instance <strong>of</strong> handicap<br />
(Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong>) is 1653-a salutary<br />
warning for those who would construct social<br />
history from linguistics or vice versa. From<br />
the game it came to mean some extra weight or<br />
other condition imposed on a superior in an athletic<br />
event to equalize the chances <strong>of</strong> an inferior,<br />
and from that it came to mean any incumbrance<br />
or disability that makes success more difficult.<br />
Thus it is common today to refer to lame children<br />
as handicapped children, though there is no<br />
suggestion (unless a pathetic flattery was originally<br />
intended) that they are necessarily superior<br />
children reduced, by their misfortune, to equality<br />
with other children.<br />
A hindrance is that which obstructs or pre-<br />
213 haply<br />
vents action, an incumbrance, a check, a restraint.<br />
Hindered children would be a more<br />
accurate, if less kind, description <strong>of</strong> those that<br />
are lame. To many employments youth, for<br />
example, is a hindrance; but it is not a handicap.<br />
handle; manage. To handle is primarily, and<br />
plainly, to touch or feel with the hands, to<br />
manipulate (The lieutenant handled the detonator<br />
gingerly). Some purists have maintained<br />
that this is the full scope <strong>of</strong> the word, that it<br />
should be confined to the act <strong>of</strong> touching with<br />
the hands, but language doesn’t accept any such<br />
confines and handle and manage are used interchangeably<br />
to mean the control or influence <strong>of</strong><br />
persons, objects, or operations (He can handle<br />
the most dificult clients or He can manage the<br />
most di#icult clients). Of course where the<br />
meaning is that the hands are used (His ability<br />
to handle the ball soon made him a majorleague<br />
pitcher), handle is preferable. Manage<br />
suggests a less purely physical control or direction<br />
(He manages these afluirs with great<br />
finesse); and where it means, as it increasingly<br />
does, the exercise <strong>of</strong> managerial functions (The<br />
business is well managed and has shown excellent<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>its), handle will not serve as a synonym.<br />
handle with kid gloves. As a term for delicate<br />
treatment or consideration, to handle someone<br />
with kid gloves is now a clich6.<br />
hand-me-downs seem originally to have been cheap<br />
or ready-made garments, something handed<br />
down <strong>of</strong>f the shelf at request instead <strong>of</strong> being<br />
made to measure. The English phrase is reachme-downs.<br />
Today, however, in America, the<br />
phrase means second-hand clothing, something<br />
handed down from the first user.<br />
handwriting on the wall. As a term for a warning<br />
<strong>of</strong> doom, the handwriting on the wall, drawn<br />
from the apparition at Belshazzar’s impious<br />
feast, should be used sparingly.<br />
hang. The past tense is hung or hanged. The participle<br />
is also hung or hanged. At one time these<br />
words were used in a slightly different sense.<br />
One would say we hung the picture but the picture<br />
hanged on the wall. Today hanged is used<br />
only to mean killed by hanging. Some grammarians<br />
believe that the form hanged must always<br />
be used when this is what is meant. But the<br />
form hung is being used more and more in this<br />
sense, as in I have not the least objection in life<br />
to a rogue being hung, and seems to be driving<br />
hanged from the language.<br />
hang on Iike grim death is a clichC.<br />
hangar; hanger. A hangar is a shed or shelter for<br />
aircraft. A hanger is that which or one who<br />
hangs things, as a coathanger, pothanger, or<br />
paperhanger. It is also the name for a light sabre<br />
<strong>of</strong> the 17th and 18th centuries, <strong>of</strong>ten worn at<br />
sea. Gulliver had one.<br />
haply; happily. Haply, now archaic, means by<br />
luck, chance, or accident (Haply some hoaryheaded<br />
swain may say,/ “Oft have we seen<br />
him . . .I’ ). Happily, once the same word as<br />
huply, means by good luck, favorable chance,<br />
or in a pleasurable manner (Happily the bullet<br />
just missed him, The child sang happily in the<br />
swing),
happen 214<br />
happen. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in we happen to like her, or by a clause<br />
when used impersonally, as in it happens we like<br />
her. Huppen is sometimes used as the equivalent<br />
<strong>of</strong> perhaps, as in htrppen you’ll 1iXe her, but this<br />
is not standard now. See transpire.<br />
happening; event; episode; incident; occurrence.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> happening as a verbal noun is unexceptionable<br />
(Its happening when ii did served<br />
to establish the man as a prophet). But its use<br />
as a synonym for event or occurrence (These<br />
are common happenings) has been strongly condemned.<br />
Fowler calls it a “journalistic affectation”<br />
and others have echoed his stricture. But<br />
it has been so used for four centuries and must<br />
be accepted as standard, especially for things<br />
that just happen as against more important occurrences<br />
which are more likely to be described<br />
as events.<br />
Events can be happenings <strong>of</strong> any kind (All<br />
the events that make up an invalid’s trivial day)<br />
but the word usually means an important happening,<br />
especially one that is connected with and<br />
comes out <strong>of</strong> previous happenings (The event<br />
was eagerly awaited. The publication <strong>of</strong> a new<br />
book by Sinclair Lewis was always an event).<br />
An episode is one <strong>of</strong> a progressive series <strong>of</strong> happenings,<br />
frequently distinct from the main course<br />
<strong>of</strong> events and having a continuity and interest<br />
<strong>of</strong> its own (Franklin’s visit to France was a<br />
remarkable episode in a remarkable career). An<br />
incident is a minor happening in connection with<br />
an event or series <strong>of</strong> events <strong>of</strong> greater importance<br />
(There was a delightful incident at Mrs.<br />
Preston’s Christmas party). An occurrence is<br />
simply something that happens, having no connection<br />
with or causation by antecedent happenings<br />
(His being ill at the very time Alexander<br />
died was an occurrence for which Cesare had<br />
made no preparation).<br />
happily. See haply.<br />
happiness; pleasure; felicity; bliss. Happiness and<br />
pleasure both describe satisfaction but they differ<br />
in range and duration. Pleasure describes a<br />
state or feeling <strong>of</strong> satisfaction, usually <strong>of</strong> the<br />
senses, which is <strong>of</strong> fairly brief duration (There<br />
is a pleasure in the pathless woods. A witty answer,<br />
opportunely given, affords great pleasure).<br />
Happiness is a more settled state <strong>of</strong> contentment,<br />
resulting from the attainment <strong>of</strong> what one<br />
considers good. It is a broader term than pleasure<br />
because it includes not merely satisfaction from<br />
sensation but also from ideas <strong>of</strong> well-being and<br />
good fortune (Life, liberty, and the pursuit <strong>of</strong><br />
happiness).<br />
Felicity is a formal word for a state <strong>of</strong> being<br />
happy in a very high degree, intense joy. When<br />
the dying Hamlet besought Horatio to go on<br />
living, saying Absent thee from felicity awhile,<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the word felicity conveyed the Prince’s<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> death as an intense pleasure (or, rather,<br />
by implication, <strong>of</strong> life as something intensely<br />
repugnant). The choice <strong>of</strong> this word might be<br />
said to be felicitous, which also means a happy<br />
knack or choice, hitting the bull’s eye with<br />
more precision than skill alone could ever hope<br />
for. Bacon said that the painter or musician that<br />
excelled did so by a kind <strong>of</strong> felicity and not by<br />
rule.<br />
Bliss is perfect joy, supreme felicity. It is<br />
this that gives Gray’s Where ignorance is bliss, /<br />
‘Tis folly to be wise such force. And since the<br />
supremest <strong>of</strong> all joys, in the Christian conception,<br />
was the state experienced in heaven, bliss<br />
was <strong>of</strong>ten used to describe the heavenly state <strong>of</strong><br />
being (By the hope Z have <strong>of</strong> heavenly bliss).<br />
harangue; tirade. A harangue is a noisy speech,<br />
vulgar and vehement, addressed to a large audience<br />
(These ceaseless harangues were resented<br />
by those in the assembly who desired a more<br />
temperate and injormed discussion <strong>of</strong> the real<br />
issues). A tirade need not be addressed to a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> persons; one auditor will suflice, and<br />
while vulgar and vehement public speeches usually<br />
are attacks on someone or something, a<br />
harangue need not be an attack. It could be an<br />
exhortation. But a tirade is always an outpouring<br />
<strong>of</strong> vituperation or censure (Her table talk<br />
consisted <strong>of</strong> endless tirades against her husband).<br />
harass. See tantalize.<br />
hard and fast line. As an affirmation <strong>of</strong> a fixed<br />
intention, an unshakable resolve, to draw a hard<br />
and fast line is now a clich6.<br />
hard; hardly. Hard is as truly an adverb as it is an<br />
adjective. Sometimes the form hardly is used to<br />
mean difficult, as in his hardly earned reputation.<br />
This is permissible, but it is not an improvement<br />
on hurd. In a construction <strong>of</strong> this kind the<br />
word hard would be clearer, and more literary.<br />
Hardly means scarcely and has the force <strong>of</strong> a<br />
negative. It should not be used in a negative<br />
sentence, such as I haven’t hardly any. But many<br />
people do use it in sentences that aren’t so obviously<br />
negative, as in they left without hardly a<br />
word. Technically, this is a double negative and<br />
should be they left without a word or they left<br />
with hardly a word. See double negatives.<br />
Hardly may be followed by when, but not by<br />
than. One can say he had hardly arrived when<br />
it began to snow, but not he bud hardly arrived<br />
than it began to snow.<br />
hardly, barely, and scarcely all imply that something<br />
was accomplished, and is being accomplished,<br />
or will be accomplished by a narrow<br />
margin. They are sometimes interchangeable,<br />
but hardly usually serves to mark the difficulty<br />
<strong>of</strong> the accomplishment (She could hardly keep<br />
still until he had finished his sentence. We could<br />
hardly get out <strong>of</strong> the house, the snow was so<br />
deep). Barely serves to mark the narrowness <strong>of</strong><br />
the margin. It says the thing just squeaked by<br />
(He barely made the train. It was moving when<br />
he flung himself and his briefcase into the vestibule<br />
<strong>of</strong> the last coach). Scarcely implies a<br />
margin so narrow as to be below satisfactory<br />
performance (You would scarcely believe what<br />
nonsense he talks. The child can scarcely read<br />
a line).<br />
These words are restrictive in meaning and<br />
therefore have the force <strong>of</strong> a negative. When<br />
used with another negative word they may form<br />
a double negative.
harmony; melody. Both words refer to musical<br />
sound, but they differ in that harmony is the<br />
blending <strong>of</strong> simultaneous sounds <strong>of</strong> different<br />
pitch or quality into chords (“Sweet Adoline”<br />
is the most famous product <strong>of</strong> barbershop harmony),<br />
while melody is the rhythmical combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> successive sounds <strong>of</strong> various pitch,<br />
making up the tune or air (With one finger he<br />
picked out the melody on the piano). See also<br />
melody; tune.<br />
hart; stag; buck; hind; doe. A hart is a male <strong>of</strong><br />
the deer, commonly the red deer, after its fifth<br />
year. A stag is an adult male deer. The term is<br />
also applied to the males <strong>of</strong> various other animals.<br />
In colloquial American usage it designates<br />
a man unaccompanied by a woman at a social<br />
gathering or a special party for men unaccompanied<br />
by their wives. It also means a swine<br />
which has been castrated after the maturation <strong>of</strong><br />
the sex organs. There is no known etymological<br />
connection between these last meanings. A buck<br />
is a male <strong>of</strong> the deer, antelope, rabbit, hare,<br />
sheep, or goat. It is applied to the males <strong>of</strong> other<br />
animals. A hind is the female <strong>of</strong> the deer, chiefly<br />
the red deer, especially in and after the third<br />
year. A doe is the female <strong>of</strong> the deer, antelope,<br />
goat, rabbit, and certain other animals.<br />
Harvard accent is a cliche <strong>of</strong> resentment that<br />
mingles malice and ignorance in about equal<br />
proportions. No college in the country draws its<br />
students from as widely divergent regions as<br />
does Harvard and upon none would it be harder<br />
to fix a peculiarity <strong>of</strong> speech. When asked to<br />
demonstrate what they mean, those who employ<br />
the term usually attempt to imitate upper middle-class<br />
English speech or the pronunciation <strong>of</strong><br />
the letter “a” common among the Boston Irish,<br />
a group not marked by any affinity for Harvard.<br />
See also Boston accent.<br />
has. See have.<br />
hate; dislike. Hate suggests intense aversion, abhorrence<br />
(Gr-r-r-there go, my heart’s abhorrence!/<br />
Water your damned flower-pots, do!/ If<br />
hate killed men, Brother Lawrence,/ God’s<br />
blood, would not mine kill you!). Dislike indicates<br />
mild aversion (I dislike having my breakfast<br />
interrupted in this way). The use <strong>of</strong> hate<br />
for every small annoyance is puerile. The consistent<br />
user should consult either a dictionary or<br />
a psychiatrist.<br />
Hate may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I hate to think about it, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in Z hate thinking about it. These forms<br />
are equally acceptable. With dislike the -ing<br />
form is preferred.<br />
hate; abhor; detest; loathe. All <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
suggest strong aversion. Hate, the commonest<br />
<strong>of</strong> the four, the everyday, working word, suggests<br />
strong aversion (I hate to see the evening<br />
sun go down) <strong>of</strong>ten coupled with enmity and<br />
malice (I hate the Moor;/ And it is thought<br />
abroad that ‘twixt my *sheets/ He has done my<br />
<strong>of</strong>ice). Abhor expresses a sense <strong>of</strong> repugnance<br />
bordering upon horror (He so abhorred lying<br />
that he could scarcely be persuaded to remain<br />
in the same room with anyone whom he sus-<br />
petted <strong>of</strong> not telling the truth). Detest expresses<br />
strong antipathy with a considerable element <strong>of</strong><br />
disdain (The man’s combination <strong>of</strong> servilitv and<br />
arrogance, his crawling before hissuperiors and<br />
bullying <strong>of</strong> all under him, is detestable). Loathe<br />
expresses strong dislike and an almost overwhelming<br />
disgust (The greasy, splotched face,<br />
the foul breath, the insolent familiarity, with his<br />
eternal suggestion that we have some guilty<br />
secret in common-Oh, how I loathe the man!).<br />
haughtiness. See pride.<br />
haul. See draw.<br />
have. The past tense is had. The participle is also<br />
had. In the present tense the third person singular<br />
is has. The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> have is possess.<br />
Whenever it is followed by a simple object that<br />
is a noun or pronoun, it has this meaning, as in<br />
they have a nelv car and he hasn’t much to say.<br />
In Great Britain the verb do is not ordinarily<br />
used with have in questions and negative statements<br />
as it is with other verbs. That is, have you<br />
is considered better than do you have and I<br />
haven’t than I don’t have. In the United States<br />
both forms are used but the one with do is preferred.<br />
The word had placed before its subject<br />
indicates a contrary to fact condition, as in had<br />
I the money, I would. . . .<br />
There is not much difference between the<br />
verb have, meaning possess, and the verb get,<br />
meaning acquire, and the two are <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
interchangeably or together for emphasis, as in<br />
I have a cold and I have got a cold. When have<br />
is used as a full verb the word got may be used<br />
with it, as in the examples, but cannot be substituted<br />
for it. See get.<br />
Forms <strong>of</strong> the verb have followed by a past<br />
participle <strong>of</strong> any verb, as in he has left, they had<br />
left, make the perfect tenses <strong>of</strong> the second verb.<br />
(See perfect tenses.) The past perfect tenses<br />
made with had can be used to indicate that a<br />
statement is contrary to fact, as in had he left<br />
earlier, he would have . . . (See subjunctive<br />
mode.) The full verb have also has perfect tense<br />
forms and one can say he has had supper or he<br />
had had supper. But the second element is always<br />
the participle had and never the simple<br />
form have. The form had have is heard frequently<br />
but there is no possible situation in<br />
which this is correct English. It is most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used where would have or simply had is rcquired.<br />
(This is discussed more fully under<br />
subjunctive mode.) The expressions had rather,<br />
had better, are not the same thing. These are<br />
literary English. (See rather.)<br />
Have is also used as a causative auxiliary, that<br />
is, as an auxiliary verb meaning “cause to.”<br />
When used in this way in an active construction<br />
the form <strong>of</strong> have is followed by an object and<br />
the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I had him come.<br />
The second verb may also have an object, as in<br />
I had him paint the house. Causative have may<br />
also be followed by a passive construction.<br />
Here the word be is understood but never used<br />
and the object is followed immediately by a<br />
past participle, as in I had the house painted.<br />
This construction differs from a perfect tense
form, such as I had painted the house, only in<br />
the position <strong>of</strong> the object. In the perfect tenses<br />
the object never stands between the elements <strong>of</strong><br />
the verbal phrase. (Get is also used as a causative.<br />
In the passive construction it is used just as<br />
have is, as in I got fhe house painted. In the<br />
active construction it requires a to-infinitive, as<br />
in I got him to paint the house.)<br />
What looks like an infinitive form <strong>of</strong> this causative<br />
have is <strong>of</strong>ten used without any implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> compulsion on the part <strong>of</strong> the speaker but<br />
almost in the sense <strong>of</strong> “possess,” as in he would<br />
like to have you come and it is heaven upon<br />
earth fo have a man’s mind move in charity,<br />
rest in providence, and turn upon the poles <strong>of</strong><br />
truth. In all <strong>of</strong> its uses as an auxiliary, have<br />
keeps a great deal <strong>of</strong> its primary meaning.<br />
Forms <strong>of</strong> have followed by a to-infinitive<br />
express necessity or constraint, as in we have to<br />
leave. Here have fo is equivalent to must and is<br />
a much more useful verb. Must cannot be used<br />
in past or future tense forms and phrases such<br />
as we had to and we will have to are convenient<br />
substitutes. In this construction have can be used<br />
with forms <strong>of</strong> the verb do, as in we do have to<br />
leave or we did have to leave. Or the word got<br />
may be used to make the statement more emphatic,<br />
as in we’ve got to leave. In you will have<br />
to have some one help you, the first have expresses<br />
necessity. The second have is a causative<br />
attached to the verb help.<br />
Have is sometimes used simply as a substitute<br />
for the passive voice, as in I had my ankle<br />
sprained and I had my house broken into. This<br />
is an ambiguous construction because it has<br />
exactly the form <strong>of</strong> the causative have, and<br />
should be avoided for that reason, at least in<br />
writing.<br />
he. See subjective pronouns and his.<br />
head. When this word is used in counting cattle,<br />
the singular form head is always used after a<br />
numeral, as in forty head <strong>of</strong> cattle. The plural<br />
form heads is used only when there is no<br />
numeral, as in wealth is reckoned by heads <strong>of</strong><br />
cattle. The singular form is, <strong>of</strong> course, used after<br />
the article a, as in not a head <strong>of</strong> cattle.<br />
In the United States, the word cattle is used<br />
as a true plural and no need is felt for the particularizing<br />
word head. Ten thousand cattle<br />
straying is standard English in this country.<br />
head or tail <strong>of</strong>, not able to make. Sometimes it’s<br />
heads or tails, and sometimes it’s unable to<br />
make. The meaning seems to be that that which<br />
does not have a distinguishable head or tail or<br />
whose head cannot be distinguished from its<br />
tail would be difficult to classify.<br />
The phrase itself, however, is not at all hard<br />
to classify. It’s a clicht. It’s been around for<br />
well over two centuries and has been used until<br />
all freshness and original meaning have gone<br />
out <strong>of</strong> it and it deserves to be forgotten.<br />
head over heels. The phrase head over heels<br />
seems to have performed a somersault itself, for<br />
things are not topsy-turvy but in their proper<br />
order when the head is over the heels. Some<br />
tenacious purists insist that the phrase is proper-<br />
ly and logically heels over head, but, knocking<br />
logic heels over head, usage has decreed that it<br />
shall be head over heels. Moreover, the expression<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used in the United States with<br />
no suggestion <strong>of</strong> somersaulting or cartwheeling,<br />
as in he is head over heels in love or he is head<br />
over heels in debt. Admittedly, this makes no<br />
sense. But heels over head makes no sense<br />
either and does not have the advantage <strong>of</strong> being<br />
the familiar idiom. A writer who finds head<br />
over heels troublesome should keep to literary<br />
English and say extremely or very much.<br />
headlines. That a word is used in a special sense<br />
in a headline is no reason for assuming that this<br />
sense is standard for that word. Headlines have<br />
become a language unto themselves, <strong>of</strong>ten incomprehensible<br />
until the article itself has been<br />
read. Any restraint becomes a BAN. Anyone<br />
who is questioned is GRILLED. And all nouns<br />
become adjectives to be agglutinated in any<br />
sequence. MERCURY PLUMMETS may convey<br />
the knowledge that the temperature has<br />
fallen, but it isn’t standard English. And even a<br />
highly literate person would have to be forgiven<br />
for not perceiving that ENVOY CHAT<br />
DRAWS BAN refers to an eccentric who had<br />
been telephoning various ambassadors by long<br />
distance and had finally been ordered to stop<br />
bothering them.<br />
headquarters. As a rule this word is used with a<br />
plural verb, as in his headquarters are in New<br />
York, but it may also be used with a singular<br />
verb, as in his headquarters is in New York.<br />
There is no singular form a headquarter.<br />
healthy; healthful; salutary. Although healthy is<br />
applied especially to that which possesses health<br />
or is characteristic <strong>of</strong> health (The children<br />
looked wonderfully healthy with their bright<br />
eyes and glowing cheeks), it is also applicable to<br />
that which is conducive to health (Wilhelm<br />
found woodchopping a healthy pastime).<br />
Healthful used to mean healthy (Kate was tall<br />
and skinny . . . though perfectly healthful), but<br />
this meaning is now rare and the common usage<br />
confines the word to that which is conducive to<br />
health (He carefully chose a healthful diet).<br />
Salutary means conducive to health, especially<br />
in aiding recovery from sickness or counteracting<br />
some harmful influence (These mineral<br />
waters were thought to be higflly salutary for<br />
those aflicted with phthisic disorders). Salutary<br />
differs from healthy and healthful in having a<br />
wider application. It is applied to anything likely<br />
to bring about a better condition, anything<br />
wholesome or beneficial (He had a salutary<br />
respect for the old man’s temper). Healthy is<br />
coming to be used more and more in this sense,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten humorously (He had a healthy respect for<br />
the old man’s temper. He knew it wouldn’t be<br />
healthy for him fo be found with his hand in the<br />
cash register), but such use is not yet recognized<br />
as standard.<br />
heap. Today, this word is standard English only<br />
when it means a pile. Four hundred years ago<br />
it could be used to mean a multitude, as in the<br />
heaps <strong>of</strong> people thronging in the hall. It is still
used in a derived sense, as in he had (I heap <strong>of</strong><br />
trouble, but this is not now standard. One or<br />
two hundred years ago heap was replaced by<br />
deal as the word meaning a large amount. And<br />
in current English deal is being replaced by lot.<br />
hear. The past tense is heard. The participle is<br />
also heard. When hear is used in an active form<br />
it may be followed by an object and the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I heard him speak, or by<br />
an object and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I<br />
heard him speaking. When hear is used in a<br />
passive form it may be followed by a toinfinitive,<br />
as in he was heard to speak, or by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he was henrd speaking.<br />
When hear is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> “hear <strong>of</strong>” it<br />
may be followed by a clause, as in Z heard that<br />
he spoke.<br />
Hear may be followed by an object and a<br />
past participle with passive meaning (that is, the<br />
be <strong>of</strong> a passive infinitive may be suppressed),<br />
as in Z have heard it told that he is a miser. The<br />
it may be omitted from a sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind,<br />
as in Z have heard said that he is a miser. The<br />
present tense form say, as in I’ve heard say he<br />
is a miser, is not the same construction but is<br />
an accepted idiom. It has probably been formed<br />
from the noun hearsay. Both expressions are<br />
standard English. Hear tell seems to be an effort<br />
to introduce variety into this idiom. It is accepted<br />
spoken English in the United States but<br />
does not now appear in writing. See also listen.<br />
heart. The heart is a tough organ but as a term<br />
for the seat <strong>of</strong> the emotions it has been pretty<br />
well worn out. As an expression for utter devotion,<br />
complete earnestness, absolute sincerity,<br />
heart and soul is now a cliche. No one with any<br />
feeling for freshness in language will refer any<br />
more to hearts <strong>of</strong> gold, or <strong>of</strong> stone, or <strong>of</strong> oak.<br />
Even if he had to refer literally to something<br />
that had an actual heart or center <strong>of</strong> gold or<br />
stone, he would probably use some circumlocution<br />
to avoid the hackneyed phrase. For the<br />
same reason one no longer speaks or writes <strong>of</strong><br />
having a heart in the right place or in one’s<br />
mouth, or <strong>of</strong> having one’s heart bleed for someone.<br />
The discriminating will avoid getting to the<br />
heart <strong>of</strong> the matter.<br />
heathen. When speaking <strong>of</strong> men individually,<br />
heathen is a singular and has a regular plural<br />
in s, as in one heathen and three heathens. The<br />
singular form may also be used as a group<br />
name, meaning all <strong>of</strong> them, in which case it<br />
regularly takes a plural verb, as in the heathen<br />
are hard to persuade. But this is not a true<br />
plural and we do not speak <strong>of</strong> three heathen.<br />
See also agnostic.<br />
heave. The past tense is heaved or hove. The participle<br />
is also heaved or hove. Heaved is the<br />
preferred form in general English, for the past<br />
tense and for the participle, and hove is pretty<br />
much confined to nautical matters. We say the<br />
ship hove in sight and they hove up the anchor,<br />
but other things are usually heaved.<br />
heave a sigh <strong>of</strong> relief. Sighs have been heaved<br />
out <strong>of</strong> pensive bosoms so long and so <strong>of</strong>ten that<br />
the discriminating writer, if he must get a sigh<br />
217 Hebrew<br />
out <strong>of</strong> someone will find some other name for<br />
the portion <strong>of</strong> the anatomy from which it comes<br />
and some other word for its ejection than<br />
heaved.<br />
heaven; heavens. These words can be used interchangeably.<br />
Some grammarians claim that the<br />
plural form heavens always means the sky and<br />
the singular form heaven, the home <strong>of</strong> the blest.<br />
But this distinction is not observed strictly.<br />
Good heavens! does not refer to the atmosphere,<br />
and the New Jerusalem is not intended in sees<br />
in heaven the light <strong>of</strong> London flaring like a<br />
dreary dawn. Heaven (and sometimes heavens)<br />
is also used euphemistically as a term for God<br />
in various emphatic statements and exclamations<br />
(Heaven only knows. For heaven’s sakes).<br />
In this use it is sometimes capitalized, but,<br />
usually, those who feel that it ought to be capitalized<br />
in this sense recognize it as a piece <strong>of</strong><br />
pr<strong>of</strong>anity and prefer not to use it at all.<br />
heavenly. See paradise.<br />
heavy. See weighty.<br />
Hebrew; Israelite; Israeli; Jew; Semite. A Hebrew<br />
is a member <strong>of</strong> that branch <strong>of</strong> the Semitic race<br />
descended from Abraham, an Israelite, a Jew.<br />
Hebrew is a Semitic language, the language <strong>of</strong><br />
the ancient Hebrews, which although not vernacular<br />
after 100 B.C., was retained as the<br />
scholarly and liturgical language <strong>of</strong> Jews and is<br />
now used as the language <strong>of</strong> Israelis. When the<br />
word is used <strong>of</strong> a person in the United States<br />
today it is usually employed as a euphemism to<br />
avoid Jew and while the euphemism is, no<br />
doubt, well intended, it carries to the sensitive<br />
ear the implication that the speaker regards the<br />
word he is seeking to avoid as indecent, shameful,<br />
embarrassing or dangerous.<br />
An Israelite is a descendant <strong>of</strong> Jacob or Israel.<br />
In current American usage the word is confined<br />
to Biblical references. An Zsrueli is a native or<br />
inhabitant <strong>of</strong> the state <strong>of</strong> Israel.<br />
To define the connotations <strong>of</strong> the word Jew<br />
would require many harrowing volumes. It is<br />
the everyday, working word. It is a word <strong>of</strong> incomparable<br />
dignity and immeasurable scorn and<br />
everything in between. It used to be a word <strong>of</strong><br />
great comic range but that, at least, is fading.<br />
Its colloquial uses as an adjective or a verb are<br />
all <strong>of</strong>fensive. The guidance to the “correct” use<br />
<strong>of</strong> the noun does not lie in any dictionary but<br />
in the heart and mind <strong>of</strong> the user.<br />
Semite is properly a linguistic term and means<br />
a member <strong>of</strong> a speech family which comprises<br />
the Hebrews, Arabs, Assyrians, and others. The<br />
noun with its adjective is rarely employed today<br />
except by linguists and anthropologists. The<br />
compound anti-Semitism is, however, widely<br />
used as a term for hostility to Jews. The term is<br />
no longer accepted openly, as it was in France<br />
in the nineteenth century, by those who practice<br />
it, but is used almost exclusively by those who<br />
disapprove <strong>of</strong> it. It is a somewhat scholarly word<br />
and usually describes those attitudes and degrees<br />
<strong>of</strong> hostility that stop short <strong>of</strong> the violence to<br />
which they incite others. The English term lewbaiting<br />
(a closer translation <strong>of</strong> the German
Judenhetze than anti-Semitism) is not much<br />
used in Anierica where, happily, the more<br />
violent expressions <strong>of</strong> hostility to Jews are comparatively<br />
rare. See also Yiddish.<br />
hectic applied originally to the feverish flush<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> consumption (Pale young girls<br />
with hectic cheeks) and although this particular<br />
flush is usually a concomitant <strong>of</strong> weakness and<br />
languor the word got connected with the flush<br />
<strong>of</strong> excitement. When Hazlitt said <strong>of</strong> Shelley that<br />
he had a maggot in his bruin, a hectic flutter in<br />
his speech, he may have been alluding to the<br />
poet’s presumed phthisis but he was probably<br />
alluding to his excitable and impetuous nature.<br />
Certainly the word has come in contemporary<br />
usage to mean, primarily, that which is characterized<br />
by great excitement or passion (The<br />
hectic days <strong>of</strong> the holidays will soon overwhelm<br />
us) and is coming to have-perhaps as a reflection<br />
<strong>of</strong> the increasing average age <strong>of</strong> the<br />
population-more than a tinge <strong>of</strong> suggestion <strong>of</strong><br />
the exhaustion that such excitement entails (We<br />
had a hectic day! I’m worn out. It was simply<br />
hectic! Z just can’t stand any more <strong>of</strong> it). Many<br />
writers have objected strongly to the extension<br />
<strong>of</strong> hectic’s meanings beyond flushed or feverish<br />
but it has been a natural linguistic process<br />
against which it is hard to see how objections<br />
may be sustained.<br />
hedonist; epicurean; epicure. A hedonist is one<br />
who holds that pleasure or happiness is the<br />
highest good and since, whatever our practice,<br />
the pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> such a doctrine is frowned<br />
upon, the word is strongly tinged with disapprobation<br />
and the hedonistic tendencies <strong>of</strong> the age<br />
are much sermoned against. Although Epicurus<br />
taught that the practice <strong>of</strong> virtue was the highest<br />
pleasure, his insistence that the seeking <strong>of</strong><br />
pleasure was the strongest motive force men<br />
have and should be recognized as such has given<br />
his philosophy a bad name. During the ages<br />
when the ascetic virtues were extolled epicureanism<br />
became a synonym for indulgence in sensuous<br />
pleasures and the epicurean today is one<br />
who so indulges. The word is applied esneciallv<br />
to one who indulges luxurious-tastes in eating<br />
and drinking, though epicure, curiously enough,<br />
is not quite so pejorative as epicurean. The<br />
primary meaning <strong>of</strong> epicure today is not so<br />
much one who indulges as one who cultivates a<br />
refined taste.<br />
height is now almost the only form <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
for the state <strong>of</strong> being high. Highth is a recognized<br />
variant and hight is obsolete. Heighth is<br />
simply an error for highth.<br />
heir; heir apparent; heir presumptive. In the<br />
popular conception an heir, and especially an<br />
heiress, is one who expects to inherit---or, as<br />
the trustful masses say, “will” inherit. Legally,<br />
however, an heir is one who has succeeded to<br />
an estate, not one who will inherit but one who<br />
has inherited.<br />
An heir apparent is one whose right is indefeasible<br />
if he survive the ancestor. An heir presumptive<br />
is less secure. If the ancestor should<br />
die immediately, the heir presumptive would<br />
become the heir, but his right to the inheritance<br />
may be defeated by the birth <strong>of</strong> a nearer relative<br />
or some other contingency. In America there is<br />
very little use for these terms, at least in<br />
common speech; but since there is a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> special knowledge in their use, they must be<br />
used correctly.<br />
held. See hoid.<br />
hello; halloo; hollo; holler. As Fowler says, “the<br />
multiplicity <strong>of</strong> forms is bewildering.” In addition<br />
to those given there are also hallo, halloa,<br />
hillo. hillou. h&lo. and hollow. All are exclamations<br />
to attract attkntion (or to urge on the dogs<br />
in hunting) and all are basically the same word,<br />
but usage has restricted certain <strong>of</strong> them to<br />
certain meanings. The common exclamation <strong>of</strong><br />
greeting is hello in America, hullo in England.<br />
Hillo and halloo are hunting cries. Hollow,<br />
hollo, and holler designate a cry with a loud<br />
voice (I hollered but he didn’t seem to hear me),<br />
the last <strong>of</strong> the three being commonly regarded<br />
as dialectal or nonstandard.<br />
helot. A helot was a serf in ancient Sparta, owned<br />
by the state but assigned by lot to a certain landowner.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word as a facetious or<br />
indignant term for workers (The helots who toil<br />
that others may wallow in idleness) is affected.<br />
help. In’ the United States the verb help may be<br />
followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, such as<br />
peel in he helped us peel the onions. A toinfinitive<br />
in this construction, as in he helped us<br />
to peel the onions, is almost never heard. However,<br />
when helped is used in a passive form the<br />
to-infinitive is generally preferred, as in we were<br />
helped to get out. In Great Britain the toinfinitive<br />
is required in both constructions and<br />
the form without to is not considered standard.<br />
In the United States J cannot help but think<br />
is the preferred way <strong>of</strong> expressing this idea.<br />
Grammatically, the construction is as irreproachable<br />
as Z cannot choose but think. But in<br />
Great Britain an -ing form is required after<br />
help, as in Z cannot help thinking, and the form<br />
help but think is considered unacceptable.<br />
British grammarians sometimes claim that the<br />
but in the American construction constitutes a<br />
double negative. They say that help here means<br />
avoid and that the whole expression is equivalent<br />
to Z cannot avoid not to think, which in turn<br />
would mean that the speaker was compelled<br />
not to think. The answer is that help means<br />
avoid in the British idiom but not in the American.<br />
In the American expression help retains<br />
its basic meaning <strong>of</strong> aid or further, and the<br />
statement Z cannot help but think can be properly<br />
paraphrased as Z cannot do (or further) anything<br />
except to think, which <strong>of</strong> course means<br />
that the speaker is compelled to think. as is<br />
intended. -<br />
help; aid; assist; succor. Help is the everyday<br />
word for furnishing another with something he<br />
needs, especially furthering his efforts or relieving<br />
his wants or necessities (Help me, Cassius,<br />
or Z sink. God helps them that help themselves.<br />
But the jingling <strong>of</strong> the guinea helps the hurt that<br />
Honour feels). Aid and assist are more formal
and imply only a furthering or seconding <strong>of</strong><br />
another’s efforts. Aid implies a more active helping<br />
than assist which suggests not only less help<br />
but also less need for help (aided and comforted<br />
the enemy;. . .my wife, without whose assistance<br />
this book would never have been published).<br />
Succor derives from a word meaning to<br />
run under, and there is still in it a sense <strong>of</strong><br />
bringing aid, <strong>of</strong> coming to the relief <strong>of</strong>. This is<br />
especially so in military contexts where beleaguered<br />
cities or isolated detachments <strong>of</strong><br />
troops are succored or succor is brought to<br />
them. Succor is a more emotional word than<br />
help or assisf. It suggests not only aid but comfort.<br />
Except in the military sense, it is, however,<br />
slightly bookish.<br />
help; servant. In the sense <strong>of</strong> a domestic servant<br />
or a farm laborer, help has been used in<br />
America, at least in New England, since earliest<br />
times (James Penn shall have 2Os, to be disposed<br />
among such <strong>of</strong> his servants & helps . . . .<br />
He has always had good help on his farm: he<br />
treats them right. In Indiana and Illinois, where<br />
white servants were employed, they would not<br />
tolerate being called servants. They were known<br />
us “the help”). It is now applied to hired laborers,<br />
especially those whose work does not<br />
require any special skills (Help wanted. He<br />
laid 08 half his help). While servant, as applied<br />
to employment in the service <strong>of</strong> a private individual<br />
or organization, is generally regarded as<br />
an undemocratic word, a person in the government<br />
can be called a servant without <strong>of</strong>fense<br />
(a faithful civil servant).<br />
helping hand. The helping hand, especially when<br />
lent, is a clich6.<br />
helpmate; helpmeet. In the second chapter <strong>of</strong><br />
Genesis, according to the King James version,<br />
God said that it was not good that Adam should<br />
be alone and that He would make him an help<br />
meet for him-that is a helper suitable for him.<br />
Wycliffe had translated the phrase an helper like<br />
hym and Coverdale an helpe, to beare him<br />
company. The Revised Standard Version has a<br />
helper fit for him. In the seventeenth century<br />
help and meet, for some reason, were taken to<br />
be one word and since Adam’s fit helper turned<br />
out to be Eve, his wife, the new compound was<br />
applied to a wife or husband, usually to a wife<br />
(A true helpmeet for him, young, beautiful,<br />
rich, and withal virtuous). In the eighteenth<br />
century meet and mate were <strong>of</strong>ten pronounced<br />
alike (as they are in Ireland today) and the<br />
absurd coinage was soon given a semblance <strong>of</strong><br />
sense by being spelled helpmate, though the<br />
older spelling persisted alongside the new one<br />
and is still in use even today, especially among<br />
those who like to be quaintly learned. Both<br />
words are a little affected and bookish.<br />
hemlock. In England hemlock designates a poisonous<br />
umbelliferous herb, Conicum maculatum<br />
(Round about the caldron go;/ In the poison’d<br />
entrails throw, . . ./ Root <strong>of</strong> hemlock digg’d i<br />
the dark). It also designates a poisonous drink<br />
made from this herb (Socrates drinking the<br />
hemlock,/ And Jesus on the rood). In the<br />
219 herself<br />
United States hemlock chiefly designates an<br />
evergreen tree <strong>of</strong> the genus Tsuga, the hemlock<br />
spruce (This is the forest primeval. The murmuring<br />
pines and the hemlocks,/ . . ./ Stand<br />
like Druids <strong>of</strong> old). The early Americans made<br />
a drink from this spruce which they called hemlock<br />
tea. John Galt in his Lawrie Todd (1830)<br />
refers to it as “a pleasant and salutary drink.”<br />
her; hers. Her is one <strong>of</strong> the objective pronouns.<br />
It is used after a verb or a preposition in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word she, as in have you seen her? and<br />
did you talk with her? (See objective pronouns.)<br />
Her is also used as a possessive in place <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word hers. In this sense, the form her is required<br />
when the word qualifies a following noun, as<br />
in her home, her money, and the form hers is<br />
required in any other construction, as in have<br />
you seen hers? and compare this with hers. Hers<br />
is the form used in a double possessive where<br />
the word is separated from its following noun<br />
by and, as in hers and Sophia’s bedroom. Today,<br />
this construction is generally avoided. We are<br />
more likely to say her bedroom and Sophia’s or<br />
her own and Sophia’s bedroom. Neither word<br />
order shows clearly whether we are talking<br />
about one thing or two, but the old-fashioned<br />
form, hers and Sophia’s, suggests one thing<br />
possessed in common more strongly than the<br />
forms which use her. In current English the<br />
word hers is never written with an apostrophe.<br />
here. The adverb here cannot qualify a following<br />
noun, as in this here pencil, because too many<br />
teacher-hours have been devoted to saying that<br />
it couldn’t. If anyone uses this construction we<br />
know at once that either he never went to school<br />
a day in his life, or he is dangerously selfassertive.<br />
The trouble is not that here repeats the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> this, but that it is an adverb standing in the<br />
adjective position. This player here is the purest<br />
English. A few words that are primarily adverbs<br />
have won the right to stand before a noun, as<br />
in the after life, the above remarks, but here is<br />
not likely to become one <strong>of</strong> them. See hither.<br />
hereabout; hereabouts. These forms are equally<br />
acceptable today, and have been for several<br />
centuries. Some grammarians claim that hereabouts<br />
ought to be the preferred form, because<br />
the word is used to qualify a verb and s is a<br />
formal adverbial ending. But there is no evidence<br />
that it actually is preferred.<br />
hem (pronoun) was once acceptable English, but<br />
it has not been used in the literary language for<br />
three hundred years. The only acceptable form<br />
today is hers.<br />
hernia. The plural is hernias or herniae.<br />
hero. The plural is heroes.<br />
heroics. This word is always treated as a plural<br />
and is usually meant derisively, as in these<br />
heroics are wasted on me. The adjectives heroic<br />
and heroical do not carry this sense but belong<br />
to the solemn word hero. Both forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adjective are acceptable, but heroic is heard<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten.<br />
herself. In Ireland this word is sometimes used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> the word her or she, as in YOII must ask
hesitate 220<br />
herself and herself will tell you. This was once<br />
literary English but is no longer standard in the<br />
United States. For the regular uses <strong>of</strong> herself,<br />
see reflexive pronouns.<br />
hesitate. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he hesitated to tell her. It is sometimes<br />
heard with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he hesitated<br />
telling her. This is not standard English.<br />
hew. The past tense is hewed. The participle is<br />
hewed or hewn. Hewed is the preferred form for<br />
the participle but hewn is still acceptable.<br />
hiatus. The plural is hiatuses or hiatus, not hiati.<br />
hiccup; hiccough. The proper word for the characteristic<br />
sound caused by a quick, involuntary<br />
inspiration’s being suddenly checked by a<br />
closure <strong>of</strong> the glottis is hiccup, one <strong>of</strong> the best<br />
onomatopoeic words in the language. Hiccough<br />
is apparently a euphemism or genteelism in<br />
spelling. The dictionaries accept it as a permissible<br />
variant but, fortunately, it doesn’t seem to<br />
be gaining much ground. The obsolete spellings<br />
<strong>of</strong> hickop and hicket were good. It’s a pity<br />
they’ve been lost.<br />
hide. The past tense is hid. The participle is hidden<br />
or hid. Hidden is the preferred form for the<br />
participle. Hid is also used, as in he had hid the<br />
package, but is considered bookish by some<br />
people.<br />
hide; conceal; secrete. Hide is the everyday working<br />
word (He hid the money under the mattress.<br />
She hid her dismay under an assumption <strong>of</strong> indifference.<br />
The stop light was hidden by an<br />
intervening pole). Concenl is more formal. A<br />
hen would hide her eggs; a man would conceal<br />
his motives. Concealment, however, has become<br />
as much <strong>of</strong> an everyday word as we have for<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> hiding. Hiding is rarely used seriously<br />
to describe the act <strong>of</strong> concealing. To secrete<br />
means to hide carefully in order to keep secret.<br />
It has acquired a faint connotation <strong>of</strong> furtiveness;<br />
a secretive person is not merely reticent,<br />
there is a suggestion <strong>of</strong> something slightly dishonest<br />
about him. This may be due to a vague<br />
confusion with the biological meaning <strong>of</strong> secrete<br />
(really a different word), the separating <strong>of</strong>f, or<br />
preparation from the blood, as in the secretions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the glands. Thus it may be felt that the<br />
secretive man is not merely concealing something,<br />
but internally creating something that<br />
may help him but harm us. See also cache.<br />
hide one’s light under a bushel. As a term, usually<br />
employed ironically, for concealing one’s<br />
merits or talents, to hide one’s light under u<br />
bushel (taken from Matthew 5:15) is now a<br />
cliche. Except in this phrase bushel has not been<br />
used for a bushel basket or container for more<br />
than two hundred years.<br />
high and dry. To say <strong>of</strong> something that has been<br />
abandoned or someone who has been forgotten<br />
or passed over that it or he has been left high<br />
and dry is a cliche. The figure is <strong>of</strong> a ship that<br />
has been beached.<br />
high; highly. When used in its literal, physical<br />
sense high is as truly an adverb as it is an adjective.<br />
We say he jumped high and never he<br />
jumped highly, When used in a derived sense,<br />
high is an adjective and highly an adverb. We<br />
say the table has a high polish and it is highly<br />
polished. See also tall.<br />
high-toned; stylish. High-toned literally applies to<br />
sounds that are high in pitch. Though in<br />
England the term also means having high or<br />
l<strong>of</strong>ty moral principles (In whose high-toned impartial<br />
mind/ Degrees <strong>of</strong> mortal rank and state/<br />
Seem objects <strong>of</strong> indifferent weight--Scott), it is<br />
usually employed in this sense in America contemptuously<br />
or ironically. Wallace Stevens, for<br />
instance, has entitled one <strong>of</strong> his poems “Hightoned<br />
old Christian lady.” A third sense, the one<br />
most frequently intended in America, is stylish,<br />
fashionably elegant (We don’t think there is<br />
any place in Arizona for high-toned fox hunting<br />
-Chicago Sun, Nov. 1, 1946). This sense, however,<br />
is still not so stylish as stylish.<br />
hilarity. See glee.<br />
him. See objective pronouns and his.<br />
himself. In Ireland and Scotland this word is<br />
sometimes used in place <strong>of</strong> the word him or he<br />
(when applied to the head <strong>of</strong> the family), as in<br />
Z see himself coming and himself will soon be<br />
here. This was once literary English but is no<br />
longer standard in the United States. For the<br />
regular uses <strong>of</strong> himself, see reflexive pronouns.<br />
hind. The comparative form is hinder. The superlative<br />
form is hindmost or hindermost. See also<br />
hart.<br />
hinder. The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb following hinder<br />
is usually introduced by from or in, as in hinder<br />
him from going and hinder him in carrying out<br />
his plans. See also prevent.<br />
hindrance. See handicap; obstacle.<br />
hindsight has such a homely, folksy, Anglo-Saxon<br />
ring to it that one would assume that it was the<br />
good old word and retrospection a stilted latinization<br />
dragged in by scholars in recent years.<br />
But the contrary is true. Hindsight was made up<br />
by scholars in the late nineteenth century and<br />
retrospection is <strong>of</strong> respectable antiquity, going<br />
back to the early seventeenth century. As a<br />
contrast to foresight (His hindsight is better<br />
than his foresight), however, especially in such<br />
ironical uses as the wisdom <strong>of</strong> hindsight, the<br />
word has definitely replaced retrospection, but<br />
in almost any other sense <strong>of</strong> looking backwards,<br />
retrospection is preferable.<br />
hippopotamus. The plural is hippopotamuses or<br />
hippopotami.<br />
hire; rent; charter. Hire is the general word, most<br />
commonly applied to paying money for labor<br />
or services (He hired twenty machinists.<br />
McGill’s was not hiring unskilled labor). In<br />
New England hire is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> money<br />
borrowed at interest (They hired the money,<br />
didn’t they?) to distinguish it, apparently, from<br />
money borrowed at no interest from a friend.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> hired man, hired girl, while retained<br />
as a democratic euphemism for servant, seems<br />
to have had its origin in the fact that in colonial<br />
times there was an important distinction between<br />
an indentured servant and a hired servant.<br />
Hire is used also to designate paying for the<br />
temporary use <strong>of</strong> vehicles or buildings (The
school hired an old, dilapidated bus to take the<br />
team about the county. Oh, why don’t you hire<br />
a hall!), but rent is more common in this sense<br />
and better. Rent is usually applied to paying a<br />
set sum once or at regular intervals for the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> a building or personal effects (We rented the<br />
old Coghill property for the winter. You can<br />
rent a tuxedo for five dollars).<br />
Charter used to be confined to paying for the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> a vessel, but it is being used with increasing<br />
frequency to designate the hiring <strong>of</strong> any<br />
conveyance for the use <strong>of</strong> a group (The garden<br />
club found that it was cheaper to charter a bus<br />
and much more convenient). See also employ.<br />
hireling. See venal.<br />
his. In natural English, the words he, him, and<br />
his, always refer to a male. In theoretical<br />
English they can refer to either a male or a<br />
female when the sex is unknown. In 1850, this<br />
theory was recognized in “An Act for shortening<br />
the language used in acts <strong>of</strong> Parliament”<br />
which announced “that in all acts words importing<br />
the masculine gender shall be deemed and<br />
taken to include females, and the singular to<br />
include the plural, and the plural the singular,<br />
unless the contrary as to gender and number is<br />
expressly provided.” But neither this act, nor<br />
all the grammar books in the world can alter<br />
the fact that, if we are told somebody telephoned<br />
while you were out, we say did they<br />
leave a message? In natural English, the words<br />
they, them, their, are used more <strong>of</strong>ten than he,<br />
him, his, in speaking <strong>of</strong> an unknown individual<br />
who may possibly be a woman. His may be<br />
used instead <strong>of</strong> one’s in referring back to the<br />
indefinite pronoun one, as in if one loses his<br />
temper.<br />
hisn. This word was once acceptable English, but<br />
it has not been used in the literary language<br />
for three hundred years. The only acceptable<br />
form today is his.<br />
hisself. This-word is not standard; the only acceptable<br />
form is himself. Hisself is made with the<br />
possessive pronoun in the same way that myself<br />
and yourself are. It has been in use since the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> King Alfred but has been regarded as<br />
bad English for at least five hundred years. A<br />
grammarian writing in 1762 thought that<br />
himself was a corruption and hisself the logically<br />
correct form. But hisself was frowned<br />
upon in 1762 as much as it is today. However,<br />
when another word stands between the<br />
pronoun and the word self, the possessive form<br />
his is required, as in his own sweet self, and the<br />
objective form him is unacceptable.<br />
historic; historical. Though <strong>of</strong>ten used interchangeably,<br />
historic and historical have distinguishable<br />
senses. Historic means well-known<br />
or important in history (The signing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Declaration <strong>of</strong> Independence was a historic<br />
occasion). Historical means relating to or concerned<br />
with history (The historical King Arthur<br />
was a Roman soldier).<br />
hit. The past tense is hit. The participle is also hit.<br />
Verbs <strong>of</strong> this kind show us how well we can get<br />
along without tense inflections and how much<br />
221 hoard<br />
unnecessary trouble we make for ourselves in<br />
preserving such forms as sing, sang, sung, and<br />
lie, lay, lain. This does not mean that any one<br />
can take it on himself to disregard the standard<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> speech. But it does suggest that if the<br />
rules were relaxed a little, language might do<br />
wonders for itself in a few generations and become<br />
a much simpler, and more efficient, tool<br />
than it now is.<br />
hit below the belt. Originally from boxing, to hit<br />
below the belt as a term for taking an unfair<br />
advantage is now a clich6. It should be used<br />
sparingly.<br />
hit the nail on the head. As a term for guessing<br />
correctly, stating something accurately, usually<br />
with an element <strong>of</strong> good luck in so doing, to hit<br />
the nail on the head has been in use for almost<br />
four hundred years. It has become a clichk and<br />
should be allowed a long rest.<br />
hitch your wagon to a star. Though the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
the stimulus <strong>of</strong> an unattainable ideal was in the<br />
phrase when Emerson coined it (Society and<br />
Solitude: Civilization) he had also in mind a<br />
more practical interpretation than is now given<br />
it. Everything good in man, he had said, depends<br />
on what is higher. We can be strong and succeed<br />
only if we borrow “the aid <strong>of</strong> the elements.”<br />
The strong, downward stroke <strong>of</strong> an axe is really<br />
impelled by the force <strong>of</strong> gravity, <strong>of</strong> which the<br />
skillful carpenter is taking advantage. Mills on<br />
the sea shore which are driven by the tides<br />
“engage the assistance <strong>of</strong> the moon, like a hired<br />
hand.” And this is wisdom for a man in every<br />
instance <strong>of</strong> his labor, to hitch his wagon to a<br />
star, and see his chore done by the gods themselves.<br />
As a term merely for being nobly ambitious,<br />
the admonition to hitch your wagon to<br />
a star is now a clichb.<br />
hither; here. As an adverb hither means to or<br />
towards this place. The word is now archaic.<br />
Here has absorbed the meaning <strong>of</strong> hither (Come<br />
here) and has retained its basic senses <strong>of</strong> in this<br />
place (Leave it here), at this point <strong>of</strong> time<br />
(Here he paused and waited for the expected<br />
applause), and at this point in a time sequence<br />
(Here is where we came in).<br />
Hither is one <strong>of</strong> the few adverbs that have<br />
been accepted as adjectives. But it has been<br />
accepted, as in the hither side, the hither shore,<br />
and this use is as respectable as any.<br />
hoard; horde. A hoard is an accumulation <strong>of</strong><br />
something presumably valuable and usually<br />
concealed (A large hoard <strong>of</strong> coins was discovered<br />
beneath the floor boards). A hoard <strong>of</strong><br />
grievances would differ from an accumulation<br />
<strong>of</strong> grievances in that he who held them would<br />
hold them in secret and cherish them. A horde<br />
was originally a tribe <strong>of</strong> Asiatic nomads (They<br />
are divided into three hordes, under the government<br />
<strong>of</strong> a khan). The Golden Horde. for<br />
instance, was the name <strong>of</strong> a particular tribe that<br />
possessed the khanate <strong>of</strong> Kiptchak in central<br />
Asia in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.<br />
The word came to be applied to any nomadic<br />
group and, usually in an uncomplimentary<br />
sense, to a large, unorganized crowd (The horde
Hobson’s 222<br />
<strong>of</strong> Christmas shoppers. A horde <strong>of</strong> ragged,<br />
little boys).<br />
Hobson’s choice, a humorous phrase for no choice<br />
at all, is now a cliche in England but not used<br />
enough in the United States to be regarded<br />
as one here. The phrase derives from Thomas<br />
Hobson (about 1544 to 163 1) , a carrier at<br />
Cambridge who rented horses and compelled<br />
his customers to take the horse he assigned to<br />
them or none at all. It is one <strong>of</strong> the vagaries <strong>of</strong><br />
fame that this obscure man should have lent his<br />
name to a proverb and been the subject <strong>of</strong> two<br />
poems by John Milton.<br />
hodgepodge; hotchpotch; hotchpot. The original<br />
form horchpot is a legal term designating the<br />
bringing together <strong>of</strong> shares or properties in<br />
order to divide them equally, especially when<br />
they are to be divided among the children <strong>of</strong> a<br />
parent dying without a will (With regard to<br />
lands descending in co-parcenary, that it hath<br />
always been, and still is, the common law <strong>of</strong><br />
England, under the name <strong>of</strong> hotchpoti<br />
Blackstone). Hotchpotch. a British variant <strong>of</strong><br />
this form, is a general term to describe a heterogeneous<br />
mixture, an agglomeration, a jumble,<br />
farrago, medley, or gallimaufrey (That ethnological<br />
botch-patch called the Latin race).<br />
Hodgepodge is a variant <strong>of</strong> hotchpotch. Of the<br />
two forms it is now the preferred one in<br />
America. In its use there is <strong>of</strong>ten a suggestion<br />
that the jumbling has been clumsy and inept<br />
(The art collection was a hodgepodge <strong>of</strong> paintings<br />
from many periods and in several styles).<br />
hog. As a standard noun hog means a pig, sow,<br />
or boar, a domestic swine. In England it has<br />
been replaced (except in figurative uses, such<br />
as road hog) by pig. Thus American hogpen is<br />
English pigsty. In colloquial use the word<br />
describes a person having the hoggish attributes<br />
<strong>of</strong> selfishness, gluttony, and, less commonly,<br />
filthiness (He was a hog at the table. He was<br />
a hog and would always shove out in front and<br />
grub what he impudently called “his share”).<br />
In slang usage as a verb, to hog is to take something<br />
selfishly or to take more than one’s share<br />
(So, says I, s’pose somebody has hogged that<br />
bag on the sly?. At the movies he was &ways<br />
the one to hog the popcorn). See also pig.<br />
hoi polloi. These Greek words (hoi, the; polloi,<br />
many) signify the masses, the ordinary people,<br />
The phrase is <strong>of</strong>ten used by those who strain to<br />
be erudite to signify the rabble, the lowest class<br />
<strong>of</strong> people. It is condescending, with a touch <strong>of</strong><br />
the labored jocular. It carries the definite suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> “I, who am so steeped in a classical<br />
education that I speak Greek as naturally as I<br />
do English, etc., etc.” Unfortunately, however,<br />
many who use the term seem to know no Greek<br />
at all, not so much as the definite article, and<br />
in their ignorance prefix a superfluous the (I<br />
read the News to see what the hoi polloi are<br />
doing). It is a good phrase not to use.<br />
hold. The uast tense is held. The narticiule is also<br />
held. When hold is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> believe,<br />
it may be followed by an infinitive, as in we hold<br />
these truths to be self-evident, or by a clause, as<br />
in we hold that they are self-evident.<br />
When hold is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> remain, it<br />
may be followed by an adjective describing the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in the argument holds<br />
good. But when it is used in the sense <strong>of</strong> keep or<br />
grasp, it is qualified by an adverb, as in the glue<br />
holds well.<br />
holding one’s own. As a term for maintaining<br />
one’s position or condition, holding one’s own<br />
is overworked.<br />
hold-up (rob). See steal.<br />
holloa; hollow; holler. See hello.<br />
holocaust; disaster. A holocaust is a Greek word<br />
meaning something which is burnt whole. It was<br />
used for a burnt <strong>of</strong>fering and has come to mean,<br />
especially in journalistic writing, a great or<br />
wholesale destruction <strong>of</strong> life, especially by burning<br />
(Incendiary bombs led to a holocaust in the<br />
slum quarter). Holocaust is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a<br />
synonym for disaster, but there is a difference:<br />
a holocaust may be a disaster, but there are<br />
many kinds <strong>of</strong> disasters which are not holocausts.<br />
Disaster (which means, literally, a bad<br />
configuration <strong>of</strong> the stars, i.e., just bad luck)<br />
designates any unfortunate event, especially a<br />
sudden and great misfortune. A holocaust may<br />
be accidental, but it may also be the result <strong>of</strong><br />
human intention. A flood, a railway wreck, or<br />
the collapse <strong>of</strong> a building may be a disaster, but<br />
none <strong>of</strong> these things is a holocaust.<br />
home. Americans frequently use the noun home<br />
as an adverb showing “place at which,” as in<br />
I will stay home Wednesday. This is standard<br />
English in the United States. It is not standard<br />
in Great Britain and is condemned by many<br />
grammarians who claim that a prepositional<br />
phrase with at is required, as in Z will stay at<br />
home Wednesday.<br />
The most rigid grammarians allow home<br />
without a preposition after verbs <strong>of</strong> motion, as<br />
in I went home (where it shows “place to which”<br />
rather than “place at which”); and after forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb to be when motion is implied, as in<br />
I will be home at five or he must be home by<br />
now. The famous lines, home is the sailor, home<br />
from the sea, and the hunter home from the<br />
hill, are considered formally correct because it<br />
is possible to read motion into is home in this<br />
case, even though it is an epitaph. But the best<br />
will in the world can’t read motion into stay or<br />
remain. With these verbs, therefore, some grammarians<br />
require an at. See also house.<br />
homely. The English have retained the word<br />
homely only in its kinder connotations <strong>of</strong> domestic,<br />
familiar, kindly, plain, unsophisticated<br />
(. . . those plain homely terms that are most<br />
obvious and natural. Yet portion <strong>of</strong> that unknown<br />
plain/ Will Hodge forever be:/ His<br />
homely Northern breast and brain/ Grow to<br />
some Southern free). These meanings would be<br />
understood in America, but the word is restricted<br />
here, especially in its application to<br />
people, to the meaning <strong>of</strong> unattractive. It is<br />
usually a euphemism for ugly (She was the<br />
homeliest woman I have ever seen). The English<br />
are <strong>of</strong>ten disturbed by this American use.<br />
They feel the word has been corrupted. But<br />
Shakespeare so used it (H<strong>of</strong>h homelie age th’
alluring beauty took/ From my poor cheek?)<br />
and so did Milton (It is for homely features to<br />
keep home) and Horace Walpole (She was extremely<br />
deformed and homely).<br />
homicide; murder; manslaughter. Homicide, the<br />
killing <strong>of</strong> one human being by another, includes<br />
murder and manslaughter. Murder is the unlawful<br />
killing <strong>of</strong> another human being with<br />
malice aforethought and manslaughter is the<br />
killing <strong>of</strong> another human being unlawfully but<br />
without malice aforethought.<br />
homonyms. English is rich in homonyms, words<br />
that are similar in sound and, <strong>of</strong>ten, in spelling<br />
but different in meaning. Where the words are<br />
common and the meanings widely different (as<br />
in the bark <strong>of</strong> a dog and the bark <strong>of</strong> a tree)<br />
there is little danger <strong>of</strong> confusion, but when<br />
vanity and the desire to be thought learned lead<br />
a writer or speaker to venture out <strong>of</strong> his depth,<br />
homonyms can cause some preposterous blunders.<br />
Thus when a leading newsmagazine which<br />
prides itself on omniscience informs its readers<br />
that “peasant-born ‘Pace’ Gova” had “scaled<br />
the dizzy dome <strong>of</strong> St. Peter’s in Rome” and<br />
carved his initials “on the lantern that had been<br />
left there by Michaelangelo,” the verb had been<br />
left suggests that the architectural meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
lantern was not known. And when in a later<br />
issue much merriment is made <strong>of</strong> the fact that<br />
President Tyler’s wife at her husband’s inaugural<br />
ball wore “bugles” in her hair, the gaiety implies<br />
that the writer <strong>of</strong> the article was unaware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fact that one <strong>of</strong> the meanings <strong>of</strong> bugle is an<br />
elongated glass bead. Here, as elsewhere, modesty<br />
is a safeguard against being absurd. Where<br />
modesty is lacking, it is well to have a dictionary.<br />
Homonyms, in most instances, derive from<br />
different origins-frequently from different languages-and<br />
the similarity in sound is accidental.<br />
Sometimes they go back to the same source<br />
but have altered in spelling and meaning in<br />
their individual paths through usage; thus plain<br />
and plane are both from Latin planus but plain<br />
detoured thrcugh Old French.<br />
Though homonyms are the cause <strong>of</strong> a great<br />
deal <strong>of</strong> bad spelling, they are worth the cost<br />
because they are also the basis <strong>of</strong> puns.<br />
homosexual. The first element in homosexual is<br />
the Greek homo- meaning the same, not the<br />
Latin homo, man. That is, a homosexual is one<br />
who has sexual feelings, with an impulse towards<br />
genital expression, for a person <strong>of</strong> the<br />
same sex. A homosexual may be either a man<br />
or a woman.<br />
honest; honorable; honesty; honor. An honest<br />
man is candid, just, fair in his dealings, sincere<br />
in his utterances (After my death Z wish no<br />
other herald/ . . . To keep mine honor from<br />
corruption,/ But such an honest chronicler as<br />
Grifith). The honorable man is honest (though<br />
his honor may keep him, like Lancelot, falsely<br />
true), but honor is a more complex thing than<br />
simple honesty. Honesty functions within a system<br />
<strong>of</strong> absolute principles <strong>of</strong> right; honor functions<br />
within a complex system <strong>of</strong> standards <strong>of</strong><br />
conduct <strong>of</strong> what is due to one’s self and to<br />
223 honorarium<br />
others. It is conceivable that a man might be<br />
honest because he felt that honesty is the best<br />
policy. The honorable man would probably find<br />
such motivation unworthy <strong>of</strong> himself. To conform<br />
to a high standard <strong>of</strong> honor is far more<br />
difficult, in that it is far more complex, than to<br />
conform to a high standard <strong>of</strong> honesty.<br />
When honor means privilege, it may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in Z have the honor to<br />
inform you, provided it is being used with the<br />
word have; otherwise, it may be followed by <strong>of</strong><br />
and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z had the<br />
honor <strong>of</strong> informing him.<br />
honorable; honorary. That is honorable which is<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> honor. That is honorary which is conferred<br />
as a mark <strong>of</strong> honor. The English go in<br />
much more than the Americans for honorary<br />
secretaryships and the like. For the sake <strong>of</strong> the<br />
dignity conferred by his name, so-and-so will be<br />
chosen the Honorary Secretary <strong>of</strong> a society, the<br />
actual secretarial duties being performed by a<br />
paid secretary. So-and-so is then usually listed<br />
on programs and announcements <strong>of</strong> the society<br />
as the Hon. Sec. or Hon. Secretary. Americans<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten mistake this for Honorable, a title bestowed<br />
in America on any public <strong>of</strong>ficial. In<br />
England the title <strong>of</strong> Honorable (also abbreviated<br />
to Hon.) is confined to certain <strong>of</strong> the<br />
children <strong>of</strong> peers, maids <strong>of</strong> honor, judges <strong>of</strong> the<br />
High Court, and members <strong>of</strong> various Indian and<br />
Dominion Councils. Right Honorable is reserved<br />
for privy councilors, peers below the rank <strong>of</strong><br />
marquis, certain judges and some lord mayors.<br />
In the United States, the title honorable requires<br />
the article the. It may precede a descriptive<br />
phrase, such as the Honorable Gentleman<br />
from Buncombe, or a full name, as in the Honorable<br />
John Hancock. But it should not stand<br />
immediately before a last name. If the given<br />
name or initials are not used some other title,<br />
such as Dr., or Mr., must take their place, as in<br />
the Honorable Mr. Hancock. When the word is<br />
abbreviated the article the is omitted, as in Hon.<br />
John Hancock.<br />
Honorable is not used without a proper name<br />
as a form <strong>of</strong> address, or in speaking about a<br />
person.<br />
honorarium. The plural is honorariums or honoraria.<br />
honorarium; fee; wages; pay; salary. In former<br />
times it was felt or at least pretended that certain<br />
persons were <strong>of</strong> so exalted a station or<br />
possessed <strong>of</strong> such incomparable skill or knowledge<br />
that no adequate compensation could possibly<br />
be <strong>of</strong>fered them in return for any services<br />
they might perform. A monetary recognition<br />
not <strong>of</strong> the service, but <strong>of</strong> the honor conferred by<br />
their very presence, took the form <strong>of</strong> an honorarium<br />
the amount <strong>of</strong> which-at least in theory<br />
-was determined by the donor. Even late into<br />
the last century, particularly in England, this<br />
applied to unusually great physicians, men who<br />
today would be called specialists or consultants.<br />
The money (always in gold) was never handed<br />
to them directly but discreetly placed on a corner<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mantel and unobtrusively pocketed<br />
by the Great One. Today honorarium is simply
honored 224<br />
a graceful or embarrassed term for a fee smaller<br />
than the speaker would like to accept. It differs<br />
from a fee in that the amount <strong>of</strong> a fee is fixed<br />
by the one who performs the service, the amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> an honorarium by those who receive the<br />
service. Physicians now receive fees. Honorarizlms<br />
are now given almost exclusively to public<br />
speakers who are willing to accept almost anything<br />
they can get and grateful for a word which<br />
permits them to save face and accept less than<br />
they had uneasily demanded.<br />
Wages is used <strong>of</strong> payment to labor, for services,<br />
as by the day or the week. It is the word<br />
for regular payment as viewed from the point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> the payer. The housewife thinks <strong>of</strong><br />
the cook’s wages. The economist, identifying<br />
himself with the employer, speaks <strong>of</strong> wages as<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the costs <strong>of</strong> production. From the point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> the person paid, the common word<br />
today is pay (It’s good pay for the hours you<br />
put in. After all the deductions my week’s pay<br />
isn’t enough for us to live on).<br />
A salary is a fixed compensation paid periodically<br />
for regular work or services, especially for<br />
work other than that <strong>of</strong> a manual, mechanical,<br />
or menial kind.<br />
A lecturer who is not in a position to demand<br />
a definite sum may receive an honorarium.<br />
Clergymen receive honorariums for performing<br />
marriages and <strong>of</strong>ficiating at funerals. Almost all<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional men now receive fees, the amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> which they fix. Wages are paid to domestic<br />
help and to labor in the abstract. The whitecollar<br />
class draws its salary. The working man<br />
gets his pay.<br />
honored in the breach. See more honored in the<br />
breach.<br />
hood. That part <strong>of</strong> an automobile which in America<br />
is called the hood is in England called the<br />
bonnet. That which the English call the hood is,<br />
in convertibles in America, called the top.<br />
ho<strong>of</strong>. The plural is ho<strong>of</strong>s. The old plural hooves is<br />
now used only in poetry.<br />
hook or by crook, by, to accomplish something<br />
one way or another, by fair means or foul, has<br />
lodged in the language, and been there many<br />
centuries, probably because <strong>of</strong> its rime. Its original<br />
meaning has long been lost, though some<br />
have conjectured it goes back to the custom<br />
which permitted peasants to gather as firewood<br />
in the lord’s woods such dead branches as could<br />
be brought down by reaper’s hook or shepherd’s<br />
crook. This, however, fails to account for the<br />
“fair means or foul” implicit in the phrase. The<br />
chances are that they are simply two things that<br />
could be used to snare and draw in something<br />
desired and are joined together by the similarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> their sounds.<br />
hop in the senses <strong>of</strong> catching a train or making a<br />
short journey or an airplane’s flight or a dance<br />
or a dance party is not standard.<br />
hope. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I hope to see him, or by a clause, as in<br />
I hope Z will see him. In the United States, the<br />
clause verb is <strong>of</strong>ten in the present tense when<br />
what is meant is future, as in I hope I see him.<br />
This is standard usage in the United States but<br />
is considered an Americanism in Great Britain.<br />
The plural form <strong>of</strong> the noun, hopes, is sometimes<br />
used where the singular would seem more<br />
appropriate, as in he was past hopes and in<br />
hopes <strong>of</strong> better times. This has been literary<br />
English for three hundred years and more and<br />
is still acceptable. See also anticipate.<br />
hope against hope. It was Abraham, according to<br />
Romans 4: 18, Who against hope believed in<br />
hope, that he might become the father <strong>of</strong> many<br />
nations. Since at the time alluded to Abraham<br />
was a hundred years old and Sarah ninety, and<br />
since it “had ceased to be” with her. “after the<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> women,” his hope was indeed noteworthy.<br />
But the phrase has been overworked<br />
today.<br />
hopeful. See optimistic.<br />
hopeless; desperate. Hopeless means without hope<br />
and implies abandonment to fate (After x-rays<br />
had shown that the liver was involved, the case<br />
was regarded as hopeless. Men have recovered<br />
from maladies which seemed hopeless). Although<br />
desperate means the state <strong>of</strong> having given<br />
up hope, the word in common usage is not quite<br />
as dark as hopeless. It conveys, rather, a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> recklessness resulting from a decrease<br />
in but not a complete loss <strong>of</strong> hope. It may apply<br />
to either feelings or situations (As night approached<br />
for the second time and no search<br />
planes appeared, the men on the raft realized<br />
that their situation was desperate but not hopeless.<br />
Do not drive men to desperation unless<br />
you have the power to crush them, for desperate<br />
men are dangerous).<br />
horde. See board.<br />
horny-banded son <strong>of</strong> the soil (or <strong>of</strong> toil). Any<br />
reference to a farmer as a horny-handed son <strong>of</strong><br />
the soil or to a laborer as a horny-handed son <strong>of</strong><br />
toil is a dreary cliche. If used, as it now usually<br />
is, jocularly, it is a dreary joke.<br />
horrible; awful; dreadful; fearful; terrible; terrific;<br />
tremendous. That is horrible which inspires<br />
horror, a bristling or shuddering fear.<br />
That is awful which inspires awe, a feeling <strong>of</strong><br />
deep solemnity and reverence mixed with fear.<br />
That is dreadful which inspires dread, an oppressive<br />
fear <strong>of</strong> evil to come. That is fearful<br />
which is either full <strong>of</strong> fear or capable <strong>of</strong> instilling<br />
fear. That is terrible or terrific which is<br />
terrifying, which moves us, that is, to an unreasoning,<br />
overmastering, panic fear. And that<br />
is tremendous which makes us tremble with<br />
dread.<br />
Properly used, these are all strong words, <strong>of</strong><br />
great dignity and force. 0 horrible, most horrible!<br />
cries Hamlet when he learns that his<br />
revered father has been murdered by his incestuous<br />
brother. Kipling speaks <strong>of</strong> God’s awful<br />
hand, and Milton <strong>of</strong> His dreadful voice. Blake<br />
is amazed at the fearful symmetry <strong>of</strong> the tiger.<br />
Death, in Paradise Lost, is black : . . as Night,/<br />
Fierce as ten Furies. terrible as Hell. Pave in his<br />
translation <strong>of</strong> the Ihad speaks <strong>of</strong> warriois dressing<br />
their huge limbs In arms terrific and John<br />
Evelyn alludes to the tremendous name <strong>of</strong> God.
Hyperbole is deep rooted in our minds, however.<br />
The usual narratives <strong>of</strong> the common man<br />
rarely have in them anything to compel attention<br />
or elicit admiration and strong words are<br />
used to convey weak facts. Every one <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words has been weakened by indiscriminate use<br />
until now most <strong>of</strong> them are, in popular use,<br />
mere intensives. This is a normal process <strong>of</strong><br />
language and, to some extent, must be allowed.<br />
If a badly confused situation is said to be a horrible<br />
mess, the justification for the adjective is<br />
hard to challenge because there are wide ranges<br />
<strong>of</strong> sensitiveness and one man shudders at what<br />
leaves another unmoved. To a child a building<br />
might seem tremendous which to an adult would<br />
merely seem large. And so on. There is no absolute<br />
guide in words that reflect subjective feelings.<br />
The speaker or writer must decide for<br />
himself just what degree and kind <strong>of</strong> fear he<br />
wishes to describe.<br />
It is plain, however, that beyond a certain<br />
point these words become almost meaningless.<br />
To say, We had a dreadful meal, unless one had<br />
been dining with the Borgias, is to overstate the<br />
case-or, more probably, to avoid the effort <strong>of</strong><br />
selecting from among nauseous, disgusting, illcooked,<br />
scant, tasteless, and so on, a suitable<br />
adjective. To say that a pun or a hat is terrible<br />
is to abdicate all rule over one’s vocabulary.<br />
And certainly these words become absurd<br />
when they are used, as they seem increasingly<br />
to be used, as mere intensives and used before<br />
adjectives whose primary meaning contradicts<br />
theirs. Such expressions-one hears them a<br />
dozen times a day-as “She’s awfully nice,<br />
really, once you get to know her,” “His play’s a<br />
smash hit, a-terrific success,” “It was a tremen-<br />
dous oitv.” “It’s dreadfullv _ good - <strong>of</strong> you,” etc.,<br />
may be used as examples. It may be claimed that<br />
since usage has made them intensives they must<br />
be accepted as intensives, with no more meaning<br />
than very. But they still retain something <strong>of</strong> their<br />
original meaning and many shades <strong>of</strong> other<br />
meanings that have been acquired and these<br />
meanings are likely to intrude and prevent them<br />
from being pure intensives or, as above, suggest<br />
contradictions <strong>of</strong> meaning and so create absurdity.<br />
See intensives.<br />
horse. When used to mean cavalry, this word has<br />
the plural horse, as in there were two hundred<br />
horse.<br />
horse <strong>of</strong> a different color. The origin <strong>of</strong> the expression<br />
But that’s a horse <strong>of</strong> a different color<br />
(or <strong>of</strong> another co/or) is uncertain. The earliest<br />
known allusion to it occurs in Twelfth Night but<br />
it is used there in a way that makes it plain that<br />
it was already an established saying. Some think<br />
it may have had to do with tournaments where<br />
the visored knights would be distinguished by<br />
the color <strong>of</strong> their horses. Some think it may have<br />
to do with the curious white horses which the<br />
Britons or Saxons cut into the chalk downs <strong>of</strong><br />
Southern England and are kept clear <strong>of</strong> overgrowth<br />
to this day. But all is conjecture. What<br />
is sure, however, is that as a term for something<br />
<strong>of</strong> a different nature from what is being con-<br />
225 house<br />
sidered, the expression is now a clichC, to be<br />
used sparingly.<br />
hose. When this word is used to mean a heavy<br />
rubber tube, it may have the plural hoses or<br />
hose, as in three fire hoses or three fire hose.<br />
Both forms are acceptable.<br />
When it is used to mean stockings, the only<br />
plural is hose. In this sense the word originally<br />
meant a pair <strong>of</strong> coverings for the legs and was<br />
commonly treated as a plural, as are trousers,<br />
breeches, pants, and so on. Some <strong>of</strong> this survives<br />
today. We do not ordinarily call a single stocking<br />
a hose but reserve the word for plural uses<br />
such as buying hose and needing hose.<br />
host; hostess. As the correlative <strong>of</strong> guest, host<br />
should be applicable to either a woman or a<br />
man who entertains guests in his or her own<br />
home or elsewhere. But, despite the insistence<br />
<strong>of</strong> some grammarians, usage has restricted host<br />
to a man who so entertains. In the biological<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> an animal that supports a parasite, host<br />
is the term for either male or female. So that if<br />
a woman were afflicted with a tapeworm she<br />
would be its host, but in all more gracious<br />
entertainments she is invariably a hostess.<br />
Although the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> hostess<br />
remains a female host, a woman who entertains<br />
guests (The hostess with the mostes’ on the<br />
ball. Mrs. Pearl Mesta’s career as Washington’s<br />
Number One Hostess was crowned by her appointment<br />
as ambassador to Luxembourg), a<br />
secondary meaning, derived from this one, <strong>of</strong><br />
a woman employed in a restaurant to seat guests<br />
(The hostess is placed in a difficult position in<br />
regard to the other employees who sneer at her<br />
ladylike ways and think she has it “pretty s<strong>of</strong>t”),<br />
has become so common that it may very well<br />
affect the primary meaning. Some <strong>of</strong> the airlines<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficially call the young women who wait on<br />
the passengers hostesses and the name is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
applied, in the papers and by the general public,<br />
to all such young women, though many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lines valiantly struggle to preserve the title <strong>of</strong><br />
stewardess. If the tendency continues-and it<br />
seems probable that it will-then a time may<br />
come when it will seem improper to refer to<br />
someone who has entertained us privately as a<br />
hostess and a new word will have to be found.<br />
Such are the ways <strong>of</strong> language. One <strong>of</strong> the oldest<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> the word, a female innkeeper<br />
(Hostess. my breakfast, come./ 0, I could wish<br />
ihis tavern were m; drum!), has fallen into disuse<br />
in America, though it is still employed<br />
somewhat in England.<br />
hot cakes. See sell like hot cakes.<br />
hot water. To be in hot water is now a cliche for<br />
being in trouble, especially a scrape or some<br />
avoidable, not quite criminal but <strong>of</strong>ten disgraceful,<br />
trouble. It is a very old phrase. A quotation<br />
dated 1537 shows that it formerly meant in a<br />
ferment or in a condition <strong>of</strong> discomfort.<br />
house in American usage most commonly denotes<br />
an ordinary place <strong>of</strong> residence (We sold our<br />
house last year). In the last century many hotels<br />
were called Houses-as Parker House, American<br />
House, and so on. In this use the initial
H was always capitalized. The Palmer House<br />
would be understood to designate a hotel, the<br />
Palmer house the residence <strong>of</strong> a family by the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> Palmer. In English usage House designates<br />
either a large and unusually splendid residence<br />
or an unusually impressive <strong>of</strong>fice building,<br />
as Imperial House. This meaning has been introduced<br />
into America with Lever House in New<br />
York, the <strong>of</strong>fice building <strong>of</strong> Lever Brothers<br />
Company. The English term may have been retamed<br />
to mark the English connections <strong>of</strong> the<br />
firm or merely for its distinction. If it is accepted<br />
-if the American people do not insist, that is,<br />
on calling it “the Lever Building” despite the<br />
company’s desire to have it called Lever House<br />
-the term may spread and be applied to other<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice buildings. See also building; residence.<br />
house; home. Mr. Edgar A. Guest’s insistence<br />
that It takes a heap o’ livin’ and some love to<br />
make a home was, for its time, philologically<br />
correct. But usage and the relentless optimism<br />
<strong>of</strong> real-estate dealers has made home now practically<br />
the equivalent <strong>of</strong> house. The old connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> family ties and domestic comfort<br />
which home carried have been obliterated.<br />
Whole villages <strong>of</strong> homes are now mass-produced<br />
and any fifty by sixty foot lot will do for a<br />
homesite. One may look back longingly to the<br />
day when a home was more than a house and<br />
there is nothing to stop the discriminatingly<br />
sentimental from still preserving the distinction,<br />
but it can no longer be insisted on. See also<br />
residence.<br />
house-cleaning has now a definite idiomatic meaning,<br />
the removal <strong>of</strong> rubbish and dirt from the<br />
interior <strong>of</strong> a house, usually after a considerable<br />
period <strong>of</strong> less thorough cleaning, as in spring<br />
house-cleaning. Cleaning house would convey<br />
much the same meaning and is indeed sometimes<br />
used, but cleaning the house might suggest<br />
cleaning the outside <strong>of</strong> the house, a suggestion<br />
never conveyed by house-cleaning.<br />
housewife. An interesting example <strong>of</strong> the way in<br />
which usage establishes meaning is afforded by<br />
the fact that hussy, or huzzy, an ill-behaved girl<br />
or a worthless woman, is simply a shortened<br />
form <strong>of</strong> an older pronunciation <strong>of</strong> housewife, a<br />
term <strong>of</strong> sedate dignity.<br />
An even more remarkable development is<br />
shown in the words queen and quean. Both<br />
stem from the Anglo-Saxon cwene, woman. The<br />
king’s woman became the Queen. But quean, retained<br />
now chiefly in the Scottish dialect, means<br />
an impudent, bold young woman <strong>of</strong> the lower<br />
classes, <strong>of</strong>ten a prostitute (Draw, Bardolph! Cut<br />
me <strong>of</strong>f the villain’s head. Throw the quean in<br />
the channel. Now Tam, 0 Tam! had they been<br />
queans/ A’ plump and strappin’ in their teens).<br />
From this word (according to Partridge in his<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong> <strong>of</strong> Slang and Unconventional English)<br />
comes the slang use <strong>of</strong> queen to mean<br />
homosexual (They were sweethearts; sure he’s<br />
a queen, didn’t you know that-Hemingway).<br />
This term is not recognized by any <strong>of</strong> the standard<br />
dictionaries but it is in almost universal use<br />
in America.<br />
hove. See heave.<br />
226<br />
how is ordinarily an adverb <strong>of</strong> manner. When<br />
used as an interrogative it always has this meaning<br />
and always stands first in the sentence or<br />
clause, as in how could he laugh?. It may also<br />
be used as an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree. In this sense it<br />
also stands first, but the sentence or clause does<br />
not have the interrogative word order, as in<br />
how he could laugh! How may be used as an<br />
adverbial conjunction, as in he told us how to<br />
make it. It may also be used as a pure conjunction,<br />
without reference to degree or manner,<br />
as in he told us how he had been left an orphan.<br />
This is standard English. But as how used in<br />
the same construction, as in he told us as how<br />
he had been left an orphan, is not standard.<br />
(For how come?, see come.)<br />
however. This word may be used to mean in<br />
whatever manner or to whatever extent. It may<br />
also be used in the sense <strong>of</strong> nevertheless. In<br />
Great Britain it is sometimes used as an interrogative,<br />
with the sense <strong>of</strong> “how?” as in however<br />
did you guess?. This is condemned by most<br />
British grammarians. Howsoever is an archaic<br />
form <strong>of</strong> however. Howsomever is a still older<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the same word and is not standard now.<br />
human. The use <strong>of</strong> human or humans for human<br />
being or human beings is severely condemned by<br />
some authorities and censured in varying degrees<br />
by most. The condemnations run from<br />
“affectation” and “jocularity” to “simply a vulgarism.”<br />
But it is hard to see why. The word was<br />
so used from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries<br />
(No man among men, nor humain among<br />
the humains-1533; Gibbie fell to hugging him<br />
[the dog] as if he had been a human-1879).<br />
The opposition to this use on the ground that<br />
human is an adjective and not a substantive<br />
seems to have developed late in the nineteenth<br />
century and to have been one <strong>of</strong> those schoolmasterish<br />
attempts to impose a spurious logic<br />
on grammar (like the double negative). But<br />
thousands <strong>of</strong> adjectives are used as nouns every<br />
day and made into plurals whenever that seems<br />
suitable (The whites will win unless the blue.7<br />
show more fight than they have shown yet). A<br />
simple word, such as humans, is needed to<br />
relieve men <strong>of</strong> its double duty <strong>of</strong> representing<br />
all human beings and also the males only. It<br />
would have helped the enthusiastic lady who<br />
amused Shelley so much by exclaiming: All, all<br />
are men-women and all!<br />
human and humane were once interchangeable<br />
variants. Shakespeare refers to a human statute<br />
where we would say humane and Pope’s famous<br />
line first appeared as To err is humane, to forgive<br />
Divine. The two words became established<br />
in separate meanings, however. Human now<br />
refers to the good and bad traits <strong>of</strong> mankind<br />
alike (The sweetest thing that ever grew/ Beside<br />
a human door!) with, perhaps, a little more<br />
emphasis on the bad, or at least the weak, than<br />
the good (I’m only human. No, it wasn’t noble,<br />
but it was the human thing to do. Human frailty,<br />
human faults.). Humane is now restricted to<br />
the nobler and especially the gentler aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
man. A humane person is one actuated by benevolence<br />
and pity, especially-in popular usage
-in his treatment <strong>of</strong> animals. This specific<br />
meaning may have been shaped in part bly the<br />
Humane Society (These humane impulses hardly<br />
qualified him to be a success in the stockyards).<br />
In former times humane also suggested<br />
courtesy and refinement and this meaning survives<br />
in the term humane studies applimed to<br />
those studies (<strong>of</strong>ten called the humanities)<br />
which were thought to refine the mind, which<br />
concerned themselves with human rather than<br />
supernatural matters.<br />
humanist. The humanists (sometimes spelled with<br />
a capital H) were Renaissance scholars who<br />
pursued and disseminated the purely human<br />
study <strong>of</strong> the cultures <strong>of</strong> ancient Greece and<br />
Rome. The term is now sometimes applied to<br />
classical scholars or to those who are versed in<br />
the humanities. But since the study <strong>of</strong> thse cultures<br />
<strong>of</strong> ancient Greece and Rome were thought<br />
to weaken one’s faith in Christianity, the term<br />
came to mean free-thinkers, a meaning strengthened<br />
by the adoption <strong>of</strong> the term by those who,<br />
following Comte, have tried to make a religion<br />
<strong>of</strong> humanity and by others who pr<strong>of</strong>ess to be<br />
merely students <strong>of</strong> human affairs. In all, humanist<br />
is about as vaplle and confusing a word as<br />
there is and should be avoided except where the<br />
context makes the particular meaning cle,ar.<br />
humblebee. See bumblebee.<br />
humbleness; humility; humiliation. Humbleness<br />
is the quality or state <strong>of</strong> being low in station,<br />
meek, unpretentious, modest. Humility h:as the<br />
additional suggestion <strong>of</strong> one’s being aware <strong>of</strong><br />
this lowliness and accepting it as right and<br />
proper. We would speak <strong>of</strong> the humbleness <strong>of</strong><br />
a man’s birth or social position, his humility in<br />
cheerfully accepting it. Humbleness is not very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used now but in the commercial exploitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> religiosity humility has become a vogue<br />
word used to such excess that it occasionally<br />
borders on the comic.<br />
If humility is the cheerful acceptance <strong>of</strong><br />
humbleness as proper, humiliation is the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> shame at the lowering <strong>of</strong> one’s dignity or<br />
prestige, an angry and resentful refusal to accept<br />
humbleness as proper or deserved.<br />
humble Die. The learned have insisted that to eat<br />
humble pie, to humiliate and abase onesel!f (To<br />
sue for peace when further resistance becomes<br />
houeless is a kind <strong>of</strong> “humble vie” that fate has<br />
condemned all vanquished nations to swallow<br />
from time immemorial) is derived from umble<br />
or numble pie, pie made <strong>of</strong> the umbles or internal<br />
organs <strong>of</strong> the deer. This, they say, was an<br />
unsavory dish reserved for menials; hence it<br />
would be a humiliation for an upper-claa,s person<br />
to eat it. But the use <strong>of</strong> the term dloesn’t<br />
bear this out. Pepys speaks <strong>of</strong> a hot umble-pie<br />
with apparent approval. Sir Walter Scott calls<br />
the umbles “the best,” and there is a recipe in<br />
the Babees Book cc. 1475) for “a dia,he <strong>of</strong><br />
Umbles” under the ieading <strong>of</strong> “For to sserve a<br />
Lord.” The chances are that the phrase is simply<br />
a pun, the more likely since humble was <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
pronounced ‘umble. Though the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phrase may be uncertain, one thing about it is<br />
certain: it is overworked.<br />
227 humor<br />
humor: wit; irony; sarcasm; satire. Humor is etymologically<br />
akin to humid. It was applied to<br />
certain bodily fluids-especially the famous four<br />
humors, blood, bile, black bile, and phlegmwhose<br />
proper proportions kept the body in “temper.”<br />
Thence it came to mean one’s special condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> mind or mood or disposition, a special<br />
distinguishing caprice, whim or vagary. In this<br />
sense the word was fashionable in Shakespeare’s<br />
time-as, if we may trust Every Man in His<br />
Humour and a score <strong>of</strong> other plays, was the<br />
state or condition it designated. And since<br />
crotchety, whimsical, odd people are <strong>of</strong>ten amusing,<br />
humorous came to describe those who were<br />
ludicrous and those who went out <strong>of</strong> their way<br />
to be ludicrous by exhibiting a facetious turn <strong>of</strong><br />
mind. However humor retained some <strong>of</strong> its older<br />
meaning in such terms as bad humor, an ill<br />
humor, surly humor, or a strange humor. In<br />
contemporary usage humor covers a great deal<br />
that is amusing, but it still has something <strong>of</strong> its<br />
old meaning. It is <strong>of</strong>ten whimsical, deliberately<br />
incongruous and absurd, extravagant and preposterous.<br />
Pudd’nhead Wilson was being humorous<br />
when on hearing a dog howl he said that he<br />
wished he owned half <strong>of</strong> that dog because, if he<br />
did, he’d shoot his half. Chaucer is a humorous<br />
writer and his humor shows in such a statement<br />
as that the Prioress spoke French “after the<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> Stratford atte Bowe” and in the<br />
Monk’s cheerful willingness to “Let Austin have<br />
his swink to him reserved.”<br />
Wit originally meant knowledge, wisdom, intelligence,<br />
judgment, sense, meanings which are<br />
retained in such phrases as at one’s wit’s end,<br />
to live by one’s wits, dull witted, and so on. As<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> humor (in the broadest sense <strong>of</strong><br />
humor as something funny) wit is an intellectual<br />
matter. It is <strong>of</strong>ten spontaneous and consists<br />
in discovering analogies between things really<br />
unlike and expressing these connections in diverting<br />
and amusing ways. Wit startles us. We<br />
may smile at humor, but we will either laugh<br />
or be angry at a piece <strong>of</strong> wit. It was witty <strong>of</strong><br />
Sir Boyle Roche when Curran boasted that he<br />
was the guardian <strong>of</strong> his own honor to congratulate<br />
him upon his sinecure. Wit is aggressive<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten cruel. The common term a stroke<br />
<strong>of</strong> wit is usually justified. He that maketh others<br />
afraid <strong>of</strong> his wit, says Bacon, had need be<br />
afraid <strong>of</strong> others’ memory.<br />
Irony derives from a Greek word meaning a<br />
dissembler. The term was first used in reference<br />
to Socrates who exposed an opponent’s ignorance<br />
by pretending to desire instruction or<br />
information from him. Today the term means a<br />
covert sarcasm, the essential feature <strong>of</strong> which<br />
is the contradiction between the literal and<br />
intended meanings <strong>of</strong> what is said. Thus in<br />
Mac Flecknoe Dryden never ceases praising his<br />
enemy Shadwell, but the praise is all derogatory.<br />
He says that Shadweil was mature in dullness<br />
from his tender years and that while other<br />
minor poets to some faint meaning make pretense,<br />
Shadwell never deviates into sense. The<br />
common phrase the irony <strong>of</strong> fate alludes to an<br />
apparent mockery <strong>of</strong> destiny in circumstances
hundred<br />
in which something turns out the very opposite<br />
<strong>of</strong> what was expected. Thus it is a common<br />
irony <strong>of</strong> fate that rewards and honors passionately<br />
desired when we are young are <strong>of</strong>ten conferred<br />
when we are old and no longer prize<br />
them.<br />
Sarcasm derives from a Greek word meaning<br />
a tearing <strong>of</strong> the flesh, or a biting <strong>of</strong> the lips in<br />
rage. It designates a sneer or a taunt uttered in<br />
contempt or bitterness. It sometimes employs<br />
irony, but when it does so it makes no effort<br />
to conceal the real meaning under the apparent<br />
one. Aren’t you clever! spoken tauntingly after<br />
someone’s blunder or exhibition <strong>of</strong> ignorance<br />
would be a piece <strong>of</strong> sarcasm. Montesquieu was<br />
being sarcastic when he said that it would not<br />
do to suppose that Negroes were men, lest it<br />
should turn out that Whites were not. Sarcasm<br />
is usually violent in its aggressiveness, rough<br />
and brutal in the extreme, the very opposite <strong>of</strong><br />
humor.<br />
Satire is the employment <strong>of</strong> irony, sarcasm,<br />
ridicule, and so on, for the purpose <strong>of</strong> exposing<br />
vice, denouncing folly or indecorum. It differs<br />
from invective in that it remains humorous.<br />
Swift left his fortune to found a lunatic asylum<br />
in Ireland,<br />
To show [he said] by one satiric touch<br />
No nation wanted it so much.<br />
See also burlesque, jocularity.<br />
hundred. This word was originally a noun and<br />
was followed by <strong>of</strong>, as in one hundred <strong>of</strong><br />
leagues. Today the singular form hundred is<br />
treated as a cardinal number. That is, it is<br />
treated as an adjective and used without <strong>of</strong>, as<br />
in three hundred Spartans, except when referring<br />
to part <strong>of</strong> a specified group, as in two hundred<br />
<strong>of</strong> these men. An expression involving<br />
hundred is usually treated as a plural, as in<br />
three hundred men were admitted, but it may<br />
also be treated as a singular, as in two hundred<br />
years is a very long time.<br />
The plural form hundreds cannot be qualified<br />
by a numeral. It is a noun and requires <strong>of</strong> when<br />
followed by the name <strong>of</strong> anything countable,<br />
as in hundreds <strong>of</strong> men; the <strong>of</strong> is omitted only<br />
before a degree word such as more, less, too<br />
many, as in hundreds more men.<br />
Few usually takes the adjective construction,<br />
as in a few hundred men; many usually takes<br />
the noun construction, as in many hundreds <strong>of</strong><br />
men. But either form may be used with either<br />
word.<br />
hundredweight. This word has a regular plural<br />
hundredweights, but only the singular form is<br />
used with a number word, as in a few hundredweight<br />
<strong>of</strong> coal. In Great Britain, a hundredweight<br />
is 112 pounds.<br />
hung. See hang.<br />
hunt. An Englishman hunts foxes, hares, stags<br />
and other wild mammals, but he shoots game<br />
birds. An American hunts birds and beasts<br />
alike. Except by the very few who indulge in<br />
fox hunting, no American refers to a hunting<br />
expedition as a hunt. One who hunts is in<br />
America a hunter, not a huntsman or sports-<br />
man. A hunter in England today is likely to be<br />
a horse especially trained for hunting (He rode<br />
with dash upon a thoroughbred hunter), but it<br />
was not always so (The horn <strong>of</strong> the hunter is<br />
heard on the hill).<br />
hurl; hurdle; hurtle. To hurl is to fling violently<br />
(He hurled the book across the room). To<br />
hurdle is to leap over a barrier or hurdle or,<br />
by extension, to overcome some difficulty that<br />
can be conceived <strong>of</strong> as a hurdle on a racetrack.<br />
To hurtle is to rush violently, to strike<br />
together noisily, to resound noisily, as in collision<br />
(The train hurtled through the station<br />
with a great rushing wind that rattled the windows<br />
and shook the doors and flung cinders<br />
and gravel against the decrepit building). Hurtle<br />
is sometimes used to mean hurl, especially when<br />
the hurling is accompanied by noise, but on<br />
the whole the word is bookish and slightly<br />
archaic.<br />
hurricane. See cyclone.<br />
hurt. The past tense is hurt. The participle is aho<br />
hurt.<br />
husky in the sense <strong>of</strong> burly, sturdy, muscular is<br />
an Americanism (Thirty-eight men he counted,<br />
a wild and huskv crew). It is known in England,<br />
from American- literature and moving pi&u-es;<br />
but not used.<br />
hussy; huzzy. See housewife.<br />
hydrolysis. The plural is hydrolyses.<br />
hymenal; hymeueal; hymenial. Hymenal relates<br />
to the hymen. Hymeneal relates to marriage.<br />
Hymenial relates to the hymenium, the sporebearing<br />
surface in certain fungi.<br />
hyper-; hypo-. The prefix hyper- means over,<br />
above, and hence in excess. An organ which is<br />
hypertrophied has grown larger than its proper<br />
size. One who is hypersensitive is sensitive beyond<br />
the normal. A hyperbole is an exaggeration.<br />
The prefix hypo- means under. A hypodermic<br />
needle goes under the skin or epidermis. A<br />
hypocrite was originally a secondary figure on<br />
the stage. Hypocrisy may thus derive from the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> playing a part like an actor. Or it may<br />
mean one who conceals an evil intention under<br />
a pretense <strong>of</strong> goodness. Shipley thinks it derives<br />
from the fact that the secondary actor served<br />
as what in stage parlance today is called “a<br />
straight man.” That is, he answered back. And<br />
we cannot believe that anyone who answers<br />
back, who maintains an opinion opposed to our<br />
own, is sincere.<br />
hyperbole is the term in rhetoric for obvious<br />
exaggeration. There is no intent to deceive. The<br />
extravagant language is for emphasis only. Ours<br />
is a hyperbolical age. We give a million thanks<br />
for a trifling favor and are forever indebted for<br />
something which we have forgotten before we<br />
have turned the corner. Such a fashion may<br />
sometimes make simple sincerity seem sullen<br />
indifference but more <strong>of</strong>ten it serves by the<br />
force <strong>of</strong> contrast to give plain speech great<br />
weight and effectiveness.<br />
hyphens. Hyphens are sometimes used to indicate<br />
stammering, as in s-s-see, or spelling out, as in<br />
c-a-n-d-y. Their more important uses are to join
words (see compound words, temporary compounds,<br />
prefixes, suffixes), or to break a word<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> a line (see division <strong>of</strong> words).<br />
hypnosis. The plural is hypnoses.<br />
hypnotic. A hypnotic is an agent that prosduces<br />
sleep. This may be a drug, or in the case <strong>of</strong><br />
what is commonly thought <strong>of</strong> as hypnosis, a<br />
spell or influence or suggestion. With the increasing<br />
use in therapy <strong>of</strong> hypnotic states induced<br />
by suggestion and susceptibility, the<br />
adjective will probably continue its trend to<br />
mean solely states so induced. But for the present<br />
the pharmacopoeias use hypnotic to designate<br />
a definite class <strong>of</strong> soporifics and seda.tives.<br />
hypocrite is a term <strong>of</strong> reproach freely bestowed<br />
in popular usage upon almost anyone whose<br />
actions belie his pr<strong>of</strong>essions. But the word<br />
means one who pretends to be what he k:nows<br />
he is not, who for ulterior motives makes an<br />
ostentatious display <strong>of</strong> virtues which he secretly<br />
despises. Such a course <strong>of</strong> action would require<br />
a clarity <strong>of</strong> purpose, strength <strong>of</strong> will and Ihistrionic<br />
skill so far above those possessed lay the<br />
I. If you are in doubt whether to use me or I, the<br />
chances are that me is better. See subjective<br />
pronouns and passive voice.<br />
ibid. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin word<br />
ibidem and means in the same place.<br />
-ic; -ical. These are both adjective endings taken<br />
over from Greek and Latin. Some adjectives,<br />
such as musical and logical, have only the long<br />
form. Some, such as frantic and public, have<br />
only the short form. But a great many have<br />
both. In such cases the form in -ical is likely to<br />
be the older <strong>of</strong> the two. Occasionally, as in<br />
politic and political, the two forms have different<br />
meanings, but as a rule this is not the<br />
case.<br />
A grammarian writing in 1765 said, “-ic is a<br />
foreign, and -ical a domestic termination. The<br />
former therefore is used upon solemn, the latter<br />
upon familiar occasions; as seraphic and seraphical,<br />
microscopic and microscopical. When<br />
the subject then is naturally solemn, the solemn<br />
ending prevails; and where familiar, the familiar.”<br />
This is no longer the situation. A twentieth<br />
century American might say microscopic<br />
at the breakfast table and give it no thought.<br />
Modern British grammarians say that the<br />
form in -ic frequently has the restricted meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> “<strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong>,” and the form in -ical<br />
the wider, or looser, meaning <strong>of</strong> “practically<br />
connected with.” They give as examples a comic<br />
song but a comical incident, a tragic muse but<br />
a tragical fate. In the United States this distinction<br />
is recognized only in the case <strong>of</strong> a few<br />
words. In general, the short form in -ic is pre-<br />
229 -ic<br />
I<br />
ordinary person as to make him who had and<br />
could employ them a rare man. It may be<br />
doubted if outside <strong>of</strong> literature there have been<br />
many true hypocrites. There have, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
been millions <strong>of</strong> muddled people who have<br />
failed to perceive the most glaring opposition<br />
between their ideals and their actions, and the<br />
capacity for combining high principles and low<br />
practices seems illimitable. But the intelligence<br />
and detachment to be aware <strong>of</strong> it and the<br />
strength <strong>of</strong> character to exploit it rarely go with<br />
the almost blindly stupid selfishness that hypocrisy<br />
requires.<br />
hypothesis. The plural is hypotheses.<br />
hysterics. This word may be treated as a singular<br />
when it is thought <strong>of</strong> as the name <strong>of</strong> a disease.<br />
But when it refers to the actual physical events<br />
it is always treated as a plural, as in hysferics<br />
are painfzcl fo watch. The shorter form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adjective, hysteric, is sometimes used to mean<br />
a person who is inclined to hysterics, as in she<br />
always was a hysteric. In any other use, the<br />
longer form hysterical is preferred.<br />
ferred, and the long form in -ical leaves many<br />
people wondering why the speaker went to the<br />
trouble <strong>of</strong> pronouncing that unnecessary syllable.<br />
-ic; its. The suffix -ic is an adjective ending and<br />
is used to form adjectives from nouns, as in<br />
poetic, heroic, metallic. Adjectives formed in<br />
this way may in turn become nouns, as has<br />
happened with classic, cosmetic, lunatic, alcoholic.<br />
Nouns can also be made from adjectives<br />
ending in -ic by adding s, as in poetics and<br />
heroics. The names <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the sciences were<br />
formed in one or the other <strong>of</strong> these ways.<br />
Names for branches <strong>of</strong> learning that came<br />
into English before 1500 end in -ic, as do music,<br />
logic, arithmetic. Names which have come into<br />
the language since then end in its, as do economics,<br />
physics, mathematics. Recently some<br />
writers, especially in philosophy, have chosen<br />
to use the older ending on the newer words and<br />
call their subjects metaphysic, ethic, or dialectic.<br />
There is no difference in meaning between these<br />
two forms.<br />
The names <strong>of</strong> the sciences, or any primarily<br />
intellectual subject, are always treated as singulars<br />
and are used with a singular verb, as in<br />
his mathematics was inadequate. Names <strong>of</strong><br />
practical matters are usually treated as plural,<br />
as in his tactics were admirable. Frequently the<br />
same word may be used in both senses, as in<br />
acoustics deals with problems <strong>of</strong> sound and<br />
the acoustics here are bad.<br />
When words <strong>of</strong> this kind are used to qualify<br />
a following noun they may keep their noun
ice 230<br />
form, as in a hydraulics engineer, or they may<br />
take either <strong>of</strong> the adjective forms, as in an economic<br />
attache, a statistical report. Sometimes<br />
all three forms may be used with the same<br />
meaning. We sometimes hear <strong>of</strong> a hydraulic<br />
engineer and sometimes <strong>of</strong> a hydraulical engineer.<br />
It would be better if the noun form in<br />
-its was always used when the science itself is<br />
meant, as in a hydraulics engineer. This is especially<br />
true when the word can be understood<br />
in some other way, as energetic in (I photochemical<br />
reaction may be driven “uphill” in an<br />
energetic sense. The writer meant, “uphill, as<br />
the word is understood in the science <strong>of</strong> energetics.”<br />
This would have been clearer if the s<br />
had not been dropped. If the noun form is used<br />
for the science itself, the adjective forms could<br />
then be applied to whatever comes within the<br />
field <strong>of</strong> that science, such as a hydraulic press,<br />
a ballistic pendulum. This distinction does not<br />
have to be observed in order to write acceptable<br />
scientific English today, but if it is observed the<br />
words will be understood more easily.<br />
ice. An illustration <strong>of</strong> idiomatic meanings is<br />
furnished by the phrases to break the ice, to<br />
initiate an action or to penetrate reserve, and<br />
to cut no ice, a slang phrase widely used in<br />
America but unknown in England, meaning to<br />
fail to make a favorable impression, or to fail<br />
to amount to anything important.<br />
The British sometimes use an ice where an<br />
American would always say ice cream. An ice<br />
in America is sherbet.<br />
iced tea. These words are usually pronounced as<br />
though written ice tea, but some people feel that<br />
it would be a mistake to write them that way.<br />
The form ice fea is as justifiable as the form<br />
ice cream, or skim milk, both <strong>of</strong> which are now<br />
standard.<br />
id. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin word idem<br />
and means the same.<br />
idea; conception; concept; notion. Anything existing<br />
in the mind may be called an idea (I have<br />
an idea <strong>of</strong> what Z want to do. That was a great<br />
idea. The very idea <strong>of</strong> such a performance!).<br />
Where an intellectual effort is needed, however,<br />
to abstract some quality (such as roundness or<br />
redness) from its existence in material objects,<br />
the idea that results is called a concept (The<br />
concept <strong>of</strong> time as a dimension is dificult for<br />
the lay mind to grasp. The concept <strong>of</strong> patriotism<br />
has been a powerful force in shaping<br />
history). A conception is the act <strong>of</strong> forming<br />
abstract ideas, but it has also become in<br />
standard usage a synonym for concept (He has<br />
a strange conception <strong>of</strong> honor if he regards<br />
such an action us honorable).<br />
Though notion may be a synonym for idea<br />
(The notion that the world was round had been<br />
conceived centuries before. He had no notion<br />
what she intended to do next), in its commonest<br />
usage it suggests a vague or imperfectly conceived<br />
idea (I had no notion such a thing was<br />
brewing. I’ve half a notion to give you the<br />
hiding you deserve).<br />
ideal; example; model. All three <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
refer to something worthy <strong>of</strong> imitation, a<br />
standard to be striven toward. An ideal is a<br />
standard <strong>of</strong> perfection either existing merely as<br />
an image in the mind (Absolute honesty is all<br />
very well as an ideal, but in practice it might<br />
cause a great deal <strong>of</strong> unnecessary unhappiness)<br />
or based upon a person or conduct (Abraham<br />
Lincoln remains the American ideal in humane<br />
statesmanship).<br />
Example is not necessarily honorific. There<br />
are bad as well as good examples (an example<br />
<strong>of</strong> the best workmanship, an example to be<br />
avoided).<br />
A model is primarily a physical shape to be<br />
closely copied (Art students cannot learn portraiture<br />
without models. The models for next<br />
year’s cars are already being constructed) but<br />
it is also a pattern for exact imitation in character<br />
or conduct (American assembly-line<br />
techniques have become a model for other<br />
nations. The village had always regarded him<br />
as a model husband and father).<br />
identified; connected. Identified is <strong>of</strong>ten misused,<br />
especially in business jargon, as a synonym for<br />
connected (in such a sentence as He has been<br />
identified with Western Electric for twenty<br />
years). The words, however, are not even<br />
loosely synonymous. Zdentified means recognized<br />
or established as a particular person or<br />
thing (On the basis <strong>of</strong> dentures and finger prints<br />
the victim <strong>of</strong> the lodging house fire was identified<br />
as Richard Roe). In the rare instances<br />
where a man’s fame is so great that it equals<br />
or even overshadows that <strong>of</strong> a company with<br />
which he is connected, he and the company<br />
might conceivably be identified or thought <strong>of</strong><br />
as one and the same. Thomas A. Edison would<br />
be an example. Connected means attached to<br />
or associated with (He had been connected with<br />
harness-racing scandals never He had been<br />
identified with harness-racing scandals. Identified,<br />
in this context, is properly used in the<br />
statement: He had been identified as the leader<br />
<strong>of</strong> the harness-racing racket).<br />
ideology. Sir Alan Herbert is very hard on ideology.<br />
“A wriggling snob-word,” he calls it and<br />
says emphatically that “it does not mean a<br />
given person’s principles and beliefs or attitude<br />
to life and politics.”<br />
But, while it is true that in its strictest sense<br />
the word is a philosophic term meaning the<br />
science <strong>of</strong> ideas, most linguists now feel that<br />
usage has established it as a standard term for<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> doctrine, myth, and symbols <strong>of</strong> a<br />
social movement, institution, class, or large<br />
group, or such a body <strong>of</strong> doctrine, etc., with reference<br />
to some political and cultural plan, together<br />
with the means <strong>of</strong> putting it into operation<br />
(The fascist ideology included the ruthless<br />
extermination <strong>of</strong> all whom the party regarded<br />
as unfit). Creed and faith have too strong religious<br />
connotations to serve as synonyms.<br />
idle. See lazy.<br />
idle rich. Originally a term <strong>of</strong> contempt in nineteenth-century<br />
socialism’s comparatively polite<br />
lexicon <strong>of</strong> abuse, the idle rich was taken over<br />
by the populace as a humorous term. But it is<br />
now worn out as either an invective or a joke.
i.e., and e.g. have distinctly separate meanings.<br />
i.e., which is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin id est<br />
(that is), introduces a definition (He threatened<br />
them with massive retaliation, i.e. the hydrogen<br />
bomb). e.g., which is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Latin exempli gratia (for example), introduces<br />
an illustration (He avoids all frivolous diversions,<br />
e.g. dancing). Though the distinction<br />
between the terms may be understood ‘by the<br />
writer, it may not be understood by the reader,<br />
and even when it is understood by both writer<br />
and reader, the terms are still a form <strong>of</strong> shorthand<br />
and not English. It is better to say for<br />
example and that is.<br />
if. This word is a conjunction. Its chief function<br />
is to introduce a condition on which the principal<br />
statement in the sentence depends, as in if<br />
he falls it will kill him. Zf may also be used as<br />
the equivalent <strong>of</strong> though, as in if he falls it<br />
won’t hurt him. (See though.) In either case, the<br />
verb in the if clause may be a subjunctive or a<br />
present or past indicative. (See subjunctive<br />
mode.) In current English a future tense cannot<br />
be used in an if clause. The future is implied<br />
in if he asks me. In if he will ask me, the word<br />
will loses its function <strong>of</strong> indicating the future<br />
and takes on its basic meaning <strong>of</strong> “be willing<br />
to.” When a condition is introduced by if, the<br />
conclusion may be introduced by then, as in<br />
if he said it then it must be true. As a rule, these<br />
sentences are more forceful when then is not<br />
used. In literary English if may be omitted<br />
from a conditional clause and the conditional<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> the clause shown by placing were,<br />
had, should, or could, before the subject, as in<br />
were Z Brutus, had Z but served my God, should<br />
he betray me, and could I revive within me her<br />
symphony and song.<br />
Zf is also used to introduce a clause that is<br />
merely doubtful or uncertain, as in she doubts<br />
if two and two make four and judge, great<br />
lords, if Z have done amiss. Clauses that state a<br />
condition or have the force <strong>of</strong> though function<br />
as adverbs and qualify the principal verb in the<br />
sentence. The if clauses that merely express uncertainty<br />
function as nouns and are usually the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb such as see, ask, learn, (doubt.<br />
The word whether is also used to introduce<br />
clauses <strong>of</strong> this kind. Some contemporary grammarians<br />
claim that only whether can properly<br />
be used to introduce a noun clause and that if<br />
“should be” restricted to adverbial clauses. Zf<br />
never has been restricted in this way and is not<br />
now. The notion that it should be is very recent.<br />
Fifty years ago, grammarians saw nothing<br />
wrong in the sentence I doubt if it is mine. At<br />
that time they were distressed if the word<br />
whether was used without an expressed allternative.<br />
When it occurred in a sentence <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind, they said it was being used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> if.<br />
if the truth were told or, sometimes, if the truth<br />
were known, is a formula <strong>of</strong> introduction to a<br />
statement, usually <strong>of</strong> something contrary to a<br />
popularly accepted idea, that has become a<br />
clich6. It is better to state whatever fact you<br />
231<br />
have to state and let it carry what conviction it<br />
can. A stressing <strong>of</strong> its truthfulness is as likely<br />
to arouse incredulity as to ensure acceptance.<br />
If the worst comes to the worst is a clich6. It<br />
is better to say Zf it comes to the worst or If<br />
the worst happens.<br />
ignominious retreat. All freshness <strong>of</strong> meaning<br />
has long ago been beaten out <strong>of</strong> ignominious<br />
retreat.<br />
ignoramus. The plural is ignoramuses, never ignorami.<br />
Ignoramus is a Latin verb form meaning<br />
we do not know. It was once the term used by<br />
grand juries in returning what we now call “no<br />
bill” or “not a true bill” and meant that they<br />
knew <strong>of</strong> no reason why the defendant should<br />
be held for trial. During the seventeenth century<br />
grand juries did not always take their responsibilities<br />
literally. It is said that “bills preferred<br />
to grand juries for high treason duly proved<br />
were returned ignoramus.” This outraged at<br />
least part <strong>of</strong> the citizenry and the word came<br />
to be used as a term <strong>of</strong> abuse, as in with nose<br />
cock? up and visage like a fury,/ or foreman<br />
<strong>of</strong> an ignoramus jury. From this, by ways not<br />
hard to imagine, the word has come to mean an<br />
ignorant person.<br />
ignorant. See illiterate.<br />
ilk. The use <strong>of</strong> ilk to mean breed, class, kind,<br />
especially in the phrase <strong>of</strong> that ilk, must now be<br />
accepted as standard despite the protests <strong>of</strong><br />
purists for more than fifty years. It originally<br />
meant “same.” In the old ballad <strong>of</strong> King Arthur<br />
and the King <strong>of</strong> Cornwall we are told that Sir<br />
Tristram took powder and mixed it with warm<br />
sweet milk and put it in a horn and swilled it<br />
about in that ilk. Then the word got specialized,<br />
particularly in legal documents, to mean “<strong>of</strong><br />
the same (estate)” when a man’s name and the<br />
name <strong>of</strong> his estate were the same. Thus<br />
“Macintosh <strong>of</strong> that ilk” would mean “Macintosh<br />
<strong>of</strong> Macintosh.” Through a misunderstanding <strong>of</strong><br />
this came the modern meaning <strong>of</strong> “<strong>of</strong> that sort<br />
or kind.” But usage has sanctioned this as it has<br />
many other mistakes, so that it is now not only<br />
an acceptable meaning but the primary meaning.<br />
ill. The comparative form is worse. The superlative<br />
form is worst. (For worse and worst, see<br />
bad.) Ill is used as an adjective, as in an ill<br />
wind, an ill will, and also as an adverb, as in<br />
ill blows the wind that pr<strong>of</strong>its no body and these<br />
could ill be spared. The adverbial form illy is<br />
also heard, as in beauty is jealous and illy bears<br />
the presence <strong>of</strong> a rival. The form ill is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
Ill may mean hostile, unfavorable, unsatisfactory,<br />
as in ill-intentioned, in an ill moment,<br />
ill defined. In England the word no longer<br />
means immoral or blameworthy, but this use<br />
survives in Scotland and the United States, as<br />
in ill habits, ill company.<br />
ill: sick. In England ill is the usual word meanine<br />
‘not well. It is ordinarily a predicate adjective<br />
and follows the noun it qualifies, as in a child<br />
ill <strong>of</strong> the smallpox and another lying dangerously<br />
ill. The use <strong>of</strong> ill before the noun, as in a<br />
very ill man, is extremely rare.
illegal 232<br />
In contemporary American usage ill and sick<br />
both mean unwell, in poor health. 111 is the<br />
more formal word and because <strong>of</strong> its formality<br />
is likely to suggest a more serious indisposition,<br />
but this is not absolute. Sick in English usage<br />
has come to mean nauseated, almost to the<br />
point <strong>of</strong> being an indecent word. An American<br />
who announced that he thought he was going<br />
to be sick might elicit some sympathy from the<br />
assembled company. An Englishman would be<br />
more likely to arouse consternation. Here, as<br />
with many words, the American usage is the<br />
older one, once employed in England but now<br />
replaced by the newer or more specialized<br />
meaning. When the physician in Macbeth tells<br />
Macbeth that Lady Macbeth is not so sick as<br />
she is troubled with thick-coming fancies, the<br />
modern English meaning would be ludicrous.<br />
Peter’s wife’s mother lay sick <strong>of</strong> a fever. Ruth,<br />
in tears amid the alien corn, was sick for home.<br />
And so on. Nausea is recognized in America as<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> sickness, especially in such phrases as<br />
a sick headache, sea-sickness, and sick at his<br />
stomach. (The form sick to is sometimes heard,<br />
but sick at is preferred.)<br />
illegal; illegitimate; illicit; unlawful. All <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words mean contrary to law, but each has<br />
acquired special meanings. Zllegal is the most<br />
sharply restricted <strong>of</strong> the four, meaning only<br />
forbidden by law, contrary to statute (Zt is<br />
illegal in some states to go fishing on Sunday).<br />
The earliest meaning <strong>of</strong> illegitimate was “not<br />
born in wedlock” (Many <strong>of</strong> Elizabeth’s subjects<br />
regarded her as an illegitimate child and hence<br />
not lawfully their queen) and from this it has<br />
developed the associated meaning <strong>of</strong> spurious.<br />
It can mean illegal and there is an increasing<br />
tendency to so use it. Illicit expresses more<br />
opprobrium than the other words. An illicit love<br />
affair is not only an illegal love affair but one<br />
<strong>of</strong> which the speaker or writer disapproves. It<br />
is shameful, furtive, dishonest. Unlawful can<br />
mean contrary to moral standards as well as<br />
contrary to law. It is now slightly archaic, its<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> contrary to law being largely<br />
replaced by illegal and its meaning <strong>of</strong> contrary<br />
to moral standards being largely replaced by<br />
illicit. Unlawful issue or unlawful love would<br />
sound a little strange today. This very fact, however,<br />
gives the word certain shades <strong>of</strong> meaning<br />
that are desirable in special contexts. Its overuse<br />
by the rhetoricians and moralists <strong>of</strong> previous<br />
generations has given it, for example, a<br />
slight flavor <strong>of</strong> humor in some contexts (FVYP<br />
mair or horrible and awfu’/ Which even to<br />
name wad be unlawfu’). In others it has an<br />
added touch <strong>of</strong> dignity (These unlawful aspirations<br />
must be repressed).<br />
illegible; unreadable. That which is illegible is<br />
hard or impossible to read or decipher. It is<br />
used particularly <strong>of</strong> handwriting. That which is<br />
unreadable may be so because it is illegible,<br />
but more <strong>of</strong>ten the word means that it is unsuitable<br />
for reading, too dull, awkward, tedious<br />
or <strong>of</strong>fensive (The manuscript was almost illegible<br />
and when finally deciphered was unreadable).<br />
ill-gotten gains. As a term for wealth acquired by<br />
evil means, ill-gotten gains is a clich6.<br />
illicit. See illegal; elicit.<br />
illiterate; ignorant. Illiterate is not so general a<br />
term as ignorant. In its strict sense it means<br />
unable to read (He was illiterate until he was<br />
twelve), but it has come to mean unable to read<br />
or write, and, more loosely still, lacking education<br />
and even showing a lack <strong>of</strong> culture (He<br />
loved to be bitter at/ A lady illiterate. Many<br />
sensational comic books are written with a vast<br />
audience <strong>of</strong> illiterates in mind). Ignorant means<br />
destitute <strong>of</strong> knowledge, unlearned. It may<br />
describe a general condition (He’s just an ignorant<br />
lout, what do you expect?) or refer to<br />
a lack <strong>of</strong> knowledge in regard to some particular<br />
subject or fact (I am ignorant <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> their quarrel). An illiterate person is<br />
ignorant, strictly speaking, only in this last sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> lacking knowledge <strong>of</strong> a particular subjectreading.<br />
But in contemporary United States,<br />
where free public education is not only available<br />
but compulsory, one who is truly illiterate<br />
is probably mentally deficient and grossly ignorant<br />
and the chances are that illiterate will<br />
come more and more to mean ignorant and<br />
stupid. It is already being used a great deal to<br />
designate one who doesn’t know the very basis<br />
-the ABC’s, as it were-<strong>of</strong> some specialized<br />
field (He was psychiatrically illiterate. Many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the tycoons are economic illiterates.)<br />
illness. See sickuess.<br />
illume; illuminate; illumine. All three <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words mean to light up, to throw light upon,<br />
either literally or figuratively, in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
explaining an idea to make it clearer. Zllume<br />
is a poetic archaism (A second sun array’d in<br />
flame,/ To burn, to kindle, to illume) and<br />
should be avoided unless the user is a poet<br />
nearing his two hundredth birthday. Zllumine<br />
is alsd strictly for the poets; it went out <strong>of</strong><br />
fashion with Tennvson (The lone-illumined<br />
cities). Illuminate, - then,‘ remains- the only<br />
generally acceptable form.<br />
illusion; illusive; illusory. See allusion.<br />
illustration. See case and example.<br />
imaginary; imaginative. That is imaginary which<br />
is not real but exists only in the imagination or<br />
fancy (He had suffered all his life from imaginary<br />
ailments). That is imaginative which is<br />
characterized by or bears evidence <strong>of</strong> imagination<br />
(“The Rime <strong>of</strong> the Ancient Mariner” is a<br />
highly imaginative poem). An imaginative man<br />
would be one who imagines much, a man rich<br />
in fancy. An imaginary man would be a nonexistent<br />
being conceived <strong>of</strong> in someone’s imagination.<br />
imagination. See fancy.<br />
imagination run riot. See riot.<br />
imagine. This word may be followed by a clause,<br />
as in Z imagine they have finished, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in imagine finishing so soon.<br />
It may also be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
I imagine them to have finished, but the clause<br />
construction is generally preferred.<br />
imagine; suppose. Although the primary meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> suppose is to assume that something is true
or false for the sake <strong>of</strong> argument or for the<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> tracing the consequences, and<br />
although the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> imagine is<br />
simply to form a mental image <strong>of</strong> something<br />
not actually present to the senses, the use <strong>of</strong><br />
imagine as a substi*-lte for suppose has become<br />
so universal (I imagine five children and four<br />
dogs keep you pretty busy) that it is now<br />
standard.<br />
imbue; infuse; instill. The correct use <strong>of</strong> these<br />
three transitive veibs depends upon carefully<br />
understood distinctions. Imbue means 1.0 impregnate<br />
or inspire (literally, to saturate), as<br />
with feelings or opinions. It is always folllowed<br />
by with (His teachers imbued him with a love<br />
<strong>of</strong> learning). Znfuse means to introduce as by<br />
pouring. It is always followed by into (His<br />
schoolmates tried to infuse a contempt for<br />
learning into him). Znstill means to infuse<br />
slowly or by degrees into the mind or feelings.<br />
It, too, is always followed by into (Fear <strong>of</strong> the<br />
father is instilled into most children from their<br />
infancy). Znstil is a permissible variant spelling,<br />
though the preterit and participle remain instilled<br />
and instilling.<br />
imitation. See synthetic.<br />
Immaculate Conception. The Dogma <strong>of</strong> the Immaculate<br />
Conception, promulgated by the<br />
Roman Catholic Church, teaches that the<br />
Virgin Mary was conceived in her mother’s<br />
womb without the stain <strong>of</strong> original sin, through<br />
the anticipated merits <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ. Many<br />
Protestants have the mistaken notion that the<br />
term applies to Jesus Christ.<br />
immanent; imminent; eminent. Immanent is restricted<br />
for the most part to theological and<br />
psychological writings. It means inherent, remaining<br />
within. taking Dlace in the mind <strong>of</strong> the<br />
subject-and ha;ing no&ect outside <strong>of</strong> it (God<br />
transcends nature and is immanent in nature).<br />
Zmminent means impending, likely to occur at<br />
any moment (With the paddle gone and the<br />
rapids looming directly ahead, death seemed<br />
imminent), projecting, leaning forward, overhanging<br />
(Of hairbreadth scapes i’ th’ imminent<br />
deadly breach). Eminent means high in s#tation<br />
or rank, distinguished, prominent or protruding<br />
(His counsel is eminently wise. Our eminent<br />
visitor.)<br />
immaterial. See unmateriai.<br />
immature; premature. That is immature which is<br />
not yet ripe, developed or perfected. That is<br />
premature which comes into existence too soon,<br />
which is mature or ripe before the proper time,<br />
or which is overhasty, as in action. The New<br />
Yorker (Nov. 13, 1954) quotes a solemn newspaper<br />
pronouncement that Six percent <strong>of</strong> all<br />
babies born in the U. S. are immature. All<br />
babies are immature. Six percent are premature.<br />
immeasurable. See unmeasurable.<br />
immediately; instantly; instantaneously; directly;<br />
right away; straightway; straightaway; presently.<br />
Procrastination blunts the force <strong>of</strong> almost<br />
every word that denotes complete absence <strong>of</strong><br />
delay or lapse <strong>of</strong> time. Instantly still suggests<br />
that something happened on the instant (The<br />
light changed to green and instantly the car was<br />
immerge<br />
in motion) and instantaneously implies that<br />
something happened so soon after something<br />
else as to be practically simultaneous (The post<br />
mortem revealed that the passengers had died<br />
instantaneously with the explosion). Zmmediately<br />
retains much <strong>of</strong> this sense, and yet it is<br />
possible to say 1’11 be there immediately,<br />
although the use <strong>of</strong> the future tense involves<br />
some lapse <strong>of</strong> time however slight. Directly,<br />
which originally meant in an undeviating<br />
course, is <strong>of</strong>ten ambiguous (as in Tell him fo<br />
come home directly or He spoke directly and<br />
to the point) and therefore to be avoided unless<br />
the context makes its meaning unmistakable.<br />
When used <strong>of</strong> time it can mean immediately<br />
(Directly Z had finished speaking he began to<br />
wave his hand in an effort to gain attention),<br />
but in common use it <strong>of</strong>ten implies a delay (Tell<br />
him to wait; 1’11 be there directly).<br />
Right away is used more in America than in<br />
England (His face lit up right away. He knew<br />
me the minute he suw me). Straightway, which,<br />
plainly, like directly, originally meant going by<br />
an undeviating course, retains a considerable<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> immediacy (But let the winds <strong>of</strong><br />
passion swell and straightway men begin to<br />
generalize), but it is now a literary word.<br />
Straightaway (like thataway) is not standard.<br />
Presently, which once meant “at the present<br />
moment, at the very time these words are being<br />
said” (The poor woman no sooner looked on the<br />
sergeant than she presently recollected him),<br />
has become obsolete in this sense and now conveys<br />
an idea <strong>of</strong> delay rather than <strong>of</strong> immediacy.<br />
The phrase as we shall presently see usually<br />
introduces a leisurely preamble and rebukes the<br />
impatient, implying that in the author’s good<br />
time whatever he is seeking to convey to us will<br />
be made manifest.<br />
immediately; immediately after. The use <strong>of</strong> immediately<br />
alone for immediately after, in such<br />
sentences as Zmmediately he sai down there<br />
were angry shoutings from the floor or The<br />
game starred immediately the president arrived,<br />
is not the best usage. It is better to use the full<br />
phrase.<br />
immense; enjoyable; great. Immense and great<br />
are sometimes used as slang terms to indicate a<br />
pleasurable satisfaction more enthusiastic than<br />
enjoyable seems to convey. Great means very<br />
enjoyable. Immense means exceedingly enjoyable.<br />
They are about as precise, however, as the<br />
Hollywoodnotes stupendous, terrific, and colossal,<br />
and should be avoided.<br />
immerge; emerge. Though immerge and emerge<br />
have the same basic root, their prefixes give<br />
them distinctly different meanings. Zmmerge is<br />
most commonly used as a transitive verb meaning<br />
to immerse or plunge into a fluid (He immerged<br />
the film in developer). It is also used<br />
intransitively (The feeding ducks were immerged<br />
for over a minute). Emerge, from its<br />
basic sense <strong>of</strong> rise or come forth from, as from<br />
water or other liquid (He emerged from the<br />
pool struggling for breath), has come to mean<br />
coming forth into view or notice, as from concealment<br />
or obscurity (The enemy soldiers
immigrant 234<br />
emerged from the hedgerow with their hands<br />
above their heads. He soon emerged from the<br />
obscurity <strong>of</strong> local ward politics).<br />
The best way to avoid any possible confusion<br />
between these two words is to use immerse in<br />
the place <strong>of</strong> immerge.<br />
immigrant. See emigrant.<br />
imminent. See immanent.<br />
immoral; amoral; unmoral. That is immoral<br />
which does not conform to the prevailing<br />
standard <strong>of</strong> morality (“Immoral contracts,” all<br />
contracts founded upon considerations “contra<br />
bonos mores. . .” ). Where conventional morality<br />
has been changing, as it has in Europe and<br />
America in the past century, immoral does not<br />
convey a clear meaning unless one knows the<br />
code <strong>of</strong> moralitv <strong>of</strong> the person using it. When<br />
the poet Shelley refused- to live with his wife<br />
after he no longer loved her, he was, for<br />
example, to some immoral, to others moral. In<br />
vulgar usage immoral almost always connotes<br />
sexual irregularity (Don’t dance or ride with<br />
General Bangs,/ A most immoral man). Samuel<br />
Johnson’s statement that A flatterer <strong>of</strong> vice is<br />
an immoral man might seem unwarranted to<br />
many modern readers.<br />
Amoral means apart from moral considerations.<br />
The word seems to have been coined by<br />
Robert Louis Stevenson who said that there was<br />
a great deal in life and letters which is not immoral,<br />
but simply amoral. A book might be<br />
regarded as immoral because it contained<br />
certain words whose use was not sanctioned by<br />
the prevailing morality, but a dictionary which<br />
contained the same words would be amoral.<br />
When used <strong>of</strong> persons, amoral usually means<br />
someone who does immoral things with no<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> their immorality because he is not<br />
aware <strong>of</strong> the moral code. Unmoral is synonymous<br />
with amoral, not with immoral (The<br />
lower animism is not immoral, it is unmoral).<br />
immortal. See undying.<br />
immunity; impunity. Zmmunity is the state <strong>of</strong><br />
being immune from or insusceptible to a particular<br />
disease (A successful vaccination confers<br />
an immunity from smallpox for many years),<br />
an exemption from any natural or usual liability,<br />
obligation, service, or duty (That particular<br />
type <strong>of</strong> fool seems to enjoy an immunity to<br />
shame. Religious pacificism gives an immunity<br />
from the draft but intellectual pacifism does<br />
not). Impunity is a more limited term meaning<br />
exemption from punishment (You can’t go<br />
through a stop sign in this town with impunity)<br />
or, in a weaker sense, exemption from unpleasant<br />
consequences <strong>of</strong> some action (Growing<br />
boys seem able to eat almost anything in any<br />
quantity with impunity).<br />
impassive; impassible; impassable. The difference<br />
in meaning between impassive and impassible<br />
is slight but important. The difference<br />
between these two words and impassable is<br />
great.<br />
Impassable describes something that cannot<br />
be passed over, through, or along (What roads<br />
there were were impassable in winter because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the snow and in spring because <strong>of</strong> the mud;<br />
so the peasants were isolated half <strong>of</strong> every<br />
year).<br />
Impassive means without emotion, unmoved,<br />
calm, and refers primarily to an observed state<br />
or condition (His success as a poker player was<br />
assisted by his impassive face). Impassible<br />
means noticeably incapable <strong>of</strong> suffering pain or<br />
harm or <strong>of</strong> experiencing emotion. With impassible<br />
the emphasis is on insusceptibility, on<br />
the cause <strong>of</strong> the behavior. With impassive it is<br />
on the behavior itself (The Pope has been called<br />
upon by various newspapers to say whether he<br />
would remain impassible to various demands<br />
for intervention for the Rosenbergs-Chicago<br />
Sun-Times, Feb. 14, 1953).<br />
impecunious. See poor.<br />
impediment. See obstacle.<br />
impel; induce; incite; prompt; instigate. To<br />
impel is to drive or to urge forward. It suggests<br />
a good deal <strong>of</strong> force or urgency and passion<br />
(He was impelled by demonic impulses that<br />
swept his reasonings- aside). To induce is to<br />
lead forward. It is a gentler word than impel.<br />
It is to lead or move by persuasion or influence<br />
(Such arguments gradually induced him to<br />
change his point <strong>of</strong> view). To incite is to urge<br />
on, stimulate, move to action. It is used when<br />
non-physical motives are the actuating power<br />
and it is usually an urging or stimulating<br />
towards something which the one urged himself<br />
strongly desires. A man may be impelled by<br />
force. He can be incited only by hope or aspiration<br />
or desire. Prompt is a milder and more<br />
general word than incite (I do not know what<br />
prompted him to open the letter at that exact<br />
moment). It has the suggestion <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong> the<br />
final nudge towards an action to which the<br />
subject was already strongly inclined, a nudge<br />
more <strong>of</strong> circumstances than <strong>of</strong> any human<br />
moving (He was prompted to the murder by<br />
reading in the paper <strong>of</strong> a man who in similar<br />
circumstances had been liberated by his wife’s<br />
sudden death). To instigate is to goad on, to<br />
spur to action, and almost always to bad action<br />
(These suggestions instigated him to commit<br />
the horrid crime with which his name is now<br />
indissolubly connected). It also implies that the<br />
urging was sly and underhanded. See also<br />
compel.<br />
imperative; imperious; imperial. These words,<br />
though related in meaning, are not interchangeable.<br />
Zmperative means not to be avoided, obligatory<br />
(It is imperative that the pilot remain at<br />
the assigned altitude until the control tower<br />
gives him permission to descend). Imperious<br />
once meant belonging to or befitting an emperor<br />
or supreme ruler (Imperious Caesar, dead and<br />
turned to clay,/ Might stop a hole to keep the<br />
wind away), but now it means domineering,<br />
dictatorial, overbearing (Beneath his imperious<br />
exterior was a genuine heart <strong>of</strong> flint). Imperial<br />
means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to an empire (The<br />
British imperial capital is London) or <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to an emperor or empress (The imperial<br />
retinue had sadly dwindled since Henry
had crossed the Alps with such pomp the year<br />
before).<br />
imperative mode. The imperative is the form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb used in commands, requests, and<br />
advice. It is not necessarily dictatorial. The<br />
difference between an order and a suggestion is<br />
shown by the tone <strong>of</strong> voice or by some other<br />
words in the sentence, such as if you please. In<br />
English, the imperative is the simple form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb and ordinarily appears without a subject,<br />
as in go and catch a falling star. A negative<br />
imperative is formed by prefixing do not (or<br />
don’t), as in do not go.<br />
In contemporary English the imperative is<br />
considered a second person form. That is, the<br />
subject is said to be an unexpressed! you.<br />
Formerly, if the subject was expressed it<br />
followed immediately after the verb, as in<br />
comfort ye my people, This construction may<br />
still be heard, as in hark you, mind you, but it<br />
now sounds archaic or old-fashioned. Today, if<br />
we want to stress the subject <strong>of</strong> an imperative,<br />
we place the pronoun immediately before the<br />
verb, as in you go first. Some grammarians<br />
claim that in sentences such as someb0d.y lend<br />
me a hand, the imperative is a third person form<br />
with the subject somebody. Others hold that<br />
there is still an unexpressed you here, that<br />
somebody here means you. This is a purely<br />
theoretical question and makes no difference in<br />
practice.<br />
At one time the imperative could be u.sed as<br />
a first person plural form. In this case, the word<br />
we followed the verb, as in praise we the Virgin<br />
all divine and don we now our gay apparel. In<br />
modern English we use let us or let’s to in’dicate<br />
this type <strong>of</strong> imperative, and say let’s put on our<br />
best clothes. Let’s may be followed by you and<br />
me, as in let’s you and me dress up, but the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> I or us, as in let’s you and I dress up and<br />
let’s us dress up, is condemned by some grammarians.<br />
See let.<br />
An imperative is always the principal verb<br />
in a sentence. When a statement such as leave<br />
at once is repeated in indirect speech, that is,<br />
not as a direct quotation, the form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
must be changed. After verbs that take an indirect<br />
object, such as command, order, ter’l, the<br />
imperative may be replaced by an infinitive,<br />
as in he told me to leave at once. After say,<br />
which does not take an indirect object, an imperative<br />
is traditionally replaced by a subjunctive<br />
clause such as he said I should leave at<br />
once or he said I was to leave at once. But in<br />
current English say is <strong>of</strong>ten treated like tell and<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in he said to leave<br />
at once. For is sometimes used to indicate the<br />
person addressed, as in he said for me to leave<br />
at once. Thirty years ago these construc:tions<br />
were generally condemned. But they are used<br />
today by many well educated people and are<br />
probably acceptable English in most parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the United States. See also future tense.<br />
impertinent (pert); impudent; insolent; riaucy<br />
(sassy); cheeky. The original meaning <strong>of</strong> impertinent<br />
was not pertinent to the matter in<br />
235 implore<br />
hand, hence irrelevant. This meaning is still<br />
retained in law but is otherwise obsolete. A deliberately<br />
introduced irrelevance would be silly<br />
and would indicate a lack <strong>of</strong> proper respect for<br />
those whose business was so interrupted. And<br />
that-an unseemly intrusion into what does not<br />
concern one, or a presumptuous rudeness<br />
towards one entitled to deference or respectis<br />
the word’s primary meaning today (He was<br />
inclined to regard the expression <strong>of</strong> any difference<br />
<strong>of</strong> opinion as a piece <strong>of</strong> impertinence, to<br />
be repressed with contempt). Annoying as impertinence<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten is, however, there are times<br />
when it is amusing and attractive and the diminutive<br />
pert, especially in colloquial usage,<br />
usually expresses an amused admiration (That<br />
was a pert little hat she had on).<br />
Impudent suggests a shameless impertinence,<br />
unblushing effrontery (The impudence <strong>of</strong> that<br />
young whelp, telling me that when he wanted<br />
my advice he’d ask for it!). Insolent means the<br />
highest degree <strong>of</strong> rude presumption, insulting<br />
and arrogantly contemptuous behavior (The<br />
recruit was so openly insolent to his superior<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficers that it was apparent that for some<br />
reason he wanted to be court-martialed). Impertinence<br />
is sometimes accidental, the result<br />
<strong>of</strong> folly or ignorance, but the affronts <strong>of</strong> insolence<br />
are deliberate and intended. There is a<br />
phrase studied insolence which implies that insolence<br />
is the product <strong>of</strong> careful planning and<br />
forethought.<br />
Saucy and its American dialect form sassy<br />
mean salty, full <strong>of</strong> bite. They are colloquialisms<br />
which can mean anything from impertinent to<br />
insolent (The child got sassy and she slapped<br />
him). Like pert, saucy can mean piquant and<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used favorably.<br />
Cheeky is also a colloquialism, chiefly British,<br />
which means either impudent or insolent. It is<br />
a slightly stronger term <strong>of</strong> opprobrium than<br />
saucy (That cheeky remark may cost him his<br />
job).<br />
implement. The primary use <strong>of</strong> implement, as a<br />
transitive verb, is to provide with implements<br />
(Whether armed for war or implemented for<br />
industry), though it is not <strong>of</strong>ten used in this<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> actual, tangible implements but <strong>of</strong> the<br />
more abstract kind (The resolution was noble<br />
but until it is implemented by specific legislation<br />
the voters will probably remain skeptical). In<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> filling out or supplementing, it has<br />
been severely condemned as either pedantry or<br />
barbarous jargon, but usage has made it<br />
standard and the worst that can be said for it<br />
now is that it is ostentatious and overworked<br />
and should be replaced occasionally by the<br />
more homely fulfill or carry out.<br />
implicate. See involve.<br />
implicit. See constructive and explicit.<br />
implore. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I implore you to tell me. It may<br />
also be followed by a clause with the clause<br />
verb a subjunctive or subjunctive equivalent, as<br />
in I implored that he tell me, but the infinitive<br />
construction is generally preferred.
imply; infer. The primary meaning <strong>of</strong> imply is to<br />
involve as a necessary circumstance. A deed<br />
implies a doer. The fact that a man is living<br />
implies that he was born. From this it is a<br />
natural development for it to mean to indicate<br />
or suggest something which is to be inferred<br />
without being expressly stated (Zt is not directly<br />
asserted, but it seems to be implied). To infer<br />
is to derive by reasoning from premises, to<br />
judge from evidence, or, colloquially, to surmise<br />
or guess (From your silence I infer that you do<br />
not approve). The speaker implies, the hearer<br />
infers. Sir Alan Herbert makes the matter clear<br />
when he says that inferring is a sort <strong>of</strong> thinking<br />
and implying a sort <strong>of</strong> saying. He illustrates by<br />
saying that If you see a man staggering along<br />
the road you may infer that he is drunk, without<br />
saying a word; but if you say “Had one too<br />
many?” you do not infer but imply that he is<br />
drunk (What a Word! New York, 1936).<br />
None the less infer has been used for imply<br />
for several centuries and by writers <strong>of</strong> considerable<br />
authoritv (Milton and James Mill<br />
among them) and is in such widespread<br />
common use that many <strong>of</strong> the best authorities<br />
now bow to usage and accept it as standard. The<br />
careful writer, however, will probably want to<br />
preserve the distinction, which is a useful one,<br />
and will be inclined to regard the common<br />
usage here as an accepted laxity rather than an<br />
example to be followed.<br />
imply; insinuate. To imply is to indicate as something<br />
to be inferred (He did not say in so many<br />
words that he was displeased, but he certainly<br />
implied it in the tone <strong>of</strong> his voice). To insinuate<br />
is to wind into a meaning like a serpent, to hint,<br />
suggest, subtly develop a meaning in the other<br />
person’s mind, or to establish oneself in his<br />
good graces. It is a word <strong>of</strong> sly and evil connotations;<br />
whereas imply is an open word. A<br />
meaning may be implied rather than spoken<br />
directly for bad reasons, but it also may be<br />
implied rather than spoken because <strong>of</strong> diffidence<br />
or delicacy or kindness. See also indicate.<br />
impolitic; impolitical. That is impolitic which is<br />
inexpedient, injudicious, unsuitable to the<br />
desired end (It is certainly impolitic to bring up<br />
these charges against the man at the very time<br />
you need his support). Impolitical is simply an<br />
older form <strong>of</strong> impolitic, rendered obsolete by<br />
the facts that the newer word is shorter and political<br />
has come to have a specialized meaning.<br />
important means <strong>of</strong> much significance, <strong>of</strong> more<br />
than ordinary title to consideration or notice.<br />
It is sometimes used as if it meant principal, as<br />
in The important difference between them is<br />
that one dress has white buttons and the other<br />
gray buttons. Unless important is used here<br />
ironically, it is misused.<br />
impossible is enjoying a vogue, not in its primary<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> unable to be, exist, or happen, but<br />
in such senses as unendurable (He’s utterly impossible;<br />
I don’t see how you manage to stay on<br />
speaking terms with him), incredible (It’s an<br />
impossible story), impracticable (These impossible<br />
suggestions just annoy me; he knows<br />
we haven’t the necessary money). These are not<br />
corruptions but ellipses, condensations by omission.<br />
An impossible person is one with whom it<br />
is impossible to get along. An impossible story<br />
is one that it is impossible to believe. And so<br />
on. Yet the word is being overworked in this<br />
manner and it would be better most <strong>of</strong> the time<br />
to use the full phrase.<br />
impostor; imposture. An impostor is a person.<br />
An imposture is an act. An impostor is one who<br />
imposes fraudulently on others, who practices<br />
deception under an assumed character or name<br />
(The military hero turned out to be an impostor<br />
who had sat out the war in Mexico). An imposture<br />
is the action or practice <strong>of</strong> imposing<br />
fraudulently on others (His passing himself <strong>of</strong>7<br />
as a Russian archduke was one <strong>of</strong> the more<br />
successful impostures <strong>of</strong> the social season).<br />
impoverished. See poor.<br />
impracticable; impractical; unpractical. The British<br />
clearly distinguish between these adjectives by<br />
using impracticable <strong>of</strong> things and actions which<br />
are not practicable, which are not capable, that<br />
is, <strong>of</strong> being put into practice, or effected,<br />
especially with the available means or with<br />
reason or prudence (It was a thoroughly impracticable<br />
plan) and by using unpractical <strong>of</strong><br />
persons who are not practical, who lack, that is,<br />
practical usefulness or wisdom (Because <strong>of</strong> his<br />
unpractical nature, he did not foresee the real<br />
difficulties <strong>of</strong> the situation). In America impractical<br />
serves indifferently to mean either impracticable<br />
or unpractical, depending on the<br />
context, though impracticable is also used as<br />
the British use it. Actually, British usage here<br />
is a good deal less confusing and therefore is<br />
deserving <strong>of</strong> adoption.<br />
impression. See edition.<br />
impromptu; extemporaneous; extemporary; extempore.<br />
Generally used as an adjective, impromptu<br />
means <strong>of</strong>fhand, made or done without<br />
previous preparation (At the surprise party in<br />
his honor he made a witty impromptu speech).<br />
It is also used as an adverb (verses written<br />
impromptu) and as a noun (You won’t <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
hear that clever an impromptu).<br />
Extemporaneous, as well as its less-used<br />
synonyms extemporary and extempore, can<br />
mean about the same as impromptu-that is,<br />
unpremeditated, without preparation or with<br />
only partial preparation-but it is applied<br />
especially to an unmemorized speech given<br />
from an outline or notes (His vast experience<br />
<strong>of</strong> mountain climbing enabled him to deliver<br />
extemporaneous speeches on the subject). Extemporaneous<br />
and extemporary can be used as<br />
adjectives only. Extempore may be used as an<br />
adjective, though it seldom is. It is the only one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the three that can be used as an adverb (He<br />
spoke extempore-that is, without preparation<br />
or notes).<br />
impudent. See impertinent.<br />
impunity. See immunity.<br />
in. This word may be used with an object as a<br />
preposition, or it may be used alone as an<br />
adverb or as an adjective.<br />
In is primarily a preposition. It expresses the<br />
relation <strong>of</strong> “contained” or “surrounded by,” and
implies limitations <strong>of</strong> space, time, conditions,<br />
circumstances. We may say in the fog, in the<br />
evening, in breadth, in my opinion. The idea <strong>of</strong><br />
condition or circumstance may be extended to<br />
include cause, as in he acted in anger, or influence,<br />
as in when in doubt, or manner, as in<br />
the yellow gods shut up their eyes in scorn. It<br />
may mean merely as regards or in respect to,<br />
as in he was unfortunate in his friends. It may<br />
also indicate the source <strong>of</strong> pleasant emotions,<br />
as in rejoicing in the truth, but not <strong>of</strong> unpleasant<br />
ones. We cannot say suffering in injustice.<br />
In is closely related to several other prepositions.<br />
It may have the sense <strong>of</strong> into when it is<br />
used with a verb that carries the idea <strong>of</strong> motion,<br />
as in come in. When in and <strong>of</strong> compete,<br />
<strong>of</strong> has the broad meaning <strong>of</strong> “pertaining to”<br />
and does not show as close, or as internal, a<br />
relation as in. In differs from at in that ai<br />
refers to a particular place without regard to<br />
its surroundings. Often it makes no difference<br />
which <strong>of</strong> these words is used. As a rule, we<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> being in a city, but we may say Z met<br />
her at the station or Z met her in the sfation.<br />
On and in are not interchangeable. On implies<br />
the outside and is in contrast to in. When streets<br />
were narrow lanes filled with overhanging balconies,<br />
it was natural to speak <strong>of</strong> being in the<br />
street. But in the United States today on is the<br />
more natural word. We might speak <strong>of</strong> fighting<br />
in the streets, where the action seems to be<br />
enclosed, but we would always say Z met her<br />
on Fifth Avenue and we lived on Fifteenth<br />
Street. In can only be used with nouns that are<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as singular, as in in the army, in (I<br />
crowd. When a group name is thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
plural, among is required, as in among the<br />
people. (For the use <strong>of</strong> the after in, as in in bed<br />
and in the bed, see the.)<br />
In is not a conjunction, but it may have as<br />
object the word that, which in turn may introduce<br />
a clause, as in men differ from brutes in<br />
that they can think and speak. Here in that has<br />
somewhat the same function as because.<br />
The preposition in is freely used with verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> participation, such as share, join, meddle. It<br />
is also used with certain verbs to show an indirect<br />
object, as trust in. It may be used adverbially<br />
without an object, as in break in, fence in,<br />
full in with. It may be used in this way with<br />
verbs <strong>of</strong> motion and with the verb to be, as in<br />
when will he be in?. Sometimes this in can be<br />
interpreted as a preposition with the object unexpressed.<br />
But this is not always true. In the<br />
United States, in may be attached to a verb<br />
that names the beginning <strong>of</strong> an action in order<br />
to show that the action which is beginning is<br />
going to go on for a long time, as in he started<br />
in fo talk, it set in to ruin. Here in is in contrast<br />
to out, which can be used with the same verbs<br />
to show that the action had barely begun, as in<br />
he started out, we set out.<br />
The simple form in is occasionally used as an<br />
adjective, as in the in party said that such o law<br />
was unnecessary. But this is rare in present day<br />
English. However, the comparative form inner<br />
and the superlative forms innermost and inmost<br />
are in common use. The two superlative forms<br />
are equally acceptable. The comparative inner<br />
is now felt as a simple adjective and is not used<br />
in comparisons with than.<br />
in apple-pie order. Why the order <strong>of</strong> an apple<br />
pie should be more orderly than that <strong>of</strong> any<br />
other kind <strong>of</strong> pie is uncertain. As a metaphor<br />
for everything being as it should be, in upplepie<br />
order is now a cliche. It has the additional<br />
disadvantage <strong>of</strong> being one <strong>of</strong> those artificially<br />
homey phrases that give so much talk a tinny<br />
ring <strong>of</strong> false sincerity.<br />
in back <strong>of</strong>. See back <strong>of</strong>.<br />
in black and white. As a term for reducing something<br />
to writing, especially the terms <strong>of</strong> an<br />
agreement, so that it will be incontrovertibly<br />
clear, to set it down in black and white is overworked<br />
and should be used sparingly.<br />
in spite <strong>of</strong> the fact that is usually no more than<br />
a wordy way <strong>of</strong> saying although.<br />
in the last analysis is a cliche. It sometimes means<br />
no more than “finally” and sometimes is no<br />
more than a sort <strong>of</strong> pompous clearing <strong>of</strong> the<br />
throat before the speaker introduces his opinion.<br />
in the last resort. As a term for a final expedient<br />
or for the last desperate course <strong>of</strong> action, in the<br />
lust resort is a cliche. It was originally a translation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a French law term.<br />
in the same boat. As a term for sharing a common<br />
predicament and, particularly, for being liable<br />
to the same punishment, in the same boat is a<br />
cliche.<br />
in the street; on the street. The American idiom<br />
says that so-and-so lives or does business on<br />
such-and-such a street. The English idiom says<br />
that he lives or does business in such-and-such<br />
a street. See in.<br />
inability; disability. Both <strong>of</strong> these words suggest<br />
a lack <strong>of</strong> power, capacity, or ability. Znability is<br />
a want <strong>of</strong> ability, usually because <strong>of</strong> an inherent<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> talent or power (He had a strange<br />
inability to make up his mind). A disability is<br />
some disqualifying deprivation or loss <strong>of</strong> power,<br />
physical, legal, or otherwise (His serviceconnected<br />
physical disability entitled him to a<br />
full military pension).<br />
inasmuch as. See because.<br />
inapt; unapt; inept. Inapt is the common term<br />
to mean something which is not apt, fitted or<br />
appropriate (His quotation about the sanctity<br />
<strong>of</strong> marriage was a little inapt when one remembers<br />
that this was the bride’s third venture into<br />
mutrimony). Unapt can mean unfitted or unsuited,<br />
but it is becoming more fixed in the<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> unlikely or not disposed (We are<br />
unapt to find the way in the dark. He is unapt<br />
to agree with unyone who annoys him) or not<br />
quick to learn (He was un unapt pupil). Znapt<br />
has a secondary meaning <strong>of</strong> without aptitude<br />
or capacity, but the better word for this is<br />
inept (Zt would have been hard to find a more<br />
inept swordsman).<br />
Though these words overlap in some <strong>of</strong> their<br />
meanings, usage seems to be restricting them<br />
more and more to their special meanings. Thus<br />
the quotation about the sanctity <strong>of</strong> marriage<br />
alluded to in the illustration above was inapt
inaugurate 238<br />
in so far as it was inapplicable to a third marriage<br />
and inept in so far as it was an awkward<br />
thing to have brought up under the circumstances.<br />
Only an inept person would have<br />
brought it up. A delicate and perceptive person<br />
would have been unapt to do so.<br />
inaugurate. To inaugurate is to install in <strong>of</strong>fice<br />
with full inaugural ceremonies. It is a word <strong>of</strong><br />
almost ponderous gravity and like all words <strong>of</strong><br />
high solemnity may easily become ludicrous if<br />
applied to trivial occasions. The safe rule is to<br />
be sure you want inaugurate and not start or<br />
begin or commence. If you are sure you do, use<br />
it; otherwise stick to the commoner word. See<br />
also begin.<br />
incapable; unable. Incapable means a settled, inherent<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> ability or power (He was quite<br />
incapable <strong>of</strong> commanding troops in combat).<br />
Unable usually refers to a temporary lack <strong>of</strong><br />
ability to do a specific thing (Because <strong>of</strong> heavy<br />
snows, he was <strong>of</strong>ten unable to drive to work<br />
that winter).<br />
incensed. See enraged.<br />
incentive. See motive.<br />
incessant. See eternal.<br />
incessantly. See constantly.<br />
incident. See happening and event.<br />
incident; incidental. As an adjective incident<br />
means likely or apt to happen (The confusion<br />
-. . .<br />
incident to breaking uy, camp afforded the lurk-<br />
ing Indians an excellent opportunity for a surprise<br />
attack). It also means that which naturally<br />
appertains (The obscurity incident to the<br />
life <strong>of</strong> a scholar has its compensations) or that<br />
which is conjoined or attached, especially as<br />
subordinate to a principal thing.<br />
Incidental also means that which is likely to<br />
happen, but it conveys a stronger feeling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
happening’s being fortuitous or in subordinate<br />
conjunction with something else <strong>of</strong> which it<br />
forms no real part (Yes, there was some incidental<br />
notoriety, but it is unfair to say that his<br />
purpose was to attract attention); hence purely<br />
casual (incidental expenses, incidental discomforts).<br />
When incidental conveys the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
liability, it is followed by to; when it conveys<br />
the idea <strong>of</strong> an incident that merely ensues, it<br />
is followed by upon.<br />
Incidentally is used with increasing frequency<br />
by writers and speakers to warn that what is to<br />
follow is an irrelevance or an aside. It can be<br />
ambiguous, since it is not always made clear<br />
whether the stated fact is incidental to some<br />
action alluded to in the sentence or to the sentence<br />
as a whole. In the latter sense it can <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
be replaced, to the advantage <strong>of</strong> clarity, by Z<br />
may add or Z forgot to say that or some such<br />
phrase. Many times it can be omitted altogether,<br />
having no real meaning.<br />
In conformity to its common slurred pronunciation,<br />
incidentally is <strong>of</strong>ten written incidently.<br />
This is simply an error. There is no such word<br />
today as incidently, although there once was.<br />
incite. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in incite to riot. It is sometimes heard with<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in incite to rioting,<br />
but this is not standard English, See impel.<br />
incline. When used as a verb, this word may be<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in this inclined her<br />
to leave and she was inclined to eat. It may also<br />
be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the<br />
preposition to, as in she was more inclined to<br />
sleeping than to eating. The noun inclination<br />
may be followed by an infinitive, as in an inclination<br />
to eat, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
with the preposition for, as in an inclination for<br />
eating.<br />
Inclined in the metaphorical sense <strong>of</strong> being<br />
favorably disposed to do something must be<br />
confined to people since they alone can have<br />
this sort <strong>of</strong> inclination. Rather than say <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
trees, for example, that they are inclined to<br />
retain their dead leaves well into the spring, it<br />
would be better to say that they have a tendency<br />
to retain their foliage or simply that they<br />
retain it.<br />
To say <strong>of</strong> someone accused <strong>of</strong> some fault<br />
that one is inclined to give him the benefit <strong>of</strong><br />
doubt is to say that one’s opinion is not yet<br />
absolutely settled in condemnation, that one is<br />
disposed, until unquestionable evidence <strong>of</strong> guilt<br />
has been adduced, towards as favorable an interpretation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the facts as possible. But to say<br />
that one is inclined to think, unless one definitely<br />
means that one’s emotions, attitudes,<br />
knowledge, and so on, are too confused or<br />
uncertain to permit them to be regarded as<br />
thought, is to indulge in unnecessary circumlocution.<br />
When Watson once said that he was<br />
“inclined to think” something or other, Holmes<br />
drily urged him to do so. More <strong>of</strong>ten than not<br />
the phrase serves as a timid, protective preface<br />
and actually means “I think, but I am prepared<br />
to suppress or amend my opinion should it disagree<br />
with yours.”<br />
include. See comprise; contain.<br />
incognito. There is very little occasion to use the<br />
personal noun, but should it arise, a man is an<br />
incognito and a woman an incognita (The fair<br />
incognita graciously inclined her head). The<br />
abstract noun is incognito only (She preserved<br />
her incognito). The original plural <strong>of</strong> the personal<br />
noun was incogniti, but its use would seem<br />
an affectation. Zncognitos is now the accepted<br />
plural <strong>of</strong> both the personal and the abstract<br />
forms. The adjective and adverb are both incognito,<br />
no distinction <strong>of</strong> gender being recognized.<br />
incomparable. See uncomparable.<br />
inconceivable. See unthinkable.<br />
inconsequent; inconsequential; unimportant. The<br />
primary sense <strong>of</strong> inconsequent is lacking sequence<br />
in thought, speech, or action. W. H.<br />
Hudson speaks <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>ound inconsequent<br />
gravity <strong>of</strong> monkeys and their insane delight in<br />
their own unreasonableness. That is inconsequent<br />
which does not follow from the premises,<br />
as an inconsequent conclusion.<br />
Znconsequentiul once also meant irrelevant<br />
and illozical (The fiction is unnatural and the<br />
moral i&onskqueniial), and this meaning is<br />
still recognized as a secondary meaning, but the<br />
word’s usual meaning now is “trivial” (An inconsequential<br />
paragraph in his article was seized
upon us conveying his central doctrine). There<br />
is about the word, however, even in this meaning,<br />
a suggestion that the triviality is based<br />
upon the absurdity or illogicality <strong>of</strong> the utterance.<br />
When the matter is simply <strong>of</strong> no importance,<br />
it is better to use the commoner,<br />
unequivocal unimportant.<br />
incontinently. The adverb incontinently has two<br />
different meanings. In one sense it means lacking<br />
in restraint, especially sexual restraint<br />
(Queen Isabel . . . living incontinently with<br />
Mortimer). In a second sense, now archaic, it<br />
means immediately, at once, straightway (I will<br />
incontinently drown myself). In neither sense<br />
is the word particularly usable. For the first<br />
sense some such word as unrestrainedly or unchastely<br />
is to be preferred. For the second,<br />
immediately or at once.<br />
incontrollable; uncontrollable. Though incontrollable<br />
is still acceptable, its use is increasingly<br />
rare. In the United States, as in England, it is<br />
being superseded by uncontrollable.<br />
incorrect; uncorrected. Though incorrect and incorrectly<br />
are in daily use, incorrected is now<br />
obsolete. It has been superseded by uncorrected.<br />
increase. See step up.<br />
incredible; unbelievable. Although incredible and<br />
unbelievable are synonymous in meaning not<br />
credible, impossible to believe, incredible has<br />
been used so much in the weakened sense <strong>of</strong><br />
something that is difficult to believe, or something<br />
which one would never, reasoning from<br />
common observation, have thought possible,<br />
that this is now its common meaning. Thus<br />
when we say <strong>of</strong> someone that he ran through<br />
his inheritance with incredible folly, we do not<br />
expect the alleged folly to be rejected as unbelievable.<br />
We mean that although such folly<br />
would seem impossible, yet it actually happened.<br />
Unbelievable is sometimes used in this<br />
sense, but more <strong>of</strong>ten it is qualified with almost,<br />
showing that the word itself retains its absolute<br />
meaning.<br />
incredible; incredulous. That is incredible which<br />
cannot be believed or seems too extraordinary<br />
to be possible. Properly only narratives can be<br />
incredible since things, to be things, must exist<br />
and hence, if produced or authenticated, must<br />
be believed in. However, incredible in its weakened<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> so extraordinary as to be almost<br />
unbelievable is <strong>of</strong>ten applied to things (He<br />
caught the most incredible fish you ever saw.<br />
There was an incredible house, built on stilts<br />
and painted blue and green). And since people<br />
are among the most extraordinary things on<br />
the face <strong>of</strong> the earth it is <strong>of</strong>ten applied, hyperbolically,<br />
to people (He was an incredible man.<br />
The whole community was proud <strong>of</strong> having<br />
such a freak in its midst), sometimes in such<br />
paradoxical phrases as an incredible liar where<br />
it is used to mean not that he was a liar who<br />
would not be believed in but so successful a<br />
liar that it was hard to believe the degree to<br />
which he compelled credulity. Much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
meaning depends on the intonation. To say<br />
quietly that someone was an incredible witness<br />
239 indefinite<br />
would probably mean that his testimony failed<br />
to carry any conviction, but to stress incredible<br />
with excited emphasis might mean that the extent<br />
to which his testimony compelled conviction<br />
was almost unbelievable.<br />
In such a situation there is, <strong>of</strong> course, infinite<br />
possibility for misunderstanding, so that the<br />
writer or speaker who wishes to have his meaning<br />
clearly understood will avoid the ambiguities<br />
which the weakened and hyperbolical uses<br />
create by avoiding these uses.<br />
Incredible means unbelievable. Incredulous<br />
means unbelieving. And since believing or not<br />
believing is, so far as we know, solely restricted<br />
to human beings, the word must also be so<br />
restricted. It is confined to people and to the<br />
expressions or gestures by which they indicate<br />
their unbelief (When he told me the same old<br />
incredible story, I merely smiled an incredulous<br />
smile).<br />
incubus; succubus. The plurals are incubuses or<br />
incubi, succubuses or succubi. In modern usage<br />
an incubus is an imaginary demon or evil spirit<br />
that is supposed to descend upon sleeping persons<br />
or, by extension, something that weighs<br />
upon or oppresses one like a nightmare. Sometimes<br />
a nightmare itself is called an incubus.<br />
A succubus is, in modern usage, any demon or<br />
evil spirit.<br />
In former times, when demonology was a<br />
more exact science, an incubus was a male<br />
demon which haunted the sleep <strong>of</strong> women and<br />
was responsible for their bearing witches, demons,<br />
and deformed children. The innocent<br />
maiden, however, plagued by his advances,<br />
could protect herself with St. Johnswort and<br />
vervain and dill. The succubus was the female<br />
counterpart. The <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> the union <strong>of</strong> a<br />
man and a succubus was demonic, but the proper<br />
prayers, spells, or charms recited by the man<br />
upon awakening would prevent its conception.<br />
These distinctions no longer hold in standard;<br />
common usage, but the learned preserve them<br />
and delight in them.<br />
inculcate. To inculcate is to impress by repeated<br />
statement, to teach persistently and earnestly.<br />
It is a transitive verb whose Latin elements<br />
mean, literally, to stamp in with the heel. Therefore<br />
that which is inculcated must be inculcated<br />
in or upon the subject (As a teacher he inculcated<br />
in his students a love <strong>of</strong> questioning and<br />
a distrust <strong>of</strong> facile solutions) ; the subject is not<br />
inculcated with that which is inculcated. It is<br />
incorrect, for example, to say His parents inculcated<br />
him with frugal habits. They inculcated<br />
frugal habits in him.<br />
But even when used correctly inculcate is a<br />
little pretentious. It is probably better to say<br />
repeatedly impressed on.<br />
incumbent. See recumbeut.<br />
indecency. See blasphemy.<br />
indefinite article. See a, an.<br />
iudehite pronouns and adjectives. Pronouns<br />
which refer to certain individuals without specifying<br />
which ones, such as anyone, someone,<br />
everybody, each, either, neither, none, are called<br />
indefinite pronouns. When a word <strong>of</strong> this kind
index 240<br />
is used to qualify a noun it is called an indefinite<br />
adjective.<br />
These words are said to be singular. However,<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them, such as neither and none,<br />
usually take a plural verb, as in a maid whom<br />
there were none to praise. Others, such as anyone,<br />
everyone, each, usually take a singular<br />
verb, as in has anyone called?. But these, too,<br />
may be followed by a plural verb, especially<br />
when an <strong>of</strong>-phrase stands between the indefinite<br />
pronoun and the verb, as in each <strong>of</strong> the men<br />
were willing to contribute, although some grammarians<br />
insist on a singular verb here too.<br />
After a plural verb has been used, the indefinite<br />
word (pronoun or adjective-noun compound)<br />
is treated as plural rather than singular.<br />
That is, it is referred to by they, them, their,<br />
rather than by he, him, his. But it may also be<br />
referred to as they even when a singular verb<br />
has been used, as in everyone was here but they<br />
have left, every boy and girl invites their own<br />
parents, if anyone calls tell them I have gone. A<br />
masculine singular pronoun (he, him, his) is<br />
impossible after but, as in the first illustration;<br />
and pedantic, or ridiculous, after boy and girl,<br />
as in the second. And it is always unidiomatic<br />
English in a statement that is actually about an<br />
indefinite number <strong>of</strong> individuals some <strong>of</strong> whom<br />
may be male and some female, although some<br />
textbooks require if anyone calls tell him I have<br />
gone. This use <strong>of</strong> they, them, their in such constructions<br />
has been standard English for centuries.<br />
The best modern writers, like the great<br />
writers <strong>of</strong> the past, sometimes use the singular<br />
he and sometimes the plural they, depending<br />
upon the circumstances rather than on any rule<br />
<strong>of</strong> thumb about the “number” <strong>of</strong> an indefinite<br />
pronoun.<br />
Some grammarians include among the indefinites<br />
any word which does not have a specific<br />
reference, such as many, few, all, both, much,<br />
other, such. In this book some <strong>of</strong> these are<br />
treated as number terms and some as individual<br />
words with peculiar uses. See number terms<br />
and the individual words.)<br />
index. The plural is indexes or indices.<br />
indicate; imply. The transitive verbs indicate and<br />
imply can be interchanged if the user clearly<br />
understands the sense he intends. The central<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> indicate is to be a sign <strong>of</strong>, to betoken,<br />
to imply (Booing indicates disapproval<br />
<strong>of</strong> an umpire’s decisions). But whereas imply<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the central definitions <strong>of</strong> indicate, indicate<br />
is not the central definition <strong>of</strong> imply.<br />
Primarily, imply means to involve as a necessary<br />
circumstance (Violence implies danger);<br />
secondarily, with reference to words, it means<br />
to signify or to mean (The word “rush” implies<br />
speed) ; and only in its third sense, does it mean<br />
indicate.<br />
A special medical meaning <strong>of</strong> indicate, to<br />
point out a particular remedy or course <strong>of</strong> treatment<br />
as necessary (Absolute rest was indicated),<br />
has been taken up into general use and<br />
is at present something <strong>of</strong> a vogue word (Zncreased<br />
taxation wus indicated). See also imply;<br />
infer.<br />
indicative mode. The ordinary verb forms used<br />
in statements or questions about matters <strong>of</strong> fact<br />
are called indicative forms. See mode.<br />
indices. See index.<br />
indict; indite. These transitive verbs sound alike<br />
but have different meanings. Zndict is a legal<br />
term which means to charge with an <strong>of</strong>fense or<br />
crime (What will you do if the grand jury<br />
indicts you for perjury? Let anyone who will<br />
indict him on the charge <strong>of</strong> frivolitv). Indict is<br />
a thoroughly serviceable word with ‘no acceptable<br />
substitute. But indite is a fancy literary<br />
term, meaning to compose or to write or to<br />
dictate what someone else is to write down, and<br />
almost any substitute for it is preferable. When<br />
a modern writer says indite, he should smile.<br />
The last serious inditing went on in the seventeenth<br />
century.<br />
indigent. See poor.<br />
indirect discourse. See tense shit.<br />
indirect object. The direct object <strong>of</strong> a verb is a<br />
noun or noun equivalent that is essential to the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the verb, as lie in he told a lie.<br />
Without an object <strong>of</strong> some kind he told is a<br />
meaningless statement. An indirect object is not<br />
essential to the meaning <strong>of</strong> the verb but shows<br />
the person or thing affected by the total action.<br />
As a rule an indirect object represents a person,<br />
as me ‘in he told me a lie, but it may also represent<br />
a thing, as it in give it some thought. In<br />
Latin this function is shown by a dative case<br />
ending, which has the meaning <strong>of</strong> to or toward.<br />
In English the indirect object is sometimes<br />
called “the dative <strong>of</strong> interest or reference,” but<br />
the function is shown by the position <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word in the sentence.<br />
In a normal English sentence the indirect<br />
object stands between the verb and the direct<br />
object, as in give her a book. If the direct object<br />
is moved forward the indirect object remains<br />
attached to the verb, as in what did you give<br />
her?. In a compound verb, it stands between the<br />
verb and the adverb, as them in fix them up a<br />
box lunch. See adverbs.<br />
The meaning <strong>of</strong> the indirect object can also<br />
be expressed by a prepositional phrase using to<br />
or for (or occasionally on, in, or from). Some<br />
verbs, such as speak, explain, attribute, cannot<br />
be followed by an indirect object and so require<br />
a prepositional phrase to express this relation.<br />
A prepositional phrase must also be used with<br />
a relative or interrogative pronoun, as in who<br />
did you give the book to?, since these words<br />
always precede the verb and so cannot stand in<br />
the indirect object position.<br />
Whether a word is a direct or an indirect<br />
object sometimes makes a difference in the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a sentence. When a verb is followed<br />
by two noun equivalents, the first may be an<br />
indirect object and the second a direct object,<br />
or the first may be a direct object and the<br />
second an objective complement. (See object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb.) Both <strong>of</strong> these constructions are seen in<br />
the witticism: the woman who makes a man a<br />
good wife also makes him a good husband.<br />
Here man is an indirect object and could be<br />
replaced by the phrase to a man or for u man;
him however is a direct object and could not be<br />
rephrased in this way. On the other hand, in<br />
can you spare me a minute? we may have an<br />
indirect object and a direct object, or we may<br />
have a direct object followed by an adverb <strong>of</strong><br />
time. (See nouns as adverbs.) This difference is<br />
shown in speech by pitch or stress, but in<br />
written English there is no way to decide which<br />
construction was intended.<br />
In the United States there is no exception to<br />
the rule that an indirect object must stand immediately<br />
after the verb or be replaced by a<br />
prepositional phrase. When a verb is followed<br />
by two personal pronouns either form can be<br />
used, as in he gave me it and he gave it to me.<br />
In this case, the prepositional phrase is preferred.<br />
In Great Britain neither <strong>of</strong> these constructions<br />
is used. The rule there is: when both<br />
are personal pronouns, the direct object precedes<br />
the indirect, as in he gave it me. This<br />
construction is impossible to American ears.<br />
But it has been standard in England for centuries<br />
and is used in the King James Bible (for<br />
example, Exodus 23:30). To English ears the<br />
American to, as in he gave it to me, sounds like<br />
an affectation, a would-be elegance, to be<br />
classed with it is I.<br />
Occasionally the only object <strong>of</strong> a verb is<br />
logically an indirect and not a direct object, as<br />
in he told his sister. In Latin this distinction<br />
must be recognized and verbs such as help,<br />
trust, believe, obey, envy, pardon, require an<br />
object with a dative case ending. In English<br />
there is no practical difference between the two<br />
forms. All that remains <strong>of</strong> case here is the rule<br />
that a subjective pronoun cannot be used immediately<br />
after a transitive verb. This is true<br />
whether the word represents the indirect or the<br />
direct object. We cannot say 2 helped they any<br />
more than we can say Z made they. It is customary<br />
in English to call a word <strong>of</strong> this kind simply<br />
the object and to distinguish the indirect from<br />
the direct only when both are present.<br />
An indirect object may be made the :subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> a passive verb. In they gave him a ,reward<br />
the direct object <strong>of</strong> gave is reward and the<br />
normal passive construction would be a reward<br />
was given him. But in English we may also say<br />
he was given u reward. This is a very curious<br />
construction that is not found in any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
other Indo-European languages.<br />
At one time an indirect object could be<br />
placed before the verb, as in him was given a<br />
reward. An important characteristic <strong>of</strong> modern<br />
English has made this construction impossible<br />
today, In present-day English a subjective pronoun<br />
is not a form used when the word is the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb; it is rather a form used when<br />
the word stands immediately before a verb.<br />
This is why, in spite <strong>of</strong> the grammarians’ protests,<br />
we prefer he is taller than me or he is<br />
taller than Z am to he is taller than I. This feeling<br />
for the pronoun made he was given ;L more<br />
comfortable phrase than him was given, even<br />
when the word was an indirect object. This, in<br />
turn, led to our modern passive form in which<br />
an original indirect object is treated and felt as<br />
241 Indoor<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb. As late as 1855 the construction<br />
was considered ungrammatical but it<br />
is now preferred to the older form whenever<br />
both forms are possible. That is, most people<br />
today if asked to put the sentence he taught the<br />
child music into a passive form would say the<br />
child was taught music rather than music was<br />
taught (to) the child.<br />
indiscreet; indiscrete. These adjectives are pronounced<br />
alike but must be distinguished. Zndiscreet<br />
means not discreet, lacking in prudence<br />
or sound judgment (Swift’s parents made an<br />
indiscreet marriage: he used to say that he felt<br />
the effects <strong>of</strong> it all his life). Zndiscrete means<br />
not distinctly separate or distinguishable, undifferentiated<br />
or homogeneous (Creation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world is said to have begun with indiscrete<br />
chaos. Zf he had virtues they were certainly<br />
indiscrete from his vices). Indiscreet is a useful<br />
word but indiscrete, which is easily confused<br />
with it and seldom understood in its proper<br />
sense, should be avoided.<br />
indispensable. See necessary.<br />
indisposition. See sickness.<br />
individual; person. Individual was originally an<br />
adjective, denoting the particular as opposed to<br />
the general (All effective advancement must be<br />
by individual, not public, effort). The individual<br />
was the single person in his capacity <strong>of</strong><br />
one <strong>of</strong> many. In the nineteenth century, under<br />
the influence <strong>of</strong> that polysyllabic humor which<br />
attained its most popular success in the works<br />
<strong>of</strong> Dickens and which loved to make fun <strong>of</strong><br />
people by exaggerating their dignity, individual<br />
came to be used a great deal as a noun in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> person (The recalcitrant individual with the<br />
glowing proboscis), and this use, its feeble<br />
humor having faded long ago, has become established<br />
among those who are addicted to<br />
unnecessary syllables. Many speakers and<br />
writers use it today with no facetious intent<br />
whatever (an individual <strong>of</strong> whom this, or any<br />
other community, might be justly proud. Who<br />
was that individual Z saw you with last night?).<br />
But in the best usage the correct word for a<br />
single human being is still person (What is a<br />
person to do on a desert island?). If individual<br />
is to be used as a noun, it must characterize a<br />
person as a single being in contrast with some<br />
such body as the family, the state, or society in<br />
general (The Club ought not to take a stand<br />
on political matters, though the members are<br />
free to express themselves, as individuals, in any<br />
way they see fit. Even in the best <strong>of</strong> democracies<br />
the rights <strong>of</strong> the individual are in constant<br />
danger <strong>of</strong> being sacrificed to the will <strong>of</strong> the<br />
society as a whole). Since it is easier to misuse<br />
individual than to use it in its proper sense as<br />
a noun, it is probably best to think <strong>of</strong> it in its<br />
commoner function as an adjective, where it<br />
means single, particular, separate (Each individual<br />
leaf differs in some particular from all<br />
the others),<br />
indolent. See lazy.<br />
indoor; indoors. Zndoor is the preferred form<br />
when the word is used to qualify a following<br />
noun, as in an indoor playground. Indoors is
indorse 242<br />
the preferred form when the word is used to<br />
qualify anything except a noun, as in he stayed<br />
indoors. But this distinction is not strictly<br />
observed.<br />
indorse. See endorse.<br />
indubitably. See undoubtedly.<br />
induce. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in we induced them to go, but not by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a clause. See also<br />
impel.<br />
inducement. See motive.<br />
induction; deduction. When these two nouns are<br />
used to describe reasoning processes they are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten confused. Actually, the processes they<br />
describe are <strong>of</strong> opposite kinds. Deduction<br />
means applying a general statement or assumption,<br />
whether true or false, to a particular case<br />
(My deduction is that since all men die and I<br />
am a man I will die). Induction means arriving<br />
at a general principle on the basis <strong>of</strong> probabilities<br />
suggested by experiment with and observation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> individual cases (The<br />
essence <strong>of</strong> induction is inferring the general<br />
from the particular, the unknown from the<br />
known).<br />
indulge in; engage in. To indulge in something<br />
suggests an undisciplined satisfaction <strong>of</strong> improper<br />
or harmful desires (As a sailor he had<br />
indulged in all the excesses available to men <strong>of</strong><br />
that calling). Engage has no such overtone <strong>of</strong><br />
disapproval. It simply means to occupy oneself,<br />
to become involved (He engaged in business as<br />
soon as he had finished college). One engages<br />
in speech but indulges in rhetoric, engages in<br />
discussion but indulges in gossip, and so on.<br />
The attitude <strong>of</strong> the speaker towards the activity<br />
alluded to is <strong>of</strong>ten indicated by the word chosen<br />
to describe it and sometimes, for humorous<br />
effect, the words may be switched around (He<br />
was for many years engaged in petty larceny.<br />
He indulged himself in all manner <strong>of</strong> charitable<br />
activities, especially those concerned with the<br />
rehabilitation <strong>of</strong> fallen women), but the shock<br />
upon which such humorous inversion depends<br />
is based on the proper meaning <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
being clear in the reader’s mind.<br />
industrial; industrious. Zndustrial means <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to, or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong>, or resulting<br />
from, industry or the productive arts (His<br />
father thought that a course in industrial engineering<br />
would be a good preparation for<br />
him. The industrial world is little concerned<br />
with theories that have no immediate application).<br />
Industrious means hard-working, diligent<br />
(Zf you are industrious you can finish the job<br />
before dark).<br />
inebriated. See drunk.<br />
ineffable. See unspeakable.<br />
ineffective; ineffectual. When applied to persons,<br />
usage has established a difference between ineflective<br />
and ineffectual. An ineffective person<br />
is an inefficient person, but he may be inefficient<br />
in the one situation alone. An ineffectual<br />
person is a futile person, powerless, impotent,<br />
and inefficient in all situations.<br />
hrehrstic; unelastic. In England either <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words may be used to signify not elastic, lacking<br />
elasticity, unyielding, though inelastic is preferred,<br />
especially in figurative uses (He had a<br />
maddeningly inelastic mind). In the United<br />
States inelastic only is used, in all senses.<br />
inept. See inapt.<br />
inexecrable. See execrable.<br />
inexpensive. See cheap.<br />
inexperienced. See unsophisticated.<br />
inexplicable; inexplainable; unexplainable. All<br />
three <strong>of</strong> these adjectives mean not explainable,<br />
incapable <strong>of</strong> being explained or interpreted. Znexplicable<br />
is the most learned term (The nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> reality remains an inexplicable mystery). Znexplainable<br />
and unexplainable have little to<br />
choose between them. American usage tends to<br />
favor unexplainable, but all three words are a<br />
little cumbrous and most people wisely avoid<br />
them and express the thought in some such<br />
phrase as something Z can’t understand or Z<br />
can’t explain it or nobody can explain it.<br />
infant; child; baby. An infant, in the general<br />
usage <strong>of</strong> the word, is a child during the earliest<br />
period <strong>of</strong> its life when it is still being carried<br />
about, “a babe in arms.” Infant and baby in<br />
current American usage are synonymous,<br />
though baby is the everyday word and infant<br />
would seem formal or a little archaic. A child<br />
is a baby or an infant but in general use it<br />
applies to persons below the age <strong>of</strong> puberty and<br />
since baby is generally used <strong>of</strong> the very young,<br />
a child commonly designates someone anywhere<br />
between weaning and puberty. In law an<br />
infant is a minor, a person under twenty-one,<br />
and a child is any descendant, regardless <strong>of</strong><br />
age. Baby is not recognized in the law as designating<br />
a category.<br />
infantile; childish; childlike; puerile ; boyish ;<br />
girlish. All <strong>of</strong> these words mean characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> or befitting the young. But some things that<br />
are characteristic <strong>of</strong> the young are admirable<br />
and charming and some are annoying. And<br />
what is befitting a child may be contemptible in<br />
an adult. Each <strong>of</strong> the words has acquired a set<br />
<strong>of</strong> connotations that makes it not quite synonymous<br />
with any <strong>of</strong> the others.<br />
Though infantile still means that which pertains<br />
to an infant (infantile diseases, the helplessness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the infantile state), it is most generally<br />
used in contempt <strong>of</strong> adult expressions or<br />
actions which are, in the opinion <strong>of</strong> the speaker<br />
or writer, more suitable to a small child than<br />
to an adult (Such endless talk <strong>of</strong> what he is<br />
going to do is infantile and infuriating. Guests<br />
are embarrassed to be <strong>of</strong>iered these infantile<br />
diversions).<br />
Childish, like infantile, can be used without<br />
any implication <strong>of</strong> disapproval (His big manly<br />
voice,/ Turning again toward childish treble),<br />
but for the most part it is used to designate the<br />
improper or silly manifestation in an adult <strong>of</strong><br />
something which would be proper only in a<br />
child (The unmarried are driven by boredom<br />
to childish amusements or vicious delights To<br />
attach importance to a low-numbered license<br />
plate is childish. But when Z became a man, Z<br />
put away childish things).<br />
Childlike is used almost always in a good
sense, connoting the innocence, freshness, and<br />
meekness <strong>of</strong> children. It is a literary word, used<br />
chiefly by theologians and others who wish to<br />
protect certain important passages in thl: New<br />
Testament from any <strong>of</strong> the depreciative: force<br />
that childish now carries. And certainly there is<br />
a difference, at least in the implication that the<br />
words carry, between a childish faith and a<br />
childlike faith.<br />
Boyish is now almost always favorable<br />
(boyish charm, boyish ambition, boyish<br />
fancies). An unfavorable attitude towards masculine<br />
juvenility will express itself in puerile<br />
(That a grown man should descend to such<br />
puerile accusations is astonishing). These meanings<br />
are not absolutely hard and fast. Boyish<br />
could be used unfavorably, but it rarely is any<br />
more. And Anthony Wood’s assurance that<br />
Franciscus Junius nTu.7 educated in puerile learning<br />
at Leyden would be understood, after the<br />
first amazement, but would seem strange and a<br />
little amusing.<br />
Girlish, not having such a synonym as puellaish<br />
to assume the unpleasant connotations,<br />
serves either way, but on the whole it is depreciative.<br />
Anything proper to a girl that is<br />
unquestionably admirable (as girlish grace or<br />
girlish modesty) is by its nature favorable; but<br />
in most other uses there is a faint disp.aragement<br />
(Of all beyond I was girlishly ignorant.<br />
I lost my girlish laughter). When auulied to<br />
young m&-it is definitely hepreciative; though<br />
boyish might be complimentary if applied to a<br />
girl.<br />
infectious. See contagious.<br />
infer. See imply, deduce.<br />
inferno. As a literary euphemism for Hell, inferno<br />
was introduced about the middle <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth<br />
century. It survives today chiefly .in the<br />
cliche! a raging inferno, a worn journalistic<br />
term for a bad fire or a bad literary term for<br />
the heart, mind, soul, or bosom <strong>of</strong> one agitated<br />
with violent passion.<br />
infertile. See unfertilized.<br />
infidel. See agnostic.<br />
infinite; great. That is infinite to which no bounds<br />
can be set. God’s mercy is said to be infinite.<br />
A young man’s aspirations may be infinil:e because<br />
<strong>of</strong> their very vagueness. Certain mathematical<br />
processes and perhaps space itself may<br />
with strict propriety be called infinite (A haze<br />
on the far horizon,/ The infinite, tender sky).<br />
Almost all other uses are hyperbolical and great<br />
or even very might be substituted. One cannot<br />
eliminate exaggeration from speech and probably<br />
should not even try to, but the effective<br />
speaker or writer will try to hold it in reserve<br />
and at least be aware <strong>of</strong> it when he is using<br />
it. To say He went to an infinite amount <strong>of</strong><br />
trouble to find the reference, for example, is,<br />
really, to weaken the intended effect. He went<br />
to great trouble would probably be more impressive<br />
because it is more restrained. Trouble<br />
can be as near infinite as almost any human experience,<br />
but everyone has had enough trouble<br />
to set its bounds beyond anything incurred in<br />
looking up a reference.<br />
243 infinitives<br />
infinite capacity for taking pains. Miss Jane Ellice<br />
Hopkins’s preposterously pedestrian and typically<br />
Victorian definition <strong>of</strong> genius as an infinite<br />
capacity for taking puins has had such a fascination<br />
for millions devoid <strong>of</strong> genius that it has<br />
become a clich6.<br />
infinitives. The infinitive is the verb form that<br />
simply names the action <strong>of</strong> the verb, without<br />
any other specification such as by whom, when,<br />
how, the action occurs. It is called an infinitive<br />
because, unlike the other verb forms, it is indefinite<br />
in all these respects.<br />
If a verb is transitive and requires an object<br />
to complete its meaning, as the verb does in<br />
the phrase he makes music, the infinitive too<br />
will require an object, as in to make music. (See<br />
transitive verbs.) Like the finite verb forms, the<br />
infinitive is qualified by an adverb and not by<br />
an adjective. But it functions in a sentence as if<br />
it were a noun. Historically speaking, the infinitive<br />
is a single word, such as make or go.<br />
It may be used as the object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he<br />
must go, he did go, or as the object <strong>of</strong> the<br />
preposition to. In Old English the infinitive was<br />
used as the object <strong>of</strong> the preposition to about<br />
25 percent <strong>of</strong> the time. Today it is used in this<br />
way more than 80 percent <strong>of</strong> the time.<br />
(Some grammarians call the infinitive preceded<br />
by to “the supine,” to distinguish it from<br />
the bare infinitive. In this dictionary the true<br />
infinitive is called “the simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb”<br />
and the infinitive with to, the “to-infinitive,” or<br />
simply “the infinitive.“)<br />
In modern English the infinitive without to is<br />
used after do, let, and the regular auxiliary<br />
verbs such as will, can, must (see auxiliary<br />
verbs); after bid, dare, feel, hear, make, need,<br />
see, in the active voice but not in the passive;<br />
in certain constructions or with certain senses<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word after have, help, find, come, go,<br />
run, try; and occasionally after other verbs<br />
meaning “see,” such as behold, mark, observe.<br />
The infinitive with to is used after the auxiliaries<br />
ought, used, and in certain senses be and<br />
have; and in all other constructions involving<br />
independent verbs. The word to may apply to<br />
several infinitives in a series, as in she refused<br />
to eat, talk, or move, or it may represent an<br />
infinitive that is easily supplied from the context,<br />
as in he would like to.<br />
The eighteenth century grammarians, who<br />
relied on logic rather than research to solve<br />
their problems, had trouble explaining the word<br />
to before an infinitive. Some said that it was an<br />
adverb, some said that it was an auxiliary verb,<br />
and some said that it was “an equivocal article.”<br />
Actually, it is the simple preposition to, which<br />
means primarily “in the direction <strong>of</strong>.” It was<br />
first used with an infinitive to show intention or<br />
purpose, as it does in he was led to believe. But<br />
the construction has spread far beyond this and<br />
today the to is <strong>of</strong>ten no more than “the sign<br />
<strong>of</strong> the infinitive,” a prefix which shows that the<br />
following word is an infinitive. But grammatically<br />
the two words still form a prepositional<br />
phrase and are still treated as a prepositional<br />
phrase.
inlinitives 244<br />
(Whether this lo is explained as a preposition,<br />
an auxiliary verb, an adverb, or an<br />
“equivocal article,” there is no reason why a<br />
qualifying word should not stand between it<br />
and the infinitive, as in who dared to nobly<br />
stem tyrannic pride. Whether it should or not<br />
is a question <strong>of</strong> taste, not logic. See split<br />
infinitives.<br />
The agent <strong>of</strong> the action named by an infinitive<br />
is called the subject <strong>of</strong> the infinitive, as him<br />
in there is no need for him to come. Very <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
as in the example, the subject is introduced by<br />
for. This is acceptable under some circumstances<br />
and not under others. (See for.) As a<br />
rule, the subject <strong>of</strong> an infinitive is the object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb or preposition, but it may also be the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a passive verb, as he in he wus heard<br />
to say. This fact might conceivably affect the<br />
case <strong>of</strong> a personal pronoun following to be, but<br />
otherwise is <strong>of</strong> no importance. See be.<br />
USES OF THE INFINITIVE<br />
An infinitive phrase may function as an adjective<br />
qualifying a noun or pronoun, and when<br />
it does, it follows the word it qualifies, as in<br />
the first to come and the last to leave. It may<br />
also function as an adverbial phrase. As a rule,<br />
it is an adverb <strong>of</strong> purpose, as in she looked<br />
down to blush and she looked up to sigh and<br />
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him; but it<br />
may show cause, result, necessity, and similar<br />
ideas. The infinitive may also be used as a noun.<br />
It may be the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, or the complement<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb to be, as in where but to think<br />
is to be full <strong>of</strong> sorrow. Or it may be the direct<br />
object <strong>of</strong> certain verbs, as in learn to labor and<br />
to wait.<br />
In many <strong>of</strong> these uses the infinitive competes<br />
with a full clause containing a subjunctive or<br />
subjunctive substitute verb. I do not know what<br />
to say is equivalent to I do not know what I<br />
should say; and I am here to see him is equivalent<br />
to I am here (so) that I may see him. In<br />
contemporary English the infinitive is more<br />
common than these subjunctive clauses.<br />
The infinitive also competes with the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb. One can say dogs delight to<br />
bark and bite or dogs delight in barking and<br />
biting. Frequently the two forms are interchangeable,<br />
but not always. Some verbs can<br />
take one as object and not the other. The verbs<br />
that are most troublesome in this respect have<br />
been listed individually in this dictionary. In<br />
these entries, the statement that a particular<br />
verb cannot be followed by an infinitive means<br />
that it cannot take an infinitive as object. It<br />
does not mean that the verb cannot be qualified<br />
by an adverbial infinitive <strong>of</strong> purpose.<br />
The infinitive does not express time. The<br />
same form is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the past, the<br />
present, and the future, as in he liked to skate,<br />
he likes to skate, he would like to skate. The<br />
time is shown by the tense <strong>of</strong> the true verb,<br />
such as like.<br />
The infinitive to be followed by the past<br />
participle <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in to be seen, is called<br />
the passive infinitive <strong>of</strong> that verb. This is a<br />
relatively new development in English. Until<br />
recently the infinitive itself was indifferently<br />
active or passive, and it can still be understood<br />
in a passive sense, as in there is a lot to see in<br />
Rome. But the new, distinctly passive form is<br />
an advantage when it is necessary to be precise.<br />
And it allows us to say such things as to love<br />
and be loved by me. We can also make a progressive<br />
infinitive, as in to be seeing, and a progressive<br />
passive, as in to be being seen. Verbs<br />
that are followed by the simple infinitive without<br />
to, are also followed by the simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the passive and progressive infinitives, as in<br />
he may be seen and he may be seeing.<br />
THE PERFECT INFINITIVE<br />
The infinitive to have followed by the past<br />
participle <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in to have seen, is called<br />
the perfect infinitive <strong>of</strong> that verb. It too can<br />
have a passive form, as in to have been seen, a<br />
progressive form, to have been seeing, and a<br />
progressive passive, to have been being seen.<br />
This last form is rare, and some grammarians<br />
say that it is never used. But it is a perfectly<br />
proper form and is heard occasionally, as in<br />
how would you like to have been being scolded<br />
all day?. Again, verbs that are followed by the<br />
simple infinitive without to also omit the to<br />
when followed by a perfect infinitive, as in he<br />
may have seen.<br />
The perfect infinitive sometimes expresses<br />
completed action and sometimes indicates that<br />
what is said is contrary to fact. It always expresses<br />
completed action when it is dependent<br />
on a present tense verb, as in we expect to<br />
have left by then, and may do so when it is<br />
dependent on a past subjunctive auxiliary. When<br />
it is dependent on a past indicative verb form,<br />
it indicates that the action is contrary to fact.<br />
Milton writes: I made him just and right, sufficient<br />
to have stood though free to fall. The<br />
perfect form is used with stood because actually<br />
he did not stand, and the noncommittal form<br />
with faZ1 because, actually, he fell. The same<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the perfect infinitive is seen in I thought<br />
thy bride bed to have deck’t, sweet maid.<br />
This construction is still used, as in he expected<br />
to have left, but in contemporary English<br />
we more <strong>of</strong>ten make a contrary to fact statement<br />
by using the auxiliary had in the principal<br />
verb (that is, by using the past perfect tense),<br />
as in he had expected to leave. When the two<br />
forms are used in the same statement, as in he<br />
had expected to have left, we have a definitely<br />
redundant sentence. The redundancy is not in<br />
a class with the double negative, but it <strong>of</strong>fends<br />
people who are sensitive to words. The sentence<br />
is unliterary, simply because it isn’t neat.<br />
A perfect infinitive used after phrases involving<br />
would have, might hnve, and so on, is a<br />
different matter. These past subjunctive forms<br />
are used in the conclusion following a contrary<br />
to fact condition, as in if he had come, I would<br />
have been pleased. The contrary to fact clause<br />
may be replaced by a perfect infmitive phrase<br />
in just the way that a straightforward subjunctive<br />
clause may be replaced by the plain infini-
tive. In it would huve done you good to have<br />
walked in the garden with us, the words to have<br />
walked replace if you had walked. This is an<br />
established literary construction, used by all<br />
good writers <strong>of</strong> English, and should not be<br />
confused with sentences such as he had enpetted<br />
to have left.<br />
A perfect infinitive is justifiable after some<br />
<strong>of</strong> these verb phrases in other constructions.<br />
With the exception <strong>of</strong> would (and in British<br />
speech in certain constructions should), tlhe subjunctive<br />
auxiliaries followed by have and a past<br />
participle express completed action, which may<br />
or may not be contrary to fact. That is, he could<br />
have asked her to send it, he should have asked<br />
her to send it, do not necessarily imply he did<br />
not ask her. In speech, a special emphasis is put<br />
on the first auxiliary to show that such a statement<br />
is contrary to fact. After verbs I<strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind a perfect infinitive, as in he could have<br />
asked her to have sent it, is not redundant but<br />
precise.<br />
This is not the case with woald have, which<br />
always indicates a contrary to fact statement.<br />
Technically, he would have liked to have left<br />
has the same redundancy as he had expected<br />
to have left. But practically, there is a difference.<br />
On the one hand, the sentence using<br />
would have suggests the type <strong>of</strong> sentence in<br />
which the infinitive replaces a conditional<br />
clause, although that is not actually the case<br />
here. On the other hand, if might have had<br />
been used instead <strong>of</strong> would have, the perfect<br />
infinitive would have been appropriate. Theoretically,<br />
these facts are irrelevant, but they<br />
have an effect on the way the expression s’ounds.<br />
And to most people, he would have liked to<br />
have left sounds like the natural way to say it.<br />
inlinity; infinitude. Infinity and infinitua’e are<br />
synonymous. Since infinite, by definition is incomprehensible,<br />
infinity, or the quality or attribute<br />
<strong>of</strong> being infinite, must be even more so,<br />
an abstraction <strong>of</strong> an unintelligibility. Those<br />
who deal in such concepts may occasionally,<br />
as Fowler drily remarks, find infinity te:dious.<br />
When they do, they can use infinitude for<br />
variety. Thinkers in limited fields will find the<br />
variation needless.<br />
intlammable; inflammatory. That which is i.nflammuble<br />
is capable <strong>of</strong> being set on fire, .but in<br />
popular usage the word is reserved almost exclusively<br />
for those substances which catch fire<br />
easily and burn with rapidity and violence (Deposits<br />
<strong>of</strong> gasoline and other inflammable muteriuls<br />
must be clearly marked by wurning<br />
signs). (See also flammable.) When the word<br />
is applied figuratively to persons, it means excitable,<br />
easily roused to (fiery) passions.<br />
Inflammatory means tending to inflame.<br />
Though it would be understood in a literal sense<br />
(as in such a statement as an inflammatory<br />
spark or the inflammatory torch), it is no longer<br />
so used, being confined to the figurative sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> inflaming or kindling the passions (These<br />
inflammatory speeches fired the mob with<br />
murderous fury). In pathology inflammatory<br />
has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> pertaining to or<br />
attended with inflammation (an inflammatory<br />
sore throat).<br />
inflict; afflict. To aflict is to distress with mental<br />
or bodily pain, to trouble greatly or grievously<br />
(They were ufi‘hcted with plagues. My afflictions-are<br />
more..thun I can bear). To inflict is to<br />
impose or lay on something unwelcome (At<br />
the captain’s command the bosun inflicted a<br />
dozen lushes. You have no right to inflict these<br />
punitive restrictions upon the child). An affliction<br />
may be inflicted only upon sensitive beings.<br />
In such a statement as The land was aflicted<br />
with famine, fund means the living things in the<br />
land.<br />
inform. See advice, tell.<br />
informant; informer. An informant is one who<br />
supplies information. An informer is also one<br />
who supplies information but this meaning has<br />
been almost superseded by the specialized<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> one who makes it his business to<br />
bring criminal information concerning others<br />
to the police. He differs from a voluntary<br />
witness or a citizen doing his duty in that he<br />
expects to be paid for the information that he<br />
brings and rather specializes in charges <strong>of</strong><br />
treason. The word was much in use in seventeenth<br />
and eighteenth century England when it<br />
acquired strong connotations <strong>of</strong> detestation. It<br />
has come into use in America only recently<br />
but has rapidly re-acquired much <strong>of</strong> its former<br />
odium.<br />
infrequent; infrequency. See unfrequent; unfrequented.<br />
infuriated. See enraged.<br />
infuse. See imbue.<br />
-ing. The -ing form <strong>of</strong> the verb must be distinguished<br />
from ordinary nouns that have the<br />
same form. When the Mock Turtle tells Alice<br />
that he has studied reeling, writhing, drawling,<br />
stretching, and fainting in coils, he is using<br />
ordinary nouns because he is talking about<br />
courses <strong>of</strong> study or skills and these are “things,”<br />
as are concepts, customs, and events. The -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb never refers to a “thing.” It<br />
is a way <strong>of</strong> mentioning the action named by a<br />
particular verb, sometimes as a noun, as in the<br />
stretching <strong>of</strong> the rope, and sometimes as an<br />
adjective, as in the reeling man. In what follows<br />
we are speaking only about these verb forms<br />
and not about similar words which are actually<br />
the names <strong>of</strong> things.<br />
In current English the -ing form, if it is not<br />
qualified by an adjective (and this includes a<br />
and the) and if it is not followed by <strong>of</strong>, can<br />
be used any place in the sentence that the sense<br />
permits.<br />
If the -ing form follows a personal pronoun<br />
and the two words are the object <strong>of</strong> a verb or<br />
<strong>of</strong> a preposition, the pronoun may have an<br />
objective form or a possessive form, as in do<br />
you mind us having secrets? and do you mind<br />
our having secrets?. If the two words are standing<br />
in a subject position, the pronoun may have<br />
a subjective form or a possessive form, as in<br />
you going out is no pro<strong>of</strong> that you are well and
yo~cr going out is no pro<strong>of</strong>. A noun or any other<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> pronoun followed by an -ing form may<br />
be in the common case (that is, not in the<br />
genitive case), as anything in mere’s not the<br />
least likelihood <strong>of</strong> anything having happened<br />
to them and lady in is the lady bothering you<br />
any reason for you to come bothering me?.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> these constructions are <strong>of</strong>fensive to<br />
some people and are condemned by some grammarians,<br />
who recommend that the genitive or<br />
possessive be used before -ing words. But the<br />
rules just given describe the way in which most<br />
people now use the -ing form, and these uses<br />
must therefore be recognized as acceptable contemporary<br />
English.<br />
Older constructions involving the -ing are<br />
also heard today. Many people still use nineteenth<br />
century forms in which adjective qualifiers,<br />
the word <strong>of</strong>, and a genitive case in the<br />
preceding word, are required under certain circumstances.<br />
(See l-3 below.) These forms are<br />
acceptable in speech and are generally considered<br />
more literary than the modern forms.<br />
Still older constructions, from the seventeenth<br />
and eighteenth century, are also heard but are<br />
not considered standard now.<br />
It is possible to describe the modern use <strong>of</strong><br />
the -ing without talking about different kinds<br />
<strong>of</strong> -ing. But if anyone wants to use older forms<br />
and wants to know which <strong>of</strong> these are standard<br />
and which are not, he will have to recognize<br />
certain distinctions. During the nineteenth<br />
century it was customary to say that there were<br />
three ways <strong>of</strong> using an -ing, or that the -ing<br />
form had three distinct functions.<br />
1. In one case it had all the characteristics<br />
<strong>of</strong> a noun, as in the worshiping <strong>of</strong> idols was<br />
forbidden. This form was referred to as “the<br />
verbal noun,” but it is now called “the gerund”<br />
to distinguish it from true nouns derived from<br />
verbs. Grammarians in the first part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century defined this form as the -ing<br />
preceded by a definitive word, such as a, the,<br />
this, that, a genitive, or a possessive. This<br />
gerund form can be immediately preceded by an<br />
adjective but not by an adverb. That is, we can<br />
say the occasional worshiping <strong>of</strong> idols but not<br />
the occasionally worshiping <strong>of</strong> idols. It cannot<br />
be followed immediately by an object but<br />
requires the preposition <strong>of</strong>. That is, we cannot<br />
say the worshiping idols was forbidden. (The<br />
word <strong>of</strong> may be omitted when a gerund is preceded<br />
by the word no, as in there was no persuading<br />
them, but under no other circumstances.)<br />
Only the direct object <strong>of</strong> the verbal<br />
idea can be joined to the gerund by means <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>.<br />
An indirect object requires the preposition to.<br />
That is, we may say the giving <strong>of</strong> cnndy to<br />
children but we cannot say the giving <strong>of</strong><br />
children candy.<br />
During the nineteenth century the gerund was<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten required for the subject or the object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, but it was not <strong>of</strong>ten used for the object<br />
<strong>of</strong> a preposition, as in a law against the worshiping<br />
<strong>of</strong> idols, where a simpler form was possible<br />
and preferred.<br />
2. The -ing form may have all the characteristics<br />
<strong>of</strong> an adjective. When it does it is called<br />
a participle. This form is used in the twentieth<br />
century just as it was in the nineteenth. A participle<br />
that is an integral part <strong>of</strong> a sentence<br />
must qualify a noun or noun equivalent in just<br />
the way an adjective does. It may stand before<br />
a noun, as in a laughing girl, or it may follow,<br />
as in a girl picking cherries. A personal pronoun<br />
qualified by a participle is subjective or objective<br />
depending on its function in the sentence.<br />
It is never possessive. A noun or any other kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> pronoun is always in the common case. (An<br />
-ing form may also be part <strong>of</strong> a phrase that is<br />
grammatically independent <strong>of</strong> the sentence, as<br />
in generally speaking, girls are a nuisance. For<br />
a discussion <strong>of</strong> this, see participles.) A participle<br />
may be qualified by an adverb but not by an<br />
adjective (that is, we may say a girl occasionally<br />
picking cherries but not a girl occasional<br />
picking cherries) ; and it may be followed by an<br />
object (such as cherries) but not by an <strong>of</strong><br />
phrase, unless the verb itself requires <strong>of</strong>, as in<br />
thinking <strong>of</strong> her. Earlier, a participle might be<br />
followed by <strong>of</strong>, as picking in a dozen <strong>of</strong> them<br />
picking <strong>of</strong> his bones, but this is not considered<br />
standard now.<br />
3. The third way in which an -ing form can<br />
be used is seen in there were laws against worshiping<br />
idols. Here worshiping is not an adjective<br />
qualifying a noun or pronoun, but it has<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the characteristics <strong>of</strong> the participial adjective.<br />
And it does not have the characteristics<br />
required <strong>of</strong> a gerund. Nineteenth century grammarians<br />
called this form <strong>of</strong> the -ing the gerundive<br />
because it resembled the Latin adjective<br />
made from the verbal noun or gerund, and not<br />
the simple participle. They defined the gerundive<br />
as the -ing form <strong>of</strong> the verb that is used<br />
after a preposition. (Today the one word gerund<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used for this form as well as for the<br />
verbal noun.)<br />
The gerundive could be qualified by an adverb,<br />
as in laws against occasionally worshiping<br />
idols, but it could not be qualified by an<br />
adjective, as in laws against occasional worshiping<br />
idols. A genitive or possessive form is<br />
equivalent to an adjective and conservative<br />
grammarians claimed that the gerundive could<br />
not be preceded by one <strong>of</strong> these forms. That is,<br />
they claimed that one could not say laws against<br />
their worshiping idols. The gerundive could be<br />
followed by a direct object but not by <strong>of</strong>.<br />
Formerly it might be followed by <strong>of</strong>, as in I<br />
thank you for receiving <strong>of</strong> me and as to giving<br />
<strong>of</strong> you up. These old constructions can still be<br />
heard today but are no longer considered<br />
standard. The aerundive could be followed by<br />
an indirect object as well as by a direct, as in<br />
a rule against giving children candy. (This is<br />
also true for the participle.)<br />
These three forms <strong>of</strong> the -ing all occur in:<br />
(we will) silence their mourning with VOWS <strong>of</strong><br />
returning, but never intending to visit them<br />
more. There is the gerund mourning, which is<br />
the object <strong>of</strong> the verb silence; the gerundive
eturning, which is the object <strong>of</strong> the preposition<br />
<strong>of</strong>; and the participle intending, which qualifies<br />
the pronoun we. There is another kind <strong>of</strong> verbal<br />
noun, the infinitive, which can also function as<br />
the subject or the object <strong>of</strong> a verb, and we have<br />
this too in to visit, which is here the object <strong>of</strong><br />
the participle intending. See infinitives.<br />
The Victorian gerundive is treated like a participle<br />
but it is essentially a noun and al!ways<br />
carries the implication <strong>of</strong> the verbal noun and<br />
not <strong>of</strong> the adjective. It may be used to qualify<br />
a following noun, but when it is it has the force<br />
<strong>of</strong> an abbreviated prepositional phrase, as if a<br />
preposition such as for had been omitted. Singing<br />
is a participle in a singing child but not in<br />
e singing lesson. The -ing words are gerundives<br />
and not participles in drinking glasses, walking<br />
sticks, growing pains, writing paper. See ‘cornpound<br />
words.<br />
By Victorian standards a gerundive with an<br />
object could not be used as the subject or the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb. That is, one could not. say<br />
worshiping idols was forbidden or the law<br />
forbade worshiping idols. The gerund or some<br />
other construction, such as an infinitive or a<br />
clause, was required here. In contemporary<br />
English, the gerundive is used freely as the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, but it is not always acceptable<br />
as an object.<br />
By Victorian standards, a noun or pronoun<br />
standing immediately before the gerund must<br />
be a genitive or possessive. A word standin’g in<br />
this position always represents the subject <strong>of</strong><br />
the verbal idea expressed in the gerund. A participle,<br />
on the other hand, may follow an uninflected<br />
noun or a subjective or objective<br />
pronoun, but it cannot qualify a preceding genitive<br />
or possessive. What form a noun or .pronoun<br />
standing before a gerundive and representing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the action should have, is<br />
a more complicated problem.<br />
During the first half <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth<br />
century, conservative grammarians claimed that<br />
a genitive or possessive form could not stand<br />
before a gerundive, since an adjective could not<br />
stand in this position. Thackeray was reflecting<br />
conservative speech when he wrote: I insist on<br />
Miss Sharp appearing, rather than Miss Sharp’s<br />
appearing. Noah Webster opposed this tradition.<br />
He claimed that if the preceding word was<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verbal idea a genitive or<br />
possessive form was required.<br />
Modern grammarians settle a question like<br />
this by counting instances. An examination <strong>of</strong><br />
English literature made forty years ago to determine<br />
this point shows that from 1400 to 1900<br />
a possessive pronoun was almost always useal in<br />
preference to an objective pronoun before a<br />
gerundive, and that the genitive form <strong>of</strong> a noun<br />
was used approximately half the time. Thlere<br />
is no doubt that Webster had a better ear for<br />
English than his opponents. By the end <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century his teachings had been :accepted<br />
as standard, and they are what now<br />
appear in textbooks.<br />
But in the meantime, the eighteenth and<br />
247 -iIlg<br />
early nineteenth century standards had had<br />
their effect. An analysis <strong>of</strong> the speech <strong>of</strong> educated<br />
Americans made thirty years ago found<br />
that the common form <strong>of</strong> the noun was overwhelmingly<br />
preferred to the genitive before a<br />
gerundive and that an objective pronoun was<br />
used in preference to a possessive pronoun<br />
48 percent <strong>of</strong> the time. In current English it is<br />
more usual to say on Miss Sharp appearing than<br />
on Miss Sharp’s appearing. Either form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pronoun may be used. One may say I’m surprised<br />
at his saying that or I’m surprised ot<br />
him saying that without intending any difference<br />
in meaning or emphasis. A possessive form<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used parallel with a noun in the<br />
common case, as in I can undersfand an Afghan<br />
stealing but I cannot understand his crying. Of<br />
course, if the pronoun itself is the object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb or preposition and the -ing a descriptive<br />
participle, the pronoun must have the objective<br />
form, as in we saw him running.<br />
What has been said applies only to an -ing<br />
construction that is the object <strong>of</strong> a verb or preposition.<br />
When the -ing is the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
some people still prefer a noun in the genitive,<br />
as in the children’s wanting that surprises me;<br />
but the simple form, as in the children wanting<br />
that surprises me, is also acceptable and is preferred<br />
by many. If the noun itself is the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb and the -ing a descriptive participle,<br />
only the simple form can be used, as in the<br />
children, wanting some candy, came into the<br />
room. In the case <strong>of</strong> a pronoun, most people<br />
prefer a possessive form when the -ing is the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in their being my friends<br />
makes it worse; but a subjective form, as in<br />
they being my friends makes it worse, is used<br />
too <strong>of</strong>ten by good writers to be called anything<br />
but standard. Again, if the pronoun itself is the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> the verb a subjective form is required,<br />
as in he, being in a hurry, began to run. but<br />
constructions <strong>of</strong> this kind are not <strong>of</strong>ten used.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> pronouns, the situation is complicated<br />
by the fact that there are three forms<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> two. A subjective form is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
where the logic <strong>of</strong> grammar would require an<br />
objective or possessive form. When the subjective<br />
pronoun is close to the preceding verb or<br />
preposition, as in instead <strong>of</strong> he converting the<br />
Zulus, the Zulu chief converted him, it is <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
to most educated people, but not to all.<br />
When a great many words come between the<br />
pronoun and the verb or preposition so that the<br />
construction is obscured, the subjective form is<br />
acceptable to most people, as the they in without<br />
my interfering with their sleep or they with<br />
mine and the he in that would be a motive for<br />
her murdering him, not he her.<br />
An objective pronoun is also heard in a subjective<br />
position, as me in me knowing their<br />
names surprised them and him in it’s no use<br />
him wiring buck. This is in keeping with the<br />
tendency in English to use a subjective pronoun<br />
immediately before a true verb and an objective<br />
form in any other position. Sentences <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind are acceptable in speech. That is to say,
ingenious 248<br />
they are seidom noticed by any one except a<br />
grammarian. But ordinarily these forms would<br />
be changed to possessives before appearing in<br />
print.<br />
ingenious; ingenuous. Ingenious used to mean<br />
possessed <strong>of</strong> genius (For epigram few could<br />
surpass the learned and ingenious Mr. Thomas<br />
Clover), but it has now been weakened to mean<br />
simply clever, especially at contriving or making<br />
things (At the age <strong>of</strong> ten he had made a most<br />
ingenious device whereby his alarm clock, on<br />
going <strong>of</strong>f, closed the windows and turned on<br />
the heat). Ingenuous, which once meant <strong>of</strong> free<br />
or honorable birth, now means open or frank<br />
(He ingenuously acknowledged the fault and<br />
besought the old man’s forgiveness). Cynicism<br />
has operated somewhat upon the word and a<br />
secondary, though increasingly common, meaning<br />
is guileless, innocent, and frank almost to<br />
the point <strong>of</strong> folly (So ingenuous a revelation <strong>of</strong><br />
gullibility set the whole table laughing).<br />
inhabitable. See habitable.<br />
inharmonious; unharmonious. As an adjective to<br />
describe anything that is discordant or not harmonious,<br />
whether it be music or ideas, inharmonious<br />
is preferred to unharmonious, though<br />
unharmonious is not incorrect.<br />
inherent; innate. That is inherent which exists as<br />
a permanent and inseparable element, quality,<br />
or attribute <strong>of</strong> something (There is an inherent<br />
baseness in lying that no amount <strong>of</strong> casuistry<br />
can remove). That is innate which is inborn,<br />
existing or as if existing in one from birth, or<br />
arising from the constitution <strong>of</strong> the mind rather<br />
than acquired from experience (The moral feelings<br />
are not innate but acquired). See also<br />
essential.<br />
inhibit; prohibit. Inhibit and prohibit are in many<br />
situations synonymous. Calhoun’s insistence that<br />
the treaty-making power <strong>of</strong> the government <strong>of</strong><br />
the United States is limited by all the provisions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Constitution which inhibit certain acts<br />
from being done by the government could just<br />
as well have been prohibit. None the less, they<br />
are not at all times interchangeable and are<br />
becoming increasingly less interchangeable as<br />
the popular feeling grows that something which<br />
is inhibited is restrained or forbidden by some<br />
inner feeling or condition and something which<br />
is prohibited is restrained or forbidden by some<br />
outside authority. A man might be inhibited<br />
from smoking by a sense <strong>of</strong> delicacy or a personal<br />
fear <strong>of</strong> its effect on his health. He would<br />
be prohibited from smoking by his doctor’s<br />
orders, under some circumstances by state fire<br />
laws, in airplanes at the take-<strong>of</strong>f by regulations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Civil Aeronautics Authority, and so on.<br />
inhuman. See unhuman.<br />
initiate; initiation. While initiate means “begin,”<br />
the two words are not completely synonymous.<br />
An initiation may be a formal introduction to<br />
certain mysteries. Or it may be an ingenious<br />
first act in a new field (He initiated the present<br />
procedures in examining applicants). One begins<br />
a conversation but initiates a series <strong>of</strong><br />
conferences between persons <strong>of</strong> great impor-<br />
tance. One takes the initiative in doing something<br />
not <strong>of</strong> doing it. See also begin.<br />
inmates; patients. An inmate is, strictly, one who<br />
dwells with another or others in the same house.<br />
It is still sometimes used, though rarely, in this<br />
and the closely associated sense <strong>of</strong> inhabitant<br />
(The present inmate is a Mr. Murchisotz). In<br />
current usage inmates is used most frequently<br />
to designate prisoners in a certain prison or<br />
patients in a certain insane asylum (The inmates<br />
sullenly refused to listen to the warden’s<br />
terms) or the inhabitants <strong>of</strong> various institutions<br />
such as homes for the aged or the blind.<br />
The common application <strong>of</strong> the word does not<br />
seem to rest on any suggestion <strong>of</strong> criminality<br />
or even <strong>of</strong> social undesirability, though this<br />
inference might well be drawn by the sensitive<br />
among many <strong>of</strong> these unfortunates, but on the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> a more or less permanent dwelling in<br />
an institution.<br />
For those who are confined to a hospital for<br />
medical or surgical treatment, so long as it is<br />
not a hospital restricted solely to mental patients<br />
or attached to a penal institution, the term is<br />
patients. Where an institution for the care <strong>of</strong><br />
the insane calls itself a hospital its inmates are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten called patients. There seems to be an<br />
association <strong>of</strong> the two words.<br />
inmost; innermost. These forms are equally acceptable<br />
as superlatives for the idea contained<br />
in in.<br />
innate; instinct. Innate means inborn. Znstinct<br />
when used as an adjective means urged or animated<br />
from within, infused with some active<br />
principle. Innate is followed by in. Znstinct is<br />
followed by with (The urge to self-preservation<br />
is innate. There was an innate skepticism in<br />
Johnson’s mind that warred continually with<br />
his deep piety. The buds, instinct with life, lay<br />
yet within their sticky teguments). See also<br />
inherent.<br />
inner man. The inner man which St. Paul prayed<br />
might be strengthened by God’s spirit was the<br />
soul, the inner or spiritual part <strong>of</strong> man. It was<br />
“saving doctrine” which Milton felt attracts the<br />
soul,/ Governs the inner man, the nobler part.<br />
The application <strong>of</strong> the term to the stomach and<br />
<strong>of</strong> “strengthening” to eating was a flight <strong>of</strong> midnineteenth<br />
century humor which has survived<br />
its impiety and its humor to become a clichk.<br />
innervate; enervate. To innervate is to give nervous<br />
energy to, to stimulate through the nerves,<br />
or to grow nerves into. The word is restricted<br />
to works on anatomy and neurology. To enervate<br />
is to deprive <strong>of</strong> nervous strength, to<br />
weaken. It is in general use (enervated by luxury),<br />
but has become specialized, almost to the<br />
point <strong>of</strong> being a clich6, as a term for the enfeebling<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> a hot, moist climate (The high<br />
temperatures <strong>of</strong> the rain forest are exceedingly<br />
enervating to whites).<br />
innings. In Great Britain this word is a singular<br />
as well as a plural and can be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> just one, as in the ninth innings. In the United<br />
States the singular form is inning and innings is<br />
used only in speaking <strong>of</strong> more than one.
innocent as a newborn babe. A baby has: long<br />
been established as a type <strong>of</strong> innocence and<br />
various wits have labored to heighten the simile.<br />
The phrase has appeared at different times over<br />
the past four centuries as innocent as an unborn<br />
child, innocent as a newborn babe, innocent<br />
as an unchristened babe. In any form it is<br />
now a cliche. W. S. Gilbert gave a humlorous<br />
freshness to the idea with his as innocent as a<br />
new-laid egg.<br />
innuendo. The plural is innuendoes.<br />
innumerable. See endless.<br />
inquire; ask; demand; question. As verbs, these<br />
words all imply the seeking <strong>of</strong> information by<br />
one person (or persons) from another (or<br />
others). Ask is the everyday word (He asked<br />
me what Z knew about the incident), but it is<br />
sometimes ambiguous because it has the further<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> demanding and soliciting (He asks<br />
forty-five dollars for it. Z ask you to help me).<br />
Inquire is more formal and always implies asking<br />
about something specific (inquire the route,<br />
inquire the time <strong>of</strong> departure). It has a slight<br />
advantage over ask because it has a corresponding<br />
noun inquiry whereas asking is limited in its<br />
uses and except for the phrase It’s yours-or<br />
his-for the asking has a suggestion <strong>of</strong> deliberate<br />
archaism. To demand is to ask for with<br />
authority, peremptorily, urgently (His face grew<br />
red with anger and he demanded an answer at<br />
once). To question is to ask repeatedly and persistently.<br />
Witnesses are questioned in trials and<br />
investigations. It carries, also, a connotation <strong>of</strong><br />
skepticism (I question the veracity <strong>of</strong> that statemerit).<br />
inquirer; inquisitor. An inquirer is simply one<br />
who makes an inquiry. An inquisitor is .a persistent<br />
questioner, <strong>of</strong>ten inquisitive, eager to<br />
know matters which the one questioned1 may<br />
feel he has a right to keep to himself. From<br />
association with the Holy Office, better k:nown<br />
as the Inquisition, and its chief <strong>of</strong>ficer the Grand<br />
Inquisitor, the word inquisitor has some connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who carries his questioning to a<br />
point that is torture to the one being questioned.<br />
inquisition; disquisition. An inquisition is an investigation<br />
or process <strong>of</strong> inquiry (Nor have<br />
these mysterious comings and goings escaped<br />
the inquisition <strong>of</strong> the suspicious). A disquisition<br />
is a formal discourse or treatise in which a subject<br />
is examined and discussed, a dissertation.<br />
A disquisition may well embody the results <strong>of</strong><br />
an inquisition.<br />
inquisitive. See curious.<br />
insanitary. See unsanitary.<br />
inscrutable. See mysterious.<br />
inside <strong>of</strong>. This phrase ordinarily means “on the<br />
inside.” It may also mean “in less than,” as in<br />
inside <strong>of</strong> an hour, inside <strong>of</strong> a mile. This sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word is standard in the United States, but<br />
in Great Britain it is considered “colonial.”<br />
insidious: invidious: <strong>of</strong>fensive. That is insidious<br />
which’is intended to entrap (an insidious question)<br />
or is stealthily treacherous or deceitful<br />
(an insidious foe, continually <strong>of</strong>fering terms<br />
which he had no intention <strong>of</strong> abiding by). The<br />
inspiration<br />
word is <strong>of</strong>ten used <strong>of</strong> a disease which proceeds<br />
without any very alarming symptoms to a grave<br />
or fatal condition.<br />
That is invidious which is prompted by or<br />
adapted to excite dislike or ill will. unfairlv<br />
discriminating. An invidious comparison or invidious<br />
praise would be a comparison or praise<br />
designed to cast odium rather than actually to<br />
compare or praise (What needs, 0 monarch,<br />
this invidious praise,/ Ourselves to lessen, while<br />
our sires you raise?). Invidious used to mean<br />
envious and invidious praise would have been<br />
praise designed deliberately to excite envy. The<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> envious has now been lost, however,<br />
and all that is retained is the ill will that the<br />
envy would engender. It differs from <strong>of</strong>lensive,<br />
however, in that it designates a particular kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fensiveness, an <strong>of</strong>fensiveness based on unflattering<br />
or spiteful comparisons or praise <strong>of</strong><br />
others. It would simply be <strong>of</strong>fensive to compare<br />
a man to a pig. It would be invidious to compare<br />
him to someone who plainly surpassed<br />
him in some field <strong>of</strong> endeavor in which he<br />
prided himself on his accomplishments. If the<br />
comparison were so worded (as in satire it<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten is) that it seemed a compliment though<br />
it was actually an insult, it would be, as a compliment,<br />
insidious.<br />
insidious; beguiling. Though insidious and beguiling<br />
both mean treacherous and deceiving,<br />
insidious designates things which are evilly deceiving<br />
and dangerously treacherous while beguiling<br />
is now largely restricted to things which<br />
deceive by pleasing artifice and whose deceptions<br />
are not only delightful but involve no great<br />
loss or harm to us and sometimes, indeed, do<br />
us good (The child’s beguiling ways could always<br />
win over her doting grandparents. How<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten have his affectionate antics beguiled me<br />
from melancholy thoughts!).<br />
insignia. This word has a plural form and may<br />
always be used as a plural, as in all these insignia<br />
and the insignia are well known. The<br />
Latin singular is insigne and some people believe<br />
that this is the only correct singular. But<br />
the word insignia is used as a singular, as well<br />
as a plural, in literary English. Hawthorne, for<br />
example, wrote he bore a slender white wand,<br />
the dreaded insignia <strong>of</strong> his <strong>of</strong>ice. In the United<br />
States Army insignia is used <strong>of</strong>ficially as a singular<br />
and is given a regular English plural<br />
insignias.<br />
insinuate. See imply.<br />
insipid. See vapid.<br />
insolent. See impertinent.<br />
insoluble; insolvable; unsolvable. In the senses<br />
<strong>of</strong> incapable <strong>of</strong> being dissolved and incapable<br />
<strong>of</strong> being explained, insoluble is now the standard<br />
word, though insolvable and unsolvable are<br />
both admissible variants. Znsolvable retains one<br />
particular, rare meaning: not convertible into<br />
cash, as a banknote or bill that cannot be<br />
cashed.<br />
inspiration; aspiration. Though the older solemn<br />
religious meaning <strong>of</strong> inspiration is understood<br />
and still retained in use, the common meaning
installment 250<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word today is little more than encouragement<br />
or hope or that which or he who (or, more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten, especially in popular song and story, she<br />
who) gives encouragement or hope (Margie,<br />
you’ve been my inspiration, Margie). Further<br />
weakened, it is used a great deal for a happy<br />
thought or unexpected solution to a problem,<br />
usually a minor problem (Hey, I’ve got an inspiration:<br />
there’s that fellow visiting Joe-he’ll<br />
do for a fourth).<br />
Aspiration remains a more dignified word.<br />
It means a l<strong>of</strong>ty and ambitious desire (The high<br />
aspirations and vast yearnings <strong>of</strong> the young).<br />
installment plan. The dividing <strong>of</strong> a debt into<br />
equal sums to be paid at fixed successive intervals<br />
which is known in America as the<br />
installment plan, or buying on the installment<br />
or selling on the installment plan, is known in<br />
England as the hire purchase plan or system.<br />
instance. See example; case.<br />
instant. See minute.<br />
instant; ultimo; proximo. While the use <strong>of</strong> instant,<br />
abbreviated inst., to mean “<strong>of</strong> the present<br />
month” in referring to dates, as Yours <strong>of</strong> the<br />
12th inst. to hand and contents noted, is quite<br />
correct, it has come to be regarded as a piece<br />
<strong>of</strong> business-letter jargon and is now generally<br />
avoided. Your letter <strong>of</strong> the 12th will usually do<br />
quite as well, though many men prefer, in the<br />
interest <strong>of</strong> strict accuracy, to say Your letter <strong>of</strong><br />
May 12, or whatever month it may be, even<br />
though the answer is written in the same month.<br />
And though this may seem a little stiff, it is<br />
safe.<br />
The same applies, even more strongly, to<br />
ultimo, abbreviated u/t., meaning <strong>of</strong> the month<br />
preceding the present month, and pronimo, abbreviated<br />
prox., meaning in or <strong>of</strong> the next or<br />
coming month.<br />
instanter is a law term for instantly. Outside <strong>of</strong><br />
legal documents or legal talk it now seems a<br />
little forced and affected.<br />
instantly; instantaneously. See immediately.<br />
instigate. See impel.<br />
instill. See imbue.<br />
instinct (adj.). See innate.<br />
instinct (noun). See intuition.<br />
institute; institution. Institution is the general word<br />
and covers more meanings. It designates an<br />
organization for the promotion <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
object, usually for some public, educational, or<br />
charitable work (The State Institution for the<br />
Blind), or the building devoted to such work<br />
(Turning the corner, he was confronted with<br />
the bleak walls <strong>of</strong> the Institution). In sociology<br />
an institution is an organized pattern <strong>of</strong> group<br />
behavior, fully accepted by the members <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cultural group (the institution <strong>of</strong> slavery) or<br />
any established custom. Colloquially the word<br />
is used to designate any familiar practice or object<br />
(Old Sam’s drunks were quite an institution<br />
in the town). And, <strong>of</strong> course, it can mean the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> instituting (The institution <strong>of</strong> the new<br />
regulations caused a great deal <strong>of</strong> grumbling<br />
among the employees).<br />
An institute may also be an organization for<br />
carrying on a particular scientific, educational,<br />
or artistic work (The Institute for Advanced<br />
Study) or the building in which such work is<br />
carried on (The Art Institute). Like institution,<br />
it has been used so much as a euphemism for<br />
houses <strong>of</strong> correction, particularly those established<br />
for youthful <strong>of</strong>fenders, that in many contexts<br />
it has a pejorative connotation (Root de<br />
toot, root de toot,/ We’re the girls from the<br />
Institute). It is usually confined to such institutions<br />
as have chosen to call themselves institutes<br />
and to the buildings that house them. Many<br />
universities designate one <strong>of</strong> their units, usually<br />
for advanced study in some special field, an<br />
institute (The Oriental Institute, The Technological<br />
Institute). The word can also mean a<br />
short course <strong>of</strong> studies, established for a particular<br />
group and purpose (The Institute <strong>of</strong><br />
African Studies). And it has the special meaning,<br />
in the plural, <strong>of</strong> a collection <strong>of</strong> principles<br />
and precepts (Calvin’s “Znstitutes” remains one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world’s great demonstrations <strong>of</strong> logic).<br />
instructional; instructive. Both instructional and<br />
instructive mean educational, but instructional<br />
refers more directly to teaching and learning<br />
(Although it is to be hoped that the cruise will<br />
be pleasurable, it is intended primarily to be<br />
instructional). Znstructive refers more directly<br />
to the conveying <strong>of</strong> information but differs<br />
slightly from informative in that it suggests that<br />
the information is conveyed with an instructional<br />
purpose (Once more, Democritus, arise<br />
on earth,/ With cheerful wisdom and instructive<br />
mirth). It is this shade <strong>of</strong> meaning that<br />
gives satiric point to Pope’s account <strong>of</strong> the<br />
activities <strong>of</strong> the belles and beaux at Hampton<br />
Court in The Rape <strong>of</strong> the Lock:<br />
In various talk th’ instructive hours they past,<br />
Who gave the ball, or paid the visit last;<br />
One speaks the glory <strong>of</strong> the British Queen,<br />
And one describes a charming Zndian screen;<br />
A third interprets motions, looks, and eyes;<br />
At ev’ry word a reputation dies.<br />
He had originally written the cheerful hours but<br />
changed it, in the second edition, to instructive.<br />
And a happy revision it was, for it suggests, in<br />
keeping with the mocking light gravity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
poem, that in Belinda’s set a knowledge <strong>of</strong> these<br />
trivia was necessary to one’s education as a<br />
courtier. The acquirement <strong>of</strong> gossip was their<br />
schooling, indispensable to the business <strong>of</strong><br />
frivolity.<br />
insufferable. See unsufferable.<br />
insurance. See assurance.<br />
insure. See assure; ensure.<br />
integrate. In mathematics, or anywhere else, to<br />
integrate means to bring parts together into a<br />
whole. It is rarely used in a literal sense (To<br />
say that automobiles were integrated on the<br />
assembly line would cause a stare or a laugh),<br />
but it has become a vogue word in educational,<br />
advertising, and, especially, psychological<br />
circles. Programs are always being integrated,<br />
plans are integrated, campaigns are integrated<br />
-indeed anything at all that can be combined<br />
or joined may be said to be integrated. The<br />
diverse or conflicting elements <strong>of</strong> character or
personality are continually being “integrated”<br />
by those who approach the problems -<strong>of</strong> the<br />
mind or spirit in a brisk, businesslike way. One<br />
<strong>of</strong> the authors <strong>of</strong> this book saw Ye must be integrated<br />
scrawled in chalk on the wall <strong>of</strong> a<br />
midwestern theological seminary, one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
more remarkable graffiti <strong>of</strong> our times. Outside<br />
<strong>of</strong> mathematics, the word needs a rest.<br />
intelligent; intellectual; intelligentsia. Znteli’igent<br />
suggests a natural quickness <strong>of</strong> understanding.<br />
The word implies a native capacity indtependent<br />
<strong>of</strong> education. Indeed, it is <strong>of</strong>ten used <strong>of</strong><br />
animals (I never had a more intelligent dog).<br />
In addition to such a high degree <strong>of</strong> understanding,<br />
however, intellectual implies a capacity and<br />
taste for the higher forms <strong>of</strong> knowledge (Intellectual<br />
pursuits are the solace <strong>of</strong> advancing<br />
years). An intellectual is one who possesses or<br />
shows mental capacity <strong>of</strong> a high degree or<br />
(more <strong>of</strong>ten) a member <strong>of</strong> a class or group<br />
that pr<strong>of</strong>esses or is supposed to possess enlightened<br />
judgment. Since this implies superiority, it<br />
is a term more <strong>of</strong>ten applied than claimed and<br />
in a democratic society <strong>of</strong>ten has slight overtones<br />
<strong>of</strong> contempt. There is no English ward to<br />
designate the intelligent as a group (the intelligent<br />
rarely going in groups and probably too<br />
intelligent to permit themselves to be recognized<br />
as superior people). Intelligentsia first appeared<br />
in English during the present century and came<br />
from Russia. It is sometimes used seriously,<br />
meaning the intellectuals, but more <strong>of</strong>ten it is<br />
used derisively meaning, as H. G. Wells says,<br />
“an irresponsible middle class with ideas.” In<br />
either case, it is a group name and is regularly<br />
used with a plural verb, as in the intelligentsia<br />
were <strong>of</strong>lended. It is not a true plural and cannot<br />
be used with a numeral. We may say three intellectuals<br />
but we must say three members <strong>of</strong><br />
the intelligentsia.<br />
iuteiligent; intelligible. To be intelligent is to possess<br />
good sense and quickness <strong>of</strong> understanding.<br />
An intelligent remark is one that shows its<br />
utterer to have had these qualities. An intelligible<br />
remark is one that is clear and cain be<br />
understood. An intelligent person, if he has<br />
anything to say, takes pains to be intelligible<br />
to the person to whom he is speaking.<br />
intend. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I intend to go myself, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I intend going myself.<br />
Both forms are standard in the United States.<br />
Zntend may also be followed by a clause, but<br />
the clause verb must be a subjunctive or a<br />
subjunctive equivalent, as in I intend he go. An<br />
infinitive construction, such as I intend to let<br />
him go or to have him go, is generally preferred.<br />
intended. As short for intended husband or wife,<br />
intended is colloquial. Fowler calls it “vulgar,”<br />
the product <strong>of</strong> an “ill-bred shyness” and wistfully<br />
wishes that betrothed, a dignified and accurate<br />
word, might be “given another chance.”<br />
But words once out <strong>of</strong> fashion are rarely given<br />
another chance. For some uneasy or evasive<br />
reason we feel the relationship is best concealed<br />
in the French fiance’(e) and betrothed has :Eaded<br />
251 intensives<br />
with the attitude it expressed. That words rarely<br />
come back is not, however, wholly discouraging;<br />
intended is also fading from use.<br />
intense; intensive. That is intense which exists or<br />
occurs in a high or extreme degree (as the<br />
intense brilliance <strong>of</strong> the sunlight on the snow)<br />
or is acute or vehement (as intense anxiety or<br />
an intense gale). That is intensive which is concentrated<br />
(as intensive research, intensive fire).<br />
What is intensive is usually intense, and what<br />
is intense may be intensive, but it need not<br />
necessarily be so. An intense bombardment<br />
would be a severe bombardment. An intensive<br />
bombardment, in the strictest sense-as Fowler<br />
points out-is one in which “the fire converges<br />
upon a much narrower front than that from<br />
which it is discharged.” In common usage it is<br />
one which is directed upon a small section <strong>of</strong><br />
the city, fortification, encampment or whatever<br />
it is that is under bombardment.<br />
Zntensive used to be completely synonymous<br />
with intense (Robert Burton speaks <strong>of</strong> an intensive<br />
pleasure), but this use is now obsolete.<br />
Of course if the loose use <strong>of</strong> intensive to mean<br />
intense continues and gains wide enough acceptance,<br />
it may be so again. But at the moment<br />
it is not.<br />
intensely; very. Intensely is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym<br />
for very. In such a sentence as It was<br />
intensely hot this is admissible, since heat can<br />
be intense. In such a sentence as He was intensely<br />
learned it is confusing and close to<br />
meaningless. In such a sentence as He was<br />
intensely rich it is simply wrong. There must<br />
be some element <strong>of</strong> intensity in the meaning<br />
before its use can be justified. If in doubt, use<br />
very.<br />
intensive pronouns. A pronoun that has no function<br />
in a sentence except to emphasize a noun<br />
or some other pronoun, such as himself in he<br />
himself has said it, is called an intensive. In<br />
current English the -self words are used freely<br />
in this way.<br />
Formerly, the simple personal pronouns were<br />
also used as intensives, as they in thy rod and<br />
thy staff they comfort me. This construction is<br />
now considered redundant and is condemned<br />
in most textbooks. But it is still literary English.<br />
It is used in poetry, as it in the rain it streams<br />
on stone and hillock, and in prose that has an<br />
emotional tone, as they in these men who gave<br />
their lives for their country, they did not ask<br />
for a cash payment in advance. But when it<br />
occurs in a very simple sentence, such as my<br />
father he suys no, it is generally condemned.<br />
Most people today do not use the personal pronouns<br />
as intensives. If anyone uses them in this<br />
way because he does not know that it’s against<br />
the rules, his speech is uneducated. But if anyone<br />
uses them in this way because he knows that<br />
English literature does not support the rules, his<br />
speech is “literary.” Sometimes one would have<br />
to know the speaker in order to classify the<br />
sentence. See also reflexive pronouns.<br />
intensives. A word that merely makes another<br />
word more emphatic is called an intensive, such<br />
as do in I do believe you and very in it is very
intent 252<br />
late. These particular words are conventional<br />
intensives and actually make a statement more<br />
emphatic. But some words used as intensives<br />
may have the opposite efIect.<br />
When a certain kind <strong>of</strong> adverb, such as fearfully,<br />
frightfully, dreadfully, is used merely to<br />
intensify an adjective, it becomes so weak that<br />
the entire statement is weakened. Z am sorry is<br />
a stronger statement than I am dreadfully sorry.<br />
When used properly, these words are among<br />
the strongest in the language. Carl Sandburg,<br />
describing a fish peddler, says: his face is that<br />
<strong>of</strong> a man terribly glad to be selling fish. Here<br />
terribly keeps its meaning and is very strong.<br />
But if the fish peddler himself said: Z am terribly<br />
glad to do it, the statement becomes ridiculously<br />
weak. This is because all these words,<br />
terribly, dreadfully, and so on, mean “inspiring<br />
fear or awe” and can only be used properly<br />
by an observer who experiences the emotion. A<br />
man may say that he feels a terrible joy but<br />
he cannot say that he himself is terribly glad.<br />
The people around him must be the judge <strong>of</strong><br />
that. These words, terribly, dreadfully, etc.,<br />
cannot retain their meaning when used as pure<br />
intensives. They become mere substitutes for<br />
very, and the fact that the speaker is not satisfied<br />
with very but is casting around for a<br />
stronger word shows that the emotion is not<br />
overwhelming. What he is feeling is obviously<br />
less important to him than the effect he wants<br />
to make.<br />
Adjectives are frequently used before other<br />
adjectives as intensives, that is, as words meaning<br />
primarily “in a high degree,” as in icy cold,<br />
red hot, dead tired. In such combinations the<br />
first word is functioning as an adverb but that<br />
does not make these expressions “ungrammatical.”<br />
This is a natural English construction that<br />
no one thought <strong>of</strong> questioning until recently.<br />
Some combinations <strong>of</strong> this kind are no longer<br />
considered standard, such as dreadful sorry,<br />
powerful glad. But others, made on exactly the<br />
same pattern, are still literary English. Whether<br />
one <strong>of</strong> these expressions is standard or not<br />
depends entirely on what sort <strong>of</strong> people use it.<br />
There is nothing wrong in the pattern itself and<br />
as a rule nothing is gained by giving the first<br />
word a clearly adverbial form. Deadly tired<br />
and powerfully glad, for example, are pathetic<br />
attempts to be “correct” and do not improve<br />
the original forms, which at least have the advantage<br />
<strong>of</strong> being natural English. See horrible,<br />
etc.<br />
intent; intention. Though intent and intention are<br />
interchangeable in the meaning <strong>of</strong> that which is<br />
intended, purpose, aim, design, intent is now<br />
slightly archaic and to most Americans would<br />
seem bookish or a little affected. There are<br />
occasions, <strong>of</strong> course, when one wants to be<br />
bookish or wants the effect <strong>of</strong> the less common<br />
word. But except on such occasions it should<br />
be, <strong>of</strong> these two words, intention.<br />
intentionally. See advisedly.<br />
intents and purposes, to all. The full legal phrase<br />
used to be to all intents, constructions, and<br />
purposes. Even simplified, however, it is a<br />
wordy way <strong>of</strong> saying practically. It is a hackneyed<br />
way, too.<br />
interesting. Znteresting is one <strong>of</strong> the most overworked<br />
words in the language. It would be a<br />
good exercise for the student, every time he<br />
finds himself about to write the word, to search<br />
his mind to see if there is not some more accurate<br />
adjective that could be used in its stead,<br />
something that would express the intended<br />
meaning more forcefully, with greater freshness.<br />
How about alarming, arresting, attractive,<br />
curious, gratifying, pleasing, puzzling, remarkable,<br />
striking, or any one <strong>of</strong> a hundred other<br />
words?<br />
interfere; interference. Sometimes a child that<br />
walks awkwardly will strike one ankle bone<br />
against the other, <strong>of</strong>ten with sufficient force to<br />
cause abrasion <strong>of</strong> the skin and bleeding. Among<br />
some old-fashioned people this is called interfering<br />
and those who hear the word so used for<br />
the first time probably assume that is some<br />
quaint derivative meaning. But, actually, this<br />
is the original meaning (as a term in farriery)<br />
and butting in, meddling, intervening, obstructing<br />
an opposing player in football, and the<br />
jumbling <strong>of</strong> radio signals are the derivative<br />
meanings.<br />
The word interference has two meanings<br />
in American usage that are not recognized in<br />
English usage. It is a technical term in our<br />
Patent Office for a proceeding to determine<br />
priority (An application for a patent which,<br />
after an interference litigation with Edison, was<br />
finally issued to Maxim). And, as has been indicated<br />
above, it is a term in football for interposing<br />
between a runner and a tackler to obstruct<br />
the tackler (As any football player knows,<br />
to win a game you have to have good interference)<br />
.<br />
interject; interpolate. To interject is to throw or<br />
cast in between. As a procedure in conversation<br />
it means to remark parenthetically in an interruption.<br />
It may be transitive (She interjected<br />
one <strong>of</strong> her characteristically absurd remarks)<br />
or intransitive (She frequently interjected and<br />
otherwise made herself a nuisance). Some<br />
writers insist that properly it can only be transitive,<br />
but usage simply does not support this.<br />
To interpolate is, strictly, to alter a text by<br />
the insertion <strong>of</strong> new matter, especially when<br />
the matter is spurious and the insertion done<br />
without authorization or with intent to deceive<br />
(These passages have definitely been shown to<br />
be interpolations and no reputable scholar has<br />
accepted them as genuine for centuries). It is<br />
not always used in the pejorative sense, however;<br />
it <strong>of</strong>ten means no more than to insert a<br />
passage or, in conversation, a comment. When<br />
so used it is a milder word than interject. It<br />
suggests a less rude form <strong>of</strong> breaking into another’s<br />
talk, more <strong>of</strong> an addition to than an<br />
interruption <strong>of</strong> the conversation.<br />
interjections. These are free-floating words, or<br />
meaningless syllables, that interrupt the orderly<br />
progress <strong>of</strong> speech. They are accepted as evi-
dence <strong>of</strong> emotion. An interjection must be set<br />
<strong>of</strong>f from the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence with commas,<br />
unless this is accomplished with an exclamation<br />
point. The single letter 0 is always capitalized,<br />
but it is not necessary to capitalize longer words<br />
such as oh and lo.<br />
There are fashions in interjections as there<br />
are in everything else. Say! is an Americanism,<br />
2 say! is British. La is now unspeakably oldfashioned,<br />
law is supposedly dialectal, and ah<br />
is very genteel. But since these sounds are presumably<br />
torn from the speaker without his foreknowledge,<br />
any discussion <strong>of</strong> standards would<br />
seem inappropriate. See also exclamations.<br />
intermediary; mediator. An intermediary lis an<br />
agent, a go-between, one who is the connecting<br />
link between two parties (He did not buy his<br />
stocks directly from the broker but through an<br />
intermediary). A mediator is a go-between who<br />
serves the special purpose <strong>of</strong> reconciling, or<br />
trying to reconcile, parties at variance (Charles<br />
hud hoped that he might be a mediator between<br />
his estranged parents but found their hostility<br />
to each other increased rather than lessened by<br />
his efforts).<br />
internal revenue. That which in the United States<br />
is known as internal revenue is in England<br />
inland revenue. The effect on the taxpayer is<br />
much the same.<br />
international languages. Interest in international<br />
languages is traceable in large part to the decline<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latin as a medium <strong>of</strong> scholarship after<br />
the rise <strong>of</strong> nationalism encouraged the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the vernaculars. A desire for a single vehicle <strong>of</strong><br />
cultural intercourse between learned groups<br />
and knowledge <strong>of</strong> the languages <strong>of</strong> Asia and<br />
Africa brought back by explorers, merchants<br />
and missionaries, spurred the drive to construct<br />
an international language. The French philosopher<br />
Descartes outlined a plan for a constructed<br />
language as early as 1629. Leibnitz, many years<br />
later, saw that the basis for such a language<br />
could only be established by an analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
languages then in use. He saw clearly th.at the<br />
twd international languages then proposed, by<br />
the Scotsman Dalaarno in 1661 and the Briton<br />
Wilkins in 1668,~would not do because they<br />
started with a preconceived system unrelated to<br />
any living speech.<br />
The first constructed language actually<br />
spoken and written was Volapiik (“world<br />
speech”), invented in 1880 and received with<br />
enthusiasm but nearly dead by 1890. Hard on<br />
Volapiik came Bopal (1887), Spelin (1888),<br />
Mundolingue (1890). Dil (1893), Balta (1893),<br />
Veltparl (1896), Idiom Neutral (1903), Ido<br />
(1907), Interlingua (1908) and Novial (1928).<br />
Esperanto, the most popular successor to<br />
Volapiik, was devised by Dr. Ludwig Zamenh<strong>of</strong><br />
who published in 1887 Linguo Znternacia de la<br />
Doktoro Esperanto (“International Language<br />
by Doctor Hopeful”). It is <strong>of</strong>ten incorrectly<br />
referred to as “the” international language. In<br />
1950 the thirtv-fifth annual conference in Paris<br />
claimed that one and one-half million people<br />
read, spoke and wrote it daily. It has a literature<br />
253 international<br />
<strong>of</strong> about 8,000 books, mostly translations but<br />
some originals. Over 1,000 conferences <strong>of</strong> all<br />
kinds have used it for reports and communications.<br />
Interlingua has had two lives. Originally it<br />
was the language that developed out <strong>of</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />
Peano’s Latin0 sine Flexione. The<br />
modern Interlingua was started by a group <strong>of</strong><br />
scholars at an international conference in 1924.<br />
It is now being backed by the International<br />
Auxiliary Language Association and seems to<br />
be gaining ground. In 1954, thirteen journals<br />
used Interlingua for summaries <strong>of</strong> articles<br />
(Science News Letter, 7/17/54). It is apparently<br />
being promoted through sponsorship <strong>of</strong><br />
scientific organizations. Science Language Association<br />
is working for its adoption and some<br />
scientific journals occasionally run an article<br />
in it.<br />
These, with the exception <strong>of</strong> Basic English,<br />
have been the most serious and successful<br />
candidates for acceptance. (See Basic English.)<br />
As far back as 1817 plans were being advanced<br />
for international communication based<br />
on ideas rather than on existing languages.<br />
Solresol, based on the notes <strong>of</strong> the scale, was<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the first. Others were Lingualumina,<br />
Blaia Zimondal, Zahlensprache, and Ro. These<br />
all had the character <strong>of</strong> codes rather than <strong>of</strong><br />
linguistic systems and required much memorizing.<br />
In the twentieth century similar approaches<br />
have produced Antido I and II, Lingvo Kosmopolita,<br />
Nov-Esperanto, Latinesce, Nov-Latin,<br />
Monario, Europan, Optez, and Romanal,<br />
among others.<br />
The English-speaking peoples have not made<br />
much contribution to these constructed languages.<br />
Their self-satisfaction in language must<br />
be exasperating to many who speak other<br />
languages, but it is only a matter <strong>of</strong> degree, for<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the constructed languages are built<br />
upon European languages only.<br />
The first significant British contribution to<br />
the literature <strong>of</strong> international languages was<br />
C. K. Ogden’s Basic English, first described in<br />
1929. Ogden has inspired some American competition<br />
in Swenson English, Iret and Little<br />
English but these have not yet gained any great<br />
headway. Basic English is probably the best<br />
suited to become an international language.<br />
English is already the chief <strong>of</strong> world tongues.<br />
More people speak English today than any<br />
other language except Chinese and Chinese is<br />
broken into several dialects and confined almost<br />
entirely to one continent. There is a great<br />
practical demand to know English, at least as<br />
an auxiliary language and the number <strong>of</strong> people<br />
using English has increased enormously since<br />
World War II. Basic English is simply more<br />
satisfactory than any <strong>of</strong> the constructed languages.<br />
As H. L. Mencken said, the trouble<br />
with the constructed languages is that “the<br />
juices <strong>of</strong> life are simply not in them.” They are<br />
the work <strong>of</strong> scholars “drowning in oceans <strong>of</strong><br />
dead prefixes and suffixes.” Whereas Basic<br />
springs from a living speech, used by almost
interpellate 254<br />
300,000,000 human beings, a speech that forges<br />
ahead <strong>of</strong> all its competitors “simply because it<br />
is already spoken by more than half <strong>of</strong> all the<br />
people in the world who may be said, with any<br />
plausibility, to be worth knowing.”<br />
interpellate; interpolate. To interpellute is to interrupt<br />
a speech in Parliament or in the<br />
Chamber <strong>of</strong> Deputies to ask a member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
government to explain some <strong>of</strong>ficial act or<br />
policy. It is a rare word, confined now to this<br />
special use. To interpolate is to alter a text by<br />
the insertion <strong>of</strong> a word or phrase or longer<br />
statement. There is usually a suggestion that the<br />
inserted matter is spurious and the insertion an<br />
act <strong>of</strong> deceit. The word is also used to mean the<br />
interposition <strong>of</strong> a remark into a conversation.<br />
In this sense it has no unfavorable connotation.<br />
See also interject.<br />
interpret. See explain.<br />
interpretative; interpretive. Although the adjective<br />
interpretive is acceptable for that which<br />
serves to interpret or explain, interpretative is<br />
the preferred form.<br />
interred; interned. That is interred which is<br />
buried, placed in a tomb, especially with appropriate<br />
ceremonies (The evil that men do lives<br />
after them;/ The good is <strong>of</strong>t interred with their<br />
bones). He is interned who is obliged to live<br />
within prescribed limits under prohibition to<br />
leave them, as a prisoner <strong>of</strong> war or an enemy<br />
alien, or a combatant who has taken refuge in<br />
a neutral country. Ships <strong>of</strong> belligerents are also<br />
interned when during wartime they are detained<br />
in the port <strong>of</strong> some neutral country.<br />
Zntern is also used as a verb in the United<br />
States to mean serving as an intern (or interne),<br />
a resident member <strong>of</strong> the medical staff <strong>of</strong> a hospital<br />
(After receiving his degree at Northwestern<br />
University Medical School, he interned<br />
at Christ’s Hospital in Cincinnati).<br />
interregnum. The plural is interregnums or interregna.<br />
interrogative pronouns and adjectives. The words<br />
who, whose, whom, which, and what, are interrogatives<br />
when they are used without an antecedent<br />
that precedes them in the sentence. Who<br />
and whom are always pronouns. Whose, which,<br />
and what, may be used as pronouns or as adjectives.<br />
Interrogatives always stand before the<br />
verb in a simple question, such as what did he<br />
do?, and in a subordinate clause that carries an<br />
indirect question, as in Z don’t know what he<br />
did. See questions.<br />
(For the person and number <strong>of</strong> an interrogative<br />
pronoun, see agreement: verbs; for case, see<br />
who; whom.)<br />
interrogative sentences. See questions.<br />
into. This is a preposition. It represents the relation<br />
expressed by in with the added implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion or direction. In also may be used<br />
where the idea <strong>of</strong> motion is involved, as in he<br />
went in the house, he fell in the water. Some<br />
grammarians consider this regrettable and would<br />
like to see in driven out <strong>of</strong> these constructions.<br />
Some others feel that in should be allowed<br />
when “the idea <strong>of</strong> remaining is prominent.”<br />
Speaking historically, in once carried all the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> into, but this is now decidedly<br />
weakened. Into suggests motion more emphatically<br />
than in does, but either preposition can<br />
be used.<br />
In is sometimes used as a pure adverb, or as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a compound verb, as in they went in.<br />
An expression <strong>of</strong> this kind may happen to be<br />
followed by a prepositional phrase beginning<br />
with to, as in they went in to see him, they went<br />
in to dinner. This separate use <strong>of</strong> in and <strong>of</strong> to<br />
must not be confused with the single idea into.<br />
We say send this in to the secretary but not send<br />
this into the secretary.<br />
Into is used freely in a literal sense with<br />
verbs <strong>of</strong> changing, making, moving. It is also<br />
used with certain other verbs simply to make<br />
the action more penetrating, as in enter into,<br />
examine into. Look at this report means no<br />
more than to read it. But look into it means to<br />
really learn something about it.<br />
intolerable; intolerant. That is intolerable which<br />
is unendurable, insufferable, not tolerable (The<br />
heat in the little room exposed all day to the<br />
glaring sun was intolerable). It was formerly<br />
used in a loose sense to mean excessive or great<br />
(0 monstrous, but one half pennyworth <strong>of</strong><br />
bread to this intolerable deal <strong>of</strong> suck?) but this<br />
meaning is now obsolete.<br />
He is intolerant who is bigoted, unable or indisposed<br />
to endure contrary opinions, especially<br />
religious or political opinions (He was u stuunch<br />
Republicun and intolerant <strong>of</strong> any expression<br />
that seemed to favor the New Deal). The adjective<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten applied to expressions, gestures,<br />
or attitudes that reflect the intolerance <strong>of</strong> those<br />
who express or hold them (Such intolerant<br />
phrases may ease the wrath <strong>of</strong> those who<br />
express them but they do not conduce to<br />
harmony in mixed groups). The intolerant are<br />
usually intolerable.<br />
intoxicated. See drunk.<br />
intransitive verbs. A verb is said to be intransitive<br />
if it does not require an object to complete its<br />
meaning. Intransitives are sometimes called<br />
“complete” verbs. A transitive verb, on the<br />
other hand, has an object. The verbs are transitive<br />
in the face that launched a thousund ships<br />
and burnt the topless towers <strong>of</strong> Ilium; they are<br />
intransitive in now the great winds shoreward<br />
blow, now the salt tides seaward flow; now the<br />
wild white horses play, chump and chafe and<br />
toss in the spray. (See object <strong>of</strong> a verb.) Linking<br />
verbs, such as is in April is the cruelest month,<br />
are considered intransitive. They cannot stand<br />
by themselves as other intransitives can, but the<br />
words that follow them add something to the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the subject and not to the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb. See linking verbs.<br />
Many verbs can be used either transitively<br />
or intransitively. Most intransitives can be<br />
made technically transitive by using an object<br />
that simply repeats the meaning <strong>of</strong> the verb, as<br />
in smile a timid smile, think a bitter thought,<br />
live a lonely life. This device should not be<br />
condemned as redundant. It is sometimes a<br />
more effective way <strong>of</strong> qualifying the verb than<br />
the usual adverbial construction, such as smile
timidly, think bitterly, live lonelily. It is found<br />
frequently in literature, as in the latest dream<br />
I ever dreamed.<br />
Some verbs that are usually intransitive, such<br />
as sit and walk, may be used transitively as<br />
causative verbs, meaning “cause to do,” as she<br />
sat the baby up, he walked his horse. Tile intransitive<br />
verbs in The rubbish burns, the boat<br />
sinks, the dog starved are transitive in burn the<br />
rubbish, sink the bout, starve the dog. The intransitive<br />
verb lie is sometimes used as a causative,<br />
especially in the past tense, as in she lay<br />
the baby down, but at present this is condemned<br />
by most grammarians. See causative verbs and lie.<br />
Verbs that are usually transitive may allso be<br />
used intransitively, especially with passive force.<br />
For a discussion <strong>of</strong> this, see transitive ,verbs.<br />
intrigue. Despite the protests <strong>of</strong> the purists, usage<br />
has established intrigue in the meaning <strong>of</strong> to<br />
excite the curiosity <strong>of</strong>, to interest by a puzzling<br />
novelty, or even to take the fancy <strong>of</strong> (Mr.<br />
Johnstone gives a detailed account <strong>of</strong> their<br />
literary background, and intriguing summaries<br />
<strong>of</strong> their work. Her hat intrigued me; I couldn’t<br />
see how she got if to stay on at that ridiculous<br />
angle). The older meanings <strong>of</strong> to entangle, to<br />
enmesh, to bring or force by underhand machinations<br />
linger on but have been almost completely<br />
displaced, in popular usage, by the newer<br />
meanings which less than fifty years ago Fowler<br />
stigmatized as “gallicisms, that have no merit<br />
whatever except that <strong>of</strong> unfamiliarity to the<br />
English reader.” All <strong>of</strong> which, <strong>of</strong> course, does<br />
not change the fact that it is a vogue word,<br />
greatly overworked by those who like to force<br />
dramatic tension into every situation.<br />
intriisic. See essential.<br />
introduction. See foreword.<br />
intrude; obtrude. That is intruded which is thrust<br />
in. That is obtruded which is thrust out or upon<br />
something else. We intrude upon others’ privacy<br />
when, uninvited, we come into their rooms. We<br />
obtrude our opinions upon others when we<br />
insist on stating them even though they are unwanted.<br />
We intrude our opinions into a discussion<br />
when they have not been solicited. The<br />
last two meanings are plainly inseparable.<br />
Whether the opinions have been intrud’ed or<br />
obtruded is a matter <strong>of</strong> argument and point <strong>of</strong><br />
view; hence under some circumstances the<br />
words are interchangeable.<br />
iutrust is a variant <strong>of</strong> entrust which is the preferred<br />
form.<br />
intuition; instinct. Intuition is the direct perception<br />
<strong>of</strong> truths or facts without the intervention<br />
<strong>of</strong> any process <strong>of</strong> reasoning. It is pure, untaught,<br />
noninferential knowledge (By what intuition he<br />
was apprised <strong>of</strong> our plans I do not know; he<br />
certainly could not have learned <strong>of</strong> them )I.<br />
Instinct is an inborn pattern <strong>of</strong> activity and<br />
response common to a given biological stock<br />
(Since the mother abandons the eggs before<br />
they are hatched, the young cannot learn from<br />
her: their actions must be governed whor’ly by<br />
instinct). It is used more loosely to designate<br />
any innate impulse or natural inclination or<br />
natural intuitive power. In these uses instinct<br />
255 invite<br />
and intuition are <strong>of</strong>ten used interchangeably.<br />
If someone says, I had an instinctive dislike <strong>of</strong><br />
that man the minute I saw him, he probably<br />
means that he had an intuitive dislike, a dislike<br />
based on no evidence or process <strong>of</strong> reasoning<br />
but (usually) a dislike which later events<br />
proved to have been justified. However, the<br />
speaker may have meant that some inborn<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> activity or response led him to this<br />
immediate dislike, as many animals are said to<br />
fear their natural enemies on first sight.<br />
An intuition produces an opinion or judgment.<br />
An instinct produces an act or physical<br />
response. An intuition is an immediate, individual<br />
experience, unrelated to anything that<br />
has gone before. An instinct is a response produced,<br />
in some way, by the previous experience<br />
<strong>of</strong> the species. Intuition is commonly conceived<br />
<strong>of</strong> as something superior to reason. Instinct,<br />
ascribed to the lower animals-<strong>of</strong>ten in popular<br />
zoology as a compensation for their assumed<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> reason-is usually thought <strong>of</strong> as something<br />
inferior to reason. The cliche-both <strong>of</strong><br />
words and thought-a woman’s intuition is<br />
usually an insult timorously disguised as a compliment.<br />
There is a suggestion in it that women’s<br />
mental processes are above reason; but almost<br />
all who use the phrase seriously intend to imply<br />
that women lack the power <strong>of</strong> reasoning and<br />
reach their conclusions (which, they admit, are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten correct and speedily come to) by some<br />
nonhuman means.<br />
inure and enure are simply variant spellings. All<br />
attempts to make fine distinctions in meaning<br />
between them are only baseless ostentation.<br />
Znure is the preferred form.<br />
invalidated; invalided. A document which has<br />
been exposed as spurious or in some other way<br />
deprived <strong>of</strong> its value or authority is invalidated.<br />
One who has become an invalid or a soldier or<br />
sailor who has been retired from active service<br />
because <strong>of</strong> sickness or injury has been invalided.<br />
invaluable; priceless. Although the prefix in- is<br />
usually negative, invaluable does not mean “<strong>of</strong><br />
no value” but “<strong>of</strong> so great value that no estimate<br />
<strong>of</strong> its value can be conceived.” Znvaluateable<br />
would be the proper word, but fortunately<br />
it has not been coined. The proper word for “<strong>of</strong><br />
no value” is valueless.<br />
Although the suffix -less is negative, priceless<br />
likewise means a worth so great that no price<br />
could be set. In England, especially among the<br />
gayer social set, priceless has become a vogue<br />
word <strong>of</strong> commendation, especially <strong>of</strong> wit. It is<br />
already so weakened in this sense that it has to<br />
be shored up with such vague intensives as<br />
perfectly, absolutely, and simply. America has<br />
remained comparatively immune from this visitation.<br />
The opposite <strong>of</strong> priceless is worthless.<br />
invective. See abuse.<br />
invent. See discover.<br />
inventory. See invoice.<br />
invidious. See insidious.<br />
invite. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in we invited them to come, but not by the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a clause. See also<br />
allure.
invite 256<br />
invite; invitation. Though damned as incorrect<br />
and ill-bred and listed in the dictionaries as<br />
slang, invite as a synonym for invitation has<br />
remained impudently in use for three hundred<br />
years (Bishop Crunmer gave him an earnest<br />
invite to England-1659. Did you get an invite<br />
to the Phi Sip dance?--1957). It is one <strong>of</strong> those<br />
words that may be used with a full assurance<br />
that it will be clearly understood but must be<br />
used with an awareness that in some quarters<br />
it is condemned. If, therefore, you use it in<br />
these quarters, you risk condemnation.<br />
invoice; inventory. An invoice is a written list <strong>of</strong><br />
merchandise, with prices, delivered or sent to a<br />
buyer (We trust the shipment reaches YOU in<br />
good condition. The invoice is enclosed). An<br />
inventory is a detailed descriptive list <strong>of</strong> articles,<br />
with number, quantity, and value <strong>of</strong> each<br />
(Every six months he set down an inventory <strong>of</strong><br />
his stock). Taking inventory is sometimes used<br />
metaphorically <strong>of</strong> taking stock <strong>of</strong> one’s resources.<br />
The English term for taking inventory<br />
is stock-taking. Invoice is <strong>of</strong>ten misused for<br />
inventory.<br />
involve; entail; implicate. To involve meant originally<br />
to envelop or infold by surrounding and<br />
it should not be used unless there is some<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> including as a necessary circumstance<br />
or consequence. To say <strong>of</strong> someone that<br />
he found himself more deeply involved in the<br />
consequences <strong>of</strong> an act than he had intended<br />
to be would be to use the word with a proper<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> its meanings. But to say <strong>of</strong><br />
a project that the cost involved has been tremendous<br />
(unless it is definitely meant the cost<br />
inextricably connected with a certain policy or<br />
action, ensuing upon the decision to put the<br />
policy into force or take the action) is to use<br />
the word weakly and unnecessarily. Why not<br />
simply The cost has been tremendous?<br />
To entail is to bring on or involve by necessity<br />
or consequences (Moving to New York entailed<br />
a change in their whole way <strong>of</strong> Iife). It<br />
differs from involve in that involve <strong>of</strong>ten carries<br />
a suggestion <strong>of</strong> trickery in the entanglement<br />
with embarrassment to the one involved, consequences<br />
not foreseen at the time <strong>of</strong> the action.<br />
One is <strong>of</strong>ten involved in harmless matters and<br />
an act may entail good, bad, or indifferent consequences,<br />
but one is implicated in something<br />
discreditable. If a man is involved in a scandal,<br />
he may be an innocent victim. If he is implicated<br />
there is a suggestion that at least someone<br />
thinks him to some extent guilty.<br />
inward; inwards. Inward is the only form that<br />
can be used to qualify a following noun, as in<br />
that inward eye. Either form may be used in<br />
any other construction, as in driven inwards<br />
and driven inward. The form inward is generally<br />
preferred in the United States.<br />
ipse dixit. “Unless the witness explains the process<br />
<strong>of</strong> analysis and reasoning by which he reached<br />
his conclusion, the jury must take-or refuse<br />
to take-the conclusion simply upon his ipse<br />
dixit.” The term is useful, but the colloquial<br />
his soy-so is preferable.<br />
. .<br />
i.q.; 1.0. 1.4. IS an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin idem<br />
quad and means “the same as.” When the<br />
same letters are capitalized, as in I.Q., they are<br />
an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the English words intelligence<br />
quotient, which means the ratio <strong>of</strong> one<br />
particular person’s intelligence to the average<br />
intelligence <strong>of</strong> people <strong>of</strong> his age.<br />
iris. The plural is irises or irides, not ires.<br />
iron curtain. Sir Winston Churchill’s statement,<br />
at Fulton, Missouri, on March 5, 1946, that an<br />
iron curtain had descended across the continent<br />
<strong>of</strong> Europe, separating the Soviet sphere from<br />
the rest <strong>of</strong> the Western world, caught the public<br />
fancy and passed at once into the language.<br />
Like the Fifth Column <strong>of</strong> the Soanish Civil<br />
War in 1936, it supplied a dramatic term for<br />
something new that had not yet found a name.<br />
It was a good metaphor, with all the cold, grim,<br />
and menacing connotations <strong>of</strong> iron and the<br />
suggestion, in curtain, <strong>of</strong> shutting out the light.<br />
But the term has become a little too popular<br />
-even to the point <strong>of</strong> impeding and confusing<br />
thought in regard to Russia and our relations<br />
with her. And like many highly successful and<br />
felicitous phrases it has begotten a number <strong>of</strong><br />
less felicitous imitations, such as the bamboo<br />
curtuin surrounding China or the nylon curtain<br />
which we have been charged with lowering.<br />
iron band in a velvet glove. As a term for ruthless<br />
severity hypocritically masked in suavity<br />
and seeming kindliness, an iron hand in a velvet<br />
glove is a hackneyed metaphor.<br />
iron out. The metaphorical use <strong>of</strong> iron out, in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> removing difficulties or disagreements<br />
as an iron smooths out wrinkles (The Chairman<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Board was confident that these differences<br />
<strong>of</strong> opinion could be ironed out before the<br />
next stockholders’ meeting), seems to be confined<br />
to American speech and writing. Though<br />
many dictionaries do not recognize its existence,<br />
it is used and understood everywhere in the<br />
United States and is not regarded as slang.<br />
irons in the fire. As a term for having more<br />
enterprises than one can well look to, having too<br />
many irons in the fire is now a clich6. When it<br />
was fresh and especially when the sight <strong>of</strong> a<br />
smithy was a part <strong>of</strong> everyone’s daily experience,<br />
it was a valuable metaphor. The clangor<br />
<strong>of</strong> the heavier hammers, the rapid ring <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lighter ones, the roar <strong>of</strong> the bellows, the heat,<br />
the flying sparks, the hiss <strong>of</strong> hot metal being<br />
tempered and, above all, the furious urgency<br />
engendered by the need to work the metal while<br />
it was red hot, and that in the face <strong>of</strong> considerable<br />
danger, all combined to give the figure<br />
vitality. But few people today are familiar with<br />
a smithy and the metaphor has cooled to the<br />
point where it can no longer be worked.<br />
irony. See humor.<br />
Iroquois. The singular and the plural are both<br />
Iroquois. This word was originally a plural but<br />
may now be used also as a singular, as in three<br />
Iroquois and one Iroquois.<br />
irregardless. There is no such word as irregurdless.<br />
It is a redundancy, erroneously patterned<br />
after irrespective.
irregular. See anomalous.<br />
irregular verbs. Practically all English verbs form<br />
the past tense and the past participle by adding<br />
-ed to the simple form <strong>of</strong> the word, as in they<br />
talk, they talked, they had talked. Any verb<br />
that deviates from this, as in they speak, they<br />
spoke, they had spoken, is an irregular verb.<br />
In present-day English there are 227 verbs<br />
that have at least one irregular form. Solme <strong>of</strong><br />
them change the vowel sound, as in sink, sank,<br />
sunk; some are completely irregular, as in 6e.<br />
was, been; and some are contractions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
regular forms, such as creep, crept, crep,t, and<br />
hear, heard, heard. Among the irregular verbs<br />
there are 72 which also have regular forms,<br />
such as dig, digged or dug; spell, spelled or<br />
spelt. This means that there are only 156 verbs<br />
that cannot be treated as regular, and solme <strong>of</strong><br />
these are archaic and no longer used in natural<br />
speech. Estimates <strong>of</strong> the number <strong>of</strong> irregular<br />
verbs actually in use vary from less than 100<br />
to 150.<br />
Some verbs are used only, or chiefly, in the<br />
third person singular, such as it snows, it ,sZeets.<br />
Potentially, these verbs are regular and can be<br />
given other forms when there is occasion for it,<br />
as in thick on Severn snow the leaves. For this<br />
reason they are not counted among the irregular<br />
verbs. A few others do not have some <strong>of</strong> the<br />
normal verb forms. For example, ought has no<br />
-ing form, no past participle, and cannot be<br />
used as an imperative or an infinitive. But no<br />
verb <strong>of</strong> this kind forms a past tense by adding<br />
-ed, and therefore all <strong>of</strong> them come under the<br />
original definition <strong>of</strong> an irregular verb.<br />
All verbs that have any irregular forms are<br />
listed in this dictionary. If both a regular and<br />
an irregular form are given, either may be used.<br />
But where only one form is standard, there is<br />
no choice. One cannot say knowed for knew<br />
and, in America at least, one does not say crew<br />
for crowed. There is no logic to this. It is simply<br />
a question <strong>of</strong> usage. But people generally are<br />
more insistent, more intolerant, in regard to<br />
these verb forms than they are to other parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar, and the use <strong>of</strong> an out-<strong>of</strong>-fashion<br />
form is always taken as evidence <strong>of</strong> illiteracy.<br />
irreligious. See unreligious.<br />
irreparable loss. Many losses are irreparable but,<br />
even so, the phrase has been overworked.<br />
irresponsible; irresponsive. In modern usage irresponsible<br />
means acting or being without a sense<br />
_ _<br />
<strong>of</strong> responsibilitv (He’s utterly irresponsible: YOU<br />
cannot put him in any position <strong>of</strong> trust). Irresponsive<br />
means unresponding, giving no answer<br />
or showing no emotional reaction (The irresponsive<br />
child <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong>fers a more serious<br />
problem than his more passionate brother or<br />
sister). The commoner word is unresponsive.<br />
See also unresponsible.<br />
irritate. See aggravate; tantalize.<br />
irruption. See eruption.<br />
is. See be.<br />
ism. Basically, -ism is a suffix, forming a noun <strong>of</strong><br />
action (heroism, hooliganism, cannibalism, vandalism).<br />
In addition to this it came to injdicate<br />
the name <strong>of</strong> a system, whether in practice or<br />
theory (Protestantism, Catholicism, atheism,<br />
communism). From this use it was a natural<br />
step to mean a peculiarity (Americanism, witticism).<br />
When the suffix was detached to become<br />
a word in itself, denoting some unspecified<br />
system or peculiarity, it connoted scorn and<br />
disparagement (God knows what ism he’s embraced<br />
now. I can’t keep track <strong>of</strong> ‘em). The<br />
favorable word is theory.<br />
isotope; isotrope. Isotope is a noun, a term applied<br />
to any <strong>of</strong> two or more forms <strong>of</strong> a chemical<br />
element occupying the same place in the periodical<br />
table and nearly identical in properties but<br />
differing by one or more units in atomic weight.<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the elements are mixtures <strong>of</strong> isotopes.<br />
Zsotrope is an adjective, a variant <strong>of</strong> isotropic.<br />
In physics it means having the same properties<br />
in all directions. In biology it means not having<br />
predetermined axes, as certain eggs.<br />
Israelite. See Hebrew.<br />
issue. See emerge.<br />
issued; supplied. An established meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb issue is the military meaning <strong>of</strong> be supplied<br />
with (The new arrivals were issued regulation<br />
uniforms). The use <strong>of</strong> with following this use<br />
<strong>of</strong> issue (as in The new arrivals were issued<br />
with regulation uniforms) is redundant and<br />
erroneous.<br />
isthmus. The plural is isthmuses or isthmi.<br />
it. It is first <strong>of</strong> all a pronoun used in speaking<br />
about inanimate things or living things that are<br />
not thought <strong>of</strong> as being either male or female,<br />
as in whose baby is it? When used in this way.<br />
it is “anaphoric,” that is, it must refer to something<br />
that has been mentioned previously. It is<br />
always singular and refers to something that is<br />
expressed by a singular noun.<br />
It is also used with an unspecified reference,<br />
as in it’s stuffy in here, it’s eleven o’clock, and<br />
various statements about the weather. This is<br />
called the “impersonal” it and is said to represent<br />
“the great neuter <strong>of</strong> nature.”<br />
No one questions either <strong>of</strong> these uses <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
But the word has several other uses which have<br />
been challenged. In fact, textbooks sometimes<br />
say that these two uses are the only proper ones.<br />
This is what is meant by a statement such as:<br />
Do not use it without a definite antecedent<br />
except in impersonal expressions. Anyone who<br />
takes a rule like this seriously will find it impossible<br />
to write natural English.<br />
It has very important uses as a “dummy”<br />
word. It can stand where English sentence order<br />
requires the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb and in this way<br />
set the true subject free to stand in some other<br />
position. This is especially valuable when the<br />
subject is a large group <strong>of</strong> words, usually an<br />
infinitive phrase or a that clause, as in it is surprising<br />
to hear you say such things and it has<br />
been shown that these things always fail. Here<br />
the it represents the words beginning with to or<br />
the words beginning with that. This is not a<br />
“weak” construction. It is a device for making<br />
the true subject more emphatic by allowing it<br />
to be taken out <strong>of</strong> its normal position. It may
it 258<br />
be used for this purpose when the subject is<br />
extremely simple, as in ii is rhe wife who<br />
decides. Here if represents merely the wife.<br />
If may also be a dummy object. This is useful<br />
when the object is long and there is an objective<br />
complement which should not stand too far<br />
from the verb, as in we have it in our power fo<br />
do great harm or great good and he took it for<br />
granted that I would come. Here again, it represents<br />
the words beginning with to or that and<br />
allows us to complete the verbal idea with in<br />
our power or for granted sooner than we otherwise<br />
could. Similarly it may represent a clause<br />
and be the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition, which could<br />
not otherwise have a clause as object, as in, see<br />
to it that the door is locked.<br />
This is called the “anticipatory” it, or the<br />
“expletive” it. (For the difference between it and<br />
there, see there.) Anticipatory it is always singular,<br />
even when the logical subject is plural, as in<br />
it is the crickets that you hear. The person and<br />
number <strong>of</strong> the verb in a subordinate clause is<br />
more complicated. In it is not Z who is angry<br />
and it is you who is angry, the verb is is technically<br />
correct because the straightforward<br />
sentence is (the one) who is angry is not I or<br />
is you. But in current English we are much<br />
more likely to make the verb agree with the<br />
preceding pronoun and say it is not I who am<br />
angry and it is you who are angry. Since one<br />
form is theoretically correct grammar and the<br />
other is the usual practice, both forms must be<br />
recognized as standard.<br />
II may also be used to represent a complex<br />
thought that is perfectly clear from the context<br />
but that has not been put into words. This is<br />
the “indefinite” or “vague” it that the textbooks<br />
mean to condemn. But it is an extremely useful<br />
device for shortening and simplifying a sentence,<br />
as in it’s a long way to Tipperary and<br />
when the work is slow, it may be nobody’s fault.<br />
Here it has no antecedent, but since the sentences<br />
are perfectly clear it is obvious that no<br />
antecedent is required. To avoid constructions<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind is to have more interest in analyzing<br />
language than in using it; or more interest<br />
in being “correct” than in being understood.<br />
It is used with prepositions in a number <strong>of</strong><br />
idiomatic phrases, such as hard put to it,<br />
nothing for it, make a good job <strong>of</strong> it. These are<br />
all standard English. It is used as an “empty”<br />
or meaningless object with certain verbs that do<br />
not take an object, such as bluff it, and after<br />
J<br />
certain nouns and adjectives used as if they were<br />
verbs, as in lord it, rough it, brave it. The same<br />
construction is used in many slang expressions,<br />
such as ho<strong>of</strong> it, leg it, beat it, pub it.<br />
The word it is also used in slang as a noun,<br />
meaning something important and nameless,<br />
and in this sense is sometimes written with a<br />
capital letter, as in She has It and This is It.<br />
it stands to reason that is one <strong>of</strong> those exasperating<br />
expressions by which we <strong>of</strong>ten unwittingly<br />
antagonize other people during a discussion.<br />
Usually it is meant as no more than a clearing<br />
<strong>of</strong> the throat as a preface to whatever we have<br />
to say; but if what we have to say differs from<br />
what someone else has just said we have, by<br />
this assurance that our opinion is reasonable,<br />
implied that his is unreasonable. And people<br />
don’t like to be told they’re unreasonable. They<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten get quite unreasonable about it.<br />
iterate. See repeat.<br />
its. This word is a possessive pronoun and means<br />
“pertaining to it.” It has no apostrophe and<br />
should not be confused with it’s, which means<br />
“it is.”<br />
The form its is relatively new. That is, it first<br />
appeared around the year 1600. It is not found<br />
in the King James Bible, where his is used<br />
instead, as in if the salt have lost his savor.<br />
Shakespeare uses its in only a few places and<br />
generally prefers the simple form it as a possessive,<br />
as in it lifted up it head. By the year 1700,<br />
its was in general use as a possessive standing<br />
before a noun, comparable to the words her<br />
and their. But a grammarian writing in 1819<br />
said: “When I see many its in a page, I always<br />
tremble for the writer.”<br />
More recently, its has been used alone without<br />
a following noun, comparable to the words<br />
hers and theirs, as in these nations will have<br />
attained their maximum development before<br />
the rest <strong>of</strong> the world has attained its. This construction<br />
is technically acceptable today, but it<br />
is still extremely rare.<br />
it’s not for me to say, if spoken sincerely, would<br />
have to be followed by silence. Whereas, as<br />
everyone knows, it is usually followed by a<br />
flood <strong>of</strong> self-justification or self-laudation. And<br />
since this is intended to persuade or convince<br />
it would be more effective if the argument were<br />
not immediately preceded by a wornout phrase<br />
whose false modesty instigates doubt.<br />
itself. See reflexive pronouns.<br />
izzard. See from A to Z.<br />
jag; load. A jag in some English dialects is a driftwood. It then became a slang term for a<br />
load. The word was so used in America a load <strong>of</strong> liquor, all that a man could carry (That<br />
century ago. Thoreau speaks <strong>of</strong> those whose moonshine stuff’11 really give you a jag) and, by<br />
wealth consisted <strong>of</strong> nothing more than a jag <strong>of</strong> extension, for any state <strong>of</strong> intoxication or ex-
citement resembling intoxication (She has those<br />
crying jugs about once a month). These latter<br />
meanings are still listed as slang in the dictionaries<br />
but the word is so widely used now, especially<br />
in the last sense, with no intentilon <strong>of</strong><br />
being quaint or original or amusing that it probably<br />
ought to be accepted as standard.<br />
Load in this sense, however (Brother, has he<br />
got a load on), is still slang. As also in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> take a good look at (Get a load <strong>of</strong> this:) and,<br />
in the participle, to be rich (He’s loaded; if that<br />
guy dropped a ten dollar bill it wouldn’t be<br />
worth his time to pick it up).<br />
jail delivery. In the United States a jail delivery<br />
is a deliverance <strong>of</strong> imprisoned persons by force,<br />
either a rescue or a breaking out (A da&g attempt<br />
at a jail delivery at Pontiac Reformatory<br />
was thwarted this morning). In England the<br />
phrase means the clearing <strong>of</strong> a jail <strong>of</strong> pris:oners<br />
by bringing them to trial.<br />
Japanese. The singular and the plural are both<br />
Japanese. At one time this word had a distinct<br />
plural, as seen in the following sentence, written<br />
in 1693: the Japaneses prepare tea quite<br />
otherwise than is done in Europe. This word is<br />
now obsolete and the one form Japanese is used<br />
for both the singular and the plural, as in one<br />
Japanese and three Japanese. The shortened<br />
form Jap is derogatory and should not be<br />
used.<br />
jargon. See argot; vernacular.<br />
jeer. As a transitive verb jeer is now obsol’ete in<br />
England; the English always jeer at someone<br />
or something. American usage retains the old<br />
transitive form (They jeered the speaker as soon<br />
as he begun to talk) and employs the intransitive<br />
as well (They jeered at Columbus, #didn’t<br />
they?).<br />
Jehoshaphat. The layman has little occasion to<br />
refer to the son <strong>of</strong> Asa who removed the remnant<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sodomites but did not take away<br />
the high places and whose ships went not to<br />
Ophir, but if he must allude to him, the name<br />
is Jehoshaphat not Jehosaphat.<br />
jerrymander. See gerrymander.<br />
jetsam. See flotsam.<br />
Jew. See Hebrew.<br />
Jewess. See Negress.<br />
Jew’s-harp (Jews’ harp); juice harp. For over four<br />
hundred years the small lyre-shaped musical<br />
instrument with an elastic steel tongue which<br />
is held between the jaws and plucked, the tone<br />
being changed by varying the position <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mouth, has been connected in English with the<br />
Jews. It was called a Jew’s trump or Jews’ trump<br />
before it was called a Jew’s harp or Jews’ harp<br />
but no one knows why. The Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong> characterizes all attempts to derive<br />
the first element from jaws or from the French<br />
jeu as “baseless and inept.” Whether any derogation<br />
was originally intended is not known but<br />
it is apparently believed that some might now<br />
be felt, for the instrument is invariably referred<br />
to in radio and television programs as a juice<br />
harp. Considering the drooling that <strong>of</strong>ten accompanies<br />
amateur performances on the thing,<br />
this is a fairly ingenious emendation, and1 con-<br />
259<br />
. . .<br />
IO*<br />
sidering the fact that it is only on radio and<br />
television programs that children hear <strong>of</strong> the<br />
instrument at all any more, the new name is<br />
probably better established among the young<br />
than the old name and one more word has<br />
undergone one more preposterous change.<br />
jimmy; jemmy. The American name for a short<br />
crowbar used to effect burglarious entrance is<br />
a jimmy. The English name is iemmy. Both<br />
forms are familiar diminutives <strong>of</strong> james-(Mayor<br />
Jimmy Walker. 0 Jemmv Thomson. Jemmv<br />
Thor&on, 0). How the name got applied tb<br />
the instrument nobody knows.<br />
jingo. The plural is jingoes.<br />
jiuni; jinn. If one must employ Arabic in writing<br />
an English sentence, the grammar should be<br />
correct. The word for those spirits in Mohammedan<br />
mythology which are lower than the<br />
angels and capable <strong>of</strong> appearing in human and<br />
animal form is in the plural jinn, in the singular<br />
jinni. How this iinn ever escaued from his bot-<br />
;le is incorrect..It should haie bken How this<br />
jinni. . . .<br />
job; position; situation; place. The standard meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> job is a piece <strong>of</strong> work. an individual uiece<br />
<strong>of</strong> work done in the routine.<strong>of</strong> one’s occupation<br />
or trade (How much for the job? We pay by<br />
the job. Let’s get the job done. Job printing).<br />
In American usage a situation or post <strong>of</strong> employment<br />
is also called a job (Hey mom, I got<br />
the job). In America the word is also applied<br />
to an affair, matter, occurrence, or state <strong>of</strong><br />
affairs (Well, we’ve got to make the best <strong>of</strong> a<br />
bud job). The apdication <strong>of</strong> the word to a<br />
theft- or- robbery-or any criminal deed (The<br />
gang pulled a job in Madison and were over the<br />
Illinois line before daybreak) is slang.<br />
Position is usually applied to any post <strong>of</strong><br />
employment above manual labor (His position<br />
in Clark’s grocery didn’t <strong>of</strong>fer much hope <strong>of</strong><br />
getting rich quick. This is a good position for<br />
the right man. Position wanted. Will travel).<br />
Place and situation are used mainly today in<br />
regard to positions or jobs that are being sought<br />
(situation wanted). Place is now generally restricted<br />
to domestic employment, especially <strong>of</strong><br />
a female (She had a good place with a Winnetka<br />
family for twenty years).<br />
Job’s comforter. Eliphaz the Temanite, Bildad<br />
the Shuhite, and Zophar the Naamathite are<br />
known now to very few and the term Job’s<br />
comforter for one who under the guise <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fering<br />
consolation only adds to his victim’s distress<br />
is now an empty phrase.<br />
John Doe; Richard Roe. John Doe is a fictitious<br />
personage in legal proceedings, usually the<br />
plaintiff. The corresponding fictitious defendant<br />
is Richard Roe. Their female counterparts are<br />
Jane Doe and Mary Roe who also serve in<br />
warrants, when necessary, as John and Richard’s<br />
respective spouses.<br />
join together. Although join means to bring or<br />
put together, join together is too solidly established<br />
as an emphatic phrase (What therefore<br />
God hath joined together, let not man put asunder)<br />
to be forbidden as a redundancy. Purists<br />
have tried but usage has been on the other side.
joiner 260<br />
&isfer. A joiner in England is a carpenter, especially<br />
one who does light and delicate work,<br />
such as dovetailing, the fitting <strong>of</strong> jambs and sills<br />
(the workshops <strong>of</strong> joiners and cabinet-makers).<br />
The word was formerly so used in the United<br />
States (Wanted, a ship joiner, to finish the cabin<br />
<strong>of</strong> a small vessel-1840) but that meaning is<br />
now obsolescent. Joiner in current American<br />
usage is a colloquial term <strong>of</strong> good humored<br />
contempt for one who makes a practice <strong>of</strong><br />
joining clubs and lodges and other societies<br />
(The real Joiner loves to sit up on an elevated<br />
Throne, wearing a Bib and holding a dinky<br />
Gavel).<br />
jolly; jocose; jocular; jocund; jovial. Jolly means<br />
full <strong>of</strong> life and merriment, gaily cheerful, exciting<br />
mirth (For he’s a jolly good fellow). The<br />
word is known in America and used, but it is<br />
connected so strongly with English speech in<br />
the American mind (especially in such uses as<br />
jolly good thing too or We’ll have to jolly him<br />
up a bit; he’s rather in the dumps), and is so<br />
invariably employed in waggish burlesques <strong>of</strong><br />
English speech that a serious use <strong>of</strong> it would<br />
seem slightly affected. Jolly is sometimes used<br />
colloquially in America to mean banter, make<br />
fun <strong>of</strong> good naturedly.<br />
locose and jocular both mean sportive, merry,<br />
given to joking. Both suggest that the humor<br />
involved is a little ponderous and deliberate.<br />
One thinks <strong>of</strong> jocosity as taking place among<br />
old men in solid clubrooms. The diminutive in<br />
jocular, the “having one’s little joke,” still colors<br />
its meaning faintly. One thinks <strong>of</strong> jocularity<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten as a sly joke, the evading <strong>of</strong> a too direct<br />
question by a facetious answer. Both words are<br />
somewhat bookish, not in common everyday<br />
use.<br />
Jocund is now purely bookish. It seems far<br />
too heavy a word for airy mirth or lightness.<br />
Milton’s jocund rebecks would have to be translated<br />
into gay fiddles today, and Shakespeare’s<br />
jocund day would now be inconceivable tiptoe<br />
on the misty mountaintops.<br />
Jovial does not come to us directly from Jove<br />
but from the planet Jupiter which as a natal<br />
planet made those born under it joyous and<br />
happy. Yet Jove’s majesty echoes in it. There<br />
is a suggestion <strong>of</strong> heartiness in the word, <strong>of</strong> l<strong>of</strong>ty<br />
serenity and, sometimes, a touch <strong>of</strong> godlike condescension.<br />
The jovial do not giggle; they<br />
chuckle. Joviality is definitely avuncular. not<br />
nepotal.<br />
got or tittle. As an expression <strong>of</strong> an intransigent<br />
or firm refusal to make the slightest change or<br />
an insistence that things are going to remain<br />
exactly as they are, especially spoken <strong>of</strong> something<br />
set down in writing, not one jot or tittle<br />
will be changed is a cliche. It is an echo <strong>of</strong><br />
Matthew 5: 18, One jot or tittle shall in no wise<br />
pass from the law, where jot means iota and<br />
tittle any point (like the dot over an i) by which<br />
pronunciation is indicated.<br />
journalese. As a term for all newspaper writing,<br />
journalese is a snob term. There is just as good<br />
and effective writing in the best newspapers as<br />
in the best books and the faults that are com-<br />
monly classed as journalese are to be found in<br />
all writing.<br />
Nevertheless, the poorer and more sensational<br />
papers have these faults to a degree that justifies<br />
some name for it. Their writing is frequently<br />
trite, oversimplified, distorted, exaggerated, colored<br />
for sensational effect and wrenched to<br />
meet the space demands <strong>of</strong> headlines. Their<br />
vocabularies are <strong>of</strong>ten pretentious and abstract<br />
and loaded with violent images which are overworked<br />
and soon worn out. A mild example<br />
will suffice :<br />
“Leaders <strong>of</strong> South Carolinians for Independent<br />
Electors, the grozcp sponsoring the<br />
slate, insist their twin objectives are to give<br />
segregation South Carolinians a place to go,<br />
and make available eight uncommitted electoral<br />
votes as the South’s bargaining weapon<br />
should neither Mr. Eisenhower nor Adlai E.<br />
Stevenson win the necessary clear majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> electoral votes from the 47 other states.”<br />
Aside from the expansiveness <strong>of</strong> the “should”<br />
clause, are the two objectives so similar as to<br />
be twins? Wherein does a “clear” majority differ<br />
from a majority? And is the cacophonous use <strong>of</strong><br />
“segregation” as an adjective justified?<br />
Bad newspapers love elaborate words: obfuscate,<br />
plebiscite, inculcate, anomaly, shibboleth,<br />
indigenous, cataclysm, aggrandizement,<br />
implementation, encroachment, peripheral. Certain<br />
pompous phrases must remain permanently<br />
set up in type: bipartisan foreign policy, act <strong>of</strong><br />
overt aggression, fusillade <strong>of</strong> shots, dereliction<br />
<strong>of</strong> duty, titular head <strong>of</strong> the party, diplomat without<br />
portfolio, deficit spending, eschewing presidential<br />
ambitions, policy <strong>of</strong> containment. But<br />
to assume that such inflated terminology is confined<br />
to newspapers is to be as ignorant as<br />
unjust. It was not some petty, pretentious scribbler<br />
who invented massive retaliation and agonizing<br />
reappraisal or spoke <strong>of</strong> unleashing Chiang<br />
Kai-shek.<br />
Newspaper writing has to be done under<br />
pressure to meet a deadline and such pressure<br />
invites the use <strong>of</strong> cliches. They become a sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> time-and-thought saving code: legal bombshell,<br />
sweeping investigation, innocent bystander,<br />
fair sex, kiddies, smoking weapon, ill-gotten<br />
gains, minced no words, whirlwind courtship,<br />
tongue-lashing.<br />
Headlines account for the greatest abuse <strong>of</strong><br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> words, but as the meaning becomes<br />
established through constant use in headlines,<br />
it eventually works its way into news<br />
stories, Thus bid is made to serve a score <strong>of</strong><br />
uses in the headlines that are not recognized in<br />
the dictionaries. In the headlines all treaties and<br />
agreements are pacts, all ambassadors envoys,<br />
all investigations probes, all contests for public<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice races, all criticisms hits or raps, all unsavory<br />
agreements deals, all increases in pay or<br />
charges hikes, all requests pleas. The reading<br />
<strong>of</strong> headlines is becoming as specialized an<br />
activity as the solving <strong>of</strong> crossword puzzles.<br />
Who but the initiate could make sense <strong>of</strong><br />
SHUNS CHICAGO RETURN GO?
journey. See trip.<br />
joy is more than pleasure. It is a keen, ilively,<br />
ecstatic pleasure (But fhere is no joy in Mudville-mighty<br />
Casey has struck out). Hence<br />
such phrases as simple joys or quiet joys must<br />
be used with care as they are self-contradictory.<br />
Usually pleasures is intended. Delight is a synonym<br />
for joy. The phrase a joy and a a’elight<br />
is a cliche.<br />
judge. This verb may be followed by a clause, as<br />
in I judge they have finished, or by an intinitive,<br />
as in I judge them to have finished. The (clause<br />
construction is generally preferred.<br />
judge; adjudicate. In addition to its primary Imeaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> trying a person or case as a judge does,<br />
judge has the related meanings <strong>of</strong> forming a<br />
critical opinion or an estimate (I judge it’s about<br />
a mile further. Their deeds I judge and much<br />
condemn,/ Yet when did I make lanjs for<br />
them?). Adjudicate means to award judicially<br />
(The prize was adjudicated to the little man in<br />
the bowler hat) or to sit in judgment, to pronounce<br />
judgment on. In this use it is followed<br />
by upon (The right to adjudicate upon these<br />
pretensions can be claimed only by those who<br />
have experienced the same misfortune). In<br />
many contests judge and adjudicate c.an be<br />
interchanged, but the practice is becoming increasingly<br />
common <strong>of</strong> using adjudicate in reference<br />
to contests or disputes not in the courts.<br />
See also think.<br />
judicature; judiciary. As a term for the judicial<br />
branch <strong>of</strong> government, the system <strong>of</strong> courts <strong>of</strong><br />
justice in a country, the judges collectively, the<br />
British prefer judicature and the Americans<br />
judiciary, though both words are known in both<br />
countries and may be used interchangeabbly.<br />
judicial; judicious. Judicial means pertaining to<br />
judgment in courts <strong>of</strong> justice (judicial proceedings)<br />
or pertaining to courts <strong>of</strong> law or judges<br />
(judicial functions, judicial chambers) or proper<br />
to the character <strong>of</strong> a judge (judicial calm, judicial<br />
fairness). Judicious implies the possession<br />
and use <strong>of</strong> discernment and discrimination<br />
(That was a judicious choice). There are some<br />
contexts in which the use <strong>of</strong> judicious may be<br />
ambiguous, for a judicial opinion may also be<br />
judicious.<br />
junction; juncture. A junction is an act <strong>of</strong> joining<br />
(Soon afterwards Nelson effected a junction<br />
with the main body <strong>of</strong> his fleet) or a place<br />
<strong>of</strong> joining (The torn sheet had been so skillfully<br />
mended that the junction <strong>of</strong> its two halves<br />
could be perceived only by the most careful<br />
scrutiny).<br />
A juncture is also an act <strong>of</strong> joining (The<br />
juncture <strong>of</strong> the Ohio and the Mississippi . . .),<br />
though this use is now rare, junction being<br />
commonly preferred. As a place <strong>of</strong> joining, it<br />
refers to the line or point at which two bodies<br />
are joined (the juncture <strong>of</strong> the head and neck).<br />
Its commonest meaning, however, is <strong>of</strong> a point<br />
in time which is important because <strong>of</strong> the concurrence<br />
<strong>of</strong> circumstances (How remarkable<br />
that he should appear at this juncture <strong>of</strong> events.<br />
A critical juncture). At this juncture has come<br />
to be used so much for simply at this moment,<br />
261 junk<br />
whether or not the moment is one made sign&<br />
cant by the junction <strong>of</strong> certain events, that a<br />
careful writer will avoid it unless the context<br />
makes it plain that it is a juncture and not just<br />
a moment.<br />
junior. The word junior is used much in America,<br />
rarely in England. In America it means the<br />
third or next to the last year <strong>of</strong> college or one<br />
who is a member <strong>of</strong> that year (By his junior<br />
year the candidate for the degree must have<br />
completed . . .). It also means <strong>of</strong> a more recent<br />
admission or appointment to an <strong>of</strong>fice, especially<br />
the United States Senate, where a junior senator<br />
is not necessarily younger than his colleague<br />
from the same state but more recently<br />
elected or appointed.<br />
When an American boy is given his father’s<br />
name or his grandfather’s name he usually ap<br />
pends junior to his own name during the lifetime<br />
<strong>of</strong> the older bearer <strong>of</strong> the name. Miss Amy<br />
Vanderbilt in her Complete Book <strong>of</strong> Etiquette<br />
says that the word should be in small letters if<br />
appended in full but the I capitalized if abbreviated<br />
and Mr. prefixed to the whole (Mr. William<br />
Schwartz, junior or Mr. William Schwartz,<br />
Jr.). Where the father himself is already junior<br />
-where, that is, grandfather, father, and grandson<br />
all bear the identical name, and the gradfather<br />
and father are still living-the grandson<br />
is third. On the death <strong>of</strong> the grandfather, the<br />
father would then become Mr. William Schwartz<br />
and the grandson William Schwartz, junior, UP<br />
til he was <strong>of</strong> age and then Mr. William Schwartz,<br />
junior. In some places it is customary for a son<br />
who has been known as Mr. William Schwartz,<br />
junior, to retain the junior for a year after his<br />
father’s death.<br />
Though dictionaries do not recognize it, it ia<br />
well for parents to face the fact that among<br />
schoolboys junior is a term <strong>of</strong> good-humored<br />
contempt.<br />
It is improper to refer to a girl or young<br />
woman as junior (as Miss Helen Smith, Jr.)<br />
even if she does bear the same name as her<br />
mother. Of course she could be described as<br />
the junior Miss Smith to distinguish her from<br />
an elder sister, but younger would be better.<br />
And Junior Misses is a definite category in girls’<br />
clothing.<br />
junk. In English usage junk is still chiefly a nautical<br />
word, meaning old, stiff, worn-out, discarded<br />
cordage and-by derivation-salt meat<br />
(which, apparently, was regarded as having the<br />
consistency and appearance <strong>of</strong> such cordage,<br />
and probably its palatability). In America junlr<br />
means any old or discarded material, especially<br />
metal, paper, and rags (They were ashamed<br />
because their uncle was in the junk business.<br />
There was nothing up there but a lot <strong>of</strong> old<br />
junk. The old mills will simply be dismantled<br />
and the machinery sold for junk). The verb to<br />
junk, to discard as worthless (When he got<br />
home his ship was a complete wreck. It will be<br />
junked), is wholly American. The word is used<br />
as a verb in English, but rarely, and then it<br />
means to cut into hunks.<br />
The Chinese ship junk is a totally different
junket<br />
word. It is a shortening <strong>of</strong> the Portuguese form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Javanese word jong.<br />
junket. The sweet custardlike food <strong>of</strong> flavored<br />
milk curded with rennet (Eat your junket,<br />
Deborah!) was so called because it-or something<br />
like it-used to be served on rushes<br />
(Italian giunco, a rush). Rushes were also<br />
spread on the floor or ground at merrymakings<br />
and picnics and hence pleasurable entertainments<br />
and excursions came to be called junkets.<br />
The first meaning is retained in America, though<br />
when the I is capitalized it is a trademark. The<br />
second, however, has undergone a curious, cynical<br />
change and in its commonest use in the<br />
United States today means a trip taken at public<br />
expense by an <strong>of</strong>ficial or a group <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ficials<br />
ostensibly to obtain information but actually for<br />
pleasure (Several rules committee members have<br />
opposed the resolutions on the ground that they<br />
kangaroo court. As a term for an unauthorized<br />
or irregular court, especially for a mock court<br />
held by prisoners in jail or an irregularly conducted<br />
court in a frontier district, kangaroo<br />
court is an American term. It is <strong>of</strong>ten classified<br />
as informal English but it has become so definitely<br />
the name for irregular courts conducted<br />
in jails by the prisoners themselves that it is<br />
hard to see how else one could identify them<br />
without resorting to circumlocution.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> the term is unknown. It is, apparently,<br />
not Australian but American. Dr.<br />
Charles Earle Funk hazards the auess that since<br />
the term came into use soon after the gold rush<br />
to California, in 1849, the early purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
such courts may have been to try those who<br />
jumped claims.<br />
keep. The past tense is kept. The participle is also<br />
kept. Keep may be followed by the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in keep trying, but not by an infinitive<br />
or a clause. Keep may be followed by an<br />
adjective describing the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as<br />
in I kept cool, or by an adverb describing the<br />
action itself, as in it kept well.<br />
keep a stiff upper lip. As an admonition to be<br />
firm in times <strong>of</strong> stress and trouble, keep a stifl<br />
upper lip is a cliche. It seems to be an American<br />
phrase, coming into use in the 1830’s. Like<br />
many cliches, its exact meaning is puzzling,<br />
since it is not the upper but the lower lip that<br />
trembles in weakness and self-pity.<br />
keep a weather eye open. As an admonition to<br />
be alert, keep a weather eye open is a cliche,<br />
a tediously jocular assumption <strong>of</strong> nautical language.<br />
keep body and soul together. As a term for achieving<br />
the bare minimum <strong>of</strong> subsistence, to keep<br />
K<br />
would provide “nice junket trips” for committee<br />
members).<br />
just; justly. When these words mean fair or according<br />
to justice, the form just is an adjective<br />
and is used to qualify a noun, and the form<br />
justly is an adverb and is used to qualify other<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> words, as in the just man was justly<br />
pardoned. When the form just is used as an<br />
adverb and qualifies a word that is not a noun,<br />
it means exactly, merely, or very recently, as in<br />
the man has just been pardoned. The form fustly<br />
is never used to qualify a noun.<br />
juvenile. As an adjective for that which pertains<br />
to, is suitable for, or intended for young persons,<br />
fuvenile is neutral in its connotations<br />
(juvenile fiction), though the frequency <strong>of</strong> its<br />
use in the phrase juvenile delinquency may<br />
make it in time pejorative. The disparaging<br />
adjectives are childish and puerile. See infantile.<br />
body and soul together or keeping body and<br />
soul together has been overworked. It has been<br />
in constant use for more than two hundred years<br />
and should be avoided.<br />
kept. See keep.<br />
kerb. See curb.<br />
kerosene; paraffin; coal oil. Kerosene is, or was<br />
until recently, the common American word for<br />
heating and illuminating oil distilled from petroleum,<br />
bituminous shale, coal, etc. (She would<br />
put kerosene on her fire to make it burn). The<br />
English word for this substance is paraffin, a<br />
shortening <strong>of</strong> paraffin oil (He set his face against<br />
para#in and the whole family <strong>of</strong> oils); but<br />
parafin in the United States means a white or<br />
colorless waxy substance, obtained from crude<br />
petroleum and used for making candles and<br />
forming preservative coatings on paper, homemade<br />
preserves, jellies, and so on. This the<br />
English call parufin wax. The term paraffin<br />
is also used in England for medicinal oils taken<br />
as laxatives, what in America are called mineral<br />
oils.<br />
Coal oil is an old-fashioned American term<br />
for what is now usually called kerosene (This<br />
lamp is especially designed for burning coal oil<br />
and similar substances). But kerosene is now<br />
generally being displaced by fuel oil, very little<br />
oil being used any more for lighting but an<br />
increasing amount for heating.<br />
ketchup. See catchup.<br />
key (island or wharf). See quay.<br />
kick. As a noun or a verb meaning a complaint<br />
or to complain (You’ll get a kick on that, you<br />
wait and see. Aw, they’re always kicking about<br />
something. Who cares?), kick is accepted spoken<br />
English. As a noun meaning a thrill (I get a
kick out <strong>of</strong> just watching that kid), it is slang.<br />
So also is its meaning <strong>of</strong> stimulation in an<br />
alcoholic drink (That home brew stuff had an<br />
awful kick in it), or, as a verb, to be around<br />
(He’s been kicking around here for six months<br />
now, don’t seem to want to go any place else),<br />
or in the compound, to kick in, contribute (Her<br />
lawyer kicked in with the necessary five hundred<br />
,-<br />
bucks). Kick <strong>of</strong>f. start (The drive kicked <strong>of</strong>f with<br />
a big rally in the square), and kickback, ‘io pay<br />
part <strong>of</strong> one’s wages, fee, or receipts back<br />
surreptitiously (Longshoremen were finding it<br />
tougher than ever to get jobs, even through kickbacks<br />
<strong>of</strong> pay, bottles <strong>of</strong> liquor and cigars), are<br />
slang terms on the way to becoming accepted<br />
spoken English.<br />
kill. The use <strong>of</strong> kill to mean to cancel a word, or<br />
a paragraph, or item (Publisher Forsberg decided<br />
to kill the editorial page) is standard in<br />
American usage. So also to let an automobile<br />
engine go dead (He killed the engine right on<br />
the tracks).<br />
kill or cure is a cliche, sustained solely by inertia<br />
and alliteration..<br />
kill the fatted calf. To kill the fatted calf in festal<br />
preparation, or the goose that lays the golden<br />
eggs in greedy folly, or two birds with one stone<br />
in thrift or efficiency is to be guilty <strong>of</strong> using<br />
very tedious phrases.<br />
kin. Though kin is standard in the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
one’s relatives collectively, kinsfolk, family relation<br />
or kinship (You’ll find our kin all through<br />
Kentucky. They’re kin to us through the Pruitts<br />
around Olympian Springs), it is archaic as<br />
a designation <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong> persons descended<br />
from a common ancestor (We’re all Adam’s<br />
kin) or a single kinsman (He’s no kin <strong>of</strong> mine).<br />
The word is more widely used in the South,<br />
where the older feeling for family relationships<br />
is still retained, than in the North. See ldth<br />
and kin.<br />
kind <strong>of</strong>. The use <strong>of</strong> singulars and plurals in expressions<br />
involving kind <strong>of</strong> is complicated only<br />
in the sense that there are several constructions<br />
all <strong>of</strong> which are equally acceptable.<br />
Kind <strong>of</strong> is singular. Traditionally, it is qualified<br />
by a singular, such as this and not these,<br />
and is followed by a singular verb. The noun<br />
following kind <strong>of</strong> may be either singular or<br />
plural. We may say this kind <strong>of</strong> man is dangerous<br />
or this kind <strong>of</strong> men is dangerous. Both constructions<br />
are formally correct but the second,<br />
with a plural noun before a singular verb, is<br />
not heard in the United States. We may also<br />
say these kind <strong>of</strong> men are dangerous. This use<br />
<strong>of</strong> a plural qualifier and a plural verb with the<br />
singular kind <strong>of</strong> is formally irregular, but it has<br />
a long history in literary English. It is used<br />
today by educated people and must therefore<br />
be recognized as standard English.<br />
Kinds <strong>of</strong> is a plural and is used only in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one kind. It is qualified by a<br />
plural, such as these and not this, and is followed<br />
by a plural verb. The noun following<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> may be either singular or plural. We<br />
may say these kinds <strong>of</strong> iree are easy to grow or<br />
263 kind<br />
these kinds <strong>of</strong> trees are easy to grow. In the<br />
United States a plural noun is generally preferred<br />
after kinds <strong>of</strong>, but both forms are standard,<br />
literary English.<br />
In every case, a following pronoun is singular<br />
if the verb is singular and plural if the verb is<br />
plural, as in this kind <strong>of</strong> tree is nice if you like<br />
it and these kind <strong>of</strong> trees are nice if you like<br />
them.<br />
What has just been said covers everything<br />
that anyone needs to know about the use <strong>of</strong><br />
singulars and plurals with kind <strong>of</strong>. But unfortunately,<br />
a great deal <strong>of</strong> confusion has grown<br />
up in recent years over the form these kind <strong>of</strong><br />
trees. Before anyone changes his speech habits<br />
in regard to this, he should understand just what<br />
it is that is under attack.<br />
About fifty years ago some eminent grammarians<br />
commented on the fact that kind was<br />
used in a way not possible for a word such as<br />
group. They said that, although grammatically<br />
incorrect, this irregular construction was acceptable<br />
spoken English, and gave as examples<br />
<strong>of</strong> it: these kind <strong>of</strong> men have their uses &rd<br />
what kind <strong>of</strong> trees nre those? If a word like<br />
group was being used in these sentences we<br />
would say: this group <strong>of</strong> men has its uses and<br />
what group <strong>of</strong> trees is that? The grammarians<br />
were recommending as technically correct this<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> men has its uses and what kind <strong>of</strong> trees<br />
is that? They had no objection in the world to<br />
a plural noun after kind <strong>of</strong>. They themselves,<br />
in another context, speak <strong>of</strong> a kind <strong>of</strong> compasses.<br />
All that can be said about this singular construction<br />
with a plural noun is that it is not used<br />
in the United States today. We do not use kind<br />
in exactly the same way that we use group. The<br />
recommended construction is so alien to our<br />
speech habits that American handbooks which<br />
condemn these kind <strong>of</strong> trees are do not mention<br />
the alternative this kind <strong>of</strong> trees is. They sometimes<br />
say that the only acceptable form is trees<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind are. This is absurd. And it becomes<br />
even more absurd when applied to what kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees are those? Sometimes they suggest, or<br />
at least students conclude, that one should always<br />
say these kinds <strong>of</strong> trees. This is worse yet.<br />
Kinds should never be used unless more than<br />
one kind is meant.<br />
To sum up, if only one kind is meant, kind<br />
may be used with a singular noun to suggest<br />
the type, as in this kind <strong>of</strong> tree, or with a plural<br />
noun to suggest the group, as in these kind <strong>of</strong><br />
trees or this kind <strong>of</strong> trees. These kind <strong>of</strong> trees<br />
is idiomatic and literary English. This kind <strong>of</strong><br />
trees is historically justifiable but seldom heard<br />
in the United States today.<br />
The phrase kind <strong>of</strong> a, as in this kind <strong>of</strong> a<br />
man, is condemned by many grammarians. But<br />
it can be heard frequently in the speech <strong>of</strong> the<br />
best-educated people and is found in the works<br />
<strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> our best writers, including William<br />
James.<br />
Kind <strong>of</strong> is sometimes used to qualify an adjective<br />
or a verb, as in it is kind <strong>of</strong> silly and
kindling 264<br />
he kind <strong>of</strong> hesitated. This is almost universally<br />
condemned. But it too can be heard in the<br />
United States in all levels <strong>of</strong> sueech. including<br />
the speech <strong>of</strong> those who condemn it. A sentence<br />
such as I kind <strong>of</strong> had to leave undoubtedly<br />
creates a bad impression. But this is due more<br />
to the speaker’s excessive timidity than to his<br />
grammar.<br />
kindling wood; matchwood. When an American<br />
wishes to say that something has been smashed<br />
into minute splinters, he may say that it has<br />
been reduced to kindling wood (His calm verdict<br />
upon the struggle for the gold standard<br />
makes kindling wood <strong>of</strong> the Republican platform).<br />
An Englishman will say matchwood<br />
(Most <strong>of</strong> the ships that struck were broken up<br />
into matchwood).<br />
kindly; please. The use <strong>of</strong> kindly for please in<br />
such phrases as kindly remit has a touch <strong>of</strong><br />
unctuousness about it that may defeat its intention<br />
<strong>of</strong> being elegant or ingratiating. The<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> kindness or sympathetic benevolence<br />
is not one that can be produced upon demand,<br />
especially upon the demand <strong>of</strong> a creditor. It<br />
may be argued that the same holds for pleasure,<br />
yet please remit is an established formula. So<br />
it is, but it is so thoroughly established that<br />
in this particular context there is no longer any<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> pleasure, any more than <strong>of</strong> affection<br />
in Dear Sir. It is simply a courteous formality<br />
and courteous formality is the proper manner<br />
in which to ask for something that is owed one.<br />
When in a desire to seem less coldly formal<br />
one employs words that have unsuitable connotations,<br />
one’s meaning may be misunderstood.<br />
The unusual word may make the demand seem<br />
unusual and resentment is quick to seize on<br />
trifles to justify itself.<br />
lriPdred spirits. As a term for those who are alike<br />
in natural dispositions and who share the same<br />
interests, kindred spirits is hackneyed.<br />
King James Version. The version <strong>of</strong> the Bible,<br />
properly known as the Authorized Version,<br />
which was prepared at the command <strong>of</strong> King<br />
James I <strong>of</strong> England and first published in 1611<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten called the King James Version (or the<br />
King lames’ Version) and <strong>of</strong>ten miscalled the<br />
Saint James Version. The confusion may be<br />
abetted by the fact that the British court, to<br />
which our ambassador is accredited, is called<br />
the Court <strong>of</strong> St. James (which see).<br />
tingly; regal; royal. That which is kingly may<br />
belong to a king or be fitting for or worthy <strong>of</strong><br />
a king (. . . what seemed his head/ The likeness<br />
<strong>of</strong> a kingly crown had on). Regal applies to the<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> kingship, to its outward manifestations<br />
<strong>of</strong> majesty and grandeur (With them comes a<br />
third <strong>of</strong> regal port,/ But faded splendor wan.<br />
This exercise <strong>of</strong> regal authority proved to be<br />
immensely popular). Royal is applied especially<br />
to what pertains to or is associated with the<br />
person <strong>of</strong> a monarch (the royal bedchamber,<br />
the royal family) or to that which is ideally<br />
like or characteristic <strong>of</strong> a king, noble, generous,<br />
munificent (What a royal housekeeper his<br />
grandfather was, in what magnificent style he<br />
kept open house! A royal welcome).<br />
kith and kin is a clichC, one <strong>of</strong> those meaningless<br />
phrases kept current by alliteration. A fitting<br />
punishment for anyone who uses it would be to<br />
require him to use the word kith at once in<br />
some other context. The chances are overwhelming<br />
that he couldn’t do it. The word meant<br />
originally those who are known to us, friends,<br />
fellow-countrymen, neighbors, acquaintances.<br />
It is related to the old word couth, known. In<br />
the stable societies <strong>of</strong> older times all <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
kin were probably kith, though not all who<br />
were kith were kin. When Middleton wrote, in<br />
1620, A maid that’s neither kith nor kin to me,<br />
he seems to have the proper distinction in mind.<br />
But for well over a century the two words have<br />
been assumed to be synonymous. Burns wrote<br />
My lady’s white, my lady’s red,/ And kith and<br />
kin o’ Cassillis’ blude, though one cannot be<br />
kith <strong>of</strong> blood.<br />
klang association is a term applied to the manner<br />
in which the meaning <strong>of</strong> many words is unconsciously<br />
affected by our hearing the sound <strong>of</strong><br />
other words in them. Thus fakir (derived from<br />
an Arabic word meaning poor) suggests an<br />
impostor because it seems to contain fake<br />
(which is probably derived from a German<br />
word fegen, to sweep). People expect greyhounds<br />
to be gray, though the first syllable has<br />
nothing to do with color but is derived from<br />
a Norse word for dog. In England today bug<br />
is almost an iudecent word and the American’s<br />
frequent use <strong>of</strong> it greatly agitates his transatlantic<br />
cousin. Since it derives from the same<br />
root as bogey, it is a harmless word, but the<br />
English seem to connect it with bugger, sodomite<br />
(a corruption <strong>of</strong> Bulgarian); in America,<br />
on the other hand, bugger seems to have been<br />
decontaminated by its klang association with<br />
bug and mischievous little boys are affectionately<br />
called little buggers with no moral implication<br />
intended.<br />
kneel. The past tense is knelt or kneeled. The<br />
participle is also knelt or kneeled. Knelt is the<br />
preferred form for the past tense and for the<br />
participle, but both forms are acceptable.<br />
knees <strong>of</strong> the gods, on the. To say <strong>of</strong> something<br />
<strong>of</strong> which the outcome or future is wholly dependent<br />
upon chance, or at least <strong>of</strong> which we<br />
no longer have any control, that it is on the<br />
knees <strong>of</strong> the gods (or in the lap <strong>of</strong> the gods) is<br />
to employ a hackneyed phrase. The term, which<br />
is a translation <strong>of</strong> a phrase that occurs repeatedly<br />
in the Iliad and the Odyssey, originally carried<br />
the idea that since the matter had, whether<br />
<strong>of</strong> choice or necessity, been handed to the gods<br />
for solution or furtherance, it would be impious<br />
<strong>of</strong> man to attempt to do anything more about it.<br />
knew. See know.<br />
knickers; knickerbockers. The plural forms refer<br />
to one garment but are always treated as plurals,<br />
as in these knickers are torn. In order to<br />
use the word with a singular verb or to speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one such garment, it is necessary<br />
to say this pair <strong>of</strong> knickers is torn or several<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> knickers. The form knickers is also<br />
used as the first element in a compound, as in<br />
his knickers pocket,
knife. The plural is knives.<br />
knit. The past tense is knit or knitted. The participle<br />
is also knit or knifted. For a long time<br />
knitted was used only as an adjective, as in<br />
u knitted coat, but it is now also used in verb<br />
forms. The form knit is always used when the<br />
word has a figurative sense, as in she knit her<br />
brows, but we may say she knit a sweater or<br />
she knitted o sweater.<br />
knock has a number <strong>of</strong> colloquial and slang uses<br />
in the United States which are not current in<br />
England. Thus the making <strong>of</strong> harsh or illnatured<br />
criticisms (Don’t knock, boost!) or,<br />
when followed by about, to wander aimlessly<br />
(I’ve knocked about a lot since I quit high<br />
school) or, when followed by down, to get<br />
money illicitly, usually by embezzling from sums<br />
that pass through one’s hands (Those ticket sellers,<br />
they really knock down the dough!).<br />
A striking instance <strong>of</strong> the idiomatic pitfalls<br />
that await the uninstructed is the phrase<br />
knocked up. The expression is slang in both<br />
England and America, but has a totally different<br />
meaning in each country. In England the<br />
phrase has an old-fashioned meaning <strong>of</strong> to be<br />
awakened by knocking (I say, if you’re leaving<br />
early, knock me up, will you?) and a modem<br />
slang meaning <strong>of</strong> to be tired out. In Am,erica it<br />
means to make pregnant or to have been made<br />
pregnant. A lady who announced in England<br />
after a gay evening that she was completely<br />
knocked up might create a minor ripple (<strong>of</strong> sympathy.<br />
The same announcement in America<br />
would be sensational.<br />
knot (nautical). A knot, as any exasperated seaman<br />
is eager to inform any pretentious and<br />
ignorant landlubber, is not a measure <strong>of</strong> distance<br />
but a unit <strong>of</strong> speed <strong>of</strong> one nautical mile<br />
per hour. [The nautical mile is <strong>of</strong>ficially fixed<br />
in the U. S. at 6,080.20 feet, in Great Britain at<br />
6,080 feet, as against 5,280 feet in both countries<br />
for the land mile.] Thus it is wrong to<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a ship’s going so many knots an hour.<br />
She simply goes so many knots. Nor does she<br />
cover so many knots a day. She goes at so many<br />
knots and covers so many miles.<br />
know. The past tense is knew. The participle is<br />
known. When know is used in an active form,<br />
in speaking <strong>of</strong> a present or future event it may<br />
be followed by a clause, as in Z know she lies,<br />
or by to be, as in Z know her to be a Car, but<br />
not by any other infinitive. When speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
a past event it may be followed by a clause, as<br />
in Z know she lied, or by an infinitive, as in<br />
Z have known her to lie. It may also be followed<br />
by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z have<br />
known her lie, but the to-infinitive is preferred.<br />
When know is used in a passive form, it is followed<br />
by a to-infinitive, regardless <strong>of</strong> the time<br />
referred to, as in she is known to lie and she<br />
has been known to lie.<br />
As a word for knowledge, the fact <strong>of</strong> knowing,<br />
know-now restricted almost entirely to<br />
the phrase in the know-is slang. Know-how,<br />
however, the knowledge <strong>of</strong> how to do something,<br />
faculty, or skill, is now standard in<br />
American usage. Some authors have insisted<br />
265 know<br />
that a distinction must be made between knowing<br />
someone and merely having an acquaintance<br />
with him, but American usage will not<br />
support any such distinction. When someone is<br />
asked, Do you know so-and-so? he may answer<br />
Only slightly or Very well or make the degree<br />
<strong>of</strong> the acquaintance clear in any way that he<br />
chooses, but it does not occur to him that he is<br />
being asked if he knows the person in the same<br />
sense in which he might be asked if he knows<br />
a certain subject. To know <strong>of</strong> someone, however,<br />
means to know him only by name or<br />
reputation.<br />
know; comprehend; understand. To know is to<br />
be aware <strong>of</strong> something as a fact (I know I’m<br />
right. Zi was apparent that he had known <strong>of</strong><br />
our plans all along. Z know a bank whereon the<br />
wild thyme grows). To comprehend is to know<br />
something thoroughly and at the same time to<br />
perceive its relationship to certain other facts<br />
and ideas (He comprehends the full implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> the figures. A comprehension <strong>of</strong> the theory<br />
would require considerable knowledge <strong>of</strong> mathematics<br />
as well as biology). To understand<br />
something is to be fully aware not only <strong>of</strong> its<br />
meaning but <strong>of</strong> its implications (I comprehended<br />
all that he said, but Z failed to understand<br />
why he was so upset). See also understand,<br />
I.<br />
know enough to come in out <strong>of</strong> the rain, not to.<br />
In a famous book <strong>of</strong> jests published in the 16th<br />
century and attributed to John Scogan, Edward<br />
IV’s fool, there is a story <strong>of</strong> a sly fellow who<br />
sought to establish himself as a natural idiot<br />
by standing under an open downspout during<br />
a rainstorm. Apparently the proverb was current<br />
even then. By now it is a cliche, a once<br />
good, useful phrase worn out by repetition.<br />
know from Adam, not to. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that someone is so completely a stranger that<br />
even his appearance is unfamiliar, nor to know<br />
him from Adam is a cliche. The original meaning<br />
seems to have been: Adam is the prototype<br />
<strong>of</strong> all men; I know that the person alluded to is<br />
a man, and I would recognize that much but<br />
nothing else. Wits have had great diversion over<br />
the possible absence <strong>of</strong> a navel in Adam as a<br />
distinguishing feature.<br />
know the ropes. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that someone<br />
is thoroughly familiar with a certain situation<br />
or procedure, to say that he knows the<br />
ropes is to employ a cliche.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> the phrase is uncertain. Some<br />
say it is from boxing or wrestling, the skillful<br />
contestant knowing how best to utilize the protection<br />
or impetus <strong>of</strong> the ropes. But the phrase<br />
antedates the use <strong>of</strong> ropes to mark <strong>of</strong>f the prize<br />
ring. It seems most natural that it should have<br />
been a nautical phrase, especially from the<br />
latter days <strong>of</strong> sailing vessels when the sails were<br />
controlled by a bewildering maze <strong>of</strong> ropes. But<br />
it is interesting that one <strong>of</strong> the earliest uses <strong>of</strong><br />
the phrase, exactly where one would expect to<br />
find it. in Richard Ilenrv Dana’s Two Years<br />
Before’ the Must (1840); argues against this<br />
because Dana carefully encloses it within quotation<br />
marks (The captain, who . , , “knew the
opes,” took the steering our) to suggest that<br />
he knew that he was using it out <strong>of</strong> its proper<br />
meaning. The oldest uses <strong>of</strong> the phrase refer to<br />
the racetrack, the ropes being the reins and<br />
those who knew them being the most successful<br />
jockeys.<br />
known. see know.<br />
Kodak; kodak. Kodak was a word coined by<br />
George Eastman as a trademark for his small<br />
box camera. The coinage was too successful;<br />
the public soon called every camera a kodak<br />
(Some <strong>of</strong> the rest took kodaks with us) and<br />
even used to kodak as a verb for to photograph.<br />
Competitors have finally managed, however, to<br />
make the public aware <strong>of</strong> brand names for<br />
labor <strong>of</strong> love. As a term for something which is<br />
done solely with the desire to please another,<br />
not from hope <strong>of</strong> gain, a labor <strong>of</strong> love (taken<br />
from the Bible) is weakened by overuse.<br />
laconic. See reticent.<br />
lady. See woman.<br />
ladybug; ladybird. The beetles <strong>of</strong> the family Coccinellidae,<br />
known in England as ladybirds, are<br />
in America most commonly called ladybugs,<br />
though ladybird is known to the educated. They<br />
are also sometimes called lady beetles.<br />
The first element <strong>of</strong> the word is a linguistic<br />
curiosity, being the ancient uninflected possessive<br />
case. It is (Our) lady(‘s) bird or bug or<br />
beetle, the insect being associated with the Virgin<br />
Mary or Heaven in many European languages.<br />
For centuries children have besought<br />
the creature to fly away home since its house is<br />
on fire and its children in various conditions <strong>of</strong><br />
distress and disaster. The Oxford <strong>Dictionary</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
Nursery Rimes says that the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rime is unknown but that it is “undoubtedly a<br />
relic <strong>of</strong> something once possessed <strong>of</strong> an awful<br />
significance.”<br />
laid. See lay.<br />
lain. See lie.<br />
lama; llama. A lama is a priest or monk <strong>of</strong> the<br />
form <strong>of</strong> Buddhism urevailing in Tibet and Mongolia.<br />
A llama is a-woolly-haired South American<br />
ruminant used as a beast <strong>of</strong> burden and<br />
valuable for its fleece.<br />
lament. See regret.<br />
lampoon. See burlesque.<br />
land flowing with milk and honey. Originally a<br />
Biblical term, a poetic epithet for the natural<br />
richness <strong>of</strong> Palestine, a land j?owing with milk<br />
and honey was so overworked by preachers in<br />
the nineteenth century that it became a humorous<br />
phrase. But repetition has destroyed the<br />
humor as it formerly destroyed the solemnity<br />
and poetry and the phrase is now merely a husk.<br />
266<br />
L<br />
other cameras and kodak is not used much any<br />
more as a generic term, though Kodak remains<br />
an Eastman trademark.<br />
kudos. The use <strong>of</strong> the Greek word kudos, meaning<br />
praise or renown, for glory, fame, honor,<br />
even when restricted to the rather pale and<br />
limited glory, fame, and honor <strong>of</strong> an honorary<br />
degree, is an academic affectation. Neither those<br />
who confer nor those who receive honorary<br />
degrees are so steeped in Greek any more that<br />
it comes more naturally to them than English.<br />
It was originally a piece <strong>of</strong> university slang,<br />
with a touch <strong>of</strong> contempt in it (Lauded in pious<br />
Latin to the skies;/ Kudos’d egregiously in<br />
heathen Greek).<br />
landslide. The sliding down <strong>of</strong> a mass <strong>of</strong> soil,<br />
detritus, or rock on a steep slope is in the United<br />
States called a landslide (Heavy rains <strong>of</strong>ten precipitate<br />
landslides where the new roads have<br />
been cut through the mountains). In England it<br />
is called a landslip.<br />
The word is used figuratively in the United<br />
States as a political term to describe an election<br />
in which a particular candidate or party receives<br />
an overwhelming mass or majority <strong>of</strong> votes<br />
(The presidential election <strong>of</strong> 1936 was a Democratic<br />
landslide).<br />
language. See vernacular.<br />
languor. See lassitude.<br />
lap <strong>of</strong> luxury. As a term for wealth or affluence,<br />
the lap <strong>of</strong> luxury, whether one is cradled in it,<br />
reared in it, or just living in it, is hackneyed.<br />
lap <strong>of</strong> the gods. See knees <strong>of</strong> the gods.<br />
lapse. See elapse.<br />
larboard. See port.<br />
large and great are interchangeable in some but<br />
not all <strong>of</strong> their senses. Either may be used to<br />
designate dimensions which are unusually extensive.<br />
We may speak <strong>of</strong> a great house or a great<br />
body <strong>of</strong> water or a large house or a large body<br />
<strong>of</strong> water. We may speak <strong>of</strong> a great number <strong>of</strong><br />
people or a large number <strong>of</strong> people.<br />
Large is the less formal term and therefore to<br />
be preferred for general use. Only great can be<br />
used to indicate distinction. A great man or a<br />
great painting is something quite different from<br />
a large man or a large painting. Great also indicates<br />
something unusual or considerable in degree<br />
(The birth <strong>of</strong> the baby brought them great<br />
joy). Great is the correct adjective to accompany<br />
words like breadth, depth, distance, height,<br />
and length. In a large room, the distance from<br />
one end to the other is great.<br />
jargely; chiefly. The adverbs largely and chiefly<br />
suggest different degrees <strong>of</strong> importance. Lorgely<br />
is less emphatic, meaning to a great extent, in
great part (Admiral Collingwood was largely responsible<br />
for some <strong>of</strong> the fleets being wrecked<br />
after the victory at Trafalgar). Chiefly means<br />
principally, above all (Nelson was chie,fly responsible<br />
for the plan <strong>of</strong> battle).<br />
large-scale. No one has any quarrel with largescale<br />
in its restricted and original sense <strong>of</strong> drawn<br />
to a large scale (a large-scale map), but E.nglish<br />
authors refuse to accept it in the common American<br />
use <strong>of</strong> extensive or <strong>of</strong> large scope (The directors<br />
decided on a large-scale reorganization<br />
<strong>of</strong> the company). The term which is used widely<br />
in business, especially in relation to reorganizations,<br />
promotions, production schedules, ,advertising<br />
campaigns, and other activities where<br />
optimism and “vision” are required, seems to<br />
mean not that plans and so on will be dralwn to<br />
a large scale but that in the scale <strong>of</strong> accomplishment<br />
they will be comparatively large.<br />
lark. The word lark used alone means in England<br />
the skylark (Alauda arvensis) and in America<br />
the mkadow lark (Sturnella magna and Sturnella<br />
neplecta <strong>of</strong> the familv Zcteridae). The two<br />
birds are unlike in appearance, habits, and song<br />
and the raptures <strong>of</strong> the English poets gain a<br />
fuller meaning for the American when he first<br />
hears the bird that has moved so many <strong>of</strong> them<br />
to ecstasy.<br />
The practice <strong>of</strong> the early colonists <strong>of</strong> bestowing<br />
the names <strong>of</strong> English birds on the strange<br />
species <strong>of</strong> the New World, while natural and<br />
even touching, has led to considerable confusion.<br />
The American robin, for example, is properly a<br />
thrush, and the American buzzard is plainly a<br />
vulture.<br />
lassitude; languor. As a term for weariness <strong>of</strong><br />
body or mind, lassitude seems to suffer from the<br />
very condition it denotes. It is a weak word,<br />
slightly affected and bookish. Chapman s:3ys <strong>of</strong><br />
Odysseus, when he collapsed on the beach at<br />
Phaeacia after shipwreck and days in the ocean,<br />
the sea had soaked his heart through. Pope says<br />
that the hero lav lost in lassitude. This was the<br />
passage that moved Keats to his famous sonnet<br />
and contemporary taste is definitely with :Keats.<br />
Languor and lassitude are <strong>of</strong>ten interchangeable,<br />
but generally languor is the milder word <strong>of</strong><br />
the two, ranging from fatigue (I nearly sank to<br />
the ground through languor and extreme weakness)<br />
through want <strong>of</strong> energy (She quickly forgot<br />
her languor at the good news. That stick<br />
over which his tall person swayed with fashionable<br />
languor) to a tenderness or s<strong>of</strong>tness, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
amorous (The lilies and languors <strong>of</strong> virtue).<br />
last; latest. These words are both superlative<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the same word, late, but last has a<br />
much broader meaning than latest. In presentday<br />
English, only the form latest can be used in<br />
speaking about lateness. But in other senses the<br />
two words may overlap. Both may be used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the final member in a series <strong>of</strong><br />
events. But last is not restricted to time and may<br />
be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> any things that are in a<br />
sequence, as in the last house on the left. Last is<br />
also used in contrast to next, to mean the immediately<br />
preceding, as in last summer, last<br />
Christmas. Where the two words can be used<br />
interchangeably, last may carry a suggestion <strong>of</strong><br />
finality that is not in latest, as in I hope his latest<br />
book will not be his last.<br />
Both words may be used as adjectives, as in<br />
the latest train and the last train. Both may be<br />
used as adverbs in some constructions, as in he<br />
studied latest and he read the paper last. But<br />
latest cannot be used as an adverb immediately<br />
before a verb. In this position only the form last<br />
is used and here it does not carry any sense <strong>of</strong><br />
finality, as in when I last saw him.<br />
In current English the adverbial form lastly is<br />
used only to mark the last point in a discourse.<br />
When last is used with a cardinal number. it<br />
may either follow or precede the cardinal. U&l<br />
the seventeenth century it usually followed the<br />
cardinal, as in the two last. Coleridge wrote, the<br />
fifty or sixty last years <strong>of</strong> her life. Jn current<br />
English last usually precedes a cardinal, as in the<br />
last two, except when it is being used in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> “the last-mentioned.”<br />
In expressions <strong>of</strong> time, last is used without the<br />
article the, as in last night, last Tuesday.<br />
last but not least-one more clichd to which we<br />
are led by alliteration’s lilt and lure.<br />
last gasp. Whether a man is breathing his lust<br />
gasp or on his last legs or collapsing under the<br />
weight <strong>of</strong> or revolting against the imposition <strong>of</strong><br />
the last straw-all the terms are clichCs.<br />
late. The comparative forms are later and latter.<br />
The superlative forms are latest, last, lattermost.<br />
Late originally meant slow. The earliest meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word that survives today is “behind<br />
time,” as in the child was late for school. In the<br />
earliest records late also has the meaning <strong>of</strong> far<br />
along in the day or after the usual hour for going<br />
to bed, as in it was already late and we keep late<br />
hours. In both <strong>of</strong> these senses one can see some<br />
relation to the idea <strong>of</strong> slow. But eventually the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> far along in the day was extended to far<br />
along in any period, as in the late summer, the<br />
late Roman Empire. Here the idea <strong>of</strong> slow has<br />
been lost. Late also acquired the almost unrelated<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> belonging to the recent past.<br />
Today lute may be used as an adjective and<br />
as an adverb in all four senses. In the first sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> behind time, it is not <strong>of</strong>ten used as an adjective<br />
qualifying a following noun, but it may be.<br />
We may say the late child, but as a rule we<br />
don’t. In the last sense <strong>of</strong> belonging to the recent<br />
past, late may be used as an adverb, as in I sent<br />
thee late a rosy wreath, but this is now considered<br />
extremely bookish and the adverb lately is<br />
preferred. In the other two senses late is used<br />
freely as an adjective and as an adverb. We<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> late suppers and say they stayed late.<br />
We speak <strong>of</strong> the late empire and say found as<br />
late as Constantine. The adverb lately can be<br />
used only in the fourth sense, <strong>of</strong> recently.<br />
Latter is the older <strong>of</strong> the two comparative<br />
forms. But after late had taken on so many<br />
senses a new comparative later appeared with<br />
the limited meaning <strong>of</strong> after in time. It is both<br />
an adjective and an adverb. We may say at a<br />
later time or he later told me. Latter now means
the part nearer the end, as in his latter life, or the<br />
more recent. It is no longer used in a comparison<br />
with than. Its chief function is as a contrast to<br />
former. The contrast implies that some group<br />
has been separated into two parts, but more than<br />
two elements may be involved. We may say the<br />
three latter events. Latter is never used as an<br />
adverb. For both meanings <strong>of</strong> this word we have<br />
the distinct adverbial form latterly.<br />
Of the superlative forms, latest is the superlative<br />
<strong>of</strong> later. It appeared when later did and<br />
means after all others in time. It may be used<br />
as an adjective or as an adverb, as in the latest<br />
book and he stayed latest. The word lattermost<br />
first appeared in the nineteenth century and has<br />
never been widely used. It is specifically the<br />
superlative <strong>of</strong> latter in its present-day senses<br />
and means nearest the end or the most recent.<br />
It is used only as an adjective, as in the Iattermost<br />
day. Last is the old superlative <strong>of</strong> late. It<br />
is still used in the senses covered by lattermost<br />
and in some <strong>of</strong> the senses covered by latest. It<br />
is both an adjective and an adverb, as in the last<br />
man and when last we met. See last; latest.<br />
late; belated. Both late and belated are adjectives<br />
which mean being after the usual or proper time.<br />
Late is the general term to describe this circumstance<br />
without commenting on its desirability or<br />
undesirability (We saw the late edition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
newspaper). Belated, however, connotes an undesirable<br />
delay or one that is blamable (He<br />
<strong>of</strong>fered a belated apology for his misconduct).<br />
late in the day when used literally (Three o’clock<br />
is just too late in the day for lunch) is a useful,<br />
sensible, standard phrase that can never be worn<br />
out so long as there is a proper occasion for it.<br />
Used metaphorically, however (1813 was pretty<br />
late in the day for Napoleon to be talking about<br />
Europe’s need for peace), it is a clich6.<br />
latex. The plural is latexes or latices.<br />
latitude. See breadth.<br />
latter; lattermost. See late.<br />
laud. To laud for to praise is either a cliche<br />
(lauded to the skies) or a bookish term that<br />
sounds a little affected in ordinary speech.<br />
laudable; laudatory. That is laudable which is<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> being praised (His desire to pay <strong>of</strong>f<br />
his father’s debts was laudable). That is laudatory<br />
which expresses praise (He spoke in the<br />
most laudatory terms <strong>of</strong> your loyalty and<br />
ability).<br />
laughable. See funny.<br />
laugh in (or up) one’s sleeve. Derisive laughter<br />
seems to have been concealed in various ways at<br />
various times and places. The French used to<br />
laugh in their capes and the Spaniards in their<br />
beards. The English took to laughing in their<br />
sleeves early in the sixteenth century when<br />
sleeves were large and flowing, capable <strong>of</strong> concealing<br />
immense amounts <strong>of</strong> mirth. But to laugh<br />
in one’s sleeve today would be awkward and<br />
obvious and the phrase is a cliche.<br />
laugh to scorn. Whether one makes one’s enemies<br />
laugh on the wrong side <strong>of</strong> their mouths or<br />
laughs them to scorn or laughs them out <strong>of</strong> court,<br />
or whether the whole procedure is no laughing<br />
matter, and even though one has the last laugh,<br />
all the terms employed are clichCs.<br />
laundry; launder. Articles <strong>of</strong> clothing to be<br />
washed and ironed are laundry and the place in<br />
which they are washed and ironed is a laundry.<br />
The verb is to launder, not to laundry. Clothes<br />
are laundered, not laundried. The process as a<br />
whole is laundering. It used to be laundry<br />
(Chalky water is too fretting as it appeareth in<br />
laundry <strong>of</strong> clothes, which wear out apace if you<br />
use such water-1626), but the adoption <strong>of</strong> the<br />
-ing form has simplified at least that much <strong>of</strong><br />
this so-<strong>of</strong>ten-confusing word.<br />
laurel. The word laurel in Eneland designates a<br />
small lauraceous evergreen tree, Laurus nob&,<br />
sometimes called true laurel. In America the<br />
word is applied to a number <strong>of</strong> trees and shrubs<br />
that in one way or another resemble the true<br />
laurel, as Kalmia latifolia (mountain laurel) or<br />
Rhododendron maximum (the great rhododer?dron<br />
or great laurel). Cecil Sharp (quoted by<br />
Horwill) found that the Laurel Country, as it is<br />
called, <strong>of</strong> North Carolina derived its name from<br />
the rhododendrons which grow there. There was<br />
some true laurel, but this was called ivy, while<br />
the ivy was called vine.<br />
lavish; prodigal; pr<strong>of</strong>use. All three <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
mean unstinted, extravagant. They refer to that<br />
which exists abundantly and is poured out copiously.<br />
One may be extravagant with little; but<br />
it takes a great deal to be lavish, prodigal, or<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>use.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>use is the weakest <strong>of</strong> the three. It suggests<br />
abundance (pr<strong>of</strong>use strains <strong>of</strong> unpremeditated<br />
art) but it also suggests exaggeration, over-demonstration<br />
<strong>of</strong> feelings, etc. (pr<strong>of</strong>use apologies,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>use thanks, pr<strong>of</strong>use protestations <strong>of</strong> undying<br />
affection). Lavish is stronger than pr<strong>of</strong>use. It<br />
suggests excessive display or generosity on a<br />
grand scale (Such lavish hospitality soon reduced<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the greatest fortunes <strong>of</strong> the day to<br />
no more than a competence). Prodigal suggests<br />
wastefulness and improvidence, and again on a<br />
large scale. It commonly refers to habits or character<br />
and, by inescapable association with the<br />
prodigal son <strong>of</strong> Luke 15:11-32, suggests immorality<br />
and ruinous indulgence (Bankrupt <strong>of</strong><br />
life, yet Prodigal <strong>of</strong> ease. . . The chariest maid<br />
is prodigal enough/ Zf she unmask her beauty to<br />
the moon. These prodigal excesses will furnish<br />
material for a thousand sermons that will delight<br />
the staid and frugal).<br />
lawful. See legal.<br />
lawyer. See attorney.<br />
lay. The past tense is laid. The participle is also<br />
laid. This verb means cause to lie. It therefore<br />
implies both an object and an agent. But it does<br />
not follow that both have to be mentioned every<br />
time the verb is used. According to the strictest<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> English, there are two situations in<br />
which one or the other may be omitted.<br />
1. Formerly, the object <strong>of</strong> lay was <strong>of</strong>ten a<br />
pronoun referring back to the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb, the agent, as in now Z lay me down to<br />
sleep. As these reflexive pronouns began to be<br />
dropped, they were still understood and it was
proper to say I will lay down for a nap, meaning<br />
I will lay me down. Later, grammarians who<br />
were more impressed by logic than by facts insisted<br />
that since the verb had no object in this<br />
construction, it was necessary to use lie, as in I<br />
will lie down for a nap. As so <strong>of</strong>ten happens<br />
when children are taught grammatical rules that<br />
run counter to the established idiom, the result<br />
was simply confusion. The children could not<br />
say lie-because that was not what thseir respected<br />
elders said-and they were afraid to say<br />
lay. The result was a kind <strong>of</strong> panic, in which<br />
they were sure that whatever they said would<br />
be wrong. In current English, lie is used more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than lay in these constructions where the<br />
object would be a reflexive pronoun, and many<br />
people consider lay undesirable here. But many<br />
other people still use lay. This may show that<br />
the speaker is depending on his grandmother<br />
more than on his teachers. Or it may show that<br />
his speech habits have been formed by reading<br />
English literature.<br />
(In some parts <strong>of</strong> the United States people<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> laying up for a nap, rather than laying<br />
down. This is not the standard idiom, but it<br />
carries a vivid suggestion <strong>of</strong> old-fashioned high<br />
beds. In all parts <strong>of</strong> the country we say (laid up<br />
with a cold and not laid down, regardless <strong>of</strong> the<br />
height <strong>of</strong> the bed.)<br />
2. When the verb in a sentence is passive the<br />
thing acted on becomes the grammatical fsubject<br />
and is always mentioned, but the agent may be<br />
ignored. In many English verbs the activ’e form<br />
may be used with a passive sense, as in the door<br />
shut, the room filled, the car drives easily. (See<br />
passive voice and transitive verbs.) This has<br />
always been true for lay. People have always<br />
said the book is laying on the table and let it<br />
lay, just as they say the water is spilling and<br />
let it spill. Some grammarians claim that lie is<br />
required here, on the grounds that the verb does<br />
not have an object. This is an overstatement.<br />
Lie may be used here, but it is not required.<br />
To sum up. The verb lay, with its past tense<br />
and participle laid, is almost impossible to misuse.<br />
It is required in a statement that ha.s both<br />
a subject and an object. It is defensible in a<br />
statement that has only a subject, provided ( 1)<br />
the understood object is identical with the subject,<br />
as in he lays on the floor, or (2) the verb<br />
is understood in a passive sense, as in it is laying<br />
on the table. But lie may also be used provided<br />
the object is not mentioned. We may say he lies<br />
on the floor and it is lying on the table. Both<br />
verbs, lay and lie, are correct so far as theoretical<br />
grammar is concerned. The preferred form<br />
is the one heard most <strong>of</strong>ten in your own community.<br />
There is a tendency -in present-day<br />
English to prefer the verb lav in sneakine <strong>of</strong><br />
inanimate objects, and the veib lie ih speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> living creatures.<br />
The verb that is apt to be misused is lie. Its<br />
past tense lay and its participle lain are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
heard with an object, as in he lay it down and<br />
he has lain it down. The strict rules <strong>of</strong> grammar<br />
call for laid in these sentences because the object<br />
is mentioned. But some people seem to think<br />
that laid is wrong under any circumstances. As<br />
a result, the technically incorrect forms are used<br />
too <strong>of</strong>ten to be called unacceptable. That is, they<br />
do not suggest a backwoods or uneducated person.<br />
But they do suggest a timid person who has<br />
tried too hard to please.<br />
English has a number <strong>of</strong> idioms involving lay<br />
in which an object is understood but not expressed.<br />
For example, to lay about means to lay<br />
blows about, and to lay for originally meant to<br />
lay an ambush for. This use <strong>of</strong> lay occurs in<br />
many nautical expressions where the course or<br />
the ship is understood as object.<br />
The words lay and lie may also be used as<br />
nouns with the same sense they have in the verbs,<br />
and either form may be used. The lie <strong>of</strong> the land<br />
is a British expression. In the United States the<br />
same thing is called the lay <strong>of</strong> the land.<br />
lay it on with a trowel. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who<br />
is flattering another grossly that he is laying it<br />
on with a trowel was once to employ an effective<br />
metaphor. The facts that this is a trade or<br />
livelihood for the person doing it and that in the<br />
act he is building some edifice <strong>of</strong> his own, that<br />
the material laid on is sloppy and the gesture <strong>of</strong><br />
laying it on mechanical and habitual, all heighten<br />
the effect <strong>of</strong> the figure. But after three hundred<br />
years <strong>of</strong> steady use and a hundred <strong>of</strong> overuse,<br />
it is worn out.<br />
lay on, Macduff!-usually spoken with a hearty<br />
guffaw and immense self-approval by the speaker<br />
at the range <strong>of</strong> his own literary knowledge and<br />
the felicity <strong>of</strong> its application-must be among<br />
the most hackneyed <strong>of</strong> quotations, one whose<br />
repetition transgresses boredom into humiliation.<br />
First Henry the Fourth, I, ii, 101, <strong>of</strong>fers a<br />
fitting rejoinder: “0, thou hast damnable iteration.”<br />
lay one’s cards on the table. As a term for frankly<br />
stating one’s intentions, admitting one’s weaknesses<br />
or showing one’s resources, to lay one’s<br />
cards on the table is a clichC.<br />
lazv: idle: indolent: slothful. All <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
apply to one wdo is inactive, but they carry<br />
different degrees <strong>of</strong> moral reproach. Zdle may<br />
imply no reproach at all; one may be relaxing<br />
temporarily or inactive through necessity (Zn<br />
idle moments he rested his eyes. The shutdown<br />
at the boxboard plant kept the men idle all the<br />
winter). Or it may be mildly derogatory (I don’t<br />
like all those idle boys hanging around the drugstore<br />
corner).<br />
Lazy, though it too can be a neutral word<br />
(Oh, I feel so gloriously lazy. We spent a lazy<br />
afternoon on the beach), is usually derogatory,<br />
describing a sluggishness, an aversion to work,<br />
especially to continued application (That lazy,<br />
good-for-nothing lout! I’ve told him a dozen<br />
times to put the tools away when he’s done. All,<br />
with united force, combine to drive/ The lazy<br />
drones from the laborious hive). The verb to<br />
lazy (So we would put in the day, lazying<br />
around, listening to the stillness) is usually favorable<br />
and at its worst not strongly condemnatory.<br />
A special American use <strong>of</strong> the word lazy,
with no derogatory implication at all, is its<br />
designation <strong>of</strong> a livestock brand which is placed<br />
on its side instead <strong>of</strong> upright (Things were pretty<br />
quiet at the U Lazy D ranch when Curly dismounted).<br />
An indolent person (the word has the rather<br />
charming literal meaning <strong>of</strong> free from pain) is<br />
one who shows a natural disposition to avoid<br />
exertion and indulge in ease. Because in our<br />
civilization exertion is considered a good thing,<br />
the term is derogatory (An indolent man makes<br />
a poor husband).<br />
Slothful is the most derogatory term <strong>of</strong> the<br />
four. It denotes a reprehensible unwillingness to<br />
do such work as one should (Such a slothful<br />
person is bound to be a burden to society). Sloth<br />
is the fourth <strong>of</strong> the Seven Deadly Sins, more serious<br />
than gluttony, avarice, or lechery. Whether<br />
we are becoming more energetic or more forbearing,<br />
slothful is not <strong>of</strong>ten used today.<br />
lea; lee; lees. A lea is a tract <strong>of</strong> arable land under<br />
grass. Though still used in England in certain<br />
dialects and in a great many place names, it is<br />
not used at all in the United States, though it<br />
is recognized in the older poets (So might I,<br />
standing on this pleasant lea,/ Have glimpses<br />
that would make me less forlorn. Now dance<br />
the lights on lawn and lea). From a completely<br />
different derivation, lea also means a measure<br />
<strong>of</strong> yarn <strong>of</strong> varying quantity-for wool, usually<br />
80 yards; for cotton and silk, 120 yards; for<br />
linen, 300 yards.<br />
A lee is a sheltered place out <strong>of</strong> the wind (In<br />
Iceland a weatherwise soldier takes advantage<br />
<strong>of</strong> every available lee). The word is perhaps<br />
most familiar in the sense, chiefly nautical, <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region or quarter toward which the wind blows.<br />
This sense may be used adiectivally (He headed<br />
for the lee shore). Finally lee, derived from a<br />
different word, means that which settles from a<br />
liquid, especially from wine. It is usually plural<br />
and is roughly synonymous with dregs (In decanting<br />
wine one should be careful to disturb<br />
the lees as little as possible. Z will drink life to<br />
the lees).<br />
lead. The past tense is led. The participle is also<br />
led. Lead may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
this led him to believe. It is also heard with the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb and the preposition to, as in<br />
this led him to believing. This construction is not<br />
literary English but it is heard too <strong>of</strong>ten in the<br />
United States to be considered anything but<br />
standard.<br />
leading question. A question thought to be unfair<br />
(Have you stopped beating your wife?) is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten miscalled a leading question. But a leading<br />
question is simply a question so worded as to<br />
suggest the proper or desired answer. It is designed<br />
not to embarrass the person questioned<br />
but to helo him. It is unfair only by legal definition;<br />
it is ‘the type <strong>of</strong> question counsel may not<br />
ask in examining a witness whom he has called<br />
to the stand, since it is, in effect, a form <strong>of</strong><br />
prompting. But an unfair question, a question so<br />
worded that any answer will reflect unfavorably<br />
270<br />
on the person answering is not a leading question<br />
but a misleading question.<br />
leaf. The plural is leaves.<br />
lean. The past tense is leaned or leant. The participle<br />
is also leaned or leant. Leaned is the preferred<br />
form for both the past tense and the<br />
participle. Leant is heard in Great Britain more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than it is in the United States.<br />
leap. The past tense is leaped or leapt. The participle<br />
is also leaped or leapt. In the United<br />
States, leaped is the preferred form for the past<br />
tense and the participle. Both forms are used in<br />
Great Britain, but leapt (pronounced Z?pt) is<br />
preferred.<br />
leaps and bounds. By leaps and bounds, as a term<br />
for rapid progress, is a cliche. Repetition has<br />
drained all the original vigor from it and it<br />
should be avoided. -<br />
learn. The nast tense is learned or learnt. The<br />
participle ‘Is also learned or learnt.<br />
learn; teach. To learn is to acquire knowledge.<br />
To teach is to impart knowledge. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
learn for teach (as in That’11 learn you to look<br />
where you’re going next time) is not standard<br />
and is usually labelled as “vulgar” by the authorities.<br />
That is not as severe a condemnation<br />
in linguistics as in morals. Indeed, by some<br />
linguistic standards it might be regarded as<br />
praise. And certainly a usage which has been employed<br />
by Wycliffe, Coverdale, Caxton, Spenser,<br />
Shakespeare, Fuller, Bunyan, Defoe, Richardson,<br />
Coleridge, Disraeli and several million<br />
other people during the past six hundred years<br />
cannot, by contemporary linguistic standards, be<br />
simply dismissed as an error. And that should<br />
learn us, as Hamlet said, There’s a divinity that<br />
shapes our ends, Rough-hew them how we will.<br />
learut. See learn.<br />
least. See little.<br />
leastways; leastwise. Leastwise is literary English,<br />
but it is seldom heard in the United States.<br />
Leastways is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten but is not standa<br />
r d .<br />
leave (noun). See permission.<br />
leave. The uast tense is left. The uarticinle is also<br />
left. The-primary meaning <strong>of</strong> ieave is go away<br />
from, but it may also mean abandon or not<br />
interfere with and is sometimes used as the<br />
equivalent <strong>of</strong> let, as in you may stay with me as<br />
long as you leave me alone. This is standard<br />
English. Any form <strong>of</strong> the verb leave, such as’<br />
left, or leaving, may be used in this way, provided<br />
it is followed immediately by an object<br />
and the word alone. In any other construction,<br />
leave used in the sense <strong>of</strong> let is unacceptable.<br />
Leave may be followed by a to-infinitive, as<br />
in Z left her to find out for herself, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb introduced by <strong>of</strong>f, as in he left <strong>of</strong>7<br />
speaking. Let, on the other hand, cannot be followed<br />
by a to-infinitive or an -ing form. It must<br />
be followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
Z let her find out for herself. In present-day English,<br />
leave cannot be followed by the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as it is in leave me be, leave me<br />
do it, leave go <strong>of</strong> it. Fifty years ago these forms
were acceptable spoken English in the ‘United<br />
States and they are found in the writings <strong>of</strong><br />
Thackeray, the Brontes, R. L. Stevenson. But the<br />
construction is now old-fashioned. As a matter<br />
<strong>of</strong> fact, it is heard chiefly in the speech <strong>of</strong> educated<br />
people who consider it amusing to say<br />
leave us go and leave us not. Leave alone is also<br />
unacceptable when used in place <strong>of</strong> the idiomatic<br />
let alone to mean “not to mention,” as in Z<br />
couldn’t get a girl, leave alone a woman, to<br />
help me.<br />
The word leave may be used as a noun to<br />
mean departure or leave <strong>of</strong> absence. In literary<br />
English the one form leave is used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
one person or <strong>of</strong> several, as in they took their<br />
leave, they were all given leave. A plural form<br />
leaves is sometimes used in the army. (For Z had<br />
as leave, see lief.)<br />
leave no stone unturned. When Polycrates asked<br />
the Delphian oracle how he should go about<br />
finding a treasure presumably buried by Mardonius,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> Xerxes’ generals, on the field <strong>of</strong><br />
Plataea (479 B.C.). the oracle answered. “Move<br />
every stone.” Sin& the battle covered’s great<br />
deal <strong>of</strong> rocky terrain, the phrase became a proverb<br />
for immense and thorough industry. It<br />
achieved its present form in English in the early<br />
sixteenth century and is now a clichC. Like many<br />
clichCs, however, it has a certain value, especially<br />
for the witty, in the fact that it is a clich6,<br />
that one can count on its being known to everyone.<br />
Thus when Ogden Nash says that when he<br />
throws rocks at seabirds he leaves no tern unstoned,<br />
the joke is posited on the clichC.<br />
leave strictly (severely) alone. The injunction to<br />
leave something or someone severely or strictly<br />
alone must be regarded as a clichC. The meaning<br />
seems to be in an ellipsis: leave it alone in strict<br />
or severe conformity to the instructions given.<br />
leaves. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> leaf.<br />
leaves much to be desired is a trite and tedious<br />
way <strong>of</strong> saying unsatisfactory.<br />
led. See lead.<br />
lee. See lea.<br />
lees. This word, meaning dregs, once had a singular<br />
form, as in the gross lees settle quickly and<br />
also the flying lee in time. Shakespeare uses the<br />
plural form with a singular verb in the wine <strong>of</strong><br />
life is drawn and the mere lees is left. Neither<br />
<strong>of</strong> these constructions is standard today. Lees is<br />
now treated as a mass word with a plural form.<br />
It is always followed by a plural verb, as in the<br />
lees are bitter, but we do not speak <strong>of</strong> a lee or <strong>of</strong><br />
several lees.<br />
left. See leave.<br />
left-handed compliment. Most <strong>of</strong> the age-old, sinister<br />
(sinister means left) associations and connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> left-handedness have disappeared<br />
and the phrase a left-handed compliment, an<br />
ambiguous compliment which on reflection turns<br />
out to be an insult, is now a clichC.<br />
left in the lurch. Lurch was a game resembling<br />
backgammon, played in the sixteenth century.<br />
When one incurred a lurch he had scored nothing<br />
or was so far behind his opponent as to be<br />
271 lemma<br />
helpless. Hence the figurative meaning <strong>of</strong> leaving<br />
someone in a helpless plight. But all awareness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the original meaning has faded and to<br />
leave someone in the lurch is now a hackneyed<br />
phrase.<br />
There was an older form <strong>of</strong> the expression,<br />
to leave someone in the lash. But even linguists<br />
have been unable to discover its original<br />
meaning.<br />
legal; lawful; licit. That is legal which conforms<br />
to the prescriptions <strong>of</strong> authority, especially those<br />
<strong>of</strong> a sovereign or state (There are many thing.s<br />
which are legal which a man <strong>of</strong> strict honor<br />
would not do). That is lawful which is permitted<br />
by law or recognized or sanctioned by law<br />
(lawful marriage, lawful heirs). It is synonymous<br />
with legal (legal rights, lawful rights),<br />
though in this sense it is now slightly archaic,<br />
but it has more figurative uses than legal which<br />
is exact and restricted. Legal always means in<br />
conformity to human law; lawful is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
to mean in conformity with moral and religious<br />
precepts.<br />
Licit means legal. It is not <strong>of</strong>ten used except<br />
in the phrase licit or illicit in reference to business<br />
transactions. See also illegal.<br />
legionary; legionnaire. A member <strong>of</strong> the American<br />
Legion, an organization <strong>of</strong> military veterans,<br />
is called a legionnaire. A member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
British Legion, the corresponding organization<br />
in England, is called a legionary. A member <strong>of</strong><br />
a Roman legion or <strong>of</strong> the French Foreign Legion<br />
is in England called a legionary (though some<br />
English when referring to the French soldier<br />
call him by the French term, legionnaire, and<br />
Thomas Hardy calls a member <strong>of</strong> a Roman<br />
legion a legionnaire). In America, except among<br />
the learned who might employ Zegionary to designate<br />
a Roman soldier, legionnaire is used at<br />
all times.<br />
legislator; legislature. A legislator is one who<br />
gives or makes laws. A legislature, made up <strong>of</strong><br />
legislators, is the legislative, law-making body <strong>of</strong><br />
a country or state.<br />
legitimate drama (stage, theater). The Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong> defines legitimate drama as<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> plays, Shakespearian and other, that<br />
have a recognized theatrical and literary merit<br />
-as opposed, for example, to farce and melodrama.<br />
In the United States (where it is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
shortened to legitimate and in slang legit), legitimate<br />
drama has widened and shifted its sense to<br />
mean any drama, including farce and melodrama,<br />
produced on the stage-as opposed to<br />
that which is presented in motion pictures, on<br />
radio or television (Mrs. Carter, with no legitimate<br />
vehicle in sight, has accepted a part in a<br />
radio serial. Z was in legitimate at the old<br />
Alcazar).<br />
leg to stand on, not a. As a term for having no<br />
logical or factual basis, not a leg to stand on is<br />
a clich6.<br />
leitmotif. See motive.<br />
lemma. The plural is lemmas or lemmntu, not<br />
lemmae.
lend. The past tense is lent. The participle is also<br />
lent.<br />
lend an ear, to. Whether one means simply to<br />
listen or to listen with sympathetic interest, to<br />
lend an ear is a clich6.<br />
lengthways; lengthwise. These forms are equally<br />
acceptable.<br />
lengthy; long. Long is the everyday serviceable<br />
word to describe that which is not short. Lengthy<br />
is largely restricted to speeches and writings and<br />
carries the reproachful suggestion that they are<br />
longer than they need be (The lengthy proceedings<br />
had disgusted the nation which had hoped<br />
for a speedy decision favorable to the plaintiff).<br />
Before the nineteenth century, by the way,<br />
lengthy was used only in America and was condemned<br />
by many British writers as an Americanism,<br />
but by the end <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century<br />
the British had adopted it.<br />
lent. See lend.<br />
less; lesser. These words are both comparative<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the word little. Lesser is a double comparative<br />
made from the comparative form less<br />
and is grammatically equivalent to more smaller.<br />
It first appeared around 1450. By 1600 it was<br />
standard English and was used in the King<br />
James Bible, as in the greater light to rule the<br />
day and the lesser light to rule the night. During<br />
the eighteenth century Dr. Johnson, and a great<br />
many others after him, condemned the form as<br />
pleonastic. But it has survived and today is considered<br />
a more “literary” word than less.<br />
Lesser is now used as the comparative <strong>of</strong> little<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> smaller in value or importance,<br />
as in the lesser poets. It may be used in comparing<br />
things that differ only in size, as in the lesser<br />
circle, the lesser distance, but it cannot be used<br />
alone to mean smaller in size as the word littler<br />
can. We cannot say the lesser child. Similarly,<br />
it may be used in comparing things that differ<br />
only in amount, as in the lesser sum, the lesser<br />
weight, but it cannot be used to mean smaller<br />
in amount. We cannot speak <strong>of</strong> lesser money or<br />
lesser sugar. Lesser is always an adjective. It<br />
may be used before a singular or a plural noun,<br />
as in a lesser man, lesser men, or without a<br />
noun when a comparison is implied, as in the<br />
lesser <strong>of</strong> the two and which is the lesser. It cannot<br />
be used in any other construction.<br />
When less is used as an adjective it means<br />
smaller in amount and we can speak <strong>of</strong> less<br />
money, less sugar. It may be used in this sense<br />
to qualify words that themselves show size,<br />
value, or importance, as in less length, less value,<br />
less importance, but in itself it always refers to<br />
the amount. Less can be used in any way that<br />
an adjective can be used. It can be used as a<br />
predicate adjective without the article the, as in<br />
which is less? It may be used after a noun, with<br />
the force <strong>of</strong> minus, as in ten less two. Less may<br />
also be used as if it were a noun, as in the less<br />
said the better. The less may stand before another<br />
noun and mean the less <strong>of</strong>. This is not true<br />
<strong>of</strong> lesser.<br />
Less may also be used as an adverb and mean<br />
to a smaller degree or in a smaller amount. It<br />
272<br />
may qualify a verb, as in he complains less, or<br />
an adjective, as in it is less expensive, or another<br />
adverb, as in he moves less quickly. It may be<br />
used with the word than, as in it is less than I<br />
expected and he is less a fool than I thought.<br />
The adjective lesser cannot be used in any <strong>of</strong><br />
these ways.<br />
When the word little means small in amount<br />
it is a singular and qualifies only singular nouns,<br />
as in we had little trouble. When used with a<br />
plural noun it loses this meaning and refers to<br />
size or significance, as in we had little troubles.<br />
Many grammarians claim that less, being the<br />
comparative <strong>of</strong> little in this sense, cannot be<br />
used to qualify a plural noun, as in less men,<br />
less complaints. They say that the word fewer<br />
is required here. Some go so far as to say that<br />
less should never be treated as a plural, even<br />
when it is used with than and not with a plural<br />
noun, as in less than twenty were invited. They<br />
claim that we must say less than twenty was or<br />
fewer than twenty were. At one time less was<br />
used freely as a plural. So there is no question<br />
here <strong>of</strong> logic or tradition. It is simply a question<br />
<strong>of</strong> present-day usage. And there is no doubt that<br />
less than is treated as a plural in standard English<br />
today. Less before a plural noun, as in less<br />
men, is not as widely accepted. A great many<br />
people object to it. But a great many others,<br />
whose education and position cannot be questioned,<br />
see nothing wrong in it. In the United<br />
States a college president might speak <strong>of</strong> less<br />
men or less courses.<br />
lessee; lessor. A lessee is one to whom a lease is<br />
granted. A lessor is one who grants a lease (The<br />
lessor <strong>of</strong>ten requires a large deposit to prevent<br />
the lessee from breaking the lease and moving<br />
to less expensive accommodations).<br />
lest. This is a conjunction and indicates that the<br />
following words express something that the<br />
speaker does not want to see happen. It may<br />
have the force <strong>of</strong> “in order that - - not,” as in<br />
be with us yet, lest we forget. It may also be<br />
used to introduce a clause explaining fear or<br />
doubt. In the United States, lest is always followed<br />
by a subjunctive verb, as in they were in<br />
a panic lest they be overtaken by the police or<br />
thev were in a uanic lest the maid leave. But the<br />
word itself is considered bookish and that followed<br />
by a subjunctive substitute, such as would<br />
or should, is generally preferred.<br />
let. The past tense is let. The participle is also let.<br />
This word, which now means allow, once meant<br />
prevent, and still means that in the expression<br />
without let or hindrance. At one period let had<br />
both meanings at the same time, which must<br />
have been confusing.<br />
When used in its ordinary sense <strong>of</strong> allow, let<br />
must be followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in let me go, let me do it. Let is never followed<br />
by a to-infinitive, even when it is used as<br />
a passive, as in the grass was let grow and I was<br />
let know. As a rule we avoid this passive let and<br />
find some other word to use, as in the grass was<br />
allowed to grow and I was informed.<br />
Let is used in a number <strong>of</strong> idiomatic expres-
sions that are difficult to explain but which are<br />
nevertheless standard English. Let ulone may<br />
mean “not to mention,” as in he Imd never owned<br />
a white mouse, let alone a white elephant. When<br />
an object stands between let and alone, as in let<br />
the cat alone, the compound means “stop annoying.”<br />
The expression let go <strong>of</strong> is impossible to<br />
analyze grammatically, but it is standard English<br />
for “take your hand <strong>of</strong>f.”<br />
Let is also used to form a peculiar imperative<br />
that includes the speaker along with the person<br />
addressed, as in let us be true to one another.<br />
This is sometimes called the first person plural<br />
imperative. In spoken English this let us is usually<br />
contracted to let’s, as in let’s wash the dishes.<br />
The uncontracted form let us is always used<br />
when let is a regular imperative followed by us,<br />
that is, when let us wash the dishes means “allow<br />
us to” and is addressed to somebody not included<br />
in the “us.” This is a valuable distinction<br />
that is made in speech but very <strong>of</strong>ten lost in<br />
print, largely because <strong>of</strong> the mistaken notion<br />
that contractions are undignified.<br />
When let is used as a regular imperative it<br />
cannot be followed by a subjective pronoun.<br />
That is, we say let John and me wash the dishes<br />
and not let John and I wash them. According<br />
to the theoretical rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, the same<br />
thing holds true for the peculiar imperative with<br />
let’s. The contracted us is an objective pronoun<br />
and presumably should be repeated by the objective<br />
me, and not the subjective I, in a sentence<br />
such as let’s you and me wash the dishes. But in<br />
actual practice, the subjective I, as in let’s you<br />
and I wash the dishes, is preferred by many people,<br />
including some <strong>of</strong> our best writers. This<br />
could be defended, academically, on the grounds<br />
that let’s is here merely a sign <strong>of</strong> the imperative,<br />
that the true imperative is wash, and you and Z<br />
its subject. In any case, let’s you and I is heard<br />
too <strong>of</strong>ten not to be called standard. Let’s you<br />
and me is preferred by purists, but both forms<br />
are acceptable.<br />
Us is sometimes used after let’s, as in let’s us<br />
try it out. This construction is not <strong>of</strong>ten seen in<br />
print and is condemned by many grammarians<br />
as redundant, although it is hard to see why us<br />
is any more redundant than you and me.<br />
let the cat out <strong>of</strong> the bag. As a term for disclosing<br />
a secret, usually inadvertently, to let the cat<br />
out <strong>of</strong> the hap is hackneved. The origin <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phrask is uncertain. Some think it may refer to<br />
revealing the fact that a cat had been substituted<br />
for a pig in a sack (pig in a poke), but this is<br />
not established.<br />
liable. In Great Britain liable means subject to or<br />
exposed to some undesirable change or action,<br />
as in the adventure is liable to end sadly and<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the colors are liable to fade. Lord Chesterfield<br />
wrote in 1749: You know, I suppose,<br />
that liable can never be used in a good sense.<br />
But in older English it was used at least in an<br />
indifferent sense and meant subject to any kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> action, good or bad. This usage survives in<br />
the United States and an American might say<br />
we are liable to be in Chicago next week with-<br />
273 libel<br />
out meaning that that would be a calamity.<br />
Liable also has the legal meaning <strong>of</strong> bound by<br />
law or legally answerable for.<br />
Americans who see no reason to question<br />
their own speech habits <strong>of</strong>ten use liable in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> likely. This is true <strong>of</strong> many public <strong>of</strong>ficials<br />
and highly respected citizens. Anyone who<br />
wants to use the word in this way is in good<br />
company. But on the other hand, a great many<br />
people know that there is some question about<br />
this word, without knowing what the question is.<br />
These people are likely to think that liable is not<br />
standard, even when it is used in the purest<br />
British manner. Anyone who wants to avoid<br />
giving <strong>of</strong>fense in any quarter will have to avoid<br />
the word entirely, except in its purely legal uses.<br />
liaison; alliance. In military terminology liaison<br />
is the contact maintained between units in order<br />
to ensure concerted action. In cookery liaison is<br />
a thickening for soups, gravies, and so on. In<br />
phonetics it means the running together <strong>of</strong><br />
words in their pronunciation. In personal relationships<br />
it describes an illicit intimacy between<br />
a man and a woman (He [Byron] has a permanent<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> liaison with <strong>Cont</strong>essa Guiccioli).<br />
These are the accepted meanings <strong>of</strong> liaison. It<br />
should not be used to mean any combination or<br />
alliance. An alliance is a regularized connection<br />
entered into for mutual benefit (A marriage is<br />
an alliance, not a liaison. The alliance between<br />
the Western powers and Russia could last only<br />
so long as they were threatened by a common<br />
enemy).<br />
libation; drink. A libation is a pouring out <strong>of</strong><br />
wine or other liquid in honor <strong>of</strong> a deity or th,e<br />
liquid so poured out. The ancient Greeks made<br />
libations to their gods as a part <strong>of</strong> their worship<br />
(Aeschylus’s play, The Libation Bearers, begins<br />
with libations at the grave <strong>of</strong> Agamemnon). The<br />
word is not a synonym for drink and if so used<br />
jocularly is a tedious affectation.<br />
libel; slander; scandal; calumny; defamation. The<br />
blanket term to describe the wrong <strong>of</strong> injuring<br />
another’s reputation without good reason or justification<br />
is defamation. Calumny is a seldom<br />
used term to describe a false and malicious<br />
statement designed to injure someone’s reputation<br />
(Be thou chaste as ice, as pure as snow,<br />
thou shalt not escape calumny).<br />
In the legal sense, libel (from the Latin word<br />
meaning a little book) means defamation by<br />
written or printed words, pictures, or any form<br />
other than spoken words or gestures (When in<br />
Smith’s article Jones was alluded to as a petty<br />
mobster, Jones sued him for libel). Slander<br />
designates defamation by oral utterance (Had it<br />
not been for his senatorial immunity, he would<br />
have fallen afoul the laws <strong>of</strong> slander). In popular<br />
speech libel and slander are used synonymously<br />
for defamation, though libel usually<br />
implies a somewhat more serious charge. It is<br />
best, however, to keep the legal distinction between<br />
the two words in mind.<br />
Scandal, in so far as it is synonymous with<br />
libel and slander, means defamatory talk or malicious<br />
gossip. But it is a milder word than the
libelant<br />
others (He dearly loved a juicy bit <strong>of</strong> scandal)<br />
and does not carry an implication that the<br />
charges are false. The breath <strong>of</strong> scandal, usually<br />
used in a disavowal (The breath <strong>of</strong> scandal has<br />
never touched her name), is a clichC.<br />
libelant; libelous. Libelant, a legal term, is defined<br />
differently in England and America. In<br />
America it can mean either one who libels, a<br />
libeler, or one who institutes suit. In England,<br />
says Partridge, only the second sense is acceptable;<br />
for the first libeller (The English use two<br />
I’s in all these words) is the only correct form.<br />
LibeZ(l)ous, it is agreed on both sides <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Atlantic, is an adjective meaning containing, constituting,<br />
or involving a libel, maliciously defamatory<br />
(He wrote a libelous account <strong>of</strong> the<br />
transaction and was promptly sued).<br />
liberal arts. Liberal in the phrases liberal arts or<br />
a liberal education does not have any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
common meanings <strong>of</strong> liberal, such as generous,<br />
candid, copious, abundant, bountiful, openhearted,<br />
open-minded, and so on. It means, etymologically,<br />
befitting a free man. In practice it<br />
means a course <strong>of</strong> studies comprising the arts,<br />
natural sciences, social sciences, and the humanities,<br />
which is not designed, as are courses<br />
in engineering, business administration, forestry,<br />
and so on, to have an immediate utility.<br />
libretto. The plural is librettos or libretti.<br />
lice. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> louse.<br />
licence; license-both forms are acceptable, but<br />
license is the preferred spelling for both noun<br />
and verb.<br />
licit. See legal.<br />
lick into shape. It was believed for millennia that<br />
bears brought forth their young as shapeless<br />
lumps and gradually licked them into their<br />
proper shape. The belief is now known to be<br />
erroneous and the phrase is jaded.<br />
lick one’s chops. The use <strong>of</strong> chops for jaws is<br />
now limited, in popular speech, entirely to the<br />
phrase to lick one’s chops, a figure, drawn from<br />
a characteristic action <strong>of</strong> dogs and wolves, denoting<br />
eager anticipation <strong>of</strong> something to be<br />
eaten. Exceut when used literally <strong>of</strong> a dog or a<br />
wolf, the phrase is now a clich6.<br />
lickerish; liquorish. Lickerish, a word now dropping<br />
out <strong>of</strong> general use, means eager for choice<br />
food, greedy, lustful (Green peas are ready to<br />
satisfy the longing appetite <strong>of</strong> the lickerish palate.<br />
Be not licker&h after fame). It is related<br />
to lecherous, not to lick. Liquorish, a false variant,<br />
narrows the sense to a greed for liquor,<br />
imposing in the spelling a limiting folk etymology.<br />
But it doesn’t matter much. One has to go<br />
out <strong>of</strong> his way to use either word and there are<br />
simpler, unambiguous words to convey their<br />
meanings.<br />
lie. The past tense is lay. The participle is lain.<br />
Traditionally, this verb can only have a subject<br />
and should not be used with an object.<br />
According to the strict rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, the<br />
forms lie, lying, and lain should never be used<br />
with an object, as they are in Z will lie it on the<br />
table and I have lain it on the table, and the<br />
form lay should not be used with an object when<br />
it is a simple past tense, as it is in I lay it on the<br />
table this morning. When lay is not a simple past<br />
tense but is used with an auxiliary, it belongs to<br />
another verb meaning cause to lie. It is therefore<br />
all right to say I did lay it on the table this morning.<br />
(See lay.) As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, very few<br />
people misuse lie or lying. But a great many well<br />
educated people do use the simple past tense lay<br />
and the participle lain with an object. At present<br />
the verbs lie and lay are hopelessly confused in<br />
many people’s minds. The confusion is so great<br />
and these technically incorrect forms are heard<br />
so <strong>of</strong>ten, that some grammarians believe they<br />
should be recognized as standard English.<br />
An adjective that describes the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb may stand next to lie, as in he lies sick and<br />
uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. An<br />
adverb, qualifying the verb, may also stand in<br />
the same position, as in he lies quietly. The verb<br />
lie that means “say what is not true” is regular<br />
and has the past tense and participle lied.<br />
lie tow is accepted spoken English for not calling<br />
attention to one’s self, remaining hidden and<br />
inactive, especially in a time <strong>of</strong> danger. The<br />
correct past tense is lay low not laid low. Laid<br />
low is an archaic and slightly bookish phrase for<br />
felled or knocked down.<br />
lie; falsehood; fib; untruth; mendacity. Lie is the<br />
coarse, harsh, direct, everyday word for a statement<br />
which distorts or suppresses the truth in<br />
order to deceive and falsehood the more dignified<br />
and less <strong>of</strong>fensive term (Lies come naturally<br />
to him; he has to stop and think when he wants<br />
to tell the truth. Such falsehoods are certain to<br />
be detected in time and will do much harm to his<br />
reputation). A fib-which sounds as though it<br />
were a slang word, though actually it is standard,<br />
probably a weakening <strong>of</strong> fable-describes a<br />
trivial falsehood, <strong>of</strong>ten one uttered with good<br />
intentions (He told a little fib about ulcers in<br />
order to decline the pr<strong>of</strong>fered highball without<br />
<strong>of</strong>fending his hostess). An untruth is less reprehensible<br />
than a falsehood. It describes a statement<br />
either intentionally misleading or, more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten, made from misunderstanding or ignorance<br />
(Moreover, they have spoken untruths . . .<br />
and, to conclude, they are lying knaves. He<br />
may not be aware <strong>of</strong> it, but, none the less, these<br />
assertions are untruths and have aroused a great<br />
deal <strong>of</strong> resentment). Mendacity, though not a<br />
common word, is still used for the quality <strong>of</strong><br />
being mendacious, a disposition to lie, or habitual<br />
lying (The brazen mendacity <strong>of</strong> the assurance<br />
took our breath away. He’s addicted, as<br />
you will find, to a rather colorful mendacity).<br />
As a synonym for a lie, however (Such mendacities<br />
carry no conviction), it is archaic and its<br />
use in this way would seem forced, ostentatious,<br />
or pedantic.<br />
lief or lieve. This word, with its comparative and<br />
superlative forms liefer or liever and liefest or<br />
lievest, originally meant beloved or precious. It<br />
could be used like any other adjective, as in<br />
my liefest lord, and children mine, liefe and<br />
deare. It was also used with had, where the two<br />
words together meant “would hold dear” or
“would like,” as in I had as lieve Hellen’s golden<br />
tongue had commended Troylus. This construction<br />
can still be heard but it now has an archaic<br />
tone. In current English lief is more <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
with would, where it means gladly or willingly,<br />
as in Z would us lieve stay here. The comparative<br />
form is heard less <strong>of</strong>ten but is also acceptable,<br />
as in she would liefer have died. (In Great Britain<br />
this would becomes should in certain constructions,<br />
as in lief should Z rouse at morning.)<br />
life. The plural is lives. The form life is used as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in a life-long<br />
friend.<br />
life and soul <strong>of</strong> the party. Even if applied ironically<br />
to an objectionable person, the life and<br />
soul <strong>of</strong> the party is a clichC that merely adds to<br />
the tedium which the irrepressible one has been<br />
engendering.<br />
lifeguard; lifesaver. In American usage a lifeguard<br />
is an expert swimmer employed on a bathing<br />
beach to aid in case <strong>of</strong> accidents to bathers<br />
(During the two summers he worked as a lifeguard<br />
he saved three children from drowning).<br />
In England a life-guard is one <strong>of</strong> a bodyguard <strong>of</strong><br />
soldiers (the Life-Guards) or the entire bodyguard<br />
consisting (according to the Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>) <strong>of</strong> two regiments <strong>of</strong> cavalry,<br />
forming, together with the Royal Horse Guards,<br />
the household cavalry. A lifeguard in America<br />
is also sometimes called a lifesaver, though a<br />
lifesaver need not be a lifeguard: he can be anyone<br />
who has saved someone from danger <strong>of</strong><br />
death, especially from drowning. The word is<br />
not used much anymore in this sense, however,<br />
as it has become better known as the trade name<br />
<strong>of</strong> a candy mint made in the form <strong>of</strong> a lifebelt<br />
and in the slang sense as a term for something<br />
which opportunely saves one from trouble or<br />
embarrassment.<br />
lifelong; livelong. Lifelong means lasting or continuing<br />
through life (His lifelong concern about<br />
his health may well have made his life less long<br />
than it otherwise would have been. They were<br />
lifelong friends and endured each other with<br />
mild contempt). Livelong (originally lief long,<br />
dear long) is an intensive <strong>of</strong> long, meaning to<br />
the full extent in terms <strong>of</strong> time (I’ve been<br />
working on the railroad/ All the livelong day).<br />
It is now seldom used except in bad poetry and<br />
the stereotyped phrases livelong day and livelong<br />
night, both <strong>of</strong> which carry a connotation <strong>of</strong><br />
tediousness.<br />
light. The past tense is lighted or lit. The participle<br />
is also lighted or lit. Light may mean kindle or<br />
put fire to. A grammar published in 1765 claims<br />
that lit used in this sense is “very familiar, or<br />
rather low.” This is no longer true. The forms,<br />
lighted and lit, are equally acceptable today. We<br />
may say she lighted the lamp or she lit the lamp,<br />
A participle litten is sometimes heard, as in she<br />
has litten the lamp, but this is not standard.<br />
Light may also mean descend or land. In this<br />
sense too, lighted and lit are equally acceptable.<br />
These words are used in speaking <strong>of</strong> things that<br />
come down not under their own control, such<br />
as stones, snow flakes, and curses. We may say<br />
275 like<br />
one lit on rhe ro<strong>of</strong>. The similar verb alight is<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> things that come down deliberately,<br />
as in our friends alighted at the door.<br />
Birds are sometimes said to light and sometimes<br />
to alight. The uncertainty is not in the words, but<br />
in what it is the bird is doing.<br />
light as a feather is a simile so worn that the<br />
careful writer and speaker will avoid it.<br />
light fantastic. Dr. Johnson once growled that<br />
Milton did not write in English but in a language<br />
<strong>of</strong> his own that he made up. And certainly his<br />
use <strong>of</strong> fantastic in the famous couplet Come,<br />
and trip it as ye go,/ On the light fantastic toe<br />
to mean “in a manner varied according to your<br />
imagination or fantasy” was arbitrary and idiosyncratic.<br />
Like many other <strong>of</strong> his neologisms,<br />
however, it was successful, startled the reader<br />
into delight and surprised him with a fine excess.<br />
But to use this flash <strong>of</strong> linguistic gaiety, with<br />
heavy facetiousness and stale archness, as a<br />
cliche for dancing, is lamentable.<br />
light on the subject, to shed. As a term for<br />
making something clear or bringing additional<br />
information to bear on an obscure or disputed<br />
matter, to shed light on the subject is weakened<br />
by overwork.<br />
lightening; lightning. Lightning is a noun meaning<br />
a flashing <strong>of</strong> light, or a sudden illumination<br />
<strong>of</strong> the heavens, caused by the discharge <strong>of</strong> atmospheric<br />
electricity (Any man with a proper<br />
respect for lightning will not touch a wire fence<br />
during a rainstorm). Lightening is the gerund or<br />
participle <strong>of</strong> the verb to lighten in all <strong>of</strong> its<br />
meanings-to make less heavy, to become less<br />
dark, to cheer or gladden, or to flash as or like<br />
lightning.<br />
lights. This word may mean the lungs <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
that are used for food. The word lung comes<br />
from the same source, which meant light in<br />
weight. At one time the two words were equivalent,<br />
as in as if his lungs and lites were nigh<br />
assunder brast. Today lung is the broader term<br />
and has both a singular and a plural form.<br />
Lights is now used only <strong>of</strong> animals and only in<br />
the plural. It takes a plural verb, but cannot be<br />
used with a word implying number.<br />
-like. See suffixes.<br />
like. This word is actually used as a noun, a verb,<br />
an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, and a<br />
conjunction. (For the use <strong>of</strong> like as a conjunction,<br />
see like; as.)<br />
NOUN<br />
There is one noun form <strong>of</strong> like that is used<br />
only in the plural, as in his likes and dislikes.<br />
There is another form that usually appears in<br />
the singular, as in Z never saw his like or the<br />
like <strong>of</strong> that. A plural is also heard here, as in<br />
the likes <strong>of</strong> you, but this is not literary English.<br />
VERB<br />
To like. which now means to enjoy or to be<br />
pleased with, originally meant to be like or to<br />
be suitable for. From this it came to mean to<br />
please. Milton says that the angels color, shape<br />
or size assume, as likes them best. And Rossetti<br />
says, I rode sullenly upon a certain path that<br />
liked me not. The joke <strong>of</strong>ten made about some
like 276<br />
food, that I like it, bzzt it doesn’t like me, unintentionally<br />
combines the present and the earliest<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the verb. See also love.<br />
Like may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
she likes to travel. It may also be followed by<br />
an -ing form, as in she likes traveling. Some people<br />
object to this but it is generally acceptable<br />
in the United States. Like cannot be followed by<br />
a clause. We cannot say I like that you are here.<br />
In order to say what amounts to the same thing<br />
we must insert it as the object <strong>of</strong> like, as in I like<br />
it that you are here. The clause then qualifies<br />
the word it instead <strong>of</strong> functioning as the object<br />
<strong>of</strong> like.<br />
In literary English for is not used after like to<br />
introduce the subject <strong>of</strong> an infinitive, as in he<br />
would like for you to come, and the simpler<br />
form, he would like you to come, is required.<br />
(See for.) But like for is generally acceptable<br />
in the United States. It is standard in the southern<br />
states and considered “southern” elsewhere.<br />
In Great Britain the auxiliary should (and<br />
not would) is used with like when the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb is I or we, as in I should like to go.<br />
To British ears I would like seems to say “I am<br />
determined to enjoy.” When the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb is anything except I, we, or you, the auxiliary<br />
would (and not should) is used, as in they<br />
would like to go. When the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
is you, the rules are more complicated. See<br />
shall; will.<br />
In the United States the British should like is<br />
sometimes heard but would is generally preferred,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb. TO<br />
most Americans, I shozdd like seems to say “I<br />
know I ought to enjoy.”<br />
ADJECTIVE, ADVERB, AND PREPOSITION<br />
When like is used as an adjective or an adverb<br />
it is followed by an object and this makes it<br />
indistinguishable from a preposition. The object<br />
may be any noun equivalent, including the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z felt like laughing. If the<br />
obiect is a personal pronoun it must have the<br />
objective form, as in like me. A subjective pronoun<br />
following like, as in a girl like I, is not<br />
standard. In current English like always means<br />
similar to or resembling. It could once be used,<br />
as likely is, to mean probable, as in he is like to<br />
die and there were more like eight <strong>of</strong> us. This<br />
use is heard today but is old fashioned or questionable.<br />
In older literary English like is sometimes<br />
used in the comparative or superlative form, as<br />
in liker to a madman and likest to a hogshead.<br />
These forms are now archaic and today like is<br />
always compared by using the words more or<br />
most.<br />
Like is also used as a suffix, as in owl-like.<br />
(For the use <strong>of</strong> the hyphen, see suffixes.) It<br />
should not be used to modify or tone down a<br />
full statement, as in she was out <strong>of</strong> her mind<br />
like and he didn’t pass his examinationr like.<br />
like; as. When like is followed by a full clause<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> a simple noun or noun equivalent<br />
object, it is being used as a conjunction, as in<br />
you don’t know Nellie like Z do and wood does<br />
not contract like steel does. This is an estab-<br />
lished function <strong>of</strong> the word as. (See as.) Some<br />
people believe that it is a grammatical mistake<br />
to use like in this way. But they are a minority.<br />
The second example quoted above is taken from<br />
the eleventh edition <strong>of</strong> the Encyclopaedia Britannica.<br />
Keats wrote, it is astonishing how they<br />
raven down scenery like children do sweet meats.<br />
The construction is also found in the writings<br />
<strong>of</strong> Shakespeare, More, Sidney, Dryden, Smollett,<br />
Burns, Southey, Coleridge, Shelley, Darwin,<br />
Newman. BrontE. Thackerav, Morris, Kipling,<br />
Shaw, Wells, Ma&field, and Maugham. - -<br />
During the nineteenth century literary gentlemen<br />
felt strongly about this question. Those<br />
whose education had been chiefly Greek and<br />
Latin said that the use <strong>of</strong> like as a conjunction<br />
was a vulgarism. But Furnivall, the foremost<br />
English language scholar <strong>of</strong> the period, defended<br />
it. He tells how on one occasion, “having to<br />
answer some ignorant in a weekly about the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> like, I said to Morris: ‘Have you ever used<br />
like as a conjunction?’ ‘Certainly I have,’ answered<br />
Morris, ‘constantly.’ ‘But you know<br />
there’s a set <strong>of</strong> prigs who declare it’s vulgar and<br />
unhistorical.’ ‘Yes I know. They’re a lot <strong>of</strong><br />
damned fools.’ ” But Tennyson belonged to the<br />
other camn. He told Furnivall: “It’s a modern<br />
vulgarismthat I have seen grow up within the<br />
last thirty years; and when Prince Albert used<br />
it in my drawing room, I pulled him up for it,<br />
in the presence <strong>of</strong> the Queen, and told him he<br />
never ought to use it again.” Actually, the Prince<br />
was speaking a more classical English than<br />
Tennyson realized.<br />
Around 1600 like was used with a preposition,<br />
usually to, whenever a person or thing was being<br />
compared, that is, when it qualified a noun<br />
or pronoun, as in like to one more rich in hope<br />
and like unto whited sepulchres. It was used with<br />
as when the comparison involved an action,<br />
that is, involved a clause containing a verb, expressed<br />
or implied, as in like as a father pitieth<br />
his children, and the description <strong>of</strong> the ghost in<br />
Hamlet which moved like as it would speak.<br />
But about that time the to began to be<br />
dropped out and its meaning was carried by like,<br />
which in this way took on the functions <strong>of</strong> a<br />
preposition. This can be seen happening in Hamlet’s<br />
words: no more like my father than Z to<br />
Hercules. By now this has become standard English<br />
and we would normally say like whitened<br />
sepzzlchres. But as was dropping out <strong>of</strong> these<br />
constructions too, at about the same time. Shakespeare<br />
felt that like could carry the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
as, and so function as a conjunction, just as it<br />
carried the meaning <strong>of</strong> to. Juliet says, no man<br />
like he doth grieve my heart-that is, no one<br />
grieves her as he does.<br />
The modern purist claims that like is correctly<br />
used when it functions as a preposition and carries<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> like to, and incorrectly used<br />
when it functions as a conjunction and carries<br />
the meaning like as. There is no doubt but that<br />
like is accepted as a conjunction in the United<br />
States today and that there is excellent literary<br />
tradition for this. There is no reason why anyone<br />
should take the trouble to learn when like is a
conjunction and when it is a preposition, unless<br />
he wants to. But if anyone wants to be a purist,<br />
he should be a thorough one. He should not<br />
himself use like as a conjunction in some constructions<br />
and condemn other people for using it<br />
in this way in other constructions. Like is not<br />
being used as a preposition unless the single<br />
word to can be inserted between it and the word<br />
immediately following. It is a conjunction in he<br />
takes to it like a duck to water.<br />
At one time like could be used to mean as if<br />
(just as as means as if in the statement about the<br />
ghost that moved like as it would speak). This is<br />
acceptable today when the if clause is shortened<br />
to a few words that do not include a verb, as in<br />
he ran like mad and the dress looks like new. Like<br />
is sometimes used in this way before a complete<br />
clause, as in he acts like I was a worm. Many<br />
people who accept like in place <strong>of</strong> as do not accept<br />
it in place <strong>of</strong> as if. The construction is generally<br />
frowned upon, but it is more acceptable in<br />
the southern states than it is in other parts <strong>of</strong> this<br />
country.<br />
likely. Today likely is used freely to qualify a<br />
noun or pronoun, as in a likely story and he is<br />
likely to come. Until recently it could also be<br />
used as an adverb, as in he would likely refuse.<br />
Today this has an old fashioned tone and likely is<br />
not used as an adverb except when it is qualified<br />
by very or most, as in he would very likely refuse.<br />
See also apt.<br />
limit and limitation are synonymous in the senses<br />
<strong>of</strong> a boundary or terminal point, fixed points between<br />
which something is confined, or the point<br />
at which something is no longer possible or allowed<br />
(This is the limit <strong>of</strong> my estate. Within these<br />
limitations you are free to do as you choose).<br />
Limitation has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> a limiting<br />
condition or circumstance, a restricting handicap<br />
or misfortune (In view <strong>of</strong> his limitations, his accomplishment<br />
was admirable. Deafness is a serious<br />
limitation in this job). In law limitation has<br />
the special meaning <strong>of</strong> an assignment, as by statute,<br />
<strong>of</strong> a period <strong>of</strong> time within which an action<br />
may be brought, or the period <strong>of</strong> time so assigned<br />
(a statute <strong>of</strong> limitations).<br />
limit; delimit. To limit is to restrict by or as by<br />
fixing limits. In this sense it is followed by to<br />
(The first four volumes <strong>of</strong> the study wi21 be limited<br />
to Fitz-Greene Halleck’s early poems). It<br />
also means to keep within assigned limits (We<br />
must limit expenditures if we expect to show a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>it). In both <strong>of</strong> these senses the word has been<br />
in use for centuries.<br />
To delimit is a fairly recent coinage, coming<br />
into use after the middle <strong>of</strong> the last century and<br />
being still fairly uncommon. It means to mark or<br />
determine the limits <strong>of</strong> (The present system <strong>of</strong><br />
delimiting the towns and preserving the memory<br />
<strong>of</strong> their bounds is archaic), to demarcate. A delimiting<br />
curve is one which separates two regions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the surface upon which it is drawn. To delimit<br />
does not mean to remove established limits.<br />
limited; small. The use <strong>of</strong> limited should be limited<br />
to that which is restricted within limits. It<br />
should not, for example, be used as a synonym<br />
for small (as in Hurry, I’ve only a limited amount<br />
277 linking verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> time or I have limited resources; these prices<br />
are too high for me), because something may be<br />
limited and still be very large.<br />
In England Limited designates a company in<br />
which the liability <strong>of</strong> the partners or shareholders<br />
is limited to a certain amount (Hall Brothers,<br />
Limited-abbreviated Ltd.). This sense is irrelevant<br />
in America where the closest equivalent is<br />
Incorporated. A special application <strong>of</strong> Limited<br />
in the United States is to trains, buses, etc., restricted<br />
as to the number or class <strong>of</strong> passengers,<br />
stops, or time occupied in transit (If you want to<br />
save time, take the Twentieth Century Limited).<br />
Unless used as a part <strong>of</strong> the full name <strong>of</strong> a special<br />
train or bus, the word is not capitalized (The limited<br />
ought to be along any minute now).<br />
linage; lineage. Linage is a two-syllable noun<br />
that designates alignment or the number <strong>of</strong> lines<br />
<strong>of</strong> written or printed matter covered (They paid<br />
the printer on the basis <strong>of</strong> linage).<br />
Lineage is a three-syllable word meaning lineal<br />
descent from an ancestor, ancestry or extraction,<br />
the line <strong>of</strong> descendants <strong>of</strong> a particular ancestor<br />
(His pride in his noble lineage was <strong>of</strong>ten ludicrous)<br />
.<br />
Confusion between the words grows out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
fact that each is a variant spelling <strong>of</strong> the other,<br />
though each retains its own pronunciation in<br />
either spelling. To avoid confusion it is best to<br />
use (as usage increasingly dictates) linage when<br />
referring to printing and lineage when referring<br />
to ancestry or descent.<br />
line. One meaning <strong>of</strong> line is business, pr<strong>of</strong>ession,<br />
trade, sphere <strong>of</strong> economic activity. It probably<br />
developed from the line <strong>of</strong> goods that a salesman<br />
carried or sold (Hardware, that’s a good line.<br />
He’s been in that line <strong>of</strong> work for thirty years).<br />
The television show What’s My Line has probably<br />
given it the shove, if one were needed, to<br />
move it over from slang to standard usage. It is<br />
a short and unpretentious word but the slight<br />
slanginess that makes it so popular unfits it for<br />
more serious uses and occupation (q.v.) fits into<br />
some contexts better.<br />
liniment; lineament. The familiar word in this<br />
pair is liniment, a liquid preparation for rubbing<br />
on or applying to the skin as for sprains and<br />
bruises (Between the halves the coach rubbed<br />
liniment on his bud shoulder). Sometimes liniment<br />
is mistakenly used for lineament, a word<br />
which properly means a feature or detail <strong>of</strong> a<br />
face, body, or figure, considered with respect to<br />
its outline or contour (He recognized the bold<br />
lineaments <strong>of</strong> his face).<br />
linking verbs. Most verbs assert something about<br />
their subject, as he swum, he built a house. The<br />
verb to be usually does not do this. It merely connects<br />
the subject with some other words, as in he<br />
is honest, he is an honorable man. This is also<br />
true <strong>of</strong> seem and become, and about sixty other<br />
verbs when they are used to mean be, seem, or<br />
become, as in he remained calm, he appeared<br />
anxious. he grew fat. These are called linking<br />
verbs. Their most valuable contribution is in<br />
showing time differences, as in he seems honest<br />
and he seemed honest, which cannot be shown in<br />
the pidgin English him honest. In addition, each
linking verbs 278<br />
verb has its unique meaning and this colors to<br />
some extent the relation expressed between the<br />
subject and the following words.<br />
ADJECTIVE OR ADVERB<br />
Often, as we see above, a linking verb connects<br />
a descriptive word with the subject. This<br />
word is an adjective and not an adverb, because<br />
it describes the subject and not the verb. For<br />
example, keep and stand are followed by adjectives<br />
because they are both being used to mean<br />
“be” in keep cool and stand firm. Many verbs<br />
are followed by adjectives because they are being<br />
used to mean “become,” as in fall sick, turn sour,<br />
wear thin. A still greater number <strong>of</strong> verbs are<br />
followed by adjectives because they are being<br />
used to mean “seem,” as gleamed in the steersman’s<br />
face by his lamp gleamed white; and<br />
looms in a period that looms heroic through the<br />
distorting mist <strong>of</strong> history. All verbs that refer<br />
to some particular sense may be used as substitutes<br />
for seem, as in smell sweet, taste good,<br />
feel s<strong>of</strong>t, look nice.<br />
The truly empty verbs, be, seem, become, may<br />
be qualified by an adverb without changing their<br />
meaning. In Dick is certain, the adjective certain<br />
annlies to the noun Dick. In Dick is certainly my<br />
b%her, the adverb certainly applies to the verb<br />
is. Is does not have a different meaning in the two<br />
sentences, nor would seem or become. But any<br />
<strong>of</strong> the other verbs, which are sometimes linking<br />
and sometimes not, cease to be linking verbs and<br />
take on their full meaning as soon as they are<br />
qualified by an adverb. For example, felt is a<br />
linking verb in he felt strong (seemed to himself)<br />
but not, in he felt strongly: and worked is a linking<br />
verb in the hinge worked loose (became) but<br />
not, in the hinge worked loosely.<br />
Because the adjective following a linking verb<br />
is in a position that ordinarily belongs to an<br />
adverb, many people are inclined to use an adverb<br />
form, especially after the verbs that mean<br />
“seem,” as in it smelled sweetly, it tasted well, it<br />
looked nicely. The same construction in I feel<br />
badly is now thoroughly established, and other<br />
examples are heard too <strong>of</strong>ten to be called unacceptable.<br />
But t.hey are based on a misunderstanding<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar. Anyone who would rather<br />
use an adverb form after these verbs may do SO<br />
without being classed as illiterate. But he should<br />
not think that he is speaking a superior form <strong>of</strong><br />
English.<br />
SUBJECTIVE OR OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS<br />
The true linking verbs, be, seem, become, and<br />
the verb remain, sometimes join a noun or pronoun<br />
to the subject, as in he seemed a perfect<br />
gentleman and he became a colonel. These<br />
nouns and pronouns are called “predicate nominatives”<br />
or “subjective complements” because<br />
in Latin a word functioning in this way would<br />
be in the nominative (or subjective) case. Since<br />
English nouns do not have distinctive nominative<br />
and accusative cases, it makes no difference<br />
what one calls them. But there are six pronouns<br />
in English which are nominative (the subjective<br />
pronouns, I, we, and so on) and six which are<br />
accusative (the objective pronouns, me, us, and<br />
so on), and these create a problem.<br />
The most conspicuous difference between<br />
standard English practice and the rules <strong>of</strong> Latin<br />
grammar is in the choice <strong>of</strong> a pronoun following<br />
a linking verb. According to the rules, an objective<br />
pronoun cannot be used here because it is<br />
not actually the object <strong>of</strong> a verb. But the tendency<br />
in standard English since the sixteenth century<br />
has been to disregard the question <strong>of</strong> what is an<br />
object and what is not, and to use the objective<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun after all verbs. In each <strong>of</strong><br />
the following sentences the objective pronoun is<br />
contrary to the rules, but some <strong>of</strong> these were<br />
written by masters <strong>of</strong> English and all <strong>of</strong> them<br />
represent standard usage today.<br />
In God’s name, Janet, is it me thy ghost has<br />
come to seek! (Rossetti)<br />
Be thou me, impetuous one! (Shelley)<br />
Zf it was me, I did it in a dream. (Keats)<br />
It is us, we simple men and women, who must<br />
decide. (Faulkner)<br />
It is you who will be blamed for it, not them.<br />
If it had been him, he would have admitted it.<br />
That’s her at the door now.<br />
In natural English a subjective pronoun is used<br />
after a linking verb only in the following situations.<br />
It is required in a simple identity, such as<br />
I am I and he is he, and before the -self words, as<br />
in it was she herself I saw. A subjective form is<br />
frequently used when it is felt as the subject <strong>of</strong> a<br />
following verb that actually has the subject who,<br />
as in it was Z who said that. In any other type <strong>of</strong><br />
sentence, a subjective pronoun after a linking<br />
verb sounds like a classroom. A good many<br />
Americans use a subjective pronoun in any extremely<br />
simple sentence such as it is Z and that<br />
is he, but it is never heard in more complicated<br />
constructions. Surely, even the most determined<br />
purist would refuse to follow the rules and say<br />
in a sense, the books we read become we.<br />
In writing formal English, “correct” forms<br />
that are too much at variance with the spoken<br />
language should be avoided. But within therange<br />
<strong>of</strong> forms that are correct and also tolerable, there<br />
are three kinds <strong>of</strong> constructions that are likely to<br />
give trouble.<br />
1. When a relative pronoun is the object <strong>of</strong> 8<br />
verb it is frequently, and quite properly, omitted.<br />
For example, in the sentence it was this<br />
man I saw, there is an omitted that between man<br />
and 1. This pronoun is the object <strong>of</strong> the verb saw.<br />
When it is omitted, it is very easy to feel that the<br />
preceding word is the object <strong>of</strong> the verb and, if<br />
it is a pronoun, to use the objective case, as in it<br />
was him Z saw. This is not bad English, because<br />
it is in keeping with good practice. But it is contrary<br />
to the rules, which require he here, as in<br />
it was he (that) Z saw.<br />
2. The form to be creates more serious problems.<br />
If to be is directly attached to the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, the formal rules require a following<br />
pronoun to be subjective, as in the man seemed<br />
to them to be 1. But to be may be attached to the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> the verb, and in that case a following<br />
pronoun must be objective, as in they supposed<br />
the man to be me. To use a subjective form here<br />
and say they supposed the man to be I is both
‘incorrect” and contrary to good usage, and<br />
therefore indefensible.<br />
3. The word being may also give trouble. If a<br />
possessive pronoun or a noun in the genitive case<br />
stands before being, the rules require a following<br />
pronoun to be subjective, as he in think <strong>of</strong> its<br />
being he! But if the preceding word is not a possessive<br />
or a genitive, both the rules and good<br />
practice require a following pronoun to be objective,<br />
as him in think <strong>of</strong> it being him! (For the<br />
kinds <strong>of</strong> pronouns that may be used before an<br />
-ing verb form, see ing.)<br />
When in doubt whether to use a subjective or<br />
an objective pronoun, choose the objective form.<br />
A wrong subjective pronoun suggests that the<br />
writer is straining himself to appear superior to<br />
other men, and proves that he does not understand<br />
the rules <strong>of</strong> grammar. A wrong objective<br />
pronoun proves nothing more than that he is<br />
willing to use the language most <strong>of</strong> his countrymen<br />
use.<br />
links. See golf links.<br />
Lion’s share. As a term for the largest or most<br />
important share, usually <strong>of</strong> the rewards or pr<strong>of</strong>its<br />
<strong>of</strong> some undertaking, the lion’s share is hackneyed.<br />
The phrase derives from either <strong>of</strong> two versions<br />
<strong>of</strong> a fable by Aesop. In one version a lion, an<br />
ass, and a fox hunt together, agreeing to share<br />
the spoils. A stag is killed and the ass does the<br />
best he can to divide the carcass into three equal<br />
portions. Whereupon the lion kills the ass and<br />
asks the fox to apportion the proper shares. The<br />
crafty, and enlightened fox takes a few bites for<br />
his share and leaves the rest to the lion. In the<br />
other version three other weaker animals join<br />
with the lion. When the kill is made the lion divides<br />
it into four fairly equal portions, takes the<br />
first as his share by virtue <strong>of</strong> the agreement, the<br />
second as his share by virtue <strong>of</strong> his courage, and<br />
the third as his share by virtue <strong>of</strong> his strength.<br />
The fourth share he assigns to his fellow hunters<br />
but warns them that they touch it at their<br />
peril.<br />
liqueh liquidate. The sense <strong>of</strong> liquefy is clear<br />
enough. It means to make or become liquid (In<br />
great heat the metal will liquefy). It is liquidate<br />
that makes trouble. In its primary sense it means<br />
to settle or pay a debt or an account (No ejfort<br />
should be suared to liquidate the National<br />
Debt). It can mean to convert into cash (He<br />
liquidated his assets) or it can mean to break up,<br />
abolish, or do away with. And it is in this last<br />
sense, now very much in vogue, that it must be<br />
used judiciously because it covers too many<br />
meanings. The liquidation <strong>of</strong> a company and the<br />
liquidation <strong>of</strong> political opponents are actions so<br />
diverse that it is putting any word, and especially<br />
a word basically metaphorical and hence restricted<br />
by the connotations <strong>of</strong> its literal meaning,<br />
to an improper strain to make it describe<br />
both. Our language is rich in words expressing<br />
various ways <strong>of</strong> abolishing or doing away with<br />
things and it is better to employ whichever <strong>of</strong><br />
them is closest to your meaning than, for the<br />
mere sake <strong>of</strong> using a word in the vogue, using a<br />
word so vague as liquidate.<br />
279 literally<br />
liquid refreshment. Even as a jocularity, making<br />
fun presumably <strong>of</strong> a former elegancy and pretentiousness,<br />
liquid refreshment is dreary and<br />
affected.<br />
liquorish. See lickerish.<br />
list. To list is to set down together into a list, to<br />
make a list <strong>of</strong> (The names are to be listed in<br />
alphabetical order). By an understandable extension<br />
it is <strong>of</strong>ten used to mean to add to a list<br />
(Three new courses are listed in the catalogue),<br />
but mention, include, or add would usually be<br />
better. And surely the word has been carried<br />
beyond its province when it is used to mean<br />
merely to state or to say or to set down (in<br />
such a sentence as She listed her occupation as<br />
“Housewife”).<br />
listen; hear. To listen is to pay attention in order<br />
to understand the meaning <strong>of</strong> a sound or sounds<br />
(Listen, my children, and you shall hear/ Of the<br />
midnight ride <strong>of</strong> Paul Revere). To hear is to<br />
have a perception <strong>of</strong> sound by means <strong>of</strong> the<br />
auditory sense (One could heor the bell buoy out<br />
in the harbor). One can liiten without hearing<br />
(I listened carefully but couldn’t hear what they<br />
were saying) and hear without listening (I<br />
wasn’t li.rtcTning to lvhat they were saying but I<br />
could hear them quarreling).<br />
Incidentally, one listens at something only<br />
when one applies his ear to or near the thing in<br />
order to hear (Nel/y had lixtened at many a keyhole).<br />
When one pays attention in order to understand<br />
a sound. he listens to it (Listen to the<br />
story <strong>of</strong> a woeful man).<br />
listen to. These two words may be followed by<br />
an object and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
listen to it singing. In the United States they<br />
may also be followed by an object and the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in listen to it sing. In<br />
Great Britain this is considered an American<br />
barbarism, but it is standard usage in this<br />
country.<br />
lit. See light.<br />
litany; liturgy. A litany is a ceremonial form <strong>of</strong><br />
prayer consisting <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> invocations or<br />
supplications with responses which are the same<br />
for a number in succession. The Litany is the<br />
general supplication <strong>of</strong> this form in the Anglican<br />
Book <strong>of</strong> Common Prayer. A liturgy is more<br />
extensive than a litany, for it is a form <strong>of</strong> public<br />
worship, a ritual, a particular arrangement <strong>of</strong><br />
services. It includes prayer and, conceivably, a<br />
litany or The Litany. The Liturgy is the name<br />
for the service <strong>of</strong> the Eucharist, especially in the<br />
Eastern Church, equivalent to the Mass in the<br />
Western Church.<br />
literally means in a manner which follows the letter<br />
or the exact words (A figurative phrase if<br />
translated literally is almost certain to be ludicrous),<br />
or in a literal or strict matter-<strong>of</strong>-fact,<br />
prosaic sense (He took the injunction literally<br />
and renounced his mother and his brothers). It<br />
has also come to mean actually, in strict accuracy,<br />
without exaggeration (The effect <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bombing was literally devastating. The attack<br />
literally decimated the company; one-tenth <strong>of</strong><br />
the men lay dead).<br />
Unfortunately this last meaning has led to the
literate 280<br />
word’s being used simply as an intensive, with<br />
no regard whatever to any meaning <strong>of</strong> literally,<br />
as in such a sentence as He was literally dumbfounded<br />
by the report where no literal meaning<br />
can be attached to dumbfounded. The word has<br />
become a particular favorite <strong>of</strong> those who seek<br />
to express intense feelings in metaphor, with the<br />
paradoxical result that in a great deal <strong>of</strong> loose,<br />
hyperbolic talk literally is used to mean the exact<br />
opposite <strong>of</strong> what it properly means. When,<br />
for example, on a hot day someone says I’m literally<br />
melting, he means I am figuratively<br />
melting and the meaning <strong>of</strong> figuratively here is<br />
“not literally.” A fish, partly submerged in a<br />
chowder, might be said to be literally stewed to<br />
the gills, but an inebriated man is at best (or<br />
worst) only metaphorically stewed to the gills.<br />
When we say that we are literally fed up with<br />
someone, we are either making a confession <strong>of</strong><br />
cannibalism and gluttony or using literally to<br />
mean not literally. The word should be avoided<br />
except in its stricter meanings.<br />
literate; literal. Literate means able to read and<br />
write, hence educated (Only through free general<br />
education can a literate population be created).<br />
By extension, it has come to suggest<br />
literary (T. S. Eliot is a highly literate man).<br />
Literal, as applied to persons, means tending to<br />
construe words in their strict sense, unimaginative,<br />
matter-<strong>of</strong>-fact (He’s very literal; if you tell<br />
him you are dying with the heat, he’ll call an<br />
undertaker). In its general sense, literal means<br />
following the letter, or exact words, <strong>of</strong> the original<br />
(Bold as Fitzgerald was, he feared to <strong>of</strong>fend<br />
his contemporaries by a literal translation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
entire poem).<br />
literature. For centuries literature has meant writings<br />
in which expression and form, in connection<br />
with ideas <strong>of</strong> permanent and universal<br />
interest, are characteristic or essential features<br />
(The reading <strong>of</strong> literature still remains the best<br />
form <strong>of</strong> education). Literatztre can also mean<br />
the entire body <strong>of</strong> literary writings <strong>of</strong> a specific<br />
language, period, people, or subject (the literature<br />
<strong>of</strong> England, the literature <strong>of</strong> the Renaissance,<br />
American literature). In the sciences,<br />
where expression and form are not regarded as<br />
supremely important, literature is <strong>of</strong>ten used to<br />
mean the entire body <strong>of</strong> writing relevant to any<br />
given subject (Have you made a thorough search<br />
<strong>of</strong> the literature? I am sure there is an article<br />
on that very subject somewhere) and although<br />
this usage is annoying to pr<strong>of</strong>essors <strong>of</strong> belles<br />
lettres it is probably here to stay.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> literature to describe any printed<br />
matter on any subject (Please send me descriptive<br />
literature concerning your garbage disposal<br />
unit. He spent more on campaign literature<br />
than his opponent did on the whole campaign)<br />
is usually classed as a misuse. But who is to de-<br />
cide? _.--. The authors <strong>of</strong> advertising folders and<br />
campaign biographies may feel that their works<br />
have expression and form and are concerned<br />
with matters <strong>of</strong> universal and permanent interest<br />
and hence, under the dictionary, entitled to be<br />
called literature. If enough <strong>of</strong> them think so and<br />
can persuade enough other people to say so, this<br />
meaning may become standard. At the moment<br />
it is not.<br />
literatus. The plural is Ziterati.<br />
litotes is a figure in rhetoric in which an affirmative<br />
is expressed in the negative <strong>of</strong> its contrary.<br />
When St. Paul said that he was a citizen <strong>of</strong> no<br />
mean city he meant that he was “a citizen <strong>of</strong> a<br />
great city” and when he said to the Corinthians<br />
Z praise you not, he meant “I blame you.” Similarly<br />
not a few means “many” and not bad means<br />
“good.” Litotes is a form <strong>of</strong> meiosis or understatement.<br />
little. The comparative forms are less, lesser, littler.<br />
The superlative forms are least, littlest.<br />
When little means small in size it is always an<br />
adjective and may be used with a singular or a<br />
plural noun, as in a little child and little children.<br />
The forms iess, lesser, and least cannot be used<br />
with this meaning <strong>of</strong> little. We cannot say the<br />
least child. It is claimed that in this sense little<br />
is itself a comparative, as in the Little Dipper,<br />
and a superlative, as in the little toe. But this is<br />
very unsatisfactory. During the last century a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> writers have used the forms littler<br />
and littlest. Littlest, as in the littlest child, the<br />
littlest fish, is better established than littler, but<br />
both can be used when they are needed. And<br />
they are sometimes needed. Small is a thin, intellectual<br />
word and means only what it says.<br />
Little carries an emotional tone and means that<br />
the small size is attractive.<br />
Little may mean small in importance, as in<br />
little people, a little fault. In this sense too it is<br />
always an adjective and may qualify either a<br />
singular or a plural noun.<br />
When little means small in amount, it may be<br />
an adjective, an adverb, or a noun. The adjective<br />
is essentially negative and means not large in<br />
amount or not much, as in they gave us little<br />
trouble.<br />
The noun little has the same negative meaning<br />
when used without a qualifier, as in little we<br />
see in Nature that is ours. But when it is qualified<br />
by a definitive adjective, such as a, the, my,<br />
the noun is affirmative and means a small amount<br />
or some, as in a little goes a long way. The form<br />
a little can be used to mean a little <strong>of</strong> and so<br />
function as if it were an adjective with the affirmative<br />
meaning, as in they gave us a little<br />
trouble. When a little is made negative, as in not<br />
a little, it means a good deal, as in they gave<br />
ZIS not a little trouble. In general, <strong>of</strong> is not used<br />
after little except when it precedes a definitive<br />
adjective, as in little <strong>of</strong> the work had been done.<br />
Formerly, little was used with <strong>of</strong> in other constructions,<br />
as in little <strong>of</strong> work had been done,<br />
but this is now considered affected.<br />
The adverb Little also has the negative sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> not much, as in the world will little note. Like<br />
never and other negative adverbs, its proper position<br />
is before the principal verb form. The<br />
noun forms, a little and not a little, may also<br />
be used as adverbs and keep their affirmative<br />
meanings, as in comrades, leave me here a little<br />
and we have been worried not a little.
When little means a small amount or not<br />
much, it is always singular. It is used with a<br />
singular verb and cannot qualify a plural noun.<br />
If we say they gave us little troubles, the word<br />
little inevitably takes on the meaning <strong>of</strong> small<br />
in size or small in importance. To express the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> small in amount with a plural noun, we<br />
must use the word few.<br />
Lesser is the comparative form <strong>of</strong> little in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> small in value or importance. Less is<br />
the comparative form in the sense <strong>of</strong> small in<br />
amount. (For the difference in the uses <strong>of</strong> these<br />
two words, see less; lesser.)<br />
Least is the superlative form for both less and<br />
lesser. At one time it could also be used in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> smallest in size, but this is now extremely<br />
rare. It may be used as an adjective, as<br />
in her least whim, or as an adverb, as in I am<br />
least happy now and with what I most enjoy,<br />
contented least. When the least qualifies a verb,<br />
it means in the least degree. Like the prepositional<br />
phrase, it can be used in a conditional<br />
clause, a question, or a negative statement, but<br />
not in an affirmative statement. We may say if<br />
you are the least worried or I am not the least<br />
worried, but we cannot say I am the least worried.<br />
We may, however, say I am the least bit<br />
worried, because here the least is not an adverb<br />
qualifying the verb but an adjective qualifying<br />
the noun bit, which in turn is functioning as an<br />
adverb.<br />
Lesser is a comparative form made from the<br />
comparative form less and is equivalent to more<br />
smaller. This does not prevent it from being<br />
standard English. On the other hand, the double<br />
superlative the leastest is not standard. But we<br />
may say the least little if we like.<br />
little bird told me. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying I have<br />
heard something but will not name my informant,<br />
a little bird told me is infantile, a sad attempt<br />
to appear cute.<br />
liturgy. See litany.<br />
live. This verb may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing the subject, as in they lived happy or<br />
they lived poor. It may also be followed by an<br />
adverb describing the verb, as in they lived happily<br />
or they lived poorly. Sometimes there is no<br />
real difference in meaning between the two<br />
forms. See also reside.<br />
live (adjective). In the meanings <strong>of</strong> alert and <strong>of</strong><br />
present interest (He’s a live fellow, that man!<br />
It’s still a live issue in these parts), live is slang,<br />
not standard. The trouble with such uses is that<br />
they are too general. Obviously, an alert man<br />
must be live, but a live man need not be alert,<br />
for alert suggests being live in a certain wayhaving<br />
a ready and prompt attentiveness together<br />
with a quick intelligence.<br />
live audience. Since an audience is an assembly<br />
<strong>of</strong> hearers or spectators, live audience should<br />
logically be a redundancy. And such it certainly<br />
would have been up until this generation. But it<br />
is an illustration <strong>of</strong> the strange and rapid ways<br />
that words can change their meanings and, at<br />
the same time, <strong>of</strong> the irrelevancy <strong>of</strong> applying<br />
logic to language, that this phrase has a clear<br />
locality<br />
and definite meaning to millions <strong>of</strong> people today<br />
and fills a need in their speech. In many radio<br />
shows that are heard and even some television<br />
shows that are being seen, the audience, whose<br />
ecstatic delight with the performance is intended<br />
to move the viewers either to join in thoughtlessly<br />
or at least to feel that if they don’t laugh<br />
the fault is theirs, is not there at all. The sounds<br />
are dubbed in from recordings made <strong>of</strong> genuine<br />
laughter at more amusing shows.<br />
livelong. See lifelong.<br />
lively. See breezy.<br />
lives. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> life.<br />
living from hand to mouth. As a term for improvidence<br />
or for a complete lack <strong>of</strong> any store<br />
<strong>of</strong> necessities, living from hand to mouth is worn<br />
threadbare.<br />
living in clover. As a term for luxurious living<br />
or simply good fortune living in clover or <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
now, merely in clover (both shortenings <strong>of</strong> living<br />
like pigs in clover, clover being very rich<br />
fodder) is a cliche.<br />
Lloyd’s is a London insurance underwriting corporation,<br />
composed <strong>of</strong> some three hundred syndicates.<br />
It is so called because it was founded in<br />
the late seventeenth century at Edward Lloyd’s<br />
c<strong>of</strong>feehouse. It is spelled Lloyd’s, not Lloyds or<br />
Lloyds’.<br />
load. See jag.<br />
load down; load up. In the passive, American<br />
load down equals English load up (He returned<br />
from the New York Public Librarv loaded down<br />
with books. The lorries pulled out <strong>of</strong> Tilbury<br />
loaded up with ammunition). In the active,<br />
however, an American uses load up (Load up on<br />
that stuff you can grab and let’s get out <strong>of</strong> here).<br />
Ioadstone; lodestone. Though either form is correct,<br />
loadstone is preferred to lodestone. Lodestar,<br />
however, is preferred to loadstar.<br />
loaf. The plural is loaves.<br />
loan. The use <strong>of</strong> loan as a verb, as in he loaned<br />
me five dollars, is condemned in Great Britain<br />
as an Americanism. Actually, it is a very respectable<br />
verb. It has been in existence for almost<br />
eight hundred years and was used in an act<br />
<strong>of</strong> Parliament in 1542. It is thoroughly acceptable<br />
in the United States, especially when used<br />
by bankers or in speaking about money.<br />
loathe. This word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in 2 loathe washing dishes, or<br />
by an infinitive, as in I loathe to wash dishes.<br />
Both forms are acceptable in the United States.<br />
See also hate.<br />
loaves. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> loaf.<br />
local habitation and a name. Shakespeare, in a<br />
glorious passage in A Midsummer Night’s<br />
Dream, says that the poet’s imagination bodies<br />
forth the forms <strong>of</strong> things rdnknown and his pen<br />
Turns them to shapes, and gives to airy nothing/<br />
A local habitation and a name. As a term for<br />
anything fixed and definite, the concluding<br />
phrase has been reduced to dreary meaninglessness<br />
by tedious repetition.<br />
locality; location. A locality is a place, spot, or<br />
district, with or without reference to things or<br />
persons in it, viewed in reference to its geo-
locate 282<br />
graphical situation or its surroundings (It was u<br />
pleasant locality in which to live). A location is<br />
a place <strong>of</strong> settlement or residence (The doctor’s<br />
house was in a desirable location, near the center<br />
<strong>of</strong> the town), or a tract <strong>of</strong> land <strong>of</strong> designated<br />
situation or limits selected or suitable for a certain<br />
purpose (Myrtle Point is an excellent location<br />
for lookozzt stations). In the terminology<br />
<strong>of</strong> the motion picture industry a locution is a<br />
place outside the studio, usually out <strong>of</strong> doors,<br />
affording suitable environment for photographing<br />
particular scenes or incidents. It is rarely<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> as a location but the actors, camera<br />
crews, and so on, are said to be on location when<br />
shooting scenes in such a spot.<br />
locate. Though decried by English grammarians,<br />
to locate, in the sense <strong>of</strong> setting up one’s residence,<br />
establishing one’s place <strong>of</strong> business<br />
(Where are you folks located now?), is standard<br />
American usage.<br />
locate and find are not synonymous. To locate<br />
something is to discover its place <strong>of</strong> location by<br />
hunting for it (The mechanic soon located the<br />
leak in the gas line. They finally located him in<br />
a West Madison Street pophouse). To find<br />
something is to meet with it, whether by intention<br />
or chance, but without reference to a particular<br />
setting (If 1 don’t locate the book on the<br />
fourth poor, 1’11 assume Z can’t find it).<br />
lot. cit. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin<br />
words loco citato and means in the place cited.<br />
lock, stock, and barrel. As a term for the entirety<br />
<strong>of</strong> something, lock, stock, and barrel, the<br />
component parts <strong>of</strong> an old-fashioned gun, is<br />
worn out.<br />
lock the stable door after the horse is stolen.<br />
To speak <strong>of</strong> a precaution taken too late as locking<br />
the stable door after the horse has been<br />
stolen is to employ a clichC. It is further objectionable<br />
in that it has now a false earthiness<br />
about it, an assumption <strong>of</strong> rusticity that carries<br />
no conviction.<br />
locus. The plural is lotuses or loci.<br />
locution; circumlocution. A locution is a particular<br />
form <strong>of</strong> expression (The locutions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mountain folk, such phrases as defining a certain<br />
distance as “a whoop and a holler,” were strange<br />
but ztsually vigorous and imaginative). A circumlocution<br />
is a roundabout way <strong>of</strong> speaking,<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> too many words. During the time that,<br />
for instance, is a circumlocution for while; in<br />
this day and age a circumlocution for today. A<br />
locution suggests an idiomatic expression and,<br />
carefully chosen, locutions may enliven a style.<br />
Circumlocutions, on the other hand, are tedious<br />
and almost always to be avoided.<br />
lodging; lodgings. Both forms may be used to<br />
mean living quarters. There is no difference in<br />
meaning. The plural is generally preferred, but<br />
the singular is required in the phrase board and<br />
lodging and may also be used in other contexts,<br />
as in a lodging for the night.<br />
l<strong>of</strong>t. See garret.<br />
l<strong>of</strong>ty. See tall.<br />
logic and grammar. Maurice Barr& once said<br />
that the only difference between a logical argu-<br />
ment and a play on words is that the play on<br />
words cannot be translated. This is a fair enough<br />
description <strong>of</strong> what <strong>of</strong>ten passes for reasoning.<br />
But anyone who insists that grammar and logic<br />
are essentially the same ought to accept this gibe<br />
as solemn truth.<br />
Logic deals with the rules <strong>of</strong> valid inference.<br />
Grammar deals with the ways in which a given<br />
group <strong>of</strong> people habitually express themselves.<br />
There is no reason to think that these would be<br />
identical. In the eighteenth century, learned gentlemen<br />
talked a great deal about the language<br />
spoken in the Garden <strong>of</strong> Eden, which they called<br />
Lingua Adamica, and which, they said, “did not<br />
consist merely <strong>of</strong> conventional signs but expressed<br />
rather the very nature and essence <strong>of</strong><br />
things.” If they were right, logic and grammar<br />
may have been somewhat similar at that time.<br />
But even the eighteenth century grammarians<br />
realized that this happy state <strong>of</strong> affairs had<br />
ended with the Tower <strong>of</strong> Babel.<br />
Any language must be capable <strong>of</strong> showing<br />
logical relationships. But it does not necessarily<br />
do so in the most efficient manner. The idea that<br />
a grammatical distinction must necessarily reflect<br />
a logical one is responsible for much <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bad thinking that has plagued mankind. It is not<br />
only the uneducated who fall into this pit. The<br />
fact that, in Latin, an adjective is obviously different<br />
from a noun, the fact that, grammatically,<br />
nothing is in a class with something, the fact<br />
that the copula is also means exist, confused the<br />
best minds <strong>of</strong> Europe for centuries. On the other<br />
hand, the idea that whatever is logical must also<br />
be grammatical is responsible for a great deal <strong>of</strong><br />
bad writing. At its best, it produces an unnatural,<br />
and therefore ineffective, prose. This is especially<br />
true when the writer is not a logician<br />
and feels obliged to change a straightforward<br />
statement, such as everyone does not read the<br />
same paper, into its logically identical but much<br />
more obscure form, not everyone reads the<br />
same paper. At its worst, this theory leads to<br />
such grammatical monstrosities as Z won’2 stay<br />
longer than Z can’t help.<br />
lone wolf. As a term for one who is highly independent,<br />
one who accomplishes his purposes<br />
alone, a lone wolf is a hackneyed metaphor. It<br />
is preeminently an American phrase and is usually<br />
restricted to someone whose activities are<br />
slightly shady or at least wholly selfish. It seems<br />
to be based on the erroneous assumption that<br />
wolves normally hunt in packs.<br />
lonely; alone; lonesome. Lonely and alone both<br />
mean a state <strong>of</strong> solitariness, being without companionship.<br />
Alone describes the physical fact <strong>of</strong><br />
isolation. Since most human beings do not like<br />
to be alone, it usually carries in its context a<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> desolation or dejection (A 11 alone<br />
by the telephone/ All alone, feeling blue), but<br />
it need not; some people like to be alone (The<br />
joy <strong>of</strong> closing the door behind the last departing<br />
guest and knowing that at lust one was blessedly<br />
alone). Lonely almost always has a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> a dejection <strong>of</strong> spirits at the thought <strong>of</strong> aloneness.<br />
Even when it is applied to non-human
things, there is a projection <strong>of</strong> the human feeling<br />
into the situation (So lonely ‘fwas, that God<br />
himself/ Scarce see&d to be there).<br />
Lonesome and lonely are synonyms, but<br />
lonesome is the more sentimental word <strong>of</strong> the<br />
two (Lonesome and blue, in spite <strong>of</strong> all I can<br />
do. Look down, look down, that lonesome<br />
road/ Before you travel on). It expresses a<br />
slightly greater degree <strong>of</strong> loneliness (Like one<br />
that on a lonesome road/ Doth walk in fear and<br />
dread) and desolation (In November days/<br />
When vapors rolling down the valleys made/ A<br />
lonely scene more lonesome).<br />
long. This word is as truly an adverb as it is an<br />
adjective. In current English the adverb long<br />
always refers to time, as in the world will long<br />
remember. When used as a verb meaning yearn,<br />
long may be followed by an infinitive, as in Z<br />
long to see him; in any other construction we<br />
must use the compound long for. See lengthy.<br />
long and the short <strong>of</strong> it. As a term for the essence<br />
<strong>of</strong> some proposition, the long and the short<br />
<strong>of</strong> it is a clichC. As a humorous description <strong>of</strong> a<br />
tall person and a short person walking together,<br />
it is even more tedious.<br />
long distance is the American term to designate<br />
telephone service between distant points (Spirits<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Greek dead spoke to the living as if over<br />
a bad long distance telephone connection). The<br />
equivalent British term is trunk.<br />
long-felt want. To say <strong>of</strong> something needed that<br />
there had been a long-felt want for it or <strong>of</strong> something<br />
that has been provided that it fills a longfelt<br />
want is to employ an overworked phrase.<br />
longshoreman; docker. The term to describe a<br />
man employed on the wharves <strong>of</strong> a port, as in<br />
loading and unloading vessels, is longshoreman<br />
in America and docker in England.<br />
long shot, not by a. The English version <strong>of</strong> the<br />
American not by a long shot is noi by a long<br />
chalk, so that it is evident that shot and chalk<br />
are being used in the one sense in which they are<br />
synonymous: a tavern reckoning or score.<br />
The phrase is a clich6, its meaning unknown<br />
to most who use it, and should be used only with<br />
care.<br />
look. When this word means expect it may be<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in Z look to hear<br />
from you, but the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the<br />
compound forward to. as in Z look forward to<br />
hearing from you, is preferred today.<br />
In the United States look at may be followed<br />
by an object and the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
look at her strut. In Great Britain this is considered<br />
an American barbarism and the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb is required, as in look at her strutting.<br />
Both forms are acceptable in this country.<br />
When look means appear it may be followed<br />
by an adjective describing the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb, as in it looks good on you, it looks nice on<br />
you, he looks angry. Formerly, an adverb could<br />
be used in just this way, as in how cheerfully<br />
my mother looks. This is no longer standard<br />
English. Today, look in this sense may be followed<br />
by well, as in it looks well on you, but not<br />
by other adverbs, such as nicely. (When look is<br />
283 lot<br />
used in the sense <strong>of</strong> glance it is, <strong>of</strong> course, followed<br />
by an adverb and not an adjective, as in<br />
she looked angrily at him.)<br />
look daggers. As a term for glaring resentment<br />
or resentful glaring or any open expression <strong>of</strong><br />
hatred in the countenance, to look daggers is a<br />
clich6.<br />
look; see. Look bears to see the same relation<br />
that listen bears to hear; in each case the first<br />
term suggests preparation for the second. To<br />
look is to fix the eyes upon something or in some<br />
direction in order to see (Look for the silver<br />
lining). It implies a desire to see but not necessarily<br />
the fulfillment <strong>of</strong> that desire (I am looking,<br />
Mother, but Z can’t see it anywhere). To see is<br />
to perceive with the eyes, to view, whether by<br />
intention or not (Once over the pass you will see<br />
the town below you).<br />
lookout; outlook. In the senses <strong>of</strong> a looking out<br />
or a watch kept, lookout and outlook are interchangeable.<br />
Lookout is the preferred term, however,<br />
to designate the place from which a watch<br />
is kept (A lookout had been erected on top <strong>of</strong><br />
Bear Mountain). It is also the term for the<br />
observer himself (The thieves had their lookout<br />
at the corner. He spent a year as lookout for<br />
the National Park Service). In slang lookout<br />
has the sense <strong>of</strong> the proper object <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
concern (It’s no concern <strong>of</strong> mine, son; that’s<br />
your lookout).<br />
Outlook is the preferred term for the view or<br />
prospect seen from a lookout (The outlook from<br />
the ranger’s tower consisted <strong>of</strong> range after range<br />
<strong>of</strong> mist-shrouded mountains). It is also the<br />
proper term for a mental view or attitude (This<br />
warped outlook was certain in time to cause<br />
trouble) or for a prospect <strong>of</strong> the future (The<br />
financial outlook for the college was not good).<br />
Lord Bacon. See Bacon.<br />
lose. The past tense is lost. The participle is also<br />
lost. See miss.<br />
lose the thread <strong>of</strong> one’s discourse is a hackneyed<br />
expression. The original suggestion <strong>of</strong> a clew<br />
guiding one out <strong>of</strong> a labyrinth, with echoes <strong>of</strong><br />
Ariadne and the dreadful Bull, was good, but<br />
all such meaning is now lost and the phrase is<br />
empty and tiresome.<br />
lost. See lose.<br />
lot; lots. When used to mean merely an indefinitely<br />
large amount, these words are both treated<br />
as singulars when standing alone, as in there is<br />
a lot here and there is lots here. Both forms are<br />
treated as plural when followed by <strong>of</strong> and a<br />
plural noun, as in there are a lot <strong>of</strong> men and<br />
there are lots <strong>of</strong> men, and as siugular when followed<br />
by <strong>of</strong> and a word that is singular in<br />
meaning, as in there is a lot <strong>of</strong> butter and there<br />
is lots <strong>of</strong> news.)<br />
Some people feel that a lot <strong>of</strong> used with a<br />
plural verb is questionable, but this has been<br />
standard English for 250 years. Others, who<br />
would accept this use <strong>of</strong> a lot <strong>of</strong>, object to lots<br />
with a singular verb. This has been standard<br />
English for about 150 years. Both forms are<br />
acceptable in the United States today.<br />
A lot and lots may both be used as adverbs,
especially to qualify an adjective or adverb in<br />
the comparative, as in he is working a lot harder,<br />
he is working lots harder.<br />
In all constructions, lots is the more emphatic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the two terms, but a lot is generally preferred,<br />
perhaps for that reason.<br />
loud. This word is as truly an adverb as it is an<br />
adjective. Spenser wrote, a lyonesse that roaring<br />
all with rage did lowd requere her children<br />
deare.<br />
loud; showy. Although loud properly means striking<br />
strongly upon the organs <strong>of</strong> hearing, as sound<br />
or noise, it has assumed, by analogy, the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> excessively striking to the eye, or <strong>of</strong>fensively<br />
showy, making an imposing display, usually in<br />
bad taste (He turned up at the funeral in a loud<br />
green pinstripe). This use is commonly labeled<br />
“colloquial” in the dictionaries, meaning that it<br />
is used in cultivated speech but not in formal<br />
writing. But since there has been a marked tendency<br />
for almost two generations now to approximate<br />
in writing the easy familiarity <strong>of</strong><br />
speech the distinction between colloquial and<br />
standard has tended to disappear. Loud in this<br />
sense conveys a striking impression. It is generally<br />
accepted and widely used. Its appearance<br />
in any piece <strong>of</strong> writing except, perhaps, a sermon,<br />
a legal document, or an epitaph would be accepted<br />
today.<br />
loud speaker; loudspeaker. A loud speaker is a<br />
speaker who speaks loudly. A loudspeaker is<br />
any one <strong>of</strong> various amplifying devices by which<br />
speech, music, or other sounds can be made<br />
audible through a room, hall, or the like (He is<br />
such a loud speaker that even in the municipal<br />
auditorium he doesn’t need a loudspeaker).<br />
low. See lower.<br />
louse. The mural is lice. The sineular louse is ureferred<br />
asthe first element in a-compound, as in<br />
louse nits and lousewort, but the plural is also<br />
heard, and is acceptable, as in lice nits and licebane.<br />
lovable. See amatory.<br />
love. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I love to tell this story. It may also be followed<br />
by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I love<br />
telling this story. This latter construction is relatively<br />
new but it is thoroughly established in the<br />
United States.<br />
love; like. Love has been used so much to mean<br />
to have a strong liking for, to take pleasure<br />
in (She loves to travel-anywhere, it doesn’t<br />
matter so long as she’s moving), that this sense<br />
is accepted as standard. But it is used on such<br />
trivial occasions (as in I’d love to join you for<br />
a cup <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee but I’ve got to get these reports<br />
finished) that it is <strong>of</strong>ten nothing more than an<br />
expression <strong>of</strong> mild inclination. Whether one uses<br />
love or like depends upon the intensity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
emotion one intends to suggest (an adult might<br />
say I like to ride in front; there’s more leg room.<br />
Of children, however, whose delight is more intense<br />
and not a mere rational preference, it<br />
might properly be said The kids love to ride in<br />
front and pretend they’re driving). In general,<br />
it is well to avoid using love unless the emotion<br />
is strong.<br />
love or money. To say that one cannot get something<br />
or get something done for love or money<br />
is to employ one <strong>of</strong> those phrases that once had<br />
vigor but have been worn out by overuse.<br />
loving. See amatory.<br />
low. This word has two superlative forms, lowest<br />
and lowermost. The two forms low and lowly<br />
are both adjectives and both adverbs. We may<br />
say the low lands, a lowly captain’s daughter,<br />
and swing low sweet chariot, bow lowly.<br />
lower; lour. The verb lower means to let down<br />
from a higher position, to reduce in amount,<br />
decrease, diminish. The verb lower also means<br />
to be dark or threatening, as the sky or the<br />
weather, to frown, scowl, or look sullen, and<br />
sometimes, though not <strong>of</strong>ten now in America, it<br />
is spelled lour.<br />
The two verbs are wholly different words<br />
springing from wholly different roots, but in<br />
their meanings there are an astonishing number<br />
<strong>of</strong> opportunities for ambiguity. When the clouds<br />
lower, in the sense <strong>of</strong> threatening rain, they usually<br />
lower in the sense <strong>of</strong> coming down nearer<br />
to the earth. When a countenance lowers, in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> becoming sullen and threatening, the<br />
brows are lowered or drawn down nearer the<br />
eyes. Fowler felt that the distinction should be<br />
preserved in the spellings, lower for letting down<br />
and lour for being sullen, but this does not hold<br />
in standard American usage where lower is used<br />
for both meanings, though with a different<br />
pronunciation, and lour is recognized only as<br />
a permissible variant spelling for the second<br />
meaning.<br />
ludicrous. See funny.<br />
luggage. See baggage.<br />
lumber. The word lumber derives from the Lombards<br />
(which, in turn, derives from Langobardi,<br />
long beards) who, as money lenders and<br />
pawnbrokers, accumulated stores <strong>of</strong> cumbrous<br />
and discarded household articles. This is still the<br />
primary meaning <strong>of</strong> lumber in England, where a<br />
lumber room is a place where such things are<br />
stored. In America this meaning is recognized<br />
(We’ve got to clear all that lumber out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
attic; there just isn’t room for anything to be put<br />
up there) but the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
in the United States and Canada is timber sawed<br />
or split into planks, beams, joists, boards and<br />
the like (See if you can get me some two-byfours<br />
at the lumber yard, Jim).<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> the American meaning is not<br />
absolutely certain. One would assume that in a<br />
rapidly expanding country where so much building<br />
was <strong>of</strong> wood it was because sawed timbers<br />
were stored in the lumber room, but A <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> American English says that the specific<br />
American meaning “undoubtedly arose from the<br />
fact that ship masts, sawed timber, barrel staves,<br />
etc., as important but bulky commodities, once<br />
blocked or lumbered up roads, streets, and harbors<br />
<strong>of</strong> various towns.” The assertion is supported<br />
by a number <strong>of</strong> convincing quotations.<br />
lunch and luncheon both mean a light meal between<br />
breakfast and dinner or, more loosely,<br />
any light meal. Of the two lunch is the more<br />
casual, luncheon more formal (They dropped in
for lunch one day. The annual luncheon was<br />
held at the Brown Hotel. The restaurant <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
a very good three-course luncheon for a dollar).<br />
Brunch, a portmanteau combination <strong>of</strong> breakfast<br />
and lunch, is now accepted as standard for<br />
a mid-morning meal that serves both as breakfast<br />
and lunch but, whether the artificiality <strong>of</strong><br />
the coinage is too obvious, whether it is used too<br />
exclusively by ladies’ clubs, or whether the meal<br />
it describes is too uncommon, the word, somehow,<br />
seems slightly affected. The common man<br />
would be appalled to hear it used seriously in<br />
his company.<br />
lure. See allure.<br />
lustful and lusty both convey a sense <strong>of</strong> vitality,<br />
but lustful is restricted to a vitality <strong>of</strong> sexual<br />
desire. It means full <strong>of</strong> or imbued with lust and<br />
is not in most polite circles regarded as a complimentary<br />
term (Lustful Tarquin was the ignoblest<br />
Roman <strong>of</strong> them all). Lusty, however,<br />
suggests vitality <strong>of</strong> physical condition. One who<br />
is lusty is full <strong>of</strong> or characterized by healthy<br />
vigor and a delight in his own being. The term<br />
has favorable connotations for most people,<br />
especially pediatricians, poets like Browning and<br />
Whitman, and physical education instructors<br />
(Those lusty lads who work all day/ And dance<br />
all through the night). The adverb <strong>of</strong> lustful is<br />
lustfully, <strong>of</strong> lusty is lustily.<br />
luxuriant and h~xurlous both derive from luxury,<br />
but after a long history in which they have fre-<br />
mackerel. The plural is mackerel or mackerels.<br />
mad; angry. Though mad in its basic sense means<br />
disordered in intellect, insane, or, in special reference<br />
to dogs, afflicted with rabies (Mad as a<br />
March hare. The dog, to gain some private<br />
ends,/ Went mad, and bit the man), its familiar<br />
sense, “moved by anger,” has been in use so<br />
long and so universally that it would unquestionably<br />
be accepted as standard had not purist<br />
teachers made it the special target <strong>of</strong> their disapprobation.<br />
They have done their job so well,<br />
however, that although it is used a million times<br />
every day in our speech (I’m so mad I could<br />
spit) and is lodged in a score <strong>of</strong> phrases (mad as<br />
a wet hen), it is not <strong>of</strong>ten encountered in formal<br />
writing. Angry is the formal word. And since the<br />
stigma has been put on mad, one uses it in writing<br />
at his peril.<br />
mad as a March hare, mad as a hatter. The wild<br />
frolicking <strong>of</strong> the buck hare in March, its breeding<br />
season, has made the creature a trope <strong>of</strong><br />
giddy recklessness and lunacy for centuries. The<br />
hatter is a more recent comparison, though the<br />
phrase as mad as a hatter antedates Alice in<br />
Wonderland by almost thirty years. Some say<br />
the phrase is a corruption <strong>of</strong> as mad as an adder.<br />
285 madam<br />
M<br />
quently mingled they have achieved separate<br />
meanings. Luxuriant now means abundant or<br />
exuberant in growth (He parted the luxuriant<br />
jungle foliage for a glimpse <strong>of</strong> the sea. Leonardo’s<br />
luxuriant genius, efflorescing in painting,<br />
sculpture, mechanics, and the arts <strong>of</strong> war). Luxurious<br />
means characterized by luxury, ministering<br />
to or conducing to luxury (After a month in<br />
the trenches the simple life <strong>of</strong> the village seemed<br />
luxurious). The words are most commonly<br />
confused in their adverbs luxuriantly and luxuriously.<br />
lyceum. The plural is lyceums or lycea.<br />
lyric and lyrical are both adiectives that can be<br />
used <strong>of</strong> -poetry having the* form and musical<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> a song, or <strong>of</strong> one who writes such<br />
poetry, or <strong>of</strong> something sung to the lyre. This<br />
last was the original sense. However, lyric is<br />
now the established form for most uses (lyric<br />
poetry, lyric poets, the lyric muse). It classifies<br />
definitely while lyrical describes vaguely (He<br />
was positively lyrical in your praises) or survives<br />
only in certain titles (The Lyrical Ballads).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the noun lyric for the words <strong>of</strong> a<br />
song (It’s got a swell tune but the lyric’s no<br />
good) is slang.<br />
lyricist; lyrist. A lyrist is one who plays on the<br />
lyre or a lyric poet. In England lyricist is sometimes<br />
used to refer to the poet; in the United<br />
States it is mainly used to refer to the author <strong>of</strong><br />
the lyrics for a musical comedy.<br />
Others believe that it grew out <strong>of</strong> an occupational<br />
disease <strong>of</strong> hatters, characterized by jerky,<br />
involuntary movements, brought on by their<br />
handling <strong>of</strong> mercurial compounds.<br />
Both phrases are more used in England than<br />
in America. Both are hackneyed.<br />
Madagascan; Malagasy. Madagascar, the French<br />
colonial island in the Indian Ocean <strong>of</strong>f the southeast<br />
coast <strong>of</strong> Africa, has the noun and adjective<br />
Maduguscan; but the more specific term Malagasy<br />
is also used as a noun and adjective to<br />
describe a native <strong>of</strong> Madagascar or the Austronesian<br />
language <strong>of</strong> Madagascar.<br />
madam; madame; ma’am. Madam, as a polite<br />
form <strong>of</strong> address, was used originally to a woman<br />
<strong>of</strong> rank or authority. It is a fine thing, Chaucer<br />
says, speaking <strong>of</strong> an alderman’s wife, “to be<br />
called ma dame” and to take precedence <strong>of</strong><br />
others in church. Today it is addressed to any<br />
woman and is to be preferred to lady as a form<br />
<strong>of</strong> address (see woman). A madam or the<br />
madam, and sometimes just madam if the context<br />
makes the meaning plain, is the woman in<br />
charge <strong>of</strong> a brothel (Sal, <strong>of</strong> “My Gal, Sal” was<br />
the madam <strong>of</strong> a sporting house in Evansville,<br />
Indiana).
madding<br />
Madame, the conventional French title <strong>of</strong> respect,<br />
originally addressed to a woman <strong>of</strong> rank,<br />
is used distinctively to or <strong>of</strong> a married woman,<br />
either separately or prefixed to her name. The<br />
plural is mesdames. The abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the singular<br />
is Mme., <strong>of</strong> the plural, Mmes.<br />
Ma’am, as a pronunciation <strong>of</strong> madam, has<br />
been relegated in England as a form <strong>of</strong> address<br />
“to the speech <strong>of</strong> servants or other persons <strong>of</strong><br />
markedly inferior position” (Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>). In America, outside <strong>of</strong> the large<br />
cities, it is still in use, especially in the South,<br />
though it is beginning to sound a little rustic or<br />
quaint. In English usage, paradoxically, by the<br />
way, it is still the correct, formal term to use in<br />
addressing the Queen or a royal princess-perhaps<br />
to show that all are but as “servants or<br />
other persons <strong>of</strong> markedly inferior position” in<br />
comparison, but more likely out <strong>of</strong> the conservatism<br />
<strong>of</strong> extreme formality. See also Mrs. and<br />
woman.<br />
madding; maddening. Madding, going mad, acting<br />
as if mad, frenzied, is known today only in<br />
Gray’s Far from the madding crowd’s ignoble<br />
strife, and even that, nine times out <strong>of</strong> ten, is<br />
misquoted as Far from the maddening crowd.<br />
This makes sense to the common man and affords<br />
the uncommon man an opportunity to<br />
show his superior knowledge. Some who are<br />
ostentatious <strong>of</strong> fine distinctions insist that mad is<br />
to go mad and madden is to drive mad, but the<br />
distinction cannot be preserved, for both forms<br />
have been used with both meanings (The devil<br />
has madded their minds. Fire in each eye, and<br />
papers in each hand,/ They rave, recite, and<br />
madden round the land).<br />
made. See make.<br />
mademoiselle. The plural is mesdemoiselles.<br />
mad man; madman. A mad man may be an<br />
angry man or an insane man. A madman is invariably<br />
an insane man.<br />
maestro. The plural is maestros or maestri.<br />
magic; magical. Of the two adjectives, magical is<br />
the more versatile, since it can be used to describe<br />
attributes or characteristics (a magical<br />
transformation) and to stand predicatively (The<br />
reaction was magical). Magic, on the other<br />
hand, is now used chiefly to identify (magic<br />
lantern, Magic Flute).<br />
Magna Charta is, strictly speaking, the “great<br />
charter” <strong>of</strong> English liberties forced from King<br />
John by the English barons at Runnymede on<br />
June 15, 12 15. It has come to mean, in addition,<br />
any fundamental constitution or law guaranteeing<br />
rights. Partridge declares to British users that<br />
for Magna Charta should be substituted either<br />
the Latin Magna Carta or the English The Great<br />
Charter, since “Charta is neither Latin nor<br />
English.” And indeed it is not, but it has become<br />
good standard American and, outside <strong>of</strong> classrooms,<br />
standard English usage too. Magna Carta<br />
is an acceptable variant spelling.<br />
magniloquent. See grandiloquent.<br />
magnitude, <strong>of</strong> the first. The brightness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
stars is expressed by astronomers according to<br />
an arbitrary numerical system, stars <strong>of</strong> the first<br />
five magnitudes being visible to the unaided eye.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word star to designate a prominent<br />
actor or singer led to the adoption <strong>of</strong> the<br />
astronomical term to distinguish the highest<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> presminence, but it is now worn out.<br />
magnum opus for one’s great work, especially a<br />
literary or artistic work (One man’s magnum<br />
opus is <strong>of</strong>ten another man’s magnum opium),<br />
is forced and affected. If a man hasn’t the courage<br />
to call it his grent work, let him not try to<br />
get the advantages <strong>of</strong> both vanity and modesty<br />
by hiding in Latin.<br />
Mahomet will go to the mountain. In the Middle<br />
Ages, when the Mohammedans constituted<br />
a very real threat to Europe, Mahomet, under<br />
the name <strong>of</strong> Mahound, was thought to be a<br />
demon, worshipped as a god by his misguided<br />
followers. In later centuries, when the threat had<br />
abated, he was regarded as an impostor and the<br />
success <strong>of</strong> his teachings (which it would have<br />
been the grossest impiety to have even thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> investigating) attributed to his boldness and<br />
impudence. This last quality was exemplified in<br />
the apocryphal story <strong>of</strong> his summoning the hill<br />
and, when it ignored the summons, saying If the<br />
hill will not come to Mahomet, Mahomet will go<br />
to the hill, a story, by the way, which cannot be<br />
traced in English beyond the 1612 edition <strong>of</strong><br />
Bacon’s essays. In the passage <strong>of</strong> time mountain<br />
has been substituted for hill, probably for the<br />
sake <strong>of</strong> alliteration, and the saying and its various<br />
parts have been repeated so <strong>of</strong>ten that any<br />
reference to it is not a mark <strong>of</strong> wit but <strong>of</strong> dullness.<br />
maid <strong>of</strong> honor; maid <strong>of</strong> honour. Maid <strong>of</strong> honor<br />
is a term used in the United States to describe<br />
the chief unmarried attendant <strong>of</strong> a bride. It is<br />
also used to denote an attendant, usually unmarried,<br />
<strong>of</strong> the various beauty queens, regional<br />
queens who preside at various festivals, and so<br />
on. Maid <strong>of</strong> honour is the British spelling and it<br />
is used exclusively <strong>of</strong> a lady in attendance upon<br />
the Queen when she appears in public.<br />
mail or post may be used as a noun to describe<br />
the system <strong>of</strong> transmission <strong>of</strong> letters and packages<br />
which is a department <strong>of</strong> the federal<br />
government, the delivery <strong>of</strong> such letters and<br />
packages, and the letters and packages delivered.<br />
Either word may be used as an adjective to<br />
designate the box in which the letters and packages<br />
are placed and the man and the vehicle<br />
which delivers them. In America the noun mail<br />
is preferred in nearly all instances except parcel<br />
post. The plural is sometimes used to designate<br />
the entire matter in transit (The mnil must go<br />
through. The protection <strong>of</strong> the mails was assigned<br />
to the United States Army). In America<br />
the adjective mail is preferred in almost all instances<br />
except Post Ofice. Postman would be<br />
understood (The postman always rings twice.<br />
Postman’s knock) and is used to designate the<br />
man who delivers the mail by some people in<br />
eastern cities, but mailman is almost universal.<br />
The verb mail is far more common in the United<br />
States than post, though post a letter is by no<br />
means rare.
The British prefer post as a noun and a verb,<br />
though they use the adjective mail in certain set<br />
expressions such as mail-trains, mail-bags, mailvans.<br />
mailed fist. As a term for military force, especially<br />
its display with intent to intimidate, the<br />
mailed fist is a journalistic clich6.<br />
maintain. See assert, claim.<br />
major, as an adjective, is, strictly speaking, the<br />
comparative <strong>of</strong> Latin magnus, great. It means<br />
greater, as in size, amount, extent, importance,<br />
rank (The major empha.ris in the new cars seems<br />
to be on speed rather than on safety). The word<br />
is used a great deal and <strong>of</strong>ten indiscriminately.<br />
The major difficulty may prove to be the main<br />
or principal difficulty. A major campaign speech<br />
may be more precisely an important campaign<br />
speech, though, <strong>of</strong> course, it may be major in<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> being more important than other<br />
speeches.<br />
major general; the Major General. The form<br />
chosen depends on the purpose the words serve.<br />
Major general is the military term for an <strong>of</strong>ficer<br />
ranking next below a lieutenant general and<br />
the next above a brigadier general. If a particular<br />
major general is being referred to, the correct<br />
form is the Major General. If the term is used<br />
as an adjective to characterize an <strong>of</strong>ficer by<br />
rank, it is capitalized (Major General Thomas<br />
Fairfax). In England whenever a military <strong>of</strong>ficer<br />
has a title, the military title precedes the<br />
social title (Major General Sir Reginald Pinw).<br />
major portion is a vague and pretentious term<br />
for greater part.<br />
majority can only properly mean the greater part<br />
when it is applied to the greater part <strong>of</strong> a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> things. One may refer to the majority <strong>of</strong><br />
mankind or the majority <strong>of</strong> the members <strong>of</strong> a<br />
club or the majority <strong>of</strong> those who prefer cigarets<br />
to cigars, and so on, but to say that the majority<br />
<strong>of</strong> the valley was flooded is not the best usage.<br />
It would be better to say The greater part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
valley was flooded. Strictly speaking, majority<br />
ought not to be used when most serves a.s well.<br />
Majority is better reserved for the occasion<br />
when a majority and a minority are in mind.<br />
majority; plurality. In relation to an election or<br />
to jury returns, a majority is a number <strong>of</strong> voters<br />
or votes in agreement constituting more than<br />
half the total number (He barely got a majority:<br />
the vote was seven to five) or the excess whereby<br />
the greater number, as <strong>of</strong> votes, surpasses the<br />
remainder (He won by a majority <strong>of</strong> two: the<br />
vote was seven to five). A plurality may, but<br />
does not necessarily, mean a number constituting<br />
more than half the total. The usual sense <strong>of</strong><br />
the term is to describe the excess <strong>of</strong> votes, when<br />
there are three or more candidates, received by<br />
the leading candidate over the next candidate<br />
(Since Smith got eight votes, Jones six, and<br />
Brown four, Smith had a plurality <strong>of</strong> two but<br />
fell short by three <strong>of</strong> having a majority).<br />
make. The past tense is made. The participle is<br />
also made.<br />
Make may be followed by an object and the<br />
287 make<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in what makes the<br />
wind blow? It could once be followed by an<br />
object and a to-infinitive, as in I had killed the<br />
bird that made the wind to blow. This construction<br />
is now obsolete when make has an active<br />
form. When make has a passive form the toinfinitive<br />
is required, as in the wind was made to<br />
blow. Make may also be followed by an object<br />
and a past participle with passive meaning (that<br />
is, the be <strong>of</strong> a passive infinitive is usually suppressed),<br />
as in I made it known.<br />
Make could once be followed by an adjective,<br />
but this construction is now obsolete except for<br />
a few set phrases, such as make bold, make<br />
merry, make free.<br />
make; earn. Earn means to gain by labor or service<br />
(He earns more delivering milk than he ever<br />
did teaching school) or to merit compensation<br />
(They paid me more than I really earned). Make<br />
as a synonym for earn (Even after ten years<br />
they are only making forty dollars a week) has<br />
been stoutly opposed by the purists but it is now<br />
so common that it must be accepted as standard.<br />
make a clean breast <strong>of</strong> it. As a term for making<br />
a confession, especially one that relieves anxiety<br />
and pent-up feelings <strong>of</strong> guilt, to make a clean<br />
breast <strong>of</strong> it is overworked.<br />
make a virtue <strong>of</strong> necessity. It was St. Jerome who<br />
put the idea <strong>of</strong> gaining merit by accepting gracefully<br />
that which one is compelled to do anyway<br />
into its present proverbial form <strong>of</strong> making a virtue<br />
<strong>of</strong> necessity. It was definitely a saying and<br />
close to a clichC when Chaucer used it eleven<br />
hundred years later. By now it is hackneyed and<br />
needs a rest.<br />
make bricks without straw. When Moses asked<br />
Pharaoh to let the Children <strong>of</strong> Israel go three<br />
days’ journey into the desert to sacrifice unto the<br />
Lord, the wicked king not only refused but said<br />
if the Hebrews had that much time on their<br />
hands he would see if he couldn’t find more<br />
work for them, just to keep them busy, and ordered<br />
his taskmasters to give them no more<br />
straw with which to make their daily tale <strong>of</strong><br />
bricks but to compel them to go and gather the<br />
necessary straw for themselves. Thus the bricks<br />
were not made without straw but the gathering<br />
<strong>of</strong> the straw from the stubble fields was laid on<br />
the people as an added burden, the same number<br />
<strong>of</strong> bricks was demanded from them, and they<br />
were beaten for failing to meet the demand.<br />
Thus the modern use <strong>of</strong> the phrase to be compelled<br />
to make bricks without straw as an image<br />
meaning to be required to execute some task<br />
without being given the necessary tools or materials<br />
distorts the actual situation described in<br />
the fifth chapter <strong>of</strong> Exodus. Far worse, it is worn<br />
out with overuse.<br />
make hay while the sun shines. As a metaphor<br />
for acting while circumstances are favorable,<br />
seizing the propitious moment, making the most<br />
<strong>of</strong> opportunities, make hay while the sun shines<br />
is a faded one.<br />
make no bones about. As a term for not raising<br />
objections or not making a fuss or not being<br />
very scrupulous, to make no bones about is one
<strong>of</strong> those phrases that after four or five hundred<br />
years <strong>of</strong> constant use has lost all sense <strong>of</strong> its<br />
original meaning. It is not known for sure just<br />
what it did mean (it sometimes appears as make<br />
no bones <strong>of</strong> and sometimes make no bones in),<br />
but it seems to refer to someone who was too<br />
eager to swallow his soup to make any objection<br />
to whatever bones might be in it or to permit<br />
them to be an obstacle to the swallowing <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
make one’s blood boil. As a term for indicating<br />
great indignation, to say <strong>of</strong> something that it<br />
makes one’s blood boil is to employ a clich&<br />
Whatever force the exaggeration may once have<br />
had, it has long ago weakened to meaninglessness<br />
through repetition.<br />
make the best <strong>of</strong> a bad bargain. As a term for<br />
accepting a misfortune resignedly or exploiting<br />
an unfavorable situation resourcefully, making<br />
the best <strong>of</strong> a bad bargain is hackneyed. Boswell<br />
spoke the expression with disdain a hundred and<br />
sixty years ago.<br />
malady. See sickness.<br />
malapropism is the misapplication <strong>of</strong> a word,<br />
such as surface for service or contagious for contiguous.<br />
It is worse than a mispronunciation because<br />
a mispronunciation, unless the result <strong>of</strong><br />
affectation, is simply honest ignorance; whereas<br />
malapropisms are likely to occur in the speech <strong>of</strong><br />
those who, ambitious to use fine language but<br />
not industrious enough to consult a dictionary,<br />
soar above their abilities and display, in the malapropism,<br />
not only their ignorance but their<br />
vanity as well.<br />
Malapropism (from French ma1 ci propos, inappropriate)<br />
derives from Mrs. Malaprop, an<br />
affected, talkative woman in Sheridan’s The Rivals<br />
( 1775). Of her many misapplications <strong>of</strong><br />
words the most famous is her reference to “an<br />
allegory on the banks <strong>of</strong> the Nile.” It is an instance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the capriciousness <strong>of</strong> fame that the<br />
word should be malapropism instead <strong>of</strong> quicklyism,<br />
for Shakespeare’s Mistress Quickly (Henry<br />
IV, Parts 1 and 2) does the same thing, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
more amusingly. Her assurance (in Henry V)<br />
that the dead Falstaff is “in Arthur’s Bosom” is<br />
finer than anything Mrs. Malaprop ever blundered<br />
into.<br />
male; masculine; manly; virile; mannish. Male<br />
always refers to sex, whether <strong>of</strong> human beings,<br />
animals, or plants (There is no more mercy in<br />
him than there is milk in a male tiger). There<br />
are a few extensions <strong>of</strong> the word as special applications<br />
in machinery, gems, and so on, but they<br />
are not common and belong in specialized vocabularies.<br />
Masculine applies to qualities that properly<br />
characterize men as contrasted to women<br />
(He had a masculine love <strong>of</strong> horseplay). If<br />
applied to a woman, it suggests something incongruous<br />
with her femininity (Large shoulders<br />
gave her a masculine appearance) or conveys a<br />
compliment (She had a logical, masculine mind).<br />
Manly and virile refer to typical qualities in a<br />
man that are to be admired. Manly implies possession<br />
<strong>of</strong> the noblest and most worthy qualities<br />
a man can have, as opposed to servility, insincerity,<br />
underhandedness, and the like (He answered<br />
his inquisitors in a manly fashion. He bade me<br />
act a manly part, though I had ne’er a farthing<br />
O/For witho!lt an honest manly heart, no man<br />
was worth regarding 0). Virile is an even stronger<br />
word than manly. It formerly emphasized the<br />
obvious maleness <strong>of</strong> one able to procreate but it<br />
now implies the vigor, health, and force <strong>of</strong> mature<br />
manhood (Charlemagne Ivas a virile monarch).<br />
Mannish though its central meaning is<br />
“characteristic <strong>of</strong> or natural to a man,” is more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used in the senses <strong>of</strong> “resembling a man”<br />
or “imitating a man.” It is a term <strong>of</strong> contempt<br />
for affectedly masculine qualities (Her mannish<br />
clothes and hair style hid her natural feminine<br />
grace).<br />
malice; malignity; malevolence; rancor. Malice is<br />
that ill will or spite which arouses the desire to<br />
inflict injury or suRering on another (And malice<br />
in all critics reigns so high,/ That for small errors<br />
they whole plays decry). Malignity is intense<br />
malice, hatred and the desire to injure so fierce<br />
as to dominate the whole mind and bring it to the<br />
borders <strong>of</strong> sanity (The political reigns <strong>of</strong> terror<br />
have been reigns <strong>of</strong> madness and malignity,-a<br />
total perversion <strong>of</strong> opinion). Malevolence means<br />
literally a wish <strong>of</strong> evil towards someone and it<br />
still has something in it more <strong>of</strong> the wish than<br />
<strong>of</strong> the act which the wish may instigate. It is a<br />
smoldering ill will (The magic power <strong>of</strong> the<br />
witch lay in the force <strong>of</strong> her malevolence; her<br />
wishing ill could project harm upon the victim,<br />
make him liable to natural accidents and the<br />
prey <strong>of</strong> casual misfortunes).<br />
Rancor is bitter, rankling resentment, inveterate<br />
spitefulness and ill will. The word is akin to<br />
rancid: it is hatred so prolonged and intense that<br />
it has, as it were, turned the possessor’s nature<br />
rancid (Such rancor is not to be placated; it will<br />
find justification for its resentment).<br />
malignant fate, especially when it pursues someone<br />
or “dogs his steps” or “relentlessly dogs his<br />
steps,” is a clicht.<br />
mall; the Mall; pall-mall; Pall Mall. Though<br />
mall in its original sense is now obsolete, we<br />
know its diminutive mallet and its cognate maul.<br />
Pall-mall was a game, something between croquet<br />
and golf, played in England up until the<br />
eighteenth century. Its “fairways” consisted <strong>of</strong><br />
long avenues and the word mall came to mean a<br />
shaded walk, usually public. The Mull is a fashionable<br />
promenade in St. James’s Park, London.<br />
It is so called because it was originally a pallmall<br />
alley. Pall Mull, the former site <strong>of</strong> another<br />
<strong>of</strong> these alleys, is now a street in London famous<br />
for its clubs.<br />
mamma, a word used by children to signify<br />
mother, is the result <strong>of</strong> reduplication <strong>of</strong> ma, a<br />
syllable common in natural infantile utterance.<br />
In French the word is maman, in Latin mamma,<br />
in Greek m&me’, in Russian and Lithuanian<br />
mama. In English, mama is a variant spelling <strong>of</strong><br />
the word in this sense. Americans tend to accent<br />
the first syllable, the English the second syllable.<br />
In comparative anatomy mamma has the specialized<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the organ, characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
mammals, which in the female secretes milk.
The plural <strong>of</strong> the word for mother is mammal<br />
(The children with their mammas in the park).<br />
The plural <strong>of</strong> the anatomical word is mammae.<br />
mammoth, strictly speaking, designates a large,<br />
extinct species <strong>of</strong> elephant, the northern woolly<br />
mammoth, which resembled the present Indian<br />
elephant but had a hairy coat and long, curved<br />
tusks. More broadly, it designates any <strong>of</strong> various<br />
related extinct species <strong>of</strong> elephant.<br />
By extension mammoth has come to be used<br />
as an adjective for anything huge or gigantic<br />
(Plans for the production <strong>of</strong> a mammoth amusement<br />
park, dwarfing all others, etc.). Some grammarians,<br />
especially English authors, have objected<br />
strenuously to the use <strong>of</strong> mammoth as<br />
an adjective, but Americans, whose way <strong>of</strong> life<br />
makes much greater demands for superlatives,<br />
have accepted it as standard (Mammoth sale<br />
opens this morning, The mammoth parade began<br />
at Third and Main and extended beyond<br />
Twelfth Street). This adjectival use <strong>of</strong> mammoth<br />
has been taken up even by the august National<br />
Geographic Magazine which (in July, 1947)<br />
turned it back into a noun (Electric-drive mammoths<br />
are now being turned out by assemblyline<br />
methods).<br />
man. The plural is men. Nouns ending in -man<br />
have plurals ending in -men whenever the first<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the noun is itself a meaningful English<br />
word, as in Englishman, juryman, chessman.<br />
When the first part <strong>of</strong> a noun ending in -man is<br />
not a true English word, the whole has a regular<br />
plural in s, as in Germans, Romans, Ottomans:<br />
the only exception is women.<br />
Compounds that have man as a qualifying element,<br />
and that actually refer to certain classes <strong>of</strong><br />
men, have the form men in the plural, as in menservants,<br />
men friends, men dancers. This is contrary<br />
to the usual practice in English, according<br />
to which the first element in a compound is singular<br />
even when the whole is plural, as in maidservants,<br />
boy friend.s, girl dancers. When a compound<br />
that has man as a qualifying element<br />
means something other than a class <strong>of</strong> men, it<br />
follows the general rule and keeps the singular<br />
man in the plural, as in man-hours and manholes.<br />
When the first element <strong>of</strong> a compound is not<br />
a qualifier but the object <strong>of</strong> the second element,<br />
only the singular form man may be used, as in<br />
man-eaters and man haters.<br />
When man is the second element in a compound<br />
meaning a certain kind <strong>of</strong> man, a preceding<br />
noun usually has a final s, as in sportsman,<br />
statesman, craftsman.<br />
The words man and men, when used generically,<br />
may be ambiguous. Either word may be<br />
used to mean the human race, as in man is born<br />
unto trouble as the sparks fly upward and the<br />
best laid schemes <strong>of</strong> mice and men. But they may<br />
also be used to mean the males only, as in man<br />
is destined to be a prey to woman and men were<br />
deceivers ever. The singular man is used more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten to mean the race, and the plural men, to<br />
mean the males. But this rule is not followed<br />
consistently. When the context does not show<br />
that only the male is meant, it will generally be<br />
assumed that men includes women, regardless <strong>of</strong><br />
what the author may have had in mind, as when<br />
Milton undertook to justify the ways <strong>of</strong> God to<br />
men. See gentleman.<br />
man after my own heart. It was David whom<br />
God chose when He sought him a man after his<br />
own heart to replace the errant Saul. But all remembrance<br />
<strong>of</strong> this, with its sadness and solemnity,<br />
has faded from the phrase which is now<br />
merely a cliche for anyone who happens to agree<br />
with us.<br />
man in the street. Whether one describes the ordinary<br />
man as the man in the street or the extraordinary<br />
man as a man <strong>of</strong> parts or an imaginary<br />
adversary, wholly unreal, as a man <strong>of</strong> straw or a<br />
wealthy man as a man <strong>of</strong> substance or a military<br />
leader who acquires such influence over the<br />
people as to threaten the existence <strong>of</strong> the government<br />
as a man on horseback, one is employing a<br />
clicht. They are all hackneyed phrases, faded<br />
and worn, devoid <strong>of</strong> any clear and vigorous<br />
meaning.<br />
man <strong>of</strong> letters; author; writer. Partridge says that<br />
in England an author is a writer <strong>of</strong> fiction, a<br />
writer is a writer <strong>of</strong> fiction, history, biography<br />
and belles lettres, a man <strong>of</strong> letters is a writer <strong>of</strong><br />
any or all <strong>of</strong> these or <strong>of</strong> poetry or works <strong>of</strong><br />
scholarship. He feels that man <strong>of</strong> letters should<br />
be avoided as pretentious. Author, he thinks, has<br />
a dusty connotation, turning up chiefly in legal<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ficial and semi-<strong>of</strong>ficial documents, club<br />
titles, income-tax forms, and the like. Of the<br />
three terms, he feels writer to be the least invidious<br />
and hence the most generally useful.<br />
In America man <strong>of</strong> letters is seldom used. It<br />
would be understood but would seem stiff and<br />
pompous. Author designates one who writes a<br />
novel, poem, or essay (a more inclusive term<br />
than in Britain), the composer <strong>of</strong> a literary work<br />
as distinguished from a compiler, translator, editor,<br />
or copyist. Writer has a more general meaning<br />
and, as in England, is the most used <strong>of</strong> the<br />
terms. It describes one who expresses ideas in<br />
writing, one engaged in literary work, one who<br />
writes, one whose occupation is writing. In the<br />
movies, radio, and television, writer means one<br />
who prepares the script. It is a regular title and<br />
one, by the way, which is not very high in the<br />
vast hierarchy <strong>of</strong> production. An author would<br />
be thought <strong>of</strong> as the man who wrote the story<br />
upon which the movie or script is based, a writer<br />
the man who adapted it for movie or television<br />
use. Distinguished authors have <strong>of</strong>ten worked as<br />
writers in Hollywood.<br />
manage. See handle.<br />
mandatary; mandatory. Mandatary is a noun. It<br />
describes a person or nation holding a mandate<br />
(The congressman regards himself as mandatary<br />
<strong>of</strong> his constituents. On the award <strong>of</strong> the League<br />
<strong>of</strong> Nations, the Union <strong>of</strong> South Africa became<br />
mandatary over the former German colony).<br />
Mandatory may be used as an adjective or as<br />
a noun. It means pertaining to, <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong>,<br />
or containing a mandate. In America it is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used to mean obligatory or compulsory (The invitation<br />
was actually mandatory; the cadet was
maneuver 290<br />
not permitted to decline it). This use would be<br />
understood in England but is rarely employed<br />
there. Mandatory has a legal meaning <strong>of</strong> permitting<br />
no option (There was a mandatory<br />
clurtse in fhe contract). And it may mean having<br />
received a mandate (The Union <strong>of</strong> South<br />
Africa became a mandatory power after World<br />
War I).<br />
As a noun mandatory is an acceptable variant<br />
<strong>of</strong> mandatary, though it is convenient to retain<br />
the distinction between the two words and to use<br />
mandatory as an adjective only.<br />
maneuver. See trick.<br />
manifest. See evince.<br />
manifesto. The plural is manifestoes.<br />
manifold; multifarious; multiform; multiple. Manifold<br />
means <strong>of</strong> many kinds, numerous and varied<br />
(His manifold duties included coaching tennis,<br />
leading the choir, teaching Latin and English,<br />
and supervising the study hull). Multifarious<br />
means having many different parts, elements,<br />
forms; and whereas manifold stresses the combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> diverse elements, multifarious stresses<br />
their diversity (that multifarious thing called a<br />
state). Multiform means having many forms,<br />
<strong>of</strong> many different forms or kinds (The danger,<br />
though multiform, is not critical). Multiple<br />
means consisting <strong>of</strong> or involving many individuals,<br />
parts, elements, relations (The problem has<br />
multiple solutions. The multiple images <strong>of</strong> a<br />
series <strong>of</strong> mirrors).<br />
manly; mannish. See male.<br />
manner; manners. When mnnner means a way<br />
<strong>of</strong> doing something, it is a singular noun and has<br />
a regular plural manners, as in he paints in many<br />
different manners. But when the word means<br />
politeness, only the plural form can be used. The<br />
word in this sense is treated as a plural, as in<br />
your manners are improving, but it is felt as a<br />
singular and cannot be used with a word implying<br />
number. See also fashion.<br />
manner born, to the. Horatio, a visitor to Elsinore,<br />
walking with his old college friend, Prince Hamlet,<br />
on the platform before the castle at midnight,<br />
hears a flourish <strong>of</strong> trumpets, a roll <strong>of</strong><br />
drums, and a discharge <strong>of</strong> ordnance. He asks<br />
what this means. Hamlet says that the king is<br />
having a drinking party and that each time his<br />
majesty drains a flagon <strong>of</strong> wine the feat is hailed<br />
with this uproar. Horatio asks if this is an old<br />
Danish custom. Hamlet says, Ay, marq, it is;/<br />
But to my mind, though I am native here/ And<br />
to the manner born, it is a custom/ More honored<br />
in the breach than the observance.<br />
It would seem redundant to stress the fact<br />
that he is referring to a habit, practice, custom,<br />
were it not that wiseacres insist that the phrase<br />
is to the manor born, that is, to high estate, to<br />
the aristocracy. This is absurd for several reasons.<br />
One is that the original context <strong>of</strong> the<br />
phrase, given above, doesn’t support it. Another<br />
is that while a seeming pauper who had come<br />
down in the world might boast that he had been<br />
born to the manor (though it would be an<br />
awkward way <strong>of</strong> putting it, and except for the<br />
corruption <strong>of</strong> this passage appears nowhere in<br />
English), it would be a ridiculous thing for<br />
Hamlet to say; for though no doubt he had<br />
been born to many manors he had been born to<br />
the crown, to the kingdom.<br />
manner <strong>of</strong>. This expression is somewhat bookish<br />
today and is not <strong>of</strong>ten used in natural speech.<br />
When used, it follows the pattern <strong>of</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> and<br />
not kinds <strong>of</strong>. If it is followed bv a singular noun<br />
the whole cbnstruction is treateh as a singular, as<br />
in what manner <strong>of</strong> man is this? If it is followed<br />
by a plural noun it takes a plural verb and a<br />
plural pronoun, as in what manner <strong>of</strong> men are<br />
these? Since manner, as used in this expression,<br />
is historically both a singular and a plural, it is<br />
technically correct in either construction and so<br />
not open to the attacks sometimes made against<br />
kind <strong>of</strong>.<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> means. By no manner <strong>of</strong> means is an<br />
elaboration <strong>of</strong> by no means which is an elaboration<br />
<strong>of</strong> not. Each elaboration intends to be more<br />
emphatic and intense than the phrase or word it<br />
seeks to improve on and once they become, as<br />
they have, clichts, they are less emphatic and<br />
less intense. No and not remain effective negatives.<br />
manslaughter. See homicide.<br />
mantis. The plural is mantises or mantes.<br />
mantle and mantel were originally simply variant<br />
spellings but they have become fixed in different<br />
meanings. A manile is a sleeveless cloak and by<br />
extension a number <strong>of</strong> things that cover, envelop,<br />
or conceal like a cloak. The verb mantle means<br />
to cover with or as with a mantle (The mourningstole<br />
no longer / Mantled her form). The word<br />
used to apply to garments worn by men and by<br />
women but for several generations now it has<br />
been largely restricted to women’s garments.<br />
Mantel is a noun, meaning the more or less<br />
ornamental structure above and about a fireplace,<br />
usually having a shelf or projecting ledge.<br />
It is also used as short for mantelpiece, the shelf<br />
itself.<br />
manuscript; typescript. In the strict sense a manuscript<br />
is something written by hand (His manuscript<br />
consisted <strong>of</strong> ten neatly penned pages). The<br />
word is used loosely, however, to designate an<br />
author’s copy <strong>of</strong> his work, whether written by<br />
hand or typewritten, which is used as the basis<br />
for typesetting (The manuscript was so full <strong>of</strong><br />
stenographic errors that the publisher had to<br />
send it back to the author). Some authorities<br />
have objected to this extension <strong>of</strong> manuscript,<br />
insisting that a typewritten work should be called<br />
a typescript, but contemporary American usage<br />
has accepted the extension <strong>of</strong> manuscript as<br />
standard.<br />
Manuscript is abbreviated MS. or ms. with the<br />
plural MSS. or mss.<br />
many. The comparative form is more. The superlative<br />
form is mosf.<br />
Many is primarily an adjective meaning a<br />
large number, and is used principally before a<br />
plural noun, as in many men, many minds. It<br />
may follow the noun, as in she had children<br />
many, but this is no longer natural English. The<br />
adjective many may be separated from its noun
y are or were, as in many are tke hearts that are<br />
weary tonight. It is sometimes used in this way<br />
with a singular noun, as in many is the time Z<br />
have said and many is the man who has tkozzght.<br />
This construction is now considered old fashioned<br />
in the United States and not accepted as<br />
standard in Great Britain. But many may still be<br />
used before the article a in a singular construction,<br />
as in many a man has tkozcght and Z was<br />
many a weary month in finishing it.<br />
Many may also be used as if it were a noun<br />
and is then always a plural, as in many are strong<br />
and rick and would he just and the many who<br />
know him say. Formerly, this plural many could<br />
be preceded by the article a, as in a many <strong>of</strong> them<br />
were there. The plural word few is still treated in<br />
this way, but a many is now regarded as unacceptable<br />
except in the two expressions, a good<br />
many and a great many. There is no difference<br />
in meaning between the noun construction many<br />
<strong>of</strong> and the adjective many, but the construction<br />
with <strong>of</strong> is now used only before a pronoun or a<br />
definitive adjective, as in many <strong>of</strong> these, many <strong>of</strong><br />
the books. We do not say many <strong>of</strong> books.<br />
map; chart. A map is a representation <strong>of</strong> the surface<br />
<strong>of</strong> the earth or a section <strong>of</strong> it or <strong>of</strong> some<br />
other area (Utopia will not be found on any<br />
map). To say <strong>of</strong> some community that has suffered<br />
a disaster that it has been wiped <strong>of</strong>f the<br />
map is to employ a hackneyed metaphor.<br />
A chart may be an outline map with symbols<br />
conveying information superimposed on it, a<br />
map designed especially for navigators on water<br />
or in the air (Without up-to-date kydrograpkic<br />
charts, wartime convoy escorts could never have<br />
operated). The word chart is also used for a diagram<br />
or a table giving information in an orderly<br />
form.<br />
marbles. When referring to the game, the plural<br />
word marbles takes a singular verb, as in marbles<br />
is sometimes played on the sidewalk. One piece<br />
is called a marble and marbles used with a plural<br />
verb means several <strong>of</strong> these, as in marbles are<br />
round. Only the singular form marble is used as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in marble<br />
playing.<br />
When the word means the material used in<br />
building, it is a singular mass noun and the plural<br />
marbles means different kinds <strong>of</strong> marble.<br />
The fragments from the frieze and pediment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Parthenon in the British Museum are<br />
known as the Elgin Marbles. This term for a collection<br />
<strong>of</strong> sculptured pieces is now archaic except<br />
in museum terminology.<br />
mare’s nest. Since horses do not climb trees and<br />
lay eggs, he who discovers a mare’s nest is a<br />
credulous simpleton who thinks he has found<br />
something wonderful but can only have done<br />
something silly. Two hundred years ago the<br />
finding <strong>of</strong> a mare’s nest had already passed from<br />
a good, strong humorous phrase through a proverbial<br />
expression into a cliche. It is not much<br />
used now but when it is, it is frequently misused,<br />
as if it meant a mere false alarm or much ado<br />
about nothing.<br />
marionette. See puppet.<br />
291 martyr<br />
marital. See matrimonial.<br />
mark. The term easy mark, for one easily swindled<br />
or imposed upon, is an American slang term<br />
for which the British equivalent is gull.<br />
mark <strong>of</strong> the beast. As a term for an indication<br />
in someone <strong>of</strong> something common to those <strong>of</strong><br />
whom we disapprove, the mark <strong>of</strong> the beast is<br />
hackneyed. It is an echo <strong>of</strong> the twentieth verse<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nineteenth chapter <strong>of</strong> Revelation where<br />
the beast is the great whore <strong>of</strong> Babylon. The<br />
term appealed strongly to evangelical preachers,<br />
who used it so much in their denunciations that<br />
it became a term <strong>of</strong> jest among the wits and in<br />
time worn out by repetition.<br />
mark time. To say <strong>of</strong> soldiers who lift their feet<br />
as though marching but set them down in the<br />
same place, so that they do not move forward,<br />
that they are marking time is to employ a figure<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech. But this particular figure <strong>of</strong> speech<br />
became connected so inseparably and so exclusively<br />
to this action that all sense <strong>of</strong> its being a<br />
figure <strong>of</strong> speech disappeared and it became the<br />
ordinary, prosaic name for it. From the action<br />
it was taken up again, however, as a new metaphor<br />
for any action which fills the time but does<br />
not lead to progress (These sales are just marking<br />
time, holding a place in the market until we<br />
get ready to expand) and this use is now so worn<br />
by repetition that it is better avoided.<br />
market and mart are both acceptable in the<br />
United States as names for a trading center.<br />
Mart, which derives from the Dutch spoken variant<br />
<strong>of</strong> markt, market, is archaic in England, Partridge<br />
says, and rather literary. But in the United<br />
States it flourishes. It may have been used at first<br />
to give a touch <strong>of</strong> distinction, but there are now<br />
so many motor marts and furniture marts that<br />
is is accepted as standard. When capitalized, mart<br />
refers to a particular building, as Chicago’s Merchandise<br />
Mart and Furniture Mart.<br />
marriage. See wedding.<br />
martyr; victim. The word martyr derives from a<br />
Greek word meaning a witness. A martyr was<br />
one who witnessed to his faith in his religion by<br />
being willing to die rather than to renounce his<br />
beliefs (Stephen was the first Christian martyr),<br />
or one who is put to death or endures great suffering<br />
on behalf <strong>of</strong> any belief, principle, or cause<br />
(He was a martyr in the cause <strong>of</strong> constitutional<br />
liberties), or, quite loosely, one undergoing severe<br />
or constant suffering. In this usage the suffering<br />
has to be severe, the illness grave, and the<br />
endurance <strong>of</strong> its pains dignified. One who died<br />
<strong>of</strong> cancer, for instance, after long suffering, might<br />
be spoken <strong>of</strong> as a martyr to the disease. But one<br />
who suffers from colds in the head, however unpleasant<br />
the affliction may be, cannot be called a<br />
martyr.<br />
A victim differs from a martyr in that the<br />
martyr actively accepts his infliction, while the<br />
victim is the passive recipient <strong>of</strong> his. A victim is<br />
a sufferer from any destructive, injurious, or adverse<br />
action or agency (Juvenile delinquents are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten victims <strong>of</strong> their environment), a dupe (He<br />
was the victim <strong>of</strong> card-sharpers), a person or<br />
animal sacrificed, or regarded as sacrificed, in
marvel<br />
any undertaking (He was a victim <strong>of</strong> the Dieppe<br />
raid), or a living creature sacrificed in religious<br />
rites (the victim led lowing to the altar).<br />
marvel; miracle. A marvel is something to wonder<br />
at, a prodigy, something astonishing (It was<br />
a marvel that any <strong>of</strong> the passengers escaped.<br />
Both engines were on fire when the wheels<br />
touched the runway). A miracle is a marvel, but<br />
it is more; it is something which has an effect in<br />
the physical world which surpasses all known or<br />
human powers and is, therefore, ascribed to<br />
supernatural agency (Christ’s first miracle was<br />
changing water into wine). People who jump<br />
<strong>of</strong>f Brooklyn Bridge and survive, or go over<br />
Niagara Falls in barrels, perform marvels but<br />
not miracles; while far less spectacular natural<br />
happenings, such as the provision by certain female<br />
insects for the young which they will never<br />
live to know, may be described as miracles.<br />
Whether a given event is properly a miracle or<br />
a marvel is disputable; the employment <strong>of</strong> one<br />
word instead <strong>of</strong> another is <strong>of</strong>ten dependent upon<br />
the attitude <strong>of</strong> mind <strong>of</strong> the speaker. But there is<br />
no doubt that a continuous use <strong>of</strong> miracle to describe<br />
any coincidence or amazing happening is<br />
vulgar.<br />
masculine. See male.<br />
mass. One sense <strong>of</strong> muss is the main body, bulk,<br />
or greater part <strong>of</strong> anything. The word thus becomes<br />
an equivalent <strong>of</strong> majority (In 1944 the<br />
mass <strong>of</strong> American military strength was in Europe).<br />
This use, though occasionally decried, is<br />
now standard.<br />
massacre and slaughter, whether as nouns or<br />
transitive verbs, imply violent and bloody methods<br />
<strong>of</strong> killing. Massacre designates the unnecessary,<br />
indiscriminate killing <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> human<br />
beings, as in barbarous warfare or persecution,<br />
or for revenge or plunder (It was assumed<br />
that the settlers were massacred by the Indians:<br />
no trace <strong>of</strong> them was ever found). Massacre may<br />
not be used to describe the killing <strong>of</strong> one person.<br />
Slaughter, like butcher, is a term usually applied<br />
to the killing <strong>of</strong> animals and gains some <strong>of</strong> its<br />
violent horror when applied to human beings<br />
from that fact. An individual may be slaughtered<br />
(Prism wns slaughtered ns he clung to the altar)<br />
and so may great numbers <strong>of</strong> people. Massacre<br />
carries a suggestion that the victims were innocent<br />
and helpless or unresisting; whereas soldiers<br />
may be slaughtered in battle if the carnage is<br />
sufficiently widespread and fierce.<br />
masseur and masseuse are both borrowed from<br />
the French but now fully naturalized in our<br />
language and therefore not to be italicized in<br />
writing. A masseur is a man who practices massage,<br />
a masseuse is a woman.<br />
mass nouns. A singular noun is used to refer to<br />
one thing and a plural noun to refer to more<br />
than one, as boy and boys, book and books. But<br />
some nouns, such as butter, sunlight, Latin, oxygen,<br />
are neither singular nor plural in meaning.<br />
They do not refer to precise countable things but<br />
to something formless and uncountable. Words<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind are called muss nouns. In contrast,<br />
words that refer to countables are called unit<br />
nouns. Names <strong>of</strong> abstractions, such as beauty,<br />
justice, childhood, arithmetic, logic, are mass<br />
nouns, but so are the names <strong>of</strong> such concrete<br />
things as gunpowder, lettuce, mud, dust, and<br />
ammunition.<br />
Most mass nouns, like the examples given so<br />
far, are grammatical singulars. These are always<br />
treated as singulars. They are used with a singular<br />
verb and can be qualified by the, this, or that.<br />
But they do not form plurals and they cannot be<br />
qualified by the article a. Also, unlike singulars,<br />
they can be used without any qualifiers. We can<br />
say sunlight is good for you, although we cannot<br />
say book is good.<br />
When a word that is ordinarily a mass noun,<br />
such as fur, space, injustice, is qualified by a, as<br />
in a fur, a space, an injustice, it is being used in<br />
a slightly different sense. In this new sense it is a<br />
unit noun, it refers to a countable thing, and can<br />
have a plural form, such as furs, spaces, injustices.<br />
Similarly, a word that is ordinarily a<br />
unit noun can be used without a as a mass noun.<br />
Lamb is a unit noun in there is a little lamb in<br />
the meadow and a mass noun in there is a little<br />
lamb in the icebox. In the first sentence a qualifies<br />
lamb and makes it a unit noun. In the second<br />
sentence a qualifies little and lamb is unqualified.<br />
Expressions like this, with more than one meaning,<br />
are very common in English. But they are<br />
not ambiguous in context-that is, they are not<br />
misunderstood-and are not noticed unless one<br />
is bored and looking for trouble.<br />
Not all mass nouns are grammatical singulars.<br />
Some nouns, such as munitions, news, measles,<br />
riches, savings, morals, are plural in form but do<br />
not refer to countable things. These require special<br />
attention. They are mass nouns, not true<br />
plurals.<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> this kind do not have a corresponding<br />
singular form and cannot be used with a<br />
numeral, which would suggest several singulars.<br />
As a rule, these words cannot be used with any<br />
qualifier that suggests countables, such as many,<br />
several, few. That is, in speaking <strong>of</strong> a savings<br />
account we cannot say how many savings has<br />
he? When such words are not the subject <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, they can be qualified by words used with<br />
singular mass nouns, such as much and little. We<br />
may say how much savings has he? or he has<br />
very little savings. In these respects, plural mass<br />
nouns are being treated as if they were singular<br />
mass nouns. In the case <strong>of</strong> some words, such as<br />
news, hydraulics, and economics, mass nouns<br />
with plural form are treated in every respect like<br />
singular mass nouns. That is, they are also followed<br />
by a singular verb, qualified by this and<br />
that, and referred to by it, as in this news is good;<br />
where did you hear it? But more <strong>of</strong>ten mass<br />
nouns with a plural form keep some <strong>of</strong> their<br />
plural characteristics. That is, they are followed<br />
by a plural verb, qualified by these and those,<br />
and referred to by they or them, as in these savings<br />
are all Z have; Z would hate to lose them.<br />
Many plural mass nouns are like savings and<br />
morals. They are related to unit nouns that have<br />
a singular and a plural form but a slightly differ-
ent meaning. That is, a saving means an economy,<br />
and in this sense we may speak <strong>of</strong> many<br />
savings. But when savings means money that has<br />
been put aside, it is a mass word and we speak <strong>of</strong><br />
much savings. Similarly, a moral is an edifying<br />
generalization and we may speak <strong>of</strong> many morals.<br />
But morals, meaning moral habits or principles,<br />
is now a mass noun and we cannot say he<br />
hasn’t many morals. Usually, though not always,<br />
a plural noun that does not have a singular form<br />
with exactly the same sense is a mass noun and<br />
cannot be treated as a true plural.<br />
A few mass nouns, such as ash and ashes, sand<br />
and sands, have both a singular and a plural<br />
form. This is very convenient, grammatically,<br />
since such words can be used in any kind <strong>of</strong> construction<br />
we like. But it should be noticed that<br />
there is not the usual difference in meaning between<br />
the singular and the plural form. The<br />
plural form does not mean more <strong>of</strong> the substance<br />
than the singular does.<br />
Names <strong>of</strong> foods are usually mass nouns. The<br />
names <strong>of</strong> meats-fish, Aesh, or fowl-have the<br />
singular form, as in we ute cod all winter or we<br />
ate goose every Sunday. The names <strong>of</strong> grainswheat,<br />
barley, rice, and so on-are also treated<br />
as singulars. The only exceptions are oats and<br />
grits, which are treated grammatically as if they<br />
were names <strong>of</strong> vegetables. The names <strong>of</strong> most<br />
vegetables and fruits, when the plant is ready to<br />
eat, may be treated as true plurals, as in there<br />
are a few beans left but not many peas, or as<br />
mass words with plural form, as in there is a<br />
little beans left but not much peas. There are a<br />
few exceptions. Potato is sometimes, and cabbage<br />
is always, treated as a singular mass noun,<br />
as in a little potato but not much cabbage.<br />
Lettuce is a singular mass noun, even before the<br />
plant reaches the table.<br />
master. See boss.<br />
matchwood. See kindling wood.<br />
materialize, as a transitive verb, means to give<br />
material form to, to make physically perceptible<br />
(The medium materialized the apparition by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> magical words). Used intransitively, to<br />
materialize means to assume material or bodily<br />
form, to come into perceptible existence (Mephistopheles<br />
materialized as a black poodle). Used<br />
loosely as a synonym for appear or come into<br />
existence, especially when used <strong>of</strong> things that do<br />
not have a physical being anyway (as in There<br />
was a good deal <strong>of</strong> grumbling but the mutiny<br />
never materialized), it is incorrect and <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
borders on the silly, as in Time’s assurance (November<br />
22, 1954) that despite the promises in<br />
various headlines <strong>of</strong> startling disclosures in a<br />
famous murder trial no new angles materialized.<br />
materially; greatly. Materially means substantially,<br />
to an important degree, considerably (He<br />
contributed materially to the success <strong>of</strong> the undertaking).<br />
Where something material, such as<br />
money or equipment, is contributed to a cause<br />
or enterprise <strong>of</strong> some kind, the word has a slightly<br />
different meaning (Though he insisted that he<br />
was unfit to advise us, he assisted materially with<br />
money and ammunition). and in such fairly rare<br />
293 matter<br />
instances there is no doubt that it is the proper<br />
word. But much <strong>of</strong> the time greatly would be a<br />
better word. It is more common, less pretentious,<br />
and less likely to be ambiguous.<br />
matins. In speaking <strong>of</strong> the church service, only<br />
the plural form matins is used and this is now<br />
regularly followed by a plural verb, as in the<br />
matins were sung. The singular form matin is<br />
used only in an extended or figurative sense, as<br />
in the lark’s shrill matin. Both forms are found<br />
in compounds, as in matin time and matins book.<br />
There is not as much variation in the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the word matins as there is in the use <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
vespers. Perhaps this is because the great lay<br />
public hears vespers while matins are chiefly<br />
attended by the clergy, who are more conservative<br />
in their use <strong>of</strong> words.<br />
matrimonial; marital; nuptial; conjugal; connubial.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these words mean <strong>of</strong> or pertaining<br />
to the married state, but there are some differences<br />
in their meanings that have to be observed<br />
and others that the careful speaker or writer will<br />
want to observe.<br />
Nuptial refers to the wedding or to events<br />
immediately succeeding the wedding (the nuptial<br />
day, the nuptial feast) that are related to it. In<br />
describing the marriage itself the word, used as<br />
a noun, is always used in the plural (Their nuptials<br />
were solemnized amid a blaze <strong>of</strong> beauty).<br />
Save for certain legal and quasi-legal uses (the<br />
nuptial contract, pre-nuptial experiences), nuptial<br />
is forced and stilted. It is dear to the pens<br />
<strong>of</strong> tired society editors.<br />
Mutrimoniol is now the most common term<br />
for anything concerned with the marriage relation<br />
(matrimonial problems, matrimonial dif,Eculties).<br />
Marital comes next, with the attraction<br />
<strong>of</strong> being a shorter word (Marital troubles <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
have in them something comic: the couple have<br />
made their bed and must lie on it), but it has, in<br />
addition to its general meaning, a specific meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> pertaining to a husband (A husband may<br />
exercise his marital authority so far as to give<br />
his wife moderate correction).<br />
Conjugal and connubial are used interchangeably,<br />
though both are a little ponderous and are<br />
employed, chiefly, in heavy-handed jocosity.<br />
Conjugal relates, strictly, to the married persons<br />
(Their conjugal affection was touching to behold),<br />
connubial to the married state (connubial<br />
rites, ‘connubial bliss).<br />
matrix. The plural is matrixes or matrices.<br />
matter. For mutter used as a verb, as in nothing<br />
matters, see mind.<br />
matter; material; stuff. Matter and material both<br />
refer to that <strong>of</strong> which physical objects are composed.<br />
Matter, as distinct from mind and spirit,<br />
is by far the broader term. It applies to anything<br />
perceived or known to be occupying space (The<br />
molecular theory <strong>of</strong> matter . . . supposes that all<br />
visible forms <strong>of</strong> matter are collocations <strong>of</strong> simpler<br />
and smaller portions. All we know about<br />
matter is that it is the hypothetical substance <strong>of</strong><br />
physical phenomena). Material usually means<br />
some definite kind, quality, or quantity <strong>of</strong> matter,<br />
especially as intended for use (It was hard to
matter 294<br />
get building material during the war. The top <strong>of</strong><br />
the table was covered with some hard, smooth<br />
material painted to resemble marble).<br />
Stuff has much the same meanings as material.<br />
When used to refer to material objects, it is a<br />
loose term (The building was made <strong>of</strong> some<br />
funny white stuff. Any sort <strong>of</strong> stuff will do to<br />
fill in the holes). When used abstractly, it is<br />
literary and poetical (The stuff <strong>of</strong> life to knit me/<br />
Blew hither; here am I).<br />
matter, the. The use <strong>of</strong> the phrase the matter to<br />
mean trouble or difficulty, especially in the question<br />
What’s the matter? is standard usage. It has<br />
been so employed for five hundred years and<br />
more. Horwill seems to feel that it is an Americanism,<br />
and certainly we use the phrase freely to<br />
mean “what is the objection to?’ or “what can be<br />
alleged against?” this or that proposal or course<br />
<strong>of</strong> action, but it was so used in England from at<br />
least the fifteenth centurv on (Falstaff: How<br />
now? Whose mare’s dead- What’s the mutter?)<br />
and if it has fallen into disuse in England in the<br />
past few decades (for it was certainly in use at<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century), it is a change<br />
there rather than in the United States.<br />
maunder; meander. To maunder is to whine or<br />
grumble in an incoherent way, to mutter or talk<br />
idly and disconnectedly. Burton in The Anatomy<br />
<strong>of</strong> Melancholy characterizes a demented man<br />
as maundering, gazing, listening, affrighted with<br />
every small object. Carlyle speaks <strong>of</strong> one who<br />
was always mumbling and maundering the<br />
merest commonplaces.<br />
To meander is to proceed by a winding course,<br />
to wander (Five miles meandering with a mazy<br />
motion/ Through wood and dale the sacred river<br />
ran. He was just meanderin’ down the pike with<br />
nothing special in mind). Indeed, the word is<br />
derived from the name <strong>of</strong> a Greek river which<br />
wound a great deal in its course. But one can<br />
meander in speech as well as in walking or flowing<br />
and the question <strong>of</strong> at what point divagation<br />
ceases to be meandering and becomes maundering<br />
must be decided by the individual observer<br />
or listener. Meandering can <strong>of</strong>ten be brilliant;<br />
maundering is stupid. But whether a digression,<br />
especially an aimless and wandering one, is to be<br />
described as brilliant or stupid <strong>of</strong>ten depends on<br />
the charity and sympathy <strong>of</strong> the listener.<br />
mausoleum. The plural is mausoleums or mausolea.<br />
maximum. The plural is maximums or maxima.<br />
may. This is the present tense. The past tense is<br />
might.<br />
He may does not have the s ending we ordinarily<br />
expect in a present tense verb. This is<br />
because may is an ancient past tense form. But<br />
it had come to be felt as a present tense by the<br />
time English became a written language. Might<br />
is a new past tense form that was created for it,<br />
but which has also come to be felt as a present<br />
tense. Today may and might are treated as subjunctive<br />
tenses. They represent different degrees<br />
<strong>of</strong> probability rather than a difference in time.<br />
The present subjunctive form may represents an<br />
event as possible while the past subjunctive<br />
form might represents it as possible but not<br />
likelv, as in he may come and he might come.<br />
In asking permission, might is more diffident<br />
than may, as in might I come in?, since it<br />
politely suggests that the speaker does not<br />
expect to get what he is asking for and so<br />
won’t be surprised by a refusal. See subjunctive<br />
mode.<br />
The verb may has no imperative, no infinitive,<br />
no past participle, and no -ing form. Because the<br />
words may and might are grammatically past<br />
tense forms, just as the word went is, they cannot<br />
follow (that is, they cannot be dependent<br />
on) another verb. We can no more say will may,<br />
did may, used to might, than we can say will<br />
went, did went, used to went. Since we cannot<br />
use auxiliaries, such as do, be, have, we form<br />
negative statements and ask questions in the old<br />
direct way that is now obsolete for most verbs,<br />
as in he may not come and may Z come?<br />
May and might themselves are always used as<br />
auxiliaries and require another verb to complete<br />
their meaning. This may be the simple form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb, as in Z might say, or have and the past<br />
participle, as in Z might have said. In the first<br />
case, the statement refers indefinitely to the present<br />
or the future. In the second case, it refers to<br />
a past event. The complementary verb must be<br />
actually stated or easily supplied from the context,<br />
as in do you think you might see him? and<br />
Z mav.<br />
Can frequently is, and sometimes should be,<br />
used in place <strong>of</strong> may. For a discussion <strong>of</strong> this.<br />
see can; may.<br />
maybe has been so long “as natural as perhaps, or<br />
more so,” in American speech that Fowler’s<br />
characterization <strong>of</strong> it as “stvlishlv archaic”<br />
sounds very strange. He admits that It was once<br />
normal English, but insists that it became rustic<br />
and provincial and is now something <strong>of</strong> an tiectation.<br />
So it may be in England, or may have<br />
been a generation ago when Fowler first wrote,<br />
but in the United States it has always been<br />
acceptable.<br />
me. In natural, well-bred English, me and not I<br />
is the form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun used after any verb,<br />
even the verb to be. When Mayor Cermak <strong>of</strong><br />
Chicago was shot by a bullet intended for<br />
Franklin Roosevelt, he said: “I’m glad it was<br />
me instead <strong>of</strong> you.” A local newspaper thought<br />
they could improve the dying man’s words and<br />
quoted him as saying, “I’m glad it was I.” See<br />
objective pronouns.<br />
meal. See flour. See also repast.<br />
mean. The past tense is meant. The participle is<br />
also meant.<br />
When this word means intend it may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in Z mean to wait.<br />
When it means signify it may be followed by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in this means waiting.<br />
mean. See average.<br />
meander. See maunder.<br />
meaningful verb. This expression is used in this<br />
book to mean the element in a verbal phrase that<br />
supplies the meaning to the phrase, as eaten in<br />
the tzukey will have been eaten by now. It is<br />
sometimes called the notional verb, in contrast<br />
to the others in the phrase, which are auxiliaries.
means. When this word means something that enables<br />
one to accomplish his purpose, it can be<br />
used as a true singular or as a true plural. We<br />
may say evev means has been tried, all means<br />
have been tried, one means is still open to us,<br />
several means are still open to us.<br />
When the word means wealth, it is always followed<br />
by a plural verb, as in his means have increased,<br />
never his means has increased. But it is<br />
here a mass word and not a true plural. We can<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> great means or <strong>of</strong> no great means, but<br />
not <strong>of</strong> many means or few means. When the<br />
word is not followed by a verb, it may be treated<br />
as a singular and we may speak <strong>of</strong> much means<br />
or little means.<br />
The singular form mean is now used only for<br />
something that is in the middle, such as a geometric<br />
mean, and in this sense the word has a<br />
regular plural means, as in insert three geometric<br />
means.<br />
meant. See mean.<br />
mean time; meantime. Mean time, more properly<br />
called mean solar time, is time measured by<br />
the hour angle <strong>of</strong> the mean sun. The mean sun<br />
is an imaginary and fictitious sun moving uniformly<br />
in the celestial equator and taking the<br />
same time to make its annual circuit as the true<br />
sun does in the ecliptic (If a navigator does not<br />
have the mean time, he cannot determine his<br />
position by means <strong>of</strong> his sextant).<br />
Spelled as one word and used as a noun,<br />
meantime means the intervening time (There<br />
must have been little meantime between the<br />
lighting <strong>of</strong> the fuse and the explosion). Such<br />
usage is exceedingly rare and would seem forced<br />
and affected. The most common use <strong>of</strong> the single<br />
word is in an adverbial phrase meaning “in the<br />
intervening time, during the interval” (In the<br />
meantime, in between time,/ Ain’t we got fun?).<br />
meanwhile is a noun. It may be used in a prepositional<br />
phrase, as in it had grown dark in the<br />
meanwhile, or alone as an adverb, as in it had<br />
grown dark meanwhile. Both constructions are<br />
standard Enzlish. In Great Britain this word is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten writteias two, that is, as mean while, but<br />
in the United States the solid compound is preferred.<br />
measles. This word has a plural form and may<br />
be treated as a plural, as in measles are contagious<br />
and he caught them from me. But it is<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten treated as a singular, as in measles<br />
is contagious, and he caught it from me. Both<br />
constructions are acceptable. The singular form<br />
measle is not used in connection with this disease<br />
and an individual spot is called a pustule.<br />
The plural form measles is used as the first<br />
element in a compound when referring to the<br />
disease that occurs in human beings, as in a<br />
measles epidemic. The singular form measle may<br />
be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> certain other diseases that<br />
occur in animals, as in a measle epidemic.<br />
measures<br />
DISTANCE<br />
The names for units <strong>of</strong> distance, such as inch,<br />
foot, fathom, mile, are nouns. When used without<br />
a numeral before another noun these words<br />
have a genitive form, as in a mile’s walk, a foot’s<br />
295 measures<br />
depth. When used with a numeral before another<br />
noun, the measure term is treated as the<br />
first element in a compound and the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the word, that is, the singular form, is<br />
used, as in u three-mile walk, a five-foot pole.<br />
This is true even when an adjective stands between<br />
the measure term and the noun, as in a<br />
three-mile-long walk and a five-foot-high wall.<br />
But when the measure term is not followed by<br />
a noun, the plural form should be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one, as in a walk, three miles<br />
long and a wall, five feet high.<br />
At one time, these measure terms always had<br />
the singular form when used with a numeral,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> whether or not they qualified a following<br />
noun. This was standard English for<br />
measures cf distance as late as the eighteenth<br />
century and Defoe wrote, ten mile out <strong>of</strong> London.<br />
The construction is not standard now, except<br />
for foot and fathom. Fathom is still used<br />
in this way in Great Britain but is rarely heard<br />
in the United States. Foot is still used in this way<br />
in the United States, as in he is five foot ten. But<br />
feet is also heard here. Both forms are acceptable.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the plural form before a following<br />
noun, as in a three-miles walk, a five-feet wall, is<br />
not literary English. But it is heard too <strong>of</strong>ten in<br />
the United States not to be called standard here.<br />
Measurements are <strong>of</strong>ten given in a form such<br />
as it was three feet long by two feet wide. Here<br />
the preposition by has an adjective, wide, for its<br />
object. This is curious, grammatically, but it is<br />
the standard way <strong>of</strong> expressing measures <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind. In he stood at two yards distant and the<br />
wall had risen to ten feet high, we again have a<br />
preposition, at or to, with an adjective, distant<br />
or high, as its object. These constructions, but<br />
not the construction involving by, are condemned<br />
by some grammarians. So far as theoretical<br />
grammar goes, there is no difference<br />
between the first sentence and the last two, and<br />
no one should feel obliged to avoid these constructions<br />
if they seem natural to him.<br />
TIME<br />
The names <strong>of</strong> units <strong>of</strong> time, such as hour,<br />
week, month, year, are also nouns. When used<br />
without a numeral before another noun, they<br />
too have a genitive form, as in an hour’s walk,<br />
a year’s delay. When they are used with a numeral<br />
before another noun, no s is required. A<br />
half-hour walk, a two-hour walk, is literary<br />
English. But, unlike the units <strong>of</strong> distance, units<br />
<strong>of</strong> time frequently have a final s when standing<br />
in this position. If the numeral is one, or less<br />
than one, the s is considered a genitive singular<br />
and the expression is written a one-hour’s walk,<br />
a half-hour’s walk. When the numeral is larger<br />
than one, there is no agreement as to whether<br />
the s represents a genitive singular, a genitive<br />
plural, or a simple plural, and the words may be<br />
written in any <strong>of</strong> these ways, as in a two-hour’s<br />
walk, a two-hours’ walk, a two-hours walk. All<br />
three forms are used by reputable publishers but<br />
the last, without the apostrophe, is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
An adjective may stand between the time
meat 296<br />
word and the noun it qualifies, as in a year-old<br />
child. In this case, the form without s is generally<br />
preferred, as in a two-year-old child. A<br />
plural form is sometimes heard here, as in a twoyears-old<br />
child. This is not literary English but<br />
it is acceptable in the United States. No apostrophe<br />
should be used here.<br />
When a time word is not followed by a noun,<br />
the plural form must be used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
more than one, as in a child two years old and<br />
he has been away two years. In the case <strong>of</strong> time<br />
words, the use <strong>of</strong> the singular form in constructions<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind has not been standard for four<br />
or five centuries. It occurs in some <strong>of</strong> Shakespeare’s<br />
plays but only “in the language <strong>of</strong> low<br />
persons.”<br />
The adjective old is <strong>of</strong>ten used in literary English<br />
as the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition, as in a child<br />
<strong>of</strong> a year old, at ten months old. This construction<br />
is condemned by some grammarians, but it<br />
is a standard English idiom.<br />
QUANTITY<br />
Names for measures <strong>of</strong> quantity, such as ton,<br />
gallon, teaspoon, are also nouns and are usually<br />
joined to other nouns by <strong>of</strong>, as in a ton <strong>of</strong> bricks,<br />
u smidgin <strong>of</strong> salt. The singular form, but not the<br />
plural, may be used as the first element in a<br />
compound, as in a five-ton truck, a ten-gallon<br />
hat. In any other construction, measures <strong>of</strong> capacity<br />
require the plural form when speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one, as in ten gallons <strong>of</strong> gas. But<br />
measures <strong>of</strong> weight can always be used in the<br />
singular with a numeral, as in three ton <strong>of</strong> coal.<br />
In the United States the plural form is more<br />
usual, as in three tons <strong>of</strong> coal. But the singular<br />
form is preferred in Great Britain and is acceptable<br />
in this country.<br />
See the individual words and full; -ful. For<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the a in five dollars a visit, ten cents<br />
a ton, see nouns as adverbs.<br />
meat. A peculiarly American use <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
meat is to attach it to the name <strong>of</strong> the animal<br />
whose flesh is being considered as food. Crab<br />
meat, for example, is standard (Crab meat is a<br />
delicacy <strong>of</strong> which one easily tires. She was very<br />
fond <strong>of</strong> crab-meat salad). Turkey meat is, perhaps,<br />
questionable and hog meat is definitely<br />
regional, its use being confined, for the most<br />
part, to the mountainous regions <strong>of</strong> southeastern<br />
United States. Horse meat (or more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
horsement), designating in some contexts, formerly<br />
more common than now, what is fed to<br />
horses, now generally means the edible flesh <strong>of</strong><br />
the horse. In this one instance the usage is accepted<br />
in England.<br />
meat and drink in the metaphorical sense <strong>of</strong> spiritual<br />
sustenance (Such praise was meat and<br />
drink to him) is a clich6, to be avoided.<br />
Mecca is a city in Saudi Arabia. It was the birthplace<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mohammed and is the spiritual center<br />
<strong>of</strong> Islam to which every devout Mohammedan<br />
hopes some day to make a pilgrimage. Hence it<br />
has come to mean a place which constitutes a<br />
center or goal for many people, but even in this<br />
extended sense it is better to confine it to a place<br />
to which people wish to go for some high or<br />
solemn purpose or which represents to them<br />
deep aspirations. It is all right to say Paris is the<br />
Mecca <strong>of</strong> most sophisticated young American<br />
artists. It is journalese to say Miami Beach is the<br />
midwinter Mecca <strong>of</strong> well-heeled New Yorkers or<br />
Palm Springs is the Mecca <strong>of</strong> the elite <strong>of</strong> Hollywood<br />
and all who want to be seen in public with<br />
them. And like all metaphors it cannot be used<br />
in any sense that conflicts ludicrously with its<br />
original sense. The writer who said that Rome is<br />
the Mecca <strong>of</strong> all good Catholics may have meant<br />
well but his statement would seem <strong>of</strong>fensive to<br />
millions <strong>of</strong> Roman Catholics.<br />
mechanical. See equipment.<br />
Medes and the Persians, laws <strong>of</strong>. As a term for<br />
something fixed and unalterable, the laws <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Medes and the Persians is hackneyed. Its use in<br />
English is due to its being referred to in two<br />
separate passages in the Old Testament (Esther<br />
1:19 and Daniel 6:8) though very few who<br />
employ the clich6 have any longer a knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> that fact.<br />
media in the sense <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> the means by which<br />
products may be advertised-newspapers and<br />
magazines, radio, television, billboards, etc.<br />
(B. T. Babbitt Co., making a major switch in<br />
media strategy, has scheduled an intensive newspaper<br />
campaign this fall for its new household<br />
cleaner, Bab-0 with Bleach) is a jargon word<br />
that will probably have to be accepted as standard<br />
in time. Some word is necessary in the<br />
advertising world to describe collectively all <strong>of</strong><br />
the ways <strong>of</strong> advertising and this quite natural<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> medium in its meaning <strong>of</strong> an agency<br />
or instrument is too firmly established now<br />
to be easily dislodged. See also medium.<br />
mediocre means middling, neither good nor bad,<br />
ordinary, average, commonplace. In a democracy<br />
such words ought to be regarded as commendatory<br />
but they are not. Every man likes to<br />
regard himself as superior to others and a word<br />
which says one is like most other men is regarded<br />
as derogatory. Mediocre in common<br />
usage certainly carries a pejorative implication.<br />
It does not mean bad, but it definitely means<br />
poor, feeble, and inferior. Very mediocre, though<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten heard, is not standard. You cannot apply<br />
an intensive to the ordinary or average. Of<br />
course those who do apply it no longer think <strong>of</strong><br />
the word as meaning average but poor and hence<br />
feel their intensive is justified. But until this<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> mediocre is accepted as standard-as in<br />
time it well may be--the use <strong>of</strong> an intensive is<br />
improper.<br />
meditate. See contemplate.<br />
medium. The plural is mediums or media. The<br />
Latin plural is used correctly in the rather ponderous<br />
expression media <strong>of</strong> mass communication.<br />
This is sometimes shortened to mass media.<br />
The new form is then frequently treated as a<br />
singular and given a new plural, mass medias.<br />
Other Latin plurals, such as agenda and candelabra,<br />
have become English singulars in this way<br />
and that <strong>of</strong> itself would not be enough to condemn<br />
the new term. This is particularly true<br />
since the form medium is regularly used in connection<br />
with supernatural matters. The real difficulty<br />
with mass medias is that mass has here lost
all connection with communication and is in<br />
danger <strong>of</strong> taking on the derogatory implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> the masses versus the discriminating few. For<br />
this reason it is safer to shorten the expression<br />
still further and speak <strong>of</strong> medias.<br />
meet. The past tense is mef. The participle is also<br />
met.<br />
meet with an untimely end. To say <strong>of</strong> one who<br />
died before, in the natural order <strong>of</strong> things, he<br />
might have been expected to die, especially <strong>of</strong><br />
one who died by violence, that he met with an<br />
untimely end is to use a clichC.<br />
meiosis is a term in rhetoric for understatement.<br />
It is the opposite <strong>of</strong> hyperbole or, more accurately,<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> hyperbole which gets its effects<br />
by diminishing rather than enlarging the truth.<br />
See litotes.<br />
meliorist. See optimist.<br />
melody; tune. A tune is a melody, but a melody<br />
need not be a tune. That is, in addition to tunes<br />
there are such things as plainsongs (the unisonous<br />
vocal music used in the Christian church<br />
from the earliest times) which may be classified<br />
as melodies. A tune is a succession <strong>of</strong> musical<br />
sounds forming an air or melody, with or without<br />
the harmony accompanying it. Tunes tend<br />
to be short and catchy, like nursery rhymes<br />
(But the only tune that he could play/ Was<br />
“Over the Hills and Far Away.” That’s the tune<br />
the old cow died on). Melody describes likewise<br />
the succession <strong>of</strong> single tones in musical composition<br />
but, unlike the tune, a melody may go<br />
on for a long time (The song is ended, but the<br />
melody lingers on). Melodious and tuneful,<br />
however, are synonymous. See also harmony.<br />
memorandum. The plural is memorandums or<br />
memoranda. Many educated people use the form<br />
memoranda as a singular, with a regular plural<br />
memorandas. These forms are therefore acceptable<br />
English. But they are <strong>of</strong>fensive to some<br />
people. Of the three plurals, memorandums<br />
probably rouses less antagonism than memoranda<br />
or memorandas.<br />
men. See man.<br />
mendacity; mendicity. Mendacity is untruthfulness<br />
(the ineradicable tendency <strong>of</strong> the human<br />
mind to mendacity) or an untruth (Father, I<br />
will not tell a mendacity;/ It is beyond my<br />
capacity). See also lie.<br />
Mendicity is the practice <strong>of</strong> begging or the<br />
condition <strong>of</strong> life <strong>of</strong> a beggar (In the case <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
authors, mendicity <strong>of</strong>ten trails mendacity<br />
along with it). Though it is an old word,<br />
having been in use in English for six hundred<br />
years or more, it is still rare and even the most<br />
fluent author would not be likely to have occasion<br />
to use it.<br />
menial meant originally a household servant, usually<br />
employed by contract or a binding stipulation<br />
that required him to continue the service for<br />
a definite period <strong>of</strong> time. The word designated<br />
one <strong>of</strong> a body <strong>of</strong> household servants and it is<br />
this that makes any use <strong>of</strong> it today an affected<br />
elegancy, for no one has a body <strong>of</strong> household<br />
servants any more.<br />
As an adjective, menial is, and for centuries<br />
has been, a term <strong>of</strong> disparagement and contempt,<br />
297 meretricious<br />
synonymous with servile (The necessity <strong>of</strong> performing<br />
these menial tasks was galling to his<br />
pride).<br />
mentality; mind. Mentality means mental capacity,<br />
intellectual endowment, degree <strong>of</strong> intellectual<br />
power (He had the mentality <strong>of</strong> a child). It has<br />
become a vogue word for mind in recent years<br />
(Use your mentality/ Wake up to reality), and<br />
there are many contexts in which either word<br />
may be used, for mind cannot be defined precisely.<br />
But when in doubt it is better to use<br />
mind.<br />
mention may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in I mentioned having gone there. It is<br />
sometimes heard with an infinitive, as in I mentioned<br />
to have gone there, but this is not standard<br />
English.<br />
mentor is a wise and trusted counselor. Mentor<br />
vas the friend to whom Odysseus, when departing<br />
for Troy, gave the charge <strong>of</strong> his household.<br />
In America mentor is currently sportswriter’s<br />
jargon for an athletic coach, especially a football<br />
coach. There is a grim appropriateness in the<br />
application, though not probably the one intended<br />
by the sportswriters; for the demands<br />
imposed on coaches, wise and otherwise, by<br />
greedy players, ravening alumni, envious faculty<br />
members, and harassed administrators, are as<br />
onerous as those imposed on the old Ithacan by<br />
Penelope’s disorderly suitors.<br />
mercenary. See venal.<br />
mere; bare. Mere means nothing more nor better<br />
than what is specified, a scant sufficiency (He<br />
wrested a mere livelihood from the poor land),<br />
pure and simple, nothing but (Such a suggestion<br />
is mere idiocy). It is <strong>of</strong>ten inserted as an intensive<br />
(The book is mere trash; it is ridiculous to<br />
hail it as a masterpiece) where the sentence<br />
would be more forceful without it.<br />
Bare, in the sense in which it is synonymous<br />
with mere, means without other things, no more<br />
than. In designating a minimum <strong>of</strong> sufficiency,<br />
the words are <strong>of</strong>ten interchangeable, but there<br />
is usually a subtle difference in their implications.<br />
Bare is positive. It means that something<br />
is adequate by itself, that there is a chance, etc.<br />
(The bare mention <strong>of</strong> his name brought the delegates<br />
to their feet in a tumultuous demonstration).<br />
Mere is negative. It seems to suggest a<br />
deficiency. The effects that it attends are more<br />
likely to be unpleasant (mere folly. This is<br />
mere conjecture, not an established fact. The<br />
mere mention <strong>of</strong> his name seemed to plunge<br />
the delegates into despair). See also pure.<br />
meretricious does not merely mean bad or false<br />
or deceptive. It is derived from a Latin word for<br />
“prostitute” and it means alluring to a bad end<br />
by false attractions, not merely tawdry and<br />
showy but tawdry and showy covering up <strong>of</strong><br />
something base or evil. It is a word <strong>of</strong> strong<br />
condemnation, with moral disapprobation underlying<br />
aesthetic disapprobation. In most uses<br />
it is stilted, but there are occasions when it is<br />
the word wanted. False honors, for example,<br />
would simply imply that honors had been conferred<br />
where they were not merited. Meretricious<br />
honors would imply that the honors were
meridian 298<br />
the reward <strong>of</strong> evildoing or used to conceal evildoing.<br />
meridian; meridiem. See a.m.<br />
merriment. See glee.<br />
Merry England is a clich6. When applied to a<br />
place or country, merry originally meant pleasant<br />
or delightful in aspect. A thirteenth century<br />
translation <strong>of</strong> Genesis refers to the Garden <strong>of</strong><br />
Eden as that merry place. When applied to persons,<br />
merry means animatedly joyous, hilarious,<br />
and this meaning has been substituted in the<br />
phrase Merry England for the older meaning.<br />
mesdames. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> madame.<br />
mess as a noun quite properly describes a dirty<br />
or untidy condition, a state <strong>of</strong> disorder (The<br />
whole barracks was in a mess), or a state <strong>of</strong><br />
embarrassing confusion (He left his financial<br />
affairs in a mess). But the word is greatly overused.<br />
There is <strong>of</strong>ten a more precise and vivid<br />
equivalent. As a term for a person who is confused<br />
or disorganized, it is definitely not standard.<br />
As a term for a person who is so covered<br />
with mud or so disarranged in appearance that<br />
his identity is lost in the messiness <strong>of</strong> his appearance,<br />
so that he is part <strong>of</strong> a mess, it is an<br />
exaggeration, apparently acceptable in speaking<br />
to children.<br />
messieurs. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> monsieur.<br />
met. See meet.<br />
metal; mettle. From its primary sense <strong>of</strong> describing<br />
any <strong>of</strong> a class <strong>of</strong> elementary substances, such<br />
as gold, silver, copper, etc., all <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
crystalline when solid and many <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
characterized by opacity, ductility, conductivity,<br />
and a peculiar luster when freshly fractured,<br />
metal has come to mean any formative material,<br />
including the characteristic disposition or temper<br />
(Sir, I am made/ Of the selfsame metal that my<br />
sister is, / And prize me at her worth). However,<br />
for this last meaning, with its derivative<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> courage and spirit, the variant spelling<br />
mettle has become the established form (The<br />
gruelzing campaign tested his mettle). It is always<br />
a word <strong>of</strong> praise, meaning an ardent or<br />
fiery spirit, high courage and enthusiasm (The<br />
winged courser, like a generous horse,/ Shows<br />
most true mettle when you check his course). To<br />
put a man on his mettle is to put his energy or<br />
courage to the test.<br />
metamorphosis. The plural is metamorphoses.<br />
metaphor. A metaphor is a figure <strong>of</strong> speech in<br />
which a term or phrase is applied to something<br />
to which it is not literally applicable in order<br />
to suggest a resemblance (moonlight sleeping<br />
on a bank. And tear our pleasures with rough<br />
strife/ Through the iron gates <strong>of</strong> life. Man is the<br />
shuttle, to whose winding quest/ And passage<br />
through these looms/ God has ordered motion,<br />
but ordained no rest). It may consist, as the examples<br />
show, <strong>of</strong> a single word or an elaborated<br />
idea. The virtue <strong>of</strong> metaphor is that it permits us<br />
to say a great deal in few words. Furthermore it<br />
sets up in the mind <strong>of</strong> the reader or listener a<br />
creative process that makes him amplify the idea<br />
and come to feel that it is his own and hence to<br />
accept it.<br />
Metaphors do not suggest merely resemblances.<br />
They evoke concomitant images and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten call up emotions that strengthen or enlarge<br />
upon the intended meaning: Thus when<br />
Macbeth says that he has suuped full with horrors,<br />
the very homeliness oi the metaphor (to<br />
which many eighteenth century critics objected<br />
as being undignified, “unworthy” <strong>of</strong> poetry)<br />
heightens the effect; it is as if Macbeth had<br />
come to accept horror as his everyday food.<br />
And so when Hamlet, considering the effect <strong>of</strong><br />
his “mousetrap” on his uncle’s conscience, says:<br />
If his occulted guilt<br />
Do not itself unkennel in one speech,<br />
It is a damned ghost that we have seen,<br />
And my imaginations are as foul<br />
As Vulcan’s stithy<br />
he has employed two good metaphors. His uncle’s<br />
guilt has been likened to a skulking dog<br />
and his own mind to a stithy or an anvil. The<br />
latter is particularly good because it suggests not<br />
only the dirt, the foulness <strong>of</strong> his imaginations,<br />
but the ceaseless, metallic hammering <strong>of</strong> them in<br />
his brain.<br />
A metaphor is effective if it conveys the desired<br />
comparison. It is good ins<strong>of</strong>ar as the<br />
details and associative comparisons <strong>of</strong> the primary<br />
comparison enhance the desired effect<br />
and bad ins<strong>of</strong>ar as they call up opposing or<br />
incongruous suggestions. (See allegory, mixed<br />
metaphor, simile and metaphor, and such individual<br />
entries as lay it on with a trowel, literally,<br />
ceiling, bottleneck, and so on.)<br />
metathesis. The plural is metatheses.<br />
metempsychosis. The plural is metempsychoses.<br />
meteorologist is one pr<strong>of</strong>icient in the science <strong>of</strong><br />
the atmosphere and its phenomena, especially as<br />
they relate to the weather. One who studied<br />
meteors would be an astronomer.<br />
method; methodology. Mefhod is the orderly regulation<br />
<strong>of</strong> procedure in order to carry out a<br />
definite purpose. Methodology is a branch <strong>of</strong><br />
logic that seeks to show how the abstract principles<br />
<strong>of</strong> a science may be used to gain knowledge.<br />
A method may thus be a specific application<br />
<strong>of</strong> methodology, but method and methodology<br />
are no more the same thing than a blow is<br />
a club. The use <strong>of</strong> methodology for method is<br />
common among social scientists, many <strong>of</strong> whom<br />
seem to have a great love <strong>of</strong> redundant syllables.<br />
meticulous; scrupulous; punctilious. Meticulous is<br />
derived from a Latin word meaning fearful or<br />
timid and kept this meaning in English up until<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> the seventeenth century. In 1535 a<br />
Scotch chronicler wrote Zf thou be meticulous<br />
and dare not see blood drawn. . . . By the beginning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century, however, it had<br />
become fixed as the designation <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
manifestation <strong>of</strong> timidity: solicitude about minute<br />
details, minute and finical carefulness (He<br />
was meticulous about the appearance <strong>of</strong> his men,<br />
insisting that the very bows <strong>of</strong> their shoelaces<br />
should be <strong>of</strong> even length). It has now become<br />
a vogue word (“What strange charm,” Fowler<br />
demands, “makes this wicked word irresist-
ible . . .?I’) and is used on all occasions to denote<br />
an exacting attention to detail.<br />
Scrupulous and punctilious are really more<br />
suitable words unless one wishes to suggest that<br />
the attention to detail is motivated by timidity.<br />
A punctilious man is one who is attentive to nice<br />
points, especially in conduct, ceremony or proceeding,<br />
observing the forms <strong>of</strong> politeness and<br />
correct social usage with great exactness (The<br />
marshal <strong>of</strong> the faculties insisted on punctilious<br />
consideration <strong>of</strong> academic standing in assigning<br />
the various pr<strong>of</strong>essors to their place in the commencement<br />
procession). A scrupulous man is<br />
one who is cautious for fear <strong>of</strong> erring, attaching<br />
great weight in his uneasiness to minute considerations,<br />
precise, rigorous (He was scrupulously<br />
honest, returning on one occasion to an astonished<br />
host a paper napkin which had been inadvertently<br />
packed among his things).<br />
metonymy is the rhetorical figure which expresses<br />
the name <strong>of</strong> a thing in terms <strong>of</strong> another which<br />
is a part <strong>of</strong> it or is associated with it. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
the part for the whole used to be differentiated<br />
as synecdoche, but the distinction scarcely exists<br />
any more.<br />
This figure <strong>of</strong> speech may take the form <strong>of</strong> an<br />
effect for a cause or a cause for an effect, as in<br />
The pen is mightier than the sword where pen<br />
stands for that which has been written by the<br />
pen. The commonest form <strong>of</strong> metonymy is the<br />
sign for the thing signified, as a good table for<br />
satisfying fare, the chair for the presiding <strong>of</strong>ficer<br />
sitting in the chair, Shakespeare for Shakespeare’s<br />
works, the press for newspapers, Washington<br />
for the federal government, the scepter<br />
for sovereignty or the bottle for strong drink.<br />
metropolis. The plural is metropolises or metropoles.<br />
mettie. See metal.<br />
meum et tuum or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, meum and tuum,<br />
literallv “mine and thine.” is now a clichC when<br />
used ai a general term for private property or<br />
for the distinction between what is one’s own<br />
and what belongs to others.<br />
mews. From meaning cages for hawks, this word<br />
came to mean a group <strong>of</strong> stables. In the United<br />
States it usually means stables that have been<br />
made over into elegant living quarters. The word<br />
is ordinarily a singular but it may also be used as<br />
a plural, as in the mews <strong>of</strong> London. A double<br />
plural mewses occurs in an act <strong>of</strong> Parliament <strong>of</strong><br />
1797 and so has at least that much standing.<br />
miasma. The plural is miasmas or miasmata, not<br />
miasmae.<br />
mice. See mouse.<br />
middle; midst. See center.<br />
Middle West; Middle Western; Midwest; Midwestern.<br />
Middle West is the preferred term to<br />
describe that region <strong>of</strong> the United States which<br />
is bounded on the east by the Allegheny Mountains,<br />
on the west by the Rocky Mountains, and<br />
on the south by the Ohio River and the southern<br />
boundaries <strong>of</strong> Missouri and Kansas. The preference<br />
is not overwhelming, however, and many,<br />
especially among the younger contemporary<br />
writers, seem to prefer Midwest. As adjectives,<br />
usage seems to favor Midwest and Midwestern<br />
over Middle West and Middle Western. The<br />
average inhabitant <strong>of</strong> this region is far more<br />
likely to call himself a Midwesterner than a<br />
Middle Westerner.<br />
midst. A generation ago many grammarians condemned<br />
the expression in our midst, on the<br />
grounds that there was no “true possession”<br />
here. They held that the only acceptable form<br />
was in the midst <strong>of</strong> us. The expression in our<br />
midst had been standard English since the time<br />
<strong>of</strong> Chaucer and there was no justification for<br />
limiting the genitive, or the possessive pronouns,<br />
to instances <strong>of</strong> “possession.” But the word midst<br />
does not seem to have survived the battle. In<br />
current English we say middle for things that<br />
actually have a midd!e, and among for collections<br />
that do not.<br />
midsummer madness, a quotation from Twelfth<br />
Night (III, iv, 61), as a term for the height <strong>of</strong><br />
folly, is worn out.<br />
might. See may.<br />
might and main, with all one%. Might and main<br />
may once have had distinct meanings, such as<br />
skill and strength, but all memory <strong>of</strong> any such<br />
distinction has been forgotten and the phrase<br />
continues in use chiefly through inertia and the<br />
fatal fascination <strong>of</strong> alliteration.<br />
mighty; almighty. The word mighty was once very<br />
popular as an intensive, as in mighty glad to see<br />
you and mighty good <strong>of</strong> you to come. It was<br />
thoroughly respectable and much more forceful<br />
than the little word very. Although it is not<br />
heard as frequently today, it has an old-fashioned<br />
rather than a nonstandard tone. Some<br />
younger people use it half humorously, in imitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> their grandparents.<br />
Almighty was once also used as an intensive in<br />
this country, as in almighty smart, almighty<br />
quick. But this word was always questionable. It<br />
was used by strong men but not by ladies. Perhaps<br />
nobody was quite sure whether it was taking<br />
the name <strong>of</strong> God in vain or not.<br />
mile. Only the singular form mile should be used<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> a compound adjective qualifying a<br />
following noun, as in a ten-mile walk. The form<br />
with s is sometimes heard here, as in a ten-miles<br />
walk, but this is not literary English.<br />
Except in this one position, the singular mile<br />
should not be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> more than one<br />
mile. It sometimes is used in place <strong>of</strong> miles after<br />
a numeral, as in we live ten mile from here. This<br />
construction was literary English two hundred<br />
years ago, but it is not now standard.<br />
militate. See mitigate.<br />
milk <strong>of</strong> human kindness. Lady Macbeth feared<br />
that Macbeth was too full <strong>of</strong> the milk <strong>of</strong> human<br />
kindness to catch the nearest way to the crown<br />
by murdering his liege lord and benefactor. Her<br />
term for humanity or pity, unsurpassed in its<br />
original context, is now hackneyed.<br />
mill. In both England and America mill. as a<br />
transitive verb,-has a meaning consistent with<br />
its primary meaning as a noun; that is, it means<br />
to grind, work, treat, or shape in or with a mill<br />
(In Minneapolis wheat from the prairie states is
millermy 300<br />
milled). In America only, mill is also used intransitively<br />
to mean to move confusedly in a<br />
circle, as a herd <strong>of</strong> cattle (She sat on, watching<br />
the other miners’ wives mill and chafe against<br />
the barriers. The crowd was milling in the street,<br />
but it seemed good natured and the police were<br />
having no dificulty controlling it),<br />
millenary; millinery. Millenary, as an adjective,<br />
means consisting <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to a thousand,<br />
especially a thousand years, or pertaining to the<br />
millennium. As a noun it means an aggregate <strong>of</strong><br />
a thousand, a millennium, or a millenarian (a<br />
believer in the millennium). Millinery, a much<br />
commoner word, is a noun designating articles<br />
made or sold by milliners, as hats and accessories,<br />
or the trade <strong>of</strong> a milliner.<br />
millennium. The mural is millenniums or millennia.<br />
-<br />
million was originally a noun and was followed<br />
by <strong>of</strong>, as in a million <strong>of</strong> thanks. Today the singular<br />
form million is treated as a cardinal number.<br />
That is, it is an adjective and used without <strong>of</strong>, as<br />
in fifty million Frenchmen, except when it refers<br />
to part <strong>of</strong> a specified group, as in two million <strong>of</strong><br />
these men. An expression involving million is<br />
usually treated as a plural, as in three million<br />
pencils were sold, but it may also be treated as<br />
a singular, especially when referring to money,<br />
as in three million dollars was set aside.<br />
The plural form millions cannot be qualified<br />
by a numeral. It is a noun and requires <strong>of</strong> when<br />
followed by the name <strong>of</strong> anything countable, as<br />
in millions <strong>of</strong> dollars; the <strong>of</strong> is omitted only before<br />
a degree word such as more, less, too many,<br />
as in millions more dollars.<br />
Few usually takes the adjective construction,<br />
as in a few million dollars; many usually takes<br />
the noun construction, as in many millions <strong>of</strong><br />
dollars. But either form may be used with either<br />
word.<br />
mince matters. One <strong>of</strong> the earlier meanings <strong>of</strong><br />
mince, now obsolete, was to nullify some statement,<br />
usually a condemnatory one, by cutting it<br />
up with petty exceptions. Hence not to mince<br />
matters was to refuse to do this, to come to the<br />
unpleasant point directly without dwelling on<br />
extenuations (These were hard sayings, but men<br />
did not mince matters in those days). The phrase<br />
is now timeworn.<br />
mind. When this is a verb meaning care about, it<br />
may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as<br />
in she doesn’t mind being late, but not by an<br />
infinitive. We do not say she doesn’t mind to be<br />
late. Mind in this sense is <strong>of</strong>ten followed by a<br />
that clause, as in she doesn’t mind that she is<br />
lure. This construction is condemned by some<br />
grammarians who claim that an it, or the fact,<br />
is necessary, as in she doesn’t mind it that she’s<br />
lute, but the sentence without it is acceptable in<br />
the United States.<br />
At one time mutter was used as a verb in just<br />
the way we now use mind, as in he mattered not<br />
whether he went and if it had not been out <strong>of</strong><br />
doors, I had not mattered it so much. Today this<br />
verb matter is used only in an impersonal construction,<br />
as in it doesn’t matter and a personal<br />
subject always requires mind, as in I don’t mind.<br />
When mind means remember it is followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in I mind to have seen him<br />
once, but this use <strong>of</strong> the word is now archaic or<br />
dialectal. When mind means obey, it is not followed<br />
by a verb form.<br />
mind. See mentality.<br />
mind to, have a. The use <strong>of</strong> mind in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
inclination, wish, desire, intention (Compound<br />
for sins they are inclin’d to,/ By damning those<br />
they have no mind to), is now archaic except<br />
in the phrases I’ve a mind to, I’ve a great mind<br />
to, or I’ve half a mind IO and these are cliches.<br />
All have the nature <strong>of</strong> threats, though the last is<br />
usually an admission that the threat will not be<br />
carried out.<br />
mind your P’s and Q’s, as an admonition to be<br />
careful, especially in matters <strong>of</strong> social deportment,<br />
is a cliche.<br />
In regard to its original meaning there has<br />
been much conjecture, with no really satisfying<br />
explanation. Some believe that it was a warning<br />
<strong>of</strong> schoolteachers to those learning to write the<br />
alphabet or <strong>of</strong> master printers to their apprentices<br />
in setting type. Some think it has to do with<br />
pints and quarts in the alehouse reckoning. Some<br />
think it was an injunction <strong>of</strong> French dancing<br />
masters to their charges, to mind their feet<br />
(pieds) and pigtails or wigs (queues). And some<br />
would have solicitous wives beseeching their<br />
husbands, especially if they were seamen who<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten tarred their pigtails (queues), not to soil<br />
their peajackets. The interpretation <strong>of</strong> linguistic<br />
obscurities, as Chaucer once drily remarked, “is<br />
a glorious art, certeyn.”<br />
mine. See my.<br />
miniature, as an adjective, should be restricted to<br />
mean on a very small scale (miniature golf<br />
course) or in a greatly reduced form (When<br />
what to my wondering eyes should appear,/ But<br />
a miniature sleigh, and eight tiny reindeer). It<br />
should not be used loosely as a mere synonym<br />
for small (as in She had to put up with a miniature<br />
kitchen and scarcely any closet space at all).<br />
minimize. See diminish.<br />
minimum. The plural is minimums or minima.<br />
minions <strong>of</strong> the law, as a term for members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
police force. is a dreary cliche. Minion means<br />
darling. Drake was spoken <strong>of</strong> as the Sea’s<br />
minion and St. John as Christ’s minion. Macaulay<br />
said that Pitt was the minion, the child, the<br />
spoiled child <strong>of</strong> the House <strong>of</strong> Commons. In applying<br />
the term to the police there may have<br />
been a feeling that in any dispute between a<br />
citizen and a policeman the courts would show<br />
favoritism to the police. Or-and more likely<br />
since the term carries a tinge <strong>of</strong> contempt-it<br />
may have been adopted because <strong>of</strong> the resemblance<br />
in sound between minion and menial.<br />
minister. See pastor.<br />
minority. In its commonest sense, minority is a<br />
number forming less than half the whole (Since<br />
the Liberal got 25 votes and the Conservative 40,<br />
the former’s supporters were obviously a minority).<br />
Minority may also be used to indicate the<br />
extent to which one group is exceeded by another<br />
(They were consoled that their minority<br />
was only 2). Minority serves also to describe a
smaller party or group opposed to a majority,<br />
as in voting or other action (The three dissenting<br />
Justices brought in a minority report).<br />
Finally, minority describes the state or period<br />
<strong>of</strong> being a minor or under legal age (Richard,<br />
in the minority <strong>of</strong> the princes, assumed the<br />
regency).<br />
minute; second; moment; instant. The distinction<br />
between these four words for indicating very<br />
brief periods <strong>of</strong> time is worth making even<br />
though it is frequently ignored in everyday<br />
speech. A minute is the sixtieth part <strong>of</strong> an hour<br />
and a second is the sixtieth part <strong>of</strong> a minute. The<br />
word second derives from the fact that the period<br />
<strong>of</strong> time is the result <strong>of</strong> the second sexagesima1<br />
division <strong>of</strong> the hour. A moment, unlike a<br />
minute or a second, is not mechanically measurable<br />
but is simply a very short, but indefinite,<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time. Instant, like moment, is not<br />
measurable. It describes not a period in time but<br />
a point in time now present, or present in reference<br />
to some action (the dying Edmund, in King<br />
Lear, hearing <strong>of</strong> the deaths <strong>of</strong> Regan and Goneril,<br />
says: Z was contracted to them both: all<br />
three/ Now marry in an instant). In speech all<br />
four words are used interchangeably in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> moment (Don’t wait! 1’11 catch up with you<br />
in a moment [or minute or instant or second]).<br />
minutia. The plural is minutius or minutiae.<br />
mirabile ditto for “strange to say” or “marvellous<br />
to relate” is a cliche. It was already a worn<br />
phrase in the time <strong>of</strong> Cicero and Vergil.<br />
miracle. See marvel.<br />
mirth. See glee.<br />
miscarriage <strong>of</strong> justice. To refer to some decision<br />
or sentence that does not happen to please us as<br />
a miscarriage <strong>of</strong> justice or, more <strong>of</strong>ten and<br />
worse, a grave miscarriage <strong>of</strong> justice is to employ<br />
a phrase worn out by overuse.<br />
miserly. See economical.<br />
mishap; accident. Although the primary meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> accident is now an undesirable or unfortunate<br />
happening, the word still retains its earlier meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> something that happens unexpectedly,<br />
without design, by chance (I was there by accident).<br />
Mishap describes an unfortunate accident<br />
(It wus a mishap that the letter should have been<br />
delivered to that particular wrong address) but<br />
usually something less serious than an accident.<br />
Accident, within the past thirty years in<br />
America, has come to mean automobile accident.<br />
If it is said that so-and-so was killed in an accident,<br />
it would now be assumed that it was an<br />
automobile accident unless otherwise specified.<br />
misplace. See displace.<br />
misremember; forget. As a synonym for forget,<br />
misremember is dialectal (Ah misremembered<br />
to get d’ cuwn pone). Its standard meaning is<br />
to remember incorrectly (He misremembered<br />
and brought jam instead <strong>of</strong> jelly).<br />
Mtss. This word used as a title before a woman’s<br />
name is not an abbreviation and should not be<br />
followed by a period. It is a shortened form <strong>of</strong><br />
the word mistress and in current English implies<br />
that the woman is unmarried.<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> two women known as Miss<br />
Bonn we say the Miss Banns. If the women are<br />
301 mistaken<br />
distinguished by their given names, the word<br />
Miss must be made plural, as in the Misses<br />
Susie and Laura Bonn. In the United States the<br />
plural Misses is seldom used before a single<br />
name, as in the Misses Bonn, and many people<br />
consider this form affected.<br />
The word Miss should not be used before a<br />
name that is followed by letters representing an<br />
academic degree, such as B.A. or M.A.<br />
In Great Britain the word Miss is no longer<br />
used as a form <strong>of</strong> address but this is still acceptable<br />
in the United States. In some parts <strong>of</strong> this<br />
country children address their teachers as Miss.<br />
When the word is used by adults alone without a<br />
proper name, it implies that the person spoken<br />
to is young. It may be used by saleswomen as a<br />
form <strong>of</strong> flatterv. When used bv the villarre elders<br />
it is a mild rebuke, or a reminder <strong>of</strong> the-inferior<br />
status <strong>of</strong> the young. Miss could once be used<br />
without a name in speaking about a young<br />
woman, as in with a boarding school miss for a<br />
wife, but this is no longer standard.<br />
miss and lose can both mean to be unsuccessful,<br />
to fail to accomplish something (By not being<br />
there he missed his chance. By not being there<br />
he lost his chance). In modern usage, however,<br />
lose is the stronger word, suggesting a failure<br />
that is permanent rather than one <strong>of</strong> only transitory<br />
significance (Zf you miss this opportunity,<br />
you may lose the chance <strong>of</strong> the appointment).<br />
mistake. The past tense is mistook. The participle<br />
is mistaken.<br />
When this verb has an object, it may be used<br />
in an active form, as in Z mistook your meaning.<br />
When it does not have an object it is always<br />
used in a passive form with active meaning, as<br />
in 1 was mistuken and unless we are mistaken.<br />
An active form here, such as Z mistook or unless<br />
we mistake, is unidiomatic and ludicrous. It<br />
suggests that the speaker is unfamiliar with modern<br />
English usage or that he has appointed himself<br />
to remake the language.<br />
mistake; error; fallacy. Mistake and error are frequently<br />
(and pardonably) interchanged, though<br />
they are different in emphasis. A mistuke is an<br />
error in action, opinion or judgment caused by<br />
bad judgment or a disregard <strong>of</strong> rule or principle<br />
(He mude a mistake in taking mathemutics at<br />
all). An error is an unintentional wandering or<br />
deviation from accuracy or right conduct (He<br />
made an error in multiplication which ended the<br />
usefulness <strong>of</strong> his navieutionul mot). A fuhucv is<br />
a deceptive, misleading, or false ‘deduction- or<br />
belief (Zt is a fallacy to hold that since all horses<br />
are quadrupeds all quadrupeds are horses. It is<br />
a fallacy to think that because every fallacy involves<br />
a mistake or an error, all mistakes and<br />
errors ure fallacies).<br />
mistaken; misunderstood. Z was mistuken means<br />
“I made a mistake,” “I was in the wrong,” “I<br />
was in error.” The proper phrase for “I was improperly<br />
interpreted” is Z was misunderstood.<br />
Some grammarians have maintained that the<br />
participial adjective mistaken must mean misunderstood<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> being taken amiss or<br />
miss taken. But one will avoid ambiguity and<br />
confusion if he confines mistaken to “wrongly
mistreat 302<br />
conceived or done,” and he will be following the<br />
best usage.<br />
mistreat; maltreat. To mistreat is to treat badly<br />
or wrongly. The word suggests a deviation from<br />
some accepted norm <strong>of</strong> treatment and a deviation<br />
always towards the bad. To maltreat, to<br />
abuse, to handle roughly or cruelly, is to mistreat<br />
in a special way. The words are <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
interchangeably (Horwill believes that Americans<br />
prefer mistreat and English maltreat) but<br />
maltreat is usually restricted to the rougher<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> mistreating. A doctor who was a cruel<br />
man, a bad husband, and an incompetent physician<br />
might maltreat his dog, mistreat his wife,<br />
and treat his patients improperly. Mistreatment<br />
used to cover what is now called malpractice.<br />
Bulwer-Lytton speaks (1862) <strong>of</strong> certain unhappy<br />
patients who died from being mistreated<br />
for consumption. Today we would say from being<br />
improperly treated or from being given an<br />
improper treatment. If we said that a doctor<br />
mistreated his patients, we would most likely be<br />
understood to mean that he was rough with them<br />
or discourteous or charged them excessive fees.<br />
mitigate; militate. To mitigate is to make milder<br />
or more endurable, to assuage, moderate, or alleviate<br />
something unpleasant (The smile that<br />
accompanied it mitigated the severity <strong>of</strong> the lecture.<br />
Her gentle stroking seemed to mitigate the<br />
pain). To militate is to operate against or in<br />
favor <strong>of</strong> something, to have effect or influence<br />
on, favorably or unfavorably (These arguments<br />
militate strongly against the fulfillment <strong>of</strong> his<br />
hopes. His frank confession certainly militates<br />
in his favor). The word is more <strong>of</strong>ten used in<br />
negative than in positive contexts.<br />
Mitigate is sometimes used for militate (as<br />
in I do not think these accusations ought to<br />
mitigate against him). This is simply an error.<br />
mixed metaphor. A metaphor is said to be a<br />
mixed metaphor when its several parts cancel<br />
each other out or call up incongruous images<br />
and thoughts. There is nothing wrong in merely<br />
mixing a metaphor, in combining, that is, in one<br />
comparison elements from several different<br />
things that have a likeness. The mind is fully<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> perceiving the common element in<br />
the comparison. The fault in what is usually<br />
recognized as a mixed metaphor is that the mixture<br />
is bad. The effect <strong>of</strong> a metaphor has been<br />
compared to that <strong>of</strong> a stone dropped into a large<br />
body <strong>of</strong> water. As the first splash <strong>of</strong> the stone<br />
sets up an ever widening series <strong>of</strong> concentric<br />
circles, so the primary comparison <strong>of</strong> the metaphor<br />
sets up a series <strong>of</strong> associative comparisons,<br />
widening out into other aspects and qualities <strong>of</strong><br />
the things compared. And if any <strong>of</strong> these are<br />
grossly inapplicable to the primary comparison<br />
the effect may be ludicrous, and what was intended<br />
to arouse the reader or listener to a fuller<br />
comprehension <strong>of</strong> the idea may divert him to<br />
laughter or direct him to a conclusion wholly<br />
different from the one hoped for.<br />
To take an everyday example, consider the<br />
appropriateness <strong>of</strong> the name Old Ivory as applied<br />
to a shade <strong>of</strong> household enamel that has a<br />
color approximately the same as that <strong>of</strong> old<br />
ivory. It’s a good name not merely because it<br />
conveys an accurate idea <strong>of</strong> its color but because<br />
old ivory has other qualities that are desirable<br />
in an enamel. It is hard and smooth, for <strong>of</strong><br />
course the ordinary person has never seen a<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> old ivory except in polished objects <strong>of</strong><br />
art. And this, too, has its effect, for Old Ivory<br />
brings up associations <strong>of</strong> luxury and wealth and<br />
beauty. These things, <strong>of</strong> course, are not produced<br />
by an enamel, however well made or<br />
applied, but they are part <strong>of</strong> the dreams that lead<br />
us to decorate our houses and repaint old furniture.<br />
Now Pale Custard would convey an idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> the color just as well. But it would be a singularly<br />
inappropriate name for an enamel because<br />
people don’t want to spread custard on<br />
their walls and furniture, and the associative<br />
ideas <strong>of</strong> mess and stickiness are the very things<br />
one does not want in an enamel. Furthermore<br />
there is nothing dignified or splendid about custard.<br />
There is no use saying that the name is<br />
intended only to suggest the color, that the can<br />
contains neither ivory nor custard and the purchaser<br />
knows it. The mind cannot be restricted<br />
to only one part <strong>of</strong> a thing in a comparison.<br />
Mixing a metaphor is no indication <strong>of</strong> illiteracy.<br />
The greatest writers have done it. Thus<br />
Addison, in his poem Letter from Italy, says<br />
that, fired with excitement at the mention <strong>of</strong> a<br />
certain name,<br />
I bridle in my struggling Muse with pain,<br />
That longs to luunch into a nobler strain.<br />
Of which Dr. Johnson remarked: “To bridle a<br />
goddess is no very delicate idea; but why must<br />
she be bridled? Because she longs to launch; an<br />
act which was never hindered by a bridle: and<br />
whither will she launch? into a nobler strain.<br />
She is in the first line a horse, in the second a<br />
boat; and the care <strong>of</strong> the poet is to keep his horse<br />
or his boat from singing.” Nor is Addison alone<br />
in such blunders. Congreve, in what he thought<br />
to be a very fine passage, refers to Melancholy<br />
as sitting on an ancient sigh. Tennyson’s description<br />
<strong>of</strong> the new moon as like the paring <strong>of</strong> a<br />
lady’s fingernail doesn’t seem as poetic to the<br />
modern reader as it did to the author. Nor does<br />
Dryden’s conception <strong>of</strong> the serous matter exuded<br />
by the pustules <strong>of</strong> smallpox as the disease’s<br />
tears <strong>of</strong> repentance for “the fault . . . it did commit.”<br />
Longfellow’s famous assurance that lives<br />
<strong>of</strong> great men all remind us we can make our<br />
lives sublime and, departing, leave behind us<br />
footprints on the sands <strong>of</strong> time seems unfortunate<br />
to the modern reader because his image<br />
makes human example and fame not permanent<br />
but ephemeral. Instead <strong>of</strong> being moved to high<br />
endeavor, one wonders whether it is worth making<br />
much <strong>of</strong> an effort when all remembrance <strong>of</strong><br />
us will be swept away by the next tide in the<br />
affairs <strong>of</strong> men. And in addition it is a faintlv<br />
ludicrous image in that it calls up thoughts oi<br />
Robinson Crusoe and Man Friday.<br />
The following half dozen or so mixed metaphors,<br />
all taken from actual publications or
public speeches in which they were presented<br />
seriously, may be instructive as well as amusing:<br />
Crime has within it the cancer which may well<br />
be the thin entering wedge leading to the destruction<br />
<strong>of</strong> society if it be not always kept on<br />
the shortest possible leash.<br />
When you boil it right down to brass tacks.. . .<br />
The Council was still putting its house in order<br />
and he was anxious that they should not<br />
change horses crossing the stream, while there<br />
was so much spadework to be done.<br />
When you are in a fight, you can’t be too particular<br />
about whom you get in bed with.<br />
However, as far as the main plum was concerned,<br />
Hitler was shutting the stable door<br />
after the horse had escaped.<br />
The admiral warned the Japanese people that<br />
what they are now hearing is only the distant<br />
rumbling <strong>of</strong> the handwriting on the wall.<br />
This interpretation <strong>of</strong> Hamlet’s madness adds<br />
meat to the very foundations <strong>of</strong> the play.<br />
There is not an iota <strong>of</strong> truth in such a thing.<br />
It is a deliberate attempt by the Democrats to<br />
throw a dust cloud when they know their ship<br />
is sinking.<br />
Occasionally an author uses a bad metaphor<br />
on purpose. So P. G. Wodehouse’s The raspberry<br />
was not actually present, but he seemed to hear<br />
the beating <strong>of</strong> its wings or Ring Lardner’s He<br />
give her a look that you could have poured on a<br />
waffle or Samuel Butler’s And like a lobster<br />
boiled, the morn/ From black to red began to<br />
turn. But these are rather good jokes than bad<br />
metaphors.<br />
mixer for one who is sociable and mixes easily<br />
with other people at social gatherings is a slang<br />
term. (He was a good mixer. He just naturally<br />
loved cocktail parties, community picnics, and<br />
other neighborly get-togethers).<br />
mob is a disorderly or riotous assemblage <strong>of</strong> persons.<br />
An abbreviation <strong>of</strong> mobile vulgus (the<br />
movable-that is, excitable--common people),<br />
the word was for a long time slang but is now<br />
standard. It is wrong, however, to use it <strong>of</strong> any<br />
large gathering (as in The mob was peaceable<br />
and hot and happy and fanned itself and perspired<br />
and lay apathetic on the beaches and the<br />
grassy hummocks). To be a mob the crowd must<br />
be excited, disorderly, and dangerous.<br />
mode or mood. In many languages, a verb has<br />
different forms depending on the speaker’s attitude<br />
toward what is saicl. These are called modes<br />
or moods. English has three modes, the indicative,<br />
the subjunctive, and the imperative. The<br />
indicative is the form used in speaking about<br />
actual events or facts and is by far the most<br />
common <strong>of</strong> the three. In this book, statements<br />
about a verb always refer to the indicative form<br />
unless one <strong>of</strong> the other modes is specifically<br />
mentioned. The subjunctive is the mode used in<br />
speaking about ideas or thoughts in contrast to<br />
facts. (See subjunctive mode.) The imperative<br />
303 modest<br />
is the mode used in expressing one’s will, as<br />
in commands and requests. (See imperative<br />
mode.)<br />
model. See ideal.<br />
moderate and modest are synonymous in the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> not excessive, extreme, or intense;<br />
or <strong>of</strong> medium quantity, extent, and so on. There<br />
would be little to choose between moderate talent,<br />
say, and modest talent. In regard to prices<br />
and especially fees, however, moderate has the<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> reasonable, within due limits, not<br />
exorbitant, while modest suggests something<br />
quite low. A moderate demand is a fair and<br />
reasonable demand. A modest demand is a demand<br />
far less than might have been reasonably<br />
made. A moderate allowance would be sufficient<br />
to meet all normal expenses, as much as most<br />
other boys got; a modest allowance would be<br />
smaller than the average, one that required care<br />
and a little self-denial to make do.<br />
Modest has the special application to persons<br />
<strong>of</strong> showing a humble estimate <strong>of</strong> one’s own<br />
merits, being free from vanity or boastfulness.<br />
Moderate has the special application to persons<br />
<strong>of</strong> being reasonable, fair-minded, temperate, not<br />
excessive in speech or demands.<br />
There is a tendency to qualify both words<br />
with adverbs <strong>of</strong> superlative degree (a very modest<br />
demand, all thinp considered: He has taken<br />
an extremely mode-rate attitude and is to be<br />
commended). Since their meaning is “between<br />
extremes,” such a qualification is illogical, but it<br />
is understandable when modest is thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
meaning humble or small and moderate as meaning<br />
conciliatory. The tendency is so strong that<br />
the qualification probably has to be accepted as<br />
idiomatic.<br />
modern; modernistic. Although modern and modernistic<br />
are given as synonyms in most dictionaries,<br />
it is always better to employ modern when<br />
the meaning is simply <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to present<br />
or recent time, not antiquated or obsolete. Modernistic<br />
is ponderous if only modern is meant<br />
and in addition it has special meanings which<br />
may produce ambiguity or convey an idea different<br />
from the one intended. It can, for instance,<br />
mean <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to modernism, a movement<br />
in the Roman Catholic Church condemned<br />
by Pope Pius in 1907. And in design it can refer<br />
to a short-lived exaggerated style that was popular<br />
in the Twenties and Thirties but is now out<br />
<strong>of</strong> fashion.<br />
modest; diffident; shy; bashful; shamefaced; coy.<br />
One is modest who is free from vanity or egotism,<br />
free from ostentation or showy extravagance,<br />
with a humble estimate <strong>of</strong> his own merits.<br />
One is diffident who lacks confidence in his own<br />
abilities, mistrusts himself (Distress makes the<br />
humble heart diffident). One is shy who shrinks<br />
from asserting himself, is sensitively timid, has<br />
a dislike, almost amounting to panic, <strong>of</strong> being<br />
conspicuous or being compelled to make any<br />
public appearance. A modest man is not necessarily<br />
diffident. He may have a humble estimation<br />
<strong>of</strong> his own merits but be quite willing to<br />
undertake anything that he thinks lies within his
molasses 304<br />
powers. Nor are the shy necessarily modest. A<br />
man may shrink from asserting himself or from<br />
being conspicuous and yet entertain an exaggerated<br />
conception <strong>of</strong> his own abilities and worth.<br />
One is bashful who is modest to excess, who<br />
is easily put to confusion (Come, you pernicious<br />
ass, you bashful fool, must you be blushing?).<br />
Shamefaced (a corruption <strong>of</strong> shamefast) is a<br />
synonym for bashful. Coy, which until very recently<br />
meant only modest, shy, or bashful, now<br />
is used almost entirely to mean affectedly shy,<br />
displaying a modest backwardness in order to be<br />
enticed.<br />
molasses has a plural form and is used with a<br />
plural verb in parts <strong>of</strong> western United States. In<br />
the eastern states and in England it is treated as<br />
a singular. In either case it is a mass noun and<br />
cannot be used with words implying number.<br />
mold is now the standard American spelling for all<br />
three words-a hollow matrix for giving a particular<br />
shape to something in a molten or plastic<br />
state, a growth <strong>of</strong> minute fungi forming on vegetable<br />
or animal matter, and loose, friable earth.<br />
Mould is recognized as a variant spelling for<br />
each <strong>of</strong> the words and is the preferred spelling<br />
in England. The three words, by the way, have<br />
no etymological connections.<br />
molten is an old participle corresponding to<br />
melted. It is no longer used in verb forms but<br />
survives as an adjective. We always say melted<br />
when we are speaking about things that melt<br />
easily, such as butter or snow, but we sometimes<br />
say molten in speaking about things that are<br />
more difficult to liquefy, such as gold or glass.<br />
Even here we are likely to say melted when we<br />
are being businesslike. Lavn is always molten,<br />
never melted, perhaps because we never have<br />
any occasion to talk about lava in a businesslike<br />
way.<br />
moment. See minute.<br />
momentary; momentous. That is momentary<br />
which lasts but a moment or occurs at any moment<br />
(There wus a momentary thrill <strong>of</strong> exultation<br />
at the news, but it faded when he thought <strong>of</strong><br />
his mother. He lived in momentary expectation<br />
<strong>of</strong> death). That is momentous which is <strong>of</strong> great<br />
importance or consequence, fraught with serious<br />
and far-reaching consequences (Henry knew that<br />
his resolve to break with the church was a momentous<br />
decision).<br />
momentary aberration, as a term for a temporary<br />
fit <strong>of</strong> inattention or forgetfulness, a sudden violent<br />
and irrational state wholly uncharacteristic,<br />
is a clich6.<br />
momentum. The plural is momentums or momenta.<br />
monastic and monkish both mean <strong>of</strong> or pertaining<br />
to or characteristic <strong>of</strong> monks, but monkish is<br />
almost always depreciatory (monastic vows, the<br />
monastic life, monkish and crabbed learning).<br />
Monastic also means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to monasteries<br />
(monastic architecture).<br />
money. This is a mass word and in its ordinary<br />
sense does not have a plural. In literary English<br />
the plural form moneys is considered unacceptable<br />
and is used in place <strong>of</strong> money only when a<br />
writer wants to suggest Shylock.<br />
The plural form may properly be used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> different coinages or issues, as in the<br />
moneys <strong>of</strong> several countries. It is sometimes used<br />
in financial reports to mean different sums <strong>of</strong><br />
money. Here it has a pseudo-archaic flavor. The<br />
romantic effect is sometimes heightened by the<br />
obsolete spelling monies.<br />
monkey plays a larger part in the American<br />
vocabulary than in the British. Monkey with, to<br />
meddle with, or play with idly, is in widespread<br />
colloquial use in America but unknown in England.<br />
Monkeyshine, a mischievous or clownish<br />
trick, is American slang. In British slang monkey<br />
means five hundred pounds.<br />
monologue. See dialogue.<br />
monopoly. In American usage it is standard to<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a monopoly on something (The Government<br />
is granting General Motors virtually n monopoly<br />
on certain classes <strong>of</strong> military vehicles). In<br />
British usage, it is a monopoly <strong>of</strong>.<br />
monsieur. The plural is messieurs.<br />
Monsignor. The plural is Monsignors or Monsignori.<br />
monstrous. Though monstrous is a synonym for<br />
huge (What a monstrous liar he is, to tell us<br />
these fantastic stories!), the word is not properly<br />
restricted to size alone. There must be a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the unnatural, frightful, hideous, or wondrous<br />
in the great size or bigness it designates.<br />
To say That was a monstrous sum <strong>of</strong> money to<br />
spend in less than two years implies that the<br />
speaker is not only impressed but also shocked<br />
by the bigness <strong>of</strong> the amount spent.<br />
mood. See mode.<br />
moonlight and moonlit both mean illuminated by<br />
the light <strong>of</strong> the moon. Moonlit is the more<br />
poetic and less used <strong>of</strong> the two. One might refer<br />
to a moonlit scene or a moonlit night but where<br />
the adjective is at all established in a phrase, as<br />
Moonlight Cruise, Moonlight Sonata, it is moonlight.<br />
The noun is always moonlight.<br />
moose. The plural is moose. See elk.<br />
moot point. In Saxon times a moot was an assembly<br />
<strong>of</strong> the people, especially an assembly that<br />
served as a court. There were folk moots and<br />
hall moots and burg moots and hundred moots<br />
and many other kinds <strong>of</strong> moots. But, except for<br />
historical references, this meaning faded away<br />
in the thirteenth century. In the sixteenth century,<br />
however, the word was adopted at the Inns<br />
<strong>of</strong> Court, the great law colleges in London, as a<br />
term for the discussion <strong>of</strong> a hypothetical case by<br />
students, just for the fun or practice <strong>of</strong> it. Hence<br />
moot came to have its modern meaning <strong>of</strong> subject<br />
to argument or discussion. As a term for a<br />
debatable point, and as a way <strong>of</strong> saying that<br />
there is evidence or there are valid arguments<br />
against some dogmatic statement that has just<br />
been made, a moot point is now hackneyed.<br />
moral; morale; morals. Moral is an adjective<br />
meaning pertaining to or concerned with right<br />
conduct or the distinction between right and<br />
wrong (It is not merely a matter <strong>of</strong> expediency:<br />
there is a moral issue here).<br />
Morale, a noun, was borrowed from the<br />
French during World War I. It means the mental<br />
condition in respect to confidence and cheerful-
ness (Despite these dreadful suflerings, the morale<br />
<strong>of</strong> the soldiers remained high. Unle,rs there<br />
could be some assurance <strong>of</strong> increased pay, faculty<br />
morale, already low, would collapse).<br />
The lesson to be learned from a story or an<br />
event is a moral, and in this sense the word has<br />
both a singular and a plural form. But only the<br />
plural form can be used to mean a standard <strong>of</strong><br />
conduct, (See also ethics.) In this sense the<br />
word is treated as a plural, as in his morals are<br />
questionable, but it is not a true plural and cannot<br />
be used with a word implying number.<br />
moral victory. As a consolatory phrase for a<br />
defeat which the defeated or his friends feel to<br />
have been an ethical victory or at least to have<br />
afforded an opportunity for displaying the righteousness<br />
<strong>of</strong> his cause, a moral victory is a cliche.<br />
moratorium. The plural is moratoriums or moratoria.<br />
more. This is the comparative form <strong>of</strong> the words<br />
much and many.<br />
The adjective more first meant “a greater<br />
amount <strong>of</strong>,” and in this sense it is always treated<br />
as a singular, as in more sugar and there is<br />
more in the kitchen. But in the last two or three<br />
hundred years more has also come to mean<br />
“a greater number <strong>of</strong>,” and in this sense is<br />
treated as a plural, as in more chairs and there<br />
are more in the dining room. In both senses,<br />
more may be used as if it were a noun, as in the<br />
examples just given. More may also be used as<br />
an adverb meaning “to a greater extent.” It may<br />
qualify a verb, as in he is sleeping more, or a<br />
phrase, as in more at a loss. But its principal<br />
function as an adverb is to qualify adjectives<br />
and adverbs, making what is equivalent to a<br />
comparative form, as in more happy, more unusual,<br />
more quickly. See comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
and adverbs.<br />
The word more may be qualified by a measure<br />
term which tells how much more, as a lot in a lot<br />
more work, a lot more men. These words are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten nouns, as the word lot is, and would ordinarily<br />
require the word <strong>of</strong> before another noun,<br />
as in a lot <strong>of</strong> work, a lot <strong>of</strong> men. The word <strong>of</strong><br />
disappears when the word more is used, because<br />
the measure term is then no longer standing in a<br />
noun relation to the following noun but is functioning<br />
as an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree and qualifies the<br />
adjective more.<br />
In more writers than one have said, the adjective<br />
more qualifies the plural noun writers,<br />
which is the subject <strong>of</strong> the plural verb have. But<br />
in more than one writer has said, the phrase<br />
more than is a compound adverb qualifying the<br />
adjective one. The subject <strong>of</strong> the sentence is the<br />
singular noun writer, which requires the singular<br />
verb has. This is one <strong>of</strong> the rare exceptions to<br />
the rule that the number <strong>of</strong> an English verb is<br />
determined by the meaning <strong>of</strong> the subject rather<br />
than by its grammatical form.<br />
more honored in the breach than the observance.<br />
There was formerly a custom (still preserved on<br />
formal occasions in at least one <strong>of</strong> the Oxford<br />
colleges) <strong>of</strong> sounding trumpets when some special<br />
toast was to be drunk at a banquet. In those<br />
nations that prized heavy drinking as a virtue,<br />
305 moron<br />
carousing was accompanied with a great deal <strong>of</strong><br />
noise. The usurper Claudius, in Hamlet, is a<br />
heavy drinker and his drinkings, since he is the<br />
king, are signalized not only by the sound <strong>of</strong><br />
trumpets but by the roll <strong>of</strong> drums (as the wine<br />
went down) and even the discharge <strong>of</strong> ordnance<br />
(as it was seen that his majesty had drained his<br />
flagon to the bottom). Hamlet and Horatio,<br />
waiting on the icy battlements <strong>of</strong> Elsinore for<br />
the appearance <strong>of</strong> the ghost, hear the tumultuous<br />
uproar <strong>of</strong> the royal wassailing in the banquet<br />
hall below and Horatio, astonished, asks what it<br />
means. Hamlet, who hates his uncle and loathes<br />
him for his drunkenness, explains what is going<br />
on. Horatio asks if it is a custom. Hamlet says<br />
that it is and adds that although he was born<br />
there and is used to it it is, in his opinion, a<br />
custom / More honour’d in the breach than the<br />
observance since such swinish goings on have<br />
gained the whole Danish nation the reputation<br />
<strong>of</strong> drunkards and soiled the glory <strong>of</strong> their true<br />
achievements.<br />
What Hamlet is saying, then, as the context<br />
makes plain, is that although old customs should<br />
be honored by being observed, this particular<br />
custom is so dishonorable that it would be more<br />
honorable not to observe it than to observe it.<br />
Had he only used “honorable” instead <strong>of</strong> “honour’d”<br />
here, he would have saved a great deal<br />
<strong>of</strong> ink and argument.<br />
A paradox confusedly worded has an immense<br />
appeal. It seems oracular, cryptic, darkly wise.<br />
This phrase has been worn to shreds by generations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sententious.<br />
more in sorrow than (in) anger. It was Hamlet’s<br />
father’s ghost that, magnanimous under the circumstances,<br />
showed a countenance more in sorrow<br />
than in anger. The phrase is now used almost<br />
entirely ironically by the wits and is stilted and<br />
hackneyed.<br />
more than meets the eye. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that<br />
there is more in some situation than is immediately<br />
apparent, there is more to it than meets the<br />
eye is a cliche.<br />
more the merrier. As a term <strong>of</strong> welcome to an<br />
extra, <strong>of</strong>ten an unexpected, guest, or just as an<br />
addition to the general gaiety, the more the merrier<br />
is hackneyed. In this particular instance that<br />
fact might be an incentive rather than a deterrent<br />
to its use, since in the early forcing stages <strong>of</strong><br />
conviviality one seeks not to distinguish himself<br />
but to submerge himself in the group, to show<br />
that “the gang’s all here,” not a collection <strong>of</strong> precise-speaking<br />
individuals.<br />
The full form <strong>of</strong> the proverb is The more the<br />
merrier; the fewer the better fare.<br />
Mormons. Although the members <strong>of</strong> the church<br />
founded by Joseph Smith in 1830 accept the appellation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mormons, they are, properly, members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Church <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ <strong>of</strong> Latter-dav<br />
Saints, and as such their organization should be<br />
described in all formal writing.<br />
moron was originally a term coined by psychologists<br />
to designate a person <strong>of</strong> arrested intelligence,<br />
judged incapable <strong>of</strong> mental development<br />
beyond the stage <strong>of</strong> an eight- to twelve-year-old<br />
child. It is used loosely in popular speech to
Morpheus 306<br />
mean a stupid person (Any moron would know<br />
enough not to give his right name) and has become<br />
a term in the more sensational newspapers<br />
for a sex pervert (Moron strikes again. Removing<br />
shrubbery and lagoons will not improve the<br />
morals <strong>of</strong> a moron). This last use is not standard<br />
and should be discouraged if only because it<br />
helps to obscure a serious social problem.<br />
Morpheus, in the arms <strong>of</strong>. To refer to being<br />
asleep as being in the arms <strong>of</strong> Morpheus is to<br />
employ a strained and tedious expression. It is a<br />
pedantic observation, though the affectation <strong>of</strong><br />
the usual reference to Morpheus justifies it, but<br />
Morpheus was not the god <strong>of</strong> sleep. He was the<br />
shaper <strong>of</strong> dreams. His father, Hypnos, was the<br />
god <strong>of</strong> sleep.<br />
mortal. In addition to its standard meanings <strong>of</strong><br />
liable to death or pertaining to man as subject to<br />
death or pertaining to death or to this world,<br />
mortal has a number <strong>of</strong> meanings in America,<br />
none <strong>of</strong> which are found in literary English. It<br />
means long and wearisome (She held me there<br />
three mortal hours, going into the details <strong>of</strong> her<br />
various ailments), great (He was in a mortal<br />
hurry), and possible or conceivable (The thing<br />
was <strong>of</strong> no mortal rrse). The last <strong>of</strong> these is probably<br />
an extension <strong>of</strong> its standard meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
“related to this world in which all living things<br />
are mortal.” That is, “It is <strong>of</strong> no use in this<br />
world.”<br />
Moses, as meek as. We don’t hear As meek as<br />
Moses as much as we used to, but the conservative<br />
force <strong>of</strong> alliteration still keeps it alive.<br />
The phrase is a cliche and seemingly a contradiction.<br />
We are assured in Numbers 12:3 that<br />
the man Moses was very meek, above all the<br />
men which were upon the face <strong>of</strong> the earth. But<br />
his actions hardly bear this out. He killed the<br />
Egyptian taskmaster, he destroyed Pharaoh’s<br />
host. he smashed the tablets <strong>of</strong> the Ten Commandments,<br />
he literally forced the golden calf<br />
down the throats <strong>of</strong> the backsliders, he instigated<br />
the slaying <strong>of</strong> about three thousand Israelites<br />
as a disciplinary measure and smote the<br />
rock which God had commanded him merely to<br />
speak to.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> this may indicate a vigor <strong>of</strong> character<br />
inseparable from his powers <strong>of</strong> leadership but it<br />
doesn’t accord with any known definition <strong>of</strong><br />
meekness. The commentators have striven manfully<br />
with the passage, though their task has been<br />
the more difficult in that until quite recently it<br />
was assumed that Moses himself had written it<br />
and it is hard to reconcile the possession <strong>of</strong><br />
meekness with so unequivocal a declaration <strong>of</strong><br />
it. The Bishops and Clergy <strong>of</strong> the Anglican<br />
Church (in 1888) saw in Moses’ account <strong>of</strong> his<br />
own humility “the simplicity <strong>of</strong> one who bears<br />
witness <strong>of</strong> himself” and felt that his engaging<br />
frankness in the matter “especially manifested<br />
the direction <strong>of</strong> the Holv Spirit.” Weedon<br />
felt that since this particular virtue <strong>of</strong> the prophet’s<br />
might otherwise have escaped our attention<br />
we had cause to be grateful to him for setting<br />
false modesty aside and pointing it out to us.<br />
The Cambridge Bible sought to resolve the<br />
difficulty by suggesting that meek was here to be<br />
understood in the sense <strong>of</strong> “pious,” though they<br />
admitted that the suggestion <strong>of</strong>fered “serious<br />
difficulty,” not the least <strong>of</strong> which was that no<br />
dictionary recognized any such sense.<br />
Then in 1941, speaking before the annual<br />
meeting <strong>of</strong> the Oriental Society, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor 0.<br />
R. Sellers, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Old Testament at the<br />
Presbyterian Theological Seminary in Chicago,<br />
pointed out that meek was a mistranslation <strong>of</strong><br />
the Hebrew word that would be better rendered<br />
as vexed, put out, or irritable.<br />
most; mostly. Most is the superlative form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words much and many.<br />
The adjective most may mean greatest in<br />
amount and qualify a singular noun, as in the<br />
most power. It may also mean greatest in number<br />
or nearly all and qualify a plural noun, as in<br />
most men. It may be used in both senses as if<br />
it were a noun, as in the most he could give was<br />
ten dollars and most <strong>of</strong> his friends are awav. In<br />
England the article the is no longer used before<br />
most when it has a plural sense and the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the in a construction <strong>of</strong> this kind is considered a<br />
Scotch idiom. In the United States the is not<br />
used when most means nearly all but it is still<br />
used when most means the greatest number, as<br />
in the most were on my side.<br />
The suffix -most is added to certain nouns and<br />
adjectives to form superlative adjectives indicating<br />
position, as in topmost, bottommost, furthermost,<br />
innermost.<br />
Most is also used as an adverb and means to<br />
the greatest extent or in the highest degree, as<br />
in he works most. It may be used before an<br />
adjective or adverb to make what is equivalent<br />
to a superlative form, as in most extraordinary,<br />
most quickly. (See comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
and adverbs.) It may also be used in this position<br />
as a pure intensive, or a stronger form <strong>of</strong><br />
very, as in it was most convincing and a most<br />
wholesome meal. It always has this intensive<br />
force when it follows the article a rather than<br />
the article the.<br />
In standard English most is not used freely as<br />
an adverb with the meaning <strong>of</strong> nearly or almost.<br />
It cannot be used in this sense to qualify a verb,<br />
as in he most won, or before the article the, as<br />
in he is most the richest man I know. But it is<br />
used in this sense to qualify the adjective-pronouns<br />
all, everyone, everybody, anyone, anybody,<br />
and the one adverb always, as in most anyone<br />
would say and we most always go shopping<br />
on Saturday. Some grammarians claim that most<br />
used in the sense <strong>of</strong> almost is always unacceptable.<br />
But there is no doubt that these forms are<br />
acceptable spoken English in the United States.<br />
They are heard everywhere. And there is no<br />
theoretical, or grammatical, reason why most<br />
should not be used in this way.<br />
The adverb mostly could once be used interchangeably<br />
with the adverb most. The two words<br />
may still be used in the same positions but they<br />
now mean different things. Mostly means in the<br />
main or on the whole, as in their homes are<br />
mostly shabby. The adverb most, on the other
hand, means in the highest degree or extremely,<br />
as in their homes are most shabby.<br />
motion pictures; moving pictures; movies; cinema.<br />
Motion picture has completely triumphed over<br />
moving picture for all dignified uses (The Motion<br />
Picture Industry, the educational v&e <strong>of</strong><br />
motion pictures). Movie and movies are universally<br />
used in the United States colloquially for a<br />
single motion picture or a number <strong>of</strong> them or the<br />
industry as a whole (There’s a good movie on at<br />
the Teatro. I don’t see many movies. She went<br />
out to Hollywood and tried to get inlo the<br />
movies). Cinema in British usage designates the<br />
building in which motion pictures are exhibited.<br />
In America it is a highbrow word for motion<br />
pictures collectively, especially when considered<br />
from an artistic point <strong>of</strong> view. The very people<br />
who speak <strong>of</strong> the art <strong>of</strong> the cinema would, however,<br />
probably refer to the social effect <strong>of</strong> motion<br />
pictures.<br />
motive; motif; leitmotif. A motive is an incentive,<br />
something that prompts a person to act<br />
(Vanity is the motive <strong>of</strong> many acts that seem<br />
motiveless), or the goal or object <strong>of</strong> a person’s<br />
actions (His motive was revenge). A motif is a<br />
subject or theme for development or treatment<br />
in art, literature, or music (The motif <strong>of</strong> Lycidas<br />
may be said to be the fear <strong>of</strong> unfulfillment), or a<br />
distinctive figure in a design, as <strong>of</strong> wallpaper<br />
(The motif was a cluster <strong>of</strong> blue roses on a pink<br />
trellis). A motif may thus be a motive. It may be<br />
that which motivates the work <strong>of</strong> art. But no<br />
other motive is a motif. A leitmotif (sometimes<br />
spelled leitmotiv, since it was originally a German<br />
word as motif was French), or leading motif,<br />
to translate it from German into English by<br />
way <strong>of</strong> French, is a motif or theme associated<br />
throughout a musical drama with a particular<br />
person, situation, or idea.<br />
motive; inducement; incentive. A motive is something<br />
that prompts a person to act in a certain<br />
way, that determines volition (The desire to be<br />
accepted as a member <strong>of</strong> the group is said to be<br />
a strong motive in human behavior). It is applied<br />
chiefly to an inner urge that moves or<br />
prompts to action (The biographer is on dangerous<br />
ground when he seeks to establish motives;<br />
the acts he knows, the reasons for them are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
obscure).<br />
An inducement is not an inner urge ancl it is<br />
not usually a goal. It is, rather, used as a term<br />
for the opportunities which are <strong>of</strong>fered by the<br />
acceptance <strong>of</strong> certain conditions (The chance to<br />
be near his parents was an added inducement to<br />
accepting the assignment). An inducement may<br />
be <strong>of</strong>fered by one person to another or it may<br />
simply be an element in the situation.<br />
An incentive was formerly anything that inspired<br />
or stimulated the emotions or imagination<br />
(Incentive comes from the sortl’s self) but today<br />
it is applied chiefly to something <strong>of</strong>fered as a<br />
reward, particularly to stimulate competitive effort<br />
(The incentive <strong>of</strong> the bonus can hardly be<br />
exaggerated).<br />
motto. See slogan.<br />
mould. See mold.<br />
307 MB.<br />
mountain out <strong>of</strong> a molehill. Almost every language<br />
has some proverbial expression for magnifying<br />
difficulties or grievances out <strong>of</strong> all proportion<br />
to their actual significance or making much<br />
ado about nothing. The Babylonian Talmud<br />
speaks <strong>of</strong> enlarging Yod (the smallest letter in<br />
the Hebrew alphabet) into a city. The Greeks,<br />
the French, and others call it making an elephant<br />
out <strong>of</strong> a Ay. Alliteration fixed the phrase in English<br />
as making a mountain out <strong>of</strong> a molehill. It<br />
was proverbial for centuries but has been so<br />
hackneyed for at least the past hundred years<br />
that it must now be classed as a cliche.<br />
mouse. The plural is mice. The singular mouse is<br />
the preferred form for the first element <strong>of</strong> a<br />
compound, as in mouse tracks, but the plural, as<br />
in mice tracks, is <strong>of</strong>ten heard and is also acceptable.<br />
moustache. See whiskers.<br />
move; motive; motivate. One <strong>of</strong> the established<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> the verb to move is to cause to act<br />
or operate (And all the woe that moved him so/<br />
That he gave that bitter cry . . . He was moved<br />
partly by charity and partly by a shrewd desire to<br />
save himself some money later on). The use <strong>of</strong><br />
moiive as a verb, meaning to provide with a motive,<br />
was attempted (Emerson so used it) but it<br />
never became very popular. Motivate, however,<br />
the most recent enlargement, has become so<br />
popular within two or three generations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> its first introduction that it must be accepted<br />
as standard. But it is hard to see what<br />
advantage it has over move.<br />
move heaven and earth. As a figure for making<br />
every effort, doing everything in one’s power to<br />
accomplish some desired end, to move heaven<br />
and earth is a cliche. It should be used sparingly.<br />
mow. The past tense is mowed. The participle<br />
is mowed or mown.<br />
Mr. is an abbreviation for mister. The word is<br />
used only before a name and is always abbreviated.<br />
The plural <strong>of</strong> Mr. is Messrs. In speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
more than one man known as Mr. Lohr, we say<br />
the Mr. Lohrs. But when we combine different<br />
names we must use the plural form Messrs., as in<br />
Messrs. Tavenner, Hamphries, and Newcomb.<br />
Mr. should not be used with any other title<br />
except honorable or reverend and should not be<br />
used before a name that is followed by letters<br />
representing an academic degree, such as B.A.,<br />
M.A.<br />
Mister used without a proper name as a form<br />
<strong>of</strong> address is now extremely informal. The more<br />
acceptable word is sir. Mister is never used without<br />
a name in speaking about a man. If we do<br />
not know his name, we call him “the man.”<br />
Mrs. is an abbreviation for mistress. In current<br />
English it is used before the name <strong>of</strong> a married<br />
woman. Only the abbreviation is used. The word<br />
is never spelled out.<br />
There is no plural for Mrs. We may say the<br />
two Mrs. Bonns, but if we want to distinguish<br />
the women we must repeat the Mrs., as in Mrs.<br />
Philip and Mrs. Jerry Bonn.<br />
The form Mrs. should not be used with any
much 308<br />
other title, except possibly honorable or reverend,<br />
and should not be used before a name that<br />
is followed by letters representing an academic<br />
degree, such as B.A. or M.A.<br />
The word Mrs. or missus is never used without<br />
a proper name as a form <strong>of</strong> address. It is sometimes<br />
used in speaking about the woman <strong>of</strong> the<br />
house, as in the missus says, but this is usually<br />
intended as humor. When it is not, it is dialectal.<br />
Madam may be used in place <strong>of</strong> a woman’s<br />
name in speaking to her. But it should not be<br />
used without a name in speaking about her, as in<br />
madam said. And it should not be used to avoid<br />
saying you, as in does madam wish. In some<br />
department stores this construction is supposed<br />
to give a European or cosmopolitan air, but it<br />
is inferior English.<br />
A woman whose name one does not know<br />
may be referred to as the woman or rhe lady.<br />
Both words are acceptable, but well educated<br />
people usually prefer woman. See also madam;<br />
madame; ma’am.<br />
much. The comparative form is more. The superlative<br />
form is mosf.<br />
The word much may be used as an adjective,<br />
an adverb, or a noun. The adjective means a<br />
great amount <strong>of</strong>. It can be used only with a singular<br />
noun and only before the noun it qualifies,<br />
as in there is much beast and some devil in man.<br />
Much may also be used as a noun, as in much is<br />
forgiven and this is not much. The noun much<br />
is always singular. It is never qualified by the<br />
article a but it may be qualified by other definitive<br />
adjectives, as in this much is certain, and<br />
we have each given our little or our much.<br />
The adverb much means greatly or to a great<br />
extent. It is used freely to qualify verbs, as in<br />
he does not talk much, she complains much<br />
about her health. Until recently much was used<br />
to qualify the past participle <strong>of</strong> a verb used as<br />
an adjective after some form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be,<br />
as in he was much pleased, he was much<br />
amused, but today very is generally preferred<br />
in these constructions. (For a fuller discussion <strong>of</strong><br />
this, see very.) Much may also be used to qualify<br />
a prepositional phrase, as in much at his<br />
ease, much on his own.<br />
Much is now limited in the kinds <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
and adverbs it can qualify. It can always be used<br />
with a word in the comparative form, as in it is<br />
much clearer, he reads much faster. It is used<br />
with the positive form <strong>of</strong> an adjective or adverb<br />
that is already qualified by some word implying<br />
degrees, as in much too fast. But it cannot be.<br />
used with the simple positive form <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words. We can no longer say much fast or much<br />
unkind. At one time such combinations were<br />
normaI English but much has here been replaced<br />
by very. Words such as inferior, superior, anterior,<br />
which are actually comparatives but do<br />
not have the English comparative form, may be<br />
used with either much or very. The word like<br />
may also be used with either word. We may say<br />
he is much like his father or he is very like his<br />
father. Some people whp would use very Bke in<br />
an affirmative statement feel that much like is<br />
required in a negative, as in he is not much like<br />
his father. But a great many more also use very<br />
in a negative statement. Much may qualify the<br />
article the, as in much the same, and in this way<br />
may precede the superlative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective<br />
or adverb, as in much the fastest. It may also<br />
qualify the article a, as in she was very much a<br />
lady.<br />
The combination much <strong>of</strong> may occur in severa1<br />
different constructions. In there is not much<br />
<strong>of</strong> it, the word much is a noun meaning a great<br />
amount and is being used in a normal noun construction.<br />
In they were much <strong>of</strong> an age, the word<br />
much is an adverb meaning to a great extent<br />
and qualifies the prepositional phrase <strong>of</strong> an age.<br />
In he was not much <strong>of</strong> a scholar, the word cannot<br />
be interpreted in either <strong>of</strong> these ways. Here<br />
the two words much <strong>of</strong> are being used as a single<br />
adverb meaning much. Some grammarians say<br />
that this is not literary English and that we should<br />
say not much a scholar. But in the United States<br />
much <strong>of</strong> is preferred to much in a negative statement<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
much in evidence is a wordy way <strong>of</strong> saying evident<br />
or conspicuous.<br />
muchly is an unnecessary adverbial form. It is<br />
permissible English but never means anything<br />
that would not be better expressed by much.<br />
much obliged. See oblige.<br />
mucilage is the American word for any <strong>of</strong> various<br />
preparations for causing adhesion, particularly<br />
<strong>of</strong> paper. In England the word is gum.<br />
mulatto. The plural is mulattoes.<br />
mulatto; half-breed; etc. A mulatto is the <strong>of</strong>fspring<br />
<strong>of</strong> parents <strong>of</strong> whom one is white and the<br />
other a Negro. Half-breed is reserved in America<br />
for the <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> a white person and an American<br />
Indian. A quadroon is a person who is onefourth<br />
Negro, the <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> a mulatto and<br />
a white. An octoroon is a person having oneeighth<br />
Negro blood, the <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> a quadroon<br />
and a white. All <strong>of</strong> these terms are now <strong>of</strong>fensive.<br />
The last two are rarely encountered any<br />
more.<br />
A half-caste is a person <strong>of</strong> mixed European<br />
and Hindu or Mohammedan parentage. The<br />
word is disparaging. Eurasian, a word for one <strong>of</strong><br />
mixed European and Asiatic parentage, was<br />
coined to take its place and it does have more<br />
dignity than half-breed or half-caste, but contempt<br />
will always show through and Eurasian is<br />
now also felt to be derogatory. Anglo-Indian was<br />
substituted by some as a further euphemism, but<br />
it is ambiguous since this term is (or was) applied<br />
formerly to an Englishman who had spent<br />
most <strong>of</strong> his life in India.<br />
All racial designations illustrate the difficulty<br />
underlying euphemism: contempt or disdain or<br />
dislike cannot be made acceptable to its victims<br />
by a mere change <strong>of</strong> words. See also creole and<br />
African.<br />
mulct is properly a fine (The state now receives<br />
those mulcts which formerly accrued to the sovereign)<br />
and to mulct means to levy a fine. Since<br />
most people who are fined feel that they have<br />
been unfairly dealt with, the word has come to
mean to deprive <strong>of</strong> by trickery (He was soon<br />
mulcted out <strong>of</strong> his inheritance). Purists have<br />
objected to this meaning, but it is a natural development<br />
and, in American usage at least, is<br />
now standard.<br />
mull. In British usage to mull is to make a mess<br />
<strong>of</strong> something, especially in athletics (B,ronson<br />
mulled a catch and Zpswich scored).<br />
In American usage to mull over is to ruminate,<br />
especially in an ineffective way (I like a<br />
little privacy and mulling things over by myself).<br />
The phrase is usually classified as questionable<br />
English but it is now so well established as to be<br />
standard.<br />
mumps. This word has a plural form and may be<br />
treated as a plural, as in mumps are cont(qious<br />
and he caught them from me. But it is more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten treated as a singular, as in mumps is contagious<br />
and he caught it from me. Both constructions<br />
are acceptable. The form mumps is<br />
used as the first element in a compound, as in a<br />
mumps serum.<br />
mundane. See earthen.<br />
munitions; ammunition. In the seventeenth century<br />
these words meant the same thing and<br />
ammunition was simply a mistaken pronunciation<br />
<strong>of</strong> munition. Today the two word!s are<br />
slightly different in meaning and in grammatical<br />
form. Ammunition now means whatever is<br />
needed to discharge firearms, including the projectiles<br />
and munitions means these together with<br />
other materials <strong>of</strong> war. Both are mass words.<br />
Ammunition does not have a plural form and<br />
we speak <strong>of</strong> an ammunition dump. Munitions,<br />
on the other hand, is now used only in the<br />
plural form and we speak <strong>of</strong> a munitions ,plant.<br />
But we cannot use the word with a numeral or<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> many munitions.<br />
mural survives in British usage only as an adjective<br />
(mural tablets, mural decorations). It was<br />
formerly a noun in England, meaning a wall; but<br />
this meaning has been obsolete for four hundred<br />
years. The adjectival use is common in<br />
America but the word has been newly re-created<br />
as a noun meaning a mural painting (He did<br />
that fine set <strong>of</strong> murals in the college library. He<br />
painted historical murals for the MinnesotSa and<br />
Wisconsin capitols).<br />
murder. See homicide.<br />
mushroom. As a verb, to mushroom means only<br />
to spread out as in the shape <strong>of</strong> a mushroom. It<br />
was formerly applied only to bullets but has<br />
been extended recently to describe the characteristic<br />
cloud above an atomic explosion. In Almerican<br />
usage the verb means this but it also<br />
describes a rapid growth or spread, <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong><br />
short duration, not in the shape but in the manner<br />
<strong>of</strong> mushrooms (The flames mushroomed<br />
from the shaft on all floors above. The town<br />
mushroomed out in every direction, overrunning<br />
a score <strong>of</strong> prairie villages).<br />
musical; musicale. Musical is an adjective, meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to or producing music, or <strong>of</strong><br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> or resembling music, melodious,<br />
or fond <strong>of</strong> or skilled in music (a musical instrument.<br />
The sound <strong>of</strong> the wheels was musical).<br />
309 mutual<br />
Musicale is a noun meaning a program <strong>of</strong><br />
music that forms part <strong>of</strong> a social evening. It is<br />
standard in the United States but not used in<br />
Eneland. The word is simulv a taking over into<br />
English <strong>of</strong> the last word bi the French phrase<br />
soire’e (or matine’e) musicale, an evening (or<br />
afternoon) musical party.<br />
muslin. See calico.<br />
must is a present subjunctive developed from an<br />
obsolete verb form mot, meaning “may.” It has<br />
no corresponding past subjunctive form. See<br />
subjunctive mode.<br />
The verb must has no imperative, no infinitive,<br />
no past participle, and no -ing form. Grammatically<br />
it is treated as a past tense form, just<br />
as went is. It cannot follow (that is, it cannot<br />
be dependent on) another verb. We can no more<br />
say will must, had must, used to must, than we<br />
can say will went, had went, used to went. To<br />
express these ideas we use some form <strong>of</strong> have to.<br />
Since we cannot use auxiliary verbs, such as do,<br />
be, have, before must, we form negative statements<br />
and ask questions in the old direct way<br />
that is now obsolete for most verbs, as in Z must<br />
not stay and must you leave?<br />
Must itself is always used as an auxiliary and<br />
requires another verb to complete its meaning.<br />
It may be followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in I must leave, or by have and a past participle,<br />
as in he must have left. In the first case,<br />
the statement refers indefinitely to the present<br />
or the future.‘in the second case, it refers to a<br />
past event. As a rule, the complementary verb<br />
must be actually stated or easily understood<br />
from a preceding sentence, as in you must speak<br />
to her and I suppose I must. But at one time<br />
verbs <strong>of</strong> motion were omitted after verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
willing and this construction may still be found<br />
in poetry, as in the sun is up and up must I and<br />
I must down to the seas again.<br />
must needs. See need.<br />
mutatis mutandis, “with the necessary changes,”<br />
is a clich6. Latin clichCs. now that Latin nlavs<br />
a very small part in thd learning <strong>of</strong> even the<br />
best educated, are particularly <strong>of</strong>fensive. They<br />
show the speaker to be affectedly unoriginal. He<br />
has gone out <strong>of</strong> his way to be tedious. He has<br />
labored to be dull.<br />
mutual; common; reciprocal. That is mutual<br />
which is possessed, experienced, performed, etc.,<br />
by each <strong>of</strong> two or more with respect to the other<br />
or others. A mutual dislike, for example, would<br />
be a dislike <strong>of</strong> A for B and a dislike <strong>of</strong> B for A.<br />
When two men hold each other in mutual<br />
esteem each thinks well <strong>of</strong> the other. A mutual<br />
admiration society is a society in which each<br />
member thinks well <strong>of</strong> the others and is thought<br />
well <strong>of</strong> by them. Common, in the sense that it is<br />
sometimes confused with mutual, has to do with<br />
the relation <strong>of</strong> two or more people not to each<br />
other but in reference to some other person or<br />
thing. Thus two men who share the same hobby<br />
have a common interest. If A and B both regard<br />
C as a friend, then C is their common friend.<br />
I-Ie is <strong>of</strong>ten called their mutual friend and this<br />
usage, greatly strengthened by Dickens’s famous
mutual 310<br />
title, Our Mutual Friend, has been singled out,<br />
among popular errors, for particular disapproval<br />
by the purists. But usage is against them. The<br />
word was so used for centuries before Dickens<br />
lent it the authority <strong>of</strong> his name and it has the<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> avoiding the ambiguity latent in<br />
common in this context. A mutual friend, though<br />
improper, is clearly understood; a common<br />
friend may be either a friend two men have in<br />
common or a vulgar or commonplace friend. A<br />
mutual friend, therefore, is now accepted as<br />
standard by all but a few die-hards.<br />
Reciprocal means complementary or balancing.<br />
In some situations things that are complementary<br />
are equivalent and in such cases reciprocal<br />
may be synonymous with mutual. But<br />
even here reciprocal has uses that mutual does<br />
not. A mutual act or feeling must take place<br />
between two persons at the same time. A reciprocal<br />
act or thought can take place later than<br />
the one which it reciprocates (In the spring he<br />
was able to pay him back with a reciprocal<br />
favor). Then mutual is not applied to physical<br />
acts or material things. People exchange reciprocal<br />
gifts or blows, not mutual ones.<br />
mutual cooperation. Since cooperation means<br />
working together, each assisting the other, mutual<br />
cooperation is redundant. The cooperation<br />
<strong>of</strong> capital and labor, for example, implies a mutual<br />
assistance and nothing is gained by adding<br />
the extra word.<br />
muzzle. See nozzle.<br />
my; mine. At one time the difference between<br />
these words was that my was used before a consonant<br />
and mine before a vowel, as in my friends<br />
and mine enemies. This usage had already become<br />
irregular in the time <strong>of</strong> Shakespeare and<br />
Milton. Mine continued to be used before eyes,<br />
as in mine eyes have seen the glory, long after<br />
it was obsolete before any other word. But this<br />
construction too is now archaic. In current English<br />
we say my eyes are tired.<br />
Today, the form my is used to qualify a following<br />
noun and the form mine is used in any<br />
other construction, as in you are my all and all<br />
mine and oh my Amy, mine no more. Mine may<br />
be used immediately after a noun, as in mistress<br />
mine, brother mine, but this construction verges<br />
on the archaic and is not heard in natural speech.<br />
Because my cannot stand alone, the exclamation<br />
my! means my goodness! or something<br />
stronger.<br />
The form mine, and not my, is used in a double<br />
possessive where the word is separated from<br />
its following noun by and, as in mine and love’s<br />
prisoner, mine and her child. Today this construction<br />
is generally avoided. We say instead<br />
my child and hers or my own and her child.<br />
Neither word order shows clearly whether we<br />
are talking about one thing or two. As a rule,<br />
we use the word our when we are talking about<br />
one thing possessed in common, that is, we say<br />
our child. The constructions just described will<br />
generally be understood to mean separate things<br />
possessed by separate individuals unless the con-<br />
text makes it clear that this is not what is<br />
intended.<br />
myself is a reflexive pronoun. Its normal use is in<br />
a sentence that has Z as the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb,<br />
as in Z taught myself. (For a discussion <strong>of</strong> this,<br />
see reflexive pronouns.) But myself is also used<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> Z or me in sentences where it does<br />
not reflect the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb. Some <strong>of</strong> these<br />
uses are more acceptable than others.<br />
Myself may always be used where the formal<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> grammar require Z but me is the traditionally<br />
preferred form. That is, myself may be<br />
used after a linking verb, as in the guests were<br />
myself and Alyse; after than, as or but, as in no<br />
man was ever better disposed, or worse qualified,<br />
for such an undertuking tharz myself; and in an<br />
absolute construction, as in Miss Wordsworth<br />
and myself being in tke rear. (See subjective<br />
pronouns.) This use <strong>of</strong> myself is established beyond<br />
question, in speech and in literature.<br />
Myself may also be used in place <strong>of</strong> me when<br />
it is part <strong>of</strong> a compound object, as in he saw<br />
neither myself nor any other object in the street.<br />
When myself is placed first, as it is in this example,<br />
the construction has an old-fashioned tone,<br />
but when it is the last element, as in they invited<br />
my sister and myself, it is normal spoken English<br />
today. It is literary English in either position.<br />
Formerly, myself was <strong>of</strong>ten used as the simple<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb or preposition, as in when we<br />
had placed him in his coach with myself at his<br />
left hand. This construction is still heard in the<br />
speech <strong>of</strong> educated people, but it is no longer<br />
used in written English.<br />
At one time myself could be used as part <strong>of</strong><br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Mrs. Washington and<br />
myself adopted the two youngest children. This<br />
construction is now old fashioned and is condemned<br />
by many grammarians.<br />
Occasionally myself is used as the whole subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in myself when young did<br />
eagerly frequent doctor and saint. This construction<br />
is extremely rare, in speech and in literature,<br />
and therefore has an artificial tone. See<br />
personally.<br />
mysterious, inscrutable, mystical, and obscure all<br />
designate something which is not understood.<br />
That which is mysterious is unknown but<br />
puzzling. It arouses our curiosity or awe (Who<br />
is this mysterious man who seems to have access<br />
to the mayor at any hour? God moves in<br />
a mysterious way/His wonders to perform).<br />
That which is inscrutable is incapable <strong>of</strong> being<br />
searched into or investigated. It defies investigation<br />
(God’s inscrutable purposes, the Sphinx’s<br />
inscrutable smile). It arouses more awe than<br />
curiosity; while that which is mysterious arouses<br />
more curiosity than awe. That which is mystical<br />
has a secret significance. It is presumably incomprehensible<br />
to the uninitiated, but the initiate<br />
perceives the meaning which is attached to certain<br />
rites, words, and signs (The swastika has<br />
served as a mystical symbol at many times and<br />
in many places. The mystical symbol <strong>of</strong> the fish<br />
that represented Christ). That which is obscure
is comprehended dimly or with great difficulty<br />
(These obscure passages have lent themselves to<br />
divers interpretations among divers sects). Since<br />
there is a possibility <strong>of</strong> a meaning under obscurity,<br />
obscure is <strong>of</strong>ten used by the modest and the<br />
polite as a euphemism for unintelligible (The<br />
obscure wording <strong>of</strong> the note left me in doubt as<br />
to whether he would come to me or expected me<br />
to go to him).<br />
mystery. Except when used attributively in such<br />
established phrases as mystery novel or m,y.stery<br />
story, mystery should be used sparingly as an<br />
adjective. A man <strong>of</strong> mystery is, actually, more<br />
effective, more mysterious, than mystery man.<br />
The mystery <strong>of</strong> the old mystery plays is an<br />
entirely different word, now obsolete except in<br />
this phrase and historical references. It meant a<br />
craft or a trade and later one <strong>of</strong> the guilds that<br />
sponsored these little religious plays.<br />
mystic; mystical. Although mystic and mystical<br />
are synonymous, mystic, perhaps because it is<br />
less commonly used, is a little more formal, especially<br />
in designating something comprehensible<br />
only to the initiated or to those more finely<br />
endowed. It is more likely now to be used in<br />
religious contexts than mystical, though mystical<br />
is definitely established in many liturgical<br />
phrases. Mystical, perhaps because <strong>of</strong> its frequent<br />
misuse as a mere synonym <strong>of</strong> mysterious,<br />
suggests less awful obscurities, at least in many<br />
passages (‘Tis the sunset <strong>of</strong> life gives me mystical<br />
lore,/ And coming events cast their shadows<br />
before).<br />
myth; legend; fable. A myth is one <strong>of</strong> a class <strong>of</strong><br />
stories, usually concerning some superhuman being<br />
or great hero, which attempt to explain some<br />
nai’f; naive; naive. Nai:ve is the acceptable adjective,<br />
whether masculine or feminine, to describe<br />
having or showing natural simplicity <strong>of</strong><br />
nature, being unsophisticated, ingenuous. The<br />
shade <strong>of</strong> meaning that it has that these other<br />
words, and such words as artless and innocent,<br />
lack is a touch <strong>of</strong> amusement in the observer.<br />
The na’ive person is not himself amused. He<br />
may be, indeed he probably is, most earnest,<br />
but his simplicity is amusing to the sophisticated<br />
onlooker (Zt is nai’ve to assume that power<br />
won by struggle will be surrendered without a<br />
struggle).<br />
Though the French masculine nu?f is sometimes<br />
used, and is certainly not improper, it is<br />
unnecessary and a little ostentatious witih a<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> rebuke for the less knowing. A<br />
spelling, however, which is acceptable and deserves<br />
to replace nai’ve is naive, without the<br />
311 name<br />
belief or natural phenomenon (The myth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
gorgon may be a poetical attempt to portray the<br />
combined beauty and horror <strong>of</strong> reality). The<br />
word has come in popular usage to mean any<br />
invented story (The election results destroyed<br />
the myth <strong>of</strong> his popularity which his followers<br />
had so assiduously cultivated). In sociology and<br />
anthropology a myth is a collective belief that is<br />
built up in response to the wishes <strong>of</strong> the group<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> a rational analysis <strong>of</strong> the situation to<br />
which it pertains (The myth <strong>of</strong> its own moral<br />
superiority is probably necessary to the selfpreservation<br />
<strong>of</strong> any nation).<br />
Originally something to be read (from the<br />
Latin legere, to read), legends were written<br />
stories <strong>of</strong> admirable persons. In the Legends <strong>of</strong><br />
the Saints there is no implication <strong>of</strong> the nonhistorical<br />
or the unverifiable that the word legend<br />
now carries (The story <strong>of</strong> the cherry tree is only<br />
a legend). A legend is now thought <strong>of</strong> as an unverifiable,<br />
and probably untrue or at least inaccurate,<br />
story concerning some real person or<br />
place, which has been handed down for several<br />
generations.<br />
A fable is a fictitious story (<strong>of</strong>ten with animals<br />
or even inanimate objects as the actors or<br />
speakers and hence, plainly, not intended to be<br />
taken as factual history) which is designed to<br />
teach a moral (Aesop’s fable <strong>of</strong> the ass and the<br />
lapdog shows that u man will suffer from acting<br />
out <strong>of</strong> his station even if he has the best <strong>of</strong> intentions).<br />
A fable differs from a parable in that<br />
the lessons suggested by fables are usually more<br />
practical and earthly than those conveyed by<br />
parables which usually concern themselves with<br />
ethical and religious concepts. See also allegory.<br />
dieresis. Nai’vete, however, always has the<br />
dieresis and usually with an accent mark on the<br />
final e (n&et&). See also unsophisticated.<br />
nail one’s flag to the mast. To prevent the shooting<br />
down <strong>of</strong> a flag being mistaken for its being<br />
lowered in surrender, doughty captains on going<br />
into combat <strong>of</strong>ten had the flag nailed to the<br />
mast. Nelson sometimes had several nailed to<br />
separate masts. It was a gallant gesture, but<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the phrase to nail one’s f&zg to the<br />
mast as a term for taking an unyielding position<br />
is now a clich6.<br />
name; denominate; nominate. For giving a name<br />
to or specifically indicating by name, name is<br />
the everyday word (They named the baby<br />
Abner. He was named in the suit) and there is<br />
little need for seeking another. To denominate<br />
(They <strong>of</strong> the papal faction were denominated<br />
Guelphs) means to name, especially to call by
name 312<br />
a specific name, but it is a ponderous and<br />
literary word. To nominate used to mean to<br />
name or stipulate expressly (Is it so nominated<br />
in the bond?) but it has come, in American<br />
usage at least, to mean almost exclusively to<br />
propose as a proper person for appointment or<br />
election to an <strong>of</strong>fice (Jackson was nominated<br />
for the presidency).<br />
name is legion. When Jesus demanded <strong>of</strong> the<br />
unclean spirit that infested the unhappy Gadarene<br />
that it reveal its name, the spirit answered<br />
My name is Legion: for we are many. The<br />
name legion, as the New Standard Bible <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
points out, had come to be used “in<br />
Greek. Rabbinical Hebrew. and nrobablv in<br />
Palestinian Aramaic for any great number”<br />
and is used in this passage “with perhaps<br />
the thought <strong>of</strong> obedience to a superior will.”<br />
But to say today <strong>of</strong> any great number <strong>of</strong><br />
persons that their name is legion is to employ<br />
a cliche. That this phrase is almost always used<br />
to designate those <strong>of</strong> whom the speaker disapproves<br />
or is contemptuous, even though few<br />
speakers could tell whence the phrase derives,<br />
is an interesting illustration <strong>of</strong> the manner in<br />
which many words acquire a connotation in<br />
one context which they carry over into others.<br />
For there is a suggestion in the cliche that those<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> are possessed with devils-with a<br />
faintly blasphemous suggestion (to the more<br />
knowing) concerning the speaker who would<br />
free them from their errors.<br />
name <strong>of</strong>. By the name <strong>of</strong> and <strong>of</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> are<br />
wordy and pompous ways <strong>of</strong> saying called or<br />
named.<br />
names identifying state origin. Only inhabitants<br />
<strong>of</strong> Montana and North Dakota seem to have<br />
escaped nicknames identifying them with the<br />
states in which they live. H. L. Mencken, G. E.<br />
Shankle, and David Shulman have called to<br />
general attention the following names for residents<br />
<strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> the other forty-six states. Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> them were plainly not invented by the residents<br />
to describe themselves and many have<br />
now fallen into disuse.<br />
Alabama-Lizards, Yellowhammers<br />
Arizona-Sandcutters<br />
Arkansas-Toothpicks, Yahoos<br />
California-Gold Diggers, Gold Hunters<br />
Colorado-Silverines, Rovers, Centennials<br />
Connecticut--Nutmegs, Wooden Nutmegs<br />
Delaware-Muskrats, Blue Hen’s Chickens<br />
Florida-Alligators, Fly-up-the-Creeks, Evergladers,<br />
Gulfers<br />
Georgia-Crackers, Buzzards, Goobergrabbers,<br />
Sand-Hillers<br />
Idaho-Fortune-seekers, Cutthroats<br />
Illinois-Suckers, Egyptians, Sand-Hillers<br />
Indiana-Hoosiers<br />
Iowa-Hawkeyes<br />
Kansas-Sunflowers, Grasshoppers, Jayhawkers<br />
Kentucky-Bears, Corn-crackers, Red Horses,<br />
Blue Grassers<br />
Louisiana-Creoles, Pelicans<br />
Maine-Foxes, Lumbermen, Pine-trees<br />
Maryland-Clam-humpers, Craw-thumpers,<br />
Oysters<br />
Massachusetts-Bay Staters, Baked Beans, Puritans<br />
Michigan-Michiganders, Wolverines<br />
Minnesota-Gophers<br />
Mississippi-Mudcats, Mudwaddlers, Sharpshooters,<br />
Swelled Heads, Tadpoles<br />
Missouri-Pukes, Pukers<br />
Nebraska-Bug-eaters, Corn Huskers, Treeplanters<br />
Nevada-Diggers, Miners, Sagehens<br />
New Hampshire-Granite Boys<br />
New Jersey-Clams, Clam-catchers, Foreigners,<br />
Jersey Blues<br />
New Mexico-Spaniards, Spanish Indians<br />
New York-Cockneys, Excelsiors, Knickerbockers<br />
North Carolina-Tar-boilers, Tarheels,<br />
Tuckoes<br />
Ohio-Buckeyes<br />
Oklahoma-Okies, Sooners<br />
Oregon-Beavers, Hard Cases, Webfeet, Webfoots<br />
Pennsylvania-Broad-brims, Flying Dutch,<br />
Leatherheads, Pennamites. Ouakers<br />
Rhode Island-Gun-flints -<br />
South Carolina-Clay-eaters, Nullifiers, Palmettoes,<br />
Rice-birds, Sand-billers, Sand-lappers,<br />
Weasels<br />
South Dakota-Coyotes<br />
Tennessee-Big-benders, Butternuts, Buckskins,<br />
Corn-crackers, Mud-heads, Volunteers<br />
Texas-Beef-heads, Blizzards, Cowboys, Longhorns,<br />
Rangers<br />
Utah-Brighamites, Mormons, Polygamists,<br />
Saints<br />
Vermont-Green Mountain Boys<br />
Virginia-Beagles, Cavaliers, F.F.V.‘s, Sorebacks,<br />
Tuckahoes<br />
Washington-Clam-grabbers, Evergreeners<br />
West Virginia-Pan-handleites, Mountain Men<br />
Wisconsin-Badgers<br />
Wyoming-Sheep Herders<br />
name to conjure with. Names have had a magic<br />
importance in all cultures. Jehovah’s name is,<br />
plainly, one <strong>of</strong> the awful mysteries <strong>of</strong> the Old<br />
Testament. When Jacob wrestled with the<br />
“man” at the ford (Jabbok) his chief desire<br />
was to know the spirit’s name and after the<br />
event he changed his own name. Many American<br />
Indians kept their actual names secret,<br />
going through life under another name. In imperial<br />
China it was a crime to use the name <strong>of</strong><br />
a reigning emperor, even when that name was<br />
the same as some word in common use. In<br />
diabolism the uttering <strong>of</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> an evil<br />
spirit put the spirit temporarily under the power<br />
<strong>of</strong> the necromancer, although when the demon<br />
was a particularly dreadful one (Orcus and<br />
Ades, and the dreaded name/ Of Demogorgon)<br />
his power might so far transcend that <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wizard who had invoked him as to entail disastrous<br />
consequences for his summoner.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> this was once implied in the phrase
a name to conjure with, but it has now faded<br />
from it and the words are merely a hackneyed<br />
expression to designate one who is influential.<br />
napkin. See serviette.<br />
narcissus. The plural is narcissuses or narcissi.<br />
narrate. See describe.<br />
narrative. See relation.<br />
nasty in American usage still means, primarily,<br />
physically filthy or disgustingly unclean, nauseous,<br />
or obscene (The ill-kept barn was in a<br />
nasty condition. The famous elixir was a .nastytasting<br />
stu# <strong>of</strong> a brownish-green color. When<br />
we used nasty words Aunt Susan used to make<br />
us wash our mouths out with soap and )water.<br />
Nasty little boys). Eighty years ago, De Vere<br />
tells us in his Americanisms, the word itself was<br />
a nasty word in America, not to be spoken in<br />
the hearing <strong>of</strong> ladies. The meanings <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
now more common in England, <strong>of</strong> unpleasant<br />
or disagreeable (He’s in a nasty mood; I<br />
wouldn’t ask him just now. I say, that’s a nastylooking<br />
bump you’ve got on your head. We<br />
were two hours in a nasty trafic jam on the<br />
Headington road), would be recognized in<br />
America and even used--though probably with<br />
a slightly humorous intent-but the older<br />
meanings are far more common.<br />
native. See African.<br />
natural. See normal.<br />
nature is used unnecessarily in such phra:ses as<br />
the dangerous nature <strong>of</strong> the assignment where<br />
the danger <strong>of</strong> the assignment would be more<br />
effective. It is a great favorite <strong>of</strong> those who like<br />
to make a short story long.<br />
naught. See aught.<br />
nautilus. The plural is nautiluses or nautili.<br />
naval; navel. Naval is an adjective meaning <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to ships, especially, and now only,<br />
ships <strong>of</strong> war, or belonging to, or pertaining to,<br />
or connected with, a navy (Trafalgar remains<br />
the greatest <strong>of</strong> all naval engagements. Naval<br />
regulations do not permit . . .).<br />
Navel is a noun. It designates the umbilicus<br />
or, in Sir Thomas Browne’s words, “that tortuosity<br />
or complicated nodosity” that is empitted<br />
in the middle <strong>of</strong> the surface <strong>of</strong> the belly (This<br />
ingenious theory, that the real “use or o@ce”<br />
<strong>of</strong> Adam’s navel was to tempt men into the sin<br />
<strong>of</strong> being sensible, was revived in 1857 by Philip<br />
Henry Gosse); and, by extension, the central<br />
point or middle <strong>of</strong> any thing or place (Within<br />
the navel <strong>of</strong> this hideous wood/ Immur’d in<br />
cypress shades a sorcerer dwells).<br />
The navel orange is so called because it has<br />
at its apex a navellike formation containing a<br />
small secondary fruit, but one <strong>of</strong>ten sees them<br />
marked, through ignorance or false delicacy, as<br />
naval oranges.<br />
n.b. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin words<br />
nota bene and means “note well.”<br />
near; nearly. Near was once the comparative<br />
form <strong>of</strong> nigh but it is now felt as a positive and<br />
given a regular comparison, nearer, nearest.<br />
Near may be used as an adjective to qualify a<br />
noun, as in the nearest house, the near juture.<br />
Both near and nearly may be used as adverbs.<br />
313 necessary<br />
Nearly is ordinarily used as an adverb <strong>of</strong><br />
degree meaning approximately or almost. In<br />
current English it is preferred to near in this<br />
sense, as in it nearly broke her heart and it is<br />
not nearly as late as I thought. Traditionally,<br />
near may also be used in this sense but sentences<br />
such as it near broke her heart and it is<br />
not near as late as I thought are now considered<br />
old fashioned. The construction is more acceptable<br />
today if near itself is qualified by an adverb<br />
<strong>of</strong> degree, as in it very near broke her heart and<br />
it is nowhere near as late as I thought. Nearly<br />
cannot be used as an adverb <strong>of</strong> place. For this<br />
we must use neur, as in I was standing near.<br />
The word near may be followed immediately<br />
by an object, as in the atmosphere near the<br />
earth and it came near him; or the preposition<br />
to may be used, as in the atmosphere near to<br />
the earth and it came near to him. Both constructions<br />
are acceptable. Near may be combined<br />
with some form <strong>of</strong> come or go to mean<br />
almost succeed. In this sense, forms <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
come may be followed by near or near to and<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in this came near<br />
convincing him. Forms <strong>of</strong> the verb go may be<br />
followed by near to and an -ing form, as in this<br />
went near to proving it, or by near to and the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in this went near to<br />
prove it. The idiom involving go is not <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
heard in the United States. See also almost and<br />
practically.<br />
nearby. This word or compound is not standard<br />
in Great Britain. In the United States, it may<br />
be used as an adjective, as in a nearby town,<br />
or as an adverb, as in there was a stream<br />
nearby, but is not standard when used as a<br />
preposition with an object, as in he stood nearby<br />
me.<br />
neat but not gaudy. Originally serious, with neat<br />
having the meaning <strong>of</strong> clear, bright, or fine,<br />
neat but not gaudy became ironical in the nineteenth<br />
century and in this use has become a<br />
clichC. It was made a part <strong>of</strong> several sayings<br />
whose humor now seems forced to us: Neat<br />
but not gaudy, as the devil said when he painted<br />
his tail green or as the monkey said when he<br />
painted his tail blue, etc.<br />
nebula. The plural is nebulas or nebulae.<br />
necessary; essential; indispensable; requisite. That<br />
is necessary which cannot be dispensed with or<br />
is the inevitable consequence <strong>of</strong> certain causes<br />
(It is necessary to see him first. Must that<br />
necessarily follow?). Essential means <strong>of</strong> the<br />
very essence <strong>of</strong> being (Air is essential to the<br />
maintenance <strong>of</strong> human life). Although it is a<br />
synonym <strong>of</strong> necessary, usage has made it-or,<br />
perhaps, lack <strong>of</strong> use has left it-a stronger word<br />
than necessary. If a man is told that it is necessary<br />
for him to attend a certain meeting, there<br />
is the implication <strong>of</strong> a strong compulsion. But<br />
if he is told that it is essential for him to go,<br />
there is an implication that the meeting or his<br />
own affairs, or both, simply will not continue<br />
in their present state <strong>of</strong> being if he does not go.<br />
Indispensable designates that which cannot be<br />
done without or removed from the rest <strong>of</strong> a
necessities 314<br />
unitary condition (There is no indispensable<br />
man). That is requisite which is judged necessary<br />
from the nature <strong>of</strong> things or <strong>of</strong> circumstances<br />
(The first requisite is a room and a<br />
desk). It is the weakest <strong>of</strong> the four words.<br />
necessities; necessaries. Although necessities and<br />
necessaries are synonymous as words for things<br />
that are indispensable, necessities is by far the<br />
more popular word <strong>of</strong> the two in contemporary<br />
American usage, though some English writers<br />
insist that necessaries is to be preferred. The<br />
American preference may have been influenced<br />
by the fact that until recently a necessary was<br />
a euphemism in many rural areas for a privy or<br />
a chamberpot.<br />
neck. The crop <strong>of</strong> neck and crop is the craw or<br />
pouchlike enlargement <strong>of</strong> the gullet <strong>of</strong> many<br />
birds. Why the phrase should be a term for<br />
completely, altogether (Throw them out, neck<br />
and crop. We’re going in for the new mode<br />
here, neck and crop), is not clear. It is now a<br />
meaningless clich6. Neck or nothing, as an expression<br />
denoting a determination to take all<br />
risks, is also a clichC whose original meaning is<br />
now uncertain. It would seem to be a term from<br />
hard riding (Away went Gilpin, neck or nought)<br />
and may, perhaps, have had something to do<br />
with a willingness to risk breaking the horse’s<br />
or the rider’s neck in a fall. Neck and neck is<br />
clearly from horse racing and is not a cliche<br />
when used <strong>of</strong> horses that are abreast <strong>of</strong> each<br />
other in a race. In figurative uses, however, it<br />
is a clich6.<br />
necropolis. The plural is necropolises or necropoles.<br />
need. This is a regular verb with a past tense and<br />
participle needed. It may be followed by a toinfinitive<br />
which has an active meaning, as in he<br />
needs to talk to US, or by the -ing form which<br />
has a passive meaning, as in he needs talking to.<br />
In negative statements and in questions, the<br />
word need may be used like the word must.<br />
That is, it may be used without an auxiliary<br />
verb such as do, be, have, may be followed by<br />
the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb instead <strong>of</strong> the toinfinitive,<br />
and may not have the final s in the<br />
third person singular, as in he need not go and<br />
why need he go? Like must, the word need may<br />
also be followed by have to refer to a past<br />
event, as in who knows whether I need have<br />
fled? These forms are standard English. They<br />
exist in the language side by side with the<br />
regular forms which are also standard, such as<br />
he does not need to go and who knows whether<br />
Z needed to flee? The verb dare also has both<br />
forms. But while need is a regular verb that is<br />
coming to be used as an auxiliary, dare is an<br />
old auxiliary that has developed regular forms.<br />
See dare.<br />
The new constructions, following the pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> must, cannot be used when need is not<br />
followed by another verb but has a noun or<br />
pronoun object, as in he needs money. We<br />
cannot say need he money? The new forms<br />
cannot be used in a truly positive statement,<br />
such as that is what he need know, but may be<br />
used when the statement is positive in form only<br />
and negative in meaning, as in that is all he need<br />
know. The words needed and needs always require<br />
the old, regular constructions. We cannot<br />
say he needed go or needs he go? Verbal<br />
phrases, such as will need, did need, also require<br />
regular constructions. They may be followed by<br />
a to-infinitive, as in he will need to go, but not<br />
by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he will need<br />
go. Constructions <strong>of</strong> this kind, without the to,<br />
are sometimes heard but are not literary<br />
English.<br />
The words need and needs may also be used,<br />
principally in combination with must, as adverbs<br />
meaning necessarily, as in he need must<br />
go and he must needs go. The first form is now<br />
archaic and the second extremely artificial.<br />
need; necessity; want. Need and necessity are<br />
nouns which designate a lack or a demand<br />
which must be filled. Need, a word <strong>of</strong> Old<br />
English origin, has connotations which give it<br />
a strong emotional appeal (A friend in need is<br />
a friend in deed. I had most need <strong>of</strong> blessing,<br />
and “Amen”/ Stuck in my throat. 0, reason<br />
not the need! Our basest beggars/ Are in the<br />
poorest thing superfluous). Necessity, a word <strong>of</strong><br />
Latin origin, is more forma1 and impersonal<br />
or objective. Though much stronger than need<br />
in expressing urgency or imperative demand, it<br />
is less effective in appealing to the emotions<br />
(Necessity is the mother <strong>of</strong> invention. The art<br />
<strong>of</strong> our necessities is strange,/ That can make<br />
vile things precious). Want, as a noun, is<br />
synonymous with need (His wants were few<br />
and little would sufice). It, too, is an Old<br />
English word and has strong emotional connotations<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten great dignity (For want <strong>of</strong><br />
a nail a shoe was lost. They are wet with the<br />
showers <strong>of</strong> the mountains, and embrace the rock<br />
for want <strong>of</strong> a shelter). It is used, especially, in<br />
dignified contexts, as a term for poverty (So<br />
shall thy poverty come as one that travelleth,<br />
and thy want as an armed man. In Misery’s<br />
darkest cavern known,/ His useful care was<br />
ever nigh,/ Where hopeless anguish pour’d his<br />
groan,/ And lonely want retir’d to die). As a<br />
verb, want means to wish for, and is therefore<br />
weaker than need which means to lack something<br />
indispensable (Buy not what you want,<br />
but what you need). There are many contexts<br />
in which want as a noun is colored by its meaning<br />
as a verb or made ambiguous. Its literary<br />
associations have also made it a little too stately<br />
for common use.<br />
needle in a haystack was originally needle in a<br />
bottle <strong>of</strong> hay, a bottle being an old word for a<br />
bundle <strong>of</strong> hay. As this meaning <strong>of</strong> bottle faded,<br />
the term was <strong>of</strong>ten changed to needle in a<br />
bundle <strong>of</strong> hay. In America, however, one hears<br />
only the phrase needle in a haystack, and one<br />
hears it all too <strong>of</strong>ten. Some years ago Mr. Jim<br />
Moran searched for and found a needle in a<br />
haystack on a street corner in Washington, D.C.<br />
needs must. See need.<br />
needs no introduction. How the hearts <strong>of</strong> audiences<br />
sink when the chairman assures them that
the speaker needs no introduction, for the hackneyed<br />
phrase is usually the prelude to a. long<br />
and dreary recitation <strong>of</strong> the feeble accomplishments<br />
and obscure honors <strong>of</strong> some unknown<br />
mediocrity palmed <strong>of</strong>f on the listeners by a<br />
desperate program committee.<br />
negatives. See the individual negative word:;.<br />
neglect. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he neglected to wrap it. It ma:y also<br />
be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
he neglected wrapping it, but the infinitive is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
neglect and negligence imply carelessness, failure,<br />
or some important omission in the performance<br />
<strong>of</strong> one’s duty. Neglect commonly refers to the<br />
act (This slight neglect led to the tragedy),<br />
negligence to the habit or trait <strong>of</strong> failing to<br />
attend to or perform what is expected Ior required.<br />
When Goneril, in King Lear, orders her<br />
servants to assume a weary negligence in carrying<br />
out her father’s orders, it was the insolence<br />
<strong>of</strong> habitual disregard which she hoped ,would<br />
provoke the old tyrant to an outburst <strong>of</strong> which<br />
she could take advantage.<br />
In contexts where neglect and negligence are<br />
interchangeable, neglect is the stronger word.<br />
His death was the result <strong>of</strong> negligence is not<br />
quite as strongly condemnatory as His death<br />
was the result <strong>of</strong> neglect.<br />
negligent; negligible. The adjectives negligent and<br />
negligible present, respectively, active and<br />
passive aspects <strong>of</strong> neglect. Negligent Imeans<br />
neglecting, guilty <strong>of</strong> or characterized by neglect<br />
(He was habitually negligent <strong>of</strong> his personal<br />
appearance). Negligible means deserving <strong>of</strong> or<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> being neglected or disregarded (The<br />
saving from the long tax form is negligible).<br />
Negress. Although -ess is the regular suffix for<br />
forming distinctly feminine nouns (hostess,<br />
lioness) with no connotation <strong>of</strong> contempt,<br />
Negress is <strong>of</strong>ten used derogatorily and he:nce is<br />
likely to be <strong>of</strong>fensive. So also is Jewess.<br />
Negro; nigger; niga; darky. Negro (the plural<br />
is Negroes) is the proper and, in formal writing,<br />
now the only permissible name for a member <strong>of</strong><br />
the Negro race. Even when used as an adjlective<br />
it is capitalized, although white, when u.sed as<br />
an adjective to designate a member <strong>of</strong> or that<br />
which pertains to the white race, is not. Nigger,<br />
although originally merely a slurred pronunciation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Negro, is, and has been for centuries,<br />
a contemptuous and <strong>of</strong>fensive term. Fowler’s<br />
statement that the word when “applied to others<br />
than full or partial Negroes, is felt as an insult<br />
by the person described” is puzzling, though his<br />
further assurance that its use “betrays in the<br />
speaker, if not deliberate insolence, at least a<br />
very arrogant inhumanity” is unexceptionable.<br />
Nigru is claimed by many who use it to be<br />
a fully respectful word, merely a pronunciation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Negro. It is not accepted as such by those<br />
to whom it is applied, who are inclined to<br />
regard it, rather, as an evasive pronunciation <strong>of</strong><br />
nigger or at the best a reluctant compromise.<br />
Darky, originally a euphemism and perhaps<br />
kindly intended (All de darkeys am a-weeping,/<br />
315 neither<br />
Massa’s in de cold, cold ground), has today the<br />
double opprobrium <strong>of</strong> sentimentality and condescension.<br />
It is particularly connected with the<br />
comic stereotype <strong>of</strong> the American Negro developed<br />
in the minstrel shows and passed on to<br />
vaudeville.<br />
It is plain that it is not the word but the feeling<br />
behind it. There is no word which if spoken<br />
in contempt will not in time express that contempt<br />
and hence give <strong>of</strong>fense. The supreme<br />
illustration--one by which many sociologists<br />
who feel that a new set <strong>of</strong> euphemisms would<br />
ease many tensions in the world ought to ponder<br />
-is the word slave. Derived from Slav, <strong>of</strong><br />
which people many were enslaved by the conquering<br />
Komans, the word has acquired connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> servility, timidity, and cowardice<br />
(The doggerel that was produced by the thirdrate<br />
poets who slavishly imitated Pope. This<br />
slavish flattery is disgusting. The coward slave,<br />
we pass him by,/ We dare be poor for a’ that).<br />
Yet slav in Slavic means glory. (See also African,<br />
colored, Caucasian, Creole, European,<br />
mulatto.)<br />
neighborhood. Those British lions, Fowler,<br />
Horwill, and Partridge, unite in roaring at the<br />
American use <strong>of</strong> in the neighborhood <strong>of</strong> (The<br />
work will cost in the neighborhood <strong>of</strong> two<br />
million dollars) for about or nearly. Fowler<br />
calls it “a repulsive combination <strong>of</strong> polysyllabic<br />
humor and periphrasis.” Partridge feels it to be<br />
“a bad and wholly unnecessary substitute.” And<br />
Horwill notes with alarm that the expression<br />
has caught on in England. In the United States<br />
it is certainly standard, though it does seem<br />
awkward, vague, and unnecessary. See also<br />
vicinage.<br />
neither. This word introduces alternatives and<br />
makes the statement in which it occurs negative<br />
for each <strong>of</strong> them. It may be used as an adjective,<br />
as in neither man had arrived, or independently<br />
as a pronoun, as in neither had<br />
arrived; or it may be used as a conjunction, as<br />
in these neither laughed nor sang. There may<br />
be more than two alternatives, as in heat, light,<br />
electricity, magnetism . . . are all correlative<br />
. . . neither, taken abstractedly, can be said to<br />
be the essential cause <strong>of</strong> the others.<br />
When neither is used as an adjective it qualifies<br />
a singular noun and requires a singular<br />
verb, as in neither box has arrived. In any other<br />
construction a singular verb is permissible but<br />
a plural is preferred, as in Thersites’ body is as<br />
good as Ajax, when neither are alive and without<br />
that labor neither reason, art, nor peace,<br />
are possible to man. A singular verb is particularly<br />
objectionable when the last alternative is<br />
you or I, as in neither my dog nor I is for sale.<br />
A plural pronoun may be used to refer to<br />
neither, as in neither <strong>of</strong> them had their tickets.<br />
At one time neither might be followed by<br />
or or nor. In current English only the form nor<br />
is used after neither. Formerly neither might<br />
follow another negative, as in these will not<br />
move her neither and not sparing neither man,<br />
woman, nor child. This form <strong>of</strong> the double
neither 316<br />
negative is generally condemned today and the<br />
word either is preferred in sentences <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind. The construction with two negatives is<br />
more acceptable when the second negative is<br />
semi-independent, as in there was no respite,<br />
neither by day nor by night, but this too is<br />
condemned by many grammarians. However,<br />
when neither is used as the equivalent <strong>of</strong> nor<br />
to introduce a full clause, it must follow a negative<br />
statement, as in if there are no teachers,<br />
neither are there disciples and they toil not,<br />
neither do they spin. Here neither qualifies the<br />
second clause and so does not form a double<br />
negative.<br />
Neither is the negative form <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
either. Like either, the pronoun has a genitive<br />
form, as in neither’s house. The adjective can<br />
be used to qualify a genitive noun, as in neither<br />
man’s house, but cannot follow a genitive, as in<br />
the man’s neither house. To express this idea<br />
we must use the pronoun form and say neither<br />
<strong>of</strong> the man’s houses. See also double genitives.<br />
neither fish, flesh, nor good red herring. The<br />
older form <strong>of</strong> the proverb-neither flesh nor<br />
fish-made a certain sense but the addition <strong>of</strong><br />
the good red herring (as early as Heywood’s<br />
Proverbs, 1546) reduces the whole thing to<br />
nonsense. Some have attempted to improve it<br />
by substituting fowl for fish and some have put<br />
in the fowl and still left in the herring. But all<br />
have used it much too much. The distinction<br />
between fish and flesh is not the universal thing<br />
it was. And the phrase, as a term for something’s<br />
being neither one thing nor the other is<br />
now a clicht.<br />
neither rhyme nor reason. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that something is utter nonsense, neither rhyme<br />
nor reason is now a clicht. In various forms it<br />
has been in the language for more than four<br />
hundred years but overuse has exhausted it.<br />
nemesis. When used in its classical sense, this<br />
word does not have a plural. It is the name <strong>of</strong><br />
the goddess <strong>of</strong> retribution, or means retribution<br />
in the abstract. Anyone, therefore, who feels<br />
the need for a plural should use the English<br />
form nemesises rather than the pseudo-classical<br />
nemeses.<br />
neophyte; beginner. The use <strong>of</strong> neophyte as a<br />
substitute for beginner seems to be especially<br />
dear to sports writers among whom has grown<br />
up a tradition <strong>of</strong> employing esoteric words flippantly.<br />
Basically neophyte, from a Greek word<br />
meaning newly planted, means a converted<br />
heathen or heretic. In the Primitive Church it<br />
meant one newly baptized; in the Roman<br />
Catholic Church it means a novice. From such<br />
qpecialized senses to that <strong>of</strong> beginner is a long<br />
leap, and only writers who habitually leap<br />
before they look take it.<br />
ne plus ultra. As a term for the acme (The ne<br />
plus ultra <strong>of</strong> fashion) or in its more literal<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> no further, ne plus ultra is now a<br />
clicht.<br />
nether. This is the comparative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective<br />
meaning lower. It has a superlative form<br />
nethrmost. The positive form <strong>of</strong> this word is<br />
no longer in use but a related form can be<br />
seen in the adverb and preposition beneath.<br />
nenrasthenic; neurotic. A person is nerlrasthenic<br />
who is suffering from a nervous debility or<br />
exhaustion, as from overwork or prolonged<br />
mental strain, characterized by vague complaints<br />
<strong>of</strong> a physical nature in the absence <strong>of</strong><br />
objectively present causes or lesions (This type<br />
<strong>of</strong> headache is commonly assumed to be neurasthenic<br />
in origin). A person is neurotic who is<br />
suffering from an emotional disorder in which<br />
feelings <strong>of</strong> anxiety, obsessional thoughts, compulsive<br />
acts and physical complaints without<br />
objective evidence <strong>of</strong> disease, in various<br />
patterns, dominate the personality. Neurasthenic<br />
is not now used as much as it was a<br />
generation ago. Neurotic, however, has become<br />
a vogue word to designate almost everything<br />
from serious mental illness to little deviations<br />
from normal behavior that were formerly regarded<br />
as merely eccentric or cranky or moody<br />
or crotchety. The modest, who know the limitations<br />
<strong>of</strong> their own knowledge, will leave both<br />
words to the physicians. The exact will sometimes<br />
be puzzled which <strong>of</strong> the two words to use<br />
and will do well, when in doubt, to use neither.<br />
The courteous will certainly use neither within<br />
the hearing <strong>of</strong> the person or persons alluded to.<br />
neurosis. The plural is neurosises or neuroses.<br />
new; newly. The form new may be used as an<br />
adjective to qualify a noun. Either form may<br />
be used to qualify a participle. New is preferred<br />
with short, familiar words, as in new laid eggs,<br />
new born child, new baked bread, new found<br />
pride; newly is preferred with longer, less familiar<br />
words, newly discovered pride, newly<br />
furnished rooms. Neither form can be used to<br />
qualify a verb.<br />
new and novel derive from a common Latin root<br />
but although they are <strong>of</strong>ten interchanged they<br />
are not properly interchangeable. New refers<br />
to position in time, to that which has not been<br />
long in existence, or to an original state or condition.<br />
Novel refers to kind and is opposed to<br />
that which is common or familiar, as new is<br />
opposed to that which is old or worn. Novel<br />
suggests newness which has an unexpected<br />
quality or is strange or striking but generally<br />
pleasing (His coat was the novel part <strong>of</strong> his new<br />
suit, for it had no lapels). When Ring Lardner<br />
said that Scott Fitzgerald was a novelist and his<br />
wife a novelty, he-meant that Mrs. Fitzgerald<br />
was odd and strange in a delightful way.<br />
new broom. Until recently a broom was brush or<br />
twigs or plant stems bound on a handle, the<br />
besom that witches are conventionally pictured<br />
as riding on. A number <strong>of</strong> proverbs and quotations<br />
indicate that when the twigs were green<br />
the broom swept clean but after a very little<br />
while (an Italian proverb says three days) the<br />
twigs lost their resilience and became brittle and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten made more litter than they swept up.<br />
With changing times the proverb has lost some<br />
<strong>of</strong> its force and with repetition most <strong>of</strong> its fresh-
ness. To refer to anyone who assumes an <strong>of</strong>fice<br />
with vigor and bustle and good intentions as a<br />
new broom is to employ a ciichd.<br />
new lease on life. As a term for renewed hope<br />
and effort or an increment <strong>of</strong> vitality or interest,<br />
a new lease on life is a hackneyed expression.<br />
news. In current English this word is always<br />
treated as a singlllar. We say this news is good<br />
and where did you hear ii?.<br />
Originally, the word was an adjective used as<br />
a noun and meant that which is new. Until<br />
about a hundred years ago it was <strong>of</strong>ten felt as<br />
a plural and used with a plural verb, as in ‘There<br />
are bad news from Palermo and ill news fly<br />
fnsf. It could also be treated as a true singular,<br />
as in a news so new, and could be given a regular<br />
plural, as in two important newses. None <strong>of</strong><br />
these constructions are standard today.<br />
The form news is used as the first eiemment in<br />
a compound, as in newspaper and news t’road-<br />
CUSf.<br />
newsdealer; news agent; newsstand; news stall.<br />
One who deals in newspapers and magazines is<br />
in America called a newsdenler, in England a<br />
llews agent. The place where newspapers and<br />
magazines are sold, especially if it is at a street<br />
corner or in a railroad or bus station or ajlrlines<br />
terminal, is in America called a newsstand, in<br />
England a news stall.<br />
newsroom; news-room. In England a newsroom<br />
is a room, usually connected with a public iibrary,<br />
in which various newspapers are available<br />
for reading. In America such a room is<br />
usually called a periodical room. In America a<br />
newsroom is that department <strong>of</strong> a newspaper<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice which deals with the news section ‘<strong>of</strong> the<br />
paper (Hemingway kept the newsroom <strong>of</strong> the<br />
old Toronfo Star in stitches with his reportorial<br />
antics).<br />
newt; eft. In some parts <strong>of</strong> the United States the<br />
common newt in its land stage is still called by<br />
its ancient name <strong>of</strong> eft.<br />
new wine in old bottles. The observation in Matthew<br />
9:17 that men do not put new wine into<br />
old bottles: else the bottles break, and the wine<br />
runneth out, und the bottles perish has reference,<br />
<strong>of</strong> course, to wineskins which when dried<br />
out with age would burst under the pressures <strong>of</strong><br />
fermentation <strong>of</strong> new wine. The age <strong>of</strong> a modem<br />
glass bottle has nothing to do with the iage <strong>of</strong><br />
the wine it can contain. For most people the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the parable is lost and the Iphrase<br />
should be used as infrequently as possible.<br />
New Year; new year; New Year’s; New Year’s<br />
Day. The phrase which unequivocally describes<br />
January 1 is New Year’s Day. Though some<br />
English writers object to it, New Year and<br />
New Year’s are acceptable in America. For the<br />
sake <strong>of</strong> absolute clarity, one may best use New<br />
Year’s Day or New Year’s to describe the first<br />
day <strong>of</strong> January and reserve new year, uncapitalized,<br />
to describe the year approach.ing or<br />
newly begun.<br />
next. This word was once the superlative <strong>of</strong> nigh<br />
and may still be used in the sense <strong>of</strong> nearest, as<br />
317 nice<br />
in the next <strong>of</strong> kin, the chair next the fire. But as<br />
a rule in current English next is not a superlative.<br />
It ordinarily refers to a series and indicates<br />
the item immediately following. For example,<br />
the next house usually means the first house in<br />
the direction one is moving or facing and not<br />
the nearest house in any direction.<br />
Next to may be used to mean nearly, as in i?<br />
was next to impossible. Next most usually means<br />
just short <strong>of</strong> being most, as in the next most<br />
desirable solution.<br />
nexus. The plural is nexuses or nexus, not nexi.<br />
nexus; focus; cynosure. Nexlts is sometimes used<br />
as if it were a synonym for focus. A nexus is a<br />
tie or link, a means <strong>of</strong> connection (Gas/l Payment<br />
. . , the universal sole nexus <strong>of</strong> man to<br />
man). Foczts, the Latin word for hearth, was<br />
adopted by Kepler, in 1604, as a term in optics<br />
to designate the point at which rays <strong>of</strong> light<br />
that originally diverged from one point meet<br />
again. The figurative use <strong>of</strong> the word (influenced,<br />
perhaps, by its Latin meaning) is a gathering<br />
point, a center <strong>of</strong> attraction or interest,<br />
the point about which anything is concentrated<br />
(More and more the school has replaced the<br />
chllrch as the focus <strong>of</strong> community interest. As<br />
Augusta entered the room on her brother’s arm<br />
she was the focus <strong>of</strong> all attention).<br />
A cynoslrre differs from a focus in that it is<br />
something which by its brilliance attracts attention<br />
(Where perhaps some beauty lies,/ The<br />
Cynosure <strong>of</strong> neighboring eyes). Attention is<br />
focused on something; it is attracted by a cynosure.<br />
nice. Those who believe that a word has its “proper”<br />
meaning and should be used in no other<br />
sense should consider the wanderings <strong>of</strong> nice.<br />
Beginning as the Latin nescius, ignorant (from<br />
ne, not + scire, to know), it may have been<br />
influenced by Middle English nesh, delicate, but<br />
this is not absolutely certain. By the sixteenth<br />
century it had come to mean (among other<br />
meanings) fastidious, difficult to please (Your<br />
nice critic will, <strong>of</strong> course, find no good in anything).<br />
The reasons for this development are<br />
not clear. Perhaps the ignorant are finicky<br />
or, hesitating to choose because <strong>of</strong> ignorance,<br />
seemed hard to please. At any rate among those<br />
who are hard to please some are hard to please<br />
because they have high standards and make fine<br />
distinctions (He has a nice eye for these delicate<br />
differences) and the word was extended to<br />
designate the objects or situations which such<br />
people can perceive. For a time it was not aitogether<br />
favorable; it could designate things which<br />
were poised in such delicate equilibrium that<br />
the nicest or finest impetus could incline them<br />
either way. The nice hazard <strong>of</strong> one doubtful<br />
hour upon which Hotspur felt it were not good<br />
to “set so rich a main” as ail his fortunes was<br />
not a desirable or pleasant hour but one too<br />
dangerously poised between success and ruin.<br />
The Duke <strong>of</strong> Wellington’s famous observation<br />
that Waterloo was for a while a damn nice rhing<br />
did not mean that he had enjoyed it but that
nice 318<br />
the issue <strong>of</strong> the battle had been uncertain and<br />
turned eventually in England’s favor by a narrow<br />
margin <strong>of</strong> advantage or good fortune. Today,<br />
however, the word is almost entirely favorable.<br />
A nice apple is the sort <strong>of</strong> apple that a nice<br />
or discriminating person, a connoisseur <strong>of</strong> apples,<br />
would select, or just a good apple. And so<br />
with a nice day or anything else said to be nice.<br />
When someone says that someone else has said<br />
the nicest things about us, we do not assume<br />
that the compliments were fastidious or finely<br />
discriminating. We just know that something<br />
agreeable has been said.<br />
From agreeable nice has also developed the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> decorous, proper, though this sense<br />
is expressed negatively in conjunction with not<br />
(That’s not a nice song. It’s not nice <strong>of</strong> little<br />
boys to do such things). From this, the word<br />
is now taking on the meaning <strong>of</strong> “kind,” as in<br />
be nice to him.<br />
nice; choice; dainty; fine. Unless it is to be reduced<br />
to a mere synonym <strong>of</strong> pleasant, as it so<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten is, nice should keep something <strong>of</strong> its older<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> subtle or precise. Choice means<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> being chosen, carefully selected;<br />
hence excellent, superior (choice apples, choice<br />
phrases). Where there is no selection the word<br />
might be absurd and it is so much overworked<br />
as an adjective <strong>of</strong> commendation (perhaps to<br />
suggest that the user is himself a judge <strong>of</strong> fitting<br />
selections) that it is well to use another word if<br />
possible. Fine (probably a back formation from<br />
finish), like nice, designates the sort <strong>of</strong> thing<br />
that would be selected by those capable <strong>of</strong> delicate<br />
or fine discrimination, hence <strong>of</strong> striking<br />
merit (a fine-looking boy). Feeling for this<br />
meaning has been largely lost and the word has<br />
become- a vague synonym for good (You’re<br />
looking fine. We had a fine time). An echo <strong>of</strong><br />
the older meaning is heard in ‘the common<br />
ironic use <strong>of</strong> the word. When someone says A<br />
fine mess you made <strong>of</strong> it! there is a suggestion<br />
that the mess is so bad that it could be selected<br />
from among other messes for its particular<br />
badness.<br />
Dainty, akin afar <strong>of</strong>f to dignity, first meant<br />
honor and then the sort <strong>of</strong> thing suitable to a<br />
person who is honored. Hence excellent, fine,<br />
choice (Wasn’t that a dainty dish to set before<br />
a king?). But the preferences <strong>of</strong> such people<br />
seemed to the common man, apparently, to run<br />
to the delicate, the fragile, the exquisite (Such<br />
dainty china was not for everyday use). It’s a<br />
point-<strong>of</strong>-view word and from the robust point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view, daintiness merges into squeamishness<br />
(You can’t be dainty about the boss’s cigar, my<br />
girl. See also fastidious.<br />
nicknames. A nickname is a name given instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> or in addition to the actual name. It is usually<br />
descriptive, or a familiar form <strong>of</strong> the proper<br />
name. The word nickname is in itself a sort <strong>of</strong><br />
nickname, since it is a corruption <strong>of</strong> an eke<br />
name, or an additional name, folk-etymologized,<br />
it would seem, under the influence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
common nickname Nick.<br />
Sobriquet is given in most dictionaries as a<br />
synonym for nickname, and so it may now be<br />
used. But it is slightly pompous and there are<br />
differences in the meanings <strong>of</strong> the two words<br />
which the discriminating speaker or writer may<br />
wish to preserve. First, a nickname is likely to<br />
be an adjunct <strong>of</strong> the name itself and not peculiar<br />
to the individual (as Tom for Thomus),<br />
while a sobriquet is usually applied to a person<br />
because <strong>of</strong> some special association with a quality,<br />
achievement or incident (Old Curmudgeon,<br />
Wizard <strong>of</strong> Menlo Park, Swedish Nightingale,<br />
Greut Commoner, Last <strong>of</strong> the Red Hot<br />
Mamas). In other words, a sobriquet is unique.<br />
Second, a nickname could generally be used in<br />
addressing a person. A sobriquet very <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
would not, or could not, be. One who knew<br />
Abraham Lincoln might have called him Abe<br />
in talking to him. But he would not have<br />
addressed him as Great Emancipator or Rail<br />
Splitter. Thus a nickname, while not necessarily<br />
more individual, is more personal.<br />
Nicknames are usually derived from some<br />
adaptation <strong>of</strong> the regular name or from some<br />
individual characteristic, though this need not<br />
be unique. In the first instance it might be the<br />
result <strong>of</strong> a simple shortening-as Dave for<br />
David; a slight change in the form <strong>of</strong> the name<br />
or a part <strong>of</strong> it-as Jim for James, Ned for<br />
Edward or Betty for Elizabeth. Dick for<br />
Richard is hard to explain, though it is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the commonest and oldest <strong>of</strong> all nicknames. It<br />
was a shortened form <strong>of</strong> the once common<br />
name Dickon and may simply have been transferred.<br />
Many nicknames are diminutiveslohnnie<br />
for Zohn. Some are a combination <strong>of</strong><br />
initials--Casey for K.C., Mu Ferguson for<br />
Miriam A. Ferguson. In the second instance,<br />
the nickname might develop from appearance<br />
-Red, Slim, Shorty; from a quality-Speed,<br />
Happy, Gabby; from place <strong>of</strong> origin-Tex,<br />
Frenchy. The line between nickname and sobriquet<br />
becomes blurred in such appellations as<br />
Dizzy Dean, Hot Lips Paige and Pretty Boy<br />
Floyd.<br />
On the whole nicknames have friendly,<br />
pleasant connotations. Those with negative<br />
associations are comparatively rare. And nicknames<br />
are not as a rule taken. They are given.<br />
There is some recognition <strong>of</strong> a personality in<br />
the bestowing <strong>of</strong> a nickname. Perhaps that is<br />
why people in public life are so <strong>of</strong>ten referred<br />
to by their nicknames. It establishes an identification<br />
as a personality, something more than<br />
the mere bearer <strong>of</strong> a name. Ike Eisenhower,<br />
Yogi Berra, Liz Taylor, Rocky Graziano,<br />
Danny Kaye-all derive an intangible benefit<br />
from their nicknames.<br />
The negative nicknames are those given to<br />
unpopular figures, such as criminals (Scarface,<br />
Cherry Nose) or those who have in some way<br />
<strong>of</strong>fended the public (or perhaps a columnist).<br />
Baby Face Nelson was, apparently, so named<br />
by his criminal associates and the public (which,<br />
on the whole, is fond <strong>of</strong> its criminals) relished<br />
the irony. Golf Bag Sam Hunt, one <strong>of</strong> Chicago’s<br />
more resourceful hoodlums, gained his nick-
name by carrying his sawed-<strong>of</strong>f shotgun in a<br />
golf ban, a symbol <strong>of</strong> solid respectability that<br />
deceived. the police and lured his vi&s into<br />
fatal inattention.<br />
Nicknames are usually bestowed on people<br />
by those close to them, family or friends. But<br />
those in the public eye are <strong>of</strong>ten given sobriquets<br />
by journalists who may invent or record<br />
a striking appellation. Sometimes history pins<br />
a name on someone already dead-in the light<br />
<strong>of</strong> later events or appraisal. Thus Richard,<br />
whom we know as The Lion-hearted was known<br />
to his contemporaries as Richard Yea-and-Nay<br />
because he so rarely kept his word.<br />
A peculiar trend in nicknames in contemporary<br />
America is the giving <strong>of</strong> boys’ nicknames<br />
to girls as their regular names. Billie<br />
Burke was one <strong>of</strong> the first. But now lackie,<br />
Tommy, Bobbie, Frankie, Gussie and a dozen<br />
other nicknames that a generation ago were<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as purely masculine are more used<br />
by girls than boys.<br />
Sobriquets are sometimes invented for or<br />
assumed by people who wish to benefit from a<br />
trademark, usually entertainers. Frank Sinatra<br />
is The Voice; Bing Crosby is The Groaner or<br />
Mr. Music: Clara Bow is The It Girl: Marie<br />
MacDonald is The Body.<br />
nick <strong>of</strong> time. As a term for opportunely, at the<br />
critical moment, or for the very last mfoment<br />
that would be useful, in the nick <strong>of</strong> time is a<br />
cliche. It is usually spoken with great intenseness,<br />
seeking to lend emphasis to the dramatic<br />
event it is always employed to depict. But intenseness<br />
exhausts itself as well as its aullience<br />
and such phrases seem to be in continual need<br />
<strong>of</strong> additional emphasis. For centuries this<br />
phrase was in the nick. Then in the late seventeenth<br />
century it became in the nick <strong>of</strong> time.<br />
And there is now a tendency to make it in the<br />
very nick <strong>of</strong> time. It is best to avoid it altogether.<br />
nigh. The comparative form is nigher or near; the<br />
superlative is nighest or next. The regular<br />
forms nigher and nighest have been in general<br />
use for only a few hundred years and are<br />
already archaic. See near; next.<br />
As an adverb nigh means near in space, time,<br />
or relation. It is archaic in prose and has not<br />
been used effectively by a good poet since<br />
Thomas Hardy (And all mankind that haunted<br />
nigh/ Had sought their household fires). In the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> nearly or almost, nigh is archaic or<br />
dialectal (It’s nigh sundown. He’s nigh on to<br />
ninety). As an adjective it means being near,<br />
not distant, near in relationship. With ref’erence<br />
to animals or vehicles it means left or near<br />
(the nigh horse). One use <strong>of</strong> nigh, now (chiefly<br />
dialectal or archaic, means parsimonious (He<br />
may not be a miser, but he’s mighty nigh).<br />
Close in this sense remains standard. Well nigh<br />
is a cliche.<br />
Night Riders, when capitalized, designates the<br />
members <strong>of</strong> a secret organization <strong>of</strong> Kentucky<br />
and Tennessee tobacco farmers which in<br />
1908-09 tried to organize against a monopoly<br />
319 IlO<br />
<strong>of</strong> tobacco buyers. The Night Riders burned the<br />
barns <strong>of</strong> those who refused to join their organization<br />
and dynamited some <strong>of</strong> the tobacco<br />
warehouses. See Robert Penn Warren’s novel<br />
Night Rider.<br />
night stick; tnmcheon. American night stick is<br />
English truncheon. In England the truncheon<br />
is carried at all hours. The night stick, a heavy<br />
stick or long club, is carried by policemen at<br />
night and sometimes in the daytime (The police<br />
. . . charged the marchers and bystanders alike,<br />
swinging their nightsticks).<br />
nimbus. The plural is nimbuses or nimbi.<br />
nine days’ wonder. The Romans seem to have<br />
fixed nine days as the life span <strong>of</strong> a minor<br />
marvel or gossipy sensation. Chaucer said that<br />
wonders last only nine nights “in toune,” implying<br />
perhaps that country folk cherish them a<br />
bit longer. Shakespeare used the proverb several<br />
times and Robert Burton gave it an amusing<br />
addition: A wonder lasts but nine days, and<br />
then the puppy’s eyes are open. In recent times<br />
it has come to be applied especially to sensational<br />
stories in the newspapers which are kept<br />
alive more by the papers than by their own<br />
intrinsic interest. During World War II the term<br />
was applied derisively by the common soldiers<br />
to zealous <strong>of</strong>ficers who, coming as replacements,<br />
commenced their command with much bustle<br />
and vigorous intentions. The phrase is now<br />
worn out with overuse.<br />
ninepins. When referring to the game, the plural<br />
word ninepins takes a singular verb, as in ninepins<br />
was being played. One piece is called a<br />
ninepin and ninepins used with a plural verb<br />
means several <strong>of</strong> these, as in the ninepins were<br />
set up. Only the singular form is used as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in a ninepin<br />
alley. See also ten pins.<br />
nip. The English and the Americans have various<br />
special meanings for nip in addition to its<br />
common, standard meanings <strong>of</strong> to compress<br />
sharply between two surfaces or points, to<br />
pinch, bite, and so forth.<br />
An English colloquial meaning is to move<br />
or go suddenly (Well, 1’11 just be nipping along<br />
now). Although a nipping frost would be<br />
standard American, the adjective nippy, to<br />
describe a sharply cold day, is English, used in<br />
America only for humorous effect.<br />
Nip and tuck is an American expression. It<br />
describes the relation <strong>of</strong> competitors in a race<br />
or other contest in which the outcome is continually<br />
in doubt as one slightly gains over and<br />
then loses to the other. The nearest English<br />
equivalent is the phrase, also standard in<br />
America, neck and neck. However, they are not<br />
quite the same: neck and neck suggests a sustained<br />
equality; nip and tuck suggests fluctuating<br />
chances.<br />
nip it in the bud. As a term for stopping something<br />
in the early stages before it can become<br />
a menace or even a serious threat, to nip it in<br />
the bud is hackneyed.<br />
no. This word is primarily an adjective. It may<br />
qualify either a singular or a plural noun, as in
IlO 320<br />
no man and no men. A singular noun qualified<br />
by no requires a singular verb, as in no man<br />
knows, and a plural noun a plural verb, as in<br />
no birds sing. The adjective no cannot be used<br />
alone as a noun or pronoun; the form for this<br />
is none.<br />
As a rule, the adjective no makes an entire<br />
statement negative. That is, no great man would<br />
say that is equivalent to a great man would not<br />
say that. For this reason, a noun can <strong>of</strong>ten be<br />
qualified by no when what is meant is the verb<br />
qualified by not, as in I was troubled by no<br />
doubt and you need have no fear. But this is<br />
not always true. No little usually means much<br />
and no few, many, as in it added no little to<br />
his happiness and tender dreams, no few <strong>of</strong><br />
which have since been realized.<br />
No may be used as an adverb to qualify<br />
other, diRerent, and the comparative forms <strong>of</strong><br />
adjectives and adverbs, as in if is no different<br />
and Z will waif no longer. (The rest <strong>of</strong> this paragraph<br />
involves some hair-splitting. It should not<br />
be read except by those who enjoy this sort <strong>of</strong><br />
thing.) Some grammarians feel that no is also<br />
used as an adverb with the positive form <strong>of</strong><br />
certain adjectives, as in at no inconsiderable<br />
yearly loss. Here, if no qualifies only the word<br />
that -immediately follows, that is, inconsiderable.<br />
it is an adverb. If it aualifies all the words<br />
that’ follow, including the noun, that is, if it<br />
qualifies inconsiderable yearly loss, it is an adjective.<br />
To say which <strong>of</strong> these interpretations is<br />
the better one requires a subtle feeling for the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> words. But anyone who can see the<br />
problem has a right to his own conclusions. If<br />
no is an adverb here it may be preceded by a<br />
definitive word, as in at the no inconsiderable<br />
or at my no inconsiderable. If it is an adjective<br />
it cannot be used after a word <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
because no is itself a definitive. Some grammarians<br />
say that no is here an adjective and<br />
that therefore the construction with the, my, or<br />
any other definitive word, is ungrammatical.<br />
Others say that the fact that this construction<br />
is used proves that no is here an adverb.<br />
No may be used to answer a question, as in<br />
Did you hear that? No.: or to introduce a negative<br />
statement, as in No, Z don’t. In these uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word, no is interpreted as an adverb<br />
aualifvinr a verb. This adverbial no may be<br />
.
squalid, dark and fetid). It also means harmful,<br />
injurious, noxious (The noisome pestilence).<br />
It is sometimes misused for noisy. A good corrective<br />
for this error is supplied by a quotation<br />
from the poems <strong>of</strong> Henry Hirst in the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong>: LIegirt with noisome ivy<br />
vines/ That shroud me like a pall.<br />
nom de plume; nom de guerre; pen name; pseudonym.<br />
Finding a name for a writer’s assumed<br />
name seems to be dil-ficult in English. Nom de<br />
plume is a French phrase coined in English<br />
from French words to mean pen name. Pen<br />
name means what it says, but it sounds artificial<br />
and is, for it developed after nom de<br />
plume as a translation <strong>of</strong> it. Nom de guerre<br />
(war name) is the French term for assumed<br />
name but can be used unself-consciously only<br />
by the French. The Greeks had a word for it,<br />
pseudonym, and if assumed name seems to have<br />
too strong criminal connotations, pseudonym<br />
is probably the least objectionable <strong>of</strong> the lot.<br />
nominal means being such in name only (The<br />
peace was nominal, for border clashes continued.<br />
He was the nominal ruler, but he was<br />
nothing but a figurehead, the actual functions<br />
<strong>of</strong> government being controlled entirely by the<br />
Chief Minister). When it is used to describe a<br />
price or consideration, it means named as a<br />
mere matter <strong>of</strong> form, being trifling in comparison<br />
with the actual value. A nominal fee<br />
is not a low fee but one so low that it is not a<br />
fee at all but merely a token payment. The<br />
business men who served in Washington during<br />
World War I for a dollar a year received a<br />
nominal wage. When nominal is used with<br />
some such limiting word as merely, it designates<br />
complete contrast to something substantia.1.<br />
nominate. See name.<br />
nominative absolute. See participles.<br />
nominative case. The nominative is a Latin case<br />
used to mark the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb. In modern<br />
English this relationship is shown by position.<br />
See subject <strong>of</strong> a verb and subjective pronouns.<br />
nonce word. A nonce word is a word coined and<br />
used only for the particular occasion, not<br />
adopted into use (Coleridge’s mammonolatry<br />
-mammon worship). Since in making such a<br />
coinage the author implies that he finds the<br />
immense vocabulary <strong>of</strong> the English language<br />
insufficient, there is always the danger in its<br />
use <strong>of</strong> being charged with vanity, affectation,<br />
or ignorance <strong>of</strong> the language. There is also the<br />
danger <strong>of</strong> not being understood or <strong>of</strong> annoying<br />
the reader by compelling him to stop and<br />
puzzle out the meaning <strong>of</strong> the strange word. If<br />
the author and the reader are clever there may<br />
be the surprise <strong>of</strong> a fine excess. But it’s risky.<br />
Fowler says don’t try it unless you’re sure<br />
you’re good.<br />
none. At one time the words no and none had the<br />
same relation to each other that my and mine<br />
had. That is, only the form none could be used<br />
alone without a noun; either form could :;tand<br />
before a noun, and no was used before a consonant<br />
and none before a vowel, as in no good<br />
and none evil. This usage had become irregular<br />
by the end <strong>of</strong> the sixteenth century. In the King<br />
James Bible we find in Deuteronomy 5:7 thou<br />
shalt have none other gods before me, but in<br />
Exodus 20~3 thou shalt have no other gods<br />
before me. In current English none is used<br />
chiefly as a pronoun and no is the regular adjective<br />
form. None may still function as an<br />
adjective provided it is separated from the noun<br />
it qualifies, as in but answer there came none<br />
and better be jocund with the fruitful grape<br />
than sadden after none, or bitter, fruit, but it<br />
cannot stand in the normal adjective position.<br />
We would now say no other gods.<br />
The pronoun none may have a preceding<br />
noun as antecedent, such as cause in men will<br />
fight for any cause, or for none: or the antecedent<br />
may not be expressed, as in none can<br />
now say. The pronoun may be qualified by a<br />
following adjective, such as living in none living<br />
can remember the day and stranger in This glass<br />
had seen some strange things. And surely none<br />
stranger than itself. In they cause none such to<br />
die, such is an adjective qualifying the pronoun<br />
none. This construction is condemned by some<br />
grammarians, but it is traditional, literary<br />
English. None may be followed by an <strong>of</strong> phrase.<br />
Here none <strong>of</strong> may mean no part <strong>of</strong>, as in none<br />
<strong>of</strong> it is his, but it is more <strong>of</strong>ten an emphatic<br />
negative equivalent to not at all as in it’s none<br />
<strong>of</strong> your business and it’s your misfortune and<br />
none <strong>of</strong> my own. This too is standard, literary<br />
English. For genitive problems, see double<br />
genitives.<br />
The pronoun none is ordinarily used to make<br />
a negative statement about all the members <strong>of</strong><br />
a certain group. A statement <strong>of</strong> this kind is<br />
essentially plural. But grammar is not logic,<br />
and grammatically the word may be either<br />
singular or plural. It has been used in both<br />
ways for as long as we have any records <strong>of</strong> the<br />
language. An analysis <strong>of</strong> English literature<br />
shows that from the time <strong>of</strong> Malory (1450) to<br />
the time <strong>of</strong> Milton (16.50), none was treated as<br />
a plural once for every three times it was treated<br />
as a singular; and from the time <strong>of</strong> Milton to<br />
1917, it was treated as a plural seven times for<br />
every four times that it was treated as a singular.<br />
Its use as a plural has increased noticeably<br />
in the last forty years. In current English, none<br />
is always treated as a plural when it refers to<br />
persons. If we want to have the verb singular we<br />
must now use no one or nobody as the subject.<br />
The modern usage is seen in no one thinks he is<br />
clever, but none except his family know how<br />
stupid he really is. In speaking <strong>of</strong> things, none<br />
may still be treated as a singular, but it is more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten treated as a plural.<br />
None may also be used as an adverb in some<br />
constructions. It may qualify the comparative<br />
form <strong>of</strong> an adjective (or adverb) preceded by<br />
the, as in none the worse for it, none the wiser,<br />
none the less surely; or a positive form preceded<br />
by too, as in none too soon, none too sure. In<br />
Great Britain it may be used before a positive<br />
form qualified by so, as in it’s none so pleasant,<br />
but this construction is not <strong>of</strong>ten heard in the<br />
United States. None may also be used alone<br />
with a verb to mean not at all, as in I slept none
noplace 322<br />
that night. The uard is used in this way in the<br />
United States and Scotland and the construction<br />
is standard in those countries, but not in<br />
England. This has been true for at least 150<br />
years. Boswell, using the speech that was<br />
natural to him, wrote: we spoke none. But he<br />
apparently considered this an inferior form <strong>of</strong><br />
English, for he later corrected the sentence to<br />
we had no conversation.<br />
noplace. The use <strong>of</strong> noplace as a substitute for<br />
nowhere, as in I could find it noplace, is condemned<br />
by many grammarians because the<br />
noun place is here being used instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adverb where. This usage is not acceptable in<br />
Great Britain but it occurs too <strong>of</strong>ten in the<br />
United States, in written as well as in spoken<br />
English, to be called anything but standard. It<br />
is acceptable English in this country.<br />
nor. See or.<br />
normal; regular; ordinary; natural. That is normal<br />
which conforms to the established standards for<br />
its sort <strong>of</strong> thing (The normal response to such<br />
a statement would be derision. Anybody with<br />
normal intelligence would have known better).<br />
That is regular which conforms to prescribed<br />
rule, accepted principle, recognized pattern<br />
(The regular thing is to have dinner first. It’s<br />
best to do it the regular way; it will cause less<br />
comment). To say <strong>of</strong> someone that he is a<br />
regular scoundrel is to say that he conforms, in<br />
every respect, to the recognized pattern <strong>of</strong><br />
scoundrelism. The slang commendation, that<br />
so-and-so is a regular guy, carries an interesting<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> conformity<br />
in achieving popular approbation. That is<br />
ordinary which is opposed to the uncommon, <strong>of</strong><br />
the usual kind (The ordinary driver seems to feel<br />
that trafic regulations are meant only for the<br />
other fellow). That is natural which conforms to<br />
the principles <strong>of</strong> its own nature and since most<br />
normal and ordinary people and things do,<br />
there are many contexts in which the words are<br />
interchangeable. See average, common.<br />
normalcy; normalism; normality; the normal;<br />
Normal. It was in Boston, in 1920, that Senator<br />
Warren G. Harding, moved by alliteration and<br />
the spirit <strong>of</strong> the times, declared that what<br />
America then needed was not heroics but healing;<br />
not nostrums but normalcy; not revolution<br />
but restoration: . . . not surgery but serenity.<br />
The idea seemed sound to the voters who<br />
elected him president. But the wits, who were<br />
just starting a brilliant decade in the opposition,<br />
seized on the word normalcy and made it a<br />
banner <strong>of</strong> derision. Without bothering to consult<br />
their dictionaries, they simply assumed<br />
that the Senator meant normality and had<br />
blundered. As late as 1953 even so astute and<br />
literate a man as Frederick Lewis Allen (in<br />
The Big Change, N.Y., Harper) could say <strong>of</strong><br />
Harding: He preferred to talk about what he<br />
called “normalcy,” meaning normality.<br />
But normalcy, although until that moment a<br />
rare word, is a perfectly legitimate word, meaning<br />
the character or state <strong>of</strong> being normal. It<br />
is a complete and acceptable synonym for<br />
normality, and had been in use for at least<br />
seventy years before Mr. Harding’s or his ghost<br />
writer’s lust for alliteration led him to it.<br />
Normality, however, the normal state or<br />
quality, is the common and most readily understood<br />
word, though it is being displaced by the<br />
normal, the standard or type.<br />
Normalism is so rare a word that most<br />
standard dictionaries do not recognize its existence.<br />
Those that do identify it as a theological<br />
term designating an early Buddhistic belief in<br />
a cosmic order, opposed to animism, which is<br />
not subject to the will <strong>of</strong> a personal deity.<br />
Normal schools (after the French e’cole<br />
normale) are so called because they teach the<br />
norms or rules <strong>of</strong> teaching.<br />
north; northern. These words have one comparative<br />
form, more northern, and two superlatives,<br />
northmost and northernmost.<br />
nostalgia, derived from Greek words meaning<br />
“return home” and “pain,” originally meant an<br />
aching longing for home, homesickness. Now<br />
a vogue word, nostalgia has come to mean any<br />
vague yearning, especially for the past and especially-as<br />
most yearning for the past iswhen<br />
tinged with tenderness and sadness. It is<br />
so vague and yet so popular that it has become<br />
slightly comic (as in The Night the Old<br />
Nostalgia Burned Down, by Frank Sullivan,<br />
Boston, 1953). Homesickness, yearning, and<br />
longing should all be carefully considered<br />
whenever the impulse to use nostalgia comes<br />
upon us.<br />
not. This word, which is an abbreviated form <strong>of</strong><br />
nought, is now the simple adverb <strong>of</strong> negation.<br />
Until about six hundred years ago, the simple<br />
negative adverb was ne. It stood before the<br />
verb, as in twenty thousand infants that ne wot<br />
the right hand from the left, but could be<br />
strengthened by a following negative, as in ne<br />
doubt ye nought. This gave English a compound<br />
negative ne . . . nought somewhat like<br />
the French ne . . . pus. In time nought became<br />
not and ne disappeared. Although the old construction<br />
was forgotten, not kept its position<br />
after the verb, as in pomp that fades not and<br />
this body dropt not down.<br />
In a normal English sentence a negative adverb<br />
stands immediately before the verb. A<br />
post-placed negative, as in fades not and dropt<br />
not is permissible but unusual. One would therefore<br />
expect to see not brought forward, and this<br />
was occasionally done, as in I not doubt he<br />
came alive to land and they possessed the island<br />
but not enjoyed it. This is the reasonable way<br />
to handle not and if grammar was controlled<br />
by reason this is the way we would now use<br />
the word. But we all feel that this word order<br />
is wrong or “impossible.” That is because.<br />
language is much too big a thing to be altered<br />
at will, even by school teachers or textbook<br />
writers. It is the speech habits <strong>of</strong> all the people<br />
who use the language, and these in turn depend<br />
upon speech habits handed down from the past.<br />
Language changes as the needs <strong>of</strong> people<br />
change. But it changes as a living creature does
and cannot be manipulated mechanically. We,<br />
today, cannot place nor in the normal position<br />
for an adverb because Seven hundred years ago<br />
it was the object <strong>of</strong> the verb and has come<br />
down to us in the object position.<br />
In present-day English we solve the problem<br />
<strong>of</strong> not by never using the word except in a<br />
verbal phrase, such as he will not doubt. Here<br />
it follows a verb form, as tradition requires,<br />
but stands before the meaningful verb, as the<br />
normal word order requires. In the simple past<br />
ad present tenses, where we do not ordinarily<br />
have an auxiliary verb, we deliberately create<br />
a verbal phrase by using some form <strong>of</strong> do, as<br />
in he did not doubt, he does not doubt.<br />
There is one exception to this rule. Do is<br />
never used with forms <strong>of</strong> the verb to be. Here<br />
we keep the old word order, as in he is not<br />
here, I am not sclre. Fifty years ago it was<br />
considered better not to use do with the simple<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> have, and to say he hasn’t a pencil,<br />
he hadn’t a pencil. In America today do is<br />
used with have more <strong>of</strong>ten than not and most<br />
people would say he doesn’t have a pencil, he<br />
didn’t have a pencil. The old word order without<br />
do is still possible with any verb. We may<br />
still say I doubt not your word. It is still natural<br />
English with have, especially in the present<br />
tense, as in he hasn’t a nickel. But it is required<br />
only after the verb to be.<br />
When not follows be, have, or an auxiliary<br />
verb, we ordinarily do not pronounce the o. ‘We<br />
say isn’t, doesn’t, can’t. But in writing it is customary<br />
to use the full form. We write 2 cannot<br />
come when we would say I can’t come. This is<br />
unfortunate because it makes the written sentences<br />
stiff and over-emphatic. But many people<br />
are <strong>of</strong>fended when they see contractions in<br />
print. A writer must therefore decide whether<br />
it is better for him to use the full forms and be<br />
considered didactic by &some people, or to use<br />
the contractions and be considered undignitied<br />
by a great many others.<br />
Not may be used to qualify one element in a<br />
sentence, an adjective, adverb, phrase, or clause.<br />
When it is, it is placed immediately before that<br />
element, as in he told a not very convincing<br />
story and he said it not to me but to YDU. But<br />
in most cases not is a sentence adverb and<br />
negates the entire statement. This is alwiays<br />
true when it stands before the subject. The lines<br />
not a drum was heard, not a funeral note, . . .<br />
not a soldier discharged his farewell shot mean<br />
simply it is not true that a drum was heard,<br />
or a funeral note, or that a soldier discharged<br />
his farewell shot. When not stands in or immediately<br />
after the verb form, it has exac:tly<br />
the same force unless the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb is<br />
some.<br />
These points may seem too obvious to be<br />
worth mentioning, but they are <strong>of</strong>ten overlooked<br />
in discussing negative statements tlhat<br />
have all as subject. The sentence all the invitations<br />
have not been mailed says nothing<br />
about how many have been mailed. It merely<br />
denies that all have. Ifwe want to say that none<br />
323 notable<br />
have been mailed we must ei’her use the word<br />
none or make an affirmative statement such a.9<br />
all the invitations are still to be mailed. Not all<br />
have been mailed is exactl’l the same statement<br />
as all have not been mailed. The fact that<br />
sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind say very little may be a<br />
reason for not using them. But it is no justification<br />
for trying to force a distinction on them<br />
which they do not have, logically or grammatically.<br />
not un-. There are occasions when the not unconstruction<br />
is justified, as where a situation<br />
or something said seems to have a negative<br />
import but actually does not. To say <strong>of</strong> some<br />
speaker that he was not unkind in his remarks<br />
is to imply that the remarks might very well<br />
sound unkind or it might be expected <strong>of</strong> this<br />
particular speaker on this particular occasion<br />
that he would be unkind, but that the context<br />
or the intonation or the exact choice <strong>of</strong> words<br />
or some other circumstance made it clear that<br />
in fact there was no unkindness in his utterance.<br />
But for the most part the not un- construction<br />
is simply a bad habit, a circumlocution <strong>of</strong><br />
timidity, a desire not to give <strong>of</strong>fense that can<br />
be more annoying than the <strong>of</strong>fense it seeks to<br />
avoid.<br />
not wisely but too well. It was Othello who Iov’d<br />
not wisely, but too well. Recognition <strong>of</strong> the<br />
original context, which once may have given<br />
this quotation a touch <strong>of</strong> wit, has now been lost,<br />
so far as the common user is concerned-if<br />
ever there was anything in it that made it particularly<br />
witty to apply to other situations.<br />
not worth the paper it’s written on. To say <strong>of</strong><br />
some agreement, promise, or assurance that it is<br />
not worth the paper it’s written on, as a way <strong>of</strong><br />
saying that it is worthless and unreliable, is<br />
to employ a phrase that has been debilitated by<br />
overuse.<br />
notable; noted; noticeable; notorious; famous.<br />
Noted means conspicuous, celebrated, famous<br />
(A number <strong>of</strong> noted actresses attended the<br />
premiere). That which or he who is notable is<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> note or notice (Only a few friends<br />
recognized Hopkins as a notable poet in his<br />
lifetime). Noticeable means such as to attract<br />
notice (The contents <strong>of</strong> the bottle were noticeably<br />
diminished. There was a noticeable sabre<br />
scar on his left cheek). Many a noticeable<br />
person is not notable and few <strong>of</strong> the notable<br />
are noted and many who are noted are really<br />
notorious, that is, widely but unfavorably<br />
known (Charles James Fox, the noted statesman,<br />
was a notorious gambler). Notorious is<br />
the antithesis <strong>of</strong> famous, which means renowned<br />
or well-known in a favored sense; yet<br />
infamous is a far stronger word than notorious,<br />
expressing detestation where notorious<br />
expresses merely ill repute. Then, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
the same person may be regarded as notorious<br />
and famous by different groups at the same<br />
time or by the same group at different times.<br />
Hitler was a famous statesman to many Germans,<br />
a notorious madman to his nation’s enemies.<br />
Lola Montez, was, as a girl, a famous
notary 324<br />
beauty; as a woman, a notorious adventuress.<br />
Then, if one is exceedingly notorious he may<br />
after his death become famous. We speak <strong>of</strong><br />
famous, not notorious, criminals <strong>of</strong> the past.<br />
See also celebrity.<br />
notary; notary public. The second form is preferred<br />
to describe a public <strong>of</strong>ficer authorized to<br />
authenticate contracts, acknowledge deeds, take<br />
affidavits, protest bills <strong>of</strong> exchange, take depositions,<br />
etc. The plural form is notaries public.<br />
note and notice are interchangeable in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> to become aware <strong>of</strong>, to pay attention to, to<br />
observe, perceive (The world will little note<br />
nor long remember what we say here, but it<br />
can never forget what they did here. Notice<br />
Neptune, though,/ Taming a sea-horse). Note,<br />
however, <strong>of</strong>ten conveys the additional sense <strong>of</strong><br />
mark down, as in writing, make a memorandum<br />
or notation <strong>of</strong>.<br />
notice. When this verb is used in an active form<br />
it may be followed by an object and the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he noticed her hesitate, by<br />
an object and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
he noticed her hesitating, or by a clause, as in<br />
he noticed that she hesitated, but not by a toinfinitive.<br />
We do not say he noticed her to hesitate.<br />
When notice is used in a passive form<br />
it may be followed by a to-infinitive, as in she<br />
was noticed to hesitate, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in she was noticed hesitating. See<br />
also descry.<br />
notion. See idea.<br />
notoriety. See celebrity.<br />
notwithstanding. This word is ordinarily an adverb<br />
or a preposition, but it may also be used<br />
as a conjunction. That is, it may introduce a<br />
full clause without the aid <strong>of</strong> the word that, as<br />
in John Hunter, notwithstanding he had a bee<br />
in his bonnet, was really a great man.<br />
nought. See aught.<br />
nouns. It is very difficult to define a noun purely<br />
in terms <strong>of</strong> English grammar. If one can refer<br />
to Latin, the definition is easy. In Latin, nouns<br />
are words that have gender, number, and case<br />
and determine the gender, number, and case <strong>of</strong><br />
other words in the sentence. As a rule, teachers<br />
<strong>of</strong> English mean by a noun, any word that<br />
would be a noun in Latin. But they can hardly<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer this as a definition to American students.<br />
The definition usually given, that a noun is<br />
“the name <strong>of</strong> a person, place, or thing,” is unsatisfactory<br />
in two ways. In the first place, it is<br />
misleading to beginning students because it involves<br />
an unfamiliar meaning <strong>of</strong> the word thing.<br />
For example, in the lines:<br />
They are not long, the weeping and the<br />
laughter,<br />
Love and desire and hate:<br />
I think they have no portion in us after<br />
We pass the gate.<br />
the words weeping, laughter, love, desire, hate,<br />
portion, and gate are all nouns. It is unlikely<br />
that anyone who did not already know that<br />
these words were nouns would think <strong>of</strong> calling<br />
weeping or desire a thing. In the second place,<br />
it is illogical to try to distinguish the various<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> speech by classifying their meanings.<br />
A noun is not what it refers to, but simply a<br />
certain kind <strong>of</strong> word that needs to be distinguished<br />
from other words in some intelligible<br />
manner.<br />
A noun might be defined functionally, according<br />
to the role that a word plays in a<br />
sentence. But such a definition would make nonsense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the question: When can a noun be<br />
used as an adverb? And some <strong>of</strong> the most interesting<br />
questions in grammar come in just<br />
this form. For this reason, a different type <strong>of</strong><br />
definition, and one that may at first seem unnecessarily<br />
complicated, is more useful in the<br />
long run.<br />
Most nouns have a singular and a plural<br />
form, such as boy and boys. Some, such as<br />
mud, have only a singular and some, such as<br />
trousers, have only a plural form. A few, such<br />
as deer, have the same form in the singular and<br />
in the plural. But whenever a noun is used, it<br />
must be used as a singular or as a plural. The<br />
question <strong>of</strong> number cannot be disregarded, as<br />
it is in words such as green, quickly, toward.<br />
Verbs are also said to have number, but in an<br />
entirely different sense. A plural verb, such as<br />
they walk, does not mean that they walk more<br />
than once. In languages that do not have a<br />
rigid sentence order, verbs take on special<br />
forms to show which word in the sentence they<br />
are attached to and a verb is said to “agree<br />
with its subject in number.” A little <strong>of</strong> this<br />
survives in English and a few verb forms show<br />
number. But this is merely a reflection, or a<br />
matching, <strong>of</strong> the number which properly<br />
belongs to some noun. A noun, therefore, can<br />
be defined as “a word that has number,” that<br />
is, a word that must be either singular or<br />
plural.<br />
This definition is not completely satisfactory.<br />
Pronouns, which are words that are used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> nouns, also have number. In addition,<br />
adjectives are sometimes used as nouns and<br />
when they are, they too have number, as in<br />
the injured were removed. One can distinguish<br />
nouns from pronouns by the fact that a pronoun<br />
is a word used instead <strong>of</strong> a noun, to<br />
designate something without naming it. That is,<br />
a pronoun is a function word and has no true<br />
meaning until we know what noun it is standing<br />
for. It is much harder to say whether a word<br />
is actually a noun or merely an adjective functioning<br />
as a noun. But since adjectives may be<br />
qualified by adverbs and nouns may not, most<br />
grammarians say that the word is an adjective<br />
as long as it is possible to use an adverb before<br />
it, as in the seriously injured. Recognizing these<br />
problems, we may define a noun more accurately<br />
as “a word that has number but that does<br />
not have an antecedent and cannot be qualified<br />
by an adverb.”<br />
(For problems having to do with number in<br />
nouns, see singular nouns, plural nouns, generic<br />
nouns, group names, mass nouns, and adjectives<br />
as nouns. For questions <strong>of</strong> number in verbs and
pronouns, see agreement: verbs and the individual<br />
words.)<br />
In addition to a singular and a plural, nouns<br />
also have a genitive or possessive case which<br />
enables them to function very much as an adjective<br />
does. (See genitive ease and nouns as<br />
adjectives. The other functions <strong>of</strong> a noun are<br />
discussed under subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, object <strong>of</strong> a preposition, indirect object,<br />
linking verbs, and nouns as adverbs.)<br />
Nouns are sometimes classified as coZ/ec~ive,<br />
common, proper, abstract, and concrete. These<br />
terms are defined in this dictionary but are not<br />
used in discussions <strong>of</strong> noun problems.<br />
(For questions regarding hyphens, see compound<br />
words.)<br />
nouns as adjectives. It is sometimes impossible<br />
to say whether the first element in a compound<br />
is a noun or an adjective. For example, a. nineteenth<br />
century English schoolmaster failed. some<br />
children for saying that cannon was a noun in<br />
the compound cannon ball. During the 1880’s<br />
the greatest English grammarians argued this<br />
question at length. Those who held that cannon<br />
was a noun seem to have had the best <strong>of</strong> it, but<br />
not to everybody’s satisfaction. They pointed out<br />
that we use an adjective and not an adverb<br />
before cannon ball. But this proves nothing.<br />
Other compounds, such as old age, that obviously<br />
have an adjective for the first element, are<br />
qualified by adjectives. We say extreme or’d age.<br />
They pointed out that cannon cannot be: compared.<br />
That is, we cannot speak <strong>of</strong> a cannoner<br />
ball. But some undoubted adjectives, such as<br />
previous, several, yearly, cannot be compared.<br />
They also showed that in the twelfth century,<br />
when English was an inflected language and it<br />
was easy to see the difference between a noun<br />
and an adjective, the first element in similar<br />
compounds, such as sea water, was a noun in<br />
the genitive and not an adjective. The answer<br />
to this is that such words “might have ua.ed the<br />
intervening seven or eight hundred years to<br />
become adjectives.” A few nouns, such as<br />
square, have been used as qualifiers so consistently<br />
that they have even developed comparative<br />
and superlative forms, as in he who<br />
can sit squarest on a three-legged stool.<br />
Those <strong>of</strong> us who are neither grammarians<br />
nor school children do not have to answer such<br />
difficult questions. Almost any English noun<br />
can be used in the singular form as if it were<br />
an adjective. That is, almost any English noun<br />
can be used to qualify another noun. It makes<br />
no difference whether we call this an adjiective,<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> the genitive, or a noun used as an<br />
adjective. (See singular nouns, compound<br />
words, and genitive case. For the difference between<br />
a noun and an adjective in -ing, see -ing.)<br />
Almost any prepositional phrase that limits<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> a noun can be dropped arnd the<br />
qualifying noun placed immediately before the<br />
principal one. In this way research in socio/ogy<br />
becomes sociology research and opportunities<br />
for outdoor recreation, outdoor recreation opportunities.<br />
The construction is as old as the<br />
325 nouns as adjectives<br />
English language, but before 1900 it was pretty<br />
much restricted to short words and names <strong>of</strong><br />
material things, such as river bunk, cotton dress,<br />
sea water. Since then its use has been enormously<br />
extended. At first many people objected<br />
to the new forms. They objected particularly to<br />
compounds expressing abstract ideas, such as<br />
word order, death threat, child management,<br />
thought relationships. But the construction was<br />
too useful to be given up. It makes for a terse,<br />
compact style, very much in keeping with our<br />
modern temper. If too many syllables are involved,<br />
that is, if the individual words are too<br />
long-as they certainly are in the first examples<br />
given above-terseness loses most <strong>of</strong> its advantages.<br />
For this reason, good writers do not<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten combine nouns <strong>of</strong> more than two syllables<br />
each. And even when the words are short, there<br />
may be such a thing as too much terseness.<br />
Most people would find a sequence <strong>of</strong> eight<br />
nouns fatiguing, as in he absconded with the<br />
River Street fire house Christmas Eve party<br />
funds. But this is a question <strong>of</strong> style, not<br />
grammar.<br />
As a rule, prepositional phrases that are<br />
evaluative or imply a judgment cannot be<br />
handled in this way. For example, in an ornament<br />
<strong>of</strong> value, a man <strong>of</strong> honor, a work <strong>of</strong> distinction,<br />
we cannot simply place the second<br />
noun before the first. We have to use an adjective<br />
form such as a valuable ornament, an<br />
honorable man, a distinguished work. The fact<br />
that in most cases an adjective form must be<br />
used for a phrase that is evaluative, while a<br />
noun form may be used when the phrase is<br />
defining or limiting, leads to the feeling that<br />
the adjective form is always evaluative. For this<br />
reason, although educational is not evaluative<br />
in the following example, many people would<br />
rather say the education committee than the<br />
educational committee in speaking <strong>of</strong> a committee<br />
that is to consider questions <strong>of</strong> education.<br />
Traditionally, both forms mean the same<br />
thing and can be used interchangeably. But<br />
the movement away from the distinctive adjective<br />
form is strong.<br />
The noun in a descriptive phrase may itself<br />
be qualified by a definitive adjective (such as<br />
the, this, that, my, any, no, some), as it is in<br />
a box <strong>of</strong> this size, a cur <strong>of</strong> that color. In phrases<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind, the preposition may simply be<br />
dropped and the remaining words, such as this<br />
size, then function as adjectives. They may<br />
stand immediately after the principal noun, as<br />
in a child that age, or they may be separated<br />
from it by a linking verb, as in the child wus<br />
that age. A prepositional phrase cannot be<br />
treated in this way unless the phrase noun is<br />
qualified by a definitive adjective. We cannot<br />
drop the <strong>of</strong> from is it <strong>of</strong> use? although we may<br />
say is it any use?. The preposition cannot be<br />
dropped from a phrase that is not purely descriptive.<br />
For example, the <strong>of</strong> cannot be<br />
dropped from a phrase that shows the whole<br />
<strong>of</strong> which something is a part, as in o?ze <strong>of</strong> these<br />
men. But within the limitations just described,
nouns as adverbs 326<br />
the construction is standard literary English and<br />
can be used on the most solemn occasions, as<br />
in we are not now that strength which in old<br />
days moved heaven and earth.<br />
Today, words <strong>of</strong> this kind are sometimes<br />
placed before the noun they qualify instead <strong>of</strong><br />
after it, as in do you like this color car?. This<br />
has been true <strong>of</strong> age and size, as in what age<br />
child and any size box, for almost two hundred<br />
years. But the free use <strong>of</strong> this construction, as<br />
seen in this type engine, uny style dress, is very<br />
recent. It is heard too <strong>of</strong>ten in the speech <strong>of</strong><br />
well educated people to be condemned. But it<br />
is not yet used in literary English. And it makes<br />
some older people very unhappy.<br />
mnms as adverbs. Any adverbial idea can be expressed<br />
by a prepositional phrase, as manner is<br />
in he worked with a will and place in he worked<br />
in the basement. But a noun can <strong>of</strong>ten function<br />
as an adverb without first being made part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
prepositional phrase. If the common form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
noun is used, it is called an adverbial accusative.<br />
This may be either singular or plural. If the<br />
noun is clearly singular but nevertheless takes<br />
a final s, it is called an adverbial genitive.<br />
1. A noun can be used as an adverb <strong>of</strong> extent,<br />
that is, as a word which shows “how much,”<br />
‘as bit in woit a bit and lot in he is a lot better.<br />
Five dollars is an adverb <strong>of</strong> extent in it cost five<br />
dollars. In expressions such as five dollars a<br />
lesson, twice a year, ten cents a piece, the final<br />
noun is also called an adverb <strong>of</strong> extent. Actually,<br />
the a used here once meant in and these<br />
are remnants <strong>of</strong> prepositional phrases similar<br />
to the words alive, asleep, awake, afloat. (See<br />
adjectives.) The is sometimes used instead <strong>of</strong> a<br />
in expressions <strong>of</strong> this kind, as in six dollars the<br />
pair. This is a late development, influenced by<br />
French. It is acceptable, but a is preferred.<br />
A noun used as an adverb <strong>of</strong> extent is ordinarily<br />
an adverbial accusative, as way is in a long<br />
way 00. In it is a long ways <strong>of</strong>f, the form ways<br />
is an adverbial genitive. This construction is no<br />
longer used in Great Britain and some grammarians<br />
say that it is no longer standard anywhere.<br />
But it was once literary English in<br />
England and is still standard in the United<br />
States. It is used by many well educated people<br />
and by some <strong>of</strong> our best writers. There is no<br />
feeling today that this is a genitive form and<br />
an apostrophe is never used here.<br />
2. A noun can be used as an adverb <strong>of</strong><br />
manner, that is, as a word which shows “how.”<br />
We may say send it air mail, travel pullman,<br />
don’t act that way. Nouns are used in this way<br />
more freely in the United States than they are<br />
in Great Britain, but the construction is natural<br />
English and needs no apology.<br />
3. Nouns are not ordinarily used to show<br />
“place.” They may be used to show distance, as<br />
miles in five miles . . . the sacred river ran, but<br />
this is considered an adverb <strong>of</strong> extent rather<br />
than <strong>of</strong> place. The verb leave takes an object<br />
which means “place from which,” as in leave<br />
town, leave school, but this is not truly an adverb<br />
construction.<br />
Words which represent the points <strong>of</strong> the<br />
compass, and the single word home can be used<br />
adverbially in the sense <strong>of</strong> “place to which,” as<br />
in swift ho<strong>of</strong>s thundering south and home they<br />
brought her warrior dead. But we cannot say<br />
<strong>of</strong>ice they go or they run school. Nouns are<br />
used to show “place at or in which” in a few<br />
expressions, such as he smote them hip and<br />
thigh and we painted it top and bottom. But in<br />
general, nouns cannot be used in this way. We<br />
cannot say I mm staying <strong>of</strong>Jce,<br />
In the United States the word home is used<br />
to show “place at which” as well as “place to<br />
which,” as in we stayed honze all day. This is<br />
not acceptable in Great Britain where an at is<br />
required, but it is standard English in this<br />
country. The noun place is also used in the<br />
United States to show “place to which,” as in<br />
we are going some place tonight, and “place at<br />
or in which,” as in I have looked every place.<br />
These constructions too are standard in the<br />
United States.<br />
4. Nouns are used freely to show “extent <strong>of</strong><br />
time,” as night in and trains all night groan<br />
on the rails, and years in wedded we have been<br />
these twice ten tedious years. These may be<br />
classed as adverbs <strong>of</strong> extent or as adverbs <strong>of</strong><br />
time. Nouns may also be used to show “time<br />
at which,” as in I dreamed I saw Joe Hill last<br />
night and tomorrow I shall miss you less.<br />
An adverbial genitive is used to show “repeated<br />
time,” as in he works nights. This construction<br />
is condemned by some grammarians<br />
and is no longer standard in Great Britain,<br />
where it is replaced by a prepositional phrase,<br />
as in he works at night. But it is still acceptable,<br />
and widely used, in the United States.<br />
nouns <strong>of</strong> multitude. See group names and col-<br />
Iective nouns.<br />
novel. See new.<br />
novice. See amateur.<br />
now. This word is primarily an adverb <strong>of</strong> time<br />
but it may also be used as an adverbial conjunction,<br />
as in but, oh! the heavy change, now<br />
thou art gone. Some grammarians claim that<br />
this is improper. That is, they insist that the<br />
conjunction that is required in a sentence <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind. But now has been used to introduce<br />
a clause from the earliest times and by most <strong>of</strong><br />
the great writers <strong>of</strong> English.<br />
noway; noways; nowise. Both -way forms are<br />
standard English in such constructions as he<br />
was nowuy (or noways) to blame. In the United<br />
States nowuy is preferred to nowuys. The form<br />
nowise is also standard but it is not <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
in this country.<br />
nowhere; nowheres. Nowhere is the only acceptable<br />
form in written English. In the United States<br />
nowheres is <strong>of</strong>ten heard in the speech <strong>of</strong> well<br />
educated people, but it does not appear in print.<br />
Nowhere is sometimes used with an unnecessary<br />
that, as in nowhere thut I have been. This<br />
is not as well established as the similar use <strong>of</strong><br />
onywhere, but it is acceptable to many educated<br />
people in the United States.<br />
noxious and obnoxious both derive from the<br />
same Latin root meaning harm. Indeed obnoxious<br />
simply is, or was, the word noxious
with the prefix ob- meaning towards or in the<br />
direction <strong>of</strong>. In modem usage, however, noxious<br />
is the stronger term, for it means injurious to<br />
health or physical well-being (The chemical<br />
plant filled the air with noxious fumes. The<br />
strong smell <strong>of</strong> sulphur, and a choking sensation<br />
in the lungs, indicated the presence <strong>of</strong> noxious<br />
gases). Obnoxious means objectionable, <strong>of</strong>fensive,<br />
odious (Many a pleasant man becomes<br />
obnoxious on becoming famous). A thing may<br />
be both noxious and obnoxious, as mustard gas;<br />
obnoxious but not noxious, as a bugle call at<br />
dawn; noxious but not obnoxious, as a piipe <strong>of</strong><br />
opium.<br />
nozzle; nuzzle; nose; muzzle; snout. Nozzle is<br />
perhaps most familiar as the term to describe<br />
a projecting spout, terminal, discharge pilpe, or<br />
the like, as <strong>of</strong> a bellows or hose. Among its<br />
other meanings is the slang one <strong>of</strong> “nose.”<br />
Nuzzle is a verb only. Intransitive, it means to<br />
burrow or root with the nose, as an animal<br />
does, or to thrust the nose against (The puppy<br />
nuzzled up close to the little boy and borh fell<br />
asleep). Transitive, it means to root up with<br />
the nose or to touch with the nose.<br />
Nose is a noun or a verb. As a noun it<br />
describes the part <strong>of</strong> the face or head which<br />
contains the nostrils or anything whic:h resembles<br />
the nose <strong>of</strong> a person or an animal, as<br />
a spout or nozzle, or the prow <strong>of</strong> a ship (I’ll<br />
hold her nose agin’ the bank/ Till the last<br />
galoot’s ashore), or a projecting part <strong>of</strong> anything.<br />
As a verb it can mean to thrust with or<br />
as with the nose (It looked as though she had<br />
made a safe landing but as soon as the propellers<br />
were reversed the airship nosed over,<br />
crumpling the right wing). It has the special<br />
meaning (not shared by nozzle or nuzzLe) <strong>of</strong><br />
to smell out (But indeed, if you find him not<br />
within this month, you shall nose him as you<br />
go up the stairs into the lobby). The slang adjective<br />
nosy, prying, inquisitive, has a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> both <strong>of</strong> these meanings <strong>of</strong> the verb nose-to<br />
thrust into and to smell out other people’s<br />
affairs.<br />
Muzzle, most familiar as describing the<br />
mouth, or end for discharge, <strong>of</strong> the barrel <strong>of</strong> a<br />
gun or pistol, also describes the projecting part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the head <strong>of</strong> an animal, including jaws,<br />
mouth, and nose, or a device placed over this<br />
part to prevent the animal from biting. As a<br />
verb it means to put a muzzle on or, by extension,<br />
to silence, to gag.<br />
Snout, like muzzle, refers to animals. Unlike<br />
muzzle, it may be used in humorous or contemptuous<br />
reference to a person’s nose when<br />
it is large or prominent.<br />
ntb degree. Although the idea <strong>of</strong> largeness is not<br />
inherent in to the nth degree, popular usage<br />
has made the phrase mean to the utmost extent,<br />
and exasperated mathematicians must console<br />
themselves with the reflections that language is<br />
not exact and that more sciences than their own<br />
have been so plundered.<br />
nub is a variant <strong>of</strong> knob. It means a protuberance,<br />
a lump, or a small piece. In American slang it<br />
may also mean the point or gist <strong>of</strong> anything<br />
327<br />
number terms<br />
(The nub <strong>of</strong> his argument was that we were<br />
licked and had better make the best <strong>of</strong> it).<br />
nucleus. The plural is nucleuses or nuclei.<br />
number. When used as a grammatical term,<br />
number means the distinction between singular<br />
and plural. Number exists in all nouns and<br />
some pronouns, such as he, they, and is reflected<br />
in a few adjectives, such as this, these<br />
and much, many, and in the present tense <strong>of</strong><br />
most verbs, as in he walks, they walk. Problems<br />
<strong>of</strong> number are discussed in this dictionary under<br />
agreement: verbs, dual words, plural nouns,<br />
singular nouns, and the individual nouns, pronouns,<br />
and adjectives.<br />
The word number itself is plural, that is, it<br />
requires a plural verb, when it is used with the<br />
article a, as in a number <strong>of</strong> boxes were sent,<br />
and is singular when it is used with the article<br />
the, as in the number <strong>of</strong> boxes is small. See<br />
amount and numerals.<br />
number (song, tune). In the plural number can<br />
mean metrical feet or verse (Tell me not in<br />
mournful numbers/ Life is but an empty dream)<br />
or musical periods, measures, groups <strong>of</strong> notes<br />
(Perhaps the plaintive numbers flow/ For old,<br />
unhappy, far-<strong>of</strong>f things,/ And battles long ago).<br />
In the singular it can mean a distinct part <strong>of</strong><br />
an extended musical work, or one in a sequence<br />
<strong>of</strong> compositions. The word is being used with<br />
increasing frequency by band leaders, disc<br />
jockeys, and even publishers <strong>of</strong> music, to mean<br />
a song or dance tune (Ginny Simms in a popular<br />
number. The next number is a waltz). But<br />
this use is certainly not standard, being chiefly<br />
a piece <strong>of</strong> jargon.<br />
number terms. In this book the expression number<br />
terms means: (1) the ordinal numerals such<br />
as third, fifth, and the related words first, last,<br />
next, other; (2) the cardinal numerals such as<br />
three, five, and the indefinite number words few,<br />
many, several; (3) the fractions and the words<br />
that represent a definite number but that are<br />
not part <strong>of</strong> the number system, such as couple,<br />
dozen, gross; and (4) under some circumstances,<br />
the degree words more, most, less,<br />
least. (See numerals; fractions; and the individual<br />
words.)<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> the number terms can be used as<br />
adjectives. When they form part <strong>of</strong> a series<br />
qualifying the same noun, the number terms<br />
precede all other kinds <strong>of</strong> adjectives except the<br />
definitives (such as the, this, my, some), as in<br />
my three beautiful big brown dogs.<br />
Sometimes several number terms are used<br />
together in the same series. When this happens,<br />
the individual words follow approximately the<br />
order in which they are listed above. The<br />
ordinals precede the cardinals, as in the second<br />
three men. First, last, and other are exceptions<br />
and may stand before or after a cardinal<br />
number or an indefinite number word, as in<br />
the last two men and the two last men. The<br />
cardinals and the indefinite number words<br />
precede the words in group three, as in the<br />
first few dozen eggs. The degree words are<br />
ordinarily last in a series <strong>of</strong> number adjectives,<br />
as in bring two dozen more glasses.
numerals 328<br />
numerals.<br />
CARDINAL NUMBERS<br />
The cardinal numbers larger than one, such<br />
as three, five, ninety-nine, are primarily adjectives<br />
and qualify plural nouns, as in the two<br />
men. But when they refer to part <strong>of</strong> a specified<br />
group they must be treated as nouns and<br />
followed by the preposition <strong>of</strong>, as in two <strong>of</strong> the<br />
men.<br />
A hyphen is always used in a compound<br />
cardinal, such as twenty-one, fifty-four.<br />
The large numbers, such as hundred,<br />
thousand, the fractions, and a few other number<br />
words such as couple, dozen, score, are primarily<br />
nouns that have taken on some <strong>of</strong> the adjective<br />
functions <strong>of</strong> the cardinal numbers. Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> these changes are now standard English, such<br />
as a dozen eggs, and some, such as a couple<br />
dollars, are not. (For more specific information,<br />
see the individual words.)<br />
Expressions involving cardinals greater than<br />
one are usually treated as plurals, as in these<br />
fen men were ready. But they may also be<br />
treated as singulars when the individual elements<br />
are thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit, as in this three<br />
days was wasted and there was two hundred<br />
dollars in the purse. When the numbers themselves<br />
are thought <strong>of</strong>, as in arithmetic, the<br />
words are being treated as nouns, not adjectives,<br />
and are usually considered singular, as in twenty<br />
is greater than fifteen and two times three is six.<br />
But this is not followed consistently and in<br />
multiplication and addition a plural verb is<br />
sometimes used, as in fwo times three are six.<br />
In written material that contains a great<br />
many numbers, figures are better than words<br />
and should be used as much as possible. As a<br />
rule a figure is not used at the beginning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sentence. But when a number is very large, as<br />
in 3,982 questionnaires were returned, some<br />
writers begin the sentence with a figure rather<br />
than write out such a difficult number or recast<br />
the sentence into a less direct statement. Figures<br />
are also preferred to numbers in footnotes,<br />
where space should be saved. When all numbers<br />
are being expressed in figures, it is important<br />
to remember that the word one is not always<br />
a number. It is not a number in one would<br />
think and it usually is not a number in one day<br />
we saw a bird. See one.<br />
In writing that is not primarily statistical<br />
the first word in a sentence is never a figure.<br />
Otherwise, figures are always used for dates,<br />
addresses, page numbers, decimals, and any<br />
number that cannot be expressed in two words.<br />
That is, we write out ninety-nine and fifteen<br />
thousand but not 102 or 350. Generally, when<br />
one number in a sentence must be expressed in<br />
figures any others in the same sentence are<br />
also expressed in figures as in between 90 and<br />
120.<br />
ORDINAL NUMBERS<br />
The ordinal numbers. such as third. fifth.<br />
ninety-ninth, name positions in a series: They<br />
are primarily adjectives and qualify singular<br />
nouns, as in the second man. Occasionally an<br />
ordinal is followed by <strong>of</strong> and a plural noun, as<br />
in the second <strong>of</strong> the men. This is an awkward<br />
expression and seldom means anything different<br />
from the second man.<br />
Theoretically, expressions involving ordinals<br />
are singular and should be followed by a singular<br />
verb, as in the second ten boxes is ready to<br />
go. Here the word second qualifies the noun<br />
ten, which is understood as a unit. But the group<br />
may also be thought <strong>of</strong> as a plural, and we may<br />
say the second ten boxes are ready to go. Both<br />
forms are acceptable.<br />
A hyphen is always used in compound<br />
ordinals, as in twenty-firsi, fifty-fourth. An<br />
ordinal is sometimes written in figures in a<br />
date, as in January 12th. This is now slightly<br />
old fashioned and January 12 is generally<br />
preferred. In any other context, ordinals are<br />
written out in words.<br />
Adverbs are formed from the ordinals by<br />
adding -ly, as in thirdly, fijthly, ninety-ninthly.<br />
These are used chiefly in numbering the steps<br />
in an argument or sermon. Simple ordinals<br />
would serve the purpose just as well.<br />
(The words first and last are not pure ordinals;<br />
see first and last.)<br />
POSITION<br />
In a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives, cardinal and ordinal<br />
numbers both follow the definitive adjectives,<br />
such as the, this, my, any.<br />
A cardinal number is sometimes treated as<br />
a name to distinguish one object from other<br />
similar ones, as in page IO, chapter 3, room 20.<br />
In such cases the numeral follows the common<br />
noun. The names <strong>of</strong> monarchs are sometimes<br />
followed by a numeral, as Louis XIV, George<br />
III. In such cases the number is written in<br />
Roman numerals and is read as an ordinal, as<br />
Louis the Fourteenth. George the Third. With<br />
these two exceptions,’ a numeral regularly precedes<br />
the noun it qualifies. Any reversal <strong>of</strong> this,<br />
such as Soldiers Three, is an unnatural order<br />
and should only be used when the strange effect<br />
is what is wanted.<br />
When the two are standing together, an<br />
ordinal number always precedes a cardinal, as<br />
in the second trvo dozen eggs. This order is<br />
never reversed unless the ordinal is being used<br />
in a peculiar sense, as when a bridge club <strong>of</strong>fers<br />
ten second prizes.<br />
MULTIPLICATIVES<br />
The words once, twice, thrice, four times,<br />
and so on, are called multiplicatives. They are<br />
adverbs and may qualify a verb or a cardinal<br />
number. They cannot qualify a noun, but they<br />
may stand before a definitive adjective and have<br />
the effect <strong>of</strong> qualifying the noun, as in it has<br />
twice the population <strong>of</strong> Canada. The words<br />
single, double, triple, quadruple, five-fold, and<br />
so on, are primarily descriptive adjectives and<br />
qualify nouns. But they may also be placed<br />
before a definitive adjective, as in double the<br />
population <strong>of</strong> Canada. They are then being<br />
used as multiplicative adverbs.<br />
A cardinal numeral followed by <strong>of</strong> may<br />
also be used as a multiplicative in a com-
parison, as in he is worth two <strong>of</strong> his son and<br />
you are a match for three <strong>of</strong> him. Here two <strong>of</strong><br />
means twice. This idiom is at least as old as<br />
Shakespeare. But it is used only in statements <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind.<br />
numerous, numberless and many describe the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> a large number <strong>of</strong> units. Many is<br />
the commonest word to express this id’ea and<br />
0; oh. Both words are interjections. 0 is the<br />
word to be used before the name in address,<br />
especially in solemn or poetic language, to lend<br />
earnestness to an appeal (0 God our help in<br />
ages past, “0 Pioneers!,” 0 Wind,/ If Winter<br />
comes, can Spring be far behind?); or with a<br />
word, phrase, or clause that makes up a unit <strong>of</strong><br />
exclamation (0 dear! what can the mutter be?).<br />
Notice that no punctuation immediately follows<br />
0. On the other hand, oh is used independently,<br />
and is always followed by a comma or an exclamation<br />
point. It may express surprise, joy,<br />
pain, approval, disapproval (Oh, what a man!).<br />
Both 0 and oh may be used alone as exclamations,<br />
though oh is preferable. When it is used<br />
alone as an exclamation 0 is, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
followed by an exclamation point. 0 is always<br />
a capital letter. Oh is capitalized only when it<br />
begins a sentence.<br />
oaf. The plural is oufs, not onves.<br />
oarlock; rowlock. Oarlock, the older word for<br />
the contrivance on a boat’s gunwale in or on<br />
which the oar rests and swings, is still the<br />
common and correct term in America (C’linkerbuilt<br />
boats, one pair ash ours and ourlocksad<br />
in N. Y. Evening Post, 1904). In England it<br />
has been generally replaced by rowl,ock, a<br />
variant <strong>of</strong> oarlock by association with row (He<br />
surveyed the cushions, the oars, the rowidcks,<br />
and all the fuscinating fittings-Kenneth<br />
Grahame, The Wind in the Willows, 1908).<br />
oasis. The plural is ousises or oases.<br />
oats is a mass word with plural form. It is usually<br />
treated as a plural, as in these outs arie good<br />
and we will cook them. But it may also be<br />
treated as a singular, as in this oafs is good and<br />
we will cook it. We may also speak <strong>of</strong> many<br />
oats and <strong>of</strong> much oats.<br />
The true singular form oaf is rare. It is used<br />
by botanists to mean an individual plant or a<br />
species, and in this sense has a true plural, as in<br />
Z have found three oats. The singular is also<br />
used for the grain in order to make an emphatic<br />
negative, as in the horses would not to.uch an<br />
oat and he had not sown a single wild goat.<br />
The singular out is preferred as the first<br />
element in a compound, as in oatmeal a.nd out<br />
grass.<br />
329 object<br />
0<br />
still the best when there is any doubt as to<br />
which one to use. Numerous is more formal. It<br />
usually refers to a great number, very many<br />
units. Numberless suggests such a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> units that they cannot be counted, that no<br />
exact number can be affixed to them.<br />
nuptial. See matrimonial.<br />
nuptials. See wedding.<br />
When vegetables are spoken <strong>of</strong> in mass the<br />
plural form is used, as in peas, beans, potatoes.<br />
But the mass words for cereals, wheat, burley,<br />
corn, rice, and so on, are grammatical singulars.<br />
The only exceptions are outs and groats or grits,<br />
both <strong>of</strong> which originally meant oats. This has<br />
led some people to believe that our forefathers<br />
ate oats whole, like a vegetable, and did not<br />
grind it into meal like the other cereals.<br />
eaves.. See oaf.<br />
object and demur mean to oppose, to disagree<br />
with. To object is to oppose or disagree with in<br />
thought or speech; whereas to demur always<br />
implies speech (Zf you don’t object, I’d like to<br />
think this over. Before you demur, let me<br />
explain my position). To object may imply<br />
violent opposition; whereas demur implies<br />
quieter, more dignified opposition, or perhaps<br />
less certainty in the opposition (I object to this<br />
procedure and will withdraw my support. Z<br />
must demur at this unnecessary haste).<br />
The special meaning <strong>of</strong> demur is an interesting<br />
illustration <strong>of</strong> the way in which an older<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a word may lie concealed within<br />
it, as it were, unperceived but shaping its use.<br />
To demur originally meant to delay (They dare<br />
not demur nor abide), a meaning that survives<br />
in the technical word demurrage, the charge<br />
made for the detention <strong>of</strong> ships or railroad cars.<br />
Then it came to mean to pause in uncertainty,<br />
to delay by suggesting scruples or difficulties,<br />
by objecting irresolutely or taking exceptions<br />
(My process was always very simple-in their<br />
younger days, ‘twas “Jack, do this”; if he<br />
demurred, Z knocked him down: and if he<br />
grumbled at that, Z always sent him out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
room--Sheridan, The Rivals, 1775). From that<br />
it was a short distance to the contemporary<br />
meaning.<br />
In law to demur has the special meaning <strong>of</strong> to<br />
interpose a demurrer (The plaintiff demurred,<br />
that is to say, admitted [the] plea to be true in<br />
fact, but denied that it was a sufficient answer).<br />
Object may be followed by the preposition to<br />
and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z object to suying<br />
anything which may compromise that lady.<br />
It is occasionally followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
we object to puss Sundays in a state <strong>of</strong> coma.
objective 330<br />
The noun objection is also heard in both constructions,<br />
as in I have no objection to doing<br />
it and you understand my objection to go<br />
through with it. The infinitive construction is<br />
condemned by many grammarians but it is used<br />
by Shaw and other modern writers and is therefore<br />
acceptable English. However, the -ing form<br />
is generally preferred.<br />
objective. See target.<br />
objective pronouns. There are six objective pr@<br />
nouns, me, us, him, her, them, and whom.<br />
The formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar require these<br />
objective forms (and not their subjective counterparts)<br />
whenever the word is used as: (1) the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb (We saw them); (2) the object<br />
<strong>of</strong> a preposition (We talked to them) ; (3) an<br />
indirect object (We gave them some apples).<br />
In standard English practice the objective<br />
forms can always be used except when the word<br />
is standing in a subject position.<br />
With one exception, an object never stands<br />
in a subject position. Therefore, with this one<br />
exception, the objective forms are always used<br />
where the rules call for them. The exception<br />
is the word whom which usually precedes the<br />
verb, as in whom do you like best? and whom<br />
are you looking for?. The subjective form who<br />
is preferred in sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind. See who<br />
and whom.<br />
But in standard practice the objective forms<br />
are also used where the rules do not call for<br />
them. In general, objective pronouns which<br />
break the rules can be justified on the grounds<br />
<strong>of</strong> good usage. Again, the word whom is an<br />
exception. When this word is not required by<br />
the formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, it is also contrary<br />
to good usage and therefore cannot be defended.<br />
Whom is wrong, theoretically and practically,<br />
in sentences such as whom is it?.<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a preposition. The noun or noun equivalent<br />
that unites with a preposition to form a<br />
qualifying or descriptive phrase is called the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> the preposition. Wings and wind are<br />
the objects <strong>of</strong> the prepositions on and <strong>of</strong> in<br />
hang weights on the wings <strong>of</strong> the wind.<br />
A preposition is said to “govern” its object<br />
because the preposition determines the case <strong>of</strong><br />
the object in languages that show case. This<br />
has practically no meaning in English. At most<br />
it would mean that the six subjective pronouns<br />
cannot be used as the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition.<br />
Many grammarians claim that this is true. In<br />
practice, educated people do not use a subjective<br />
pronoun as an object following a preposition.<br />
Since the pronouns that show case usually<br />
follow the preposition, the two rules amount to<br />
the same thing most <strong>of</strong> the time. But occasionally<br />
a pronoun that shows case precedes the<br />
preposition. Then the subjective rather than the<br />
objective form is preferred, despite the protests<br />
<strong>of</strong> the grammarians. See who and whom.<br />
The relation between a preposition and its<br />
object has nothing in common with the relation<br />
between a verb and its object. Some grammarians<br />
do not like to use the term object for<br />
two such different relations and prefer to speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> the regimen <strong>of</strong> a preposition.<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb.<br />
MEANING<br />
Some verbs, such as swim, laugh, sleep,<br />
express a complete idea and may occur as the<br />
last word in a normal declarative sentence, such<br />
as he is sleeping. But there are some verbs, such<br />
as make, like, take, which require additional<br />
words in order to express a complete idea. A<br />
word or group <strong>of</strong> words without which the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a verb is incomplete is called the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> the verb, such as noise in he is making<br />
a noise.<br />
An adverb, such as suddenly in he suddenly<br />
made a noise, also affects the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb, but not to the same extent that the object<br />
does. The object completes the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb; the adverb qualifies it. Without the object,<br />
the statement would have no meaning; without<br />
the adverb, it would be too broad or too crude.<br />
A verb which has an object is called a transitive<br />
verb, and the action <strong>of</strong> the verb is said to<br />
“pass over” to the object. A verb which does<br />
not have an object is called intransitive. In<br />
English a great many verbs may be either transitive<br />
or intransitive, as in he is playing ball and<br />
he is playing; he is reading the newspaper and<br />
he is reading.<br />
A linking verb-that is, a verb meaning be,<br />
seem, or becomedoes not express a complete<br />
idea without some additional words. But, unlike<br />
a transitive verb, it does not name an action.<br />
The words which follow a linking verb, such<br />
as captain in he has become a captain, are more<br />
closely related to the subject than they are to<br />
the verb itself. Traditionally, such words are<br />
called the complement <strong>of</strong> the verb but not its<br />
object. This distinction has no meaning in<br />
English except when the complement is a<br />
personal pronoun. The rules <strong>of</strong> Latin grammar<br />
require an objective pronoun for the object <strong>of</strong><br />
a transitive verb and a subjective pronoun for<br />
the complement <strong>of</strong> a linking verb. Many grammarians<br />
claim that these rules should also be<br />
observed in English. But the practice in English<br />
is to use a subjective pronoun before a verb<br />
and an objective pronoun after a verb, regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> whether the verb is transitive or linking.<br />
KINDS<br />
Sometimes the object <strong>of</strong> a verb merely<br />
repeats an idea already expressed by the verb,<br />
as song in we will sing a song. These are called<br />
cognate objects. Sometimes the full verb idea<br />
requires two objects, such as him and prisoner<br />
in they took him prisoner. In this case, the<br />
second object may be called an objective complement.<br />
In sing us a song we have an entirely<br />
different situation. Here the word US is not the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> sing in the sense in which we are<br />
using the word object. It is called an indirect<br />
object, and for this reason the true object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb is sometimes called a direct object. See<br />
indirect object.<br />
As a rule, the object <strong>of</strong> a verb is more than<br />
a single word. It may be a noun and all the<br />
qualifying words that go with it, as in she shot<br />
her man who was doing her wrong. Here, all<br />
except the first two words are the object <strong>of</strong> shot.
In a case like this we say that the word man<br />
is “the simple object.” Some verbs maty be<br />
followed by a noun and the simple form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in let the lady pass. Some may take<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb as object, as in Z enjoy<br />
dancing; some may take a to-infinitive, as in<br />
Z want fo dance; and some may take a full<br />
clause, as in Z believe Z will dance. Very <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
a verb that is standard English with one kind <strong>of</strong><br />
object is not standard with another. For<br />
example, Z enjoy to dance is unnatural English.<br />
Z want that you should dance is heard but is<br />
not standard. Infinitives are <strong>of</strong>ten used in the<br />
United States where an -ing form is required in<br />
Great Britain. The verbs that people are most<br />
likely to be uncertain about in this respect are<br />
listed in this dictionary. (See the individual<br />
verb.)<br />
POSITION<br />
The object <strong>of</strong> a verb usually follows after the<br />
verb without a break <strong>of</strong> any kind except for<br />
an indirect object, such as us in sing us a song.<br />
No other element in a sentence can be placed<br />
between the verb and its object without creating<br />
a break which may be fatal to the sense.<br />
In lob cursed the day that he was bor.q the<br />
word day is the simple object <strong>of</strong> cursed. But in<br />
Job cursed, the day that he was born the comma<br />
break destroys the verb-object relation and day<br />
becomes an adverb <strong>of</strong> time. To some extent, the<br />
same result would follow if an adverb such as<br />
bitterly had separated the verb and object, instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> a comma. Usually two meanings aren’t<br />
possible for the same sentence and a break <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind is not actually misleading. But it is<br />
always undesirable and should be avoided.<br />
A direct object may also stand as the first<br />
element in a sentence or clause. An interrogative<br />
pronoun or a noun qualified by an interrogative<br />
adjective must always have this position,<br />
regardless <strong>of</strong> its relation to the verb, as in<br />
what do you want? and which book did you<br />
read?. When the object is not an interrogative,<br />
this front position is unusual and extremely<br />
emphatic, as in talent, Mr. Micawber has; capital,<br />
Mr. Micawber has not.<br />
obligate. As an adjective, obligate means bound<br />
or constrained. It is used chiefly as a biological<br />
term to mean restricted to a particular condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> life, as certain parasites which must live in<br />
close association with their usual hosts in order<br />
to survive (An obligate parasite is one that is<br />
<strong>of</strong> necessity parasitical).<br />
oblige may be followed by an infinitive, as in he<br />
obliged us to go, but not by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb or bv a clause.<br />
oblige; obligate. To obligate is to bind morally<br />
or legally (The treaty <strong>of</strong> Deuce oblieates the<br />
United States to umiertak; the release <strong>of</strong> all<br />
Spanish prisoners. You are obligated to pay the<br />
tax, whether you like it or not). In former times<br />
it was used as a synonym for oblige (I am<br />
much obligated by the trouble you have taken<br />
-1810) but this is no longer standard usage.<br />
Oblige is a broader and more inclusive te;m<br />
than obligate. Basically, it means to require or<br />
constrain, as the law, a command, duty, or<br />
-<br />
oblivious<br />
necessity does. When one <strong>of</strong> the Duke <strong>of</strong><br />
Queensberry’s servants who had answered the<br />
bell and had then been ignored, timidly asked<br />
His Grace if he wanted anything, the irascible<br />
duke shouted, G-d d-m you, am Z obliged to tell<br />
you what Z want? Among other senses, oblige<br />
conveys the idea <strong>of</strong> conferring a favor (You<br />
will greatly oblige me if you return the book<br />
promptly).<br />
Much obliged, though <strong>of</strong>ten spoken with sincere<br />
gratitude, is a sort <strong>of</strong> democratic evasion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the acknowledgment <strong>of</strong> the even temporary<br />
inferiority thought to be implicit in an open<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> thanks. Visitors to America in the<br />
early days <strong>of</strong> the republic were struck by the<br />
unwillingness <strong>of</strong> the Americans to say “Thank<br />
you.” The people were <strong>of</strong>ten friendly and obliging<br />
in the extreme, yet their sense <strong>of</strong> independence<br />
made them far more willing to confer than<br />
to accept favors and reluctant to acknowledge<br />
the acceptance when one had to be accepted.<br />
Much obliged is a sort <strong>of</strong> halfway thanks; it<br />
acknowledges an obligation and feels that sufficient<br />
gratitude is displayed in the acknowledgment.<br />
See also appreciate, thank you.<br />
oblique; obliqueness; obliquity. Oblique is an adjective<br />
meaning neither perpendicular nor parallel<br />
to a given line or surface, but slanting or<br />
sloping (Since he set a course oblique to the<br />
convoy, he was soon far behind it). By extension<br />
it acquired the figurative meanings <strong>of</strong> indirectly<br />
stated or expressed (These oblique<br />
accusations were the more galling because they<br />
could not be answered directly), or deviating,<br />
especially morally or mentally, from the<br />
straight course <strong>of</strong> rectitude (He prospered by<br />
oblique means).<br />
Obliqueness is the noun commonly used to<br />
characterize the literal sense <strong>of</strong> oblique (The<br />
obliqueness <strong>of</strong> the intersection had been the<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> many accidents). Obliquity suggests<br />
the figurative senses <strong>of</strong> oblique, that is, divergence<br />
from moral rectitude, mental perversity,<br />
or deviation from directness in action or speech<br />
(The perverseness and obliquity <strong>of</strong> my will.<br />
The insoltznce <strong>of</strong> benefaction terminates not in<br />
negative rudeness or obliquities <strong>of</strong> insult. The<br />
obliquities <strong>of</strong> diplomatic negotiation make it a<br />
process particularly unsuited to the blunt, the<br />
direct, and the impatient).<br />
oblique case. This term is used variously to mean<br />
any case except the nominative, any case except<br />
the nominative and vocative, or any case except<br />
the nominative, vocative and accusative. So far<br />
as English nouns are concerned, the oblique<br />
case is the genitive. The word may or may not<br />
include the six objective pronouns, depending<br />
on who is using the term.<br />
oblivious; forgetful; unmindful. The basic sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> oblivious is forgetful, without remembrance<br />
(Faust, under the influence <strong>of</strong> Mephistopheles,<br />
was oblivious <strong>of</strong> his life as a scholar). American<br />
usage permits the sense <strong>of</strong> unmindful, heedless<br />
(He was oblivious <strong>of</strong> his responsibilities), while<br />
British usage permits only the more carefully<br />
restricted sense <strong>of</strong> no longer mindful, forgotten.<br />
Furthermore American usage countenances the
obloquy<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> unconscious and, despite the indignant<br />
protests <strong>of</strong> Fowler, Partridge, and Sir A. P.<br />
Herbert, permits oblivion in this sense to be<br />
followed by either <strong>of</strong> or to (She was oblivious<br />
<strong>of</strong> his infatuation. She was oblivious to his<br />
attentions). In sum, oblivious can be synonymous<br />
with forgetful and unmindful. Like forgetful<br />
and unmindful, it may be followed by a<br />
clause without a preposition, as in he was oblivious<br />
how closely his humanitarianism bordered<br />
on sentimentality.<br />
obloquy. See abuse.<br />
obnoxious. See noxious.<br />
obscenity. See blasphemy.<br />
obscure. See mysterious.<br />
obsequies. An obsequy is a funeral rite or ceremony.<br />
It is almost always used in the plural.<br />
Funeral obsequies is redundant. Obsequies is a<br />
word <strong>of</strong> high solemnity and rather pretentious<br />
and a little consciously elegant when applied to<br />
the ordinary funeral service. Since funerals are,<br />
however, commonly times when elegance and<br />
splendor are thought fitting, the very faults <strong>of</strong><br />
the word may make it harmonious with the<br />
occasions to which it is applied.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the finest scenes in American literature<br />
is when the duke, in Huckleberry Finn,<br />
tries to persuade the king to substitute obsequies<br />
for the more original term orgies. But the king<br />
is too skilful a master <strong>of</strong> hokum and false<br />
etymology to have to admit a fault.<br />
I say orgies [he blandly observes], not because<br />
it’s the common term, because it ain’t<br />
--obsequies bein’ the common term-but<br />
because orgies is the right term. Obsequies<br />
ain’t used in England no more now-it’s gone<br />
out. We say orgies now in England. Orgies is<br />
better, because if means the thing you’re after<br />
more exact. It’s a word that’s made up out’n<br />
the Greek orgo, outside, open, abroad; and<br />
the Hebrew jeesum, to plant, cover up; hence<br />
inter. So, you see, funeral orgies is an open<br />
or public funeral.<br />
As Huck says, “He was the worst I ever<br />
struck.”<br />
observance; observation. Observance describes<br />
the action <strong>of</strong> conforming to or following (A<br />
wise couch insists on the observance <strong>of</strong> training<br />
rules), the keeping or celebrating by appropriate<br />
procedure, ceremonies, etc. (The observance<br />
<strong>of</strong> Easter . . .).<br />
Observation describes the act <strong>of</strong> noticing or<br />
perceiving, <strong>of</strong> regarding attentively (The observation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the habits <strong>of</strong> birds has brought to<br />
light some very curious facts), or the faculty<br />
or habit <strong>of</strong> noticing or observing (His powers<br />
<strong>of</strong> observation were highly developed), or an<br />
utterance or remark presumably based upon<br />
observing (These unfriendly observations were<br />
not well received by the sullen crowd). See also<br />
remark.<br />
observe. When this verb is used in an active form<br />
it may be followed by an object and the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I observed him stop, by<br />
an object and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
I observed him stopping, or by a clause, as in<br />
I observed he stopped. When it is used in a<br />
passive form it may be followed by a toinfinitive,<br />
as in he was observed to stop or by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he was observed<br />
stopping.<br />
obsolete; obsolescent. That is obsolete which is<br />
no longer used, has been discarded, is out <strong>of</strong><br />
date. That is obsolescent which is becoming out<br />
<strong>of</strong> use, is in the process <strong>of</strong> being discarded, is<br />
to all appearances going out <strong>of</strong> date. If a word<br />
is obsolete it is not used any more or is not<br />
used in a certain sense any more. There is very<br />
little dispute about whether or not a certain<br />
word is obsolete. Obsolescent, however, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
reflects merely an opinion, an estimate, an<br />
assumption. It is nowhere near so certain a<br />
word as obsolete. There can be wide differences<br />
<strong>of</strong> opinion as to whether or not a word is obsolescent.<br />
It may, for instance, be going out <strong>of</strong><br />
use in one part <strong>of</strong> the country, or in one social<br />
group, but flourishing in others.<br />
obstacle, meaning something that stands in the<br />
way or obstructs progress, is properly followed<br />
by the preposition to (His reluctance to compromise<br />
is an obstncle to his political success).<br />
obstacle; obstruction; biudrance; impediment. An<br />
obstacle is something material or non-material<br />
which stands in the way <strong>of</strong> literal or figurative<br />
progress (The great obstacle to progress is<br />
prejudice. A roadblock was the first obstacle<br />
to the tank column’s advance). An obstruction<br />
is something that more or less completely<br />
blocks a passage (An obstruction <strong>of</strong> the bowels<br />
precipitated his death). When used figuratively,<br />
it <strong>of</strong>ten carries the suggestion <strong>of</strong> something that<br />
has been put in the way intentionally (These<br />
delays seem a deliberate obstruction <strong>of</strong> justice).<br />
A hindrance is something which hinders or<br />
holds back (It is a question whether language<br />
has been an aid or a hindrance to knowledge.<br />
The fetters. . which he had been unable to break<br />
<strong>of</strong>f, proved a hindrance to his escape). An impediment<br />
is derived from the Latin for a burden<br />
which by its weight shackles the feet. Zmpedimenta<br />
was the Latin word for the baggage <strong>of</strong><br />
an army and the word is still occasionally used<br />
in this special sense (The general decided to<br />
go ahead <strong>of</strong> his impedimenta). In the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> an obstacle, therefore, an impediment does<br />
not so much obstruct as hinder by being a<br />
burden (Those impediments provided for my<br />
hindrance . . .). In the sense <strong>of</strong> something that<br />
impedes the functions or health <strong>of</strong> the body,<br />
impediment is marked obsolete in the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong> which, however, admits it<br />
in the special sense <strong>of</strong> stuttering as an impediment<br />
in the speech. In the United States impediment<br />
in this sense (His defective hearing proved<br />
a severe impediment in his college work) is<br />
standard.<br />
obtain. See get and secure.<br />
obtrude. See intrude.<br />
obvious. See apparent.<br />
occurrence. See event, happening.<br />
octopus. The plural is octopuses or octopodes or<br />
octopi. Octopuses is good English, Octopodes<br />
is good Greek. Octopi is an incorrectly formed
plural that has been in use so long that it has<br />
now become standard.<br />
octoroon. See mulatto.<br />
oculist; ophthalmologist; optician; optometrist.<br />
An oculist is a doctor <strong>of</strong> medicine skilled in the<br />
examination and treatment <strong>of</strong> the eye. The<br />
term is synonymous with ophthnlmologist, a<br />
doctor <strong>of</strong> medicine skilled in ophthalmology,<br />
which is the science dealing with the anatomy,<br />
functions, and diseases <strong>of</strong> the eye.<br />
An optician is one who makes glasses for<br />
remedying defects <strong>of</strong> vision, in accordance with<br />
the prescriptions <strong>of</strong> oculists and optometrists.<br />
He may also be a seller <strong>of</strong> optical glasses and<br />
instruments. An optomefrist is one skilled in<br />
optometry, the practice or art <strong>of</strong> testing the<br />
eyes, by means <strong>of</strong> suitable instruments or appliances<br />
(usually without the use <strong>of</strong> drugs), for<br />
defects <strong>of</strong> vision.<br />
odd; strange; peculiar; queer. All <strong>of</strong> these adjectives<br />
describe something which is not ordinary.<br />
That which is odd is irregular or unconventional,<br />
and sometimes approaches the bizarre<br />
(His odd hut and bulbous nose made him an<br />
object <strong>of</strong> amusement). Strange implies that the<br />
thing or its cause is unknown or unexplained.<br />
It is unfamiliar and unusual and since the unfamiliar<br />
and the unusual are <strong>of</strong>ten frightening,<br />
the word, in many contexts, has connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> alarm (It was a strange object, about three<br />
by five inches and very heavy. Strange, that<br />
he shouldn’t be home by now; he’s always here<br />
by six). Peculiar emphasizes the existence <strong>of</strong><br />
qualities not shared by others (Zr was his<br />
peculiar virtue never to be afraid. He had a<br />
peculiar grin on his fnce that boded no good).<br />
Qlceer sometimes adds to odd the suggestion <strong>of</strong><br />
something abnormal or eccentric (He’s a queer<br />
duck. There are some queer things going on<br />
around here). In American today queer carries<br />
connotations <strong>of</strong> sexual deviation and therefore<br />
should be used <strong>of</strong> persons, particularly males,<br />
seldom and with discretion. See also funny,<br />
quaint.<br />
odd has as one <strong>of</strong> its meanings “additional to a<br />
whole mentioned in round numbers; being a<br />
surplus over a definite quantity.” To convey<br />
the idea that there are 100 and a few more<br />
people, write loo-odd people or 100 and odd<br />
people. The phrase 100 odd people is ambiguous<br />
and therefore to be avoided, for it may indicate<br />
a number in excess <strong>of</strong> 100 or merely 100<br />
eccentric people. See also su5ixes.<br />
odds, as a term used in comparing probabilities,<br />
has no singular form. It is ordinarily treated as<br />
a plural today, as in the odds are good. Formerly<br />
it was sometimes treated as a singular.<br />
This is heard today only in the expression what’s<br />
the odds?-meaning “is there any difference?”<br />
odds and ends. The phrase used to be odd ends,<br />
or remnants <strong>of</strong> cloth, fragments, pieces cut <strong>of</strong>f<br />
or things broken <strong>of</strong>f, extraneous or additional to<br />
what is taken into account. Odds and ends seems<br />
to have been an improvement, a result probably<br />
<strong>of</strong> euphony, <strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century. When<br />
used <strong>of</strong> miscellaneous articles <strong>of</strong> no great value<br />
it is now so established as to be practically a<br />
333 <strong>of</strong> course<br />
word in itself and it is hard to see how it could<br />
be avoided without circumlocution. But in its<br />
figurative extensions (Having picked up several<br />
odds and ends/ Of free fhorcghts) it is hackneyed.<br />
odor; odour; odorous. The American spelling is<br />
odor, with odour admitted as a variant. The<br />
British spelling is odour. In both countries the<br />
adjective is odorous.<br />
An odor is usually a fragrant odor. An unpleasant<br />
odor is usually designated by an adjective<br />
(a rank odor, a foul odor). Odorous is<br />
even more strictly confined to pleasant fragrances,<br />
since it has its opposite malodorous.<br />
<strong>of</strong>. Until a few hundred years ago <strong>of</strong> and <strong>of</strong>f were<br />
merely different pronunciations <strong>of</strong> the same<br />
word. Beginning with the physical meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
“out from,” the word was used to indicate<br />
origin or source. It was later used to translate<br />
the Latin genitive case and so acquired all the<br />
meanings expressed in Latin by the genitive.<br />
Today the form <strong>of</strong> is the principal word for<br />
showing a relation between nouns, as in a hnir<br />
<strong>of</strong> the dog, or between adjectives and nouns, as<br />
in full <strong>of</strong>, sick <strong>of</strong>. It sometimes expresses one<br />
<strong>of</strong> its original meanings, such as origin or cause,<br />
as in ashamed <strong>of</strong>, or separation, as in free <strong>of</strong>,<br />
but it is used most <strong>of</strong>ten to express one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
genitive relations. See genitive case.<br />
Of is also used with some verbs and may<br />
show any <strong>of</strong> the types <strong>of</strong> relations that it does<br />
between nouns. Frequently it means “concerning,”<br />
as in I have not heard the Eroica but I<br />
have heard <strong>of</strong> it. It was once used with certain<br />
verbs to mean “some but not all,” as in taste <strong>of</strong><br />
the soup and accept <strong>of</strong> my hospitality. Such<br />
precise, or cautious, statements are now out <strong>of</strong><br />
style and these compounds have a decidedly oldfashioned<br />
tone. But it is still used in a related<br />
sense to weaken the meaning <strong>of</strong> a verb. What<br />
verbs are conventionally weakened in this way<br />
varies with time. A century ago people said<br />
1 approve him and I disapprove your choice,<br />
where we now use <strong>of</strong>. But we now say remember<br />
and consider where they said remember<br />
<strong>of</strong> and consider <strong>of</strong>. Until recently repenf was<br />
followed by <strong>of</strong> but today the <strong>of</strong> is frequently<br />
dropped.<br />
Of performs too many functions to be a<br />
meaningful word. Some <strong>of</strong> these functions are<br />
being taken over by more specialized prepositions.<br />
At one time <strong>of</strong> was commonly used to<br />
indicate the agent with a passive verb, as in<br />
that face <strong>of</strong> all men feared. It may still be used<br />
in this way but by is now preferred. In many<br />
expressions <strong>of</strong> competes with for, as in love <strong>of</strong>,<br />
covetous <strong>of</strong>, or with from, as in purchase <strong>of</strong>,<br />
borrow <strong>of</strong>. Where both sound right, the more<br />
specialized word is probably better.<br />
<strong>of</strong> course. It is always well to avoid the obvious.<br />
People do not like to be informed <strong>of</strong> what they<br />
already know. When it is necessary to state<br />
some fact that is likely to be known to the<br />
reader or listener, the assumption <strong>of</strong> pompousness<br />
or condescension may be mitigated or removed<br />
by the interposition <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> course, but<br />
the phrase can easily become a bad habit. In
such a sentence as It may have been a coincidence,<br />
<strong>of</strong> course, but if it were it was certainly<br />
an extraordinary one, it is hard to see what<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> course serves more than a rhythmic<br />
pause or a pompous clearing <strong>of</strong> the throat.<br />
<strong>of</strong>f. Originally <strong>of</strong>f was the word <strong>of</strong> pronounced<br />
emphatically. The same difference between a v<br />
and an f sound can be heard today in the<br />
auxiliary verb have, which we sometimes pronounce<br />
hafl. Speaking matter-<strong>of</strong>-factly, we might<br />
say Z have to leave, but when we are insisting<br />
we say Z huff to leave. For many centuries this<br />
was the only difference between <strong>of</strong> and <strong>of</strong>f. (See<br />
<strong>of</strong>.) But eventually the words became independent.<br />
Of kept the vaguer genitive meanings<br />
and is now used only as a preposition, that is,<br />
it is used only with an object. Off kept the older<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> separation or removal from contact<br />
with, and can be used as a preposition, as in<br />
lift it <strong>of</strong>f the shelf; an adverb, as in Z can’t get<br />
it <strong>of</strong>f; or an adjective, as in an <strong>of</strong>f season.<br />
In he bought it <strong>of</strong>7 a peddler, <strong>of</strong>f expresses<br />
the genitive idea <strong>of</strong> source. This use <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
is still acceptable in Great Britain but not in<br />
the United States. In we can make a meal <strong>of</strong>7<br />
sandwiches, <strong>of</strong>f expresses the genitive idea <strong>of</strong><br />
material. This is acceptable only in statements<br />
about eating. All other meanings <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>f are<br />
derived from the idea <strong>of</strong> separation and imply<br />
a discontinuity <strong>of</strong> some kind.<br />
Ofl is related by its meaning to from and by<br />
its history to <strong>of</strong>. Formerly <strong>of</strong>i was <strong>of</strong>ten followed<br />
by <strong>of</strong>, as in lift it <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> the shelf, make<br />
a meal <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> sandwiches. This construction is<br />
still used by educated people in the United<br />
States but is not so used in Great Britain. OfJ<br />
can always be followed by from when the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> separation is involved, as in we got <strong>of</strong>.7 from<br />
work. The combination o# from is heard in<br />
Great Britain more <strong>of</strong>ten than it is in the United<br />
States. Actually neither <strong>of</strong> nor from is ever<br />
necessary after <strong>of</strong>f. We can say simply <strong>of</strong>f the<br />
shelf, <strong>of</strong>,7 sandwiches, <strong>of</strong>i work. This is the preferred<br />
construction in the United States, but<br />
the compounds are also acceptable.<br />
<strong>of</strong>fensive. See insidious.<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer. This verb may be followed by an infmitive,<br />
as in Z <strong>of</strong>fered to go in his place. It is also heard<br />
with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
going in his place, but the infinitive is preferred.<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice (in the sense <strong>of</strong> position). See assignment.<br />
o5cer, in the commonest contemporary sense <strong>of</strong><br />
the word, is one who holds a position <strong>of</strong> rank<br />
or authority in the army, navy, or any similar<br />
organization, especially one who holds a commission<br />
(The unit consisted <strong>of</strong> three <strong>of</strong>ficers and<br />
thirty men. Every time an enlisted man sees an<br />
<strong>of</strong>icer get an extra privilege, it breaks him down<br />
a little more), though there are also petty <strong>of</strong>ficers,<br />
warrant <strong>of</strong>ficers, and noncommissioned<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficers. In its broadest sense, <strong>of</strong>icer designates<br />
one who is invested with an <strong>of</strong>fice. There are<br />
corporation <strong>of</strong>ficers and municipal <strong>of</strong>ficers, 05cers<br />
on a ship (these are more like army and<br />
navy <strong>of</strong>ficers) and peace <strong>of</strong>ficers. It is in this last<br />
category that policemen fall and the addressing<br />
<strong>of</strong> a policeman as <strong>of</strong>icer is more a slight<br />
archaism than the compliment it is <strong>of</strong>ten thought<br />
to be. Every policeman is an <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> the law<br />
and may be addressed as <strong>of</strong>ficer, but with the<br />
introduction into most police forces now <strong>of</strong> a<br />
gradation <strong>of</strong> rank similar to and modeled after<br />
that <strong>of</strong> the army, the word is coming to be<br />
applied to those in the force who hold ranks<br />
equal to those that would cause their holders<br />
in the army to be considered <strong>of</strong>ficers. The<br />
chances are that this tendency will increase with<br />
the increasing gradation <strong>of</strong> the police forces.<br />
If so, a new polite form <strong>of</strong> address for the<br />
common policeman will have to be found.<br />
olcial; <strong>of</strong>ficious. Ofhcial means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining<br />
to an <strong>of</strong>fice or position <strong>of</strong> duty, trust, or authority<br />
(His <strong>of</strong>icial powers were quite limited),<br />
authorized or issued authoritatively (The <strong>of</strong>icial<br />
report was eagerly awaited), holding <strong>of</strong>fice<br />
(He had no <strong>of</strong>icial capacity), appointed or authorized<br />
to act in a special capacity (He was at<br />
the convention as an <strong>of</strong>hcial delegate).<br />
O&ions formerly meant ready to serve,<br />
ready to exercise one’s appointed function.<br />
When Dr. Johnson in his elegy on his friend<br />
Robert Levett (1782) referred to Levett as<br />
<strong>of</strong>icious, innocent, sincere, he did not mean<br />
that Levett (who was a sort <strong>of</strong> amateur doctor)<br />
was meddlesome or intrusive but simply that<br />
he was always willing to help. It is a sad commentary<br />
on human nature, on either the vanity<br />
<strong>of</strong> many who give or the ingratitude <strong>of</strong> many<br />
who receive aid, that the word now connotes<br />
forwardness in <strong>of</strong>fering help, a fussy obtrusion<br />
<strong>of</strong> unwanted assistance (This <strong>of</strong>icious bustling<br />
about, with here a nod and there a gesture <strong>of</strong><br />
encouragement, was vastly annoying to most<br />
<strong>of</strong> those present).<br />
Generalizing on current usage, one can say<br />
that <strong>of</strong>icial is a general descriptive term, <strong>of</strong>icious<br />
an emotionally charged term imputing<br />
blame. In diplomatic usage, however, <strong>of</strong>bcious<br />
has a distinctly different meaning. Ofjiciul in<br />
diplomatic usage retains its usual sense <strong>of</strong> formal,<br />
authorized; but <strong>of</strong>icious, with no connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> meddlesomeness, *means informal,<br />
unauthorized, not binding-the very antithesis<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>icial.<br />
<strong>of</strong>fspring is properly plural (The <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> this<br />
union were five boys and three girls). It has<br />
been used so much as a singular, .however<br />
(Have you ever met our <strong>of</strong>fspring, Jimmy,<br />
girls?), that this usage is accepted as standard,<br />
though it usually has a touch <strong>of</strong> the labored or<br />
facetious about it. The word is used <strong>of</strong> a child<br />
or animal in relation to its parent or parents<br />
or to designate a descendant or descendants<br />
collectively. By extension the word may mean<br />
the product, result or effect <strong>of</strong> something<br />
(Xanadu was supposedly the <strong>of</strong>fspring <strong>of</strong> an<br />
opium dream).<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten and frequently may be used interchangeably<br />
in most contexts but, where they differ, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
is simpler and stronger. It suggests numerous<br />
repetitions and, sometimes, regularity <strong>of</strong> recurrence<br />
(I <strong>of</strong>ten visit my uncle who lives there).<br />
Frequently suggests repetition at short inter-
vals (It happens frequently and I have warned<br />
him <strong>of</strong> the consequences). Though frequently<br />
is the longer word, it has the advantage <strong>of</strong><br />
having the adjective frequent. Often used to<br />
appear as an adjective (as in By <strong>of</strong>ten use we<br />
accustom ourselves to hardship), but this use<br />
is now obsolete.<br />
<strong>of</strong>tentime; <strong>of</strong>tentimes. Today the only acceptable<br />
form is <strong>of</strong>tentimes. Formerly, <strong>of</strong>tentime was<br />
also used, but it is now obsolete.<br />
0. Henrv. William Svdnev Porter nublished his<br />
famous stories unde; the pseudonyh <strong>of</strong> 0. Henry<br />
-not, as it is sometimes erroneously written,<br />
O’Henry (as in A breathless story with an<br />
O’Henry ending was enacted in the streets today).<br />
The 0. Henry ending, which came to be<br />
widely imitated, was a surprise ending, a statement,<br />
usually in the last sentence or two, that<br />
gave a wholly unexpected interpretation to what<br />
had gone before or a wholly unexpected twist<br />
to the action. Wholly unexpected, that is, until<br />
you had read several <strong>of</strong> 0. Henry’s stories.<br />
O.K. There are several spellings: O.K., OK, okay.<br />
The term is used as an adjective (Is it O.K.?),<br />
an adverb (They’re doing O.K. up there, I hear),<br />
a verb (The boss O.K.‘d it), and a noun (Sure,<br />
I got his O.K. or I wouldn’t have started. Here,<br />
you guys, put your O.K.‘s on this page).<br />
Originating in the United States, O.K. has<br />
spread to almost every country on earth. There<br />
is something about the phrase as a term <strong>of</strong><br />
assent or agreement that gives it universal appeal.<br />
It is probably today the most widely used<br />
single term in human speech. Yet it remains a<br />
colloquialism. Used a billion times a day in<br />
informal speech and business notes and letters,<br />
it has not yet been adopted into formal, written<br />
usage and may not be. Approve, endorse, agree,<br />
assent to, confirm, and a host <strong>of</strong> other words<br />
express shades <strong>of</strong> meaning in relation to agreement<br />
and giving consent so that the serious<br />
writer is not willing to give them up for so loose<br />
a blanket term.<br />
Experts disagree on the origin <strong>of</strong> this remarkable<br />
term. Some think it is the Choctaw Indian<br />
okeh, “it is so.” Others would trace it to the<br />
initial letters <strong>of</strong> a humorous or illiterate spelling<br />
<strong>of</strong> “all correct,” 011 Korrect, or to a misreading<br />
<strong>of</strong> O.R., meaning order recorded. It<br />
has been variously ascribed to Andrew Jackson,<br />
John Jacob Astor and one Obadiah Kelly, a<br />
mythical railroad clerk who initialed all the<br />
parcels he accepted for shipment. The explanation<br />
that has the most authoritative backing is<br />
that it derives from the O.K. Club, formed in<br />
1840 by partisans <strong>of</strong> Martin Van Buren who<br />
allegedly named their organization in allusion to<br />
Old Kinderhook, Van Buren having been born<br />
at Kinderhook, N. Y.<br />
O.K. must be accepted in informal speech<br />
and writing. Such slang extensions and derivatives<br />
as oke and okeydoke have not yet achieved<br />
this acceptance.<br />
oid. The comparative form is older or elder. The<br />
superlative form is oldest or eldest. The forms<br />
older and oldest have come into the language<br />
more recently than elder and eldest but are now<br />
the only forms that can be used for most purposes.<br />
Older and oldest may be used <strong>of</strong> persons or<br />
things and usually refer to actual age. Elder and<br />
eldest are now used only in speaking <strong>of</strong> persons<br />
and indicate seniority, or relative date <strong>of</strong> birth,<br />
rather than age. That is, we would say the eldest<br />
son died in infancy and the oldest child now<br />
living was her third.<br />
The form elder cannot be used with than.<br />
We cannot say he is elder than she. But when<br />
used with the article the it may be followed by<br />
an <strong>of</strong> phrase, as in he is the elder <strong>of</strong> the two.<br />
Older may be used with than or in the construction<br />
with <strong>of</strong>. Elder may be used as if it<br />
were a noun, as in she is my elder and the<br />
village elders. Older is never used in this way.<br />
The eldest may be used with <strong>of</strong>, as in the<br />
eldest <strong>of</strong> the children, but the oldest is preferred<br />
in this construction. Both eldest and oldest<br />
may be used as singular nouns, as in the<br />
eldest, I think, is seven. (For the use <strong>of</strong> old with<br />
measures <strong>of</strong> time, such as a child <strong>of</strong> one year<br />
old, see measures.)<br />
old; advanced; ancient; senile; senescent; veteran.<br />
The everyday, serviceable word for one who or<br />
that which is advanced in age is old. It is idiomatic<br />
to say <strong>of</strong> one who died when he was old<br />
that He died in his old age or He died at an<br />
advanced age. To say that he died at an old age<br />
is unidiomatic.<br />
Ancient means <strong>of</strong> or in times long past, especially<br />
before the end <strong>of</strong> the Western Roman<br />
Empire (476 A.D.). Applied to persons, the<br />
word is archaic; it is now restricted to things.<br />
Coleridge’s Ancient Mariner was deliberately<br />
archaic. (There is another word ancient, now<br />
obsolete, in English which sometimes puzzles<br />
the student. It is a corruption, actually, <strong>of</strong> ensign.<br />
So the ancient Pistol in Shakespeare’s<br />
Henry IV and Iago, Othello’s ancient.)<br />
Senile means characteristic <strong>of</strong> old age, especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> the feebleness <strong>of</strong> old age, its mental<br />
and physical weakness and degeneration. It has<br />
become one <strong>of</strong> the cruelest words in the language<br />
and, with the increasing life expectancy<br />
that is prolonging the lives <strong>of</strong> ever increasing<br />
millions, will become increasingly so. Senescent<br />
means growing old, aging. It does not have the<br />
full <strong>of</strong>fensiveness <strong>of</strong> senile, though <strong>of</strong> necessity<br />
it has for the aging an unpleasant sound.<br />
A veteran is one who is aged in experience.<br />
A man may be a veteran <strong>of</strong> love, for example,<br />
at twenty. In the United States it has the special<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> one who has fought in a war, regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> his age or the amount <strong>of</strong> his experience.<br />
old Adam. As a term for the worse aspects <strong>of</strong><br />
human nature, especially its carnality, the old<br />
Adam is a cliche.<br />
old head on young shoulders. To say <strong>of</strong> some<br />
youth who has shown a gravity or wisdom beyond<br />
his years that he has an old head on young<br />
shoulders is to employ a clich.5. It is falling<br />
somewhat into disuse as the wisdom <strong>of</strong> age,<br />
once assumed as axiomatic, is called into question<br />
and might not seem as much a compliment
today as it was always intended to be in former<br />
times.<br />
old school tie. Preparatory schools do not play<br />
as large a part in American life as in English<br />
and the distinctive tie as a symbol <strong>of</strong> loyalty to<br />
the old school and all that it stands for in the<br />
way <strong>of</strong> social position, good form, and so on,<br />
is not commonly known here. However the<br />
sophisticated among the educated picked up the<br />
term, with all its implications <strong>of</strong> derision, from<br />
the brighter young English set <strong>of</strong> the 1920’s and<br />
wore it out. As a serious term it is practically<br />
never heard or seen. As a term <strong>of</strong> amused contempt<br />
it is now a clichk.<br />
oldster. There is condescension in the word oldster.<br />
Formed in ignorant good intentions on<br />
the analogy <strong>of</strong> youngster, it overlooks the fact<br />
that the -s&r suffix usually implies contempt<br />
(gangster, punster, whipster), being, originally,<br />
a feminine suffix (spinster). Now a certain condescension<br />
to children is all right. They are used<br />
to it and it is commonly mitigated by affection.<br />
But oldster has the condescension without the<br />
love, and condescension without love is contempt.<br />
The old and the aged are sad terms, but<br />
at least they have dignity.<br />
Olympian and Olympic, though interchangeable<br />
in former times, are restricted in contemporary<br />
usage to special and distinct meanings. Olympian<br />
means pertaining to or dwelling on Mount<br />
Olympus, as the greater gods <strong>of</strong> Greece (the<br />
Olympian eagle’s vision), or in bearing or manner<br />
like these gods, grand, imposing, dignified<br />
above ordinary human dignity and hence, sometimes,<br />
pompous and condescending in a l<strong>of</strong>ty<br />
way (What . . . Max Miiller . . . calls his Olympian<br />
manners never repelled me). Olympic now<br />
means pertaining to the games held at Olympia<br />
in ancient Greece to honor Zeus (Before Plato<br />
became a philosopher, he had won acclaim at<br />
the Olympic games) or to the modern international<br />
contests that have adopted this name<br />
(He captained the British team at the Olympic<br />
games that year). Olympic can mean pertaining<br />
to Olympia, but when so used it can be ambiguous<br />
as it may also mean pertaining to Mount<br />
Olympus.<br />
omission. See oversight.<br />
omit may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in he omitted reading the second page, or by<br />
an infinitive, as in he omitted to read the second<br />
page. These forms are equally acceptable.<br />
omnibus. The only plural is omnibuses, never<br />
omnibi. See also bus.<br />
on; onto. The primary, physical, meaning <strong>of</strong> on<br />
was “in contact with the surface,” and, later,<br />
usually the upper surface. It was also used to<br />
express motion toward such a position. From<br />
the first meaning, on has developed various uses<br />
relating to the idea <strong>of</strong> support, as in rely on, and<br />
also <strong>of</strong> “time when,” as in on that day. From<br />
the second meaning it has come to express<br />
vaguer ideas, such as towards, as in smile on;<br />
continued motion, as in roll on; and against, as<br />
in knock on.<br />
Today on is <strong>of</strong>ten used with an independent<br />
verb to emphasize the fact that an action was<br />
continuing and not completed, as in she was<br />
darning on a sock, he was working on a poem.<br />
Begin on, improve on, refine on, all suggest an<br />
unending process. It is also used with the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> “against” in speaking <strong>of</strong> something injurious<br />
or undesirable, as in they played a trick<br />
on me, they shut the door on me. Here on is<br />
used in contrast to for which carries the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> “in favor <strong>of</strong>,” as in they played a trick<br />
for me, they shut the door for me. This is sometimes<br />
called the on <strong>of</strong> disadvantage.<br />
As on lost its old meaning <strong>of</strong> direction toward<br />
“on-ness,” this had to be supplied by the<br />
preposition to, as in climb on to the box. Keats<br />
is thought to have been the first person to write<br />
these as a single word onto, and the practice did<br />
not become general until this century. This is<br />
now customary when the two prepositions on<br />
and to have a single object, as in climb onto the<br />
box. When on is simply a qualifying word attached<br />
to the verb and not part <strong>of</strong> a prepositional<br />
phrase, as in they went on to victory, it<br />
must not be joined with to.<br />
once and for all. The “and” in once and for all<br />
seems to have been added solely for rhetorical<br />
emphasis. The phrase used to be once for all.<br />
once; oncet. Oncet is formed on the same pattern<br />
as against, amidst, amongst, but it has never<br />
been standard English. Once is the only acceptable<br />
form.<br />
Ordinarily once is an adverb. It qualifies a<br />
verb and means one time. But in current English<br />
it is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a conjunction, to introduce<br />
a clause, and means when. Yeats uses it<br />
in this sense in once out <strong>of</strong> nature I shall never<br />
take my bodily form from any natural thing.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> the word is condemned by some<br />
grammarians, but it is acceptable in the United<br />
States. Most conjunctions were originally adverbs<br />
and no one should be surprised to see a<br />
new one developing.<br />
one is sometimes a numeral, but it is sometimes<br />
an indefinite adjective and sometimes a pronoun.<br />
One is used as an indefinite pronoun meaning<br />
“a man, a person,” as in one may smile and<br />
smile and be a villain. In Great Britain one in<br />
this sense is now considered a bookish word<br />
and a man is preferred in speech and informal<br />
writing. But in Great Britain today this one,<br />
when it is used, can only be referred back to<br />
by another form <strong>of</strong> the same pronoun, as in<br />
one has to take care <strong>of</strong> oneself and one’s family<br />
if one can. In the United States this one is used<br />
in speech as well as in writing, and is regularly<br />
referred to by a form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun he. Using<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> he after one was standard practice in<br />
England from the time <strong>of</strong> Oueen Elizabeth to<br />
the-time <strong>of</strong> Victoria and is siill standard in the<br />
United States. John Dewey in discussing automatic<br />
responses writes: one n<strong>of</strong>es, for example,<br />
a motor car bearing down on him. An English<br />
editor would have changed this him to one. An<br />
American editor would be more likely to change<br />
a one in this position to him.
Except when it refers indefinitely to a human<br />
being, the pronoun one is anaphoric, that is, it<br />
is always used in place <strong>of</strong> a noun that has been<br />
mentioned a short time before. In this use., one<br />
has the plural ones and the genitive one’s. It<br />
may be qualified by the, a, or any other adjective,<br />
as in the good ones, the other ones, a ripe<br />
one. It may even be qualified by the number<br />
one, as in one good one. A one is an emphatic<br />
form <strong>of</strong> one. The phrase is considered redundant<br />
by some people but it has been used at least<br />
since Elizabethan times, as in there’s not a one<br />
<strong>of</strong> them but in his house I keep a servant jee’d,<br />
and is standard in the United States today.<br />
One is <strong>of</strong>ten used after an adjective that is<br />
parallel to a preceding adjective and noun, as<br />
in the big bear and the little one, this book and<br />
that one. This construction is possible when we<br />
are speaking <strong>of</strong> individual, countable things,<br />
but not when we are using a mass word, such<br />
as bzztter in this butter and that. Modern grammarians<br />
say that in this construction one is a<br />
“prop word.” It is logically unnecessary but<br />
required by our feeling for words which demands<br />
some noun equivalent after these a’djectives.<br />
Fifty or seventy years ago the construction<br />
was considered pleonastic. (See pleonasm,) It<br />
is now standard English.<br />
The pronoun one is always singular and the<br />
adjective one always qualifies a singular noun.<br />
One is usually followed by a singular verb.<br />
Although the subject is logically plural we ordinarily<br />
use a singular verb after more than one,<br />
as in more than one is broken. Theoretically,<br />
a singular verb is required because the subject<br />
is the word one and more than is merely a qualifying<br />
phrase. And practically, the singular verb<br />
feels right because the word one is standing<br />
immediately before it. With a phrase such as<br />
one olct <strong>of</strong> ten we have a different situation and<br />
either a singular or a plural may be used. We<br />
may say one oz4t <strong>of</strong> ten is or one out <strong>of</strong> ten are.<br />
In speaking <strong>of</strong> people the plural form is preferred.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> must be followed by a plural noun,<br />
and this may be followed by a descriptive<br />
clause. When it is, the clause verb should, logically,<br />
be plural, as in one <strong>of</strong> the best books<br />
that have appeared. Actually, a singular is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used here, as in one <strong>of</strong> the best books that has<br />
appeared. This construction is condemned by<br />
many grammarians on the grounds <strong>of</strong> logic. But<br />
it is found in the earliest English and has been<br />
used by some <strong>of</strong> the greatest writers. It shows<br />
that the writer still has one in mind. Shelley<br />
wrote: I am one <strong>of</strong> those who am unable to<br />
refuse my assent. Here the word I has overridden<br />
one and those. This is unusual. But in<br />
the United States the more familiar construction,<br />
using a third person singular verb, (does<br />
not <strong>of</strong>fend anyone except grammarians.<br />
When numerals are being written in figures<br />
the symbol 1 must not be used for the word one<br />
unless it actually represents a numeral. The<br />
pronoun one is almost never a numeral, although<br />
occasionally it may be, as in somew.here<br />
among those hundreds <strong>of</strong> letters was my one.<br />
The adjective one is <strong>of</strong>ten a numeral, but not<br />
always. It may be no more than a particularizing<br />
adjective, as in one man’s meat is another<br />
man’s poison. The numeral one always means<br />
“one and one only.” It usually stands in contrast<br />
to some other number word, such as three,<br />
several, many. In speech the numeral one has<br />
a particular stress that the word does not have<br />
when it is not a number.<br />
The one . . . the other is an ambiguous form<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech. In a man and a woman were coming<br />
down the road: the one was about twenty years<br />
old and the other, twice that age, we cannot be<br />
sure whether it is the woman or the man who<br />
is twenty years old. On theoretical grounds, the<br />
one should mean the first and the other should<br />
mean the second, but we can’t be sure that the<br />
writer knew this. And what is more to the<br />
point, if we are doing the writing, we can’t<br />
assume that the reader will know this. The<br />
words are sometimes used to mean the first . . .<br />
the second, and sometimes to mean the reverse,<br />
this one . . . that one. They should therefore be<br />
avoided except where the context makes the<br />
meaning clear.<br />
one another. See each other.<br />
one foot in the grave. To say <strong>of</strong> someone feeble<br />
with age or mortally stricken with a serious<br />
sickness that he has one foot in the grave is to<br />
employ a worn expression.<br />
one touch <strong>of</strong> nature makes the whole world kin<br />
is usually spoken as if it meant that any appeal<br />
to the simple, basic emotions will, by the immensity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the response, show the basic kinship<br />
<strong>of</strong> all men, their common humanity, the power<br />
<strong>of</strong> sympathy. The expression, however, is a line<br />
from Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cressida (III,<br />
iii, 17.5). spoken by the cynical Ulysses. It is<br />
there a part <strong>of</strong> a passage which says that one<br />
natural trait shows the kinship <strong>of</strong> all men and<br />
this natural trait is inconstancy and a continued<br />
preference for anything new and gaudy, however<br />
worthless, over anything older <strong>of</strong> more<br />
solid worth.<br />
oneself. This word was formerly written one’s<br />
self. The old spelling is still acceptable, but the<br />
newer oneself is preferred. (For the ways in<br />
which oneself may be used, see reflexive pronouns.)<br />
only. This word may be an adjective, an adverb,<br />
or a conjunction. The adjective only means sole<br />
or single <strong>of</strong> its kind and always stands before<br />
the noun it qualifies, as in his only friend. In<br />
current English the word has no comparative or<br />
superlative form although it was once possible<br />
to say tlze onliest method.<br />
The adverb only is a negative and means<br />
“not anything except” or “nothing except.”<br />
When it qualifies an individual element in a<br />
sentence it may stand before or after that element,<br />
as in only here and here only. It may be<br />
used.to qualify the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in<br />
onlv children believe this. The word is not an<br />
adjective here because it in no way limits the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the word children. On the con-
OdY<br />
trary, the sentence says “no adults believe this.”<br />
(The adjective only in this sentence would refer<br />
to children who have no brothers or sisters and<br />
would not be used except after a definitive<br />
adjective such as these, .some, such.)<br />
In most cases only is a sentence adverb and<br />
qualifies the entire statement. When used in this<br />
way its natural position is before the verb, as<br />
in but now I only hear its melancholy, long,<br />
withdrawing roar. This word order is standard<br />
literary English and should be followed unless<br />
there is a very good reason for placing only<br />
somewhere else in the sentence.<br />
It is not true that when only stands between<br />
the subject and the verb it qualifies the verb<br />
alone. One might as well argue that never qualifies<br />
saw rather than the full statement in I<br />
never saw a purple cow. It is no more necessary<br />
to place only after hear and say I hear only its<br />
roar than it is to place never after saw and say<br />
Z saw never a cow. Only may be placed later.<br />
But when it is, it puts special emphasis on a<br />
subordinate part <strong>of</strong> the sentence, and this is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten undesirable. The original sentence quoted<br />
above, which is by Matthew Arnold, says that<br />
at the moment there is nothing in the world for<br />
him except this melancholy sound. It does not<br />
say that he only hears and does not see. And if<br />
only is placed after hear to avoid this imaginary<br />
ambiguity, roar is given undue importance. We<br />
may be left feeling that he heard the roar but<br />
not the other sounds that went with it.<br />
Nor is it true that only standing in this position<br />
may be understood as qualifying the subject.<br />
If it is intended to qualify the subject,<br />
something must be doni:: to make that clear. It<br />
may be placed ahead, ;:ts in only Z hear, or it<br />
may be followed by a comma, as in Z only, hear.<br />
Or the word alone may be used instead, as in<br />
Z alone hear.<br />
Like other negative adverbs, only must be<br />
placed ahead <strong>of</strong> its natural position if it is to be<br />
made emphatic. When only brings an adverb<br />
into the first position in ,a sentence, it also brings<br />
the verb ahead <strong>of</strong> its a,ubject, as in only then<br />
did he realize. In only less, as used in only less<br />
free than thou, we also have a pre-placed only.<br />
What is meant is less free than only (nothing<br />
except) thou.<br />
Only may also be used as a conjunction (or<br />
preposition). It cannot be used in place <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word except, as it is in do not cross the railroad<br />
tracks only by the bridge. But it may be used<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> but, as in many a man would have<br />
become wise, only he thought he was so already<br />
and we would have co,me, only the car broke<br />
down. Some grammarians condemn this construction.<br />
It has been literary English for six<br />
hundred years and so cannot be considered an<br />
innovation. Perhaps it is falling into disuse in<br />
some parts <strong>of</strong> the country. If so, it should be<br />
classed as old fashioned in those areas. But in<br />
many places the construction is used freely by<br />
all kinds <strong>of</strong> people and is therefore still standard<br />
English.<br />
only too; more than. Whether one is only too<br />
glad to be <strong>of</strong> assistance or only too willing to<br />
338<br />
help or only too ready to give advice when it<br />
is asked for, he betrays in the confused excess<br />
<strong>of</strong> the phrase a certain doubt or reluctance inconsistent<br />
with the warmth <strong>of</strong> the assurance.<br />
Literally only too glad must mean that there<br />
are degrees <strong>of</strong> gladness beyond this excessive<br />
gladness which we recognize but to which we<br />
do not propose to yield ourselves. The whole<br />
phrase is rather silly. It is better simply to say<br />
Z am glad or, if one is not glad, Z am willing.<br />
To say that one is more than pleased or more<br />
than happy to do something is a part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
same sort <strong>of</strong> excessive talk but in these phrases<br />
there is at least a sort <strong>of</strong> sense. One says, in<br />
effect, “I shall pass beyond a state <strong>of</strong> happiness<br />
or pleasure into one <strong>of</strong> rapture or ecstasy.” Few<br />
listeners would take such an assurance literally<br />
and it is, as we say, “merely a manner <strong>of</strong> speaking.”<br />
But it is not a good manner <strong>of</strong> speaking<br />
because like all excesses it tends to defeat its<br />
own purpose. The only possible aim <strong>of</strong> such a<br />
protestation could be to assure the listener <strong>of</strong><br />
the warmth <strong>of</strong> our feelings towards him, but<br />
the exaggeration is likely to lead him to doubt<br />
our sincerity and hence our warmth altogether.<br />
onomatopoeia is the technical name for the formation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a name or a word by imitating some<br />
sound associated with the thing designated.<br />
Cuckoo and whippoorwill are probable examples.<br />
Bang, fizz, burp, rattle, smack, fZop, sneeze<br />
are others. There are hundreds <strong>of</strong> such words<br />
in the language.<br />
As a device, onomatopoeia <strong>of</strong>ten appeals to<br />
poets and their use <strong>of</strong> it ranges from Vachel<br />
Lindsay’s<br />
Beat an empty barrel with the handle <strong>of</strong> a<br />
broom<br />
Hard as they were able,<br />
Boom, boom, BOOM.<br />
With a silk umbrella and the handle <strong>of</strong> a<br />
broom,<br />
Boomlay, boomlay, boomlay, BOOM.<br />
to Swinburne’s With lisp <strong>of</strong> leaves and ripple <strong>of</strong><br />
rain, in which the sound <strong>of</strong> the wind and the<br />
rain is suggested in an appropriate combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> standard words.<br />
In its wider application, onomatopoeia is a<br />
fitting <strong>of</strong> the sound to the meaning. Alexander<br />
Pope in his Essay on Criticism gave a famous<br />
pronouncement on this subject with a series <strong>of</strong><br />
brilliant illustrations:<br />
‘Tis not enough no harshness gives <strong>of</strong>fence,<br />
The sound must seem an echo <strong>of</strong> the sense:<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t is the strain when Zephyr gently blows,<br />
And the smooth stream in smoother numbers<br />
flows;<br />
But when loud surges lash the sounding shore,<br />
The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent<br />
roar.<br />
When Ajax strives some rock’s vast weight to<br />
throw,<br />
The line too labours, and the words move slow:<br />
Not so, when swift Camilla scours the plain,<br />
Flies o’er th’unbending corn, and skims<br />
along the main.
This, <strong>of</strong> course, is obvious, as a good example<br />
should be. But Pope was able, when he chose,<br />
to achieve the effect with great subtlety, as in<br />
his description <strong>of</strong> a sneeze in The Rape <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Lock:<br />
Sudden, with starting tears each eye o’erflows,<br />
And the high dome re-echoes to his nose.<br />
Milton is a great master <strong>of</strong> onomatopoeia.<br />
His skill in using the device contributes to the<br />
grandeur <strong>of</strong> many <strong>of</strong> his fmest passages--as, for<br />
instance, the ominous reverberation in his description<br />
<strong>of</strong> the opening <strong>of</strong> the gates <strong>of</strong> Hell:<br />
. . . on a sudden open f7ie<br />
With impetuous recoile and jarring sound<br />
Th’infernal dores, and on their hinges gnate<br />
Harsh thunder. . . .<br />
But onomatopoeia in itself has little merit.<br />
The mere doing <strong>of</strong> it is a sort <strong>of</strong> trick or at best<br />
a skilful exercise, as in Poe’s The Bells. It is<br />
only when it enhances the meaning, by creating<br />
a mood or contributing by the suggestion <strong>of</strong> its<br />
sound to the main thought, that it has value.<br />
No one should be encouraged to use it deliberately<br />
and in serious prose it should probably be<br />
avoided.<br />
The adjective is onomatopoeiac or onomatopoetic,<br />
the first being the preferred form.<br />
onset means basically an assault or an attack, the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> setting upon (The onset at Omaha Beach<br />
was especially bloody), a beginning or a start<br />
(The onset <strong>of</strong> winter, with its lowering skies<br />
and dreary winds, was especially depressing).<br />
Only in medical usage (The onset <strong>of</strong> fhe disease<br />
was obvious on cursory examination) may onset<br />
be used to designate initial symptoms or Erst<br />
signs.<br />
onus; gravamen. An onus is a moral burden, a<br />
resDonsibilitv (He shouldered the onus for the<br />
wh>le adventure). The gravamen is that part<br />
<strong>of</strong> an accusation which weighs most heavily<br />
against the accused (The gravamen <strong>of</strong> the charge<br />
was that the revolver which fired the fatal shot<br />
was found in the trunk <strong>of</strong> his car). By extension<br />
gravamen means grievance. This meaning is<br />
obsolescent in England but standard in the<br />
United States (The real gravamen <strong>of</strong> the charges<br />
[against Democracy] lies in the habit it has<br />
<strong>of</strong> . . . asking the powers that be whether they<br />
are the powers that ought to be). The plural<br />
<strong>of</strong> gravamen is gravamina.<br />
onward; onwards. Onward is the only form that<br />
can be used to qualify a following noun, a:$ in<br />
the onward course. It is the preferred form in<br />
giving a command, as in Onward, Christian soldiers.<br />
Either form may be used in any other<br />
construction, as in the road led onwards .and<br />
he went onwurd. In the United States the form<br />
onward is generally preferred.<br />
op. cit. is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin words<br />
opere citato and means in the work cited.<br />
opera. See opus.<br />
operative; operator. Operative is used chiefly as<br />
an adjective, meaning active, exerting force, 15%<br />
cacious, effective (The original rules are *still<br />
operative). When used as a noun, opera,tive<br />
339 opposite<br />
means a worker, one skilled in some branch <strong>of</strong><br />
work, especially productive or industrial work;<br />
a workman, artisan, factory hand, especially one<br />
who tends a machine (The cotton operatives,<br />
being unorganized, had no remedy for their<br />
miseries). This use is now largely American,<br />
the English preferring mill-hand or workman.<br />
American also is the use <strong>of</strong> operative for a<br />
detective, a euphemism adopted by the Pinkertons<br />
at the turn <strong>of</strong> the century which passed<br />
into common usage (I had pawned the pistol<br />
for twenty dollars . . ., and in its place Z was<br />
carrying a small pistol belonging to another<br />
operative).<br />
Operator, in various combinations, is more<br />
specific than operative (linotype operator, punch<br />
press operator, telephone operator). Used alone<br />
-particularly in America-it applies to those<br />
conducting large-scale operations (mine operators,<br />
mill operators) and, especially, to those<br />
who operate in stocks in a large or speculative<br />
way (Wall Street operators began jumping out<br />
<strong>of</strong> windows in the fall <strong>of</strong> 1929). Big operator<br />
is a slang term, <strong>of</strong>ten with sarcastic overtones,<br />
for one who bustles about in self-importance,<br />
manipulating and maneuvering with great to-do.<br />
ophthalmologist; optician; optometrist. See oculist.<br />
opinion, in my. An opinion is a judgment or belief<br />
resting on grounds insufficient to produce<br />
certainty. When, therefore, one adds in my opinion<br />
to some statement, one is modestly or tactfully<br />
seeking to avoid the appearance <strong>of</strong> being<br />
dogmatic. This is admirable, but it may also be<br />
tedious and sometimes timid. Then the emphasis,<br />
somehow, seems to fall on my rather<br />
than on opinion and the phrase, meant to be<br />
disarming, is <strong>of</strong>ten pontifical and irritating. It<br />
is usually better to say Z think.<br />
opinionated; opinionative. Opinionated is an adjective<br />
describing one who is obstinate or conceited<br />
with regard lo his opinions, conceitedly<br />
dogmatic (At the risk <strong>of</strong> sounding opinionated,<br />
Z say that Yeats is our best poet since Milton).<br />
Since an opinion is a judgment not sufficiently<br />
grounded in fact to be a certainty and since<br />
conceit is an exaggerated estimate <strong>of</strong> one’s own<br />
abilities, opinionated is necessarily a vague<br />
word. It is highly charged emotionally and usually<br />
conveys a wholly subjective estimate made<br />
by the user. It is now completely derogatory<br />
and comes, like bigoted, close to being a term<br />
<strong>of</strong> vulgar abuse. That does not mean, <strong>of</strong> course,<br />
that it is not useful. But in using it these things<br />
should be borne in mind.<br />
Opinionative is a word faultily formed from its<br />
Latin root and seldom understood by writer or<br />
reader. Basically it means <strong>of</strong>, pertaining to, or<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> opinion (That’s a purely opinionative<br />
conclusion). In a secondary sense it<br />
means opinionated, though in the interests <strong>of</strong><br />
clarity one might better use opinionated when<br />
that is what one means.<br />
opponent. See antagonist.<br />
oppose. See antagonize.<br />
opposite. As an adjective, opposite is followed by<br />
to (His store is opposite to mine); as a noun,
optimism 340<br />
it is followed by <strong>of</strong> (My view is the very opposite<br />
<strong>of</strong> his). See also contrary.<br />
optimism was the name given by the Jesuits to<br />
Leibnitz’s doctrine (propounded in his The’odicke,<br />
1710) that our world is the “best <strong>of</strong> all<br />
possible worlds.” The word gained currency<br />
from the attack on the doctrine by Voltaire in<br />
Candide ou I’Optimisme, 1759.<br />
From this philosophical beginning the word<br />
has spread out to include many meanings which<br />
might otherwise be better conveyed. Among the<br />
more general senses <strong>of</strong> optimism are the belief<br />
that good ultimately predominates over evil,<br />
that good pervades reality, and (the loose, popular<br />
sense) the disposition to hope for the best,<br />
the tendency to look on the brighter side <strong>of</strong><br />
things, to be hopeful in adversity. In this last<br />
sense optimism may, indeed <strong>of</strong>ten does, have no<br />
philosophical basis whatever. It is simply a loose<br />
synonym for cheerfulness, a term to express a<br />
function <strong>of</strong> sound health. the reflection <strong>of</strong> good<br />
luck or limited powers <strong>of</strong> observation. -<br />
optimist; pessimist; meliorist. Philosophically, an<br />
optimist is one who believes that because the<br />
Creator is infinitely good and infinitely powerful<br />
this is the best <strong>of</strong> all possible worlds. In the<br />
popular use <strong>of</strong> the term, he is simply a cheerful,<br />
hopeful person who, when faced with a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> possible happenings or consequences, assumes<br />
that the one most favorable to himself<br />
will occur.<br />
Philosophically, a pessimist is one who believes<br />
that evil is dominant in the world, that<br />
life’s unhappiness is not compensated for by its<br />
happiness. In popular use the word is applied<br />
to anyone who takes an unusually or consistently<br />
gloomy view <strong>of</strong> things and since the modern<br />
world, especially in its economic aspects, is<br />
wedded to optimism, the word is usually disparaging.<br />
Really an optimist, though usually considered<br />
a “middle-<strong>of</strong>-the-reader,” is the meliorist,<br />
one who believes that the world is not perfect<br />
but that it can be made better by human action.<br />
Most people are probably meliorists, but the<br />
word is not widely used or even known, the<br />
extremes being more suitable for popular discussion.<br />
optimistic; hopeful; sanguine. All three <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words suggest a favorable view <strong>of</strong> things. The<br />
difference between optimistic and the other two<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> kind. Between hopeful and sanguine<br />
it is one <strong>of</strong> degree.<br />
Optimistic, in its proper sense, describes a<br />
habit <strong>of</strong> mind, a disposition to take a favorable<br />
view <strong>of</strong> things. It is correct to say He was optimistic<br />
or even He was optimistic about the<br />
future <strong>of</strong> mankind or about world government.<br />
But the word which designates a habit <strong>of</strong> mind<br />
is not applicable to a small matter or a particular<br />
thing and it is improper to say He was<br />
optimistic about his chance <strong>of</strong> getting a ticket.<br />
Here hopeful or sanguine would be a better<br />
word. Of the two, hopeful, which means having<br />
hope or being full <strong>of</strong> hope, would be better in<br />
this context. Sanguine, which means naturally<br />
cheerful and hopeful, confident, having a high<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> hope, is a stronger word than hopeful,<br />
but it is little used in England (except in the<br />
now slightly archaic expression <strong>of</strong> a sanguine<br />
complexion meaning “<strong>of</strong> a cheerful disposition”)<br />
and almost never in America except in<br />
such stock phrases as beyond our most sunguine<br />
expectations and not sanguine about the<br />
outcome. Optimistic, however loosely it may<br />
convey the desired sense, seems to have crowded<br />
out its more accurate rivals.<br />
optimum, as an adjective, is not merely a synonym<br />
for best. It means, rather, the best under<br />
the (usually conflicting) circumstances, the<br />
most favorable, that is, towards attaining some<br />
desired end. The best speed <strong>of</strong> a car might be<br />
its utmost. The optimum, if the desired end<br />
were economy <strong>of</strong> fuel, would be a great deal<br />
less than that. The optimum number <strong>of</strong> students<br />
that a college might seek to enroll would not<br />
be the largest number that could be accommodated<br />
in the dormitories or the classrooms but<br />
the largest number consistent with a number <strong>of</strong><br />
conditions, such as the energies <strong>of</strong> the teaching<br />
staff, the facilities <strong>of</strong> the library, and so on, with<br />
a view to giving each student the best education<br />
possible under the circumstances.<br />
option means the power or liberty <strong>of</strong> choosing,<br />
the right or freedom <strong>of</strong> choice (Zt is his option,<br />
whether he will fight or Ron away), something<br />
which may be or is chosen (The town was dry<br />
by local option), or-a special legal and commercial<br />
use-a privilege acquired, as by the<br />
payment <strong>of</strong> a premium or consideration, <strong>of</strong> demanding,<br />
within a specified time, the carrying<br />
out <strong>of</strong> a transaction upon stipulated terms (If<br />
he does not take up his option within six months,<br />
the money in escrow will be forfeited). A choice<br />
is simply the act <strong>of</strong> choosing, that which is<br />
chosen, or an alternative. It implies the opportunity<br />
to choose; where option stresses, rather,<br />
the free right or privilege <strong>of</strong> choosing. Where<br />
there is any doubt, choice is to be preferred to<br />
option, if only as the more common, less pretentious<br />
word. And certainly option is not to be<br />
used where the broader equivalent, choice, is<br />
superfluous. To say I had no option but to sign<br />
is a pompous, wordy way <strong>of</strong> saying “I had to<br />
sign.”<br />
opulent. See rich.<br />
opus. The plural is opera, not opi. The English<br />
plural opuses is used only facetiously.<br />
or; nor. These words are conjunctions and join<br />
elements that are grammatically alike. A personal<br />
pronoun following or or nor must have<br />
the form that it would have if it were being used<br />
in the sentence itself instead <strong>of</strong> after or. That<br />
is, the form him is required in no one suw you<br />
or him because him is required in no one sow<br />
him; and the form he is required in either<br />
you mltst do it or he because he is required<br />
in he must do it. In present-day English the<br />
verb is usually repeated after a subjective pronoun<br />
such as he, as in either you must do it<br />
or he must.<br />
Nor makes the words that follow it negative.
Used with a negative statement, nor introduces<br />
an alternative and negates it, as in he shall not<br />
fail nor he discouraged. Since nor affects ‘only<br />
the words that it adds to an already complete<br />
sentence it never forms a double negative ,with<br />
what has gone before. It can be used wherever<br />
the words and not could be used. When the<br />
words following nor include a verb and its subject,<br />
the verb stands before the subject. If written<br />
out fully, the sentence just quoted would<br />
read: he shall not fail nor shall he be dizouraged.<br />
After an afftrmative statement nor adds a<br />
contrasting or contradictory negative and not<br />
an alternative. This construction is rare in<br />
present-day speech but it is standard English<br />
and is used in poetry and solemn prose, as in:<br />
he will watch from dawn to gloom . . . the<br />
honey-bees in the ivy bloom, nor heed nor see<br />
what things they be.<br />
Or is used with an affirmative statement to<br />
introduce an alternative, as in YOU told me or<br />
I read it somewhere. The alternative must be<br />
affirmative or the simple negative <strong>of</strong> what has<br />
just been said, as in he may come or he may<br />
not. Or may be used in a negative statement to<br />
introduce an alternative to one <strong>of</strong> the negative<br />
elements, as in I want no notes or promises; I<br />
want money and I will not agree to that, or even<br />
consider it. In every case, the words following<br />
or must be parallel with some previous word or<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words that has been made negative.<br />
Nor can also be used in these same constructions<br />
and makes a more emphatic negative. We<br />
can say I want no notes nor promises and Z will<br />
not agree to that, nor even consider it. Or<br />
cannot be used with a negative statement to<br />
introduce an alternative that is grammatically<br />
independent. We cannot say he did not come or<br />
will not. For this we must use and or nor, as in<br />
he did not come nor will he.<br />
Or does not always introduce a simple alternative.<br />
It sometimes has the sense <strong>of</strong> if so or<br />
if noi and gives the preceding clause the force<br />
<strong>of</strong> a conditional. This is the case whenever it<br />
joins an independent statement to a preceding<br />
negative, as in Z can’t stay longer or Z will be<br />
lute, or an independent negative statement to a<br />
preceding affirmative, as in he told me himself<br />
or Z would not believe it.<br />
In present-day English, neither is followed by<br />
nor and either by or.<br />
Theoretically, when the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb is<br />
a compound joined by or or nor, the verb has<br />
the number and person <strong>of</strong> the element standing<br />
nearest to it. But in the best modern prose this<br />
rule is not strictly observed. If the element nearest<br />
the verb is plural the verb too is always<br />
plural, in practice as well as in theory, as in<br />
either he or his neighbors are mistaken. In practice,<br />
the verb is usually plural in a negative<br />
statement, as in neither Eric nor Regina are<br />
there now, and <strong>of</strong>ten plural in a question, as in<br />
what are honor or dishonor to her? In an affirmative<br />
statement the verb is usually singular if<br />
the part <strong>of</strong> the subject nearest it is singular,<br />
341 orchestra<br />
as in either Eric or Regina is there now, although<br />
even here a plural verb may be used,<br />
as in marble, bronze, or clay are the materials<br />
<strong>of</strong> sculpture. Questions <strong>of</strong> person, as distinct<br />
from number, only arise in connection with the<br />
pronouns I and yore. The rule requires either he<br />
or you are mistaken, either you or Z am mistaken.<br />
Most people avoid compounds <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind and say either he is mistaken or you are,<br />
either you are mistaken or Z am. See agreement:<br />
verbs.<br />
oral. See aural.<br />
oral and verbal are not synonymous, though<br />
verbal is misused for oral quite <strong>of</strong>ten, perhaps<br />
by persons encouraged to take as precedent the<br />
very special case <strong>of</strong> verbal agreement which<br />
means oral agreement, agreement in speech<br />
only. Actually oral means uttered by the mouth,<br />
spoken (He teaches oral interpretation <strong>of</strong> literature),<br />
as opposed to what is conveyed in<br />
writing. Though verbal is used for oral in verbal<br />
agreement, it normally applies to the words,<br />
spoken or written, in which thought or feeling<br />
is conveyed. When we refer to a verbaZ account<br />
<strong>of</strong> an event, we mean an account conveyed in<br />
words instead <strong>of</strong> one conveyed by gestures, pictures,<br />
or other means. Thus verbal is the more<br />
inclusive term, emphasizing words themselves<br />
as distinguished from ideas, emotions, actions,<br />
images.<br />
orate. There was an old English verb to orate,<br />
meaning to pray, and we still have an oratory,<br />
a place <strong>of</strong> prayer. But this meaning <strong>of</strong> orate is<br />
now obsolete and the modern verb is actually<br />
a new coinage, a back formation from oration.<br />
It is used humorously and sarcastically to mean<br />
make an oration, hold forth in a l<strong>of</strong>ty style<br />
(I should hate exceedingly to have the present<br />
speeches <strong>of</strong> the gentleman from Pennsylvania<br />
orated around over the country ds mine-Congressional<br />
Record). If the giving <strong>of</strong> a public<br />
address is referred to seriously, the correct term<br />
is deliver an oration or, if one wishes to be less<br />
formal, deliver (or make) a speech, speak in<br />
public.<br />
orchestra; stalls; pit. As used with reference to<br />
floor space in a modern theater, the word orchestra<br />
in America describes the space reserved<br />
for the musicians, usually the front part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
main floor, the orchestra pit, or, more <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
it describes the entire main-floor space for spectators.<br />
The stalls in an English theater are the<br />
seats in the front division <strong>of</strong> the main floor or<br />
in the front <strong>of</strong> the lower balcony. The pit is a<br />
term used in England for a section <strong>of</strong> the main<br />
floor <strong>of</strong> a theater behind the orchestra and in<br />
front <strong>of</strong> the parquet, parterre, or orchestra<br />
stalls, usually <strong>of</strong> unreserved seats. In former<br />
times, when ladies and gentlemen <strong>of</strong> fashion<br />
frequented only the boxes, the pit was the station<br />
<strong>of</strong> the common man in the theater, the<br />
cheapest space available. The term the pit was<br />
applied to persons occupying this section and<br />
playing to the pit has much the same meaning<br />
in England as playing to the gallery has in<br />
America.
orchis. The plural is orchides, not arches. A new<br />
singular orchid, with a regular plural orchids,<br />
was coined by a botanist in 1854. It is now the<br />
usual name for these plants.<br />
order. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he ordered her to go. It may also be followed<br />
by a that clause with the clause verb a<br />
subjunctive or a subjunctive equivalent, as in<br />
he ordered that she go. The infinitive construction<br />
is generally preferred. When order is followed<br />
by a passive infinitive, as in he ordered<br />
them to be sent, the to be may be omitted, as in<br />
he ordered them sent. This construction is not<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used in Great Britain but is standard<br />
practice in the United States.<br />
order; command; instruction; direction; directive;<br />
injunction. All <strong>of</strong> these terms have the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> an authoritative mandate. Order is the<br />
most inclusive. In law it means the command<br />
<strong>of</strong> a court or judge (He paid alimony by court<br />
order). The military term (usually in the plural)<br />
describes commands or notices issued by<br />
military authorities. It may also describe assignments<br />
to duty stations.<br />
In former times the wishes <strong>of</strong> the sovereign<br />
were commands, a meaning that survives in<br />
Britain in command performance, a theatrical<br />
performance in response to a royal invitation.<br />
The commands <strong>of</strong> the sovereign were <strong>of</strong>ten expressed<br />
as wishes (Lr Roi le veult). Today<br />
command usually refers to the military. It is<br />
used in a number <strong>of</strong> senses, such as an order in<br />
prescribed words, usually given in a loud voice<br />
to troops at close-order drill; or it may designate<br />
a body <strong>of</strong> troops or an area or a station<br />
under a commander. It may also mean the possession<br />
or exercise <strong>of</strong> controlling authority<br />
(I’m in command here).<br />
In one <strong>of</strong> its senses instruction, usually plural,<br />
means an order or direction (Please read the<br />
instructions before assembling the antenna). Direction<br />
in one <strong>of</strong> its senses means much the<br />
same as instruction and always appears in the<br />
plural. It is the usual word to describe instructions<br />
concerning the route to be taken to arrive<br />
at a desired destination (If he follows my directions,<br />
he can’t miss Rockefeller Center).<br />
Directive is a new noun. It means an authoritative<br />
instruction or direction (A directive was<br />
issued by the Secretary <strong>of</strong> State on conduct <strong>of</strong><br />
Foreign Affairs Oficers).<br />
An injunction is usually thought <strong>of</strong> in its legal<br />
sense, which describes a judicial process or order<br />
requiring the person or persons to whom it<br />
is directed to do (or, more commonly, not to<br />
do) a particular thing. However, it can be more<br />
generally applied to mean a command, an order,<br />
or an admonition (In spite <strong>of</strong> all injunctions <strong>of</strong><br />
secrecy, the news had spread).<br />
order. The use <strong>of</strong> order in idiomatic expressions<br />
varies sufficiently in British and American usage<br />
to require comment. A speaker is called to order<br />
in England when the chairman finds it necessary<br />
to rebuke him for violating rules <strong>of</strong> procedure.<br />
A meeting is called to order in America by the<br />
chairman as he formally opens its proceedings.<br />
In England in order means in accordance with<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> parliamentary procedure. In America it<br />
may also mean permissible, fitting, appropriate<br />
(I hear that congratulations are in order). In<br />
short order is an American phrase meaning immediately,<br />
in no time. A short-order cook is one<br />
who in lunch wagons, small restaurants, and so<br />
on, fries eggs, hamburgers, and griddle cakes,<br />
heats canned soup, makes c<strong>of</strong>fee, and prepares<br />
other dishes that can be made ready quickly.<br />
From restaurant usage order has also come to<br />
mean, in the United States, a portion <strong>of</strong> food.<br />
When a waitress says I had those two orders <strong>of</strong><br />
potatoes right here on my tray she does not<br />
mean a written order for the potatoes but the<br />
potatoes themselves.<br />
ordinance; ordnance; ordonnance. Ordinance in<br />
America means an authoritative rule or law, a<br />
decree or command, a public injunction or regulation,<br />
usually municipal (Zt is an ordinance in<br />
our city that residents must wrap their gnrbage).<br />
The English equivalent is by-law. According to<br />
Horwill, ordinance is rarely used in England except<br />
historically (as the Self-Denying Ordinance,<br />
an Act passed by the Long Parliament in 1644,<br />
by which the members <strong>of</strong> Parliament bound<br />
themselves not to accept commands in the army)<br />
and in the phrase religious ordinances (religious<br />
rites).<br />
Ordnance, a variant <strong>of</strong> ordinance, has become<br />
established in a series <strong>of</strong> special meanings. From<br />
an ordering, supplies, it has come to mean military<br />
supplies, primarily cannon or artillery, but<br />
also military weapons <strong>of</strong> all kinds with their<br />
equipments, ammunition (At three o’clock the<br />
heavy ordnance was brought into position.<br />
During the war he got a job in an ordnance<br />
plant filling cartridges).<br />
Ordonnance is also an ordering, but not <strong>of</strong><br />
political or religious affairs or <strong>of</strong> military equipment.<br />
It designates the ordering, disposition, arrangement<br />
<strong>of</strong> parts, as <strong>of</strong> a building, a picture,<br />
or a literary composition. Coleridge speaks <strong>of</strong><br />
the difference between the ordonnance <strong>of</strong> poetic<br />
composition and that <strong>of</strong> prose.<br />
In older English writing one <strong>of</strong>ten finds ordonnance<br />
used for ordinance, especially in reference<br />
to foreign decrees and promulgations.<br />
ordinary. See average, common, normal.<br />
ordure. Save in a few grim humorous contexts<br />
(such as the natural ordure <strong>of</strong> things) ordure<br />
as a term for filth or excrement is a literary<br />
euphemism.<br />
Orient. See East.<br />
orient: orientate. Both orient and orientate mean<br />
to place so as to face the east and, by extension,<br />
to adjust in relation to, or to bring into due relation<br />
to, surrounding circumstances, facts, and<br />
so on. In the United States orient is the preferred<br />
form for all meanings. In England orientate is<br />
still used for placing so as to face in some specific<br />
direction, particularly to the east but orient is<br />
used there in all figurative senses (The whole<br />
village was oriented to gain the maximum sunlight.<br />
As soon as the Commandos were orientated,<br />
they began their advance along the quay.
He wus quick to orient himself to rhe commu&y).<br />
Many American colleges have what they call<br />
orientation courses, broad general introductory<br />
courses, usually in the social sciences, intended<br />
for the beginning student. Their pr<strong>of</strong>essed<br />
purpose is to enable the student to “place” himself<br />
in history or the social structure <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world-or whatever the subject <strong>of</strong> the course<br />
may be. Since it is assumed that any introductory<br />
course serves this vague purpose to some<br />
extent, the term is unnecessary and pompous.<br />
ornamental; ornate; decorative. Anything is ornumental<br />
which is used for ornament (The plaid<br />
cape was more ornamental than useful). There<br />
is perhaps an echo <strong>of</strong> our Puritan background,<br />
a suggestion in the word <strong>of</strong> something unncxessary<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten a further suggestion <strong>of</strong> something<br />
insubstantial or tinselly. That is ornate<br />
which is elaborately or sumptuously adorned,<br />
showily splendid. Since modem taste disapproves<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sumptuous and since there is<br />
far more show <strong>of</strong> splendor than actual splendor,<br />
the word <strong>of</strong>ten carries a connotation <strong>of</strong> disparagement,<br />
especially in reference to speech. Decorative<br />
is a more favorable word, suggesting a<br />
becoming ornamentation, something which fittingly<br />
adds to an appearance <strong>of</strong> festivity.<br />
The Englishman, Collins, holds that ornamental<br />
is an active term and that ornate and<br />
decorutive are synonymous passive terms but<br />
American usage does not make these distinctions.<br />
ostensible; ostensive; ostentatious. Although the<br />
dictionaries recognize ostensible and ostensive<br />
as synonyms, there are distinctions in their use<br />
which can be ambiguous and it is better not to<br />
use them interchangeably. Ostensible is a wellknown<br />
adjective, suitable for general use. Ostensive<br />
is a little-known, usually specialized<br />
term which should be used with discrimination.<br />
That is ostensible which is given out or outwardly<br />
appears to be, is pr<strong>of</strong>essed or pretended<br />
(His ostensible motive was charity; his actual<br />
motive was self-glorification). Ostensive means<br />
showing, but its primary meaning is showing<br />
in logic, setting forth a general principle by<br />
virtue <strong>of</strong> which a proposition must be true. An<br />
ostensive demonstration (in mathematics;) is<br />
a demonstration which plainly and directly<br />
demonstrates the truth <strong>of</strong> a proposition, as distinct,<br />
say, from a reductio ad absurdum.<br />
If that is ostensible which shows on the<br />
surface and that is ostensive which shows logically<br />
beyond cavil, that is ostentatious which<br />
is overly showy, pretentious, demonstrative beyond<br />
need in order to impress others. It is now<br />
a disparaging word, though in the days when<br />
public demonstrations <strong>of</strong> even affection were<br />
staged for political purposes it was not always<br />
so. When Octavius, in Shakespeare’s Antony<br />
and Cleopatra, told his sister that her quiet and<br />
unexpected return to Rome had prevented the<br />
ostentation <strong>of</strong> his love, he merely meant that<br />
she had made it impossible for him to have<br />
her received with the pageantry and splendor<br />
343 ought<br />
which, as his loved sister, was her due. She had<br />
prevented him from making a public demonstration<br />
<strong>of</strong> his regard for her and this he felt<br />
was, under the circumstances, a political error.<br />
0 tempora! 0 mores! When the contemplation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Catiline’s wickedness moved Cicero in 63 B.C.<br />
to exclaim in horror at the times and the manners<br />
that could produce such a monster, he so<br />
expressed the indignation <strong>of</strong> all who view with<br />
alarm that his phrase has been repeated ever<br />
since. Of late it has been so <strong>of</strong>ten repeated that<br />
it has become a cliche, the more meaningless<br />
because finally even our orators prefer (like<br />
Cicero) to speak in their own language.<br />
other; otherwise. Other was once the ordinal<br />
form for the cardinal number two and meant<br />
what we now mean by second. It now has the<br />
vaguer meaning <strong>of</strong> additional or different from,<br />
but it is still used occasionally in its earlier<br />
sense, as in we bake every other day. Because<br />
it was once an ordinal number other may stand<br />
before a cardinal, as ;n the other two men, and<br />
because it no longer is an ordinal, it may stand<br />
after a cardinal, as in the two other men.<br />
Other is primarily an adjective and may<br />
qualify either a singular or a plural noun, as in<br />
the other man and the other men. It may also<br />
be treated as a noun and given singular, plural,<br />
and genitive forms, as other, others, other’s,<br />
others’. (When used in this way it is ordinarily<br />
called a pronoun.) The adjective form other<br />
may be used alone as a noun in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
more than one person, as in like other <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world’s great men and two other among that<br />
handful <strong>of</strong> young soldiers. This construction is<br />
acceptable before the word <strong>of</strong>; otherwise, the<br />
plural form others is preferred.<br />
Other, in any <strong>of</strong> its forms, may be used in<br />
a comparison with than, as in another world<br />
than ours. Other followed by from, as in another<br />
world from this, is not standard English.<br />
Other is sometimes used as an adverb before<br />
than, as in it was impossible for her to speak<br />
other than kindly. This construction is acceptable<br />
in the United States, but the regular adverbial<br />
form otherwise is generally preferred in<br />
any position that would call for an adverb. The<br />
form otherwise may be used to qualify a preceding<br />
noun, as in the workers, industrial or<br />
otherwise. Very <strong>of</strong>ten this is an elaborate way<br />
<strong>of</strong> saying something that could be said more<br />
simply. But there is nothing wrong with the construction<br />
grammatically. A noun may always be<br />
followed by an adjective or an adverb, or by<br />
both, as the noun is in angel visits, few and fur<br />
between.<br />
ought is an old past subjunctive form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
owe. It has no corresponding present subjunctive<br />
form. See subjunctive mode.<br />
Grammatically, ought is a past tense form,<br />
just as went is. The verb has no imperative, no<br />
infinitive, no past participle, no -ing form, and<br />
therefore cannot follow (that is, cannot be dependent<br />
on) another verb. We can no more<br />
say had ought, did ought, used to ought, than<br />
we can say had went, did went, used to went.
ought 344<br />
This was not always true. At one time ought<br />
could also be used as a participle, corresponding<br />
to gone, and had ought was literary English.<br />
Today these forms are obsolete or dialectal.<br />
Since we cannot use auxiliaries, such as do, be,<br />
have, we form negative statements and ask<br />
questions in the old direct way that is now obsolete<br />
for most verbs, as in he ought not fo say<br />
it and ought I to tell you?<br />
Ought itself is always used as an auxiliary<br />
and requires another verb to complete its meaning.<br />
Usually this is a ro-infinitive. It may be the<br />
infinitive <strong>of</strong> the meaningful verb, as in I ought<br />
ro tell her, or it may be to hnve and a past participle,<br />
as in Z ought to have told her. In the<br />
first case, the statement refers indefinitely to the<br />
present or the future. In the second case, it<br />
refers to a past event. The infinitive must be<br />
actually stated or easily supplied from the context.<br />
When it is to be supplied, we usually keep<br />
the word to, as in I think you ought to, although<br />
this is not required and we may also say I think<br />
you ought. In the United States the simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb is sometimes used instead <strong>of</strong> the toinfinitive<br />
after ought not, as in you ought n<strong>of</strong><br />
slay. The construction with to is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
Some people claim that the word ought<br />
always means obligation or duty and that we<br />
cannot say he ought to 6e hanged because “that<br />
is the duty <strong>of</strong> others.” There is no justification<br />
for this. The word is also used to mean befitting,<br />
advisable, expected, and SO on, as in you ought<br />
to take a nap and they ought to be here soon.<br />
ought. See aught.<br />
our; ours. The form our is used to qualify a<br />
following noun, as in our country, our all. The<br />
form ours is used in any other construction, as<br />
in this country <strong>of</strong> ours and all ours. Ours is<br />
also the form used in a double possessive where<br />
it is separated from its following noun by and,<br />
as in ours and Jacob’s God. Today this construction<br />
is generally avoided and our God and<br />
Jacob’s or our own and Jacob’s God is used<br />
instead. Neither word order shows clearly<br />
whether we are talking about one thing or two,<br />
but the old-fashioned form, ours and Jacob’s,<br />
suggests one thing possessed in common more<br />
strongly than the forms which use our.<br />
The plural word our is frequently used after<br />
a grammatically singular word such as neither<br />
or each, in order to avoid using his when the<br />
reference may be to either a man or a woman,<br />
as in neither <strong>of</strong> us had broken our vow and<br />
each in our own way.<br />
In current English, the word ours is never<br />
written with an apostrophe.<br />
ourn. This word was once acceptable English, but<br />
it has not been used in the literary language<br />
for three hundred years. The only acceptable<br />
form today is ours.<br />
ourself; ourselves. Originally, the word self could<br />
be used as a plural or as a singular and the<br />
plural <strong>of</strong> myself was ourself. The form ourselves<br />
did not appear until the sixteenth century,<br />
but it has since driven ourself from natural<br />
speech. During the nineteenth century, the form<br />
ourself was the preferred reflexive for a we that<br />
actually represented only one person, as in we<br />
found ourself running among the first. But this<br />
obviously defeated whatever purpose there was<br />
in using we. Today, ourself is recognized as the<br />
traditionally correct form to use with a “royal<br />
we,” as in which ourself have granted. But in<br />
any other context it is felt to be a slip, and<br />
evidence that the user has not taken his we<br />
seriously but has been thinking Z all along. The<br />
plural form ourselves is always used when more<br />
than one person is actually involved, as in we<br />
ourselves have agreed. (For the ways in which<br />
ourselves may be used, see reflexive pronouns.)<br />
out; outer; outmost; outermost; utter; utmost;<br />
uttermost. The primary meaning <strong>of</strong> out is “away<br />
from within.” It is used chiefly as an adverb to<br />
qualify a verb, as in he is going out, but it may<br />
also be used as an adjective to qualify a noun,<br />
as in the out side and the out man. When out<br />
forms part <strong>of</strong> a compound verb it frequently<br />
has the meaning <strong>of</strong> “going forth,” as in think<br />
out, write out, or <strong>of</strong> “going beyond,” as in outbid,<br />
outgush.<br />
In Great Britain out is never used as a<br />
preposition but must be combined with <strong>of</strong><br />
before it can have an object, as in he went out<br />
<strong>of</strong> the room, he jumped out <strong>of</strong> the window. In<br />
the United States out requires <strong>of</strong> when it is used<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> away from, as in he went out <strong>of</strong><br />
the house, he went out <strong>of</strong> her life, but it is used<br />
as a preposition without <strong>of</strong> when it means<br />
through, as in he jumped out the window, he<br />
ran out the door.<br />
Outer and outmost or outermost are comparative<br />
and superlative forms <strong>of</strong> out and mean<br />
farther and farthest from the center. They are<br />
relatively new words that have been in general<br />
use less than three hundred years. Utter, utmost,<br />
uttermost, are older ways <strong>of</strong> expressing the same<br />
ideas. Utter was used in the sense <strong>of</strong> “exterior”<br />
until late in the seventeenth century, but this<br />
meaning is now obsolete. Today outer is used<br />
in this sense and utter always means “in a high<br />
degree” or “absolute.” As a result, outer darkness<br />
and utter darkness mean different things.<br />
The superlative forms utmost and uttermost<br />
can still be used in both senses and may mean<br />
remote, extreme, or last in a series.<br />
The words outer and utter, like the words<br />
elder and former, have comparative forms but<br />
are felt as positive descriptive adjectives and<br />
not as comparatives, and therefore cannot be<br />
used in a comparison with than.<br />
out <strong>of</strong> one’s depth. As a metaphor, signifying<br />
that anything from a social situation to an idea<br />
is too much for one, out <strong>of</strong> one’s depth is<br />
hackneyed.<br />
out <strong>of</strong> the woods. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that a<br />
danger has not completely abated, we are not<br />
yet out <strong>of</strong> the woods is a clichC.<br />
outdoor; outdoors. Outdoor is the preferred form<br />
when the word is used to qualify a following<br />
noun, as in an outdoor fire place. Outdoors is<br />
the preferred form when the word is used to<br />
qualify anything except a noun, as in they lived<br />
outdoors. But this distinction is not strictly
observed. The sme is true <strong>of</strong> our-<strong>of</strong>-door and<br />
out-<strong>of</strong>-doors. There is no difference between the<br />
forms with <strong>of</strong> and those without, in either<br />
meaning or use.<br />
Both <strong>of</strong> the forms ending in s may be used<br />
as nouns, as in the great outdoors, rhc great<br />
out-<strong>of</strong>-doors.<br />
outfit. As a standard noun ourfit means an assemblage<br />
<strong>of</strong> articles for fitting out or equipping<br />
(The explorer’s outfit must include a few yards<br />
<strong>of</strong> mosquito netting) or a set <strong>of</strong> articles for any<br />
purpose (His grandmother gave him a carpenter’s<br />
outfit when he was only twelve). In<br />
American slang it has the further senses <strong>of</strong> a<br />
group associated in any undertaking, as a<br />
military body (There was entirely too much<br />
coddling going on in the outfit--Norman<br />
Mailer), a party, company, or set, especially<br />
men in charge <strong>of</strong> cattle (The outfit consisted<br />
<strong>of</strong> three covered wagons, four tents, eighty<br />
saddle horses, three cooks, and about tn’enty<br />
riders), and, by extension, a number <strong>of</strong> people<br />
combined for any purpose (The Tummany outfit<br />
had supported him in the gubernatorial<br />
campaign).<br />
The basic sense <strong>of</strong> the word, as listed in the<br />
Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong>, the act <strong>of</strong> fitting<br />
out or furnishing with requisites (as in If you<br />
secure the commissions, 1’11 make the outfit<br />
easy), is seldom used in the United States.<br />
out-Herod Herod. King Herod was represented<br />
in the old mystery plays as a bellowing, ranting,<br />
raging ruffian <strong>of</strong> a tyrant. He was obviously<br />
very dear to the audiences and successive<br />
generations <strong>of</strong> anonymous hams must have<br />
labored mightily to outdo each other in the role.<br />
By Shakespeare’s time to out-Herod Herod was<br />
proverbial for tearing a passion to tatters, outrageous<br />
blustering, and violent denunciation.<br />
Shakespeare’s use <strong>of</strong> the phrase kept it i,n the<br />
language long after its original meaning had<br />
faded. It is now a clicht.<br />
outlandish. See exotic.<br />
outline; summary; brief; synopsis. An outline is<br />
a rough draft or first general sketch, account,<br />
or report, in which the main features only <strong>of</strong><br />
some book, subject, or project are set forth. It<br />
is a plan showing the parts <strong>of</strong> a discourse in<br />
some sort <strong>of</strong> skeletal form (He submitted an<br />
outline <strong>of</strong> his speech to his superior for approval).<br />
A summary is a brief statement or<br />
restatement <strong>of</strong> the main points, especially as<br />
the conclusion to a work (The last chapter<br />
contained an excellent summary <strong>of</strong> the whole<br />
book). As an adjective, summary means. concise,<br />
brief and comprehensive, and, by extension,<br />
unceremoniously fast (This summary<br />
dismissal <strong>of</strong> his plea was infuriating). In relation<br />
to trials and courts-martial it means a<br />
proceeding which is conducted without or is<br />
exempt from the various steps and delay:s <strong>of</strong> a<br />
formal trial.<br />
A brief is a detailed outline, by heads and<br />
subheads, <strong>of</strong> a discourse (usually legal) to be<br />
completed. It is an outline, the form <strong>of</strong> which<br />
is determined by set rules, <strong>of</strong> all the possible<br />
arguments and information on one side <strong>of</strong> a<br />
controversy. Its contemporary use is confined<br />
almost entirely to law and debating.<br />
A synopsis is a condensed statement giving a<br />
general view <strong>of</strong> some subject. In modern English<br />
it is most commonly used to designate a compressed<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> the plot <strong>of</strong> a novel or a<br />
play (Such synopses have little value for the<br />
student, because the mere events <strong>of</strong> the action<br />
are not the most important part <strong>of</strong> the plays).<br />
outlook. See lookout.<br />
outside. The single word outside may be used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> the phrase ozzlside <strong>of</strong>, and is generally<br />
preferred in the United States. It may be used<br />
literally <strong>of</strong> space, as in outside the city limits,<br />
or it may be used figuratively, as in that is outside<br />
his interests. The word means exterior to<br />
and fixes the mind on what is exterior. The<br />
statement this is not dune outside the South<br />
is a statement about New York and Oregon.<br />
The speaker may have been thinking <strong>of</strong> what<br />
was interior and may have used outside as the<br />
equivalent <strong>of</strong> “except in.” This is acceptable<br />
because it is still possible to hear the sentence<br />
with the conventional meaning <strong>of</strong> outside. But<br />
this is not possible when the word is used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> “except for,” as in I have seen no one<br />
outside the milkman. The fact that we can’t<br />
hear the word with its usual meaning in a<br />
sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind calls our attention to its<br />
meaning, and the sentence becomes ridiculous.<br />
outskirts once had a singular form outskirt, but<br />
this is now obsolete. The form outskirts is used<br />
with a plural verb as in the ozcfskirts were a few<br />
miles away, but it cannot be qualified by a word<br />
implying number. We cannot speak <strong>of</strong> a few<br />
outskirts, for example.<br />
outspoken. See frank.<br />
outward; outwards. Outward is the only form<br />
that can be used to qualify a following noun,<br />
as in the outward voyage. Either form may be<br />
used in any other construction, as in outwards<br />
bound and outward boztnd. The form outward<br />
is generally preferred in the United States.<br />
outworn; worn-out. One may use either oulworn<br />
or worn-out to describe that which has been<br />
consumed by use, wear, or the action <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
whether the thing described is physical or<br />
figurative or that which is exhausted in strength<br />
or endurance. Worn-ozci has come, however,<br />
to be used more <strong>of</strong>ten in the sense <strong>of</strong> being so<br />
injured by wear as to be no longer serviceable<br />
or to be wearied or exhausted, as with toil; and<br />
outworn has acquired the peculiar senses <strong>of</strong><br />
outgrown (as <strong>of</strong> clothes which are still serviceable<br />
but no longer large enough for a child)<br />
and obsolete, out <strong>of</strong> date (I’d rather be/ A<br />
Pagan suckled in a creed outworn). As a<br />
general rule, when either ozltworn or worn-out<br />
will serve, it is better to use worn-out. It is more<br />
idiomatic and straightforward.<br />
over is primarily a preposition, as in jump over<br />
the wall, or an adverb, as in think the matte}<br />
over; but adjective forms <strong>of</strong> the word survive in<br />
compound nouns, such as overcoat and overlord.<br />
From the earliest times the word has<br />
carried the meanings <strong>of</strong> in excess, as in overeat;<br />
above, as in overhead: beyond, as in overseas;
over 346<br />
across, as in come over; and completion, as in<br />
he thought it was over.<br />
Over with the idea <strong>of</strong> completely was <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used with a numeral, as in you shall have gold<br />
to pay the petty debt twenty times over, or with<br />
n&n, as in we will do it over again. From this,<br />
it came to be used alone with the idea <strong>of</strong> repetition,<br />
as in he plans to do it over. But over<br />
again is better established historically than over<br />
in this sense, and is still preferred by most<br />
people. The idea <strong>of</strong> “complete” in over again<br />
has not been entirely lost. Today we say again<br />
when all we mean is “once more,” as in 1’11 see<br />
you again. Over again still carries the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
“start at the beginning again,” and usually<br />
suggests that this is a tiresome thing to do.<br />
over and above is a clichC as a term for “in<br />
excess <strong>of</strong>.”<br />
over and done with, as a term for finished or<br />
passed, is a clicht.<br />
overall. As a noun, overnll <strong>of</strong>fers no difficulty. In<br />
Britain it designates a smock or loose housedress.<br />
The plural, overalls, designates in Britain<br />
a man’.s trousers, leggings, outer suit for dirty<br />
work or bad weather, In America it describes<br />
loose, stout trousers, most commonly <strong>of</strong> blue<br />
denim, <strong>of</strong>ten extending up over the breast, worn<br />
over the clothing to protect it, as by workmen<br />
and others.<br />
The plural form refers to one garment but is<br />
always treated as a plural, as in these overalls<br />
are dirty. In order to use the word with a singular<br />
verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more than one such<br />
garment, it is necessary to say this pair <strong>of</strong> overulls<br />
is dirty or several pairs <strong>of</strong> overalls. The<br />
form overalls is also used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in his overalls pocket.<br />
The trouble comes with the adjective,<br />
written over-all in Britain, overall in America.<br />
Properly speaking, it is used attributively to<br />
mean including everything between the extreme<br />
points (The mine sweeper had an overall length<br />
<strong>of</strong> 120 jeet). In an extension <strong>of</strong> this use, overall<br />
has co&e tb mean covering or including everything.<br />
As Sir Ernest Gowers has said, the wide<br />
use <strong>of</strong> this extension is “an egregious example<br />
<strong>of</strong> the process . . . (<strong>of</strong>) boring out a weapon<br />
<strong>of</strong> precision into a blunderbuss.” It is commonly<br />
misused as a synonym for any number <strong>of</strong> more<br />
precise words, such as ag,pregate, total, average,<br />
comprehensive, complete, or whole. As Collins<br />
has observed, in most uses overall is at best an<br />
inelegant variation, a mere manifestation, that<br />
is, <strong>of</strong> a desire for variety even at the cost <strong>of</strong><br />
precision and clarity. If overall can be justified<br />
in any sense beyond its literal one, it is in its<br />
power to combine in a single word the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
“supreme” with the idea <strong>of</strong> “complete” or<br />
“comprehensive” (The overall direction <strong>of</strong> the<br />
battle came from corps headquarters).<br />
overly is a double adverb, but so are many other<br />
forms ending in -1~. The Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
lists it as found in Old English, and<br />
as being used in Scotland and the United States.<br />
It is not used in England but is acceptable<br />
in this country, especially before an adjective,<br />
as in overly cautious.<br />
oversight; omission. An omission is an act <strong>of</strong><br />
omitting. It may be deliberate or accidental. An<br />
oversight is a failure to notice or consider.<br />
When it is used to mean omission, it means one<br />
due to inadvertence, an unintentional omission<br />
(Not inviting Joe to the party was an oversight).<br />
Occasionally one comes across oversight in<br />
its slightly obsolescent sense <strong>of</strong> supervision,<br />
watchful care, the function <strong>of</strong> an overseer<br />
(Legree had general oversight <strong>of</strong> the planfation).<br />
overweening; overweaning. Ween is an archaic<br />
verb meaning to think or hope. It survives only<br />
in overweening. One who is overweening has<br />
expectations beyond merit or likelihood and<br />
hence is arrogant, egotistical. One occasionally<br />
sees the word misspelled overweaning. But this<br />
is simply a blunder or sheer ignorance. There<br />
is no such word as overweaning. If it existed it<br />
could only denote a mother who in some way<br />
weaned her children excessively, prematurely<br />
perhaps or was too eager to get the process<br />
done with.<br />
overwhelming is most likely to be used correctly<br />
when one bears in mind that it derives from<br />
the transitive verb to overwhelm which means<br />
to come, rest, or weigh upon overpoweringly,<br />
to crush, to overcome completely in mind or<br />
feeling. Overwhelming means, then, that which<br />
overwhelms, that which, moving against us and<br />
overspreading us, is so great as to render opposition<br />
useless (The demands <strong>of</strong> his admirers<br />
were not merely great: they were overwhelming).<br />
Overwhelming is not to be used as a<br />
synonym <strong>of</strong> vast or preponderant.<br />
Overwhelming odds and an overwhelming<br />
majority are clichCs.<br />
owe. When this word is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> something<br />
which we have already received in the<br />
past, the preposition to must be used in naming<br />
what we received it from, as in we owe the<br />
discovery <strong>of</strong> the prismatic spectrum to Sir Isaac<br />
Newton. When it is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> something<br />
which we must pay in the future, the to<br />
may be used, as in I owe five dollars to the<br />
grocer, or it may be omitted and the name<br />
treated as an indirect object, as in 2 owe the<br />
grocer five dollars. Owe in this second sense<br />
may be used in a passive construction, as in<br />
five dollars is owed to the grocer, but this is not<br />
possible when the word is used in the first sense.<br />
Instead, we must say the discovery is due io Sir<br />
Isaac Newton. (For the difference between<br />
owing to and due to, see doe to.)<br />
own. This verb may be followed by the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition to, as in she owns<br />
to knowing about it and she owned to having<br />
known about it. It may also be followed by a<br />
perfect infinitive with have, as in she owned to<br />
have known ahout ir. Both forms are acceptable,<br />
but the -ing construction is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten.<br />
The adjective own does not ordinarily have a<br />
comparative or superlative form, but Tennyson<br />
wrote: my ownest own.<br />
own flesh and blood, close relatives, usually<br />
spoken by parents about their children, is a<br />
hackneyed expression.
own worst enemy. To say <strong>of</strong> someone that he is<br />
his own worst enemy, meaning that he does<br />
himself more harm than anyone else does him,<br />
that, indeed, most others are well disposed<br />
towards him but that some unfortunate trait <strong>of</strong><br />
character, such as drunkenness, stands in his<br />
way, is to employ a cliche.<br />
ox. The plural is oxen. Very few Americans use<br />
the word ox except to call some one a dumb ox.<br />
Two such people would probably be c,alled<br />
dumb oxes, and not dumb oxen. And where the<br />
animals themselves are actually used the plural<br />
axes is <strong>of</strong>ten heard. Oxes is considered uneducated,<br />
but it is possible that it is used more than<br />
the literary oxen.<br />
When ox is the second element in a compound<br />
the plural is ox, as in three musk O.K.<br />
oxymoron is a rhetorical term for a figure <strong>of</strong><br />
speech which produces an effect by seeming<br />
pack. This verb may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing what is packed, as in the place was<br />
packed tight, or by an adverb describing the<br />
packing, as in she packed it tightly. As a rule<br />
there is no difference in meaning between these<br />
two constructions.<br />
pack; packer; packing; package. Pack as a verb<br />
meaning to prepare food for preservation seems<br />
to be one <strong>of</strong> those words which survived in<br />
America but dropped out <strong>of</strong> English speech.<br />
It was used in this sense in England as early as<br />
1494 and has been so used in America since<br />
colonial times but is not now so used in England.<br />
As a noun meaning the quantity <strong>of</strong> anything, as<br />
food, packed or put up at one time or in one<br />
season, pack is standard in America (The salmon<br />
pack in 1952 was surprisingly large) and acceptable<br />
in England.<br />
Pucker in America has the specialized meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> one whose business is packing food,<br />
especially meat, for the market. This meaning<br />
was known in England up until the last century<br />
but seems to have fallen into disuse there<br />
except, as a sort <strong>of</strong> borrowing, in reference to<br />
the American packers. The term in America is<br />
particularly applied to the heads <strong>of</strong> the great<br />
meat-packing businesses (The great packersthe<br />
Swifts, the Armours, the Wilsons-built<br />
gothic castles beside the lake). Packing is the<br />
American term to describe the preparing and<br />
packaging <strong>of</strong> foodstuffs. This meaning is known<br />
in England but, again, it is now used there chiefly<br />
in reference to the American industry and its<br />
processes.<br />
The noun package is in America equivalent to<br />
the British terms packet and parcel; it describes a<br />
bundle <strong>of</strong> things packed and wrapped (He came<br />
347 pagan<br />
P<br />
contradiction. In general it brings together two<br />
words which would appear to be opposed to<br />
each other but which in the context <strong>of</strong> their<br />
juxtaposition have a pointed meaning. Thus<br />
the King <strong>of</strong> France, in King Lear, describes<br />
Cordelia, after her father has disowned her, as<br />
this unpriz’d precious maid. Common oxymorons<br />
are the proverbial injunction to the rash<br />
to make haste slowly and the sentimental sympathy<br />
for the poor little rich girl that the<br />
tabloids expend on unhappy heiresses.<br />
ozone. The use <strong>of</strong> ozone for clear, invigorating,<br />
fresh air (Among the pines, away from the<br />
haunts <strong>of</strong> men, he breathed deep <strong>of</strong> God’s ozone<br />
and felt himself a better mun) is a vulgar elegancy.<br />
It is also an error. Although ozone is a<br />
form <strong>of</strong> oxygen, it does not possess oxygen’s<br />
invigorating power; in anything but minute<br />
quantities it is poisonous.<br />
home from the store with a large package under<br />
his arm). In America a packet is a small package<br />
or bundle. A parcel is that which when wrapped<br />
up forms a single, small bundle (parcel post).<br />
pact; compact. In the sense <strong>of</strong> an agreement, pact<br />
and compact are practically synonymous. A compact<br />
is a pact, an agreement between parties, a<br />
covenant, a contract. Some English authorities<br />
maintain that as a rule pnct is used for an agreement<br />
between nations or large bodies <strong>of</strong> people<br />
(North Atlantic Pact) and compact for an arrangement<br />
between private persons (The brothers<br />
acted together as if by compact), and this<br />
may be the present tendency in English usage,<br />
though it is not supported by the Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>. But in America pact may be used<br />
for an arrangement between private persons (I<br />
make a pact with you, Walt Whitman-Ezra<br />
Pound) and compact for an agreement between<br />
nations or large groups (The Federal constitution<br />
has been styled a compact between the<br />
States . . .-Wharton).<br />
In America there is little distinction between<br />
the words, although pact for this sense is more<br />
frequently used.<br />
paddle. The normal sense <strong>of</strong> the transitive verb to<br />
paddle is to propel, as a canoe, with a paddle.<br />
This sense has begotten, in America at least, a<br />
figurative slang term paddle your own canoe,<br />
meaning “mind your own business.” Since a<br />
short paddle is used sometimes on young children<br />
and pledges <strong>of</strong> high-school and college<br />
secret societies, the verb is also used colloquially<br />
in America to mean to beat with or as with a<br />
paddle, to spank (If you don’t keep quiet and go<br />
to sleep, 1’11 paddle you).<br />
pagan. See agnostic.
Page<br />
page. Although the older meanings <strong>of</strong> page are<br />
known in America today through their preservation<br />
in romantic and historical novels, the<br />
commonest meaning, when the word is used to<br />
refer to a person, is a young male attendant,<br />
usually in uniform, in a legislative hall or a hotel<br />
(A page took the message from the Clerk to the<br />
Speaker). As a verb, page means to wait on or to<br />
follow like a page. In America it has the additional<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> seeking a person by calling<br />
out his name, as a hotel page does (Z’ll have him<br />
paged over the loudspeaker at the railroad station).<br />
paid. See pay.<br />
pail. In its traditional sense a pail is a container<br />
<strong>of</strong> wood or metal with a bail or handle, for holding<br />
liquids (The full-fed beast shall kick the<br />
empty pail). In America only, pail may mean a<br />
vessel for carrying solids also. Hence the term<br />
dinner pail to describe the container once commonly<br />
used by schoolchildren and now by laborers<br />
and college pr<strong>of</strong>essors to hold their noonday<br />
meal. Early in the twentieth century in America<br />
The Full Dinner Pail was a slosan <strong>of</strong> prosperity<br />
which Mark Hanna publicized in support <strong>of</strong> thk<br />
claims <strong>of</strong> the Republican Party.<br />
pains. When this means considerable care or<br />
trouble, as in take pains with it, it is a mass<br />
word and not a true plural. It is followed by a<br />
plural verb, as in these pains were <strong>of</strong> no avail<br />
and no pains were taken, but we cannot speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> many pains. Formerly the word was <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used with a singular verb, as in much pains was<br />
taken and all this pains was for nothing. Today<br />
the singular construction is not used before a<br />
verb, but we can say he didn’t take much pains<br />
or speak about a great deal <strong>of</strong> pains.<br />
The singular form, a pain, and the true plural,<br />
three pains or many pains, always refer to sensations<br />
<strong>of</strong> pain, physical or mental.<br />
pair. The plural is pair or pairs. Six pair <strong>of</strong> gloves<br />
is the older form. Six pairs <strong>of</strong> gloves is newer.<br />
Both are acceptable.<br />
Pair, meaning “two,” is a noun. It cannot<br />
stand immediately before another noun, as the<br />
word two can, but must be joined to it by <strong>of</strong>.<br />
The singular pair is regularly followed by a singular<br />
verb, as in a pair <strong>of</strong> gloves is a nice present.<br />
But when the meaning <strong>of</strong> a sentence is unambiguously<br />
plural, as it is in a pair <strong>of</strong> thieves is<br />
conspiring to rob us, it is better English to recognize<br />
this fact and use a plural verb, as in a pair<br />
<strong>of</strong> thieves are conspiring to rob us.<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> twins; twins. A pair <strong>of</strong> twins is redundant,<br />
since twihs itself implies two, forming a couple<br />
or pair, Yet custom sanctions the term and there<br />
is certainly no great harm in it. Twins are, after<br />
all, a living redundancy.<br />
pajamas. The plural form refers to one garment,<br />
or set <strong>of</strong> garments, but is always treated as a<br />
plural, as in these pajamas are new. In order to<br />
use the word with a singular verb or to speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one set, it is necessary to say this<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> pajamas is new or several pairs <strong>of</strong> pajamas.<br />
A singular form pajama is used as the first<br />
element in a compound, as in pajama top and<br />
pajama pocket.<br />
348<br />
palate; palette; pallet; pallette. Palate, now the<br />
best known <strong>of</strong> the four, describes, roughly, the<br />
ro<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> the mouth (A cleft palate made it dificult<br />
for her to speak). This part <strong>of</strong> the mouth<br />
is considered (popularly but erroneously) as the<br />
organ <strong>of</strong> taste and, by extension, the word is<br />
used for the sense <strong>of</strong> taste or discrimination in<br />
taste (Though seen <strong>of</strong> none save him whose<br />
strenuous tongue/ Can burst Joy’s grape against<br />
his palate fine). The adjective palatable, by the<br />
way, is restricted to things <strong>of</strong> an agreeable taste.<br />
Palette is a French word, now anglicized. It<br />
meant a flat-bladed instrument, but in its commonest<br />
English and American use it now means<br />
a thin, usually oval or long, board or tablet with<br />
a thumb hole at one end, used by painters to lay<br />
and mix colors on. By transference from this<br />
meaning, it may also mean the range <strong>of</strong> colors<br />
used by a particular artist.<br />
There are two completely separate words<br />
spelled pullet. One derives from an Old French<br />
word for straw and means a bed or mattress <strong>of</strong><br />
straw, a small or poor bed (On your midnight<br />
pallet lying,/ Listen, and undo the door. The<br />
sick man was found in a wretched garret on a<br />
miserable pallet). A second word, derived from<br />
the French palette, a flat-bladed instrument, has<br />
many technical applications. It is applied to special<br />
instruments in ceramics, horology, and gilding,<br />
none <strong>of</strong> which are in common use.<br />
A pallette, derived from the same French<br />
word, is a term in armory describing a small<br />
armpit plate or a piece <strong>of</strong> armor for the head.<br />
And even here, just to add to the confusion,<br />
palette is the preferred spelling and pullet is an<br />
acceptable variant.<br />
pales into insignificance. To say <strong>of</strong> something<br />
that loses much <strong>of</strong> its seeming importance in the<br />
light <strong>of</strong> certain circumstances that it pales into<br />
insignificance is to employ a phrase worn smooth<br />
by repetition.<br />
palladium. The plural is palladiums or palladia.<br />
pall mall; Pall Mall. See mall.<br />
palmy days. The original sense <strong>of</strong> palm is the<br />
palm <strong>of</strong> the hand. The tree is so called because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the shape <strong>of</strong> its fronds, resembling the palm<br />
<strong>of</strong> the hand with the fingers expanded. A leaf <strong>of</strong><br />
the palm tree was in ancient times carried or<br />
worn as a symbol <strong>of</strong> victory or triumph on festal<br />
occasions. Hence the word palm came <strong>of</strong> itself<br />
to stand for victory or triumph. To receive the<br />
palm was to be acknowledged as supreme and<br />
victorious, to yield the palm was to concede another’s<br />
superiority, to dispute the palm was to<br />
question another’s claim to superiority, and so<br />
on. One’s palmy days were the time <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
glory and acknowledged excellence, unchallenged<br />
superiority. But palmy state and palmy<br />
days are now hackneyed, worn out and meaningless.<br />
palpable lie. That is properly palpable which can<br />
be felt by touch. When a doctor palpates a patient’s<br />
abdomen he presses down upon it with his<br />
fingers to see if he can feel anything abnormal<br />
in its contents. A palpable lie is, therefore, a lie<br />
so gross that you can actually feel it. Whoever<br />
first made this figurative extension was a bold
and fortunate man. The violence <strong>of</strong> its exaggeration<br />
no doubt paralleled the violent exaggeration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the lie that moved him to the coinage.<br />
But centuries <strong>of</strong> use have worn it bare. Its meaning<br />
and glory have departed.<br />
paltry. See petty.<br />
panacea derives from a Greek word meaning “allhealing”<br />
and means a remedy for all diseases,<br />
a cure-all (At first penicillin was hailed by the<br />
lay press us a panacea). It is, therefore, incorrect<br />
to speak <strong>of</strong> a panacea for any particular disease<br />
(as a panacea for polio, a panacea for cancer,<br />
etc.). The same holds for figurative uses <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word. A panacea for our social ills is correct. A<br />
panacea for the stock market is not.<br />
pandemic. See epidemic.<br />
panegyric; praise. Panegyric is not synonymous<br />
with praise. It describes an oration, discourse, or<br />
formal writing in praise <strong>of</strong> a person or a thing,<br />
a eulogy (I pi<strong>of</strong>ess to write, not his panegyric,<br />
which must be all uraise. bui his Life-James<br />
Boswell, <strong>of</strong> his Life-<strong>of</strong> Johnson). The emphasis<br />
in panegyric is on public, formal praise, whether<br />
in speech or writing. See also elegy; eulogy.<br />
panhandle. In America and England panhandle<br />
has the simple, basic meaning <strong>of</strong> the handle <strong>of</strong><br />
a pan. In the United States there are two figurative<br />
extensions <strong>of</strong> this meaning. As a standard<br />
noun panhandle may describe a narrow projecting<br />
strip <strong>of</strong> land, especially part <strong>of</strong> a state extending<br />
between two others. West Virginia,<br />
Texas, Oklahoma, Idaho and Alaska have panhandles.<br />
There is a slang verb, panhandle, which<br />
suggests figuratively holding out a pan or cup<br />
for alms, hence begging, especially begging on<br />
the street (Men in Skid Row are quick to panhandle<br />
each other). From this verb there is a<br />
further slang noun, panhandler, one who panhandles<br />
(You can’t go a block on Michigan Avenue<br />
without having to claw <strong>of</strong>f half a dozen<br />
panhandlers).<br />
panic. As an intransitive and a transitive verb,<br />
panic has the present participle, panicking, and<br />
the past and past participle, panicked.<br />
In its transitive sense, panic means to affect<br />
with panic, a demoralizing terror with or without<br />
clear cause, <strong>of</strong>ten as affecting a group <strong>of</strong><br />
persons or animals (Word <strong>of</strong> the German breakthrough<br />
panicked civilians clogging the roads<br />
from Paris). To panic also has, in theatrical<br />
slang, the meaning <strong>of</strong> to amuse an audience to<br />
the point <strong>of</strong> rendering it hysterical and disorganized<br />
(Will Rogers panicked them with his Oklahoma<br />
drawl and his rope tricks). In its intransitive<br />
sense, panic means to be affected with<br />
panic (At the first shot the whole herd panicked).<br />
pants, a familiar abbreviation <strong>of</strong> pantaloons, in<br />
American use means meh’s trousers (Sam, you<br />
made the pants too long. She wears the pants in<br />
that family). In England pants is the colloquial<br />
term for drawers (what Americans would call<br />
underpants), garments for the lower part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
body and legs, to be worn next to the skin. This<br />
British sense is in America applied only to<br />
women’s lower undergarments, though the more<br />
usual term is panties (Ten students were suspended<br />
today after having entered the women’s<br />
349 paragraphs<br />
dormitory last night and taken several pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
panties).<br />
The word refers to one garment but is treated<br />
as a plural, as in these punts are new. In order<br />
to use the word with a singular verb or to speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one garment, it is necessary to say<br />
this pair <strong>of</strong> pants is new or several pairs <strong>of</strong> pants.<br />
The form punts is also used as the first element<br />
in a compound, as in a punts pocket.<br />
papyrus. The plural is papyruses or papyri.<br />
parable. See allegory, myth.<br />
paradise; paradisal; heavenly. Whatever its perfections<br />
as a place, paradise has a peculiar imperfection<br />
as an English noun: it is extraordinarily<br />
difficult to base a satisfactory adjective on it.<br />
Parndisaic, paradisaical, paradisiac, paradisiacal,<br />
paradisean, paradisal, paradisic, paradisicalthough<br />
correctly formed all sound awkward.<br />
Of them, in Fowler’s opinion at least, paradisal<br />
is the least intolerable because it retains the<br />
sound <strong>of</strong> the last syllable <strong>of</strong> pnradise. Paradisaic,<br />
paradisaical, paradisial and paradisian are ill<br />
formed on the substantive root, though this is<br />
not a matter <strong>of</strong> much concern to the common<br />
speaker or writer. Fowler’s concluding suggestion,<br />
no doubt at least semi-humorous, that the<br />
wise man abandon the search and “take refuge”<br />
in heavenly is not wholly satisfactory because<br />
heaven and paradise are not the same places and<br />
have wholly different atmospheres, rights, privileges,<br />
and conditions. Then heavenly has become<br />
an enfeebled gushword. Paradise has a much<br />
stronger connotation <strong>of</strong> sensual delights, probably<br />
from its oriental associations, and, at the<br />
same time, a wistfulness or ominousness, from<br />
the Biblical associations, at the evanescence <strong>of</strong><br />
its pleasures and the imminence <strong>of</strong> separation<br />
and expulsion.<br />
paradox. A paradox is a statement which seems<br />
absurd, obviously untrue, self-contradictory, yet<br />
which upon investigation or explanation will be<br />
seen to be well founded. Many riddles are paradoxes<br />
(These are old fond paradoxes to make<br />
fools laugh i’ the alehouse), but so also are many<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ound statements. Paradoxes are much used<br />
in rhetoric because <strong>of</strong> the force <strong>of</strong> their seeming<br />
self-contradiction. A good example is supplied<br />
by the 9th and 10th verses <strong>of</strong> the 6th chapter <strong>of</strong><br />
Second Corinthians: As unknown, and yet well<br />
known; as dying, and, behold, we live; as chnstened,<br />
and not killed; as sorrowful, yet always<br />
rejoicing; as poor, yet making many rich; as having<br />
nothing, and yet possessing all things.<br />
The adjective is paradoxical. He who indulges<br />
in paradoxes is a paradoxer. And the holding<br />
and defending <strong>of</strong> paradoxes is paradoxology.<br />
paraffin. See kerosene.<br />
paragraphs. The break made by a new paragraph<br />
has two purposes. It causes the reader to make a<br />
fresh start and it breaks the monotony <strong>of</strong> the<br />
printed page. How long a paragraph should be<br />
depends a great deal on such mechanical matters<br />
as the size <strong>of</strong> the page, the width <strong>of</strong> the columns,<br />
the kind <strong>of</strong> type used. Breaks should be made<br />
where there is also some break in thought, where<br />
making a fresh start will not be disrupting. But<br />
as a rule, almost any paragraph could be broken
parallel constructions 350<br />
into more than one or merged with the preceding<br />
or the following paragraph.<br />
In general, paragraphs are longer in technical<br />
or intellectual material than in material that<br />
appeals to the emotions or is intended as entertainment.<br />
Paragraphs that are too long are fatiguing<br />
because they are difficult to follow.<br />
Paragraphs that are too short give the material<br />
an excited, hurried tone that may also be exhausting.<br />
parallel constrnctions. Correlative conjunctions,<br />
such as either. . . or, not only. . . but, both.. .<br />
rind, are used to connect statements or phrases<br />
that have the same importance in the sentence.<br />
It is sometimes claimed that the words which<br />
follow one member <strong>of</strong> the pair must be grammatically<br />
identical with the words which follow<br />
the other. This is called the rule <strong>of</strong> parallel construction.<br />
The sentence they not only tell lies but<br />
bad lies violates the rule, which requires either<br />
they tell not only lies but bad lies or they not<br />
only tell lies but tell bud lies. The original sentence<br />
is said to be faulty because the first conjunction<br />
is followed by a verb and the second is<br />
not.<br />
This sentence was written by Jowett, and all<br />
the great writers <strong>of</strong> English. including Burke. De<br />
L<br />
Quincey, Macaulay, have used correlatives more<br />
freely than the rule allows. Sometimes the difference<br />
is that they fail to repeat a word, such as tell<br />
in the example just given, and sometimes they<br />
do repeat a word unnecessarily, such as the second<br />
he in he not only tells lies but he tells bad<br />
ones. Constructions <strong>of</strong> this kind are standard<br />
literary English. The groups <strong>of</strong> words joined by<br />
a pair <strong>of</strong> conjunctions should not be so different<br />
that the feeling <strong>of</strong> similarity is lost. But so long<br />
as the intention is clear, there is no reason why<br />
one should use a stiff, unnatural English. Sentence<br />
rhythm and the spacing <strong>of</strong> significant<br />
words are very important factors in effective<br />
writing. They should not be sacrificed for mathematical<br />
precision, which has no value at all<br />
where it is not needed.<br />
Whether and or are also correlative conjunctions.<br />
But the or is so <strong>of</strong>ten followed by the single<br />
word not that no one claims a parallel<br />
construction is necessary here.<br />
paralysis. The plural is paralyses.<br />
paramount is an adjective meaning above others<br />
in rank or authority, superior in power or jurisdiction<br />
(In the eighteenth century England became<br />
the paramount power in India), chief in<br />
importance, supreme, preEminent (Matters <strong>of</strong><br />
paramount importance are rarely discussed on<br />
the floor <strong>of</strong> the conference). Paramount must<br />
not be used as a mere synonym <strong>of</strong> important.<br />
When a thing is said to be paramount, it can only<br />
mean that it is more important than all other<br />
things concerned.<br />
paramount and tantamount look deceptively alike<br />
but they mean very different things. Paramount<br />
means supreme in rank, preEminent. Tnntumount<br />
means equivalent, as in value, force, effect,<br />
or significance. It is usually followed by to<br />
(Your statement is tantamount to a confession).<br />
Tantamount is properly applied to acts and statements<br />
but not to material things.<br />
paramour. As a term for an illicit lover, especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> a married person, pnramour is now slightly<br />
archaic and poetic. Yet there does not appear<br />
to be any modern substitute. Current usage<br />
seems to prefer that certain things shall be nameless.<br />
paraphrase is a statement <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> a text<br />
or passage in other words, for clearness, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
to reveal some hidden meaning in the original.<br />
It is a free rendering or translation. Or it can<br />
even be a mere re-ordering <strong>of</strong> the language <strong>of</strong><br />
the original (Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra<br />
is a brilliant paraphrase <strong>of</strong> a section <strong>of</strong><br />
North’s Plutarch).<br />
paraphysis. The plural is paruphyses.<br />
parasol; umbrella; sunshade. A parasol has always<br />
meant in English a light, portable protection<br />
against the sun, a carried sunshade. It is<br />
now restricted to such a device as carried by<br />
women (What he saw wus . . . a lady, at the<br />
stern, with a pink parasol). Umbrella was at first<br />
used as a synonym for parasol but by the beginning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century it had become<br />
fixed in its modern meaning <strong>of</strong> a protection<br />
against both sun and rain, but especially against<br />
rain, carried by men and women. Swift, in his<br />
Description <strong>of</strong> a City Shower (1710) wrote <strong>of</strong><br />
The tuck’d up semstress who walked with hasty<br />
strides While streams run down her oil’d umbrella’s<br />
sides. Obviously the thing and the name<br />
were in common use by that time although there<br />
is a persistent legend, supported by almost every<br />
standard work <strong>of</strong> reference, that the umbrella<br />
was “invented,” “introduced,” or “pioneered” by<br />
Jonas Hanway (1712-1756).<br />
A sunshade in its most general sense is something<br />
that protects from the rays <strong>of</strong> the sun. It<br />
thus includes visor, parasol, and any kind <strong>of</strong> an<br />
umbrella whether portable or stationary, lattice<br />
or awning. In contemporary American usage it<br />
refers <strong>of</strong>ten to a kind <strong>of</strong> awning in front <strong>of</strong> a<br />
store.<br />
pardon me; excuse me. See apology.<br />
parenthesis. The plural is parentheses. Parentheses<br />
are used chiefly to enclose explanatory material<br />
that is not to be considered part <strong>of</strong> the actual<br />
sentence. Specifically, they are used:<br />
1. To illustrate, define or add information, as<br />
in With so many new suburbs (now 14) springing<br />
up, the city public health program must be<br />
expanded and The Lexington (Kentucky) parade<br />
float won the prize.<br />
2. To set <strong>of</strong>f comments or describe actions<br />
not intended to be included in the main statement,<br />
especially in dialogue written without<br />
quotation marks, as in Erica (laughing): Well,<br />
that’s what he said! and Q: Do you recognize this<br />
man (handing photograph to the witness). A:<br />
(examining photograph) No, Z don’t think Z have<br />
ever seen him.<br />
3. To enclose letters or numbers in a series, as<br />
in The reasons are as follows: (I) ________...._...; (2)<br />
. . . . . . . . ..______. and (3) .__.___.._..._._.<br />
4. To eliminate any confusion in numbers
spelled out, the corresponding figure is inserted,<br />
enclosed in parentheses, as in Please send seven<br />
(7) mongooses immediately.<br />
When a complete sentence is in parentheses,<br />
the period comes before the final parenthesis.<br />
Punctuation belonging to an including sentence<br />
comes after the parenthesis. A reference in parentheses<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> a sentence comes before<br />
the period, as in The new statistics reveal substantial<br />
changes (see fig. 1).<br />
When more than one paragraph is to be put in<br />
parentheses, each paragraph should begin with<br />
a parenthesis but only the last paragraph should<br />
end with a parenthesis.<br />
Sometimes the parenthesis and the dash are<br />
used together. This is not necessary; in such a<br />
case the two marks are serving approximately<br />
the same purpose, and one should be dropped.<br />
par excellence. The use <strong>of</strong> the French phrase par<br />
excellence, “by excellence or superiority,” to<br />
mean pregminently or superior to others <strong>of</strong> its<br />
kind (Of course the illustration par excellence is<br />
. . . ) is a clichC. The word good is usually preferable<br />
and usually more effective (A good example<br />
is . . .). Where the idea <strong>of</strong> supremacy is<br />
to be expressed it is better to say the best example<br />
or the supreme example or a most illuminating<br />
or u most fitting exumple. There are<br />
dozens <strong>of</strong> words and phrases that will do the job<br />
better than par excellence.<br />
parish; parochial. Only in England is there an<br />
ecclesiastical division known as a parish, a subdivision<br />
<strong>of</strong> a county, originally a township or<br />
cluster <strong>of</strong> townships having its own Established<br />
Church and clergyman. In the United States the<br />
term, in its ecclesiastical sense, is more restrictive,<br />
since it describes a local church with its<br />
field <strong>of</strong> activity (American parishes overlap, since<br />
there is no state church, and local churches draw<br />
their membership from a common area). In<br />
both England and America parish may describe<br />
a non-ecclesiastical district. In England it is a<br />
civil district or administrative division <strong>of</strong> a<br />
county. In America (in Louisiana only) it is a<br />
county. In both countries parish may describe<br />
the people <strong>of</strong> a parish, ecclesiastical or civil<br />
(The parish was resolved to have its bingo).<br />
The adjective is parochial. Americans <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
use parochial in a sense corresponding to the<br />
English denominational. A parochial school, to<br />
an American, means a school administered by<br />
a religious body, especially Roman Catholic or<br />
Lutheran, as distinct from one administered by<br />
the government. Parochial also implies a narrow<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> mind or a limited range <strong>of</strong> interest, a<br />
mind or point <strong>of</strong> view confined to or interested<br />
only in one’s own parish or some small field<br />
(Despite his cosmopolitan environment, the averuge<br />
New Yorker is parochial in outlook).<br />
park (noun). The commonest American meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> park, a meaning also familiar in England, is<br />
a tract <strong>of</strong> land set apart, as by a city or a nation,<br />
for the benefit <strong>of</strong> the public (London’s Regent<br />
Park compares with New York’s Central Park<br />
. . . but there are no such extensive parks in<br />
England as the Yellowrtone or the Yosemite).<br />
351 parlay<br />
Park is also commonly used in America to describe<br />
a tract <strong>of</strong> land set apart for recreation or<br />
sports, as an nmusement park or a ball park. In<br />
a sense mainly British, park describes a considerable<br />
extent <strong>of</strong> land forming the grounds <strong>of</strong> a<br />
country house, used for ornament, recreation,<br />
and <strong>of</strong>ten for pasturing deer or cattle (The deer<br />
park at Magdalen is one <strong>of</strong> Oxford’s many unexpected<br />
beauties). So important was the park to<br />
a great country house that it <strong>of</strong>ten formed a part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the name (After the death <strong>of</strong> his only son Sir<br />
William retired to Moor Park, his country seat).<br />
The British alone use park to describe an enclosed<br />
tract <strong>of</strong> land for wild beasts. The Americans<br />
alone use park to describe a high, plateaulike<br />
valley, as in Colorado and Wyoming, shut in by<br />
high hills or mountains (The Zndiun name for<br />
these parks signified “cow-lodge” or “bull-pen”<br />
on account <strong>of</strong> the immense herds <strong>of</strong> buffalo with<br />
which they abounded).<br />
In two more senses, one popular and one semitechnical,<br />
park means enclosure. A park, or more<br />
commonly a purking lot, is a place where vehicles,<br />
especially automobiles, may be assembled<br />
or stationed. In military usage a park is the<br />
space occupied by the assembled guns, tanks,<br />
vehicles, stores, etc., <strong>of</strong> a body <strong>of</strong> soldiers, the<br />
assemblage so formed, or a complete equipment.<br />
park (verb). As a transitive verb park means to<br />
put or leave an automobile, etc. for a time in a<br />
particular place, as on the street. More and<br />
more the word is coming to mean leaving an<br />
automobile at some designated spot, either at the<br />
curb or in a parking lot, for the use <strong>of</strong> which a<br />
charge is made or the occupancy <strong>of</strong> which is<br />
limited by law as to time. This is not an absolutely<br />
clear distinction yet, but it is becoming<br />
one. If an American says I parked the car at such<br />
and such a place there is usually implied a sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> urgency or expense or limited time. If he says<br />
1 left the car there is a suggestion that it is somewhere<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> the municipal parking lots or<br />
zones and not subject to these pressures.<br />
The sense <strong>of</strong> merely putting or leaving the car,<br />
though American in origin, has been adopted in<br />
England.<br />
In informal speech and writing, park has<br />
come to mean to place or leave in a suitable<br />
place or, rather, in a slightly unsuitable place<br />
(He Darked himself in Joe’s <strong>of</strong>ice and has been<br />
ihere all day. Pari your hat& the table here<br />
and join us). The inseparableness <strong>of</strong> the automobile<br />
and social life in America has led park,<br />
in journalistic euphemism and slang, to be used<br />
as a delicate synonym for love making (Many<br />
couples who have been parking at nights by the<br />
old water tower have been annoyed by young<br />
hoodlums).<br />
parlay. Unknown in British usage, parlay is a<br />
standard verb in the United States, transitive<br />
and intransitive, meaning to bet an original<br />
amount and its winnings on the same card or<br />
another race or contest and, from this, to build<br />
up with a gambler’s boldness from a small beginning<br />
to a large fortune (He parlayed his bet<br />
and won a fabulous sum. H. 1. Heinz . . . par-
layed a pickle into one <strong>of</strong> the most valuable family<br />
heirlooms in America).<br />
The word was formerly sometimes spelled<br />
parley and sometimes parlee.<br />
parley. In England the word parley is usually restricted<br />
to a discussion <strong>of</strong> terms between representatives<br />
<strong>of</strong> contending forces. This sense is<br />
common in America where, however, the word<br />
may also mean a discussion or a conference, as<br />
it formerly did in British usage.<br />
parlous, simply a variant in spelling and pronunciation<br />
<strong>of</strong> perilous, is archaic and its use a mild<br />
and minor affectation. It survives chiefly in such<br />
tired phrases as in a parlous state, a parlous condition.<br />
parochial. See parish.<br />
parody. See burlesque.<br />
parole. In America and England parole means the<br />
promise <strong>of</strong> a prisoner <strong>of</strong> war to refrain from trying<br />
to escape, or, if released, to return to custody<br />
or to forbear taking up arms against his captors<br />
(Since the colonel refused to give his parole<br />
there was nothing for it but to keep him under<br />
close guard).<br />
In the United States, but not in England, the<br />
commonest use <strong>of</strong> the word is an extension <strong>of</strong><br />
this to penology. Parole in America means the<br />
liberation <strong>of</strong> a person from prison, conditional<br />
upon good behavior, prior to the end <strong>of</strong> the maximum<br />
sentence imposed upon that person, or<br />
such a release or its duration (He had not been<br />
out on parole a week before he committed another<br />
robbery). Such persons must have a sponsor<br />
who will accept responsibility for them, and<br />
they are said to be paroled into the custody <strong>of</strong><br />
or paroled to the sponsor. They must report at<br />
regular intervals to a parole <strong>of</strong>ficer.<br />
The English equivalent <strong>of</strong> parole in the penological<br />
sense is ticket-<strong>of</strong>-leave and the parolee<br />
(as he is called in the United States) is on ticket<strong>of</strong>-leave<br />
or a ticket-<strong>of</strong>-leave man. Violation <strong>of</strong><br />
parole is regarded in America as a serious <strong>of</strong>fense.<br />
The English public-whatever the attitude<br />
<strong>of</strong> the law-seems to take a lighter or more merciful<br />
view <strong>of</strong> a former convict’s lapses. For generations<br />
one <strong>of</strong> their most popular comic-strip<br />
characters was Tom the Ticket-<strong>of</strong>-leave Man<br />
whose burglarious adventures delighted the<br />
young. Despite the dreadful nature <strong>of</strong> so many<br />
American comics, it is inconceivable that one<br />
could be based on eternal violations <strong>of</strong> parole.<br />
But, then, American crimes are too <strong>of</strong>ten lethal<br />
to be funny.<br />
paronamasia is the technical term for punning.<br />
See pun.<br />
parricide; patricide. A parricide is one who kills<br />
either <strong>of</strong> his parents or anyone else to whom he<br />
owes reverence. It is also the act <strong>of</strong> so killing,<br />
and especially the act or crime <strong>of</strong> killing one’s<br />
father. Patricide is specifically the killing <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
father or one who has killed his father. Thus<br />
parricide may be a synonym for patricide, when<br />
the victim is a father, but patricide cannot always<br />
be used as a synonym for parricide which<br />
can include the killing <strong>of</strong> a mother, <strong>of</strong> a sovereign<br />
to whom allegiance has been sworn or <strong>of</strong><br />
others who stand in a parental relationship to the<br />
killer. The killina <strong>of</strong> a mother or one who kills<br />
his (or her) mother is a matricide.<br />
parson. From its traditional sense <strong>of</strong> the holder or<br />
incumbent <strong>of</strong> a parochial benefice, parson has<br />
come, even in British usage, to mean any clergyman,<br />
minister, or preacher, not solely an Anglican.<br />
In England today the term is slightly depreciatory.<br />
In America it is rarely used except<br />
for humorous or archaic effect. Minister, pastor,<br />
and preacher are the common words, though<br />
the last, unless referring specifically to one who<br />
preaches, is rustic. Parsonage, however, is in<br />
use for the residence <strong>of</strong> a minister <strong>of</strong> religion.<br />
See also clergyman.<br />
part; parts. Either <strong>of</strong> these words may be treated<br />
as singular or plural, depending on the meaning.<br />
When referring to something inanimate, part<br />
should be followed by a singular verb, as in the<br />
greatest part <strong>of</strong> these years was spent in work.<br />
When referring to a large number <strong>of</strong> human<br />
beings, it should be followed by a plural verb,<br />
as in the greatest part <strong>of</strong> the population were<br />
illiterate. Similarly, the word parts must be used<br />
with a singular verb when it refers to a single<br />
unit or a portion, as in three parts <strong>of</strong> him is ours<br />
already. If the plural verb are is used here, the<br />
three parts become separate bits or pieces.<br />
Only the plural form parts can be used to<br />
mean “talents,” as in a man <strong>of</strong> parts; or geographical<br />
areas, as in foreign parts.<br />
part; portion; share; proportion; percentage. Part<br />
is the general word to describe that which is less<br />
than the whole (All Gaul is divided into three<br />
parts). A portion is a specific part allotted or<br />
assigned to a person or purpose (Father, give me<br />
the portion <strong>of</strong> goods that falleth to me). A share<br />
is a portion, rather as seen from the point <strong>of</strong><br />
view <strong>of</strong> the receiver than from that <strong>of</strong> the assigner<br />
(That’s less than my fair share. It was<br />
agreed that because <strong>of</strong> the extra risks Z ran Z was<br />
to have a larger portion than the others). Share<br />
also has about it, possibly for no better reason<br />
than the rime involved, a suggestion <strong>of</strong> a fair or<br />
due portion (Share and share alike. Just relax<br />
and wait your turn; everybody will get his<br />
share). In a special sense, a share is one <strong>of</strong> equal<br />
fractional parts into which the capital stock <strong>of</strong> a<br />
joint-stock company or a corporation is divided.<br />
Proportion should not be substituted loosely<br />
for part. It should refer to ratio, to a comparative<br />
relation between things, or magnitude as to<br />
size or quantity (The proportion <strong>of</strong> organisms<br />
that reach maturity is small compared to all that<br />
start as fertile seeds or eggs). Percentage, like<br />
proportion, is derived from mathematics and is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten misused in general senses by the pretentious.<br />
It is best used in describing a rate or proportion<br />
per hundred, an allowance, duty, commission,<br />
or rate <strong>of</strong> interest on a hundred. In<br />
looser use, percentage can mean a proportion in<br />
general (We hope for a lower percentage <strong>of</strong> cas-<br />
&ties in the next landing) and, in slang, it is<br />
used to mean gain or advantage (What’s the percentage<br />
in working hard only to pay higher<br />
taxes?).
part; some. Part is not an exact synonym <strong>of</strong> some.<br />
Part means something less than the whole. Some<br />
means a certain unspecified number, amount, degree-something<br />
less than the total. Part <strong>of</strong> our<br />
aircraft is missing means that a part <strong>of</strong> an aircraft<br />
is missing. Some <strong>of</strong> our aircraft are missing<br />
means a certain number from the total number<br />
<strong>of</strong> aircraft are missing.<br />
part and parcel. A part is a portion <strong>of</strong> the whole.<br />
The word emphasizes the separateness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
portion from the whole. Parcel, in the original<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> this phrase, also meant a portion <strong>of</strong><br />
the whole, but it emphasized the portion’s inclusion<br />
in the whole rather than its separateness.<br />
The phrase part and parcel was a legal phrase<br />
until the end <strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century. It is now<br />
almost meaningless.<br />
partake is not simply a fancy variant <strong>of</strong> take. It<br />
means to take or have a part or share in common<br />
with others. It always connotes sharing with<br />
others. One should not, for example, partake <strong>of</strong><br />
a meal alone. As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, one should not<br />
now partake <strong>of</strong> a meal under any circumstances,<br />
for the phrase, as a term for eating especially, is<br />
considered affected, genteel, stilted. Slmre in usually<br />
conveys the desired idea more effectively.<br />
partiality. See prejudice.<br />
partially; partly. Both partially and partly mean<br />
“in part, in some measure, not wholly.” The difference<br />
between them (as Fowler has pointed<br />
out) may be made clear by their opposites:<br />
wholly is the opposite <strong>of</strong> partly and completely<br />
the opposite <strong>of</strong> partially. Partly, that is, emphasizes<br />
the part, and partially emphasizes the whole<br />
<strong>of</strong> which the action or condition is a part (It<br />
was partly my fault. He was partially disabled).<br />
If either word will give the required sense<br />
equally well, it is better to use partly, since partinily,<br />
which looks more elegant, tends to be<br />
overused.<br />
On the other hand, partially also means with<br />
a prejudice or bias in favor <strong>of</strong> a person, group,<br />
or side as in a controversy, unjustly (Since he<br />
views everything partially, one cannot hope for<br />
a fair verdict).<br />
participles are verbal adjectives. They are sometimes<br />
used as adjectives and sometimes to form<br />
verbal phrases. See -ing.<br />
The English verb has two participles. The first<br />
is made by adding -ing to the simple form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb, as in breaking and mending. This is sometimes<br />
called the present participle and sometimes<br />
the active participle. Neither name is satisfactory.<br />
The form does not show time and is<br />
used in past tense phrases as well as in present,<br />
as in they were mending the wall. Until recently<br />
it was indifferently active or passive and may<br />
still be understood in a passive sense, as in it<br />
will bear telling, it is worth seeing, use every<br />
man after his deserts and n’ho should escape<br />
whipping?. It is essentially the form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
that refers to an action thought <strong>of</strong> as in progress<br />
(whether at the time <strong>of</strong> speaking or at some<br />
other time) and is used with forms <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to be to make the progressive tenses, as in the<br />
box is breaking. See progressive tenses.<br />
353 participles<br />
The second participle is the third form given<br />
in the principal parts <strong>of</strong> a verb, such as broken<br />
and mended. (See principal parts <strong>of</strong> a verb.) It<br />
is sometimes called the past participle and sometimes<br />
the passive participle. It is used with<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the verb lo have to make the completed<br />
action tenses, as in he has broken the<br />
box (see perfect tenses), and with forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb to be to make the passive voice, as in Ihe<br />
cup was broken (see passive voice). But the<br />
form itself does not express time and may be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the present, as in wondrous<br />
things <strong>of</strong> thee are spoken. And it is used in the<br />
completed action tenses with an active meaning,<br />
as in he has broken it. Essentially, the second<br />
participle is the form <strong>of</strong> the verb that names an<br />
action as compIeted.<br />
The participle having followed by the second<br />
participle <strong>of</strong> the meaningful verb, as in having<br />
mended, is sometimes called the third participle<br />
or the perfect participle. The word perfect may<br />
be confusing here since older grammarians<br />
called the second participle the perfect, because<br />
it represented completed action. Being followed<br />
by the second participle, as in being mended,<br />
might equally well be called the passive participle,<br />
but as a rule it is not given a name.<br />
Besides being used to form the compound<br />
tenses, both participles may be used as adjectives.<br />
The -ing participles are adjectives in a<br />
squeezing, wrenching, grasping, scraping, clutching,<br />
covetous, old sinner. When they stand before<br />
the noun, as here, participles are classifying<br />
words. These, for example, tell us the kind <strong>of</strong><br />
old sinner he was. A participle following a noun<br />
is descriptive, as in a covetous old sinner, squeezing,<br />
wrenching, grasping, and so on. See position<br />
<strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
It is sometimes difficult to say whether a present<br />
participle is being used as an adjective or as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a progressive verb form. If the preposition<br />
to is used to connect a participle following<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> to be with an object, as in this was distressing<br />
to her, the participle is certainly an adjective.<br />
If an object follows immediately, as in<br />
this was distressing her, it is part <strong>of</strong> the verb. If<br />
no object follows at all, either interpretation is<br />
possible. There is very little difference, so far as<br />
meaning goes, between these two uses <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word.<br />
With the second participle there is a greater<br />
difference in meaning between the adjective and<br />
the verb form. The words cttt, grown, burned,<br />
learned, are all second participles in cut is the<br />
branch that might have grown full straight/ And<br />
burned is Apollo’s laurel-bough/ That sometime<br />
grew within this learned man. Learned is clearly<br />
an adjective and grown part <strong>of</strong> a verb form, but<br />
cut and burned might be adjectives or might be<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a passive verb. Most people today would<br />
take them as adjectives. When no form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb to be occurs in a verbal phrase, there is no<br />
question <strong>of</strong> how the participle is to be interpreted.<br />
It is part <strong>of</strong> the verb unless it is placed<br />
immediately after the object <strong>of</strong> the verb, and if<br />
it is placed after the object it is an adjective.
participles 354<br />
Written is part <strong>of</strong> the verb in he had written a<br />
letter and an adjective qualifying letter in he had<br />
a letter written.<br />
When a participle is an adjective it may be<br />
qualified by the words very and too, as in this<br />
had been very distressing to her. When it is part<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb form these words cannot be used. We<br />
cannot say this was very distressing her. Whether<br />
or not one can say she had been very distressed<br />
depends upon how the participle is interpreted.<br />
See very.<br />
THE “NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE”<br />
The word absolute as used in grammar means<br />
“free” or “independent.” The expression “nominative<br />
absolute” means a participial phrase that<br />
is not grammatically connected with the rest <strong>of</strong><br />
the sentence and that contains the noun or noun<br />
equivalent that the participle qualifies, as in that<br />
done, we started home, where done is the participle<br />
and that the word qualified. A phrase <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind has the force <strong>of</strong> a condensed clause<br />
showing time, cause, condition, or descriptive<br />
circumstance, and can always be replaced by a<br />
clause, such as when that was done or since that<br />
was done.<br />
Both the present and the past participle are<br />
used in this way, as in I having few friends, my<br />
business began to fail and the money spent, we<br />
went to work again. The construction is unquestionably<br />
literary English. Some grammarians<br />
claim that “it is good Latin but not good English,”<br />
meaning, presumably, that it is not natural<br />
English. But this is no longer true. The form was<br />
taken over from Latin and did not become popular<br />
in English until the seventeenth century,<br />
but it is now thoroughly naturalized. There is<br />
nothing over-bookish about the river being high,<br />
we were afraid to go on and phrases such as that<br />
settled, everything considered, that being the<br />
case, are in constant use.<br />
When the word qualified by the participle in<br />
this construction is a personal pronoun, the rules<br />
say that the subjective form must be used. (Nominative<br />
means “subjective” and is applied to<br />
nouns as well as pronouns. The construction is<br />
called the nominative absolute because the nominative<br />
form is required here.)<br />
The rule is observed in practice whenever an<br />
-ing participle is used, as in she having finished<br />
the work, there was nothing for us to do. An objective<br />
pronoun before an -ing in an absolute<br />
phrase, as in maybe he can help, him being a<br />
scholar, is considered incorrect. This is also<br />
true when no participle is used and the word<br />
being is implied, as in it’s very sad, and him so<br />
fond <strong>of</strong> children.<br />
The rule is not observed with a simple past<br />
participle. Milton, who uses the subjective pronoun<br />
before an -ing in this construction, uses the<br />
objective form before the past participle, as in us<br />
dispossessed, me overthrown. This is also used<br />
in contemporary speech where him taken care<br />
<strong>of</strong>, we could go on is more natural than he taken<br />
care <strong>of</strong>. Some people would begin a phrase like<br />
this with a preposition to justify the objective<br />
form, as in with him taken care <strong>of</strong>. Others would<br />
insert having been to justify a subjective form, as<br />
in he having been taken care <strong>of</strong>. All three constructions<br />
are acceptable.<br />
An independent phrase beginning with a preposition<br />
and containing an -irzg form is called an<br />
absolute gerund phrase. Everything said so far<br />
and in what follows about the absolute participial<br />
phrase applies also to the gerund phrase,<br />
except that in a gerund phrase a personal pronoun<br />
is always objective, as in with him being<br />
sick, she had a great deal to do.<br />
THE “DANGLING PARTICIPLE”<br />
Very <strong>of</strong>ten a participial phrase does not contain<br />
a noun or pronoun that the participle can<br />
qualify. The word may be somewhere else in<br />
the sentence, as in the children ran into the house<br />
calling for her, where the phrase calling for her<br />
qualifies children. But sometimes there is no such<br />
word. as in it rained hard coming back. This is<br />
called the dangling participle by those who do<br />
not like it. It too is an absolute construction, but<br />
not the nominative absolute-because there is<br />
no nominative. It is a native English construction,<br />
not one borrowed from Latin, and is used<br />
by Chaucer and all our great writers before and<br />
since. But it is commonly condemned in textbooks.<br />
J. Lesslie Hall suggests that it should be<br />
called “the persecuted participle.”<br />
Children are usually taught that a participial<br />
phrase must either be a nominative absolute or<br />
qualify an easily identifiable word in the sentence.<br />
In order to persuade them that a sentence<br />
such as knowing as much as you do, the situation<br />
is easily explained is a grammatical mistake,<br />
they are shown sentences such as having eaten<br />
our lunch, the bus went on to Chicago.<br />
The rule against the “dangling participle” is<br />
pernicious and no one who takes it as inviolable<br />
can write good English. In the first place, there<br />
are two types <strong>of</strong> participial phrase which must<br />
immediately be recognized as exceptions. (1)<br />
There are a great many participles that are used<br />
independently so much <strong>of</strong> the time that they<br />
might be classed as prepositions (or as conjunctions<br />
if they are followed by a clause). These<br />
include such words as concerning, regarding,<br />
providing, owing to, excepting, failing. (2) Frequently,<br />
an unattached participle is meant to<br />
apply indefinitely to anyone or everyone, as in<br />
facing north, there is a large mountain on the<br />
right and looking at the subject dispassionately,<br />
what evidence is there?. This is the idiomatic<br />
way <strong>of</strong> making statements <strong>of</strong> this kind and any<br />
other construction would be unnatural and<br />
cumbersome.<br />
And the rule is still bad, even if these exceptions<br />
are recognized. There is no need to twist a<br />
sentence out <strong>of</strong> its natural form merely in order<br />
to make the subject <strong>of</strong> the participle also the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the principal verb. Good writers do not<br />
hesitate to use exactly the construction the rule<br />
forbids, as in lying in my bed, everything seemed<br />
so different; taking up, by the merest chance, a<br />
finely bound book, it proved to be . . . ; thus<br />
loaded, our progress was slower; bred up from<br />
boyhood in the Custom House, it was his proper<br />
field <strong>of</strong> activio.<br />
The sentence in which the bus eats the lunch
is a mistake, not because the participle is dangling<br />
but because it isn’t dangling, because it is<br />
firmly attached to bus. The rule should say that<br />
a participial phrase having the force <strong>of</strong> an adverb<br />
<strong>of</strong> time, manner, circumstance, should never be<br />
attached to a noun element in the sentence. To<br />
disregard this rule is indeed a gramma.tical<br />
blunder. And it might be added that the mistake<br />
is likely to occur when one is using having followed<br />
by a past participle. With any other form<br />
it is extremely rare, and occurs chiefly in madeup<br />
examples.<br />
particular. See special.<br />
parting <strong>of</strong> the ways. As a metaphor for the point<br />
at which a decision must be made and one <strong>of</strong><br />
two different courses followed, or even for a<br />
personal separation, the porting <strong>of</strong> the ‘ways<br />
(whether one “comes to it” or “reaches it”) is<br />
hackneyed.<br />
parting shot. As a term for a witty retort or an<br />
effective jibe or remark made as one is leaving,<br />
a parting shot is a cliche. It is a corruption, by<br />
the way, or folk-etymologizing <strong>of</strong> a Parthian<br />
shot, from the custom <strong>of</strong> the soldiers <strong>of</strong> Parthia,<br />
in western Asia, <strong>of</strong> shooting backwards -from<br />
their horses as they ran away.<br />
partly. See partially.<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> speech. Words are traditionally divided<br />
into eight classes which may be defined, roughly,<br />
as follows.<br />
1. Nouns name things. In this definition s,7uce,<br />
time, whooping cough and earthqunkes are all<br />
considered things. In a given sentence a noun is<br />
either singular or plural. That is, an important<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> nouns is number.<br />
2. Verbs show what happens to things. In a<br />
given sentence a true verb form must refer to<br />
either the past, the present, or the future. That<br />
is, an important characteristic <strong>of</strong> verbs is tense.<br />
3. Prepositions show relations between things<br />
or events. These may be spatial, temporal, or<br />
logical.<br />
4. Adjectives are words that qualify nouns,<br />
that is, they make the meaning <strong>of</strong> a noun more<br />
specific.<br />
5. Adverbs qualify other words, but not nouns.<br />
It should be noticed that these five classes appear<br />
to be a break-down, or an analysis, <strong>of</strong> experience.<br />
They reflect distinctions which have seemed<br />
important to men in what they talk about. This<br />
is not true <strong>of</strong> the next two classes. These are<br />
purely grammatical devices and have no counterpart<br />
in what we call reality.<br />
6. Pronouns are words that are used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> nouns.<br />
7. Conjunctions are words that show relations<br />
between other words, not between things.<br />
8. Znterjections are sounds that interrupt a<br />
sentence. They are put in a class by themselves<br />
because no rules apply to them.<br />
The distinction between things and actions. or<br />
between things and qualities, does not seem as<br />
clear cut to us as it did to men a few centuries<br />
ago, and in modern English this classification <strong>of</strong><br />
words is hard to defend. Nouns are freely made<br />
from verbs and verbs from nouns. Nouns and<br />
adjectives, adjectives and adverbs, adverbs and<br />
355 pass<br />
prepositions, merge into one another. Adjectives<br />
may be used as nouns, pronouns as adjectives,<br />
nouns as adverbs, and adverbs as conjunctions.<br />
In fact, most <strong>of</strong> the words in common use cannot<br />
be put into any one <strong>of</strong> the traditional classes exclusively.<br />
What part <strong>of</strong> speech a word is depends<br />
to a great extent on how it is used in a particular<br />
sentence. And even when we have the word in a<br />
sentence, it is sometimes impossible to say how<br />
it is being used. Of course, when it is impossible<br />
to say, it is also unnecessary to say.<br />
The distinctions between the eight parts <strong>of</strong><br />
speech, therefore, are not very helpful. But they<br />
do account for some <strong>of</strong> the preferences, and requirements,<br />
<strong>of</strong> modern English. They block out,<br />
in a rough way, the problems <strong>of</strong> language. And<br />
the old names are familiar to most people. All<br />
<strong>of</strong> this makes them as good a starting place as<br />
any for an analysis <strong>of</strong> English grammar.<br />
In this book there is a general article on each<br />
<strong>of</strong> the parts <strong>of</strong> speech. These describe more exactly<br />
what is meant by nouns, verbs, prepositions,<br />
and so on, and list the problems that are<br />
involved in using words <strong>of</strong> each type. The problems,<br />
in turn, are discussed individually, in separate<br />
entries, and are cross-referenced to related<br />
problems. When he reaches this point, the reader<br />
will be face to face with the practical questions<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar. The theoretical, or academic, distinctions<br />
will be behind him and he will probably<br />
find that the reality is not as strange as he had<br />
feared.<br />
party; person. Person refers to one. Party refers<br />
to more than one constituting a group, whether<br />
social (a dinner party), political (rhe Democratic<br />
Party), or other (A scouting party was<br />
sent forward).<br />
Party may be used with a singular verb, as in<br />
the party was just setting out, or with a plural<br />
verb, as in the party were just setting out.<br />
When ptrrty seems to refer to one, it is in the<br />
special senses <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the litigants in a legal<br />
proceeding or a signer <strong>of</strong> a legal instrument. And<br />
even here party means not so much one as a side<br />
(one or more persons) in a contract or action.<br />
Though party is not be to used in formal speech<br />
or writing for person, it is <strong>of</strong>ten humorously so<br />
used. Some authorities regard this usage as an<br />
Americanism, but Mr. Somerset Maugham, no<br />
American, referred to himself on his seventieth<br />
birthday as “a very old party.”<br />
Party also survives in telephone usage to designate<br />
a line shared by others and the person<br />
whom one calls (Here’s your party. To call another<br />
party on your line, dial “Operator,” give<br />
her the number you want, and tell her it’s on<br />
your line).<br />
pass. The past tense is passed or past. The participle<br />
is also passed or past.<br />
Passed is the preferred form for the past tense<br />
and participle, but past may also be used here,<br />
as in we past it an hour ago. Pnst is now the only<br />
form used for other parts <strong>of</strong> speech, such as adjective,<br />
adverb, preposition. But this is a relatively<br />
new development. A gentleman wrote in<br />
1773: 1 received them handsomely at half past<br />
seven, as the modern English now is.
pass 356<br />
Puss may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in they puss unseen.<br />
It may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> passing, as in they pass quickly.<br />
Of the numerous senses <strong>of</strong> the verb to puss<br />
(the American College <strong>Dictionary</strong> lists 46), a<br />
few require comment. There is the transitive<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> omitting the payment <strong>of</strong> a dividend (I<br />
dreamed that A.T.&T. passed a dividend). This<br />
originated in America but is being accepted in<br />
England. Partridge believes it is an error to say<br />
that two trains pass when moving in opposite<br />
directions. He feels that one train can pass another<br />
only when, proceeding in the same direction,<br />
it overtakes it and goes beyond it, and that<br />
the proper word for trains going in the opposite<br />
directions should be meet. But meet to an American<br />
would suggest a head-on collision and pass is<br />
the accepted word under these conditions (The<br />
eastbound and westbound limiteds pass between<br />
Erie and Bufjalo).<br />
Among the intransitive senses, two are worth<br />
being mentioned. When followed by for or as,<br />
pass in the United States can mean to be accepted<br />
or received (He made a grimace that passed for a<br />
smile). Then there is a meaning <strong>of</strong> pass peculiar<br />
to America: a person with an inconspicuous<br />
strain <strong>of</strong> Negro blood who chooses to represent<br />
himself as a white is said to pass (Possibly as<br />
many as 5,000,OOO people with a “determinable<br />
part” <strong>of</strong> Negro blood are now “passing” as<br />
whites. Nettie went up to Cincinnati and passed;<br />
they don’t write to her any more). This may be<br />
an extension <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> being accepted,<br />
or it may be a shortening <strong>of</strong> passing over the<br />
line.<br />
pass away. See die.<br />
pass up. The American expression pass up is the<br />
equivalent <strong>of</strong> the English (and American) decline,<br />
refuse, disregard (Well, Z guess 1’11 pass up<br />
the whole thing).<br />
pass, make a. Whether because <strong>of</strong> the frequency<br />
<strong>of</strong> the act or <strong>of</strong> the phrase, make a puss (usually<br />
followed by at), as a term for making an<br />
amorous overture or gesture, is now standard in<br />
American usage.<br />
passable; passible. That is passable which may be<br />
passed (That cur’s not passable here; wait till the<br />
road broadens at the foot <strong>of</strong> the hill) ; which may<br />
be proceeded through or over, or traversed, penetrated,<br />
or crossed (The roads became passable<br />
in early April) ; which is tolerable, fair, or moderate<br />
(The weather was passable, but I’ve seen<br />
it better) ; which may be circulated or has valid<br />
currency (Gold certificates are no longer passable:<br />
they must be redeemed at the bank); which<br />
may be ratified or enacted (I doubt if the bill is<br />
passable in its present form).<br />
Passible is a little-used and rather specialized<br />
term meaning capable <strong>of</strong> suffering or feeling:<br />
susceptible <strong>of</strong> sensation or emotion (The Paradise<br />
Saints have bodies <strong>of</strong> flesh, passible, and<br />
such a,s must have food-Baxter. And as he<br />
[God] is the Head <strong>of</strong> that body, he is passible,<br />
so he may srtffer. . . . -Donne).<br />
passion; Passion. The sense <strong>of</strong> the Latin word<br />
passio, suffering, is preserved in the capitalized<br />
form Passion which describes the sufferings <strong>of</strong><br />
Jesus Christ on the cross or his sufferings subsequent<br />
to the Last Supper, the gospel narrative<br />
<strong>of</strong> his sufferings, as in Mark 14-15 and parallel<br />
passages in the other gospels, a musical setting<br />
<strong>of</strong> this narrative, or a pictorial representation<br />
<strong>of</strong> these sufferings. The use <strong>of</strong> the word to designate<br />
the sufferings <strong>of</strong> a martyr is archaic.<br />
The uncapitalized form, passion, has developed<br />
from the Latin sense to mean any kind <strong>of</strong><br />
feeling or emotion, as hope, fear, joy, grief,<br />
anger, love, desire, especially when it is <strong>of</strong> compelling<br />
force. In popular usage passion specifically<br />
connotes strong amorous feelings (He had<br />
felt tenderness before, but never passion). And<br />
by extension it may describe any extravagant<br />
fondness, enthusiasm, or desire for anything<br />
(She had a passion for fresh strawberries). Its<br />
other specific popular sense is violent anger<br />
(News <strong>of</strong> the defeat put the general in a passion).<br />
passivals. See transitive verbs.<br />
passive voice. The form <strong>of</strong> the verb which shows<br />
that the subject is the recipient <strong>of</strong> the action<br />
named by the verb and not the agent, is called<br />
the passive voice, as seen in the thief was robbed.<br />
Only transitive verbs, that is verbs which imply<br />
both an object and an agent, can have a passive<br />
form.<br />
FORMS<br />
In English the passive voice is made by adding<br />
the past participle <strong>of</strong> the verb in question to any<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be. This may be a simple<br />
tense, as in ke was robbed; a perfect (completed<br />
action) tense, as in he had been robbed; or a<br />
progressive (continued action) tense, as in he<br />
was being robbed. It may be an infinitive, as in<br />
to be robbed, or an imperative, as in be hanged.’<br />
But the passive made with forms <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to be cannot be used in emphatic statements<br />
requiring the auxiliary do. We cannot say he<br />
does be robbed or he did be robbed.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the passive in a progressive (or<br />
continued action) tense, as in he was being<br />
robbed, is a recent development. Until about a<br />
hundred years ago, the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb could<br />
be used with either an active or a passive meaning.<br />
Where we would now say was being prepared,<br />
George Washington wrote: the entertuinment<br />
which was preparing. The new, specifically<br />
passive form with being and the past participle<br />
became popular around the middle <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth<br />
century. It <strong>of</strong>fended conservative people,<br />
who claimed that it was pedantic, clumsy, unidiomatic,<br />
and not found in the Bible-all <strong>of</strong> which<br />
is undoubtedly true. One gentleman, writing in<br />
1837. called it “uhiloloaical coxcombrv” and “an<br />
outrage upon English idiom, to be detested, abhorred,<br />
execrated and given over to six thousand<br />
penny-paper editors.” But it was useful and it<br />
survived. It has spread rapidly since 1900. A<br />
grammarian writing twenty-five years ago said<br />
that the passive progressive forms could not be<br />
used in the completed action or future tenses. He<br />
claimed that one had to say the house has been<br />
bailding and the honse will be bnilding rather<br />
than the honse has been being built or will be<br />
being built. This is no longer true. Today, very
few people would say the house has been building.<br />
Some people still object to been being and<br />
be being, but they have found new ways <strong>of</strong><br />
avoiding the construction.<br />
In present-day English, forms <strong>of</strong> the verb lo<br />
get are <strong>of</strong>ten used instead <strong>of</strong> the corresponding<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb fo be to make a passive voice,<br />
as in he got robbed. This is particularly true in<br />
the progressive tenses. People who object to been<br />
being or be being are likely to substitute getting<br />
for being, as in he has been getting robbed and<br />
he will be getting robbed some day. The verb to<br />
get can be used as a passive after do, as the verb<br />
to be cannot, and we therefore say if he does get<br />
robbed. A passive meaning can also be expresssad<br />
by the verb become and a past participle, as in<br />
they became known. These three forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
passive, they became known, they got known,<br />
they were known, are different in tone or emphasis.<br />
Become suggests a process; get, the simple<br />
act; and be, the resulting condition or state.<br />
This allows us a great deal <strong>of</strong> variety in our<br />
passive statements.<br />
SUBJECT AND OBJECT<br />
What would be the object <strong>of</strong> an active verb,<br />
as in they gave a reward, becomes the subject<br />
when the verb is in the passive voice, as in n<br />
reward was given by them. The subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
active verb may be omitted entirely in the passive<br />
construction or may be introduced by a<br />
preposition. In current English the preposition is<br />
usually by. Formerly, <strong>of</strong> was <strong>of</strong>ten used in this<br />
way, as in this dreaded sight, twice seen <strong>of</strong> us<br />
and possessed <strong>of</strong> the Devil.<br />
Theoretically, a passive verb cannot have an<br />
object. But in current English the indirect object<br />
<strong>of</strong> an active verb may also be made the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the passive form and this sometimes<br />
leaves a passive verb with an object, which is<br />
called the “retained object” by grammarians. In<br />
they gave him a reward, the word him is the indirect<br />
object <strong>of</strong> gave and the theoretically correct<br />
passive construction would be a reward was<br />
given him. But we may also say he was given a<br />
reward. This construction has been in use for<br />
several centuries but it is regarded by foreigners,<br />
and by some grammarians, as a monstrositychiefly<br />
because it cannot be translated into the<br />
other European languages. In Great Britain the<br />
construction is still considered objectionable<br />
when used with certain verbs, as in he was written<br />
a letter, was sent a note, was telegraphsed<br />
an answer, was done an injustice. In the United<br />
States it is thoroughly acceptable, without restrictions<br />
<strong>of</strong> any kind.<br />
In tlzey took no notice <strong>of</strong> him, the object <strong>of</strong><br />
rook is notice and him is the object <strong>of</strong> the preposition<br />
<strong>of</strong>. Nevertheless, we can say he was taken<br />
no notice <strong>of</strong>. Here the whole compound take-,aonotice-<strong>of</strong><br />
is being treated as if it was a simple<br />
verb. Similarly, in they hoped for something,<br />
hoped is an intransitive verb without an object<br />
and something is the object <strong>of</strong> for. But we can<br />
say something wus hoped for. Here again, we<br />
may say that what we actually have is a compound<br />
verb hope for, which is transitive. But<br />
however we explain them, constructions like<br />
357 passive voice<br />
these represent an enormous extension <strong>of</strong> the<br />
passive voice as found in other European languages.<br />
In English a great many verbs may also be<br />
used in a passive sense without being put in the<br />
passive voice. What is logically the object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
transitive verb may sometimes be made the<br />
grammatical subject without changing the form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb, as in the pies sold quickly, the car<br />
drove easily, the fields flooded. These forms are<br />
called “passivals.” A passive voice, as in the pies<br />
were sold quickly, the car was driven easily, the<br />
fields were flooded, always suggests the agent.<br />
The passivals present the action as an independent<br />
fact. They are simple and vivid, and are<br />
generally preferred to a passive form when the<br />
agent is considered irrelevant. See transitive<br />
verbs.<br />
USE AND MISUSE<br />
The English passive is a powerful verb form.<br />
It is applied widely to constructions that traditionally<br />
could not have a passive voice, and it<br />
has a variety <strong>of</strong> forms which provide subtle<br />
shades <strong>of</strong> meaning. It can be used when one does<br />
not want to name the agent <strong>of</strong> an action, either<br />
because this should be concealed, as in unkind<br />
things were said, or because it is irrelevant, as in<br />
the letter was mailed. It can also be used to emphasize,<br />
or call attention to, the agent. For example,<br />
a woman drove the car has no special<br />
emphasis in written English, although it may be<br />
given an emphasis in speech. But there is a definite<br />
emphasis on woman in the car wus driven<br />
by a woman. When the agent is mentioned in a<br />
passive construction it has more emphasis than<br />
it would have with an active verb.<br />
The passive voice is a sophisticated device. It<br />
is used by educated people much more than it is<br />
by uneducated people. It is likely to be out <strong>of</strong><br />
place in a narrative but is almost indispensable<br />
in presenting ideas and generalizations. One <strong>of</strong><br />
the most conspicuous traits <strong>of</strong> current English<br />
is the large number <strong>of</strong> passive verb forms used.<br />
This increased use <strong>of</strong> the passive disturbs some<br />
people, simply because it is new. But a great<br />
many more find it very satisfactory. The claim<br />
that a passive construction is inherently “weak”<br />
or “clumsy” should not be taken too seriously.<br />
It may be based on nothing more than a love for<br />
the old ways.<br />
However, there are three situations in which<br />
a passive voice may be undesirable. (1) The<br />
passive is not an effective form to use in a description<br />
or in narrative. (2) When someone<br />
wants to know who was responsible for a given<br />
act, and a passive voice is used to keep this<br />
information from him, he is naturally annoyed.<br />
But he should blame the person who is not being<br />
candid, and not the grammatical form that makes<br />
this possible. (3) Finally, there is the passive <strong>of</strong><br />
modesty. Some people seem to feel that I said, Z<br />
think. and so on, are fighting words, and retreat<br />
into the passive in order not to inflict themselves<br />
on other people. Some think they know exactly<br />
how <strong>of</strong>ten I can appear per thousand words<br />
without giving <strong>of</strong>fense. There is not a word <strong>of</strong><br />
truth in any <strong>of</strong> these theories. Anyone who is
past 358<br />
only interested in himself is a bore, and he does<br />
not become less <strong>of</strong> a bore by using passive verbs.<br />
Anyone who is interested in the person he is<br />
speaking or writing to may use the word I as<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten as he likes. No one will ever see anything<br />
egotistical in I like what you did and I wish you<br />
would tell me how 1 can pay you for it.<br />
past. See pass.<br />
past history; history. Past history is redundant.<br />
History by itself conveys the idea <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
dealing with past events or the record <strong>of</strong> past<br />
events.<br />
past master; passed master. The proper form in<br />
American usage <strong>of</strong> the term designating an adept,<br />
one who has ripe experience in any pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
or art, is past master (He was a past master <strong>of</strong><br />
the art <strong>of</strong> prevarication). In this sense it is<br />
always used humorously and in disparaging<br />
contexts.<br />
Since this is the settled spelling, it doesn’t<br />
make much difference whether it means one who<br />
was formerly the “master” <strong>of</strong> a lodge or club or<br />
guild and hence, assumedly, pr<strong>of</strong>icient in its<br />
secrets or one who by demonstrated pr<strong>of</strong>iciency<br />
had “passed” the necessary training or examination<br />
to qualify as a master-though, certainly,<br />
there is a difference between a passed Muster <strong>of</strong><br />
Arts and a past master <strong>of</strong> arts.<br />
pastor; minister. Pastor, the Latin word for shepherd,<br />
was applied in the New Testament to Christ<br />
(John 1O:ll; 1 Peter 2:25) and thence transferred<br />
to the bishops and other clergy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Christian church. It was applied to a minister or<br />
clergyman chiefly in reference to the care <strong>of</strong> his<br />
flock, as in visiting the sick, and so on. Bishop<br />
Simpson, in his Lectures on Preaching, made the<br />
distinction clear: The minister [he wrote] is a<br />
pastor as well as a preacher. . . . As a preacher<br />
he speaks to the people collectively; but as a pastor<br />
he watches over them individually.<br />
Modern American usage confines both pastor<br />
and minister to Protestant sects and varies with<br />
different sects and even with the same sect in<br />
different localities and social groups. In Chicago,<br />
for example, pastor is used by Baptists, Congregationalists,<br />
Lutherans (Evangelical, ImmanueI<br />
Evangelical, and Norwegian), Methodists, Methodist<br />
Episcopals, and the Church <strong>of</strong> Christ;<br />
pastor or minister is used by Presbyterians;<br />
minister is used by Evangelicals and the United<br />
Brethren; and rector is used by Episcopalians<br />
[reference: The Red Book, Chicago Classified<br />
Directory, December, 19511. Yet in Evanston, a<br />
well-to-do suburb adjoining Chicago, there seems<br />
to be a preference for minister. The Lutherans<br />
and Baptists there retain pastor, but the Church<br />
<strong>of</strong> Christ, Congregationalists, and Methodists<br />
have changed to minister. And whereas the Presbvterian<br />
clergymen in Chicago are either pastors<br />
or ministers,-in Evanston they are all ministers<br />
Ireference: Classified Section <strong>of</strong> the Evanston,<br />
Illinois, Telephone Directory, April, 19.541. See<br />
also preacher, rector.<br />
pastoral; pastorale; pastourelle; pastoral; pastorable.<br />
Pastoral is both an adjective and a noun.<br />
Its first meaning as an adjective, in point <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
is <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to shepherds (Or sound <strong>of</strong><br />
pastorul reed with onten stops). It can also<br />
mean used for pasture, as land (The valleys <strong>of</strong><br />
the Lake District are chiefly pastoral: they are<br />
unsuited io crops). For this sense pastural is an<br />
obsolete variant. Pnsturable means capable <strong>of</strong><br />
affording pasture (Though the field seemed pasturable,<br />
the pr<strong>of</strong>usion <strong>of</strong> wild onion made it useless<br />
for dairy cattle). Pastoral, as an adjective,<br />
has many other meanings. It can mean having<br />
the simplicity or charm <strong>of</strong> pasture lands (The<br />
landscape <strong>of</strong> the South Coast is pastoral), pertaining<br />
to the country or life in the country<br />
(Ours was a pastoral existence), portraying the<br />
life <strong>of</strong> shepherds or <strong>of</strong> the country, as a work <strong>of</strong><br />
literature, art, or music (Pastoral poetry goes<br />
back at least as far as the Greek poets Theocritus,<br />
Bion, and Moschus. The Sixth, or Pastoral,<br />
symphony was written in 1808). It also<br />
refers to a minister or clergyman or to his duties<br />
(Chaucer believed that the good parson would<br />
devote himself chiefly to pastoral duties, leaving<br />
the pursuit <strong>of</strong> sinecures to others).<br />
As a noun, pastoral describes a poem, play, or<br />
the like, dealing with the life <strong>of</strong> shepherds (The<br />
Bard whom pilfer’d Pastorals renown, / Who<br />
turns a Persian tale for half-a-crown. Though<br />
in form a pastoral, The Scholar Gipsy is one <strong>of</strong><br />
the most modern <strong>of</strong> all nineteenth-century<br />
poems). It is commonly conventional and artificial<br />
in manner. It may deal with simple rural<br />
life generally, and it was this meaning that Keats<br />
had m mind when he apostrophized the Grecian<br />
urn as Cold Pastoral! The noun pastoral may<br />
also stand for a literary work, usually <strong>of</strong> a hortatory<br />
nature, directed by a spiritual pastor to his<br />
people. Or it can mean a pastoral staff or crazier.<br />
Pnstoraie is a noun. It is taken over from the<br />
Italian and applies only to music. It describes an<br />
opera, cantata, or the like, with a pastoral subject,<br />
or a piece <strong>of</strong> music suggestive <strong>of</strong> pastoral<br />
life. Pastourelle is also a noun. It is taken over<br />
from the French and applies primarily to dancing.<br />
It describes the fourth figure in the quadrille,<br />
a figure resembling the dance <strong>of</strong> shepherds and<br />
shepherdesses.<br />
past tense. English has two basic tense forms.<br />
One, called the present, refers primarily to a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time that includes the time <strong>of</strong> speaking.<br />
The other, called the past, refers primarily to<br />
a period <strong>of</strong> time that has passed away, as in the<br />
Spartnns on the sea-wet rock sat down and<br />
combed their hnir. The form <strong>of</strong> the verb which<br />
excludes the time <strong>of</strong> speaking is called the past<br />
tense.<br />
The simple past tense is the second form<br />
given in the principal parts <strong>of</strong> an English verb.<br />
For most verbs it is made bv adding -ed to the<br />
present tense form. There -are approximately<br />
two hundred verbs which do not make the past<br />
tense in this way. These have all been listed in<br />
this book. (See the individual words and irregular<br />
verbs.) However it is made, the simple past<br />
tense <strong>of</strong> any verb has only one form. This is<br />
used in the singular and the plural in all persons.<br />
The only exception to this is the verb to
e, which has the past singular was and the past<br />
plural were.<br />
The simple past tense is used chiefly in s;peaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a particular, individual action in the past,<br />
as in he walked home. It may be used <strong>of</strong> actions<br />
already completed at some time in the past, such<br />
as finished in alter he finished the work he<br />
walked home. As a rule, we express habitual or<br />
customary action in the past by used followed<br />
by a @infinitive, as in he used to walk home.<br />
See used to.<br />
Did (the past tense <strong>of</strong> to do) followed by the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used in place <strong>of</strong> a simple<br />
past tense in questions and in negative statements,<br />
as in did Scott enjoy the concerts? and<br />
Lee did not say so. The same form is used to<br />
make a simple past statement emphatic, as in<br />
Ken did enjoy them.<br />
Had (the past tense <strong>of</strong> to have) followed by<br />
a past participle is used to show that an action<br />
occurred or was completed before some time<br />
which is also in the past, as in he had to/d his<br />
story and they had walked home. This is called<br />
the past perfect tense. Certain kinds <strong>of</strong> actions,<br />
such as thinking, hoping, believing, normally<br />
continue once they have begun. When a verb <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind is put in the past perfect tense, as in Z<br />
had thought, Z had believed, the important thing<br />
about the statement is that the thinking or believing<br />
is completely in the past, no longer a<br />
thing <strong>of</strong> the present.<br />
PROGRESSIVE FORMS<br />
Was or were (the past tense <strong>of</strong> to be) followed<br />
by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> an action as in progress at some time in the<br />
past, as in he was telling his story and they were<br />
walking home. This is called the progressive past<br />
tense. It is also possible to speak <strong>of</strong> an :action<br />
that was completed before some time in the past<br />
as in progress. For this we use the word had<br />
followed by been (the past participle <strong>of</strong> 10 be)<br />
and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> the significant verb, as in<br />
they had been walking home. This is called the<br />
progressive past perfect. The same form can be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> an habitual or repeatlsd action<br />
in the past, as in he had been getting II/I at<br />
five. What is seen in progress here is the custom<br />
<strong>of</strong> getting up at five. In some contexts it may<br />
be impossible to say whether it was the act or<br />
the repetition that the speaker had in mind..<br />
Until recently the progressive form was not<br />
used with verbs that naturally express a continuing<br />
action. This is no longer true. We may now<br />
say, for example, Z was believing every word <strong>of</strong><br />
it and Z was trusting him.<br />
In many European languages the present perfect<br />
is used as a past tense and the functions <strong>of</strong><br />
the past tense are divided between the present<br />
perfect and the true past, which is <strong>of</strong>ten called<br />
the imperfect. Some European grammarians<br />
transfer these distinctions to English and say<br />
that the English simple past is equivalent to their<br />
present perfect and the progressive past to their<br />
imperfect. Statements <strong>of</strong> this kind <strong>of</strong>ten appear<br />
in foreign language textbooks in this country, It<br />
is true that the English progressive past can<br />
359 pathetic fallacy<br />
never be used to translate their present perfect,<br />
but otherwise the distinction is misleading. The<br />
simple past tense is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> any kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> action in the past. It is used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
completed action, as in after he wrote the letter,<br />
and <strong>of</strong> action that is in progress, as in as he<br />
walked home. The perfect and progressive tenses<br />
are merely refinements <strong>of</strong> the past tense and<br />
express these ideas without the help <strong>of</strong> additional<br />
words such as after and as. They are generally<br />
preferred to the simple past because they express<br />
these ideas more efficiently. The progressive<br />
form is more immediate and more vivid than the<br />
other forms. It is used to call attention to a<br />
particular act and has the effect <strong>of</strong> slowing down<br />
a narrative. The simple form is used to get on<br />
with the story.<br />
Each <strong>of</strong> the past tense forms that have been<br />
discussed may also be expressed in the passive<br />
voice. (See passive voice.) When the principal<br />
verb in a sentence is in the past tense, the verb<br />
in a subordinate clause must usually be shifted<br />
to the simple past or past perfect. See tense<br />
shifts.<br />
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE<br />
The simple past tense can be used in conditional<br />
statements to refer indefinitely to the<br />
present or the future, as in if he walked in tomorrow.<br />
When a past tense is used with this<br />
meaning it is a past subjunctive and not a past<br />
indicative. (See subjunctive mode.) For all verbs<br />
except to be the past subjunctive and the past<br />
indicative have the same form and differ only<br />
in meaning. In the past subjunctive <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to be, the form were may be used as a plural or<br />
as a singular, as in if Z were you. See was;<br />
were.<br />
In a conditional clause the subjunctive was<br />
or were followed by a to-infinitive refers indefinitely<br />
to the present or the future, as in if he<br />
were to walk in. When not followed by a toinfinitive<br />
it refers to the present only, as in if<br />
he were here. A statement about the actual<br />
present that must be expressed conditionally is<br />
obviously contrary to the facts and the subjunctive<br />
forms were and had are <strong>of</strong>ten used to show<br />
this. That what is being spoken about is an<br />
imaginary condition and not an existing state <strong>of</strong><br />
affairs can be shown without using the word if,<br />
by placing were or had before the subject, as in<br />
were Z you and had Z the wings <strong>of</strong> a dove. See<br />
also can; could and shall; should.<br />
A past tense verb may be used in an if clause<br />
and still refer to the past, as in if he came yesterday.<br />
This is a simple indicative statement about<br />
a past fact. The if merely shows that the speaker<br />
does not know what the fact was. If we want to<br />
show that we are setting up a purely imaginary<br />
condition we use the past perfect, as in if he had<br />
come. Anything that is purely imaginary about<br />
the past is, <strong>of</strong> course, contrary to the facts and<br />
clauses <strong>of</strong> this kind are usually called “contraryto-fact”<br />
conditions.<br />
patent. See apparent.<br />
pathetic fallacy. The pathetic fallacy is a phrase<br />
coined by John Ruskin to describe the tendency
pathos 360<br />
<strong>of</strong> writers, especially poets, to attribute feelings<br />
to things. Pnthetic in the phrase is used in its<br />
original meaning <strong>of</strong> pertaining to emotion, not<br />
in the modern attenuated meaning <strong>of</strong> exciting<br />
pity or sadness.<br />
The ascription <strong>of</strong> human feelings to inanimate<br />
objects had been overdone in the poetry <strong>of</strong> the<br />
eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Mountains<br />
mourned, winds sighed, fields smiled and<br />
trees rejoiced. Hawthorne says <strong>of</strong> a stream, in<br />
The OId Manse, that “it slumbers between broad<br />
prairies, kissing the long meadow grass, and<br />
bathes the overhanging boughs.”<br />
Ruskin, in deploring the use, reflected the<br />
new objectivity, greatly influenced by scientific<br />
thought, toward inanimate objects. He stressed<br />
the importance <strong>of</strong> seeing a thing as it is and<br />
rejected emotional attributions to nature <strong>of</strong> false<br />
appearances “unconnected with any real power<br />
or character in the object.”<br />
The present attitude <strong>of</strong> competent poets and<br />
critics is opposed to such attribution. As Pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />
George Boas says, in Philosophy and<br />
Poetry, ‘I. . . our trees do not dance in the wind,<br />
our sunbeams do not smile. We struggle to avoid<br />
the pathetic fallacy.”<br />
However, most twentieth century versifiers<br />
disregard Ruskin and Boas and strive to emulate<br />
Joyce Kilmer, whose “Trees,” one <strong>of</strong> the hymns<br />
<strong>of</strong> pantheism, mingles mixed metaphors and the<br />
pathetic fallacy in equal proportions. The tree,<br />
mouth on earth, robins in hair and snow on<br />
bosom. “lifts her leafy arms to pray.” As Oscar<br />
Wilde said <strong>of</strong> the death <strong>of</strong> Little Nell, one has to<br />
have a heart <strong>of</strong> stone not to laugh.<br />
pathos. See bathos.<br />
patience; endurance; fortitude; resignation; stoicism.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these words imply calmness and<br />
courage under trying circumstances. Patience<br />
may be active or passive. In enduring suffering<br />
with calm or, indeed, enduring anything with<br />
quiet acceptance and uncomplaining waiting<br />
(He had not the patience to wait until it was<br />
given to him: he had to spoil it all by asking for<br />
it. Sad patience, too near neighbor to despair),<br />
it is a passive virtue. But it can be an active one<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> endless assiduity with no indication<br />
<strong>of</strong> discontent (With what patience the spider<br />
mended her web, day after day. It takes patience<br />
to learn anything so intricate us that). Endm-unce<br />
denotes the ability to bear exertion or labor or<br />
pain or disgrace, without any implication concerning<br />
the moral qualities involved (A winter<br />
campaign requires great endurance. There must<br />
be an endurance <strong>of</strong> evil, but one need not condone<br />
it. Endurance in quiet desperation is the<br />
lot <strong>of</strong> millions). Fortitade is endurance <strong>of</strong> which<br />
we approve, patience coupled with noble courage<br />
(The Duchess <strong>of</strong> Queensbury bears her<br />
calamity with great fortitude. Indifference, clad<br />
in Wisdom’s guise,/ All fortitllde <strong>of</strong> mind supplies/<br />
. . . / When we ure lush’d, they kiss the<br />
rod,/ Resigning to the will <strong>of</strong> God). As its first<br />
syllable makes plain, fortitade connotes strength.<br />
It is one <strong>of</strong> the cardinal virtues. Resignation implies<br />
a voluntary submission <strong>of</strong> the will to the<br />
purposes <strong>of</strong> some higher power, a deliberate<br />
restraining <strong>of</strong> complaint or reproach in the belief<br />
that our personal suffering is ordained in some<br />
obscure way for our own good and that it is<br />
impious to protest or even to cry out. Stoicism,<br />
conduct conforming to the precepts <strong>of</strong> the Stoics,<br />
who taught the repression <strong>of</strong> emotion and indifference<br />
to pleasure or pain, implies a calm fortitude,<br />
especially in the endurance <strong>of</strong> pain, without<br />
any <strong>of</strong> the usual external indications <strong>of</strong> suffering<br />
(The Indians prided themselves upon their stoicism<br />
and felt the least murmur <strong>of</strong> anguish to be<br />
disgracefl:l. Only the stoical and the cynical can<br />
preserve a meusare <strong>of</strong> stability; yet stoicism is<br />
the wisdom <strong>of</strong> madness and cynicism the mudness<br />
<strong>of</strong> wisdom).<br />
patience <strong>of</strong> Job. In referring to the calm and uncomplaining<br />
endurance <strong>of</strong> the much tried man<br />
<strong>of</strong> Uz, the patience <strong>of</strong> Job (even though the<br />
Biblical narrative does not itself contain the<br />
word patience) will always be proper. But a.s a<br />
simile for the endurance <strong>of</strong> others, or a term for<br />
the utmost conceivable calmness in the face <strong>of</strong><br />
provocation, it is hackneyed and to be used<br />
sparingly.<br />
patients. See inmates.<br />
patois. The plural is patois.<br />
patrol; patrolman; patrol wagon. From its earlier<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> the act <strong>of</strong> going the rounds <strong>of</strong> a garrison<br />
or town for the purpose <strong>of</strong> watching, preventing<br />
or checking disorder, patrol has acquired certain<br />
transferred senses. In English and American<br />
military terminology it describes a detachment<br />
<strong>of</strong> troops sent out in advance <strong>of</strong> the main body<br />
to reconnoiter (General Allen sent out three<br />
patrols; none returned). In the American Boy<br />
Scout organization a patrol consists <strong>of</strong> eight<br />
boys; in the English organization it consists <strong>of</strong><br />
six boys.<br />
In the United States a patrolman is a member<br />
<strong>of</strong> a police force patrolling a certain district.<br />
The English equivalent is called a police constable<br />
or just a constuble. However the constable<br />
is a constable at all times; whereas an American<br />
policeman is thought <strong>of</strong> as a patrolman only<br />
while on patrol duty. In both countries the district<br />
traversed is called the policeman’s beat. The<br />
vehicle used by American police for the conveyance<br />
<strong>of</strong> prisoners is called a patrol wagon (more<br />
familiarly paddy wagon or Black Maria), that<br />
used by the English police is called a prison van<br />
(more familiarly also Black Maria).<br />
patron; customer. A putron (the word is derived,<br />
ultimately, from the Latin paler, father) was<br />
originally a guardian, proprietor, or supporter.<br />
This meaning remains. Every charitable organization<br />
enlists the support <strong>of</strong> at least the names <strong>of</strong><br />
the socially distinguished as patrons. To say The<br />
Fords have become great patrons <strong>of</strong> higher education<br />
is to use the word properly in its original<br />
sense.<br />
As a term for a customer, a buyer, or one who<br />
attends a night club, a movie, or a theater, or<br />
buys a meal in a restaurant (or, more <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
these in the plural, collectively) patron may be<br />
“commercial cant” and certainly is a little pre-
tentious (Notice to our patrons: We are not responsible<br />
for lost articles), but it is definitely<br />
established in American usage. It may be base <strong>of</strong><br />
merchants to flatter those who buy from them<br />
but usage is not concerned with motives: if<br />
enough people use a word <strong>of</strong>ten enough in a<br />
certain sense, that sense will become established<br />
and standard. And that is what has happened to<br />
patron. It is interesting to observe, however, that<br />
it is used less by shops than by theaters, night<br />
clubs, racetracks, and restaurants.<br />
Stores prefer customer, and while this should<br />
mean one who customarily makes his purchases<br />
at a certain store (and so did mean in England,<br />
at least until recently, and in America at some<br />
<strong>of</strong> the more exclusive and expensive stores), it<br />
has come to mean merely a buyer [q. v.] and<br />
those who were formerly called customers are<br />
now <strong>of</strong>ten called regular customers.<br />
patronize. Although most British authorities reject<br />
this usage as pretentious, patronize is aclcepted<br />
in the United States in its commercial sense <strong>of</strong><br />
trading with or favoring a shop or restaurant,<br />
etc., with one’s patronage (We believe in patronizing<br />
our local stores). To treat in a condescending<br />
way, an accepted standard meaning in<br />
England also, is in America now a secondary<br />
meaning (Harvard men are thought to have a<br />
way <strong>of</strong> patronizing their less fortunate fellow<br />
collegians). The least common sense in America<br />
is the basic sense in England: to act as a patron<br />
toward, to support (He patronized several philanthropic<br />
causes).<br />
pause. See stop.<br />
pavement; sidewalk. A sidewalk in American terminology<br />
is a walk, especially a paved one, at<br />
the side <strong>of</strong> a street or road (On winter mornings<br />
he usually had to shovel snow from the sidewalk<br />
in front <strong>of</strong> his house). The English term for<br />
such a paved walk is pavement. In America<br />
pavement means the paved part <strong>of</strong> a paved! road,<br />
what the English call the roadway (After the<br />
collision there was glass all over the pavement).<br />
pay. The past tense is paid. The participle i.s also<br />
paid. Pay may also mean to let out rope (followed<br />
by out or awny). In this sense it is. quite<br />
regular and has the past tense and participle<br />
payed.<br />
pay (noun). See honorarium.<br />
peak. See top.<br />
peanut. American peanut is English monkey nut<br />
or, more soberly, ground nut, though the: English<br />
understand and sometimes use the American<br />
term. The slang terms <strong>of</strong> peanut for someone<br />
who is petty or insignificant and peanuts for a<br />
trifling reward or remuneration (Pauley estimated<br />
that altogether they involved less than<br />
%1,000,000-just “pertnuts” in the whole scheme<br />
<strong>of</strong> things) are not used in England.<br />
pearls before swine. Urging someone not to cast<br />
pearls before swine, as a warning against <strong>of</strong>fering<br />
art, literature, wit, or whatever it is, to the<br />
unappreciative, has become a cliche, to be used<br />
with care. Unless it is received with the same<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> thought that it is commonly spoken with,<br />
it is highly <strong>of</strong>fensive. It is not merely that some-<br />
361 peer<br />
one is called a swine. In this age <strong>of</strong> general<br />
abusiveness that might easily be forgiven. It is<br />
that one’s own tastes, artistic productions, witticisms,<br />
or imp-ulses, are considered as pearls.<br />
And that, in this democratic age, will not be<br />
forgiven.<br />
peculiar. See odd.<br />
peculiarly should not be used loosely as an intensive,<br />
in the place <strong>of</strong> such words as especially,<br />
particularly, or very. Peculiar derives from a<br />
Latin word meaning “pertaining to one’s own”<br />
and it means that which exhibits qualities not<br />
shared by others or that which mystifies because<br />
it is so individual that we cannot understand it.<br />
So a memory, for example, which is peculiarly<br />
dear is not necessarily very dear; it is dear,<br />
rather, because it involves something not to be<br />
found in other memories or so closely pertaining<br />
to one’s own experiences that a sense <strong>of</strong> its dearness<br />
could not easily be communicated to another.<br />
pedautry is the undue display <strong>of</strong> learning, the prcsentation<br />
<strong>of</strong> material in a didactic fashion, or<br />
a finicking adherence to rules and technicalities.<br />
The pedant has been a stock comic character in<br />
literature because <strong>of</strong> his pompousness and lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> humor, his parade <strong>of</strong> knowledge without<br />
sense, and his remoteness from the everyday<br />
world.<br />
Pedantic writing is characterized by polysyllabic<br />
words and circumlocution. It is most likely<br />
to be found in specialized fields <strong>of</strong> knowledge<br />
where the necessary technical words seem to<br />
attract unnecessarily long and obscure companions.<br />
Authority and <strong>of</strong>ficial position also seem<br />
to stimulate pedantry.<br />
Grammar is a favorite haunt <strong>of</strong> the pedant.<br />
He is equipped with rules, which he is convinced<br />
came before practice, and effectiveness and lucidity,<br />
charm, wit, grace and the fine excesses that<br />
surprise us with delight are nothing to him. His<br />
sole delight is to pounce upon the violation <strong>of</strong><br />
one <strong>of</strong> his rules.<br />
peek; peep; peer. As verbs, peek and peep are<br />
synonymous, meaning to take a quick look<br />
through a narrow aperture or small opening,<br />
usually furtively or pryingly (I can see his pride<br />
peep through each part <strong>of</strong> him. You shouldn’t<br />
peek; you’re expected to keep your eyes shut<br />
till we tell you to open them). Peek is more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
associated with children’s games and usually has<br />
a connotation <strong>of</strong> childishness about it. It has almost<br />
been lost in England, where peep is much<br />
more frequently used. To peer is to look continuously<br />
and narrowly for some time in order<br />
to penetrate obscurity. (And I peer into the<br />
shadows,/ Till they seem to pass away).<br />
peer, a noun, derives from the Latin par, equal,<br />
and means a person <strong>of</strong> the same civil rank or<br />
standing, an equal before the law, or one who<br />
ranks with another in respect to endowments or<br />
other qualifications (He will be tried by a jury<br />
<strong>of</strong> his peers. He is the peer <strong>of</strong> any student in the<br />
college). The word is frequently misused, however,<br />
to mean superior (as in He is the equal, if<br />
not the peer, <strong>of</strong> anyone here or There may be a
peevish 362<br />
few others as good, but he never met his peer).<br />
The error stems from the fact that peer in English<br />
usage describes a nobleman--a duke, a marquis,<br />
an earl, a viscount, or a baron. The holders<br />
<strong>of</strong> such titles are each other’s peers. When they<br />
are tried by a jury <strong>of</strong> their peers, they are tried<br />
not by a jury <strong>of</strong> commoners but by the House <strong>of</strong><br />
Lords or, as it is sometimes called, the House <strong>of</strong><br />
Peers, or the Peers. Though they are each other’s<br />
peers, they are not, legally, on a level with common<br />
citizens. Very few distinctions are now<br />
made, though formerly there were many and<br />
they were important, and it is only natural<br />
(linguistically) that the word which signified<br />
equality in the higher rank should signify superiority<br />
in the lower rank. But it is ironic that the<br />
error should be so persistent in the country<br />
which abrogated all distinctions <strong>of</strong> rank and<br />
reduced (or exalted) all to a peerage.<br />
peevish. See petulant.<br />
pejorative means depreciative, having a disparaging<br />
force. In grammar it is used <strong>of</strong> words which<br />
through certain uses and associations have come<br />
to have a worse meaning than the one they<br />
originally had and convey contempt or condemnation<br />
<strong>of</strong> that to which they are applied. Thus<br />
knave once meant a boy, a boor was only a<br />
farmer, and a villain a serf or peasant. Certain<br />
suffixes have a pejorative effect; -ster is one <strong>of</strong><br />
these, though it does not invariably suggest<br />
disparagement. A poetaster is not a true poet<br />
but a mere versifier or dabbler in rime. In<br />
punster there is a suggestion <strong>of</strong> contempt for one<br />
who is addicted to punning.<br />
pence; penny. Pence is a peculiarly British term<br />
to denote the collective plural <strong>of</strong> penny. The<br />
distributive plural <strong>of</strong> penny is pennies; that is,<br />
the word which describes the number <strong>of</strong> coins,<br />
in distinction from the sum indicating value (I<br />
gave him three pennies to pay my threepence<br />
fare). Since it is used collectively, pence is treated<br />
as singular (Fourpence is the usual fee). Pence<br />
is not used <strong>of</strong> American sums. Penny and pennies<br />
are used loosely, for cent and cents, a folk<br />
memory, perhaps, <strong>of</strong> the days before and the<br />
generation or so after the Revolution when the<br />
penny was a part <strong>of</strong> our currency.<br />
penetrate; pervade. To penetrate is to pierce into<br />
or through, to enter the interior <strong>of</strong> (Only heavy<br />
slugs will penetrate the armor. No one seems<br />
able to penetrate his reserve). To pervade is to<br />
diffuse throughout, to extend activities and influence<br />
throughout (Goodwill pervaded the conference).<br />
If we say, for example, The smell <strong>of</strong> ether<br />
penetrated the doctor’s <strong>of</strong>fice, we mean that the<br />
smell reached that far and entered. If we say<br />
The smell <strong>of</strong> ether pervaded the doctor’s <strong>of</strong>ice,<br />
we mean that it was everywhere throughout the<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice. The difficulty lies in the fact that the two<br />
effects are not always clearly distinguishable.<br />
Oils and heat, liniments, and even ideas, can<br />
penetrate and pervade. This has led to the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> pervading <strong>of</strong>ten being expressed as<br />
penetrating, and where the two actions are inseparable<br />
the usage must be acceptable. But<br />
where they are distinguishable it is well to use<br />
the proper verb. See also pervade.<br />
penmanship. Pride in handwriting as expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> character is no longer cultivated. In fact, it<br />
seems to have been replaced by the notion that<br />
illegibility in itself reflects certain admired traits<br />
-such as dash, authority and savoir-faire. Perhaps<br />
our great-grandfathers spent too much time<br />
on penmanship, as they did on spelling, learning<br />
more to form attractive, readable characters<br />
than to express themselves in meaningful language.<br />
In the late nineteenth century the approved<br />
style <strong>of</strong> penmanship was the Spencerian, recognizable<br />
by its light upstrokes, heavy downstrokes<br />
and elaborate curlicues. The twentieth century<br />
saw this superseded by the Palmer method,<br />
whose watchword was “free arm-movement.”<br />
The decorative style <strong>of</strong> the Spencerian method<br />
was replaced by a simpler, more graceful script<br />
which sought only to be legible.<br />
In most moderately progressive schools today,<br />
cursive writing is not taught until the third grade<br />
-and typing is usually <strong>of</strong>fered as an elective in<br />
the eighth grade. It is claimed that small muscles<br />
are not sufficiently coordinated to make the fine<br />
movements necessary for handwriting; whereas<br />
printing is much less demanding. Many children<br />
continue to print as long as it is acceptable at<br />
school, or develop a combination <strong>of</strong> printing<br />
and cursive styles. If legibility is the aim there<br />
can be no objection to this, for it serves that end<br />
very well, and it may be that we have now<br />
waded so far into illegibility <strong>of</strong> script that the<br />
easiest way out is to go ahead with printing.<br />
Certainly something will have to be done, unless<br />
we become complete artifacts and have<br />
typewriters built into us, for most handwritings<br />
now are almost entirely illegible. Much <strong>of</strong> everyday<br />
business still depends on written communications<br />
and memoranda and these must be legible.<br />
The Illinois Bell Telephone Company has<br />
stated that it loses $50,000 a year because<br />
operators can’t write call tickets plainly, and<br />
probably every other large business suffers a<br />
similar loss, a loss which in the aggregate must<br />
run into many millions. Post <strong>of</strong>fices across the<br />
country are full <strong>of</strong> dead letters, most <strong>of</strong> which<br />
are dead because they are illegible, illegible even<br />
to the staff <strong>of</strong> experts in illegibility which the<br />
Post Office has to maintain.<br />
pen name. See nom de plume.<br />
penniless. See poor.<br />
penult, penultimate; antepenult, autepenultimate.<br />
Penult and penultimate are the short and long<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> a noun meaning the last syllable but<br />
one <strong>of</strong> a word. Of the two, penult is preferable<br />
(The penult in American is i). Similarly, both<br />
antepenult and antepenultimate are forms <strong>of</strong> a<br />
noun meaning the last syllable but two in a word<br />
(The antepenult <strong>of</strong> American is er). Again, the<br />
shorter form is preferable in the noun. In the<br />
adjective, penultimute and. antepenultimate are<br />
preferred.<br />
penurious. See poor.
people. In current English people is a true plural.<br />
It means more than one person and can be used<br />
with a numeral. This use <strong>of</strong> the word is now<br />
standard but it was considered unacceptable<br />
fifty years ago.<br />
Originally people meant a tribe or nation. The<br />
word was commonly followed by a plural verb,<br />
as in a people who have little in common with US.<br />
The plural form was also people and two nations<br />
were usually called IWO people. When the word<br />
is revived for its literary or archaic etl’ect, a<br />
plural with s, as in two peoples, occurs more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten. This is seen in Tennyson’s description <strong>of</strong><br />
Armageddon, where he speaks <strong>of</strong> the standards<br />
<strong>of</strong> the peoples plunging thro’ the thunder ,storm.<br />
By extension, people came to mean any group<br />
<strong>of</strong> persons. Here too it was followed by a plural<br />
verb. But it was still felt to be a group name,<br />
like family or jury, and could not be used with<br />
a numeral, which would have meant more than<br />
one group. A grammarian writing in 176.5<br />
claimed that one could no more say two or three<br />
people than one could say two or three cattle or<br />
two or three company. Company is still a group<br />
name, but most people today have no difficulty<br />
at all in saying two or three people or iwo or<br />
three cattle. In its modern sense, the plural with<br />
s, as in you peoples, is not standard.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> people with a numeral was condemned<br />
by many grammarians in the early part<br />
<strong>of</strong> this century, but it is now standard E.nglish<br />
and is generally preferred to the word persons.<br />
We may now say three people were present or<br />
three persons were present, as we please. Most<br />
people prefer the first form, and persons now<br />
sounds pedantic or bookish. This may be because<br />
it is sometimes used to mean bodies, in contrast<br />
to spirits. Or perhaps persons, because <strong>of</strong> its association<br />
with personage, <strong>of</strong>fends the popular<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> equality.<br />
In its modern sense <strong>of</strong> “persons,” people has<br />
the genitive form people’s, as in the people’s<br />
opinions. Some publishers omit the apostrophe<br />
and write the peoples opinions. This is unusual,<br />
but accepted. If the word is being used in its<br />
old sense <strong>of</strong> “nation,” and if more than one<br />
nation is meant, the form peoples’ might Ibe defended,<br />
as in two peoples’ borders. But even here<br />
two people’s borders would be more literary.<br />
pep (short for pepper), meaning vigor, spirit, energy,<br />
animation, drive, and so on, is classilied as<br />
slang by most dictionaries (as in Z put in a new<br />
set <strong>of</strong> plugs and she’s had lots <strong>of</strong> pep since (then).<br />
But in its use as an attributive adjective, describing<br />
college rallies and talks designed to<br />
stimulate enthusiasm before a football game, it<br />
is surely standard. No terms other than pep talk<br />
and pep meeting have been employed for thirty<br />
years and it would be hard to think <strong>of</strong> any other<br />
way <strong>of</strong> saying what these terms say without being<br />
tedious and pompous.<br />
perceive. When used in an active form, this verb<br />
may be followed by an object and the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z perceived them stop; by<br />
an object and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in 1<br />
363 peremptory<br />
perceived them stopping; or by n clause, as in<br />
Z perceive they have stopped. When perceive is<br />
used in a passive form it may be followed by a<br />
to-infinitive, as in they were perceived to stop,<br />
or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in they were<br />
perceived stopping. See descry.<br />
percent; percentage. Percentage means a proportion<br />
reckoned in terms <strong>of</strong> one hundred. Thirty<br />
years ago percent was considered an abbreviation<br />
for per centum and was written per cenf.,<br />
with a period. It was a prepositional phrase and<br />
meant “to the hundred.” Today it is usually<br />
treated as a single word. Some publishers still<br />
print it as two words, as per cent, but the period<br />
has been dropped.<br />
The word now means just what percentage<br />
means and is used in just the same ways. Perhaps<br />
percentage will disappear as other unnecessary<br />
words, such as domestical, have done.<br />
In the meantime, anyone who likes to make<br />
distinctions can do so. Some editors use one <strong>of</strong><br />
these words as a noun and the other as an adjective,<br />
but there is difference <strong>of</strong> opinion as to<br />
which is which. The United States Bureau <strong>of</strong><br />
the Census does not distinguish here between<br />
nouns and adjectives. They use percent in table<br />
headings and wherever it is important to save<br />
space. In the text <strong>of</strong> an article, they prefer percentage<br />
when the word is used without a nn<br />
meral, as in the high percentage, and percent<br />
when it is used with a numeral, as in three percent.<br />
perceptible; perceptive; perceptual. Perceptible<br />
means capable <strong>of</strong> being perceived (Within ten<br />
minutes <strong>of</strong> the shifting <strong>of</strong> the wind there was a<br />
perceptible coolnes,s in the air). Perceptive means<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> perceiving (Any perceptive judge<br />
would see the difference at once). Perceptual is<br />
a specialized term meaning pertaining to perception<br />
(In thinking we tend to move from perceptual<br />
imnges to concepts).<br />
perception; apperception. Perception designates<br />
the action or faculty <strong>of</strong> perceiving, cognition,<br />
taking cognizance <strong>of</strong> some object <strong>of</strong> which the<br />
senses can be aware, or an immediate or intuitive<br />
recognition, as <strong>of</strong> a moral or aesthetic quality.<br />
It may also mean the result or product <strong>of</strong><br />
perceiving, as distinguished from the act <strong>of</strong><br />
perceiving. In its specialized psychological sense,<br />
perception refers to a single unified meaning<br />
obtained from sensory processes while a stimulus<br />
is present. Apperception is used exclusively<br />
in a specialized psychological sense. It means<br />
conscious perception, perception clearly conceived,<br />
a full awareness that we have perceived.<br />
perdurable, meaning permanent, everlasting, long<br />
enduring, eternal, was used chiefly in theological<br />
writings, and fell into disuse, even among the<br />
learned, about the middle <strong>of</strong> the seventeenth century.<br />
It was revived in the nineteenth century<br />
but remains largely a show word, a little artificial<br />
and forced. There are half a dozen better known<br />
synonyms which are to be preferred.<br />
peremptor:.; precmptory. Peremptory means imperative,<br />
dictatorial, leaving no opportunity for
perennial 364<br />
denial or refusal (The peremptory nnture <strong>of</strong> the<br />
demand angered the men but cowed them and<br />
they sullenly complied). In legal terminology<br />
peremptory means that which precludes or does<br />
not admit <strong>of</strong> debate (a peremptory edict).<br />
Prel?‘mptory, formed from pree’mpt and pre-<br />
Zmption, is a much rarer word, referring to a<br />
special privilege to buy land resulting from its<br />
prior occupancy (Since he had squatted on the<br />
land for five years, he claimed preEmptory<br />
rights).<br />
perennial, adjective, and perennially, adverb, mean<br />
enduring, lasting for an indefinitely long time.<br />
They do not mean recurring year after year (as<br />
in You can perennially expect a cold spell in<br />
May in these parts).<br />
perfect; complete. That is complete which has all<br />
its parts, is fully developed, or carried to its<br />
fulfillment (The toy ship was complete to the<br />
smallest detail. The plan has been a complete<br />
failure). That is perfect which is not only complete<br />
but is also <strong>of</strong> high quality and free from<br />
defects or blemishes. A complete day, for example,<br />
would be either twenty-four hours or the<br />
full hours <strong>of</strong> daylight, depending on how the<br />
word day was meant. A perfect day would be a<br />
full day but also a delightful or successful one<br />
or one that in some way had fulfilled the highest<br />
expectations. It must have no blemishes. It must<br />
be unqualified in its excellence. And it is this last<br />
meaning that is conveyed in what seems a negative<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the word, as a perfect fool or a perfect<br />
stranger. Neither <strong>of</strong> these terms suggests excellence<br />
in the person referred to, but the adjective<br />
is not, strictly, applied to the person but to his<br />
folly or his strangeness.<br />
For the use <strong>of</strong> the comparative and superlative<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> these words, see comparison <strong>of</strong><br />
adjectives and adverbs.<br />
perfectly is better restricted, at least in formal<br />
speech or writing, to its strict meaning <strong>of</strong> in a<br />
perfect manner or degree. In its common use as<br />
an intensive, to mean entirely or wholly or<br />
merely (Us perfectly all right to go ahead. It’s<br />
perfectly horrible <strong>of</strong> her to net this way), the<br />
word is overworked. Usually it is a meaningless<br />
filler and the sentences in which it occurs would<br />
be more effective without it.<br />
perfect tenses. Forms <strong>of</strong> the verb to have followed<br />
by the past participle <strong>of</strong> a verb make what are<br />
called the perfect tenses <strong>of</strong> that verb. For example,<br />
the present tense form he has followed<br />
by the past participle <strong>of</strong> speak, as in he has<br />
spoken, makes a present perfect form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to speak; and the past tense he had makes the<br />
past perfect he had spoken. All forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb can be given a perfect tense form. There is<br />
a perfect participle having spoken and a perfect<br />
infinitive to have spoken. These forms are called<br />
“perfect” because they refer to an action that is<br />
completed.<br />
The forms have developed from the basic<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> hnve, which is to possess. From a<br />
simple statement in which have is a full verb and<br />
caught an adjective, such as I have a fish caught<br />
0~ I have a caught fish, men came to use the<br />
form I have caught a fish to express the subtle<br />
notion <strong>of</strong> a present completed action. These are<br />
the perfect tenses. They are present tense forms<br />
if the present tense <strong>of</strong> have is used and past, if<br />
the past.<br />
For a long time these forms with have could<br />
be used only with transitive verbs, that is, with<br />
verbs that have an object. With certain other<br />
verbs the same distinction, <strong>of</strong> completed action,<br />
could be expressed by forms <strong>of</strong> the verb to be.<br />
In some European languages to be is still used<br />
in this way and was used in English with verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion until a few hundred years ago. These<br />
constructions can still be heard, as in the hour<br />
is come and he was recently returned from<br />
abroad, but they are now archaic or affected.<br />
For special problems in the use <strong>of</strong> perfect<br />
tenses, see past tense, present tense, and intitives.<br />
performance. See rendition.<br />
perhaps. See possibly.<br />
period. The period is used:<br />
1. To indicate the end <strong>of</strong> any sentence, except<br />
one requiring an exclamation point or a question<br />
mark, as in He went to town yesterdny. But a<br />
question which is actually a request can take a<br />
period, as in Will you please return the book by<br />
next weekend.<br />
2. To indicate an ellipsis. See ellipsis.<br />
3. For various typographical purposes:<br />
a. It is used t-&indicate an abbreviation, as<br />
in A.B.. Mr.. Mrs. But it is not used with nick-<br />
I I<br />
names, such as Al; or with letters representing<br />
government agencies or some other organizations,<br />
such as FHA, CIO, YMCA, or compound<br />
terms, such as mph.<br />
b. It is used to indicate a decimal point, as<br />
in $12.35, 2.5 inches.<br />
c. It is used after identifying numbers or<br />
letters in a list, as in the numerals introducing<br />
the items in this article. If the number is enclosed<br />
in parentheses, the period is not necessary.<br />
When a sentence ends with a quoted word or<br />
phrase, the sentence period always comes inside<br />
the quotation marks, as in He said he would<br />
come “soon.”<br />
perish. See die.<br />
permission; consent; leave; permit. Permission describes<br />
formal or express allowance or consent<br />
(Since she was only twenty, she had to get her<br />
parents’ permission to marry). Consent is a<br />
fairly restricted term; it refers to a definite decision<br />
to comply with an expressed request (Silence<br />
gives consent). A permit is something in<br />
writing, a written order granting leave to do<br />
something, an authoritative or <strong>of</strong>ficial certificate<br />
<strong>of</strong> permission, a license (He had to get a building<br />
permit from the city zoning commission).<br />
Leave is restricted in modern American usage<br />
largely to the specific meaning <strong>of</strong> permission to<br />
be absent from duty (He was on leave from the<br />
air base at the time) or the time such permission<br />
lasts (He got the usual two weeks’ leave before<br />
going overseas). It used, however, to be the most<br />
general <strong>of</strong> all the terms implying license or liberty<br />
granted to do something and is still under-
stood in this sense (May 1 have leave to speak?<br />
You have good leave to leave us), but it is<br />
slightly archaic and hence now seems formal.<br />
Thus the old phrase By your leave, which not<br />
too long ago meant no more than “please,” now<br />
seems stiffly formal and is used chiefly, because<br />
<strong>of</strong> this seeming excess <strong>of</strong> formality, ironically.<br />
permit as a verb may be followed by an infmitive,<br />
as in he permitted me to leave. When the permission<br />
is impersonal, permit may be followed<br />
by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in circumstances<br />
do not permit my leaving, but even here the<br />
infinitive is more usual, as in circumstances do<br />
not permit me to leave. See also allow. For<br />
permit as a noun, see permission.<br />
perpetrate; commit. Perpetrate is a transitive verb<br />
which conveys one meaning only: to perform,<br />
execute or commit something bad (A skillful detective<br />
writer keeps even his most acute readers<br />
wondering who has perpetrated the crime).<br />
Commit is a transitive verb which can be used<br />
in at least eight senses. Its basic sense is to give<br />
in trust or charge, to consign (Into thine hand Z<br />
commit my spirit). In its commonest sense, however,<br />
it means to do, perform, perpetrate (I<br />
committed an error in addition. We must find<br />
the man who committed the crime). In their<br />
parallel senses, commit and perpetrate can refer<br />
only to the enactment <strong>of</strong> crimes or blunders and,<br />
unless one wants to use melodramatic language,<br />
commit is to be preferred. Perpetrate is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used humorously to imply that something which<br />
has been done is <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> a crime, as in<br />
perpetrating a joke or a plan. But in this sense<br />
it has been worn out and should be avoided.<br />
perpetual. See eternal.<br />
perpetually. See constantly.<br />
persecute; prosecute. Persecute, used transitively<br />
only, means to pursue with harassing or oppressive<br />
treatment, to harass persistently, to oppress<br />
with injury or punishment for adherence to<br />
principles or religious faith (Nero’s evil repntation<br />
stems largely from the fact that he persecuted<br />
the early Christians), to annoy by<br />
persistent attentions, importunities, or th:e like<br />
(Most Americans have become reconciled to<br />
being persecuted by representatives <strong>of</strong> worthy<br />
causes in their communities).<br />
Prosecute, used transitively, is chiefly a legal<br />
term meaning to institute proceedings against a<br />
person, to seek to enforce or obtain by legal<br />
process, to conduct criminal proceedings in court<br />
against (Violators <strong>of</strong> traffic rules will be prosecuted),<br />
to follow or go on with something undertaken<br />
or begun (He was prosecuting a course<br />
<strong>of</strong> studies begun nearly a decade ago), to carry<br />
on or practice. Used intransitively, prosecute has<br />
the legal sense <strong>of</strong> instituting and carrying on a<br />
legal prosecution, <strong>of</strong> acting as prosecutor (Zj<br />
you continzle this trespassing, 1’11 prosecute).<br />
persiflage means, literally, whistle talk. It is light<br />
banter in which seriousness and frivolity iare SO<br />
mixed that the speaker may evade responsibility<br />
for what he wants the listener to infer. Since it<br />
assumes a superiority in the speaker and relquires<br />
a skill and adroitness that few have, it usually<br />
365 personal<br />
degenerates quickly into sneering and sc<strong>of</strong>lng.<br />
Except where one does not wish to be drawn<br />
into a serious conversation or wishes to annoy<br />
a pompous bore, persiflage is well avoided. It<br />
can be extremely tedious.<br />
An unusually dreary form <strong>of</strong> persiflage is in<br />
America called dozzbletalk, a process in which<br />
the speaker deliberately uses confusing nonsense<br />
in order to triumph at the listener’s bewilderment.<br />
The victim, after he has been bored and<br />
insulted, is expected to applaud the speaker’s<br />
wit.<br />
persistently. See consistently.<br />
person. For the use <strong>of</strong> this word as a grammatical<br />
term, see personal pronouns and agreement:<br />
verbs. See also people, individual, and party.<br />
personage; person; personality. Personage should<br />
not be used as a synonym for person. It means<br />
a person <strong>of</strong> distinction or importance (When<br />
Lindbergh took <strong>of</strong>f he was just another flyer:<br />
when he landed at Paris he was a personage).<br />
The word was formerlv used a great deal in Enrrland<br />
to designate a member <strong>of</strong> The Royal Family<br />
when a use <strong>of</strong> a proper name would have been<br />
indiscreet. (A Certain Great Personage has<br />
lately been mzich seen in Mrs. Langtry’s company).<br />
In American slang the word has largely<br />
been replaced in recent years by the military<br />
term V.I.P. (Very lmportant Person), usually<br />
employed ironically.<br />
Personage is also used sometimes to designate<br />
a character in a story or a play (Othello is a<br />
personage the nobility <strong>of</strong> whose character many<br />
modern critics have questioned).<br />
Though not yet recognized as standard, personality<br />
is used widely in the United States today<br />
as a synonym for personage, especially to describe<br />
notables <strong>of</strong> the screen or radio or television.<br />
So-and-so is said to be a television personality,<br />
particularly when he is known to the<br />
public but cannot easily be classified as an actor<br />
or a newscaster. In this sense it is useful. Personage<br />
would be better, but the public has fixed<br />
on personality and shows every sign <strong>of</strong> adhering<br />
to it. See also personality.<br />
persona grata, persona non grata. Except in the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> diplomacy, where it is too firmly<br />
established to be regarded as even a clichC, to<br />
refer to someone whose company is desirable as<br />
persona grata or to someone whose company is<br />
undesirable as persona non grata is pompous. It<br />
implies that the speaker sees trivial dislikes as<br />
matters <strong>of</strong> international protocol and veils the<br />
obvious in the dead language <strong>of</strong> dead learning.<br />
personal; personnel. Personal is an adjective meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to a particular person, individual,<br />
private (This is a personal matter; Z see<br />
no need to discuss it with a bunch <strong>of</strong> reporters).<br />
It also means in person. A few purists object to<br />
this, insisting that if one is someplace he is, <strong>of</strong><br />
necessity, there in person. But the moving pictures<br />
have changed this. An appearance may be<br />
merely on celluloid. A personal appearance implies<br />
presence in bodily form. Many film actors<br />
and actresses appear bodily in front <strong>of</strong> the<br />
screens that are to show their images. The public
personal 366<br />
has to have a nanic for such appearances and<br />
personal appearance has been chosen. It’s here to<br />
stay and all the philologists in the world can’t<br />
change it.<br />
Personnel (a French word, coined to distinguish<br />
the human element <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> manufacture<br />
from the materiel) first appeared in<br />
English about a hundred years ago. In this<br />
sense, it was a mass word and was always<br />
treated as a singular. One might say a large personnel<br />
or the personnel has been increased, but<br />
not many personnel or three personnel have<br />
been added.<br />
However, personnel is used today as synonymous<br />
with employees, and treated as a plural,<br />
as in all personnel were asked to participate.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> the word as a plural is <strong>of</strong>fensive to<br />
some people, but it is now established in business,<br />
sociology, and government and is not likely<br />
to be dislodged.<br />
personal friend is an attempt to recover the value<br />
<strong>of</strong> friend which has been weakened, in general<br />
democratic and commercial bonhomie, till it<br />
means little more than acquaintance. None the<br />
less, personal friend is a cliche and a redundancy.<br />
personality; character. Personality has taken the<br />
place in the twentieth century that character occupied<br />
in the nineteenth. It is now used chiefly<br />
to connote distinctive or notable personal character<br />
(He has more personality than the other<br />
<strong>of</strong>icers). It may also mean a person as an<br />
assemblage <strong>of</strong> qualities (These capacities constitute<br />
personality, for they imply consciousness<br />
and thought). As a psychological term, personality<br />
means all the constitutional, mental, emotional<br />
and social characteristics <strong>of</strong> an individual,<br />
an organized pattern <strong>of</strong> all such characteristics,<br />
or a pattern <strong>of</strong> characteristics consisting <strong>of</strong> two<br />
or more, usually opposing, types <strong>of</strong> behavior<br />
(“Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde” is a classic story<br />
about a split personality).<br />
Nearer to the basic sense <strong>of</strong> the term is its<br />
application to describe the quaIity <strong>of</strong> being a<br />
person, personal identity (The age <strong>of</strong> Homer is<br />
surrounded with darkness, his very personality<br />
with doubt). It properly designates the essential<br />
character <strong>of</strong> a person as distinguished from a<br />
thing (Man has personality as a tree has not).<br />
Personality is <strong>of</strong>ten misused for person or<br />
people (The personalities involved in the struggle<br />
for control <strong>of</strong> the company are equally<br />
unlikeable). Again, it is <strong>of</strong>ten used when character<br />
would be more suitable; for while personality<br />
describes the combination <strong>of</strong> outer and<br />
inner characteristics that determine the impression<br />
one makes upon others (He has a pleasing<br />
personality). character describes moral qualities,<br />
ethical standards, principles. He was a man <strong>of</strong><br />
weak character is not synonymous with He was<br />
a man <strong>of</strong> weak personality. Personality may<br />
similarly be confused with such words as disposition,<br />
manner, temperament.<br />
personality; person&y. Though both <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words refer to that proper to a person, the former<br />
describes those qualities which make a person<br />
what he is, while the latter, a legal term,<br />
denotes personal estate or property as distinguished<br />
from real property (His personalty<br />
consisted <strong>of</strong> money and goods worth $10,000.00,<br />
his realty <strong>of</strong> a house and grounds worth<br />
$50,000.00).<br />
personality; pleasiog personality. In common usage<br />
personality suggests distinctive or notable personal<br />
character, but there is no implication in the<br />
word itself <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> the distinctiveness.<br />
Therefore, the word frequently requires modification<br />
in the interests <strong>of</strong> clarity (She has a<br />
friendly personality. He had a disagreeable personality<br />
).<br />
personally; myself. Personally is used by many to<br />
lessen the opprobrium that is commonly felt to<br />
be attached to the use <strong>of</strong> I. When a man says I<br />
personally am <strong>of</strong> the opinion that.. . , he usually<br />
means to disavow any intention <strong>of</strong> speaking for<br />
mankind, or being universal, oracular, infallible.<br />
Such modesty is commendable, but the expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> an opinion carries certain risks and<br />
responsibilities that cannot be avoided by a mere<br />
redundancy. It is better to say I and accept the<br />
consequences unflinchingly. Some say I myself,<br />
but that is equally redundant and, to the ears <strong>of</strong><br />
many, doubles the <strong>of</strong>fensiveness <strong>of</strong> the first person<br />
singular.<br />
Personally is justified when one wishes to say<br />
that so-and-so did something himself that normally<br />
would have been done by a deputy. Thus<br />
if one says The president personally acknowledged<br />
the little girl’s letter, one stresses the fact<br />
that the acknowledgment was not, as would<br />
otherwise be assumed, the act <strong>of</strong> a subordinate<br />
using the president’s name. If, however, one says,<br />
The president personally shook hands with twelve<br />
hundred visitors, the use <strong>of</strong> personally is redundant<br />
because he couldn’t have done it any<br />
other way.<br />
personal pronouns. When used as a grammatical<br />
term, person means the distinction between the<br />
person speaking (first person), the person spoken<br />
to (second person), and the person or thing<br />
spoken about (third person). In English there<br />
are four pronouns (I, me, we, us) which are<br />
first person, and one (yorr) which is second<br />
person. The seven pronouns he, him, she, her,<br />
it, they, and them, are third person, but so are<br />
all the nouns and all the other pronouns in the<br />
language. The form <strong>of</strong> a verb sometimes depends<br />
upon the person <strong>of</strong> its subject. For a discussion<br />
<strong>of</strong> this, see agreement: verbs.<br />
The pronouns just mentioned, together with<br />
their possessive forms (see possessive pronouns),<br />
are called the personal pronouns. Formerly,<br />
English also had three other personal pronouns,<br />
thee, thou, ye, and the possessives thine and thy.<br />
(See the individual words.) Some personal pronouns<br />
are singular and some plural, but this<br />
is determined by the meaning <strong>of</strong> the word and<br />
gives no trouble. Some <strong>of</strong> these, such as I, we,<br />
they, are required when the word is standing<br />
before a verb. And some, such as me, us, them,<br />
cannot be used in this position. These problems<br />
are discussed under subjective pronouns and<br />
objective pronouns.
For some <strong>of</strong> the old uses <strong>of</strong> the personal pronouns<br />
that are now considered questionable,<br />
such as I will build me a house and old Meg she<br />
was a gipsy. see reflexive pronouns and intensive<br />
pronouns.<br />
When words <strong>of</strong> more than one person are<br />
used together, it is considered courteous to place<br />
the first person word last, as in let Sam and me<br />
know, and the second person you first, as in I<br />
will let you and Sam know. But this convention<br />
is not strictly observed. A thoroughly polite<br />
person might say let me and Sam know or I will<br />
let Sam and you know.<br />
personification is the attribution <strong>of</strong> personal nature<br />
or character to inanimate objects or abstract<br />
notions, especially as a rhetorical figure in poetry<br />
or high-styled prose. It differs from the pathetic<br />
fallacy (q. v.) in that it is done deliberately with<br />
no assumption that anyone will take it literally.<br />
When Carl Sandburg speaks <strong>of</strong> Chicago as the<br />
“City <strong>of</strong> the Big Shoulders” or John Crowe Ransom<br />
says that death is “a gentleman in a dustcoat<br />
trying/ To make you hear,” neither expects the<br />
figure to be accepted as anything but a figure.<br />
In contemporary poetry there is much less<br />
personification than in the poetry <strong>of</strong> earlier<br />
periods, possibly because the modern poet has<br />
less confidence in or use for his myth-making<br />
powers.<br />
personnel. See personal.<br />
persons. See people.<br />
perspective; prospective. Perspective is chiefly used<br />
as a noun to convey specialized meanings in<br />
optics, architecture, and painting. It sometimes<br />
means the art <strong>of</strong> depicting on a flat surface various<br />
objects, architecture, landscape, etc., in such<br />
a way as to express dimensions and spatial relations<br />
(Rossetti had a fine feeling for color, but<br />
he never mastered perspective), the relation <strong>of</strong><br />
parts to one another and to the whole, in a mental<br />
view or prospect (Only after several years<br />
and much reflection could he regard the event in<br />
the proper perspective), a visible scene, especially<br />
one extending to a distance, a vista<br />
(Berchtesgaden affords a magnificent perspective),<br />
or the appearance <strong>of</strong> objects with reference<br />
to relative position, distance (In perspective,<br />
railroad tracks seem to converge as they<br />
disappear in the distance).<br />
Prospective is chiefly an adjective meaning in<br />
prospect or expectation, expected, future (I i’iked<br />
my prospective father-in-law from the moment I<br />
met him).<br />
perspicacious; perspicuous. Perspicacious describes<br />
a quality in a person. It means having keen<br />
mental perception, being discerning, acute,<br />
penetrating, quick-witted (Even a perspicacious<br />
reader may have trouble with Eliot’s poe,!ry).<br />
Perspicuous describes a quality in the thing or<br />
person perceived. It means clear to the understanding,<br />
lucid, unambiguous, clear in expression<br />
and hence easily understood (The report was<br />
uniformly perspicuous. So perspicuous a fool<br />
could only provoke a smile where a more cunning<br />
rascal might have stirred up anger). Perspicuous<br />
has been used for perspicacious so long<br />
367 pervade<br />
and so <strong>of</strong>ten that those who insist it is now<br />
established as a synonym have considerable justification,<br />
but the Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
labels the use “improper” and it does seem a loss<br />
to the language if so important a distinction is<br />
to be confounded merely because <strong>of</strong> a similarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> sound. The nouns are perspicacity and perspicuify.<br />
perspire. Our great-grandfathers who sweat more<br />
than we do and bathed less, never heard <strong>of</strong><br />
dry-cleaning and passed on their thick, heavy<br />
clothing from generation to generation, regarded<br />
the word sweat as indelicate and <strong>of</strong>ten expressed<br />
its meaning in euphemisms. Dr. John Armstrong,<br />
an eighteenth century physician, referred to it<br />
as roscid baIm. Perspiration and perspire became<br />
the established terms <strong>of</strong> the fastidious.<br />
There was a Victorian joke that Horses sweat,<br />
men perspire, ladies glow. But sweat, like many<br />
coarse words, has a dignity and strength lacking<br />
in genteel substitutes (In the sweat <strong>of</strong> thy face<br />
shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the<br />
ground), and, <strong>of</strong> course, where one wants to<br />
emphasize the sweatiness <strong>of</strong> sweat (Nay, but to<br />
live/ In the rank sweat <strong>of</strong> an enseamed bed,/<br />
Stew’d in corruption, honeying and making love/<br />
Over the nasty sty!), perspiration would be<br />
ridiculous. It is not always as ridiculous, however,<br />
as the call-a-spade-a-spade school would<br />
make it out to be. Even euphemisms gain freehold<br />
rights through usage and the light sweat <strong>of</strong><br />
fastidious people, a dewy glistening <strong>of</strong> the brow,<br />
is now more properly perspiration than sweat.<br />
Sweat, however, b always the right word in<br />
reference to animals or to condensation on objects<br />
(Iced glasses sweat in hot weather). See<br />
also sweat.<br />
persuade. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in she persuaded him to go. It is also<br />
used with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb introduced by<br />
the preposition into, as in she persuaded him into<br />
going, but the infinitive construction is preferred.<br />
Persuade may also be followed by a<br />
clause. When the word means prevail on, the<br />
clause verb must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in size persuaded him he<br />
should go. When it means merely cause to believe,<br />
the clause verb may be an indicative, as in<br />
she persuaded him she was going.<br />
pert. See impertinent.<br />
peruse; read. To peruse is to read through, to<br />
read with great care and thoroughness. One<br />
reads a billboard in passing. One should peruse<br />
an insurance policy, a deed, or a will. Peruse is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used loosely for read but such use is ostentatious<br />
and improper.<br />
pervade; permeate. To pervade is to extend a<br />
presence, activities, influence, etc., throughout,<br />
to go everywhere (<strong>of</strong> a person), to pass or<br />
spread through (Though he is rarely there, his<br />
influence pervades the entire department). TO<br />
permeate is to pass through the substance or<br />
mass <strong>of</strong>, to penetrate through the pores or interstices,<br />
to be diffused throughout, to saturate<br />
(The spilled ink had permeated the manuscript,<br />
necessitating its complete retyping). The words
pessimist 368<br />
are, plainly, closely synonymous and in many<br />
contexts are interchangeable, but pervade is now<br />
found chiefly in figurative uses (A vast discontent<br />
pervcded the populace), whereas permeate<br />
is found in both concrete and figurative senses<br />
(The oil had permeated the rug. The idea <strong>of</strong><br />
progress permeates almost all social thinking).<br />
See also penetrate; pervade.<br />
pessimist. See optimist.<br />
pessimistic. See gloomy.<br />
petit; petite. The English adjective petit is now<br />
obsolete in the general sense <strong>of</strong> small or insignificant-though<br />
there are occasional literary<br />
echoes <strong>of</strong> it in such things as Edgar Lee Masters’s<br />
poem Petit the Poet. In place <strong>of</strong> petit in<br />
this general sense we now use petty. In legal<br />
phrases petit hangs on (petit jury, petit larceny),<br />
though even here petty is taking over. On the<br />
other hand petite, the eternal feminine, is doing<br />
well. The French pronunciation and spelling<br />
have been preserved. The word means little,<br />
small, tiny. A petite woman is small and, it is<br />
implied, dainty.<br />
pet peeve, a common slangy term for a particular<br />
aversion, is a dreary cliche kept feebly alive by<br />
its alliteration. In pet, with its suggestion <strong>of</strong> an<br />
aversion that is cherished and fondled, a hatred<br />
that we love, there was once a penetrating<br />
thought arrestingly conveyed in paradox. But all<br />
<strong>of</strong> this has been worn out by too much use.<br />
petrol; petroleum. Petrol is the word used in England<br />
for what in the United States is called<br />
gasoline. The word was once used in the United<br />
States to designate what is now called petroleum,<br />
but this use is obsolete.<br />
Petroleum is an oily, usually dark-colored,<br />
liquid which occurs naturally in various parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the world and is obtained by boring. It is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
called crude oil. It is used in its natural state, or<br />
after certain treatment, as a fuel, or it is separated<br />
by distillation into gasoline, naphtha, benzine,<br />
kerosene, paraffin, etc.<br />
petty, paltry, trivial all apply to something so<br />
small as to be unworthy <strong>of</strong> serious attention.<br />
Petty connotes a good deal <strong>of</strong> contempt (A<br />
petty quarrel. His fall was destined to a foreign<br />
strand,/ A petty fortress, and a dubious hand).<br />
Paltry is even stronger. It derives from a word<br />
meaning a rag and suggests something so mean<br />
and worthless as to be despicable (What a paltry<br />
fool, to delay forty people because he was two<br />
cents short in change). Trivial means slight and<br />
insignificant. It is used especially to mark the<br />
incongruity <strong>of</strong> the trifling when compared with<br />
the serious and important. It is not as scornful<br />
a word as the other two (I divert myself with<br />
these trivial things until I know for sure that I<br />
will be allowed to work on my great project).<br />
petulant; peevish; pettish. He is petulant who is<br />
moved to or shows some sudden, impatient irritation,<br />
especially over a trifling annoyance (This<br />
petulant display over so slight and unavoidable<br />
a delay did his reputation a great deal <strong>of</strong> harm).<br />
Peevishness is an expression <strong>of</strong> a more inveterate<br />
discontent than petulance. A peevish man’s irritations<br />
are more ingrained. They manifest them-<br />
selves consistently (whereas petulance may he<br />
sporadic) and evince a deep weakness <strong>of</strong> character.<br />
Pettish (meaning originally “like a small<br />
child”) is a word not now much in general use.<br />
But it is none the less a useful word, suggesting<br />
one who, like a spoiled child, manifests irritation<br />
over matters so small as to be beneath the dignity<br />
<strong>of</strong> a normal adult’s notice (This pettish<br />
concern with who is or who is not served first is<br />
ludicrous).<br />
phalanx. The plural is phalanxes or phalanges. In<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> military formations or other groups<br />
<strong>of</strong> persons, either plural rnay be used. Phalanxes<br />
is generally preferred. In botany and zoology<br />
the plural phalanges is preferred and this has a<br />
new singular phalange which can be used interchangeably<br />
with phalanx. In zo6logy the plural<br />
phalanges is used to mean one group, not several<br />
groups, and the singular phalange means one <strong>of</strong><br />
the units <strong>of</strong> such a group.<br />
phantasma. The plural is phantasmas or phantasmata,<br />
not phantasmae.<br />
phantasy. See fancy.<br />
phase; aspect. In an age such as ours which is<br />
strongly conscious <strong>of</strong> the difference between appearances<br />
and reality and sharply aware <strong>of</strong> the<br />
limitations <strong>of</strong> an individual’s perceptions, terms<br />
such as vision, point <strong>of</strong> view, and phase have a<br />
strong appeal and have been greatly overworked.<br />
All one can say, in caution, is that phase should<br />
not be used merely as a synonym for appearance<br />
and that it should at least be alternated, for<br />
variety, with aspect, especially in contexts where<br />
ambiguity might arise from confusion with the<br />
special meaning <strong>of</strong> phase in science as one <strong>of</strong><br />
the recurring appearances or states <strong>of</strong> something<br />
which, like the moon and the planets, continually<br />
goes through a cycle <strong>of</strong> regular changes in<br />
appearance.<br />
Like aspect, phase is a complement <strong>of</strong> point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view (q. v.), and since point <strong>of</strong> view can be a<br />
very vague thing, so can phase and aspect and<br />
their vagueness is sometimes an attraction to<br />
those who wish to avoid the effort <strong>of</strong> being<br />
precise.<br />
phase and faze, though pronounced alike, are<br />
totally different words and should not be confused.<br />
Phase is a standard noun meaning any <strong>of</strong><br />
the appearances or aspects in which a thing <strong>of</strong><br />
varying modes or conditions manifests itself to<br />
the eye or mind, a stage <strong>of</strong> change or development.<br />
It is synonymous with aspect. To faze in<br />
American slang means to disturb, discomfit,<br />
daunt, put out <strong>of</strong> countenance. Phase is almost<br />
never misspelled faze, but faze is <strong>of</strong>ten misspelled<br />
phase.<br />
phasis. The plural is phases, from which etymologically<br />
the more common singular phase has<br />
developed. Phasis is now used only in the most<br />
learned writing, as a synonym for phase.<br />
phenomena. See phenomenon.<br />
phenomenal. In its original, strict, philosophical<br />
sense, phenomenal means that which is cognizable<br />
by the senses (The wave moves onward,<br />
but the water <strong>of</strong> which it is comprised does not.<br />
The same particle does not rise from the valley
to the ridge. Its unity is only phenomenal-<br />
Emerson). It was applied, however (as in the<br />
illustration), to things which seemed so ‘to the<br />
senses but <strong>of</strong> the reality <strong>of</strong> which there was a<br />
question. From this it came to be used to describe<br />
something which is perceived but cannot<br />
be accounted for-and this led to its being used,<br />
as it now is, to mean prodigious, unusual, remarkable,<br />
extraordinary, etc. (Her first book<br />
was a phenomenal success. The rain has been<br />
phenomenal this season). Fowler foresaw this<br />
loose extension <strong>of</strong> the word’s meaning and<br />
sternly condemned it as “a sin against the English<br />
language.” But his condemnation, though<br />
reiterated by a host <strong>of</strong> lesser authorities, could<br />
not stay the word’s efflorescence or degradation.<br />
Its primary meaning now is certainly “extraordinary”<br />
or “prodigious” (The new models have<br />
a phenomenal pick-up). Where it will end, nobody<br />
knows. There are stars that after billions<br />
<strong>of</strong> years <strong>of</strong> stability suddenly explode andl then<br />
subside. Phenomenal seems to be a similar phenomenon.<br />
phenomenon. The plural is phenomenons 01’ phenomena.<br />
Phenomena is also used as a singular with a<br />
regular plural phenomenas. These forms are <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
to some people but are used by too many<br />
competent writers to be frowned upon. Of the<br />
three plurals, phenomenons probably rouses less<br />
antagonism than phenomena or phenomenas.<br />
phrases. Any group <strong>of</strong> words that does not contain<br />
a true verb and its subject (or an imperative)<br />
is called a phrase. A group <strong>of</strong> words that<br />
does contain these specified elements is called<br />
a clause. (See clauses.) Any part <strong>of</strong> a sentence<br />
may be a phrase. In but to see her wcu to<br />
love her, the verb was has a phrase as its subject<br />
and a phrase as its complement. In it might have<br />
been, the verb itself is a phrase. Phrases are<br />
sometimes named for the function they have<br />
in a particular sentence, such as an adverbial<br />
phrase, an adjective phrase. Sometimes they are<br />
named for the type <strong>of</strong> word that unites the<br />
phrase with the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence, such as an<br />
infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, a prepositional<br />
phrase. The words a prepositional phrase<br />
always mean a phrase formed with a preposition,<br />
rather than a phrase functioning as a<br />
preposition, which is called a compound .preposition.<br />
phylum. The plural is phyla.<br />
physical. See corporal.<br />
physically, mentally, and morally is a cliche <strong>of</strong> the<br />
feebly eloquent and the sententiously vapid.<br />
Uttered usually with oracular gravity and measured<br />
emphasis, its bombination proceeds not<br />
from weight but hollowness.<br />
physics. When this word means the science <strong>of</strong><br />
matter or energy, it is always used with a singular<br />
verb, as in physics is not what it was fifty<br />
years ago. When used with a plural verb the<br />
word will be understood to mean purges, as in<br />
physics are not wjhat ihey were fifty years ago.<br />
The only adjective form is physical, and this<br />
means material.<br />
physiognomy. See ftlce.<br />
piazza. See porch.<br />
pick and choose, as a term for fastidiousness in<br />
selection, is hackneyed.<br />
Pickwickian sense. When Mr. Pickwick referred<br />
to certain <strong>of</strong> 1Mr. Blotton’s actions as “vile and<br />
calumnious” and Mr. Blotton referred to Mr.<br />
Pickwick as “a humbug,” the chairman <strong>of</strong> the<br />
distinguished club felt it imperative to demand<br />
whether these opprobrious terms were to be<br />
received in their commonly understood senses.<br />
It appeared that they were not, that the disputants<br />
held each other in the highest esteem, and<br />
that the terms were used solely in their “Pickwickian<br />
sense.” The term has become a clichi<br />
<strong>of</strong> the literary and therefore should not be used<br />
in their company. It is totally meaningless to the<br />
unliterary and therefore should not be used in<br />
their hearing either.<br />
Like all cliches, however, it lends itself to wit<br />
because it is a cliche. Thus when Mr. Clifton<br />
Fadiman says <strong>of</strong> the cool reception that the first<br />
number <strong>of</strong> Pickwick received that “The book’s<br />
reception was successful only in a Pickwickian<br />
sense,” he is employing a cliche, but wittily, not<br />
as a cliche.<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> health. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who seems<br />
in excellent health that he or she is the picture<br />
<strong>of</strong> health or the very picture <strong>of</strong> health is to employ<br />
a phrase worn smooth by repetition.<br />
pidgin; pigeon. The proper word for the lingua<br />
franca composed mainly <strong>of</strong> debased English<br />
words following Chinese idiomatic usage is pidgin,<br />
a Chinese corruption <strong>of</strong> business. Pigeon is<br />
a still further corruption-an English pidginization,<br />
one might say-<strong>of</strong> pidgin and, though established,<br />
less common.<br />
pie; tart. In English usage a pie is usually a meat<br />
pie (steak and kidney pie, fozu-and-twenty<br />
hluckbirds baked in a pie). In American usage,<br />
it may be a meat pie or a sweet pie or even a<br />
layer cake with a filling <strong>of</strong> cream. jelly, or the<br />
like (Boston cream pie) or, if one includes the<br />
trade name Eskimo Pie, ice cream within a shell<br />
<strong>of</strong> chocolate frozen on a stick.<br />
Sweet pies are and long have been an important<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the diet <strong>of</strong> Americans and figurative<br />
extensions <strong>of</strong> the word (as sweet as pie, as<br />
easy as pie, pie in the sky. The mayor certainly<br />
cut himself a mighty big piece <strong>of</strong> pie) are favorable<br />
even if ironic.<br />
The American tart is a small, saucer-shaped<br />
shell <strong>of</strong> pastry, filled with cooked fruit or other<br />
sweetened preparation, and having (unlike the<br />
English tart, which in many ways corresponds to<br />
the American sweet pie) no top crust.<br />
It is a minor curiosity <strong>of</strong> language that sweefie<br />
pie is a term <strong>of</strong> vulgar and luscious endearment<br />
for a woman while turt (borrowed by the Americans<br />
from the English) is a term <strong>of</strong> gross<br />
disparagement.<br />
pig; hog. Pig in America retains its original meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a young swine <strong>of</strong> either sex weighing less<br />
than one hundred and twenty pounds. In England<br />
the word is used broadly to mean any swine<br />
or hog, a secondary meaning in America. In
pigeon 370<br />
both countries pig is used in a figurative sense<br />
to designate a person or animal <strong>of</strong> piggish character<br />
or habits, that is, gluttonous and filthy (He<br />
made a pig <strong>of</strong> himself at the smorgasbord). Hog<br />
is also so used in America, but it is a stronger,<br />
coarser word. As a term for one who takes more<br />
than his share (<strong>of</strong> most things other than food)<br />
or pushes in ahead <strong>of</strong> others, it is used in America<br />
far more than pig (roadhog; that hog, did<br />
you see him cut in there? Come on, don’t hog it<br />
all; leave some for the rest <strong>of</strong> us). Indeed, pig is<br />
a mildly humorous word, conveying only a slight<br />
rebuke. Hog is strongly condemnatory. The English<br />
use pig as a verb, the Americans hog.<br />
In metallurgy, a pig is an oblong mass <strong>of</strong><br />
metal that has been run, while still molten, into<br />
a mold <strong>of</strong> sand or the like. Hog, too, has its special<br />
meanings, usually expressed in combination,<br />
such as sandhog, groundhog, and so on.<br />
pigeon; dove. Although any bird <strong>of</strong> the pigeon<br />
family (Columbidae) is a dove, there are distinctions<br />
in popular usage between the words<br />
pigeon and dove. Despite the use <strong>of</strong> dovecote for<br />
the structure which houses them, domesticated<br />
doves are, by and large, called pigeons and wild<br />
ones are, in America, called doves. The wild<br />
passenger-pigeon is a marked exception, but its<br />
name seems to have become fixed and the species<br />
extinct before the modern distinction (which<br />
is by no means absolute) became established.<br />
In poetry and literature dove is a term <strong>of</strong> innocence,<br />
gentleness and love. It was formerly<br />
much applied to women. In contemporary American<br />
slang pigeon is also applied to women but,<br />
while still a term <strong>of</strong> affection, it is slightly<br />
coarser, conveying more <strong>of</strong> the amatory nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> the dove than its assumed innocence and gentleness.<br />
In the lingo <strong>of</strong> the underworld a dead<br />
pigeon is anyone faced with imminent disaster.<br />
In sacred literature and art the dove is a symbol<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Holy Ghost. So fixed is the word dove<br />
in this particular application that the use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word pigeon in its place would be blasphemous.<br />
pile Pelion on Ossa. It was the Titans-so Homer<br />
tells us-who in their war against the gods<br />
sought to scale Olympus by piling Mount Ossa<br />
on Mount Pelion. As a term for heaping one<br />
difficulty on another until the whole thing becomes<br />
an outrage, the phrase is now a cliche.<br />
The Titans and their war are known only to the<br />
learned. Pelion is now called Zagora and Ossa is<br />
now called Kissovo. It is, for most people, a<br />
meaningless phrase.<br />
pilfer. See steal.<br />
pillar <strong>of</strong> the church. To refer to one <strong>of</strong> conspicuous<br />
rectitude who is particularly active in his<br />
support <strong>of</strong> some church as a pillar <strong>of</strong> the church<br />
is to employ a hackneyed phrase.<br />
pilot in nautical terminology describes one duly<br />
qualified to steer ships into or out <strong>of</strong> a harbor<br />
or through certain difficult waters (The pilot is<br />
usually taken aboard <strong>of</strong>f Sandy Hook). A less<br />
common nautical meaning is steersman. In aviation,<br />
a pilot is one duly qualified to operate an<br />
airplane, balloon or other aircraft. This is probably<br />
the sense in which the word pilot is now<br />
most <strong>of</strong>ten understood by the laity (Pilot claims<br />
runway approaches unsafe).<br />
In a figurative sense, a pilot is any guide or<br />
leader (When Guilford good/ Our pilot stood.<br />
I hope to see my Pilot face to face/ When I have<br />
crossed the bar). Sky pilot, which to most young<br />
moderns would seem redundant, was a slang<br />
term much used a generation or two ago for a<br />
clergyman or chaplain.<br />
In machinery, a pilot is a smaller element<br />
acting in advance <strong>of</strong> another or principal element<br />
and causing the latter to come into play<br />
(Since the pilot on the gas range was out, he had<br />
to light the burner with a match). A pilot plant,<br />
an extension <strong>of</strong> this sense, is a small plant built<br />
to test out processes <strong>of</strong> manufacture so that a<br />
larger plant or plants may thereafter be built and<br />
operated more efficiently.<br />
pincers; pinchers. Pincers is the correct term to<br />
describe a gripping tool consisting <strong>of</strong> two pivoted<br />
limbs forming a pair <strong>of</strong> jaws and a pair <strong>of</strong><br />
handles. The word is frequently replaced in<br />
America bv pinchers, though this is dialectal,<br />
nonstandard.‘In recent years both terms have<br />
been replaced to a large extent by pliers and<br />
nippers.<br />
The form pincers refers to one instrument but<br />
is usually treated as a plural, as in these pincers<br />
are too small. A singular construction, such as<br />
here is a pincers, is unusual but acceptable. In<br />
using a singular verb we more <strong>of</strong>ten say here is<br />
a pair <strong>of</strong> pincers, and the construction with pair<br />
must be used after a numeral, as in three pairs<br />
<strong>of</strong> pincers. The singular pincer is not used as an<br />
independent word but is the preferred form for<br />
the first element <strong>of</strong> a compound, such as a pincer<br />
grip.<br />
pinch-hitter, as a term for a substitute, is a cliche.<br />
Except when used <strong>of</strong> baseball, the term is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
misused. When a manager sends out a pinchhitter,<br />
he assumes that the pinch-hitter will do<br />
better than the man at bat. But in other activities,<br />
when sickness or some other circumstance makes<br />
it impossible for the principal to appear and a<br />
substitute or understudy is rushed in to fill the<br />
place, he is not expected to do better than the<br />
principal would have done. It is a triumph if he<br />
or she does what is required in any acceptable<br />
fashion.<br />
pins and needles. On pins and needles, as a term<br />
for being uneasy, impatient with overtones <strong>of</strong><br />
anxiety, is a cliche.<br />
pint. The British pint and the American pint are<br />
different quantities. In America the standard<br />
pint contains 16 U.S. fluid ounces and has a<br />
capacity <strong>of</strong> 473.6 cubic centimeters. In England<br />
the imperial pint contains 20 British fluid ounces<br />
and has a capacity <strong>of</strong> 568 cubic centimeters.<br />
The American pint, therefore, is just a little<br />
more than 83% <strong>of</strong> the British pint.<br />
pious fraud. Originally a translation <strong>of</strong> the French<br />
fraude pieuse, referring to a deception practiced<br />
to serve what the practicer regarded as a good<br />
end, <strong>of</strong>ten for the furtherance <strong>of</strong> his religion, the<br />
term has come in common American usage to<br />
mean a hypocrite. It is applied far more <strong>of</strong>ten to
persons than to acts or misrepresentations. In<br />
either sense, however, it is trite.<br />
pit (<strong>of</strong> a theater). See orchestra.<br />
pitcher, the word to describe a container, usually<br />
with a handle and spout or lip, for holding or<br />
pouring liquids (Or ever the silver cord be<br />
loosed, or the golden bowl be broken, or the<br />
pitcher be broken at the fountain . . .), is considered<br />
noetic or archaic in England but is the<br />
everyday word in America. The usual English<br />
equivalent is jug.<br />
Pitcher has another meaning in American<br />
sports, where it describes the player in baseball<br />
who delivers or throws the ball to the batter<br />
(Few pitchers manage to hold an opposing team<br />
to no hits in a whole game).<br />
piteous; pitiable; pitiful. Piteous is now restricted<br />
to that which exhibits suffering and misery and<br />
is therefore heart-rending (He could hear the<br />
piteous cries <strong>of</strong> the injured children). Pitiable<br />
means that which is deserving <strong>of</strong> pity’or excites<br />
compassion (&‘&I a pitinble pIea could not be<br />
ignored), but it may also mean lamentable,<br />
wretched, or paltry (They were in a pitiable condition,<br />
all ragged and dirty ulith no knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the wrong that had been done them). That is<br />
pitiful which touches our compassion or excites<br />
us to pity (Tony Lust’s pitiful fate was to spend<br />
the rest <strong>of</strong> his life reading Dickens to an insane<br />
illiterate). But the contempt which is so <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
allied to compassion has colored this word more<br />
than the others and one <strong>of</strong> its meanings is contemptible,<br />
despicable (Your behavior was a pitiful<br />
exhibition <strong>of</strong> cowardice).<br />
place. The noun place is <strong>of</strong>ten used in compounds<br />
with some, any, every, no, instead <strong>of</strong> the adverb<br />
where, as in they are living some place in Ohio.<br />
This is standard Enelish in the United States.<br />
But many grammarians object to it and hold that<br />
place must be made part <strong>of</strong> a prepositional<br />
phrase, such as in some place or at some place.<br />
The word place is sometimes used as an adverb<br />
without one <strong>of</strong> the four qualifying words<br />
mentioned above, as in we are going places tonight<br />
and what place are your going?. This does<br />
not have the same standing as some place, any<br />
place, etc., but it is acceptable to many well<br />
educated Americans. (For place meaning “position,”<br />
see job.)<br />
place; put. The essential difference between placing<br />
and putting is that when something or someone<br />
is placed, it or he is put in a proper or assigned<br />
position or order. Something that is put<br />
on a shelf is simply picked up and set down<br />
there. Something that is pluced on a shelf is<br />
something that belongs on that shelf. That is its<br />
proper place. No hard and fast rules can be laid<br />
down because no one can decide what is the<br />
proper place for another’s things. To place<br />
something is also usually to pr4t it with care and<br />
precision (He put his car in the parking lot. He<br />
placed his car next to mine. He put the papers<br />
on his desk. He placed one sheet carefully on<br />
top <strong>of</strong> the other). But the use <strong>of</strong> place as a<br />
straight synonym for put is vague and loose.<br />
Place has some definite idiomatic meanings.<br />
One can only place a person in one’s memory<br />
when one recollects where and under what circumstances<br />
one knew him before. A horse is<br />
placed or, better, places when it crosses the finishing<br />
line <strong>of</strong> a race among the (usually first<br />
three) leading competitors.<br />
placeable; placable; placatory. Placeable means<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> being placed. Except for a similarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> spelling which <strong>of</strong>ten leads to confusion, it has<br />
no connection with placable, which means capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> being placated or appeased, forgiving<br />
(Since Hades was not placable, the Greeks <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
him no sacrifices). Placatory means tending<br />
or intended to placate (Even the most<br />
placatory assurances failed to mollify the<br />
Queen).<br />
plague, avoid like the. To say <strong>of</strong> someone or<br />
something that he or it is to be avoided (or<br />
shunned) like the plague is to employ a cliche.<br />
It may be used, but should be used sparingly.<br />
That all knowledge <strong>of</strong>, mention <strong>of</strong>, or reference<br />
to the bubonic plague in almost half the<br />
world is now confined to an outworn phrase is<br />
such an extraordinary indication <strong>of</strong> the alleviation<br />
<strong>of</strong> human misery that the phrase might<br />
deserve to be retained as a sort <strong>of</strong> monument.<br />
plain as a pikestaff now means obvious, clearly<br />
visible. It originallly meant unadorned, bare. But<br />
in whatever sense used, it is now a cliche. Plain<br />
as the nose on yoltr face is also a cliche, with the<br />
additional disadvantage <strong>of</strong> being ambiguous and<br />
perhaps disparaging.<br />
plain sailing is probably (Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
informs us) a corruption <strong>of</strong> plane sailing,<br />
that is, navigating by a plane chart or the art <strong>of</strong><br />
determining a ship’s position on the assumption<br />
that the surface <strong>of</strong> the earth is flat. In its figurative<br />
uses the term is a cliche.<br />
plan. The verb plan may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in they plan to come, or by on and the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in they plan on coming.<br />
The noun plan is followed by an infinitive in Z<br />
was thinking <strong>of</strong> a plan/ To dye one’s whiskers<br />
green. This is the standard idiom in the United<br />
States, but some British grammarians claim that<br />
<strong>of</strong> and the -ing form are required here. See<br />
prepositions.<br />
planetarium. The plural is planetariums or planetaria.<br />
plank, basically, means a long, flat piece <strong>of</strong> timber,<br />
thicker than a board. More loosely, it means<br />
something to stand on or cling to for support<br />
(A floating plank saved him from drowning). In<br />
a figurative sense, originally and chiefly American,<br />
a plank is an article <strong>of</strong> a platform <strong>of</strong> political<br />
or other principles (The civil rights plank <strong>of</strong><br />
the party platform was highly controversial).<br />
This plank, a natural development <strong>of</strong> the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> a platform as the body <strong>of</strong> principles upon<br />
which a party takes its stand to appeal to the<br />
voters (which, in turn, <strong>of</strong> course, is a figurative<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> the actual platform upon which a<br />
candidate would stand), has become so separated<br />
from the idea <strong>of</strong> an actual physical plank,<br />
being two metaphors removed, that most Americans<br />
would see nothing incongruous in being
told that a certain plank has been “watered<br />
down” to appease a protesting group within the<br />
party.<br />
To plnnk, meaning to bake, broil, and serve<br />
on a board (Planked whitefish our specialty), is<br />
a special American usage. In the sense <strong>of</strong> producing<br />
or putting down (usually money) readily<br />
(He planked donIn a hundred dollars right then<br />
and there), plank is slang.<br />
plate. Certain uses <strong>of</strong> plafe are exclusively American.<br />
In American restaurants one may choose a<br />
plate lunch, a plate dinner, a vegetable plate,<br />
blue plate special, or any <strong>of</strong> various other plates,<br />
meals in which an entire course is on a single<br />
plate. In journalism, plate matter or boiler plate<br />
describes a sheet <strong>of</strong> metal for printing from,<br />
formed by stereotyping or electrotyping a page<br />
<strong>of</strong> type, or metal or plastic formed by molding,<br />
etching, or photographic development (Many u<br />
country weekly consists almost entirely <strong>of</strong> boiler<br />
plate sent out by a syndicate). In baseball, the<br />
plate or the home plate is the home base.<br />
In a sense chiefly British, plate means domestic<br />
dishes, utensils, etc., <strong>of</strong> gold or silver (a sultcellar<br />
<strong>of</strong> silver , . . one <strong>of</strong> the neatest pieces <strong>of</strong><br />
plate that ever I saw). See also silver; silverware.<br />
plateau. The plural is plateaus or plateaux.<br />
platitude. See commonplace.<br />
play (as in play the fool). See act.<br />
play fast and loose with. As a term for breaking<br />
one’s word, making promises without intending<br />
to keey. them, and being generally completely<br />
unscrupulous and unreliable in one’s dealings<br />
with another, to play fast and loose with is<br />
hackneyed.<br />
play the game. As a term for acting honorably,<br />
play the game is not as worn a clichC in America<br />
as it is in England. It is known and is used somewhat<br />
by those who admire the English and their<br />
ways, but, despite pious public pronouncements<br />
by coaches, a game is still, to the average American,<br />
a contest and winning more important than<br />
displaying good form and delicate consideration.<br />
An admonition to play the game would, by many<br />
Americans, be regarded as a request to stop<br />
bickering about the rules and get on with the<br />
struggle.<br />
play with fire. As a term for trifling with something<br />
dangerous, especially in amatory matters,<br />
play with fire is worn smooth by repetition.<br />
plead. The past tense is pleaded or pled. The participle<br />
is also pleaded or pled.<br />
Pled may also be spelled plead, following the<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> the past tense <strong>of</strong> the verb read. In the<br />
United States pleaded and pled are both acceptable<br />
for the past tense and for the participle. In<br />
Great Britain only the form pleaded is used and<br />
pled is considered an Americanism.<br />
The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb after pleud guilty requires<br />
the preposition to, as in he pleaded guilty<br />
to stealing the watch. When used after guilty<br />
alone it requires <strong>of</strong>, as in he was guilty <strong>of</strong> steuling<br />
the watch.<br />
please. When please is used in a full verb form it<br />
may be followed by an infinitive, as in he will<br />
be pleased to see you and I do not please to go.<br />
372<br />
When it is used merely as a s<strong>of</strong>tener it is followed<br />
by the simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in<br />
please come. Come in this construction is an<br />
imperative and the use <strong>of</strong> an infinitive, as<br />
in please to come, is not standard. See also<br />
kindly.<br />
pleasure. See happiness.<br />
plectrum. The plural is plectrums or plectra.<br />
pled. See plead.<br />
plenitude, for fullness, abundance, completeness<br />
(The moon in her plenitude. The plenitude <strong>of</strong><br />
the power <strong>of</strong> a king), is now chiefly a literary<br />
word.<br />
plenteous; plentiful. These words are synonyms<br />
meaning copious, abundant, existing in great<br />
plenty. Of the two, plentiful is to be preferred in<br />
ordinary use. Plenteous is chiefly literary.<br />
plenty. In standard English plenty is a noun and<br />
is joined to other nouns by <strong>of</strong>, as in we have<br />
plenty <strong>of</strong> time. It may stand alone without a following<br />
noun, as in I have plenty. At one time u<br />
plenty was literary English, but this is now out<br />
<strong>of</strong> fashion. Plenty may be used with a singular<br />
or a plural verb, depending on whether it refers<br />
to something that is thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit or to a<br />
collection <strong>of</strong> individuals, as in there is plenty <strong>of</strong><br />
sugar and there are plenty <strong>of</strong> glasses.<br />
Plenty may be followed by more, with or without<br />
a noun. We may say there is plenty more or<br />
there is plenty more sugar.<br />
Plenty is sometimes used immediately before<br />
a noun, as if it were an adjective, as in we have<br />
plenty time and plenty money. This is following<br />
a Scottish idiom which drops <strong>of</strong> after vague<br />
measurements, as in a bit paper, a drap whisky.<br />
The construction is not thoroughly established<br />
in the United States, but it is used by Scottish<br />
writers, such as Robert Louis Stevenson, and is<br />
acceptable to many well educated people.<br />
Plenty is also used before adjectives, as in<br />
plenty long, plenty high. When plenty means<br />
enough, this construction has the same standing<br />
as the one just discussed, where plenty is used<br />
before a noun. But when plenty means extremely,<br />
as in plenty tired, plenty angry, the construction<br />
is not standard.<br />
pleonasms. A redundant or unnecessary word that<br />
merely repeats what has already been said is<br />
called a pleonasm. In 1589, a grammarian<br />
wrote: “The first surplusage the Greeks call<br />
pleonasmus (I call him too full speech) and is<br />
no great fault.” Since then, some grammarians<br />
have taken the stand that any unnecessary word<br />
is a grammatical mistake. Two natural English<br />
constructions have suffered, perhaps fatally, under<br />
this attack. See double negatives and hotensive<br />
pronouns.<br />
In general, pleonasms are a question <strong>of</strong> style<br />
or taste, not grammar. One may say the reason<br />
or the reason why, gather or gather together.<br />
Before anyone decides never to use a pleonastic<br />
word, he should ask himself how many <strong>of</strong> his<br />
sentences are necessary. A man who never said<br />
an unnecessary word would say very little during<br />
a long life and would not be pleasant company.<br />
Similarly, inside a sentence the mere<br />
sound, the mere number <strong>of</strong> syllables used, is
sometimes more important than the bare meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the words. In writing, as in conversation,<br />
an economical use <strong>of</strong> words is not always what<br />
we want. See also redundancy.<br />
plethora is properly a medical term, meaning an<br />
overfullness <strong>of</strong> blood. The word was much used<br />
to describe the condition that required bleeding,<br />
when bleeding was a common treatment. Today<br />
it is used to describe a morbid condition due to<br />
an excess <strong>of</strong> blood in the body.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the word to mean any superabundance<br />
(We have a plethora <strong>of</strong> wit but very<br />
little factual information) is a little affected and<br />
bookish. If so used, it must not mean abundance,<br />
but a harmful excess over abundance.<br />
plexus. The plural is plexuses or plexus, not plexi.<br />
pliers. When referring to the instrument, the word<br />
means a single instrument but is usually treated<br />
as a plural, as in these pliers are too large. It<br />
may also be treated as a singular, as in try a<br />
diflerent pliers, but the construction try n tfiflerent<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> pliers is generally preferred The<br />
construction with pair must be used after a numeral,<br />
as in three pairs <strong>of</strong> pliers. The form pliers<br />
is used as the first element in a compound, as in<br />
a pliers case.<br />
The singular plier means one who plies and is<br />
never used in referring to the instrument.<br />
plight. See predicament.<br />
plight one’s troth. As a term for becoming engaged,<br />
plighting a trot/l is a stale elegancy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
feebler society columns. Neither plight (in this<br />
sense) nor troth has been in common use for<br />
well over a hundred years.<br />
plot thickens. As a serious comment on the increasing<br />
complexity <strong>of</strong> the action <strong>of</strong> a play or<br />
novel or even <strong>of</strong> things in general, the plot<br />
thickens has been a clichk for almost a century.<br />
As a humorous remark it is now also a clich6.<br />
plough the sands. As a term for an effort which<br />
by its very nature is doomed to sterility, plough<br />
the sands is hackneyed. It is a cliche <strong>of</strong> the<br />
learned, one <strong>of</strong> those pseudo-earthy sayings by<br />
means <strong>of</strong> which bookish men attempt to disguise<br />
themselves as men <strong>of</strong> practical affairs.<br />
pluck. See guts.<br />
plump. See fat.<br />
plurality. See majority.<br />
plural nouns<br />
USES<br />
A plural noun means more than one <strong>of</strong> a<br />
certain kind <strong>of</strong> thing, as do books, crowds,<br />
people. In this work a noun is called a true<br />
plural when it can be used with a numeral or a<br />
word implying more than one, as three books,<br />
several crowds, many people. True plurals are<br />
qualified by these and those, used with plural<br />
verbs, and referred to by plural pronouns. (For<br />
words that refer to two things only, see dual<br />
words.)<br />
Not every noun that is followed by a plural<br />
verb is plural. Singular nouns are sometimes<br />
used with plural meaning and are sometimes<br />
followed by plural verbs. (See singular nouns,<br />
group names, generic nouns.) Not every noun<br />
that ends in s is a plural. Sometimes it is a genitive.<br />
And sometimes it is impossible to say<br />
373 plural nouns<br />
whether it is a genitive or a plural. (See genitive<br />
case, measures, adverbial genitive.) Some<br />
nouns ending in s, such as gallows, hydraulics,<br />
nervs, are treated as if they were singulars.<br />
Some, such as clothes, dregs, munitions, are<br />
treated sometimes as singulars and sometimes<br />
as plurals. See mass nouns.<br />
Nouns may be made from the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb and from adjectives by adding s, as in surroundings,<br />
flannels, shorts, heroics, economics.<br />
These words do not have a singular and a plural<br />
form. Sometimes they are treated entirely as<br />
singulars but more <strong>of</strong>ten they are treated in<br />
certain respects as plurals. As a rule such words<br />
are qualified by these or those and not by this<br />
or that, are used with a plural verb, and referred<br />
to as they, as in these surroundings are depressing<br />
but I don’t know how to change them. But<br />
because they do not have singular forms they<br />
are not qualified by words implying number. We<br />
do not speak <strong>of</strong> several surroundings. Adjective<br />
nouns that are the names <strong>of</strong> garments are sometimes<br />
used with a numeral, as in I have three<br />
slacks. This is a shortening <strong>of</strong> three pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
slacks and is acceptable to some people but<br />
not to others. The names <strong>of</strong> most branches <strong>of</strong><br />
science, such as physics, optics, economics, are<br />
also nouns made from adjectives. These words<br />
are regularly treated as singular when they refer<br />
to a system <strong>of</strong> thought, as in his ethics is not<br />
based on religion. But otherwise they are defective<br />
plurals like the other adjective nouns in s<br />
and are used with a plural verb, as in his ethics<br />
are admirable.<br />
Some true plural nouns that can be used with<br />
numerals, such as people, clergy, police, do not<br />
have a singular. As a rule, these have developed<br />
from singular group names. Words <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind are listed individually in this dictionary.<br />
Many singular nouns, such as knowledge and<br />
mankind, do not have plural forms. This is the<br />
case as long as we feel that the word means just<br />
one thing. As soon as someone believes that it<br />
refers to more than one thing, he coins a plural<br />
form. For example, astronomers and philosophers<br />
talk about universes, and social workers<br />
talk about strengths, although most people use<br />
these words only in the singular. New plurals <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind are quite legitimate provided the word<br />
actually has two distinguishable meanings, that<br />
is, provided it refers to at least two things that<br />
are definablv different. This is not true. for example,<br />
<strong>of</strong> t
FORMATION<br />
Almost all English plurals are made by adding<br />
s to the singular form. If the singular ends in y<br />
following a consonant, the y is changed to ie before<br />
adding s, as in skies, armies, studies. But<br />
the y is not changed after a vowel, as in toys,<br />
nor in a proper name, as in the fortr Marys. If<br />
the singular ends in ch, sh, s, X, or z, so that an<br />
extra syllable must be used in pronouncing the<br />
plural, es is added to the singular and not simply<br />
s, as in churches, fishes, masses, foxes, buzzes.<br />
All plural nouns in general use that are not<br />
formed according to this pattern are listed individually<br />
in this dictionary. These fall into four<br />
groups.<br />
1. There are a few plural forms in modern<br />
English that are survivals from a time when the<br />
language had more than one way <strong>of</strong> making the<br />
plural. Some <strong>of</strong> these, such as deer, have the<br />
same form in the singular and in the plural.<br />
Some, such as mouse and mice, change the<br />
vowel. Some, such as leaf and leaves, change an<br />
f to v. And a few are even more irregular. All<br />
such nouns have been listed.<br />
2. A few words that end in o following a<br />
consonant form the plural by adding es, as in<br />
tomato and tomatoes. But many more words <strong>of</strong><br />
exactly this kind may have either s or es in the<br />
plural, as in buffalos or buffaloes. (A plural in<br />
es is permitted, but not required, for some nouns<br />
ending in i, as in alkalis or alkalies.) Nouns that<br />
may have either s or es in the plural are not<br />
shown in this dictionary, but nouns that are used<br />
frequently and require es are listed. To use an s<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> es in an unfamiliar word that does not<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten appear in print, such as bilbo, bubo, ginkgo,<br />
is not a serious mistake.<br />
3. Figures and letters used as words may<br />
form the plural with an apostrophe and s, as in<br />
the 1920’s and three N’s, But the apostrophe is<br />
not necessary. Some publishers prefer the 1920s<br />
and three Ns.<br />
4. There are a great many words in English<br />
that have foreign plural forms, such as alumni<br />
and alrlmnae. In some cases the foreign plural<br />
is the only standard form, and it must therefore<br />
be used. More <strong>of</strong>ten, there is also an English<br />
plural which is equally acceptable, and one may<br />
use whichever form suits his purpose. Any noun<br />
in general use that has only an irregular or un-<br />
English plural can be found in this dictionary.<br />
Several hundred others which have a regular<br />
as well as an irregular plural are also listed.<br />
See foreign plurals.<br />
COMPOUNDS<br />
Most compound nouns, whether they are written<br />
as one word or two. have a regular plural<br />
formed by adding s to the final element, as in<br />
forget-me-riots, good-bys, homecomings. In a<br />
very few, the first element and not the last is<br />
made plural. There are five kinds <strong>of</strong> words in<br />
which this may be the case.<br />
1. In literary English, agent nouns in er that<br />
are made from a verb and an adverb add the<br />
plural s to the er and not to the adverb, as in<br />
lookers-on and onlookers. Forms such as lookerons<br />
are heard but are not standard. The same<br />
374<br />
rule holds for the -ing form <strong>of</strong> compound verbs.<br />
That is, comings-in and goings-out are preferred<br />
to coming-ins and going-outs in literary English.<br />
However, nouns made from the simple verb plus<br />
an adverb have regular plurals, with s added to<br />
the final element, as in upsets, set-ups, shakedowns.<br />
2. Compounds made up <strong>of</strong> a noun, a preposition,<br />
and a second noun, traditionally form the<br />
plural by making the first noun, which is the<br />
principal word, plural, as in sons-in-law and<br />
coats <strong>of</strong> mail. This rule is usually observed with<br />
words that are not <strong>of</strong>ten used, or not <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
in the plural, such as coats <strong>of</strong> mail and Commanders<br />
in Chief. But in the United States the<br />
familiar in-law terms are <strong>of</strong>ten given a regular<br />
plural, as in son-in-laws. This <strong>of</strong>fends many people,<br />
but it is widely used and is likely to become<br />
the standard form. The objection, that this<br />
makes the plural indistinguishable from the genitive,<br />
is irrelevant since most English plurals are<br />
indistinguishable from the genitive. When the<br />
first word in a prepositional compound is an<br />
adjective and not a noun, the plural is always<br />
formed regularly, as in good-for-nothings.<br />
3. In some compounds a noun is followed by<br />
an adjective, in the French manner. Formerly,<br />
words <strong>of</strong> this kind always formed the plural by<br />
changing the first element, the noun, as in attorneys<br />
general, courts martial, knights errant. This<br />
is still the practice in Great Britain. But in the<br />
United States such words are more <strong>of</strong>ten treated<br />
as a unit and given a regular plural, as in uttorney<br />
generals, court martials, knight errants.<br />
4. Compounds with and, such as whiskey and<br />
soda, brace and bit, form plurals in all the possible<br />
ways-whiskey and sodas, whiskeys and<br />
sodas, whiskeys and soda. The regular form,<br />
whiskey and sodas, is preferred.<br />
5. Some compounds with man or woman as<br />
the first element change both elements in the<br />
plural, as in menservants, men dancers. (See<br />
man and woman.) For all other words this<br />
“double plural” is contrary to the traditional<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> English. See singolar nouns.<br />
Questions <strong>of</strong> whether to write a compound as<br />
one word or two words or to use a hyphen are<br />
discussed under compound words.<br />
P.M., p.m. See A.M., a.m.<br />
pocketbook; purse. To an Englishman a pocketbook<br />
is a small book, usually a notebook, to be<br />
carried in the pocket, or a booklike case for<br />
papers, bank notes, bills. To an American a<br />
pocketbook is a small bag or case for papers,<br />
money, etc., usually carried by a handle or in the<br />
pocket. In America only is pocketbook used in<br />
the figurative sense <strong>of</strong> pecuniary resources (Our<br />
prices are designed for the light pocketbook).<br />
Pocketbook to describe a small book was once<br />
chiefly British, but with the increasing sale in<br />
recent years <strong>of</strong> small paper-backed books called<br />
Pocket Books on newsstands and in bookstores<br />
in America, the term is well understood to mean<br />
any small paper-backed book, even though many<br />
such books would never conform to the dimensions<br />
implied.<br />
A purse is a small bag, pouch, or case for
carrying money on the person. The word is more<br />
used in America than in England in its literal<br />
sense but serves figuratively in England, as<br />
pocketbook does in America, to denote money,<br />
resources, or wealth (During the war many English<br />
people grew accustomed to living on a very<br />
slim purse). Purse has the special senses, in both<br />
countries, <strong>of</strong> a sum <strong>of</strong> money collected as a<br />
present or <strong>of</strong>fered as a prize (A purse was<br />
quickly raised to pay for the operation. The<br />
purse for the final race was the largest <strong>of</strong> the<br />
afternoon).<br />
poet; poetess. Poet is the correct word to describe<br />
one who composes poetry, regardless <strong>of</strong> sex.<br />
Poetess, a female poet, emphasizes the sex <strong>of</strong> the<br />
writer when the sex is largely irrelevant, unlike<br />
that <strong>of</strong> an actress whose femininity is essential<br />
to her art. Poetess, then, though not incorrect,<br />
seems unnecessary. Both poet and poetesx are<br />
used <strong>of</strong> women who write poetry, but poet is the<br />
better term. For instance, the writer <strong>of</strong> the flyleaf<br />
blurb to Edmund Wilson’s I Thought <strong>of</strong><br />
Daisv (1953) savs. “The hero is in love with<br />
two women:’ one is the highly emotional and<br />
unpredictable poetess, Rita . . .“; yet in the text<br />
(p. 1) Mr. Wilson writes, “Rita Cavanagh, the<br />
poet, was to be there . . .” and in his Foreword<br />
he refers to “Rita, the romantic poet.”<br />
poetic diction may mean the language used in<br />
verse, or a particular choice <strong>of</strong> words fashionable<br />
for the poetry <strong>of</strong> a given literary period.<br />
Just as there are certain fashionable words in<br />
conversation, so there are vogue words in poetry.<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> these words each age constructs a poetic<br />
diction which second-rate poets, conscious1.y or<br />
unconsciously, adopt. Thus contemporary verse<br />
is spattered heavily with such words as lonely,<br />
horrible, uncomplaining and improbable, words<br />
authorized by the usage <strong>of</strong> such first-rate poets<br />
as Yeats. Eliot and Auden.<br />
Yet while bad poetic diction results from such<br />
selection <strong>of</strong> language at random according to<br />
current fashion, there is also a good poetic<br />
diction, a selection <strong>of</strong> language on supportable<br />
principles and for a reasonable purpose. At least<br />
since Aristotle composed his Poetics, critics have<br />
urged poets to employ a dignified, noble vocabulary.<br />
The history <strong>of</strong> poetry has been the history <strong>of</strong><br />
the hardening <strong>of</strong> poetic language into a certain<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> diction followed by a revolt which has led<br />
to a different sort <strong>of</strong> diction which in its turn<br />
has hardened and been rejected.<br />
The last great revolutionary to whom poetry<br />
in English is indebted was William Wordsworth,<br />
who, in his Preface to Lyrical B&ads (1800),<br />
proposed that poetry be written “in a selection<br />
<strong>of</strong> language really used by men,” since there was<br />
no “essential difference between the language <strong>of</strong><br />
prose and metrical composition.”<br />
Wordsworth was protesting particularly<br />
against the elegant, archaic, circumlocutory diction<br />
which had almost frozen the stream <strong>of</strong><br />
poetry in the eighteenth century. It is heard in<br />
Gray’s Elegy, in such phrases as the lowing herd<br />
for COWS, the stubborn glebc for fallow land,<br />
and so on. But it is not <strong>of</strong>fensive there because<br />
375 poetic diction<br />
Gray’s genius was great enough to infuse life<br />
into even such husks <strong>of</strong> verbiage. To see more<br />
clearly what Wordsworth was objecting to (and<br />
Johnson. bv the wav. in the 77th Idler. “Easv<br />
Writing”), ine has ;o read the now mercifully<br />
forgotten minor poets <strong>of</strong> the day, or our own<br />
society and sport pages, where the tradition<br />
lingers in unspeakably repulsive moldiness. One<br />
finds it in those who, moved perhaps by “ambition<br />
<strong>of</strong> ornament and luxuriance <strong>of</strong> imagery,”<br />
insist on calling bananas elongated yellow<br />
fruit.<br />
In a far-<strong>of</strong>f way they are being Miltonic.<br />
They are living-if people who speak that way<br />
can be said to live-in the dim afterglow <strong>of</strong> a<br />
once-great light. Shakespeare, a notorious barbarian,<br />
had used such vulgar phrases as the<br />
blanket <strong>of</strong> the dark and to grunt and sweat under<br />
the weary load. But Milton, over-educated,<br />
alo<strong>of</strong>, fastidious and, above all, “organ-voiced,”<br />
had set a new style. To him a telescope was an<br />
ontic alass and Galileo the Tuscan artist. Hell is<br />
bbttomless perdition and the denizens there<strong>of</strong><br />
the Stygian throng.<br />
This was not entirely a love <strong>of</strong> resonance and<br />
circumlocution. The immense vagueness <strong>of</strong> his<br />
language served to suggest the indescribable:<br />
Things unattempted yet in Prose or Rhime.<br />
And in many great combinations (such as darkness<br />
visible and the vast abrupt and horror<br />
plum’d) Milton did indeed soar above the Aeonian<br />
mount.<br />
But one man’s idiom can be another’s idiocy<br />
and Milton’s mighty harmonies, applied by lesser<br />
men to lesser themes, produced the stilted<br />
absurdity <strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century’s poetic diction,<br />
the language <strong>of</strong> whose inebriations elongated<br />
yellow fruit is a dying hiccup.<br />
There had been some <strong>of</strong> it before Milton.<br />
Spenser had called cows milky mothers and Lyly<br />
had shown that ten syllables could <strong>of</strong>ten do the<br />
work <strong>of</strong> one; but there is little doubt that the<br />
language against which Wordsworth protested<br />
was, to a considerable extent, a bad imitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Milton. Fish became the finny tribe or the<br />
fruitful spawn <strong>of</strong> ocean. Flowers appeared as the<br />
vernal bloom. When applied externally, water<br />
was the crystal element and it laved the corporeal<br />
frame after strenuous exertion to remove that<br />
roscid balm <strong>of</strong> which our best friends are reluctant<br />
to tell us. Furs were Muscovy’s warm<br />
spoils; bed, th’ enfeebling down. And so on.<br />
Long forgotten now as a poet but deserving<br />
some remembrance as the supreme perpetrator<br />
<strong>of</strong> this particular kind <strong>of</strong> polysyllabic poppycock<br />
is Dr. John Armstrong whose The Art <strong>of</strong> Preserving<br />
Health (1744) (which discusses “How<br />
best the fickle fabric to support/ Of Mortal<br />
man”) ran through many editions. From this<br />
treasury <strong>of</strong> tripe it is hard to make a fitting<br />
selection; there is such an alluring wealth <strong>of</strong> bad<br />
writing in it. One seizes upon a description <strong>of</strong><br />
appetite as the grinding stomach’s hungry rage<br />
only to desert it for a reference to an egg as<br />
the sleeping Embryo. Perhaps full justice can<br />
only be done by quotation from a longer pas-
poetic diction 376<br />
sage. such as his statement that the air is bad in<br />
cities and would be fatal were it not, fortunately,<br />
disinfected by the sulphur in coal smoke. Even<br />
so, however, it is unhealthy, and he urges his<br />
readers to Iive in the country:<br />
Fly the rank city, shun its turbid air:<br />
Breathe not the chaos <strong>of</strong> eternal smoke<br />
And volatile corruption . . .<br />
. . . and (tho’ the lungs abhor<br />
To drink the dun fuliginous abyss)<br />
Did not the acid vigor <strong>of</strong> the mine,<br />
Roll’d from so many thundring chimneys,<br />
tame<br />
The putrid salts that overswarm the sky;<br />
This caustic venom would perhaps corrode<br />
Those tender cells that draw the vital air,<br />
In vain with all their unctuous rills bedew’d;<br />
Or by the drunken venous tubes, that yawn<br />
In countless pores o’er all the pervious skin.<br />
Imbib’d, would poison the balsamic blood,<br />
And rouse the heart to every fever’s rage.<br />
While yet you breathe, away! the rural wilds<br />
Invite.<br />
Though Wordsworth’s own verse, in general,<br />
illustrated his protest, he did not succeed in persuading<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the major nineteenth century<br />
poets who followed him to use the common<br />
language <strong>of</strong> common nineteenth century men.<br />
Coleridge, Rossetti and Morris drew heavily on<br />
the language <strong>of</strong> medieval ballads. Keats and<br />
Tennyson contrived a diction indebted to Spenser,<br />
Shakespeare and Milton. Landor, Arnold<br />
and Swinburne drew a great deal from the<br />
vocabulary <strong>of</strong> Greek tragedy.<br />
The Wordsworthian revolution was not really<br />
carried out until the twentieth century, when the<br />
Americans, Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, made<br />
it clear that any word might be allowable in<br />
poetry if it were appropriate to the genre, tone<br />
and aim <strong>of</strong> a poem. One is surprised no longer<br />
to find in poetry the “language <strong>of</strong> men.” Modern<br />
poets have gone beyond Wordsworth-who felt<br />
that such language should first be “purified”to<br />
use slang, pr<strong>of</strong>anity and obscenity and even<br />
foreign words in their work. The last seven lines<br />
<strong>of</strong> The Waste Land, for instance, contain words<br />
in English, Italian, French and Sanskrit and the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> Ezra Pound’s Cantos-if there is a<br />
meaning-is hidden in Chinese ideographs.<br />
Thus while the term poetic diction may be<br />
(and usually is) a fault-finding one, since it<br />
tends to be used <strong>of</strong> the language <strong>of</strong> derivative<br />
poets, it need not be so. Poetic diction may describe<br />
the language really used by real poets, a<br />
language drawn from the whole range <strong>of</strong> our<br />
vocabulary but used more economically, more<br />
suggestively, more musically than is possible for<br />
versifiers and other ordinary men.<br />
poetic license is the liberty taken by a poet in<br />
deviating from rule, conventional form, logic, or<br />
fact, in order to produce a desired effect. This<br />
may involve departure from prose word order<br />
or the selection <strong>of</strong> diction, rhyme or pronunciation<br />
appropriate to the requirements <strong>of</strong> a chosen<br />
metrical pattern.<br />
A bad poet may think he is being poetic when<br />
he writes such lines as:<br />
He did adore her eyes divine<br />
Which seemed to say, “Swain, I am thine<br />
Because thou art so masculine.”<br />
Here the license is obvious: the expletive use <strong>of</strong><br />
did in “did adore” for the simple past adored;<br />
the inversion <strong>of</strong> order <strong>of</strong> adjective and noun in<br />
eyes divine in the interests <strong>of</strong> rhyme; the use <strong>of</strong><br />
an archaic diction in such words as swain, thine,<br />
art: the forced mispronunciation <strong>of</strong> masculine in<br />
the interest <strong>of</strong> rhyme.<br />
Because bad poetry may contain a good deal<br />
<strong>of</strong> this sort <strong>of</strong> thing, one cannot assume that<br />
good poetry will contain none <strong>of</strong> it. In the<br />
achievement <strong>of</strong> the desired effect any poet is<br />
free to depart from the norms imposed by prose.<br />
Thus Frost gains force by an inversion <strong>of</strong> normal<br />
word order in the opening line <strong>of</strong> “Mending<br />
Wall”: Something there is that doesn’t love a<br />
wall.<br />
point, as a noun, may be used in about fifty distinct<br />
senses. Some <strong>of</strong> these are peculiar to either<br />
England or the United States. In relation to<br />
travel, point is used in the United States as place<br />
or station would be in England (Milwaukee,<br />
Mir.neapolis, and points west). In American<br />
schools, especially in the colleges, point <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
signifies a single credit, usually corresponding to<br />
an hour’s class work per week for one semester<br />
(He needs several more points before he can<br />
be regarded as an upperclassman). Where an<br />
American says point or pen-point, an Englishman<br />
says nib. Where an American says exclamation<br />
point or exclamation mark, an Englishman<br />
says point <strong>of</strong> exclamation or mark <strong>of</strong> exclamation.<br />
The English use point in railroading to<br />
describe a tapering movable rail, as in a switch.<br />
point-blank is a term, now largely outmoded, from<br />
gunnery. A shot was said to be point-blank when<br />
the barrel <strong>of</strong> the gun was aimed directly at its<br />
object and the ball moved towards the target<br />
without describing any appreciable curve. Pointblank<br />
range is the distance a missile will travel,<br />
from a horizontal barrel, before falling below<br />
the level from which it is fired.<br />
The conditions that permitted point-blank firing<br />
were those that led to the most dreadful<br />
carnage and the term became a trope for blunt<br />
and uncompromising rejection or repulse, brutal<br />
frankness. But point-blank refusal and pointblank<br />
denial are now cliches, their meaning generally<br />
forgotten and their force spent.<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view. Jeremy Bentham once made a list<br />
<strong>of</strong> motives, naming each motive in three cc!umns,<br />
according as it was approved by the<br />
speaker, tolerated, or disapproved <strong>of</strong>. Thus “love<br />
<strong>of</strong> the social board” appeared in one column and<br />
“gluttony” in its opposite.<br />
This is an interesting exercise for the writer<br />
because he must be aware <strong>of</strong> the manner in<br />
which our values, prejudices and passions reveal<br />
themselves in our choice <strong>of</strong> words. He must be<br />
aware, for example, that the woman whom<br />
others regard as “skinny” may regard herself
as “slender,” that one who considers himself<br />
“broad-minded” may be considered “unprincipled”<br />
by others, that “tact” and “hypocri:.y,”<br />
“fluency” and “glibness,” and “frankness” and<br />
“brutality” may describe the same actions to different<br />
people. It may be that the only difference<br />
between a man’s having “initiative” and being<br />
“a trouble maker” is whether or not we happen<br />
to approve <strong>of</strong> his ends. The proverb <strong>of</strong> the ea.rly<br />
bird is strictly for the birds; it <strong>of</strong>fers no incentive<br />
for early rising to worms.<br />
Point <strong>of</strong> view is inherent in almost every<br />
statement that passes a judgment and is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
found in words and phrases that seem, superficially,<br />
to be purely descriptive. Thus in our references<br />
to China and Japan as “the East” we<br />
unconsciously reveal the fact that our worldoutlook<br />
is European. And, still more striking,<br />
Japan, in her emblem <strong>of</strong> the Rising Sun, may<br />
reveal the same point <strong>of</strong> view. What an extraordinary<br />
comment on the insincerity <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong><br />
our democratic pretensions lies in our use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word “exclusive” as a term <strong>of</strong> the highest<br />
commendation!<br />
The writer must not only “see people as they<br />
are”-that is, as they seem to him-but he must<br />
see them as other people see them as they atre!<br />
And he must accept the fact that under different<br />
circumstances different points <strong>of</strong> view can all be<br />
valid. To Hamlet Polonius is a “wretched, ra.sh,<br />
intruding fool,” a pompous, subservient dotard<br />
with weak hams and a weaker wit. To Ophelia<br />
he is a stern but loving father. To King Claudius<br />
he is a trusted counselor and to Queen Gertrude<br />
“the good old man.” So completely does Shakespeare<br />
lead us to sympathize with Macbeth that<br />
we are startled, and almost <strong>of</strong>fended, when after<br />
Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are dead Malcolm<br />
refers to them as “this dead butcher and his<br />
fiend-like Queen.” We don’t believe in “anthropophagi<br />
and men whose heads do grow beneath<br />
their shoulders,” but we are shocked when Iago<br />
says that Othello won Desdemona’s love “bv<br />
bragging and telling her fantastical lies.”<br />
-<br />
The ability to imagine a whollv different noint<br />
<strong>of</strong> view is one <strong>of</strong> the surest indications <strong>of</strong>-high<br />
intelligence and <strong>of</strong>ten serves in itself to make a<br />
book, The secret <strong>of</strong> H. G. Wells’s The JYar <strong>of</strong><br />
the Worlds is not that he had the power to create,<br />
in his Martians, something before unconceived,<br />
but that under disguise <strong>of</strong> the Martians he presented<br />
the white man much as he must heave<br />
seemed to savages on their first disastrous c’ontact<br />
with him. Virginia Woolf in Flush makes a<br />
much more successful attempt, one feels, to<br />
present life as a dog would experience it than<br />
does, say, Jack London in White Fang or 1%<br />
Call <strong>of</strong> the Wild.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the advantages <strong>of</strong> wit and paradox is<br />
that by shifting the viewpoint thev force us to<br />
look at life from unaccustomed points <strong>of</strong> v:iew<br />
and so enlarge the boundaries <strong>of</strong> truth.<br />
A new point <strong>of</strong> view always comes as a shock<br />
to us. We don’t regard our own point <strong>of</strong> view as<br />
a point <strong>of</strong> view at all; rather it seems to us the<br />
obvious, the only way <strong>of</strong> looking at the situation.<br />
We rarely say “This is the way it seems to one<br />
with my limitations and predilections,” but<br />
rather “This is the way it is,” “Anyone with an<br />
ounce <strong>of</strong> sense can see,” etc. And when someone<br />
does not see it that way, we are taken aback.<br />
Ivor Brown says that he once asked an attendant<br />
at Highgate Cemetery how to find Karl Marx’s<br />
grave. The attendant gave him the necessary instructions<br />
and then, to make sure, added, “Look<br />
for the name <strong>of</strong> Scrimmage. It’s behind that.”<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view; viewpoint; standpoint. While all<br />
these terms have their legitimate uses, all are<br />
overworked and abused. Point <strong>of</strong> view (and, to<br />
a lesser extent, viewpoint and standpoint-with<br />
its annoying elaboration from where I stand) is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used merely to make a clumsy paraphrase<br />
<strong>of</strong> an adverb. Nothing is gained, for example, by<br />
saying from the political point <strong>of</strong> view. Politically<br />
would serve better. What does from the<br />
point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> maintenance plastic tile has<br />
many advantages say that is not said as well in<br />
such a sentence as plastic tile is easier to maintain<br />
or more economical to maintain? The<br />
more abstract the point <strong>of</strong> view alluded to, the<br />
further removed from the possibility <strong>of</strong> a physical<br />
viewpoint (as in from the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong><br />
regional planning or the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> resources<br />
development), the greater the likelihood<br />
<strong>of</strong> ambiguity and confusion. It is not a fault that<br />
can be remedied by merely substituting one word<br />
for another. The whole sentence has to be rewritten<br />
and the thought behind it clarified. Perhaps<br />
the concept <strong>of</strong> “vision,” which plays so<br />
large a part in business jargon and advertising<br />
rhetoric and spawns angles, outlooks, phases,<br />
aspects, and other such metaphors <strong>of</strong> augury and<br />
prognostication, is at bottom to blame. See view,<br />
angle.<br />
poise. See pose.<br />
poison. See venom.<br />
police. When this word means the police force,<br />
and this is the only sense in which the word is<br />
used in the United States today, it is always<br />
treated as a plural. It is followed by a plural<br />
verb, as in the police are looking for him, and<br />
may be used with a numeral, as in twenty police<br />
were on the scene. But the word has no singular.<br />
One member <strong>of</strong> the force is a policeman. In<br />
order to speak <strong>of</strong> the force as a unit it is necessary<br />
to use the word force (The police force is<br />
efficient).<br />
policy and polity derive from the same Latin word<br />
meaning government. But their meanings are<br />
now clearly distinguishable. Polity is the more<br />
reputable and dignified term, for it conveys an<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> permanence. It describes a particular<br />
form <strong>of</strong> government, civil, ecclesiastical, or<br />
other. Richard Hooker’s famous defense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Church <strong>of</strong> England was entitled The Lnws <strong>of</strong><br />
Ecclesiastical Polity. Policy refers not to permanent<br />
principles but to courses <strong>of</strong> action. Primarily<br />
it means a definite course <strong>of</strong> action<br />
adopted as expedient or from other considerations<br />
(Our policy is to give the customer what<br />
he wants), a course or line <strong>of</strong> action adopted and<br />
pursued by a government, ruler, political party,
polish 378<br />
or the like (Our foreign policy <strong>of</strong>ten bears little<br />
intelligible relation to the national polity), action<br />
or procedure conforming to, or considered with<br />
reference to, prudence or expediency (It is a good<br />
policy for a man with a knife at his throat to<br />
stand still. Honesty is the best policy).<br />
There are really two words policy in our language<br />
that have coalesced. One, as above, derives<br />
from the Latin word for government. But<br />
the other derives from a Greek word meaning a<br />
showing or a setting forth. In both England and<br />
America a policy may be a document setting<br />
forth the terms <strong>of</strong> a contract <strong>of</strong> insurance (I<br />
took out my first policy when I was fifteen). In<br />
the United States only, policy is also a method<br />
<strong>of</strong> gambling in which bets are made on numbers<br />
to be drawn by lottery.<br />
polish and burnish both mean to make smooth<br />
and glossy, especially by friction, but in general<br />
use polish is to be preferred. One may polish<br />
floors, shoes, furniture, and so on. Burnish is<br />
used only with reference to metals (His face<br />
shone like burnished copper).<br />
polite; courteous; civil; urbane. A civil man is,<br />
basically, one who fulfills his duties as a citizen,<br />
especially in the observance <strong>of</strong> those forms and<br />
ceremonies which serve to preserve the peace.<br />
He may be cold and distant, but he abstains from<br />
rough or abusive language, gives to every man<br />
his due, and observes all common forms <strong>of</strong> general<br />
respect for others. A polite man has a somewhat<br />
greater measure <strong>of</strong> kindness in his good<br />
manners. He is refined and sensitive and observes<br />
the forms <strong>of</strong> civility out <strong>of</strong> a desire to<br />
please. Courteous, derived originally from the<br />
conduct one found and practiced in the courts<br />
<strong>of</strong> princes, is a slightly stronger word than polite.<br />
The courteous man is polite and kind, but is also<br />
graceful, dignified, and complaisant. The word<br />
formerly had a sense <strong>of</strong> coldness about it, the<br />
practice <strong>of</strong> elaborate manners for their own sake<br />
as a social ritual, but in contemporary usage it<br />
connotes more <strong>of</strong> the warmth <strong>of</strong> sincere kindness.<br />
Urbane means cityish and denotes manners<br />
which are polished to an especial suavity and<br />
agreeableness, especially in the not giving or taking<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fense, but are not necessarily moved by<br />
any great inner kindness or affection.<br />
politic and expedient are both adjectives meaning<br />
prudent and sagacious, but expedient (from<br />
Latin words meaning to free a man who is caught<br />
by the foot) is more practical in its connotations<br />
than politic. Expedient is concerned with means,<br />
politic with ends. Politic means wise and prudent,<br />
with far-reaching consequences held in a longterm<br />
view (Pillage and devastation are seldom<br />
politic, even when they are supposed to be just),<br />
though it has also a baser meaning <strong>of</strong> crafty,<br />
cunning, and artful (Cromwell’s fanaticism<br />
seems to have been in a measure politic). Expedient,<br />
emphasizing a tendency to promote some<br />
proposed or desired object, is <strong>of</strong>ten used disparagingly,<br />
in the sense that it represents a falling<br />
away from an ideal course <strong>of</strong> action (It was<br />
expedient to promise a quick end to the war in<br />
the interest <strong>of</strong> a successful cam,vaign).<br />
politician; statesman. In Elizabethan English a<br />
politician might be one versed in the science <strong>of</strong><br />
government, but he was more likely to be a sinister<br />
schemer, a crafty, self-seeking, dangerous<br />
man (I am whipped and scourged with rods,/<br />
Nettled and stung with pismires, when Z hear/<br />
Of this vile politician Bolingbroke). In contemporary<br />
American usage this disparagement lingers,<br />
but it has been s<strong>of</strong>tened a little. A politician<br />
is considered by many <strong>of</strong> us to be one who<br />
resorts to various schemes and devices, who engages<br />
in petty political maneuvers for purely<br />
partisan or personal ends (The Governor is<br />
merely a politician). Among those who accept<br />
politics as a necessity or a pr<strong>of</strong>ession, there is no<br />
such contempt and the term, though freely granting<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the implications that make it pejorative<br />
to idealists and non-politicians, is even used<br />
in admiration (Say what you want about Truman,<br />
the man was a consummate politician).<br />
Statesman in contemporary American usage is<br />
wholly laudatory. It suggests eminent ability,<br />
foresight, and unselfish devotion to the interests<br />
<strong>of</strong> the country (Mr. Baruch is among the most<br />
distinguished <strong>of</strong> our elder statesmen).<br />
In England politician and statesman are both<br />
wholly laudatory, but there is a distinction in<br />
their meanings. Politician is still used in the<br />
traditional sense <strong>of</strong> one versed in the science <strong>of</strong><br />
government. The London Daily Mirror, for example,<br />
on December 15. 1954, named Sir Anthony<br />
Eden the politician <strong>of</strong> the year for his<br />
work at the Geneva Conference and the London<br />
Conference on German Rearmament. Such a<br />
term would never have been bestowed in commendation<br />
in the United States for such distinguished<br />
service. In England all members <strong>of</strong><br />
Parliament are, by courtesy, termed politicians,<br />
A statesman in England is an M.P. or a Cabinet<br />
Minister who has great influence and exercises<br />
it wisely. The difference between the terms in<br />
England, then, is not based on virtue but on<br />
power.<br />
politicly and politically are not variant spellings<br />
but adverbs with separate meanings. Politicly<br />
refers to action characterized by policy, sagacious,<br />
prudent, expedient, or judicious. Politically<br />
means pertaining to or dealing with politics or a<br />
political party.<br />
politics. Formerly this word was regularly used<br />
with a plural verb, as in politics have been defined<br />
as the art <strong>of</strong> governing mankind by deceiving<br />
them. Today it is more <strong>of</strong>ten used with a<br />
singular verb, as in politics makes strange bedfellows.<br />
Either form is acceptable.<br />
The adjectives politic and political come from<br />
the same source and once meant pertaining to<br />
the state. Today politic means prudent, except<br />
in the expression body politic where it has its<br />
old sense. Political, which now means having to<br />
do with politics, has remained closer to the original<br />
meaning.<br />
polypus. The plural is polypuses or polypi.<br />
pommel; pummel. In England pommel is the<br />
usual spelling for the noun, pummel for the verb.<br />
In America pommel is the preferred spelling for
oth noun and verb. As a noun, pommel means<br />
a knob, as on the hilt <strong>of</strong> a sword, or the protuberant<br />
part at the front and top <strong>of</strong> a saddle.<br />
As a verb, pommel means to strike or beat with<br />
or as with the pommel or with the fist.<br />
pond in English usage means an artificial pool.<br />
In American usage it can also mean a small<br />
natural lake (The ducks seek these lonely ponds<br />
and marshes in the breeding season).<br />
Pony. From its basic meaning <strong>of</strong> a horse <strong>of</strong> a<br />
small type, not over fourteen hands high, pony<br />
has acquired several specialized meanings in the<br />
United States. In American slang a pony lmay<br />
be a translation or other illicit aid used by a<br />
student to avoid doing his own work. This, in its<br />
turn, has led to another word, a synonym, .trot.<br />
The English slang for an illicit translation is<br />
crib. In U. S. speech pony is used for a small<br />
glass <strong>of</strong> liquor (He always downed a pony <strong>of</strong><br />
brandy before he stepped out on the stage’). It<br />
has also been adopted to describe a book or<br />
magazine <strong>of</strong> small size (In 1942 Time began<br />
publishing a “pony edition,” a miniature m,agazine<br />
for overseas distribution).<br />
The British have a curious slang use <strong>of</strong> pony<br />
that can have nothing to do with smallness: it<br />
means twenty-five pounds sterling. Among English<br />
stockbrokers (says Partridge in his <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
<strong>of</strong> Slang and Unconventional English) a<br />
pony is twenty-five one-thousand-pound shares!<br />
poor; impecunious; indigent; impoverished; peuniless;<br />
penurious. Poor is the simple, everyday<br />
term for the condition <strong>of</strong> lacking the means to<br />
obtain the comforts <strong>of</strong> life (And cold the poor<br />
man lies at night). Impecunious is formal. It has<br />
a Micawberish quality to it that gives it a tinge<br />
<strong>of</strong> jocosity (The alcoholic richness <strong>of</strong> the gentleman’s<br />
breath made it plain that anything given<br />
to relieve his impecunious state would soon be<br />
disbursed in the nearest tavern). If used :seriously,<br />
it is a little over-elegant (The solicitations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the impecunious children are pr<strong>of</strong>oundly<br />
moving). Zndigent is also a formal word, but a<br />
cold one, used in economic reports and the like<br />
(an almshouse for the reception <strong>of</strong> the indigent).<br />
The poor we have with us always; the indi,gent<br />
we encounter only in learned treatises. Zmpoverished<br />
usually implies a former state <strong>of</strong> plenty<br />
from which one has been reduced (an impoverished<br />
nobleman, living in fierce isolation). A<br />
poor soil is a soil lacking in the substances<br />
necessary for proper plant growth. An impoverished<br />
soil 1s one that once had such substances<br />
but has been deprived <strong>of</strong> them by leaching,<br />
erosion, windstorms, improper management, and<br />
so on.<br />
Penniless can mean destitute (Left penniless<br />
with three small children, she cast about for<br />
some means <strong>of</strong> subsistence), though it is sometimes<br />
used more lightly to designate a temporary<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> funds. Though penury still means poverty<br />
(as it did in Gray’s Chill penury repre,ssed<br />
their noble rage) and penurious used to mean<br />
poverty-stricken (Dives, rich in this world, became<br />
exceedingly penurious in the other-16 14),<br />
it now means only niggardly, stingy (Though he<br />
379 porch<br />
is rich, he is penurious, begrudging every penny<br />
spent).<br />
poor as a church mouse. Some modern churches,<br />
with their social halls, cafeterias, ladies’ guild<br />
teas, receptions, box-suppers, father-and-son<br />
banquets, and the like, may <strong>of</strong>fer opportunities<br />
for many a mouse to grow sleek and fat. But in<br />
the bare, unheated churches <strong>of</strong> our forefathers,<br />
restricted to exhortation, prayer and meditation,<br />
and where there fell only crumbs <strong>of</strong> grace, a<br />
mouse would have been poor (lean and emaciated,<br />
sickly and feeble) indeed. The phrase is<br />
now enfeebled by repetition and devoid <strong>of</strong> much<br />
<strong>of</strong> its meaning.<br />
poor but honest, used humorously, is a cliche,<br />
stemming, Partridge believes, from its use in a<br />
humorous ballad which was popular about 1910.<br />
It is interesting that in the ballad honest had the<br />
Elizabethan meaning <strong>of</strong> chaste.<br />
poor thing, but mine own. Touchstone did not<br />
refer to Audrey as a poor thing, but mine own,<br />
but as a poor virgin, sir, an ill-favour’d [ugly]<br />
thing, sir, but mine own. The corrupted (and<br />
weakened) form is now a cliche.<br />
poppycock is evidence <strong>of</strong> the power <strong>of</strong> usage to<br />
sanction anything. An exclamation <strong>of</strong> annoyance<br />
and ridicule at something regarded as pretentious<br />
nonsense, it parallels a vulgar and unprintable<br />
expletive. Poppycock is particularly favored,<br />
as an expression <strong>of</strong> disgust, by the prim; yet it is<br />
merely a colloquial Dutch word, taken over by<br />
Americans, meaning a cake <strong>of</strong> semi-liquid (paplike)<br />
dung.<br />
populace and population refer to a large group<br />
<strong>of</strong> people collectively, but the first connotes a<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> condescension or contempt and the<br />
second is an objective, descriptive term. Populace<br />
means the common people <strong>of</strong> a community, as<br />
distinguished from the higher classes. Matthew<br />
Arnold, in his book Culture and Anarchy, entitled<br />
a chapter on upper, middle, and lower<br />
classes “Barbarians, Philistines, Populace.” Population<br />
means the total number <strong>of</strong> persons inhabiting<br />
a country, city, or any district or area<br />
(The rise in the population is sure to overburden<br />
the schools).<br />
populace and populous both refer to people, but<br />
the first is a noun and the second is an adjective.<br />
Populace carries a derogatory connotation, for<br />
it means common people not simply as a class<br />
label but in the contemptuous sense <strong>of</strong> the mob,<br />
the great unwashed. Populous, the adjective,<br />
means full <strong>of</strong> people or inhabitants, well populated.<br />
It conveys no moral comment on the<br />
people as people but emphasizes their numerical<br />
size (Belgium is one <strong>of</strong> the most populous countries<br />
in the world).<br />
porch; piazza; veranda. For the open portico or<br />
gallery, usually ro<strong>of</strong>ed and sometimes partly<br />
enclosed, attached to the exterior <strong>of</strong> a house,<br />
porch is now the everyday word. Piazza, borrowed<br />
apparently from the colonnaded Piazza<br />
San Marco in Venice, is now distinctly oldfashioned,<br />
rustic-elegant, and, even so, limited to<br />
a few localities. Veranda (also verandah) is<br />
more widely used than piazza, but it too is fad
pore 380<br />
ing from general use and porch holds sway.<br />
(When the evening papers were distributed he<br />
hurried home to sit on the porch before the<br />
house).<br />
In British usage porch is primarily an architectural<br />
term describing an exterior structure<br />
forming a covered approach to the entrance <strong>of</strong> a<br />
building, especially <strong>of</strong> a church or cathedral.<br />
pore; pour. Pore is to meditate or ponder intently,<br />
gaze earnestly or steadily, read or study<br />
with steady attention or application. To pour is<br />
to send a liquid or fluid or anything in loose<br />
particles, flowing or falling, as from a container,<br />
or into, over, or on something, or to emit or<br />
discharge in a stream or to send forth words as<br />
in a stream or flood. Pore is <strong>of</strong>ten misspelled<br />
pour (as in this sentence from one <strong>of</strong> our leading<br />
intellectual journals: Attorney General Herbert<br />
Brownell, Jr., and his deputy, William P.<br />
Rogers, have spent much <strong>of</strong> the past two years<br />
pouring throzrgh the files they inherited, hoping<br />
to find enough “mess” documentation to bring<br />
indictments against many a prominent Democrat).<br />
But such spelling is incorrect.<br />
pornography. See blasphemy.<br />
port, harbor and haven all indicate a shelter for<br />
ships. A haven is usually a natural shelter which<br />
can be utilized by ships (Milford Haven is well<br />
named, since its headlands provide natural protection<br />
against storms. And the stately ships go<br />
on,/ To their haven under the hill). It is popular<br />
in a figurative sense to mean any safe place<br />
(He found the club a haven <strong>of</strong> refuge from domestic<br />
confusion). Harbor may describe a natural<br />
or an artificially constructed or improved<br />
shelter (When steamships began to replace sailing<br />
vessels, harbors had to be found or built<br />
which would accommodate ships <strong>of</strong> deeper<br />
draft). A port is a harbor viewed especially in<br />
its commercial aspect (NEW York does more<br />
business than any other two American ports).<br />
port and larboard both mean the left side <strong>of</strong> a<br />
ship, facing toward the bow (opposed to starboard).<br />
Larboard, the more ancient term, has<br />
been largely replaced by port because it sounds<br />
too much like starboard in shouted orders.<br />
portend is now used correctly only in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> to indicate beforehand, to presage, as an<br />
omen (Such dark skies portend rain. What does<br />
this angry introduction portend?). In the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> to signify, as in Bardolph’s assertion that his<br />
red nose portended choler, portend is obsolete.<br />
portent retains meanings portend has lost. Basically,<br />
it means an indication or omen <strong>of</strong> something<br />
about to happen, especially something<br />
momentous (A prodigy <strong>of</strong> fear and a portent/<br />
Of broached mischief to the unborn times). It<br />
may also mean ominous significance (The dropping<br />
<strong>of</strong> the first atom bomb was an event <strong>of</strong> evil<br />
nortent) or a prodigv or marvel (The Loch Ness<br />
‘monste; is a porteii, doubtless), though to this<br />
last meaning there still clings some <strong>of</strong> the earlier<br />
belief that the appearance <strong>of</strong> monsters and<br />
prodigies was not an accident but a warning <strong>of</strong><br />
events to come.<br />
portion. See part.<br />
portmanteau. The plural is portmanteaus or portmanteaux.<br />
It was Humpty Dumpty in his exegesis<br />
<strong>of</strong> Jabberwocky who applied portmanteau to<br />
those words in which “there are two meanings<br />
packed up into one word.” In linguistics it is<br />
called blending and many words now quite legitimate<br />
came into existence this way, such as<br />
dandle which is a blend <strong>of</strong> dance and handle.<br />
The tendency, stimulated by some brilliant creations<br />
in Time (<strong>of</strong> which cinemactress is an example),<br />
is popular in contemporary America<br />
and England and <strong>of</strong>ten useful as well. Brunch<br />
serves a need as a name for an in-between meal,<br />
partaking <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> both breakfast and<br />
lunch, and is accepted as standard, though the<br />
ordinary American male would certainly feel a<br />
little self-conscious in using it. Certainly conscious<br />
blendings are the work <strong>of</strong> wits (&ch as<br />
Mr. Clifton Fadiman’s reference to the hullabalunacy<br />
<strong>of</strong> so much <strong>of</strong> the puffing praise on<br />
book jackets) and deserve to be admired, but<br />
our admiration can be given only on the first<br />
hearing. After that the word must stand (like<br />
squadrol) on its usefulness or become tedious.<br />
Portuguese. The singular and the plural are both<br />
Portuguese. In the seventeenth century this word<br />
had a plural form, Portugueses. This is now obsolete<br />
and Portuguese is the only acceptable form<br />
in the singular and in the plural, as in one Portuguese<br />
and three Portuguese. A new singular,<br />
Portuguee, is in use among fishermen and sailors,<br />
but it has not made its way into standard<br />
English.<br />
pose; poise. Pose suggests something fairly temporary,<br />
an assumed or artificial posture or attitude<br />
(Please hold that pose while the photographer<br />
takes one more picture. His heartiness is<br />
just a pose; actually, he’s timid and frightened).<br />
Poise suggests something more basic, a state <strong>of</strong><br />
balance or equilibrium, as from equality or<br />
equal distribution <strong>of</strong> weight (It takes great poise<br />
to walk a tightrope. The rock’s poise was such<br />
that the least push would have moved it in either<br />
direction). In figurative use it means composure,<br />
self-possession (One needs poise on a witness<br />
stand to endure the attack <strong>of</strong> an unscrupulous<br />
cross-questioner), steadiness, stability (I could<br />
tell she had poise from the way she walked onto<br />
the stage).<br />
position. See job.<br />
position <strong>of</strong> adjectives. 1. The primary position<br />
for an adjective is before the noun it qualifies,<br />
as gray in gray goose. An adjective standing in<br />
this position is called an adherent adjective, or<br />
sometimes an attributive adjective.<br />
Any qualifying word that can be used in this<br />
position is an adjective. When a word that is<br />
ordinarily classed as an adverb is used immediately<br />
before a noun it arouses a great deal <strong>of</strong><br />
opposition. This is what is wrong with the there<br />
in that there house. If the child who is determined<br />
to use all these words would only say that<br />
house there the teacher would be satisfied. Very<br />
few adverbs have been accepted in this position,<br />
and when one is, it is immediately recognized as<br />
an adjective, as then in the then king <strong>of</strong> France,
after in in after years, and down in a down<br />
stroke. Ten or twenty years ago many editors<br />
would not accept above as an adjective, as in rhe<br />
above remarks and insisted on making this the<br />
remarks above. Above is now established in<br />
the adjective position. But we cannot today say<br />
the below remarks. This is a battle that each<br />
adverb must win for itself.<br />
One might set up a system <strong>of</strong> English grammar<br />
in which an adjective was defined as a qualifying<br />
word that can stand immediately before<br />
a noun. One could then go on to discuss other<br />
positions in which either an adjective or an adverb<br />
could be used, sometimes with exactly the<br />
same meaning and sometimes with a difference<br />
in meaning. In this way the whole problem <strong>of</strong><br />
adjectives and adverbs would be made much<br />
simpler. But this is not the definition now used<br />
in dictionaries or in teaching foreign languages,<br />
and it would be confusing to those who are<br />
already familiar with the accepted concepts. In<br />
this book we are, therefore, following the standard<br />
definition <strong>of</strong> an adjective. But this involves<br />
us in a certain amount <strong>of</strong> hair splitting and<br />
sometimes presents us with problems that simply<br />
can’t be solved.<br />
2. The second position in which an adjective<br />
may stand is immediately after a linking verb<br />
or a verb <strong>of</strong> motion, as in the baby is asleep,<br />
he came here young and confident. An adjective<br />
in this position is called a predicate adjective.<br />
But with any kind <strong>of</strong> intransitive verb, this is<br />
also the secondary position for an adverb (see<br />
sentence adverbs) and if an adjective is used<br />
predicatively <strong>of</strong>ten enough it develops an adverbial<br />
force. Sometimes it is impossible to say<br />
whether a certain word, such as slow, is an adjective<br />
or an adverb when it is used in this position.<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> adjectives that begin<br />
witha-, such as asleep, awake, afire, alive, aware,<br />
which are used in this position but not ordinarily<br />
before the noun they qualify. For example, we<br />
say the man is alive but not the alive man. This<br />
a once meant in and these words were once<br />
prepositional phrases. They have come to be felt<br />
as single words but they are still used as a<br />
phrase would be used. An adjective phrase may<br />
occasionally precede its noun and these words,<br />
too, if they are qualified and form part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
group, may be used in this position, as in the<br />
very much alive man. But constructions <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind are always felt to be exceptional and not<br />
according to the natural order <strong>of</strong> words.<br />
These peculiar a- adjectives can be used alone<br />
in any position that an adjective can be used in,<br />
except before the noun they qualify. But there<br />
are a number <strong>of</strong> adverbs that begin with a-, such<br />
as away, abroad, astray, and that also can only<br />
be used in exactly the same positions. It is<br />
sometimes difficult to say whether a certain<br />
word, such as adrift, is an adjective or an adverb.<br />
For this reason some grammarians call all<br />
these words, including afraid and alive, adverbs.<br />
Those who recognize some as adjectives and<br />
some as adverbs have to depend on the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word to establish the difference. If the<br />
381 position <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
word names a quality which a thing might possess<br />
it is an adjective. If it names the time, place,<br />
or manner <strong>of</strong> an action it is an adverb.<br />
Adjectives may be used after linking verbs<br />
and after verbs <strong>of</strong> motion. A linking verb is any<br />
verb that is used to mean be, become, or seem.<br />
For example, grown means become and is a<br />
linkinn verb followed bv adiectives in an elderlv<br />
mother spider grown gaunt and fierce and gray.<br />
Most linking verbs cannot be qualified by adverbs<br />
and there is usually no doubt that a following<br />
adjective really is an adjective and<br />
qualifies the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb rather than the<br />
verb itself, as in the fudge turned hard. See<br />
linking verbs.<br />
This is not true <strong>of</strong> verbs which name motions.<br />
After a verb <strong>of</strong> motion, a word that is both an<br />
adjective and an adverb will usually be felt as<br />
an adverb qualifying the verb, as in he moved<br />
slow. But there are many words that are used<br />
only as adjectives and never as adverbs. These<br />
may be used after a verb <strong>of</strong> motion to qualify<br />
the subject. For example, trembling describes<br />
the hare and not the limping in the hare limped<br />
trembling through the frozen grass. Similarly,<br />
in do not go gentle into that good-night the adjective<br />
gentle necessarily attaches itself to the<br />
unexpressed subject you, and the sentence takes<br />
the meaning “do not be gentle when you go.”<br />
The verb appear may be followed by an adjective<br />
because it is being used as a linking verb<br />
meaning “seem,” as in he appears happy. Or it<br />
may be followed by adjectives because it is being<br />
used as a verb <strong>of</strong> motion meaning “come into<br />
sight,” as in Mont Blanc appears, still, snowy,<br />
and serene.<br />
The verbs to be born and to die are treated in<br />
English, and in many other languages, as verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion. We say he was born lucky and he<br />
died rich.<br />
3. An adjective may also stand immediately<br />
after a noun which is the object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as<br />
empty in we found the cage empty and clean in<br />
she swept the room clean. An adjective standing<br />
in this position is called a factitive adjective or<br />
an object complement and has a very different<br />
function from an adherent adjective. These sentences<br />
do not mean we found the empty cage or<br />
she swept the clean room. This adjective is actually<br />
closely related to the verb, as if we had said<br />
we found-empty the cage and she swept-clean<br />
the room, and so approaches the function <strong>of</strong> an<br />
adverb. It is perhaps more closely related to the<br />
verb than an adverb would be. Adverbs too may<br />
stand in this position. They show when or how<br />
an action takes place but do not affect the verb<br />
idea itself. Whether a word in this position is an<br />
adjective or an adverb always affects the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sentence, but it is sometimes impossible<br />
to say which function a particular word is<br />
supposed to have, as wrong and hard in he made<br />
the clock wrong and she boiled the eggs hard.<br />
4. Finally, an adjective may stand after the<br />
noun it qualifies, as in geraniums (red) and delphiniums<br />
(blue). An adjective in this position is<br />
called an appositive adjective.
position <strong>of</strong> adjectives 382<br />
The adjective follows the noun in certain<br />
phrases that have been taken over from French<br />
or Latin, such as heir apparent, attorney general,<br />
court martial, pro<strong>of</strong> positive, battle royal, devil<br />
incarnate. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind that are in common<br />
use are generally felt as compound nouns<br />
and are sometimes printed with a hyphen. Those<br />
that are used less <strong>of</strong>ten have a strange flavor,<br />
even for people who do not know an adjective<br />
from a noun.<br />
In current English the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is<br />
frequently placed here, as in for the time being,<br />
no man living, three days running. But with<br />
other adjectives the construction is likely to<br />
sound pretentious, or ridiculous, as in a babe<br />
unborn, a place divine, things mortal, darkness<br />
visible. Old expressions and old names are allowed<br />
to keep this order but we do not form new<br />
ones in this way. We say Pliny the elder and<br />
Asia Minor, but the elder 1. P. Morgan and<br />
Greater New York.<br />
In English a descriptive clause stands immediately<br />
after the noun it qualifies and adjectives<br />
are acceptable here when they can be thought <strong>of</strong><br />
as part <strong>of</strong> a clause, as in a voice perfectly calm,<br />
a person new to the business, a gentleman turned<br />
eighty. Here the mind can insert a which is or<br />
who is. The construction is most suitable for<br />
long, complex adjective phrases that resemble<br />
clauses, but it can also be used with a single<br />
word, provided the word implies a clause, as<br />
forty in men forty do not say such things. Adverbs<br />
may also be thought <strong>of</strong> as fragments <strong>of</strong> a<br />
clause and in this position adverbs may qualify<br />
nouns, as in the people below, the first day out,<br />
the book there on the table.<br />
5. Adjectives may be limiting or descriptive.<br />
That is, they may limit or restrict the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the noun or they may simply add a descriptive<br />
detail. For example, in the industrious<br />
Japanese will solve this problem the adjective<br />
industrious is descriptive if the sentence means<br />
that the Japanese, being industrious, will solve<br />
the problem. It is limiting if the sentence means<br />
that only the industrious ones will solve it.<br />
In English an adjective standing before the<br />
noun is presumably limiting. An adjective that<br />
stands after the noun will usually be understood<br />
as descriptive. The difference can be seen in the<br />
fighting cocks and the cocks fighting. If the sentence<br />
about the Japanese had read, the Japanese,<br />
industrious and frugal, will solve this problem,<br />
the words would have been accepted as descriptive.<br />
This is also the intention <strong>of</strong> the original<br />
sentence which means those industrious people,<br />
the Japanese. The adjective limits the understood<br />
word people and is meant to distinguish<br />
the Japanese from some others. Because we feel<br />
this, we understand the sentence when it is read<br />
in its context. But because an adherent adjective<br />
is used primarily to limit the meaning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
noun, the other interpretation can also occur to<br />
us. (For the order that is followed when several<br />
adjectives qualify the same noun, see adjectives.)<br />
position <strong>of</strong> adverbs. See adverbs and sentence<br />
adverbs.<br />
positive and positively are sometimes used to<br />
mean downright, out-and-out, thoroughgoing<br />
(The man’s a positive jackass. He told a positive<br />
lie to protect his friends. That’s positively<br />
not so). In this use it is an intensive; therefore<br />
it is wrongly used to mean sure or certain (Z’m<br />
positive I saw it) unless one is insisting on the<br />
certainty. It can be ambiguous when used loosely.<br />
The context should make it clear whether a<br />
positive answer is an emphatic answer or an affirmative<br />
or non-negative answer. Such common<br />
expressions as he positively won’t come or he<br />
positively said no are confusing and surely a<br />
more suitable intensive could be found.<br />
positively. See absolutely.<br />
possess one’s soul in patience. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
“be patient,” to tell someone to possess his soul<br />
in patience is to use a worn-out phrase. The<br />
expression is a hackneyed misunderstanding <strong>of</strong><br />
Luke 21: 19 which in the Authorized Version<br />
reads In your patience possess ye your sods.<br />
Possess here, however, means not merely to<br />
have but to gain possession <strong>of</strong>, as is shown by<br />
the translation in the Revised Standard Version:<br />
By your endurance you will gain your lives.<br />
possession; advantage; asset. A possession is something<br />
possessed, had as a property, belonging to<br />
one. An advantage is any state or circumstance,<br />
opportunity, or means especially favorable to<br />
success, interest, or any desired end. Possessions<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten confer an advantage, but all possessions<br />
are not advantages and advantage can lie in<br />
many things other than possession.<br />
Asset and assets should not be used loosely as<br />
synonyms <strong>of</strong> possession and advantage. They are<br />
specific and limiting terms. Asset means a useful<br />
thing or quality (Cleanliness is itself an asset).<br />
Assets, more frequently used than asset, is a<br />
plural noun used in commerce to describe the<br />
resources <strong>of</strong> a person or business consisting <strong>of</strong><br />
such items as real property, machinery, inventory,<br />
notes, securities, and cash. Assets is also<br />
used for property in general, as opposed to liabilities<br />
(His assets did not equal his liabilities<br />
until after his death). In accounting, assets<br />
means the detailed listing <strong>of</strong> property owned by<br />
a firm and money owing to it. In law, it refers<br />
to property in the hands <strong>of</strong> an executor or administrator<br />
sufficient to pay the debts or legacies<br />
<strong>of</strong> the testator or intestate. It is incorrect to say<br />
Diamonds are a girl’s best asset when one means<br />
possession or to say Membership in the University<br />
Club is an asset to an ambitious lawyer<br />
when advantage is the exact word.<br />
possessive adjectives. See possessive pronouns.<br />
possessive case. See genitive case and possessive<br />
pronouns.<br />
possessive pronouns and adjectives. The personal<br />
pronouns and the word who each have three<br />
forms, such as he, him, his, which in Latin<br />
grammar would be called the nominative, the<br />
accusative, and the genitive form <strong>of</strong> that pronoun.<br />
Because no other words in English have<br />
these three forms most grammarians treat these<br />
as different types <strong>of</strong> words rather than as forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> the same word and speak <strong>of</strong> the subjective<br />
pronouns, the objective pronouns, and the pas-
sessive pronouns. Very <strong>of</strong>ten, the possessive<br />
forms that can be used before a noun (my, our,<br />
your, his, her, its, their, whose) are called possessive<br />
adjectives, and only the forms that can<br />
be used without a noun (mine, ours, yours, his,<br />
hers, its, theirs, whose) are called possessive<br />
pronouns. In this book the term “possessive pronoun”<br />
refers to both groups indiscriminately.<br />
One must be careful not to use an apostrophe<br />
with the forms that seem to have an added s,<br />
ours, yours, hers, its, theirs, whose. An apostrophe<br />
in any <strong>of</strong> these words is considered<br />
evidence <strong>of</strong> illiteracy. This was not always true.<br />
The most influential grammar book <strong>of</strong> the eighteenth<br />
century, published in 1762, required an<br />
apostrophe in these possessive pronouns. Forms<br />
such as your’s, her’s, occur in the writings <strong>of</strong><br />
Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. There<br />
they are not illiteracies. On the contrary, they<br />
show that the writers knew and carefully observed<br />
the correct forms. When the “Charge <strong>of</strong><br />
the Light Brigade” is published in anthologies<br />
today, the famous line is sometimes printeed as<br />
Their’s not to reason why. This was conservative<br />
punctuation when the poem was written and<br />
has not been standard for seventy-five years.<br />
(For special problems, see the individual pronouns<br />
and double genitive.)<br />
possible. That is possible which may or can be,<br />
exist, happen, or be done (0 that ‘twere possible/<br />
After long grief and pain/ To find the arms<br />
<strong>of</strong> my true love/ Round me once again!). As<br />
such, it is an absolute term and may not be<br />
qualified. An event may be highly probable but<br />
not highly possible. One may say It is possible<br />
that it may ruin but not it is very possible.<br />
Not only is possible not to be qualified, it is<br />
also not to be used as if it meant necessary or<br />
unavoidable. It is correct to say We will finish as<br />
quickly as possible. It is incorrect to get swamped<br />
in negatives and say We won’t delay any longer<br />
than possible.<br />
possibly; perhaps. Possibly means not only “perhaps”<br />
or “maybe” but also “in a possible manner”<br />
and “by any possibility.” In writing, one<br />
should indicate the “perhaps” sense, when there<br />
is any likelihood <strong>of</strong> ambiguity, by setting <strong>of</strong>f’ the<br />
word with commas. Thus He can’t, possibly,<br />
stand up lo his wife means “perhaps he can’t<br />
stand up to his wife”; whereas He can’t possibly<br />
stand up to his wife means that there is no possibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> his standing up to his wife.<br />
possum is still listed as colloquial by the dictionaries<br />
but opossum, the standard form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word, would seem a little stilted in all but the<br />
most formal writing.<br />
To play possum is a colloquial American<br />
idiom for feigning ignorance or disinterest or<br />
pretending to be asleep or doing anything that<br />
in any way suggests the opossum’s habit (shared<br />
by many other animals) <strong>of</strong> falling into a cata.leptic<br />
state when attacked (When the police began<br />
to look for witnesses, he played possum).<br />
post. See mail.<br />
postal card; post card. In the United States a<br />
posfal card is a card with a printed governmental<br />
stamp, printed and sold by the government. A<br />
post curd may describe such a postal card, but it<br />
more properly describes an un<strong>of</strong>ficial card, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
pictorial, mailable when bearing an adhesive<br />
postage stamp. In England post curd is used to<br />
describe a card used for correspondence whether<br />
it bears a printed governmental stamp or must<br />
have a stamp affixed.<br />
posted in the sense <strong>of</strong> informed, supplied with upto-date<br />
facts (When you are on your travels, be<br />
sure to keep NS posted), is a colloquialism, originallv<br />
American.<br />
postpone. This word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he postponed leavinp. It is<br />
also heard with an infini&ve,‘as in he posiponed<br />
to leave, but this is not standard English.<br />
post-prandial is a heavy and strained elegancy for<br />
after-dinner.<br />
potato. The plural is potatoes.<br />
potent; potential. Potent means full <strong>of</strong> power,<br />
powerful, mighty. It may describe a person or a<br />
thing. There are potent reasons, potent drugs,<br />
potent influences, potent leaders, potent charms,<br />
and so on. In reference to men it has a special<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> sexual competency. Potential means<br />
possible as opposed to actual, capable <strong>of</strong> being<br />
or becoming, latent (His record as prosecuting<br />
attorney makes him a potential candidate for the<br />
governorship). Potent means being powerful;<br />
potential means capable <strong>of</strong> being powerful.<br />
pother, as an equivalent for bother, is a literary<br />
word. It used to rime with other and brother<br />
but changed to its present pronunciation, apparently<br />
to make it resemble bother, in the<br />
nineteenth century. In the sixteenth and early<br />
seventeenth centuries it was a stronger word and<br />
was then pronounced, as it still is in some dialects,<br />
puddrr (Let the great gods,/ That keep this<br />
dreadful pudder o’er our heads,/ Find out their<br />
enemies now).<br />
potluck, take. To invite a guest home to dinner<br />
on a sudden impulse, with the phrase take potluck<br />
with us, is hackneyed. But, like many trite<br />
expressions, it is useful. To say, “if you are<br />
willing to eat whatever happens to be prepared<br />
for supper, knowing that since you are not expected<br />
it may be plain fare” would be tedious<br />
and a little pompous. None the less, the triteness<br />
<strong>of</strong> take potluck may belie the heartiness with<br />
which the invitation is usually extended, and<br />
since the recipient <strong>of</strong> such invitations usually<br />
suspects the sincerity <strong>of</strong> this sudden desire for<br />
his company (though he has little doubt <strong>of</strong> the<br />
plainness <strong>of</strong> the fare), the clicht works slightly<br />
against its own intention. This may seem the<br />
veriest trifle, but nuances <strong>of</strong> meaning are not in<br />
themselves trifling.<br />
potter. See putter.<br />
poultry. This word now means all the domestic<br />
fowls in a given lot considered as a group. It<br />
may be used with a singular verb, as in the poultry<br />
is selling well, or with a plural verb, as in<br />
the poulrry are selling well. It may be qualified<br />
by the singular adjective much, as in much poultry,<br />
but not by a numeral.<br />
At one time poultry could be used as a true<br />
plural with a numeral, as in I have seen them<br />
bring twenty or thirty poultry to the market. This
pound 384<br />
construction survives to some extent in the<br />
United States, where people speak <strong>of</strong> few poultry<br />
and many poultry, as well as <strong>of</strong> much poultry.<br />
pound (the unit <strong>of</strong> weight). Only the singular<br />
form pound can be used to qualify a following<br />
noun, as in a five-pound baby. We do not say a<br />
five-pounds buby. In the United States the plural<br />
form pounds is preferred in any other construction,<br />
when speaking <strong>of</strong> more than one. But in<br />
Great Britain the singular form is always used<br />
with a number word, as in five pound <strong>of</strong> tobacco.<br />
pound <strong>of</strong> flesh. As a term for the full amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> something due, especially in reference to its<br />
being exacted by the one to whom it is due, a<br />
pound <strong>of</strong> fleslz is a cliche. The reference is to<br />
Shylock’s insistence, in Shakespeare’s The Merchant<br />
<strong>of</strong> Venice, on having that pound <strong>of</strong> Antonio’s<br />
flesh which had been nominated in their<br />
bond as a forfeit.<br />
pour. See pore.<br />
powers that be. As a term for those in authority<br />
in a particular situation, the powers that be is a<br />
cliche. It is an echo <strong>of</strong> Romans 13 : 1.<br />
practical; practicable; possible. Practical, when<br />
applied to persons, means sensible, realistic,<br />
businesslike. When applied to things, it means<br />
efficient and workable. It is contrasted to the<br />
theoretical and the visionary. Practicable means<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> being put into practice or <strong>of</strong> being<br />
used (He rode north along the river, looking for<br />
a practicable crossing). Practicable differs from<br />
possible in that possible indicates something that<br />
may be performed if the necessary means can<br />
be obtained; whereas practicable indicates only<br />
those things that may be performed by the<br />
means at one’s disposal.<br />
The confusion in the use <strong>of</strong> the words is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
rooted in the situations to which they are applied.<br />
Something may be both practical and practicable<br />
or one or the other exclusively. It may,<br />
for example, be both practical and practicable<br />
to drive with chains on an icy road; that is, one<br />
can drive with them and it is sensible to do so. A<br />
practical foreign policy may be devised by a<br />
government, however, which is rendered impracticable<br />
by the sudden emergence <strong>of</strong> some<br />
emotional storm or religious fury or patriotic<br />
excitement in the people <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the nations<br />
that must be dealt with.<br />
practical; virtual. Though some English authorities<br />
cry out against the use <strong>of</strong> practical for virtual,<br />
which has developed on the analogy <strong>of</strong> the<br />
accepted synonymity <strong>of</strong> practically and virtually,<br />
American usage sanctions it. Thus one may say<br />
It is a practical certainty and mean a virtual<br />
certainty.<br />
practically; virtually; almost; nearly. In the strict<br />
sense, practically means “in effect, in practice,”<br />
as opposed to “in theory” (Though the theory<br />
<strong>of</strong> pacifism is persuasive, practically, pacifism<br />
won’t do). Virtually is very close to practically,<br />
for it means “in effect,” though not actually or<br />
expressly so (After George III relapsed into<br />
permanent insanity, the Prince <strong>of</strong> Wales was<br />
virtually king).<br />
It is not in its strict sense, however, that prac-<br />
tically tends to be used. Rather it is employed<br />
loosely in place <strong>of</strong> the more precise nearly or<br />
almost where, as Sir Alan Herbert has cogently<br />
remarked, it <strong>of</strong>ten means “not practically.” To<br />
say We are practically there when you mean We<br />
are nearly there is to abuse the word; you are<br />
not there in effect until you are there. But you<br />
can sav that from 1810 on the Prince <strong>of</strong> Wales<br />
was p;actically king <strong>of</strong> England, because, although<br />
designated Prince Regent, he was, because<br />
<strong>of</strong> his father’s incompetence, in practice<br />
and effect the king. Or (the example is Herbert’s)<br />
you may say that a family is practically<br />
extinct when its sole survivor is a childless old<br />
man who is dying. If it were a childless old<br />
woman, practically would be even more justified.<br />
practice (in the sense <strong>of</strong> habit). See custom.<br />
practice; practise. In England the noun is spelled<br />
practice, the verb practise. In America practice<br />
is preferred for both noun and verb, though<br />
practise may be used for the verb.<br />
praise. See panegyric, elegy.<br />
preacher. When applied to one who preaches in<br />
specific reference to his preaching, preacher is<br />
still a word <strong>of</strong> some dignity in American usage<br />
(Dr. Peale is one <strong>of</strong> the great preachers <strong>of</strong> our<br />
day. As a preacher Graham combines boyish<br />
charm with studied eloquence). But as a synonym<br />
for pastor or minister, it is now slightly<br />
quaint (Resolved, that . . . all licensed preachers<br />
. . . [be exempted] from working on public roads<br />
. . . when on their pr<strong>of</strong>essional duties) or humorously<br />
disparaging (A preacher went a-hunting/<br />
Upon a Sunday morn). Its use as a part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
name is distinctly backwoodsy (Preacher Jones<br />
was here about the money he says you owe<br />
him). See also pastor, parson, clergyman.<br />
precede; proceed. Precede, which is usually transitive,<br />
means to go before, as in place, order,<br />
rank, importance, or time (A flash <strong>of</strong> lightning<br />
preceded the thunder. The ambassador preceded<br />
the other guests into the dining hall. A major<br />
precedes a captain in the military organization).<br />
Proceed, which is invariably intransitive, means<br />
to move or go forward or onward, especially<br />
after stopping (Upon receipt <strong>of</strong> these orders, you<br />
will proceed without delay to the nearest port<br />
<strong>of</strong> embarkation. Zf you are clear on the work so<br />
far, let us proceed to the next step).<br />
precedence and precedent both mean a going before,<br />
but in different senses. Precedence means<br />
the act or fact <strong>of</strong> preceding; priority in order,<br />
rank, importance (A major has precedence <strong>of</strong> a<br />
captain) ; priority in time (Yalta has precedence<br />
<strong>of</strong> Potsdum) ; the right to precede others in ceremonies<br />
or social formalities (The Papal Nuncio<br />
was accorded the precedence. At state banquets<br />
the Premier had precedence); the order to be<br />
observed ceremonially by persons <strong>of</strong> different<br />
ranks (As a Washington hostess she had made<br />
a careful study <strong>of</strong> precedence). Precedent means<br />
a preceding instance or case which may serve as<br />
an example for or a justification in subsequent<br />
cases (The ambassador established an admirable<br />
precedent when he sent his children to the local<br />
school). In law, precedent means a legal decision
or form <strong>of</strong> proceeding serving as an authoritative<br />
rule or pattern in future similar or analogous<br />
cases (In Murbury v. Madison a precedent<br />
for the Supreme Court’s judicial authority was<br />
established.. . . They take special care to record<br />
all the decisions formerly made against common<br />
justice and the general reason <strong>of</strong> mankind.<br />
These, under the name <strong>of</strong> precedents, they produce<br />
as authorities, to justify the most iniquitous<br />
opinions. ..-Jonathan Swift).<br />
precession; procession. Precession is an astronomical<br />
term describing a change in the direction<br />
<strong>of</strong> the axis <strong>of</strong> a rotating body (precessl’on<br />
<strong>of</strong> the equinoxes; axis <strong>of</strong> precession). Processz’on<br />
is the familiar word to describe the proceeding<br />
or moving along in orderly succession, in a f’orma1<br />
or ceremonious manner, <strong>of</strong> a line or body <strong>of</strong><br />
persons, animals, vehicles, or other things (The<br />
commencement procession moved across #the<br />
meadow toward the auditorium).<br />
precipitate and precipitous both derive from a<br />
Latin word meaning cast headlong, but they fulfill<br />
separate functions. Precipitate applies to actions<br />
and means rushing headlong or rapidly<br />
onward (The Light Brigade engaged in a precipitate<br />
charge on the heights); acting or done<br />
or made in sudden haste or without due deliberation,<br />
overhasty, rash (His precipitate decision<br />
to abandon rocket research may have cost Hitler<br />
the war). Precipitous, applied mainly to physical<br />
objects, means <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> a precipice, or<br />
characterized by precipices (Mont Saint MicAel<br />
is a precipitous island); extremely or impassably<br />
steep (There is a trail, scarcely perceptible, that<br />
winds down the precipitous side <strong>of</strong> the canyo,n).<br />
Precipitous is also sometimes used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
precipitate in the senses <strong>of</strong> that word illustrated<br />
above.<br />
precipitately; precipitously. Precipitously refers to<br />
the steepness and precipitately to the suddenness<br />
<strong>of</strong> a descent. If the stairway descends precipitously,<br />
one may fall down it precipitately; indeed,<br />
the more precipitous, the more precipitate.<br />
precisely; actually. Precisely means definitely, eaactly<br />
(Precisely at tlze first stroke <strong>of</strong> eight, the<br />
trap was sprung. It is precisely that objection<br />
which Z hope to satisfy). Actually means as an<br />
actual or existing fact, really (Tkere were actually<br />
three men <strong>of</strong> that name who applied for the<br />
position. You do not actually need to be there;<br />
you can appoint a deputy). One may tell what<br />
actually happened by describing precisely how it<br />
happened.<br />
preciseness; precision. Though synonymous in<br />
some uses, preciseness and precision are distinguishable<br />
in others. Where the exactness <strong>of</strong><br />
limitation concerns moral or religious matters,<br />
punctiliousness, scrupulousness, squeamishness,<br />
preciseness is employed (Among their preciseness<br />
was a qualm at baptism; the water was to<br />
be taken from a basin, arzd zzot from a font. My<br />
grandmother, in her preciseness, regarded the<br />
introdztction <strong>of</strong> the hymnal into clzrtrch services<br />
as pr<strong>of</strong>ane and frivolous). It is, perhaps, this association<br />
that makes preciseness preferred when<br />
the exactness <strong>of</strong> the act is a little ostentatious or<br />
385 prefer<br />
more than necessary and where the performer<br />
seems to pride himself on his exactness and wish<br />
to call attention to his own meticulousness (He<br />
spoke French with an exaggerated preciseness.<br />
To say that He spoke French with precision<br />
would be a more neutral statement, less colored<br />
by the speaker’s feeling that the other person’s<br />
French was unnecessarily exact and perfect). A<br />
tailor who takes measurements with precision is<br />
one who proceeds with deliberation to have the<br />
measurements exact; one who takes them with<br />
preciseness rather makes a show <strong>of</strong> it or calls<br />
attention to his exactitude.<br />
Precision today is almost invariably the word<br />
for mechanical operations as opposed to human<br />
acts. Parts are machined with great precision. A<br />
camera is an instrument <strong>of</strong> precision. Tools for<br />
exactingly delicate work are precision tools.<br />
predicament; dilemma; plight; quandary. A predicament<br />
is an unpleasant, trying, or dangerous<br />
situation with an element <strong>of</strong> the puzzling in it<br />
(Zf he continues he will find himself in a predicament<br />
from which it will not be easy to extricate<br />
himself). Plight originally meant peril or danger<br />
(Blaming thy treason, the cause <strong>of</strong> all our plight),<br />
but it is now a synonym for predicament, except<br />
that plight is most <strong>of</strong>ten used lightly and humorously<br />
(What plight to be in, three dinner invitations<br />
for tlze same night!).<br />
In popular use a dilemma is a situation which<br />
requires a choice between equally undesirable<br />
alternatives. The element <strong>of</strong> puzzlement is somewhat<br />
stronger in dilenznza than in predicament or<br />
plight and that <strong>of</strong> peril less. A man is on the<br />
horns <strong>of</strong> a dilemma when he must choose one <strong>of</strong><br />
several possible courses <strong>of</strong> action, each <strong>of</strong> which<br />
may have unfavorable consequences for him.<br />
Quandary is also the state <strong>of</strong> perplexity <strong>of</strong> one<br />
faced with a difficult situation. One rarely hears<br />
the word any more except in the phrase to be in<br />
a quandary.<br />
predicate. As a grammatical term, the predicate<br />
<strong>of</strong> a sentence means the verb, its complements<br />
and its qualifiers, or everything in the sentence<br />
that is not part <strong>of</strong> the subject. The verb is called<br />
the simple predicate. The complement may include<br />
an indirect object, a direct object, and an<br />
object complement, or in the case <strong>of</strong> a linking<br />
verb, a predicate nominative. The qualifiers may<br />
be words, phrases, or clauses. See sentences.<br />
predicate. The use <strong>of</strong> predicate to mean to found<br />
or base a statement or action on something (MY<br />
plan is predicated on the assunzption that their<br />
greed will blind them to their danger) is standard<br />
in the United States, though condemned by some<br />
authorities in England. Predicate does not, however,<br />
mean to predict.<br />
predicate adjectives. See position <strong>of</strong> adjectives.<br />
predicate nominative. This is a term used by<br />
some grammarians for the noun or pronoun<br />
that a linking verb joins to its subject. A box,<br />
in the sentence this is a box, would be called<br />
a medicate nominative. See linking verbs.<br />
preface. See foreword.<br />
prefer, This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in Z prefer to read, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong>
prefer 386<br />
a verb, as in Z prefer reading. It may also be followed<br />
by a that clause with the clause verb a subjunctive<br />
or a subjunctive equivalent, as in Z prefer<br />
that he leave, but an infinitive construction, such<br />
as Z prefer to have him leave, is generally preferred.<br />
When prefer is used to compare two things, the<br />
second is traditionally introduced by the preposition<br />
to, as in Z prefer skating to swimming. This<br />
would be impossible with two infinitives. We<br />
cannot say Z prefer to skate to to swim, and a<br />
than is <strong>of</strong>ten used here, as in he preferred to live<br />
with a native woman rather than to work for a<br />
living. This construction is condemned by many<br />
grammarians, but in the United States it is accepted<br />
and used by well educated people.<br />
prefer. See favor.<br />
preferable. This word means more desirable and<br />
is not compared in present-day English. We say<br />
that one thing is preferable to another and not<br />
that it is more preferable.<br />
preferred. In this dictionary, the word preferred<br />
indicates only that a particular term is used more<br />
frequently and by more people than another. It<br />
is not meant as a statement <strong>of</strong> what is more<br />
correct or what ought to be used.<br />
prefixes are usually joined directly to the following<br />
word, but are separated by a hyphen in a<br />
few cases. There is general agreement that a<br />
hyphen should be used:<br />
1. When a prefix is joined to a word that begins<br />
with a capital letter, such as non-European.<br />
2. When a prefix requires special stress to prevent<br />
misunderstanding or mispronunciation. For<br />
example, co-op is not the same as coop, and<br />
re-creation is not recreation. The prefix ex-,<br />
meaning “former,” always takes this stress, as<br />
in ex-president, ex-wife. The prefix co- always<br />
takes this stress when it refers to a person. Coworker<br />
and co-author are always hyphenated,<br />
even by those who write cooperation and coexisting.<br />
Newly coined words, double prefixes, and<br />
unusual or difficult forms come under this rule,<br />
such as pre-preparation, un-un-American, nonnegative<br />
numbers. This rule also allows a writer<br />
to stress a prefix when he needs to, as for example<br />
in contrasting prewar and post-war attitudes.<br />
3. To avoid doubling a vowel, as in semiindependent,<br />
except with one-syllable prefixes<br />
ending in e or o (reenact). Many publishers use<br />
the hyphen to avoid doubling any vowel except<br />
after co-, and write pre-election, pro-optic, but<br />
cooperate; and to avoid any two vowels coming<br />
together when the prefix is more than one syllable,<br />
as in semi-educated, extra-<strong>of</strong>ficial. (But<br />
everyone writes extraordinary. )A few extremely<br />
conservative publishers go still further and use<br />
the hyphen to prevent any two vowels coming<br />
together, as in co-operate: and to prevent double<br />
consonants in relatively new words, such as subbasement,<br />
over-refined. (But everyone writes<br />
address, ennoble.) Still another method used by<br />
many publishers to avoid mispronunciation when<br />
a vowel, especially e or o, is doubled, is to place<br />
a dieresis over the second vowel, as in prezmp-<br />
tory, coordinate. The present trend, however, is<br />
away from the use <strong>of</strong> either the hyphen or dieresis,<br />
especially in very common words like cooperate.<br />
The hyphen is reserved for cases where<br />
it is considered necessary, not by arbitrary rule,<br />
but to insure ease <strong>of</strong> reading and clarity <strong>of</strong><br />
understanding.<br />
prejudice; partiality. Though in its strictest sense<br />
prejudice means any preconceived opinion or<br />
feeling, favorable or unfavorable (The prejudice<br />
I had conceived in his favor proved to be fully<br />
justified. These base prejudices so <strong>of</strong>ten blind<br />
their possessors to the evidence that lies before<br />
them), it is usually now interpreted as an unfavorable<br />
opinion or feeling formed beforehand<br />
or without knowledge (The current prejudice<br />
against rationalism manifests itself in a thousand<br />
ways).<br />
Two senses which have grown out <strong>of</strong> the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> unfavorable opinion are disadvantage resulting<br />
from such an opinion (Such a decision is to the<br />
prejudice <strong>of</strong> the Balkan nationals) and resulting<br />
injury or detriment (The attack worked to the<br />
prejudice <strong>of</strong> his reputation). In these two senses<br />
prejudice is being overworked. More appropriate<br />
words, such as disadvantage, damage, and harm<br />
are being neglected.<br />
Perhaps the prevailing pejorative use <strong>of</strong> prejudice<br />
grows out <strong>of</strong> a misunderstanding <strong>of</strong> the legal<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> the phrase without prejudice which<br />
means without dismissing, damaging, or otherwise<br />
affecting a legal interest or demand.<br />
Partiality has achieved currency to indicate a<br />
favorable prejudice (The partiality <strong>of</strong> parents for<br />
their own children is <strong>of</strong>ten indefensible). Prejudice<br />
is always either against or in favor <strong>of</strong>.<br />
Partiality is always for.<br />
prelate is sometimes used in America, either carelessly<br />
or humorously, as if it were synonymous<br />
with priest or parson. It applies to an ecclesiastic<br />
<strong>of</strong> a higher order, as an archbishop, bishop, or<br />
church dignitary.<br />
premature. See immature.<br />
premeditate. See contemplate.<br />
premise; premises. The singular word premise<br />
means a statement that is accepted as a basis for<br />
further reasoning. It has a regular plural and we<br />
may speak <strong>of</strong> these three premises. Only the<br />
plural form premises is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a<br />
building and its grounds. In this sense, the word<br />
is treated as a plural, as in these premises are<br />
closed to the public, but it cannot be used with a<br />
numeral or a word implying number.<br />
The English sometimes make a distinction in<br />
the spelling <strong>of</strong> the noun plural, using premisses<br />
to describe, in logic, parts <strong>of</strong> a syllogism, and<br />
premises to serve other uses. Americans use only<br />
premises to designate the plural.<br />
prepared to admit. Such expressions as Z am prepared<br />
to admit are verbose beyond the call <strong>of</strong><br />
duty or the lure <strong>of</strong> pleasure. Admit or deny.<br />
prepositions. A preposition is a word that connects<br />
a noun or noun equivalent with some other<br />
word in a sentence by naming a relation between<br />
the things, qualities, or actions, which these<br />
words represent. The noun equivalent which is
added to the sentence is called the object <strong>of</strong> the<br />
preposition and together with the preposition<br />
forms a prepositional phrase. (In this dictionary<br />
other kinds <strong>of</strong> words have been defined without<br />
reference to their meaning. To carry out this<br />
principle, we might define a preposition as a<br />
word that is not functioning as one <strong>of</strong> the other<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> speech.) In Jeanie with the light brown<br />
hair, the preposition with forms a phrase with<br />
the noun hair and qualifies the noun Jeanie. A<br />
preposition may be a simple, adverb-like word,<br />
such as before, after, in, on, to, or it may resemble<br />
a verb form, such as during, past, except.<br />
Prepositions may be compound words, such as<br />
into, upon, or they may be phrases, such as<br />
apart from, in regard to. But in every case the<br />
preposition has only one form. It is never altered,<br />
as nouns are to show number, verbs to<br />
show tense, and some adjectives and adverbs to<br />
make a comparison.<br />
According to the formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, a<br />
subjective pronoun cannot be the object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
preposition. This rule is observed in practice<br />
when the object follows the preposition, as in<br />
this is for him. The subjective form he cannot<br />
be used in this position. When the object precedes<br />
the preposition a subjective form may be<br />
used, as in who is it for?. (See who; whom.)<br />
With this exception, any kind <strong>of</strong> word may be<br />
used as the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition provided it<br />
has the force or the sense <strong>of</strong> a noun, as in until<br />
now, from here, in short, at best. (For the toinfinitive<br />
and the use <strong>of</strong> prepositions with the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, see verbal nouns.)<br />
Some words that are used as prepositions may<br />
also be used as conjunctions. A word <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind is a conjunction whenever it is followed by<br />
a full statement that contains a true verb, as in<br />
before the cock crowed, and a preposition when<br />
it is followed by a noun or noun equivalent<br />
without a verb, as in before the paling <strong>of</strong> the<br />
stars. A personal pronoun following a word <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind is considered the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition<br />
if no verb follows, and an objective form<br />
is used rather than a subjective, as in you were<br />
here before me. That is, a word <strong>of</strong> this kind is<br />
interpreted as a preposition wherever possible.<br />
(Other words that are trea:ed in the same way,<br />
such as than, as, and but, are said by some<br />
grammarians to be conjunctions only and not<br />
prepositions. This means that a personal pronoun<br />
following one <strong>of</strong> these words would have<br />
to be subjective or objective depending upon its<br />
function in the sentence. For a discussion <strong>of</strong><br />
this, see conjunctions and the individual words.)<br />
Some words that are used as prepositions are<br />
also used as adverbs. A word <strong>of</strong> this kind is an<br />
adverb when it stands alone without an object,<br />
as through in we have come through. When the<br />
word is followed by an object it may be a preposition,<br />
as in it came through the window, or it<br />
may be an adverb forming part <strong>of</strong> a compound<br />
verb, as in he read through the letter. The noun<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a preposition can never stand immediately<br />
before the preposition, but the normal<br />
position for the object <strong>of</strong> a compound verb is<br />
387 prepositions<br />
between the two elements <strong>of</strong> the compound.<br />
Therefore, a word <strong>of</strong> this kind is an adverb if<br />
it is possible to place the object between it and<br />
the verb, as in he read the letter through. If the<br />
object cannot be placed between the verb and<br />
the word in question, as in it came the window<br />
through, the word is probably a preposition.<br />
CHOICE OF PREPOSITION<br />
Prepositions represent, primarily, spatial or<br />
temporal relations, which are the only kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
relations that exist between physical things.<br />
When used for this purpose, the meanings <strong>of</strong> the<br />
words are clear enough and it is not hard to<br />
choose the appropriate one. But as English ceased<br />
to be an inflected language the old prepositions<br />
were also used to express logical or conceptual<br />
relations which were once expressed by case. In<br />
these senses, it is sometimes difficult to say which<br />
is the right preposition to use. For example, it is<br />
easy enough to decide whether we want to say<br />
the note was with the book or the note wus in the<br />
book. But whether we should say the man spoke<br />
with anger or the man spoke in anger is not as<br />
clear cut. This is partly because the conceptual<br />
relations themselves are not clear cut, and partly<br />
because there is a large element <strong>of</strong> metaphor in<br />
expressing them in terms <strong>of</strong> physical relations<br />
Sometimes we have no choice in the matter<br />
because custom has already established certain<br />
words in certain phrases and these must be observed.<br />
For example, we may say agree to but<br />
not agree at and decide on but not decide in.<br />
English is less rigid in this respect than most<br />
languages. But when one preposition sounds<br />
more familiar than another in a given combination<br />
<strong>of</strong> words, it is probably the best one to use.<br />
When one sounds no better than another, it is<br />
time to examine the relation and choose the preposition<br />
that expresses it best. For help in this,<br />
see the individual prepositions.<br />
POSITION OF A PREPOSITION<br />
Etymologically, the word preposition means<br />
“placed before.” But to argue from this that a<br />
preposition must be placed before its object is<br />
like arguing that a butterfly must be a fly. Even<br />
in Latin a preposition sometimes follows its object.<br />
In English there are some constructions in<br />
which the preposition must precede the object<br />
and some in which it must follow. And there are<br />
others in which either word order is acceptable.<br />
In a normal declarative sentence a preposition<br />
must stand before its object unless the object is<br />
a relative pronoun. Most sentences are <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind and most prepositions stand before their<br />
objects. But we have a different situation when<br />
(1) the sentence is interrogative, (2) the normal<br />
word order is disturbed for the sake <strong>of</strong> emphasis,<br />
and (3) the object <strong>of</strong> the preposition is a relative<br />
pronoun. (When the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition is<br />
made the subject <strong>of</strong> a passive verb the preposition<br />
remains in its original position, as in Z was<br />
made a fool <strong>of</strong>; but this is not ordinarily thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> as an object preceding the preposition.)<br />
1. In a question, a preposition that governs<br />
the interrogative word may follow its object, as<br />
in what are you looking for?, or may precede it,
presage 388<br />
as in for what are you looking? The first is the<br />
preferred word order. The second is permitted,<br />
but it is unnatural English and is seldom used by<br />
a native speaker <strong>of</strong> the language.<br />
When children were taught that it was wrong<br />
to end a sentence with a preposition, they were<br />
sometimes given where are you staying at? as an<br />
example <strong>of</strong> what not to do. This was sleight <strong>of</strong><br />
hand on the part <strong>of</strong> the textbook writers. The<br />
sentence is wrong because we do not use at with<br />
where and at where are you staying? is no improvement.<br />
On the other hand, what hoteI are<br />
you staying at? is standard, literary English.<br />
2. In a declarative sentence, the object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
preposition may be placed before the subject <strong>of</strong><br />
the principal verb for the sake <strong>of</strong> emphasis, as in<br />
these you must believe in and this I want to hear<br />
about. The preposition may also be brought forward<br />
here, as in in these you must believe; but<br />
when it is, the advantage <strong>of</strong> the inverted word<br />
order is greatly reduced.<br />
3. A relative pronoun is sometimes the object<br />
<strong>of</strong> a preposition. If the pronoun is as or that, the<br />
preposition must follow the verb, as in such<br />
things us we are sure <strong>of</strong> and the things that we<br />
are sure <strong>of</strong>. When a clause <strong>of</strong> this kind has no<br />
relative pronoun, it is treated as if the word that<br />
had been used and a preposition follows the<br />
verb, as in the things we are sure <strong>of</strong>. If the relative<br />
pronoun is which or some form <strong>of</strong> who, a<br />
governing preposition may follow the verb, as in<br />
the things which we are sure <strong>of</strong>, or it may precede<br />
the pronoun, as in the things <strong>of</strong> which we<br />
are sure.<br />
There are certain prepositions which, until recently,<br />
always preceded their object in literary<br />
English. These include: (1) prepositions that resemble<br />
verb forms rather than adverbs, such as<br />
except, during, concerning; (2) compound prepositions<br />
involving some other part <strong>of</strong> speech,<br />
such as by means <strong>of</strong>, as to; (3) the word <strong>of</strong> when<br />
it represents possession or introduces the whole<br />
<strong>of</strong> which something is a part; and (4) prepositions<br />
used in a purely figurative or literary<br />
sense. Today these words are <strong>of</strong>ten placed after<br />
their object, as in (1) the report which I wrote to<br />
you concerning; (2) the report which I wrote to<br />
you in regard to; (3) the house which he is the<br />
owner <strong>of</strong>, the book which I had read some <strong>of</strong>;<br />
(4) the dignity which he spoke with. Expressions<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind are heard too <strong>of</strong>ten to be called anything<br />
but standard. But they are <strong>of</strong>fensive to<br />
many people and do not have the literary standing<br />
<strong>of</strong> other “post-placed” prepositions.<br />
Where both word orders are acceptable, a<br />
preposition standing before a relative pronoun<br />
has a decidedly bookish tone. The construction<br />
may be used in written material for variety. And<br />
in an involved or inverted sentence it may be<br />
necessary to place the preposition first in order<br />
to make the relationship immediately clear. But<br />
where it is not required and nothing is to be<br />
gained by it, this word order is unnatural English<br />
and should be avoided.<br />
An infinitive followed by a preposition sometimes<br />
has the force <strong>of</strong> a relative clause. Here<br />
too, most prepositions follow the object, as in<br />
something to think about, someone to talk to.<br />
The adjective worth and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
followed by a preposition may also be used in<br />
the same way, as in something worth thinking<br />
about, someone worth talking to.<br />
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES<br />
A prepositional phrase may function as a<br />
noun. It may be the subject or the object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb or it may be the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition, as<br />
in from behind the tree. In each case, it stands<br />
wherever a noun performing the same function<br />
would stand.<br />
But more <strong>of</strong>ten a prepositional phrase has the<br />
function <strong>of</strong> an adjective or an adverb. The primary<br />
position for an adjective phrase is immediately<br />
after the noun it qualifies, as in a hive for<br />
the honey bee. But it may also follow a linking<br />
verb, as in the bird is on the wing. An adverbial<br />
phrase may show time, place, manner, cause,<br />
purpose, means, direction, or any other adverbial<br />
idea. Its primary position is immediately after<br />
an intransitive verb or immediately after the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a transitive verb, as in he finished<br />
on time and he finished the work on time. An adverbial<br />
phrase may also stand before the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb, as in by this time he had finished the<br />
work. In this position it may be set <strong>of</strong>f by a<br />
comma, but this is not required if the phrase is<br />
short.<br />
These rules <strong>of</strong> position are very important.<br />
To disregard them may be disastrous, as in the<br />
cow fell into a hole on her back and he wrote<br />
the poem while riding to town on a piece <strong>of</strong><br />
scratch paper.<br />
presage. The noun means a presentiment or foreboding<br />
(He had a clear presage that the conference<br />
would fail). The transitive verb means to<br />
foreshadow (Those black clouds presage rain).<br />
The intransitive verb means to have a presentiment<br />
(I presage that everything will end badly).<br />
Usage has colored the word slightly towards a<br />
prophecy <strong>of</strong> ill rather than <strong>of</strong> good.<br />
prescience; presentiment. Prescience means knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> things before they exist or happen, foreknowledge,<br />
foresight. It is a neutral term. Presentiment<br />
means an uneasy anticipation <strong>of</strong> something<br />
unpleasant, not exactly foreknowledge but<br />
a discouraging certainty <strong>of</strong> trouble to come. God<br />
has prescience. Men have presentiments.<br />
prescribe; proscribe. Prescribe, the more innocent<br />
and familiar term, means to lay down, in writing<br />
or otherwise, a rule or course to be followed<br />
(Prescribe not us our duties. I prescribe an<br />
hour’s conversation in French every day). In<br />
medicine the word has the special meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
designating a remedy or treatment (The doctor<br />
prescribed only aspirin for my headaches). In<br />
law it means to render invalid, to outlaw through<br />
negative prescription: an action that has been<br />
prescribed cannot be taken up again.<br />
To proscribe is to denounce or condemn a<br />
thing as dangerous, to prohibit (Under Hitler the<br />
works <strong>of</strong> Heine were proscribed. We children<br />
knew that our father’s study was proscribed territory);<br />
to put out <strong>of</strong> the protection <strong>of</strong> the law,
to banish or exile; to announce the name <strong>of</strong> a<br />
person as condemned to death and his property<br />
to confiscation, to doom (The king told Rochester<br />
to choose any ministers <strong>of</strong> the Established<br />
Church, with two exceptions. The proscribed<br />
persons were Tillotson and Stillingfleet).<br />
Prescribe has a positive connotation, proscribe<br />
a negative (The doctor prescribed exercise and<br />
proscribed smoking).<br />
prescriptive right is sometimes used as if it meant<br />
an absolute right, one which cannot be annulled.<br />
This is a mistake. Prescriptive right is simply a<br />
right based on established usage or opinion or<br />
custom (Yon tall Tower,/ Whose cawing OCCUpants<br />
with joy proclaim / Prescriptive title to the<br />
shattered pile), a long or immemorial use <strong>of</strong><br />
some right with respect to a thing so as to give a<br />
right to continue such use (The American Indians<br />
may have had a prescriptive right to the<br />
Great Plains, hut the frontiersmen opposed the<br />
rights <strong>of</strong> conquest and greater agricultural eficiency).<br />
Actually a prescriptive right is a dubious<br />
right.<br />
present. This adjective may mean now or here,<br />
depending upon its position in the sentence.<br />
When it stands before the noun it qualifies it<br />
means now, as in the present king, the present<br />
plan. When it follows the noun, or noun equivalent,<br />
it means here, as in those present and we<br />
were present. The word is not compared, in<br />
either sense.<br />
presentiment; presentment. A presentiment is a<br />
feeling or impression <strong>of</strong> something about to happen,<br />
especially something evil, a foreboding (He<br />
had a presentiment <strong>of</strong> disaster). See prescience.<br />
Presentment is a wholly unrelated word meaning<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> presenting (I attended the presentment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the new ambassador) ; a representation,<br />
picture, or likeness (That presentment may be<br />
faithful, but it is certainly unflattering). In commerce,<br />
presentment means the presenting <strong>of</strong> a<br />
bill, note, or the like, as for acceptance or payment<br />
(No check, bank draft, or money order<br />
shall be considered payment <strong>of</strong> any premium<br />
unless it is actually paid to the company on presentment).<br />
In law, it means the written statement<br />
<strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong>fense by a grand jury, <strong>of</strong> their own<br />
knowledge or observation, when no indictment<br />
has been laid before them.<br />
presently; currently. Currently means belonging<br />
to the time actually passing (They are currently<br />
engaged in stocking the store for the winter’s<br />
business). Presently used to mean immediately,<br />
in the present, at the time spoken <strong>of</strong> (a reward<br />
to be rendered hereafter, not presently). This<br />
meaning had been regarded as obsolete since<br />
the 17th century but has recently been revived<br />
as a vogue word. Used emphatically in commands<br />
and assurances <strong>of</strong> obedience, suggesting<br />
that the act required or agreed to was to take<br />
place in the instant <strong>of</strong> speaking, the word came<br />
to mean at once, forthwith, without delay (Go<br />
presently, and take this ring). But power demands<br />
and subservience promises more alacrity<br />
than is usually forthcoming and the word has<br />
become blunted into meaning soon, in a little<br />
389 present tense<br />
while, by and by (I can’t come right away; 1’11<br />
be there presently). See also immediately.<br />
present tense. English uses the simple form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb, such as talk or do, for the present tense<br />
except in the third person singular where a final<br />
s or es is added, as in he talks, he does. The only<br />
exceptions to this rule are: (1) the verb to be<br />
which has the first person singular am, the third<br />
person singular is, and are in the other forms;<br />
(2) the verb to have which has the third nerson<br />
singular has; and (3) a few defective verbs, such<br />
as will, shall, must, which do not end in s in the<br />
third person singular. All irregular verbs have<br />
been listed in this book.<br />
The form <strong>of</strong> the present tense just described is<br />
called the simple present. It indicates that an<br />
event takes place, or a state <strong>of</strong> affairs exists, in a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time that includes the time <strong>of</strong> speaking.<br />
It puts no other limitations on the period, which<br />
may be momentary or may extend “from everlasting<br />
to everlasting.” This tense form is used in<br />
statements that are essentially timeless, such as<br />
that is no cozmtry for old men, and to express<br />
customary or habitual action, which need not be<br />
actually in process at the time <strong>of</strong> speaking, as in<br />
I read, much <strong>of</strong> the night, and go south in the<br />
winter.<br />
Do or does (the present tense <strong>of</strong> ro do) followed<br />
by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used in<br />
place <strong>of</strong> a simple present in questions and in<br />
negative statements, as in why do you read at<br />
night? and you do not go south every winter.<br />
The same form is used to make a simple present<br />
statement emphatic, as in Z do read and I do go<br />
south. (See do.)<br />
To show that an action is a single event taking<br />
place at the time <strong>of</strong> speaking, and not merely<br />
something customary or to be expected, we use<br />
the progressive present form <strong>of</strong> the verb, which<br />
is made up <strong>of</strong> the appropriate present tense form<br />
<strong>of</strong> to be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> the meaningful<br />
verb, as in I am old and day is ending.<br />
The simple present can also be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> an event in progress, as in the darkness<br />
deepens. But this form is ambiguous and the<br />
progressive present is preferred. The progressive<br />
present is sometimes called the definite present.<br />
Until recently, verbs such as see, hear, believe,<br />
doubt, which naturally express a continued action,<br />
were not used in the progressive form. But<br />
they are occasionally used in this way today.<br />
Within the last fifty years a progressive form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb to be has become very popular. It is<br />
used to limit a general statement to the immediate<br />
present. For example, you are being unreasonable<br />
might be used in preference to you are<br />
unreasonable, because it suggests that the unreasonableness<br />
is temporary.<br />
In order to speak <strong>of</strong> a completed action as a<br />
present fact, we use have or has (the present<br />
tense <strong>of</strong> to have) followed by the past participle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the meaningful verb, as in I have sailed the<br />
seas and come to title holy city <strong>of</strong> Byzantium.<br />
This form is called the present perfect tense. In<br />
Latin, and in many European languages today,<br />
the present perfect is felt as a past tense form
present tense 390<br />
and can be used in narrative. This is not true in<br />
English. The English present perfect is a retrospective<br />
present. It makes a statement about a<br />
present situation which is seen as the result <strong>of</strong><br />
past events. We may say I have been to New<br />
York because we see this as a present fact. We<br />
cannot say George Washington has been to New<br />
York because his actions do not extend to the<br />
present. Similarly, we may say England has had<br />
able rulers but we cannot say Assyria has had<br />
able rulers.<br />
Languages which use the present perfect aa a<br />
past tense form frequently use the simple present<br />
to express completed action. In German, for<br />
example, it is possible to say we are here two<br />
hours already. This construction is also heard in<br />
English in the United States but it is not considered<br />
standard. The English simple present or<br />
progressive present cannot be used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a period <strong>of</strong> time that is closed in the present.<br />
This requires a present perfect form and we<br />
must say, for example, we have been here two<br />
hours already.<br />
The present perfect also has a progressive<br />
form. Here have or has is followed by been (the<br />
past participle <strong>of</strong> to be), which in turn is followed<br />
by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> the meaningful verb,<br />
as in he has been studying for years. This form<br />
has the same time meaning as the present perfect,<br />
he has studied for years, but speaks <strong>of</strong> the<br />
completed action as continued over a time. It is<br />
sometimes more vivid than the present perfect<br />
and suggests more strongly that the action may<br />
be continuing into the future. This form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb is <strong>of</strong>ten used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a completed<br />
action that is repeated or habitual, as in he has<br />
been going to New York for years. Here what is<br />
continuing, possibly into the future, is the custom<br />
<strong>of</strong> going to New York. When the simple<br />
present is used to express habitual action, the<br />
action is treated abstractly, almost as a theoretical<br />
matter. When the progressive present perfect<br />
is used, the action is concrete, a solid, established<br />
fact.<br />
Each <strong>of</strong> the forms that have been discussed<br />
may also be expressed in the passive voice.<br />
(See passive voice.) In addition, there is a present<br />
subjunctive form that is like the simple<br />
present but does not add s in the third person<br />
singular, (See subjunctive mode.) An idea that<br />
would normally be expressed by a present tense<br />
verb is expressed as a past tense in a subordinate<br />
clause that is dependent on a past tense verb.<br />
(See tense shifts.)<br />
The present tenses are <strong>of</strong>ten used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> the future. With verbs <strong>of</strong> motion this may be<br />
the simple present, as in the bout sails tomorrow,<br />
he arrives Wednesday. With other verbs it is<br />
more likely to be the progressive form, as in we<br />
are having guests next Friday and he is speaking<br />
on the radio tomorrow evening. This use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
present tense is standard English and always has<br />
been. In fact, English has no way <strong>of</strong> expressing<br />
the future that is not based on a present tense<br />
verb. In current English a simple present (or a<br />
present perfect) verb is required in conditional<br />
clauses and in clauses <strong>of</strong> time that are part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
statement about the future, as in Z will let you<br />
know if he comes and I will let you know as soon<br />
us he comes. See future tense.<br />
The present tense may be used in speaking<br />
about the past, but only with a sort <strong>of</strong> literary<br />
license. We <strong>of</strong>ten treat important contributions<br />
to knowledge made in the past as timeless and<br />
belonging to the present, and say Plato teaches<br />
or Herodotus says. This is always acceptable.<br />
Occasionally we use a present tense in describing<br />
a past event in order to make the action<br />
more vivid. This is called the historical present,<br />
or the dramatic present. It is acceptable when<br />
what is being told is really extraordinary, as in<br />
I opened the bathroom door, and what do I see<br />
but (I camel! It is not acceptable when used to<br />
dramatize a conversation that is not dramatic,<br />
as in He looked at her and he says, “Why not?”<br />
“Why not, indeed!” says she. As in the examples<br />
given, the historic present is frequently used in<br />
sentences that also contain a past tense verb.<br />
This mixing <strong>of</strong> tenses is not a characteristic <strong>of</strong><br />
nonstandard speech. It is also found in the works<br />
<strong>of</strong> great writers who have used the historic<br />
present.<br />
present writer is a mock-modest variation on 1.<br />
It might be called a symptom <strong>of</strong> the John-Alden<br />
syndrome. If one is speaking for himself, he<br />
should speak for himself.<br />
preserve in American usage describes a tract <strong>of</strong><br />
public land set apart for any one <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong><br />
special purposes. The forest preserves around<br />
Chicago, for example, are public pleasure<br />
grounds, with trails for hiking, bridle paths for<br />
horseback riding, and many picnic grounds and<br />
camping sites. In England preserve especially<br />
means a place set apart for the protection and<br />
propagation <strong>of</strong> game or fish for sport (There are<br />
huge game preserves in Kenya).<br />
president; presidency. A president is a presiding<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficer. He may be elected or appointed. The<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice is the presidency. Hence a man is, properly,<br />
a candidate for the presidency, not “for<br />
president.” In the United States the President is<br />
the chief executive <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> the republic, the<br />
holder <strong>of</strong> the highest <strong>of</strong>fice in the land and, when<br />
it refers to him, the word is always capitalized.<br />
Most American universities designate their<br />
chief <strong>of</strong>ficer president, but there has been a tendency<br />
among some <strong>of</strong> these great ones to exalt<br />
themselves to l<strong>of</strong>tier heights as chancellors and<br />
regents and to hand down the presidency to their<br />
next in command. In nothing does the principle<br />
<strong>of</strong> Gresham’s Law work more vigorously than<br />
in titles, as consul, captain, duke, and a host <strong>of</strong><br />
other faded splendors can attest, and we may<br />
live to see the term president bestowed in our<br />
universities upon janitors or pr<strong>of</strong>essors.<br />
press. When this verb means urge it may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in we pressed him to<br />
come, but not by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a<br />
clause.<br />
presume. See assume.<br />
presumption. See assumption.<br />
presumptive; presumptuous. Presumption is the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> presuming, taking for granted. Presumptive<br />
and presumptuous, formerly synonymous,
now reflect different aspects <strong>of</strong> presumption. Presumptive,<br />
restricted today almost exclusively to<br />
legal terminology, means affording grounds for<br />
presumption, based on presumption (His title<br />
was presumptive rafher than conferred), lpresumed,<br />
or regarded as such by presumption (The<br />
king’s brother is heir presumptive to the throne<br />
until the heir apparent is born). Presumptuous<br />
reflects our attitude towards those whose ,presumptions<br />
seem to us unwarranted, forw.ard,<br />
impertinent, pushing. The word is derogatlory,<br />
meaning brazen, brash (His adoption <strong>of</strong> the titles<br />
<strong>of</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ice before he was elected was presumptuous,<br />
to say the least).<br />
pretend and pr<strong>of</strong>ess, in their most familiar senses,<br />
both now carry the connotation <strong>of</strong> deception-a<br />
sad reflection on the value <strong>of</strong> human pr<strong>of</strong>ess:ions<br />
and pretensions.<br />
Pretend, as a transitive verb, now means to<br />
put forward a false appearance <strong>of</strong>, to feign (Zf Z<br />
pretend illness, I won’t have to go to the party);<br />
to venture or attempt falsely to do something. As<br />
an intransitive verb, pretend means to make believe<br />
(He pretended he was Donald Duck); to<br />
lay claim to (He pretended to the throne); to<br />
make pretensions (He pretended to great skill as<br />
a musician, though he hardly knew a piano from<br />
a drum); to aspire as a suitor or candidate (Don<br />
Cesare pretended to the Infanta’s hand). In its<br />
least common sense as a transitive verb, pretend<br />
may mean to allege or pr<strong>of</strong>ess, especially insincerely<br />
or falsely (He pretended deep sorrow at<br />
the news <strong>of</strong> his uncle’s death). The idea <strong>of</strong> feigning,<br />
apparent here, is now the commonest sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ess, which, as a transitive verb, means to<br />
lay claim to a feeling, <strong>of</strong>ten insincerely, to pretend<br />
something that one does not feel. Actually,<br />
one can choose between pretend and pr<strong>of</strong>ess in<br />
this sense only on the basis <strong>of</strong> whether the claim<br />
is voiced or not. One may pretend sorrow with a<br />
doleful face, pr<strong>of</strong>ess it with doleful words. In<br />
senses clearly distinguishable from those <strong>of</strong> pretend,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ess may mean to declare openly, announce<br />
or affirm, avow or acknowledge (I pr<strong>of</strong>ess<br />
myself unworthy <strong>of</strong> the honor you intend<br />
me. He never tired <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essing allegiance to<br />
the flag), to declare oneself skilled or expert in,<br />
or to claim to have knowledge <strong>of</strong> (The wise pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>esses only ignorance).<br />
pretend; affect; purport; claim. Pretend and affect<br />
are derogatory. Purport and claim are neutral.<br />
Pretend and affect imply an attempt to create<br />
a false appearance. Pretend, specifically, means<br />
to create an imaginary characteristic or to pIay<br />
a part (He pretended that he came from an old<br />
Virginia family). Affect means to make a consciously<br />
artificial show <strong>of</strong> having qualities which<br />
one thinks would look well and impress others<br />
(He affected a Harvard accent after two months<br />
Army training in Cambridge).<br />
Purport and claim carry no overtones <strong>of</strong> insincerity.<br />
Purport means to pr<strong>of</strong>ess or claim, as<br />
by the thought or meaning which runs through<br />
something (This text purports to be authentic;<br />
certainly the grammar, the spelling, and the local<br />
references are what one would expect). To purport<br />
is to imply, to convey to the mind as the<br />
391 prevent<br />
meaning or thing intended (This purports to be<br />
an <strong>of</strong>ficial declaration <strong>of</strong> foreign policy). Claim,<br />
the less formal word, means to assert or maintain<br />
as a fact (He claimed that there had been<br />
violations <strong>of</strong> election procedure).<br />
pretender; Pretender. A pretender in current<br />
usage is definitely one whose pretensions are<br />
without foundation, a claimant to a throne or<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice who has no just title to support his claim.<br />
In the application <strong>of</strong> the term to the son and<br />
grandson <strong>of</strong> James II <strong>of</strong> England, however, the<br />
term is neutral, and the word is always capitalized.<br />
The Old Pretender (which title has the further<br />
unfortunate connotation <strong>of</strong> long-practiced<br />
feigning) was James Francis Edward Stuart<br />
(1688-1766). The Young Pretender (also known<br />
as the Chevalier and Bonnie Prince Charlie) was<br />
Charles Edward Stuart (1720-1788).<br />
preternatural. See unnatural.<br />
pretty. The adjective pretty has had a great many<br />
meanings, including deceitful, tricky, cunning,<br />
clever, skillful, admirable, pleasing. In presentday<br />
English it means pleasing to the eye. In this<br />
sense, it has an adverb form prettily, as in the<br />
child was prettily dressed.<br />
The form pretty is also used as an adverb<br />
meaning moderately, in some degree, as in we<br />
are pretty sure and he gave a pretty full account.<br />
Pretty does not work successfully as a synonym<br />
for very. It is not an intensive, but weakens the<br />
word it qualifies. Pretty sure means not completely<br />
sure, and pretty well in I’m feeling pretty<br />
well is equivalent to the old-fashioned tolerable.<br />
pretty kettle <strong>of</strong> fish. As an ironical term for some<br />
irritating situation, some embarrassing predicament,<br />
pretty kettle <strong>of</strong> fish is now a cliche. The<br />
origin <strong>of</strong> the phrase is uncertain. It came into use<br />
in the middle <strong>of</strong> the eighteenth century. Thomas<br />
Newte in his A tour in England and Scotland in<br />
1785 (1788) says that it was customary for<br />
gentlemen who lived near the Tweed “to entertain<br />
their neighbours and friends with a Fete<br />
Champetre, which they call giving ‘a kettle <strong>of</strong><br />
fish’ ” in the course <strong>of</strong> which “a fire is kindled<br />
and live salmon thrown into boiling kettles.”<br />
Whether these merrymakings degenerated into<br />
brawls or whether the figurative application <strong>of</strong><br />
the term derived from the agonized thrashing <strong>of</strong><br />
the salmon in the boiling water is not known.<br />
prevaricate, which derives from a Latin word<br />
meaning to walk crookedly, to deviate, is a slightly<br />
affected term for equivocate. It is <strong>of</strong>ten used as<br />
a euphemism for lie, it being felt, apparently,<br />
that an elegant word covers up an inelegant act.<br />
prevent; hinder. To prevent something is to stop<br />
it by forestalling action and hence rendering it<br />
impossible (He prevented my escape by taking<br />
away my clothes). To hinder something is to<br />
keep it back by delaying or stopping progress <strong>of</strong><br />
an action (The advance <strong>of</strong> the army was hindered<br />
by the weather and the condition <strong>of</strong> the roads).<br />
Prevent has more the sense <strong>of</strong> complete stoppage,<br />
hinder more the sense <strong>of</strong> a clogging delay.<br />
Prevent means, etymologically, to go before,<br />
and the student <strong>of</strong> English literature will <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
come upon obsolete meanings <strong>of</strong> the word that<br />
will puzzle him unless he bears its etymology in
preventive 392<br />
mind (such as: Prevent us, Lord, in all our ways.<br />
It will be the study <strong>of</strong> my life to prevent your<br />
every wish. He had prevented the hour, because<br />
we might have the whole dny before us, for our<br />
business).<br />
The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb following prevent is<br />
usually introduced by from, as in he prevented<br />
me from going, but it may also be used without<br />
from, as in he prevented me going.<br />
preventive; preventative; preventitive. Preventative<br />
has been superseded by the briefer preventive<br />
which, as an adjective, means warding <strong>of</strong>f disease<br />
(Preventive medicine is largely responsible for<br />
the low death rate), serving to prevent or hinder.<br />
As a noun, preventive is primarily a medical term<br />
meaning a drug for preventing disease, and, more<br />
broadly, a preventive agent or measure. Preventitive<br />
is a misspelling <strong>of</strong> preventative and cannot<br />
be justified at all.<br />
previous. The adjective form previous is used with<br />
the preposition to to form a compound preposition<br />
which may introduce an adverbial phrase,<br />
as in previous to this, he hnd been out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
room. Otherwise, previous cannot be used as an<br />
adverb. We do not say I had heen there previous.<br />
The adverbial form previously may also be used<br />
with to, but previous to is preferred to previously<br />
to.<br />
The expression 4 little previous (or too previous)<br />
means “jumping the gun” and is intended<br />
as humor. When used in any other way, the construction<br />
is not standard.<br />
prey on one’s mind. To say <strong>of</strong> something that<br />
worries someone to the extent <strong>of</strong> impairing his<br />
spirits and even his health that it preys on his<br />
mind is to employ a worn phrase. The figure was<br />
once a strong one, suggesting the ravening <strong>of</strong> a<br />
beast <strong>of</strong> prey, but overuse has weakened it.<br />
priceless. See invaluable.<br />
prick up one’s ears. In its figurative sense <strong>of</strong> suddenly<br />
paying attention and listening intently,<br />
prick up one’s ears, a term taken from a characteristic<br />
action <strong>of</strong> horses and dogs, is now hackheyed.<br />
pride; haughtiness; arrogance; vanity; conceit.<br />
Although pride in Christian theology is regarded<br />
as the deadliest <strong>of</strong> the Seven Deadly Sins, the<br />
word has, in common usage, a favorable as well<br />
as an unfavorable connotation. It can mean a<br />
becoming or dignified sense <strong>of</strong> what is due to<br />
oneself or one’s position, self-respect, self-esteem<br />
<strong>of</strong> a proper kind (He took great pride in his<br />
work. Civic pride has made many a town a better<br />
place to live in. He was his father’s pride, his<br />
mother’s joy).<br />
**$n its unfavorable connotation it means a l<strong>of</strong>ty<br />
and arrogant assumption <strong>of</strong> superiority in some<br />
respect (He had too much pride to accept manual<br />
labor. Pride goeth before destruciion, and an<br />
hauphtv soirii before a fall). Haughtiness means<br />
&d&fui pride; supe;ciliousness, and usually<br />
refers to a manner (From the haughtiness <strong>of</strong> her<br />
bearing I concluded that she was at least a marchioness).<br />
Arrogance consists <strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong>fensive exhibition<br />
<strong>of</strong> real or assumed superiority, insolent<br />
pride (His recent successes increased his arrogance).<br />
Haughtiness tends to describe someone<br />
taking advantage <strong>of</strong> an established position, arrogance<br />
to characterize one newly arrived at a<br />
position <strong>of</strong> authority or power.<br />
Pride, even in its unfavorable meaning, has<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten a justification in fact, but vanity implies a<br />
self-admiration and a desire to be admired by<br />
others that is groundless. The word used to mean<br />
emptiness, worthlessness, and this meaning lingers<br />
in moral and religious uses (Vanity <strong>of</strong> vanities,<br />
all is vnnity. The vanity <strong>of</strong> earthly wishes)<br />
and colors the particular sort <strong>of</strong> pride that the<br />
word in its most common use now describes.<br />
When we say It was vanity which prevented her<br />
from wearing glasses even when she read, we<br />
imply that her pride in her appearance was carried,<br />
in this instance, to the point <strong>of</strong> folly and<br />
was a baseless pride. We may hate pride; we<br />
despise vanity.<br />
Conceit, which originally meant a fancy, a<br />
whim, or a fanciful thought, idea or expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> a strained and far-fetched nature, when used<br />
as a synonym <strong>of</strong> pride, as it now most commonly<br />
is, is an even more contemptuous word than<br />
vanity. It implies an exaggerated estimate <strong>of</strong> very<br />
slight abilities or attainments, nafvely expressed,<br />
wholly lacking in dignity (The conceit <strong>of</strong> that<br />
whelp in saying to Pr<strong>of</strong>essor Ellison that one<br />
man’s opinion was as good as another’s).<br />
prima facie. See a priori.<br />
primary; prime; premier: chief; primal. These<br />
words all mean highly important. In many<br />
contexts they are synonymous (The primary/<br />
prime/ premier/ chief/ first/ primal consideration<br />
should be the national security). Primary<br />
means first or highest in rank or importance,<br />
chief (Domestic policy was <strong>of</strong> primary importance<br />
during the Depression). Prime means first<br />
in importance, excellence, rank (He ordered<br />
prime ribs <strong>of</strong> beef). Premier means first in rank,<br />
chief, leading, earliest (The premier performance<br />
was held in Miss Bankhend’s native city). Chief<br />
means highest in rank or authority, most important<br />
(The chief end <strong>of</strong> man is to glorify God and<br />
enjoy him forever). Primal, a word now seldom<br />
used, means first, original, primeval, <strong>of</strong> first importance,<br />
fundamental (We will grieve not, rather<br />
find/ Strength in what remains behind;/ In<br />
the primal sympathy/ Which having been must<br />
ever be. . . ).<br />
prime <strong>of</strong> life. To say <strong>of</strong> someone <strong>of</strong> mature years<br />
in vigorous health that he is in the prime <strong>of</strong> life<br />
is to employ a phrase that has been weakened<br />
by overuse.<br />
primeval; primitive; primordial. Primeval means<br />
<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to the first age or ages, especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world (This is the forest primeval. Miss<br />
Kilman stood there. . . with the power and taciturnity<br />
<strong>of</strong> some prehistoric monster armored for<br />
primeval warfare).<br />
Primitive is used much more frequently and in<br />
a variety <strong>of</strong> senses. It primarily means being the<br />
first or earliest <strong>of</strong> the kind or in existence (Zrl<br />
South Africa have been discovered primitive<br />
weapons mnde from the bones <strong>of</strong> animals). early<br />
in the history <strong>of</strong> the world or <strong>of</strong> mankind (Primitive<br />
social organization tends to be authoritarian).<br />
It can also mean characteristic <strong>of</strong> early ages
or <strong>of</strong> an early state <strong>of</strong> human development (African<br />
urt is relatively primitive), unaffe:cted or<br />
little affected by civilizing influences, rough (His<br />
manners were primitive and his morals nonexistent).<br />
Primitive has special learned senses. In anthropology<br />
it means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to a race:, group,<br />
etc., having cultural or physical similarities with<br />
their early ancestors. In biology it means rudimentary,<br />
primordial, denoting species only slightly<br />
evolved from early antecedent types.<br />
Primordial means original, elementary, that<br />
from which something else derived, that which<br />
constitutes a beginning (I should infer.. . that<br />
probably all the organic beings. . . on ea.rth have<br />
descended from some one primordial form-<br />
Darwin).<br />
primrose path. As a trope for a gay but wicked<br />
course <strong>of</strong> conduct, especially in sexual matters,<br />
primrose path is now a cliche. The phrase is an<br />
echo <strong>of</strong> two passages in Shakespeare’s plays: the<br />
primrose path <strong>of</strong> dalliance which the puff’d and<br />
reckless libertine treads in Hamlet and the primrose<br />
way to th’ everlasting bonfire <strong>of</strong> which the<br />
porter speaks in Macbeth.<br />
principal; principle. These words, pronounced<br />
alike and spelled so nearly alike, are unlikely to<br />
be confused if one remembers that principal is<br />
used as an adjective and also as a noun, while<br />
principle is a noun only. It is over the nouns that<br />
confusion usually arises, a confusion implied in<br />
the old joke, “I don’t really hate ihe high school;<br />
it’s just the principal <strong>of</strong> the thing.”<br />
As an adjective principal means first or highest<br />
in rank, importance, or value, chief, foremost<br />
(Our principal allies are the British Commonwealth<br />
and France). As a noun principar’ usually<br />
means a chief or governing head (The principal<br />
<strong>of</strong> the high school handed 4 diploma to each <strong>of</strong><br />
the graduating seniors).<br />
Principle refers not to a person but tco an accepted<br />
or pr<strong>of</strong>essed rule <strong>of</strong> action or conduct<br />
(He is a man <strong>of</strong> high principle), a fundamental,<br />
primary, or general truth, on which other truths<br />
depend (The principles <strong>of</strong> political economy are<br />
not what they were in Adam Smith’s day), a<br />
fundamental doctrine or tenet (Pluto’s philosophy<br />
rests on the principle <strong>of</strong> dual reality).<br />
principal parts <strong>of</strong> the verb. The forms <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
usu~llygiven in a dictionary are:<br />
1. The infinitive. such as talk or speak. In Ennlish,<br />
this form is also the imperative, the: present<br />
subjunctive, and the present indicative, except<br />
for the third person singular which normally<br />
adds an s or es, as in he talks, he speaks, and for<br />
the verb to be which has a completely irregular<br />
present indicative.<br />
2. The past tense, such as talked or spoke.<br />
3. The past participle, such as talked or spoken.<br />
This form is used with the auxiliary verb be<br />
to make the passive voice, as in he wasspoken to,<br />
and with the auxiliary verb have to express completed<br />
action, as in he had spoken. It may also be<br />
used as an adjective, as in a well-spoken man was<br />
he. In a regular English verb the past tense and<br />
past participle are made by adding -e,d to the<br />
basic form <strong>of</strong> the word (the infinitive). Many<br />
393 product<br />
dictionaries do not list these forms <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
unless they are made irregularly.<br />
4. The present participle. This is alwavs made<br />
by adding -ing to the basic form, and for this<br />
reason may not be listed. The -ing form is used<br />
with the auxiliary verb be to express continuing<br />
action, as in he was speaking. It may also be used<br />
as an adjective, as in a speaking acqrtaintance, or<br />
as a noun, as in to study public speaking. A few<br />
verbs, such as can and ought, do not have an<br />
-ing form.<br />
These four forms are not only the “principal”<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> an English verb; they are all the parts<br />
there are except the third person singular in the<br />
present tense. (Again, the one exception is the<br />
verb to be.)<br />
probe. In its historic and literal sense, probe<br />
means to explore a wound or cavity in the body<br />
with a surgical instrument (He probed the<br />
wound until he found the bullet). In America<br />
probe has come to be used widely, in a figurative<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> this sense, to mean to examine thoroughly,<br />
to question closely. There is also, in<br />
America, a noun probe, meaning an investigation,<br />
especially by a legislative committee, <strong>of</strong><br />
suspected illegal activity. Both <strong>of</strong> these uses are<br />
now standard, though the verb is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
when a milder word, such as question or investigate,<br />
would be more suitable. Nonetheless,<br />
where probe is suitable, where the condition<br />
being searched is morbid, the searching accompanied<br />
by pain, and the purpose to restore health<br />
to the body politic, the term is vivid and useful.<br />
proboscis. The plural is proboscises or probostides,<br />
not probosces.<br />
proceed is not to be used as a pretentious synonym<br />
for go or come. It is stilted to say Let us proceed<br />
to the fountain for a drink or That information<br />
proceeds from a most unreliable source. To<br />
proceed is to move forward, especially after<br />
stopping (After Q short recess, they proceeded<br />
with the hearing). Some claim that in military<br />
language proceed is a recognized synonym for<br />
go, but this may be challenged. In military<br />
terminology, proceed does not so much mean<br />
go as go on; for it is assumed in military service<br />
that any given assignment will be followed by<br />
another to which one proceeds (Upon receipt<br />
<strong>of</strong> these orders, you will proceed. . .). See also<br />
precede.<br />
procession. See precession.<br />
proclaim. See declare.<br />
proclaim from the housetops. As a term for making<br />
something public knowledge, proclaim from<br />
the housetops is a cliche. It is from Matthew,<br />
10:27. The Authorized Version has what ye hear<br />
in the ear, that preach ye upon the housetops.<br />
The Revised Standard Version has what you<br />
hear whispered, proclaim upon the housetops.<br />
prodigal. See lavish.<br />
product; produce; proceeds. Produce refers especially<br />
to agricultural or natural products collectively<br />
(The farmers brought their produce to<br />
town early each Saturday morning). Product<br />
tends to mean something resulting from manufacture<br />
(Our products include textiles, plastics,<br />
and dyes. Even if you have a good product, you
pr<strong>of</strong>anity 394<br />
still have to find a market for it). Product may<br />
also be used figuratively to mean effect or result<br />
(My book is the product <strong>of</strong> several years <strong>of</strong><br />
research). Proceeds is that which results or accrues,<br />
especially the sum derived from a sale or<br />
other transaction (The entire proceeds <strong>of</strong> the<br />
bazaar will go to the Fund for Crippled Children).<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>anity. See blasphemy.<br />
ar<strong>of</strong>ess. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he pr<strong>of</strong>essed to have studied Sanskrit.<br />
It is sometimes heard with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in he pr<strong>of</strong>essed having studied Sanskrit,<br />
but this is not standard English.<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>ession; trade. The word pr<strong>of</strong>ession was formerly<br />
confined to the vocations <strong>of</strong> theology, law,<br />
and medicine, but modern usage has extended it<br />
to include almost any vocation requiring knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> some department <strong>of</strong> learning or science.<br />
Today we speak <strong>of</strong> the pr<strong>of</strong>essions <strong>of</strong> teaching,<br />
acting, architecture, and a dozen other activities.<br />
Indeed, were anyone engaged in any activity that<br />
plainly was not wholly manual to refer to his<br />
occupation as my pr<strong>of</strong>ession, the phrase would<br />
probably be accepted without any resentment or<br />
gmusement or sense <strong>of</strong> incongruity. In part this<br />
is due to the working <strong>of</strong> the principle <strong>of</strong> Gresham’s<br />
Law in titles and honorifics, b;t in part it is<br />
also due to the fact that more and more occupations<br />
today require considerable knowledge and<br />
preparation.<br />
A trade still suggests an occupation involving<br />
manual training and skill (In his youth he had<br />
learned a good trade; he was a carpenter. The<br />
building trades . . .). Trade by itself refers to<br />
the exchange <strong>of</strong> commodities, for other commodities<br />
or money. The trade refers collectively<br />
to those in the same line <strong>of</strong> business (In the<br />
trade we call it a gimmick). In trade is an English<br />
expression equivalent to the American<br />
engaged in business, though the English phrase<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten has a slight connotation <strong>of</strong> contempt<br />
wholly absent from the American expression.<br />
See also avocation, calling, business, job.<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essor. The commonest meaning <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />
in current usage is a teacher <strong>of</strong> the highest rank,<br />
usually in a particular branch <strong>of</strong> learning, in a<br />
university or college. Including associate pr<strong>of</strong>essors<br />
and assistant pr<strong>of</strong>essors (a gradation now<br />
almost universal in American colleges), more<br />
than half <strong>of</strong> any faculty is made up <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>essors.<br />
In England the term pr<strong>of</strong>essor is reserved for a<br />
very few teachers in colleges and universities who<br />
hold chairs and are <strong>of</strong> the highest rank. Formerly<br />
the term pr<strong>of</strong>essor was used humorously in<br />
America to designate piano players in taverns,<br />
bootblacks, wandering minstrels, and assorted<br />
mountebanks. More recently it has incurred odium<br />
from the reproaches <strong>of</strong> those who regard all<br />
intellectuals as subversives. And at all times it<br />
has suffered from the pretentiousness <strong>of</strong> many<br />
who have claimed it as their proper title <strong>of</strong> respect.<br />
Abashed by all this, most pr<strong>of</strong>essors prefer<br />
to be called Mister.<br />
The title Pr<strong>of</strong>essor may be abbreviated as<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>. when it stands before a full name or a last<br />
name and initials, as in Pr<strong>of</strong>. Mary CcaJkins, Pr<strong>of</strong>.<br />
M. W. Calkins. When used immediatelv before a<br />
last name it is always spelled out, as inPr<strong>of</strong>essor<br />
Calkins.<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>essor or Pr<strong>of</strong>. is not used with other titles<br />
or with letters showing academic degrees, such<br />
as Ph.D., D. Litt., LL.D.<br />
The word Pr<strong>of</strong>essor may be used without a<br />
proper name as a form <strong>of</strong> address, as in thank<br />
you, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor. It may also be used in speaking<br />
about the person, as in the pr<strong>of</strong>essor Jives on<br />
Elm Street.<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>fer, tender and <strong>of</strong>fer all mean to present for<br />
acceptance or refusal. Offer is the general word,<br />
the best <strong>of</strong> the lot, and the one most suitable for<br />
nearly all contexts. Prooer is now chiefly a literary<br />
substitute for <strong>of</strong>fer in a figurative sense (He<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>fered his heart in verses <strong>of</strong> his own composition).<br />
Tender, no longer used in reference to<br />
concrete objects, is a ceremonious term for a<br />
more or less formal or conventional act (He tendered<br />
his resignation when his party fell from<br />
power. Both bids were tendered on the same<br />
day).<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>use. See lavish; prolific.<br />
progressive tenses. Forms <strong>of</strong> the verb which refer<br />
to an action as in progress are called the progressive<br />
tenses. They are made by adding the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb to the appropriate form <strong>of</strong> to<br />
be, as in he is laughing and they had been laughing.<br />
The action can be presented as in progress<br />
in the present, the past, or the future.<br />
Until a little over a hundred years ago the<br />
progressive forms were not used in the passive<br />
voice. Instead, they were understood as having<br />
either an active or a passive meaning, depending<br />
upon the sense <strong>of</strong> the statement. That is,<br />
selling would be understood as passive in the<br />
books are now selling. A New England grammarian,<br />
writing in 1855, said that this usage “is<br />
unquestionably <strong>of</strong> far better authority, and<br />
(according to my apprehension) in far better<br />
taste, than the more complex phraseology which<br />
some late writers adopt in its stead; as, ‘The<br />
books are now being sold.“’ Today, we may<br />
still say the books are selling but we do not feel<br />
that the progressive passive form is a complex<br />
phraseology. Some contemporary grammarians<br />
say that the progressive passive cannot be used<br />
in the perfect tenses or in the future tense. But<br />
it is used in these forms and in speech more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than in writing. See passive voice and<br />
future tense.<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>emporary grammarians also say that the<br />
progressive forms should not be used in the<br />
simple tenses for verbs <strong>of</strong> perception or attitude,<br />
such as see, hear, believe, doubt, since these<br />
naturally express a continuing state <strong>of</strong> affairs.<br />
But the progressive forms <strong>of</strong>ten are used with<br />
these verbs. We say I am hearing every word<br />
and he was doubting it. (For other questions<br />
about the use <strong>of</strong> these tenses, see past tense and<br />
present tense.)<br />
prohibit. See inhibit.<br />
prolific and pr<strong>of</strong>use both suggest abundance, but<br />
they are not to be confused. Prolific means
fruitful, producing <strong>of</strong>fspring abundantly (Americans<br />
were never more prolific than in the last<br />
half <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century. Urban families<br />
used formerly to be much less prolific than<br />
rural families), producing much or abundantly<br />
(Upton Sinclair is among our most prolific<br />
writers. This act may be prolific <strong>of</strong> evil consequences).<br />
Pr<strong>of</strong>use is a passive term mfeaning<br />
poured forth, extravagant (He was pr<strong>of</strong>use in<br />
his outlays), made or done freely and abundantly<br />
(He made pr<strong>of</strong>use apologies f,or his<br />
tardiness), abundant (Such a pr<strong>of</strong>use rain <strong>of</strong><br />
invective came as a surprise. Pr<strong>of</strong>use strains <strong>of</strong><br />
unpremeditated art). See also lavish.<br />
promenade. The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> promenade is<br />
a walk taken at a leisurely pace for exercise,<br />
amusement, or display, or as a part <strong>of</strong> a social<br />
ceremony (On the day before the bullfights began,<br />
highborn seiioritas took their promenade in<br />
the square). By transference, promenade means<br />
a place for promenading (a leisurely walk along<br />
the promenade). In the United States only, promenade<br />
may also be used to describe a ball or<br />
dance in a school or college. The colloquial and<br />
commoner term is prom (He desperately wanted<br />
to go to the Junior Prom, but didn’t have the<br />
money). Promenade may also, in America, describe<br />
a march <strong>of</strong> guests into a ballroom, constituting<br />
the opening <strong>of</strong> a formal ball, or a march <strong>of</strong><br />
dancers in folk or square dancing. Promenade<br />
deck is the name for a space on an upper deck <strong>of</strong><br />
a passenger ship for the use <strong>of</strong> passengers.<br />
promote, from a Latin word meaning moved forward,<br />
advanced, means to further the growth,<br />
development, or progress <strong>of</strong> something (The<br />
welfare <strong>of</strong> the school was promoted by the P.T.A.<br />
in a dozen different ways). The word is used a<br />
great deal in America today as a synonym for<br />
advertise (The new product was promo,!ed on<br />
every billboard for forty miles around [a subtle<br />
form <strong>of</strong> promotion for advertising]). Of course<br />
advertising does promote business and there is a<br />
considerable area in which the two words are<br />
synonymous. But where it plainly means merely<br />
to make a public announcement or give information<br />
to the public concerning something with the<br />
intention <strong>of</strong> increasing sales, promote is pompous<br />
and a little tricky. It suggests that the advertising<br />
has already accomplished what it hopes to accomplish,<br />
an idea which advertising men are, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, eager to have their clients believe but<br />
which the client may resent having palmed <strong>of</strong>f<br />
on him in this way.<br />
To promote also means to advance in rank,<br />
dignity, or position (Within a year he was promoted<br />
from teller to assistant cashier). In education<br />
it means to put ahead to the next higher<br />
stage or grade <strong>of</strong> a course or series <strong>of</strong> classes<br />
(Despite his inability to read, he was promoted<br />
to the fourth grade). It has a special ‘use in<br />
reference to the organizing <strong>of</strong> financial and other<br />
undertakings (He promoted a dozen oil companies<br />
and two railroads).<br />
Promote is always to be used in the sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> furthering, making better. It does not mean<br />
simply to cause.<br />
395 pronouns<br />
prompt. See impel.<br />
prone, supine, and prostrate are all used to describe<br />
actual physical position as well as figurative<br />
condition.<br />
Prone and prostrate mean lying face downwards<br />
on one’s stomach; they also mean lying<br />
flat, at full length, without specifying the direction<br />
faced. Supine means lying face upwards on<br />
one’s back.<br />
The commonest meaning <strong>of</strong> prone is the figurative<br />
one <strong>of</strong> having a natural inclination or<br />
tendency to something, disposed, liable (He is<br />
prone to these outbursts <strong>of</strong> temper. Dostoevsky<br />
was prone to attacks <strong>of</strong> epilepsy). It is used as<br />
well, however, in its literal physical senses <strong>of</strong><br />
lying face downwards (One can fire a rifle most<br />
accurately from a prone position), prostrate, as<br />
opposed to erect (On the Acropolis is to be found<br />
many an ancient column, broken and prone), or<br />
having a downward direction or slope (From<br />
high Olympus prone her flight she bends). Of<br />
the hand, it means with the palm downward.<br />
Prostrate, although describing the same physical<br />
position <strong>of</strong> the body as prone, carries with it<br />
more <strong>of</strong> the sense <strong>of</strong> weakness, helplessness, submission.<br />
One may fall prone on purpose to escape<br />
a hail <strong>of</strong> bullets; one falls prostrate under the<br />
attack <strong>of</strong> a maddened dog. Figuratively, therefore,<br />
prostrate means overthrown, overcome,<br />
helpless (Poland was prostrate before the advancing<br />
panzer columns).<br />
Supine is most commonly used in its literal,<br />
physical sense <strong>of</strong> lying on the back with the face<br />
upwards (They buried their dead on their backs,<br />
or in a supine position). Of the hand, it means<br />
with the palm upward. In a figurative sense,<br />
supine means inactive, passive, inert, especially<br />
from indolence or indifference (Albert0 Moravia’s<br />
novel The Indifferent Ones is about supine<br />
Italians under Mussolini).<br />
In their figurative uses, prone suggests an active<br />
desire, supine a passive acceptance. Thus<br />
when William Faulkner speaks <strong>of</strong> barbers above<br />
their prone clients (These 13, 1931), he is misusing<br />
the word literally and figuratively.<br />
pronominal adjectives. Words such as all, any,<br />
both, which are used as adjectives and as pronouns,<br />
are called pronominal adjectives when<br />
they qualify nouns or noun equivalents. The possessive<br />
personal pronouns are also regarded as<br />
pronominal adjectives by many grammarians. As<br />
a rule, these words stand before other qualifying<br />
words, as any in any such outrageous, unheard<br />
<strong>of</strong>, not-to-be-put-up-with, nonsense.<br />
pronouns. Pronouns are defined as “words that<br />
are used in place <strong>of</strong> nouns.” They are function<br />
words, or grammatical devices, and are used to<br />
indicate something that would be named by a<br />
noun, without naming it. For example, such is<br />
a pronoun in <strong>of</strong> such is the kingdom <strong>of</strong> heaven.<br />
We do not know what this sentence means until<br />
we know that such is here being used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> little children. The word which a pronoun is<br />
used in place <strong>of</strong> is called its antecedent. The<br />
antecedent <strong>of</strong> a pronoun may not be mentioned,<br />
as is the case with someone in someone told
pro<strong>of</strong> 396<br />
me; and it may even be unknown, as is the case<br />
with who in who can say?. See antecedent.<br />
The difference between a pronoun and a noun<br />
is not always clear. Some pronouns, such as<br />
both, were originally adjectives, and most pronouns<br />
can be used as adjectives to qualify nouns,<br />
as can most nouns. Most pronouns do not have<br />
the three forms (singular, plural, and genitive)<br />
that are characteristic <strong>of</strong> nouns. But some do<br />
have a genitive, such as either’s, and a few have<br />
both a singular and a plural form, such as other<br />
and others. As a rule, a pronoun cannot be qualified<br />
by an adjective, but there are exceptions<br />
even to this. In any case, wherever it is impossible<br />
to say whether a given word is a pronoun or<br />
not, it makes no difference what one calls it.<br />
Pronouns may be singular or plural. Some,<br />
such as this, are singular; some, such as roe, are<br />
plural; and some, such as who, may be either<br />
singular or plural. According to the formal rules<br />
<strong>of</strong> grammar, a pronoun always has the same<br />
number as the word it represents. That is, it<br />
is sineular if the word is singular and mural if<br />
the word is plural. But in English, from the earliest<br />
times, the number <strong>of</strong> a pronoun has been determined<br />
by the meaning or intention <strong>of</strong> the<br />
speaker rather than by the grammatical form <strong>of</strong><br />
the antecedent. The number <strong>of</strong> a verb also depends<br />
upon the intention <strong>of</strong> the speaker, but not<br />
as completely as the number <strong>of</strong> a pronoun. Dr.<br />
Johnson, for example, said that he knew no instance<br />
<strong>of</strong> a nation that has preserved their words<br />
and phrases from mutability. Here the singular<br />
noun nation is followed by a singular verb has,<br />
but is referred to by the plural pronoun their because<br />
the writer was thinking <strong>of</strong> a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> people, and not <strong>of</strong> a political unit.<br />
A pronoun is also said to “agree with its<br />
antecedent in person.” In present-day English,<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the problems <strong>of</strong> “person” are taken care<br />
<strong>of</strong> under “number.” All that remains <strong>of</strong> this rule<br />
is the claim that whenever one <strong>of</strong> the three<br />
words who, which, or that, has I, me, or you,<br />
as an antecedent, it must be used with the same<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb that would be used with the<br />
antecedent. (For a fuller discussion <strong>of</strong> this, see<br />
agreement: verbs.)<br />
A few pronouns have case. That is, a few<br />
pronouns are either subjective or objective. Although<br />
the number and person <strong>of</strong> a pronoun are<br />
determined by its antecedent, the case depends<br />
upon how the pronoun itself is being used. (See<br />
subjective pronouns and objective pronouns.)<br />
Pronouns are classified partly by form, partly<br />
by meaning, and partly by use. These classes<br />
overlap to some extent and the same word may<br />
be found in more than one group. But the traditional<br />
classification does separate out problems<br />
that arise in connection with some words and<br />
not with others. (For a discussion <strong>of</strong> these<br />
problems, see personal, possessive, objective,<br />
subjective, relative, interrogative, reflexive, inteusive,<br />
and indefinite pronouns.) Two other<br />
classes <strong>of</strong> pronouns, demonstrative and reciprocal.<br />
are defined in this book but present no<br />
problems.<br />
pro<strong>of</strong>. See evidence.<br />
Pro<strong>of</strong>reader’s marks<br />
4 Insert comma<br />
$ Insert apostrophe<br />
3 Insert quotation marks<br />
@ Insert period<br />
@ Insert colon<br />
Insert semicolon<br />
j/<br />
?/ 1 nsert question mark<br />
=/<br />
Insert hyphen<br />
k One-em dash<br />
* Two-em dash<br />
Pm En dash<br />
k!*b/ Ellipsis (If preceded by a period<br />
there will be 4 dots.)<br />
4 Delete<br />
c Closze u p<br />
2 Delete an3 close up<br />
3 Reverse; upsidedan<br />
/\ Insert (caret)<br />
9 Paragraph<br />
tiq No paragraph; run in<br />
tr- Transpose (t&r,-<br />
= =<br />
9 Superscript (number specified)<br />
/\<br />
.z<br />
Subscript (number specified)<br />
=#: Insert space<br />
hr#= Hair space between letters<br />
6 Push down space<br />
[ Move to left<br />
3 Move to right<br />
IJ Lower<br />
ll Elevate<br />
X Broken letter<br />
c 5<br />
e!<br />
Ligature ( A%op)<br />
Spell out 0)<br />
Let it stand (E day)<br />
Wrc@ font<br />
Set in boldface type<br />
Set ineype<br />
!kt in * type<br />
Small cauitals<br />
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propaganda; publicity. Propaganrla is the right<br />
word for the particular doctrines or principles<br />
propagated by an organization or concerted<br />
movement. The term takes its origin from the<br />
College <strong>of</strong> Propaganda, a committee <strong>of</strong> cardinals,<br />
established in 1622 by Pope Gregory XV: having<br />
supervision <strong>of</strong> the foreign missions <strong>of</strong> the Roman<br />
Catholic Church and <strong>of</strong> the training <strong>of</strong> priests<br />
for these missions.<br />
Though in origin and history and in its special<br />
Roman Catholic sense, propaganda has no unfavorable<br />
connotations, in popular usage today<br />
it is a derogatory term. It is used to describe the<br />
efforts <strong>of</strong> those whom we regard as enemies to<br />
make their creed or policy known and accepted<br />
(Communist propaganda. Thnt’s just pi! lot <strong>of</strong><br />
propaganda). Our own attempts to win acceptance<br />
for our creed or policy are termed a crusade,<br />
a campaign <strong>of</strong> enlightenment, or, more<br />
simply and more commonly, the truth.<br />
Publicity, a more neutral term than propagunda<br />
and a more dignified one than the slang ballyhoo,<br />
describes the measures, process, or business<br />
<strong>of</strong> securing public notice, the state <strong>of</strong> being<br />
brought to public notice by announcements<br />
(aside from advertisements), by mention in the<br />
press, on radio or television, or any means serving<br />
to effect the purpose (You can’t even give<br />
money away today wzthout a publicity campaign<br />
first).<br />
propellant; propellent. Propellant is a noun only.<br />
It means a propelling agent. In military usage it<br />
designates the charge <strong>of</strong> explosive used in a cannon<br />
to make the shell travel to the targef (Gunpowder<br />
is a propellant). Propellent may be used<br />
as an adjective or a noun. As an adjective it<br />
means propelling, driving forward (Gunpowder<br />
is a propellent force). As a noun propellent<br />
means, like propellant, a propelling agent.<br />
proper. When this word means “itself” or ‘“strictly<br />
so-called,” it stands after the noun it qualifies, as<br />
in Prussia proper and the fishes proper. When<br />
the word is used in any other sense it stands before<br />
its noun, as in tlze proper study <strong>of</strong> mankind,<br />
or after a form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, either expressed<br />
or felt, as in do you think it is proper?<br />
proper nouns. Proper here has its archaic meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> “belonging to oneself.” A proper noun is<br />
the identifying name <strong>of</strong> a particular person,<br />
place, or thing, such as Rice Kemper. Mt. Vernon,<br />
the Wayside Inn. Other nouns, such :as man,<br />
farm, barn, esth, are called common nouns. They<br />
name a class <strong>of</strong> things and identifv individuals<br />
only as members <strong>of</strong> that class. Proper nou!ns, and<br />
the adjectives made from them, are always capitalized<br />
in English. When a common noun is used<br />
as a proper noun, it too may be capitaliized, as<br />
in I will ask Father. When a word that was originally<br />
a proper noun is no longer thought <strong>of</strong> in<br />
that sense, it loses its capital letter, as in watt,<br />
ampere, brussels sprouts, paris green. How soon<br />
this happens varies with different writers.<br />
Except for its capital letter, a proper noun is<br />
treated like any other noun. It may be used in<br />
the plural, as in the four Mmys. But here the<br />
plural does not mean four individuals who can<br />
be classified as Mary, in the sense in which that<br />
proponent<br />
is what is meant when we speak <strong>of</strong> the four<br />
girls. It means four persons, each <strong>of</strong> whom is<br />
individually identified as Mary-namely, Mary<br />
Seaton, Mary Beaton, Mary Carmichael, and<br />
Mary Hamilton. By extension, and speaking figuratively,<br />
we may also say a dozerz Shakespeares,<br />
meaning a dozen men who are equal to Shakespeare.<br />
A proper noun may be qualified by adjectives.<br />
We may speak <strong>of</strong> the younger Pitt. The use <strong>of</strong> a<br />
with a proper name may be felt as derogatory<br />
when applied to a human being, as in a Mr.<br />
Adams is waiting to see you. The is sometimes<br />
necessary. It is always necessary when an identifying<br />
clause is to follow, as in the Paris I am<br />
talking about is in Kentucky.<br />
Some proper names cannot be used without<br />
the. This is always true when some common<br />
noun, such as river, ocean, building, is part <strong>of</strong><br />
the true name, whether this common noun is<br />
actually used or merely understood, as in the<br />
Hudson, the Mediterranean, the Capital. In such<br />
cases the is qualifying the common noun and<br />
performing its normal grammatical function. It<br />
is not a part <strong>of</strong> the proper name and is not capitalized.<br />
The (without a capital letter) is also<br />
required before plural proper names, such as the<br />
United States, the Indies, the Alps, the Smiths.<br />
Sometimes the is made part <strong>of</strong> a title, as in<br />
The Way <strong>of</strong> All Flesh and The New York Times.<br />
When names <strong>of</strong> this sort are used in a construction<br />
that does not ordinarily allow the article<br />
the, the title The is dropped, as in Butler’s Way<br />
<strong>of</strong> All Flesh and a New York Times report.<br />
When such names are used in constructions that<br />
ordinarily require the article the, only one the<br />
is used, as in have you seen the New York Times?<br />
Here the word the is sometimes capitalized and<br />
sometimes not. It is more logical not to capitalize<br />
it, on the grounds that the grammatical the has<br />
driven out the title The, just as Butler’s and a<br />
did in the examples above. But practice varies.<br />
At present neither form can be considered<br />
wrong.<br />
prophecy and prophesy were formerly merely<br />
variant : spellings but thev are now fixed as different<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> speech. Prophecy (with a c) is a<br />
noun. It means a foretelling or prediction, originally<br />
by divine inspiration, <strong>of</strong> what is to come,<br />
a revelation, or the action, function, or faculty<br />
<strong>of</strong> a prophet (He had the gift <strong>of</strong> prophecy. And<br />
is this all your prophecy, that things will get<br />
either better or worse?). Prophesy (with an s) is<br />
the verb. As a transitive verb it means to foretell<br />
or predict (I prophesy that no good will come <strong>of</strong><br />
this), to indicate beforehand, to declare or foretell<br />
as by divine inspiration. As an intransitive<br />
verb it means to make predictions (Cassandra<br />
was one <strong>of</strong> the most unfortunate women who<br />
ever prophesied), to speak as a mediator between<br />
God and man or in God’s stead (In the reign <strong>of</strong><br />
Saul, it was Samuel who prophesied).<br />
proponent; supporter. Proponent, the opposite <strong>of</strong><br />
opponent, means one who puts forward a proposition<br />
or proposal (Thomas Ieflerson was the<br />
chief proponent <strong>of</strong> the Declaration <strong>of</strong> lndeperzdence).<br />
In law a proponeqf is one who argues in
proportion 398<br />
favor <strong>of</strong>, especially one who seeks to obtain probate<br />
<strong>of</strong> a will. By extension, and by ignorant or<br />
willful misconstruction <strong>of</strong> the strict sense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
term, proponent has come to mean one who supports<br />
a cause or doctrine, a supporter. This<br />
extension is regrettable because it blurs the distinction<br />
between proponent, an author or prime<br />
mover, and supporter, one who merely upholds,<br />
endorses, or allies himself with that which the<br />
proponent has advanced.<br />
proportion is a word which seems to invite misuse.<br />
Strictly speaking, it describes a comparative<br />
relation between things or magnitudes as to<br />
size, quantity, number, ratio (His arms were<br />
long in proportion to the rest <strong>of</strong> his body.<br />
Though he has a quarter <strong>of</strong> the votes, this is<br />
not a large enough proportion to permit him<br />
to have things his own way). By an understandable<br />
extension, proportion in the plural has<br />
come to mean dimensions (It was a canvas<br />
<strong>of</strong> large proportions). The real damage comes<br />
with the further extension to mean a portion or<br />
part without indication <strong>of</strong> its relation to a whole.<br />
If we say The picnic was attended by a proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> the higher <strong>of</strong>icers <strong>of</strong> the company, we<br />
have really said nothing. Number would have<br />
been a better word. See also part; portion; share;<br />
pr$&e; purpose. These verbs, though variant<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the same word, mean distinctly separate<br />
things. One purposes for oneself; one proposes<br />
to others. Purpose means to put before oneself<br />
as something to be done or accomplished (I purpose<br />
to finish this book within three months).<br />
Propose means to put forward a matter, subject,<br />
case for consideration, acceptance, or action (I<br />
propose that we refer the matter to a committee<br />
for study and recommended action).<br />
Propose may be followed by an infinitive, as<br />
in he proposes to go tomorrow, or by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he proposes going tomorrow.<br />
The two forms are equally acceptable. Propose<br />
may also be followed by a clause, but the<br />
clause verb must be a subjunctive or a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in he proposes he go at once.<br />
Purpose may be followed by an infinitive, but<br />
not by an -ing form or a clause.<br />
proposition; proposal; plan. Of these three words,<br />
proposition is the most specific, plan the most<br />
general. A plan is any method <strong>of</strong> thinking out<br />
acts and purposes beforehand (What are your<br />
plans for Saturday night?). A proposal is a plan,<br />
a scheme, an <strong>of</strong>fer to be accepted or rejected<br />
(The proposal <strong>of</strong> the union, to establish a retirement<br />
fund to which the company was to contribute<br />
half, was received coldly by the management.<br />
The enemy soon made proposals <strong>of</strong> peace). The<br />
word has also a special meaning in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
an <strong>of</strong>fer <strong>of</strong> marriage.<br />
A proposition is a proposal in which the terms<br />
are clearly stated and their advantageous nature<br />
emphasized. A business proposition is a much<br />
more specific, immediate, and detailed thing than<br />
a business proposal. The trouble with proposition<br />
is that it is overused and <strong>of</strong>ten misused. It is<br />
frequently substituted for the more accurate plan<br />
or proposal (Zt looks like a paying proposition),<br />
or for such words as task, affair, or matter (That’s<br />
a wholly different proposition!).<br />
In nonstandard American usage a proposition,<br />
in some contexts, means a suggestion, from a<br />
man to a woman, <strong>of</strong> illicit sexual relations. In<br />
this sense, and in this sense chiefly, the word is<br />
used as a verb (You proposition a dame like that<br />
and she’ll throw you out <strong>of</strong> the house).<br />
proprietrix is affected and proprietress umtecessary<br />
unless one wants to insist on the fact that a<br />
certain proprietor is a woman.<br />
propriety. See decorum.<br />
prosaic and prosy are closely related in meaning.<br />
Indeed, the primary sense <strong>of</strong> one is the secondary<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> the other, and vice versa.<br />
Prosaic, in its commonest contemporary sense,<br />
means commonplace or dull, matter-<strong>of</strong>-fact, unimaginative<br />
(Life in a small industrial town<br />
seems very prosaic to the sons and daughters who<br />
have been away to college). In its now less used<br />
sense, though this was its original sense, it means<br />
having the character or spirit <strong>of</strong> prose as opposed<br />
to poetry, as verse or writing (Wordsworth’s later<br />
poetry is <strong>of</strong>ten prosaic). Prosy, a word heard nowhere<br />
near so <strong>of</strong>ten, means, in its commonest<br />
contemporary sense, <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> or resembling<br />
prose (That was a pretty prosy speech for<br />
so poetic an occasion). In its less <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
sense, it means prosaic, commonplace, dull or<br />
wearisome (Daniel Deronda is an amiable monomaniac<br />
and occasionally a very prosy moralist).<br />
Some pundits would have prosaic mean commonplace<br />
and prosy mean tediously commonplace;<br />
but although the distinction might be valuable,<br />
usage does not support it.<br />
proscribe. See prescribe.<br />
prosecute. See. persecute.<br />
proselyte; proselytize. The English use proselyte<br />
as a noun only, meaning one who has come over<br />
or changed from one opinion, religious belief,<br />
sect, or the like, to another; a convert, As a verb,<br />
meaning to induce someone to make such a<br />
change, the English use proselytize. Americans<br />
prefer to use proselyte m a verb also (The older<br />
proselyting worked more slowly, perhaps more<br />
surely, but never so inclusively -Walter Lippmann).<br />
prospect, to signify what the English would call<br />
a prospective customer, must now be accepted as<br />
standard in American usage (During the Florida<br />
land boom free buses took prospects about the<br />
major cities. We start <strong>of</strong>f by sending form letters<br />
to several thousand prospects).<br />
prospective. See perspective.<br />
prospective; putative. Prospective means expected,<br />
in prospect, future (My prospective mother-inlaw<br />
arrives tomorrow). Putative means that<br />
which is supposed, reputed, or commonly regarded<br />
as such (There are some who insist that<br />
Thomas Lincoln was only Abraham Lincoln’s<br />
putative father and that his real father was John<br />
C. Calhoun).<br />
prospectus. The plural is prospectuses or prospectus,<br />
not prospecti.<br />
prostrate. See prone.
protagonist and antagonist are to be used neither<br />
as synonyms nor as antonyms.<br />
Proragonist means the leading character in a<br />
play (Mio is the protagonist in Maxwell .4nderson’s<br />
Winterset) or, by extension, any leading<br />
character or personage (Communist Chi’na appears<br />
to be the protagonist in Asian politics.<br />
Amos is the protagonist <strong>of</strong> the older prophets).<br />
The important thing to recognize about protagonist<br />
is that the prefix is proto- (first), not pro-<br />
(for). A protagonist, by definition, plays the<br />
leading part in something; it is not implied that<br />
he is in favor <strong>of</strong> what he is doing.<br />
Antagonist means one who is opposed to or<br />
strives with another in any kind <strong>of</strong> contest, an<br />
opponent, an adversary (Antagonists <strong>of</strong> the superintendent<br />
soon found that their friends and<br />
relatives were being dropped from the payroll).<br />
pro tern. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin<br />
words pro tempore and means temporarily.<br />
protest. Americans say protest ngainst but they<br />
also say protest in many contexts where the English<br />
would say protest against (A committee <strong>of</strong><br />
clergymen called on him to protest his policy on<br />
vice-Lincoln Steffens).<br />
Protestant; protestant. The word protestant, one<br />
who protests, is now almost obsolete; when anyone<br />
hears the word he assumes it to mean<br />
Protestant, one who protests specifically against<br />
Roman Catholicism. And even this meaning<br />
must be modified, for the idea <strong>of</strong> protest in<br />
Protestantism is fading and the word is generally<br />
understood to mean any Western Christian not<br />
an adherent <strong>of</strong> the Roman Catholic Church,<br />
or an adherent <strong>of</strong> any <strong>of</strong> those Christian bodies<br />
which separated from the Church <strong>of</strong> Rome at<br />
the Reformation or <strong>of</strong> any group descended<br />
from them. The term seems to have been a.pplied<br />
at first by their enemies to those German Princes<br />
who protested against the decision <strong>of</strong> the Diet<br />
<strong>of</strong> Spires, in 1529, which had denounced the<br />
Reformation.<br />
prototype means the original or first model after<br />
which something is formed, the archetype (The<br />
Iliad is the prototype <strong>of</strong> all epic poems). A prototype<br />
is unique. Therefore it is not to be misused<br />
to mean any predecessor or model (as in<br />
Auden’s elegy on Yeats has as prototypes Arnold’s<br />
Thvrsis. Shelley’s Adonais. and Milton’s<br />
Lycidas).- ’ -<br />
protozoa. This word is plural and is always used<br />
as a plural. The singular is protozoiin, or protozoum,<br />
or protozoan. All three forms are acceptable.<br />
The plural form protozoans is also<br />
acceptable, but the double plural protozoae is<br />
not.<br />
protrude. See intrude.<br />
proud parents, as a term for a wedded male and<br />
female who have begotten and delivered a child,<br />
is a cliche.<br />
prove. The past tense is proved. The participle is<br />
proven or proved. The participle proven is respectable<br />
literary English. In the United States<br />
it is used more <strong>of</strong>ten than the form proved. In<br />
Great Britain proved is used more <strong>of</strong>ten and<br />
proven sounds affected to many people.<br />
399 psychological moment<br />
Prove may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in it proved<br />
true. It may also be qualified by an adverb describing<br />
the proving, as in he quickly proved that<br />
it was true.<br />
provided; providing. Both <strong>of</strong> these words may be<br />
used as conjunctions to introduce a clause, as in<br />
he will do the work providing you pay him. Some<br />
people feel that provided is the only correct form,<br />
but the two words have been used as conjunctions<br />
for the same length <strong>of</strong> time and by equally<br />
good writers.<br />
Provided and providing can only be used to<br />
introduce a stipulation or demand which, presumably,<br />
somebody would like to see met, as in<br />
the example given above. The conjunction if, on<br />
the other hand, merely indicates that the following<br />
clause states a condition; it is immaterial<br />
whether anyone would like to see the condition<br />
fulfilled or not, as in my parents will worry if<br />
they don’t hear from me. Provided or providing<br />
should not be used loosely in place <strong>of</strong> if in a<br />
sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind.<br />
provoke. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in do not provoke him to steal. It<br />
may also be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb with the preposition ro, as in do not provoke<br />
him to stealing, but the infinitive is generally<br />
preferred. See also aggravate.<br />
proximity. Since proximity means nearness in<br />
place, time, or relation, close proximity is redundant.<br />
proximo; prox. See instant.<br />
prudent; prudential. Prudent is the word having<br />
general currency, as applied to persons or actions.<br />
He who or that which is prudent is thoughtful,<br />
sagacious, provident, careful <strong>of</strong> his own selfinterest,<br />
worldly wise, discreet, decorous (It is<br />
not prudent for us to meet thus openly where we<br />
may be seen. The prudent man looketh well to<br />
his going. The prudent students used to prepare<br />
to be teachers because teaching <strong>of</strong>fered a secure<br />
living). Prudential is a restricted term meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong>, pertaining to, or characterized by, prudence.<br />
It describes motives or considerations leading to<br />
action rather than the action itself or the person<br />
performing the action (Prudential considerations<br />
dictate that I secure a second signature to your<br />
note). Thus a prudent genius would be a genius<br />
who exercised prudence in the management <strong>of</strong><br />
his affairs, a prudential genius would be one<br />
whose genius lay solely in the art <strong>of</strong> prudence.<br />
pseudonym. See nom de plume.<br />
psychological moment. The phrase when first<br />
coined in a German newspaper in 1870 meant<br />
the psychological momentum and referred to the<br />
psychological considerations that impelled or deferred<br />
the bombardment <strong>of</strong> the then-besieged<br />
city <strong>of</strong> Paris. But the German moment (equivalent<br />
to English momentum) was mistaken in an<br />
English translation <strong>of</strong> the article for the moment<br />
<strong>of</strong> time and the phrase, which for some reason<br />
had a jocular vogue, passed into our language as<br />
meaning “in the nick <strong>of</strong> time” or “at the critical<br />
moment.” Oscar Wilde said that he knew the precise<br />
psychological moment when to say nothing.
psychology<br />
The phrase was woolly in its inception, confused<br />
in its translation, affected in its adoption,<br />
and misunderstood in its application. It is pompous,<br />
meaningless, and tedious.<br />
psychology. In an age which James Joyce has<br />
described as “jung and easily freudened,” psychology<br />
is a word thrown about knowingly by<br />
about everyone capable <strong>of</strong> articulating a foursyllabled<br />
word, though not necessarily <strong>of</strong> spelling<br />
it. Basically it means the science <strong>of</strong> mind, or<br />
<strong>of</strong> mental states or processes, the science <strong>of</strong><br />
human nature (Burton’s observations, though<br />
shrewd, remained fruitless for lack <strong>of</strong> a cob’rdinating<br />
psychology; he saw human nature clearly,<br />
but he had no system to which to relate the<br />
disparate facts he so assiduously collected). More<br />
generally, it means the science <strong>of</strong> human and<br />
animal behavior.<br />
In common parlance psychology means the<br />
mental states and processes <strong>of</strong> a person or <strong>of</strong> a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> persons, especially as determining action<br />
(To understand Hemingwny’s The Sun Also<br />
Rises, one must have some understanding <strong>of</strong> the<br />
psychology <strong>of</strong> the postwar expatriate).<br />
The word is used a great deal in everyday<br />
American speech to mean shrewdness, cleverness,<br />
or an understanding <strong>of</strong> human nature (She<br />
certainly shows psychology in dealing with those<br />
children, making them think they want to do<br />
their lessons. That was real psychology, taking<br />
out all the dimes and leaving only quarters in the<br />
saucer). This is <strong>of</strong>ten merely an ellipsis for a<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> psychology, but it is pretentious<br />
and usually vague.<br />
psychosis. The plural is psychoses or psychosises.<br />
publicity. See propaganda.<br />
publish. Although the commonest contemporary<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> publish is to issue, or to cause to<br />
be issued, in copies made by printing or other<br />
processes, for sale or distribution, as a book,<br />
periodical, or the like, the word has a different,<br />
or at least a severely restricted meaning in legal<br />
terminology. In the law <strong>of</strong> defamation, to publish<br />
a defamatory statement is to communicate<br />
it, in some form, to a person or persons other<br />
than the nerson defamed. A libel is published if<br />
it is merely repeated or written in-a letter. In<br />
England, where the laws <strong>of</strong> libel are very severe,<br />
librarians are subject to prosecution for libel if<br />
they even permit a book which has been the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> conviction for obscene libel to be<br />
consulted. The law has held that the mere showing<br />
<strong>of</strong> a book, by one individual to another,<br />
constitutes publishing. See also allege.<br />
puerile. See infantile.<br />
pugnacious. See bellicose.<br />
pull, in the figurative sense <strong>of</strong> influence, as with<br />
persons able to grant favors (You got to have<br />
pull to get those jobs), is not standard.<br />
pull chestnuts out <strong>of</strong> the fire. To say <strong>of</strong> those who<br />
take risks from which other men pr<strong>of</strong>it that they<br />
are pulling the chestnuts out <strong>of</strong> the fire is to em-<br />
~103 a worn-out metaphor.<br />
The nhrase derives from an old story <strong>of</strong> a<br />
monkey that persuaded a cat to pull a chestnut<br />
out <strong>of</strong> the fire for him. The cat got a burned paw<br />
and the monkey enjoyed the chestnut. From the<br />
same story comes also the word catspaw as a<br />
term for one who is used by another to serve his<br />
purposes. In the older versions <strong>of</strong> the fable it was<br />
a puppy that was persuaded to take the fruitless<br />
risk and this is so much more suitable that it is<br />
believed that cat is simply a misunderstanding or<br />
mistranslation <strong>of</strong> the Latin catellus, puppy.<br />
pull one’s weight, a term from rowing, is a clich6.<br />
One hears it more <strong>of</strong>ten in the negative, as a<br />
reproach, than in the positive. It is said <strong>of</strong> soand-so<br />
that he is not pulling his weight, that is,<br />
not doing a fair share <strong>of</strong> work in return for whatever<br />
pay or reward he is receiving.<br />
pull the strings. As a term from puppetry, meaning<br />
to control affairs by moving others as if they<br />
were marionettes, pull the strings is now hackneyed.<br />
Sometimes it was pull the wires, but a wirepuller<br />
in America today is not so much a master<br />
behind the scenes, manipulating others, as one<br />
who uses political influence or the like to win<br />
an advantage. The original metaphor from puppetry<br />
may have gotten confused with the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
mechanical bell wires or other wires that transmit<br />
physical power and control machinery.<br />
pummel. See pommel.<br />
pun; paronomasia; assonance. A pun is a play on<br />
words, the use <strong>of</strong> a word in two different applications,<br />
or the use <strong>of</strong> two different words which<br />
are pronounced alike, in such a way as to present<br />
an incongruous idea and excite our sense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ludicrous. A good pun can be very witty. That is,<br />
under the incongruity there can be a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> some deeper truth that usually goes unspoken;<br />
or that which is absurd by itself may have great<br />
wisdom, <strong>of</strong>ten bitter wisdom, when juxtaposed<br />
to the original statement. Puns were formerly<br />
used seriously, <strong>of</strong>ten to give a wry touch <strong>of</strong> bitterness<br />
or irony. Thus when the mad Lear says<br />
to the blinded Gloucester, you see how this<br />
world goes, Gloucester answers I see it feelingly<br />
and the word play heightens the horror. Mercutio’s<br />
dying Ask for me tomorrow and you shall<br />
find me a grave man is in keeping with his character<br />
and its gaiety intensifies the tragedy <strong>of</strong> his<br />
death. With us, however, puns are now used<br />
solely for humor and hence they are excluded,<br />
by contemporary taste, from serious expression.<br />
This is a loss, but custom in such matters must<br />
be heeded. The witty will always take their<br />
chances, but they are dangerous chances, for<br />
there is a widespread vulgar belief that a pun is<br />
“the lowest form <strong>of</strong> humor” and the successful<br />
punster (the very term is pejorative) runs the risk<br />
<strong>of</strong> being thought not only inept but laboredly<br />
dull.<br />
Paronomasia is used so <strong>of</strong>ten as a synonym<br />
for punning that it must be so accepted. In its<br />
strictest sense, however, it means the use <strong>of</strong><br />
words that are not quite alike, though very near<br />
it, in sound. The intention is not humor but emphasis<br />
(To begirt the almighty throne/ Beseeching<br />
or besieging) or antithesis.<br />
Assonance is merely resemblance in sound.<br />
The careful writer will avoid accidental asso-
nances, since they compel the reader to look for<br />
a contrast or an antithesis (or call special attention<br />
where no emphasis is intended) and hence<br />
distort the thought and annoy the reader,, Thus<br />
one might say Before delivering his address the<br />
governor ate a peach. But to say, Before his<br />
speech he ate a peach is to introduce an unintended<br />
levity and to mar the passage with an<br />
unwanted jingle.<br />
punch in both England and America has the basic<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> a thrusting blow, especially with the<br />
fist (I’ll give you a punch in the jaw if you don’t<br />
shut up). In a figurative sense, punch is a. slang<br />
term, originating in the United States and used<br />
chiefly here, meaning a vigorous, telling effect<br />
or force (He speaks well, is informed, lucid, and<br />
reasonable, but his delivery lacks punch). As a<br />
transitive verb, punch has the special sense in the<br />
western United States <strong>of</strong> to drive cattle (As soon<br />
4s the ranchers began to string fences, fewer<br />
cowhands were needed to punch cattle).<br />
The drink punch is, by the way, a wholly different<br />
word.<br />
punctilious. See meticulous.<br />
punctuation. In a publishing house, a great many<br />
people work on the same book and some <strong>of</strong> them<br />
work on a great many books at the same: time.<br />
This would not be possible if certain details<br />
had not been worked out in advance and accepted<br />
by everybody. Punctuation is one <strong>of</strong> these<br />
details.<br />
Every publisher must have a system <strong>of</strong> punctuation,<br />
but no publisher thinks that his system<br />
is the only right one. He knows, for example,<br />
that people in the writing trades disagree fiercely<br />
over the use <strong>of</strong> the comma in a series. But there<br />
is no way to compromise. One can’t use half a<br />
comma. And one can’t have half <strong>of</strong> the staff putting<br />
it in and the other half taking it out. So rules<br />
are laid down. No two publishers lay down exactly<br />
the same rules. This is partly because different<br />
rules are applicable to different kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
material, and a style manual is likely to reflect<br />
the kind <strong>of</strong> material on hand at the time it was<br />
set up. The style manual <strong>of</strong> the Government<br />
Printing Office, for example, was designed for<br />
governmentese and would be inapplicable in a<br />
literary publication.<br />
The information on punctuation given in this<br />
dictionary is satisfactory for any type <strong>of</strong> writing.<br />
However, in anything that is published, the<br />
punctuation will certainly be changed in some<br />
details by the publisher. A writer should nlot feel<br />
apologetic about this. (For detailed information<br />
on punctuation, see apostrophe, asterisk, brackets,<br />
capitalization, colon, commas, dash, ellipsis<br />
marks, exclamation point, hyphens, parenthesis,<br />
period, question mark, quotation marks, semicolon.<br />
)<br />
pnnctuation at the beginning <strong>of</strong> a line. Except for<br />
quotation marks, brackets or parentheslas, no<br />
mark <strong>of</strong> punctuation ever appears at the beginning<br />
<strong>of</strong> a line.<br />
pupil; student; scholar. A pupil is one who is<br />
under the close supervision <strong>of</strong> a teacher, either<br />
because <strong>of</strong> his youth or because <strong>of</strong> specialization<br />
401 pure<br />
in some branch <strong>of</strong> study. In England pupil is<br />
used to describe one in school, which means up<br />
through public schools such as Eton or Harrow,<br />
or through the secondary schools, equivalent to<br />
the American high schools. In America pupil is<br />
now usually restricted to one who is in an elementary<br />
school. Those called pupils regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> age because <strong>of</strong> their specialization in some<br />
branch <strong>of</strong> study are designated by the subject<br />
they are studying, as art pupils, music pupils, etc.<br />
Str&nt describes one attending a higher institution<br />
<strong>of</strong> learning (He was a student at Oxford,<br />
where he was a pupil <strong>of</strong> Pr<strong>of</strong>essor David Nichol<br />
Smith). In America student also describes one<br />
who devotes much attention to a particular problem<br />
(I have been a student <strong>of</strong> Western European<br />
politics ever since I visited France in 1944).<br />
Sc1rolar in former times was a synonym <strong>of</strong><br />
pupil (A diller, a dollar, a ten o’clock scholar),<br />
but it also meant one devoted to learning, a man<br />
<strong>of</strong> learning and erudition (He was a scholar, and<br />
a ripe and good one;/ Exceeding wise, fairspoken,<br />
and persuading) and this is the word’s<br />
commonest contemporary meaning. It has also<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> one who through merit is granted<br />
money or other aid to pursue his studies (One <strong>of</strong><br />
the scholars always spoke the responses to the<br />
grace), though this meaning is more <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
in England than in America, where the word is<br />
rarely used in this sense unless preceded by a<br />
particularizing designation, as Rhodes Scholar,<br />
Lowell Scholar, etc.<br />
pnppet; marionette. Puppet is the more inclusive<br />
term. It describes a doll, or an artificial figure<br />
with jointed limbs moved by wires as on a<br />
miniature stage, or a person whose actions are<br />
prompted and controlled by another as a puppet<br />
is controlled by a showman. A marionette is a<br />
puppet in the second <strong>of</strong> these three senses only,<br />
a puppet moved by strings or the hands, as on a<br />
mimic stage.<br />
purchase and buy both mean to obtain or acquire<br />
property or goods for a price. Buy is the common<br />
and informal word applying to any such<br />
transaction (On the way to work he stopped to<br />
buy a paper at the corner newsstand). Purchase,<br />
which formerly meant to take by violence, to<br />
seize by force or bold fraud, to capture, is now<br />
simply a formal synonym for buy. It may connote<br />
buying on a larger scale or in a more expensive<br />
store (He purchased the estate from the<br />
last member <strong>of</strong> the old family. I purchase my<br />
hats in Bond Street). Buy is usual!y the better<br />
word: purchase as a synonym in most contexts is<br />
a genteelism.<br />
pure; mere. In one <strong>of</strong> its senses, pure means “mere,”<br />
that is, being that and nothing else (It is pure<br />
nonsense to talk <strong>of</strong> compromise under such circumstances).<br />
However, one has to be careful not<br />
to introduce an ambiguity by such use. One may<br />
mean mere politics when he says pure politics,<br />
but there may also be the interpretation that the<br />
politics is free <strong>of</strong> corruption. In such cases, mere<br />
is the preferable word.<br />
pure and simple. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that something<br />
is plain and obvious, unadulterated, that
purebred 402<br />
which it is and clearly nothing else, pure and<br />
simple is a cliche.<br />
purebred. See thoroughbred.<br />
purist. By a purist we mean a person who is more<br />
concerned about the formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar<br />
than most people are, a person who has an exaggerated<br />
respect for grammatical niceties. He is<br />
usually also concerned with the “proper” pronunciation<br />
<strong>of</strong> words and holds rather rigidly to<br />
the conviction that where there are variants one<br />
is <strong>of</strong> necessity the best and that to employ any<br />
<strong>of</strong> the others is wrong.<br />
As in moral matters-to which his attitude is<br />
remarkably akin-there is in the purist who<br />
seeks (and usually thinks he has found) excellence<br />
a touch <strong>of</strong> the pharisaical. He thanks God<br />
and the lexicographers that he does not speak as<br />
other men and is continually moved with militant<br />
zeal to ask others why they do not speak as<br />
he does. This has led lesser men to use the term<br />
purist as a reproach. But this is unjustified, for<br />
the careful craftsman should be admired, whether<br />
he is formulating grammar-school English or<br />
building a ship in a bottle.<br />
To be a purist one must have a thorough understanding<br />
<strong>of</strong> English grammar-and it is curious<br />
that <strong>of</strong> those who have a thorough knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> English grammar few if any are purists. Most<br />
<strong>of</strong> those who pose as purists have very little<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> English or any other grammar.<br />
They seem to think that “pure” English consists<br />
<strong>of</strong> avoiding a dozen or so phrases or pronunciations<br />
which they consider wrong. In other words,<br />
they are merely opinionated.<br />
The true purist is informed. He follows general<br />
principles and is consistent in his criticism.<br />
If he objects to who are you looking for? he will<br />
also object to whom shall I say is calling? since<br />
both sentences violate the Latin rules <strong>of</strong> case. If<br />
he objects to a more unique situation, he will not<br />
accept a more equal distribution, since equal is<br />
just as much an absolute as unique.<br />
It would be refreshing to meet a true purist.<br />
Puritan; puritan. Puritan is an ecclesiastical term<br />
to describe one <strong>of</strong> a class <strong>of</strong> Protestants which<br />
arose in the sixteenth century within the Church<br />
<strong>of</strong> England, demanding further reforms in doctrine<br />
and worship, and greater strictness in religious<br />
discipline, and during part <strong>of</strong> the seventeenth<br />
century constituting a powerful political<br />
party (In Cromwell’s day England had to choose<br />
between Puritan and Cavalier). A puritan is one<br />
who affects great purity or strictness <strong>of</strong> life and<br />
religious principles. In worldly circles it tends to<br />
be a derogatory term (Zf she weren’t such a puritan<br />
she would get a lot more fun out <strong>of</strong> sorority<br />
life).<br />
purloin. See steal.<br />
purport. As a verb purport means to pr<strong>of</strong>ess or<br />
claim, as by the tenor (This letter purports to be<br />
from Edgar), to convey to the mind as the meaning<br />
or thing intended, to express, or to imply.<br />
Purport cannot be used in the passive, since its<br />
significance is already passive--standing for, “is<br />
supposed, is represented to be.” Also the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> purport may not be a person; it must be a<br />
thing or a person considered as a phenomenon<br />
(This invasion purports to be a diversion, but<br />
there is reason to believe that it may be the real<br />
thing).<br />
Either as a verb or a noun, purport in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> purpose is rare, though the noun is<br />
used in England, more <strong>of</strong>ten than in the United<br />
States. See also pretend; affect; etc.<br />
purpose (verb). See propose.<br />
purse. See pocketbook.<br />
pushcart. An American pushcart, a light cart to<br />
be pushed by hand, would be called in England<br />
a barrow, a word which Americans keep, in common<br />
use, only in the combination wheelbarrow.<br />
To the English pushcart means a perambulator<br />
or baby carriage.<br />
put. The past tense is put. The participle is also<br />
put. Put 08 may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in he put <strong>of</strong>l going, but not by an infinitive.<br />
He put <strong>of</strong>f to go is not standard English.<br />
put all one’s eggs in one basket. As a warning<br />
against concentrating all one’s efforts on an uncertain<br />
hope, or risking all on one venture, the<br />
adjuration not to put all one’s eggs in one basket<br />
is threadbare. The expression has been in use for<br />
almost three centuries and its original homely<br />
force has been weakened by repetition. Like<br />
many cliches, however, it provides a solid assurance<br />
<strong>of</strong> common knowledge <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> which one<br />
may bounce an epigram or stroke <strong>of</strong> wit, such<br />
as Pudd’nhead Wilson’s Put all vour eaes in one<br />
basket and WATCH THAT BASKET& a slogan<br />
<strong>of</strong> many Community Chest drives: Put all<br />
your begs in one ask it.<br />
put a spoke in someone’s wheel. As a term for<br />
thwarting someone, definitely checking his progress,<br />
to put a spoke in his wheel is now worn<br />
out.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> the expression is obscure. Since<br />
the only known English meaning <strong>of</strong> spoke that<br />
is at all relevant is one <strong>of</strong> the bars, rods, or rungs,<br />
radiating from the hub or nave <strong>of</strong> a wheel and<br />
supporting the rim or felloe, and since this belongs<br />
in a wheel, the phrase has at least a certain<br />
ambiguity. The Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong> suggests<br />
that it is a mistranslation <strong>of</strong> a Dutch phrase<br />
in which spaak (a bar or stave) is used. Burton<br />
Stevenson, in his The Home Book <strong>of</strong> Proverbs,<br />
Maxims and Familiar Phrases, quotes two instances<br />
from nineteenth century books about the<br />
sea that show that among sailors the phrase<br />
meant to say something to a man’s advantage,<br />
almost the opposite <strong>of</strong> what it meant to a landsman.<br />
put back the clock. Used figuratively, especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who would rescind some reform and revert<br />
to a former practice, to put back the clock is<br />
now a cliche.<br />
put one’s foot down. In the figurative sense (presumably)<br />
<strong>of</strong> stamping to emphasize a determined<br />
opposition to someone else’s actions or plans,<br />
put one’s foot down is hackneyed.<br />
put one’s shoulder to the wheel. Used figuratively,<br />
from the strenuous assistance men <strong>of</strong>ten formerly<br />
had to give to a mired vehicle or one unable<br />
to move up a steep gradient, the term puf
403 queer<br />
one’s shoulder to the wheel has now become a<br />
cliche.<br />
I’m up, yes: hut all I can do is putter around the<br />
house. He liked to putter around the garden,<br />
putative. See prospective.<br />
though he hardly knew a dahlia from a daisy).<br />
putter and potter both mean to busy or occupy The English use potter and regard putter as dia-<br />
oneself in an ineffective manner, to move or go lectal. Americans use putter and regard potter as<br />
about with ineffective action or little energy or literary or elegant.<br />
purpose, to move or go slowly or aimlessly (Oh, puzzle. See riddle.<br />
quadroon. See mulatto.<br />
qnalnt; queer. That is qzzaint which is strange or<br />
odd in an interesting, pleasing, amusing, or<br />
picturesque way (It was a quaint place, with<br />
its main street, no more than a pathway or a<br />
series <strong>of</strong> steps, leading down to the sea), or<br />
having an old-fashioned attractiveness (“God<br />
keep you!” It was a quaint farewell and moved<br />
us unexpectedly. . . . then worms shall’ try/<br />
That long preserved virginity,/ And your qzcaint<br />
honor turn to dust,/ And into ashes all my<br />
lust). That is queer which is odd in a strange<br />
or singular way, that makes us uneasy, that is<br />
at least slightly repellent (“Good night. I hope<br />
we never meet again!” That was a queer thing<br />
to have said!).<br />
Quaint should not be used, however, when<br />
odd alone or amusing alone will suffice. See also<br />
funny; odd.<br />
qnallfy. The basic meaning <strong>of</strong> qualify is to give<br />
or attribute qualities to. It is used as a grammatical<br />
term in the sense <strong>of</strong> to limit the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong>. That is, a qualifying word names a quality<br />
which must be present before a particular .statement<br />
is applicable, and so reduces or limits the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> things in the universe that the .statement<br />
applies to. The “meaning” <strong>of</strong> a word, in<br />
this sense, is “what the word signifies,” that is,<br />
all that it can be applied to or all that it names.<br />
For example, blue limits the meaning <strong>of</strong> dress<br />
in a blue dress, since there are more dresses in<br />
the world than there are blue dresses. Similarly,<br />
dark limits the meaning <strong>of</strong> blue in a dark blue<br />
dress, since there are more blues than there are<br />
dark blues. And yesterday limits the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> I thought so in I thought so yesterday. A<br />
word that qualifies a noun or pronoun is called<br />
an adjective. A word that qualities any other<br />
part <strong>of</strong> speech, such as a verb, an adjective, or<br />
an adverb, is an adverb. A group <strong>of</strong> words may<br />
also function as an adjective or as an adverb<br />
and so qualify other words.<br />
The word modify is used by grammarians<br />
in the same sense as qualify. Some prefer one<br />
term and some the other.<br />
In general English, the word qualify may be<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in the studies qualified<br />
him to teach, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
introduced by the preposition for, as in they<br />
Q<br />
qualify him for teaching. The -ing form is<br />
generally preferred when qztalify is used in an<br />
active sense, and the infinitive when qualify is<br />
used as a passive, as in he is qualified to teach.<br />
quandary. See predicament.<br />
quantity; number. A quantity <strong>of</strong> something is a<br />
particular, indefinite, or considerable amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> it (A small quantity <strong>of</strong> water lay in depressions<br />
in the rock). A number designates separaable<br />
units that could be counted (My grandfather<br />
bought such a quantity <strong>of</strong> lead and<br />
powder that even yet a nzzmber <strong>of</strong> his homemade<br />
cartridges lie in ozzr attic). Quantity<br />
applies to bulk, extent, and size; number<br />
applies to individual units. See also amount.<br />
quantum. The plural is quanta.<br />
quarrelsome. See bellicose.<br />
quarter. The fraction one quarter is treated like<br />
the regular fraction words. (See fractions.) Unlike<br />
the word half, the word quarter cannot be<br />
used without a preceding one or a. We say a<br />
quarter <strong>of</strong> the men or one quarter <strong>of</strong> the men<br />
but not qztarter <strong>of</strong> the nzen. The only exception<br />
is in expressions <strong>of</strong> time, as in at quarter past<br />
five. Some grammarians claim that this is not<br />
permissible and that a quarter must be used<br />
even here. But in the United States quarter is<br />
treated like half in expressions <strong>of</strong> time and the<br />
form without a is generally acceptable.<br />
quarters. Only the plural form is used to mean a<br />
place to live. It is treated as a plural and used<br />
with a plural verb, as in these qzrarters are<br />
comfortable, but the word cannot be used in<br />
this sense with a word implying number.<br />
quay; key; cay. Quuy designates an artificial landing<br />
place built along navigable water for vessels<br />
loading or unloading cargo (See there she<br />
stands and waves her hand upon the quay,/<br />
And every day when I’m away, she’ll wait for<br />
me.)<br />
Key or cay designate a low island near the<br />
coast (Columbus discovered no isle or key so<br />
lonely as himself ), especially any one <strong>of</strong> an<br />
extensive chain <strong>of</strong> low islands which, starting<br />
from north <strong>of</strong> Cape Florida, form an immense<br />
crescent as far west as the Tortugas, the Florida<br />
Keys.<br />
queen; quean. See housewife.<br />
queer. See odd, funny, quaint.
queer 404<br />
queer fish. From our anthropocentric point <strong>of</strong><br />
view, fish are queer indeed, and the more one<br />
thinks <strong>of</strong> them the queerer they and all other<br />
things become. But, nonetheless, to call a<br />
strange or peculiar or puzzling man (I queer<br />
fish is to employ a cliche. Fish remain queer<br />
but the phrase does not.<br />
query; inquiry. A query is a question, but it is a<br />
specific and limited question (I had a query<br />
today about those cedar posts). It is sometimes<br />
synonymous with doubt, but here, again, it is<br />
a doubt that questions some specific point (It<br />
seemed plausible, but there remained a query<br />
in the sheriff’s mind: three shots had been fired<br />
but there were only two bullets missing from<br />
the gun). Inquiry or enquiry may also be a<br />
synonym for question (Address your inquiry to<br />
the young lady at the desk, please), but it can<br />
also mean, as query cannot, an extensive investigation<br />
(The inquiry drugged on for two<br />
weeks). See also enquiry; inquiry.<br />
question. See inquire.<br />
question mark. The main uses <strong>of</strong> the question<br />
mark are:<br />
1. To indicate the end <strong>of</strong> a direct question,<br />
as in Do you think it will rain? It is not used<br />
after an indirect question, as in He wondered<br />
if it would rain.<br />
2. To show that a statement is approximate<br />
or in question, especially with dates,<br />
ZIS in Robert Southwell 1561?-159.5 or Robert<br />
Southwell 1561 (?)-1595.<br />
3. After a request, but only if a formal style<br />
is desired, as in Will you please let me know<br />
immediately if this is agreeable to you? If an<br />
informal style is desired, the request should<br />
end with a period.<br />
4. To express more than one question in the<br />
same sentence, as in Can John make it? or Joe?<br />
or anyone here?<br />
5. To show a direct question as part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sentence, as in Are you a man or a mouse? is<br />
the question.<br />
6. To show humor or sarcasm, as in The<br />
report said that the average weight for women<br />
<strong>of</strong> that height is 915 (?) pounds. This use should<br />
be avoided, except when the urge is irresistible.<br />
A question mark is placed inside or after the<br />
final quotation mark, depending on whether it<br />
belongs to the quoted words or to the larger<br />
sentence, as in He asked, “Which way did they<br />
PO?” .> and Why do YOU think she said, “Tea is<br />
more esthetic”. -7 -<br />
When a question ends with a quoted question,<br />
only the first question mark is used, as in Why<br />
did he ask “Why?”<br />
questions. A question is a sentence that calls for<br />
a verbal response. The fact that a sentence is<br />
a question is shown in speech by a special pitch<br />
pattern and in writing by a question mark. In<br />
addition, most questions have a characteristic<br />
word order.<br />
At one time the fact that a sentence was a<br />
question and not a statement could be shown<br />
by placing the verb before the subject, as in<br />
sow you my horses? But in modern English the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb is distinguished from the com-<br />
plement principally by its position before the<br />
verb. We resolve this conflict by keeping the<br />
subject before the meaningful part <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
and placing an auxiliary verb first, as in can YOU<br />
see?, would you have seen? For the simple<br />
tenses, which normally have no auxiliary, we<br />
create a verb phrase by using some form <strong>of</strong> do,<br />
as in did you see? Here the auxiliary do adds<br />
nothing to the meaning <strong>of</strong> the sentence. It<br />
simply allows us to begin a question with a verb<br />
without placing the subject after the verb.<br />
The verb to be is not treated in this way. It<br />
is never used with the auxiliary do and the<br />
simple tenses stand before the subject in a<br />
question, as in were you there?, is he ready?<br />
The verb have may also be used in this way,<br />
as in have you a match? and had you a match?;<br />
or with the auxiliary verb do, as in do you have<br />
a match? and did you have a match? Thirty<br />
years ago the form without do was considered<br />
more elegant. Today the two forms are equally<br />
acceptable in the present tense, and the form<br />
with do is preferred in the past. The old word<br />
order is also heard in how goes it? and in<br />
sentences beginning with how come. (See<br />
come.) But with these exceptions a simple tense<br />
form placed before the subject is now archaic<br />
or artificial.<br />
In a negative question, the word not usually<br />
stands before the subject, as in don’t you see?,<br />
weren’t you there?<br />
Questions may also be formed by interrogative<br />
words, such as who, which, what, when,<br />
where, how. The interrogative word is always<br />
the first word in the sentence or clause. If it is<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb or if it is an adjective<br />
qualifying the subject, the subject precedes the<br />
verb, as in who is there? and what child is this?<br />
Otherwise, the subject and verb stand in the<br />
order described above, as in what did he say?<br />
and where is he now?<br />
A short question may have the form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
declarative sentence, such as you were there?,<br />
or the form <strong>of</strong> an imperative, such as go now?<br />
A question may also be formed by adding an<br />
interrogative to a declarative sentence, as in<br />
you were there, weren’t you? and you weren’t<br />
there, were you? In questions <strong>of</strong> this kind, the<br />
declarative clause expresses what the speaker<br />
believes to be true and the interrogative is<br />
negative if an affirmative answer is expected<br />
and affirmative if a negative is expected. When<br />
both parts <strong>of</strong> the sentence are affirmative, as in<br />
you were there, were YOU?, it carries an implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> surprise or disbelief.<br />
When a question is reported indirectly (that<br />
is, when the substance is given but not the<br />
exact words) the subject precedes the verb as in<br />
a declarative sentence, the clause is introduced<br />
by an interrogative word, and is not followed<br />
by a question mark, as in I wonder whether<br />
she will come and I asked him whnt he was<br />
doing. In current English, statements <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind sometimes use the interrogative word order<br />
and omit the interrogative word, as in I wonder<br />
will she come and I asked him what was he<br />
doing. This construction is not traditional liter-
ary English, but it is acceptable to most people<br />
today. See clauses.<br />
An indirect question may also follow verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> saying or knowing, as in he told me when<br />
he would come and I know what he is doing.<br />
After verbs <strong>of</strong> this kind the interrogative word<br />
order is never used. (For the tense <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
in a subordinate clause, see tense shifts.)<br />
quick as a flash (<strong>of</strong> lightning) is a cliche.<br />
quick; living. Rapid motion and vitality seem inseparable<br />
in our minds-as evinced by srep<br />
lively, please; a lively jig, and so on. Quick<br />
formerly meant living (My quick child thou<br />
hast stolen, and this dead bairn laid by me)<br />
and this meaning survives in the archaic phrase<br />
the quick and the dead and is current to ‘designate<br />
the tender flesh beneath the nails (He<br />
pared his nails to the quick) and in the description<br />
<strong>of</strong> a hedge composed <strong>of</strong> live plants as a<br />
quick hedge. But aside from these vestiges, it<br />
is now obsolete in its older sense and any<br />
attempt to revive it is something <strong>of</strong> an affectation.<br />
quiet; quiescent. Although quiet and quiescent<br />
are in most uses synonymous, meaning being in<br />
a state <strong>of</strong> rest or inactivity, usage <strong>of</strong>ten gives<br />
quiescent a suggestion <strong>of</strong> only temporary inactivity<br />
(Quiescent as he now sat, there was<br />
something about his nostril, his mouth!, his<br />
brow, which, to my perceptions, indicated elements<br />
within either restless, or hard, or eager).<br />
Then quiet has a number <strong>of</strong> meanings, such<br />
as silent, free from bustle, not glaring or showy,<br />
for which quiescent is not a synonym (sounds<br />
that break the quiet <strong>of</strong> the night, a quiet cup<br />
<strong>of</strong> tea, quiet draperies and light blue walls).<br />
quiet; quietness; quietude. Quiet is a state <strong>of</strong><br />
being (The holy time is quiet as a Nun/ Breathless<br />
with adoration. Quiet is requested for the<br />
benefit <strong>of</strong> those who have retired). Quietness<br />
is the state <strong>of</strong> being quiet but it is also an exhibited<br />
quality (the quietness <strong>of</strong> his manners.<br />
There was a quietness to the house and the<br />
whole surrounding valley that endeared it to<br />
us). Quietude is a habit <strong>of</strong> quiet; repose, tranquility,<br />
and rest that have long endured (There<br />
broods upon this charming hamlet an old-time<br />
quietude and privacy. The quietude <strong>of</strong> our<br />
forefathers’ lives can scarcely be imagined by<br />
this restless and twitching generation).<br />
quit. The past tense is quif or quitted. The participle<br />
is also quit or quitted.<br />
Quit is the preferred form for the past tense<br />
and the participle in the United States, where<br />
the word usually means cease or stop, as .in he<br />
quit smoking. This meaning <strong>of</strong> the word, and<br />
also the form quit, are survivals from older<br />
English but are no longer heard in Great<br />
Britain, where they are considered Americanisms.<br />
In Great Britain quitted is the only form<br />
used in the past tense or the participle, and the<br />
word commonly means leave or depart from,<br />
as in he quitted Paris after a week.<br />
The verb acquit has the regular form acquitted<br />
for the past tense and the participle.<br />
When quit is used to mean acquit, as it sometimes<br />
is in legal or archaic English (Now, quit<br />
405 quotation marks<br />
yourselves like men!), it too is regular and takes<br />
the past form quitted. See also stop.<br />
quite means completely, wholly, entirely (She has<br />
not been quite the same since Andrew died),<br />
actually, really, or truly (Payment yes, but payment<br />
in gold, that’s quite another matter).<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> quite as a monosyllable <strong>of</strong> assent<br />
(You understand the instructions? Quite!) is<br />
common in England but little used in America<br />
except in humorous imitation <strong>of</strong> English speech.<br />
The addicted would do well to consult Fowler<br />
and make sure when they mean quite and when<br />
quite so.<br />
quite all right. Since quite means wholly or entirely<br />
and all means the whole <strong>of</strong>, quite all right<br />
is redundant. And it is the more absurd when<br />
we reflect that it is commonly used when things<br />
are not all right, when we wish to minimize<br />
something that is wrong. It cannot be too <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
repeated, however, that grammar is not logical.<br />
Words and expressions are what usage makes<br />
them and quite all right has become an accepted<br />
way <strong>of</strong> saying “Things are really pretty bad<br />
with me, but I am brave and can endure, and<br />
will not gratify the malice that shows plainly<br />
under the veneer <strong>of</strong> the assumed interest <strong>of</strong> your<br />
inquiry as to my welfare, by admitting the<br />
grievous nature <strong>of</strong> my plight.”<br />
qui vive. As a term for being on the alert, on the<br />
qui vive is a cliche. Though authorities agree<br />
that the French part <strong>of</strong> the phrase is a sentry’s<br />
challenge, and the phrase as a whole means to<br />
be on the lookout like a watchful sentry, there<br />
is a difference <strong>of</strong> opinion as to the exact meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> qui vive. Some think it is a corruption 01<br />
qui va la? “Who goes there?” Others think it<br />
is qui vive? “Live who?“-a question to bc<br />
answered by Vive le roi! or some other assertion<br />
<strong>of</strong> loyalty.<br />
quiz. In American usage to quiz is to question,<br />
to interrogate. A quiz is an informal examination.<br />
A quiz section, in American colleges, is a<br />
small group, usually drawn from a large class,<br />
that meets with an instructor to discuss the work<br />
<strong>of</strong> the class more informally than the lecture<br />
meetings permit. In English usage to quiz is to<br />
banter or make fun <strong>of</strong> by asking ludicrous<br />
questions or to look inquisitively at. This last<br />
meaning is retained in quizzical in American<br />
usage, but lost in quiz itself. A quiz in English<br />
usage (according to Horwill) is a person given<br />
to such banter.<br />
quoits. When referring to the game, the plural<br />
word quoits takes a singular verb, as in quoits<br />
is being played. The object thrown is a quoit<br />
and quoits used with a plural verb means several<br />
<strong>of</strong> these, as in the quoits are heavy.<br />
Only the singular form is used as the first<br />
element in a compound, as in quoit playing.<br />
quotation marks are used:<br />
1. To set <strong>of</strong>f quoted words from any comments<br />
or additions made by the person who is<br />
doing the quoting. This is one occasion when a<br />
writer should pay scrupulous attention to punctuation.<br />
Material enclosed in quotation marks<br />
must show precisely what was said and if there<br />
is any doubt about it, quotation marks should
not be used at all. A misquotation is unfair to<br />
both the quoted source and the reader. We may<br />
write: He said, “I will not under any circumstances<br />
run for <strong>of</strong>ice!” or He said he would not<br />
run for o&e. If The quotation runs into several<br />
paragraphs, the quotation marks should be<br />
placed at the beginning <strong>of</strong> each paragraph but<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> only the last paragraph. If the<br />
quotation is indented and blocked <strong>of</strong>f, or is to<br />
be put into smaller type, quotation marks can<br />
be dispensed with.<br />
2. To indicate in dialogue when one character<br />
stops speaking and another begins. This may<br />
be additionally indicated by beginning a new<br />
indented line with each new speaker, as in<br />
“What do you think could be the matter?”<br />
he asked, frowning severely.<br />
“I don’t know, but it’s probably something<br />
simple.”<br />
Sometimes dialogue is written so that each paragraph<br />
begins with the identifying name <strong>of</strong> the<br />
person speaking, usually followed by a dash; in<br />
these cases, quotation marks are not needed.<br />
Also, some novelists dislike quotation marks<br />
and do not use them or any other identifying<br />
device.<br />
3. To indicate that a word or phrase is being<br />
used ironically or with a special meaning, as in<br />
Then this “ladv” took a uoke at him with her<br />
umbrella. When the words so-called perform<br />
this same function, quotation marks should not<br />
be used.<br />
4. To set <strong>of</strong>f names <strong>of</strong> books (except the<br />
Bible), dramas, operas, statuary, music, paintings,<br />
which in more formal usage would be set<br />
<strong>of</strong>f in italics, as in Have you read “Effie Briesi’?<br />
Quotation marks are not used with names <strong>of</strong><br />
ships, trains, airplanes, homes <strong>of</strong> famous people,<br />
or characters in plays or novels, as in Have you<br />
been to Mount Vernon?.<br />
There is considerable difference <strong>of</strong> opinion<br />
about the ways in which quotation marks should<br />
be combined with other punctuation marks. But,<br />
in general:<br />
1. The period and the comma are placed inside<br />
the quotation marks, as in He said, “‘I’m<br />
ready to go now.” and Although he said, “I’m<br />
ready to go now,” it was not true.<br />
2. The question mark and exclamation point<br />
rabbit; rarebit. See Welsh rabbit.<br />
Rabelaisian. The designation <strong>of</strong> wild, coarse, satiric<br />
humor, characterized by an exuberance <strong>of</strong><br />
vocabulary and extravagance <strong>of</strong> imagery, as<br />
Rabelaisian is fully justified. But to call any<br />
piece <strong>of</strong> indecency Rabelaisian is to utter a critical<br />
clich6 and display an ignorance <strong>of</strong> Rabelais.<br />
Freudian is <strong>of</strong>ten similarly misused (by Sinclair<br />
406<br />
R<br />
can come either inside or after the quotation<br />
marks, depending upon the sense <strong>of</strong> the sentence,<br />
as h He exclaimed “There she is!” He<br />
asked. “Where is she?” What a uitv he said<br />
“‘No”,; Who are these “liberal friend>‘?<br />
3. A colon or semicolon after a quotation<br />
will always be outside the quotation marks, as<br />
in “The world is too much with us”: This sentiment<br />
seems to grow truer with the years and<br />
She said, “Why, <strong>of</strong> course”; anything they desired<br />
was immediately theirs.<br />
4. Introductory words or phrases are usually<br />
set <strong>of</strong>f from the quotation by a comma, as in<br />
He said, “Let’s get going.” However, if the<br />
phrase is short the comma can be dropped, as<br />
in He said “Let’s get going.” Two commas are<br />
used if a phrase interrupts the quotation or if<br />
the quotation is in the middle <strong>of</strong> a sentence, as<br />
in “What made me say that,” he explained, “is<br />
that I never have liked that color” and He said.<br />
“I never have liked that color,” but everyone<br />
looked at him blankly.<br />
5. A quotation within a quotation is mdicated<br />
by single quotation marks within regular<br />
double quotation marks, as in Mary cried, “But<br />
then he said, ‘Why do 2 have to?“’ If a writer<br />
uses single quotation marks as his regular identifying<br />
device, he must put his inside quotations<br />
within double marks. If a further level <strong>of</strong> quotation<br />
is introduced into the sentence, the double<br />
and single marks must alternate. In general,<br />
sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind should be avoided.<br />
6. Quotation marks may be omitted when a<br />
single word is being used, as in What will you<br />
do if she says No? and Suddenly a blur whizzed<br />
by, shouting Hell<strong>of</strong> as it passed.<br />
quote. See cite.<br />
quoth. This one word is all that remains <strong>of</strong> a<br />
former verb. It has no past tense, no future<br />
tense, no -ing form, or anything else that a verb<br />
requires. It appears only in poetry, or humorous<br />
speech, and always in the inverted order, as in<br />
quoth he. It is not included in this dictionary<br />
because we think that some one might need to<br />
know these facts but simply in order to make<br />
the list <strong>of</strong> irregular verbs now found in English<br />
complete.<br />
q.v. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin words<br />
quad vide and means “which see.”<br />
Lewis, among others) as a sort <strong>of</strong> intelIectual<br />
synonym for dirty. Such words are pretentious,<br />
and if one pretends to be familiar with Rabelais<br />
or Freud one ought not, in the very use <strong>of</strong> their<br />
names, to expose the fact that one has only a<br />
remote and confused idea <strong>of</strong> what they have<br />
written.<br />
rabid. See frantie.
ack. Sue wrack.<br />
rack aud ruiu. The rack <strong>of</strong> rack and ruin is a<br />
variant <strong>of</strong> wrack, wreck, and the entire p’hrase<br />
is a clicM kept feebly alive, as so many cliches<br />
are, by alliteration.<br />
rack one’s brains. The rack upon which one<br />
racks one’s brains in an effort to remember<br />
something or to find a solution for some pressing<br />
problem was the old instrument <strong>of</strong> torture<br />
which compelled an answer by tearing the victim’s<br />
limbs from their sockets. Whoever first<br />
applied this to the agony <strong>of</strong> desperate thought<br />
created a powerful image. But its power has<br />
faded as the rack has been forgotten, and overuse<br />
has reduced a once vivid figure to pallid<br />
feebleness.<br />
racket; racketeer. Racket has acquired two slang<br />
senses in America. In the first, it means an organized<br />
illegal activity such as bootlegging o:r the<br />
extorting <strong>of</strong> money by threats or violence from<br />
legitimate businessmen (AI Capone was believed<br />
to be behind many Chicago rackets).<br />
The word is also a slang term in America for<br />
a dishonest scheme or trick (During the war his<br />
racket was blackmarketeering in butter). It is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used jocularly for legitimate business enterprises,<br />
with however a would-be worldly and<br />
cynical suggestion that there is an element <strong>of</strong><br />
dishonesty in them (I’ve been in the advertising<br />
racket for thirty years now). Such a u:re is<br />
usually tedious and can be <strong>of</strong>fensive.<br />
A racketeer is one engaged in a racket. The<br />
implications are sinister, for a racketeer regulates<br />
competitive business by illegal and violent<br />
pressures (The trouble with the New York<br />
waterfront was that racketeers had gained control<br />
<strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> the hiring). Racketeer is always<br />
strongly derogatory. A man who would jojn in<br />
the laugh when his business was referred to as<br />
a racket might yet be strongly <strong>of</strong>fended if he<br />
himself were referred to as a racketeer.<br />
Racket in this sense, by the way, derives<br />
from racket in the sense <strong>of</strong> a loud noise, especially<br />
one <strong>of</strong> a disturbing nature. English pickpockets<br />
used to make a racket <strong>of</strong> some kind<br />
(by the sudden throwing <strong>of</strong> firecrackers sometimes)<br />
in order to draw an excited crowd whose<br />
members, in their curiosity, would be heedless<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pickpockets’ activities. The word had<br />
acquired its slang meaning in England as early<br />
as 1812 where, however, it seems to have been<br />
forgotten until reimported from America.<br />
The agent suffix -er, when spelled -eer, is<br />
usually pejorative, as in pr<strong>of</strong>iteer.<br />
racket; raquet. The word for a light bat having a<br />
network <strong>of</strong> cord or catgut stretched on a more<br />
or less elliptical frame, used in such games as<br />
squash and tennis, and for a snowshoe made in<br />
the manner <strong>of</strong> such a tennis bat, is racket. The<br />
plural rackets, construed as singular, describes<br />
a game <strong>of</strong> ball, played in a walled court., in<br />
which such bats are used. Racquet, a variation<br />
formed after the French word raquette, is unacceptable<br />
to the British but is accepted as a<br />
variant by Americans. The word for i&gal<br />
activity and the word for noise is invariably<br />
racket.<br />
407 radius<br />
racy. Deriving from a word meaning root, racy<br />
in both England and America means highly individual<br />
in an attractive way, lively, spirited, piquant,<br />
pungent (H. L. Mencken’s racy style. . .).<br />
In America only, it has the additional sense <strong>of</strong><br />
suggestive, risquC (At bachelor dinners he would<br />
regale them with racy stories). The nearest<br />
English equivalent is, perhaps, salacious, but<br />
sulacious carries a connotation <strong>of</strong> stronger condemnation<br />
than racy.<br />
radiantly happy, so happy that one sends out<br />
happiness from one like glowing heat or the<br />
splendor <strong>of</strong> the sun, is threadbare.<br />
radical; Radical; revolutionary; radicle. Used as<br />
an adjective, radical (derived from the Latin<br />
radix, root) means basic, fundamental, going<br />
to the root or origin (There will have to be<br />
radical changes in the plan before it will be<br />
accepted), thoroughgoing or extreme, especially<br />
in the way <strong>of</strong> reform (Only radical measures<br />
are likely to save the nation). It also means<br />
existing inherently in a thing or person, rooted<br />
(He had radical persona&v difficulties which<br />
iea and sympathy’ alone could not eliminate).<br />
Used as a noun, radical or Radical has spe<br />
cifically political connotations. It means one who<br />
advocates fundamental and drastic political reforms,<br />
one who would make basic changes in<br />
the social order by direct and uncompromising<br />
methods. In England the term Radical was applied<br />
toward the end <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century<br />
to the left wing <strong>of</strong> the Liberal Party. In the<br />
early part <strong>of</strong> that century such Utilitarian Liberals<br />
as Bentham and James Mill called themselves<br />
Philosophical Radicals. In America, after<br />
the Civil War, Radical was the designation <strong>of</strong><br />
that wing <strong>of</strong> the Republican party which desired<br />
the complete prostration <strong>of</strong> the Southern planters<br />
and their replacement by elements faithful<br />
to the Republican Party. These radicals were<br />
what today would be called rightwing conservatives.<br />
Since World War I, especially, radical<br />
(seldom capitalized) has been used to designate<br />
one who advocates political changes intended<br />
to produce economic equality. From the standpoint<br />
<strong>of</strong> an American conservative, a radical is<br />
a disorderly, if not necessarily subversive, individual.<br />
He is seldom, or never, referred to as<br />
a revolutionary (as he would be in other countries),<br />
for revolution has in America respectable<br />
and even conservative connotations. The Daughters<br />
<strong>of</strong> the American Revolution, for example,<br />
is a strongly conservative organization and eminently<br />
respectable.<br />
Radicle is a specialized word. In botany, it<br />
means the lower part <strong>of</strong> the axis <strong>of</strong> an embryo,<br />
the primary root. In chemistry, it means an<br />
atom or group <strong>of</strong> atoms regarded as an important<br />
constituent <strong>of</strong> a molecule, which remains<br />
unchanged and behaves as a unit in many reactions.<br />
In anatomy, it means a small rootlike<br />
part, as the beginning <strong>of</strong> a nerve fiber. Except<br />
in these specialized senses, radicle is simply a<br />
misspelling <strong>of</strong> radical. And even in these senses,<br />
radical is replacing radicle as the preferred<br />
spelling (especially in chemistry).<br />
radius. The plural is radii or radiuses.
adii 408<br />
radix. The plural is radixes or radices.<br />
raft, as a colloquial term for a great quantity or<br />
a lot, especially <strong>of</strong> people (There was u raft <strong>of</strong><br />
folks crowding into town for the grand operring),<br />
is now rustic and a little archaic.<br />
rail, as short for railroad or railway, is standard<br />
American usage (Ship by rail, I find it more convenient<br />
to go by air than by rail). The objection<br />
<strong>of</strong> some English authorities to this usage is curious,<br />
since the English themselves are masters <strong>of</strong><br />
the art <strong>of</strong> reducing syllables and <strong>of</strong>ten hold up<br />
their tram and lift in triumphant comparison to<br />
the American streetcar and elevator.<br />
railroad; railway. In England railroad is seldom<br />
used. Since the beginning <strong>of</strong> the twentieth century<br />
railway has been the usual term there. In<br />
the United States railroad is the more common<br />
term, though railway also has its uses. In general,<br />
ruilroud is the term for a line for heavy<br />
traffic (The Pennsylvania Railroad), while railway<br />
describes a rail line with lighter weight<br />
equipment and roadbed (The elevated railways<br />
are being replaced by buses and subways).<br />
As a verb, railroad has certain special American<br />
senses. It may mean to transport by means<br />
<strong>of</strong> a railroad, though this is now rarely heard,<br />
being replaced almost entirely by ship in relation<br />
to goods and truvel or go in relation to<br />
persons. It may also mean to work on a railroad<br />
(My husband and my two boys railroaded out<br />
in Kunsns City for three years), though this,<br />
too, is now rare. Colloquially, to railroad is to<br />
send or push forward with great or undue speed<br />
(Jacksonions tried to railroad the Indian bill<br />
through Congress while Davy Crockett was <strong>of</strong>f<br />
on a speaking tour). As slang, but slang which<br />
is so old and so widespread that it might well<br />
be accepted as standard, railroad is to imprison<br />
on a false charge in order to be rid <strong>of</strong> (Many<br />
people believe that Tom Mooney was ruilrouded).<br />
raining cats and dogs. Swift listed the phrase<br />
ruin cuts and dogs as a cliche in 1738 (in his<br />
A complete collection <strong>of</strong> genteel and ingenious<br />
conversations) but it remains in full use among<br />
those who seek to be original in an unoriginal<br />
way. Whoever first thought <strong>of</strong> the expression to<br />
describe a torrential downpour, with its suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> snarling and yelping tumult heard in the<br />
gurgle and drumming rush and splatter <strong>of</strong> the<br />
rain, had something so felicitous in its absurdity,<br />
so consonant in the violence <strong>of</strong> its own exaggeration<br />
with the violence it described, that he<br />
immediately captured all imaginations. But it is<br />
time to seek a fresher, newer image.<br />
rain or shine, as a term for in any event, under<br />
any circumstance, positively, is hackneyed.<br />
raise. This verb means “cause to rise.” Historically,<br />
it does not mean rise even in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
dough, where we say it is raising and set it to<br />
raise. These are old passive uses <strong>of</strong> the -ing<br />
form and the infinitive, comparable to supper<br />
is cooking and wait for it to cook. Some people<br />
also say the drawbridge raised, rather than the<br />
drawbridge rose, because they are conscious <strong>of</strong><br />
the fact that &is is a passive act, something<br />
that is being done to the drawbridge. This use<br />
<strong>of</strong> an active form with passive meaning is frequent<br />
in English and is seen in such familiar<br />
sentences as the bout upset, the cup broke, the<br />
color washes well. See passive voice and transitive<br />
verbs.<br />
The same distinction holds between the nouns<br />
raise and rise. A salary increase is called a pay<br />
raise by those who feel that someone is responsible<br />
for the size <strong>of</strong> their salary. A pay rise carries<br />
the implication that these things happen <strong>of</strong><br />
themselves, like a rise in the temperature. Pay<br />
raise is the preferred form in the United States,<br />
where pay rise was unknown before the 1930%.<br />
Pay rise is the preferred form in Great Britain.<br />
(For the difference between raise and rear, see<br />
rear.)<br />
raise one’s sights. One <strong>of</strong> the commonest metaphors<br />
<strong>of</strong> college presidents and others in charge<br />
<strong>of</strong> large funds or large hopes when they seek to<br />
arouse those who beg for them to even wilder<br />
frenzies <strong>of</strong> solicitation is to say that we must<br />
raise oar sights. The metaphor, drawn from<br />
artillery, would be most unfortunate were it not<br />
that those who analyze metaphors form an inconsiderable<br />
portion <strong>of</strong> those upon whom the<br />
fund-raiser has his eye. Its nai’ve admission that<br />
the donor is something to be shot down and<br />
the fund-raiser one who carefully adjusts his<br />
weapon is so alien to the general tenor <strong>of</strong> the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> solicitation that one assumes it<br />
would be avoided if it were understood.<br />
raison d’btre, a French expression meaning the<br />
reason for being or existence, is an affectation<br />
when employed in English speech or writing for<br />
reason and an error when employed for explanation.<br />
rake-<strong>of</strong>f is an exclusively American slang term to<br />
describe a share or portion, as <strong>of</strong> a sum involved<br />
or <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its. Often the implication is that it is<br />
a share or amount taken or received illicitly,<br />
as in connection with a public enterprise (Are<br />
you a man <strong>of</strong> business or a philanthropic distributor<br />
<strong>of</strong> rake-<strong>of</strong>fs? Some estimate the alderman’s<br />
rake-<strong>of</strong>f at ten percent).<br />
rally has the special meaning in America <strong>of</strong> a<br />
coming together <strong>of</strong> persons, as for common<br />
action, political or religious or-in the colleges<br />
-sporting, which the British would call a mass<br />
meeting or a demonstration (When they attended<br />
Montana political rallies, Mrs. Wheeler<br />
knitted with calm absorption. There will be a<br />
football rally for freshmen in the meadow tomorrow<br />
afternoon at five).<br />
ran. See run.<br />
rancor. See malice.<br />
rang. See ring.<br />
rank and file. In the strictest sense a rank <strong>of</strong><br />
soldiers is a number drawn up in line abreast.<br />
(When the ranks are broken you have to fight<br />
singly) and the file is the number <strong>of</strong> men constituting<br />
the depth from front to rear <strong>of</strong> a<br />
formation in line. Taken together, the two mean<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> an army, apart from <strong>of</strong>ficers or<br />
leaders. Used figuratively for ordinary people,<br />
the expression is a cliche.<br />
rap. Formerly a slang term meaning to censure or<br />
criticize, rap is used so consistently in the head-
lines (Trial Delays Rapped by Judge) that it<br />
must, however reluctantly, be recognized as an<br />
established word. The English would say rap<br />
on the knuckles, the expression from which the<br />
American rap is derived. Still slang is the use <strong>of</strong><br />
rap as a noun meaning punishment, usually unmerited<br />
punishment or punishment erroneously<br />
applied to the wrong person (He carried the<br />
banner and took the rap for Roosevelt in the<br />
Senate for many years).<br />
Rap in the expression Z don’t care a rap iis a<br />
standard word meaning the least bit. A rap was<br />
a counterfeit coin, worth about half a farthing,<br />
which formerly passed current in Ireland for a<br />
halfpenny. It must have been the most inconsiderable<br />
counterfeit coin ever made.<br />
rapt. The adjective rapt derives from a Latin word<br />
meaning seized, transported, raped, snatclhed<br />
away. This sense is now obsolete. The word today<br />
means deeply engrossed or absorbed (He<br />
was rapt in thought and did not hear my question),<br />
transported with emotion, enraptured<br />
(The bride was rapt with happiness), or showing<br />
or proceeding from rapture (She gave him a<br />
rapt smile). See also wrapt.<br />
rare and scarce both characterize that which is<br />
hard to find, exists in small quantities, or is<br />
uncommon. A thing is rare which is seldom to<br />
be met with and is therefore <strong>of</strong>ten sought after.<br />
The word usually implies exceptional quality or<br />
value (0 rare Ben Jonson! Zf it is really a rare<br />
book, you can expect a high price for it). Scarce<br />
is applied to that <strong>of</strong> which there is an inaufficient<br />
supply. It usually implies a previous or<br />
usual condition <strong>of</strong> greater abundance (During<br />
the war certain food items were scarce). Scarce<br />
usually applies to ordinary things. Its occasional<br />
application to persons (Make yourself scarce.<br />
After they organized the vigilantes, robbers<br />
were mighty scarce for a while) is intended as<br />
humor. Rare is applied to men and things <strong>of</strong><br />
superior quality.<br />
rare (<strong>of</strong> meat). Though as recently as the :Cirst<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century Englishmen used<br />
rare in reference to cooked meat in the sense<br />
that Americans now use it (The same flesh,<br />
rotten-roasted or rare . . .-Charles Lamb),<br />
the word is now regarded in England as an<br />
Americanism, though it may still be heard in<br />
some English dialects. No more trenchant<br />
comment could be made on English cooking<br />
than the fact that their word for what Americans<br />
call rare meat is underdone. Mrs. Rorer in<br />
her New Cook Book characterizes the American<br />
fashion <strong>of</strong> serving meat rare as “certainly objectionable,”<br />
though most Americans regard a<br />
rare steak as a rare delicacy.<br />
rates to the English mean what Americans would<br />
describe as local taxes.<br />
rather. This is the comparative form <strong>of</strong> rathe,<br />
a word no longer heard in the positive or<br />
superlative. It is used with than in a comparison,<br />
as in this is blue rather than green and<br />
she felt rather than saw, and alone to mean “in<br />
a slight degree,” as in rather warm and Z rather<br />
think so.<br />
The combination had rather means “would<br />
409 rationalize<br />
find more desirable,” as in I had rather be a<br />
dog and bay the moon, than such a Roman and<br />
Z had rather be a doorkeeper in the house <strong>of</strong> my<br />
God than to dwell in the tents <strong>of</strong> wickedness.<br />
The construction is similar to had better which<br />
means “would tind more advantageous.” In both<br />
cases had is used in its original sense <strong>of</strong> “hold”<br />
and is a subjunctive meaning “would hold.”<br />
During the nineteenth century would rather was<br />
felt to be “purer” English than had rather,<br />
chiefly because the grammarians did not recognize<br />
the subjunctive had and so could not parse<br />
the phrase. Many writers, whose ear required<br />
had, took refuge in ‘d, as in I’d rather be a<br />
pagan. Some even said had better in place <strong>of</strong><br />
had rather. But this was a mistake and has not<br />
survived. Had rather was justified on theoretical<br />
grounds around 1900. Today both forms, had<br />
rather and would rather, are standard English.<br />
Had rather is felt to be the more literary <strong>of</strong><br />
the two.<br />
In current English these forms are not followed<br />
by a to-infinitive. They may be followed<br />
by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z would<br />
rather go, or by a subjunctive clause with a past<br />
tense verb, as in Z would rather he went. In literary<br />
English rather is never separated from the<br />
had or the would by another word. Z would<br />
rather have gone is preferable to Z would have<br />
rather gone. This broken construction is never<br />
heard with had.<br />
rational; rationale. Rational is an adjective meaning<br />
agreeable to reason, reasonable, sensible<br />
(That seems to me a perfectly rational explanation),<br />
being in or characterized by full possession<br />
<strong>of</strong> one’s reason, sane, lucid (After several<br />
shock treatments he appeared quite rational),<br />
or endowed with the faculty <strong>of</strong> reason (Man<br />
is sometimes defined as a rational animal!).<br />
Rationale is a noun meaning a statement <strong>of</strong><br />
reasons, a reasoned exposition <strong>of</strong> principles, the<br />
fundamental reasons serving to account for<br />
something (Zt is not dificult to discover the<br />
rationale for his attack on the President).<br />
rationalize. A word was needed for the process<br />
<strong>of</strong> finding rational-seeming reasons for our<br />
irrational behavior, socially acceptable explanations<br />
<strong>of</strong> actions which have their origins,<br />
at least in part, in our unconscious urges.<br />
Coleridge had used the term motive mongering,<br />
but he &as ahead <strong>of</strong> his times and it ias not<br />
until the 1920’s that James Harvev Robinson<br />
supplied the general public with rationalize.<br />
The word has been violently attacked, especially<br />
by many purists in England. But it is a useful<br />
word and its use by the common man, in that<br />
it calls his attention to the process it designates<br />
and makes him aware <strong>of</strong> it, marks an immense<br />
step forward in human betterment which must,<br />
ultimately, depend on man’s knowledge <strong>of</strong> himself.<br />
The thing that is wrong with the word is<br />
that it is used too <strong>of</strong>ten. The public is-though<br />
understandably-too fond <strong>of</strong> its new psychological<br />
insight and too pleased with itself for<br />
having it and we hear the word too much and<br />
are exasperated by it.<br />
Rationalize is a dangerous word, too, and
aze 410<br />
should be used with great circumspection. Its<br />
use implies that the speaker understands the<br />
motives <strong>of</strong> another better than the other himself.<br />
This, when speaking <strong>of</strong> a third person,<br />
may seem only vanity, but to tell someone to<br />
his face that he is only rationalizing is to accuse<br />
him <strong>of</strong> obtusity, <strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> awareness, <strong>of</strong> being<br />
the blind instrument <strong>of</strong> his animal impulses,<br />
with sundry other smug assumptions, all uncomplimentary.<br />
Moreover, the speaker, while<br />
making these insulting assumptions, has exalted<br />
himself into the chair <strong>of</strong> omniscience and<br />
blandly taken upon himself to read the secrets<br />
<strong>of</strong> another’s heart. There is no field in which<br />
angels more fear to tread than the judging <strong>of</strong><br />
motives or into which our friends rush with<br />
more assurance. To question a man’s pr<strong>of</strong>essed<br />
motives is, in his eyes, to call him a liar and<br />
to elicit a great deal <strong>of</strong> good, healthy hostility.<br />
Rationalize should not be discarded, as some<br />
would have it; but it should be used with great<br />
care, after considerable meditation upon our<br />
own motives in using it.<br />
raze. See destroy.<br />
re; in re. Re is the ablative <strong>of</strong> the Latin res,<br />
thing, matter. It is used in legal documents to<br />
mean in reference to or in the case <strong>of</strong>. The layman,<br />
however, would do well to let the lawyer<br />
have his ablatives to him reserved and use the<br />
good English about or concerning or in regard<br />
to. In re is a hybrid monster, possibly, piling<br />
ignorance upon presumption, thought to be an<br />
abbreviation <strong>of</strong> in regard to.<br />
reaction; response. Though reaction is unequivocal<br />
as a technical term in chemistry, biology,<br />
and mechanics, it needs to be used with some<br />
care in general contexts. One may define it as<br />
action in response to some influence or event,<br />
if one understands that the response is a more<br />
or less automatic rather than an intellectual and<br />
reflective one (My reaction to his proposal was<br />
one <strong>of</strong> despair). Reaction should not be used,<br />
however, as it so commonly is, as a technicalsounding<br />
synonym for the general terms response,<br />
reply or even opinion (When you have<br />
had time to think it over, I would be grateful<br />
for your reaction). It probably came to be so<br />
abused because it absolves one from the fuller<br />
responsibility entailed in using opinion. If a<br />
man states an opinion, he may be called upon<br />
to support or justify it. A reaction may be more<br />
easily abandoned as a mere impulse.<br />
reactionary. Except for its technical scientific<br />
senses, to which it would be a mercy if it were<br />
confined, reactionary is a word so emotionally<br />
charged as to be little more than a term <strong>of</strong><br />
abuse. It refers to one who favors political<br />
measures that seem to the speaker to react<br />
against the general good, especially measures<br />
that would rescind or nullify beneficial social<br />
legislation. It seems as easy for a liberal to call<br />
a conservative a reactionary as for a conservative<br />
to call a liberal a radical, a pink, a fellowtraveler,<br />
or a red. About the only American<br />
who calls himself a reactionary is the poet and<br />
critic Allen Tate (Reactionary Essays, 1936).<br />
Mr. Tate is not sneering at himself, nor is his<br />
position one to be sneered at.<br />
read. The past tense is read. The participle is also<br />
read. Although this looks like one <strong>of</strong> those very<br />
simple verbs, such as cut, cut, cut, the appearance<br />
is deceptive. The past tense and the participle<br />
read are pronounced like red. See also<br />
peruse.<br />
read between the lines. As a term for perceiving<br />
a hidden or implied meaning in something said<br />
or written, reading between the lines is a hackneyed<br />
expression.<br />
read the riot act. The Riot Act <strong>of</strong> 1714 empowered<br />
a justice, sheriff, mayor, or other<br />
person in authority to read a proclamation calling<br />
upon such persons as he deemed to be unlawfully,<br />
riotously and tumultuously assembled<br />
to disperse themselves and peaceably to depart<br />
to their habitations or to their lawful businesses.<br />
After the reading <strong>of</strong> the proclamation (or the<br />
hindering <strong>of</strong> the reading <strong>of</strong> the proclamation),<br />
continued assembly constituted a felony. The<br />
reading <strong>of</strong> this proclamation (not the Act itself)<br />
thus constituted a serious procedure and usually<br />
served to quell most tumults and disperse most<br />
unlawful assemblies, for felony was punishable<br />
by death. The modem expression read the riot<br />
act means no more than to state emphatically<br />
that a certain course <strong>of</strong> action must cease. It<br />
has become a cliche. It is particularly illogical<br />
to use it-as it so <strong>of</strong>ten is used-when applied<br />
to one person (He read me the riot act!).<br />
real; really. Traditionally, the adjective real means<br />
true and the adverb really means truly, as in<br />
a real friend and were you really there? Really<br />
may qualify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.<br />
Today the form real is <strong>of</strong>ten used as an<br />
adverb meaning very, as in I will write real<br />
soon. In this sense it may qualify an adjective<br />
or an adverb but not a verb. This use <strong>of</strong> real<br />
is accepted spoken English in most parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
United States but does not appear in formal,<br />
or impersonal, writing. The adverb really does<br />
not have this meaning. I will write really soon<br />
is neither natural nor literary English. (The use<br />
<strong>of</strong> real before a participle, as in I was real<br />
amazed, is acceptable in some Southern states,<br />
but not in other parts <strong>of</strong> the country.)<br />
When used to qualify a noun, the form real<br />
refers to facts rooted in nature, actual things<br />
with objective existence, rather than imaginary.<br />
Real trouble means actual trouble, not imaginary<br />
trouble, it does not mean serious trouble.<br />
Real has definite, useful meanings <strong>of</strong> its own<br />
and it would be a loss if the word became a<br />
mere intensive.<br />
reality; realty. Reality means the state or fact <strong>of</strong><br />
being real, true to life or fact (The reality <strong>of</strong><br />
the situation is in no way affected by our<br />
illusions or wishes). It is obsolete in the specialized<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> real property or real estate; in this<br />
sense the correct word is realty (He left a large<br />
fortune in bonds and realty).<br />
realize. Though realize describes primarily a<br />
mental act, a grasping by the mind or an understanding<br />
(I suddenly realized what he meant),
it may also mean to make real, or to give reality<br />
to, a hope, a fear, or a plan (In securing a television<br />
set, the boy realized one <strong>of</strong> his greatest<br />
desires), or to bring vividly before the mind.<br />
In a specialized sense, realize is to convert<br />
into cash or money (He realized a large sum<br />
by the sale <strong>of</strong> the plantation). Loose application<br />
<strong>of</strong> this sense has led to such meanings as<br />
to obtain as a pr<strong>of</strong>it or income for oneself by<br />
trade, labor, or investment (He realized huge<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>its from the Berlin black market), to bring<br />
as proceeds, as from a sale (The painti.ngs<br />
realized $15,000. You won’t realize much on<br />
that old chiffonier). The use <strong>of</strong> realize in these<br />
last two senses is condemned by English authorities,<br />
accepted by American.<br />
realize; know. Realize may suggest “know th.oroughly.”<br />
Know basically means to perceive or<br />
understand as a fact or truth, to apprehend<br />
with clearness and certainty. Realize means to<br />
apprehend fully, to understand clearly. Ii: is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used for emphasis in a warning when the<br />
one speaking wishes to allow the one spoken to<br />
no chance <strong>of</strong> later pleading ignorance (1’0~<br />
realize that if you leave under these circumstances,<br />
you cannot hope to return? I hope you<br />
realize the gravity <strong>of</strong> what you ure doing).<br />
really. See actually, real.<br />
really and truly is redundant and hackneyed.<br />
Like so many expressions that seek a double<br />
emphasis, it defeats its own purpose :and<br />
suggests either a childishness that is not wholly<br />
to be relied on or a suspicious excess <strong>of</strong> protestation.<br />
rear. Originally this verb meant cause to stand<br />
up. It was already in the language when the<br />
verb raise appeared with exactly the same<br />
meaning. Through the centuries, raise has<br />
followed rear from meaning to meaning, gradually<br />
driving out the older word. Where both are<br />
used in the same sense, rear is frequently felt<br />
to be more bookish or more elegant.<br />
In the fifteenth and sixteenth century rear<br />
came to mean foster, nourish, bring to maturity.<br />
It could be used <strong>of</strong> children, livestock, and<br />
plants, and one could speak <strong>of</strong> rearing wheat.<br />
About two hundred years later raise ialso<br />
acquired this meaning and could be used. <strong>of</strong><br />
plants or livestock. In the United States reur<br />
is no longer used in speaking about plants and<br />
raise is now used <strong>of</strong> plants, animals, and<br />
children. Some people believe that it is vulgar<br />
to talk about raising children and that we<br />
should always say rear. They claim that the<br />
verb raise puts the children in a class with the<br />
hogs. This is not very reasonable. Raise may<br />
put the children in a class with corn, and<br />
flowers, but they can’t escape being classed with<br />
the hogs, since we certainly do use rear as ,well<br />
as raise in speaking <strong>of</strong> livestock. More people<br />
in the United States were raised than were<br />
reared. To many, reared seems an unnatural<br />
and pretentious word to use about their childhood.<br />
If they are afraid that raise will put their<br />
parents in a bad light, they are likely to shift<br />
to was brought up or grew up.<br />
411 reckon<br />
Rear may still be used in the sense <strong>of</strong> lift or<br />
cause to rise. But it is likely to be associated<br />
with literary words, such as rear an imposing<br />
structure and rear a monument. In ordinary<br />
speech, raise is preferred.<br />
Unlike raise, which always means cause to<br />
rise, or cause to grow, rear may be used in a<br />
direct sense, similar to rise, as in the horse<br />
reared, the baby suddenly reared back, the<br />
specter reared up before his eyes.<br />
The noun rear is <strong>of</strong>ten used as an adjective<br />
and has produced a superlative adjective form,<br />
rearmost, but no comparative form.<br />
reason. It stands to reason is an exasperating expression<br />
which no intelligent man uses unless<br />
he is seeking to goad an antagonist into a selfbetraying<br />
explosion. Spoken, as it so <strong>of</strong>ten is,<br />
with condescending assurance, it is stupid and<br />
unfair. Invoking reason’s name, it is usually the<br />
prelude to an unreasonable dogmatism. If<br />
something stands to reason, it has only to be<br />
exposed to the light <strong>of</strong> examination and the<br />
processes <strong>of</strong> reasonable thought and it will<br />
stand. But to preface its presentation with the<br />
statement that it does stand to reason compels<br />
assent by implying that dissent is unreasonable.<br />
Or, rather, attempts to so compel assent but<br />
always fails, for reason cannot be compelled. If<br />
its implications are fully understood, it is an<br />
arrogant statement. If they are not, it is a stupid<br />
one.<br />
reason why. See why. For the reason is because,<br />
see because.<br />
reave. The past tense is reft or reaved. The participle<br />
is also reft or renved.<br />
recall. See recollect, remember.<br />
recapitulate. See repeat.<br />
receipt and recipe both once described a formula<br />
or prescription for the preparing <strong>of</strong> a food or<br />
a medicine, but receipt is now largely understood<br />
to mean a written acknowledgment <strong>of</strong><br />
having received money, goods, or information<br />
specified. It is still sometimes used <strong>of</strong> cookery<br />
in America, less <strong>of</strong>ten in England. Recipe, on<br />
the other hand, has retained its traditional<br />
meaning. Primarily, it describes any formula,<br />
especially one for preparing a dish in cookery.<br />
But it may also describe a medical prescription<br />
(though prescription itself has almost entirely<br />
displaced it in this sense) and a method to<br />
obtain a desired end (What is your recipe for<br />
success as a writer?).<br />
receptacle and recipient both designate a receiver,<br />
but a receptacle is a thing and a recipient a<br />
person (The recipient <strong>of</strong> the letter read it hastily<br />
and then tossed it into the nearest receptacle,<br />
an empty nail keg).<br />
reciprocal. See mutual.<br />
reciprocal pronouns. Each other and one another<br />
are sometimes called reciprocal pronouns.<br />
reckon. This word is supposed to be the Southern<br />
equivalent <strong>of</strong> the Yankee guess. Reckon, used<br />
to mean “suppose,” is in the great literary tradition<br />
and Southerners have been too modest in<br />
allowing the word to be classed with calculate,<br />
which is not used with this meaning outside
e-collect 412<br />
rural America. By apologizing for it themselves,<br />
they have brought it into disrepute. A grammarian,<br />
writing a generation ago in defense <strong>of</strong><br />
reckon, quotes Romans 8: 18, I reckon that the<br />
suflerings <strong>of</strong> this present time are not worthy<br />
lo be compared with the glory which shall be<br />
revealed in us, and then asks, rhetorically,<br />
“What hand will change that reckon to any one<br />
<strong>of</strong> its supposed equivalents!” In a recent translation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Bible this reckon has been changed<br />
to consider.<br />
re-collect; recollect; remember; recall. Re-collect<br />
(distinguished always by the hyphen) means to<br />
collect or gather together something which had<br />
formerly been gathered together but since<br />
scattered (At the end <strong>of</strong> the game he recollecred<br />
the cards and prepared to shufle them<br />
once more). Recolleci means to recall to mind,<br />
to recover knowledge <strong>of</strong> by an act or effort <strong>of</strong><br />
memory (Try hard to recollect what you saw<br />
jusf before the accident). In the act <strong>of</strong> recollecting<br />
there is always a considerable effort. Recall<br />
also implies an effort, but not a very severe one<br />
(He recalled rhe words <strong>of</strong> an old music hall<br />
song). Remember implies that a thing exists in<br />
the memory, though not actually present in the<br />
thoughts at the moment, and that it can be<br />
called up without effort (I remember, I remember,<br />
the house where 1 was born. You remember<br />
John Doe, don’t you?). See also remember.<br />
recommend; recommendation. Recommend is a<br />
verb. Its use as a noun to mean recommendafion,<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> recommending, a letter or the<br />
like recommending a person, or a representation<br />
in favor <strong>of</strong> a person or thing (aa in Will<br />
you give me a recommend for a job?), is slang<br />
in America and inappropriate and incorrect in<br />
England.<br />
reconcile. The word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition to, a.s in<br />
she reconciled herself Co living there. It is also<br />
heard with an infinitive, as in she reconciled<br />
herself lo live there, but the -ing form is<br />
preferred.<br />
recondition; renovate. Authorities in England<br />
will have nothing to do with recondirion. They<br />
condemn it as etymologically unjustifiable, ugly,<br />
and unnecessary. Renovate, they affirm, is<br />
established, adequate, and available.<br />
In America recondition is a standard word<br />
to describe the restoring to good or satisfactory<br />
condition <strong>of</strong> machines or equipment, and it<br />
deserves its acceptance because it implies more<br />
than renovate or any <strong>of</strong> its synonyms, such as<br />
refit or reconstruct. It implies a process <strong>of</strong><br />
detailed alterations in the interest <strong>of</strong> more<br />
efficient operation. One may renovate a hat;<br />
but he ought to recondition an old car before<br />
starting on a transcontinental tour in it.<br />
recopy; copy. There is little that recopy can do<br />
that copy can’t do. To copy is to reproduce,<br />
duplicate, transcribe or imitate an original or<br />
any copy based on that original. Recopy cannot<br />
be used as a synonym <strong>of</strong> reproduce. And<br />
though it is correct in describing later duplicating<br />
steps, it is no more explicit than copy.<br />
About the only time where recopy would be<br />
justified would be when a copy had been badly<br />
made and one wished to emphasize that fact in<br />
requesting that another copy be made.<br />
recourse, resort, and resource are all nouns that<br />
suggest help in a situation <strong>of</strong> dimculty and<br />
though each has a special meaning they are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten unintentionally interchanged.<br />
Perhaps an explanation <strong>of</strong> their basic senses<br />
will make their proper use clear. Recourse<br />
derives from a Latin word meaning a running<br />
back and it means a turning back to a person<br />
or thing for help or protection, as when in<br />
difficulty (The Prodigal Son had no recourse<br />
but to go rcnfo his father). Resort, which is an<br />
acceptable but not preferable alternative to<br />
recourse in many contexts (such as He managed<br />
to make a halting franslation but only by frequent<br />
recourse/ resort to the vocabulary in the<br />
buck <strong>of</strong> ihe book), derives from a Latin word<br />
meaning to go out. A pleasure resort or a<br />
summer resort was a place to which one went<br />
out. In the common phrase the lust resort it is<br />
the last place to which one can go in a time <strong>of</strong><br />
necessity or danger. Resource, from a Latin<br />
word meaning to rise again, means a source <strong>of</strong><br />
supply, support, or aid (My only resource in<br />
the emergency was a dull sheath knife). Resort<br />
and resource are <strong>of</strong>ten used interchangeably<br />
and indiscriminately; yet in the last resort emphasizes<br />
the direction <strong>of</strong> a final attempt, while<br />
as a last resource emphasizes the basis <strong>of</strong> a final<br />
attempt. The fact that one can say As a lust<br />
resort he had recourse to his hidden resources<br />
shows that the words do have different meanings.<br />
recover; re-cover. The unhyphenated word goes<br />
back to a Latin word meaning recuperate. It<br />
means to obtain again what one has lost<br />
possession <strong>of</strong> (The Germans recovered from the<br />
French the provinces <strong>of</strong> Alsace and Lorraine).<br />
Re-cover means to cover again or anew (How<br />
much material is needed to re-cover our s<strong>of</strong>u?).<br />
See also retrieve.<br />
recreation; re-creation. A recre<strong>of</strong>ion is an agreeable<br />
pastime or diversion which affords relaxation<br />
and enjoyment. A re-creation is an act <strong>of</strong><br />
creating anew or a thing created anew.<br />
recriminations; accusations; charges. Recriminations<br />
denote a more advanced stage in a controversy<br />
than do accusations or charges, for<br />
recriminations are countercharges brought<br />
against an accuser, accusations in return (You<br />
musf realize Chat if you bring charges against<br />
him, there will be recriminations).<br />
recrudescence meant the breaking out again <strong>of</strong> a<br />
wound or a disease or a pestilence (Zf the brown<br />
rut returns, we may expect a recrudescence <strong>of</strong><br />
ihe bubonic plugue). Authorities in England,<br />
following Fowler who regards any other use aa<br />
“disgusting,” will admit recrudescence in a<br />
figurative sense to mean a renewal or return<br />
only if the renewal is regarded as evil or objectionable<br />
(After World War I there was a<br />
recrudescence <strong>of</strong> Klan activify). In America,<br />
however, no such limitation prevails. Recrudes-
cence in the United States is taken to describe<br />
a breaking out afresh or into renewed activity,<br />
or the revival or reappearance in active existence<br />
<strong>of</strong> anything, good or bad. Such a distinction<br />
<strong>of</strong> meaning is one <strong>of</strong> the real pitfalls <strong>of</strong><br />
understanding between Americans and British,<br />
for the surface meaning is the same although<br />
the attitude towards the act described might be<br />
diametrically opposite. Thus if an American<br />
said During the Second World War there was<br />
a recrudescence <strong>of</strong> interest in religion, he might<br />
regard this renewal <strong>of</strong> interest as a laudable<br />
thing but an Englishman, hearing him, would<br />
assume that he disapproved <strong>of</strong> it, regarding it<br />
as some sort <strong>of</strong> disease or pestilence.<br />
rector; vicar; curate. In the Church <strong>of</strong> England<br />
a rector is a parson or incumbent <strong>of</strong> a parish<br />
whose tithes are not impropriate, that is, the<br />
tithes are held by him rather than a layman.<br />
A vicar is one who acts in the place <strong>of</strong> a rector,<br />
a substitute (cf. the word vicarious). In Ihgland,<br />
then, whether the incumbent <strong>of</strong> a parish<br />
is a vicar or a rector depends chiefly on the<br />
disposition <strong>of</strong> tithes. In America, in the Flrotestant<br />
Episcopal Church, a rector is a clergyman<br />
in charge <strong>of</strong> a parish and a vicar is a<br />
clergyman whose sole or chief charge is a<br />
chapel dependent on the church <strong>of</strong> a parish,<br />
or a bishop’s assistant in charge <strong>of</strong> a church<br />
or mission. Curate is chiefly a British term to<br />
designate a clergyman employed as assistant or<br />
deputy <strong>of</strong> a rector or a vicar. In both England<br />
and America the Roman Catholic Church employs<br />
rector to designate an ecclesiastic in charge<br />
<strong>of</strong> a college, religious house or congregation,<br />
and vicar to designate an ecclesiastic representing<br />
a bishop or the Pope. The Roman Catholic<br />
Church also employs vicar to designate the Pope<br />
as representative on earth <strong>of</strong> God. See also<br />
pastor.<br />
recumbent, incumbent, superincumbent and decumbent<br />
all suggest lying or reclining.<br />
The most familiar, and the one with the most<br />
varied uses, is incumbent. Though it conveys<br />
the literal sense <strong>of</strong> lying, leaning, or pressing on<br />
something, it more <strong>of</strong>ten conveys a figurative<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> resting on one as a duty or an obligation,<br />
obligatory (The welfare <strong>of</strong> his people is<br />
incumbent on a good prince, Having sought<br />
the <strong>of</strong>ice, it is incumbent upon him to assume<br />
its responsibilities). Incumbent is also used as<br />
a noun, in general terms meaning the holder <strong>of</strong><br />
an <strong>of</strong>fice (The first incumbent <strong>of</strong> the presidency<br />
wus George Washington), and in British use<br />
only, one who holds an ecclesiastical benefice<br />
(The incumbent at Upper Tooting held sturtlingly<br />
advunced theological notions).<br />
Recumbent means lying down, reclining,<br />
leaning (The beach wus dotted with recumbent<br />
forms), inactive, idle. In botany and zoology<br />
the word describes a part that leans or reposes<br />
on anything.<br />
Superincumbent means lying or resting on<br />
something else (He struggled to extricate himself<br />
from the superincumbent debris), situated<br />
above, overhanging (The Aur Gorge is practi-<br />
413 redundancy<br />
tally bridged by superincumbent rock formations).<br />
Figuratively it means exerted from<br />
above, as pressure, burdensome (He felt acutely<br />
the superincumbent responsibilities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
mission).<br />
Decumbent may mean recumbent, but its<br />
chief use is a botanical one, to describe stems,<br />
branches and so on, lying or trailing on the<br />
ground with the extremity tending to ascend.<br />
recurrence. See reoccurrence.<br />
recurring and frequent are not synonymous. That<br />
is recurring which occurs again. There is no<br />
limitation, however, upon the interval between<br />
occurrences. Frequent, on the other hand,<br />
means happening or occurring at short intervals<br />
(During the day he made frequent trips to the<br />
drinking fountain).<br />
red rag to a bull. To say <strong>of</strong> something that particularly<br />
infuriates a certain person that it is<br />
to him like u red rug to a bull is to employ a<br />
hackneyed metaphor based on zoological error,<br />
for bulls seem to be color-blind.<br />
reduce. This word may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb with the preposition to, as in<br />
he was reduced to selling his cur. It is also heard<br />
with an infinitive, as in he was reduced to beg<br />
or to starve, but the -ing construction is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
reduced. See depleted.<br />
redundancy; tautology; pleonasm. Redundunt<br />
means being in excess, exceeding what is usual<br />
or natural. A redundant humor, in the old<br />
theory <strong>of</strong> the four humors, was the one whose<br />
excess determined the patient’s complexion. In<br />
grammar redundancy means the use <strong>of</strong> too<br />
many words to express an idea, such as combine<br />
together, audible to the ear, or invisible to the<br />
eye. A charming example is furnished by Miss<br />
Julia Moore, “The Sweet Singer <strong>of</strong> Michigan,”<br />
in her plea, at the end <strong>of</strong> her collected poems,<br />
for leniency from her readers:<br />
And now, kind friends, whut I have wrote,<br />
I hope you will puss o’er,<br />
And not criticise us some have done<br />
Hitherto herebefore.<br />
Tautology is a form <strong>of</strong> redundancy, consisting<br />
<strong>of</strong> the needless repetition <strong>of</strong> an idea, especially<br />
in other words in the immediate context,<br />
without imparting additional force or<br />
clearness. President Coolidge’s statement that<br />
when more and more people are thrown out <strong>of</strong><br />
work unemployment results is a fine illustration,<br />
though the prize must be reserved for the enterprising<br />
Milwaukee optometrist who advertised<br />
EYES EXAMINED WHILE YOU WAIT.<br />
Except where the redundancy is hidden in<br />
technical or obsolete terminology (such as the<br />
landlubber’s so many knots per hour), tuutology<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the surest marks <strong>of</strong> militant<br />
dullness. The editors <strong>of</strong> a California weekly<br />
who gave thanks in their first number for being<br />
blessed with the gratification <strong>of</strong> seeing the materialization<br />
<strong>of</strong> our dreams come to the fulfillment<br />
<strong>of</strong> our realization could not hope to enlist<br />
many literate subscribers. And the New York
edundant 414<br />
firm which assured television producers, in its<br />
advertising brochure, that it is impossible to<br />
produce any type <strong>of</strong> audience show without an<br />
audience simply assured the discerning pro<br />
ducers that they had nothing original to <strong>of</strong>fer.<br />
The repeating <strong>of</strong> words (see repetition), so<br />
strenuously and <strong>of</strong>ten absurdly avoided, is not<br />
a very serious fault; but the repetition <strong>of</strong> ideas<br />
in immediate context is fatal.<br />
Pleonasm is a synonym for redundancy. See<br />
pleonasm.<br />
redundant; superfluous; unnecessary. Of these<br />
words redundant has the most specialized<br />
meaning, unnecessary the most general. Redundanf<br />
applies primarily to the use <strong>of</strong> too<br />
many words to express ideas in speech or<br />
writing. Superfluous describes anything over<br />
and above what is sufficient or required (Your<br />
acknowledgment is superfluous. It seems superfluous<br />
for me to add anything to what the<br />
previous speaker has said). Unnecessary means<br />
not needed. This is a sweeping term, for it<br />
includes not only what is beyond that required<br />
(supertluous) but also qualities the nature <strong>of</strong><br />
the requirement itself.<br />
reduplication is the immediate repetition <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sound, as in the red red robin came bob-bobbobbin’<br />
along. It is used in all languages and<br />
delights children and adults alike.<br />
It may occur in almost any pattern, but a<br />
few <strong>of</strong> these are overwhelmingly more popular<br />
than all the others. Almost all reduplications<br />
belong to one <strong>of</strong> the three following types:<br />
1. A syllable or word may simply be repeated,<br />
as in bonbon, can-can, frou-frou, goodygoody,<br />
girlie-girlie, pompom, beriberi and well!<br />
well! Renetitions <strong>of</strong> this kind are <strong>of</strong>ten emphatic.<br />
-<br />
2. The vowel <strong>of</strong> the tirst element may be<br />
changed to form the second element. When this<br />
happens the first vowel is almost always an i<br />
sound which is changed to an a or an o. That is,<br />
the change is from the shrill to the more open<br />
sound, as in dilly-dally, fiddle-faddle, riff-raff,<br />
wig-wag, clip-clap, ping-pong, hippity-hoppity.<br />
In English the sound <strong>of</strong> a bell is represented by<br />
ding-dong, in German by bim-barn. Words in<br />
this class commonly represent indecision, vacillation,<br />
or something contemptible.<br />
3. The initial consonant <strong>of</strong> the first element<br />
may be changed to form the second element.<br />
Here, more <strong>of</strong>ten than not, the second element<br />
begins with one <strong>of</strong> three consonants: ( 1) a<br />
d, as in fuddy-duddy, handy-dandy, Humpty<br />
Dumpty, razzle-dazzle, super-duper; (2) a p.<br />
as in namby-pamby, higgledy-piggledy, hocuspocus,<br />
Georgie Porgie, roly-poly; or (3) a w,<br />
as in nit-wit, pow-wow, boogie-woogie, teenyweeny,<br />
too&v-wootsy. Words in this class are<br />
usually frivolous or playful.<br />
reihforce; re-enforce; reinforce. In both England<br />
and America reinforce is the common and preferred<br />
word meaning to strengthen with something<br />
additional (He reinforced the picfure with<br />
u cardboard backing). The other two forms are<br />
still <strong>of</strong>ten used in America, rarely in England.<br />
reeve. The past tense is rove or reeved. The participle<br />
is rove or reeved or roven. This is a<br />
nautical word, meaning to pass a rope through<br />
something, and is not heard in general English.<br />
refer. See allude.<br />
referendum. The plural is referendums or referenda.<br />
reflective; reflexive. Both these adjectives basically<br />
mean reflecting. But reflexive is now used<br />
only in grammatical senses, as <strong>of</strong> a verb which<br />
has identical subject and object (He shook himself),<br />
or <strong>of</strong> a pronoun which indicates identity<br />
<strong>of</strong> object with subject (as in the same example,<br />
himself being the reflexive).<br />
Reflective has retained all the general senses.<br />
It means that reflects, reflecting (When glass<br />
becomes warped it is not satisfactorily reflective),<br />
<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to reflection, cast by reflection.<br />
Actually, however, the functions <strong>of</strong><br />
reflective as regards light are being taken over<br />
by reflecting and reflected (Reflected sunlight<br />
glimmered on the reflecting surface <strong>of</strong> the<br />
indoor pool). In current usage reflective is<br />
chiefly used to describe not a physical but a<br />
mental characteristic. It is roughly synonymous<br />
with meditative (Wordsworth’s Intimations <strong>of</strong><br />
Immortality is a classic example <strong>of</strong> reflective<br />
poetry).<br />
reflexive pronouns. The -self words, myself, himself,<br />
and so on, are called reflexive pronouns.<br />
Three <strong>of</strong> these words, myself, yourself, ourselves,<br />
are combinations <strong>of</strong> a possessive pronoun<br />
and the word self. An objective pronoun<br />
used here, as in me-self, us-selves, is not<br />
standard. Two <strong>of</strong> the words, himself and themselves,<br />
are combinations <strong>of</strong> an objective pronoun<br />
and the word self. A possessive pronoun<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten heard here, as in hisself and theirselves.<br />
These were once acceptable forms but they<br />
have not been standard for more than five<br />
hundred years. In herself, itself, oneself, it is<br />
impossible to say whether a possessive or an<br />
objective pronoun is being used to make the<br />
combination.<br />
The reflexive pronouns are used primarily<br />
when the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb must be repeated as<br />
an object, as in she hurt herself, she laughed at<br />
herself, she made herself a cup <strong>of</strong> tea. When a<br />
reflexive pronoun is not standing immediately<br />
after a verb or a preposition, it simply repeats<br />
the subject and makes it emphatic, as in she herself<br />
made a cup <strong>of</strong> tea and she made a cup <strong>of</strong> tea<br />
herself. Some grammarians call the -self words<br />
reflexive pronouns when they are used as objects<br />
and intensive pronouns when they are not. In<br />
literary English an intensive pronoun stands<br />
immediately after the subject, as in she herself<br />
made it. In present-day speech it usually stands<br />
at the end <strong>of</strong> the sentence, as in she made it<br />
herself, and is considered additionally emphatic<br />
when it immediately follows the subject. When<br />
there is no cause for this added emphasis, the<br />
reflexive in this position is likely to sound pretentious.<br />
An intensive pronoun may follow the<br />
word who, as in a man who himself had seen<br />
it, but not the word that. In literary English an
intensive pronoun in a that clause is always<br />
placed at the end, as in a man that had seel? it<br />
himself. A man that himself had is contrary to<br />
the literary tradition and contrary to presentday<br />
speech habits.<br />
In current English, a reflexive pronoun. is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten omitted where formerly it would h#ave<br />
been expressed. In the population doubled and<br />
the fog lifted a reflexive itself is understood.<br />
Similafly, a yozzrself is understood in prepare<br />
fo die and don’t bother. We say the child<br />
behaved well although a reflexive was required<br />
here until recently. A reflexive is still required<br />
after some verbs, including perjure. We must<br />
say he perjured himself although with the<br />
present-day meaning <strong>of</strong> this word he could not<br />
possibly perjure anyone else.<br />
At one time the -self words and the personal<br />
pronouns could be used interchangeably.<br />
Today, the -self words are preferred in some<br />
constructions and the personal pronouns in<br />
others.<br />
In older English, personal pronouns were<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used as reflexives, as in let every soldier<br />
hew him down a bough, I could accuse me <strong>of</strong><br />
such things, and arm you. This is still standLard<br />
English after prepositions showing direction, a.~<br />
in we looked at the stars above us and she drew<br />
it toward her. There is still a tendency to use<br />
personal pronouns as reflexives when the word<br />
is an indirect object, as in I will get me one.<br />
This construction is condemned by many grammarians<br />
and seldom appears in print, but it is<br />
heard frequently in the speech <strong>of</strong> educated<br />
people. A personal pronoun may still be used<br />
reflexively as the object <strong>of</strong> the verb lay, as in<br />
I lay me down at night to dream, but in general<br />
a -self word is required for the true object <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb. We no longer say I will wash me or<br />
I will dress me. A personal pronoun is still very<br />
effective when used as an intensive, as in the<br />
bells they sound so clear. This construction is<br />
condemned by most grammarians on the<br />
grounds that the pronoun is redundant, but the<br />
device is too forceful to be given up, either in<br />
speech or in line writing.<br />
Formerly, the -self words were <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
non-reflexively, that is, in sentences where they<br />
did not reflect the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as yourself<br />
in I am inviting yourself and your wife. In<br />
current English these words have an old<br />
fashioned tone and the personal pronouns, in<br />
this case you, are generally preferred. Myself<br />
is an exception and is still <strong>of</strong>ten used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> I or me. See myself.<br />
reflexive verbs. A verb is said to be reflexive<br />
when its subject and object represent the same<br />
thing, usually a person, as feed in the baby can<br />
feed himself now. See transitive verbs.<br />
reft. See reave.<br />
refuse. This word may be followed by an intiitive,<br />
as in he refused to see me. It is also hleard<br />
with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he refused<br />
seeing me, but this is not standard.<br />
refute; confute; deny. To refute is to prove, by<br />
argument or countervailing evidence, that<br />
415 register<br />
something asserted as true is false or erroneous,<br />
to overcome in argument, to prove to be in<br />
error, to show that allegations or charges are<br />
groundless (An insinuation is dificult to refute,<br />
for it rarely makes a specific charge that can be<br />
closely examined). To confute is to prove to be<br />
false, to overthrow by evidence or stronger<br />
argument (Ten yards <strong>of</strong> string and a stone were<br />
suficient to confute the local belief that the<br />
well was bottomless). Confute is confined to<br />
arguments, theories, reasoning, sophistries.<br />
Refute applies to arguments and charges. Both<br />
words, by the way, convey the suggestion <strong>of</strong> a<br />
quick as well as a thorough answer.<br />
Deny is a much weaker term. It simply means<br />
that one asserts that an opinion or a charge is<br />
false or erroneous (He denied the allegation<br />
and defied the alligator). A denial does not<br />
necessarily carry any supporting argument or<br />
evidence; a refutation or a confutation carrks<br />
overwhelming pro<strong>of</strong>.<br />
regal. See kingly.<br />
regard; regards. The singular noun regard is used<br />
in the compound prepositions with regard to, in<br />
regard to, in regard <strong>of</strong>. These all mean “with<br />
reference to” and they are all standard English,<br />
although the last is not used as much today as<br />
formerly. The plural noun regards should never<br />
be used in these phrases.<br />
As regards is a verbal phrase meaning “as<br />
far as it relates to” and the third person singular<br />
form ending in s, regards, should always be<br />
used.<br />
The verb regard cannot be followed by an<br />
infinitive. We cannot say I regard it to be an<br />
honor; nor can we use an objective complement<br />
and say I regard it an honor. Idiom requires<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> as here, as in I regard it as an honor.<br />
The noun regard is properly a mass noun<br />
and does not have a plural form. The plural<br />
regards, like the plural noun respects, is used<br />
only in formal expressions <strong>of</strong> good will, as in<br />
give my regards to your mother.<br />
regarding; respecting; relating; concerning; with<br />
regard to; etc. Many writers will go to great<br />
lengths to avoid using the prepositions about<br />
and on. If all the memoranda beginning Let<br />
me have your comments regarding/ respecting/<br />
relating to/ with regard to . . . were laid end<br />
to end they would reach to a wastebasket on<br />
the moon. See also re; in re.<br />
regimen <strong>of</strong> a preposition. See object <strong>of</strong> a preposition.<br />
register. In its broadest and earliest sense register<br />
is to enter formally in a register (The spaniel’s<br />
pedigree was fully registered). Usage has established<br />
as standard the more specialized sense <strong>of</strong><br />
“record,” that is to indicate by record or to indicate<br />
as records do. From this it was only a<br />
step to “show,” to indicate, as on a scale. And<br />
from this has come the popular figurative<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> showing emotion as by facial expression<br />
or by action (She registered all<br />
pleasant emotions by smirking and all unpleasant<br />
ones by frowning or pouting). This is<br />
a vague use, which the careful writer will
egret 416<br />
eschew in favor <strong>of</strong> a more explicit word, and<br />
has led to even vaguer uses in which register<br />
can mean to feel, to notice, or to be aware <strong>of</strong><br />
(as in I couldn’t tell whether he heard me or<br />
not; he just didn’t seem lo register). These last<br />
uses are not standard.<br />
regret. This verb may be followed by an infinitive<br />
when speaking <strong>of</strong> the present or the future, as<br />
in I regret lo say I cannot come. It may be<br />
followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb when<br />
referring to something that is past, as in I regret<br />
saying I could not come. In the United States,<br />
regret may also be followed by a clause, as in<br />
Z regret Z did not go. British grammarians condemn<br />
this and say that a direct object, such as<br />
il or rhe fact, must be placed between regret and<br />
a clause, as in I regret it that I did not go, or an<br />
infinitive construction substituted, as in I regret<br />
io say I did not go.<br />
regret; be sorry; deplore; lament. Regret is the<br />
formal term meaning to feel sorry about (Mr.<br />
Stuyvesant Silver regrets that he will be unable<br />
fo accept the kind invitation <strong>of</strong> Mr. Joab<br />
lohnson for the sixteenth). It is used as <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
as the informal sorry, which tends to be used in<br />
set constructions (Sorry! Sorry, to hear ir) and<br />
has acquired, especially in popular songs, a<br />
sentimental tinge (Z’m sorry Z mnde you cry).<br />
Deplore means to regret deeply, and implies<br />
disapproval (He deplored the conduct <strong>of</strong> compatriots<br />
in European cities). It is a favorite<br />
more-in-sorrow-than-anger word and has acquired<br />
more than a tinge <strong>of</strong> condescension and<br />
hypocrisy in many contexts. Lament means to<br />
feel or express sorrow or regret for. Unlike<br />
deplore, lament implies an outward and vocal<br />
manifestation <strong>of</strong> sorrow (He paused to lament<br />
the brave men who were not there to hear him<br />
speak). Used for merely an inner feeling, as it<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten is (I lament that your conduct has made<br />
it necessary for me to speak to your father),<br />
it is stilted. See also repent.<br />
regretful; regrettable. Regretful means full <strong>of</strong><br />
regret, sorrowful because <strong>of</strong> what is lost, gone,<br />
done (And love, grown faint and fretful,/ With<br />
lips but half regretful/ Sighs, and with eyes forgetful/<br />
Weeps that no loves endure). Regrettable<br />
means admitting <strong>of</strong> or calling for regret<br />
(They were sullen and in no way regretful for<br />
their regrettable performance). It is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
as a term <strong>of</strong> mild condemnation.<br />
regular. See normal.<br />
rehearse. See repeat.<br />
reindeer. The plural is reindeers or reindeer.<br />
reiterate. See repeat.<br />
rejoinder. See answer.<br />
relation; narrative. Narrative is now the general<br />
term for a story <strong>of</strong> an event or events told for<br />
any purpose and with or without much detail.<br />
Relation, which properly means the act <strong>of</strong> narrating<br />
or telling (The relation <strong>of</strong> these events<br />
took up the better part <strong>of</strong> the night), is now<br />
used as a synonym for narrative, though it has<br />
a faintly archaic flavor. It is used particularly to<br />
describe that type <strong>of</strong> narrative known as an<br />
account-a factual story <strong>of</strong> the past told in-<br />
formally, <strong>of</strong>ten for entertainment, with emphasis<br />
on details <strong>of</strong> action (I was amused by his relation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exploits <strong>of</strong> Davy Crockett).<br />
relation; relative. Both relation and relative are<br />
used to describe a kinsman. Though there is<br />
little to choose between them, relative is preferred.<br />
Relation is slightly rustic, slightly oldfashioned,<br />
qualities which give it an added force<br />
<strong>of</strong> homeliness in certain contexts.<br />
relatively. See comparatively.<br />
relative pronouns. The words who, whose, whom,<br />
which, and that, are relative pronouns when<br />
they represent a noun or pronoun appearing<br />
earlier in the sentence and also form part <strong>of</strong> a<br />
subordinate clause, as who in those who know<br />
him speak well <strong>of</strong> him. See the individual words,<br />
and also what and as.<br />
As a rule the relative pronoun is the first<br />
word in the subordinate clause. There are three<br />
recognized situations in which a relative may<br />
be the second or third word in the clause:<br />
(1) it may follow an -ing form, as in saying<br />
which; (2) it may follow a preposition, as in<br />
to whom; (3) or it may be part <strong>of</strong> an <strong>of</strong> phrase,<br />
as in all <strong>of</strong> whom. Expressions such as these<br />
may open a relative clause. Most grammarians<br />
claim that with these exceptions the relative<br />
must be the opening word. Many great writers,<br />
including Defoe, Swift, Shelley, have used and<br />
to introduce a relative clause, as in a man <strong>of</strong><br />
low rank, heavily built, and who kept his face<br />
mufled, and an excellent house indeed, and<br />
which I do most seriously recommend. Textbook<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> composition call for some word<br />
such as one before the relative in both <strong>of</strong> these<br />
sentences in order to make the relative the first<br />
word in its clause. Or they require a preceding<br />
relative clause which the and who or nnd which<br />
will be parallel to, as in a man who was <strong>of</strong> low<br />
rank and heavily built and who kept his face<br />
mufled, and a house which is excellent indeed,<br />
and which I do most seriously recommend.<br />
Dickens <strong>of</strong>ten disregards the rules completely,<br />
as in my father, rhe many reasons for not insulting<br />
whom you are old enough to understand<br />
and I might take leave <strong>of</strong> Mr. Wickfield, my<br />
old room in whose house I had not yet relinquished.<br />
These are successful sentences, but<br />
dangerous to imitate.<br />
A relative clause follows the word it qualifies.<br />
When two clauses qualify the same word, the<br />
second applies to the word as already qualified<br />
or limited by the first, as in they murdered all<br />
they met whom they thought gentlemen. This is<br />
similar to a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives standing before<br />
the noun, in that each element qualifies the<br />
noun as qualified by all the intervening elements.<br />
See adjectives.<br />
The number and person <strong>of</strong> a relative pronoun<br />
is determined by its antecedent. (See agreement:<br />
verbs.) The case <strong>of</strong> a relative pronoun depends<br />
on its function in the subordinate clause. In<br />
English, who is the only relative pronoun that<br />
shows case. See who; whom.<br />
A relative pronoun that is the subject <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb must usually be expressed, as in the book
tl~~t fell on rhe floor, but once it has been expressed<br />
it can serve as the subject <strong>of</strong> more than<br />
one verb, as in the book that fell on the ,floor<br />
and wus forgotten. A relative pronoun that is<br />
the object <strong>of</strong> a verb or preposition may usually<br />
be omitted, as in the book I bought yesterday.<br />
(See that; which and who; whom.) Ordinarily<br />
a pronoun may function as the object <strong>of</strong> more<br />
than one verb or preposition. But a relative pronoun<br />
that follows a preposition cannot also<br />
function as the object <strong>of</strong> another preposition.<br />
We may say a school which they sent their<br />
children to and thought highly <strong>of</strong>. but not a<br />
school to which they sent their children and<br />
thought highly <strong>of</strong>.<br />
relic; relict. A relic is a surviving memorial <strong>of</strong><br />
something past (The hitching post is a relic <strong>of</strong><br />
horse and buggy days), an object having interest<br />
by reason <strong>of</strong> its age or its association with the<br />
past (The Museum contains a fine collection <strong>of</strong><br />
Indian relics), or a surviving trace <strong>of</strong> something<br />
(Funeral processions are a relic <strong>of</strong> barbarism).<br />
In ecclesiastical usage, especially in the Roman<br />
Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches, a relic<br />
designates the body or part <strong>of</strong> the body or :some<br />
personal belonging or memorial <strong>of</strong> a saint,<br />
martyr, or other sacred person, preserved as<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> veneration (Chaucer makes it plain<br />
that, in his opinion, the Pardoner’s relics were<br />
spurious). The plural, relics, has the special<br />
additional meaning <strong>of</strong> the remains <strong>of</strong> a deceased<br />
person (By law his relics must be disposed <strong>of</strong><br />
by an undertaker).<br />
Relict is no longer used as a synonym for<br />
relic. It now means the surviving member <strong>of</strong> a<br />
married pair, a widow or a widower, especially<br />
a widow, who, when the word is used at all, is<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> usually as the relict <strong>of</strong> so-and-so<br />
(He took to wife the virtuous Lady Emma,<br />
relict <strong>of</strong> King Ethelred). The word is now<br />
archaic and rare.<br />
religiosity. Although the primary meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
religiosity, as given in the dictionaries, is piety,<br />
devoutness, the quality <strong>of</strong> being religious, its<br />
secondary meaning <strong>of</strong> an affected or excessive<br />
devotion to religion is, in current usage, its chief<br />
meaning. Religiosity is a sort <strong>of</strong> religious, sentimentality,<br />
great enjoyment <strong>of</strong> religious feelings<br />
with very little awareness <strong>of</strong> any corresponding<br />
ethical feelings. Religiosity insists that<br />
there is something called religion wholly apart<br />
from any specific religion, something that has<br />
no creed nor dogma, no theology or scriptures,<br />
something which may be felt and need not be<br />
understood. There is much <strong>of</strong> it abroad and a<br />
name for it is needed.<br />
remain may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in remain silent,<br />
remain calm. It may also be followed by an<br />
adverb describing remain, as in remain quietly<br />
in the corner.<br />
remainder. See balance.<br />
remains. This noun has no singular form. It is<br />
usually treated as a plural, as in the remains <strong>of</strong><br />
the meal are in the refrigerator. But it ma:y also<br />
be treated as a singular, as in the remains I<strong>of</strong> the<br />
417 remembrance<br />
meal is in the refrigerator. It cannot be used<br />
with a word implying number. We do not speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> several remains.<br />
remark; comment; observation. A remark is usually<br />
a casual and passing expression <strong>of</strong> thought<br />
or opinion (Except for a few remarks, she had<br />
nothing to say about the play). A comment<br />
expresses a judgment or explains a particular<br />
point (If I might be permitted to make a comment,<br />
I would say that the interpretation <strong>of</strong><br />
Lear’s madness is wholly at variance with what<br />
is made plain in the text). An observation suggests<br />
a basis <strong>of</strong> judgment and experience. Like<br />
comment, it implies a considered statement<br />
(After five years in Moscow, he was ready to<br />
set down his observations on the Soviet scene).<br />
remediable; remedial. Remediable means capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> being remedied (The faults in the political<br />
system are clearly remediable. Not until we<br />
have corrected our remediable ills dare we upbraid<br />
Providence). Remedial means affording<br />
remedy, tending to remedy something (Zf you<br />
take a remedial reading course, you will soon<br />
be able to read rapidly and to understand better<br />
what you have read).<br />
remember. When speaking <strong>of</strong> a past event, remember<br />
may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in I remember mailing the letter, or, if<br />
remember itself is in the past, by an infinitive,<br />
as in I remembered to mail it. When speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a future event, remember may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in remember to mail it, but<br />
not by the -ing form. Remember may always be<br />
followed by a clause, as in remember I will be<br />
there.<br />
remember; recollect; recall; reminisce. All <strong>of</strong><br />
these words refer to bringing back before the<br />
conscious mind things which exist in the memory.<br />
Remember implies that a thing exists in the<br />
memory, though not actually present in the<br />
thoughts at the moment, and that it can be<br />
called up without effort (I will remember the<br />
raid as long as I live). Recall, a rather conversational<br />
word, implies a voluntary effort, but<br />
not a great one (I recognized his face but<br />
couldn’t recall his name). Recollect implies an<br />
earnest voluntary effort to remember some<br />
definite, desired fact (Try to recollect where you<br />
were on the night <strong>of</strong> June 17). Reminisce means<br />
to indulge in reminiscence, the act <strong>of</strong> remembering<br />
one’s past. It <strong>of</strong>ten implies a narration <strong>of</strong><br />
what is remembered (When old college classmates<br />
get together they begin by reminiscing<br />
over old times). In this sense it is almost a<br />
vogue word and greatly overused. See also<br />
re-collect; recollect.<br />
remembrance; recollection; reminiscence; memory.<br />
In one <strong>of</strong> its senses, memory means a mental<br />
impression retained (My earliest memory<br />
is <strong>of</strong> getting lost in a strange town). Remembrance<br />
is basically synonymous with memory<br />
in this sense, though it tends to be used only in<br />
rather solemn references (In remembrance <strong>of</strong><br />
their sacrifice). Recollection implies a deliberate<br />
effort in bringing back to mind (How dear
emembrance 418<br />
to my heart are the scenes <strong>of</strong> my cltildhoodl<br />
When fond recollection presents them to view).<br />
Reminiscence, generally plural, means recollections<br />
narrated or told. Recollections and reminiscences<br />
are the staple <strong>of</strong> writers <strong>of</strong> memoirs<br />
and autobiography (My Recollections <strong>of</strong> Lord<br />
Byron, Men and Memories: Recollections <strong>of</strong><br />
William Rothenstein, Carlyle’s Reminiscences,<br />
and soon).<br />
remembrance; reminder. A reminder is some<br />
thing which causes one to remember, usually<br />
at some fitting or necessary time (Tie this string<br />
on your finger as a reminder). A remembrance<br />
is something which serves to hold something<br />
or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, someone continually in the<br />
memory, usually with fondness or affection<br />
(Keep this ring as a remembrance).<br />
remit; send. In America remit means primarily<br />
to transmit or send money to a person or place<br />
(Please remit). This meaning is known in England<br />
but is not common. This is the only sense<br />
in which remit means send. In some <strong>of</strong> its less<br />
common senses, remit may mean to send back,<br />
or give back (He remitted the fine) or, in law,<br />
to send back a case to an inferior court.<br />
remittance; money. Remittance is a commercial<br />
term to describe money or its equivalent sent<br />
from one place to another (Enclosed find my<br />
remittance in the amount <strong>of</strong> $25.00). It is not<br />
to be used as a term for money, however, in<br />
social, as opposed to business, relations. When<br />
SO used, it is affected, a sort <strong>of</strong> euphemism to<br />
avoid SO coarse a word as money. A remittance<br />
man (the term is dying out, though not the practice<br />
upon which it is based) is one living abroad<br />
who depends for support on money sent from<br />
home, money which is sent on condition that<br />
he remain abroad and not come home to disgrace<br />
by his presence the respectable members<br />
<strong>of</strong> his family.<br />
remove is one <strong>of</strong> those words that now seem<br />
slightly pompous, with an archaic flavor, to the<br />
English but are in everyday use in America<br />
where Remove your hats or Let us remove your<br />
garbage and similar public notices strike no one<br />
as incongruous.<br />
remuneration is a rather l<strong>of</strong>ty and affected word<br />
for pay. It is an apologetic word. It implies that<br />
the money is a base and inadequate recompense<br />
for the service <strong>of</strong>fered or the loss endured. But<br />
it is quite unnecessary. Most people today are<br />
quite willing to accept pay-if there’s enough<br />
<strong>of</strong> it.<br />
Renaissance; renaissance; renascence. As a synonym<br />
for rebirth, renascence is the correct word<br />
(The phoenix, the great poetic image <strong>of</strong> renascence,<br />
fascinated the old poets). For a revival<br />
in art or literature, either renaissance or renascence<br />
will do, although renascence is preferred<br />
(Theodore Watts-Dunton, Poetry and<br />
the Renascence <strong>of</strong> Wonder). The Renaissance<br />
is the word to describe the activity, spirit, or<br />
time <strong>of</strong> the great revival <strong>of</strong> art, letters, and<br />
learning in Europe during the fourteenth, fifteenth,<br />
and sixteenth centuries, marking the<br />
transition from the medieval to the modern<br />
world (Walter Pater, The Renaissance), or the<br />
forms and treatments in art used during this<br />
period.<br />
rend. The past tense is rent. The participle is also<br />
rent.<br />
render; make. English and American authorities<br />
do not agree on permissible uses <strong>of</strong> render. The<br />
English will not accept render in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
cause to be (The blow rendered him helpless)<br />
but this meaning is standard in American usage.<br />
In the context <strong>of</strong> making a decision, render is<br />
felt, in American usage, to be somewhat more<br />
formal than make; ordinary people make decisions,<br />
judges render them when they deliver<br />
them <strong>of</strong>ficially as judgments.<br />
As a synonym for sing or play (Miss Bile<br />
will now render a charming lullaby <strong>of</strong> her own<br />
composition), render is stilted since it means<br />
more than these-to bring out the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
by performance, execution, or interpretation.<br />
Such highfalutin words, by promising much,<br />
place the performer at a disadvantage.<br />
render service. See service.<br />
rendezvous. The plural is rendezvous.<br />
rendition; performance. Rendition means primarily<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> rendering, the action <strong>of</strong> restoring,<br />
surrendering, yielding. In America, especially,<br />
it is used to mean the translation <strong>of</strong> a text<br />
(I will not omit mention <strong>of</strong> Calverley’s complete<br />
rendition <strong>of</strong> Theocritus) and performance,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> a role or a piece <strong>of</strong> music (The festivities<br />
were enlivened by the rendition <strong>of</strong> a few instrumental<br />
selections). British usage prefers rendering<br />
to rendition in the senses <strong>of</strong> translation and<br />
performance.<br />
Unless some unusual interpretation is attempted<br />
or accomplished, performance is definitely<br />
the word to be preferred as the term for<br />
singing or acting. Rendition implies the bringing<br />
out <strong>of</strong> a full or special meaning and while a<br />
good performance does this a bad performance<br />
does not and in either case the performer suffers<br />
from great claims being made for him.<br />
renown. See celebrity.<br />
rent. See hire; and rend.<br />
reoccurrence; recurrence. Reoccurrence, a coinage<br />
<strong>of</strong> the late nineteenth century and still, happily,<br />
exceedingly rare, is really no more than a<br />
blunder for recurrence, an established and useful<br />
word, euphonious and satisfactory. There is<br />
no need for the more awkward form and most<br />
dictionaries do not recognize its existence.<br />
repairable; reparable. Reparable is the genera1<br />
term to describe that which is capable <strong>of</strong> being<br />
repaired or remedied (The mistake is easily<br />
reparable). Repairable is preferred by authorities<br />
in England to describe material objects<br />
which are reparable (A survey is needed to determine<br />
to what extent the buildings damaged<br />
by bombs are repairable). In American usage,<br />
reparable is preferred in all circumstances. The<br />
negatives are irreparable and unrepairable.<br />
repartee. See answer.<br />
repast; collation; meal; banquet. Repast for meal<br />
is straining a little to be elegant and sumpruous<br />
repast and rich repast are journalistic cliches.
If a general term is wanted, meal is best and if<br />
a specific meal is referred to it is better to call<br />
it breakfast, lunch, or dinner. Collation is a very<br />
elegant word, now restricted to a very elegant<br />
light meal, and usually one served at some<br />
other time than a regular meal time. In the<br />
monasteries a collation was an unusually light<br />
meal permitted on days <strong>of</strong> general fast. It derives<br />
its name from the practice in the monasteries<br />
<strong>of</strong> reading the Collations, the lives <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Church Fathers, during such meals. A banquet<br />
is a ceremonious public dinner. In former times<br />
ceremonious public dinners were occasions for<br />
huge gormandizing and much prestige display<br />
<strong>of</strong> vast quantities <strong>of</strong> food, so that a banquet was<br />
a feast, far more sumptuous than a mere meal<br />
such as would be eaten at home. The fare at<br />
most banquets today, however, is inferior to<br />
what those who attend them would require <strong>of</strong> a<br />
good meal at home and the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word is shifting, emphasizing rather the ceremoniousness,<br />
the boredom, and the forced attendance.<br />
repeat; recapitulate; rehearse; reiterate; iterate.<br />
To repeat is to do or say something over again<br />
(If you will only repeat the order. He repeated<br />
the gesture with an air <strong>of</strong> defiance). It is the<br />
common, everyday working word.<br />
Recapitulate is a formal word, designating<br />
the exact naming <strong>of</strong> points that have been made<br />
before, the summing up <strong>of</strong> the principal heads<br />
<strong>of</strong> a previous discussion (When they met, Sir<br />
William began by recapitulating what had been<br />
said at the last meeting).<br />
Though the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> rehearse is<br />
now to recite or act a play or a part in private<br />
by way <strong>of</strong> practice before a public performance,<br />
its basic meaning was to repeat, and this meaning<br />
is still to be met with in literature and,<br />
occasionally, in speech. When, for example, it<br />
is said in Judges that the governors <strong>of</strong> Israel<br />
shall rehearse the righteous acts <strong>of</strong> the Lord,<br />
it is plain that the common modern meaning<br />
could not pertain.<br />
To reiterate is to do-or especially to saysomething<br />
repeatedly over and over again (He<br />
reiteraled his complaints until the company was<br />
moved from pity to boredom. He reiterated his<br />
visits to the flagon so <strong>of</strong>ten that at length his<br />
senses were overpowered). Iterate means to<br />
repeat over and over, but reiterate (which would<br />
seem a redundancy except that it describes a<br />
redundancy) has replaced it and iterate is now<br />
solely literary.<br />
repeat the same is redundant. Repetition is the<br />
recurrence <strong>of</strong> the same thing. To say He repeats<br />
the same stories over and over is to be doubly<br />
redundant, though it may be argued that the<br />
redundance <strong>of</strong> the complaint merely echoes, for<br />
effect, the redundance <strong>of</strong> its provocation.<br />
repel; repulse. To repel is to drive or force back,<br />
to excite feelings <strong>of</strong> distaste or aversion (This<br />
insolence shall be repelled, and quickly. The<br />
company, which had come to admire, found<br />
themselves repelled by the poet’s insuflerable<br />
egotism). To repulse is to drive back or repel<br />
4119 repetition<br />
in a stronger sense, to reject (The artack was<br />
repulsed with heavy loss <strong>of</strong> life. She repulsed<br />
every suitor who proposed marriage).<br />
Repulse is sometimes used as if it were a<br />
back formation from repulsive. But this is an<br />
error. One who feels repulsion is repelled not<br />
repulsed.<br />
repellent and repulsive both mean causing aversion.<br />
Repellent is the milder term. It means distasteful<br />
(I found his effusiveness repellent).<br />
Repulsive indicates that a much stronger aversion<br />
has been caused, that the person or thing<br />
alluded to is grossly or coarsely <strong>of</strong>fensive to<br />
one’s taste or feelings and is regarded with the<br />
strongest aversion and disgust (Burns’s world<br />
<strong>of</strong> Scotch drink, Scotch religion, and Scotch<br />
manners, is <strong>of</strong>ten a harsh, a sordid, a repulsive<br />
world).<br />
Repellent is sometimes used in America as a<br />
shortening <strong>of</strong> water-repellent in the advertising<br />
<strong>of</strong> certain outer garments which are not waterpro<strong>of</strong><br />
but will withstand a light drizzle. This is<br />
linguistically sound but psychologically unfortunate<br />
since it is certain to evoke the more<br />
common meaning <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
repent and regret are not synonyms. One regrets<br />
that <strong>of</strong> which one repents, but one does not<br />
always repent <strong>of</strong> that which one regrets.<br />
That action is regretted which is looked back<br />
on with sorrow or grief or causes mental distress<br />
and makes us wish that we had not committed<br />
it. But bad men <strong>of</strong>ten suffer such feelings when<br />
they have inadvertently done good or have<br />
neglected an opportunity to do ill. If one repents<br />
he feels sorrow for some bad action. He feels<br />
regret but in addition contrition, compunction,<br />
a desire to amend his ways and to make amends<br />
to those who may have been injured by his<br />
action.<br />
One regrets something. One repents for or oj<br />
something. See also regret; be sorry.<br />
repertoire; repertory. Both <strong>of</strong> these words may be<br />
used to describe the list <strong>of</strong> dramas, operas, parts<br />
or pieces which a company, actor, singer, or the<br />
like, is prepared to perform (She had a large<br />
repertoire <strong>of</strong> folk songs). Repertoire is the preferred<br />
term. Repertory alone may be used to<br />
describe a type <strong>of</strong> theatrical producing organization<br />
wherein one company prepares several<br />
plays or operas and produces them alternately<br />
(Most good young actors learn their pr<strong>of</strong>ession<br />
in repertory). It is also the word for a store or<br />
stock <strong>of</strong> things available, a storehouse. The<br />
adjective is repertory (Shakespeare’s wus a repertory<br />
company).<br />
repetition. The recurrence <strong>of</strong> a word or even <strong>of</strong><br />
a sound in a sentence or a paragraph can be<br />
annoying to the reader and a careful writer will<br />
avoid this fault where such a recurrence is not<br />
essential to the expression <strong>of</strong> his thought or<br />
where the avoidance <strong>of</strong> it is not too obvious.<br />
Of the two faults, the obvious avoidance <strong>of</strong><br />
repetition is probably greater and more wide<br />
spread than repetition. It accounts for a great<br />
deal <strong>of</strong> that sort <strong>of</strong> writing (<strong>of</strong> which Mr.<br />
Charles Morton <strong>of</strong> the Atlantic Monthly has
made such a delightful and instructive collection)<br />
which having once mentioned a banana<br />
refers to it on the next occasion as “an elongated<br />
yellow fruit.” For some reason-possibly because<br />
it’s a fault which teachers find easy to<br />
identify-grade- and high-school pupils are<br />
taught that repetition is one <strong>of</strong> the gravest <strong>of</strong><br />
all faults in writing and that no expression can<br />
be too stilted, pompous, polysyllabic or ludicrous<br />
so long as it enables one to avoid using<br />
a word twice in the same sentence. The writing<br />
<strong>of</strong> Thomas Wolfe should serve as a pleasant<br />
corrective to this illusion.<br />
replace and supplant both refer to putting one<br />
thing or person in the place <strong>of</strong> another, but they<br />
convey different senses. Replace means to take<br />
the place <strong>of</strong>, to succeed (John was elected to<br />
replace Joe on the board when Joe was made<br />
general director). Replace may also mean to<br />
restore, to return (Please replace all divots).<br />
Supplant implies that that which takes the<br />
other’s place has ousted the former holder, and<br />
usurped the position or function, especially by<br />
art or fraud (Jacob supplanted his brother,<br />
Esau).<br />
replete means abundantly supplied or provided<br />
(His lectures were replete with vivid illustrations<br />
and witty asides), stuffed or gorged with<br />
food and drink (After such a feast who would<br />
not be replete?). Replete does not mean complete<br />
or furnished with, for neither <strong>of</strong> these<br />
terms conveys the sense <strong>of</strong> filled to ovirflowing.<br />
It would be inaccurate, for example, to describe<br />
a tool chest as replete with the latest equipment<br />
unless it was not only adequate and complete<br />
but also crowded.<br />
replica; copy. Strictly speaking, a replica is a copy<br />
or reproduction <strong>of</strong> a work <strong>of</strong> art by the maker<br />
<strong>of</strong> the original (Some authorities prefer his<br />
replicas to his originals). A replica differs from<br />
a copy in that it is held to have the same right<br />
as the first made to be considered an original<br />
work. Authorities in England reject, while advanced<br />
American authorities accept, replica in<br />
the loose sense <strong>of</strong> a copy or reproductidn (The<br />
reulica <strong>of</strong> Gainsborounh’s Blue BOY. done bv a<br />
local craftsman in b& <strong>of</strong> coloreh’ glass, was<br />
much admired). The careful writer, nonetheless,<br />
will prefer copy in such contexts.<br />
reply. See auswer.<br />
report. When used in an active form, report may<br />
be followed by a clause, as in he reports he has<br />
seen her, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
he reports seeing her. When report is used in a<br />
passive form it may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he is reported to have seen her.<br />
repress. See check.<br />
reprisal. See retaliation.<br />
repudiate. See deny.<br />
repulse. See repel.<br />
repulsive. See repellent.<br />
reputation. See character.<br />
reputed; reported. That is reputed which is accounted<br />
or commonly supposed to be such,<br />
so held in general estimation or opinion (The<br />
reputed owner <strong>of</strong> the place is a respectable<br />
suburbanite). That is reported which is communicated.<br />
But reputed implies an evaluation,<br />
estimate or opinion; whereas reported is merely<br />
communicated. The reputed owner may, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, be reported as the owner; but that is<br />
not the same thing, for an admitted owner<br />
might also be reported as owner.<br />
requests. See imperative mode.<br />
require. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I require him lo help me, or by a<br />
that clause with the clause verb a subjunctive or<br />
a subjunctive equivalent, as in I require that he<br />
help me. The -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb following require<br />
always has a passive meaning, as in he<br />
requires helping. See demand.<br />
required; compulsory; prescribed. In American<br />
schools and college-s those courses which are<br />
obligatory are called required courses (One year<br />
<strong>of</strong> English composition is required in nearly all<br />
our colleges). In England the equivalent term is<br />
compulsory or prescribed (To the amazement <strong>of</strong><br />
his tutor, he finished the prescribed reading for<br />
the degree in a year).<br />
requirement; requisite. A requirement is something<br />
demanded <strong>of</strong> a person in accordance with<br />
certain fixed regulations (A knowledge <strong>of</strong> Latin<br />
is no longer a requirement for entering the slate<br />
university) or something demanded by a person<br />
as essential to the accomplishment <strong>of</strong> some task<br />
(His first requirement was a long piece <strong>of</strong><br />
copper wire. The army regards discipline as a<br />
fundamental requirement). A requisite is something<br />
required by the nature <strong>of</strong> the case, some<br />
factor which is judged necessary under the circumstance-s<br />
(The knave is handsome, young,<br />
and hath all those requisites in him that folly<br />
and green minds look after). (For requisite as<br />
an adjective, see necessary.)<br />
re-search; research. Re-search, usable as noun<br />
and verb, means to search again, explore something<br />
already explored (I have searched rhe<br />
attic thoroughly but will re-search i! if you<br />
insist on it). Research, used chiefly as a noun,<br />
means diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation<br />
into a subject in order to discover<br />
facts or principles (Research into causes <strong>of</strong> the<br />
common cold has so far been remarkably unfruitful).<br />
Research has become very popular in the<br />
United States since the outbreak <strong>of</strong> World War<br />
II. As Henry D. Smyth has observed, the idea<br />
that the object <strong>of</strong> research is new knowledge<br />
does not seem to be widely understood and “a<br />
schoolboy looking up the meaning <strong>of</strong> a word<br />
in the dictionary is now said to be doing<br />
research.” Indeed, it has been debased even<br />
further. Research is frequently used to describe<br />
reading by those to whom reading, apparently.<br />
is a recherchC activity, and for many a graduate<br />
student it is a euphemism for wholesale plagiarism.<br />
The word needs a rest or at least less<br />
promiscuous handling.<br />
resent may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in I resent being told that, but not by an<br />
infinitive. I resent to be told thai is unacceptable.<br />
Resent may also be followed by a that
daw, as in I resent that he is here, but the<br />
-ing construction, as in I resent his being here<br />
is preferred.<br />
reside; live; dwell. Live is the word to describe<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> occupying a permanent home (There<br />
was a jolly miller/ And he lived by the Dee).<br />
Dwell is old-fashioned (the father <strong>of</strong> such as<br />
dwell in tents), journalese (Mrs. Merrywea,fher-<br />
Smythe is dwelling at the country club while<br />
her Larchwood home is being completely) redecorated),<br />
or poetic (I dreamt that I dwelt in<br />
marble hulls). Reside is pretentious, unless it<br />
describes the act <strong>of</strong> living in an important or<br />
pretentious residence (The governor resides at<br />
Albany) or is used, as <strong>of</strong> a quality, to mean to<br />
inhere or to be inherent in (There <strong>of</strong>ten resides<br />
a deep stubbornness in these quiet natures:).<br />
residence. The house in which one resides is<br />
legally one’s residence, regardless <strong>of</strong> its size<br />
or condition. Otherwise, however, resia’ence<br />
implies size and elegance <strong>of</strong> structure and surroundings<br />
(Blenheim Palace, the residence <strong>of</strong><br />
the dukes <strong>of</strong> Marlborough). To use it as a<br />
synonym for house (Ah, here we are, my<br />
modest residence) is pretentious or forcedly<br />
humorous. See also house; home.<br />
residue. See balance.<br />
residuum. The plural is residua.<br />
resign may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb with the preposition to, as in I have resigned<br />
myself to going, or by an infinitive, as<br />
in I have resigned myself to go. Both forms are<br />
acceptable in the United States but the -ing<br />
construction is generally preferred.<br />
resignation. See patience.<br />
resin; rosin. Resin is the general name to describe<br />
any <strong>of</strong> a class <strong>of</strong> nonvolatile, solid or semisolid<br />
organic substances, such as copal and mastic,<br />
obtained directIy from certain plants as exudations<br />
or derived from various products by<br />
special processes, and used in such things as<br />
medicine and varnish. Resin properly describes<br />
a substance in its natural state. Rosin, on the<br />
other hand, describes the result <strong>of</strong> a process.<br />
It is the hard brittle resin left after distilling <strong>of</strong>f<br />
the oil <strong>of</strong> turpentine from the crude oleoresin<br />
<strong>of</strong> the pine, used in making varnish, for rubbing<br />
on violin bows, billiard cue tips, the canvas floor<br />
<strong>of</strong> boxing rings, and the like.<br />
resist may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in he resisted going. It is also lheard<br />
with the infinitive, as in he resisted to go, but<br />
this is not standard.<br />
resolve. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he resolved to go. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb is used it must be introduced by the<br />
preposition on, as in he resolved on going. The<br />
two forms are equally acceptable and th’ere is<br />
no difference in meaning between them. See<br />
decide.<br />
resolve; resolution. These nouns are distinguishable.<br />
A resolve is a conclusion, a determination<br />
made, as to follow some course <strong>of</strong> action<br />
(That’s an admirable resolve; I hope you’ll<br />
stick to it). In certain contexts resolution is used<br />
in the same sense, as in a New Year’s resolu-<br />
421 responsible<br />
iion. Primarily, however, resolution means a<br />
formal determination or expression <strong>of</strong> opinion<br />
<strong>of</strong> a deliberative assembly or other body <strong>of</strong><br />
persons (Resolutions as used in the practice <strong>of</strong><br />
the Ohio General Assembly are <strong>of</strong> two kinds:<br />
House or Senate and Joint Resolution). Resolution<br />
also means a solution or explanation, as<br />
<strong>of</strong> a problem or a doubtful point, and is to be<br />
preferred to resolve as the word for the mental<br />
state or quality <strong>of</strong> being resolved, resolute, and<br />
firm <strong>of</strong> purpose.<br />
resort; resource. See recourse.<br />
respectable; respectful. Respectable means worthy<br />
<strong>of</strong> respect or esteem, estimable, worthy (No<br />
respectable girl would associate with a man <strong>of</strong><br />
his reputation), <strong>of</strong> good social standing and<br />
reputation (Her main consideration in renting<br />
was to find a respectable neighborhood), pertaining<br />
to or appropriate to such standing (He<br />
had a quite respectable command <strong>of</strong> French).<br />
It also means <strong>of</strong> moderate excellence, fairly<br />
good (Though he was not brilliant, his lecture<br />
was a respectable performance). Respectful, a<br />
word with fewer uses, means full <strong>of</strong>, characterized<br />
by, or showing respect (His very look drew<br />
respectful attention from the company).<br />
respective; respectively. The use <strong>of</strong> respective<br />
and respectively can become a habit in speech.<br />
It is one to be on the lookout for and to check<br />
in time.<br />
Respective is an adjective which means pertaining<br />
individually or severally to each <strong>of</strong> a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> persons or things. Respectively is an<br />
adverb formed on this adjective. In certain<br />
situations the words are desirable, even necessary,<br />
as in Kit and Nick were given a pistol and<br />
a teddy bear respectively. Here we must be<br />
informed that it was Kit who got the pistol<br />
and Nick who got the teddy bear. Without<br />
“respectively” either one might have received<br />
either gift or each might have received two<br />
gifts. There are many circumstances, however,<br />
under which respective and respectively are unnecessary.<br />
For instance, respective is not needed<br />
in the statement He gave each organization its<br />
respective share <strong>of</strong> the total collection. It would<br />
be just as effective to say He gave each organization<br />
its share <strong>of</strong> the total collection. If the<br />
shares were <strong>of</strong> different amounts and he saw to<br />
it that each organization received the amount<br />
it was entitled to (and that is <strong>of</strong>ten the sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> idea that is intended to be conveyed by<br />
respective in such contexts), the correct word<br />
would be proper or due or agreed or something<br />
like that. Even where respective and respectively<br />
are used correctly they might be omitted and<br />
the sentence rewritten more concisely and<br />
clearly (Kit was given a pistol, Nick a teddy<br />
bear).<br />
response. See answer.<br />
responsible. British authorities insist that responsible<br />
be restricted to human beings. American<br />
and English usage alike consider as basic senses<br />
<strong>of</strong> responsible: answerable or accountable, as<br />
for something within one’s power or control or<br />
management-followed by to or for (The
usiness manager is responsible to the trustees<br />
for all the financial affairs <strong>of</strong> the university);<br />
involving accountability or responsibility (He<br />
held a responsible position). Only American<br />
usage permits responsible in the much looser<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> the cause <strong>of</strong>, chargeable with being the<br />
author <strong>of</strong>, the cause or occasion <strong>of</strong> something<br />
-followed by for (Heavy rains were responsible<br />
for the deplorable condition <strong>of</strong> the country<br />
roads).<br />
rest. This verb may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing what rests, as in you must rest<br />
content. Jt. may also be followed by an adverb<br />
describing the resting, as in rest quietly. There<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten no difference in meaning between the<br />
two constructions.<br />
rest (in the sense <strong>of</strong> remainder). See balance.<br />
rest upon one’s laurels. Whoever first thought<br />
<strong>of</strong> a triumphant victor taking <strong>of</strong>f his laurel<br />
wreath and making a mattress <strong>of</strong> it had a happy<br />
figure <strong>of</strong> speech to describe those who, having<br />
once accomplished something notable, have<br />
since given up all exertion and live solely on<br />
their reputations. But the expression is now<br />
worn out.<br />
restive; restless, Restive means impatient <strong>of</strong><br />
control, restraint, or delay, refractory, refusing<br />
to go forward, as a horse (He became restive<br />
under the harsh discipline <strong>of</strong> the lieutenant).<br />
Yet the word impatient connotes restlessness,<br />
and perhaps one can only say that restiveness<br />
is restlessness traceable to certain causes, such<br />
as restraint. Restless is a general term meaning<br />
characterized by or showing inability to remain<br />
at rest. A sick man might be restless with fever.<br />
He would be restive at the restrictions imposed<br />
on him by his physician, particularly as he<br />
grew well and found the restrictions increasingly<br />
annoying.<br />
restrain. See check, constrain.<br />
restrictive clauses. A defining clause that is essential<br />
to the meaning <strong>of</strong> a statement, such as Z<br />
told you about in the man Z told you about is<br />
here now, is called a restrictive clause. Clauses<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind must not be separated from the<br />
noun they qualify by a comma or any other<br />
form <strong>of</strong> punctuation. (For the use <strong>of</strong> that or<br />
which in a defining clause, see that; which.)<br />
resume; continue. <strong>Cont</strong>inue is the more inclusive<br />
term. It means either to go on with a course <strong>of</strong><br />
action (We will continue with our experiments<br />
until we find a solution) or to go on after a<br />
suspension or interruption (Zf you have had<br />
enough rest, we will continue with the lesson).<br />
Resume may be substituted for the second <strong>of</strong><br />
these two senses <strong>of</strong> continue (After a brief stop,<br />
he resumed his ride). Indeed, because it is<br />
specific, it is usually preferable to continue in<br />
this sense.<br />
resume; r&urn& Resume is a verb, meaning to<br />
take up or go on with again after an interruption<br />
(The debate was resumed as soon as<br />
the guards had ejected the heckler).<br />
RCsumC is taken from a French noun formed<br />
on the past participle <strong>of</strong> rbumer. It means a<br />
summary, a summing up, that which has been<br />
422<br />
taken up again (In his notebooks he wrote<br />
r&urn& <strong>of</strong> the various arguments).<br />
retaliation; reprisal. Both <strong>of</strong> these words mean<br />
the return <strong>of</strong> like for like, the repayment <strong>of</strong><br />
injury in kind, “an eye for an eye and a tooth<br />
for a tooth,” so that the injury done back<br />
tallies exactly with that done.<br />
Reprisal is the more ferocious term. It<br />
describes the infliction <strong>of</strong> similar or severer<br />
injury on the enemy in warfare, in retaliation<br />
for some injury, as by the punishment or execution<br />
<strong>of</strong> hostages or prisoners (Zn reprisal for<br />
the murder <strong>of</strong> a German soldier, the Germans<br />
wiped out one whole French town). Retaliation<br />
has milder connotations and is used in other<br />
circumstances (In retaliation for inconsiderate<br />
treatment by certain English people when he<br />
was a boy, he was, as an editor, consistently<br />
anti-British and his infiuence was tremendous).<br />
reticent; secretive; taciturn; laconic. One is reticent<br />
who is disposed to be silent, who has an<br />
inclination to keep his own counsel, is reserved,<br />
not inclined to speak freely (Like most tightfisted<br />
men, he was exceedingly reticent about<br />
his will). It may describe habitual behavior or<br />
special behavior on a particular occasion (That<br />
evening he was surprisingly reticent about his<br />
war experiences).<br />
Secretive means extremely reticent, having a<br />
disposition to secrecy. It is a stronger word than<br />
reticent and carries a slightly pejorative connotation.<br />
Reticence is <strong>of</strong>ten admirable; secrecy<br />
suggests furtiveness and implies there is something<br />
improper to be hidden (These secretive<br />
natures delight in trifling stratagems).<br />
Taciturn describes one who is habitually<br />
inclined to silence, reserved in speech, reticent<br />
in an uncheerful manner (The rural New<br />
Englander is reputed to be taciturn). Laconic,<br />
unlike taciturn, is a rather laudatory term. It<br />
means using few words, expressing much in a<br />
few words, being concise (His political opponents<br />
considered Coolidge taciturn; his friends<br />
praised him for being laconic). Laconic and<br />
taciturn are <strong>of</strong>ten point-<strong>of</strong>-view words, the<br />
choice <strong>of</strong>ten revealing more about the writer<br />
or speaker than about the one written or spoken<br />
about.<br />
retire is now a little over-elegant and slightly<br />
affected when used to mean to go to bed. To<br />
retire is, strictly, to withdraw. And one retires<br />
from something or to something. The continuance<br />
<strong>of</strong> its use in America may have been due<br />
to prudery, for when legs were referred to as<br />
“limbs” the word bed was unmentionable.<br />
Charles Dickens on his first American visit<br />
had considerable trouble with two Misses<br />
Smith who were singing in an operetta <strong>of</strong> his,<br />
The Village Coquettes. They objected to the<br />
“immodesty” <strong>of</strong> certain lines and definitely<br />
refused to sing one quatrain:<br />
A winter‘s night has its delight,<br />
Well-warmed to bed they go:<br />
A winter’s day we’re blithe and gay,<br />
Snipe-shooting in the snow.
They were “horrified,” Dickens wrote, “at the<br />
bare notion <strong>of</strong> anyone going to bed.” So for<br />
the objectionable line he substituted:<br />
Around old stories go.<br />
But all has changed. In literature, at least,<br />
the bed is now the most frequently mentioned<br />
<strong>of</strong> all articles <strong>of</strong> furniture and we may go there<br />
without shame or circumlocution.<br />
retort. See answer.<br />
retort courteous. Touchstone in As You Like It<br />
(V, iv) names for Jaques the “degrees <strong>of</strong> the<br />
lie,” the steps by which timid gallants who<br />
would seem, for honor’s sake, to be quarrelsome<br />
might bluster and threaten without finally<br />
reaching the dreadful point at which they would<br />
have to draw their swords. The degrees werie the<br />
Retort Courteous, the Quip Modest, the Reply<br />
Churlish, the Repro<strong>of</strong> Valiant, the Countercheck<br />
Quarrelsome, the Lie with Circumstance<br />
and, finally, the Lie Direct which, if not prefaced<br />
with a saving “if,” required a man to<br />
demand satisfaction. It is all very delightful<br />
and witty, but it is best to let Shakespeare and<br />
Touchstone have full credit for any part <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
Used by itself, the retort courteous is now<br />
hackneyed.<br />
retraction; retractation. In America the nsual<br />
word to describe the withdrawal <strong>of</strong> a promise,<br />
statement, or opinion is retraction (It was embarrassing<br />
to order the retraction <strong>of</strong> a commitment<br />
which should never have been made). In<br />
England the word is retract&ion (There are<br />
perhaps no contracts or engagements <strong>of</strong> which<br />
one can venture to say that there ought to be<br />
no liberty whatever <strong>of</strong> retractution).<br />
retreat; retire; withdraw. Retreat describes especially<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> drawing back in military<br />
operations (They had to retreat all the way<br />
from Moscow to the Prussian border). filetire<br />
may mean to draw away, as from battle or<br />
danger (The Mexicans retired and regrouped<br />
for a fresh attack), but it is more commonly<br />
a civilian term to describe withdrawal from<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice, business, or active life (Most men hope<br />
to be able to afford to retire at sixty-five). Withdraw,<br />
aside from its literal senses, means lto go<br />
apart or away, especially after a formal or<br />
ceremonial visit (He withdrew from the royal<br />
presence). It is also the term in parliamentary<br />
procedure for removing a motion or an amendment<br />
from consideration (I withdraw my<br />
motion).<br />
retrieve from its specific hunting sense <strong>of</strong> to<br />
search for and fetch wounded game (<strong>of</strong> dogs),<br />
has come to mean generally to recover or<br />
regain, especially to bring back to a farmer<br />
state <strong>of</strong> well-being or prosperity (The war gave<br />
him an opportunity to retrieve the family<br />
fortunes). Except in this last sense, however, or<br />
in the rare instances where it avoids ambiguity<br />
(such as retrieving an umbrella, where recovering<br />
would be open to another interpretation),<br />
retrieve is usually just a fancy word for s.aying<br />
what recover, find, get, or restore might express<br />
better.<br />
423 reverence<br />
retrospection. See hindsight.<br />
reveal. See disclose.<br />
revelation; disclosure. A disclosure is a making<br />
known, a revealing, an exhibition. It is a neutral<br />
word. The making known may be timely or<br />
untimely, advantageous or disadvantageous,<br />
honorable or shameful or neither one nor the<br />
other (The disclosure <strong>of</strong> the stores <strong>of</strong> Greek<br />
literature had wrought the revolution <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Renaissance. An unseasonable disclosure <strong>of</strong><br />
flashes <strong>of</strong> wit may do a man much harm. His<br />
reputation did not long survive these disclosures).<br />
A revelation is a striking disclosure,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> something not before realized. It is<br />
especially applied to the disclosure <strong>of</strong> great<br />
truths F{ divine or other supernatural means<br />
(When God declares any truth to us, this is a<br />
revelation. ‘Tis Revelation satisfies all doubts/<br />
Explains all mysteries except her own,/ And so<br />
illuminates the path <strong>of</strong> life). Literally the word<br />
means an unveiling and its use in such sentences<br />
as The revelation <strong>of</strong> her beauty left him speechless<br />
is not improper, but because <strong>of</strong> the strong<br />
theological connotations <strong>of</strong> revelation it is usually<br />
better to use disclosure in most contexts.<br />
Revelation(s). Strictly speaking, the last book <strong>of</strong><br />
the New Testament is Revelation. The Authorized<br />
or King James Version <strong>of</strong> the Bible calls<br />
it The Revelation <strong>of</strong> St. John the Divine. The<br />
Revised Standard Version calls it The Revelation<br />
to John. Revelations, however, is so widely<br />
used and has been used by so many distinguished<br />
scholars for so long that it may as<br />
well be accepted, at least in speech. The<br />
Revelations (a confusion <strong>of</strong> the correct The<br />
Revelation with the colloquial Revelations) is<br />
unacceptable.<br />
revenge. See avenge.<br />
reverence; revere; worship; venerate; adore.<br />
Reverence, when used as a verb, means to<br />
manifest a feeling or attitude <strong>of</strong> deep respect<br />
tinged with awe (In prayer the soul reverences<br />
the majesty <strong>of</strong> God). Venerate connotes a little<br />
less awe, full respect but less fear (We should<br />
venerate those who have become old without<br />
becoming selfish or peevish, who, knowing<br />
much, still have faith in and respect for their<br />
fellow men). Revere also suggests less awe than<br />
reverence (We <strong>of</strong>ten laugh in public at what we<br />
revere in private).<br />
To worship is to pay homage to a deity by<br />
outward forms, usually in places established or<br />
recognized by custom for that sole purpose (A<br />
man <strong>of</strong> Ethiopia . . . had come to Jerusalem for<br />
to worship-Acts). To adore is to pay divine<br />
honors to, to pay homage to a deity. It is usually<br />
an internal act or experience, not necessarily<br />
connected with any specific place or expressed in<br />
any prescribed form or manner. When applied to<br />
anything but a god, worship and adore are plainly<br />
hvuerbolical. _- -though<br />
even in the Bible worship<br />
is used to designate extreme deference to men<br />
(As Peter was coming in, Cornelius met him<br />
and fell down at his feet, and worshipped him<br />
-Acts 10:25). Worship has been greatly<br />
weakened by this hyperbolical use, so that it
everend 424<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten means no more than “be fond <strong>of</strong>” (For<br />
I loved that cook as a brother, I did,/ And the<br />
cook he worshipped me) and adore, once one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sublimest words in the language, is, as a<br />
pale synonym for like, a staple <strong>of</strong> school-girl<br />
gabble (Oh, Z adore fudge sundaes!).<br />
reverend is a title <strong>of</strong> respect given to clergymen.<br />
In the seventeenth century it was used as we<br />
now use doctor and pr<strong>of</strong>essor. That is, it was<br />
used without the article the and could stand<br />
immediately before a surname, as in Reverend<br />
Calvin. It could also be used with other titles,<br />
as in Reverend Bishop Hooper. Today in Great<br />
Britain, Reverend is used as we use Honorable.<br />
That is. the article the is required and the title<br />
cannot stand immediately before a surname.<br />
Either the given name or initials must be used,<br />
or some title <strong>of</strong> respect must take their place,<br />
as in the Reverend Edward Pusey or the<br />
Reverend Mr. Pusey.<br />
Both <strong>of</strong> these forms are standard in the<br />
United States todav. The older form. in which<br />
the word is treated like the word pr<strong>of</strong>essor, is<br />
preferred in the evangelical churches and<br />
wherever the New England influence is dominant.<br />
Where the contemporary British form is<br />
followed, the article the is sometimes omitted<br />
when the title is abbreviated, as in Rev. George<br />
Ellison.<br />
People who feel that the article the is required<br />
before Reverend cannot use the title as<br />
a form <strong>of</strong> address. But other people do use the<br />
title with a proper name in speaking to a<br />
clergyman, as in good morning Reverend<br />
Ellison. To use the title Reverend without a<br />
proper name is generally considered undignified.<br />
But it is so used occasionally by welleducated<br />
people, as in those who had not<br />
atained to military honors were either doctors,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essors, or reverends and we are not so<br />
meddlesome as you reverends are.<br />
Reverence, as an ecclesiastical title used in<br />
mentioning or addressing a clergyman, is preceded<br />
by your or his (His Reverence will not<br />
appear today. Your Reverence does me great<br />
honor in consenting to visit me). Such locutions<br />
are seldom used in America.<br />
reverend; reverent. Reverend means deserving<br />
reverence, worthy to be revered (Reverend<br />
fathers, the respect due to your age and<br />
authority . . .). Reverent means feeling, exhibiting,<br />
or characterized by reverence. Reverend<br />
is usually applied to the clergy. Reverent<br />
has more general application (He was a reverent<br />
student <strong>of</strong> nature).<br />
reversal and reversion refer to the act <strong>of</strong> turning<br />
something the reverse way. Reversal designates<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> reversing or an instance <strong>of</strong> reversing<br />
(This was a reversal <strong>of</strong> his previous position on<br />
the subject) or the state <strong>of</strong> being reversed (The<br />
demotion was a reversal in his career). In law<br />
a reversal is the revocation <strong>of</strong> a lower court’s<br />
decision by an appellate court.<br />
Reversion is perhaps best known as a legal<br />
term, to describe the returning <strong>of</strong> an estate to<br />
the grantor or his heirs after the interest<br />
granted expires, or an estate which so returns<br />
or the right <strong>of</strong> succeeding to an estate. It is also<br />
a term in biology to denote the reappearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> ancestral characters that have been absent<br />
in intervening generations, an atavism or return<br />
to an earlier or primitive type (Evolution ever<br />
climbing after some ideal good,/ And Reversion<br />
ever dragging Evolution in the mud-<br />
Tennyson). Reversion may also be used in such<br />
general senses as the act <strong>of</strong> turning something<br />
the reverse way or the state <strong>of</strong> being so turned.<br />
In these senses it is synonymous with reversal,<br />
though reversal is to be preferred. It has the<br />
distinctive general sense <strong>of</strong> the act <strong>of</strong> reverting,<br />
the returning to a former practice, belief, condition<br />
(The acceptance <strong>of</strong> Fort’s assumptions<br />
constitutes a reversion to the Dark Ages).<br />
reverse. See contrary.<br />
review and revue both derive from a French<br />
word meaning to see again.<br />
Of the two, review is used most frequently<br />
and in a variety <strong>of</strong> senses. It may describe a<br />
critical article or report, as in a periodical, on<br />
some literary work, commonly some work <strong>of</strong><br />
recent appearance (He wrote perceptive reviews<br />
for a well known periodical); a periodical publication<br />
containing articles on current events or<br />
affairs, books, art (The Quarterly Review and<br />
the Edinburgh Review dictated public opinion<br />
in early nineteenth century Britain); a viewing<br />
again, a second or repeated view <strong>of</strong> something<br />
(I’d appreciate a review <strong>of</strong> the last step you<br />
demonstrated); the process <strong>of</strong> going over a<br />
subject again in study or recitation in order to<br />
fix it in the memory or to summarize the facts,<br />
or an exercise <strong>of</strong> this kind (I won’t have much<br />
time for a review before the examination); an<br />
inspection, or examination by viewing, especially<br />
a formal inspection <strong>of</strong> any military or<br />
naval force, parade, or the like (At Midshipman<br />
School there was a review every Saturday<br />
morning) ; a viewing <strong>of</strong> the past, contemplation<br />
or consideration <strong>of</strong> past events, circumstances,<br />
or facts (Toynbee has arrived at his philosophy<br />
<strong>of</strong> history after a review <strong>of</strong> historical events);<br />
a general survey <strong>of</strong> something, especially in<br />
words, a report or account <strong>of</strong> something (He<br />
gave a review <strong>of</strong> the experiences which led to<br />
his decision); a judicial reexamination, as by a<br />
higher court, <strong>of</strong> the decision or proceedings in<br />
a case (His decision in the County Court is,<br />
<strong>of</strong> course, subject to review).<br />
Though review may also describe a form <strong>of</strong><br />
theatrical entertainment in which recent events,<br />
popular fads, etc., are parodied, or any group<br />
<strong>of</strong> skits, dances, and songs, the better word is<br />
revue (There are always a few revues on Broadway<br />
which are seen under unfortunate circumstances:<br />
the curtain is up).<br />
revolutionist; revolutionary. The English recognize<br />
only revolutionary and use it both as a<br />
noun and an adjective. Americans use revolutionary<br />
largely as an adjective meaning pertaining<br />
to, characterized by, or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> a
evolution, or complete or marked change (He<br />
introduced revolutionary techniques irr the<br />
teaching <strong>of</strong> languages). It also means subversive<br />
to established procedure or principles<br />
(Dostoevsky was arrested on charges <strong>of</strong> having<br />
plotted revolutionary activity) and has the still<br />
further meaning, not <strong>of</strong>ten used in common<br />
speech or writing, <strong>of</strong> revolving (His eyes<br />
glittered as they followed the revolutionary<br />
course <strong>of</strong> the roulette wheel).<br />
Though revolutionary may be used in<br />
America as a noun to describe one who advocates<br />
or takes part in a revolution, the more<br />
common term is revolutionist. This term is<br />
almost always reserved, however, for those<br />
engaged in or advocating political revolutions<br />
in other countries (The Mexican revolutifonists<br />
were soon brought under control by the government<br />
forces). Those who advocate any such<br />
changes in America are most commonly<br />
referred to now as subversives, for any word<br />
deriving from the word revolution sugge:sts to<br />
Americans the American Revolutionary War<br />
and hence creates considerable moral confusion.<br />
See also radical.<br />
rhetoric in the United States still means primarily<br />
the art or science <strong>of</strong> the specially literary uses<br />
<strong>of</strong> language, in prose or verse, or the art <strong>of</strong><br />
prose as opposed to verse. In England it is a<br />
disparaging term (Rhetoric is the harlot <strong>of</strong> the<br />
arts--Stanley Baldwin) meaning the ux <strong>of</strong><br />
exaggeration or display, in an unfavorable<br />
sense. This meaning is known and employed in<br />
America, but it is a secondary meaning.<br />
rhinoceros. The plural is rhinoceroses or rhinoceros<br />
or rhinocerotes, but not rhinoceri.<br />
rhyme and rime may both be used as noum and<br />
verbs to describe agreement in terminal sounds<br />
<strong>of</strong> lines or verse, or <strong>of</strong> words. Of the two, rime<br />
is the older, but since the seventeenth century<br />
rhyme has been more common. Rime, however,<br />
has never dropped out <strong>of</strong> use (Coleridge, The<br />
Rime <strong>of</strong> the Ancient Mariner) and recently it<br />
has been used in the title <strong>of</strong> an important discussion<br />
<strong>of</strong> modem prosody (Karl Shapiro, An<br />
Essay on Rime).<br />
rhyme; rhythm. Rhythm is a pattern <strong>of</strong> recurrence.<br />
Rhyme is <strong>of</strong>ten an element in the rh,ythm<br />
<strong>of</strong> English poetry, but there can be rh,ythm<br />
without rhyme and there is <strong>of</strong>ten rhyme with<br />
imperfect or no perceptible rhythm.<br />
Rhyme means agreement in the terminal<br />
sounds <strong>of</strong> lines in verse, or <strong>of</strong> words (In the<br />
heroic couplet the rhymes are paired: “The<br />
hungry judges soon the sentence sign,/ And<br />
wretches hung that jurymen may dine”). It may<br />
also mean verse or poetry having such correspondence<br />
in the terminal sounds <strong>of</strong> the lines<br />
(Sometimes he expressed his thoughts in prose,<br />
at other times in rhyme) or a poem or a piece<br />
<strong>of</strong> verse having such correspondence I( The<br />
children were very fond <strong>of</strong> one particular<br />
nursery rhyme).<br />
Rhythm is a much broader term. It may be<br />
used <strong>of</strong> more types <strong>of</strong> literature and may be<br />
425 riches<br />
applied to forms <strong>of</strong> art other than verse. Basically<br />
it means movement or procedure with<br />
uniform recurrence <strong>of</strong> a beat, accent, or the<br />
like (In the human body there is rhythm in<br />
breathing, in the pulse, and in other subtler<br />
vital processes). It can describe any measured<br />
movement, as in dancing (A highly developed<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> rhythm is essential to a tennis player).<br />
In music, rhythm means the pattern <strong>of</strong> regular<br />
or irregular pulses caused by the occurrence <strong>of</strong><br />
strong and weak melodic and harmonic beats<br />
(It was written in an ordinary 4/4 rhythm). In<br />
prosody, rhythm means metrical or rhythmical<br />
form, meter (The basic rhythm in English<br />
poetry is iambic; that is, an unstressed syllable<br />
is followed by a stressed syllable). In art.<br />
rhithm means- a proper relation aid interde:<br />
pendence <strong>of</strong> parts with reference to one another<br />
and to an artistic whole (The paintings <strong>of</strong> Piero<br />
della Francesca have rhythm, while the imita-<br />
tive work <strong>of</strong> Kenyon Cox does not).<br />
rich; wealthy; opulent; affluent. All <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words indicate abundance in possessions. Rich<br />
is the general word, a word having many senses<br />
in addition to the primary one (as a rich tone<br />
or a rich color or a rich dessert). Often rich<br />
carries the implication <strong>of</strong> newly acquired possession<br />
(Texas is not as full <strong>of</strong> rich oil men as the<br />
newsmagazines and television jokes assume).<br />
Wealthy suggests permanence, stability, and<br />
appropriate surroundings (The DuPonts are u<br />
powerful and wealthy family). Both rich and<br />
wealthy may apply to a person, a family, a<br />
society, or a nation. Opulent and afluent are<br />
largely applicable to persons. Opulent suggests<br />
display <strong>of</strong> luxuriousness, outward signs <strong>of</strong> being<br />
rich (Gatsby was opulent in his lavish villa, his<br />
yellow car, his pink suits). Afluent, now slightly<br />
archaic, connotes a handsome income and a<br />
free expenditure <strong>of</strong> resources.<br />
rich as Croesos, as. Croesus, king <strong>of</strong> Lydia (560<br />
-c.540 B.C.), was famed among the Greeks<br />
for almost incredible wealth. His name became<br />
a proverb for riches, but few who use the<br />
hackneyed simile have now any knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
him.<br />
rich beyond the dreams <strong>of</strong> avarice. When Dr.<br />
Johnson, bustling about in his capacity as an<br />
executor at the sale <strong>of</strong> Thrale’s brewery in<br />
1781, said We are not here to sell a parcel <strong>of</strong><br />
boilers and vats, but the potenGaliry <strong>of</strong> growing<br />
rich beyond the dreams <strong>of</strong> avarice, he was quoting<br />
from The Gamester, a tragedy by Edward<br />
Moore ( 1753 j. Moore’s uhrase was imaginative<br />
. I<br />
and Johnson’s use <strong>of</strong> it ielicitous. But icis now<br />
exhausted by repetition and those who use it<br />
show neither imagination nor felicity.<br />
Richard Roe. See John Doe.<br />
riches was originally a singular word ending in<br />
an s sound, similar to finesse, and meant<br />
wealth. It is now treated as a plural, as in your<br />
riches are corrupted and your garments are<br />
moth-eaten, but there is no singular form a rich<br />
and<br />
_.<br />
the plural form cannot be used with a word<br />
implying number.
ickets 426<br />
rickets. This word is plural in form but is regu-<br />
1arlJi treated as a singular, as in rickets is not<br />
contagious and it affects the bones. We do not<br />
say rickets are or refer to the disease as them.<br />
The medical name for this disease is rachitis<br />
and a child who has rickets is said to be rachitic.<br />
The older English adjective rickety, which is<br />
derived from rickets, is now used chiefly <strong>of</strong><br />
inanimate objects, such as chairs.<br />
rid. The past tense is rid or ridded. The participle<br />
is also rid or ridded. In the United States rid<br />
is the preferred form for the past tense and for<br />
the participle. In Great Britain ridded is preferred<br />
when the verb is active, as in we ridded<br />
the cellar <strong>of</strong> rats, and rid is preferred when the<br />
verb is passive, as in we are well rid <strong>of</strong> them.<br />
ridden. See ride.<br />
riddle; enigma; puzzle. These nouns all refer to<br />
something baffling or confusing which is to be<br />
solved. A puzzle is a question or problem intricate<br />
enough to be perplexing to the mind. It is<br />
sometimes a contrivance made purposely to test<br />
one’s ingenuity. It tends to refer to non-verbal<br />
problems. Though a great many <strong>of</strong> the puzzle<br />
games have to do with the construction <strong>of</strong><br />
words, they are not much concerned with<br />
obscure meanings (His whole attitude is a<br />
puzzle to me. He spent his youth on jigsaw<br />
puzzles and his manhood on crossword puzzles).<br />
Possibly because <strong>of</strong> its close association with<br />
games, the word puzzle is not <strong>of</strong>ten used to<br />
designate a serious perplexity. An American<br />
would be more inclined, for example, to say<br />
that the disposition <strong>of</strong> radioactive waste materials<br />
was a problem than to say it was a<br />
puzzle.<br />
Riddle, on the other hand, applies to verbal<br />
problems. A riddle is an intentionally obscure<br />
statement or question, the meaning <strong>of</strong> or answer<br />
to which is to be arrived at only by guessing<br />
(Oedipus won his throne by solving the riddle<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sphinx). The word has a connotation <strong>of</strong><br />
children’s games that requires some care in its<br />
use, but it is still capable <strong>of</strong> carrying great<br />
weight and solemnity (Although a subtler<br />
Sphinx renew/ Riddles <strong>of</strong> death Thebes never<br />
knew).<br />
Enigma, originally meaning “riddle,” now<br />
refers to some baffling problem with connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> mysteriousness (To many sincere<br />
persons the nature <strong>of</strong> the will <strong>of</strong> God is an<br />
enigma).<br />
ride. The past tense is rode. The participle is<br />
ridden. Rid was used as a past tense and as a<br />
participle in literary English well into the nineteenth<br />
century, but is no longer considered<br />
standard.<br />
Though Englishmen and Americans understand<br />
ride in roughly the same senses, ride<br />
seems to be used in more contexts in America<br />
than in England. For instance, when Americans<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a boat ride, English speak <strong>of</strong> ercursions<br />
or outings. In England a trip on a train<br />
is a railway journey; in America it is a train<br />
ride. The American underworld has contributed<br />
the sinister expression to take for a ride to<br />
describe the process <strong>of</strong> luring an enemy into a<br />
car, killing him, and disposing <strong>of</strong> his remains<br />
in some unfrequented place.<br />
ridiculous. See funny.<br />
right; rightly. The form right may be used as an<br />
adjective, as in the right answer. Both forms<br />
may be used as adverbs to qualify a verb, as in<br />
he answered right. Only the form rightly is<br />
used in the sense <strong>of</strong> “properly” or “justifiably,”<br />
as in he rightly refused to answer; either form<br />
may be used in the sense <strong>of</strong> “correctly.” In any<br />
other sense, only the form right is used.<br />
Rightly cannot qualify an adjective or adverb.<br />
Right was used in this way, as in right glad,<br />
right soon, from the time <strong>of</strong> Chaucer until the<br />
close <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century. In Great Britain<br />
this construction is now considered archaic. or<br />
Biblical, except in titles such as Right Reverind,<br />
Right Honorable. In the United States it is still<br />
natural English but has an old-fashioned tone.<br />
right away. See immediately.<br />
right <strong>of</strong> way is most commonly used in America<br />
to describe a common-law or statutory right to<br />
proceed ahead <strong>of</strong> another (If two vehicles are<br />
approaching an intersection at roughly the same<br />
time, the one to the right is said to have the<br />
right <strong>of</strong> way). In both England and America<br />
right <strong>of</strong> way describes a path or route which<br />
may lawfully be used, or the right <strong>of</strong> passage,<br />
as over another’s land (The claim <strong>of</strong> . the . oeoole .<br />
at the trailer camp to have a right <strong>of</strong> way<br />
through the woodlot infuriated him). A specifically<br />
American sense is that <strong>of</strong> the strip <strong>of</strong> land<br />
acquired for use by a railroad’s tracks, what<br />
in England is called the permanent way (Some<br />
<strong>of</strong> the most valuable western land was that immediately<br />
adjacent to a railroad right <strong>of</strong> way).<br />
By extension <strong>of</strong> this sense, right <strong>of</strong> way<br />
describes land covered by a public road or land<br />
over which a power line passes.<br />
rime. See rhyme.<br />
ring. The past tense is rang. The participle is<br />
rung.<br />
Rung was formerly used as a past tense, as in<br />
heaven rung with jubilee, but this is no longer<br />
standard.<br />
Ring may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing the sound, as in it rang hollow. It<br />
may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the ringing, as in it rang loudly. There is usually<br />
no difference in meaning between the two constructions.<br />
riot originally meant loose or wasteful living, debauchery<br />
(The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed<br />
today). To run riot meant to act without control<br />
or restraint (They run riot, would not be kept<br />
in bounds by their leaders). The term died out<br />
<strong>of</strong> general use in the nineteenth century except<br />
for letting one’s imagination run riot, and that<br />
is now a clich&<br />
riotous living. The Prodigal Son wasted his substance<br />
with riotous living. But though the expression<br />
may in 1611 have still retained some<br />
<strong>of</strong> its original vigor, as a description <strong>of</strong> extravagant<br />
and dissolute wantonness, it is now a clichC.<br />
riposte. See answer.
ise. The past tense is rose. The participle is risen.<br />
Rise may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
what rises, as in tire sun rose hot and he rose<br />
victorious. It may also be followed by an aIdverb<br />
describing me rising, as in he rose wearir’y.<br />
R&e means “cause to rise.” For the difference<br />
between these two verbs, see raise. See<br />
also arise.<br />
risen. See rise.<br />
risible. See funny.<br />
risk life and limb. As a term for being willing<br />
to take dangerous chances, risk life and hmb is<br />
a cliche, kept in use, as so many cliches are,<br />
by its alliteration.<br />
risky; risqu6. Risky is the general term, meaning<br />
attended with or involving risk, hazardous<br />
(Underwater demolition is a risky business).<br />
Risky may also mean daringly close to indelicacy<br />
or impropriety, running the risk <strong>of</strong> being<br />
indecorous. But risque’ is the preferable term<br />
for this limited sense (The natural habitat <strong>of</strong><br />
the risque story is the bachelors’ smoker). The<br />
word has been so <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym for<br />
indecent that it has practically come to mean<br />
that.<br />
rive. The past tense is rived. The participle is<br />
riven or rived. Riven is the preferred form for<br />
the participle and the only form used immediately<br />
before a noun, as in my riven heart.<br />
river. The position <strong>of</strong> the word river in relation<br />
to the proper name differs in English and<br />
American usage. In England the word, whether<br />
capitalized or uncapitalized, precedes the proper<br />
name (The river Thames is a tidal river.<br />
William Browne wrote <strong>of</strong> the river Tavy). In<br />
America the word follows the proper name and<br />
is always capitalized (Liza crossed the Ohio<br />
River, clutching her child and leaping from one<br />
cake <strong>of</strong> ice to another, the bloodhounds in<br />
pursuit).<br />
roast. Though Hogarth immortalized the Roast<br />
Beef <strong>of</strong> Old England and English schoolchildren<br />
still sing songs in its honor, the term is now<br />
more current in America than in England where<br />
a piece <strong>of</strong> meat intended for roasting is now<br />
called a joint. In both England and America,<br />
roast is the verb to describe the proce:ss <strong>of</strong><br />
making flesh or other food ready for eating by<br />
prolonged exposure to heat at or before a. fire.<br />
Only in America is roast much used in the<br />
figurative and slang sense <strong>of</strong> ridiculing or criticizing<br />
severely or mercilessly (They roasted<br />
him in Wyoming because <strong>of</strong> his Harvard accent).<br />
rob. See steal.<br />
rob; tobber; robbery. See thief; robber; burglar<br />
and steal; purloin; pilfer.<br />
rob Peter to pay Paul. As a term for incurring<br />
one debt in order to pay another or take something,<br />
usually money, that is needed for one<br />
thing and use it for another, robbing Pet’er to<br />
pay Paul is hackneyed. The phrase has been in<br />
use since 1400, but its origin is unknown.<br />
robe is a word more popular in America than in<br />
England, or at least there are more compounds<br />
based on it. For American lap robe the English<br />
427<br />
say carriage rug. Both Americans and English<br />
say dressing gown, but Americans, especially<br />
less elegant ones, say bathrobe.<br />
rock. In both England and America, rock means<br />
primarily a large mass <strong>of</strong> stone forming an<br />
eminence, cliff, or the like (The Rock <strong>of</strong> Gibraltar,<br />
the shadow <strong>of</strong> a great rock in a weary land,<br />
The Rock--Alcatraz). While in Emgland rock<br />
is taken more loosely to mean a large stone or<br />
boulder (Come one, come all! this rock shall<br />
fly/ From its firm base as soon as I!), in America<br />
it is taken more loosely still (colloquially) to<br />
mean a stone <strong>of</strong> any size, especially one used<br />
as a missile (The boys threw rocks through the<br />
window and then ran up the alley).<br />
rode. See ride.<br />
role. This word to describe the part or character<br />
which an actor presents in a play is best spelled<br />
role (without accent or italics). It is permissibly<br />
written r6le (with accent and italics), though in<br />
England, at least, this form is obsolescent.<br />
romance; romantic. Derived from a word describing<br />
the Romance languages, that is, any <strong>of</strong> the<br />
group <strong>of</strong> languages which have developed out<br />
<strong>of</strong> Latin, romance and romantic applied originally<br />
to popular medieval tales written in these<br />
languages, as distinct from more sober writings<br />
which would have been in Latin. These tales<br />
were full <strong>of</strong> wonders, crude violence and strong<br />
passions and romance acquired a permanent<br />
coloring from that fact. The Romantic Movement<br />
invited attention to wonder. When applied<br />
to love affairs, romance and romantic<br />
suggest a conception <strong>of</strong> love as involving wonder,<br />
strong passions, and extravagance. That<br />
romance is a synonym for love today is not<br />
without its significance. The use <strong>of</strong> romance as<br />
a verb (I wonder who’s romancing her now) is<br />
not standard.<br />
ro<strong>of</strong>. The plural is ro<strong>of</strong>s, not rooves.<br />
rooster; cock. Cock is the proper term for the<br />
male <strong>of</strong> any bird, especially <strong>of</strong> the gallinaceous<br />
kind. As a designation <strong>of</strong> the male <strong>of</strong> the domesticated<br />
breeds,commonly known as chickens, it<br />
is time-honored and dignified (My tale is <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cock and a hen. Before the cock crow, thou<br />
shalt deny me thrice. The cock’s shrill clarion,<br />
or the echoing horn,/ No more shall rouse them<br />
from their lowly bed). Rooster was substituted<br />
in America in a period <strong>of</strong> ridiculous prudery<br />
and while it is too well established in usage now<br />
to be dismissed as absurd or infantile, it is not<br />
a dignified word. The English still say cock. In<br />
fact, as H. Allen Smith observed, they “get<br />
slightly apoplectic when we say ‘rooster’ instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> ‘cock,’ insisting that a cock is no more giving<br />
to roosting than a hen.”<br />
Prudery moves on prurience as a snail in its<br />
own slime and leaves the trail <strong>of</strong> this slime over<br />
all that it touches. The gallant cock and the<br />
patient ass are forever banished from our speech<br />
and we have only the nursery equivalents <strong>of</strong><br />
rooster and donkey.<br />
root <strong>of</strong> all evil. A reference to money as the root<br />
<strong>of</strong> all evil is a threadbare expression based on<br />
a misquotation <strong>of</strong> I Timothy, 6:10-The love
<strong>of</strong> money is the root <strong>of</strong> all evil. However, since<br />
money in itself has no value and it is only the<br />
desire for it that makes it function as a medium<br />
<strong>of</strong> exchange, the whole thing may be a quibble.<br />
rooves. See ro<strong>of</strong>.<br />
rose. See rise.<br />
rosin. See resin.<br />
rostrum. The plural is rostrums or rostra.<br />
rotten. This is an old form <strong>of</strong> the participle rotted<br />
that is used now only as an adjective. We say<br />
the wood had rotted and was now rotten. There<br />
is a growing tendency to use rotted as the adjective<br />
also, in speaking about desirable forms <strong>of</strong><br />
decay, such as rotted leaves, and to reserve<br />
rotten for what is undesirable, whether it has<br />
decayed or not, as in rotten eggs and rotten<br />
politicians.<br />
roughneck; rowdy. American roughneck equals<br />
English rowdy. It is a slang term to describe a<br />
rough, coarse person. It may also suggest a<br />
tough (Don’t get mixed up with those roughnecks<br />
down at the poolroom, Jim.)<br />
round. See around.<br />
route should be used only in a literal sense, to<br />
describe a way or road for passage or travel<br />
(Route 66 is a famous American highway), a<br />
customary or regular line <strong>of</strong> passage or travel<br />
(The route led through the Cumberland Gap).<br />
Route is not to be used figuratively as a loose<br />
synonym for method, manner, or procedure<br />
(as in He uses every available route to achieve<br />
political power).<br />
rove; roven. See reeve.<br />
row, as a word for a noisy dispute or quarrel, was<br />
for a century or more a slang word, and is only<br />
just beginning to be accepted by the dictionaries<br />
as standard. That being so, it certainly should<br />
not be used in contexts where the seriousness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the dispute requires that it be treated with<br />
dignity. The frequent reference in headlines to<br />
boundary row or international row <strong>of</strong>ten has an<br />
<strong>of</strong>fensive flippancy about it, though the word<br />
when so used is probably chosen more for its<br />
size than its connotations.<br />
royal. See kingly.<br />
ruby. See agate.<br />
rudimentary. See vestigial.<br />
ruination is derived from ruinate, a verb form in<br />
common use up until 1700. It describes the act<br />
<strong>of</strong> ruining, a state <strong>of</strong> being ruined, or something<br />
that ruins (That boy will be the ruination <strong>of</strong><br />
me yet!). But it has a slightly humorous, rustic<br />
tinge, as though (like botheration) it were a<br />
facetious lengthening <strong>of</strong> ruin. It is not, but since<br />
there are very few non-humorous contexts in<br />
which ruin will not serve as well or better, it is<br />
a word to be avoided.<br />
rule the roost. As a term for being plainly the<br />
boss, especially at home, rule the roost is a<br />
clich6. The metaphor would seem to be drawn<br />
from the dominance <strong>of</strong> the cock over his hens,<br />
but there are those among the learned who<br />
insist that to rule the roost is a corruption <strong>of</strong><br />
to rule the roast and their insistence is supported<br />
by the spelling roast in many old English<br />
uses <strong>of</strong> the expression. But the American form<br />
has always been roost and the more learned are<br />
<strong>of</strong> the opinion that this is the proper form and<br />
roast is the corruption.<br />
rumple. See crumble.<br />
run. The past tense is ran. The participle is run.<br />
Run was also used as a past tense in literary<br />
English well into the nineteenth century, but<br />
this is no longer standard.<br />
A verb following run that tells the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
the running may be a to-infinitive, as in he ran<br />
to open the door, or it may be joined to run with<br />
an and, as in he ran and opened the door.<br />
Under certain circumstances run may also be<br />
followed by the simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb without<br />
to or and, as in run help your grandmother and<br />
you can run get me a spoon. This construction<br />
is used chiefly in speaking to children. We don’t<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten tell adults to move fast. For this reason<br />
it is not found in literature as <strong>of</strong>ten as the similar<br />
construction with come and go. It must<br />
therefore be classed as a colloquialism. But it<br />
is used freely by the same people who say come<br />
look at it and go tell her and is standard in the<br />
United States. (For information on when this<br />
form may be used and when it may not, see<br />
come.)<br />
Run may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
what runs, as in still waters run deep and<br />
the course <strong>of</strong> true love never did run smooth.<br />
It may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the running, as in run quickly.<br />
NII one’s head against a stone wall. As a figure<br />
for attempting the impossible, assailing an impregnable<br />
position, opposing forces which can<br />
defeat without effort our utmost effort, to run<br />
(or <strong>of</strong>ten to butt) one’s head against a stone<br />
wall is a hackneyed expression.<br />
rung. See ring.<br />
run-on sentences. Some textbooks on English<br />
grammar claim ( 1) that when two or more<br />
independent clauses are joined by a coordinating<br />
conjunction (and, or, nor, but, or for), a comma<br />
must be placed before the conjunction, as in<br />
knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers; and (2)<br />
that when one independent clause follows another<br />
without a conjunction, a comma is not<br />
sufficient punctuation and a semicolon must be<br />
used, as in I cannot rest from travel; I will drink<br />
life to the lees.<br />
Sentences which violate these rules, such as<br />
(1) I am old and day is ending and the wildering<br />
night comes on and (2) white in the muon<br />
the long road lies, the moon stands blank above,<br />
are called run-on sentences by those who accept<br />
the rule.<br />
But our best writers do not observe any such<br />
rule <strong>of</strong> thumb. They sometimes use one form<br />
<strong>of</strong> punctuation and sometimes another, depending<br />
upon which suits their purpose best. See<br />
commas and semicolon.<br />
NIIS may read, he who. The Lord instructed the<br />
prophet Habakkuk to Write the vision, and<br />
make it plain upon tables, that he may run that<br />
readeth it. Prophetic utterances are notably obscure<br />
but this would seem to be an injunction<br />
to record a certain vision so clearly that whoever<br />
reads and thus learns <strong>of</strong> it will be moved<br />
to run. Whether he will run out <strong>of</strong> fear or out
<strong>of</strong> zeal to accomplish some end suggested hy the<br />
vision is not certain.<br />
What is certain, however, is that the passage<br />
has been misread and misquoted for centuries<br />
as that he who runs may read. That is, it is<br />
commonly assumed that the injunction was to<br />
write so plainly that even a running man could<br />
read it. Francis Bacon so interprets it in his<br />
Advancement <strong>of</strong> Learning (. . . yet nt some<br />
time it pleaseth God, for our better establishment<br />
and the confuting <strong>of</strong> those which are as<br />
without God in the world, to write it in such<br />
text and Capital letters, that, as the Prophet<br />
saith, He that runneth may read it). And the<br />
pious Keble made the misreading the basis <strong>of</strong><br />
one <strong>of</strong> his hymns (There is a boo&, who runs<br />
may read,/ Which heavenly truth impart.s).<br />
The corrupted form, used as an adjuration to<br />
write clearly and effectively, is now a cl&C.<br />
Sabbath; Sunday. The Sabbath, the day on which<br />
the Commandment bids us to abstain from<br />
work, is the seventh day <strong>of</strong> the Jewish week.<br />
Sunday, kept as a day <strong>of</strong> special worship and<br />
rest from business, is the first day <strong>of</strong> the week.<br />
The word Sabbath has been applied to Sunday<br />
by Protestant religious bodies (My father was<br />
a stern puritanical clergyman, who considered<br />
a smile on the Sabbath CO be a sin). This application<br />
should be restricted to the day as a day<br />
<strong>of</strong> religious observance.<br />
sabotage, though sometimes used in contexts<br />
where wreck, destroy, or damage would serve<br />
better, is definitely established as a word to<br />
describe malicious injury to work, machinery or<br />
tools, or any underhand interference with production<br />
or business, by enemy agents during<br />
wartime or by hostile employees (The continual<br />
breakdown <strong>of</strong> the new assembly lines suggested<br />
sabotage). Sabotage is a new word that has<br />
come in with the machine to describe a certain<br />
situation, attitude, and activity peculiar to the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the machine, especially in mass production.<br />
It carries a suggestion <strong>of</strong> malevolence and<br />
secrecy that wreck and destroy do not necessarily<br />
have and it is nonsense to complain about<br />
it. Figuratively, sabotage describes any malicious<br />
attack or undermining <strong>of</strong> a cause (Certain<br />
Congressmen were quite successful in sabotaging<br />
the President’s civil rights program) and<br />
in figurative uses it is <strong>of</strong>ten abused. He ,who<br />
would use it correctly as a figure should be<br />
certain that the opposition he is describing is<br />
malicious and sly and that that which is wrecked<br />
has in some way the characteristics <strong>of</strong> a<br />
machine.<br />
sacred, sacrosanct. That is sacred which is appropriated<br />
or dedicated to a deity or to some reli-<br />
429 safe<br />
S<br />
msh. In this century <strong>of</strong> speed and violent haste,<br />
rush seems to be the normal verb <strong>of</strong> motion.<br />
It is greatly overworked. For instance, it is the<br />
rather imprecise term frequently used to describe<br />
carrying or conveying with haste (He was<br />
rushed CO the hospital), imprecise because rush<br />
properly implies the exercise <strong>of</strong> force, an exercise<br />
which is rarely necessary in getting the sick<br />
or injured to the hospital.<br />
In American slang rush means to heap attentions<br />
on. One rushes a girl by courting her<br />
favor with numerous and insistent attentions.<br />
College and high-school secret societies rush<br />
prospective members; that is, they cultivate<br />
them assiduously with the view <strong>of</strong> getting them<br />
to join their organizations. The slang expression<br />
the bum’s rush is a proper use <strong>of</strong> rush, for one<br />
treated to the bum’s rush is violently propelled<br />
from one place to another.<br />
gious purpose, entitled to veneration or religious<br />
respect because <strong>of</strong> its association with divinity<br />
or divine things, pertaining to or connected with<br />
religion as opposed to the secular and pr<strong>of</strong>ane<br />
(He enjoyed both sacred and pr<strong>of</strong>ane love).<br />
That is sacred which is reverently dedicated to<br />
some person or object (Sacred to the memory<br />
<strong>of</strong> our mother) or regarded with reverence (The<br />
sacred memory <strong>of</strong> George Washington) and<br />
hence secure against violation (The sacred rights<br />
embodied in the first Amendments CO the Constitution)<br />
.<br />
Sacrosanct means especially or superlatively<br />
sacred or inviolable. Its use is restricted to those<br />
things that are rendered particularly inviolable<br />
by religious sanction. That is, one may refer to<br />
our sacred political rights or our sacred heritage,<br />
and so on, but sacrosanct should be applied only<br />
to such highly sacred religious articles as the<br />
vessels used at the altar, the relics <strong>of</strong> a saint,<br />
or the person <strong>of</strong> an ecclesiastic.<br />
sacrilegious is the proper spelling <strong>of</strong> the adjective<br />
<strong>of</strong> sacrilege, the violation or pr<strong>of</strong>anation <strong>of</strong> anything<br />
held sacred. It is <strong>of</strong>ten misspelled sacreligious<br />
under the mistaken opinion, apparently,<br />
that the word religious is in it. But there is no<br />
such word as sacreligious.<br />
sadder and a wiser man. It was the luckless wedding<br />
guest in Coleridge’s The Rime <strong>of</strong> the Ancient<br />
Mariner who first rose the morrow morn<br />
. . . a sadder and a wiser man. The term is now<br />
a cliche <strong>of</strong> the jocular.<br />
safe and sane, especially when applied to a celebration<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Fourth <strong>of</strong> July unmarred by the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> dangerous explosives, is a peculiarly<br />
American term, and now a hackneyed one.<br />
safe and sound, as a term to describe persons<br />
(and sometimes, loosely, objects) which having
Sahara 430<br />
been lost have been found or returned secure<br />
and uninjured, is a cliche.<br />
Sahara Desert. It is true that the word desert is<br />
implicit in Suhara and that, therefore, the term<br />
Sahara Desert is redundant. But its use is only<br />
a venial sin. There is a strong tendency to reduplication<br />
in place names that are known in<br />
several languages. A hill or a river or a desert<br />
will be called simply hill, river, or desert in the<br />
original language. This word will then be taken<br />
by a new group that speaks another language<br />
to be the name <strong>of</strong> the particular hill, river, or<br />
desert and the new group’s word for hill, river,<br />
or desert added. In countries which have been<br />
overrun and settled by different groups each<br />
with its own language, as England, the process<br />
may be repeated several times.<br />
The Sahara is an immense tract <strong>of</strong> land which<br />
includes oases, mountains, and vast areas <strong>of</strong><br />
wind-driven sand and desolate rocks. If by the<br />
term Sahara Desert it is intended to designate<br />
this last, to the exclusion <strong>of</strong> the oases and mountains,<br />
it might be better to say the desert regions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Sahara. On the whole, though, it’s a fine<br />
distinction and Sahara Desert is no great fault.<br />
said. See say.<br />
sailer; sailor. Sailer describes a vessel propelled<br />
by sail or sails or a vessel with reference to its<br />
powers or manner <strong>of</strong> sailing (I can tell by that<br />
shiv’s lines that she is a fast sailer). A sailor is<br />
a seaman or mariner (He was a woebegone<br />
sailor when they haled him into court). As an<br />
adjective, sailor describes things pertaining to<br />
a sailor (lanice, wear your sailor hat today).<br />
Saint James. See Court <strong>of</strong> St. James and see King<br />
James Version (<strong>of</strong> the Bible).<br />
sake. When a word preceding sake ends in an s<br />
sound, an additional ‘s is not added to form the<br />
genitive, as in for conscience sake, for goodness<br />
sake, for righteousness sake. An apostrophe<br />
alone may be used, as in for conscience’ sake,<br />
but it is not required. When the preceding word<br />
is plural, the plural form sakes may be used.<br />
That is, we may say for our sake or for our<br />
sakes.<br />
The exclamations sakes! and sakes alive! are<br />
Americanisms and are considered unacceptable<br />
in Great Britain. But in the United States a generation<br />
ago, honored and beloved old ladies said<br />
sakes alive! In this country, therefore, the words<br />
have a certain charm and are considered oldfashioned<br />
rather than uneducated.<br />
salad days. When twitted by Charmian about her<br />
former love for Julius Caesar, Cleopatra (in<br />
Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra) excused<br />
herself by saying that those ardors took place<br />
in her salad days when she was green in judgment,<br />
cold in blood and were in no way comparable<br />
to the passion that she now felt for<br />
Antony. As a term for youth, especially naive<br />
and inexperienced youth, green and fresh, salad<br />
days is now wilted.<br />
salary. See honorarium.<br />
salon; saloon. Salon, as used in England and<br />
America, means pretty much what the same<br />
word means in French. It describes a drawing<br />
room or reception room in a large house; an<br />
assembly <strong>of</strong> guests in such a room especially<br />
when such an assembly consists <strong>of</strong> leaders in<br />
fashion, art, or politics; or a hall or place used<br />
for the exhibition <strong>of</strong> works <strong>of</strong> art. In America<br />
the word is used to describe beauty shops<br />
(Albert’s Beauty Salon). This term is not invariable<br />
in this use, however; shop, shoppe, and<br />
studio are more <strong>of</strong>ten employed.<br />
Saloon means a different thing to English and<br />
Americans. In America saloon designates a<br />
place for the sale <strong>of</strong> intoxicating liquors to be<br />
drunk on the premises. A man who runs such<br />
a place is a saloonkeeper. Introduced as a euphemism<br />
for bar or tavern, the word enjoyed<br />
a brief period <strong>of</strong> elegance and then, like so many<br />
euphemisms, sank into semi-disreputability. The<br />
word was strongly emphasized in temperance<br />
attacks (The Anti-Saloon League) and became<br />
so opprobrious that when prohibition was repealed<br />
in the United States, the liquor dealers,<br />
chastened and timid, chose to reopen their<br />
places <strong>of</strong> business under the older name <strong>of</strong><br />
taverns. Tavern had once also been a disreputable<br />
name and saloon had been appropriated<br />
largely to cover tavern’s disrepute, but saloon<br />
had grown so much more disreputable that<br />
tavern (which had in the interim acquired a<br />
certain quaintness) seemed comparatively innocuous.<br />
In England the word saloon describes that<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a public house which has a higher social<br />
status, though more frequently one hears it<br />
designated as a saloon-bar. A man who runs<br />
a public house is a publican (not to be confused,<br />
as many English schoolchildren do, with<br />
the publicans referred to in the New Testament,<br />
who are tax collectors). Saloon retains in England<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the elegance it once had in America<br />
and is used to lend a touch <strong>of</strong> refinement<br />
(or to conceal the total lack <strong>of</strong> it) in billiard<br />
saloons, boxing saloons, and hairdressing saloons.<br />
The word is also used in England to<br />
describe that type <strong>of</strong> automobile which Americans<br />
call a sedan (He rode around in a Morris<br />
saloon).<br />
salt; salts. A chemist uses these words as a true<br />
singular and a true plural, respectively. He may<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a salt or <strong>of</strong> three salts. But in the general<br />
vocabulary, both forms are mass nouns.<br />
The singular, salt, means table salt and cannot<br />
be used-with the article a. In this sense we speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> a saltcellar or a salt shaker. The plural, salts,<br />
means smelling salts or Epsom salts and cannot<br />
be used with a numeral. In this sense we speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> a salts bottle.<br />
salt <strong>of</strong> the earth. As a term for those who are<br />
essentially good, kind, modest and generous,<br />
the salt <strong>of</strong> the earth is now a cliche. Taken from<br />
Matthew 5: 13, where the meek, the poor in<br />
spirit, the merciful, and those persecuted for<br />
righteousness’ sake are assured that they are the<br />
salt <strong>of</strong> the earth, that which gives life its savor<br />
and preserves it from corruption, this great<br />
phrase has simply been exhausted by overuse.<br />
All it needs is rest.<br />
salt, take with a grain <strong>of</strong>. The idea is plain<br />
enough: salt makes food more palatable and a
grain <strong>of</strong> it will make some improbability more<br />
easy to “swallow.” To this extent, the recommendation<br />
that an account <strong>of</strong> some unlikely<br />
event be ruken with CI grain <strong>of</strong> salt is merely a<br />
hackneyed metaphor. But those who insist on<br />
being doubly dull, on being trite in a dead: laoguage,<br />
and say cum grano salis, have made a<br />
double exposure <strong>of</strong> their insufficiencies because<br />
the proper Latin phrase is uddiro salis gruno.<br />
And, what’s more, no one knows exactly what<br />
it means in its original context. Pliny (<strong>of</strong> all<br />
people to whom to trace back a metaphor advising<br />
skepticism!) says that when Pompey<br />
seized Mithridates’ palace he found the prescription<br />
for Mithridates’ famous antidote<br />
against poison, the last line <strong>of</strong> which read 1’0 be<br />
taken jading, plus a grain <strong>of</strong> suit. But these is<br />
no evidence that Pliny was tipping anyone the<br />
wink. Pliny never tipped a wink or took a grain<br />
<strong>of</strong> salt in his life.<br />
sahtary. See healthy.<br />
salvation; salvage. Salvage, the more specialized<br />
and technical term, describes the act <strong>of</strong> sa.viog<br />
a ship or its cargo from the perils <strong>of</strong> the sea,<br />
the property so saved, or compensation given to<br />
those who voluntarily save a ship or its cargo.<br />
By extension the word is used to describe: the<br />
saving <strong>of</strong> anything from fire, danger, etc., the<br />
property so saved, or the value or proceeds upon<br />
sale <strong>of</strong> goods recovered from a tie. (See also<br />
flotsam.)<br />
Salvation describes the act <strong>of</strong> saving or delivering<br />
(The salvation <strong>of</strong> troops at Dunkirk wus<br />
accomplished by the labors <strong>of</strong> the crews <strong>of</strong><br />
hundreds <strong>of</strong> small bouts), the state <strong>of</strong> being<br />
saved or delivered, or the source, cause, or<br />
means <strong>of</strong> deliverance (The military band wus<br />
the salvation <strong>of</strong> many a soldier chafing under<br />
army discipline. The C.C.C. camps were the<br />
salvation <strong>of</strong> hundreds <strong>of</strong> thousands <strong>of</strong> boys during<br />
the depression years). Theologically, salvation<br />
means the delivery from the power and<br />
penalty <strong>of</strong> sin, redemption (Wherefore, my beloved,<br />
as ye have always obeyed, not as in my<br />
presence only, but now much more in my ubsence,<br />
work out your own salvation with fear<br />
and trembling).<br />
same may be used as an adjective or alone ;a.s a<br />
noun or pronoun. In present-day English the<br />
pronoun sume means “exactly similar,” as in<br />
I paid him five dollars and I will pay you the<br />
same. Formerly it could be used to mean the<br />
identical thing mentioned before, as in our munijold<br />
sins and wickedness . . . that we may<br />
obtain forgiveness <strong>of</strong> rhe same. This use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word is now archaic and out <strong>of</strong> place in everyday<br />
speech. IO literary English same is always<br />
preceded by the article the (or by this or that).<br />
Sentences such as we are sending same today<br />
are not archaic, but unliterary businessese.<br />
Same means “identical with” and may refer<br />
to words that have preceded it or to words lthat<br />
are to follow. When the words follow and are<br />
less than a complete clause, that is, when they<br />
do not contain a true verb, they must be introduced<br />
by as, as in he gave fhe same answer us<br />
before. When what follows is a clause, it may<br />
431 SEUlCtity<br />
be introduced by rhut, as, when, where, or who,<br />
as in he gave the same answer that 1 did, the<br />
same unswer as I did, at rhe same time when I<br />
was, at the same place where I was, he is the<br />
same man who was here yesterday. That can be<br />
used in place <strong>of</strong> as, when, where, who, as in<br />
al the sume time that I was, he is the same man<br />
Ihal was here, and is preferred to these words.<br />
When it would have any function except subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb, that may be omitted, as in at the<br />
sume rime I was, he is the same man I suw<br />
yesterday.<br />
Which is sometimes used to introduce a clause<br />
which explains the meaning <strong>of</strong> same, as in it<br />
has the same effect which good breeding has<br />
and the same relation to them which the others<br />
have. This is technically permissible, but it is<br />
unnatural English.<br />
sample. See example, section.<br />
sanatorium. See sanitarium.<br />
sanatory; sanitary. Sanarory means healing, cooducive<br />
to health, therapeutic (the sanorory arl,<br />
Fielding’s voyage to Lisbon was not, alas, the<br />
sunufory journey his friends had hoped it would<br />
be). Sanitary means pertaining to health or the<br />
conditions affecting health, with especial reference<br />
to cleanliness and precautions against disease<br />
(An electric dishwasher is more likely to<br />
leave dishes sanitary than u dishrag). Sanitary<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten misused for sanutory.<br />
sanction has acquired a number <strong>of</strong> popular meaoings<br />
which are somewhat removed from its original<br />
meaning. The word is now commonly<br />
understood to mean authoritative permission,<br />
countenance or support given to an action, solemn<br />
ratification (Have you the sanction <strong>of</strong> rhe<br />
board <strong>of</strong> governors for this action? The military<br />
government refused to give its sanction fo<br />
fraternization between conquerors and conquered).<br />
It also means something serving to<br />
support an action, binding force given, or something<br />
which gives binding force, as to an oath,<br />
a rule <strong>of</strong> conduct (There is sanction for this in<br />
the Beatitudes).<br />
Sanction is used more strictly in law and<br />
international law. 10 law it means a provision <strong>of</strong><br />
a law enacting a penalty for disobedience or a<br />
reward for obedience, or the penalty or reward<br />
so enacted. In international law it means action,<br />
short <strong>of</strong> war, usually a boycott, by one or more<br />
states toward another state calculated to force<br />
it to comply with legal obligations (The English<br />
and the French jailed fo apply sanctions to rhe<br />
Germans when they marched into the Rhineland.<br />
The cruel farce <strong>of</strong> the sanctions applied<br />
against Italy when she invaded Ethiopia was<br />
interpreted by the fascist nutions as an admission<br />
<strong>of</strong> weakness).<br />
sanctity <strong>of</strong> the home. 10 ancient Rome, where<br />
every paterfamilias was a priest and performed<br />
sacrifices within the house, where every house<br />
had its household gods and where ancestors<br />
were worshipped, the sanctity <strong>of</strong> the home was<br />
a real thing. But in crowded tenements, hotels<br />
and mass-produced suburbs among a migratory<br />
population, with the performance <strong>of</strong> religious<br />
observances restricted to a special class and
sanctum 43i2<br />
certain places, the term sanctity <strong>of</strong> the home<br />
has little significance. It is true that the right <strong>of</strong><br />
search and entry is limited, in theory at least,<br />
by definite laws and the home remains in certain<br />
senses inviolable. But this privilege, certainly<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most valuable that we have, is more<br />
safely protected in clear and specific terms.<br />
sanctum; sanctum sanctorum; den. A sanctum is<br />
properly a sacred or holy place. Sanctum sanctorum,<br />
“the holy <strong>of</strong> holies,” is a term <strong>of</strong> such<br />
awful reverence that nothing but habitude prevents<br />
its use from being blasphemous. The use<br />
<strong>of</strong> sanctum for a man’s study reflects the idea<br />
that, as head <strong>of</strong> the house, he is a god. Sanctum<br />
sanctorum is journalistic jocosity for the editor’s<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice. Neither term is now used seriously<br />
and repetition has long since drained the last<br />
molecule <strong>of</strong> humor out <strong>of</strong> both. Den, a more<br />
recent term for a room in the house presumably<br />
reserved for the male head and inviolate, reflects<br />
the thought that he is not a god but a beast.<br />
The ordinarv head <strong>of</strong> the house justifies neither<br />
assumption.- His room is far irom inviolate.<br />
And both names for it are flaccid clichks.<br />
sand; grit. As a figurative expression, sand is used<br />
chiefly in America to convey colloquially the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> pluck or firmness <strong>of</strong> purpose (There<br />
don’t seem to be anybody around here that’s got<br />
the sand to take her away from Mr. Branford),<br />
an idea for which the equivalent British colloquial<br />
term is grit. In older American speech,<br />
still heard in country places, there was a fuller<br />
expression, to have sand in one’s craw, that<br />
meant the same thing (When Z got to camp . , .<br />
there wasn’t much sand in my craw-Huckleberry<br />
Finn). See also guts.<br />
sand; sands. These words mean exactly the same<br />
thing. Sand is grammatically singular and sands<br />
grammatically plural, but both are mass nouns.<br />
Sands does not mean any more <strong>of</strong> the stuff than<br />
sand does. It is simply a poetic form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word. An hour glass contains sand, if it is used<br />
for boiling eggs, and children play in the sand,<br />
but we leave behind us footprints on the snnds<br />
<strong>of</strong> time.<br />
sang. See sing.<br />
sanguine. See optimistic.<br />
sanitarium; sanatorium. A sanitarium is an establishment<br />
for the treatment <strong>of</strong> invalids. It is<br />
primarily a hospital but usually has patients<br />
needing special treatment (He spent some time<br />
in a tuberculosis sanitarium at Saranac Lake).<br />
Sanatorium is <strong>of</strong>ten used interchangeably with<br />
sanitarium and this synonymity is recognized<br />
by most dictionaries. But those who direct and<br />
inhabit them insist there is a distinction, that a<br />
sanatorium is less <strong>of</strong> a hospital and more <strong>of</strong> a<br />
health resort, usually located in pleasant surroundings<br />
and intended more for persons needing<br />
rest and recuperation than for those needing<br />
medical treatment.<br />
The preferred plurals are sanitariums and<br />
sanatoriums, though sanitaria and sanatoria are<br />
permissible.<br />
sank. See sink.<br />
sarcasm. See humor.<br />
sarcastic; sardonic. A remark is surcustic that is<br />
derisive, sneering, bitterly ironic, taunting, gibing<br />
or cutting, and the adjective may be transferred<br />
to a look or a smile that is intended to<br />
convey the meaning <strong>of</strong> such a remark. Sardonic<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym and the two words<br />
overlap in their meanings. Sardonic is more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten restricted to a laugh or a smile which<br />
does not proceed from true gaiety but is forced,<br />
bitter, or derisive (the sardonic grin <strong>of</strong> a bloody<br />
rufian). See also humor.<br />
sarcoma. The plural is sarcomas or sarcomata,<br />
not sarcomae.<br />
sarcophagus. The plural is sarcophaguses or sarcophagi.<br />
sat. See sit.<br />
sateen; satin. Satin, originally describing a silk<br />
fabric, now describes a fabric made in a warp<br />
face satin weave, which produces a glossy surface.<br />
It is usually <strong>of</strong> rayon or silk, but sometimes<br />
cotton or linen. Sateen, a word formed<br />
on satin by association with velveteen, describes<br />
a cotton fabric woven in satin weave and resembling<br />
satin in gloss.<br />
satellite is properly an astronomical term for a<br />
small body which revolves around a planet, held<br />
in its position by the gravitational pull <strong>of</strong> the<br />
planet and deriving its light by reflection. The<br />
application <strong>of</strong> the word to an attendant upon a<br />
person <strong>of</strong> importance is a forced elegancy. Its<br />
application to the countries contiguous to Russia<br />
whose governments are merely puppet governments<br />
carrying out Russian policies is so apt<br />
and has become so established that it must be<br />
accepted as standard.<br />
satire. See humor.<br />
satiric; satirical; satyric. Satiric and satirical<br />
mean <strong>of</strong>, pertaining to, or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong><br />
satire (He gave the little wealth he had/ To<br />
build a house for fools and mad;/ To show by<br />
one satiric touch/ No nation wanted it so much).<br />
Sutyric is a word used only by the learned<br />
and literary to describe one who is like a satyr,<br />
that is half-man and half-goat and lasciviously<br />
inclined. It is also used to describe a form <strong>of</strong><br />
Greek drama having a burlesque character, the<br />
chorus representing satyrs.<br />
satisfied; convinced. He who is satisfied has had<br />
his desires, expectations, needs, or demands fulfilled<br />
and is content. He who is convinced has<br />
been persuaded by argument or pro<strong>of</strong> that something<br />
which has been alleged is true. There is in<br />
the word, or in human nature, a suggestion <strong>of</strong> a<br />
reluctance to believe overcome.<br />
He who is convinced is satisfied with the<br />
validity and sufficiency <strong>of</strong> the pro<strong>of</strong> or the<br />
soundness <strong>of</strong> the argument. But satisfied and<br />
convinced are not synonymous and there are<br />
many contexts in which the implications <strong>of</strong><br />
satisfied are ludicrous when convinced is the<br />
proper word. Thus, reading in the newspaper,<br />
<strong>of</strong> a prominent citizen who had been found<br />
dead, that “Despite the doubts <strong>of</strong> the police, his<br />
family was satisfied that he had been murdered,”<br />
a wit observed “Well, they may have been; but<br />
convinced would certainly have sounded better.”
saturnalla. This word is a Latin plural and is still<br />
treated as a plural when speaking <strong>of</strong> the Roman<br />
feast, as in the Saturnalia were held on the<br />
seventeenth and eighteenth <strong>of</strong> December. When<br />
used to mean simply unrestrained license the<br />
word may still be treated as a plural, as in ,fhese<br />
saturnalia, but in the United States it is more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten treated as a singular, as in this satur,nalia<br />
must stop.<br />
saucy. See impertinent.<br />
Saul among the prophets. Is Saul also among the<br />
prophets? is <strong>of</strong>ten asked, in humorous amazement,<br />
<strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> dissolute life or reputation when<br />
he is mentioned in connection with some religious<br />
or nobly disinterested activity. The quotation<br />
is correct, but its application usually<br />
shows a misunderstanding <strong>of</strong> its meaning. The<br />
term prophet in the Old Testament includes<br />
many kinds <strong>of</strong> men, from the great ethical<br />
teachers such as Micah and Isaiah to crazed<br />
and violent figures little better than madmen;<br />
and prophesying includes actions as diverse as<br />
foretelling the future and making homicidal<br />
attacks. Saul, the great leader <strong>of</strong> Israel, was<br />
subject. to some form <strong>of</strong> seizures in the course<br />
<strong>of</strong> which he could be extremely violent and<br />
dangerous. Encountering a wandering company<br />
<strong>of</strong> prophets, one <strong>of</strong> his seizures came upon him<br />
and he “prophesied among them” (I Samuel<br />
lO:lO-13). But the context makes it plain that<br />
the question Is Saul also among the prophets?<br />
was not spoken so much in admiration <strong>of</strong> his<br />
unexpected holiness (as it is now used) as in<br />
consternation that so great a man should. be<br />
subject to these seizures.<br />
save. The word save is sometimes used to mean<br />
“except.” When this was natural English, save<br />
was followed by a subjective, not an objective,<br />
pronoun, as in then were they all slain save I<br />
and where nothing save the waves and I may<br />
hear. Today, save in this sense is sometimes followed<br />
by an objective pronoun, as in whom wilt<br />
thou find to love ignoble thee save me, save<br />
only me? But today this use <strong>of</strong> the word is so<br />
thoroughly artificial that it is meaningless to<br />
ask which form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun is preferred by<br />
the best writers and speakers. The word in this<br />
sense is unnatural English in any construction.<br />
saving grace. A grace is a virtue or excellence <strong>of</strong><br />
divine origin. A saving grace is such a virtue <strong>of</strong><br />
sufficient merit to effect a man’s salvation,, to<br />
redeem him from otherwise certain damnation.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the term to describe some minor<br />
virtue or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, charm in an otherwise<br />
bad or unpleasant person is a clichC.<br />
savings. When this word means money that has<br />
been set aside it is always followed by a plural<br />
verb. We say his savings are small, not is small.<br />
But it is a mass word and not a true plural. We<br />
cannot speak <strong>of</strong> /naily savings or few savings.<br />
When the word is not followed by a verb, it<br />
may be treated as a singular and we may speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> muck savings or little savings. In this sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word, savings keeps its s when used as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in a savitzgs<br />
hank, a savings account<br />
433<br />
saw. The past tense is sawed. The participle is<br />
sawed or sawn. Sawed is the preferred form for<br />
the participle in the United States. Sawn is preferred<br />
in Great Britain, as in he had sawn the<br />
wood. See also see.<br />
say. The past tense is said. The participle is also<br />
said.<br />
When say is used in a passive form it may be<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in he is said to leave<br />
early. When it has an active form it is followed<br />
by a clause, as in he says he leaves early. When<br />
what was said was a command, such as hurry<br />
or tell him to hurry, the clause verb is a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in he said we should<br />
hurry or he said I should tell you to hurry.<br />
These constructions are literary English. In the<br />
United States today an infinitive is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> this subjunctive clause, as in he said<br />
to hurry, he said to tell you to hurry, he said for<br />
you to hurry. These constructions are condemned<br />
by some grammarians, especially the<br />
form using for you. But they can be heard in<br />
the speech <strong>of</strong> the best educated people and may<br />
well become the preferred forms.<br />
Say may be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> written material,<br />
as in the Bible says. This is literary English<br />
and has been since at least the year 1000.<br />
But the impersonal construction, such as it says<br />
in the paper, does not have the same standing.<br />
It is acceptable spoken English but in writing<br />
would ordinarily be changed to I read in the<br />
paper.<br />
Say is <strong>of</strong>ten used in the United States as an<br />
exclamation or to introduce a question, as in<br />
say, can this be right? Thirty or forty years ago<br />
this use <strong>of</strong> the word was objected to violently,<br />
on the grounds that “say as a form <strong>of</strong> address<br />
is an impertinence.” Since then, the Star Spangled<br />
Banner with its oh say, can you see has<br />
been declared the national anthem. The expression<br />
is now acceptable but is not used as much<br />
as formerly. It is not <strong>of</strong>ten seen in written<br />
material. In Great Britain Z say is used in much<br />
the same way. It is thoroughly acceptable in<br />
speech but is not <strong>of</strong>ten used in writing.<br />
There is a theory in literary English that he<br />
said is the correct form to use when only the<br />
substance <strong>of</strong> what was said is being reported<br />
but that “when the quotation purports to be<br />
exact, the order <strong>of</strong> verb and subject is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
inverted,” as in said he. In written material an<br />
exact quotation is put between quotation marks<br />
but in the United States the form he said is generally<br />
preferred to said he, though either may<br />
be used in either situation. Among intelligent<br />
people, it is only necessary to say once that a<br />
speech is being reported. The constant repetition<br />
<strong>of</strong> said suggests that either the speaker or his<br />
audience does not have a very long attention<br />
span, except where it is used for humor, as in<br />
I’ll work on a new and original plan, said I to<br />
myself, said 1. The use <strong>of</strong> says for said, as in<br />
says I, is not standard. See also state.<br />
say the least, to. Introduced immediately before<br />
or after some condemnation (or, more rarely,<br />
commendation), as a way <strong>of</strong> saying that one
has been temperate where severity or superlative<br />
would have been justified, to say the least is a<br />
clichi. Since there is no virtue in being temperate<br />
in commendation, the phrase when used<br />
after some expression <strong>of</strong> praise is intended as<br />
a hyperbole, as a way <strong>of</strong> saying “No matter<br />
how effusive I have been in my praises I have<br />
been moderate and restrained compared to what<br />
might have been said.”<br />
SC. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin word<br />
scilicet and means namely.<br />
scab; blackleg. The term for a workman who refuses<br />
to join or act with a labor union, who<br />
takes a striker’s place, or the like, is in the<br />
United States scab, in England blackleg. Both<br />
scab and blackleg may also be used as intransitive<br />
verbs, meaning to act as a scab or blackleg.<br />
scabrous, which properly means rough with minute<br />
points or projections, is a somewhat affected<br />
literary word when used to mean bordering on<br />
the indecent (These scabrous stories keep turning<br />
up; they’ve been attached to every great<br />
man for centuries).<br />
scales. In speaking <strong>of</strong> an apparatus for weighing,<br />
the singular scale originally meant one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pans. The instrument itself, requiring two pans,<br />
was usually thought <strong>of</strong> as a plural, as in the<br />
scales are false, or called a pair <strong>of</strong> scales. Occasionally<br />
the instrument itself was called a scale,<br />
as in to tip the scale and long time in even scale<br />
the battle hung.<br />
Most scales today do not have pans. The instrument<br />
may be referred to as a scale (She<br />
gave me a scale at my shower) or with the<br />
plural form scales, as in the doctor’s scales are<br />
more accurate and he tipped the scales at two<br />
hundred. Instruments <strong>of</strong> this kind are not usually<br />
called a pair. The plural form scales may<br />
be treated as a singular, as in a bathroom scales,<br />
or may follow directly after a numeral, as in<br />
the grocer has three scales.<br />
The singular scale is preferred as the tirst<br />
element in a compound, such as scale tray and<br />
scale base.<br />
swan, in its original sense, meant and means to<br />
analyze verse as to its prosodic or metrical<br />
structure, to read or recite so as to test the<br />
metrical form (When one scans neoclassical<br />
poetry, he discovers that a great deal <strong>of</strong> it is<br />
written in iambic pentameter). The broader<br />
sense is to examine minutely, to scrutinize (A<br />
careful scholar will scan his pro<strong>of</strong>s for printer’s<br />
errors). Though the English will not permit it,<br />
and more conservative American authorities<br />
object to it, the use <strong>of</strong> scan in the sense <strong>of</strong> to<br />
glance at or to run through hastily (He scanned<br />
the daily paper, then turned on his radio) is<br />
generally acceptable in the United States. As a<br />
technical television term, scan means to traverse<br />
a surface with a beam <strong>of</strong> light or electrons in<br />
order to reproduce or transmit a picture.<br />
scandal. See libel.<br />
scarce; scarcely. The adjective scarce usually<br />
stands later in the sentence than the noun or<br />
noun equivalent it qualifies, as in they are scarce<br />
as hen’s teeth. It may stand before the noun, as<br />
in a scarce book, but in present-day English<br />
rare is preferred here.<br />
Scarce and scarcely can both be used as adverbs.<br />
As a rule, when we have a pair <strong>of</strong><br />
adverbs like this some people avoid the form<br />
without -1y under the impression that it is uneducated<br />
or “ungrammatical.” In this case the<br />
form without -1y frequently ought to be avoided<br />
-not because it is ungrammatical, but because<br />
it is over-refined in some situations. He was<br />
scarce more than a child is too bookish for a<br />
straightforward statement <strong>of</strong> this fact.<br />
Scarcely is a restrictive, or negative, adverb.<br />
That is, he had scarcely gone is equivalent to<br />
he had no more than gone. It therefore forms a<br />
double negative when used in a sentence that<br />
has already been made negative, as in there’s<br />
not a yard <strong>of</strong> it, scarcely, that hasn’t some<br />
defect. The double negative can be avoided<br />
by writing there’s scarcely a yard <strong>of</strong> it that<br />
hasn’t. . . . A word is negative if its meaning is<br />
negative, regardless <strong>of</strong> its form, and he left<br />
without scarcely hearing a word also contains<br />
two negative words, without and scarcely. See<br />
double negatives. See also hardly.<br />
scarf. The plural is scarfs or scarves. Scarves is<br />
a recent formation and is used in Great Britain<br />
more than it is in the United States. The old<br />
plural scarfs is the preferred form in this country.<br />
scatheless, meaning unharmed, is one <strong>of</strong> the many<br />
archaic words which Sir Walter Scott brought<br />
back into literary use. The Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
records no instance <strong>of</strong> its use between<br />
1563 and 1818, when Scott used it in The Heart<br />
<strong>of</strong> Midlothian. Some modern scholars have been<br />
much exercised to distinguish between scatheless<br />
and unscathed, insisting that the distinction<br />
though fine was clear. But the common writer<br />
need not strain to follow their explanation;<br />
scatheless may still be considered archaic or<br />
dialectal and not used. Unscathed is now the<br />
word.<br />
scavenger; scavenge. Scavenger, once both noun<br />
and verb, is now chiefly used as a noun. It<br />
describes an organism, object, or person that<br />
scavenges, especially any <strong>of</strong> various animals<br />
feeding on dead organic matter (Vultures are<br />
among the most repulsive <strong>of</strong> scavengers). It is<br />
also a term for a street cleaner (Dick, the<br />
scavenger, with equal grace,/ Flirts from his<br />
cart the mud in Walpole’s face).<br />
The related verb now commonly used is<br />
scavenge. Transitive, it means to cleanse from<br />
filth (. . . sea anemones and corals and madrepores,<br />
who scavenged the water all day long,<br />
and kept it nice and pure). It has also the technical<br />
senses <strong>of</strong> expelling burnt gases from the<br />
cylinder <strong>of</strong> an internal-combustion engine or,<br />
in metallurgy, the cleaning <strong>of</strong> molten metal by<br />
the introduction <strong>of</strong> another substance which<br />
will combine chemically with the impurities in<br />
it. Intransitive (the commoner use), scavenge<br />
means to act as a scavenger (Bears <strong>of</strong>ten scav-
cnge around North Woods camps), to bermme<br />
scavenged <strong>of</strong> burnt gases, or to search for food.<br />
schedule. Americans work the word a good deal<br />
harder than the Britons do. Something in America<br />
goes according to schedule: in Englaad it<br />
would go as arranged. A train, plane, or bus<br />
arrives in America on schedule. In England they<br />
arrive punctually. An American is scheduled to<br />
speak. An Englishman is on the program to<br />
speak.<br />
schema. The plural is schemata, not schemaa.<br />
scholar. See pupil.<br />
scholium. The ulural is scholiums or scholiu.<br />
science; art. Siience is knowledge and art i.s action.<br />
Science suggests a systematized knowledge<br />
(Boy, he’s got that down lo a science!). Art<br />
suggests a performance with a skill that defies<br />
analysis. The science <strong>of</strong> cooking, in modern<br />
usage, would imply the basic, systematized<br />
knowledge necessary to cooking. The art <strong>of</strong><br />
cooking would imply a skill, acquired us~dly<br />
by one with a strong natural ability after long<br />
practice, that transcends all that can be communicated<br />
by the science.<br />
scientitk English. When a scientist is writing for<br />
specialists in his own field, he naturally uses a<br />
special vocabulary. Sometimes he uses words<br />
that are not found in general English. More<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten he uses familiar words in unfamiliar<br />
senses. This is inevitable, since he is writing<br />
about concepts that are unknown to the general<br />
public. If the reader knows nothing about this<br />
particular science he will find what is written<br />
unintelligible. But it does not follow that a<br />
paper is scientific merely because it uses words<br />
in peculiar senses and is difficult to read.<br />
For example, Max Born writes: “The state <strong>of</strong><br />
a mechanical system can be represented :by a<br />
point in the 6N-dimensional phase space, p.q,<br />
and its motion by a single orbit on a ‘surface’ <strong>of</strong><br />
constant energy in this space.” If the reader has<br />
had no training in physics he will see at once<br />
that he cannot understand this sentence. He has<br />
no idea what a 6N-dimensional space is and<br />
will not attempt to guess what aspect <strong>of</strong> it might<br />
imaginatively be called a “surface.” But he can<br />
see that this is a straightforward English<br />
sentence and has no reason to doubt that something<br />
has been said in the simplest way possible.<br />
The situation is quite different in sentences<br />
such as the following: “Because <strong>of</strong> the complexity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the constellation <strong>of</strong> eye conditions which<br />
contribute to blindness or severe visual incapacity,<br />
it became essential for us in formulating<br />
our program to examine the various sightthreatening<br />
conditions in terms <strong>of</strong> their amenability<br />
to control.” Here the reader finds no unfamiliar<br />
concepts. He understands thoroughly<br />
what is being said and sees that it is pathetically<br />
simple. He sees that the only unfamiliar<br />
or difficult thing about the statement is its. vocabulary<br />
and sentence structure, and he quite<br />
rightly resents having been put to so much<br />
trouble for so little gain.<br />
A great deal <strong>of</strong> bad scientific writing, es-<br />
435 scotchman<br />
pecially in the social sciences, is due to the<br />
notion that ostentation and obscurantism give<br />
a scientific tone to one’s writing, that they are<br />
expected <strong>of</strong> a learned man. But this is not so.<br />
Mystification belongs to magic, not to science.<br />
It is the illiterate, not the learned, who love<br />
long words for their own sake. The man who<br />
has something important to say should do everything<br />
in his power to say it clearly.<br />
scientist. This word was coined by an Englishman<br />
in 1840, and was not well received. For many<br />
years it was condemned as “an American vulgarism,”<br />
and as late as 1885 some people believed<br />
that scientician was a finer word.<br />
scissors. The plural form refers to one instrument<br />
but is usually treated as a plural, as in these<br />
scissors are sharp. It may also be treated as a<br />
singular, as in this scissors is sharp. This is acceptable<br />
English but an unusual construction<br />
today. In using a singular verb we more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
say this pair <strong>of</strong> scissors is sharp. The construction<br />
with pair must always be used after a<br />
numeral, as in three pairs <strong>of</strong> scissors.<br />
The singular scissor is the preferred form for<br />
the first element <strong>of</strong> a compound, such as scissor<br />
blade, scissor sharpener. But the form scissors<br />
is also acceptable in compounds, as in scissors<br />
blade, and is preferred when the word means<br />
“scissor-like” and does not actually refer to a<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> scissors, as in the scissors kick.<br />
scleroma. The plural is scleromata, not scleromae.<br />
score. When used without a numeral, the word<br />
score, meaning twenty, is a noun and has the<br />
plural scores. These words are followed by <strong>of</strong>,<br />
as in a score <strong>of</strong> yews, scores <strong>of</strong> men, except<br />
before such degree words as more, less, too<br />
many, where the <strong>of</strong> is dropped, as in a score<br />
more men, scores more horses.<br />
When preceded by a numeral, score is treated<br />
as a cardinal number. That is, it is treated as an<br />
adjective and used without <strong>of</strong>, as in threescore<br />
years and ten and sixscore thousand persons,<br />
except when referring to part <strong>of</strong> a specified<br />
group, as in two score <strong>of</strong> them. The plural form<br />
scores is never used with a numeral.<br />
scorn. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he scorned to beg, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in he scorned begging. The infinitive<br />
is more forceful but both forms are acceptable.<br />
Scotch; Scottish; Scats. Of these adjectives to<br />
refer to Scotland and its natives, Scotch is the<br />
form used in America, in Southern England<br />
and the English Midlands. In Northern England<br />
and in Scotland itself the word is Scottish,<br />
though Scats is enjoying an increase in popularity<br />
today. When these words are used as<br />
-nouns to describe the dialect, Scotch is the<br />
British noun, Scottish the American, and Scats<br />
the one used in Scotland.<br />
Scotchman; Scotsman; Scot. The basic name for<br />
a native <strong>of</strong> Scotland is Scot. The ancient Gaelic<br />
people who came from Northern Ireland about<br />
the 6th century and settled in the northwestern<br />
part <strong>of</strong> Great Britain called themselves Scats.<br />
The country was called Scotland. The proper
scratch pad 436<br />
title <strong>of</strong> their most romantic queen is Mary,<br />
Queen <strong>of</strong> Scats. Natives <strong>of</strong> Scotland insist that<br />
the proper word for one <strong>of</strong> them is Scotsman,<br />
and Scotsman is the name <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> their leading<br />
newspapers. To their disgust and annoyance,<br />
Americans and Englishmen insist on calling<br />
them Scotchmen.<br />
scratch pad is the American term for a pad <strong>of</strong><br />
inexpensive writing paper. In England it is<br />
called a scribbling-block.<br />
scream; screech; shriek. All <strong>of</strong> these words mean<br />
to cry out in a loud, piercing way. Scream is<br />
the most general. It may mean to utter a loud,<br />
piercing cry, especially <strong>of</strong> pain, fear or anger<br />
(I heard the owl scream and the crickets cry.<br />
“You can’t arrest me,” he screamed; “my papers<br />
are in order”), and it may mean to utter a little,<br />
barely audible, cry by one who is startled.<br />
Shriek suggests a pitch more intense than that<br />
<strong>of</strong> scream, and when due to fear or pain indicates<br />
more distress (Not louder shrieks to pitying<br />
heaven are cast/ When husbands or when<br />
lapdogs breathe their last). Both men and<br />
women scream; it is mainly women who shriek.<br />
Screech emphasizes not so much the emotion as<br />
the disagreeable shrillness and harshness <strong>of</strong> an<br />
outcry or a noise. It is used <strong>of</strong> animals (screech<br />
owl) and inanimate things (the screech <strong>of</strong> a<br />
dry axle, the screech <strong>of</strong> his chair as he drew it<br />
along the stone floor). When applied to the<br />
sound <strong>of</strong> the human voice there is a connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> lack <strong>of</strong> dignity (The screech <strong>of</strong> the old<br />
woman’s voice could be heard above the babble<br />
<strong>of</strong> the children).<br />
screw up your courage is a shortening <strong>of</strong> the<br />
longer admonition to screw your courage to<br />
the sticking-point which is a misquotation <strong>of</strong><br />
Shakespeare’s But screw your courage to the<br />
stickin&place,/ And we’ll not fail (Macbeth, I,<br />
vii. 60-61). Some scholars believe that Lady<br />
Macbeth’s’metaphor was drawn from the operation<br />
<strong>of</strong> an arbalest, wherein the string which<br />
would launch the missile was made taut by the<br />
slow action <strong>of</strong> a ratchet. Others are <strong>of</strong> the<br />
opinion that the metaphor was drawn from the<br />
screwing up <strong>of</strong> the cords <strong>of</strong> stringed instruments<br />
to their proper degree <strong>of</strong> tension, when the peg<br />
remains fast in its sticking-place. In either case,<br />
the phrase is now a clich6.<br />
script; scrip. Script basically means handwriting,<br />
or the characters used in handwriting, or, in<br />
printing, a type imitating handwriting. In America<br />
script is a sort <strong>of</strong> general-purpose word<br />
in the entertainment world. In the theater and<br />
television it describes the manuscript <strong>of</strong> a play<br />
or role. In motion pictures, it describes the<br />
manuscript <strong>of</strong> a motion picture containing .a<br />
synopsis <strong>of</strong> the plot, the scenario, the cast<br />
( . . . he took up the first <strong>of</strong> two scripts that<br />
were his evening stint, that presently he would<br />
visualize line by line on the screen . . .).<br />
Scrip, a variant form <strong>of</strong> script, is the more<br />
specialized form. It means a writing, especially<br />
a receipt or certificate. In finance it means a<br />
certificate representing a fraction <strong>of</strong> a share <strong>of</strong><br />
stock, a certificate to represent a dividend not<br />
paid in cash but a promise to pay at a later date.<br />
Since such promises are not always kept, scrip<br />
has a connotation <strong>of</strong> insecurity and risk. In<br />
American usage the word also describes paper<br />
currency, a certificate <strong>of</strong> indebtedness in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> government currency (During the depression<br />
the unhappy teachers were <strong>of</strong>ten paid in scrip.<br />
The miners were paid in scrip which was redeemable,<br />
at a discount, at the company store).<br />
scripture; scriptures. These words are different<br />
grammatically but have the same meaning.<br />
Both mean the entire Bible. Scriptures is<br />
followed by a plural verb and Scripture by a<br />
singular verb, but Scriptures does not mean<br />
more than one Scripture. The singular form<br />
Scripture is not ordinarily used with the or a.<br />
We say the devil can quote Scripture. (The may<br />
be used with Scripture only when what is meant<br />
is a Scripture selection, as in the Scripture for<br />
today.) The plural form Scriptures requires the<br />
article the but cannot be used with a numeral<br />
or a word implying number. We say he has<br />
studied the Scriptures.<br />
These words are always capitalized when<br />
they mean the Bible. They are not capitalized<br />
when used in speaking <strong>of</strong> other sacred writings.<br />
In this second sense, the plural form scriptures<br />
may be qualified by these or those but not by a<br />
numeral.<br />
scruple. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he did not scruple to repeat it. It<br />
may also be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
with the preposition nt, as in he did not scruple<br />
at repeating it, but the infinitive construction<br />
is generally preferred.<br />
scrupulous. See meticulous.<br />
scull; skull. Scull, in its narrowest sense, means<br />
an oar worked from side to side over the stem<br />
<strong>of</strong> a boat as a means <strong>of</strong> propulsion. More<br />
broadly, it means one <strong>of</strong> a pair <strong>of</strong> oars operated,<br />
one on each side, by one person (. . . two<br />
men emerged, carrying a shell. They set it in<br />
the water and a moment later Bland came out,<br />
with the sculls). Still more broadly, it is a boat<br />
propelled by a scull or sculls and, in its most<br />
general sense, a light racing boat propelled by<br />
one rower with a pair <strong>of</strong> oars (On a bright<br />
afternoon the Charles was gay with sculls,<br />
whisking their sharp prows through the choppy<br />
water).<br />
Skull means the bony framework <strong>of</strong> the head,<br />
enclosing the brain and supporting the face, the<br />
skeleton <strong>of</strong> the head. The word may be used<br />
figuratively, usually in a disparaging sense, to<br />
describe the head as the seat <strong>of</strong> intelligence or<br />
knowledge (Try to get this into your skull).<br />
In the United States a meeting <strong>of</strong> football<br />
players at which they are lectured to on plays<br />
and general strategy is known as skull practice.<br />
Scull was so named from the dishlike shape<br />
<strong>of</strong> the spoon-bladed oar. Skull may be derived<br />
from the same French word (escuelle, dish,<br />
from Latin scutella). Related words are scullion<br />
(but not scullery) and skillet.<br />
scurfy; scurvy. Scurfy means characteristic <strong>of</strong>,<br />
marked by, or pertaining to scurf. And scurf is
the name for the scales or small shreds <strong>of</strong><br />
epidermis that are continually exfoliated from<br />
the skin; or for any scaly matter or incrustation<br />
on a surface. In England today scurf especially<br />
means dandruff.<br />
Scurvy, used as an adjective, means low,<br />
mean, contemptible. Except in the worn phrases<br />
a scurvy trick, a scurvy knave, a scurvy remark<br />
or answer, it is archaic and bookish.<br />
Of course, a man may be both scurfy and<br />
ScUrVy.<br />
The noun scurvy, the disease, is from the<br />
French scorbut. Its form was assimilated to<br />
that <strong>of</strong> the adjective.<br />
scurrility. See abuse.<br />
Scylla and Charybdis, between. Scylla, in Homer,<br />
was a rock opposite the whirlpool Charybdis<br />
and on this rock dwelt a monster <strong>of</strong> the same<br />
name. She had twelve feet and six heads, each<br />
on a long neck and each equipped with three<br />
rows <strong>of</strong> pointed teeth. Odysseus had to pass<br />
between the monster and the whirlpool and was<br />
warned that, for all that she would kill some<br />
<strong>of</strong> his men, the monster Scylla was the lesser <strong>of</strong><br />
the two perils.<br />
As a term for being between two equal<br />
dangers, between Scylla and Charybdis is now<br />
a cliche.<br />
s.d. This is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin words<br />
sine die and means without date.<br />
seamy side <strong>of</strong> life. Before dry-cleaning, when<br />
the glittering state garments <strong>of</strong> the gallants<br />
were made to do for many years, their underside,<br />
the seamy side, must have contrasted strikingly<br />
with their external splendors. Emilia, in<br />
Shakespeare’s Othelfo (Act IV, sc. ii, 1. 146),<br />
said that someone had turned her husband<br />
Iago’s wit the seamy side without and made<br />
him suspect her <strong>of</strong> adultery with the Moor.<br />
From this remark our present use <strong>of</strong> the phrase<br />
appears to have come. But the original thought<br />
has been forgotten and the term is now simply<br />
a cliche.<br />
seasonable; seasonal. Seasonal means pertaining<br />
to or dependent on the seasons <strong>of</strong> the year or<br />
some particular season, periodical (The Grapes<br />
<strong>of</strong> Wrath recounts the ordeal <strong>of</strong> seasonal<br />
laborers during the Depression, Hay fever is<br />
a seasonal complaint). Seasonable means suitable<br />
to the season (They sailed west with the<br />
seasonable winds. Rain at this time <strong>of</strong> year is<br />
seasonable with us), or suitable to the circumstances<br />
(Zt is not seasonable to call a man a<br />
traitor that has an army at his heels), or opportune<br />
(Your arrival was seasonable, for we<br />
needed help). American usage also permits<br />
seasonable to mean early (They were stirring<br />
at a seasonable hour).<br />
second. See minute.<br />
second to none. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that something<br />
or someone is one <strong>of</strong> the best, second to<br />
none is hackneyed.<br />
secret languages are essentially devices to bind<br />
together an in-group and exclude the outsider.<br />
They are used by children all over the world.<br />
In this country the best known and the easiest<br />
437 section<br />
to learn is Pig, or Hog, Latin. But there are also<br />
others, such as Tuttin, Arp and Ob. All <strong>of</strong> them<br />
depend on adding syllables and shifting initial<br />
letters.<br />
Secret languages may also be used by adults<br />
for prestige purposes. Lucien Levy-Bruhl, in discussing<br />
“undeveloped” or “savage” societies,<br />
says : “Frequently, too, the members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
secret societies which are so common a feature<br />
in social groups <strong>of</strong> a primitive type, are initiated<br />
into a language spoken and understood by themselves<br />
alone; their introduction to the society, or<br />
their promotion to a sufficiently exalted rank<br />
therein, gives them the privilege <strong>of</strong> using this<br />
mystic language. . . . They generally use the<br />
same words, but so transformed by the interposition<br />
or addition <strong>of</strong> other letters, that they<br />
appear to belong to a different language. Moreover,<br />
they have some words peculiar to themselves,<br />
by which they supersede those in general<br />
use.”<br />
Traces <strong>of</strong> this may be found in the language<br />
<strong>of</strong> many present-day savants. (See argot.) And<br />
among those “social groups <strong>of</strong> a primitive type”<br />
in our own country who furnish the members<br />
for high school and college Greek-letter organizations,<br />
great importance is attached to secret<br />
words. So secret are these, for the most part,<br />
that not one brother or sister out <strong>of</strong> a hundred<br />
could repeat them ten seconds after they were<br />
mumbled in his or her ear at the initiation. Yet<br />
so prestigious is even this fleeting knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
them felt to be that thousands <strong>of</strong> families have<br />
been plunged into gloom and shame because<br />
their child was permitted to hear one set <strong>of</strong><br />
these words instead <strong>of</strong> another.<br />
secrete. See hide.<br />
secretion; concealment. Secretion is a term to be<br />
used exclusively to describe a physiological<br />
phenomenon. It means the process or function<br />
<strong>of</strong> an animal body, executed in the glands, by<br />
which various substances, such as bile or milk,<br />
are separated and elaborated from the blood<br />
(The secretion <strong>of</strong> milk is in some way stimulated<br />
by changes that take place in the woman’s<br />
body during pregnancy). Or it may describe the<br />
product secreted (This secretion is a sticky substance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the consistency <strong>of</strong> mucilage). But<br />
although the verb to secrete can mean (in addition<br />
to producing by the process <strong>of</strong> secretion),<br />
making secret, hiding, concealing from observation<br />
or the knowledge <strong>of</strong> others, secretion is not<br />
to be used as a loose synonym for concealment<br />
(as in The secretion <strong>of</strong> government property in<br />
personal belongings was one <strong>of</strong> the commoner<br />
crimes <strong>of</strong> the war). This use, though common,<br />
is objectionable to many people in England<br />
and America.<br />
secretive. See reticent.<br />
section; cross-section; sample. A section <strong>of</strong> a<br />
community means a part <strong>of</strong> that community<br />
isolated geographically, by age, or by some<br />
other standard, A cross-section cuts across<br />
section lines and describes a typical selection.<br />
a sample showing all representative parts in<br />
accurate proportion. Thus a section <strong>of</strong> a com-
munity could be the aged, those who live to<br />
the north or to the south, and so on. But a<br />
cross-section <strong>of</strong> a town made up <strong>of</strong> five percent<br />
industrial managers, five percent pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
men, fifteen percent merchants, fifteen percent<br />
clerks, and sixty percent manual workers would<br />
have to include, as a minimum, one manager,<br />
one pr<strong>of</strong>essional man, three merchants, three<br />
clerks, and twenty workers. A sample is simply<br />
a small part <strong>of</strong> something intended to represent<br />
the whole (. . . like the foolish man in the<br />
Greek story who, wanting to sell his house,<br />
carried about with him a brick as a sample).<br />
A sample may be a cross-section if it is accurately<br />
representative. Yet it will still be a sample<br />
even if it is not, for there are many things <strong>of</strong><br />
which a cross-section may not be made.<br />
sector; section. Of these two nouns referring to<br />
cutting, sector has largely technical uses, while<br />
section has both general and technical uses.<br />
In geometry, sector describes a plane figure<br />
bounded by two radii and the included arc <strong>of</strong><br />
a circle, ellipse, or the like. A sector is also a<br />
mathematical instrument consisting <strong>of</strong> two flat<br />
rulers hinged together at one end and bearing<br />
various scales. In military phraseology, a sector<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the sections <strong>of</strong> a forward combat area<br />
as divided for military operations (Many <strong>of</strong><br />
the American soldiers who were in the Anzio<br />
sector <strong>of</strong> the Italian Front still feel resentful).<br />
Sect&, in general, describes.a part cut <strong>of</strong>f<br />
or separated from a whole. More specifically,<br />
it may describe a distinct portion <strong>of</strong> a book,<br />
writing, or the like, or a subdivision, as <strong>of</strong> a<br />
chapter (I didn’t like those sections devoted to<br />
his philosophy <strong>of</strong> life). It may also mean one<br />
<strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> parts that can be fitted together<br />
to make a whole (Sections <strong>of</strong> the vacuum<br />
cleaner lay scattered over the rug), or a distinct<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a country, community, or class (The<br />
well-to-do live in the northwest section <strong>of</strong> the<br />
town. One section <strong>of</strong> the community was implacably<br />
opposed to admitting all children to<br />
the public schools). In most <strong>of</strong> the United States<br />
west <strong>of</strong> Ohio, each township is divided into<br />
sections, tracts <strong>of</strong> land each one mile square.<br />
Section can also mean the act <strong>of</strong> cutting, separation<br />
by cutting (The baby was delivered by<br />
Caesurenn section). In military phraseology a<br />
section is a small unit which may consist <strong>of</strong> two<br />
or more squads. In railroad terminology a<br />
section may be a division <strong>of</strong> a division (a<br />
section hand), or it may be a division <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sleeping car containing both an upper and a<br />
lower berth (You can reserve the whole section<br />
for little more than the cost <strong>of</strong> the lower) or<br />
a train scheduled jointly with another or others<br />
(The second section was due in ten minutes and<br />
the brakeman knew that he must flag it down).<br />
secundus; second. Secundus is a term used in<br />
England to describe the second male bearing<br />
the same name in a family (Cohn Monroe,<br />
secundus, is the nephew <strong>of</strong> John Monroe). In<br />
America, second is used instead, though in<br />
recent years there has been a tendency to write<br />
it in roman numerals (Henry Mosby Cabot II).<br />
See also junior.<br />
secure. This verb may be used to mean procure<br />
or obtain and has been so used for more than<br />
two hundred years, as in we took care to secure<br />
some powder, ball, and a little bread. In most<br />
cases get would be better than secure, procure,<br />
or obtain.<br />
sedan. In England sedan describes the now obsolete<br />
sedan chair, a closed vehicle to seat one<br />
person, borne on poles by bearers. In America<br />
sedan describes a closed automobile body seating<br />
four or more persons (including the driver)<br />
on two full-width seats, both in one compartment.<br />
The English equivalent <strong>of</strong> sedan in this<br />
sense is saloon or saloon-car.<br />
sedulous ape. It was Robert Louis Stevenson (in<br />
the fourth chapter <strong>of</strong> his Memories and Portraits,<br />
1887) who first used the phrase to play<br />
the sedulous ape. He said that he had played<br />
the sedulous ape to Hazlitt, to Lamb, to<br />
Wordsworth, to Sir Thomas Browne, to Defoe,<br />
to Hawthorne, to Montaigne, to Baudelaire and<br />
to Obermann. The wry charm <strong>of</strong> the phrase,<br />
its attractive paradox, and affectionate selfdepreciation<br />
made it immediately popular. It<br />
was “taken up,” overworked, and is already<br />
worn out.<br />
Sedulous means diligent in application, persistently<br />
and carefully maintained, persevering<br />
in effort.<br />
see. The past tense is saw. The participle is seen.<br />
When used in an active form, see may be<br />
followed by an object and the simple form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in Z saw him leave, or by an object<br />
and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z suw him<br />
leaving. When followed by an object and a toinfinitive,<br />
the word means “infer” and not<br />
“perceive with the eyes,” as in Z saw it to be<br />
impossible. In either sense, it may be followed<br />
by a clause, as in Z saw he wus leaving and Z<br />
saw it was impossible. See may also be followed<br />
by an object and a past participle with passive<br />
meaning (that is, the be <strong>of</strong> a passive intinitive<br />
is usually suppressed), as in Z saw him stopped.<br />
When see itself is used in a passive form it may<br />
be followed by a to-infinitive, as in he was seen<br />
to leave, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in<br />
he was seen leaving. See also look.<br />
see; bishopric; diocese. Of these terms, bishopric<br />
is the broadest, being defined as the see, diocese,<br />
or <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> a bishop. Perhaps it should be used<br />
mainly to describe the <strong>of</strong>fice or rank belonging<br />
to a bishop, for fee is the more specific ecclesiastical<br />
term to describe the seat, center <strong>of</strong><br />
authority, or the chair that symbolizes a<br />
bishop’s authority over a particular diocese.<br />
Diocese is to be preferred to bishopric as the<br />
word to describe the district, with its population,<br />
falling under the pastoral care <strong>of</strong> a bishop<br />
(Since Bishop Proudie came to this diocese Z<br />
have exerted myself here a good deal).<br />
see eye to eye. As a term for harmony, agreement,<br />
unanimity or, in the negative, the lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> such harmony, especially in regard to a
course <strong>of</strong> action to be pursued, to see eye to<br />
eye is a hackneyed expression. It is one <strong>of</strong><br />
several phrases in common use drawn from the<br />
Bible but distorted in the process. It is taken<br />
from Isaiah 52:8 where, however (according to<br />
the Westminster Commentaries and the notes<br />
to the Cambridge Bible) it means to see (each<br />
other) face to face.<br />
see how the land lies. In its figurative sense,<br />
meaning to make a preliminary investigation,<br />
to find out whether or not those with whom we<br />
must deal are favorably inclined or not, fo see<br />
how the land lies is a cliche.<br />
see with half an eye. To say <strong>of</strong> something obvious,<br />
particularly approaching trouble, that you<br />
can see it with half an eye is to employ a cliche.<br />
seek. The past tense is sought. The participle is<br />
also sought. A verb following seek is always<br />
an infinitive, as in he sought to persuade me.<br />
seek; search. Seek is an old-fashioned word which<br />
survives in such expressions as the game hideand-seek<br />
and the Biblical Seek and ye shall find.<br />
Search or search for or, more colloquially, look<br />
for are better familiar usage.<br />
As a synonym for attempt, however, where<br />
there is a suggestion that the attempt has included<br />
a search for the ideal or proper way or<br />
a searching among alternatives, seek is still<br />
standard (Those who seek to prove . . .).<br />
seem. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he seemed to laugh at us. It may also be<br />
followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in the<br />
old man seemed gradually blending into the<br />
chair. It could once be followed by a clause as<br />
in she seemed she would speak. This is no<br />
longer natural English unless the subject <strong>of</strong><br />
seem is it or the clause is introduced by tzs if<br />
or as though.<br />
Like other verbs, seem may be combined<br />
with the regular auxiliary verbs, as in it would<br />
seem, he might seem. But I can’t seem to do<br />
this, meaning “I seem to be unable to do it,”<br />
is an Americanism. It is acceptable in the<br />
United States but is not <strong>of</strong>ten heard in Engl.and,<br />
where I don’t seem able to is the usual way <strong>of</strong><br />
expressing this idea.<br />
Seem is always used as a linking verb. It lmay<br />
therefore be followed by an adjective but not<br />
by an adverb, as in it seemed good, it seemed<br />
different, he seemed happy. See linking verbs.<br />
seen. See see.<br />
select (adjective). See exclusive.<br />
self. The regular plural is selves. A new plural<br />
serfs is sometimes used in philosophic writing.<br />
-self words. See reflexive pronouns.<br />
sell. The past tense is sold. The participle is also<br />
sold. (See also dispose <strong>of</strong>.)<br />
sell like hot cakes. Hot cakes, if they are to sell<br />
at all, must obviously sell fast. But just why<br />
they, <strong>of</strong> all comestibles, became proverbial is<br />
uncertain. The phrase is now drained by overuse.<br />
<strong>of</strong> its once homely humor and flavor.<br />
selvedge; selvage. Though selvedge is etymologitally<br />
closer to the late Middle English word on<br />
which it is based (self edge), selvage, a cor-<br />
439 semantics<br />
ruption, is the form now commonly used to<br />
describe the edge <strong>of</strong> woven fabric finished to<br />
prevent raveling, <strong>of</strong>ten in a narrow tape effect,<br />
different from the body <strong>of</strong> the fabric, or any<br />
similar strip or part <strong>of</strong> surplus material, as at<br />
the side <strong>of</strong> wallpaper (The trees have ample<br />
room to expand on the water side, and each<br />
sends forth its most vigorous branch in that<br />
direction. There Nature has woven a natural<br />
selvage) .<br />
selves. See self.<br />
semantics. In grammar semantics means the study<br />
<strong>of</strong> the meanings <strong>of</strong> words, in contrast to syntax<br />
which deals with the ways in which words may<br />
be combined to express more complicated<br />
thoughts. Since 1900 the grammarian’s term<br />
semantics has been taken over and given new<br />
meanings, first by the philosophers and later by<br />
the general public.<br />
In philosophy semantics meant, first, the study<br />
<strong>of</strong> the relation <strong>of</strong> signs (including words) to<br />
the objects they stand for and the conditions<br />
under which signs may be significant. It was an<br />
attempt to apply mathematical methods to philosophical<br />
problems and was stimulated by the<br />
publication in 1910 <strong>of</strong> Whitehead and Russell’s<br />
Principia Mathematics. It can easily be shown<br />
that some <strong>of</strong> our intellectual, or scientific, problems<br />
grow out <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> the real world,<br />
the world <strong>of</strong> experience, and are to be solved by<br />
investigation, and that others are created by the<br />
structure <strong>of</strong> language, by the ways in which we<br />
must report our experience-and that it is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
difficult to see which kind <strong>of</strong> uroblem we are<br />
dealing with. The mathematical philosophers<br />
were interested in clearing away “verbal” problems<br />
so that they could come to grips with “real”<br />
ones.<br />
From this beginning, semantics has developed<br />
in a number <strong>of</strong> different ways. The word came<br />
into general English from the writings <strong>of</strong> Count<br />
Alfred Korzybski, who believed that language<br />
problems were the cause <strong>of</strong> most <strong>of</strong> our mental<br />
and social ills and developed a therapy which he<br />
claimed would “help any individual to solve his<br />
problem by himself, to his own and others’<br />
satisfaction.” This position has a great deal in<br />
common with the work <strong>of</strong> the early Greek<br />
Sophists who also believed that language was<br />
significant in itself, independently <strong>of</strong> what it<br />
referred to.<br />
To certain thinkers <strong>of</strong> a less hopeful cast than<br />
Korzybski, men so unstrung that they are not<br />
certain that any problem will ever be solved by<br />
anyone to his own and others’ satisfaction, the<br />
claims <strong>of</strong> the semanticists are more touching<br />
than convincing. If we are to go to extremes, we<br />
might follow Swift’s suggestion and abandon<br />
words altogether, each man carrying on his back<br />
the actual objects to which he wishes to refer.<br />
Though there is a happier middle ground, where<br />
most intelligent men meet, on which it is agreed<br />
that a more careful and precise use <strong>of</strong> language<br />
would avoid a great deal <strong>of</strong> confusion.<br />
To the unphilosophical such claims as Kor-
semicolon 440<br />
zybski’s are ludicrous, if not immoral, and the<br />
word semanticist has suffered the same fate that<br />
the word sophist did. Harry Truman uses the<br />
word in its currently accepted sense in his description<br />
<strong>of</strong> an imaginary Cabinet: “I have<br />
appointed a Secretary <strong>of</strong> Semantics-a most<br />
important post. He is to furnish me $50 words,<br />
and tell me how to say yes and no in the same<br />
sentence without a contradiction. He is to tell<br />
me the combination <strong>of</strong> words that will put me<br />
against inflation in San Francisco and for it in<br />
New York.”<br />
semicolon. The semicolon is used principally in<br />
formal writing. Its uses are:<br />
1. To separate statements too closely related<br />
for a period to intervene, but not closely enough<br />
related for a comma to serve the purpose, as in<br />
the powerful are always right; the weak, always<br />
wrong. This can be a powerful device to show a<br />
relation in the meaning <strong>of</strong> apparently independent<br />
statements.<br />
2. To separate phrases which contain<br />
commas, either for clarity or for emphasis, as<br />
in these are my favorite flowers: violets, for<br />
their sentimentality; roses, for their color: and<br />
buttercups, for their cheerfulness.<br />
3. To separate lengthy statements following<br />
a colon, as in the requirements might be as<br />
follows: (1) the applicant must be an American<br />
citizen; (2) he must have a bachelor’s degree or<br />
its equivalent; (3) he must have had ut least two<br />
years experience in working in this. or related<br />
fields.<br />
If a writer wishes to use an informal narrative<br />
style he should avoid semicolons as much<br />
as possible. Semicolons denote a longer break<br />
in the sentence than commas and they may slow<br />
down the reader unnecessarily.<br />
seminar; seminary. Seminar applies to a group,<br />
seminary to an institution. A seminar is a small<br />
group <strong>of</strong> students, as in a university, engaged in<br />
advanced study and original research under a<br />
member <strong>of</strong> the faculty or the gathering place<br />
for such a group (To be accepted as a member<br />
<strong>of</strong> Kittredge’s seminar was a coveted honor.<br />
Graduate English students will meet in Seminar<br />
8). The word is also used lo designate a course<br />
or subject <strong>of</strong> study for advanced graduate<br />
students (Candidates for the Ph.D. degree in<br />
English are required to participate in three<br />
seminars).<br />
Seminary describes a school, especially one<br />
<strong>of</strong> higher grade. (In England it means broadly<br />
any place <strong>of</strong> secondary education.) It also<br />
means (and this is the sense in which it is most<br />
frequently understood in America) a school<br />
for the education <strong>of</strong> men for the priesthood or<br />
ministry (I took my meals in Cambridge at the<br />
Episcopal Theological Seminary). Formerly,<br />
more so than now although the meaning persists,<br />
it was used a great deal to designate a<br />
school <strong>of</strong> secondary or higher level for young<br />
women. Seminary may also mean a seminar,<br />
though seminar is to be preferred since it is<br />
unequivocal.<br />
Semite. See Hebrew.<br />
semi-yearly; semiannual; half-yearly. Semi-yearly<br />
is not acceptable in England. In America it is<br />
acceptable but semiannual is preferred as the<br />
adjective meaning occurring every half year<br />
(I pay my insurance in semiannual premiums)<br />
or lasting for half a year (That plant is a semiannual).<br />
In England half-yearly is used as the<br />
less favored alternative to semiannual. See also<br />
biannual; biennial.<br />
sempstress; seamstress; needlewoman. In America<br />
seamstress is preferred to sempstress to describe<br />
a woman whose occupation is sewing. The<br />
English regard sempstress as obsolescent and<br />
prefer the downright needlewoman to seamstress.<br />
send. The past tense is sent. The participle is also<br />
sent. See also remit.<br />
send about his business. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who<br />
was dismissed with humiliating curtness that he<br />
was sent about his business is to employ a worn<br />
and stilted phrase.<br />
senile; senescent. See old.<br />
sensational, a word <strong>of</strong> fairly recent (late nineteenth<br />
century) coinage, meant originally that<br />
which could be perceived through the senses<br />
(With sensational pleasures and pains there go,<br />
in the infant, little else but vague feelings <strong>of</strong><br />
delight and anger and fear). However, it soon<br />
came to mean that which excites intense interest<br />
and emotion, that which startles or provokes a<br />
thrilling response. And since in addition to the<br />
many truly startling events <strong>of</strong> our time, attempts<br />
at startling and thrilling people in order to gain<br />
attention for commercial purposes have become<br />
an immense industry, it is not astonishing that<br />
the word sensational has become one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
most overworked in our vocabularies. It needs<br />
a rest and we need a rest (which we are not<br />
likely to get) from it and the forces that exploit<br />
it and the facts that seek to justify it.<br />
sense; feel. Sense as a verb is relatively young.<br />
It first appeared in the seventeenth century,<br />
meaning then to perceive by or as by one <strong>of</strong><br />
the senses. Less than a century ago it was<br />
broadened to mean feel, to become aware <strong>of</strong><br />
(As soon as he saw her he sensed that something<br />
had happened). American usage has taken<br />
up sense in still looser terms as a colloquialism<br />
meaning to comprehend or understand (You<br />
can sense what great changes the new organizational<br />
plan will make in our objectives). Philosophically,<br />
this is an almost complete reversal<br />
<strong>of</strong> meaning from the original idea <strong>of</strong> sense<br />
perception, but language is not logical or consistent<br />
and many such reversals have become<br />
accepted as standard through usage.<br />
sensibility. See sensitiveness.<br />
sensible; sensitive. Though sensible could once be<br />
used as a synonym for sensitive (the French<br />
sensible means sensitive), it is rarely and inadvisably<br />
so used today. Sensible now means<br />
having, using, or showing good sense or sound<br />
judgment (He can usually be relied on for<br />
sensible advice). In more specialized senses
it means cognizant, keenly aware (usually<br />
followed bv <strong>of</strong>, as in He was sensible <strong>of</strong> his<br />
intellectual* lit&ations) ; appreciable, considerable<br />
(There has been a sensible increase in ,the<br />
warmth <strong>of</strong> our winters in the past thirty years<br />
or There has been a quite sensible reduction in<br />
the price <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee during the past six months).<br />
It can also mean capable <strong>of</strong> being perceived by<br />
the senses (Plato regarded the sensible universe<br />
as an imperfect imitation <strong>of</strong> the real universe)<br />
or perceptible to the mind; conscious; or capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> feeling or perceiving, as organs or parts<br />
<strong>of</strong> the body (though for this meaning the negative,<br />
insensible, is more <strong>of</strong>ten used since, in<br />
many contexts-such as The stomach is a sensible<br />
orgon-there might be a ludicrous ambiguity<br />
) .<br />
Sensitive means endowed with sensation<br />
(Despite the local anaesthetic, his jaw was still<br />
sensitive); readily affected by external agencies<br />
or influences (Most politicians are sensitive Co<br />
public opinion); having acute mental or emotional<br />
sensibility, easily affected, pained or<br />
annoyed (A favorite theme <strong>of</strong> the modern novel<br />
is the education <strong>of</strong> the sensitive young man);<br />
pertaining to or connected with the senses or<br />
sensation. The word also has certain specialized<br />
scientific meanings. In physiology it means<br />
having a low threshold <strong>of</strong> sensation, responding<br />
easily to stimulation (Some plants are highly<br />
sensitive; their leaves draw back when touche#d).<br />
In chemistry and biochemistry it means highly<br />
susceptible to certain agents (Photographic<br />
films and plates are sensitive to light). In<br />
physics and mechanical matters it means constructed<br />
to indicate, measure, or be affected by,<br />
small amounts or changes, as a balance or<br />
thermometer. In radio it means easily affected<br />
by external influences, especially radio waves.<br />
sensible; sensitive; susceptible. Sensible <strong>of</strong> e:xpresses<br />
emotional consciousness (I am sensible<br />
<strong>of</strong> the suffering you are undergoing. I am<br />
sensible <strong>of</strong> the many kindnesses that you have<br />
shown me). Sensitive to expresses acute feeling<br />
(His pallid skin was sensitive to the glaring sunlight).<br />
Susceptible to or <strong>of</strong> expresses quick<br />
reaction to stimulus (In his weakened condition<br />
he was very susceptible to colds). Used by itself<br />
and <strong>of</strong> a young man susceptible usually means<br />
easily affected by female charms. In this sense<br />
it is almost a clicht.<br />
sensitiveness; sensitivity; sensibility. Sensitiveness<br />
is the general term to describe the state Ior<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> being sensitive in both physiological<br />
and psychological contexts, having a capacity<br />
<strong>of</strong> sensation and <strong>of</strong> responding to external<br />
stimuli (Parts <strong>of</strong> the body which lose all sensitiveness<br />
are likely to be seriously injured).<br />
Sensitivity is the especially physiological version<br />
<strong>of</strong> sensitiveness. It describes the ability <strong>of</strong> an<br />
organism or part <strong>of</strong> an organism to react to<br />
stimuli; degree <strong>of</strong> susceptibility to stimulation<br />
(If the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> women were really, as so<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten claimed, superior to that <strong>of</strong> men, they<br />
would be universally employed as piano-tuners,<br />
441 sentence adverbs<br />
tea-tasters, and wool-sorters). Sensitivity is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used where sensitiveness would be more<br />
appropriate (as in It was generally felt that his<br />
sensitivity over the scandal was excessive).<br />
Sensibility does not refer to being sensible<br />
but to being sensitive, in a special way. It<br />
now means the capacity to respond to aesthetic<br />
or emotional stimuli, delicacy <strong>of</strong> emotional or<br />
intellectual perception. William Elton (A guide<br />
to the New Criticism, Chicago, 1953, p. 39)<br />
limits the word to define “an innate sensitivity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the poet which permits him to absorb the<br />
appropriate experience, and to create, out <strong>of</strong><br />
that experience, the substance and feeling <strong>of</strong><br />
art.”<br />
sensual; sensuous; sensory. Sensory means pertaining<br />
to sensation; noting a structure that<br />
conveys an impulse that results or tends to<br />
result in sensation, as a nerve. The word<br />
sensory is easily distinguishable from sensual<br />
and sensuous which are sometimes confused.<br />
Sensuous means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to the<br />
senses, as opposed to the intellect. It was apparently<br />
invented by Milton who wanted to<br />
avoid certain connotations <strong>of</strong> sensual. He referred<br />
to poetry as being simple, sensuous, and<br />
passionate. Coleridge picked the word up in<br />
1814, attributing it correctly to Milton but<br />
adding vaguely that it had also been used “by<br />
many other <strong>of</strong> our elder writers.” Thus sensuous<br />
refers favorably to what is experienced through<br />
the senses. Sensual, meanwhile, has rather<br />
strengthened the taint that Milton wished to<br />
avoid and now refers entirely to those enjoyments<br />
derived from the senses with a connotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> grossness or lewdness (sensual excesses,<br />
the sensual pleasures <strong>of</strong> the glutton).<br />
sent. See send.<br />
sentence adverbs. An adverb may qualify one<br />
word in a sentence or it may qualify the entire<br />
statement. When it qualifies a single word it<br />
normally stands immediately before that word.<br />
(See adverbs.) When it qualifies the entire statement<br />
it may stand in any <strong>of</strong> several positions,<br />
but as a rule there is very little choice as to<br />
which <strong>of</strong> these it must occupy. A misplaced<br />
adverb simply does not say what the speaker<br />
intended it to.<br />
1. In a declarative sentence, that is, in a<br />
sentence that makes an assertion, the primary<br />
position for a sentence adverb is immediately<br />
before or actually inside the verb form. In a<br />
simple tense where there is no auxiliary verb,<br />
the adverb stands between the subject and the<br />
verb, as in he soon forgot. (Simple tenses <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb to be are an exception and are discussed<br />
below under the second position for<br />
sentence adverbs.) In the other tenses the<br />
adverb normally follows the first auxiliary, as<br />
in he will never forget and he has never been<br />
forgotten.<br />
If an adverb is placed between the subject<br />
and the first auxiliary verb, it puts a heavy<br />
stress on the auxiliary. This is sometimes appropriate<br />
in an emphatic or contradictory state.-
sentence adverbs 442<br />
ment, such as he soon did forget and he already<br />
has been forg<strong>of</strong>ten. But the adverb cannot be<br />
used in this front position without having just<br />
this effect. Dickens’s Mrs. Micawber <strong>of</strong>ten says,<br />
I never will desert Mr. Micawber. By placing<br />
the adverb first, she makes what was intended<br />
to be a reassuring statement seem like part <strong>of</strong><br />
an undecided argument.<br />
When an adverb is placed later, after the last<br />
auxiliary and before the meaningful verb, it<br />
qualifies the verb itself and not the sentence.<br />
For example, we place heartily after be in they<br />
must be heartily congratulated. But we could<br />
not use surely in this position. We would have<br />
to say they must surely be congratulated. The<br />
difference is that heartily qualifies congratulate<br />
and surely qualities the sentence as a whole.<br />
H. W. Fowler sums this up by saying that an<br />
adverb may stand after the last auxiliary whenever<br />
the adverb and verb suggest a familiar<br />
adjective and noun combination, such as hearty<br />
congratulations, but not otherwise. We do not<br />
at present say sure congratulations.<br />
As a rule, if an adverb has two forms, one<br />
resembling an adjective and the other ending<br />
in -1~. such as slow and slowly, the form that<br />
resembles the adjective cannot be used in the<br />
primary adverb position. This is not because<br />
it is not a true adverb. There is no question but<br />
that hard refers to the action, not the subject,<br />
and is therefore an adverb, in he struck hard.<br />
Moreover, the adverb hardly has an entirely<br />
different meaning and hard is in no way a<br />
“corrupt” form <strong>of</strong> hardly. But hard is also an<br />
adjective, as in a hard blow. Therefore we<br />
cannot say he hard struck or he will hard strike.<br />
We may use hardly in this position and say he<br />
hardly struck, but the word still means<br />
“scarcely” and not “hard-like.”<br />
In current English we form a question either<br />
by using a special interrogative word or by<br />
taking the first auxiliary verb out <strong>of</strong> its normal<br />
position in an assertion and placing it before<br />
the subject. (See questions.) The other words in<br />
the sentence keep the order they would have in<br />
an assertion. For example, he has always known<br />
this becomes has he always known this? and<br />
he once did forget becomes did he once forget?<br />
In a command, the adverb normally follows<br />
the verb, a.~ in go now, run quickly. But it may<br />
be placed first for emphasis, as in now go. The<br />
words always and never usually have this front<br />
position, as in always remember, never forget.<br />
Exclamations sometimes have the word order<br />
<strong>of</strong> an assertion and sometimes the word order<br />
<strong>of</strong> a question, as in he never did it! and how<br />
could he ever do it!<br />
The adverb not can never stand before the<br />
first element <strong>of</strong> a verb. We cannot say he not<br />
goes. In current English not cannot stand after<br />
the principal element <strong>of</strong> a verb, except a form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb to be, or occasionally a form <strong>of</strong><br />
ro have. We may say he is not but we no longer<br />
say he goes not. This was once a standard construction<br />
but it is now archaic. Today we introduce<br />
some form <strong>of</strong> the verb do, when no other<br />
auxiliary is required, in order to place not<br />
before the principal verb without placing it<br />
before the entire verb, as in he does not go.<br />
When a negative sentence is given the form <strong>of</strong><br />
a question, the auxiliary verb frequently carries<br />
the not forward with it, as in didn’t he go?,<br />
can’t you say?.<br />
2. The second position for a sentence adverb<br />
is after the full verbal idea has been expressed.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> a transitive verb, this means after<br />
the object. We may say he slowly ate the food<br />
or he ate the food slowly. The second position<br />
calls attention to the adverb and makes it emphatic.<br />
It should not be used when the word<br />
does not justify this extra attention, as in he<br />
told me the story soon. On the other hand, a<br />
word that has special significance should not be<br />
left in the primary position, as in I yesterday<br />
told him.<br />
An adverb should not be placed between a<br />
verb and its object, as in the children ate<br />
slowly the food. In English the fact that a word<br />
or group <strong>of</strong> words is the object <strong>of</strong> a verb is<br />
shown by their position immediately after the<br />
verb. To insert anything except an indirect<br />
object between these two parts <strong>of</strong> a sentence is<br />
always undesirable, and is sometimes fatal to<br />
the sense. (See object <strong>of</strong> a verb.) Conceivably,<br />
in some very intricate sentence the object itself<br />
may be so involved and require so many words<br />
that the adverb cannot be held over till the end.<br />
But sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind are very rare in<br />
modern speech.<br />
This question does not arise with an intransitive<br />
verb, which has no object. Here the adverb<br />
may stand immediately after the verb. We may<br />
say he slowly walked home or he walked slowly<br />
home. We may also say he walked home slowly.<br />
In these sentences we do not have an object<br />
but two adverbs, home an adverb <strong>of</strong> place, and<br />
slowly an adverb <strong>of</strong> manner.<br />
When several adverbs or adverbial phrases<br />
follow a verb, adverbs <strong>of</strong> manner usually stand<br />
first, adverbs <strong>of</strong> place second, and adverbs <strong>of</strong><br />
time last, as in she met him clandestinely in the<br />
garden every evening. But this rule is not rigid<br />
and is set aside for the sake <strong>of</strong> emphasis. With<br />
both transitive and intransitive verbs, the<br />
further the adverb is removed from the verb,<br />
the more emphatic it becomes.<br />
A verb that is used to mean “be,” “seem,” or<br />
“become,” is called a linking verb and the words<br />
which immediately follow it are called its<br />
“complement.” My friend and cheerful are<br />
complements in he has always been my friend<br />
and he quickly became cheerful. (See linking<br />
verbs.) Verbs <strong>of</strong> this kind are classed as intransitives<br />
but a complement is treated like the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a transitive verb. An adverb used with<br />
any linking verb except a simple tense <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb to be, may stand in the primary position,<br />
as in the examples given, or it may follow the<br />
complement, asin hi has been my friend always<br />
and he became cheerful auickly. But it should<br />
not stand between theverb and the complement,<br />
as in he has been always my friend and he
ecame quickly cheerful. In the last examlple,<br />
quickly ceases to be a sentence adverb and<br />
qualities the isolated word cheerful. This would<br />
be the proper place for the word if that was<br />
what was intended, as in he became obnoxiously<br />
cheerful.<br />
An adverb may stand between a simple tense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb ro be and its complement, as in he<br />
was always my friend, he is always cheerful.<br />
Perhaps these words are used so <strong>of</strong>ten as first<br />
auxiliaries that they are always felt as at&iaries.<br />
In any case, the adverb usually follows<br />
am, is, are, was, and were, whether the word is<br />
being used as an auxiliary or as the principal<br />
verb. An adverb placed before one <strong>of</strong> these<br />
forms gives the verb the same extra emphasis<br />
that it gives to a first auxiliary, as in it was<br />
certainly a mermaid and it certainly was a<br />
mermaid.<br />
Adverbs that have the same form as adjectives<br />
may stand in this secondary position.<br />
But adjectives too may stand after the objiect<br />
<strong>of</strong> a transitive verb and after certain intransitive<br />
verbs. In these positions it is sometimes impossible<br />
to say which function a particular word<br />
is supposed to have. Sometimes it makes no<br />
difference how we interpret it. (See position <strong>of</strong><br />
adjectives.)<br />
3. A sentence adverb may also stand before<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in slowly he ate the<br />
food. This is a normal position for certain kinds<br />
<strong>of</strong> adverbs, which are discussed below. But for<br />
most adverbs, such as slowly, this position is<br />
extremely emphatic and should not be used<br />
unless the circumstances justify it. It is appropriate<br />
in statements that are charged with<br />
emotion, as in always, night and day, Z hear<br />
lake water lapping. And it can be used to<br />
express excitement, as in away went Gilpin,<br />
away went hat and wig. But it should not be<br />
used merely for variety.<br />
An interrogative word always stands first in<br />
a sentence or clause. We therefore have no<br />
choice about the word order in when will he<br />
come?, how will he do it?. This is also true for<br />
a relative adverb, such as when in call me when<br />
he comes. In a negative statement an adverb<br />
that follows the negative qualifies the verb only<br />
and not the entire sentence, as twice in you did<br />
not call me twice. In order to qualify the<br />
sentence as a whole it must stand earlier, as in<br />
twice you did not call me. It may stand here<br />
or immediately after the subject, as in you<br />
twice did not. The position before the subjlect<br />
is more usual.<br />
Negative adverbs normally stand in the<br />
primary position. If they come after the verb<br />
they are weakened, but they may be placed<br />
earlier for emphasis, as in little he’ll reck,, if<br />
they let him sleep on. When they stand before<br />
the subject they usually, but not always, bring<br />
the first element <strong>of</strong> the verb forward with them,<br />
as in scarcely had he spoken, least <strong>of</strong> all could<br />
he believe, and never blows so red the rose. A<br />
word that is negative in meaning cannot be used<br />
as a sentence adverb except in the first or third<br />
443 sentences<br />
position. If it follows the verb form, as in the<br />
second position, it qualifies the following word<br />
or words and not the statement as a whole. The<br />
difference can be seen in Z have never told him<br />
to go and Z have told him never to go.<br />
A few adverbs, such as therefore, nevertheless,<br />
moreover, still, then, and a great many<br />
adverbial phrases such as in the first place, on<br />
the other hand, are used as connectives between<br />
sentences. They show the relation between what<br />
is to follow and what has gone before; for<br />
example, that it is a conclusion (therefore), or<br />
a contradiction (nevertheless), or more <strong>of</strong> the<br />
same (moreover). Some grammarians consider<br />
these words conjunctions and some do not.<br />
They are handled like adverbs and not like<br />
conjunctions.<br />
A word <strong>of</strong> this kind, or a phrase with a similar<br />
but more subtle meaning, can stand in any<br />
position that an adverb can. But the sooner it<br />
occurs, the more effective it is. It is not true<br />
that these words must be buried inside the sentence.<br />
They should stand first unless some other<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the sentence needs special emphasis, or<br />
unless they are being used so <strong>of</strong>ten that the sentence<br />
pattern has become monotonous. When<br />
they are placed inside the sentence they are<br />
usually set <strong>of</strong>f by commas, but this is not necessary<br />
for a single word or a short phrase. If they<br />
are placed too late in the sentence they lose their<br />
value and have the effect <strong>of</strong> an afterthought.<br />
sentences. A sentence may be defined as “a meaningful<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words that is grammatically<br />
independent, that is, that is not part <strong>of</strong> any<br />
larger grammatical construction.”<br />
A sentence which calls for a verbal response<br />
is called a question, or an interrogative. A sentence<br />
which calls for action is called an imperative.<br />
A sentence which primarily expresses an<br />
emotion is called an exclamation. A sentence<br />
which primarily conveys information is called<br />
a declarative. In speech, questions, exclamations,<br />
and declarative sentences are distinguished by<br />
characteristic pitch patterns. In writing, this is<br />
indicated by a question mark, an exclamation<br />
point, or a period at the end <strong>of</strong> the sentence.<br />
An imperative is also followed by a period. It<br />
is distinguished from a declarative sentence by<br />
a special stress on the verb and, in most cases,<br />
by the fact that the verb has no subject. Any<br />
type <strong>of</strong> sentence may be either negative or affirmative.<br />
See questions, exclamations, imperative<br />
mode, and not.<br />
The definition <strong>of</strong> a sentence given above includes<br />
such expressions as Dear me!, Please<br />
don’t, Where?. Sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind are very<br />
common in speech. In written English, however,<br />
most sentences have a more complex structure<br />
and can be divided into a subject and a predicate.<br />
The subject may be defined roughly as the<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words that shows what is being spoken<br />
about; and the predicate, as the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence,<br />
or the words that “predicate” something<br />
about the subject. The subject is always a noun<br />
or noun equivalent and its qualifiers. The predicate<br />
is a verb with its objects and qualifiers.
sentinel 444<br />
In the best written English more than ninety<br />
percent <strong>of</strong> the sentences have the word order:<br />
subject, verb, objects. If more than one noun<br />
equivalent follows the verb, the order is indirect<br />
object, direct object, objective complement. (For<br />
a more detailed discussion <strong>of</strong> these points, see<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, indirect object, object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb.) Adverbial qualifiers may stand in any<br />
<strong>of</strong> several positions. (See sentence adverbs.)<br />
Any part <strong>of</strong> a sentence may be a single word<br />
or a group <strong>of</strong> words. (See phrases.) When a<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words contains a true verb and its<br />
subject (or an imperative) it is called a clause.<br />
Any part <strong>of</strong> a sentence, except the verb itself,<br />
may be a clause. In when Z was one-and-twenty<br />
Z heard a wise man say, “Give crowns and<br />
pounds and guineas but not your heart away,”<br />
the words inside the quotation marks form a<br />
clause that is functioning as a noun and the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> the verb say; and the words when Z<br />
was one-and-twenty form a clause that functions<br />
as an adverb <strong>of</strong> time. (See clauses and<br />
conjunctions.)<br />
A sentence that does not contain a dependent<br />
or subordinate clause and that contains only<br />
one independent clause is called a simple sentence.<br />
A simple sentence is not necessarily short<br />
and ideas expressed in it are not necessarily<br />
simple. For example, the cliffs <strong>of</strong> England stand,<br />
glimmering and vast, out in the tranquil bay is<br />
a simple sentence. A sentence that contains a<br />
clause as one <strong>of</strong> its subordinate elements is<br />
called a complex sentence, such as Z think we<br />
are in rats’ alley where the dead men lost their<br />
bones. A sentence that contains two or more<br />
independent clauses but no subordinate clause is<br />
said to be compound, as in Don John’s hunting<br />
and his hounds have bayed. A compound sentence<br />
that also contains one or more subordinate<br />
clauses is said to be compound-complex, as in<br />
she liked whate’er she looked on, and her looks<br />
went everywhere. Some grammarians like to<br />
make distinctions <strong>of</strong> this kind, but they have<br />
very little practical value.<br />
sentinel; sentry. Sentry, derived from an obsolete<br />
variant <strong>of</strong> sentinel, is now the more usual term,<br />
in England and America, to describe a soldier<br />
or other military person stationed at a place to<br />
keep guard and prevent the passage <strong>of</strong> unauthorized<br />
persons, etc. (The sentry cocked his<br />
gun and demanded the password). Sentinel may<br />
describe such a person, or anyone or that which<br />
watches, or stands as if watching (Mont St.<br />
Michel stands like a sentinel above the tidal<br />
flats <strong>of</strong> Normandy and Brittany. And thesentinel<br />
stars set their watch in the sky). Sentinel is used<br />
largely in metaphorical and literary contexts.<br />
It is sometimes, sentry never, used as a verb<br />
(All the powers/ That sentinel just thrones<br />
double their guards/ About your sacred excellence)<br />
.<br />
separate; divide. To separate is to disunite, to remove<br />
from each other, with a space or body<br />
intervening, things that had previously been<br />
joined or associated (In the darkness the two<br />
platoons became separated). To divide is to split<br />
or break up carefully, according to measure<br />
ment, rule, or plan (The property was divided<br />
equally between the two sons. The gold was<br />
divided into six unequal piles, each separated<br />
from the other by about a fo<strong>of</strong>s distance).<br />
sequence <strong>of</strong> tenses. See tense shifts.<br />
seraglio. The plural is seraglios or seragli.<br />
seraph. The plural is seraphs or seraphim or seraphims.<br />
Seraphs are mentioned only twice in<br />
the Bible, each time in the plural. The form used<br />
in the King James Version is seraphims, but<br />
most modern scholars prefer the correct Hebrew<br />
plural seraphim. The singular form seraph was<br />
apparently created by Milton. This in turn produced<br />
the natural English plural seraphs. All<br />
three plural forms are acceptable today and<br />
there is no difference in meaning between them.<br />
So far as the Biblical record goes, all that can<br />
be said about seraphs is that they have six wings<br />
and continually praise the Lord. Later tradition<br />
identified them as angels <strong>of</strong> the highest rank,<br />
who excel in love. In Paradise Lost, Satan is<br />
represented as a fallen seraph.<br />
sere and yellow leaf. As a poetical figure for advancing<br />
years, especially for old age, the sere<br />
and yellow leaf is a clicht. It is taken from a<br />
speech <strong>of</strong> Macbeth’s (Macbeth, V, iii, 23) and<br />
like many cliches is slightly distorted in both<br />
form and meaning. When Macbeth, despondent,<br />
says that his way Is fall% into the sere, the yellow<br />
leaf, the text makes it plain that he does not<br />
thereby mean old age but middle age, not the<br />
winter <strong>of</strong> life but its autumn. For the things<br />
“which should accompany old age” he “must<br />
not look to have” but in their stead only servility<br />
and hatred.<br />
sergeant; serjeant. In America, sergeant is the<br />
only term used as a military, police, or courtroom<br />
title. A sergeant is a noncommissioned<br />
army or marine corps <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> the rank immediately<br />
above that <strong>of</strong> corporal; or a police <strong>of</strong>ficer<br />
<strong>of</strong> rank higher than a common policeman or<br />
constable; or an <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> a court who is charged<br />
with the arrest <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fenders, the summoning <strong>of</strong><br />
defendants, and the enforcement <strong>of</strong> the decrees<br />
<strong>of</strong> the court or <strong>of</strong> its presiding <strong>of</strong>ficial. A sergeant<br />
at arms, an executive <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> a legislative<br />
or other body, whose duty it is to enforce<br />
the commands <strong>of</strong> the body, preserve order, etc.,<br />
is also <strong>of</strong>ten called a sergeant.<br />
In England today the word sergeant means<br />
what it does in the United States. There was formerly,<br />
however, a special order <strong>of</strong> barristers,<br />
abolished in 1880, called serjeants, from which<br />
the common law judges were chosen. More<br />
explicitly, these barristers were called Serjeants<br />
at law. They are encountered today only in literature<br />
(A Serjeant <strong>of</strong> the Law, wary and wise-<br />
Chaucer. Mr. Serjeant Buzfuz, who was counsel<br />
for the opposite party . . . -Dickens).<br />
series. The plural is series.<br />
serum. The plural is serums or sera.<br />
servant. See help.<br />
serve my turn. As an expression for something<br />
that will do, though usually with a suggestion<br />
that it is not quite what is wanted or needed,
to say that it will serve my turn is to employ a<br />
cliche.<br />
service; duty. Service, an act <strong>of</strong> helpful activity,<br />
is one <strong>of</strong> the great cant words <strong>of</strong> the twentieth<br />
century (Why don? you stop in at our gentswear<br />
department and let us be <strong>of</strong> service to<br />
you). Duty is that which one is bound to do by<br />
moral or legal obligation (To do my duty in<br />
that state <strong>of</strong> life unto which it shall please (God<br />
to call me). It was a cant word <strong>of</strong> our grandfather’s<br />
generation, and whereas service, when<br />
abused, is <strong>of</strong>ten simply fatuous, the greed showing<br />
innocently through the thin plating <strong>of</strong> altruism,<br />
duty, when abused, was <strong>of</strong>ten simster,<br />
masking cruelties and tyrannies <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
dreadful kind.<br />
Though it properly describes work or duty<br />
performed in the interest <strong>of</strong> another, obviously<br />
much service in its general usage is either duty<br />
without altruistic intent or self-regarding action<br />
hypocritically advertised as something else.<br />
Service with a Smile may mean cheerful robbrY.<br />
service; render service; serve. Though some authorities<br />
in England are reluctant to accept it,<br />
service as a transitive verb is well established in<br />
American usage. It means to give such service<br />
to as is necessary to maintain in working order,<br />
to make fit for service, to restore to condition<br />
for service, and is usually used with reference to<br />
mechanical things (Let us service your automobile,<br />
television set, refrigerator, etc.). In colloquial<br />
usage it has also pretty well ousted serve<br />
and render service (Three transportation lines<br />
will service the Fair).<br />
A service man is one who comes to a house<br />
to service the various mechanical devices that<br />
need expert repair or maintenance. He is in no<br />
sense a servant, but one whose services must be<br />
sought with solicitude, who must be treated with<br />
obsequious respect, and whose shortcomings,<br />
even in his pr<strong>of</strong>essed skills, must be delicately<br />
ignored. (A serviceman is a member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
army or navy.)<br />
serviette; napkin. When Americans say napkin,<br />
they mean a rectangular piece <strong>of</strong> paper or linen<br />
or cotton cloth used at table to wipe the lips<br />
and hands and to protect the clothes (Fold<br />
your napkins, children; don’t leave them wadded<br />
in heaps on the table that way!). In England,<br />
however, where diapers (once a euphemism)<br />
have come widely to be called napkins, napkins,<br />
to avoid the unsavory connotation, are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten called serviettes. The word serviette is also<br />
employed in America, but not very widely .and<br />
more as a touch <strong>of</strong> elegance than <strong>of</strong> modesty,<br />
though with the increasing use <strong>of</strong> napkin in<br />
“feminine hygiene” serviette may gain wider<br />
currency in the United States. At the momlsnt,<br />
however, napkin, both the word and the thing,<br />
is in itself sufficiently elegant for the millions<br />
to need no substitute.<br />
An interesting illustration <strong>of</strong> the importance<br />
<strong>of</strong> connotation in meaning is supplied, in connection<br />
with the word napkin, by the airlines.<br />
Some <strong>of</strong> the lines have been attempting to per-<br />
445 set<br />
suade their passengers to tuck their napkins, at<br />
mealtimes, in their collars so that they will protect<br />
the whole front instead <strong>of</strong> merely, as when<br />
more elegantly placed across the knees, the lap.<br />
On an airliner this is sensible and if followed<br />
would prevent a great deal <strong>of</strong> annoyance and<br />
complaint. The difficulty is that this generation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Americans, particularly those <strong>of</strong> the social<br />
groups from which a large portion <strong>of</strong> airline<br />
passengers is drawn, has been taught that tucking<br />
the napkin into the neck instead <strong>of</strong> laying<br />
it across the lap is, if not downright bad manners,<br />
at least rustic and inelegant. Some genius<br />
in the service <strong>of</strong> the airlines has, therefore,<br />
struck upon the happy idea <strong>of</strong> putting the instructions<br />
in French, the language above all<br />
languages <strong>of</strong> prandial elegance, and upon each<br />
tray is placed a small card suggesting serviette<br />
au cou. A simple drawing, above the inscription,<br />
<strong>of</strong> a clean and happy gourmand with his<br />
napkin in the proper place removes all possible<br />
doubt and, at the same time, leaves the passenger<br />
with the flattering realization that he can<br />
read French.<br />
session. See cession.<br />
set. The past tense is set. The participle is also set.<br />
Originally this verb meant “cause to sit” and,<br />
by extension, “put.” Unlike the verb sit, which<br />
could not be used with an object, set implied<br />
an object that was acted upon as well as an<br />
agent. But both object and agent did not have<br />
to be mentioned every time the verb appeared.<br />
There were two constructions in which set was<br />
used apparently without an object.<br />
1. When the object was the agent’s own body,<br />
as in set yourself down, the pronoun was sometimes<br />
omitted, as in set down and rest your<br />
bones. This construction is still heard but is not<br />
now accepted as standard. It was condemned by<br />
grammarians, who claimed that sit was required<br />
in sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind that did not have an<br />
expressed object. For generations, school children<br />
were told not to use set without an object.<br />
It seems that they finally learned not to use set<br />
at all in the sense <strong>of</strong> “cause to sit.” As set down<br />
became unacceptable, people began to say sit<br />
the baby down. This must have distressed the<br />
purists even more than set down, but apparently<br />
no one had the heart to struggle against it. Sit<br />
is now acceptable English for “cause to sit.” Set<br />
may also be used in this sense, provided the object<br />
is mentioned. But most people today avoid<br />
set unless it is quite clear that they do not mean<br />
“sit.” They say set the baby on his feet but sit<br />
him in the chair.<br />
2. When the verb in a sentence is passive, the<br />
thing acted on, the logical object, becomes the<br />
grammatical subject and is always mentioned,<br />
but the agent may be ignored. In many English<br />
verbs, the active form may be used with a passive<br />
sense, as in the bout upset, tile washes well,<br />
the car drives easily. (See passive voice and<br />
transitive verbs.) This was true for the verb sef.<br />
People said the jar sets on the shelf and the hen<br />
is setting, just as we say apples cook quickly<br />
and dinner is cooking. This use <strong>of</strong> set was also
set 446<br />
attacked by the people who objected to ser<br />
down, but not with the same success. Generations<br />
<strong>of</strong> school teachers tried to turn a setting<br />
hen into a sitting hen and failed. A setting hen<br />
is still the preferred form. Perhaps rural people<br />
are naturally conservative. And perhaps they<br />
had other things to think about. The farmer is<br />
supposed to have said: “I don’t care whether<br />
she’s setting or sitting. I want to know when<br />
she cackle-s whether she’s laying or lying.” The<br />
teachers also tried to substitute sit for set in<br />
sentences such as the jar sets on rhe shelf. They<br />
partly succeeded. This use <strong>of</strong> set is now felt to<br />
be questionable English, although it can be justified<br />
historically. The solution seems to be to<br />
avoid the problem entirely and say skznd, which<br />
can be used with or without an object, as in<br />
I stood it on the shelf and there it stands. A<br />
garment may either set or sit, as in the coat sets<br />
well and it sits well. Tailors usually prefer set.<br />
Set is also used without an object when it<br />
means “descend,” as in the setting sun, the sun<br />
sets in the west; and in many derived senses that<br />
no longer suggest “seated” or “put,” as in the<br />
plaster set, the blossoms set.<br />
When used before another verb, set calls attention<br />
to the beginning <strong>of</strong> an activity rather<br />
than the activity itself, as in she set to work in<br />
contrast to she worked. The second verb may be<br />
an infinitive, she set him to work, or the -ing<br />
form introduced by to, as in she set him io chopping<br />
wood. Set out, in this construction, suggests<br />
that the action had barely begun and probably<br />
did not continue, as in she set out to walk. Set in<br />
suggests that the action that is beginning is ge<br />
ing to continue for a long time, as in ir set in lo<br />
rain and she set in to talk.<br />
set (a social group). See clique.<br />
set by the ears, a term from the causing <strong>of</strong> dogs<br />
to fight, is, when used metaphorically as a term<br />
for inciting a quarrel among persons or stirring<br />
up contentiousness in a group, hackneyed.<br />
set one’s face against. As a term for being determinedly<br />
opposed to some person or measure,<br />
especially some proposed but not yet executed<br />
plan, to set one’s face uguinst it is a cliche.<br />
set one’s hand to the plow. As an expression for<br />
having undertaken some project, usually <strong>of</strong> high<br />
purpose and importance, with the firm resolve<br />
<strong>of</strong> not wavering but carrying it through to a<br />
successful conclusion, to set one’s hand to the<br />
plow is a worn-out expression. It is a slight misquotation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Luke 9:62: And Jesus said unto<br />
him, No man, having put his hand to the plough,<br />
and looking back, is fit for the kingdom <strong>of</strong> God.<br />
No impiety is commonly intended in the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the phrase. It simply has the touch, felt in so<br />
many agrarian metaphors in our mechanical,<br />
urban civilization, <strong>of</strong> old-fashioned, earthy simplicity<br />
and, hence, sincerity.<br />
set one’s heart on. As a term for establishing a<br />
fixed determination to have something or to do<br />
something, set one’s heart on it is a clichk. A<br />
point can be made, <strong>of</strong> course, that such expressions,<br />
in use for at least five hundred years,<br />
should be accepted as though they were single<br />
words, but they are hackneyed and there are<br />
usually single words that could be used in their<br />
pIaCeS.<br />
set one’s teeth on edge. In its metaphorical sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> occasioning disgust or strong distaste, the<br />
phrase it sets my teeth on edge is a clichk. The<br />
exact meaning <strong>of</strong> the phrase is obscure. Ezekiel<br />
18:2, whence it is taken, says The fathers have<br />
eaten sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are<br />
set on edge. The sensation to which it alludes is<br />
known to everyone but it is hard to attach any<br />
known meaning <strong>of</strong> edge to a description <strong>of</strong> it.<br />
The Vulgate has obstupescere, to be benumbed.<br />
The earlier expression (says the Oxford English<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong>) was to edge the teeth and this,<br />
if it meant putting a (sense <strong>of</strong>) sharpness on<br />
the teeth, or making them feel as if their edges<br />
were grating together, conveys a more wmprehensible<br />
meaning.<br />
The expression, by the way, is described in<br />
Ezekiel ( 18 : 3 ) as a uroverb and. at least in the<br />
Revised standard Version, God commands that<br />
its use be discontinued.<br />
set the world on fire. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that<br />
someone is not likely to do anything startlingly<br />
brilliant in life, to say that he won’t set the<br />
world on fire is a clich6. This is the American<br />
version. In England they say that he won’t set<br />
the Thames on fire and other nations use other<br />
rivers. In these days <strong>of</strong> atomic fission and fusion<br />
the phrase has lost some <strong>of</strong> its assurance; there’s<br />
no telling what a violently inclined lad, especially<br />
if he has a bent for physics, might not do.<br />
seventh heaven (<strong>of</strong> delight). As an expression <strong>of</strong><br />
extreme pleasure, ecstasy, the seventh heaven,<br />
especially the seventh heaven <strong>of</strong> delight, is a<br />
clich6. The term is taken from the Babylonian,<br />
later Jewish, and Mohammedan belief that there<br />
were seven heavens, the seventh being God’s<br />
own dwelling.<br />
several may be used as an adjective or alone as<br />
if it were a noun or pronoun, as in several men<br />
agreed with him and several left early. The word<br />
is always plural and requires a plural verb.<br />
When used in a series <strong>of</strong> adjectives it is treated<br />
as a numeral and placed before descriptive adjectives,<br />
as in several large brown dogs. See few.<br />
sew. The past tense is sewed. The participle is<br />
sewed or sewn. Sewed is the preferred form for<br />
the participle. Sewn is heard in Great Britain<br />
more than it is in the United States, and is said<br />
to be used by women more than by men.<br />
sewage; sewerage. Sewage is the word for the<br />
waste matter or refuse that passes through a<br />
sewer. Sewerage is the word for the removal <strong>of</strong><br />
waste water and refuse by means <strong>of</strong> sewers. It<br />
is also the word for a system <strong>of</strong> sewers (The<br />
sewerage <strong>of</strong> rainwater in heavy downpours is a<br />
serious problem in the lower parts <strong>of</strong> the city.<br />
The removal <strong>of</strong> sewage through the sewerage).<br />
Usage permits also the use <strong>of</strong> sewerage as a<br />
substitute term for sewage. But <strong>of</strong> the two,<br />
sewage is preferable since it is unequivocal.<br />
sewn. See sew.<br />
sex. See gender.<br />
shad. The plural is shad, occasionally shads.
shade; window blind. What Americans sometimes<br />
call a shade (We’ll be needing new shades<br />
in the kitchen soon. The old ones are worn out<br />
and the afternoon sunlight is unbearable), the<br />
English, in correct and general speech, call only<br />
a window blind.<br />
shade and shadow both designate a partial darkness,<br />
an area in which the brightness and heat<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sun or some other source <strong>of</strong> light dsoes<br />
not fall. Shade differs from shadow in that it<br />
implies no definite form or limit (Within the<br />
forest there was a cool and refreshing shade.<br />
In the shade <strong>of</strong> the old apple tree); while<br />
shadow represents in form, though <strong>of</strong>ten distorted,<br />
the object which has intercepted the<br />
light (He would quarrel with a man for stepping<br />
on the shadow <strong>of</strong> his dog). Although<br />
shadow is <strong>of</strong>ten used in literature as a loose<br />
synonym for shade (In the deep shadows <strong>of</strong> the<br />
narrow courts), it usually has a sinister or eerie<br />
connotation, suggesting that the darkness is projected<br />
by objects or living things, even though<br />
imperfectly apprehended. Shade is almost always<br />
a word <strong>of</strong> pleasing connotations. Shadow<br />
can be, and used to be more so than now (the<br />
shadow <strong>of</strong> a great rock in a weary land), but<br />
it is becoming increasingly suggestive <strong>of</strong> something<br />
threatening or mysterious.<br />
As a synonym for ghost, shade is gently poetic<br />
(Nor e’er was to the bowers <strong>of</strong> bliss conveyed/<br />
A fairer spirit or more welcome shade).<br />
shadow <strong>of</strong> one’s former self. To say <strong>of</strong> someone<br />
wasted by sickness or fallen from greatness or<br />
faded in reputation that he is but a shadow <strong>of</strong><br />
his former self is to employ a cliche.<br />
shake. The past tense is shook. The participle is<br />
shaken.<br />
Stand once had the same pattern as shake,<br />
with a past tense stood and a participle stuna’en,<br />
as in I have stunden here an hour. New participles,<br />
stood and shook, as in I have shook his<br />
hand, appeared in the language about the same<br />
time but have had very different histories. Stood<br />
has succeeded in driving out standen and! is<br />
now the only form <strong>of</strong> the participle used. H,ave<br />
shook, on the other hand, was still a competing<br />
literary form in the nineteenth century but is<br />
now definitely considered incorrect. Words l.ike<br />
these show us how completely grammar depends<br />
on usage and how unwise it would be to generalize<br />
or legislate about what “ought” to be<br />
standard English.<br />
shake <strong>of</strong>f the dust from one’s feet. As a way <strong>of</strong><br />
expressing one’s determination to leave a place<br />
for which one has a fixed dislike, with a firm<br />
resolution not to return, and to make, in le.aving,<br />
a clear gesture <strong>of</strong> aversion, to shake <strong>of</strong>l the<br />
dust from one’s feet is now hackneyed. It is<br />
from the Bible, from Christ’s instructions to his<br />
disciples regarding their behavior when men<br />
shall not receive them nor hear their words.. In<br />
Luke 9:5 it is shake <strong>of</strong>f the very dust from your<br />
feet. In Mark 6: 11 it is shake <strong>of</strong>l the dust under<br />
your feet. And in Matthew 10: 14, shake <strong>of</strong>l the<br />
dust <strong>of</strong> your feet. Partridge says that this last<br />
was the original form.<br />
447 shall<br />
shall; should. In American English shall is always<br />
a present subjunctive, and should a past subjunctive,<br />
auxiliary.<br />
These words are forms <strong>of</strong> a verb which originally<br />
meant “owe.” There is no corresponding<br />
infinitive, no imperative, no -ing form, and no<br />
past participle. Shall is a present tense form but<br />
it does not have the characteristic final s in the<br />
third person singular. This is because it is an<br />
old past tense that has wme to be felt as a<br />
present tense. Should is a newer past tense created<br />
for it, but it too is now used in speaking<br />
about the present and the future. In the United<br />
States should is not felt as a past tense form <strong>of</strong><br />
shall, but as an independent verb similar to must<br />
and ought.<br />
Since shall and should are both grammatically<br />
past tense forms, just as the word went<br />
is, neither <strong>of</strong> these words can follow (that is,<br />
be dependent on) another verb. We can no<br />
more say can shall or did should than we can<br />
say can went or did went. Since we cannot use<br />
auxiliaries, such as do, be, have, we form negative<br />
statements and ask questions in the old<br />
direct way that is now obsolete for most verbs,<br />
as in he shall not and why shouldn’t he?.<br />
Shall and should are themselves auxiliaries<br />
and require another verb to complete their<br />
meaning. They are followed by the simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb, as in he shall leave, he should<br />
leave, or by have and the past participle to<br />
express completed action, as in he shall have<br />
left, he should have left. The complementary<br />
verb must be actually stated or easily supplied<br />
from the context, as in shall we sturt? and do<br />
you think we should?.<br />
In American English shall always implies<br />
compulsion. It is used chiefly in questions where<br />
it asks about the wishes or commands <strong>of</strong> the<br />
person spoken to, as in shall I wait?, shall we<br />
dunce?. Shall is not used in negative questions<br />
and it is not used in second person questions.<br />
To most Americans shall you? sounds like a<br />
ridiculous affectation.<br />
When used in a statement, shall in the second<br />
or third person, as in you shall listen to me and<br />
he shall stay in bed, implies that the speaker has<br />
the power to compel. It is used in the negative<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than in the affirmative and to children<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than to adults. The English<br />
negative form shan’t is understood but is seldom<br />
used. Many Americans believe that it is an illiteracy.<br />
Must, have to, have got to, also express<br />
necessity but do not attribute it to the speaker’s<br />
will. It is therefore considered more polite to<br />
say you must listen or you have got to listen<br />
than to say you shall listen. Forms <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to be followed by a to-infinitive express a milder<br />
and vaguer form <strong>of</strong> compulsion and are considered<br />
even more polite, as in you are to stay<br />
in bed.<br />
Shall is sometimes heard in a tirst person<br />
statement, as in I shall be there. Here the speaker<br />
may be using the word in the English manner,<br />
but most Americans will hear it as an expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> determination, a self-imposed coercion.
shall 448<br />
I will be there is heard as a simple statement<br />
about the future. Z shall be there is heard as a<br />
promise or a reassurance. When this is inappropriate,<br />
as in Z shall be late, it is heard as “an<br />
un-American way <strong>of</strong> talking.” (For the British<br />
use <strong>of</strong> shall and should as simple future tense<br />
auxiliaries, see shall; will.)<br />
In the United States should usually carries<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> “ought to.” It is used in this<br />
sense in all persons and in all types <strong>of</strong> sentences.<br />
Like “ought to,” it may express what is morally<br />
binding, what is expedient, or what is merely<br />
expected, as in he should return the money, a<br />
liar should have a good memory, they should<br />
be here any minute. In these senses should may<br />
be followed by have and the past participle <strong>of</strong><br />
the meaningful verb and refer to a past event,<br />
as in he should have started earlier.<br />
Should is not used in America as a past tense<br />
form <strong>of</strong> shall. The statement he shall not go<br />
repeated in a past tense form would be Z said<br />
he could not go or Z said he wasn’t to go, and<br />
not Z said he should not go.<br />
Should is sometimes used simply as a sign <strong>of</strong><br />
the present subjunctive, without any meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
its own. This is particularly true when a speaker<br />
wants to suggest uncertainty or s<strong>of</strong>ten a state<br />
ment in a construction that no longer requires<br />
the subjunctive, as in I’m sorry it should be this<br />
way and It’s strange that they should be so<br />
powerful. Here a statement about matters <strong>of</strong><br />
fact calling for is or are has been s<strong>of</strong>tened by<br />
should into a statement about opinions. In who<br />
should Z see but Mr. Jones?, should has the<br />
effect <strong>of</strong> making the question equivalent to who<br />
do you think Z saw?.<br />
In England should is used after verbs <strong>of</strong> requiring,<br />
suggesting, desiring, where Americans<br />
still use a present subjunctive. That is, an<br />
Englishman would say it is necessary that he<br />
should come to the <strong>of</strong>ice where an American<br />
would be more likely to say it is necessary that<br />
he come to the <strong>of</strong>ice. Should is used in place<br />
<strong>of</strong> a present subjunctive in hypothetical clauses<br />
in both England and America, as in if he should<br />
come, Z will tell you. Should used in a conditional<br />
clause is treated as a present subjunctive<br />
and does not require a past tense subjunctive<br />
auxiliary in the conclusion. It can be placed<br />
before its subject to indicate a condition without<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the word if, as in should he come.<br />
See subjunctive mode.<br />
&all; will. The two verbs shall and will are used<br />
to express three ideas. Will expresses volition<br />
or willingness. Shall expresses obligation or<br />
compulsion. In these primary senses both verbs<br />
refer to the future. But we <strong>of</strong>ten want to speak<br />
about a future event without saying whether it<br />
is to come to pass by or against anyone’s wilf<br />
To do this, one <strong>of</strong> these verbs must be accepted<br />
as a mere sign <strong>of</strong> futurity. When it is so<br />
accepted, it loses its original meaning <strong>of</strong> volition<br />
or obligation.<br />
An American grammarian writing in 1784<br />
said: “Will, as an auxiliary term, is a mere sign<br />
<strong>of</strong> futurity . . . shall, even as an auxiiiarysign,<br />
always denotes something more than mere fu-<br />
turity, and constantly implies either obligation,<br />
possibility, contingency, or something conditional,<br />
and very <strong>of</strong>ten several <strong>of</strong> these together.”<br />
This is the way will and shall were used in Old<br />
English. And it is the way they are used in<br />
American English today. In this country will<br />
is the empty auxiliary that can be used to indicate<br />
mere futurity, in all persons and in all<br />
types <strong>of</strong> sentences.<br />
There was a period in English literature when<br />
this was not true. During the sixteenth century<br />
and earlier, in literary English at least, shall<br />
indicated simple futurity and will kept its meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> volition. In the King James Bible shall<br />
is used as we would now use will, as in the Lord<br />
shall preserve thee from all evil and goodness<br />
and mercy shall follow me all the days <strong>of</strong> my<br />
life. Similarly, Macbeth is using should as we<br />
now use would when he says <strong>of</strong> his wife she<br />
should have died hereafter.<br />
Some, but not all, <strong>of</strong> these sixteenth century<br />
shall’s and should’s are used by educated<br />
Englishmen today. According to the Oxford<br />
English <strong>Dictionary</strong>, “since the middle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
seventeenth century the general rule (subject<br />
to various exceptions) has been that mere<br />
futurity is expressed in the first person by shall,<br />
in the second and third bv will. In indirectlv<br />
reported speech, usage permits either the retention<br />
<strong>of</strong> the auxiliary used by the original speaker<br />
or the substitution <strong>of</strong> that which is appropriate<br />
to the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> the person reporting.”<br />
The “various exceptions” are important and<br />
numerous. Nothing is said here about the forms<br />
used in a question. Anyone who wants to know<br />
more about this should consult The King’s English<br />
by H. W. and F. G. Fowler. In this delightful<br />
book fifty pages are devoted to the problems <strong>of</strong><br />
verbs and twenty <strong>of</strong> these are taken up with the<br />
difference between shall and will.<br />
No American should attempt to use the<br />
British shall and should until he has studied<br />
the subject thoroughly. If he does. he will certainly<br />
misuse them and speak an’English that<br />
is <strong>of</strong>fensive on both sides <strong>of</strong> the Atlantic.<br />
Americans should, however, remember that an<br />
Englishman is likely to say Z should or we<br />
should where an American would use would.<br />
For example, an Englishman sees nothing outrageous<br />
in the sentence, the doctor thought Z<br />
should die. Again, the Englishman who wrote:<br />
never in our hours <strong>of</strong> temptation should we<br />
sacrifice to the mere need for logical consistency<br />
our interest, our passion, our vanity, did not<br />
mean that we ought not to be guided by reason<br />
but simply that, in a crisis, we wouldn’t be.<br />
In the United States a few people use the<br />
British shall and will. A few more consider Z<br />
shall a decorative expression but do not use<br />
we shall or should as an Englishman does. But<br />
for most Americans, shall always means an<br />
order and should usually means an obligation.<br />
In this country will is used as the future auxiliary<br />
in all persons and in all types <strong>of</strong> sentences.<br />
The British I shall is recognized as something<br />
unfamiliar and “foreign.” The British Z should is<br />
simply misunderstood. No American sees any-
thing ridiculous in such sentences as: will you<br />
be late?, I’m afraid I will, will we regret it?,<br />
would you be able to recognize lzim?, I will not<br />
be able to finish it today. (To understand how<br />
these sentences sound to an Englishman, an<br />
American should substitute the appropriate<br />
form <strong>of</strong> “be willing to” for will or would.)<br />
An American grammarian writing in 1868,<br />
who must have spent more time reading his<br />
Bible than he spent talking with his neighbors,<br />
considered the American use <strong>of</strong> these auxiliaries<br />
a sin and a menace to the public safety. “‘To<br />
disregard obligation in the laying out <strong>of</strong> fut.ure<br />
action,” he cried, “making arbitrary resolve the<br />
sole guide, is a lesson which the community<br />
ought not to learn from any section or class,<br />
in language any more than in political iand<br />
social conduct.” But this warning seems to have<br />
made no impression on his countrymen. In<br />
current American speech will occurs 217 times<br />
for every shall; and would occurs nine times<br />
for every slzould. Etymologically speaking, we<br />
are a very willful people. (See also shall; should<br />
and will; would and future tense.)<br />
shambles were originally benches or stalls in the<br />
market, especially those benches or stalls on<br />
which butchers exposed their meat for sale<br />
(Whatsoever is sold in the shambles, that eat).<br />
Where the market was large and the stalls fixed,<br />
the shambles came to indicate the section <strong>of</strong><br />
the market reserved for the butchers (The<br />
shambles remain one <strong>of</strong> the most picturesque<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the old town <strong>of</strong> York). This meaning<br />
is still retained in some parts <strong>of</strong> England.<br />
More broadly, shambles is used to describe<br />
any place <strong>of</strong> carnage that in its bloody horror<br />
would suggest the butchers’ stalls (The afterdeck<br />
<strong>of</strong> the PC 565 was a shambles; thirteen<br />
dead men lay under fight navy blankets). Today<br />
shambles is used even more loosely, especially<br />
by journalists in search <strong>of</strong> the more lurid word,<br />
to describe a scene <strong>of</strong> material wreckage, though<br />
there may have been no loss <strong>of</strong> life or blood<br />
(The robber, in his haste to find the money<br />
and get away before Delancey returned, had<br />
turned the place into a shambles). This meaning<br />
is not yet standard, however, and the careful<br />
writer will avoid it-as he will all excessi.ve<br />
terms.<br />
share. See part; portion.<br />
shares. See stock.<br />
shark, as a word for a person who preys greedily<br />
on others (Since his expenses exceeded kis<br />
income, he soon fell into the hands <strong>of</strong> the loan<br />
sharks), is a standard word in English and<br />
American usage. It would seem, at first thought,<br />
to be a figurative use <strong>of</strong> shark, the ferocious,<br />
elasmobranch fish; but there is more likelihood<br />
that the fish was named after the man than that<br />
the man was named after the fish. In America<br />
shark has the additional slang meaning <strong>of</strong> one<br />
who has unusual ability in a particular field<br />
(He was a shark at mathematics). The English<br />
slang equivalent is whale, in the sense <strong>of</strong> being<br />
a big fish among little ones.<br />
shave. The past tense is shaved. The participle is<br />
shaved or shaven. Shaved is the preferred form<br />
449 shibboleth<br />
for the participle. One may still say he has<br />
already shaverz, but this is now rare. Shaven is<br />
preferred to shaved when used as an adjective,<br />
as in a well shaven face.<br />
she. See subjective pronouns.<br />
sheaf. The plural is sheaves.<br />
shear. The past tense is sheared. The participle is<br />
sheared or shorn. Only the old form <strong>of</strong> the participle,<br />
shorn, can be used when speaking <strong>of</strong> a<br />
tonsure. Otherwise, in the United States the<br />
participle slzeared is preferred when the word<br />
is meant literally, as in the sheep have been<br />
sheared <strong>of</strong> their fieece, and the participle shorn<br />
when the word is meant figuratively, as in the<br />
men have been shorn <strong>of</strong> their power. In Great<br />
Britain shorn is still used in a literal sense and<br />
one may say the sheep have been shorn.<br />
shears. The plural form refers to one instrument<br />
but is usually treated as a plural, as in these<br />
shears are sharp. It may also be treated as a<br />
singular, especially after a qualifying word, as<br />
in here is a pruning shears. But the form here<br />
is a pair <strong>of</strong> shears is more usual. The construction<br />
with pair must be used after a numeral, as<br />
three pairs <strong>of</strong> shears. The singular form shear<br />
is preferred as the first element in a compound,<br />
such as shear handles and shear manufacturers.<br />
sheaves. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> sheaf.<br />
shed. The past tense is shed. The participle is also<br />
shed.<br />
sheep. The plural is sheep.<br />
sheer. One <strong>of</strong> the meanings <strong>of</strong> sheer is “unqualified”<br />
(A conviction <strong>of</strong> inward defilement so<br />
sheer took possession <strong>of</strong> me that death seemed<br />
better than life). In this sense the word is<br />
greatly overworked, especially in such semicliches<br />
as sheer folly, sheer ignorance, sheer<br />
physical exhaustion, and sheer nonsense. The<br />
word need not be avoided, but it should be used<br />
sparingly. There are many good substitutes,<br />
some <strong>of</strong> them more effective in some contexts.<br />
Among these may be listed: utter, absolute,<br />
downright, unmixed, simple, mere, bare, and<br />
unqualified.<br />
shelf. The plural is shelves.<br />
shell game; thimblerig. Shell game is the American<br />
term for a swindling game in which a small<br />
object, such as a pea or a pebble, is concealed<br />
under one <strong>of</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> walnut shells in such<br />
a way as to make it seem to have been placed<br />
under another and the unwary persuaded to bet<br />
on what they believe to be the evidence <strong>of</strong> their<br />
senses. The English term is thimblerig, their<br />
swindlers employing small thimblelike cups<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> shells. In both America and England<br />
the verb to rig means to manipulate fraudulently<br />
(Small investors certainly believe the<br />
market is rigged).<br />
shelves. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> shelf.<br />
shibboleth is sometimes used as if it meant slogan.<br />
It does not. It means a peculiarity <strong>of</strong> pronunciation,<br />
or a habit, or a mode <strong>of</strong> dress, or something<br />
<strong>of</strong> that sort, which distinguishes a particular<br />
class or set <strong>of</strong> persons. It is a Hebrew<br />
word meaning (it is generally believed) a<br />
stream in flood. Jephthah’s men used it (Judges,<br />
12:4-6) as a test word to distinguish the flee-
shine 450<br />
ing Ephraimites (who could not “frame to<br />
pronounce” the sound sh but pronounced it s<br />
instead) from their own men, many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Ephraimites claiming to be Gileadites.<br />
shine. The past tense is shone. The participle is<br />
also shone.<br />
The verb meaning “cause to shine” is formed<br />
regularly with the past tense and participle<br />
shined, as in he shined the light on the water<br />
and he shined his shoes. This is literary English.<br />
In current speech the form shone is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> “make a light shine,” as in he<br />
shone the light on the water. This is condemned<br />
by some grammarians but is acceptable to many<br />
educated people. Only the form shined is used<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> “make shiny,” as in he shined<br />
his shoes.<br />
Shine may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
what shines, as in the light shone red.<br />
It may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the shining, as in the light shone redly.<br />
There is usually no difference in meaning between<br />
the two forms.<br />
shingle. The basic sense <strong>of</strong> shingle, in America<br />
and England, is a thin piece <strong>of</strong> wood (or asbestos<br />
or asphalt-impregnated paper made to<br />
resemble wood shingles), usually oblong and<br />
with one end thicker than the other, used in<br />
overlapping rows to cover the ro<strong>of</strong>s and sides<br />
<strong>of</strong> houses (The wind ripped <strong>of</strong>f most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
shingles on the north side). It also described a<br />
type <strong>of</strong> hair cut (a shingle-bob) in which the<br />
hair being cut short and unevenly gave the back<br />
<strong>of</strong> the head the appearance <strong>of</strong> having been<br />
covered with shingles. It was popular in the<br />
1920’s.<br />
The word has other meanings connected with<br />
this basic meaning. In America shingle is also<br />
a colloquial term to describe a small signboard,<br />
especially that <strong>of</strong> a pr<strong>of</strong>essional man (Soon<br />
after he passed his state bar examination,<br />
Johnson hung oat his shingle in the town <strong>of</strong><br />
Waterman). To hang out one’s shingle is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used figuratively for commencing one’s pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
career. In England shingle (perhaps<br />
onomatopoeic and not connected with shingle<br />
except by coincidence <strong>of</strong> sound) is used a great<br />
deal to describe small, waterwom stones or<br />
pebbles lying in loose sheets or beds on the<br />
seashore, or an extent <strong>of</strong> such stones or pebbles<br />
(The sea <strong>of</strong> faith . . . Retreating . . . down the<br />
vast edges dreur/ And nuked shingles <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world).<br />
Shingle, usually plural shingles, the disease<br />
herpes poster, is a wholly different word.<br />
When shingle means a wedge-shaped piece<br />
<strong>of</strong> wood, it is a true singular and has a plural<br />
in s, as in one shingle and three shingles.<br />
When shingles means a disease, it has no<br />
singular form shingle. But the plural form shingles<br />
may be treated as a plural or as a singular.<br />
We may say shingles are serious; how long has<br />
he had them? or shingles is serious; how long<br />
has he had it?<br />
Either shingle or shingles may be used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the pebbles covering a beach. Both<br />
forms mean exactly the same thing. Both are<br />
mass nouns. Shingles does not mean any more<br />
<strong>of</strong> the stuff than shingle does. Shingles in this<br />
sense cannot be used with a numeral and shingle<br />
cannot be used with the article u.<br />
ship as a verb means in England to put or take<br />
on board a ship or the like, for transportation.<br />
In America ship means this and in addition may<br />
mean to send or transport by rail, road, or air<br />
(I shipped my trunk to New York by rail; so<br />
it was at the pier when I embarked).<br />
ship; boat; vessel. Vessel is the general term to<br />
describe a craft for traveling on water, now<br />
especially any craft larger than an ordinary<br />
rowboat. Bout is the term for a small craft,<br />
propelled by oars, sails, or other means, which<br />
is not seagoing. Byron, experienced in these<br />
matters, made the proper distinction more than<br />
a century ago: My boat is on the shore,/ And<br />
my bark is on the sea. Boat also describes a<br />
small craft carried for use on the deck <strong>of</strong> a<br />
large vessel (lifeboat, whaleboat) and is retained<br />
in a number <strong>of</strong> combinations (such as<br />
ferryboat, gunbout, and Cross-Channel boar).<br />
Then there are some boats with long cruising<br />
radiuses, such as the German WWII E-boats<br />
and Allied motor torpedo bouts. But with such<br />
exceptions, it is a mark <strong>of</strong> ignorance to call any<br />
ship a bout. A ship is a large vessel or an<br />
airplane.<br />
Ship <strong>of</strong> State. One <strong>of</strong> the most hackneyed <strong>of</strong><br />
metaphors, the Ship <strong>of</strong> State has now for over<br />
twenty-five hundred years weathered storms,<br />
remained on an even keel, been threatened with<br />
shipwreck, been becalmed, kept on her course,<br />
been clogged with and cleared <strong>of</strong> barnacles, impeded<br />
by the remora, shivered her timbers, been<br />
brought or not brought to her desire-d haven in<br />
safety, and otherwise figuratively driven by the<br />
winds <strong>of</strong> rhetoric. She is the Flying Dutchman<br />
<strong>of</strong> political oratory and has had more bilge<br />
pumped out <strong>of</strong> her than all the actual vessels<br />
afloat. But as a trope she is now waterlogged<br />
and should be scuttled.<br />
shipment. See freight.<br />
ships that pass in the night. As a term for people<br />
who meet by chance, find each other interesting<br />
or attractive, but are compelled to part<br />
and go their ways and are not likely to meet<br />
again, ships that pass in the night (taken from<br />
Longfellow) is a good thing overworked.<br />
shirk. This verb may be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in she shirks washing the<br />
dishes, but not by an infinitive or by a clause.<br />
shoe. The past tense is shod. The participle is also<br />
shod. A new past tense and participle shoed is<br />
sometimes heard but it is still rare.<br />
shoe. See hoot.<br />
shone. See shine.<br />
shook. See shake.<br />
shoot. The past tense is shot. The participle is also<br />
shot.<br />
shoot one’s bolt. A bolt is an arrow, especially<br />
a short, thick arrow, usually called a quarrel,<br />
shot from a crossbow. The crossbow was more<br />
deadly than the lougbow but it took longer-
particularly in the arbalest, where the ejecting<br />
string was wound up with a ratchet-to prepare<br />
a quarrel for shooting than it did to adjust the<br />
older type <strong>of</strong> arrow and draw back the bowstring.<br />
A crossbowman was more to be feared<br />
in battle than a longbowman-until he had shot<br />
his bolt. And then he was less to be feared and,<br />
indeed, until he had reloaded his crossbow,<br />
quite vulnerable. He had, therefore, to hold his<br />
bolt until it could be used most effectively and,<br />
above all, he had to resist excited urges to shoot<br />
the bolt before it would be most effective.<br />
Hence there was a proverb, A fooPs bolt is<br />
soon shot.<br />
Swift listed You have shot your bolt as a<br />
hackneyed phrase in 1738.<br />
shop; store. Etymologically, a shop is a place in<br />
which things are made or shaped, a store is a<br />
place in which they are stored. Both words are<br />
used in England and America, but <strong>of</strong>ten with<br />
different applications.<br />
As a noun, shop is preferred to store in<br />
England to describe a place for selling goods.<br />
In America store (in modern times usually the<br />
more accurate word) is preferred to shop,<br />
though exclusive and high-priced stores, especially<br />
those that restrict their sales to some<br />
specialty, tend to call themselves shops, perhaps<br />
to exploit the prestige <strong>of</strong>ten associated with<br />
British merchandise. Many <strong>of</strong> the great department<br />
stores maintain special departments<br />
known as The College Shop or The Misses’<br />
Shop or some such thing.<br />
Shop is retained in America in its older sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the place where things are shaped or made<br />
in such phrases as machine shop or rail.road<br />
shops. We speak <strong>of</strong> a shoe repair shop, a barber<br />
shop, a cabinet shop, and so on. In America a<br />
shopman is a worker in a workshop. In England<br />
a shopman is one who sells things over the<br />
counter. In America a closed shop is a shop in<br />
which union membership is a condition <strong>of</strong><br />
hiring as well as <strong>of</strong> employment, or one in<br />
which the employer must call on the union to<br />
furnish employees. An open shop is a nonu:nion<br />
shop which may or may not employ union<br />
members together with nonmembers, but which<br />
does not recognize or deal with a union as the<br />
representative <strong>of</strong> the employees; or, an antiunion<br />
shop in which union members are not<br />
knowingly employed; or, a shop in which a<br />
union, because chosen by a majority <strong>of</strong> the<br />
employees, acts as representative <strong>of</strong> all the employees<br />
in making agreements with the employer,<br />
but in which union membership is not<br />
a condition <strong>of</strong> employment. See also store.<br />
shop, as a verb, has a somewhat looser definition<br />
in America than in England. Though in both<br />
countries as an intransitive verb it means to<br />
visit shops for the purpose <strong>of</strong> purchasing or<br />
examining goods, in America shop (especially<br />
among American women) <strong>of</strong>ten means little<br />
more than to go on a tour <strong>of</strong> inspection with<br />
no thought <strong>of</strong> buying at present. Hence the<br />
expression window shop. The English are as<br />
great shoppers in this sense as Americans but<br />
451 showdown<br />
they put the matter more obliquely, in expressions<br />
such as go around the shops.<br />
shorn. See shear.<br />
short; shortly. Short may be used as an adjective,<br />
as in a short distance. Either form may be used<br />
as an adverb, as in he stopped short and they<br />
will be here shortly. Either form may mean<br />
“curtly”; otherwise, the form shortly means<br />
“in a short time,” and the form short is used<br />
for all the other senses <strong>of</strong> the word. See also<br />
brief.<br />
short and sweet, as a term for something brief<br />
but enjoyable, is hackneyed. So is a short life<br />
but a merry one for a gay, adventurous career<br />
that may be cut short. It is far more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> lives that may be short than <strong>of</strong> those<br />
that actually are or were.<br />
short shrift, give. Though shrift originally meant<br />
penance, especially a penance prescribed in<br />
writing it came to mean auricular confession<br />
and the sacrament <strong>of</strong> penance. Criminals, when<br />
execution <strong>of</strong>ten followed almost immediately<br />
upon judgment, were usually allowed a brief<br />
interval for confession, so that their souls would<br />
not suffer. Hence short shrift came to mean a<br />
brief respite and to give short shrift to make<br />
short work <strong>of</strong>, usually, as <strong>of</strong> a summary dismissal,<br />
in dealing unfavorably with someone<br />
in one’s power. Shrift is now an archaic or<br />
historical word and the phrase to give short<br />
shrift a cliche.<br />
shot. When shot means the ammunition, it has<br />
the plural shot, as in piles <strong>of</strong> shot and shells.<br />
It may be treated as a mass word and used with<br />
a singular verb, as in much shot was wasted, or<br />
as a true plural, as in two shot have fallen to the<br />
leeward.<br />
In all other senses the word has a regular<br />
plural shots, as in I’ve taken three shots at it<br />
and they were both good shots. See shoot.<br />
should. See shall.<br />
show. The past tense is showed. The participle is<br />
shown or showed. Shown is used more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
than showed as a participle, as in I have shown<br />
you how to do it.<br />
show a clean pair <strong>of</strong> heels. Why the heels displayed<br />
by those who depart suddenly in fear<br />
or escape should be clean is not clear. Perhaps<br />
it simply means disencumbered. It used to be<br />
a fair pair <strong>of</strong> heels and a light pair <strong>of</strong> heels.<br />
Perhaps in the humorous suggestion <strong>of</strong> not<br />
waiting for shoes or stockings there is a suggestion<br />
that the naked heels would look white and<br />
clean. But whatever it may mean or have meant,<br />
the phrase is now exhausted.<br />
show the white feather. As a figure <strong>of</strong> speech for<br />
manifesting cowardice, 10 show the white feuther,<br />
a metaphor drawn from gamecocks, a white<br />
feather in whose tails (it is said) is a mark <strong>of</strong><br />
inferior breeding, is a cliche.<br />
showdown is drawn from the game <strong>of</strong> poker. It<br />
describes the laying down <strong>of</strong> one’s cards, face<br />
up, as a player declares his hand. More generally,<br />
it means any forced disclosure <strong>of</strong> actual<br />
resources or power. It is now used colloquially<br />
to mean any trial <strong>of</strong> strength or even a personal
shower 452<br />
quarrel. When it comes to a showdown is a<br />
pretty hackneyed phrase.<br />
shower. As a verb, shower has different idiomatic<br />
uses in England and America. In America one<br />
showers a person with objects or words; in<br />
England one showers objects or words on a<br />
person.<br />
As a noun, shower has the special meaning<br />
in America <strong>of</strong> a social gathering in which the<br />
guests (almost always women) bestow presents<br />
on a prospective bride or mother.<br />
showy. See loud.<br />
shrank. See shrink.<br />
shred. The past tense is shredded or shred. The<br />
participle is also shredded or shred. Shredded<br />
is generally preferred for the past tense and for<br />
the participle, but both forms are acceptable.<br />
shriek. See scream.<br />
shrink. The past tense is shrank or shrunk. The<br />
participle is shrunk or shrunken. In Great<br />
Britain the past tense shrunk is no longer used<br />
and the participle shrunken is seldom heard<br />
except as an adjective. In the United States we<br />
may still say it shrunk and it has shrunken.<br />
shrive. The past tense is shrived or shrove. The<br />
participle is shriven or shrived.<br />
shrunk. See shrink.<br />
shuffle <strong>of</strong>f thii mortal coil. As a term for dying,<br />
commonly used with an arch jocosity, shufle <strong>of</strong>J<br />
rhis mortal coil is a clicht. A punishment to fit<br />
the crime <strong>of</strong> using it would be to require the<br />
user to explain exactly what it means. The<br />
habitual <strong>of</strong>fender should be compelled to read<br />
all <strong>of</strong> the explanations <strong>of</strong> its meanings <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
by the various commentators. That mortal coil<br />
means the turmoil <strong>of</strong> this mortal life is generally<br />
agreed, though there are those who insist that<br />
it means noise and others who think it may<br />
mean something which coils about us. To shufle<br />
<strong>of</strong>l may mean to go with clumsy steps or a<br />
shambling gait, but the best opinion is that in<br />
this context it means to get rid <strong>of</strong> evasively, to<br />
dispose <strong>of</strong> in a perfunctory and unsatisfactory<br />
manner.<br />
shut. The past tense is shut. The participle is also<br />
shur. In the United States we say that the door<br />
swung, blew, banged, etc., shut. This is a<br />
Scottish idiom not used in England, where they<br />
say the door swung, blew, banged, etc., to.<br />
shut; close. These verbs both mean to cause<br />
something not to be open. Close is somewhat<br />
more refined than shut and more suitable in<br />
figurative contexts (The library is closed on<br />
weekends). Shuf is the informal word referring<br />
especially to blocking or barring openings intended<br />
for literal or figurative ingress and<br />
egress. It is less refined than close but more<br />
vigorous and where vigor and vernacular<br />
strength are wanted, more effective (2’11 show<br />
him he can’t shut the door in my face!). See<br />
also close.<br />
shut up, as a suggestion to someone that he stop<br />
talking, though rude, is not ungrammatical. It<br />
is an idiom long in use and did not always have<br />
the ill nature and hostility now generally associated<br />
with it. King Duncan in Macbeth, going<br />
to bed in Macbeth’s castle, sent gifts and greetings<br />
to his most kind hostess and then, having<br />
said his gracious goodnight, shut up in measureless<br />
content.<br />
Even where the worst construction may be<br />
put on the phrase, it is <strong>of</strong>ten suitable and almost<br />
always effective. Its terseness avoids the imputation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the very fault it seeks to check and<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten, with the gabby, two words, and they<br />
edgewise, are all an unwilling auditor can get<br />
in. And it fulfills the highest purposes <strong>of</strong> language<br />
in that it conveys to the one spoken to,<br />
with unequivocal clarity and irreducible brevity,<br />
the speaker’s meaning, mood, and attitude<br />
towards him.<br />
shy. See modest.<br />
sic is a Latin word meaning thus. It is not an<br />
abbreviation and is not followed by a period.<br />
sick. See ill.<br />
sickness; illness; disease; malady; ailment; indisposition.<br />
Sickness is the common, everyday<br />
word (Such a sickness leaves you weak for<br />
months afterwards. We’ve had a lot <strong>of</strong> sickness<br />
this winter). Illness is a more formal word<br />
and is <strong>of</strong>ten attached to more serious sicknesses<br />
(He’s never been the same since that long illness.<br />
The President’s illness made it necessary<br />
to postpone the Cabinet meeting). Though in its<br />
origin, disease meant any deviation from a state<br />
<strong>of</strong> ease (Alexander Pope spoke <strong>of</strong> this long<br />
disease, my life), it now designates an organic<br />
deviation involving structural change, serious,<br />
active, prolonged and deep-rooted (Tuberculosis,<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the most dreaded <strong>of</strong> human<br />
diseases . . .). A malady is a lingering, chronic<br />
disease, usually painful and <strong>of</strong>ten fatal (Sleeping<br />
sickness, a malady which ravaged the entire<br />
region and made it almost uninhabitable . . .<br />
There’s no cure for the malady <strong>of</strong> age). Ailment<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used lightly to describe some<br />
minor affliction, but it may also be used <strong>of</strong><br />
something more serious, especially when the<br />
exact nature <strong>of</strong> the sickness is not known to the<br />
speaker (He had some ailment, I don’t know<br />
what; but it seemed to keep him away from<br />
work a great deal). Indisposition is a rather<br />
ponderous euphemism for sickness. It is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
preceded by slight and is never used <strong>of</strong> a serious<br />
sickness.<br />
side may be used with or without <strong>of</strong> in phrases<br />
that begin with on and indicate a place, as in<br />
on this side the grave and on both sides the<br />
river. The construction without <strong>of</strong> is not used<br />
today as much as formerly but is still acceptable<br />
English.<br />
In its literal sense side is clear enough. But<br />
its figurative and compound uses need some<br />
discussion. The English, for instance, use side<br />
to mean pretentious airs, or pretension itself. If<br />
a person is unpretentious in a praiseworthy<br />
sense, they say he has “No swank, no side.”<br />
Americans call one who puts on side “a stuffed<br />
shirt” or else get downright abusive. The American<br />
expression on the side is roughly equivalent<br />
to such English terms as “an extra,” “by the<br />
way,” or “into the bargain” (He worked for
the Post Obce as a mail carrier and drove u<br />
dry cleaning truck on the side).<br />
In American cities side is used to deslzribe<br />
regions with reference to a central space. New<br />
Y&k, for example, has its East Side, Chicago its<br />
Near North Side. West Side. South Side. and<br />
so on. This practice is not “niGersal and unvarying,<br />
however, though in many smaller towns,<br />
until quite recently, the railroad tracks served<br />
as a line <strong>of</strong> social demarcation and to come<br />
from the wrong side <strong>of</strong> the tracks meant to<br />
have had an unfortunate and undesirable social<br />
background. In London, end is the equiv,alent<br />
term; the West End refers to the fashionable<br />
section, the East End to a working-class area.<br />
Sideburns, a name for a special arrangement<br />
<strong>of</strong> the whiskers worn with an unbearded<br />
chin, is an exclusively American term. The<br />
fashion was named after General Ambrose.<br />
Bumside, a Union general in the Civil War. The<br />
English word for whiskers so worn is dundrearies,<br />
named after a comic character, :Lord<br />
Dundreary, in Tom Taylor’s Our American<br />
Cousin. In American equestrian circles, a sidecheck<br />
is what the English call a bearing-rein,<br />
a checkrein carried at the side <strong>of</strong> a horse’s<br />
head. Both English and Americans use the term<br />
side-step meaning to step, or avoid by stepping,<br />
to one side. In England the term is most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used in accounts <strong>of</strong> Rugby football. In America<br />
the term is most <strong>of</strong>ten used figuratively, meaning<br />
to evade, as decisions, problems (Each<br />
party sidestepped certain issues in the interest<br />
<strong>of</strong> unity). Sideswipe is an American term mleaning<br />
to strike with a sweeping stroke or blow<br />
with or along the side. In its commonest use it<br />
describes a malpractice <strong>of</strong> reckless motorists.<br />
American sidewalk designates a walk, especially<br />
a paved one, at the side <strong>of</strong> a street or road.<br />
The equivalent English term is pavement.<br />
American side-wheeler, describing a vessel with<br />
a uaddle wheel on each side. is in England a<br />
paddle-boat.<br />
side <strong>of</strong> the angels. It was Disraeli, in a speech<br />
at the Oxford Diocesan Conference in 1864.<br />
who first announced that he was on the side oi<br />
the angels. By this he meant, as he said, that<br />
in the controversy then raging over organic<br />
evolution he was with those who believed that<br />
man was not related to the apes but to the<br />
angels. The phrase became immediately and<br />
immensely popular and passed into use as a<br />
way <strong>of</strong> saying that one took a spiritual ,view<br />
<strong>of</strong> matters. In modem use it frequently means<br />
nothing more than that the person spoken <strong>of</strong><br />
is on our side in some controversy.<br />
sideways; sidewise. These forms are equally<br />
acceptable.<br />
sight; spectacle. A spectacle is, in its basic scmes,<br />
anything presented to the sight or view, especially<br />
something <strong>of</strong> striking kind; a public<br />
show or display, especially on a large scale (The<br />
fireworks provided a magnificent spectacle). A<br />
sight may be anything seen or to be se-en. It is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten derogatory, in a light humorous way<br />
(That child was a sight! You never saw so much<br />
signature<br />
mud on a human being! She was a sight in<br />
that new hut). Where spectacle is used in this<br />
sense, there is a subtle difference; one who is a<br />
sight, is usually ludicrous and to be pitied; one<br />
who is a spectacle or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, makes a<br />
spectacle <strong>of</strong> himself, is obnoxiously showy and<br />
to be resented. When one sees the sights <strong>of</strong> a<br />
town he may be seeing spectacles, but more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten he is only seeing the most interesting<br />
things that particular town can present to his<br />
sight.<br />
sight for sore eyes. As a hearty hyperbole <strong>of</strong><br />
delight at seeing someone, the assurance that<br />
they are a sight for sore eyes is a clich6, forgiveable,<br />
however, in its homely exuberance and<br />
genuine good nature. The meaning is “the sight<br />
<strong>of</strong> you is so pleasant that it would heal sore<br />
eyes.”<br />
sight unseen is used in America and in some<br />
English dialects <strong>of</strong> things which are bought<br />
without previous inspection, without, indeed,<br />
even being seen (Many people lost money in<br />
the Florida boom because they bought lots sight<br />
unseen and found that they had to remain<br />
unseen because they were under several feet <strong>of</strong><br />
brackish water).<br />
signal; single. These words sound nearly alike,<br />
and sometimes seem to mean the same thing;<br />
yet they must be differentiated. One singles<br />
someone out <strong>of</strong> a group when one pays or<br />
wishes to pay him some special attention, an<br />
attention due to this one, single person. It is<br />
conceivable that one could signal someone out<br />
<strong>of</strong> a group by making signals to him that would<br />
induce him to leave the group, but this use <strong>of</strong><br />
signal is very rare and would almost have to be<br />
contrived. The confusion caused by the similarity<br />
<strong>of</strong> the two words’ sound is heightened by<br />
the fact that signal as an adjective can mean<br />
conspicuous or notable, and one singled out<br />
is almost always conspicuous and if singled out<br />
by the right person under the right circumstances<br />
can be notable.<br />
signature; autograph. A signature is a person’s<br />
name, or a mark representing it, as signed or<br />
written by himself or deputy, as in subscribing<br />
a letter or other document (An illegible signature<br />
seems the mark <strong>of</strong> a great executive). A<br />
man’s signature may be written by himself or<br />
may be reproduced by engraving or by a mechanical<br />
device that makes it possible for him<br />
in writing his signature once to affix it at the<br />
same time to many similar documents, checks,<br />
or the like. An autograph is a person’s own<br />
signature in his own handwriting, but with the<br />
growing custom <strong>of</strong> seeking the autographs <strong>of</strong><br />
celebrities, the growth <strong>of</strong> fan clubs, press agents,<br />
autograph books, and so on, the word is coming<br />
to mean chiefly the signature <strong>of</strong> someone <strong>of</strong><br />
distinction (or someone thought to be <strong>of</strong> distinction<br />
or who hopes to be <strong>of</strong> distinction or<br />
was <strong>of</strong> distinction) for an admirer. And among<br />
those who write autographs there is a distinction<br />
between an uutograph and a signature.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> those who are asked for autographs<br />
are known to the public by a pr<strong>of</strong>essional name,
signed<br />
wholly different from their actual name. These<br />
people invariably write their pr<strong>of</strong>essional names<br />
as an autograph and their actual names as a<br />
signature. And most <strong>of</strong> those who appear<br />
before the public under their actual names have,<br />
as a protective measure, a way <strong>of</strong> writing their<br />
name for “autographs” distinct from what they<br />
would consider their signature.<br />
signed, sealed, and delivered. As an expression<br />
for something’s being brought to a full and<br />
satisfactory conclusion, signed, sealed, and delivered,<br />
a jocular echo <strong>of</strong> legal terminology, is<br />
a cliche.<br />
silent partner; sleeping partner. To describe a<br />
partner who takes no active part in the conduct<br />
<strong>of</strong> a business, or is not openly announced as a<br />
partner, Americans usually say silent partner,<br />
sometimes sleeping partner. The English always<br />
say sleeping partner.<br />
silver; silverware; plate. Silver and silverware<br />
seem to be used interchangeably in America to<br />
describe table utensils, whether made <strong>of</strong> solid<br />
silver or merely plated (The thieves took a fur<br />
coat and a set <strong>of</strong> silverware. If you’re going on<br />
a vacation, you’d better put the silver in your<br />
safe-deposit vault). Utensils <strong>of</strong> solid silver are<br />
a little more likely, especially among the upper<br />
middle classes, to be called silver and the silver.<br />
Domestic dishes, utensils, etc., <strong>of</strong> gold or silver<br />
are in England <strong>of</strong>ten referred to coilectively as<br />
plate (His lordship’s plate alone was valued at<br />
five thousand pounds). The term is not used in<br />
this sense in America.<br />
silver Lining. As a term for a bright aspect <strong>of</strong> an<br />
otherwise dark situation, an element <strong>of</strong> hope<br />
where things seem hopeless, an assurance that<br />
things cannot be as bad as they appear to be at<br />
the moment, a reference to the silver lining is<br />
hackneyed. It is drawn from the proverb Every<br />
cloud has a silver lining which is based on the<br />
common phenomenon <strong>of</strong> a bright ring encircling<br />
or partly encircling a storm cloud. The<br />
actual phrase is highly poetical and would be<br />
splendid had it not been tarnished by overuse.<br />
It seems to have originated from Milton’s lines<br />
in Comus (Was I deceiv’d, or did a sable cloud/<br />
Turn forth her silver lining on the night?).<br />
similaq analogous. Similar means having likeness<br />
or resemblance, especially in a general way (His<br />
war experiences were similar to mine). Analogous<br />
means having analogy-that is, having a<br />
partial similarity, corresponding in some particular<br />
(He regarded the resurrection <strong>of</strong> man as<br />
analogous to the resurrection <strong>of</strong> nature in the<br />
spring. The effect <strong>of</strong> historical reading is analogous,<br />
in many respects, to that produced by<br />
foreign travel). In geometry, figures that are<br />
similar have the same shape: their corresponding<br />
sides are proportional and their corresponding<br />
angles are equal. In biology, analogous<br />
means corresponding in function but not<br />
evolved from corresponding organs, as the<br />
wings <strong>of</strong> a bee and those <strong>of</strong> a bird.<br />
&mile; metaphor. A simile is a direct comparison<br />
<strong>of</strong> things, proclaiming itself as such by as or<br />
454<br />
like, <strong>of</strong>ten introduced for its own sake and<br />
usually elaborated to display many resemblances<br />
in its comparison:<br />
Falstaff frets like gummed velvet<br />
As when the potent rod<br />
Of Amram’s son in Egypt’s evil day<br />
Wav’d round the Coast, up call’d a pitchy<br />
cloud<br />
Of Locusts, warping on the Eastern Wind,<br />
That o’er the Realm <strong>of</strong> impious Pharaoh hung<br />
Like Night, and darken’d all the Land <strong>of</strong> Nile:<br />
So numberless were those bad Angels seen<br />
Hovering on wing under the Cope <strong>of</strong> Hell<br />
‘Twixt upper, nether, and surrounding Fires;<br />
Like some bold seer in a trance,<br />
Seeing all his own mischance-<br />
With a glassy countenance<br />
Did she look to Camelot.<br />
A metaphor is an implied comparison, expressed<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten in a single word, introduced<br />
usually in order to make a meaning clearer.<br />
It almost always confines itself to the one<br />
principal resemblance <strong>of</strong> the comparison it<br />
establishes:<br />
. . . but I tell you, my lord fool, out <strong>of</strong> this<br />
nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety<br />
The hounds <strong>of</strong> Spring are on Winter’s traces<br />
The wind came down from heaven<br />
And smoked in the fields<br />
In every metaphor there is latent a simile. Every<br />
metaphor could be expanded into a simile and<br />
almost every simile could be compressed into a<br />
metaphor.<br />
simple sentence. A sentence which contains only<br />
one clause is called a simple sentence. That is,<br />
a sentence is grammatically simple if it is impossible<br />
to lift a second sentence out <strong>of</strong> it. The<br />
idea expressed in a simple sentence is not necessarily<br />
simple. For example, all the king’s horses<br />
and all the king’s men couldn’t put Humpty<br />
Dumpty together again is a simple sentence.<br />
See sentences.<br />
simple verb form. The expression “the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb” is used in this dictionary to<br />
mean the uninflected form, such as talk. In<br />
English this form is the infinitive, the imperative,<br />
the present subjunctive, and the present<br />
indicative except for the third person singular<br />
(which normally has an additional s, as in he<br />
talks); the verb to be is the only exception.<br />
Here the simple form be is the infinitive, the<br />
imperative, and the present subjunctive, but not<br />
the present indicative, which has the three forms<br />
am, is, are.<br />
These various forms do not make a reasonable<br />
group and the expression “the simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb” is sometimes extremely awkward.<br />
In most cases it is used to avoid the word<br />
infinitive. More people Seem to have heard <strong>of</strong>
“the split infinitive” than ever heard <strong>of</strong> an infinitive<br />
and to use the term infinitive for something<br />
obviously unsplittable is to run the risk <strong>of</strong><br />
making oneself incomprehensible. For this :reason,<br />
in the discussion <strong>of</strong> specific words, where<br />
the reader is not expected to have any theo’retical<br />
understanding <strong>of</strong> grammar, the infinitive<br />
with io is called simply an infinitive. It is called<br />
a to-infinitive when it is being contrasted to the<br />
simple infinitive, which in turn is called the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb.<br />
A few verbs, such as ought, can, must, do not<br />
have an infinitive or an imperative. These verbs<br />
are easily recognized by the fact that the third<br />
person singular in the present tense does not end<br />
in s. For example, we say they must and also<br />
he must, they can and also he can. Verbs for<br />
which this is true are considered not to have a<br />
“simple form” and are not included in any<br />
statements made about “the simple form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb.”<br />
simply conveys several ideas and needs to be used<br />
carefully to avoid ambiguity. Basically it means<br />
in a simple manner (He spoke simply, yet his<br />
ideas were not superficial), plainly, unaffectedly<br />
(With such restricted means, he was forced fo<br />
live simply), artlessly (Others had presented<br />
these thoughts simply; Pope presented them art-<br />
fully).<br />
Three further uses need to be handled with<br />
care. Simply may mean merely, only (I was<br />
simply trying fo keep you out <strong>of</strong> trouble), but<br />
it may also mean unwisely, foolishly (Simple<br />
Simon has become a symbol <strong>of</strong> men who behave<br />
simply). This last use is now obsolete.. Or<br />
simply can, and in colloquial use as a vague<br />
intensive all too <strong>of</strong>ten does, mean absolutely<br />
(She looked simply lovely). This is one <strong>of</strong> those<br />
terms which may seem trivial in writing but<br />
which, its meaning indicated by the proper emphasis,<br />
can be quite meaningful.<br />
simulacrum. The plural is simulacru.<br />
simulate. See dissimulate.<br />
simultaneous. See synchronous.<br />
siu. See crime.<br />
since may be used alone as an adverb, as :in Z<br />
haven’t seen him since, or it may be used as a<br />
preposition with a simple object, as in Z haven’t<br />
seen him since yesterday, or as a conjunction<br />
introducing a clause, as in Z haven’t seen him<br />
since he left. In these cases since indicates a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time beginning at the point mentioned<br />
and extending to and including the time. <strong>of</strong><br />
speaking. In a positive statement the word trver<br />
may be added to make since more emphatic.<br />
Since is also used to introduce a clause showing<br />
cause or reason, as in he must have taken<br />
it, since it isn’t here. This is standard, literary<br />
English. The conjunction because always indicates<br />
a cause, as in ir isn’t here because he took<br />
it. But since, like the conjunction for, may also<br />
be used to indicate a result from which one may<br />
deduce the cause, as in the example given.<br />
In current English, when since introduces a<br />
temporal clause, the clause verb must be in the<br />
455 singular nouns<br />
simple past tense, and the principal verb in the<br />
statement must be in the present perfect or past<br />
perfect tense, as in we have (or had) seen him<br />
since he left. If a simple past tense is used in<br />
the principal statement the conjunction after is<br />
required, as in we saw him after he left. When<br />
since introduces a statement <strong>of</strong> cause or reason,<br />
either verb may have any tense form, but the<br />
present perfect and past perfect are generally<br />
avoided in the principal clause.<br />
sincerely; truly; faithfully. American and English<br />
practice with regard to the complimentary close<br />
in letters differ notably. The American business<br />
letter usually ends Yours truly, Yours very<br />
truly, or Very truly yours. Formal personal letters<br />
end Sincerely yours, Yours sincerely, Cordially<br />
yours, Yours very truly, or Yours truly.<br />
Intimate personal letters end Yours or with<br />
various expressions <strong>of</strong> sentiment. In England<br />
Yours faithfully or Faithfully yours is used at<br />
the close <strong>of</strong> all but intimate personal correspondence.<br />
It has pretty well ousted Yours truly,<br />
which was long used in informal communications.<br />
In personal communications Yours sincerely<br />
is the conventional term. For some reason<br />
the English are perturbed at the custom <strong>of</strong> many<br />
Americans <strong>of</strong> using the single word sincerely at<br />
the close <strong>of</strong> an informal letter. They seem to<br />
feel that Yours sincerely is an accepted formula<br />
that conveys no specific meaning other than a<br />
courteous leave-taking but that sincerely alone<br />
is insincere. Sometimes, apparently, the English<br />
slip and use Yours sincerely when they should<br />
use the more formal Yours faithfully. Collins<br />
warns his readers against this, telling them, in<br />
accents redolent <strong>of</strong> the Victorian moralists<br />
Smiles and Tupper, “When one is in doubt it<br />
is safer to be ‘faithful’ than ‘sincere.“’<br />
sine qua non. As a term for something essential,<br />
an indispensable condition, sine qua non (or<br />
a sine qua non or the sine qua non), a Latin<br />
phrase meaning “without which nothing,” is a<br />
clichC.<br />
sing. The past tense is sung or sung. The participle<br />
is sung. Sang is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten than sung<br />
for the past tense today. But seventy-five years<br />
ago sung was the preferred form. Both forms<br />
are acceptable in the United States.<br />
single blessedness. Once a serious expression,<br />
meaning (according to the Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong>),<br />
“divine blessing accorded to a life <strong>of</strong><br />
celibacy,” single blessedness, as a term for the<br />
unmarried state, is now a jocular clicht.<br />
singular. See unique.<br />
singular nouns. The singular is the simple, basic<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the noun. When it is used to represent<br />
just one object, a singular noun is qualified by<br />
singular adjectives, such as one, this, that, much,<br />
each; is referred to by singular pronouns, such<br />
as it, he, her; and followed by a singular verb.<br />
But the singular form <strong>of</strong> the noun is also used<br />
in other ways.<br />
1. Traditionally, the singular form is required<br />
for the first element in a compound, such<br />
as tooth ache, child laborers, parcel posl, brain
sink 456<br />
trust, a five-dollar bill. But in current English,<br />
especially in the United States, a good many<br />
plural forms are appearing in this construction,<br />
as in communicable diseases control, welfare<br />
services funds, correctional institutions specialist.<br />
These expressions are poor English for many<br />
reasons, but the plural first element <strong>of</strong>fends very<br />
few people when it is used in heavy, unfamiliar<br />
compounds made up <strong>of</strong> abstract ideas. In familiar<br />
names for physical things, a plural first<br />
element is still not considered standard, as in<br />
teeth ache, geese feathers, a five-dollars bill.<br />
(Compounds involving man or woman are not<br />
formed exactly like other compounds; see man<br />
and woman.)<br />
The same question is involved in the choice<br />
between a two-week vacation and a two-weeks<br />
vacation, but here the form with s has a different<br />
status. See measures.<br />
2. A singular noun may name a group or a<br />
class <strong>of</strong> individuals. Singulars used in this way<br />
cannot be qualified by plural adjectives, such as<br />
many and few, but in some cases they may be<br />
followed by a plural verb, as in the sea-otter<br />
have disappeared and the jury were unable to<br />
agree. See generic nouns, group names, and<br />
adjectives as nouns.<br />
3. Many singulars, such as butter, mud, childhood,<br />
do not have a plural form. Words <strong>of</strong> this<br />
type are called mass nouns. They name a formless,<br />
undifferentiated whole rather than a kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> individual thing. In standard English such<br />
words are not made plural merely because we<br />
have several instances <strong>of</strong> the thing, all <strong>of</strong> which<br />
are essentially alike. That is, we say Z have three<br />
packages <strong>of</strong> butter, not Z have three butters.<br />
Similarly, we say our reason tells us, not our<br />
reasons tell us, and they were together in their<br />
childhood, not in their childhoods. When it is<br />
felt that two instances <strong>of</strong> a certain thing are<br />
essentially different, a plural form may be used.<br />
This is <strong>of</strong>ten the case with rife and death. In<br />
certain states <strong>of</strong> mind the death <strong>of</strong> any one man<br />
seems to be a unique thing, and we might say<br />
three men met their deaths. In a more philosophic<br />
temper the difference between one man’s<br />
death and another’s seems unimportant and the<br />
singular form is used, as in sad stories <strong>of</strong> the<br />
death <strong>of</strong> kings. Meaningless plurals should be<br />
avoided. But if there is a real justification for<br />
the plural-either intellectual or emotionalit<br />
can always be used. The choice <strong>of</strong> a singular<br />
or a plural, with its implication <strong>of</strong> diversity or<br />
identity, can be a powerful device in the hands<br />
<strong>of</strong> a skillful writer, as it is in the lines: we<br />
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our<br />
fortunes, and our sacred honor. See mass nouns.<br />
4. Some words which usually refer to specific<br />
individual things may be treated as mass nouns<br />
and used in the singular, as for example, allusion<br />
in speeches full <strong>of</strong> classical allusion and<br />
detail in great attention to detail. But this is<br />
only a literary mannerism. Here the difference<br />
between the singular and the plural does not<br />
have any particular force. Classical allusions<br />
and attention to details would mean exactly the<br />
same thing. Either form can be used, and nothing<br />
depends on the choice.<br />
5. A true singular, which is not being used as<br />
a mass noun but names a well defined individual<br />
thing, may also be used when more than one <strong>of</strong><br />
these things is meant. This is the case, for example,<br />
with face in we are simple creatures and<br />
yearn to be loved for our face, and mouth in<br />
children put things in their mouth. Here we are<br />
talking about a number <strong>of</strong> people and a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> things which each person has just one <strong>of</strong>.<br />
The same situation is seen in singular nouns<br />
that have a plural form. During the nineteenth<br />
century the use <strong>of</strong> a plural noun, such as faces,<br />
mouths, forms, in this construction was considered<br />
unliterary. But in the United States today,<br />
many people prefer to say children pur things<br />
in their mouths. This plural form is also used in<br />
the King James Bible, as in kings shall shut their<br />
mouths. The singular form is still heard more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than the plural, but either construction is<br />
acceptable today. There is no difference, in<br />
meaning or in tone, between them.<br />
6. The singular form is also used with plural<br />
meaning after adjectives joined by and, as in<br />
the eighteenth and nineteenth century and the<br />
OId and New Testament. When the adjectives<br />
are in the superlative, as in the oldest and<br />
youngest child and the largest and smallest box.<br />
the singular form is required--The oldest and<br />
youngest children, the largest and smallest<br />
boxes, would mean something quite differen:.<br />
When the adjectives are not in the superlative,<br />
the plural form <strong>of</strong> the noun may be used in<br />
current English, as in the eighteenth and nineteenth<br />
centuries and the Old and New Testaments.<br />
This is acceptable, but the singular form<br />
is usually considered more elegant.<br />
It is possible for a word to change its number<br />
over a period <strong>of</strong> time. This is particularly true<br />
<strong>of</strong> singular group names which sometimes become<br />
true plurals, as has happened with people<br />
and cattle. (See group names.) Sometimes a<br />
true singular ending in s comes to be accepted<br />
as a plural. This has happened with alms, eaves,<br />
riches. As a rule, these words do not become<br />
true plurals. They do not develop new singular<br />
forms and cannot be used with qualifiers implying<br />
more than one, such as several, many, few.<br />
Occasionally a plural noun ending in s comes<br />
to be accepted as a singular. This has happened<br />
with the United States, news, hydraulics, and<br />
so on. Such words usually keep the plural form<br />
when used in a compound, such as news letter,<br />
hydraulics engineer.<br />
sink. The past tense is sank or sunk. The participle<br />
is sunk or sunken. In Great Britain the participle<br />
sunken is not used except as an adjective,<br />
as in the sunken cathedral. In the United States<br />
sunk is the preferred form for the participle but<br />
sunken is still used, as in it has sunken to the<br />
bottom.<br />
sink or swim. The earliest known use <strong>of</strong> sink or<br />
swim, in the metaphorical sense <strong>of</strong> succeed or<br />
fail, is 1538, where, however, it is preceded by<br />
“as hyt is commonly sayd.” So the phrase was
hackneyed four hundred years ago. And it has<br />
not grown fresher since.<br />
sinus. The plural is sinuses or sinus, not sini.<br />
Sioux. The singular and plural are both Sioux.<br />
Originally this word was plural, but it may now<br />
be used also as a singular, as in one Sioux or<br />
three Sioux.<br />
sir; sire. Both <strong>of</strong> these words are now obsolete to<br />
describe a lord (as in Sir Gawain and the Green<br />
Knight or The Sire de Maletroit’s Door). Sir<br />
today is a respectful or formal term <strong>of</strong> address<br />
to a man. Though formerly in almost universal<br />
use in the United States, it was being discontinued<br />
until World Wars I and II gave it renewed<br />
life. Sir was a mandatory term <strong>of</strong> address for<br />
all enlisted men to commissioned <strong>of</strong>ficers and<br />
for commissioned <strong>of</strong>ficers to their superior <strong>of</strong>licers<br />
and the habit carried over, at least for<br />
some years, into civilian life.<br />
In England Sir, capitalized, is still used as the<br />
title <strong>of</strong> a knight or a baronet (Sir Winsron<br />
Churchill, Sir John Falstaff). Where the holder<br />
<strong>of</strong> this title is also a military man, the military<br />
title precedes the Sir and the honorific initials<br />
<strong>of</strong> any order the man may belong to succeed<br />
the full name (General Sir Reginald Pinney,<br />
K.C.B.). In America, as in England, sir is sometimes<br />
used as an ironic or humorous title <strong>of</strong><br />
respect (Sir Oracle, Sir critic). The single word<br />
Sir is the most formal salutation in a letter addressed<br />
to one man.<br />
Sir is sometimes used colloquially in America<br />
as nothing more than an intensive adverb, to<br />
make Yes or No more emphatic (Yes sir, she’s<br />
my baby. No sir! You don’t catch me volunteering).<br />
For further emphasis, it is sometimes<br />
enlarged to sirree (No sirree, I’m not going<br />
around there tonight!).<br />
Sire is now restricted chiefly to the male parent<br />
<strong>of</strong> a quadruped (Man <strong>of</strong> War was the sire<br />
<strong>of</strong> several famous race horses). In poetic usage,<br />
it means a father or a forefather (The sire his<br />
sword bequeathing to his son. Our sires died<br />
that we might live in freedom). As a respectful<br />
term <strong>of</strong> address it is more restricted than sir,<br />
for it is now used only to a sovereign, and since<br />
sovereigns and opportunities <strong>of</strong> addressing them<br />
are rare, it is confined to poetry (“You’re<br />
urounded!” “Nay,” the soldier’s pride/ Touched<br />
to the quick, he said:/ “I’m killed, Sire!“) and<br />
jokes (Sire, a lady waits without).<br />
s&en. This is an old plural <strong>of</strong> sister. formed like<br />
brethren and children. It is now. obsolete or<br />
dialectal.<br />
sit. The past tense is sat. The participle is also sat.<br />
This verb does not necessarily mean assume<br />
a sitting posture. It may be used for inanimate<br />
and abstract things that do not have legs, as in<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the low on whom assurance sits as a’ silk<br />
hat on a Bradford millionaire. It may be used<br />
with an object, as in he sits his horse well and<br />
he sat the meeting out. It may also be used to<br />
mean cause to sit, as in sit the baby up. At one<br />
time set would have been preferred in this sentence,<br />
but in current English set has come to<br />
mean place rather than cause to sit. See set.<br />
457 skeptic<br />
situate; situated. Situate as an adjective is archaic<br />
except in a legal sense (The house is situate<br />
immediately adjacent to Christ Church). In all<br />
general uses situated is the right word for located<br />
or placed (Knoxville is situated downstream<br />
from the confluence <strong>of</strong> the Holston and<br />
French Broad rivers). It may also mean fixed<br />
(He is well situated financially).<br />
situation. See job.<br />
six <strong>of</strong> one and half a dozen <strong>of</strong> the other, as a way<br />
<strong>of</strong> saying that there is little to choose between<br />
alternatives because they are so evenly matched,<br />
is a clicht.<br />
skate on thin ice. Up until a generation ago when<br />
play became supervised, every boy who lived<br />
near a pond or a river knew the excitement and<br />
the voluptuous sensation <strong>of</strong> skating on thin ice<br />
and knew, as Emerson had said, that in such<br />
skating safety lay in speed. The experience was<br />
common and the metaphor drawn from it was<br />
immediately and universally understood. But it<br />
has been overworked and must now be classed<br />
as worn and weakened.<br />
skeleton at the feast. It was Herodotus, in the<br />
fifth century B.C., who told us that the Egyptians<br />
used to produce “the image <strong>of</strong> a corpse”<br />
at their feasts to remind the feasters <strong>of</strong> their<br />
mortality. The gruesomeness <strong>of</strong> the procedure<br />
has fascinated the world for twenty-five hundred<br />
years and there are many references to<br />
the custom. It survives today chiefly as a humorous<br />
term for one who by his presence dampens<br />
the general gaiety, and as such it is hackneyed.<br />
skeleton in the closet. As a term for a hidden<br />
shame, known to the members <strong>of</strong> a family but<br />
concealed from the outer world, a skeleton in<br />
the closet (the English say cupboard) is a<br />
clich6. The expression seems to have been invented<br />
by Thackeray.<br />
skeptic; skeptical; sceptic; sceptical. For the adjective<br />
the English use SC-, the Americans sk-.<br />
The pronunciation is sk- in both spellings. Skeptical<br />
and sceptical are preferred to skeptic and<br />
sceptic.<br />
The adjective means inclined to skepticism,<br />
having doubt (Many people were skeptical nbout<br />
the long-range value <strong>of</strong> the project), showing<br />
doubt (That sudden, skeptical glance shook her<br />
confidence in her ability to carry 08 the story),<br />
questioning the tenets <strong>of</strong> religion (Many late<br />
Victorians were skeptical about the doctrine <strong>of</strong><br />
special creation), or <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to skeptics<br />
or skepticism (He wus instinctive/y drawn to a<br />
skeptical world view).<br />
skeptic; sceptic; disbeliever. American skeptic<br />
(English sceptic) is not to be confused with<br />
disbeliever. Actually a skeptic is one who questions<br />
the validity or authenticity <strong>of</strong> something<br />
purporting to be knowledge, one who maintains<br />
a doubting attitude (There are some surly skeptics<br />
who don’t think the new vaccine has yet<br />
justified the popular faith in it). As applied to<br />
religion, a skeptic is one who doubts the truth<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Christian religion or <strong>of</strong> important elements<br />
<strong>of</strong> it. He does not deny absolutely the<br />
truth <strong>of</strong> Christianity, as does the disbeliever. In
ski 458<br />
philosophy, the Skeptic (capitalized) is one who<br />
doubts or questions the possibility <strong>of</strong> real<br />
knowledge <strong>of</strong> any kind. See also agnostic.<br />
ski. The plural is skis or ski.<br />
sLin <strong>of</strong> one’s teeth. It was with the skin <strong>of</strong> his<br />
teeth that Job (chapter 19, verse 20) escaped,<br />
that is, with nothing at all. Or at least he so<br />
escaped up until the Revised Standard Version<br />
which accepts the common change, which has<br />
become a cliche, by the skin <strong>of</strong> my teeth.<br />
skitttes takes a singular verb, as in skittles was<br />
played. Skittles and ninepins are two names for<br />
the same game and both words have been in<br />
the language for several hundred years. Ninepins<br />
is the word used most <strong>of</strong>ten in the United<br />
States today and skittles is seldom heard except<br />
in the expression beer and skittles.<br />
skull. See scull.<br />
sky and skies can be used interchangeably.<br />
The word sky once meant a cloud. This is no<br />
longer true but it has resulted in our being able<br />
to use either the singular or the plural form in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the vault above us-whether it<br />
contains clouds or not. Both forms may also be<br />
used figuratively for the regions <strong>of</strong> the blest,<br />
as in the eternal mansions <strong>of</strong> the sky and he<br />
raised a mortal to the skies, she drew an angel<br />
down.<br />
sky light; skylight. Sky light is the light or color<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sky. A skylight is an opening in the ro<strong>of</strong><br />
or ceiling, fitted with glass, for admitting daylight,<br />
or the frame set with glass fitted to such<br />
an opening.<br />
slack; slake. Slack is primarily an adjective meaning<br />
not tense or taut (The hawsers hung slack) ;<br />
indolent, negligent (He was slack about his<br />
duties); lacking in activity, not brisk (Business<br />
is always slack right after Christmas); sluggish,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> the water, tide, or wind; slow in tacking,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> a sailing vessel. As a noun slack means a<br />
slack condition, interval, or part; part <strong>of</strong> a rope,<br />
sail or the like that hangs loose without strain<br />
upon it (Pull the cable in there. Take up the<br />
slack); a decrease in activity, as in business or<br />
work; or the state <strong>of</strong> the tide when there is no<br />
horizontal motion. As a verb slack may be used<br />
to mean to be remiss in some respect in some<br />
matter; to make or to allow to become less<br />
active, vigorous; to make loose or less tense;<br />
in nautical terminology, to ease <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
Slake is used exclusively as a verb. It may<br />
mean to make less active, vigorous, intense<br />
(like slack), yet slacken is a better verb than<br />
either one. Slake means primarily to allay thirst,<br />
desire, wrath, by satisfying (They slaked their<br />
thirst in the muddy water); to cool or refresh.<br />
It may also mean to disintegrate or treat lime<br />
with water or moist air, causing it to change<br />
into calcium hydroxide (We used to slake lime<br />
with which to line the tennis courts).<br />
shah See day.<br />
slander. See libel.<br />
slang is language regarded as unsuitable for<br />
standard, cultivated speech and especially for<br />
formal writing. In slang the creative forces that<br />
shape language are <strong>of</strong>ten exceedingly active and<br />
much slang is vivid and clever and forceful.<br />
Much more <strong>of</strong> it, however, is merely faddish<br />
and infantile and its consistent use does not<br />
display the fullness <strong>of</strong> expression that the user<br />
thinks it does but rather a triteness and a staleness<br />
that the user is apparently unaware <strong>of</strong>.<br />
Slang ages quickly and nothing so stamps a<br />
total lack <strong>of</strong> force or originality upon a man<br />
or woman as the steady use <strong>of</strong> outmoded slang.<br />
Slang is not as bold as many <strong>of</strong> its users believe<br />
it to be; it shares the taboos <strong>of</strong> ordinary speech<br />
and is rich in euphemisms. It <strong>of</strong>ten defiantly<br />
substitutes violence for elegance and the gruesome<br />
for the dainty, and sometimes this is a<br />
good corrective, but it is no more bold than<br />
standard speech. Kick the bucket may be a<br />
scornful jibe at the evasion <strong>of</strong> pass away but<br />
die maintains a cold dignity that neither dare<br />
approach. The vitality <strong>of</strong> slang, the manner in<br />
which it gives renewed expression to old<br />
thoughts that have become dimmed through<br />
usage and lost, as it were, in the very words<br />
that once expressed them, is shown in the fact<br />
that much slang merely repeats unknowingly<br />
the basic meaning <strong>of</strong> a standard word or phrase.<br />
Thus what is know-how but savoire faire? And<br />
why shouldn’t it be in English? Even such a<br />
forced absurdity as 08 his rocker has its parallel<br />
in delirious, which means, etymologically, “out<br />
<strong>of</strong> his furrow.” And there are hundreds more.<br />
slant, as a noun, means literally a slanting or<br />
oblique direction, slope (There was a steep<br />
slant from the back door down to the barn).<br />
In America the word is also used figuratively Co<br />
mean a mental tendency or leaning, a bias, or<br />
a point <strong>of</strong> view (From his reading and travels<br />
he got a new slant on his native society).<br />
slash means literally to cut with a violent sweep<br />
or by striking violently and at random. In<br />
America it also means figuratively to reduce or<br />
to cut down. In this sense it is greatly overworked<br />
in newspaper advertisements announcing<br />
a reduction in prices (Prices slashed!).<br />
Used as a noun, usually in the plural, slashes<br />
in the United States describes a tract <strong>of</strong> wet or<br />
swampy ground overgrown by bushes and trees.<br />
slate in America is used figuratively to describe<br />
a tentative list <strong>of</strong> candidates, <strong>of</strong>ficers for acceptance<br />
by a nominating convention or the like.<br />
The actual list <strong>of</strong> candidates nominated or put<br />
forward by a political party or faction to be<br />
voted for is called a ticket.<br />
slattern. See sloven.<br />
slaughter. See massacre.<br />
slay. The past tense is slew. The participle is slain.<br />
T’he form slayed is not standard English and<br />
is heard only in humorous exaggeration, as in<br />
it slayed me!<br />
Though in England slay is a poetical or<br />
rhetorical word only (. . . in thy book record<br />
their groans/ Who were thy sheep and in their<br />
ancient fold/ Slain by the bloody Piedmontese),<br />
it is a standard everyday word in America, used<br />
as an alternative to kill, especially to kill by<br />
violent means (Socially prominent couple slain<br />
in love nest. Slayer to get the chair). It is a<br />
great favorite <strong>of</strong> newspapermen with impor<br />
erished vocabularies.
sled; sledge; sleigh. These nouns all describe a<br />
vehicle that is drawn by runners on snow or !ice.<br />
Sledge is the usual term in England (The Muscovites<br />
make use <strong>of</strong> sledges, made very low)<br />
though sleigh is becoming more common.<br />
Sleigh is the American word to describe a light,<br />
usually open vehicle on runners, generally<br />
horse-drawn, used for pleasure driving (Oh<br />
what fun it is to ride/ In a one-horse open<br />
sleigh). In England sleigh is a military term<br />
to describe a sledge used for the transport <strong>of</strong><br />
artillery.<br />
Sled is used in America in two ways. It may<br />
describe a vehicle mounted on runners for conveying<br />
loads over snow, ice, or rough ground.<br />
That is, it suggests a freight vehicle as sleigh<br />
suggests a passenger vehicle (In heavy winter<br />
weather my father used a bob-sled and horses<br />
lo get through the drifts that lay between
slothfLl1 460<br />
may be made acceptable by a slogan heard<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten enough (Votes for Women!).<br />
Although the high priests <strong>of</strong> the advertising<br />
world insist on “the positive approach,” negative<br />
slogans have been used against opposing<br />
groups with devastating success (Let ‘em eat<br />
cake. Turn the rascals out. Kind regards to<br />
Mrs. Fisher). Sometimes a phrase may be<br />
meaningless in itself and yet by its associations<br />
take on the character <strong>of</strong> a slogan (Martin,<br />
Barton and Fish). And every once in a while<br />
a slogan is turned back on its subject with<br />
ironic implication: Back to normalcy, A<br />
chicken in every pot, We planned it that way.<br />
It seems to be a sign <strong>of</strong> the times that advertising<br />
slogans are not as long-lived as they used<br />
to be. Many slogans used to be almost institutional<br />
(He won’t be happy till he gets it. Eventually-why<br />
not Now? 99.44% Pure) but few<br />
products retain such slogans any more. Most <strong>of</strong><br />
them change from season to season. Perhaps<br />
they pall more quickly with the greater repetition<br />
they now get. Perhaps copy writers must<br />
live. Or perhaps the public is more sophisticated.<br />
Slogans used to assume something <strong>of</strong> the<br />
character <strong>of</strong> pronouncements and people were<br />
expected to believe them; nowadays they are<br />
more generally accepted as simply devices for<br />
gaining attention.<br />
slothful. See lazy.<br />
slough <strong>of</strong> despond. As a term for a state <strong>of</strong> dejection<br />
or despondency, the or a slough <strong>of</strong><br />
despond, taken from the dismal bog into which<br />
Christian, the hero <strong>of</strong> Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s<br />
Progress, falls, is now hackneyed.<br />
sloven and slattern are closely related in their<br />
meanings. A sloven may be either male or<br />
female. It is one who is habitually negligent <strong>of</strong><br />
neatness or cleanliness, one who is through<br />
negligence dirty and untidy (General Patton,<br />
something <strong>of</strong> a dandy himself, tolerated no<br />
slovens in his army). The word also means one<br />
who works, or does anything, in a negligent,<br />
slipshod manner (What damned sloven left the<br />
mop lying there on the stairs, to break a body’s<br />
neck!). Slattern is narrower in reference. It<br />
means a slovenly, untidy woman or girl (Her<br />
mother was a partial, ill-judging parent, a<br />
dawdle, a slattern . . . whose house was the<br />
scene <strong>of</strong> mismanagement and discomfort from<br />
beginning lo end. Come Back Little Sheba<br />
is a moving treatment <strong>of</strong> a slattern). See also<br />
slut.<br />
slow; slowly. The form slow may be used as an<br />
adjective, as in a slow train. Either form may be<br />
used as an adverb.<br />
The form slow has been used to qualify a<br />
verb, as in how slow this old moon wanes, for<br />
at least four hundred years. Even if this were<br />
not the case, road signs everywhere reading<br />
drive slow indicate that the word slow is<br />
standard English in this construction. This is<br />
because “standard English” means the English<br />
spoken by the responsible people in the community<br />
or nation. No other standard can be<br />
set up for a language. Drive slowly may also be<br />
used, but anyone who claims that this is “better<br />
grammar” misunderstands the nature <strong>of</strong> language.<br />
And in this particular case, he is also<br />
unfamiliar with English literature over the past<br />
four hundred years.<br />
slug is used in more senses in the United States<br />
than in England. In both countries it designates<br />
the shell-less, snail-like creature or anything<br />
that moves sluggishly, or a piece <strong>of</strong> lead or<br />
other metal for firing from a gun. As a noun<br />
slug was used in America, colloquially, to<br />
designate a coin. At the time <strong>of</strong> the California<br />
gold rush (1859) a slug was a $50 gold coin<br />
and these coins, with the same popular name,<br />
were made again in 1915 for the Panama-Pacific<br />
Exposition. In recent contemporary American<br />
usage, the most common meaning <strong>of</strong> the noun<br />
slug was a piece <strong>of</strong> metal shaped like a nickel<br />
used in place <strong>of</strong> a nickel in public telephones<br />
and mechanical vending devices. Since Congress<br />
outlawed the use <strong>of</strong> these slugs in 1944, however,<br />
the word in this sense has fallen into<br />
disuse.<br />
Slug may also mean a drink or dram <strong>of</strong><br />
liquor. This sense has died out in England, but<br />
it is common in America (He always took a<br />
slug <strong>of</strong> whiskey just before he went onstage).<br />
In the vocabulary <strong>of</strong> printers, in America and<br />
England, slug means a thick strip <strong>of</strong> type metal<br />
less than type-high, such a strip containing a<br />
type-high number, etc. for temporary use, or a<br />
line <strong>of</strong> type in one piece, as produced by a<br />
linotype machine.<br />
Americans also use slug colloquially as a<br />
verb meaning to strike heavily, to hit hard,<br />
especially with a heavy club or blunt instrument<br />
(Somebody slugged him from behind just as he<br />
went to turn on the light). The verb may have<br />
derived from hitting with a slug, a piece <strong>of</strong> lead,<br />
but this etymology is conjectural. The English<br />
prefer slog, a variant <strong>of</strong> slug, to convey this<br />
idea. Both English and Americans use slog to<br />
mean to walk or plod heavily, as with burdened<br />
feet through mire.<br />
slumber is not simply an elegant variation <strong>of</strong><br />
sleep. It characterizes the sleep as light or fitful<br />
(Behold, he that keepeth Israel shall neither<br />
slumber nor sleep. From carelessness it shall<br />
fall into slumber, and from a slumber it shall<br />
settle into a deep and long sleep). By extension,<br />
slumber may describe a state <strong>of</strong> inactivity,<br />
quiescence (Most German consciences lay in u<br />
slumber from 1933 until 1945).<br />
slung. See sling.<br />
slunk. See slink.<br />
slur, as a verb, means to pass over lightly, or<br />
without due mention or consideration. In this<br />
use it is <strong>of</strong>ten followed by over (He slurred over<br />
his own responsibility for the failure <strong>of</strong> the<br />
venture). It also means to pronounce a syllable<br />
or a word indistinctly, as in hurried or careless<br />
utterance (They slur their consonants so! It’s<br />
just a slack-mouthed drooling <strong>of</strong> pale vowels!).<br />
In music, to slur is to sing to a single syllable,<br />
without a break, two tones <strong>of</strong> different pitch,<br />
or to mark with a slur. In the United States slur
is also still used, in a sense archaic in England,<br />
to mean calumniate, disparage, or depreci,ate<br />
(Like many great man, he has been slurred by<br />
the very people he helped). The American<br />
idiomatic expression, to cast or throw slurs at, is<br />
the equivalent <strong>of</strong> the English to put a slur on.<br />
slut is a dirty, slovenly woman. It is a much<br />
stronger and more <strong>of</strong>fensive word than slattern<br />
(q.v.). Though in its ordinary use conveying<br />
the strongest disapprobation, it is-or more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten was--like many terms <strong>of</strong> derogation,<br />
sometimes employed affectionately (Our little<br />
girl Susan is a most admirable slut, and plea.ses<br />
us mightily). In America in the nineteenth<br />
century, when dogs were much in evidence but<br />
the word bitch considered unspeakable in mixed<br />
company, the term was applied to the female<br />
dog. Dog was the word for the male and slut<br />
for the female (The dog-pup and the slut-pup.<br />
The dog was <strong>of</strong> a dingy red color and the slut<br />
was black). This usage was adopted in England<br />
but never became as fixed there as in the United<br />
States. And it may be this association that gives<br />
the word slut today a more derogatory sense in<br />
America than in England. In England it is<br />
simply a strong term for a slattern. In American<br />
use it means now primarily a woman <strong>of</strong> loose<br />
character, being almost as condemnatory as<br />
whore.<br />
sly. American and English spelling differ in regard<br />
to the comparative and superlative forms <strong>of</strong> sly.<br />
American usage prefers slyer and slyest but<br />
permits slier and sliest. English usage permits<br />
slyer and slyest only.<br />
small. See limited.<br />
small fry. Fry are properly seed or <strong>of</strong>fspring,<br />
especially with reference to human beings. The<br />
murderer in Macbeth calls MacdutI’s son a<br />
young fry <strong>of</strong> treachery as he stabs him. The<br />
word is usually employed in a collective sense<br />
to designate a swarm, as <strong>of</strong> children or any<br />
small animals, especially now <strong>of</strong> fish. In this<br />
sense it is plural (What a fry <strong>of</strong> fools are here).<br />
It is heard today chiefly in the expression small<br />
fry, which means young or small fish or unimportant<br />
objects or young and unimportant<br />
persons. For the most part this is plural, as in<br />
Steig’s cartoons, so named, which depict the<br />
doings <strong>of</strong> young persons collectively. However,<br />
especially humorously in direct address, it is<br />
used in the singular; and with such precedent<br />
as the quotation from Shakespeare given above<br />
(if it applies solely to the one child, for several<br />
others were killed) it cannot be very severely<br />
condemned.<br />
smallpox. This word has a plural form. The<br />
singular would be pock. But today it is regularly<br />
treated as a singular. We say it is contagious,<br />
not they are contagious. The use <strong>of</strong> the article,<br />
as in the smallpox, is countrified or oldfashioned.<br />
The form smallpox is used as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in a smallpox<br />
vaccine.<br />
It is a grim reminder <strong>of</strong> the former ravages<br />
<strong>of</strong> syphilis, the pox or great pox, that this dread<br />
disease was only the small pox.<br />
461 smelt<br />
smart is a word more <strong>of</strong>ten used, and used in more<br />
ways, by Americans than by the English. It has<br />
been long established in American usage in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> shrewd or sharp, as <strong>of</strong> a person dealing<br />
with others, with a distinct connotation <strong>of</strong> admiration<br />
for such shrewdness (He’s a mighty<br />
smart business man, Henry is!). As a synonym<br />
for sensible it has become a vogue word (The<br />
smart thing would be to take the ferry; you<br />
can’t rely on the planes in this weather) that the<br />
discriminating will eschew.<br />
Both English and Americans use smart to<br />
mean dashingly or effectively neat or trim in<br />
appearance, as persons in their dress, or to<br />
mean the socially elegant or fashionable (That’s<br />
really smart, worn that way! All the smart set<br />
left the city for the summer). Americans more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than English use smart to mean impudent<br />
(Don’t get smart with me, young man, or I’ll<br />
slap your face), especially in speaking to<br />
children. Smart aleck, an American term for an<br />
obnoxiously conceited and impudent person,<br />
especially in situations where his conceitedness<br />
(for the term is applied almost exclusively to<br />
males) leads him to make unwelcome amatory<br />
overtures, is now a little old-fashioned. It is<br />
replaced by the humorous, less disparaging,<br />
slang term smarty pants which is applied to<br />
young people <strong>of</strong> either sex.<br />
smell. The past tense is smelled or smelt. The participle<br />
is also smelled or smelt. In the United<br />
States smelled is the preferred form for the past<br />
tense and the participle. In Great Britain smelt<br />
is preferred.<br />
Smell may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the source <strong>of</strong> the smell, as in it smelt<br />
so faint and it smelt so sweet and in supper<br />
smells good. When used in this way smell is not<br />
followed by the adverb well. We do not say it<br />
smells well. But it is frequently used with other<br />
adverbs, as in it smelled faintly, it smelled<br />
sweetly. Many people find these constructions<br />
objectionable but others, equally well educated,<br />
do not. When used with a personal subject,<br />
smell may be qualified by any adverb, as in I can<br />
smell it well.<br />
smell; stink. Stink, the good old-fashioned, established<br />
word for a foul, disgusting, or <strong>of</strong>fensive<br />
smell, has, apparently, absorbed something <strong>of</strong><br />
the quality it describes and is no longer considered<br />
a polite word. The euphemism (for<br />
stinks remain whether stink is polite or not) is<br />
smell, formerly a neutral word. But smell, like<br />
most euphemisms, has suffered contagion and<br />
unless qualified by a favorable adjective definitely<br />
means an unpleasant smell, though not so<br />
unpleasant a smell as a stink. The facetious<br />
figurative use <strong>of</strong> stink to mean a row or a<br />
protest, especially one following on the disclosure<br />
<strong>of</strong> something disgraceful that has been<br />
hidden, is not standard. See also odor.<br />
smell a rat. As a term for suspecting something<br />
to be wrong, especially something dangerous or<br />
disgraceful that has been concealed, to smell a<br />
rat is somewhat musty.<br />
smelt. See smell.
mite. The past tense is smote. The participle is<br />
smitten. A past tense smit and a participle<br />
smiled were once literary English but are now<br />
archaic or dialectal.<br />
smooch, a facetious term in the brighter young<br />
set for kissing, is not the slang term they probably<br />
think it is but a good old English word,<br />
much used by the brighter young Elizabethans<br />
(I had rather than a bend <strong>of</strong> leather/<br />
She and Z might smouch together-1600).<br />
Philip Stubbes, in his Anatomy <strong>of</strong> Abuses<br />
(1583), condemned dancing around the maypole<br />
as merely <strong>of</strong>fering opportunities for clipping<br />
. . . culling . . . kissing . . . smouching and<br />
slabbering <strong>of</strong> one another . . . filthy groping<br />
and unclean handling. . . .<br />
smote. See smite.<br />
make in the grass. As a term for a treacherous<br />
person, especially a treacherous or ungrateful<br />
friend, a snake in the grass, even though used<br />
chiefly in humor, is a cliche.<br />
snarl. In the sense <strong>of</strong> bringing into a tangled<br />
condition, the verb snarl, which survives in<br />
England only in dialect, is current in America.<br />
Literally it means to get something all tangled<br />
up, as thread or hair, Figuratively, it means to<br />
render complicated or confused (He had his<br />
instructions all snarled up). Unsnarled is more<br />
commonly heard than snarled. As a noun, snarl<br />
means a tangle or, figuratively, a confused condition<br />
(There was a bad trafic snarl at Randolph<br />
and Michigan). Both verb and noun are<br />
used so much in relation to bad tralhc conditions<br />
that they may become specialized in that<br />
sense.<br />
snicker; snigger. Americans use snicker to mean<br />
to laugh in a half-suppressed, <strong>of</strong>ten indecorous<br />
or disrespectful manner (A few students<br />
snickered as he stumbled on the step). The<br />
English regard snicker as obsolescent and in its<br />
stead use the variant snigger. Both words may<br />
be used also as nouns to describe a halfsuppressed<br />
laugh.<br />
smut. See nozzle.<br />
annffer. The object used for snuffing out candles<br />
was once called a snuffer and treated as a<br />
singular. But today it is usually spoken <strong>of</strong> in<br />
the plural, as in these snuffers are very old. TO<br />
use the word with a singular verb or to speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one <strong>of</strong> these things, we say this<br />
pair <strong>of</strong> snuffers is very old or several pairs <strong>of</strong><br />
snuflers. The singular form is still preferred as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in a snuffer<br />
fray.<br />
so may be used as an adverb or as a conjunction.<br />
When used to qualify a verb, so may mean<br />
“in the manner described,” as in so Z did, love,<br />
soldo.<br />
It may be used to qualify the positive form<br />
<strong>of</strong> an adverb or <strong>of</strong> an adjective that does not<br />
stand before a noun. It was once possible to say<br />
the so heavy burden thou bearest, but in current<br />
English the adjective must stand alone or be<br />
separated from the noun by the word a, as in<br />
the message was so insulting and so insulting a<br />
message.<br />
When qualifying an adjective or an adverb,<br />
the primary meaning <strong>of</strong> so is “to this extent,”<br />
as in it wasn’t so cold yesterday. With this<br />
meaning the word can only be used in a<br />
question or in a negative statement. When used<br />
in an affirmative statement it becomes a mere<br />
intensive and means “to an unusually high<br />
degree,” as in it was so cold yesterday. It may<br />
also have this meaning when it qualifies a verb,<br />
as in Z love you so.<br />
So may be used with as in making a comparison,<br />
as in it is not so large as mine. Here<br />
again, so is restricted to questions and negative<br />
statements. We cannot say it is so large as mine.<br />
The words as . . . as, on the other hand, have<br />
no such limitation. Most writers prefer as . . . as<br />
to so . . . as even in a negative statement and<br />
use JW in a comparison only when they want to<br />
stress the idea <strong>of</strong> a very high degree. See aa.<br />
So may be followed by that introducing a<br />
clause <strong>of</strong> purpose or result, as in they hurried<br />
so that they would be on time and they were so<br />
close that Z heard every word. In the United<br />
States the that may be omitted from a sentence<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind, as in they hurried so they would be<br />
on time and they were so close Z heard every<br />
word. Formerly as could be used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
that, as in they had guards so posted as they<br />
were not to be surprised, and many came unto<br />
them from diverse parts <strong>of</strong> England, so as they<br />
grew a great congregation, but this construction<br />
is no longer considered standard. In current<br />
English an infinitive must be used with so . . .<br />
as in order to express purpose or result, as in<br />
they hurried so as to be on time and be so kind<br />
as to shut the door.<br />
Formerly so could be used in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
“if only” or “provided that,” as in we forgive<br />
much ill treatment, so it is secret. This use <strong>of</strong><br />
so is now considered affected. The similar use<br />
<strong>of</strong> so as or so that is considered unacceptable,<br />
as in Z don’t care, so as you get them o# and<br />
she did not care what she did so that it made<br />
some changes in her life. Today the proprieties<br />
demand so long as in these sentences.<br />
So is <strong>of</strong>ten used to introduce a conclusion<br />
and then has the force <strong>of</strong> “therefore,” as in<br />
you advised me to go, and so I went. This is<br />
standard English. It may also be used to indicate<br />
mere sequence in time, as in and so to bed.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> the word as a loose connective is<br />
now rare among educated people.<br />
so to speak. Unless one has employed some extraordinary<br />
figure or some justified but startling<br />
periphrasis or in some way deviated to such a<br />
degree from the accepted modes <strong>of</strong> expression<br />
that an apology or at least an expression <strong>of</strong> one’s<br />
awareness <strong>of</strong> what one has done is felt to be<br />
desirable, so to speak should not be used. It is a<br />
hackneyed and usually pompous interjection.<br />
If a figure is employed, it should be so apt and<br />
comprehensible that no apology is needed, especially<br />
since the sole purpose <strong>of</strong> using a figure<br />
is to make the meaning clearer. If an expression<br />
is so obscure and confusing that it will require<br />
an apology, it is better not to use it.
soak in certain figurative senses is peculiar to<br />
American slang. It may mean to beat hard, to<br />
punish (Don’t you let any <strong>of</strong> ‘em give you any<br />
lip. If they do, soak ‘em), though this is being<br />
generally replaced by sock. Its commonest use is<br />
as a slang word meaning to charge exorbitantly<br />
(Thirty cents for a cup <strong>of</strong> c<strong>of</strong>fee? Boy, they<br />
really soak you in that joint!). Soak used also<br />
to mean to put in pawn (I’ve <strong>of</strong>ten soaked my<br />
wutch when Z was hard up), but this is now<br />
obsolescent even as slang.<br />
sober as a judge. A judge should certainly be a<br />
pattern <strong>of</strong> sobriety, certainly in the literal Isense<br />
and probably in the extended meaning <strong>of</strong> being<br />
grave and <strong>of</strong> solemn mien, but the phrase sober<br />
as a judge is a hackneyed comparison.<br />
sobriquet. See uickuame.<br />
sociable; social. As adjectives these words agree<br />
in being concerned with the mutual relations<br />
<strong>of</strong> mankind living in an organized society.<br />
Social is the general word, meaning pertaining<br />
to, devoted to, or characterized by friendly<br />
companionship or relations (There is (I danger<br />
<strong>of</strong> interpreting the social life <strong>of</strong> animals in too<br />
human terms. Because he worked hard he had<br />
little time for social life. Does the scienti,st, as<br />
a scientist, have any social obligations?). Social<br />
seldom applies to persons, but sociable usually<br />
does. It means fond <strong>of</strong> company and society,<br />
companionable, genial, and affable (He couldn’t<br />
be sociable until he’d had a couple <strong>of</strong> drinks).<br />
A social evening is one spent enjoyably in the<br />
company <strong>of</strong> others at a more or less formal<br />
event; a sociable evening is one spent companionably<br />
with perhaps only one person or a<br />
few. A social obligation is something the individual<br />
owes to society as a whole. A sociable<br />
obligation would be something due to sociabsility.<br />
As nouns social and sociable both designate<br />
an informal social gathering, especially one<br />
held under the auspices <strong>of</strong> a church (a church<br />
social, a church sociable). Of the two worda<br />
sociable, in this meaning, is now obsolarcent,<br />
being replaced by social.<br />
social butterfly, as a term for a gay young<br />
creature (usually a young lady) who flutters<br />
excitedly without much serious thought from<br />
one party to another, is a cliche. As much a<br />
cliche a~ social whirl for the collective parties<br />
<strong>of</strong> a season, a place, or a set.<br />
social position and language. Languages are made<br />
by groups <strong>of</strong> people, not by isolated individuals,<br />
and so it is inevitable that the language we ;speak<br />
and the way we speak will show what sort <strong>of</strong><br />
people we habitually associate with.<br />
The great differences in language are, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, geographical. The people in FranIce do<br />
not speak like the people in Germany and<br />
the people in Maine do not speak libe the<br />
people in Louisiana. Inside a particular area<br />
there are also speech differences which reflect<br />
different social or economic groups. The speech<br />
<strong>of</strong> the most admired group is ordinarily called<br />
“standard.”<br />
Social groups may differ in their pronunciation.<br />
This is true in England where the ch.ildren<br />
463 society<br />
<strong>of</strong> the upper classes do not go to the same<br />
schools that other children go to, and so learn<br />
to speak very differently. For example, upperclass<br />
Englishmen slur their speech more than<br />
the lower classes do. They elide or drop many<br />
vowels which the lower classes pronounce. In<br />
the speech <strong>of</strong> the English upper classes secretary,<br />
for instance, has three syllables and not four,<br />
and medicine and venison have two syllables<br />
and not three.<br />
In the United States, where children from all<br />
kids <strong>of</strong> homes go to the same schools, pronunciation<br />
is almost entirely a matter <strong>of</strong> geographical<br />
difference; though it is probably true that<br />
these differences are more marked in the speech<br />
<strong>of</strong> the uneducated than in the speech <strong>of</strong> the<br />
educated.<br />
In the United States there are certain forms<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech-certain grammatical constructions,<br />
such as he don’t and we ain’t and yous-that<br />
are used only by the uneducated. Such constructions<br />
are called “mistakes” or “unacceptable”<br />
English or (by linguists) “substandard” or “nonstandard.”<br />
(See Standard English.) There are<br />
not as many <strong>of</strong> these, however, as most people<br />
imagine. Charles Fries, certainly one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
greatest students <strong>of</strong> American English, has made<br />
a scientific study <strong>of</strong> this problem (American<br />
English Grammar: The grammatical structure<br />
<strong>of</strong> present-day American English with especial<br />
reference to social differences or class dialects).<br />
He says: “. . . the differences between the language<br />
<strong>of</strong> the educated and that <strong>of</strong> those with<br />
little education did not lie primarily in the fact<br />
that the former used one set <strong>of</strong> forms and the<br />
latter an entirely different set. . . . The most<br />
striking difference between the language <strong>of</strong> the<br />
two groups lay in the fact that the Vulgar English<br />
seems essentially poverty stricken. It uses<br />
less <strong>of</strong> the resources <strong>of</strong> the language, and a few<br />
forms are used very frequently. Get, for example,<br />
in its many senses appears in both the<br />
Standard English and the Vulgar English materials,<br />
but it is employed ten times as frequently<br />
[by the uneducated as by the educated]. . . . In<br />
vocabulary and in grammar the mark <strong>of</strong> the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> the uneducated is its poverty.”<br />
society; Society. The general word is society. It<br />
means a body <strong>of</strong> individuals living as members<br />
<strong>of</strong> a community; the body <strong>of</strong> human beings<br />
generally associated or viewed as members <strong>of</strong><br />
a community; human beings collectively regarded<br />
as a body divided into classes according<br />
to worldly status (He came from the middle<br />
class <strong>of</strong> society in a small town); the condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> those living in companionship with others,<br />
or in a community, rather than in isolation<br />
(Thomas Henry Huxley believed that society<br />
was man’s gallant protest against nature).<br />
Capitalized, Society is a restricted term. It<br />
commonly suggests the social relations, activities,<br />
or life <strong>of</strong> the polite or fashionable world;<br />
the body <strong>of</strong> those associated in the polite or<br />
fashionable world; the rich upper class (Edith<br />
Wharton and Thorstein Veblcn agree that Society<br />
is a conspicuous display <strong>of</strong> wealth). The
Socratic irony<br />
capitalized form <strong>of</strong> the word may also appear<br />
as part <strong>of</strong> the name <strong>of</strong> an organization or<br />
persons associated together for religious, benevolent,<br />
literary, scientific, political, patriotic, or<br />
other purposes (The Royal Society was formed<br />
for the purpose <strong>of</strong> encouraging the advancement<br />
<strong>of</strong> scientific learning).<br />
Socratic irony is the assumption <strong>of</strong> ignorance for<br />
the purpose <strong>of</strong> leading (or misleading) another<br />
into an untenable, absurd or embarrassing position<br />
in discussion. This kind <strong>of</strong> disingenuousness<br />
was practiced by Socrates in his arguments<br />
with the Sophists. The irony lies in the discrepancy<br />
between the stated ignorance and the<br />
true knowledge.<br />
By assuming ignorance, Socrates was able to<br />
unmask pretentiousness in others and to indulge<br />
his own sense <strong>of</strong> humor while doing so.<br />
Socratic irony is a device <strong>of</strong>ten employed in<br />
satire for the opportunity it provides <strong>of</strong> disarming<br />
an adversary and then ambushing him.<br />
From Chaucer to Aldous Huxley, it has been<br />
a favorite device <strong>of</strong> the English satirists.<br />
There is no such term as Socratic luck, but<br />
there ought to be. For whereas his victims<br />
always gave him the exact answer that enabled<br />
him to proceed to the next step in his course <strong>of</strong><br />
reasoning, anyone who has ever tried the Socratic<br />
method in the classroom knows that this<br />
rarely happens. If one feigns ignorance, the<br />
student eagerly and sincerely agrees. When his<br />
contradictions are pointed out to him, he is<br />
unable to perceive them. Most teachers soon<br />
abandon all attempts at such subtle teaching.<br />
s<strong>of</strong>t; s<strong>of</strong>tly. S<strong>of</strong>tly is always used as an adverb,<br />
as in I will lead on s<strong>of</strong>tly. S<strong>of</strong>t is ordinarily<br />
used as an adjective, as in a s<strong>of</strong>t answer turneth<br />
away wrath. But s<strong>of</strong>t may also be used as an<br />
adverb if placed before the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb.<br />
S<strong>of</strong>t has both functions in s<strong>of</strong>t went the music<br />
the s<strong>of</strong>t air along.<br />
s<strong>of</strong>t place in one’s heart. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that one is inclined favorably towards someone,<br />
with overtones <strong>of</strong> affection, to say one has a<br />
s<strong>of</strong>t place in one’s heart for him is to employ<br />
a clich6.<br />
sold. See sell.<br />
solecism. A solecism is a violation <strong>of</strong> grammatical<br />
structure or idiom, the intrusion <strong>of</strong> an unaccepted<br />
form into standard speech.<br />
solicitor in England is one properly qualified and<br />
formally admitted to practice as a law-agent.<br />
His services consist <strong>of</strong> advising clients, representing<br />
them before the lower courts, and preparing<br />
cases for barristers to try in the higher<br />
courts. The American equivalent for solicitor<br />
in this sense is lawyer. In America a solicitor<br />
is one who solicits trade or personal attention.<br />
The term may be applied loosely to a salesman,<br />
a peddler, canvasser, or beggar. It is so used to<br />
some extent in England also. In some American<br />
towns the <strong>of</strong>ficer who has charge <strong>of</strong> the town’s<br />
legal business is called the solicitor. See also<br />
attorney.<br />
solid; stolid. Solid means having three dimensions,<br />
with the interior completely filled up (a<br />
solid ivory ball), without openings or breaks<br />
(The walls were solid, not a crack to be seen),<br />
uniform in tone or shade (The car was painted<br />
a solid black). Figuratively, when applied to<br />
persons, solid may mean sober-minded, sensible<br />
(a solid citizen) ; when applied to groups, unanimous,<br />
united in opinion (General Eisenhower<br />
was the first Republican to crack the solid<br />
South). In American slang solid may mean “on<br />
a friendly, favorable, or advantageous footing,”<br />
especially in the phrase in solid (To win the<br />
daughter, he got in solid with the mother).<br />
Applied to the playing <strong>of</strong> jazz music, as a slang<br />
word, solid means vigorous, exciting, harddriving,<br />
fast.<br />
Stolid has only one sense. It means not easily<br />
moved or stirred mentally; impassive, as from<br />
dullness or stupidity.<br />
solidarity; solidity. Solidarity is primarily a social<br />
term. It means union or fellowship arising from<br />
common responsibilities and interests, as between<br />
members <strong>of</strong> a class or body <strong>of</strong> persons, or<br />
between classes (The war reconciled all factions<br />
and gave us as a nation a solidarity we had not<br />
had during the depression). Solidity is primarily<br />
a physical term, meaning the state, property, or<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> being solid, <strong>of</strong> possessing substantialness.<br />
In geometry it means the amount <strong>of</strong> space<br />
occupied by a solid body, or volume. In a figurative<br />
sense, applied to persons, it means strength<br />
<strong>of</strong> mind, character, or finances.<br />
soliloquy. See dialogue.<br />
solo. The plural is solos or soli.<br />
some. This word is used in order to speak <strong>of</strong> particular<br />
quantities, persons, or things, without<br />
specifying what ones. It may be used as an adjective<br />
before a singular or a plural noun, as in<br />
some man, some butter, some books. When used<br />
before a number word it means “approximately,”<br />
as in some six or seven men, it was<br />
some thirty years ago. It may also be used alone<br />
as a pronoun, as in I have some here and some<br />
say. The pronoun may refer indefinitely to<br />
human beings. When not used in this way it<br />
must represent a word mentioned previously.<br />
It may be treated as a singular when it represents<br />
a mass noun, as in “Where is the butter?”<br />
“There is some in the kitchen”; otherwise, the<br />
pronoun is always plural. The phrase some <strong>of</strong><br />
us requires the pronoun our and not their, as in<br />
some <strong>of</strong> us lost our heads; and the phrase some<br />
<strong>of</strong> you requires your.<br />
Some may be used as an adverb <strong>of</strong> extent<br />
to qualify a verb, as in “Do you play golf?”<br />
“Some.” This use <strong>of</strong> the word is standard in the<br />
United States but not in Great Britain. Some<br />
used with the same meaning before the comparative<br />
form <strong>of</strong> an adjective, as in he is some<br />
better today, is a Scottish idiom, and the word<br />
somewhat is preferred in this country and in<br />
England. Some used merely to indicate approval,<br />
as in my dog is some dog! and that’s going<br />
some!, is slang. It has never been standard in<br />
the United States but is acceuted in Great Britain<br />
as an interesting Americanism. See also few;<br />
part.
somebody; someone. These words are always<br />
treated as singulars and used with a singular<br />
verb, as in somebody is coming. When it isn’t<br />
known whether “somebody” is a man or a<br />
woman, forms <strong>of</strong> the pronoun they can be used<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> forms <strong>of</strong> he in referring to this individual,<br />
as in somebody left their umbrella.<br />
This device is used less <strong>of</strong>ten with someone, but<br />
is also acceptable with this word.<br />
somehow; somehows. The only acceptable form<br />
is somehow. Somehows is unacceptable.<br />
someone. See somebody.<br />
someplace. The use <strong>of</strong> someplace as a substitute<br />
for somewhere, as in I left it someplace, is condemned<br />
by many grammarians because the<br />
noun place is here being used instead <strong>of</strong> the<br />
adverb where. This usage is not acceptable in<br />
Great Britain but it occurs too <strong>of</strong>ten in the<br />
United States, in written as well as in spoken<br />
English, to be called anything but standard. It<br />
is acceptable English in this country.<br />
somersault; somerset. Somersault is the best word<br />
to describe an acrobatic movement <strong>of</strong> the body<br />
in which it describes a complete revolution,<br />
heels over head, or, figuratively, a complete<br />
overturn or reversal, as <strong>of</strong> opinion. As an intransitive<br />
verb, somersault means to perform a<br />
somersault. Somerset is an obsolescent and dialectal<br />
British variant. Summersault is a variant<br />
American spelling, as is summerset.<br />
something; somewhat. Originally these words<br />
meant the same thing and could be used interchangeably.<br />
Either could be used as an indefinite<br />
pronoun or as an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree.<br />
Either form may still be used in a statement<br />
implying a comparison, as in he is something<br />
(or somewhat) like his father and the house<br />
was built something (or somewhat) more than<br />
a century ago. Either form may be used before<br />
<strong>of</strong> a, as in it was something (or somewhat) <strong>of</strong><br />
an adventure.<br />
In any other construction the form somewhat<br />
is required for an adverb <strong>of</strong> degree. Thalt is,<br />
something is now obsolete or dialectal when<br />
used to qualify a verb, as in it something surprises<br />
me, or as a purely descriptive adjective,<br />
as in it sounded something awful. On the other<br />
hand, something is the required form for the<br />
indefinite pronoun, and somewhat is now obsolete<br />
or dialectal when used in this way, as in<br />
you can do somewhat (or some’at) for m!e.<br />
something in the wind. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that<br />
preparations, usually <strong>of</strong> a menacing kind, are<br />
being made, even though one is uncertain about<br />
their nature or purpose, there is something in<br />
the wind is a cliche. It is drawn from observation<br />
<strong>of</strong> an animal scenting danger.<br />
something rotten in the state <strong>of</strong> Denmark. Hamlet’s<br />
suspicion that something was rotten in the<br />
state <strong>of</strong> Denmark proved to be well founded:<br />
the king murdered, the queen seduced, the heir<br />
cheated, the courtiers drunk, the councillor senile,<br />
invasion threatened, spies planted, ghosts<br />
abroad, and even the visiting actors a little: uncertain<br />
<strong>of</strong> their lines-rotten indeed! But the<br />
quotation itself (slightly misquoted usually-<br />
465 sorry<br />
the original is Something is rotten in the state<br />
<strong>of</strong> Denmark not There’s something rotten in the<br />
state <strong>of</strong> Denmark) is now stale, flat, and unpr<strong>of</strong>itable<br />
and gives <strong>of</strong>f a faint odor <strong>of</strong> decay all<br />
its own.<br />
sometime; sometimes. In current English the form<br />
sometimes is felt as a plural and is used to meal]<br />
“at times” or “now and then,” as in he comes<br />
here sometimes. The form sometime, on the<br />
other hand, is felt as a singular and is used to<br />
refer to one unspecified time, as in he will come<br />
sometime.<br />
Historically, these words are adverbs and do<br />
not have a singular or a plural form, any more<br />
than the word soon does. The final s in sometimes<br />
was simply an adverbial sign similar to<br />
the s in backwards and endways. The form<br />
sometime once meant “formerly” and in this<br />
sense could be used before a noun, as in our<br />
sometime sister, now our queen. This use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word survives in England, but only in a few set<br />
phrases, such as sometime fellow. In current<br />
English one-time is preferred in this sense.<br />
someway; someways; somewise. In the United<br />
States someway is used as the equivalent <strong>of</strong><br />
somehow, a.s in I will get one someway. This is<br />
standard English in this country. Someways is<br />
not heard SO <strong>of</strong>ten and does not have the same<br />
standing. In England both forms are considered<br />
uneducated and somehow is required. (When<br />
ways is part <strong>of</strong> a prepositional phrase, such as<br />
in some ways he is a fool, it is not being used<br />
as the equivalent <strong>of</strong> somehow and is standard<br />
everywhere.) Somewise is acceptable English,<br />
but it is not <strong>of</strong>ten heard in the United States.<br />
somewhat. See something.<br />
somewhen, though unusual, is acceptable. It has<br />
been in use since at least 1297.<br />
somewhere; somewheres. Somewhere is the only<br />
acceptable form in written English. In the<br />
United States somewheres is <strong>of</strong>ten heard in the<br />
speech <strong>of</strong> well educated people, but it does not<br />
appear in print.<br />
Somewhere is sometimes used with an unnecessary<br />
that, as in somewhere that I have been.<br />
This is not as well established as the similar<br />
use <strong>of</strong> anywhere, but it is acceptable to many<br />
educated people in the United States.<br />
sonata. The plural is sonatas, not sonatae.<br />
soon. See early.<br />
sop to Cerberus. Cerberus was the three-headed<br />
dog that guarded the entrance to the infernal<br />
regions in Greek mythology. In Vereil’s Aeneid<br />
he was put to sleep by being flung “a morsel<br />
drowsy with honey and drugged meal” which<br />
he caught “in his triple throat in ravenous hunger.”<br />
As a term for appeasing someone formidable,<br />
giving him a bribe or a promise as a<br />
means <strong>of</strong> persuading him to relax his vigilance<br />
and hostility, to keep him quiet if onlv for a<br />
moment, giving a sip to Cerberus is a clichC,<br />
sustained for centuries by its alliteration.<br />
soprano. The plural is sopranos or soprani.<br />
sorry; afraid; fear; regret. I’m afraid and I fear<br />
are <strong>of</strong>ten used as elegant expressions <strong>of</strong> regret.<br />
When a man says I’m afraid I’ll have to go now,
sort <strong>of</strong> 466<br />
he does not intend to imply any element or even<br />
pretense <strong>of</strong> fear. If he is vain he may be saying,<br />
in an elliptical fashion, “I am afraid you will<br />
be disappointed when I tell you that I must<br />
leave.” If he is realistic, he may be saying “I am<br />
afraid you will not be disappointed when I tell<br />
you that I must leave.” The unambiguous statement,<br />
I’m sorry that I must go or I regret that I<br />
must go is better. If that seems too hypocritical,<br />
I must go will do.<br />
sort <strong>of</strong>. This expression is exactly equivalent to<br />
kind <strong>of</strong>. It is used in exactly the same ways and<br />
open to the same objections. We may say this<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> tree is or these sort <strong>of</strong> trees are or, if we<br />
are speaking <strong>of</strong> more than one sort, these sorts<br />
<strong>of</strong> trees are or these sorts <strong>of</strong> tree are. Sort <strong>of</strong> a<br />
is frequently condemned but is used by some<br />
our best writers, including Henry Adams. Sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> before an adjective or a verb, as in it is sort<br />
<strong>of</strong> chilly and he sort <strong>of</strong> stumbled, is condemned<br />
even more strongly than sort <strong>of</strong> a, but can be<br />
heard in the speech <strong>of</strong> the most highly educated<br />
people. For a fuller treatment see kind <strong>of</strong>.<br />
sot. See drunkard and set.<br />
sotto vote is a pretty highfalutin term for “in a<br />
low tone <strong>of</strong> voice.” It is an Italian expression<br />
meaning literally “under voice,” that is, under<br />
the normal voice level. It is better to express<br />
the meaning in English.<br />
sought. See seek.<br />
soul <strong>of</strong> honor. To describe a just, honest, or<br />
honorable man as the soul <strong>of</strong> honor or the very<br />
sort1 <strong>of</strong> honor is to employ a hackneyed phrase.<br />
sound. This verb, meaning to make a sound, may<br />
be followed by an adjective describing what it is<br />
that sounds, as in it sounds good. It may also be<br />
followed by an adverb, as in it sounds well.<br />
Often there is no difference in meaning between<br />
these two constructions, but many people feel<br />
that the adjective, good, stresses the it and that<br />
the adverb, well, stresses sounds. This is certainly<br />
the case with other adverbs, such as<br />
nicely, faintly, sweetly, and so on.<br />
Out is acceptable but unnecessary in the<br />
phrase sound out since to sound here means<br />
measure or try the depth <strong>of</strong>, to examine or<br />
investigate, to seek to fathom (They sounded<br />
the Governor’s views on the matter), to seek to<br />
elicit the views or sentiments <strong>of</strong> a person by<br />
indirect inquiries or suggestive allusions. (For<br />
sleep sound, see sleep.)<br />
sour grapes, applied to someone who is belittling<br />
something which he once wanted but was unable<br />
to obtain, is hackneyed. The phrase is<br />
drawn from Aesop’s fable <strong>of</strong> the fox which,<br />
unable to reach some grapes, said he did not<br />
want them anyway because they were sour.<br />
source; cause. A source is a cause, but all causes<br />
are not sources, for source means origin, first<br />
cause (Pride, ill-nature, and want <strong>of</strong> good sense<br />
are the three great sources <strong>of</strong> bad manners).<br />
south; southern. The comparative form is more<br />
southern. The superlative form is southmost or<br />
southernmost.<br />
mw. The past tense is sowed. The participle is<br />
sowed or sown.<br />
SOW one’s wild oats. As a term for youthful dissipation<br />
(usually with a suggestion that there<br />
will be or was a later reform) sowing one’s wild<br />
oats, in use for at least four hundred years, is<br />
now a cliche.<br />
sax is a variant spelling <strong>of</strong> socks. It is not the<br />
standard form in England OS in the United<br />
States.<br />
spa derives from Spa, or Spaa, a resort town in<br />
East Belgium, southeast <strong>of</strong> Liege, which has<br />
famous mineral springs. Hence spa means a<br />
mineral spring or a locality in which such springs<br />
exist, especially when sanatoriums and resort<br />
hotels have been built in the vicinity (Tunbridge<br />
Wells was a fashionable spa. Mr. Dombey<br />
and the Major visited Leamington Spa).<br />
The name is widely used in England and has<br />
been adopted to some extent in the United States<br />
where it is, as in England, sometimes incorporated<br />
into a place name (At Ballsfon Spa in<br />
upstate New York atomic power has fust provided<br />
the first electricity for domestic uses).<br />
Usually, however, a mineral spring is called<br />
simply a spring in the United States and this,<br />
too, is incorporated into some place names<br />
(Warm Springs, Georgia; White Sulphur Springs).<br />
In New England, spa may designate a drug store<br />
or other place where s<strong>of</strong>t drinks are served.<br />
spake. See speak.<br />
span. See spin.<br />
Spaniards; Spanish. Perhaps because <strong>of</strong> England’s<br />
long struggle with Spain, the standard name for<br />
these people, a Spaniard or the Spaniards, has<br />
the derogatory formation seen in coward, sluggard,<br />
drunkard, and so on. This formation is no<br />
longer active in English and no derogatory tone<br />
is now felt in Spaniard or Spaniards. These are<br />
the only terms used in speaking <strong>of</strong> one or more<br />
individuals. But in speaking <strong>of</strong> the people <strong>of</strong><br />
Spain as a whole, the Spanish seems to be replacing<br />
the Spaniards. At present both forms<br />
are acceptable.<br />
spare no pains. As a phrase urging unstinted effort,<br />
or as an assurance that something has been<br />
carefully executed, spare no pains and no pains<br />
have been spared are cliches.<br />
spark plug. The device inserted in the cylinder<br />
<strong>of</strong> an internal-combustion engine, containing<br />
the two terminals between which passes the electric<br />
spark for igniting the explosive gases, is<br />
called in the United States a stark plus. in Ennland<br />
a sparking-plug. Spark ‘plug’is ilso used<br />
colloquially in America in a figurative sense to<br />
mean one who leads the activities or maintains<br />
the morale <strong>of</strong> a group (Every ball team needs a<br />
spark plug or two to play its best bull). Spark<br />
plug in this sense is also sometimes used as a<br />
verb, and abbreviated to spark (There always<br />
has to be some one energetic man to spark<br />
these drives).<br />
spat. See spit.<br />
spate, originally a Scotch word, is, strictly, a sudden<br />
flood or freshet, as in a river after heavy<br />
rains (The Avon, in spate with heavy rains, was<br />
a muddy yellow. Whole spawning beds are<br />
swept away by spates). In this, its literal sense,
the word is more in use in England than in<br />
America. But in a figurative sense, <strong>of</strong> something<br />
excessive-and usually undesirablhthat has<br />
come in a rush, sweeping ail before it, the word<br />
has become a vogue word in America in the<br />
past few years and is <strong>of</strong>ten used where rush<br />
would be more suitable or even so mild a term<br />
as many or several. In such a phrase as a spate<br />
<strong>of</strong> vituperation, the idea <strong>of</strong> a suddenly overwhelming<br />
flood, as <strong>of</strong> muddy water, furiously<br />
sweeping all before it, is good. But in It [“White<br />
Christmas”] includes a spate <strong>of</strong> Zrving Berlin<br />
tunes, number would have been more accurate<br />
and more appropriate.<br />
speak. The past tense is spoke. The participle is<br />
spoken. An old form <strong>of</strong> the past tense, spake, is<br />
now archaic and found only in poetry.<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> the Devil! The English say talk <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Devil. As an exclamation, usually uttered in<br />
boisterous jocularity, to hail the sudden appearance<br />
<strong>of</strong> someone who has just been the topic <strong>of</strong><br />
talk, speak (or talk) <strong>of</strong> the Devil is a cliche.<br />
It is a fragment <strong>of</strong> the old proverb, speak <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Devil and he’s sure to appear. In some versions<br />
it was speak <strong>of</strong> the wolf and he’s sure to appear.<br />
speaking terns. Whether used positively to indicate<br />
a slight acquaintance or negatively to indicate<br />
a coldness so extreme as to prevent the<br />
exchange <strong>of</strong> even simple civilities, on speaking<br />
terms is hackneyed.<br />
special; especial; specially; especially. The adverbs<br />
specially and especially are equally acceptable<br />
today. Specially is the better word<br />
when what is meant is “specifically, particularly”<br />
and especially when what is meant is<br />
“chiefly, outstandingly.” But this distinction is<br />
not followed strictly. There is the same difference<br />
in meaning between special and especial,<br />
but in the United States special is natural English<br />
in both meanings and especial is rarely<br />
heard.<br />
special; particular; speci6c. That is special which<br />
receives, or which in someone’s estimation ought<br />
to receive, unusual attention or treatment because<br />
it is uncommon (He is a special friend <strong>of</strong><br />
mine). That is particular which has been selected<br />
from others <strong>of</strong> its kind for attention (b4ay<br />
Z show you the particular paragraph to which Z<br />
object?). When we say <strong>of</strong> someone, however,<br />
that he is “not particular,” we do not mean that<br />
he is unworthy <strong>of</strong> attention but that he does not<br />
single out details or small points as objects <strong>of</strong><br />
concern or criticism. Specific implies the clear,<br />
unambiguous indication <strong>of</strong> a particular instance<br />
or example (In the charge <strong>of</strong> disloyalty it ‘was<br />
specifically alleged that on July 21, 1944, he<br />
had passed a confidential document to the agent<br />
<strong>of</strong> a foreign power).<br />
special delivery. That form <strong>of</strong> delivering mail<br />
which in the United States is called special delivery<br />
is in England called express delivery.<br />
speciality; specialty. As the word to describe a<br />
special or particular character, or a special or<br />
distinctive quality or characteristic, a peculiarity,<br />
a special point or item, or a special subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> study, special line <strong>of</strong> work, or the like, the<br />
467 specious<br />
English prefer speciality, the Americans specialty<br />
(Elegance was not then a specialty <strong>of</strong><br />
pugilists but Gentleman Jim was suave. We<br />
make a specialty <strong>of</strong> hard-to-clean garments.<br />
Although Samuel Johnson was his speciahy, he<br />
found himself teaching Chaucer).<br />
specie; species. Specie is a collective noun meaning<br />
coin or coined money (The earliest coinage<br />
<strong>of</strong> specie is attributed to the Lydians. Checks<br />
and paper money were not accepted; payment<br />
had to be made in specie). The word has no<br />
plural and cannot be used with the definite article,<br />
a or a numeral. If in some strange context<br />
it should be necessary to refer to the different<br />
specie <strong>of</strong> different countries, or to use a plural<br />
in some other way, the form would still be<br />
specie.<br />
Species, which is also the form for both singular<br />
and plural, means a class <strong>of</strong> individuals having<br />
some common characteristics or qualities. It<br />
is the basic category <strong>of</strong> biological classification,<br />
intended to designate a single kind <strong>of</strong> animal or<br />
plant, any variations existing among the individuals<br />
being regarded as not affecting the essential<br />
sameness which distinguishes them from all<br />
other organisms (College pr<strong>of</strong>essors, on the<br />
whole, form a pretty poor species <strong>of</strong> speaker.<br />
The most important scientific publication <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century was Darwin’s great work on<br />
the origin <strong>of</strong> species).<br />
These words are <strong>of</strong>ten confused and the confusion<br />
is increased by the fact that in the eighteenth<br />
century species was used for specie<br />
(Necker afirmed that . . . there was coined at<br />
the mint <strong>of</strong> France, in the species <strong>of</strong> gold and<br />
silver . . .-Burke. Species . . . is <strong>of</strong> easier conveyance-Garrick)<br />
and the fact that there is a<br />
Latin phrase, in specie, meaning “in kind,”<br />
sometimes used by English writers (You must<br />
pay him in specie, Madam; give him love for<br />
his wit. These things must be exactly proportioned,<br />
as well in specie as in degree).<br />
specimen. See example.<br />
specious originally meant fair, beautiful, pleasing<br />
to the sight, resplendent (There is thy Savior. . .<br />
looking like a specious bridegroom-1675) and<br />
this meaning, now obsolete, persisted down into<br />
the nineteenth century. A modification <strong>of</strong> this<br />
meaning-that is, having a fair appearance but<br />
actually being devoid <strong>of</strong> the qualities apparently<br />
possessed-which arose in the seventeenth century<br />
gained currency and displaced the earlier<br />
meaning. And this is now the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word. A specious appearance is something fairseeming<br />
but in reality not at all what it appears<br />
to be. A specious statement is plausible and<br />
pleasant, but insincere. A specious argument<br />
sounds convincing, but it is in reality sophistical<br />
or fallacious. A specious person is one whose<br />
conduct, words, and actions all seem good but<br />
are not.<br />
The cynicism or sad experience that led to<br />
this change continues its work and the word is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used now as if it meant evil or wicked or<br />
wrong. It is rarely applied to physical appearances<br />
any more but almost always to words,
spectacle 468<br />
intentions, moral matters, etc. But this usage<br />
(which would completely reverse the older<br />
meaning) is, at the present stage <strong>of</strong> the word’s<br />
development, erroneous. It has to designate<br />
something that at least seems convincing, desirable,<br />
good in some way. It cannot mean patently<br />
false, obviously evil, plainly insincere or dishonest.<br />
spectacle. See sight.<br />
spectacles. When this word means eyeglasses, the<br />
plural form refers to one object but is always<br />
treated as a plural, as in these specfucfes are<br />
weak. In order to use the word with a singular<br />
verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more than one <strong>of</strong> them, it is<br />
necessary to say this pair <strong>of</strong> spectacles is weak<br />
or several pairs <strong>of</strong> spectacles. At one time the<br />
singular spectacle was used in speaking <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pair, as in he wore a spectacle. This is now obsolete,<br />
but the singular is still the preferred form<br />
for the first element <strong>of</strong> a compound, as in a<br />
spectacle case.<br />
Nancy Mitford tells us that in England the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> spectacles is a distinct shibboleth <strong>of</strong><br />
upper-class speech. This is not so in the United<br />
States.<br />
spectrum. The plural is spectrums or spectra.<br />
speed. The past tense is sped or speeded. The participle<br />
is also sped or speeded. In older English<br />
sped and speeded were used interchangeably.<br />
Today there is a tendency to use speeded when<br />
we mean “caused to speed.” That is, we say her<br />
glance sped from face to face, the bullet sped<br />
across the field, but the work was speeded up.<br />
If we hear that a man sped through the town we<br />
only know that he passed through quickly. But if<br />
we are told that he speeded through, we assume<br />
that he was not traveling under his own power<br />
but was driving a car and that he was driving it<br />
faster than the law allowed.<br />
speed the parting guest. The phrase lo speed the<br />
parting guest meant originally to wish him Godspeed<br />
on his journey, to express the wish that<br />
God would watch over him on his journey and<br />
bring him speedily to his desired destination.<br />
The modern use <strong>of</strong> the phrase to mean to hasten<br />
the (de)parting (<strong>of</strong> the) guest is an amusing<br />
distortio&--and a clichC.<br />
suell. The east tense is spelled or spelt. The par-<br />
- ticiple is- also spelled -or spelt. in the Udited<br />
States spelled is the preferred form for the past<br />
tense and the participle. In Great Britain spelt<br />
is preferred.<br />
We may say the word is spelled wrong or it<br />
is spelled right. An -1y form is sometimes heard<br />
here, as in it is spelled wrongly, it is spelled<br />
rightly. This is considered unacceptable by some<br />
people. The form without -1y is generally preferred.<br />
spell has several colloquial uses in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
“period.” It means a continuous course or period<br />
<strong>of</strong> work or other activity (When seas were<br />
heavy he used to take a spell at the wheel); a<br />
turn, bout, fit, or period <strong>of</strong> anything experienced<br />
or occurring (Just before he was to speak he<br />
had a sneezing spell); a period <strong>of</strong> weather <strong>of</strong> a<br />
specified kind (We can expect a spell <strong>of</strong> hot<br />
weather in early August); an interval or space<br />
<strong>of</strong> time, usually indefinite and short (&J&d<br />
you’ve rested a spell, we’ll continue the climb),<br />
Spell is peculiarly American in a sense <strong>of</strong> a<br />
fit <strong>of</strong> some personal ailment, disturbance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
temper, or the like (Addie has spells, you know.<br />
When she’s having a bad spell, all you can do<br />
is to keep quiet). Spell is also used, chiefly in<br />
the United States, as a transitive verb meaning<br />
to take the place <strong>of</strong> or to relieve a person for a<br />
time (They spelled one another <strong>of</strong>l through the<br />
nigh& one steering while the other got what<br />
sleep he could).<br />
spelt. See spell.<br />
spend. The past tense is spent. The participle is<br />
also spent.<br />
spend money like water. As a description <strong>of</strong><br />
prodigal recklessness, to spend money like water<br />
is a worn-out comparison. So is to let money<br />
run through your fingers. So also is the saying,<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who is eager to spend his money, that it<br />
burns a hole in his pocket.<br />
spent. See spend.<br />
sperm. The plural is sperm or sperms. Before 1900<br />
sperm was used only as a singular mass noun,<br />
as in when sperm is developed. An individual<br />
cell was called a spermatozoiin and several <strong>of</strong><br />
them, spermatozoa. Today sperm may also be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> an individual cell, as in<br />
every sperm counts, and, in samples, is counted,<br />
and as a true plural, as in more than two million<br />
sperm were produced. The plural sperms is also<br />
acceptable.<br />
spermatozoa. This is a plural word and is always<br />
treated as a plural, as in a hundred thousand<br />
spermatozoa. The double plural spermatozoae<br />
is wrong. The learned singular is spermatozodn,<br />
but the singular spermatozoan is also acceptable,<br />
as is its English plural spermatozoans.<br />
sphinx. The plural is sphinxes or sphinges.<br />
spick and span, as a way <strong>of</strong> saying “neat and<br />
clean,” is hackneyed. Until very recently the<br />
expression was spick and span new and spick<br />
and span, when used, was only a shortening <strong>of</strong><br />
the longer expression which, in its turn, was an<br />
enlargement <strong>of</strong> a very old expression spun-new.<br />
Span in this phrase meant chip, and the expression<br />
meant “as new as a chip <strong>of</strong> wood.” It is<br />
cognate with spoon, for spoons were originally<br />
chips <strong>of</strong> wood, or, more likely, chips <strong>of</strong> wood<br />
were used for spoons and the name transferred.<br />
Spick (the same word as spike) meant a splinter.<br />
It was added to the expression span-new late in<br />
the sixteenth century, for no better reason, apparently,<br />
than alliteration. However, in matters<br />
<strong>of</strong> language formation that is one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
compelling reasons there is.<br />
spike someone’s guns. A spike driven into the<br />
touchhole <strong>of</strong> a cannon, in the days when cannon<br />
were fired by being ignited at the touchholc,<br />
rendered it harmless and removed its threat. In<br />
its modern, figurative sense <strong>of</strong> depriving someone<br />
<strong>of</strong> his power or <strong>of</strong> blocking his way or <strong>of</strong><br />
rendering his plans ineffectual, to spike someone’s<br />
gut& is a cliche.<br />
suill. The uast tense is suilled or soilt. The par-<br />
- ticiple ii also spilled br spilt. in the United<br />
States spilled is preferred for the past tense and
the participle. In Great Britain spilt is preferred.<br />
spin. The past tense is spun. The participle is also<br />
spun. An old past tense form sparz, known in<br />
the famous couplet when Adam delved and Eve<br />
span, who was then the gentleman? is no longer<br />
heard but was retained in common use in England<br />
as late as the nineteenth century.<br />
spiritual and spirituous, though derived from a<br />
common source, mean different things. Spiritual<br />
means <strong>of</strong>, pertaining to, consisting <strong>of</strong> spirit or<br />
incorporeal being; <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to the spirit<br />
or soul as distinguished from the physical nature<br />
(His agony was spiritual, not physical); characterized<br />
by or suggesting predominance <strong>of</strong> the<br />
spirit (His was a highly spiritual nature); or<br />
ecclesiastical (He was spiritual adviser to a<br />
large congregation). Spirituous means containing,<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong>, or pertaining to, alcohol;<br />
alcoholic (At the reception spirituous beverages<br />
were served). In reference to liquors, it means<br />
distilled as opposed to fermented.<br />
spit. The past tense is spit or spat. The participle<br />
is also spit or spat. In the United States spit is<br />
the preferred form for the past tense and the<br />
participle, but spat is being used increasingly.<br />
In Great Britain spat is the only form heard.<br />
The verb meaning “pierce with a spit” is quite<br />
regular and has the past tense and participle<br />
spitted.<br />
spit and image. The common expression for one<br />
who closely resembles another is variously given<br />
as spit and image, spitting image, spit ‘n image<br />
or spitten image. Many origins have been suggested.<br />
Some believe it to be a slurring <strong>of</strong> spirit<br />
and image. Some point out that there was formerly<br />
an expression “to be as much like someone<br />
as the spit out <strong>of</strong> his mouth.” But the bsest<br />
explanation seems to be that it is the old word<br />
spit, meaning a likeness, usually a family likeness<br />
(You’re a queer fellow-the very spit <strong>of</strong><br />
your father) with “and image” added in America<br />
sometime in the nineteenth century. The<br />
term is a clicht.<br />
splendid; excellent. Splendid ought to suggest<br />
splendor, magnificence, sumptuousness. Its use<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> excellent or very good (A quiet<br />
little place, no show, no fuss, but a splendid<br />
meal!) is regarded by most authorities as acceptable<br />
but overused.<br />
split. The past tense is split. The participle is also<br />
split.<br />
split infinitives. The notion that it is a grammatical<br />
mistake to place a word between to and the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in to quietly walk<br />
away, is responsible for a great deal <strong>of</strong> bad<br />
writing by people who are trying to write well.<br />
Actually the rule against “splitting an infinitive”<br />
contradicts the principles <strong>of</strong> English grammar<br />
and the practice <strong>of</strong> our best writers. The construction<br />
is a relatively new one, but it is found<br />
in the writings <strong>of</strong> Sir Philip Sidney, Sir Thomas<br />
Browne, Donne, Pepys, Defoe, Samuel Johnson,<br />
Bums, Wordsworth, Coleridge, Lamb, Byron,<br />
De Quincey, Macaulay, Holmes, Whittier,<br />
George Eliot, Carlyle, Browning, Arnold, Pater,<br />
Ruskin, Henry James, Hardy, Meredith,<br />
469 split infinitives<br />
Galsworthy, Conan Doyle, Kipling, Shaw-and<br />
Benjamin Franklin, Abraham Lincoln, Theudore<br />
Roosevelt, Woodrow Wilson, and Herbert<br />
Hoover.<br />
The to-infinitive is actually the preposition fo<br />
with the simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb as its object,<br />
as in a need to investigate the matter. Grammatically<br />
it is comparable to a preposition with<br />
an -ing form <strong>of</strong> the verb as object, as in a need<br />
for investigating the matter. (See infinitives.)<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> the -ing form a qualifying word<br />
preferably stands between the preposition and<br />
the -ing, as in a need for secretly investigating<br />
the matter. When we have a composite<br />
verbal phrase the normal position for a qualifying<br />
word is between the first auxiliary and the<br />
meaningful form, as in he decided he would<br />
secretly investigate the matter. In either case,<br />
the qualifying word may be placed after the<br />
complete verbal statement, as in for investigating<br />
the matter secretly and he would investigate<br />
the matter secretly. But when it is placed<br />
late, it acquires a special emphasis. It would<br />
follow that the normal position for a word qualifying<br />
an infinitive would be before the verb<br />
form but after any auxiliary element, as in he<br />
decided to secretly investigate the matter.<br />
The notion that the to-infinitive was an exception<br />
to the general rules <strong>of</strong> word order and<br />
could not be handled in this way dates from the<br />
latter part <strong>of</strong> the nineteenth century-the period<br />
when the split infinitive first came into general<br />
use. The construction can be found as early as<br />
the fourteenth century but it is rare before 1850.<br />
This is because the type <strong>of</strong> sentence in which<br />
one would have any occasion to split an infinitive<br />
was rare before that time. One <strong>of</strong> the outstanding<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> current English is<br />
the enormous increase in the use <strong>of</strong> the infinitive<br />
where previously an -ing form or a clause was<br />
preferred. That is, formerly men said he decided<br />
that he would investigate where today we<br />
would be more likely to say he decided to investigate.<br />
In the clause construction we may qualify<br />
the verb and say he decided that he would secretly<br />
investigate. If the infinitive is to be used<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> the clause it must be capable <strong>of</strong> expressing<br />
the same distinctions. This requires the<br />
freedom to place a qualifying word or phrase<br />
immediately before the verb form. In he decided<br />
to secretly investigate, the word secretly qualifies<br />
the word investigate. If secretly is placed<br />
before he or before decided it qualifies decided.<br />
If it is placed before to, as in he decided secretly<br />
to investigate, it is ambiguous. It probably applies<br />
to decided, although it may apply to investigate.<br />
If it is placed later than investigate it<br />
becomes emphatic. Therefore, if we cannot<br />
place secretly between to and investigate we<br />
cannot use the infinitive to say what is said in<br />
the clause.<br />
In English the negative adverbs, such as not<br />
and never, and the restrictive adverbs, such as<br />
only and scarcely, are characteristically moved<br />
forward in a sentence. Words <strong>of</strong> this kind may<br />
therefore stand before the to and still qualify
splutter 470<br />
the infinitive, as in he decided never to investigate.<br />
The writer who is determined never to split<br />
an infinitive must remember that, with the exception<br />
<strong>of</strong> negative or restrictive adverbs, the<br />
qualifying word cannot be placed earlier than<br />
the to or it will qualify the principal verb instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> the infinitive; and, if it is placed later than<br />
the infinitive, it acquires a special emphasis<br />
which may not be intended. Frequently the only<br />
way to avoid a split infinitive and still write<br />
good English is to avoid the infinitive-and,<br />
with the increasing use <strong>of</strong> the infinitive, avoiding<br />
the infinitive may lead to wordy periphrases<br />
that are not good English.<br />
Those who have no objection to splitting<br />
an infinitive should remember two things. (1)<br />
In a composite infinitive involving the auxiliary<br />
be or have and a participle, the normal position<br />
for the adverb is after the auxiliary and not<br />
before it. That is, to have always thought is the<br />
normal word order and to always have thought<br />
is a variation that adds special emphasis. (See<br />
sentence adverbs.) (2) Any number <strong>of</strong> words<br />
may stand between to and the verb form.<br />
Browning wrote: a scheme to quietly next day<br />
at crow <strong>of</strong> cock cut my own throat. This is<br />
exactly comparable to placing a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> words between a preposition and its noun<br />
object, as Macaulay does in principles independent<br />
<strong>of</strong>, and indeed almost incompatible<br />
with, the sentiment <strong>of</strong> devoted loyalty. Such<br />
constructions may be used occasionally but<br />
are decidedly tiresome when they become a<br />
mannerism.<br />
splutter; sputter. These words mean pretty much<br />
the same thing, except that sputter suggests<br />
more immediately the idea <strong>of</strong> spitting. The word<br />
means to emit particles <strong>of</strong> anything in an explosive<br />
manner; to eject particles <strong>of</strong> saliva or<br />
food from the mouth in an explosive manner.<br />
Splutter suggests most immediately to talk<br />
hastily and confusedly or incoherently, as in<br />
excitement or embarrassment (He had turned<br />
purple in the face when McDonald’s thumping<br />
on his buck finally produced a great sputtering<br />
roar. The old colonel spluttered with rage us<br />
the soldiers drugged him from the room). This<br />
distinction, however, is not hard and fast.<br />
spoil. The past tense is spoiled or spoilt. The participle<br />
is also spoiled or spoilt. In the United<br />
States the form spoiled is preferred for the past<br />
tense and the participle. In Great Britain spoiled<br />
is also the preferred form in written English.<br />
spoilage; spoliation; spoilation. Spoilage is the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> spoiling or that which is spoiled (Failure<br />
to ice the refrigerator cars resulted in heavy<br />
spoilage). In printing spoilage has the special<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> paper spoiled or wasted in presswork.<br />
Spoilation is not listed in most dictionaries,<br />
though it would seem to be a natural formation.<br />
Spoliution is the act <strong>of</strong> spoiling, but properly<br />
and strictly <strong>of</strong> despoiling-that is <strong>of</strong> plundering,<br />
pillaging (This pillaging and spoliution <strong>of</strong> their<br />
ships and goods was furiously resented). In law<br />
it means the intentional destruction <strong>of</strong> or<br />
tampering with a document in such a way as to<br />
impair its value as evidence. William Allen<br />
White’s use <strong>of</strong> spoilution (An era <strong>of</strong> gorgeous<br />
spoilution, a time when bombast concealed<br />
larceny) would seem, plainly, to be an erroneous<br />
substitution for spoliution. But since the<br />
acts to which he is referring took place under<br />
the system known as The Spoils System and<br />
since spoliution is not in the common reader’s<br />
vocabulary and spoils, in this sense, is well<br />
known, it would be pedantic to say that he was<br />
not justified.<br />
spoilt. See spoil.<br />
spoke; spoken. See speak.<br />
sport; sports. Both forms <strong>of</strong> this word are used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> sport in general, and both forms<br />
are used as the first element in a compound, as<br />
in u sport shirt and u sports shirt. The form<br />
with a final s is required in a word referring to<br />
human beings, such as sportsman, sports writer,<br />
and is generally preferred in other compounds,<br />
such as sportscar.<br />
sports English. Many terms drawn from sports<br />
have entered into our speech and become so<br />
common that one is not always aware <strong>of</strong> their<br />
origin. From cockfighting come well-heeled,<br />
crestfallen, yellow-streak and show the white<br />
feather. From archery, to hit the bull’s eye,<br />
second string, and many other terms. From<br />
billiards. behind the eipht bull. From boxinn.<br />
to throw in the towel, -hitting below the beE;<br />
and so on. From horseracing, to have the whip<br />
hand, the inside truck, neck and neck, dark<br />
horse, and so on. From baseball, to throw a<br />
curve, to catch <strong>of</strong>f base, windup, two strikes<br />
against him, etc. Thousands <strong>of</strong> words have come<br />
into the language from sports, and where they<br />
have come naturally and filled a need, they have<br />
enriched our speech.<br />
The language <strong>of</strong> sports writers, however, is<br />
another matter. Their daily effusions are peculiarly<br />
circumscribed, much more so than the<br />
language <strong>of</strong> almost any other specialized field.<br />
In the arts, in the social sciences, in business,<br />
in science and in everyday relationships, there<br />
is a constant growth and change in language<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> new concepts,<br />
new methods and new associations. But in sports<br />
there are basically only two things to talk about<br />
-contests and records. Interest in sports is one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the lower common denominators among<br />
various groups throughout our society. Desirable<br />
as this may be from a democratic viewpoint,<br />
it compels sports writers to use simple<br />
words and a limited vocabulary.<br />
Because it deals with struggle, sports writing<br />
is required to be vigorous, and because it scorns<br />
formality it must be slangy and colloquial. But<br />
slang is particularly unfitted for frequent repetition<br />
and sports writing is, above any other type<br />
<strong>of</strong> contemporary writing, repetitious, laden with<br />
clichts. The wretched sports writer, with slight<br />
material and <strong>of</strong>ten (one suspects) even slighter<br />
interest, is compelled to assume concern he does<br />
not feel and to conceal his yawns under forced<br />
shouts <strong>of</strong> simulated excitement. A tyrannical
convention <strong>of</strong> his dreary craft prevents him<br />
from repeating his verbs; yet there are only a<br />
certain number <strong>of</strong> synonyms for win and lose.<br />
He has done what he can with win, top, upset,<br />
pace, defeat, trounce, decision (verb), crush,<br />
sock, blitz, spunk, clobber, whip, wallop, down,<br />
spill, and the like, but the demand far exceeds<br />
the capacity <strong>of</strong> the language. No one ap,parently,<br />
using only the normal resources <strong>of</strong> the<br />
richest language known, can make sports interesting.<br />
The strained variation is interspersed with<br />
the strained periphrasis. An injured thumb is<br />
the dislocated digit and the backfield is a bevy<br />
<strong>of</strong> backs. Alliteration is freely employed. Not<br />
since Widsith has its artful aid been so assiduously<br />
sought.<br />
A legend has grown up that the sports pages<br />
have produced an immense number <strong>of</strong> wniters<br />
who have gone on to literary triumphs. But as<br />
Nunnally Johnson asked, after Lardner, Broun,<br />
Kieran, Pegler, Gallico, Reynolds and Considine,<br />
who is there? Johnson’s characterization<br />
<strong>of</strong> sports writing is not flattering: “Bad writing,<br />
grammar-school humor, foolish styles, thrleadbare<br />
phrases, spurious enthusiasm and he,avyfooted<br />
comedy . . . nauseating sentimentality<br />
and agonized slang . . . [and] above all, breeziness,<br />
breeziness, breeziness!”<br />
spouse is now a literary word. It has special. religious<br />
and legal uses but in everyday speech it<br />
is an affectation either <strong>of</strong> elegance or <strong>of</strong> jocularity<br />
aping elegance. Christopher Morlley’s<br />
statement that the plural <strong>of</strong> spouse is spice deserves<br />
to be recorded.<br />
sprain and strain imply a wrenching, twisting<br />
and stretching <strong>of</strong> the muscles and tendons.<br />
Strain is the more comprehensive term. It can<br />
mean merely to stretch to the utmost, to exert<br />
strenuously, with no implication <strong>of</strong> injury<br />
(Strain to the utmost, to win the goal). But it<br />
also means to stretch beyond measure, to exert<br />
beyond the proper limit, so that injury results<br />
(I strained my shoulder and it hurts. He<br />
strained his eyes reading the fine print). In this<br />
sense it is also used figuratively (He strained<br />
his credit to buy the property). To strain a point<br />
is to stretch a principle beyond its limit so that<br />
there is a deformity.<br />
Sprain is limited to excessive strains <strong>of</strong><br />
certain parts <strong>of</strong> the human body. It means to<br />
strain excessively but without dislocation, by a<br />
sudden twist or wrench, the tendons and<br />
muscles connected with a joint, especially those<br />
<strong>of</strong> the ankle or wrist (He sprained his ankle<br />
when he slipped on the loose gravel).<br />
sprang. See spring.<br />
spread. The past tense is spread. The participle is<br />
also spread.<br />
spring. The past tense is sprung or sprung. ‘The<br />
participle is sprung.<br />
sprint; spurt. Both <strong>of</strong> these verbs convey the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> going at great speed for a short distance,<br />
Sprint, the newer term, is now the usual one<br />
to describe racing at full speed for a short<br />
distance, as in running or rowing (the harassed<br />
commuter, sprinting for the train, brief case and<br />
topcoat flying). Spurt suggests a quickening <strong>of</strong><br />
pace, or a sudden gushing or issuing as in a<br />
stream. It is more <strong>of</strong>ten used figuratively than<br />
sprint (He’ll dawdle until three o’clock and then<br />
spurt ahead and try to get done in time to leave<br />
early. Blood spurted from the wound in his<br />
shoulder).<br />
sprung. See spring.<br />
spun. See spin.<br />
spurious. See synthetic.<br />
square in American slang has generally meant<br />
fair, upright, honest, open, just, and so on.<br />
The term seems to have originated from the<br />
carpenter’s square-something that “drew a<br />
hard and fast line,” made you go straight, had<br />
nothing crooked about it. One <strong>of</strong> the earliest<br />
slang phrases, now obsolete, to incorporate the<br />
idea was to run on the square. A square shooter<br />
was one who shot fairly, presumably in selfdefense<br />
only, and gave his opponent a fair<br />
warning and chance. A square deal was a plain,<br />
open, and honest dealing <strong>of</strong> the cards. All <strong>of</strong><br />
these expressions are, however, now a trifle<br />
musty. In the cynical terminology <strong>of</strong> bebop,<br />
sqttare-perhaps in defiance <strong>of</strong> the older morality-is<br />
a word <strong>of</strong> contempt. A square, to the<br />
zoot-suit cognoscenti, is one who is not hep. He<br />
is stupid, out <strong>of</strong> fashion, not in the groove. But<br />
definitely.<br />
square (division <strong>of</strong> a city). See block.<br />
square meal. A square meal would seem, taken<br />
literally, to be uncomfortable and undesirable.<br />
It must originally have had a figurative meaning-perhaps<br />
such a meal as one who was<br />
treated squarely or got a square deal would be<br />
fed. It suggests a hearty meal, more substantial<br />
if less wholesome than a well-rounded meal. It<br />
is now fading from use a little. There’s a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> rusticity in it, a small-townishness.<br />
square peg in a round bole. As a term for a<br />
misfit, for one (usually a man <strong>of</strong> abilities) in a<br />
position unsuited to him, a square peg in a<br />
round hole is hackneyed.<br />
Attempts to trace the origin <strong>of</strong> this expression<br />
have not been successful. Punch attributed it<br />
to Bishop Berkeley, and even furnished a quotation,<br />
but no one else has ever found the quotation<br />
in his works. Sydney Smith stated the idea<br />
in some detail in his Sketches <strong>of</strong> Moral Philosophy<br />
(1806) and has the best claim to be considered<br />
its originator.<br />
squeamish. See fastidious.<br />
stab in the back, as a term for an act <strong>of</strong> treachery,<br />
is a cliche.<br />
staff. The plural is stafls or staves. When this<br />
word means a stick or pole, the modem plural<br />
stuffs is preferred. The old plural staves has<br />
produced another singular stave, which now<br />
means one <strong>of</strong> the pieces <strong>of</strong> wood that form the<br />
sides <strong>of</strong> a vessel. The lines and spaces on which<br />
music is written is usually called (I stuff and a<br />
verse or stanza is usually called a stave, but<br />
either form can be used for either meaning.<br />
St& may also mean a body <strong>of</strong> assistants. In<br />
this sense it is a group noun and the plural stafls
stti 472<br />
means several such groups. The singular form<br />
may be used with a singular verb or with a<br />
plural verb, depending on whether the staff is<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as a unit or as individuals, as in<br />
:he staff was well trained or the staff were well<br />
trained. In either case, it is the whole body <strong>of</strong><br />
assistants that is referred to. Sometimes the<br />
word staff is used as if it were a true plural<br />
meaning more than one staff member, as in<br />
a few staff were invited. This is not at present<br />
standard English.<br />
staff <strong>of</strong> life. The description <strong>of</strong> bread as the staff<br />
<strong>of</strong> life goes back to the early seventeenth<br />
century where it came into use as an adaptation<br />
or echo <strong>of</strong> several passages in the Bible in which<br />
bread is called the stay and stafl and the cutting<br />
<strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong> the food supply is described poetically<br />
as breaking the staff <strong>of</strong> bread. The phrase is<br />
now, in general use, hackneyed and stilted.<br />
stag. See hart.<br />
stage; arrange; perform. From its basic sense as<br />
a transitive verb, to put, represent, or exhibit on<br />
or as on a stage, stage has come rather loosely<br />
to mean arrange or, even more loosely,<br />
perform. In military usage it is quite proper to<br />
refer to the High Command as having staged<br />
the Normandy invasion, for the underlying<br />
meaning here seems to be “to erect a stage for”<br />
or “to travel by stages.” It is not advisable, however,<br />
to say that a country is staging an economic<br />
comeback (unless it is meant that the<br />
country is coming back by stages) when accomplishing,<br />
performing, or making would be more<br />
accurate.<br />
stage whisper. For a whisper on the stage, as a<br />
necessary part <strong>of</strong> the action <strong>of</strong> the play, loud<br />
enough for the entire audience to hear and yet,<br />
by dramatic convention, accepted as unheard<br />
by such members <strong>of</strong> the cast on the stage as<br />
are not supposed to have heard it, a stage<br />
whisper is the established term. But aunlied to<br />
any whisper elsewhere that is loud enough to<br />
be heard by all present, it is a clicht.<br />
stagger. The use <strong>of</strong> stagger to mean to arrange in<br />
some other order or manner than the regular<br />
or uniform or usual one, especially at such<br />
intervals that there is a continuous overlapping<br />
(By staggering <strong>of</strong>ice hours for employees,<br />
managers <strong>of</strong> large downtown concerns help<br />
solve morning and evening trafic problems.<br />
Divorce seems to be a form <strong>of</strong> staggered polygamy)<br />
is now standard American usage and<br />
is becoming accepted in England.<br />
This meaning would appear to be a figurative<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> a special use <strong>of</strong> the verb to stagger<br />
by wheelwrights, who staggered spokes into the<br />
hub when they set them alternately inside and<br />
outside (or more or less to one side <strong>of</strong>) a line<br />
drawn round the hub. A wheel made in this<br />
manner (for increased strength) was said to be<br />
a staggered wheel.<br />
staggers. This word, meaning a disease <strong>of</strong> certain<br />
animals, is always treated as a singular, as in<br />
staggers is hard to treat.<br />
staid. See stay.<br />
stai; stairs. In Scotland a flight <strong>of</strong> steps is called<br />
a stair and treated as a singular, as in a winding<br />
stair and the stair was dark. In England a flight<br />
<strong>of</strong> steps is treated as a plural, ELS in the stairs<br />
were dark, or called a flight <strong>of</strong> stairs, or sometimes<br />
a pair <strong>of</strong> stairs. Both constructions are<br />
familiar in the United States and are equally<br />
acceptable.<br />
In England one <strong>of</strong> the steps in a Right is<br />
called a stair and three stairs means three steps.<br />
This usage is rare in the United States. Here<br />
three stairs will usually be understood in the<br />
Scottish sense, as three flights.<br />
When used as the first element in a compound,<br />
the singular form stair is preferred, as<br />
in stair door, stair well, stair carpet. This does<br />
not apply to the two words upstairs and downstairs.<br />
Here the form with s is always used, as<br />
in an upstairs room.<br />
stalactite; stalagmite. These geological terms confuse<br />
the layman. He can never keep in mind<br />
which hangs down like an icicle and which rises<br />
up from the floor. Both are deposits <strong>of</strong> calcium<br />
carbonate formed by the dripping <strong>of</strong> percolating<br />
calcareous water in caves and sometimes<br />
they meet to form a column. The one that hangs<br />
down is a stalactite. The one that builds up<br />
from the floor is a stalagmite. Perhaps it would<br />
help if icicle were fixed in the mind and it was<br />
remembered that the one that resembles an<br />
icicle is the one that contains a c.<br />
stall, in the sense <strong>of</strong> bringing to a standstill, checking<br />
the motion <strong>of</strong>, is obsolete or dialectal in<br />
England but is standard and common in<br />
America (Korean truce talks were stalled over<br />
the issue <strong>of</strong> prisoner exchanges). In the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
acting evasively or deceptively and in its use<br />
as a noun to designate anything used as a pretext,<br />
pretense, or trick, stall is slang.<br />
stalls. See orchestra.<br />
stamen. The plural is stamens or stamina. Either<br />
plural may be used in botany. In general<br />
English the form stamina is also used to mean<br />
vigor or endurance. In this sense the word is<br />
always treated as a singular, as in his stamina<br />
is amazing, and does not have a plural.<br />
stanch; staunch. Though both forms are acceptable<br />
as adjectives and verbs, stanch is the usual<br />
verb, staunch the usual adjective. The verbal<br />
sense is to stop the flow <strong>of</strong> a liquid, especially<br />
blood (He stanched the bleeding with a cold<br />
compress). The adjectival sense is steadfast or<br />
firm in principle, adherence, or loyalty (He had<br />
only a few friends, but they were staunch ones<br />
and could be relied on).<br />
stand. The past tense is stood. The participle is<br />
also stood.<br />
Stand, meaning “endure,” may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in I cannot stand to hear it,<br />
or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I cannot<br />
stand hearing it, Stand may also be followed by<br />
a clause, with the clause verb a subjunctive<br />
equivalent, as in I cannot stand that he should<br />
hear it, but an infinitive construction, such as<br />
I cannot stand to have him hear it, is generally<br />
preferred. Stand for is frequently used in the<br />
United States when determination rather than<br />
endurance is being expressed, as in I will not<br />
stand for such treatment.
Stand may be used in literary English to<br />
mean “remain” as in the milk had stood too<br />
long and still itunds Thine ancient sacrifice, an<br />
humble and a contrite heart. But this is permissible<br />
only when there is no possibility <strong>of</strong> a<br />
literal interpretation <strong>of</strong> the word. In speech<br />
centering around New York City, stand is used<br />
with this meaning-unacceptably-in contexts<br />
that are not sufficiently abstract. This usage has<br />
passed into sophisticated speech as a joke, especially<br />
in I should’ve stood in bed.<br />
In legal language stand is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a<br />
mere form <strong>of</strong> the passive, equivalent to some<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, as in he stands condemned.<br />
Stund may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in he stands<br />
firm. It may also be followed by an adverb<br />
describing the standing, as in he stands firmly.<br />
Very <strong>of</strong>ten there is no difference in meaning<br />
between the two constructions.<br />
Stand has several special meanings in America<br />
that are not accepted in England and at<br />
least one in England that is not in general use<br />
in America. In English usage a man stands for<br />
<strong>of</strong>fice when he is a candidate. In American<br />
usage stand in the sense <strong>of</strong> tolerate or endure<br />
is standard (I can’t stand people who give<br />
lectures on Europe after a week in Paris), but<br />
the British can’t stand this use <strong>of</strong> the word. In<br />
American slang stand also means to bear the<br />
expense <strong>of</strong> (Come on, 171 stand all <strong>of</strong> you to<br />
a drink).<br />
AS a noun stand has certain uses peculiar to<br />
the United States. In America the place where<br />
a witness sits or stands to testify in court is<br />
called a stand or witness stand (As the witness<br />
took the stand a hum <strong>of</strong> excitement arose in<br />
fhe courtroom). In England it is called the<br />
witness-box (Sir John Aylesbury njas now placed<br />
in the witness-box). In America an open framework<br />
<strong>of</strong> pine wood to support cases <strong>of</strong> type is<br />
called a stand, in England a frame. A booth,<br />
table, or the like where articles are displayed<br />
for sale or some business is carried on in America<br />
is called a stand (if you’ve got to follow the<br />
rodeos, why don’t you get n stand and sell peanuts?).<br />
In England it is called a srull.<br />
standard English is the English used by educated<br />
people when they are speaking in public or<br />
writing to strangers. It is not very different from<br />
the English such people use in speaking or<br />
writing to their friends. It is also the English<br />
found in our best literary works.<br />
The difference between spoken and written<br />
English is not as great as some people think it<br />
is, and it is not as-great today as-it was twentyfive<br />
or fifty years ago. Spoken English relies on<br />
gestures and intonation to fill out the meaning<br />
and therefore uses many loose sentences that<br />
might not be intelligible in print. But there are<br />
very few grammatical constructions that are<br />
acceptable in educated speech that are not also<br />
acceptable in literature and public addresses.<br />
Standard English is not a set <strong>of</strong> rules learned<br />
in school and conscientiously applied througbout<br />
life. It is rather a set <strong>of</strong> language habits<br />
473 standard English<br />
formed by reading English literature and talking<br />
chiefly with people who also read a great<br />
deal. It is an unconscious summing up <strong>of</strong> English<br />
usage over the past two or three hundred<br />
years, as modified and adapted to present-day<br />
needs. It is constantly changing, and it varies<br />
slightly from one locality to another.<br />
At one time these local variations were what<br />
made up dialectal English. A grammarian writing<br />
in 1589 had no difficulty in saying what he<br />
meant by “good English.” It was “that <strong>of</strong> London<br />
and the shires lying about London within<br />
LX miles, and not much above.” But today we<br />
live in a much larger world, thanks to printing.<br />
radio, and travel, and we cannot be so-precise.<br />
Regional differences should be recoenized for<br />
what they are, but there is no need, a&d no way,<br />
to decide that the speech in one area is “better”<br />
than the speech in another.<br />
For example, the sentence she stayed home<br />
all evening is standard English in the United<br />
States but not in Great Britain where an at is<br />
required, as in she stayed at home all evening.<br />
On the other hand, English people say she is in<br />
hospital. American usage requires a the here,<br />
as in she is in the hospital, although it allows<br />
ill fail, in school, and so on. There are also differences<br />
inside the United States. For example,<br />
they think like I do is standard in the South but<br />
not in New England. Expressions <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
show where a person comes from. But so long<br />
as one is not ashamed <strong>of</strong> being an American or<br />
an Englishman, or <strong>of</strong> coming from Boston or<br />
Charleston or San Francisco, there is no reason<br />
to change a speech form that is standard in one’s<br />
own area.<br />
This does not mean that any expression is<br />
standard if it is used by a great many people.<br />
Besides the literary tradition in English there<br />
is also an aural tradition, passed down from<br />
generation to generation among people who read<br />
very little and do not mingle with people who<br />
read. This is what is properly meant by “nonstandard”<br />
English. It has developed constructions<br />
that are not found in literary English, such<br />
as you and me must wait, and it contains many<br />
old forms that were once standard but that have<br />
not been used by educated people for many generations,<br />
such as was you ever in Baltimore?<br />
Speech <strong>of</strong> this kind shows that one’s friends<br />
aren’t bookish people. One may, or may not,<br />
want to conceal that fact.<br />
But there is another kind <strong>of</strong> English that no<br />
one wants to be guilty <strong>of</strong>. These are the pretentious<br />
errors, the mistakes people make who are<br />
trying to speak according to the rules without<br />
understanding the rules. Anyone who wants to<br />
speak “better” English than most people use<br />
must be very sure <strong>of</strong> what he is doing. For example,<br />
whom do you want? is not idiomatic<br />
English. It suggests that the speaker has learned<br />
the language from a textbook and not from<br />
association with educated people. But it is technically<br />
correct. Whom is it?, on the other hand,<br />
is incorrect as well as unidiomatic. It suggests<br />
that the speaker has tried to learn English from<br />
a textbook and failed. The natural spoken Eng-
lish <strong>of</strong> educated people is always correct. English<br />
according to the textbooks may sometimes be<br />
inappropriate but it too is always correct, provided<br />
the rules are properly applied. But to<br />
reject natural English and misapply the rules is<br />
fatal. Mistakes <strong>of</strong> this kind will always be taken<br />
as evidence <strong>of</strong> “vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps<br />
itself and falls.”<br />
In this book, examples <strong>of</strong> how words may<br />
be used are <strong>of</strong>ten taken from poetry. This is<br />
because the poet is a master <strong>of</strong> language. He<br />
understands language better than most people<br />
do and he uses it to express ideas that are too<br />
vital to be put into a mathematical formula.<br />
Anyone who wants to use language more skillfully<br />
and more powerfully can learn from the<br />
poets. Sometimes a grammarian dismisses a<br />
great poet’s use <strong>of</strong> words by saying “he did it<br />
for the sake <strong>of</strong> rhyme.” This is a sad commentary<br />
on the grammarian. He is confusing a poet<br />
with a man who writes mottoes. Poets do frequently<br />
use archaic or unusual forms <strong>of</strong> speech,<br />
when they think this serves their purpose. But<br />
the poet is less likely than any other man to<br />
abuse language or to sacrifice its vital qualities<br />
for any reason whatever. See also grammar and<br />
the Preface to this book.<br />
stand on one’s owu (two) feet. To say <strong>of</strong> someone<br />
who manifests independence that he can stand<br />
on his own feet, or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, for added<br />
emphasis, on his own two feet is to employ a<br />
clichC. The expression was formerly much employed<br />
by fathers in hortatory addresses to their<br />
sons.<br />
standpoint. See point <strong>of</strong> view, angle.<br />
stank. See stink.<br />
stanza. See verse.<br />
starlight; starlit. Starlight is chiefly a noun. It<br />
means the light proceeding from the stars or<br />
the time when the stars shine. It may also be<br />
used as an adjective, meaning <strong>of</strong> or pertaining<br />
to starlight, as in Gerard Manley Hopkins’s<br />
poem The Starlight Night. But starlit is preferable<br />
as an adjective because it is used as an<br />
adjective only (Michael walked down rhe spitcovered<br />
steps <strong>of</strong> the PX onto the worn soil <strong>of</strong><br />
New Jersey, under the calm, starlit summer<br />
sky).<br />
start. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he started lo read, or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in he started reading. The two constructions<br />
are equally acceptable. See begin.<br />
startle. See amaze.<br />
state, in a colloquial sense common to England<br />
and the United States, may mean an excited<br />
condition (He wus in quite a state by the rime<br />
it came his turn to speak).<br />
state; say. Stale should not be used loosely as an<br />
alternative to say. It means to declare definitely<br />
or specifically (I should like to stale ihe assumptions<br />
upon which my argument rests), to set<br />
forth formally in speech or writing (In his<br />
funeral oration Mark Antony stared the claims<br />
that Caesar had on the Remans).<br />
st&d as an adjective may mean tixed or settled<br />
(He worked for a stated fee); explicitly .%t<br />
forth (These were ihe stated terms); declared<br />
as a fact (Zt is stared in the village that the bank<br />
cannot reopen); recognized or <strong>of</strong>ficial (This is<br />
the staled policy). All <strong>of</strong> these meanings are<br />
current in the United States but archaic and<br />
little used in England any more.<br />
The word had another, peculiarly American,<br />
meaning in the nineteenth century: when applied<br />
to a minister or preacher, it meant one<br />
settled or established in a particular pastorate<br />
(There were neither churches nor stated preachers<br />
in town). There were also men called Stated<br />
Supplies who were employed to perform the<br />
duties <strong>of</strong> a pastor but were not inducted, in any<br />
formal way, into the pastoral <strong>of</strong>fice. Both <strong>of</strong><br />
these meanings are now obsolete.<br />
statesman. See politician.<br />
station. See depot.<br />
stationary; stationery. Starionary is an adjective<br />
meaning standing still, not moving, having a<br />
tixed position, not movable (a stationary engine).<br />
Stationery is a noun meaning writing<br />
materials, such as pens and pencils and, especially,<br />
paper (Oh, I’m oui <strong>of</strong> stationery, and Z<br />
did so want to get that letter <strong>of</strong>l!). In America<br />
a place where such things are sold is called a<br />
stationery store. In England it is usually called<br />
a stationer’s.<br />
The two words are, actually, one and the<br />
same and stationery is the older spelling. Certain<br />
stands or stalls set up near St. Paul’s Cathedral<br />
in London were granted permanent licenses<br />
and hence were stationary (as we now spell it)<br />
and those who occupied them were stationers,<br />
as opposed to itinerant peddlers who set up temporary<br />
booths and stands. These men, dependent<br />
upon the goodwill and business <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cathedral clergy as well as on that <strong>of</strong> the printers<br />
whose business was also established near the<br />
cathedral (a sensible-indeed necessary-location<br />
when the clergy made up a large portion <strong>of</strong><br />
the literate), came to specialize in writing materials<br />
and in time were licensed to sell books.<br />
statistics. Except when it means a course <strong>of</strong> study,<br />
this word is treated as a plural, as in these staristics<br />
are impressive. The word now means an<br />
arrangement <strong>of</strong> numerical data. Historically it<br />
is a plural word only in the sense in which the<br />
word poliGcs is a plural. But a singular form <strong>of</strong><br />
the word, a statistic, is now in use in the United<br />
States. This means to a statistician one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
elements in a statistical arrangement. It apparently<br />
means to the general public any piece <strong>of</strong><br />
information involving numbers. The only adjective<br />
form in use in the United States is slutisfical.<br />
status. The plural is statuses or status, not stuti.<br />
status quo. As a term for preserving the present<br />
state <strong>of</strong> things, especially <strong>of</strong> the economic order,<br />
maintaining the status quo is a clich6. The<br />
phrase means literally “the state which,” or the<br />
existing state <strong>of</strong> affairs.<br />
statute; statue; statutary; statuesque; statutory;<br />
statutable. A statue is a representation <strong>of</strong> a person<br />
or <strong>of</strong> an animal, carved in stone or wood,<br />
molded in a plastic material, or cast in bronze<br />
or the like, especially one <strong>of</strong> some size, in the
ound (The Statue <strong>of</strong> Liberty beckons the oppressed<br />
from the Old World). A statute, in legal<br />
terms, is an enactment made by a legislature<br />
and expressed in a formal document (. . . When<br />
the statute gleans the refuse <strong>of</strong> the sword). A<br />
statute is also the document in which such an<br />
enactment is expressed. In international law, a<br />
statute is an instrument annexed to or subsidiary<br />
to an international agreement, as a treaty.<br />
Statuary may be an adjective meaning <strong>of</strong>,<br />
pertaining to, or suitable for statues (statuary<br />
drapery, this great quarry <strong>of</strong> statuary marble).<br />
Statuesque means like or suggesting a statue, as<br />
in formal dignity, grace, or beauty (His statuesque<br />
poses were sometimes assumed to conceal<br />
the indignity <strong>of</strong> his lameness). The adjective<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to a statute, prescribed<br />
or authorized by statute (a statutory <strong>of</strong>fense),<br />
or legally punishable, is statutory. Statutuble<br />
also means prescribed, authorized, or permitted<br />
by statute. Of an <strong>of</strong>fense, it means recognized<br />
by statute, legally punishable. But it has the<br />
special meaning, not shared by statutory, <strong>of</strong><br />
conformed or conforming to statutes.<br />
stave. The past tense is staved or stove. The participle<br />
is also staved or stove. Staved is the usual<br />
form for the past tense and the participle in<br />
general English, and stove is pretty much confined<br />
to nautical matters. That is, we say the<br />
boat was stove in but a bad cold was staved <strong>of</strong>f.<br />
staves. See staff.<br />
stay. The past tense is stayed or staid. The participle<br />
is also stayed or staid. These are merely<br />
alternate spellings for the same form.<br />
Stay may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in stay calm. It<br />
may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the staying, as in stay quietly. There is <strong>of</strong>ten no<br />
ditTerence in meaning between the two forms.<br />
steady improvement, as a term for consistent and<br />
regular improvement, is hackneyed. There’s<br />
nothing wrong with the phrase. It’s really quite<br />
a good way <strong>of</strong> putting it. It simply is that the<br />
two words have been coupled so long and so<br />
remorselessly that the reader no longer recognizes<br />
them as individual words with meaning.<br />
Overuse has effaced them beyond recognition.<br />
steal. The past tense is stole. The participle is<br />
stolen.<br />
A participle stole, as in had stole, was once<br />
literary English but is no longer considered<br />
standard.<br />
steal; purloin; pilfer; filch; thieve; rob; hold up.<br />
Steal is the general word meaning to take or<br />
take away dishonestly or wrongfully, especially<br />
secretly (Who stole my heart away? The second-hand<br />
yards lose thousands every month<br />
from stealing). It has also the acquired meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> moving s<strong>of</strong>tly and unobtrusively, as a thief.<br />
Sometimes a connotation <strong>of</strong> evil-doing lingers<br />
in the word (This stealing away doesn’t look<br />
like innocence to me), but it is <strong>of</strong>ten completely<br />
divorced from any such suggestion (Steal away,<br />
steal away to Jesus. . . . Shall fold their tents,<br />
like the Arabs,/ And as silently steal away).<br />
To purloin was originally merely to remove<br />
475 steal<br />
far <strong>of</strong>f, to set to one side. In the York Plays<br />
there is mention <strong>of</strong> one who having received<br />
good moral precepts pertly purloined them, that<br />
is, disregarded them, set them to one side.<br />
Apparently things taken far <strong>of</strong>f <strong>of</strong>fered a temptation<br />
to theft and the word has come to be<br />
associated with theft. It has a connotation <strong>of</strong><br />
subtlety and is now large!y a literary word (The<br />
Purloined Letter. A certain document <strong>of</strong> the last<br />
importance has been purloined from the royal<br />
apartments).<br />
To pilfer is to steal in small quantities, to<br />
practice petty theft (This pilfering cannot be<br />
taken lightly: it adds up in a year’s time to (I<br />
considerable sum). Dampier said that he found<br />
the Malayans honest, not addicted to robbery,<br />
but only the pilfering, poorer sort. Pilfer carries<br />
a considerable connotation <strong>of</strong> contempt (The<br />
Bard whom pilfered pastorals renown,/ Who<br />
turns 4 Persian tale for half-a-crown).<br />
To filch is to steal small things in a sly way.<br />
As with steal, the slyness <strong>of</strong>ten predominates in<br />
its meaning. Iago’s Who steals my purse, steals<br />
trash . . ./ But he that filches from me my good<br />
name/ Robs me <strong>of</strong> that which not enriches<br />
him,/ And leaves me poor indeed plainly cannot<br />
intend filch to mean the stealing <strong>of</strong> a trifle, but,<br />
rather, the ruining <strong>of</strong> a reputation by sly insinuation.<br />
Thieve is usually intransitive. It means to act<br />
as a thief, to commit theft. It is stronger than<br />
filch or purloin and much stronger than pilfer,<br />
but not as strong as steal or rob. Thievery is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten preceded by petty.<br />
Rob is a strong word. It carries a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> violence and the theft <strong>of</strong> things <strong>of</strong> value.<br />
Robbers are dangerous men (The First National<br />
Bank was robbed today by two masked gunmen.<br />
The police pursued the robbers, exchanging<br />
more than 4 dozen shots, several <strong>of</strong> which,<br />
they are sure, found their mark). Rob takes as<br />
its object the person or institution from whom<br />
stolen. Steul takes as its object the thing stolen.<br />
Something is stolen; one is robbed <strong>of</strong> it. In<br />
America the armed robbery <strong>of</strong> persons is more<br />
and more being called a hold-up and the perpetrators<br />
hold-up men, robbers being restricted<br />
more to those who steal goods. The distinction<br />
is not yet definitely established as standard, however.<br />
See also thief; robber; burglar.<br />
steal a march on. Derived from the military expression<br />
for moving troops, usually under cover<br />
<strong>of</strong> night, without the enemy’s knowledge, to<br />
steal 4 march on in the figurative sense <strong>of</strong><br />
secretly gaining an advantage is worn out with<br />
overuse.<br />
steal someone’s thunder. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who<br />
-has used someone else’s own methods <strong>of</strong> accomplishments<br />
in such a way as to deprive the<br />
originator <strong>of</strong> his due credit or authority that<br />
he has stolen his thunder is to employ a clichC.<br />
The phrase was first uttered by the irascible<br />
critic and playwright John Dennis (1657-1734)<br />
when the “thunder” which he had devised (shaking<br />
a sheet <strong>of</strong> tin) for his play Appius and<br />
Virginia (1709), which failed, was used a few
steer 476<br />
nights later in a production <strong>of</strong> Macbeth. Since<br />
the origin <strong>of</strong> so many phrases is quickly lost and<br />
since it is rare to have an accurate account <strong>of</strong><br />
the origin <strong>of</strong> a phrase, it is worth quoting a<br />
paragraph from the Biogruphia Britannica:<br />
Our author, for the advantage <strong>of</strong> this play<br />
[Appius and Virginia], had invented a new<br />
species <strong>of</strong> thunder, . . . the very sort that at<br />
present is used in the theatre. The tragedy<br />
itself was coldly received, notwithstanding<br />
such assistance, and was acted but a short<br />
time. Some nights after, Mr. Dennis, being<br />
in the pit at the representation <strong>of</strong> Macbeth,<br />
heard his own thunder made use <strong>of</strong>; upon<br />
which he rose in a violent passion and exclaimed,<br />
See how the rascals use me! They<br />
will not let my play run, and yet they steal<br />
my thunder.<br />
steer clear <strong>of</strong>. Used figuratively, the nautical expression<br />
to steer clear <strong>of</strong> is hackneyed.<br />
stem. Where Americans say that something stems<br />
from this or that (His talkativeness stems from<br />
an embarrassed self-consciousness), the English<br />
say springs from or originates in.<br />
stem-winder. Americans used to call a watch which<br />
is wound by turning a knob at the stem a stemwinder.<br />
The English call it a keyless watch. The<br />
tendency <strong>of</strong> the English to define negatively, to<br />
identify new things by saying what they are not,<br />
a reflection probably <strong>of</strong> their conservatism, <strong>of</strong><br />
their facing <strong>of</strong> their great and successful past, is<br />
gradually changing. Wireless is the traditional<br />
form, but the American radio is making headway;<br />
though as H. Allen Smith, that keen observer<br />
<strong>of</strong> language and folkways, has remarked<br />
(Smith’s London Journal, 1952, p. 77), a radio<br />
tube is still known in England as a wireless<br />
valve.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> stem-winder as a slang term <strong>of</strong><br />
approbation, applied to one who has energy,<br />
ability, and initiative, is something <strong>of</strong> an affectation.<br />
It implies that the speaker is so venerable<br />
or comes from some place so quaintly oldfashioned<br />
that a stem-winding watch constitutes<br />
an admirable novelty. It may once have been a<br />
genuine expression but, like cooking with gas,<br />
it now sounds artificial and forced, an affectation<br />
<strong>of</strong> rustic simplicity.<br />
step iu the right direction. To say <strong>of</strong> some act<br />
that conduces to the achievement <strong>of</strong> a desired<br />
end, especially an initial act and above all <strong>of</strong><br />
one that marks a change <strong>of</strong> course, that it is a<br />
step in the right direction is to employ a cliche.<br />
step up; increase. Step up, an American engineering<br />
term applied to the process <strong>of</strong> gradually<br />
increasing the electric power applied by a switch<br />
with graduated steps, is now used in America<br />
and England to mean to raise or increase something<br />
that can in some figurative way be considered<br />
as being a form <strong>of</strong> power. Thus one<br />
would not say that he stepped up the amount <strong>of</strong><br />
sugar in his c<strong>of</strong>fee if he added some, but he<br />
might well say that he stepped up the dosage <strong>of</strong><br />
a drug or medicine, especially if the increase<br />
was regarded as permanent.<br />
Some authors insist that unless step up is<br />
clearly understood to mean to make greater by<br />
stages, it is merely a substitute for increase and<br />
hence a superfluous addition to the language.<br />
But even as a mere synonym for increasewhich<br />
it is not exactly, because it has connotations<br />
that increase lacks-it is a dynamic, wn-<br />
Crete locution.<br />
stereotyped. See commonplace.<br />
sterling worth, as a term <strong>of</strong> approbation for one<br />
<strong>of</strong> admirable qualities, is a cliche.<br />
stern reality, as a term for the facts <strong>of</strong> a situation,<br />
especially when unfavorable, is worn out. So<br />
also is hard facts or the grim facts.<br />
stew in one’s own juice, as a term for allowing<br />
someone to suffer the consequences <strong>of</strong> his own<br />
actions, especially with a slightly spiteful or<br />
vindictive satisfaction. is a cliche.<br />
stick. The past tense is stack. The participle is<br />
also stuck.<br />
stick in one’s craw. To say <strong>of</strong> something that one<br />
is loath to accept but must that it sticks in one’s<br />
craw (or gizzard) is to employ a phrase worn<br />
out by overuse.<br />
stick to one’s guns, as a term for tenacity, for a<br />
refusal to give up, and especially for a refusal<br />
to cede a point in an argument, is stale and<br />
worn.<br />
sticker; stickler. A sticker is a person who (or<br />
sometimes a thing or animal that) is persistent.<br />
A stickler is a person who insists on something<br />
unyieldingly. The word is followed by for if<br />
mention is made <strong>of</strong> that upon which the insistence<br />
is laid (He is u stickler for propriety).<br />
Sticker is generally a term <strong>of</strong> approval, while<br />
stickler is generally a term <strong>of</strong> disapproval, especially<br />
if the one using the term is not himself<br />
inclined to admire niceties or regards that on<br />
which the stickler insists as unworthy <strong>of</strong> insistence.<br />
stigma; stigmata. Stigma derives from a Greek<br />
word meaning mark. In common usage it is<br />
used figuratively to mean a mark <strong>of</strong> disgrace or<br />
infamy, a stain or reproach, as on one’s reputation<br />
(There should be no stigma attached to his<br />
failure to get through college; the financial difficulties<br />
were simply too great). In its literal<br />
sense, stigma means a characteristic mark or<br />
sign <strong>of</strong> defect, degeneration, or disease. It may<br />
mean a birthmark or a naevus. In pathology a<br />
stigma is a spot or mark on the skin, especially<br />
a place or point on the skin which bleeds, or is<br />
alleged to bleed, during certain mental states, as<br />
in hysteria. In zoology it means a small mark,<br />
spot, pore, or the like, on an animal or organ.<br />
In botany it means that part <strong>of</strong> a pistil which<br />
receives the pollen. In the Roman Catholic<br />
Church stigmata (the plural <strong>of</strong> stigma in all<br />
except the figurative sense <strong>of</strong> disgrace, when the<br />
plural is stigmas) means marks said to have<br />
been supernaturally impressed upon certain persons<br />
in the semblance <strong>of</strong> the wounds on the<br />
crucified body <strong>of</strong> Christ.<br />
The distinction between stigmas and stigmata<br />
is less than fifty years old. The verb stigmatize<br />
still carries both meanings.<br />
still; stilly. The form still may be used as an adjective<br />
meaning quiet, as in over the still stream,
and it may be used in other ways. The form<br />
stilly has only the one meaning <strong>of</strong> quietness and<br />
is now artificial English. It could once be used<br />
as an adjective, as in <strong>of</strong>t in the stilly night, or as<br />
an adverb. as in stillv she glides in. Today. still<br />
is preferred as the adjective and quietly as the<br />
adverb in this sense.<br />
Still may also be used as an adverb. When it<br />
qualifies the comparative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective<br />
or adverb, it means “to a high degree” or “increasingly,”<br />
as in louder still and still more loud.<br />
Otherwise it indicates that something remains<br />
unchanged up to a given moment, usually the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> speaking, as in still is the story told.<br />
Here the meaning <strong>of</strong> the word requires a continuing<br />
action. It cannot be used with a perfect<br />
tense verb form or with a simple past, present,<br />
or future tense unless the action is understood<br />
as continuing or habitual. In a negative statement<br />
it is better to place still before the meaningful<br />
element <strong>of</strong> the verb rather than after, as<br />
in he is not still working. See also yet; already.<br />
Still may also be used as a connective meaning<br />
notwithstanding or nevertheless, as in still,<br />
you must admit. With this meaning, it may be<br />
used with a verb in any tense.<br />
In many parts <strong>of</strong> the United States people use<br />
the expression still and all, meaning “just the<br />
same.” This is undoubtedly derived from the<br />
Scottish phrase still and on, which in turn comes<br />
from the older English phrase still and anonboth<br />
<strong>of</strong> which mean nevertheless.<br />
still small voice. The uronhet Eliiah, lodainp: in<br />
a cave on Mount Hoieb, heard a voice that Told<br />
him to go forth and stand upon the mount before<br />
the Lord. And, behold, it says in I Kings<br />
19: 11-13, the Lord passed by, and a great and<br />
strong wind rent the mountains, and brake in<br />
pieces the rocks before the Lord; but the Lord<br />
was not in the wind: and after the wind an<br />
earthquake; but the Lord was not in the earthquake.<br />
And after the earthquake a fire; but the<br />
Lord was not in the fire: and after the fire a still<br />
small voice. And it was so, when Elijah heard<br />
it, that he wrapped his face in his mantle, and<br />
went out, and stood in the entering in <strong>of</strong> the<br />
cave. And, behold, there came a voice unto him,<br />
and said, What doest thou here, Elijah?<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the phrase still small voice from<br />
this great passage as a term for the conscience,<br />
the voice <strong>of</strong> God speaking quietly within us,<br />
was finely conceived and it is a pity that overuse<br />
has deadened it.<br />
stimulant; stimulus. Stimulus is the general word<br />
meaning something that incites to action or<br />
exertion, or quickens actions, feeling, or thought,<br />
or serves as a goad or an incentive. In ordinary<br />
usage stimulus is taken to be commendable,<br />
something which arouses to useful or desirable<br />
activity (The love <strong>of</strong> fame is a powerful stimulus<br />
in high-minded young people. The infinitely<br />
complex organizations <strong>of</strong> commerce have<br />
grown up under the stimulus <strong>of</strong> certain desires<br />
existing in each <strong>of</strong> us). The plural is stimuluses<br />
or stimuli.<br />
Stimulant is a more restricted term. It is used<br />
to describe something which temporarily quick-<br />
477 stone<br />
ens some vital process or the functional activity<br />
<strong>of</strong> some organ or part (Alcohol, nicotine, and<br />
c<strong>of</strong>Jee are all stimulants, and are all harmful if<br />
taken in excess). Stimulant sometimes tends to<br />
be a deprecatory term.<br />
sting. The past tense is stung. The participle is<br />
also stung.<br />
stingy. See economical.<br />
stink. The past tense is stank or stunk. The participle<br />
is stunk.<br />
stink (noun). See smell.<br />
stitch in time, as a term for some act or provision<br />
which will prevent the need for much greater<br />
action later or which, if omitted, would involve<br />
disastrous consequences, is a cliche.<br />
stock. Take stock <strong>of</strong> and take stock in convey different<br />
ideas. To take stock <strong>of</strong> means to take an<br />
inventory <strong>of</strong>, to make an appraisal <strong>of</strong> (As soon<br />
as they took stock <strong>of</strong> their situation, they saw<br />
that things were not so bad as they had feared).<br />
To take stock in literally means to purchase<br />
shares <strong>of</strong> stock in a corporation, but its figurative,<br />
colloquial use means to take an interest<br />
in, attach importance to, or repose confidence<br />
in (I don’t take much stock in the patriotism <strong>of</strong><br />
such bodies, however loudly they protest it).<br />
stocl; shares. Stock is the normal term in American<br />
finance to describe the shares <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
company or corporation. The English say<br />
shares, though an American will speak <strong>of</strong> so<br />
many shares <strong>of</strong> stock. The American terms<br />
common stock and preferred stock are paralleled<br />
by the English ordinary stock, ordinary<br />
shares, and preference stock, preference shares.<br />
An American stockholder is the equivalent <strong>of</strong><br />
an English share-holder.<br />
stoic and stoical both mean resembling the school<br />
<strong>of</strong> philosophy founded by Zeno, who taught<br />
that men should be free from passion, unmoved<br />
by joy or grief, and should submit without complaint<br />
to unavoidable necessity. Stoic is the word<br />
most commonly used to describe one who maintains<br />
or affects the mental attitude required by<br />
the Stoics (The stoic detachment is more to be<br />
admired than attained). Stoical is used more<br />
loosely (and more frequently) to describe one<br />
who is impassive, characterized by a calm or<br />
austere fortitude, whether that fortitude has a<br />
philosophical basis or not (Many who would<br />
not have thought they could have endured the<br />
terror <strong>of</strong> them learned to be stoical about the<br />
bombings and slept soundly between raids).<br />
stoicism. See patience.<br />
stole; stolen. See steal.<br />
stolid. See solid.<br />
stomach. See belly.<br />
stone is a British term for a measure <strong>of</strong> weight.<br />
Their imperial standard stone is fourteen pounds<br />
avoirdupois. There were formerly many different<br />
stones-that <strong>of</strong> meat or fish was eight<br />
pounds, that <strong>of</strong> cheese sixteen pounds, that <strong>of</strong><br />
hemp thirty-two pounds, that <strong>of</strong> glass five<br />
pounds, that <strong>of</strong> lead twelve pounds, and so on.<br />
The term is now largely restricted to giving the<br />
weight <strong>of</strong> a man, where stone means fourteen<br />
pounds avoirdupois (He was a small man, <strong>of</strong><br />
not over ten stone or ten stone five at the mosr) .
StQd 478<br />
This unit <strong>of</strong> weight is not used in America,<br />
though the word is known to most educated<br />
Americans and was, apparently, formerly used,<br />
at least in New England (He wus not a ghosf,<br />
my visitor, but solid flesh and bone;/ He wore<br />
0: Palo Alto hut, his weight was twenty stone-<br />
Oliver Wendell Holmes).<br />
In discussing the term as a unit, the plural is<br />
stones (The many stones formerly in use in<br />
England were a cause <strong>of</strong> great confusion), but<br />
the plural as the term <strong>of</strong> measurement <strong>of</strong> a<br />
man’s weight is stone (fourteen stone, stripped).<br />
stood. See stand.<br />
stoop, as an architectural term, is a word to be<br />
found only in New World English. Derived<br />
from the Dutch stoep, it means a raised entrance<br />
platform with steps leading up to it, or a small<br />
verandah or porch to a house (They sat out on<br />
the stoop in the cool <strong>of</strong> the evening, fanning<br />
themselves with palm-lenf funs and chatting<br />
with friends who chanced to stroll by).<br />
stooped. As an adjective describing a posture in<br />
which the head and shoulders are bent, or the<br />
body generally is bent, forward and downward<br />
from an erect position, Americans use the past<br />
participle stooped where the English use the<br />
present participle stooping (She wus startled to<br />
fznd him so stooped and gray).<br />
stop. This verb may be followed by the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he stopped reading. An infinitive<br />
following stop does not show what was stopped<br />
but only the purpose <strong>of</strong> the stopping, as in he<br />
stopped to read.<br />
Stop may be used to mean “stay for a short<br />
time,” as in we stopped there for three days. It<br />
has been used in this way in literary English<br />
for several centuries.<br />
stop; cease; pause; quit. Stop is the everyday working<br />
word, pertaining to actions or to objects in<br />
motion (The car ahead stopped suddenly. Oh,<br />
do stop talking that wayf). Cerise is more literary<br />
and formal and suggests the coming to an<br />
end <strong>of</strong> something that has been going on for a<br />
while (Cease this way <strong>of</strong> life and turn to better<br />
things. Cease and desist, in the name <strong>of</strong> the<br />
law). Stop also, perhaps merely because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
abruptness <strong>of</strong> its sound, suggests a more abrupt<br />
cessation. If a violinist, for example, at a formal<br />
concert concluded a long and difficult piece, it<br />
might be said that he ceased playing. If there<br />
were some sudden interruption that compelled<br />
him to discontinue, it would most likely be said<br />
that he stopped playing.<br />
Pause implies that the action or motion will<br />
continue after an interval. The pause that refreshes<br />
implies that the pauser, refreshed, will<br />
resume his activities with renewed vigor.<br />
Quit in the sense <strong>of</strong> stop or discontinue is now<br />
standard usage in America though not used in<br />
England. It formerly meant to set free, to release<br />
(Let’s call it quits, that is, let us release<br />
each other from our obligations and agreement),<br />
and in its sense <strong>of</strong> stop there is <strong>of</strong>ten a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> release. A man quits a job he doesn’t<br />
like; he would probably leave a position he<br />
lied. See also end.<br />
store has different implications and uses in Amurica<br />
and England. In the United States a store<br />
is a place where goods are kept for sale, what<br />
in England is called a shop. As J. B. Greenough<br />
and G. L. Kittredge explain in Words and their<br />
Ways (1901, p. 134), “This is not mere provincial<br />
grandiloquence, as is <strong>of</strong>ten supposed,<br />
but results from the fact that, when the use<br />
grew up, the places in question were really<br />
storehouses, as every ‘shop’ in a new country<br />
must necessarily be.” The English reserve the<br />
word store largely for a storehouse or warehouse,<br />
though there are cooperative stores in<br />
England and a large shop divided into several<br />
departments, which Americans would call a department<br />
store, is in England called rhe stores<br />
(James Ramsey, sitting on the floor cutting out<br />
pictures from the illustrated catalogue <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Army and Navy Stores, endowed the picture<br />
<strong>of</strong> a refrigerator . . . with heavenly bliss-<br />
Virginia Woolf).<br />
In America one says drugstore, in England<br />
chemist’s shop, or simply chemist’s American<br />
chain stores are English multiple stores. An<br />
American storekeeper is an English shopkeeper.<br />
When the English use storekeeper, they refer<br />
to an <strong>of</strong>ficer or <strong>of</strong>ficial in charge <strong>of</strong> naval or<br />
military stores; in America such a term may be<br />
used <strong>of</strong> a naval petty <strong>of</strong>ficer or warrant <strong>of</strong>ficer<br />
whose duties involve stores. In America store<br />
is <strong>of</strong>ten used colloquially in combination with<br />
other words to suggest that the object referred<br />
to was bought at a store instead <strong>of</strong> being made<br />
at home. Thus store clothes are clothes that<br />
have been bought, that are not homemade. Store<br />
teeth is a humorous (and hackneyed) term for<br />
false teeth (You must have paid plenty for those<br />
store teeth, Pop). Since it has now been several<br />
generations since any large number <strong>of</strong> Americans<br />
have been awe-struck at the superiority and<br />
splendor <strong>of</strong> “boughten” things, this use <strong>of</strong> store<br />
is now either an affectation <strong>of</strong> rusticity or a<br />
dreary whimsy. See also shop.<br />
storey; story. Where Americans use only story,<br />
the English may use either story or storey to<br />
describe a complete horizontal section <strong>of</strong> a<br />
building, having one continuous or approximately<br />
continuous floor; the set <strong>of</strong> rooms on<br />
the same floor or level <strong>of</strong> a building; each <strong>of</strong><br />
the stages, separated by floors, one above the<br />
other, <strong>of</strong> which a building consists (a twentystory<br />
skyscraper. He lived on the fifth story).<br />
Story may mean, in England and America, a<br />
narrative, either true or fictitious, in prose or<br />
verse, designed to interest or amuse the hearer<br />
or reader; a tale (Tell me the old, old story).<br />
In colloquial usage, cynicism has made the word<br />
synonymous for a lie (That’s a story, and you<br />
know it; Z wasn’t there at all). It is used in this<br />
sense chiefly by children-or was so used; it’s<br />
now a little archaic-as a euphemism for lie.<br />
In American journalism story has the loose<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> an account <strong>of</strong> some event or situation,<br />
especially as it appears in the paper (The Philadelphia<br />
Story. It was when we were in New<br />
Orleans, working on the Mardi Gras story. The
sfory broke in the afternoon editions). The<br />
common journalistic phrase fhe story broke does<br />
not mean that the narrative collapsed but, on<br />
the contrary, that the news became public in a<br />
sensational manner.<br />
storm brewing. Even when used <strong>of</strong> an impending<br />
meteorological disturbance, there’s a storm<br />
brewing is a clich6. It is as much one, and more,<br />
when used figuratively <strong>of</strong> some trouble that is<br />
working itself up.<br />
stout. See fat.<br />
stove. See stave.<br />
straight; straightly. The form straight may be<br />
used as an adjective, as in keep a straight face,<br />
or as an adverb, as in come straight home. Very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten it is impossible to say whether the word is<br />
an adjective or an adverb (and unnecessary to<br />
say), as in stand straight. The form straightly<br />
is always an adverb, as in <strong>of</strong> stature tall and<br />
straightly fashioned. It is seldom used in the<br />
United States.<br />
straight; strait. Straight, a commonly used term<br />
meaning unswerving, direct, is not to be confused<br />
with the archaic word strait which means<br />
narrow, affording little room, strict in requirements<br />
or principles. The expression to describe<br />
one (usually a woman) who is excessively strict<br />
in conduct or morality is strait-laced, not<br />
straight-laced. Strait-laced is archaic in the literal<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> being tightly laced or wearing<br />
tightly laced garments.<br />
straight and narrow path. As a term for the path<br />
<strong>of</strong> virtue, now generally employed with a tedious<br />
jocularity, the straight and narrow path is<br />
a clichb. It is a shortening and a corruption <strong>of</strong><br />
Matthew 7:14, strait is the gate and narrow is<br />
the way, which leadeth unto life, in which strait<br />
means narrow, not straight.<br />
straight as a die. The die that is the standard <strong>of</strong><br />
straightness in the hackneyed comparison is that<br />
which is known best in its plural, dice. Dice, <strong>of</strong><br />
course, had to be made with utmost precision if<br />
their falling was to be wholly a matter <strong>of</strong><br />
chance and their smoothness and exactness<br />
formed the basis <strong>of</strong> several comparisons-us<br />
smooth as a die, as true as a die, as straight as<br />
a die. All are now clichCs.<br />
straight from the horse’s mouth is a colloquial<br />
jocularity as an assurance that something stated<br />
is on good authority. It is doubly hackneyed.<br />
It derives from estimating the age <strong>of</strong> a horse by<br />
examining its teeth. No matter what the horse<br />
trader declared the animal’s age to be, the condition<br />
<strong>of</strong> its teeth furnished an accurate guide<br />
for the knowing.<br />
straight from the shoulder. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that some comment (usually <strong>of</strong> an unpleasant<br />
nature) was blunt, to say that it came straight<br />
from the shoulder (He let him have it straight<br />
from the shoulder) is a clichb. The expression<br />
is drawr from pugilism and shares the brutality<br />
<strong>of</strong> its origin. It is usually uttered with smug satisfaction,<br />
the utterer feeling that this particular<br />
manner <strong>of</strong> delivering his advice or criticism was<br />
admirable and would be wholesome for the one<br />
to whom it was delivered.<br />
479<br />
straightway; straightaway. See immediately.<br />
strain. See sprain.<br />
strain at a gnat. As a term for those who make<br />
a difficulty <strong>of</strong> accepting or “swallowing” some<br />
trifle (usually in the matter <strong>of</strong> opinion, or unlikely<br />
assertion, or relation <strong>of</strong> an unusual happening)<br />
when they have already accepted a<br />
much greater improbability without scruple, fo<br />
strain at a gnat and swallow a camel is worn<br />
out bv overuse.<br />
Thi expression is <strong>of</strong>ten used with the assumption<br />
that “strain at” in this context means to<br />
make a great effort to swallow, to choke over,<br />
as it were, to retch or to vomit with revulsion<br />
and effort. Actually, however, it is another<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the word to strain: to filter. The<br />
expression comes from Matthew 23:23-24,<br />
which in the King James version reads: Woe<br />
unto you, scribes and Pharisees, hypocrites1 for<br />
ye pay tithe <strong>of</strong> mint and anise and cummin, and<br />
have omitted the weightier mutters <strong>of</strong> the law,<br />
judgment, mercy, and faith: these ought ye to<br />
have done, and not to leave the other undone.<br />
Ye blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and<br />
swallow a camel. This reading is not, as has<br />
been claimed, a mistranslation but it adopted a<br />
rendering already current which even then had<br />
proved misleading. The passage means “which<br />
strain the liquor if they find a gnat in it.” The<br />
Revised Standard Version gives the proper<br />
meaning by having it read which strain out a<br />
gnat.<br />
straiu every nerve. The older meaning <strong>of</strong> nerve<br />
was sinew or tendon (Awake, my soul, stretch<br />
every nerve,/ And press with vigor on-1755).<br />
In modem usage, however, the use <strong>of</strong> the adjuration<br />
to strain every nerve to mean to make<br />
the utmost physical effort is a clicht.<br />
straits. The word strait means narrow or tight, as<br />
in strait is the gate, a strait jacket, in straitened<br />
circumstances. The plural form straits may be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a narrow water way or,<br />
figuratively, <strong>of</strong> a difficult situation, as in the<br />
Straits <strong>of</strong> Gibraltar, the Straits <strong>of</strong> Magellan, and<br />
what brought you to these straits? Before the<br />
sixteenth century the singular form strait was<br />
used more <strong>of</strong>ten than the plural in both these<br />
senses. This is now obsolete in England where<br />
only the plural form has survived. In the United<br />
States the singular strait is still standard and<br />
both forms are acceptable. Maps made in America<br />
usually show the Strait <strong>of</strong> Gibraltar, the<br />
Strait <strong>of</strong> Magellan, and people sometimes say<br />
Z was never in such a strait before. In this last<br />
sense, the word is <strong>of</strong>ten misspelled straight.<br />
strange. See funny, odd.<br />
stratagem. See trick.<br />
strategy; tactics. Primarily these words refer to<br />
military operations. Strategy refers to the planning<br />
and directing <strong>of</strong> projects which involve the<br />
movements <strong>of</strong> forces, etc., and tactics refers to<br />
the actual processes <strong>of</strong> moving or handling<br />
forces (The generals work out the strategy, but<br />
it is <strong>of</strong>ten up to regimental <strong>of</strong>icers to handle<br />
tactics. That Cromwell was a great tactical<br />
commander is beyond question, but the wisdom
stratum 480<br />
<strong>of</strong> his strategy is a matter <strong>of</strong> dispute). More<br />
loosely, strategy describes skillful management<br />
in getting the better <strong>of</strong> an adversary or attaining<br />
a large end. It describes the method <strong>of</strong><br />
conducting operations, especially by the aid<br />
<strong>of</strong> maneuvering or stratagem. Tactics, more<br />
loosely, is pretty close to the loose sense <strong>of</strong><br />
strategy, though tactics is perhaps better for<br />
maneuvers themselves and strategy for the planning<br />
<strong>of</strong> those maneuvers.<br />
The United States Air Force maintains a<br />
Strategic Air Command and a Tactical Air<br />
Command. The strategic forces are in time <strong>of</strong><br />
war applied directly against the enemy nation<br />
itself as distinct from its deployed military<br />
forces. Tactical forces are concentrated against<br />
those elements <strong>of</strong> the enemy’s military forces<br />
which constitute the greatest menace to the successful<br />
accomplishment <strong>of</strong> the theater mission.<br />
stratum. The plural is stratums or strata. Strata<br />
is also used as a singular, with a regular plural<br />
stratus. These forms are objected to by many<br />
people but are used by competent writers.<br />
stress; emphasize. In England stress means chiefly<br />
severe pressure, force or anguished concern.<br />
This meaning is known in America (Men Under<br />
Stress. The stress <strong>of</strong> the past few weeks has<br />
been almost unendurable), but the more common<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the word in the United States<br />
today is to lay emphasis on, to emphasize (I<br />
want to stress three things). British authorities<br />
discourage the use <strong>of</strong> stress in this sense, insisting<br />
that emphasize is more correct; but the<br />
usage is standard in America.<br />
strew. The past tense is strewed. The participle is<br />
strewed or strewn. Strewed is preferred tostrewn<br />
in purely verbal uses, and strewn is preferred<br />
as an adjective. But both forms may be used in<br />
either way.<br />
stria. The plural is striae.<br />
stricken. See strike.<br />
stride. The past tense is strode. The participle is<br />
stridden, strid, strided, or strode. Stridden is the<br />
usual form <strong>of</strong> the participle in literary English.<br />
But Robert Louis Stevenson uses strode, as in<br />
the captain who had so <strong>of</strong>ten strode along the<br />
beach, and this form is acceptable in many<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the United States. Strid is not heard in<br />
the United States but is a recognized form in<br />
Great Britain, where strided is also used and<br />
accepted.<br />
strike. The past tense is struck. The participle is<br />
struck or stricken. Stricken is not used in Great<br />
Britain except as an adjective, but may still be<br />
heard in verb forms in the United States, as in<br />
the clause was stricken out.<br />
When used as an adjective, stricken is more<br />
old-fashioned and bookish than struck. It occurs<br />
most <strong>of</strong>ten in set phrases such as stricken with<br />
a disease, stricken in years, the stricken deer.<br />
Only the form struck can be used when the<br />
word is meant in its literal sense, as in struck<br />
with a cane, and even when used in a figurative<br />
sense, struck is generally preferred to<br />
stricken, as in struck with terror, moon-struck,<br />
and so on.<br />
strike while the iron is hot, as an adjuration to<br />
seize the propitious moment, to act while circumstances<br />
are favorable, is now a clich6.<br />
string. The past tense is strung. The participle is<br />
also strung. A form stringed is used as a pure<br />
adjective with no verbal force. That is, we<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> a well strung bow but <strong>of</strong> a stringed instrument.<br />
stripe is used figuratively in America to designate<br />
a distinctive style, variety, sort, or kind (No<br />
Democrat <strong>of</strong> the Bryan-Hearst stripe could<br />
make headway in such an enterprise). The<br />
equivalent English term is kidney. (See also ilk.)<br />
strive. The past tense is strove or strived. The<br />
participle is striven or strived. Strived is no<br />
longer heard in Great Britain but is still acceptable<br />
in the United States for the past tense and<br />
the participle.<br />
Strive may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
with steps that strove to be, and were not, fast.<br />
It cannot be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb. See endeavor.<br />
strode. See stride.<br />
strong as a horse. This simile is worn out and<br />
outworn. Even its appositeness may be questioned.<br />
Oxen, mules, donkeys, goats, and many<br />
other mammals are, pound for pound. stronger<br />
than horses, and the insects have strength, for<br />
their weight, which no vertebrate can remotely<br />
match. As strong as an ant-there’s a real<br />
simile!<br />
strong, silent man. The strong, silent man was a<br />
highly popular character, especially in novels<br />
by and for women, around the beginning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
twentieth century. By the 1920’s he had been<br />
taken over as a figure <strong>of</strong> fun by the wits. But<br />
by now the term is utterly worn out, no longer<br />
appealing or amusing.<br />
strong verbs. In Old English there were about<br />
four hundred verbs that changed the vowel in<br />
forming the past tense, as in speak and spoke.<br />
These are called strong verbs, in contrast to the<br />
weak verbs that formed the past tense by simply<br />
adding ed, as in talk and talked. Most <strong>of</strong> the old<br />
strong verbs have dropped out <strong>of</strong> the language<br />
or have developed regular (weak) forms. On<br />
the other hand, some verbs that were originally<br />
weak have developed irregular forms.<br />
In present-day English, all verbs that form<br />
the past tense. and participle by adding ed to<br />
the present tense form are called regular verbs<br />
and all that do not, are called irregular, regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> the history <strong>of</strong> the word. See irregular<br />
verbs.<br />
strove. See strive.<br />
struck. See strike.<br />
strong. See string.<br />
stuck. See stick.<br />
student. See pupil.<br />
studio; study. Among its many meanings as a<br />
noun, study means a room, in a house or other<br />
building, set apart for private study, reading,<br />
writing, or the like (A scholar should have a<br />
study and a writer must have one). Studio has<br />
as its basic meaning the workroom or atelier <strong>of</strong><br />
an artist, as a painter or sculptor. More loosely
used, it describes a room or place in which<br />
some form <strong>of</strong> art is pursued (The music studio<br />
is on the fifth floor). Since motion pictures,<br />
radio and television, studio has come to describe<br />
a room or a set <strong>of</strong> rooms or a building especially<br />
equipped for the characteristic activities <strong>of</strong><br />
those enterprises. In common American usage<br />
studio has come to designate just about any<br />
service establishment: beauty shops are called<br />
harr-do studios, perfume shops cosmetic studios,<br />
dancing schools studios <strong>of</strong> the dance. A photographer’s<br />
place <strong>of</strong> business is almost always just<br />
a plain studio.<br />
stuff. See matter; material.<br />
stung. See sting.<br />
stung to the quick. Quick in this phrase means<br />
the living, sensitive tissue (as in He pared his<br />
nails to the quick). As a figurative expression<br />
for being suddenly and deeply hurt, as by an<br />
unkind remark or an insult, especially with the<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> smarting, burning pain that, like the<br />
pain <strong>of</strong> a sting, <strong>of</strong>ten stimulates a flash <strong>of</strong><br />
aggressive anger, the metaphor was once a good<br />
one. For unexpected slights and insults do give<br />
sudden and intense pain, just like stings, and,<br />
like stings, they inflame and ache for a long<br />
time after and breed caution and resentment.<br />
Furthermore the metaphor has the satisfying<br />
implication that the inflicter <strong>of</strong> the pain is a<br />
subhuman, poisonous creature. But the aptness<br />
<strong>of</strong> the expression has led to its being overworked.<br />
stunk. See stink.<br />
stunt; stint. These words are confusingly close as<br />
nouns and as verbs. As a verb stint means to<br />
limit to a certain amount, number, share, or<br />
allowance, <strong>of</strong>ten unduly (Because he had stinted<br />
on provisions, the hunting party soon had to<br />
forage for food). Stunt, as a transitive verb,<br />
means to check the growth or development <strong>of</strong><br />
(All boys used to be told that smoking cigarettes<br />
would stunt their growth). As an intransitive<br />
verb it means to display, <strong>of</strong>ten recklessly,<br />
strength and skill (The Air Force does not encourage<br />
cadets to stunt). As a noun it may<br />
mean a creature or plant hindered from attaining<br />
its proper growth, but this meaning is now<br />
so rare as to be obsolete. The commonest,<br />
almost the only meaning attached to the word<br />
as a noun in America today is a performance,<br />
usually one <strong>of</strong> no great significance, which<br />
serves to display strength or skill <strong>of</strong> a superficial<br />
kind (He used to do stunts on the ro<strong>of</strong> top<br />
just to impress the kids). Stint, as a noun, means<br />
a limitation or restriction, especially as to<br />
amount (He gave without stint to the campaign);<br />
a limited or prescribed quantity, share,<br />
rate (He did only his stint in the common enterprise);<br />
an allotted amount or piece <strong>of</strong> work<br />
(Interviewing students was a part <strong>of</strong> his daily<br />
rtint).<br />
stylish. See high-toned.<br />
stylus. The plural is styluses or styli.<br />
subconscious. See unconscious.<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb. In a given sentence the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb is the word or group <strong>of</strong> words that<br />
481 subject<br />
answers the question who (or what) followed<br />
by the verb in the form used in the sentence.<br />
It may be a single word or it may be a group<br />
<strong>of</strong> words. In he came yesterday, the subject is<br />
he; in reading such books frightens me, it is<br />
reading such books; in what you say has been<br />
said before, it is what you say. The subject is<br />
always a noun or noun equivalent together with<br />
its qualifiers.<br />
If the verb is in the active voice, as it is in<br />
the first two examples given above, the subject<br />
names the agent <strong>of</strong> the action. If the verb is in<br />
the passive voice, that is, if it is a form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb to be followed by the past participle <strong>of</strong><br />
the meaningful verb, as it is in the third example,<br />
the subject names the person or thing<br />
affected by the action. A linking verb does not<br />
name an action and so its subject is neither an<br />
agent nor a person or thing affected. These verbs<br />
present special problems which are discussed<br />
below.<br />
In a Latin sentence the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
is a noun in the nominative case, together with<br />
its qualifiers. In contemporary English, word<br />
order has taken over many <strong>of</strong> the functions <strong>of</strong><br />
case and the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb is recognized<br />
by its position in the sentence. The rules for<br />
position are slightly different in declarative and<br />
in non-declarative sentences.<br />
In questions that do not have an interrogative<br />
word for subject, and in wishes, the subject<br />
stands immediately after the element <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
that shows tense, as in did you see it? and may<br />
you never regret it. A simple past or present<br />
tense form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, or <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to have, may stand before the subject in a<br />
question, as in were you there? and have you<br />
a match?. With these exceptions, a question<br />
requires a verbal phrase, as does a wish, and the<br />
subject stands after the auxiliary and before the<br />
meaningful verb. A verbal phrase can also be<br />
used with have, as in do you have a match?.<br />
See questions and subjunctive mode.<br />
In an imperative sentence the subject is<br />
usually omitted. Formerly, if it was expressed<br />
it followed the verb, as in go ye into all the<br />
world. Today, if it is used at all it precedes the<br />
verb, as in you go first. In an exclamation the<br />
subject normally precedes the verb, but sentences<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind may also have the form <strong>of</strong><br />
a question. See exclamations and imperative<br />
mode.<br />
In a declarative sentence the subject normally<br />
precedes the verb and can be separated from it<br />
only by an adverb. In the best modern prose<br />
more than ninety percent <strong>of</strong> the sentences have<br />
the word order: subject, verb, object. The object<br />
may be placed first without disturbing the order<br />
<strong>of</strong> subject, verb. This order-subject, verb-is<br />
therefore a basic characteristic <strong>of</strong> English sentences.<br />
There are exceptions to the rule, and<br />
when the exceptions are listed there seem to be<br />
a great many <strong>of</strong> them. But this is deceptive. The<br />
exceptions are either limited to a few individual<br />
words or are rare constructions not <strong>of</strong>ten found<br />
in natural speech or writing.
subjective pronouns 482<br />
1. The word there can be used without any<br />
real meaning in order to place the subject after<br />
the verb, as in there is a pleasure in the pathless<br />
woods. Today this construction is archaic except<br />
with the verb to be and a few other linking<br />
verbs such as come, seem, appear; but it was<br />
once used freely with verbs <strong>of</strong> any kind, as in<br />
there lived a wife at Usher’s well. (See there.)<br />
The word it is also used in order to place a true<br />
subject later in the sentence. But if is a pronoun,<br />
or substitute subject, and sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
therefore still have the normal word order <strong>of</strong><br />
subject, verb. (See it.)<br />
2. In a clause introduced by nor an auxiliary<br />
verb must precede the subject, as in you do not<br />
know, nor do 1. This is also true for the word<br />
neither when it is used in place <strong>of</strong> nor, as in<br />
they toil not, neither do they spin.<br />
3. Ordinarily the word so does not affect the<br />
order <strong>of</strong> subject and verb; but it can be used in<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> also with to be or an auxiliary verb<br />
standing alone, and in that case the verb must<br />
precede the subject, as in the final statement in:<br />
He can tell you. So he can. But so can you.<br />
4. When a negative adverb, or an adverb that<br />
is restrictive, is placed before the subject for<br />
emphasis, it usually brings the verb forward<br />
with it, as in never will I forget, scarcely had he<br />
spoken, only now do I realize.<br />
5. The words here and there, used with their<br />
full meaning, when placed before the subject<br />
may bring the verb forward too, as in here are<br />
the letters, there goes an umbulance. This wnstruction<br />
is not obligatory even when the subject<br />
is a noun and is never used with the pronouns<br />
he, she, it, they. We say here they are and there<br />
it goes.<br />
6. Verbs such as say, reply, think, when interpolated<br />
into a narrative may stand before<br />
their subject, as in said he, thought 1. There<br />
is a theory that the normal word order, he said,<br />
should be used when only the substance <strong>of</strong> what<br />
was said is being reported and that the inverted<br />
order, said he, indicates that the exact words<br />
have been repeated. This distinction is not observed<br />
in the United States, where the normal<br />
order, he said, I thought, and so on, is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
7. The words had, were, could, and should,<br />
may be placed before the subject in a conditional<br />
clause in order to avoid using the word<br />
if, as in had he known, were I you. This construction<br />
is extremely bookish. In ordinary<br />
speech we are more likely to use if and the<br />
normal word order <strong>of</strong> subject, verb.<br />
8. In Old English the normal position for<br />
the verb in a declarative sentence was immediately<br />
after the first significant element, rather<br />
than immediately after the subject. This meant<br />
that the object <strong>of</strong> the verb, or any adverb, standing<br />
in the first position might bring the verb<br />
ahead <strong>of</strong> the subject. The old word order, as<br />
seen in the boar’s head in hand bear I and up<br />
jumped the swagman, is still understood by US.<br />
But except in the seven cases listed above, it is<br />
no longer normal English. It is used in poetry<br />
and in stylized prose but is uncommon in matter-<br />
<strong>of</strong>-fact speech. If one wants the old-fashioned<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> a yarn one might say in 1603 died<br />
good Queen Bess but a serious historian would<br />
be more likely to say in 1603 Queen Elizabeth<br />
died.<br />
9. In Old English the verb was sometimes<br />
made the first element in a declarative sentence<br />
in order to emphasize the action and add a<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> speed to the narrative. Chaucer uses<br />
this device in ran cow and calf and eek the<br />
verray hogges, but the construction was archaic<br />
even in his time. Today it is no longer archaic;<br />
it is simply unnatural English. And when it is<br />
used where no sense <strong>of</strong> speed is intended, as<br />
in came the dawn, it is ridiculous.<br />
10. The verb to be is more likely to be<br />
brought ahead <strong>of</strong> its subject than other verbs<br />
are and when it is standing between its complement<br />
and its subject, as in a strange bird is the<br />
owl, it is sometimes difficult to say which is<br />
which. Logically,the subject is the less inclusive<br />
<strong>of</strong> the two terms. That is, a statement <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind says that the subject belongs in the class<br />
<strong>of</strong> things named in the complement, and this<br />
must therefore be the larger class. Owl is a less<br />
inclusive term than strange bird and it is therefore<br />
the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb is in the sentence<br />
just given. But today there is a strong tendency<br />
to treat any noun or noun equivalent standing<br />
before a verb as the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb. We say<br />
his greatest worry is taxes and taxes are his<br />
greatest worry. Obviously, in these sentences we<br />
are treating whatever precedes the verb as the<br />
subject, without going into the question <strong>of</strong><br />
which class <strong>of</strong> things includes the other. Some<br />
grammarians believe that this tendency is decisive<br />
in contemporary English and define the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb as any noun or noun equivalent<br />
standing in the subject position.<br />
However it is defined, the subject determines<br />
the form <strong>of</strong> a present tense verb. For example,<br />
worry requires the singular is, and taxes the<br />
plural are. (See agreement: verbs.) An objective<br />
pronoun cannot be used in a subject position.<br />
(See objective pronouns and subjective pronouns.)<br />
The subject <strong>of</strong> the verb includes the<br />
noun or noun equivalent and all its qualifiers.<br />
As a rule, these have the order: adjective qualifiers,<br />
noun or noun equivalent, qualifying phrase<br />
or clause. (See adjectives, position <strong>of</strong> adjectives,<br />
phrases, and clauses.)<br />
subjective pronouns. There are six subjective pronouns,<br />
I, we, he, she, they, and who.<br />
The formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar require these<br />
subjective forms (and not their objective counterparts)<br />
whenever the word is:<br />
(1) The subject <strong>of</strong> a verb. (He was there.)<br />
(2) Joined to the subject by a linking verb.<br />
(That is he.)<br />
(3) Joined to the subject by and, or, nor, but,<br />
than, or as. (I work harder than he.)<br />
(4) In an independent or “absolute” construction.<br />
(He having no coot. we gave<br />
him one.)<br />
These rules do not represent standard English<br />
practice. In the speech <strong>of</strong> well educated people,
each <strong>of</strong> the above points is modified in one way<br />
or another.<br />
(1)<br />
(2)<br />
(3)<br />
(4)<br />
The subjective pronouns are always used<br />
when the word is standing in a position<br />
appropriate to the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb. Him<br />
and me were there is accordingly unacceptable.<br />
But in unusual constructions,<br />
where the subject is out <strong>of</strong> its natural<br />
place, an objective form is acceptable,<br />
as him in damn’d be him that first cries<br />
Hold, enough! and in there will only be<br />
him left.<br />
Standard English uses a subjective pronoun<br />
after a linking verb in a simple<br />
identity, such as I am I, and before the<br />
-self words, as in it was she herself I saw.<br />
The obiective form is acceptable in all<br />
other constructions, such as that is him.<br />
In more complex sentences, such as the<br />
first person he recognized was me and<br />
is it us they are talking about?, a subjective<br />
pronoun is never used, except in<br />
the most artificial prose. See linking<br />
verbs.<br />
Standard English uses a subjective pronoun<br />
when the word is joined to the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> a verb by and, or, or nor.<br />
After but, than, or as, a subjective pronoun<br />
is not <strong>of</strong>ten used unless it also<br />
stands before a verb, as in I work harder<br />
than he does. (See the individual words.)<br />
The “absolute” construction with a subjective<br />
pronoun is rare in current<br />
English. It is usually replaced by a<br />
clause, such as since he had no coat, we<br />
gave him one. See participles.<br />
To sum up, standard English requires the<br />
subjective form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun whenever the<br />
word is standing in a subject position. In most<br />
other situations, the objective form is preferred.<br />
In current English an objective pronoun can<br />
orten be used where the rules would require a<br />
subjective form. But, with two exceptions, a<br />
subjective pronoun that is not required by the<br />
formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, such as the I in life is<br />
hard for a girl like I, is also contrary to good<br />
usage.<br />
The subjective pronoun who is one exception.<br />
When the word whom precedes the verb, as in<br />
whom are you looking for?, the form who is<br />
generally preferred. In this case, therefore,<br />
either form is acceptable and the speaker may<br />
follow his own taste. See who; whom.<br />
The other exception is the form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun<br />
used after let’s or let us. When the word<br />
let is used alone, without the ‘s or us, an objective<br />
pronoun is required, as in let him first<br />
cast a stone. For this reason, I should be me<br />
in let Dick and I do it because what is meant is<br />
let Dick do zt and let me do it. By the same<br />
reasoning, 1 should be me in let’s you and I<br />
wait here. It must be me according to the formal<br />
rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, and a great many people,<br />
including most grammarians, always use an objective<br />
pronoun after let’s. But a great many<br />
other equally well educated people prefer a<br />
483<br />
subjunctive<br />
subjective pronoun. Both constructions must<br />
therefore be recognized as acceptable today.<br />
With these exceptions, a subjective pronoun<br />
that is not required by the rules is a mistake.<br />
Sometimes it is a pretentious mistake. That is,<br />
the speaker realizes that he is not speaking<br />
natural English but believes that what is unnatural<br />
must be superior. An honest confusion<br />
about which form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun to use occurs<br />
most <strong>of</strong>ten after the word and, as in they invited<br />
father and I. People who would not make this<br />
mistake in a simple statement sometimes do<br />
when the same situation occurs in a more complicated<br />
sentence. In any kind <strong>of</strong> sentence, a<br />
pronoun following and should have the same<br />
form that it would have if it stood in place <strong>of</strong><br />
the word it is joined to. For example, she should<br />
be her in I would have both you and she know<br />
the truth because we would say I would have<br />
her know. Similarly, Z should be me in there is<br />
nothing for it but for you and I to go alone<br />
because we would say for me to go alone.<br />
Using a subjective pronoun where au objective<br />
form is required is the most conspicuous<br />
grammatical mistake in American speech today.<br />
Textbook writers and school teachers are undoubtedly<br />
responsible for this. In their attack<br />
on such expressions as it is me they have been<br />
inconsistent and unreasonable. They have condemned<br />
this use <strong>of</strong> the objective pronoun in<br />
half a dozen sentences and overlooked it in a<br />
hundred others. (See linking verbs.) And they<br />
have said that a construction which runs through<br />
English literature, and which is used by respectable<br />
people everywhere, is nevertheless reprehensible.<br />
Under the circumstances, it is not<br />
surprising that some children lose all feeling for<br />
case. What could an over-conscientious child do<br />
but avoid the <strong>of</strong>fending words entirely?<br />
No one who has had a high-school education<br />
is likely to misuse an objective pronoun. But<br />
the very people who are most anxious to speak<br />
“correctly” <strong>of</strong>ten use subjective pronouns in the<br />
wrong place. If there is any doubt at all about<br />
which form is right, it is safer to use the objective.<br />
subject to; addicted to. Subject to is the more inclusive<br />
term. It may mean open or exposed to<br />
(If we live very long we are subject to all kinds<br />
<strong>of</strong> temptation) or under domination, control, or<br />
influence; liable to (The severe headaches to<br />
which he was subject gradually abated after his<br />
fiftieth year. Subject to change without notice).<br />
Addicted to is the more limiting term. One<br />
may be subject to temptation yet not yield to it,<br />
but when one is addicted to a particular habit<br />
he is devoted or given up to it (A man may be<br />
a heavy drinker and yet not be addicted to<br />
alcohol). Addicted to carries an implication <strong>of</strong><br />
moral disapproval. Addiction is the term to describe<br />
the state <strong>of</strong> being given up to some habit,<br />
practice or pursuit, especially to the taking <strong>of</strong><br />
narcotics.<br />
subjunctive mode. Many languages have special<br />
forms <strong>of</strong> the verb, called subjunctive forms,<br />
which must be used when one is speaking about<br />
what is conceivable rather than about what
subjunctive 484<br />
actually is or has been, about ideas rather than<br />
about events. The forms <strong>of</strong> the verb used in<br />
speaking about actual facts are called indicatives.<br />
English frequently uses an indicative where<br />
other languages would use a subjunctive. But<br />
the indicative cannot be used everywhere, even<br />
in English. Under certain circumstances, we<br />
must use a subjunctive form <strong>of</strong> the verb or else<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the auxiliary verbs that have a subjunctive<br />
meaning.<br />
FORMS<br />
The English verb has three forms that are<br />
used in a subjunctive sense. These are illustrated<br />
below. The first, called the present subjunctive,<br />
merely shows that what is being talked<br />
about is an idea and not a fact. The second,<br />
called the past subjunctive, stresses the uncertainty<br />
or improbability <strong>of</strong> a statement. The<br />
names present subjunctive and past subjunctive<br />
are misleading, because in modem English there<br />
is no time difference between these forms. Instead,<br />
they express different degrees <strong>of</strong> certainty.<br />
Both refer indefinitely to the present or the<br />
future. The third form, the past perfect, refers<br />
to the past.<br />
1. The present subjunctive uses only the simple<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb, no matter what its subject<br />
may be. This means that the verb be is used<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> am, is, are. In other verbs, the present<br />
subjunctive is like the present indicative<br />
except that the third person singular does not<br />
have the characteristic s ending, as in he say,<br />
he stop. We have a present subjunctive whenever<br />
the word be is used directly with a subject,<br />
as in we asked that the meeting be postponed.<br />
We also have a present subjunctive whenever<br />
the third person singular does not have its s, as<br />
he stop in the doctor insisted that he stop smoking.<br />
In every case, the present subjunctive form<br />
shows that we are talking about an idea which<br />
someone has and not an actual event.<br />
2. Except for the verb to be, the past subjunctive<br />
is exactly like the past indicative. The difference<br />
between the two modes does not lie in<br />
the form <strong>of</strong> the word but in its meaning. Whenever<br />
a past tense form is used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a<br />
present or future event, as in if he walked in<br />
here tomorrow, it has subjunctive force and<br />
shows that the event is thought <strong>of</strong> as unlikely.<br />
The past subjunctive <strong>of</strong> the verb to be is were.<br />
This is used for the singular as well as for the<br />
plural, as in were he to go. In most cases, the<br />
indicative singular was may also be used as a<br />
past subjunctive. (For a full discussion <strong>of</strong> this,<br />
see was; were.)<br />
3. The past perfect is the tense formed by the<br />
word had and the past participle <strong>of</strong> a verb? such<br />
as had known, had gone. This is ordinarily an<br />
indicative tense. But when it is used in a conditional<br />
statement it implies that the condition is<br />
actually contrary to the facts. To show that a<br />
statement is conditional we either use a special<br />
word, such as if, though, unless, as in if he had<br />
known, or we place the auxiliary verb before<br />
the subject, as in had he known.<br />
4. In addition to these subjunctive forms,<br />
English has a number <strong>of</strong> auxiliary verbs, such<br />
as ought, must, may, which have subjunctive<br />
meaning; that is, they express what is desirable<br />
or conceivable rather than what actually is.<br />
These verbs do not have the s ending in the<br />
third person singular because they are old past<br />
subjunctive forms with a present or future tense<br />
meaning. Will and can are now used as present<br />
indicatives. May and must are always used as<br />
present subjunctives, and so is shall m American<br />
English. Would and could are sometimes used<br />
as the past indicatives <strong>of</strong> will and can, and sometimes<br />
as past subjunctives. Ought and might,<br />
and in the United States should, are always past<br />
subjunctives.<br />
These auxiliary verbs have certain obvious<br />
advantages over the regular subjunctive forms.<br />
In the first place, each verb has its own special<br />
meaning and this allows us to make our subjunctive<br />
statements clearer and more precise. In<br />
the second place, these verbs can keep their subjunctive<br />
tense meanings and still refer to events<br />
in the past. We can say he may have met her<br />
here meaning “it may be true that he met her<br />
here,” or he might have met her here, meaning<br />
“it might be true that he met her here.” (The<br />
use <strong>of</strong> these auxiliaries in speaking <strong>of</strong> what did<br />
not occur, as you might have let us know you<br />
were coming!, is discussed below.)<br />
The verbs be and have also have subjunctive<br />
force when they are followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he was to come this afternoon and he has<br />
20 leave early. The verb have can be used in<br />
this way in all tenses.<br />
USES OF THE SIMPLE FORMS<br />
The subjunctive is used in current English for<br />
two purposes: (1) to express a requirement,<br />
suggestion, or desire, and (2) to state a supposition,<br />
condition, or concession.<br />
1. Statements <strong>of</strong> requiring or suggesting cannot<br />
be followed by a simple indicative verb<br />
form. We cannot say I suggest that he goes now.<br />
In the United States the present subjunctive is<br />
almost always used here, as in Z suggested he<br />
take it with him, we insisted that she get to work<br />
on time, it is imperative that he know the truth.<br />
In Great Britain this use <strong>of</strong> the present subjunctive<br />
is considered “pedantic.” Englishmen prefer<br />
to use the auxiliary should, as in I suggested he<br />
should take it with him. In the United States the<br />
simple subjunctive is the form used most <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
in natural speech. The construction with should<br />
appears too, but is felt to be “bookish” or<br />
“British.”<br />
A request or suggestion expressed in the main<br />
verb in a sentence is an imperative, as in go at<br />
once and look at it again, why don’t you. A<br />
future tense can also be used to make what is<br />
clearly a command more courteous, as in you<br />
will go at once. A past subjunctive auxiliary<br />
s<strong>of</strong>tens a statement <strong>of</strong> this kind still further until<br />
it is little more than a comment, as in you<br />
should go at once.<br />
The verb wish is followed by the past tense<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, implying (whether sincerely or<br />
not) that the speaker does not expect to see the<br />
wish realized, as in I wish you liked me and<br />
I wish you could come. To express a wish which
we expect to see realized we use the vecb hope,<br />
which may be followed by a present indicative,<br />
as in I hope you like it and I hope you can come.<br />
(It may also be followed by a past indicative<br />
referring to a past event, as in I hope you liked<br />
it.) Other verbs <strong>of</strong> wishing or desiring may be<br />
followed by a clause containing a subjunctive or<br />
subjunctive auxiliary verb, or by an infinitive,<br />
as in I long to have him come and I want him<br />
to go. The infinitive construction is preferred.<br />
Formerly a wish could be expressed in the<br />
main verb <strong>of</strong> a sentence by means <strong>of</strong> a present<br />
subjunctive. As this is identical in form with<br />
the imperative, these old expressions <strong>of</strong> wish are<br />
now felt as imperatives, however unreasonable<br />
that may be, as in heaven forbid, perish the<br />
thought, long live America. In present-day English<br />
the subjunctive auxiliary may is used to<br />
distinguish a wish from a command. It must<br />
stand immediately before the grammatical subject,<br />
as in long may it wave and may she live to<br />
be a hundred. The auxiliary would introduces a<br />
wish that seems to the speaker unlikely to be<br />
fulfilled, as in would I knew what fo do. This<br />
construction is now archaic except in the combination<br />
would to God.<br />
2. From the earliest times English has had<br />
three ways <strong>of</strong> making a hypothetical statement,<br />
indicating varying degrees <strong>of</strong> confidence in what<br />
is said. In addition, we may also show that what<br />
we are saying is known to be contrary to the<br />
facts. In what follows, everything that is said<br />
applies equally to suppositions, concessions, and<br />
conditions. Each <strong>of</strong> the examples given might<br />
equally well have begun with suppose (a supposition),<br />
though (a concession), or if (a condition).<br />
If an event is thought <strong>of</strong> as probable, we may<br />
treat it as a fact and speak <strong>of</strong> it in the indicative,<br />
as in suppose it is true and suppose he<br />
comes tontorrow. These indicative statements<br />
may also appear in the past tense when that is<br />
appropriate, as in I suppose it was true and I<br />
suppose he came yesterday.<br />
In the United States up to thirty or forty<br />
years ago, an event that was not thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
a probable fact, but as an idea or theory, was<br />
expressed by a present subjunctive, as in even<br />
though it be true and even though he come tomorrow.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> the subjunctive can still<br />
be heard but it is no longer as popular as it used<br />
to be. Today we are more likely to express this<br />
idea by means <strong>of</strong> should, as in even though it<br />
should be true and even though he should come<br />
tomorrow.<br />
If an event is thought <strong>of</strong> as unlikely or doubtful,<br />
we use a past tense form, which is here a<br />
past subjunctive since it does not refer to a past<br />
event but to something vaguely in the present<br />
or the future, as in even though they were right<br />
and even though he came tomorrow.<br />
In making a hypothetical statement abolt the<br />
past w&h we know to be conuary LO me racts,<br />
we may use the auxiliary had or could have, as<br />
in ij he had come yesterday and if he could<br />
have come yesterday. Any other statement about<br />
the past, such as if he was here yesterday, is now<br />
subjunctive<br />
felt to be a statement about the facts, about<br />
what happened yesterday, and an indicative<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the verb is therefore required. That we<br />
do not know what the facts are, is beside the<br />
point. The subjunctive were should not be used<br />
in speaking about a past event, as it is in if he<br />
were here yesterday. If we do not know what<br />
actually happened, the indicative was is required.<br />
If we know that he was not here, the<br />
past perfect form, if he had been here yesterday,<br />
is preferred.<br />
A conditional statement is usually accompanied<br />
by another statement, called the conclusion,<br />
which tells what will happen if the<br />
condition is fulfilled or what would have happened<br />
if the condition had been fulfilled. If an<br />
indicative form <strong>of</strong> the verb is used in stating the<br />
condition, any form may be used in stating the<br />
conclusion, as in if this is true, I might see him<br />
and if he was home yesterday, I will hear about<br />
it. Similarly, if a present subjunctive is used in<br />
the condition, any form may be used in the conclusion,<br />
as in though he slay me, yet will I<br />
trust in him. But if a past subjunctive is used in<br />
the condition, a past subjunctive auxiliary is required<br />
in the conclusion, as in if he came tomorrow,<br />
I might see him. And if a past perfect<br />
tense or could have is used in the condition, one<br />
<strong>of</strong> these auxiliaries followed by have is required<br />
in the conclusion, as in if he had come yesterday,<br />
I would have seen him.<br />
In literary English the fact that a statement<br />
is a conditional clause can sometimes be shown<br />
without a conjunction by simply placing the first<br />
element <strong>of</strong> the verb before the subject. For a<br />
simple condition, this is possible with the auxiliary<br />
verbs could and should and with were<br />
followed by a to-infinitive, as in could I see him,<br />
I would . . .; should he go, I would . . .; and<br />
were I to go, I would. . . . For a contrary to fact<br />
condition, this is possible with the auxiliary<br />
could have, the word had used in any manner,<br />
and were when it is not followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in had I gone, I would have . . .; could Z<br />
have gone, I would have . . .; and were I going,<br />
I would. . . .<br />
3. The subjunctive once had many other uses<br />
which are now expressed by the indicative, but<br />
which are similar to the uses <strong>of</strong> the subjunctive<br />
in some <strong>of</strong> the other European languages. Verbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> dreading and fearing still require a subjunctive<br />
when they are used with lest, a~ in each<br />
fearing lest the other suspect it. But this is now<br />
extremely literary. In ordinary speech we use<br />
that and an indicative, as in each fearing that<br />
the other suspects it. Formerly, the subjunctive<br />
was used to-express result, as die in he that<br />
smiteth a man so that he die. And well into this<br />
century a few Americans used the subjunctive<br />
in expressions <strong>of</strong> time, as fall in the tree will<br />
wither before it fall and send in I will wait till<br />
he send for me. Just before World War I, these<br />
forms had crossed the Atlantic and were appearing<br />
in British newspapers, to the great distress<br />
<strong>of</strong> educated Englishmen. They are now<br />
obsolete in this country as well as in England.<br />
But a form <strong>of</strong> the temporal subjunctive is still
sublime 486<br />
coming to us in British mystery stories, which<br />
are fond <strong>of</strong> such quaint expressions as two<br />
weeks come Michaelmas.<br />
USES OF THE AUXILIARIES<br />
The subjunctive auxiliaries are used to express<br />
obligation, uncertainty, unreality, and purpose.<br />
They are our only means <strong>of</strong> expressing<br />
obligation or <strong>of</strong> expressing uncertainty in the<br />
principal clause in a statement, as in I may be<br />
late. These uses depend entirely on the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the individual words and give no trouble<br />
grammatically.<br />
Certain other uses <strong>of</strong> the auxiliaries have<br />
already been discussed. To summarize: (1)<br />
Should is sometimes used in place <strong>of</strong> a present<br />
subjunctive. This is heard in England<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than in the United States. (2) Could<br />
and would may be used in conditional clauses<br />
as past-tense forms <strong>of</strong> can and will. (3) One <strong>of</strong><br />
the past-tense auxiliaries must be used in the<br />
conclusion when a past subjunctive form has<br />
been used in a conditional clause; and one <strong>of</strong><br />
these same auxiliaries followed by have is required<br />
when a past perfect tense is used in the<br />
condition.<br />
In the United States until very recently, a<br />
present subjunctive was used in subordinate<br />
clauses expressing doubt or uncertainty, as in<br />
I wonder whether it be wise and however hard<br />
he work. Previously, this subjunctive had included<br />
everything one was not absolutely certain<br />
about, as in I think the king be stirring. Today,<br />
we use an indicative unless we want to emphasize<br />
the doubt. And if we want to emphasize<br />
it, we use one <strong>of</strong> the auxiliaries, such as may be.<br />
The words could, would, and might, are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used with have to speak about what did not<br />
occur, as in you might have let us know. This<br />
is probably related to the use <strong>of</strong> these forms<br />
after a contrary-to-fact condition. That is, the<br />
form probably implies a conditional clause such<br />
as “if you had wanted to.” Could may be used<br />
with have in a conditional clause that is contrary<br />
to fact, as in if I could have found him, I would<br />
have told him. This construction cannot be used<br />
with any word except could. The similarity between<br />
if I could have found him, I would have<br />
. . . and if I had found him, I would have . . .<br />
leads some people to use have after had, a.s in<br />
if I had ‘ve seen him. This is generally condemned.<br />
In literary English the auxiliary had is<br />
never followed by have. One also hears would<br />
have in a contrary-to-fact condition, as in if you<br />
would have told me, I could have helped you.<br />
This too is generally condemned and the simple<br />
auxiliary had should be used, as in if you had<br />
told me. . . .<br />
Sometimes a verbal phrase <strong>of</strong> the kind just<br />
discussed is followed by an infinitive containing<br />
a second have, as in it would have been wiser<br />
to have left us and Rousseau would have been<br />
churmed to have seen me so occupied. These<br />
sentences could have read wiser to leave us and<br />
charmed to see me, and some grammarians<br />
claim that the second have is redundant and<br />
therefore improper. But this particular construc-<br />
tion containmg two have’s has been used by all<br />
the great writers <strong>of</strong> English from Malory to<br />
Chesterton. It is the standard, literary idiom<br />
whenever the phrase following to have can be<br />
replaced by a contrary-to-fact clause, such as<br />
if you had left us, if he had seen me. This is<br />
possible in the examples just given. It is not<br />
possible in Z would have been willing to have<br />
gone back, and sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind do not<br />
have the same standing. They are heard frequently<br />
and there is nothing wrong with them<br />
beyond being too wordy, but I would have been<br />
willing to go back is more literary.<br />
The present-tense auxiliaries will, may, can,<br />
and the past-tense forms would, might, could,<br />
are used in clauses <strong>of</strong> purpose. A present-tense<br />
auxiliary is required after a present-tense verb,<br />
and a past-tense auxiliary after a past-tense<br />
verb, as in he is saving his money so he can buy<br />
a car and he saved his money so he could buy<br />
a car. In the United Stata an infinitive construction<br />
is preferred to either <strong>of</strong> these clauses,<br />
as in he is saving (or saved) his money to buy<br />
a car.<br />
sublime; sublimated; subliminal. Sublime has general<br />
applications. Sublimated and subliminal<br />
have scientific applications only. Sublime means<br />
elevated or l<strong>of</strong>ty in thought, language (If any<br />
poem deserves to be called sublime, it is Paradise<br />
Lost); impressing the mind with a sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> grandeur or power, inspiring awe or veneration<br />
(Mont St. Michel is a sublime sight).<br />
It may also mean supreme or perfect (For a<br />
sublime moment, just before Diestl fired, Noah<br />
was happy ) .<br />
Sublimated, the past participle <strong>of</strong> sublimate,<br />
is a psychological term. It means to deflect<br />
sexual and other biological energies into nonphysical<br />
or more acceptable channels (Much <strong>of</strong><br />
his passion was sublimated into a desire to help<br />
the unfortunate). Subliminal is another psychological<br />
term. It means below the threshold <strong>of</strong><br />
consciousness (. . . the subliminal ego doubtless<br />
deals the cards, as the throng <strong>of</strong> sleeping images,<br />
at this call or that, move toward the light).<br />
submit may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb with the preposition to, as in he will not<br />
submit to being separated from her, or by an<br />
infinitive, as in people will not submit to have<br />
their throats cut. The -ing form is generally<br />
preferred.<br />
Although authorities in England consider<br />
such use obsolete, it is standard American usage<br />
to employ submit to mean to subject, especially<br />
oneself, to conditions imposed, to accept treatment<br />
(You must submit to the regime <strong>of</strong> the<br />
hospital. He submitted himself to the policeman’s<br />
suspicious scrutiny).<br />
subnormal. See abnormal.<br />
subordinate clauses. See clauses.<br />
subpoena. The plural is subpoenas, not subpoenae.<br />
sub rosa. Whether in Latin sub rosa or English<br />
under the rose, as a term for strict confidence,<br />
absolute privacy, complete secrecy, the expre.ssion<br />
is stale and a little forced.<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> explanations <strong>of</strong> its ori-
gin, <strong>of</strong> which the most widely accepted is that<br />
Cupid bribed Harpocrates (the god <strong>of</strong> silence)<br />
not to divulge the goings-on <strong>of</strong> Venus by giving<br />
him a rose, the first ever created. A rose was<br />
sometimes carved in the ceiling <strong>of</strong> medieval dining<br />
halls as a hint that that which was said under<br />
the influence <strong>of</strong> good cheer should not be repeated.<br />
aubsmiption. See superscription.<br />
subsequent and consequent bear a confusing relationship<br />
to one another. A subsequent event is<br />
not necessarily a consequent event, but a wnsequent<br />
event is always a subsequent event.<br />
Subsequent means simply coming later or after<br />
(Subsequent to his release from the Air Force<br />
he got a job with a commercial air line). ‘Consequent<br />
means following as an effect or resuIt,<br />
resulting (Consequent on his great reputation as<br />
a fZyer <strong>of</strong> military transport, he easily got a job<br />
as a pilot for a commercial freight air line).<br />
subsequent; subsequently. The form subsequent<br />
is an adjective and is used to qualify a noun, as<br />
in a subsequent investigation. The form subsequently<br />
is an adverb and is used to qualify<br />
any other part <strong>of</strong> speech, as in an investigation<br />
made subsequently. Eut subsequent to ma.y be<br />
used to introduce an adverbial phrase, as in<br />
subsequent to this, an investigation was made.<br />
subsist; exist. Though both <strong>of</strong> these words describe<br />
being, exist is the broader term. It means<br />
to have actual being, to be (Zt is hard to conceive<br />
<strong>of</strong> a time when the world did not exist).<br />
Subsist applies almost always to persons now,<br />
though it was formerly applied to other things.<br />
It means to continue alive (He subsisted on<br />
bread and water for three months).<br />
substautial; substantive. As adjectives these words<br />
are synonymous in the senses <strong>of</strong> belonging to<br />
the real nature or essential part <strong>of</strong> a thing, being<br />
real or actual, as opposed to the transitory or<br />
apparent. Each has, in addition, some exclusive<br />
senses. As a noun substantive may mean a noun<br />
or any other word functioning as a noun. Or as<br />
an adjective it may mean independent, not to<br />
be inferred but itself explicitly and formally<br />
expressed (The Queen, by a substantive enactment,<br />
declared her governorship <strong>of</strong> the Church).<br />
Substantial, as an adjective, has the exclusive<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> strong, stout, or solid (Zt was a<br />
good substantial rope and could be relied on),<br />
moderately wealthy or well-to-do (Substantial<br />
citizens did not look with favor upon these suggestions<br />
since they would necessarily mean an<br />
increase in taxes), real or true in the main, or<br />
<strong>of</strong> considerable amount (He found substantial<br />
happiness in work. There is a substantial pr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
to be made in these transactions but only if they<br />
are well managed), or vital, important (A substantial<br />
objection to the measure proposed is<br />
that it will <strong>of</strong>fend the local clergy).<br />
substantially. See essentially.<br />
substantive. This term is used by some grammarians<br />
to mean any word or group <strong>of</strong> words used<br />
as a noun.<br />
substitute and replace are not to be confused. Substitute<br />
means to put in the place <strong>of</strong> another.<br />
487 succinti<br />
Replace (aside from its meaning <strong>of</strong> putting back<br />
into a place formerly occupied) means to take<br />
the place <strong>of</strong> another (Jacob substituted Leah<br />
for Rachel. Rachel was replaced by Leah).<br />
subterfuge. See trick.<br />
subtract and deduct both express diminution, taking<br />
away in sum or quantity. Subtract applies<br />
primarily to numbers and means to withdraw<br />
or take away (After he subtracted fifty dollars<br />
for his room rent, he found that his pay would<br />
barely carry him through the month). To deduct<br />
is to take away an amount or quantity<br />
from an aggregate or total (Ten percent is<br />
deducted if one pays cash).<br />
subway. In the United States a subway is an electric<br />
railroad beneath the surface <strong>of</strong> the streets<br />
in a city (Every morning he took the subway<br />
from Columbus Circle to Times Square). In<br />
England the subway is called an underground<br />
railway or, more <strong>of</strong>ten, the underground, or,<br />
colloquially, the tube. Subway in England designates<br />
what Americans would call an underpass,<br />
an artificial underground way for pedestrians or<br />
vehicle traffic. See also underground.<br />
succeed may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb with the preposition in, as in he succeeded<br />
in finishing the work. It cannot be followed by<br />
an infinitive.<br />
succeed; follow. Although follow and succeed<br />
(in those <strong>of</strong> its meanings that are similar to the<br />
meanings <strong>of</strong> follow) both imply coming after<br />
something else in a natural sequence, they are<br />
not synonyms and cannot be used interchangeably.<br />
Follow is a more general term, meaning<br />
to move behind in the same direction (The sheep<br />
all followed the bellwether out <strong>of</strong> the pasture)<br />
or to come after in order <strong>of</strong> time (The sound<br />
<strong>of</strong> the explosion followed the flash <strong>of</strong> light<br />
almost immediately) or to wme after as a<br />
result or consequence (And it must follow, as<br />
the night the day,/ Thou canst not then be false<br />
to any man). Succeed may mean to follow or<br />
replace another by descent, election, or appointment<br />
(He succeeded his father to the baronetcy.<br />
President Eisenhower succeeded President Truman)<br />
or to come next after in an order or series<br />
and, having so come, to take the place <strong>of</strong> (He<br />
succeeded his father, the fifth earl).<br />
successfully; successively. Successfully means in<br />
the manner desired, attended with success (He<br />
landed his plane successfully in a pasture). Successively<br />
means following in order or in an<br />
uninterrupted course (Infuriated, he fought successively<br />
the ten biggest men in his company).<br />
successive. See consecutive.<br />
succinct; concise. Both <strong>of</strong> these words suggest<br />
brevity in statement or expression. Succinct<br />
means, literally, held up as by a girdle or band,<br />
hence compressed (A strict and succinct style<br />
is that where you can take away nothing without<br />
loss, and that loss to be manifest-Ben Jonson).<br />
A succinct manner <strong>of</strong> speaking, then, is<br />
one in which a great deal is conveyed in a few<br />
words. Concise refers to style, while succinct<br />
usually refers to matter. We speak <strong>of</strong> a succinct<br />
narrative and a concise phrase. Concise means
succor 488<br />
the expression <strong>of</strong> much in a few words. Its<br />
original meaning was to cut <strong>of</strong>f or to cut short.<br />
A concise style, as Ben Jonson said, is one which<br />
expresses not enough “but leaves something to<br />
be understood.” Thus a succinct style is one in<br />
which a great deal is pressed into a statement, a<br />
concise style is one in which everything except<br />
what is absolutely necessary has been eliminated.<br />
See also compendious; reticent.<br />
succor. See help.<br />
succubus. See incubus.<br />
such. Some grammarians list such as a demonstrative<br />
pronoun or adjective. Like the words<br />
this and that, its meaning ordinarily depends on<br />
something that has just been said or is about to<br />
be said. When this is not the case it is used as a<br />
blank, to represent some specific word or phrase<br />
that is not being provided, as in the record<br />
shows that on such a date he left early.<br />
The adjective such may qualify a mass noun,<br />
as in such knowledge, or a plural, as in such<br />
men. To qualify a true singular we use the<br />
phrase such a, as in such a man. The fact that<br />
such regularly stands before a rather than after<br />
it has led some grammarians to class such as an<br />
adverb. But it is better to consider this simply<br />
an idiom. It has been in use for more than seven<br />
hundred years and has now completely replaced<br />
the normal form seen in to lead such dire attack.<br />
But this does not apply following the word no.<br />
No such thing, for example, is standard English<br />
and no such a thing is questionable.<br />
Such or such a may be used as a pure intensive,<br />
as in such beautiful weather, such a terrible<br />
storm. Some grammarians object to this on the<br />
grounds that such is here being treated as an<br />
adverb. But a great many adjective forms are<br />
used as intensives and this use <strong>of</strong> such is established<br />
in literature and accepted by well educated<br />
people today. See adjectives as adverbs.<br />
Such is used as a pronoun, or without a following<br />
noun, in literary English. But in speech<br />
there is a strong tendency to replace such with<br />
one, or it, or some other word. One would probably<br />
be substituted for such in he is a friend<br />
and I treat him as such; and it in the grounds for<br />
such being established; this in such was not the<br />
decision; and those who in such as need our<br />
help. Such a one seems to be acceptable when<br />
there is a preceding noun to which it can refer,<br />
as in I have had good teachers, but never such<br />
a one as you describe. When used without a preceding<br />
noun and referring to a human being, it<br />
is usually replaced by some one.<br />
Such can always be followed by as introducing<br />
an explanatory or defining clause, as in<br />
such as know what they want. Formerly it could<br />
be followed by as introducing a clause <strong>of</strong> result,<br />
as in with such violence and speed as nothing<br />
was able to sustain its force. This construction<br />
is no longer standard. In current English that is<br />
required before a clause <strong>of</strong> this kind, and an<br />
infinitive must be used after such as to express<br />
result, as in don’t be such a fool as to refuse.<br />
A cardinal number precedes the word such, a~<br />
in <strong>of</strong> two such lessons When not qualifying a<br />
noun, such may be preceded by none, as in none<br />
such can have been made for hundreds <strong>of</strong> years.<br />
The phrase none such has the force <strong>of</strong> “none<br />
like that” or “none <strong>of</strong> that kind,” and is literary<br />
English. The form no such is now used only as<br />
an adjective before a noun, as in no such nonsense.<br />
such stuff as dreams are made on is the correct<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the quotation (We are such stuff/ As<br />
dreams are made on, and our little life/ Is<br />
rounded with a sleep-The Tempest, Act IV,<br />
Scene 1 ), but since on here means <strong>of</strong>, it is<br />
pedantic to correct those who speak it in the<br />
modern version-we are such stuf7 as dreams<br />
are made <strong>of</strong>. Detached from the full quotation,<br />
the phrase by itself is a cliche.<br />
suds may be treated as a singular or as a plural.<br />
We may say this suds is better than that or these<br />
suds are better than those. But it is a mass word<br />
and not a true plural. We may say much suds or<br />
a great deal <strong>of</strong> suds but not many suds or several<br />
suds. There is no singular form a sud.<br />
suffer. When this word means “allow” it may be<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in suffer the little<br />
children to come unto me, but not by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb. When the word means “experience<br />
pain” it may be followed by the -ing form<br />
with the preposition from, as in I suffer from<br />
knowing it, or by an infinitive, as in I suffer to<br />
think <strong>of</strong> it. See also sustain.<br />
suffer fools gladly. Usually employed in any one<br />
<strong>of</strong> several negative forms (not lo suffer fools<br />
gladly, one who doesn’t suffer fools gladly, etc.)<br />
as an expression to describe one who is markedly<br />
impatient with the stupid, the phrase (a<br />
quotation from II Corinthians 11: 19) is now<br />
hackneyed.<br />
suffering; sufferance. Suflering is the act <strong>of</strong> one<br />
who suffers or a particular instance <strong>of</strong> that act.<br />
Sufferance now means tolerance <strong>of</strong> a person<br />
or thing, a tacit allowance but no more. It is<br />
most commonly used in the phrase on suflerante<br />
(He stayed in college only on sufferance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the dean). It conveys the sense <strong>of</strong> passive<br />
permission, permission in default <strong>of</strong> strong<br />
objection.<br />
sufficient; enough. Either <strong>of</strong> these adjectives can<br />
be used in most contexts, but not both. Suficient<br />
enough is redundant. Both mean adequate<br />
for the want or need, though enough is more<br />
commonly used. Suficient is <strong>of</strong>ten felt to be a<br />
little more elegant. See also ample.<br />
sufficiently may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
suficiently large to satisfy us. It is sometimes<br />
used with a clause, as in su#iciently large that we<br />
were satisfied, but this is not standard English.<br />
suffixes are usually joined to the preceding word<br />
without a hyphen, as clockwise, manhood, stainless,<br />
spoonful. But there are a few exceptions.<br />
1. Elect, odd, wide, when used as suffixes, are<br />
usually hyphenated, as in president-elect, fortyodd,<br />
nation-wide.<br />
2. Fold is joined without a hyphen to words<br />
<strong>of</strong> one syllable; otherwise it is written as a separate<br />
word, as in tenfold, twenty fold. (Some<br />
publishers join fold to any single word and print<br />
it separately with compound numbers, as in<br />
twentyfold and twenty-fwo fold.)
3. Like is joined directly to one syllable words<br />
that do not end in 1: otherwise it is hyphenated,<br />
as in childlike, eel-like, business-like. (Some<br />
publishers use a hyphen only to prevent a triple<br />
1, and write: eellike, businesslike, but bell-like.)<br />
suRragette; suffragist. Sugragetfe is a colloquialism<br />
to describe a female supporter, usually Imiltant,<br />
<strong>of</strong> a vote for women. A suflrugist is one<br />
who advocates the grant or extension <strong>of</strong> political<br />
suffrage, especially to women. Since women<br />
have been granted the suffrage in most Englishspeaking<br />
countries, both words have fallen into<br />
disuse and suffragette has become definitel!y a<br />
historical term. Those who today advocate the<br />
granting <strong>of</strong> further rights or privileges to women<br />
are usually called feminists.<br />
suggested; suggestive. Suggested is a neutral word,<br />
meaning placed or brought to mind for consideration<br />
or possible action (The sugge,sted<br />
topic involved work in the local library). !iuggestive<br />
primarily means that suggests or tends<br />
to suggest thoughts or ideas (He made a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> suggestive comments on the essay I had<br />
summarized). In common parlance suggestive<br />
is usually employed in its secondary mean.mg:<br />
such as to suggest something improper or indecent<br />
(He was the sort <strong>of</strong> man who could<br />
make “Hello” sound suggestive).<br />
suit and suite have a common French derivation.<br />
Suit is used in most senses. It may mean a. set<br />
<strong>of</strong> garments intended to be worn together; the<br />
act or process <strong>of</strong> suing in a court <strong>of</strong> law; in<br />
cards, one <strong>of</strong> the four sets or classes into which<br />
playing cards are divided; the wooing or courting<br />
<strong>of</strong> a woman, a solicitation in marriage; a<br />
petition, as to an exalted person (Your majesty,<br />
hear my suit).<br />
Suite means a company <strong>of</strong> followers or attendants,<br />
a retinue; a connected series <strong>of</strong> rooms<br />
to be used together by one person or a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> persons (The General had a suite at the<br />
Waldorf Towers). In music suite means an ordered<br />
series <strong>of</strong> instrumental dances, in the same<br />
or related keys, commonly preceded by a prelude<br />
(Grieg’s Peer Gynt Suite was one <strong>of</strong> his<br />
favorite musical compositions). When it means<br />
a set <strong>of</strong> furniture, suite is <strong>of</strong>ten pronounced the<br />
same as suit. Of late there has been a marked<br />
and sensible tendency to use the word sei instead.<br />
suitable. See adapted.<br />
sulfureous, sulfuric, and sulfurous all refer to sulfur<br />
in somewhat distinct terms. Sulfureous<br />
means consisting <strong>of</strong>, containing, pertaining to,<br />
or resembling sulfur. Sulfuric is a more specialized<br />
term. It means <strong>of</strong>, pertaining to or containing<br />
sulfur, especially in the hexavalent stage.<br />
Sulfurous has also specialized meanings. It<br />
means relating to sulfur, but it also means Ihaving<br />
the yellow color <strong>of</strong> sulfur or containing<br />
tetravalent sulfur.<br />
solphor and molasses; brimstone and treacle. The<br />
medicinal dose sulphur and molasses (also<br />
spelled sulfur and molasses) which was forced<br />
down our retching grandfathers in their youth<br />
as a spring tonic is known in England as brimstone<br />
and treacle or brimstone and mola,wes.<br />
Dickens uses both forms in Oliver Twist. The<br />
term lingers on (“Bilious.” they said and dosed<br />
him wit% sulphur and molasses . . .-Maude<br />
Hutchins, The Memoirs <strong>of</strong> Maisie, 1955) but<br />
it is confined to social history and to those who<br />
wish to seem unusually old-fashioned and rustic.<br />
rmmmary. See outline.<br />
summit. See top.<br />
summon; summons. Summon is the verb. It means<br />
to call as with authority to some duty (He was<br />
summoned by the President for consultation on<br />
trade agreements), to call together (The legislature<br />
was summoned on the second Tuesday <strong>of</strong><br />
the month), to call into action or arouse (He<br />
summoned his courage, leaped out <strong>of</strong> his foxhole,<br />
and sprinted for the bridge). Either summon<br />
or summons may be used as the verb meaning<br />
to serve with a legal summons.<br />
Summons is the noun form. It is singular and<br />
is always used with a singular verb, as in the<br />
summons was delivered. It has a regular plural<br />
summonses. Summons may mean an authoritative<br />
command or a call to do something. In law<br />
it may mean a call or citation by authority to<br />
appear before a court or a judicial <strong>of</strong>ficer or the<br />
writ by which such a call is made (The summons<br />
was served by a grinning bailiff). It may<br />
also mean an authoritative call or notice to<br />
appear at a specified place, as for a particular<br />
purpose or duty, or a call issued for the meeting<br />
<strong>of</strong> parliament or an assembly.<br />
sumptuous; sumptuary. Sumptuous means costly<br />
and hence splendid and magnificent (This sumptuous<br />
way <strong>of</strong> living made him greatly admired<br />
and envied for a short while but soon brought<br />
him to ruin). The expression sumptuous repast<br />
for an excellent or unusually costly meal is a<br />
clicht.<br />
Sumptuary, a related but less common word,<br />
means pertaining to or dealing with expenses<br />
and especially the regulation <strong>of</strong> expenditure. In<br />
former times when differences in social position<br />
were not only recognized in law but regarded as<br />
the very basis <strong>of</strong> a wholesome commonweal,<br />
most countries had laws governing the style and<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> clothing proper for each estate and<br />
these laws were known as sumptuary laws<br />
(Elizabethan sumptuary laws forbade the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> velvet, save as mere trimming, to women <strong>of</strong><br />
less than noble rank, and the use <strong>of</strong> silk altogether<br />
to men and women <strong>of</strong> no higher status<br />
than middle class. The Romans regulated the<br />
dress <strong>of</strong> each class and each age with the utmost<br />
precision by the enforcement <strong>of</strong> the strictest<br />
sumptuary laws).<br />
sums is a colloquial British term for school arithmetic<br />
(They haven’t reached sums yet, ma’am.<br />
They don’t start them till standard two. Have<br />
you done your sums today, Harry? They’re very<br />
hard). It was formerly used in America, in and<br />
out <strong>of</strong> school, for an arithmetical problem to be<br />
solved, or such a problem worked out and having<br />
the various steps shown, but has fallen<br />
largely into disuse.<br />
Sunday. See Sabbath.<br />
sondry. See few.<br />
sung. see sing.
sunk 490<br />
mmk; sunken. See sink.<br />
sonlight; sunshine. Sunlight means simply the<br />
light <strong>of</strong> the sun (They have sunlight there only<br />
half the year). Sunshine is used in a number <strong>of</strong><br />
senses. It may describe the shining <strong>of</strong> the sun,<br />
its direct light, or a place where its direct rays<br />
fall (They lie in the sunshine for hours, getting<br />
a tan). Sunshine is also used figuratively to<br />
describe brightness or radiance, cheerfulness,<br />
happiness (the sunshine <strong>of</strong> your smile) or a<br />
source <strong>of</strong> cheer or happiness (You are my sunshine).<br />
sunshade. See parasol.<br />
super-. It is an interesting reflection on our democratic<br />
and mass-produced times that the prefix<br />
super-, especially in America, should be so unreservedly<br />
a term <strong>of</strong> commendation. Anything<br />
which is above the ordinary or is excessive is,<br />
apparently, admirable. We have supermarkets<br />
and superhighways and superservice stations<br />
and, colloquially and among college humorists,<br />
the prefix itself, unprefixed to anything (Boy,<br />
that was super!), is the height <strong>of</strong> praise. It was<br />
not always so. Time was that men disliked the<br />
excessive. In many older words (supercilious,<br />
supererogate, superannuated) the prefix suggests<br />
something unpleasant and undesirable. The<br />
furious Kent when upbraiding the contemptible<br />
Oswald (King Lear, Act II, Scene ii, line 19)<br />
can think <strong>of</strong> nothing more despicable to call<br />
him than superserviceable. Oswald would be<br />
rather pleased today.<br />
superfluous. See redundant.<br />
superhuman effort. As a hyperbole for an extraordinary<br />
exertion, a superhuman effort is a<br />
clich6.<br />
superincumbent. See recumbent.<br />
superlative degree. See comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
and adverbs.<br />
superlative; excellent. Superlative means <strong>of</strong> the<br />
highest kind or order, surpassing all others,<br />
supreme. It should refer to qualities (He played<br />
tennis with superlative skill), while excellent,<br />
which means possessing excellent or superior<br />
merit, remarkably good, should refer to persons<br />
and things (He is an excellent tennis player and<br />
is justified in insisting on excellent equipment).<br />
supernatural. See unnatural.<br />
supernormal. See abnormal.<br />
superscription; subscription; signature. A superscription<br />
is the act <strong>of</strong> superscribing (writing<br />
above or on top <strong>of</strong> something) or that which is<br />
superscribed, such as an address on a letter, or<br />
the like. Authorities in England say that superscription<br />
applies only to a heading <strong>of</strong> a letter,<br />
but American authorities will also allow it as<br />
the address on the envelope. Subscription (writing<br />
under) means the writing <strong>of</strong> one’s name<br />
under a document or statement as an indication<br />
that the sentiments expressed have the writer’s<br />
approval or that he agrees to be bound by terms<br />
set forth. By extension subscription has come<br />
to mean a sum <strong>of</strong> money, the payment <strong>of</strong> which<br />
is guaranteed by signing one’s name under a<br />
statement or agreement. Subscription is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
used as a synonym for signature, though sig-<br />
nature is the better word in this sense, since It is<br />
unequivocal. Subscription also means assent,<br />
agreement, or approval, expressed by, or as by,<br />
signing one’s name. See also signature; autograph.<br />
supersede; surpass. These words are not interchangeable.<br />
Supersede means to replace, in<br />
power, authority, effectiveness, acceptance, or<br />
use (The electric refrigerator has superseded<br />
the icebox). Surpass means to go beyond in<br />
excellence or achievement, to outdo (His work<br />
surpassed that <strong>of</strong> all his rivals).<br />
supine (noun). Some grammarians call an infmitive<br />
with to, such as to tulk, a supine. In this<br />
book an infinitive with to is called simply an<br />
infinitive, and a true infinitive, such as walk, is<br />
called the simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb. See simple<br />
verb form.<br />
supine (adjective). See prone.<br />
supplant. See replace.<br />
supple and subtle are not to be confused. A supple<br />
mind is an agile mind, a mind which readily<br />
adapts itself. A subtle mind is one characterized<br />
by acuteness or penetration, or one which is<br />
skillful, clever, or ingenious, especially in perceiving<br />
fine but significant distinctions.<br />
supplement and complement both indicate an addition<br />
to something. To complement is to provide<br />
something felt to be lacking or needed. It is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten applied to putting together two things,<br />
each <strong>of</strong> which supplies what is lacking in the<br />
other, to make a complete whole (They complement<br />
one another as doubles players: Joe is<br />
excellent at the net, Tom on the base line).<br />
Things that so fit together, each supplying a lack<br />
in the other, are called complements and are<br />
said to be complementary or complementary to<br />
each other. Supplement means to add to. No<br />
lack or deficiency is necessarily implied, nor is<br />
there an idea <strong>of</strong> a definite relation (In season<br />
he supplemented his diet with fresh fruit but<br />
otherwise mode little change in his austere<br />
regime).<br />
rmpplementary; complementary; additional. These<br />
words all imply increase in number or quantity.<br />
Complementary suggests an essential increase<br />
required to make something complete (His writing<br />
was complementary to his teaching; his<br />
articles on education gained him an enviable<br />
reputation nnd his reputation procured him a<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essorship). Supplemen:ary emphasizes not<br />
so much essential increase as the addition <strong>of</strong><br />
something which was previously lacking (The<br />
money earned from his writings was supplementary<br />
to his salary as a teacher; it enabled him to<br />
enjoy many comforts and luxuries which he<br />
otherwise would not have been able to afford)<br />
Additional means simply added (Every month.<br />
every day indeed, produces its own novelties,<br />
with the additional zest that they ure novelties),<br />
It is the least restrictive <strong>of</strong> the three adjectives.<br />
supplied. See issued.<br />
supporter. See proponent.<br />
suppose may be followed by an infinitive, as in<br />
he supposed me to know all about it, or by a<br />
clause, as in he supposed I knew all about il.
The clause is generally preferred. See imagine;<br />
think wspect.<br />
wpposedly and presumably carry different meanings.<br />
Supposedly means assumed as true, yet<br />
perhaps erroneously so (He is supposedly in<br />
London, but then you know how unrer’iable<br />
these rumors are). Presumably means probably,<br />
capable <strong>of</strong> being taken for granted (Presumably<br />
he knows what he’s talking about. He’s regarded<br />
as the best guide in these parts).<br />
suppositional; suppositious; supposititious. Suppositional<br />
has practically crowded out supposirious<br />
to convey the idea <strong>of</strong> supposed, hypothetical,<br />
conjectural (Men and angels have a<br />
certain knowledge <strong>of</strong> future things; but it is not<br />
absolute, but only suppositional). Supposititious<br />
means put by artifice in the place <strong>of</strong> another,<br />
counterfeit, spurious. A supposililious child<br />
(Queen Philippa . . . upon her deathbed . . .<br />
told Wickham that John <strong>of</strong> Gaunt was not the<br />
lawful issue <strong>of</strong> King Edward, but a suppositifious<br />
son) is not an illegitimate child, or at<br />
least not merely an illegitimate child, but one<br />
by artifice put in the place <strong>of</strong> or assuming the<br />
character <strong>of</strong> another. Thus when the notorious<br />
impostor Arthur Orton convinced Hetietta,<br />
Lady Tichborne, that he was really her son<br />
Roger, supposedly lost at sea <strong>of</strong>f Rio de Janeiro,<br />
he became her supposititious son but certainly<br />
not her illegitimate son.<br />
srrpranatural. See unnatural.<br />
surcease, meaning, as verb and noun, stop, end, is<br />
archaic (If the assassination/ Could trammel up<br />
the consequence, and catch/ With his surcease<br />
success-Macbeth, Act I, Scene 7). It survives<br />
only in poetry. Its use in prose or everyday<br />
speech would seem bookish and affected.<br />
mre; surely. In current English sure is used as an<br />
adjective to qualify a noun, as in this is a sure<br />
sign, and surely as an adverb to qualify any<br />
other kind <strong>of</strong> word, as in this is surely a sign.<br />
Formerly sure could also be used as an adverb,<br />
as in he is sure a prince <strong>of</strong> royal courage. In<br />
‘The Raven,” Poe uses both forms as adverbs.<br />
He fust writes: “Surely,” said I, “surely that is<br />
something al my window” and then a little later:<br />
“Though thy crest be shorn and shaven, thou,”<br />
I said, “art sure no craven.” Since then, everybody<br />
who ever went to school has learned that<br />
sure is an adjective and not an adverb, and to<br />
use it as an adverb now is to be lacking in a<br />
decent respect for the opinions <strong>of</strong> mankind.<br />
There is one exception. Sure may still be used<br />
as an adverb in the phrase sure enough, ZLS in<br />
and sure enough, the palms are there. Sure good<br />
is not in a class with real good or even right<br />
good. It is, in fact, in a class with this here man.<br />
When sure is followed by <strong>of</strong> and the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb, it means that the person spoken<br />
about feels sure, as in he is sure <strong>of</strong> winning.<br />
When it is followed by an infinitive, it means<br />
that everybody else can feel sure, as in he is<br />
sure to win.<br />
surmise. See guess; suspect.<br />
surplice; surplus. A surplice is a garment. A surplus<br />
is an amount. Surplice describes a Ioose-<br />
491 suspect<br />
fitting, broadsleeved, white vestment, properly<br />
<strong>of</strong> linen, worn over the cassock by clergymen<br />
and choristers; a garment in which the fronts<br />
cross each other diagonally. Surplus, in accounting<br />
terms, is the excess <strong>of</strong> assets over liabilities<br />
accumulated throughout the existence <strong>of</strong> a business,<br />
excepting assets against which stock certificates<br />
have been issued; or an amount <strong>of</strong> assets<br />
in excess <strong>of</strong> what is requisite to meet liabilities.<br />
In general, common usage, surplus designates<br />
anything which remains above what is used or<br />
needed.<br />
surprise. See amaze.<br />
surrender; capitulate. Surrender is the general<br />
word. It means to yield or give up and may be<br />
used transitively or intransitively. It may describe<br />
the end <strong>of</strong> physical resistance, as in<br />
military combat, or it may be applied more generally.<br />
One surrenders an insurance policy for a<br />
consideration, the amount receivable (surrender<br />
value) depending on the number <strong>of</strong> years<br />
elapsed from the commencement <strong>of</strong> the risk.<br />
One surrenders an <strong>of</strong>fice or a privilege. One<br />
surrenders hope, comfort, or other pleasurable<br />
emotions.<br />
To cap&late was, originally, to draw up a<br />
writing under chapter headings or articles;<br />
hence to draw up the terms <strong>of</strong> an agreement.<br />
The haughty Coriolanus, in Shakespeare’s play,<br />
could not bring himself to capitulate “with<br />
Rome’s mechanics;” that is, he could not bring<br />
himself, as a candidate for <strong>of</strong>fice, to discuss<br />
under specific headings, his qualifications and<br />
obligations with common working men. The detailed<br />
items considered in a capitulation today<br />
are the terms <strong>of</strong> a military surrender, but they<br />
formerly could have been terms <strong>of</strong> federation<br />
(The archbishou’s Grace <strong>of</strong> York, Dounlas.<br />
&orlimer,/ Capitulate against us-l- HenryIV;<br />
Act III, Scene 2). Today the word means to<br />
surrender, sometimes on stipulated terms but<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten unconditionally (I am ashamed fo<br />
think how easily we capitulate to badges and<br />
names, to large societies and dead institutions.<br />
On learning that enemy reinforcements were approaching,<br />
the garrison capitulated. I must be<br />
conquered; I will not capitulate).<br />
surroundings. In speaking <strong>of</strong> what physically surrounds<br />
something, the plural form surroundings<br />
is used, and is treated as a plural, as in the surroundings<br />
are pleasant. A singular form surrounding<br />
is sometimes used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
human beings, as in a surrounding <strong>of</strong> friends,<br />
but this construction is rare. The word cannot<br />
be used with a numeral in either sense.<br />
susceptible. See sensitive.<br />
suspect. This verb may be followed by an in&itive,<br />
as in I suspect him to have done it, or by<br />
a clause, as in I suspect he did it. The clause is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
suspect; surmise; suppr’se; suspicion. All <strong>of</strong> these<br />
verbs apply to assumptions. Suspect has a derogatory<br />
sense. It means to imagine to be guilty,<br />
false, counterfeit, undesirable, defective, bad,<br />
with insufficient pro<strong>of</strong> or no pro<strong>of</strong> at all (They<br />
suspected him <strong>of</strong> cheating at cards, but there
suspenders 492<br />
was nothing to justify an open accusation).<br />
Surmise has no such sinister overtones. It simply<br />
means to think or infer without certain or strong<br />
evidence, to conjecture or guess (I surmised that<br />
you were his son from your striking resemblance<br />
to him. Or perhaps we are only surmising/<br />
Just like all other love-dreamers do). Though<br />
suspect may mean surmise, the latter, since it is<br />
unambiguous, is preferable where there is no<br />
derogation intended.<br />
Suppose means to assume, without reference<br />
to its being true or false, for the sake <strong>of</strong> argument<br />
or for the purpose <strong>of</strong> tracing the consequences<br />
(All right, suppose we do give him the<br />
money? What will happen then?), to infer hypothetically.<br />
To suppose is not merely to imagine,<br />
for many things may be supposed (in mathematics<br />
and abstract thought) which cannot be<br />
imagined. Imagining is the mere imaging forth;<br />
supposing is setting up a proposition in order to<br />
trace its consequences.<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> suspicion as a verb (as in I suspicioned<br />
he wasn’t a real doctor from the very<br />
beginning) is not standard and is <strong>of</strong>ten regarded<br />
as an indication <strong>of</strong> illiteracy.<br />
aospenders. A suspender is one <strong>of</strong> a pair <strong>of</strong> straps<br />
used to hold up the trousers. Unlike most words<br />
that refer to one object that has two parts, such<br />
as breeches and scissors, suspenders is a regular<br />
English plural, and means more than one suspender.<br />
The singular form suspender is always<br />
used as the first element in a compound, as in<br />
a suspender buckle.<br />
The American dialectal word for suspenders<br />
is galluses. The English call them braces. What<br />
the English call suspenders, attachments to the<br />
top <strong>of</strong> stockings or socks to hold them in place,<br />
Americans call garters. A garter in this sense in<br />
English usage, when used at all, means strictly<br />
a band that passes around the leg. When capitalized,<br />
in England, it means the Order <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Garter, the highest order <strong>of</strong> knighthood.<br />
suspension; suspense. Both <strong>of</strong> these words derive<br />
from a Latin word which means to hang up<br />
between two points.<br />
Suspension may be used literally with reference<br />
to physics where it may describe the state<br />
<strong>of</strong> something hanging from two points or the<br />
state in which particles <strong>of</strong> a solid are mixed with<br />
a fluid but undissolved. In physical chemistry<br />
it means a system consisting <strong>of</strong> small particles<br />
kept dispersed by agitation (in mechanical suspension)<br />
or by the molecular motion in the<br />
surrounding medium (in colloidal suspension).<br />
In automobiles it means the arrangement <strong>of</strong><br />
springs, shock absorbers, hangers, etc., in automobiles<br />
and railroad cars, connecting the wheel<br />
suspension units or axles to the chassis frame.<br />
In electricity it means a wire or filament by<br />
which the moving part <strong>of</strong> an instrument or<br />
device is suspended; and in music, the prolongation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a tone in one chord into the following<br />
chord, usually producing a temporary dissonance.<br />
The most common uses <strong>of</strong> suspension, however,<br />
are figurative, with reference to the mind,<br />
to describe a state <strong>of</strong> being suspended in judgment,<br />
or held in equipoise between conclusions<br />
and certainties, being held in doubt (Until we<br />
have conclusive evidence, suspension <strong>of</strong> judgment<br />
is the only honorable course). Suspension<br />
may also mean interruption, cessation or stopping<br />
for a time (a suspension <strong>of</strong> further payments<br />
pending the investigation).<br />
Suspense is used exclusively in figurative<br />
senses. It means a state <strong>of</strong> mental uncertainty,<br />
as in awaiting a decision or outcome, usually<br />
with more or less apprehension or anxiety (Between<br />
the sound <strong>of</strong> the air raid siren and the<br />
explosion <strong>of</strong> the first bomb we waited in suspense.<br />
This suspense is killing me. I wish they’d<br />
do one thing or the other!); a state <strong>of</strong> mental<br />
indecision (He was in suspense as to the right<br />
course to follow) ; or undecided or doubtful condition,<br />
as <strong>of</strong> affairs (For a few hours after the<br />
landing matters were in suspense).<br />
sustain; suffer. Sustain means to hold or bear up<br />
from beneath, to be the support <strong>of</strong> (Doric columns<br />
sustained the ro<strong>of</strong>), to hold suspended or<br />
to keep from sinking into despair (The rope<br />
sustained a greater weight than one would have<br />
thought it capable <strong>of</strong> bearing. These hopes sustain<br />
us), to maintain, keep up, nourish (This is<br />
insuficient to sustain life in so cold a climate.<br />
Foraging sustained the army throughout the<br />
summer). It also means to bear, to endure without<br />
giving way or yielding (He cannot hope to<br />
sustain the comparison which he has invited.<br />
To sustain one’s dignity in the face <strong>of</strong> scorn is<br />
difficult).<br />
Sustain has been taken up by journalists, especially<br />
in reference to injury, loss, or other<br />
unpleasant experiences (The injury to his arm<br />
which Ruth sustained.. . The army sustained<br />
a heavy defeat). In such contexts suffer is more<br />
precise. Indeed, it is insisted on by English grammarians,<br />
recommended by American grammarians.<br />
swallow a camel. See strain at a goat.<br />
swam. See swim.<br />
swan song is a hackneyed term for a last outburst<br />
<strong>of</strong> energy, especially when it expresses itself in<br />
rhetoric or poetry and produces something better<br />
than anything the individual has done before.<br />
It is based on the ancient-and fabulous- belief<br />
that just before its death the swan, unable<br />
all its life to sing, utters one melodious song.<br />
swang. See swing.<br />
swear. The past tense is swore. The participle is<br />
sworn. A past tense sware was once literary<br />
English but is no longer heard. A participle<br />
swore, as in he has swore, is heard but is considered<br />
illiterate.<br />
swearing. See blasphemy.<br />
swear like a trooper. The soldier, the fourth <strong>of</strong><br />
Shakespeare’s seven ages <strong>of</strong> man, is “Full <strong>of</strong><br />
strange oaths and bearded like the pard” (As<br />
You Like It, Act II, Scene 7). Soldiers seem at<br />
all times to have been proverbial for their prcr<br />
fanity, but they are not alone: one who swears<br />
excessively or with unusual vigor or imaginative<br />
blasphemy has been said, at different times, to
swear like a tinker, a ruffian, an abbot, a gentleman,<br />
and a lord. In the eighteenth century the<br />
English milord was so famed throughout<br />
Europe for his pr<strong>of</strong>anity that he was known as<br />
n goddam. There must have been more to it,<br />
however, than this one expletive. “A footman,”<br />
Swift said, “may swear, but he cannot swear<br />
like a lord. He may swear as <strong>of</strong>ten, but can he<br />
swear with equal delicacy, propriety and judgment?”<br />
A trooper’s swearing was, presumably,<br />
more marked by vigor than by delicacy, propriety,<br />
or judgment. The phrase to swear like<br />
a trooper is now a cliche.<br />
sweat. The past tense is sweat or sweated. The<br />
participle is also sweat or sweated. In the United<br />
States sweat is the preferred form for the past<br />
tense and the participle, as in he sweat during<br />
the night and he has sweat a great deal. This<br />
is no longer heard in Great Britain, where they<br />
would say he sweated during the night. In ‘both<br />
Great Britain and the United States, sweated<br />
is the required form when the verb means<br />
“caused to sweat,” as in the doctor sweated him<br />
and sweated labor. Sweated is also the preferred<br />
form for the past tense or participle in the expression<br />
sweat it out, meaning “pass through a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> anxiety.”<br />
Some people feel that sweat is not a delicate<br />
word to use in its literal sense when speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> people, but they have no objection to its<br />
being used figuratively <strong>of</strong> people or literally <strong>of</strong><br />
things. That is, ladies who insist that human<br />
beings merely “perspire,” do not hesitate to say<br />
they made him sweat for it and the walls are<br />
sweating. See also perspire.<br />
sweat <strong>of</strong> one’s brow. Those who speak <strong>of</strong> earning<br />
(or, better still, <strong>of</strong> others earning) their<br />
bread by the sweat <strong>of</strong> their brow usually speak<br />
the phrase with a solemnity that implies they<br />
are under the impression that they are quoting<br />
Holy Writ. They are misquoting it. Genesis 3 : 19<br />
reads: In the sweat <strong>of</strong> thy face shalt thou eat<br />
bread.<br />
sweep. The past tense is swept. The participle is<br />
also swept.<br />
sweeping statement. As a term, with connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> mild disapproval, for an unjustified generalization,<br />
a sweeping statement is hackneyed. A<br />
sweeping statement differs from a glittering<br />
generality in that it is more dogmatic and<br />
aggressive and argumentative, less rhetorical.<br />
sweepstakes has a singular form sweepstake but<br />
it is seldom used in the United States. Instead,<br />
the plural sweepstakes is used as both a singular<br />
and a plural, as in he won a sweepstakes and<br />
he won three sweepstakes. But the singular form<br />
is still preferred as the first element in a compound,<br />
as in a sweepstake ticket.<br />
sweets. See candy.<br />
swell. The past tense is swelled. The participle is<br />
swelled or swollen. In the United States swelled<br />
is preferred to swollen when used in a verb<br />
form, as in the wood had swelled, but the wood<br />
had swollen is also acceptable. In Great Britain<br />
swollen is used in this way more <strong>of</strong>ten than it<br />
is in the United States. In both countries swollen<br />
493 switch<br />
is the preferred form after a form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
be or immediately before a noun, as in rhe wood<br />
was swollen and a swollen river.<br />
swept. See sweep.<br />
swerve. See deviate.<br />
swift; swiftly. The form swift may be used as an<br />
adjective, as in his terrible swift sword. Either<br />
form may be used as an adverb, as in Nor half<br />
so swift the trembling doves can fly . . . Not<br />
half so swiftly the fierce eagle moves.<br />
swim. The past tense is swum. The participle is<br />
swum. A past tense swum, as in he swum the<br />
river, and a participle swam, as in he had swam<br />
it before were both literary English a few generations<br />
ago, but they are no longer standard.<br />
As a rule, the causative form <strong>of</strong> an irregular<br />
verb, meaning “make to do,” is regular, as is<br />
the case with shone and shined, sped and<br />
speeded. But this is not true here. We say he<br />
swam his horse across the river, and not he<br />
swimmed it.<br />
swine. The plural is swine. This is a purely literary<br />
word. We may speak <strong>of</strong> a fewel in a swine’s<br />
snout or <strong>of</strong> casting pearls before swine, but the<br />
animals in the barnyard are hogs. Swine is used<br />
in England, both as a singular and a plural, as<br />
a term <strong>of</strong> strong contempt and moral disappre<br />
bation. It is much stronger than the American<br />
hog. See also pig; hog.<br />
swing. The past tense is swung. The participle is<br />
also swung. A past tense swang, as in they<br />
swang their partners, was once literary English<br />
but is now archaic or dialectal.<br />
Swiss. The singular and the plural are both Swiss.<br />
This word once had a distinct plural, as seen<br />
in those Swisses fight on any side for pay.<br />
This became obsolete about 1800 and Swiss is<br />
now the standard form for both singular and<br />
plural, as in one Swiss and three Swiss. But<br />
many people feel that Swiss is plural only.<br />
They hesitate to say a Swiss and prefer (I<br />
Switzer. Both forms are acceptable. In England<br />
Switzer is considered archaic, but it is in general<br />
use and thoroughly established in the<br />
United States.<br />
switch is a word which serves more purposes in<br />
America than in England. In railroad terminology,<br />
the movable rails which shift cars and<br />
trains from one track to another, known in<br />
America as switches, are known in England as<br />
points. As a verb, switch, in American railroad<br />
usage, means to shift or transfer a train or car,<br />
especially in a yard or terminal, or to drop or<br />
add cars or to make up a train. The equivalent<br />
English verb is shunt. Compounds referring to<br />
railroading are similarly differentiated. American<br />
switchman is English pointsman. An American<br />
switchtower is an English signal-box. An<br />
American switchyard or marshalling-yard is ZUI<br />
English shunting-yard.<br />
As an instrument <strong>of</strong> chastisement, a slender,<br />
flexible shoot or rod, used especially in whipping,<br />
an American switch finds its nearest<br />
eouivalent in the English cane. though they are<br />
not exactly synonym&s since a switch is usually<br />
cut fresh from a tree and is more limber and
swollen<br />
lashing than a cane. The old-fashioned English<br />
term birch would be a closer equivalent. Both<br />
switch and cane may be used as noun and verb.<br />
The American rustic exclamation, I’ll be<br />
switched, has no equivalent in England, unless<br />
one accepts I’ll be damned which is used in both<br />
countries but is somewhat stronger than 1’11 be<br />
switched.<br />
Switch is used colloquially in the United<br />
States to mean a change <strong>of</strong> sides in controversy,<br />
especially in political opinions or allegiances<br />
(Many on whom Taft had counted for support<br />
switched to Roosevelt and his Bull Moose Party.<br />
Shivers’ switch to the Republican camp was a<br />
blow to Stevenson’s hopes). Switch has the<br />
further colloquial meaning in America <strong>of</strong> an<br />
interchanging or the making <strong>of</strong> a reciprocal<br />
exchange (In the scuffle, Hamlet and Laertes<br />
switch rapiers). In slang, especially in theatrical,<br />
movie, radio and television parlance, a<br />
switch is a reversal <strong>of</strong> an established, expected<br />
or stereotyped situation or action (But here’s<br />
the switch: it’s the detective who goes to jail.‘).<br />
In gayer moments this is also known as the<br />
switcheroo.<br />
Though both Britons and Americans use<br />
switchback to describe a mountain railroad or<br />
highway having many hairpin curves, only the<br />
English also use switchback to describe what<br />
Americans call a roller coaster.<br />
swollen. See swell.<br />
swore; sworn. See swear.<br />
bwum. See swim.<br />
mung. See swing.<br />
syllabus. The plural is syllabuses or syllabi.<br />
syllepsis; zeugma. Syllepsis is a term in rhetoric<br />
and grammar. It describes a figure <strong>of</strong> speech by<br />
which a word is used in the same passage to<br />
fulfill two syntactical functions, applying<br />
properly to one person or thing and improperly<br />
to another (as in He fought with fury and a big<br />
blackjack or In his lectures he leaned heavily<br />
upon his desk and stale jokes). Zeugma, which<br />
is really a form <strong>of</strong> syllepsis, is commonly used<br />
as the word for both figures. Zeugma is a figure<br />
in which a verb is associated with two subjects<br />
or objects, or an adjective with two nouns,<br />
although appropriate to but one <strong>of</strong> the two, yet<br />
suggests another verb or adjective suitable to<br />
the other noun. Although commonly merely a<br />
fault, zeugma may, once in a great while, be<br />
used intentionally by a skillful writer. One <strong>of</strong><br />
the best-known examples is Pope’s comment<br />
on Hampton Court:<br />
Here thou, great ANNA! whom three realms<br />
obey,<br />
Dost sometimes counsel take-and sometimes<br />
Tea.<br />
The last line, however, is no blunder but one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the felicities <strong>of</strong> English poetry, not only because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the perfection <strong>of</strong> its humorous skill,<br />
but because <strong>of</strong> its touching suggestion that<br />
Queen Anne herself was a living zeugma, two<br />
unequal things yoked together: by the Grace<br />
<strong>of</strong> God, Defender <strong>of</strong> the Faith, Queen <strong>of</strong><br />
England, Ireland, and Scotland and, at the same<br />
time, a pathetic, dumpy, dull, lonely, little<br />
woman, sad with her dead babies, bored with<br />
her stupid husband, and far more at home at<br />
the tea than at the council table.<br />
symposium. The plural is symposiums or symposia.<br />
syucluonous; simultaneous; coincident. All <strong>of</strong><br />
these adjectives mean existing, living, or occurring<br />
at the same time. Coincident means happening<br />
at the same time (The attack on Pearl Harbor<br />
was coincident with the call <strong>of</strong> the Japanese<br />
envoys on the Secretary <strong>of</strong> State). Synchronous<br />
means going on at the same rate and exactly<br />
together, recurring together (The timers in the<br />
gun turrets and in the fire control room were<br />
synchronous). Simultaneous means operating<br />
at the same time or in agreement in the same<br />
point or instant <strong>of</strong> time (The salvoes from the<br />
two main turrets were simultaneous).<br />
<strong>Cont</strong>emporary and contemporaneous, which<br />
also mean existing at the same time, differ from<br />
synchronous and simultaneous and coincident<br />
in that the time regarding which simultaneity<br />
or azreement is imnlied is indefinite. With<br />
regard to human beings, it may be a lifetime;<br />
with regard to events, it may be an age or an<br />
era. See also contemporary; contemporaneous;<br />
coeval.<br />
synecdoche is a term in rhetoric for a figure <strong>of</strong><br />
speech in which a part is named for the whole,<br />
as “sail” for “ship” in a fleet <strong>of</strong> fifty sail or<br />
“wheel” for “bicycle” in he borrowed his wheel<br />
for a spin out to Zfley. It may name the special<br />
for the general or vice versa, or the whole for<br />
the part. When Robert Frost. the poet, called<br />
himself a “synecdochist,” he meant that in himself<br />
as an individual was figured the common<br />
experience <strong>of</strong> the race and vice versa.<br />
synouym. A synonym is a word which has the<br />
same or nearly the same meaning as another<br />
word in the language (such as happy and glad)<br />
or a word or expression accepted as another<br />
name for something, as Utopian for ideal.<br />
It is a great mistake, however, to assume<br />
that because words are synonymous at one<br />
point in their meaning they are synonymous<br />
at all points. In addition to their central or<br />
basic meaning, words acquire connotations, or<br />
secondary implied or associated meanings, and<br />
unless they agree in all <strong>of</strong> these-and few words<br />
d-they are not completely synonymous. Thus<br />
house and home are synonymous in indicating<br />
a dwelling, but their associations differ. House<br />
is the less emotionally weighted <strong>of</strong> the two<br />
words, suggesting usually no more than a<br />
structure, though it is sometimes used as an<br />
abbreviation <strong>of</strong> house <strong>of</strong> ill fame, or, in the<br />
combination big house, for a prison, in which<br />
usages it is strongly opposed to the commonest<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> home. Home has commonly the<br />
associations <strong>of</strong> “a heap o’ living” to make it a<br />
much warmer word than house, but used, as it<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten is, as a euphemism for a workhouse or<br />
old folks’ home (They put her in a home in<br />
Milwaukee), it has sad and dismal connotation.%
So with thousands <strong>of</strong> other synonyms.<br />
Canine, dogged, and currish, for example, are<br />
all synonymous in the sense <strong>of</strong> pertaining to or<br />
resembling a dog, but have little else in<br />
common. Synonyms must be chosen with care.<br />
synopsis. The plural is synopsises or synop,ses.<br />
See outline.<br />
synthesis. The plural is syntheses.<br />
synthetic; artiticial; imitation; ersatz; spurious.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these adjectives describe something which<br />
is not natural in origin.<br />
Synthetic is a chemical term to describe<br />
compounds formed by chemical reaction in a<br />
laboratory, as opposed to those <strong>of</strong> natural<br />
origin (When the rubber plantations fell to the<br />
Japanese, America began seriously to manufacture<br />
synthetic rubber). Though many synthetic<br />
products are superior to the natural substance<br />
in some ways, it was at first assumed<br />
that they were inferior and in extensions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word it has a pejorative connotation, suggesting<br />
something manufactured which should have<br />
been natural (The synthetic laughter at the<br />
boss’s jokes was distressingly shrill).<br />
Artificial means made in imitation <strong>of</strong>, not<br />
genuine, whether its substance is synthetic or<br />
organic. It is to be used in describing something<br />
with a practical purpose (In a remarkably short<br />
time after the operation, he was fitted with un<br />
artificial limb). Though neutral in many technical<br />
applications, and becoming increasingly<br />
so as artificial products become equal or superior<br />
to those they are made in imitation <strong>of</strong>,<br />
in its figurative uses the word is still disparaging<br />
(Her manners are so artificial, so awkward.<br />
These are artificial compliments, my friend.<br />
They creak). See also art; arti6ce.<br />
Imitation means made to imitate a genuine<br />
or superior article, or the act <strong>of</strong> so imitating,<br />
usually an article having aesthetic rather than<br />
practical value (She wore imitation pearls on<br />
her long, slender neck). In almost all uses the<br />
word is disparaging, though not as much so as<br />
it used to be.<br />
Ersatz is a word taken over from the German.<br />
tab. In general a tab is a small flap, strap, loop or<br />
similar appendage, as on a garment- a tag or<br />
label. In England a red tab is a staff <strong>of</strong>ficer. so<br />
called because <strong>of</strong> the red tab on his uniform, a<br />
Tab is a Cantab. or a Cantabrigian, a Cambridge<br />
University man.<br />
In America tab is used in a number <strong>of</strong> colloquial<br />
and idiomatic expressions. As a noun tub<br />
may mean an account or check or memorandum<br />
<strong>of</strong> what is owed, especially a dinner check or the<br />
bill at a restaurant (I got the tab for our party <strong>of</strong><br />
495 table<br />
T<br />
It means serving as a substitute (English<br />
sausages in 1943 were an ersatz delicacy, consisting<br />
largely <strong>of</strong> flour and potatoes). The word<br />
was taken over from the Germans because in<br />
the period between World War I and World<br />
War II, faced with many scarcities, the Germans<br />
proved ingenious in manufacturing substitutes<br />
and their law required all ersatz products to be<br />
plainly so marked, so that the word ersatz was<br />
seen in every shop window and became a joke<br />
with them, half bitter and half proud.<br />
Spurious means false, not genuine, counterfeited<br />
(These spurious claims <strong>of</strong> heroism were<br />
soon exposed as a fraud). It is a word <strong>of</strong> strong<br />
condemnation. A woman would know and, at<br />
least among her friends, freely admit that her<br />
pearls were artificial or imitation. They would<br />
not be called spurious unless she or someone<br />
else had stated that they were genuine and it<br />
had been shown that they were not. She would<br />
be humiliated and <strong>of</strong>fended at the term.<br />
systematic; systemic. Systematic is the general<br />
word; systemic has exclusively physiological<br />
implications.<br />
Systematic means having, showing, or involving<br />
a system, method, or plan (He drew up<br />
a systematic plan to teach himself French in<br />
three months); characterized by system or<br />
method (A systematic worker usually gets a<br />
great deal done, even though he is slow);<br />
arranged in or comprising an ordered system<br />
(systematic philosophy).<br />
Systemic is a physiological and pathological<br />
term. It means pertaining to or affecting the<br />
entire bodily system, or the body as a whole<br />
(The systemic effects <strong>of</strong> shell shock are numerous<br />
and complicated) ; pertaining to a particular<br />
system <strong>of</strong> parts or organs <strong>of</strong> the body.<br />
systemize; systematize. Systemize is a variant,<br />
though one little used, in England or America,<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb systematize, which means to arrange<br />
in or according to a system, reduce to a system,<br />
make systematic (Darwin systematized the biological<br />
discoveries and insights <strong>of</strong> many researchers<br />
who had preceded him).<br />
eight) and, by extension <strong>of</strong> this meaninn. to trick<br />
up the tab means to bear the expense (@ho’s going<br />
to pick up the tab when the government is<br />
on relief?-Chicago Sun-Times, Jan. 24, 1950, p.<br />
27). Keeping tab on means keeping account <strong>of</strong><br />
or a check on (They were keeping tab on Clara’s<br />
age, too, and began to think she would land on<br />
the Bargain Counter-George Ade).<br />
table (verb). To table a motion means, to an<br />
American, to stop talking about it, or at least to<br />
put it on the table <strong>of</strong> an assembly for future
table 496<br />
discussion, a procedure <strong>of</strong>ten used as a method<br />
<strong>of</strong> postponing or shelving it. To ruble a motion,<br />
to lay it on the table means, to an Englishman,<br />
to put it on the agenda. Sir Winston Churchill<br />
records that this confusion in meaning was the<br />
cause <strong>of</strong> a great deal <strong>of</strong> annoyance among the<br />
Allied leaders in World War II.<br />
table d’hhte. This is a French term and the French<br />
plural is tables d’h<strong>of</strong>e. But the plural table<br />
d’/&es is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten in the United States.<br />
tableau. The plural is tableaus or tableaux.<br />
taciturn. See reticent.<br />
tactics. See strategy.<br />
tactile; tactoal. The precise writer will use. tactile<br />
to mean endowed with the sense <strong>of</strong> touch and<br />
will apply it to organs and qualities (The cut’s<br />
whiskers are tactile and probably serve better<br />
than its eyes to guide the head through slender<br />
mazes). Tactual is the more general word, meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to touch (Tactual tests still<br />
have great value in diagnosis).<br />
tat@. See t<strong>of</strong>fee.<br />
tag as a noun is used to describe a piece or strip<br />
<strong>of</strong> strong paper, leather, or the like, for attaching<br />
by one end to something as a mark or label.<br />
The English use label. Tag is also the American<br />
name for a game in which one player chases the<br />
others until he touches one <strong>of</strong> them. To pluy tug<br />
may be used figuratively to mean to touch upon,<br />
or come close to (Thoroughly charged with special<br />
significance us it is, the drama plays tug with<br />
boredom none the less). As a verb in this sense,<br />
tag means to touch in or as in the game <strong>of</strong> tag.<br />
By extension tag means in baseball to touch a<br />
base runner with the ball and thus put him out<br />
(The pitcher whirled and threw to first base. The<br />
runner was taking too long a lead and was tugged<br />
out).<br />
American tug day, a day on which contributions<br />
to a fund are solicited, each contributor<br />
receiving a tag, is the equivalent <strong>of</strong> English flag<br />
day.<br />
tag lines hold the same relation to wit that cliches<br />
do to style. To the innocent and the ignorant<br />
they seem to indicate one who is in the know.<br />
To the intelligent they indicate that the speaker<br />
is a poor, bleating thing, “a fellow <strong>of</strong> no mark or<br />
likelihood.”<br />
Tag lines may have been clever or pointed in<br />
their original application, but they become tag<br />
lines when used as a ready-made means <strong>of</strong> participating<br />
in conversation, especially when the<br />
speaker, who by their use demonstrates that he<br />
has no humorous invention <strong>of</strong> his own, intends<br />
them to show that he is bright and up to date.<br />
The tag line is related to slang in that it is a<br />
novelty that secures immediate popularity. Its<br />
novelty, <strong>of</strong> course, fades as quickly as it bloomed,<br />
though the stale expressions <strong>of</strong>ten linger on and<br />
settle down among the trite phrases the language<br />
is heir to. The meaning-even the applicability<br />
-<strong>of</strong> a tag line may be lost before it has gained<br />
its full currency. And yet it will go on being repeated<br />
ten million times a day to the accompaniment<br />
<strong>of</strong> the idiot Iaughter <strong>of</strong> those who repeat<br />
it without the faintest idea <strong>of</strong> its meaning. The<br />
extreme example <strong>of</strong> this was the phrase which<br />
shook the nation at the turn <strong>of</strong> the centuryprobably<br />
the most popular <strong>of</strong> al1 tag lines:<br />
Twenty-three’s your number! At the very height<br />
<strong>of</strong> its raging popularity all attempts to discover<br />
its origin or meaning were futile. Unfortunates<br />
whose street address or <strong>of</strong>fice numbers happened<br />
to be 23, or who had arrived at the age <strong>of</strong> 23,<br />
were overwhelmed with gales <strong>of</strong> laughter whenever<br />
it was necessary for them to make the fact<br />
known in public. Yet no one knew why.<br />
The tag line with the lowest common denominator<br />
is likely to have the greatest survival value,<br />
since its very lack <strong>of</strong> meaning makes it applicable<br />
to almost any situation. Thus So what? and I<br />
know what yo11 mean are still with us, while<br />
Applesauce and So is your old man have lost the<br />
fascination they once had.<br />
Tag lines most <strong>of</strong>ten originate in popular entertainment.<br />
Sometimes it is a line from a show<br />
or a recurring expression that is identified with<br />
a character or comedian: Zzzat so? You can?<br />
hardly get that kind no more. Here we go again!<br />
Toujours gai! Sometimes it’s a song title: Life is<br />
just a bowl <strong>of</strong> cherries-or an advertising slogan:<br />
Eventually, why no? now?<br />
To the feeble-minded they have their uses.<br />
They signify that the speaker is present and<br />
uavina attention (You fell ‘em! Well. whaddyu<br />
know? How abom that? That’s for sure!). Thky<br />
permit him to make sage observations on the<br />
state <strong>of</strong> affairs (That’s a fact! Fifty million<br />
Frenchmen can’t be wrong!), to summarize the<br />
bitter wisdom <strong>of</strong> a full life (I’ve had it!), and to<br />
check the presumptuous with a devastating and<br />
unanswerable retort (Ger Iost! Drop dead!).<br />
The wise find them useful too. There is no<br />
stronger incentive to humility than remembering<br />
our youthful pride in our wit and savoir-faire<br />
as we repeated Yes, we have no bananas and<br />
Wanna buy a duck?<br />
take. The past tense is took. The participle is<br />
taken.<br />
Took as a participle, as in he had took it, was<br />
literary English well into the nineteenth century<br />
but is not considered standard now.<br />
Take may be followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb with the preposition to, as in he took to<br />
gambling, but not by an infinitive when used in<br />
this sense. We cannot say he took to gamble. The<br />
sentence he took to drink is not an exception<br />
because drink is here a noun, and not a verb, and<br />
the sentence is comparable to he took to curds.<br />
When take means “understand” or “infer” it mav<br />
be followed by an object and to be, as in I take<br />
you to be an honest man, or by a clause following<br />
the pronoun it, as in I take it you are on<br />
honest man.<br />
Take is sometimes used to mean “caught,” especially<br />
with the names <strong>of</strong> specific diseases, as in<br />
he took pneumonia and died. This now has an<br />
old-fashioned or countrified tone. But if the<br />
disease spoken about is something more general. .<br />
this is still standard usage, as in he took cold
and I take everything that comes along. The expression<br />
take sick is not used in Great Britain,<br />
where it is considered an Americanism, but it is<br />
acceptable spoken English in the United States.<br />
See bring.<br />
take a leaf out <strong>of</strong> someone’s book. As a term for<br />
imitating someone or following his example, to<br />
take a leaf out <strong>of</strong> his book is a clich6.<br />
take by storm. As a term for overcoming resistance<br />
rapidly, making a favorable impression in<br />
an overwhelming manner, sweeping all hesitations<br />
and doubts aside, to take by storm is hackneyed.<br />
It is a metaphor based on a metaphor,<br />
since it is drawn from military action which, in<br />
turn, is named from the meteorological term.<br />
take one’s life in one’s hands. To say <strong>of</strong> one who<br />
is starting on a dangerous enterprise that he is<br />
taking his life in his hands is to employ a clichC.<br />
It is no less a clicht if used humorously.<br />
take the bit in one’s teeth. As a term for obstinacy,<br />
for a rash determination to ignore all guiding<br />
control and proceed, usually with headlong violence,<br />
on one’s own course, fo take the bit in<br />
one’s teeth is worn out. The expression seems to<br />
have been a proverb when Aeschylus employed<br />
it in Prometheus Bound (about 470 B.C.) A<br />
horse is guided by the pressure <strong>of</strong> the bit against<br />
the sensitive edges <strong>of</strong> its mouth. If it gets the bit<br />
in its teeth, as a young or intractable horse will<br />
do before it is fully broken in, the rider or driver<br />
no longer controls it and it usually runs away.<br />
take the bread out <strong>of</strong> his mouth. As a way <strong>of</strong><br />
saying that someone or something has destroyed<br />
a man’s livelihood, to say that it has taken the<br />
bread out <strong>of</strong> his mouth is to employ a clichC.<br />
take the bull by the horns. As a term for meeting<br />
a dangerous situation with courage, or a<br />
powerful person with resolution, especially when<br />
the one in danger advances to meet the danger,<br />
to tuke the bull by the horns is a clichC.<br />
take the wind out <strong>of</strong> someone’s sails. To come<br />
between an enemy’s vessel and the wind, so that<br />
your ship was still maneuverable while his was<br />
suddenly becalmed and helpless, was one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
great objects <strong>of</strong> naval maneuvering in the days<br />
<strong>of</strong> sailing vessels. Used figuratively, to mean to<br />
nonplus someone, to abash him and by his sudden<br />
discomfiture to have him at a disadvantage,<br />
to rake the wind out <strong>of</strong> his sails is stale and a little<br />
forced.<br />
take the words out <strong>of</strong> one’s mouth. As an expression<br />
for anticipating what someone else was<br />
about to say, to take the words out <strong>of</strong> his mouth<br />
or to take the words right out <strong>of</strong> his mouth or to<br />
take the very words out <strong>of</strong> his mouth, etc., is<br />
hackneyed.<br />
take time by the forelock, as an expression for<br />
seizing an opportunity while it is favorable, is a<br />
clichC.<br />
Several Greek fabulists represented opportunity<br />
or (the favorable) time as a man with a<br />
forelock which could be seized as he approached<br />
but bald behind, so that once he had passed nothing<br />
could be done. The figure <strong>of</strong> the old man<br />
with an hourglass and scythe, by which cartoon-<br />
497 tall<br />
ists represent time today, usually has an elongated<br />
forelock.<br />
take to one’s heels, as a term for running away,<br />
is hackneyed. Several other such expressions<br />
(such as show a clean pair <strong>of</strong> heels) that have<br />
to do with running away emphasize the heels,<br />
though the running is done on the sole or ball <strong>of</strong><br />
the foot. Perhaps the heels are conspicuous to<br />
the one following or the one from whom the<br />
other runs away, the one who would be more<br />
likely to employ such phrases, all <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
good-humoredly contemptuous.<br />
taken. See take.<br />
talent. For talent in its meaning <strong>of</strong> a high order<br />
<strong>of</strong> natural ability, see genius.<br />
In movie, radio, and television circles talent<br />
has the rather special group meaning <strong>of</strong> actors<br />
and performers <strong>of</strong> all kinds as distinguished<br />
from technicians or administrators (The rule <strong>of</strong><br />
no smoking on the set does not apply to talent<br />
during the course <strong>of</strong> a show). There is no suggestion<br />
whatever in the use <strong>of</strong> the word that the<br />
talent are talented. There just has to be some<br />
word to mark the distinction and talent is it.<br />
In the term talent scout, one who makes a business<br />
<strong>of</strong> searching out those possessed with talent<br />
in order that they may be tested on the stage or<br />
screen, there is something <strong>of</strong> the same meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> tu!ent but there is a shade more <strong>of</strong> expectation<br />
that the talent will be talented. These terms are<br />
both so thoroughly established that they must be<br />
accepted as standard.<br />
talisman; talesman. Talisman (plural talismans)<br />
means a stone, ring, or other object, engraved<br />
with figures or characters under certain superstitious<br />
observances <strong>of</strong> the heavens, which is supposed<br />
to possess occult powers, and is worn as an<br />
amulet or charm (Books are not seldom talismans<br />
and spells/ By which the magic art <strong>of</strong><br />
shrewder wits/ Holds an unthinking multitude<br />
enthralled. By that dear tulisman, a mother’s<br />
name).<br />
Talesman (plural talesmen) means a person<br />
summoned as one <strong>of</strong> the tales, persons chosen<br />
from among the bystanders or those present in<br />
court to serve on the jury when the original panel<br />
has become deficient in number. It is a rare word,<br />
certainly very little used in contemporary America.<br />
talk (as a noun). See dialogue.<br />
talking through one’s hat. As a term for talking<br />
nonsense, usually <strong>of</strong> a pompous sort, with a suggestion<br />
that the speaker knows that what he is<br />
saying is nonsense, talking through one’s hat is a<br />
clicht. Although the expression seems to have<br />
originated in the early twentieth century, its origin<br />
is uncertain.<br />
tall; high; l<strong>of</strong>ty. High is a general term, and denotes<br />
either extension upward or position at a<br />
considerable height. It also carries a suggestion<br />
<strong>of</strong> bigness. A mountain is high and so is a wall<br />
(though the latter may be so because it sounds<br />
better to say high wall than tall wall). An airplane<br />
is spotted high in the sky. If it is directly<br />
above, especially above another plane, it is
tantalize<br />
twelve o’clock high. High is the word applied to<br />
moral and intellectual matters (a man <strong>of</strong> high<br />
courage). In this sense, l<strong>of</strong>ty is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a<br />
synonym. L<strong>of</strong>ty implies an impressive height (a<br />
l<strong>of</strong>ty room, l<strong>of</strong>ty trees). By itself, in figurative<br />
use, it is slightly disparaging, implying a cold<br />
alo<strong>of</strong>ness or an assumption <strong>of</strong> unmerited superiority<br />
(These l<strong>of</strong>ty pretensions have very little<br />
support. She was very l<strong>of</strong>ty this morning).<br />
Tall is a more limiting term than high: it is<br />
applied either to that whiih is high in proportion<br />
to its breadth (I remember, I remember.. . the<br />
fir trees, tall and high. Those are very tall<br />
glasses) or to anything higher than the average<br />
<strong>of</strong> its kind (A tall man with u high hat and whiskers<br />
on his chin/ Will soon be knocking at your<br />
door. London has few tall buildings). Tall is<br />
used idiomatically and colloquially in America<br />
to mean extravagant, hard-to-believe (He was<br />
full <strong>of</strong> tall tales about his life as a commando);<br />
high-flown or grandiloquent (That was mighty<br />
tall talk, but you notice that little came <strong>of</strong> it).<br />
Tall timber to describe woods with high trees, is<br />
an American expression. So is the colloquial tall<br />
drink, a sort <strong>of</strong> pun on highball, another American<br />
term. Highboy, which in America describes<br />
a tall chest <strong>of</strong> drawers supported on legs, is generally<br />
in England a tallboy.<br />
In its literal sense, tall seems confined by usage<br />
to that which lives and grows. Otherwise it is<br />
usually figurative. In general use, if one is in<br />
doubt which word to apply, use high.<br />
tantalize; harass; irritate. Tantalize derives from<br />
Tantalus, a mythical Greek king who was punished<br />
by the gods by being stood up to his chin<br />
in water which receded as he stooped to drink,<br />
and placed under branches <strong>of</strong> fruit which always<br />
evaded his grasp. Thus to tantalize is to torment<br />
with, or as with, the sight <strong>of</strong> something desired<br />
but out <strong>of</strong> reach, to tease by arousing expectations<br />
that are repeatedly disappointed (She knew<br />
how to tantalize men). To be tantalized is to be<br />
irritated, to be excited to impatience or anger,<br />
but it is to be irritated in a particular way and<br />
the distinction <strong>of</strong> this particularity should be<br />
preserved. The verbs are not synonymous. Harass,<br />
a stronger word than irritate, describes torturing<br />
or tormenting by persistent disturbance or<br />
cares. To harass is to tire out by disturbing, to<br />
trouble with repeated attacks. It is <strong>of</strong>ten used in<br />
a military context (German planes hnrassed the<br />
troops on the beach at Dunkirk) or in the context<br />
<strong>of</strong> daily work (He was harassed by the continual<br />
demands upon his time <strong>of</strong> trivial things<br />
that could not be dismissed but had to be dealt<br />
with even though they prevented him from accomplishing<br />
the important and urgent task that<br />
had been assigned to him). <strong>Cont</strong>inually harass<br />
is redundant.<br />
tantamount. See paramount.<br />
tap. See faucet.<br />
taps in America is the word to describe a signal<br />
on a drum, bugle, or trumpet at which all lights<br />
in soldiers’ or sailors’ quarters must be extinguished<br />
(They lay in the darkness.. . listening to<br />
Taps weep out over the public-address system,<br />
enormous and sorrowful over the herded shabby<br />
acres <strong>of</strong> men who were no longer civilians and<br />
not yet soldiers). The English term is lights out.<br />
The signal is usually played at solemn military<br />
funerals and the word is used, figuratively and<br />
colloquially, to mean the end (Taps for Private<br />
Tussie. It’ll be taps for you, brother, if the boss<br />
catches you fooling around here in his <strong>of</strong>ice).<br />
tardy in America today means, primarily, late or<br />
behindhand (He was tardy to school only once<br />
in his entire four years). In England the principal<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> tardy is moving or acting slowly,<br />
slow, sluggish, dilatory (The finest timber is <strong>of</strong><br />
tardy growth). This sense in America is secondary<br />
and seldom used.<br />
target; objective. Though a target is a form <strong>of</strong><br />
objective, target and objective are not synonymous.<br />
Literally target designates a device, usually<br />
marked with concentric circles, to be aimed at in<br />
shooting practice or contests, or any object used<br />
for this purpose, or anything fired at (An airplane<br />
at ten thousand feet is a very small target).<br />
The extension <strong>of</strong> target to mean any goal or objective<br />
to be reached-a practice in which the<br />
English indulge even more than the Americans<br />
-has its dangers, particularly if the objective is<br />
one expressible in numerical terms, for no idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> numbers is implied in the basic meaning. If,<br />
for example, one is told that a fund drive has<br />
gone beyond the target one is being informed<br />
not that there has been a failure, as one would<br />
have to suppose if one kept the metaphor in<br />
mind, but that the drive has been more successful<br />
than anticipated.<br />
tarred with the same brush. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that someone shares, though perhaps to a lesser<br />
degree, the faults or sins <strong>of</strong> another, is defiled in<br />
the same way, tarred with the same brush is<br />
trite and worn.<br />
The origin <strong>of</strong> the expression is disputed. Some<br />
think it has to do with tarring and feathering,<br />
once a legal punishment. Others connect it with<br />
the tarring <strong>of</strong> sheep, for identification and protection<br />
against ticks. In early American usage<br />
the phrase (along with a touch <strong>of</strong> the tar brush)<br />
was used to mean that the person spoken <strong>of</strong> had<br />
some Negro blood.<br />
tart. See pie.<br />
Tartar; Tatar. Tatar, the original term, is now<br />
used chiefly in an ethnological sense. The Tatar<br />
Republic is an autonomous republic in the Eastern<br />
Soviet Union in Europe, with a capital at<br />
Kazan.<br />
Tartar (formed on Tatar by association with<br />
Tartarus, Hell, because to the Christians <strong>of</strong> Eurooe<br />
the Tatars seemed like fiends from Hell) is<br />
nb;r usually the term to describe a member’ <strong>of</strong><br />
any <strong>of</strong> a mingled host <strong>of</strong> Mongolian, Turkish,<br />
and other tribes who, under the leadership <strong>of</strong><br />
Genghis Khan, overran Eastern Europe during<br />
the Middle Ages. It is also applied to a member<br />
<strong>of</strong> the descendants <strong>of</strong> this people, variously intermingled<br />
with other races and tribes, now inhabiting<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> the European and west and central<br />
Asiatic Soviet Union. Tartar may also describe<br />
any <strong>of</strong> several Turkic languages <strong>of</strong> west central
Asia, particularly Uzbeg. The uncapitalized form<br />
iarrar, based on observed or imagined characteristics<br />
<strong>of</strong> Tartars, means a shrew or vixen, a<br />
savage, intractable person.<br />
Catch a tartar, as an expression for getting<br />
hold <strong>of</strong> something you can’t control, especially<br />
something which was ardently desired but which<br />
when obtained is found to be extremely unpleasant,<br />
is a cliche. The origin <strong>of</strong> the term is uncertain,<br />
though its meaning is fairly clear. There<br />
is what seems like a reference to the saying in<br />
Samuel Butler’s Hudibrus (1663), but the first<br />
clear statement <strong>of</strong> it occurs in Dryden’s The<br />
Kind Keeper ( 1678). Francis Grose in his Classical<br />
<strong>Dictionary</strong> <strong>of</strong> the Vulgar Tongue (1785) attributes<br />
the origin to an Irishman who in a battle<br />
against the Turks called out excitedly that he had<br />
“caught a Tartar.” When those on his side called<br />
back “Bring him here,” he shouted “1 can’t; he<br />
won’t let me.” Whether historically true or not,<br />
the story certainly explains the idea <strong>of</strong> the expression.<br />
taste. This verb may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing the source <strong>of</strong> the taste, as in it tastes<br />
sour and it tastes good. The use <strong>of</strong> an adverb<br />
here, as in it tastes well, is not technically correct<br />
and is considered unacceptable by many people.<br />
When taste is used with a personal subject it may<br />
be qualified by an adverb, as in he tasted it<br />
quickly.<br />
tasteful(ly); tasts; tastily. Tasteful is the correct<br />
word for having, displaying, or being in accordance<br />
with good taste. Tasty is permitted in America<br />
but frowned on in England when used in this<br />
sense. In its sense <strong>of</strong> pleasing to the taste, savory,<br />
appetizing (Freshly baked apple pie makes a<br />
rusry dessert), the word is acceptable in speech.<br />
As tasteful is to be preferred to tasty, so the<br />
adverb tastefully is to be preferred to tastily.<br />
To say, especially <strong>of</strong> flowers on a table, that<br />
they are tastefully arranged is to employ a worn<br />
commendation.<br />
taught. See teach.<br />
tautology. See redundancy.<br />
taxed to its utmost capacity as a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that something can hold or do or stand no more,<br />
is trite.<br />
teach. The past tense is taught. The participle is<br />
also taught. This verb may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in teach your grandson to shoot a<br />
rifle, or by a that clause, as in they teach that<br />
the world is round. Teach may be followed by<br />
a great many words ending in -ing, such as<br />
reading, writing, swimming, but only when these<br />
words are felt to be names <strong>of</strong> recognized courses<br />
<strong>of</strong> study. Teach cannot be followed by the -ing<br />
form <strong>of</strong> a verb in any other sense. That is, we<br />
may say he taught me to struggle harder but<br />
not he taught me struggling harder. See also<br />
leam.<br />
teamwork; team spirit; the team; on our team;<br />
etc. The flippant, the scornful, the skeptical and<br />
the irreverent are always being reminded that<br />
their jokes may be <strong>of</strong>fensive to those who do not<br />
share their disrespect <strong>of</strong> many established CUStoms<br />
and values. Similarly however, and far less<br />
499<br />
frequently, the solemn, the solid, and the conventional<br />
need to be reminded that the whole world<br />
does not share their outlook and that some <strong>of</strong><br />
their expressions may have different connotations<br />
for some <strong>of</strong> their listeners than they have for<br />
them. Among these must be listed-not invariably,<br />
but more <strong>of</strong>ten than they have any idea<br />
<strong>of</strong>-unctuous cliches regarding tenmwork, the<br />
team, team spirit, our team, and the like, especially<br />
in figurative extensions. One does not have<br />
to be. too cynical to have at least some reservations<br />
about the educational, social, or even moral<br />
value <strong>of</strong> a great deal <strong>of</strong> organized athletics. Much<br />
<strong>of</strong> it is commercial and much is tainted with<br />
downright dishonesty and association with highly<br />
undesirable people. And teamwork is the keynote<br />
<strong>of</strong> its hucksters, barkers, and shills-a keynote<br />
which some do not find wholly inspiring.<br />
tear. The past tense is tore. The participle is torn.<br />
A participle tore, as in had tore, is heard but is<br />
not acceptable.<br />
technic; technics; technique; technology. Technic<br />
and technics are seldom used. They would seem<br />
mispronunciations or affectations to the ordinary<br />
educated man.<br />
As an adjective, technic is obsolescent for<br />
technical. As a noun, it has been largely replaced<br />
by technique. Technics, a noun, has been replaced<br />
by technique or, when it means the study<br />
or science <strong>of</strong> an art or <strong>of</strong> arts in general, especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> the mechanical or industrial arts, by<br />
technology. Technique is familiar as the description<br />
<strong>of</strong> method <strong>of</strong> performance, especially in<br />
artistic work. It is also used slangily in America<br />
to signify social adroitness, “smoothness” (Your<br />
chin is weak,/ You lack technique,/ So what<br />
have you got/ That gets me?). Technology is the<br />
branch <strong>of</strong> knowledge that deals with the industrial<br />
arts; the sciences <strong>of</strong> the industrial arts (He<br />
studied at the Massachusetts Institute <strong>of</strong> Technology).<br />
It may also describe the terminology<br />
<strong>of</strong> an art or science, technical nomenclature.<br />
teeming with; rich in. There are in English three<br />
verbs to teem. One means to produce, to bring<br />
forth, to bear (“What’s the newest grief?” ‘Each<br />
minute teems a new one”), or, intransitively, to<br />
be or become pregnant, to conceive, bear (Zf she<br />
must teem,/ Create her child <strong>of</strong> spleen, that it<br />
may live/ And be a thwart disnatur’d torment to<br />
her) or to be full, as a pregnant woman, or to<br />
be prolific, stocked to overflowing, abundantly<br />
fertile. Another, a rare meaning, is to be fit for,<br />
to be becoming, to think fit for. The third meaning,<br />
an entirely different word, is to pour, to<br />
empty and, intransitively, to come down in torrents.<br />
And it may be that the meaning <strong>of</strong> the<br />
third verb has colored the meaning <strong>of</strong> the tirst.<br />
Teeming with is not so general as rich in. A<br />
stream may be teeming with, that is fertile with<br />
or prolific with or stocked to overflowing with,<br />
salmon and therefore be rich in salmon. Whereas<br />
a museum may be rich in Old Masters but not<br />
teeming with them.<br />
teeth. See tooth.<br />
telecast, televise. When these two words are used<br />
as verbs, telecast is the more limited in meaning.
tell 500<br />
It means to broadcast by television. Televise, on<br />
the other hand, means to record by means <strong>of</strong><br />
television apparatus and to broadcast what is so<br />
recorded (It was found that films could be telecast<br />
just as well as live shows. The news was<br />
televised on the spot).<br />
tell. The past tense is told. The participle is also<br />
told.<br />
When tell means ask it may be followed by an<br />
infinitive, as in tell her to come. When it does<br />
not mean ask it may be followed by a clause, as<br />
in tell her I have gone.<br />
tell; inform; advise; acquaint; apprise. Tell is the<br />
general word meaning to make known by speech<br />
or writing. Znform is a somewhat more formal<br />
word, meaning to impart knowledge <strong>of</strong> a fact or<br />
circumstance (No Sir, a man has not a right to<br />
think as he pleases; he should inform himself<br />
and think justly). In <strong>of</strong>ficial circles to inform is<br />
not merel; to &part a piece <strong>of</strong> knowlehge but<br />
to put the recipient <strong>of</strong> the information on notice<br />
that he has been told (Were you not informed <strong>of</strong><br />
these things?). If someone has been informed <strong>of</strong><br />
something, we regard that something as more<br />
authoritative than if he had been informally told.<br />
Informed sources (though the term is <strong>of</strong>ten no<br />
more than a journalistic euphemism for rumor<br />
or gossip) are thought to be more reliable than<br />
someone who has simply been told something. In<br />
ordinary commercial correspondence inform is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten pretentious (as in We will inform you when<br />
your order is ready).<br />
Advise properly means to give counsel to,<br />
not merely to give information to (I advise you<br />
to drive carefully over the holiday weekend).<br />
To advise someone that an order has been<br />
shipped is preposterous, though one might advise<br />
him to have a care in dealing with those<br />
who used words with so little knowledge <strong>of</strong><br />
their meaning. See advice; advise.<br />
Acquaint in the sense <strong>of</strong> furnish with knowledge<br />
or inform is considered archaic in England<br />
but is standard in America (I hope you will acquaint<br />
the public with what we have been doing).<br />
Apprise is a seldom used, formal word meaning<br />
to give notice to, inform (He had not been<br />
apprised <strong>of</strong> the shift in foreign policy. Apprise<br />
my parents, make them rescue me). It is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
followed by <strong>of</strong>.<br />
telling effect, with. To say <strong>of</strong> something that was<br />
forcible or vigorous that it was done or spoken or<br />
received or delivered, and so on, with telling<br />
eflect is to employ a hackneyed term.<br />
tell tales out <strong>of</strong> school. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who<br />
(<strong>of</strong>ten inadvertently) reveals information that<br />
may be hurtful to another that he is telling tales<br />
out <strong>of</strong> school is to employ a clicht. In addition to<br />
being tedious, it labors to be arch.<br />
temperature. See fever.<br />
tempers the wind to the shorn Iamb, the Lord. As<br />
a pseudo-philosophic (and not wholly justified)<br />
comment on the fact that the tender and the<br />
helpless and the innocent are spared too severe<br />
aflliction, the observation that the Lord tempers<br />
the wind to the shorn lamb is a cliche. Many who<br />
utter it are <strong>of</strong> the opinion that it is a quotation<br />
from the Bible. It is from Laurence Sterne’s A<br />
Sentimental Journey (1768) where it is a translation<br />
<strong>of</strong> a sentence in Les Prhmices (1594) <strong>of</strong><br />
Henri Estienne. Estienne refers to it as a proverb.<br />
tempest in a teapot. As a term for making a<br />
great fuss over a trifle, a tempest in a teapot is<br />
now a clichC. The phrase has been traced back,<br />
in various forms, to 400 B.C. Cicero referred to<br />
one who “stirred up waves in a wine ladle” and<br />
added “as the saying goes.”<br />
tempo. The plural is tempos or tempi.<br />
temporal; temporary. Though both <strong>of</strong> these adjectives<br />
refer to time, they do so in different<br />
senses. Temporal is opposed to spiritual, temporary<br />
to permanent. Temporal means <strong>of</strong> or concerned<br />
with the present life <strong>of</strong> this world, with<br />
things subject to the sway <strong>of</strong> time, worldly (The<br />
king was the temporal authority, the Pope the<br />
spiritual authority). Hence temporal is sometimes<br />
used in opposition to ecclesiastical, clerical,<br />
and sacred. Temporary means “for the time<br />
being.” It implies an arrangement established<br />
with no thought <strong>of</strong> continuance but with the<br />
idea <strong>of</strong> being changed soon (Joe got a temporary<br />
job driving a cab while he waited for his commission<br />
to come through).<br />
temporary compounds. A true compound word<br />
that is hyphenated, such as secretary-treasurer<br />
or self-respect, keeps its hyphen no matter where<br />
it appears in the sentence. (See compound<br />
words.) But there are other word combinations<br />
that are hyphenated under certain circumstances<br />
and not under others. Absolute consistency in<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> these hyphens cannot be maintained<br />
and it is questionable whether a ninety percent<br />
consistency is worth the time and trouble it<br />
requires. The following discussion is not <strong>of</strong>fered<br />
as a guide to what ought to be done but merely<br />
as an explanation <strong>of</strong> the various hyphens one is<br />
likely to see in print.<br />
1. Oil-bearing shale. These words mean “shale<br />
that is bearing oil.” Inverted phrases <strong>of</strong> this kind,<br />
in which a present participle is preceded by its<br />
object and both qualify a following noun, are<br />
usually hyphenated, as in habit-forming drugs,<br />
money-making ideas, life-giving water. But the<br />
hyphen is not used when expressions <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
follow the noun, as in the drug became habit<br />
forming, the idea was money making. (Present<br />
participle combinations do not come under this<br />
rule when the first word is not the object <strong>of</strong> the<br />
participle, as in a slow moving train, a long suffering<br />
friend.)<br />
2. A face-to-face encounter: under-water<br />
rocks. Prepositional phrases are almost always<br />
hyphenated when they stand before the noun<br />
they qualify but not otherwise, as in it was u<br />
face-to-face encounter, he met him face to face<br />
and there were under-water rocks, the rocks<br />
were under water. (This rule does not apply to<br />
Latin phrases. We write ante helium days, per<br />
diem employees, an ex <strong>of</strong>icio member.)<br />
3. A light-yellow scarf; a rich-brown cake.<br />
Occasionally a double adjective standing before<br />
a noun can be. read in more than one way. A<br />
light yellow scarf might be a scarf that was light<br />
yellow or it might be a yellow scarf that didn’t<br />
weigh much. A rich brown cake might be a cake
that was rich brown, or it might be a brown cake<br />
that was very fattening. The ambiguity depends<br />
on the fact that light and rich both have more<br />
than one meaning. There is no such difficulty<br />
with a dark yellow scarf or a pale brown cake.<br />
English has a great many punable words <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind and usually there is nothing to do about it.<br />
But in a case <strong>of</strong> this kind the hyphen can be used,<br />
and should be used, to link the first two words<br />
when that is what is intended.<br />
4. The man next door’s radio. Sometimes<br />
word combinations are hyphenated because the<br />
whole expression is a genitive. This is not necessary<br />
and a hyphen here is usually a mistake. We<br />
write John Brown’s body, the King <strong>of</strong> Spain’s<br />
daughter, and we should write the man next<br />
door’s radio.<br />
5. A two story house. Hyphens are helpful in<br />
some <strong>of</strong> the cases discussed above because the<br />
words themselves are being used in an unusual<br />
way and may therefore be ambiguous. Words<br />
are never ambiguous when they are standing in<br />
their proper position in a sentence, unless there<br />
is the possibility <strong>of</strong> a pun. A two story house,<br />
a dark green dress, nineteenth century literature,<br />
are all normal English and do not need hyphens<br />
in order to be understood.<br />
Hyphens are <strong>of</strong>ten used in expressions <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind, not for the sake <strong>of</strong> readability, but in order<br />
to avoid what some textbooks claim is a grammatical<br />
error. In the examples just given, the<br />
second word before the noun is qualifying the<br />
first word before the noun and not the noun<br />
itself. It is therefore functioning as an adverb.<br />
But these first words are all familiar as adjectives.<br />
Some people have the mistaken idea that if<br />
a word can be used as an adjective it cannot also<br />
lawfully be used as an adverb. Therefore, they<br />
argue, a construction <strong>of</strong> this kind must be wrong,<br />
although so far as sound goes it is obviously<br />
standard English. A hyphen is supposed to <strong>of</strong>fer<br />
a way out <strong>of</strong> the difficulty by creating a new and<br />
respectable adjective form known as a “unit<br />
modifier.” This is an artificial and rather silly<br />
device. No printer’s mark that is not reflected in<br />
the spoken language can have any bearing on<br />
whether or not a construction is standard English.<br />
6. First-, second-, and third-grade children.<br />
When more than one term is theoretically joined<br />
to the same word, each one may be given a<br />
hyphen, as in the example. But some editors prefer<br />
to omit the hyphens entirely in a seriei <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind. Thev write a third-prude child but first.<br />
second, and third grade children. Either form is<br />
acceptable, but they should not be combined.<br />
That is, if the hyphen is dropped after first and<br />
second, it should also be dropped after third.<br />
7. New Jersey potatoes. Proper nouns are<br />
never hyphenated merely because they are being<br />
used as adjectives. We write New Jersey potatoes<br />
and New England clam chowder. Actually, expressions<br />
<strong>of</strong> this kind are spoken with a comma<br />
break, but custom requires a hyphen and not a<br />
comma here.<br />
8. The New York-Pennsylvania highways; the<br />
Boy Scouts-Bears picnic. New York-Pennsyl-<br />
501 tenpins<br />
vania highways means highways running through<br />
New York and Pennsylvania; the Boy Scouts-<br />
Bears picnic means a picnic arranged by some<br />
Boy Scouts and another group who call themselves<br />
Bears. No one who didn’t already know<br />
what these terms meant would ever guess it from<br />
the punctuation. Some sensitive editors believe<br />
that they can relieve the situation by using a<br />
small dash instead <strong>of</strong> a hyphen. But since few<br />
people except printers can see the difference<br />
between a small dash and a hyphen, this solution<br />
doesn’t accomplish much. Less sensitive editors<br />
sometimes ask a writer to recast the sentencethat<br />
is, to say something else that they know<br />
how to punctuate.<br />
temporize; extemporize. Temporize applies primarily<br />
to actions, extemporize to words. To<br />
temporize means to act indecisively or evasively<br />
to gain time or delay matters; to comply with<br />
the time or occasion; to yield temporarily or<br />
ostensibly to the current <strong>of</strong> opinion or circumstances<br />
(Queen Elizabeth was chiefly remarkable<br />
for her ability to temporize). To<br />
extemporize is to speak extempore, without<br />
notes. It also means to sing or play on an instrument,<br />
composing the music as one proceeds, to<br />
improvise. See also extemporaneous.<br />
tend may be followed by an infinitive, as in it tends<br />
to bring them together. It is also heard with the<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb and the preposition to, as in<br />
it tends to bringing them together. The infinitive<br />
is generally preferred.<br />
tend; attend. Tend as a shortened form <strong>of</strong> attend<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> pay attention to is now dialectal<br />
(Why don’t you tend to your own business?).<br />
Tend still means to attend to by work or services<br />
(Ab used to tend bar over at the Dutchman’s<br />
place) or to watch over (Tending sheep is monotonous<br />
work).<br />
tend; trend. As verbs tend and trend are interchangeable<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> to be disposed or inclined<br />
to take a particular direction, to extend<br />
in some direction indicated (The coast from<br />
there trends northeast). Although trend in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> to have a general tendency is regarded<br />
as obsolescent in England, it is still acceptable in<br />
the United States. Tend, a verb only, is standard<br />
in the United States but regarded as poetic and<br />
old-fashioned in England. Trend is more used<br />
as a noun than as a verb. It means the general<br />
course, drift, or tendency (The trend over the<br />
last one hundred years has been towards collectivism).<br />
tender (verb). Aside from its legal and commercial<br />
uses, tender, especially in the stereotyped<br />
phrases tender condolences, tender regrets, tender<br />
sympathy, tender congratulations, and the<br />
like, is slightly affected, over-elegant, a little<br />
pompous. It has been so, apparently, for centuries<br />
and must have been an elegant vogue<br />
word in Elizabethan times, if we may judge from<br />
Polonius’s impatience at Ophelia’s use <strong>of</strong> it<br />
(Hamlet, Act I, Scene 3).<br />
tenpins; ninepins; ten-strike. Tenpins is a game,<br />
chiefly American, played with ten wooden pins<br />
at which a ball is bowled to knock them down.<br />
The word is also applied to the pins used in such
a game. Ninepins is a game, chiefly English,<br />
played with nine wooden pins. Dickens, in his<br />
American Notes, described tenpins as “a game<br />
<strong>of</strong> mingled chance and skill, invented when the<br />
legislature passed an act forbidding Nine-pins.”<br />
But although the high-mindedness and fervor<br />
with which the American people have passed<br />
laws governing moral conduct has been surpassed<br />
only by the ingenuity and celerity with<br />
which they have circumvented them, Dickens<br />
was wrong. Loggets, nine-holes, or ten pinnes<br />
are mentioned in an anonymous English pamphlet<br />
entitled The Letting <strong>of</strong> humorous blood in the<br />
head vein, published in 1600 and probably written<br />
by Samuel Rowlands.<br />
A ten-strike is a stroke in tenpins which knocks<br />
down all the pins (the usual word is strike). By<br />
figurative extension, tenstrike is used in common<br />
speech to mean any stroke or act which is completely<br />
successful.<br />
tense is the property <strong>of</strong> a verb, or the form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, which shows the time at which an action<br />
occurred or a situation existed relative to the<br />
time <strong>of</strong> speaking. In a verbal phrase the tense<br />
is expressed by the first auxiliary, such as has<br />
in Stanley has been living in Italy and was in<br />
Sam was expecting to see him. See verbs, past<br />
tense, and present tense.<br />
tense shifts. In literary English, when a verb in<br />
the past tense or past perfect tense has a clause<br />
as its object and the clause is in the indicative<br />
mode, the natural tense <strong>of</strong> the clause verb is<br />
shifted. A simple present tense, or a present<br />
tense auxiliary, is put in the past and a past<br />
tense form is put in the past perfect. Present<br />
tense forms are shifted to the past in the second<br />
<strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> these examples: he believes men are<br />
immortal, he believed men were immortal; he<br />
knows I will be there, he knew I would be<br />
there; he says he has seen you, he said he had<br />
seen you. Past tense forms are shifted to the<br />
past perfect in: this proves he was mistaken, this<br />
proved he had been mistaken.<br />
This sequence <strong>of</strong> tenses is observed in literary<br />
English, if only because it always has been observed<br />
and a violation <strong>of</strong> the rule makes a clause<br />
conspicuous, even to people who have never<br />
heard <strong>of</strong> the rule. It is also possible that the real<br />
purpose <strong>of</strong> the shift is to keep a subordinate verb<br />
from being more vivid, or more important, than<br />
the principal verb in the sentence. In any case,<br />
the shift has nothing to do with “real time.” The<br />
subordinate verb is not put in the past tense<br />
because it represents a past event at the time <strong>of</strong><br />
speaking. We say how did you know I was here?<br />
and what did you say your name was? when we<br />
are obviously speaking about the present. Tenses<br />
are shifted in timeless or universal statements,<br />
such as it was a saying <strong>of</strong> his that no man was<br />
sure <strong>of</strong> his supper till he had eaten it. This applies<br />
also to more solemn truths such as Man . . . who<br />
trusted God was love indeed and love Creation’s<br />
final law.<br />
The tense shift can always be disregarded<br />
when one wants to make a subordinate clause<br />
conspicuous. This may happen when the only<br />
502<br />
significant statement in the sentence is in the subordinate<br />
clause, as in he told me the train leaves<br />
at three. Or one may feel that a particular statement<br />
is too solemn to be subordinated under<br />
any circumstances, as in he taught that God is<br />
love. Neither <strong>of</strong> these reasons justify the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the present tense in Columbus believed the world<br />
is round, where the significant statement is that<br />
Columbus believed this now commonplace truth.<br />
Sentences like this are written under the impression<br />
that what is still a fact should not be<br />
expressed in the past tense. Frequently the writer<br />
has been taught this in school. But that is regrettable,<br />
since the device sometimes spoils otherwise<br />
good writing by distorting the emphasis and<br />
putting trivia in a spotlight.<br />
The rules just given for shifting tenses do not<br />
apply to subjunctive verbs. Where a present subjunctive<br />
form is required after a present tense<br />
verb it is also required after a past tense, as in<br />
we insist that she get to work on time and we<br />
insisted that she get to work on time. A past<br />
subjunctive does not become past perfect but<br />
keeps its original form. That is, Z wish I was<br />
dead becomes I wished I was dead and not I<br />
wished I had been dead. Where either a present<br />
subjunctive or a past subjunctive may be used,<br />
the only difference being the degree <strong>of</strong> uncertainty,<br />
a shift may be made but it is not necessary.<br />
(For the rules governing tense in subjunctive<br />
clauses and in clauses <strong>of</strong> purpose, see<br />
subjunctive mode.)<br />
tenterhooks were hooks from which cloth was<br />
suspended to be stretched free <strong>of</strong> wrinkles. The<br />
word was also applied to the hooks from which<br />
meat was suspended in front <strong>of</strong> butcher shops<br />
and it is likely that it was from this ghastly but<br />
common spectacle that the thought <strong>of</strong> tenterhooks<br />
as stretching instruments <strong>of</strong> painful torture<br />
was derived. Tent also meant the probing<br />
<strong>of</strong> a wound. To be on tenterhooks, to be in<br />
a state <strong>of</strong> painful suspense, is now a clicht, to<br />
be used sparingly.<br />
terminai; terminus. These words are used differently<br />
in England and America. In England terminals<br />
(always the plural) is used to describe<br />
charges made by a railroad company for the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> a terminus or other station and for services<br />
rendered in loading and unloading goods. In<br />
America terminal means an originating or terminating<br />
point for trains, usually where important<br />
stations, yards, and shop facilities are located<br />
(The cuts in rail service showed in lessened<br />
crowds at the Central, Union, LaSalle and Dearborn<br />
stations, which are terminals for the struck<br />
roads). It is also used for a station or city at<br />
a terminus. For terminal in this sense, either<br />
end <strong>of</strong> a line, the English would use terminus.<br />
Americans may use either terminal or terminus,<br />
though terminus tends to mean a place, terminal<br />
a building. The plural <strong>of</strong> terminus is terminuses<br />
or termini.<br />
terminate. See end, expire.<br />
terra tirma, as a term for solid earth, is affected<br />
if used seriously, dreary if used facetiously.<br />
terrestrial. See earthen.
terrible; territic. See horrible.<br />
test (noun). See frlal.<br />
testimony. See evidence.<br />
tetchy; techy; fouchy. Tetchy and techy survive<br />
more vigorously in England than in America,<br />
but they are far less common in both countries,<br />
as adjectives meaning apt to take <strong>of</strong>fense on<br />
slight provocation, irritable, than touchy. Touchy<br />
may also be used in senses not proper to techy<br />
and tetchy: precarious, risky, or ticklish (It’s a<br />
touchy business and must be handled with great<br />
tact) or sensitive to touch (Don’t be so touchy;<br />
I’ve got to massage your side).<br />
than is used in making comparisons <strong>of</strong> inequality,<br />
or comparisons between things that are said to<br />
be. dissimilar. It is used only in combination with<br />
the comparative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective or adverb<br />
or with one <strong>of</strong> the four words, other, rather,<br />
different, else. Other and rather are actually<br />
comparative forms and diflerent is apparently<br />
felt as a comparative. (See these individual<br />
words.) Else than is still literary English but<br />
in current speech it is usually replaced by but<br />
or except.<br />
In we had no sooner finished our mufins than<br />
she said . . ., the word than is standard English<br />
because it accompanies the comparative word<br />
sooner. In scarcely had the reverberations died<br />
away than there came the sound <strong>of</strong> footsteps<br />
there is no comparative form and than is being<br />
misused. Literary English requires when here.<br />
However, if a comparative form is used, than is<br />
required to complete the comparison and the<br />
word when is unliterary, as it is in we had no<br />
sooner finished our mufins when she said. . . .<br />
Than is usually classed as a coordinating conjunction,<br />
which means that the words it joins<br />
in a comparison have the same function in<br />
the sentence. What are compared may be things,<br />
as in the flesh will grieve on other bones than<br />
ours soon: or actions, as in he would have cut<br />
his hand <strong>of</strong>f sooner than sign it. But than is<br />
sometimes used in Sentences where this interpretation<br />
is impossible, as in he went no further<br />
than Philadelphia. This sentence is standard<br />
English. But here than has a simple object,<br />
Philadelphia, and is therefore functioning as a<br />
preposition. When than stands before the relative<br />
pronoun who, the objective form whom is<br />
always used, as in Mary Case, than whom there<br />
never was a wiser woman. (See who; whom.)<br />
Here again one might say that than is functioning<br />
as a preposition, or one might say that this<br />
use <strong>of</strong> whom is an established but irregular<br />
idiom in English.<br />
If than can be used as a preposition it would<br />
follow that a personal pronoun following than,<br />
that was not itself the subject <strong>of</strong> a following<br />
verb, would have an objective form. Most grammarians<br />
however claim that, with the exception<br />
<strong>of</strong> the two cases mentioned above, than must<br />
always be treated as a conjunction. This means<br />
that a personal pronoun following than must<br />
have a subjective or an objective form depending<br />
upon its function in the sentence, or depending<br />
upon the function <strong>of</strong> the word it is compared<br />
503 thanks<br />
with. For example, according to these rules the<br />
subjective form I is required, and the objective<br />
form me must not be used, in he understands<br />
this better than I, because here the word is linked<br />
with he and is functioning as the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb understand. In current English we usually<br />
evade the problem by placing a dummy verb<br />
after the subjective pronoun, as in better than 2<br />
do. On the other hand, the objective form him<br />
is required, and not the subjective form he, in<br />
I have known better men than him to lie, because<br />
here the word is linked with men and is<br />
functioning as the object,<strong>of</strong> the verb know. That<br />
is, we use the objective form in this comparison<br />
because we would use the objective form in the<br />
simple statement I have known him. (Some<br />
grammarians claim that than is a subordinating<br />
conjunction in sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind, on the<br />
grounds that it is qualifying the word better<br />
rather than linking two independent elements.)<br />
Textbooks sometimes say that a subjective<br />
pronoun should be used after than whenever it is<br />
possible to read a suppressed verb into the sentence,<br />
as in I have known better men than he<br />
(is) to lie. This is a mistake. It sometimes leads<br />
to ambiguous sentences, such as Z have known<br />
richer men than he (is), where the hearer may<br />
suppose that the suppressed verb is has. And<br />
even where it is not ambiguous, this use <strong>of</strong> the<br />
subjective pronoun is contrary to the literary tradition<br />
and the practice <strong>of</strong> educated people, and is<br />
usually heard as a grammatical mistake.<br />
When than is used after a form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to be we have a different problem. Here it is a<br />
question <strong>of</strong> which form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun is to be<br />
used after a linking verb. If one says it is me,<br />
one would also say is she taller than me?. But if<br />
one says it is I, he should also say is she taller<br />
than I?. The objective form is generally preferred.<br />
See linking verbs.<br />
thank. When thank is used as a polite word for<br />
ask it may be followed by an infinitive, as in I’ll<br />
thank you to hnnd me the salt. The simple form<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb here instead <strong>of</strong> the to-infinitive, as in<br />
I’ll thank you hand me the salt, is considered an<br />
illiteracy in Great Britain. This form without to<br />
is not heard in the United States. When used in<br />
its ordinary sense <strong>of</strong> “express gratitude,” thank<br />
is not followed by an infinitive but by for and<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z thank you for<br />
handing me the salt.<br />
thanking you in advance. The quality <strong>of</strong> gratitude<br />
like that <strong>of</strong> mercy cannot be strained. TO<br />
ask a favor and in the very act <strong>of</strong> asking it to<br />
state blandly that the person from whom the<br />
favor is begged need expect no thanks after it is<br />
done is so ludicrous that if it were not common,<br />
one would not believe that it had ever been done.<br />
There’s a condescension in thanking you in advance<br />
that utterly denies any true sense <strong>of</strong> obligation.<br />
Some people object to the phrase because<br />
it is ungrammatical and illogical, but these are<br />
only minor faults: it is insolent.<br />
thanks. Although the singular form a thank is no<br />
longer in use, thanks is a true plural. We say<br />
many thanks, u thousand thanks, and these
thanks so4<br />
thanks are not deserved. Thanks is used in<br />
Hamlet as a mass word in for this relief much<br />
thanks. This obsolete construction seems to catch<br />
the eye <strong>of</strong> teen-agers who continue to use the<br />
expression, facetiously, long after they have forgotten<br />
the origin <strong>of</strong> the joke.<br />
Both forms, thank and thanks, are used as the<br />
first element in a compound, as in thank-<strong>of</strong>ferings<br />
and thanksgivings.<br />
thanks; thank you; I thank you. Thanks is the<br />
usual common elliptical expression used in America<br />
in acknowledging a favor, service, courtesy,<br />
or the like. Thank you is somewhat more formal<br />
and is insisted on by most English grammarians.<br />
I thank you is stiff and archaic, though it is sometimes<br />
used by orators in their perorations: My<br />
friends, Z thank you.<br />
As H. Allen Smith has observed, Thank you<br />
is an expression which the English can make go<br />
a long way, especially in the clipped form,<br />
“Kvuh.” As he says. “Thev smile and even<br />
laugh when they hear.us say,.‘You’re welcome.’<br />
This response to ‘Thanks’ or ‘Kyuh’ is never<br />
heard here and when a character in an American<br />
film says ‘You’re welcome,’ the English<br />
audience laughs. The British response to ‘Kyuh<br />
is ‘Kyuh,’ the second ‘Kyuh’ being uttered in a<br />
higher tone than the first, and I assume it could<br />
go on forever” (Smith’s London Journal, N. Y.,<br />
1952, p. 77). See also oblige; obligate.<br />
Thanksgiving; Thanksgiving Day. Although<br />
Thanksgiving Day is the correct, formal name<br />
for the peculiarly American annual festival in<br />
acknowledgment <strong>of</strong> divine favor, usually held<br />
on the last Thursdav <strong>of</strong> November, Thanksaivine<br />
(when capitalized)-is sanctioned by usage TThe;<br />
used to come over every Thanksgiving and bring<br />
the children).<br />
thank-you-ma’am is an exclusively American expression<br />
which began to disappear with the construction<br />
<strong>of</strong> modern highways. It was a hollow<br />
or ridge in a road, usually diagonal and especially<br />
on a hillside, to deflect water. These ridges<br />
or hollows were so called because when one<br />
drove over them the resulting bump made one’s<br />
head bob and one’s body seem to curtsy as if in<br />
the act <strong>of</strong> formally thanking a lady for some<br />
favor.<br />
that. This word may be used as a demonstrative<br />
adjective, a demonstrative pronoun, a relative<br />
pronoun, or a conjunction.<br />
When that qualifies a following noun, as in<br />
that very small dog, it is a demonstrative adjective.<br />
When it is used in place <strong>of</strong> a particular<br />
word or group <strong>of</strong> words (and does not introduce<br />
a qualifying clause), as in I like that and that is<br />
what he said, it is a demonstrative pronoun. The<br />
demonstrative that has the plural form those<br />
and is similar to the word this. See this; that.<br />
When that stands for a word in the principal<br />
clause <strong>of</strong> a sentence and at the same time is an<br />
essential element in a qualifying, subordinate<br />
ChUSC, as in where is the dog that was here?,<br />
it is called a relative pronoun. There is no difference<br />
in meaning between the demonstrative<br />
and the relative pronoun. But as a relative, that<br />
is used in a more complicated construction, and<br />
in a way in which the other demonstrative pronouns<br />
cannot be used. As a relative pronoun,<br />
that competes with which and who. (For the<br />
use <strong>of</strong> that as a relative, see that; which.)<br />
The word that is also used as a conjunction, as<br />
in Z know that the dog was here. When it is used<br />
as a conjunction it does not represent any other<br />
word or refer to anything, and it is not grammatically<br />
a part <strong>of</strong> the clause that follows. It is<br />
merely a sign that the following clause is not an<br />
independent statement but a subordinate element<br />
in a larger sentence. This use <strong>of</strong> that has grown<br />
out <strong>of</strong> its use as a demonstrative pronoun. One<br />
may think <strong>of</strong> the conjunction that as the pronoun<br />
functioning as some element in a sentence and<br />
immediately followed by the clause that gives it<br />
meaning. In the example given, that functions as<br />
the object <strong>of</strong> the verb know and so makes the<br />
following clause the object <strong>of</strong> the verb. The relative<br />
pronoun ihaf also introduces a clause but,<br />
unlike the conjunction, the pronoun represents a<br />
word appearing earlier and is itself a part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
subordinate clause. In speech, the conjunction<br />
that does not have the full vowel sound <strong>of</strong> the<br />
pronoun or the adjective. The difference can be<br />
heard in Z know that that is true, where the first<br />
that is the conjunction and the second, the demonstrative<br />
pronoun.<br />
A clause introduced by the conjunction that<br />
may be the object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in the example<br />
given above, or it may be the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb,<br />
as in that he denies it surprises me. A clause<br />
represented by the dummy subject it is very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten introduced by that, as in it is true that he<br />
denies it. (See it.) That is also used to introduce<br />
a purely adverbial clause <strong>of</strong> purpose or result, as<br />
in I sent you to school that you might learn and<br />
what have I done that you should treat me so?<br />
Clauses <strong>of</strong> this kind require a subjunctive auxiliary<br />
verb. The conjunction Zhatsometimes occurs<br />
in exclamations where it introduces the object <strong>of</strong><br />
an understood “I wish” or “I pray,” as in 0 that<br />
Zshmael might live forever!<br />
That may also be used after an adverb or a<br />
noun functioning as an adverb to show that the<br />
following clause is attached to, or is equivalent<br />
to, the preceding word, as in tve can start to work<br />
now that you are here and Z knew it the first<br />
time that Z saw him. It is debatable whether thot<br />
should be called a conjunction or a relative pronoun<br />
or adverb in a construction <strong>of</strong> this kind. If<br />
the word that is omitted from the sentence the<br />
adverb or noun itself becomes a conjunction introducing<br />
a clause. In current English we do not<br />
use that after a word that is thoroughly familiar<br />
as a conjunction, although this was once customary.<br />
as in he could not live after that he was<br />
fallen.<br />
When there is no doubt that the clause following<br />
that is a subordinate element in the sentence,<br />
it is not necessary to use the conjunction. As a<br />
rule there is no doubt and the word that can be<br />
omitted. The conjunction is required when the<br />
clause stands before the principal verb, either as<br />
subject, as in that he says so surprises me, or as
object, as in that he said so I doubt. Sentences <strong>of</strong><br />
this kind are uncommon in current English, but<br />
if the construction is used, the conjunction must<br />
not be dropped. The conjunction is also required<br />
before a clause <strong>of</strong> purpose or result, but in current<br />
English an infinitive is generally preferred<br />
to a full clause here, as in I sent you to school to<br />
learn and what have Z done to have you treat me<br />
so?. The conjunction that is sometimes needed<br />
after a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor,<br />
but), as in he wished he had gone and that he<br />
had taken Mary. It is a convenience whenever<br />
there may be doubt about where a subordinate<br />
clause begins. For example, in he said yesterday<br />
he had finished the work, the word yesterday may<br />
belong with he said or with he had finished. The<br />
sentence would be clearer if a that was placed<br />
either before or after yesterday. In other cases,<br />
the word that can usually be omitted.<br />
To omit unnecessary that’s is not careless or<br />
slovenly writing. It makes for better prose, for<br />
smoother and more natural English, to omit<br />
them than to use them when they are not necessary.<br />
Too many thnt conjunctions create an impression<br />
<strong>of</strong> laboring the obvious. This stylistic<br />
mistake is seen most <strong>of</strong>ten in technical writing,<br />
where the author is over-anxious to make his<br />
points clear. More confidence in the reader<br />
would ease the burden for both writer and<br />
reader.<br />
that; which. The word that is primarily a demonstrative<br />
pronoun or adjective, but it is also used<br />
as a relative pronoun and as a conjunction. (For<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> that as a demonstrative, see this; that;<br />
for its use as a conjunction, see that.) It is a<br />
relative pronoun when it forms part <strong>of</strong> a subordinate<br />
clause and at the same time represents<br />
a noun or pronoun appearing in the principal<br />
clause <strong>of</strong> the same sentence. Which is primarily<br />
an interrogative pronoun or adjective, but it too<br />
can be used as a relative. It is more adaptable<br />
to Latin constructions than the word that and<br />
was first used as a relative in translations from<br />
Latin. From this it passed into general English<br />
and now competes with the relative that. (For<br />
all uses <strong>of</strong> which except as a relative pronoun,<br />
see which.)<br />
That is the oldest and the most useful <strong>of</strong> the<br />
relatives. It may be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> persons,<br />
animals, or inanimate things, as in<br />
This is the cock that crew in the morn,<br />
Unto the farmer sowing his corn,<br />
That met the priest with his pen and ink-horn,<br />
That married the man so tattered and torn,<br />
. . , and so on, to the house that Jack built.<br />
During the sixteenth century which was us&<br />
interchangeably with that as a relative. In the<br />
King James Bible (1611), Matthew 22:21<br />
reads: Render therefore unto Caesar the things<br />
which are Caesar’s; and unto God the things<br />
that are God’s. The same verse occurs in Mark<br />
and Luke. In Mark that appears in both statements,<br />
and in Luke which appears in both. At<br />
that time which, like that, was used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> persons as well as <strong>of</strong> thirgs, and in this trans-<br />
505 that<br />
lation <strong>of</strong> the Bible we find Our Father which<br />
ort in heaven. During the seventeenth century<br />
that almost disappeared from literary English<br />
and who replaced which as a relative referring<br />
to persons. (See who; whom.) But by 1700 that<br />
was Corning into favor again. At first many educated<br />
people considered it a vulgar innovation.<br />
The Soectator <strong>of</strong> Mav 30. 1711. Dublished a<br />
“Humble Petition <strong>of</strong> W?zo a&d Which against the<br />
upstart Jack Sprat That,” in which Who and<br />
Which say: “We are descended <strong>of</strong> ancient Families,<br />
and kept up our Dignity and Honor many<br />
Years till the Jacksprat That supplanted us.”<br />
Actually, they were the intruders and eventually<br />
that regained its old position. In the Authorized<br />
Revision <strong>of</strong> the Bible (nublished in 18851 we<br />
find Our Father that art‘,& heaven, the for& that<br />
had been used in the Wycliffe translation <strong>of</strong> 1389.<br />
Today we make a distinction between lvho and<br />
which, and use who in speaking <strong>of</strong> persons and<br />
which in speaking <strong>of</strong> anything subhuman. That is<br />
generally preferred to which where both words<br />
are possible, but many people prefer who to that<br />
when the reference is to a person. Twentieth<br />
century translations <strong>of</strong> the Bible are likely to<br />
read, Our Father who art in heaven.<br />
It is sometimes claimed that the relative pronoun<br />
that must be used in a defining clause that<br />
is essential to the meaning <strong>of</strong> a statement, as in<br />
we use margarine that contains vitamin A and he<br />
was a bold man that first ate an oyster; and that<br />
who or which is required in a clause that is merely<br />
descriptive, as in we use butter, which contains<br />
vitamin A and he was a strange man, who cared<br />
for nothing. Clauses <strong>of</strong> the first kind are called<br />
defining, restrictive, or explanatory. Clauses <strong>of</strong><br />
the second kind are called descriptive, additive,<br />
or resumptive.<br />
The distinction between restrictive that and<br />
descriptive which or who is an invention <strong>of</strong> the<br />
grammarians and a very recent one. Fowler, who<br />
recommends it, says, “it would be idle to pretend<br />
that it is the practice either <strong>of</strong> most or <strong>of</strong> the best<br />
writers.” What is not the practice <strong>of</strong> most, or <strong>of</strong><br />
the best, is not part <strong>of</strong> our common language. In<br />
actual practice, which is not <strong>of</strong>ten used in a defining<br />
clause today, but it may be. In the King<br />
James Bible, the woman who lost a silver piece<br />
and then found it, says: I have found the piece<br />
which Z had lost. Twentieth century translators<br />
altered this sentence but felt no need to change<br />
the defining which to that, and wrote I have<br />
found the coin which I had lost. The relative<br />
who, on the other hand, is frequently used in<br />
defining clauses. No one today would see anything<br />
awkward in the sentence he was a bold<br />
man who first ate an oyster. The relative that,<br />
now as always, is used freely in descriptive<br />
clauses (as well as in defining ones), as in those<br />
are Grecian ghosts, that in burr/e were slain and<br />
the last was Fear, that is akin to Death. Very<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten that and which are used in the same sentence<br />
with identically the same function, as in u<br />
circumstance that occurred, or which Shelley<br />
supposed did occur.<br />
Anyone who likes to do so may limit his own
the<br />
that’s to defining clauses. But he must not read<br />
this distinction into other men’s writing, and he<br />
must not expect his readers to recognize it in his<br />
own. It is sometimes necessary to show that a<br />
clause is purely descriptive and not defining, but<br />
this cannot be accomplished by using the word<br />
who or which. In order to make this fact clear,<br />
the descriptive clause must be set <strong>of</strong>f by a pair<br />
<strong>of</strong> commas, which have the effect <strong>of</strong> parenthesis<br />
marks, or the sentence must be recast.<br />
In current English which is used in place <strong>of</strong><br />
that chiefly for variety. The essential difference<br />
between these words today is described by a<br />
grammarian writing fifty years ago, who said:<br />
“In all ages <strong>of</strong> the English tongue thnt has been<br />
the standard relative <strong>of</strong> the body <strong>of</strong> the people,<br />
and to this day which is stiff and formal, suggestive<br />
<strong>of</strong> the student’s lamp or the pedagogue’s<br />
birch.”<br />
When the conjunction fhat is followed by the<br />
demonstrative pronoun that, there is a noticeable<br />
difference in the way the two words are pronounced,<br />
as can be heard in I believe that that is<br />
true. When a demonstrative that is followed by<br />
a relative that the two words are pronounced<br />
alike, as in I have that that you gave me. As a<br />
rule, which is preferred to that in this construction<br />
and we say that which you gave me or what<br />
you gave me. On the other hand, that is the only<br />
relative used after who. We say who that has any<br />
pride and not who who or who wl~ich. That is<br />
generally preferred to who or which following<br />
the word same, as in it is the sume man that wns<br />
here yesterday. The relative that cannot be preceded<br />
by a preposition, as which can. We say the<br />
box that I spoke about and not the box about<br />
that I spoke. Sometimes this determines which<br />
word is used. But with these exceptions, the<br />
words are pretty much interchangeable.<br />
That and which are both singular or plural<br />
depending on the word they represent. Theoretically<br />
that may be first, second, or third person,<br />
but as a rule it is treated as a third person<br />
pronoun. (For special problems <strong>of</strong> person and<br />
number, see agreement: verbs and one.) In literary<br />
English whose is the possessive form for<br />
both thut and which, as in the house whose foundations<br />
are being laid, stars whose light has not<br />
yet reuched US. Thirty years ago the avoidance<br />
<strong>of</strong> whose in favor <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong> which was considered<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> the writing <strong>of</strong> people who had<br />
had very little education. Today it is seen too<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten in scientific work to be called anything but<br />
standard, but it is still un-literary.<br />
In natural English a relative clause always follows<br />
the word it qualifies. It is sometimes said<br />
that a that clause must follow immediately and<br />
that which is required when there are intervening<br />
words. The lines quoted above from the House<br />
that Juck Built show that this is not true. Either<br />
pronoun is likely to attach itself to the nearest<br />
available word, which may not be the word that<br />
was intended, as in the package on the table<br />
which Z just wrapped up. A comma before the<br />
relative pronoun will prevent its being attached<br />
to the immediatelv urecedinn word.<br />
A clause that is distinctly descriptive and capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> being set <strong>of</strong>f from the rest <strong>of</strong> the sentence<br />
by commas must be self-contained, and<br />
therefore must have its relative pronoun. In a<br />
defining clause, on the other hand, the relative<br />
pronoun can usually be omitted, as in the people<br />
I stayed with. A clause <strong>of</strong> this kind that does not<br />
have a relative pronoun is called a contact clause.<br />
The construction is as acceptable in written English<br />
as it is in speech, and is used frequently by<br />
Shakespeare, Swift, Fielding, Goldsmith, Sterne,<br />
Burke, Byron, Shelley, Carlyle, Dickens, Thackeray,<br />
Tennyson, Ruskin, R. L. Stevenson, and by<br />
all writers whose style is easy and natural.<br />
Formerly the relative pronoun could be omitted<br />
even when it was clearly the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
following verb, as in wilt thou ascribe that to<br />
merit now, wus mere fortune and there arose a<br />
clutter might wake the dead. This is no longer<br />
acceptable and a sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind is now<br />
either archaic or dialectal. But, except when<br />
used in a comparison, the relative may be omitted<br />
from any position in which the speech instinct<br />
calls for an objective rather than a<br />
subjective pronoun. It may be omitted when it<br />
is the object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in the songs we used<br />
to sing; or the object <strong>of</strong> a preposition, as in the<br />
boy we gave the apples to; or the complement<br />
<strong>of</strong> some form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be, as in he is not<br />
the man his father was, or technically the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb to be but standing in the complement<br />
position, as in we gave him all there<br />
was. See subjective pronouns.<br />
the. This word is a weakened form <strong>of</strong> that and its<br />
principal function is to distinguish one thing<br />
from others <strong>of</strong> the same kind.<br />
In principle, the is not used before any word<br />
whose meaning is sufficiently definite without it,<br />
such as a proper name. Nor is it used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> classes <strong>of</strong> things that have no individuality,<br />
where there is no need to distinguish one specimen<br />
from another, as in sugar is sweet. But no<br />
clear-cut rules are possible here. We may need to<br />
distinguish a proper name, as in the John Adams<br />
I am talking about; and we may need to speak <strong>of</strong><br />
some particular lot <strong>of</strong> sugar, as in the sugar is on<br />
the table.<br />
Because the individualizes one out <strong>of</strong> a class<br />
<strong>of</strong> things, it may be used to mark something<br />
non-human as unique or individual, even when<br />
it does not belong to a class <strong>of</strong> things, such as<br />
the universe, the moon, the Creation. Here the<br />
competes with the function <strong>of</strong> a proper name<br />
and we have such variation as the Bible and<br />
Genesis, the Bronx and Manhattan. (For the<br />
question <strong>of</strong> capitalizing the before a proper<br />
name, see proper nouns.)<br />
When not used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a unique thing,<br />
the means “that particular one out <strong>of</strong> the lot <strong>of</strong><br />
them.” We may know what particular one is<br />
meant by what has been said before, or the<br />
identifying clause may follow immediately. The<br />
man who lives next door might be the opening<br />
words <strong>of</strong> some statement, but the man said to me<br />
requires something before it to give it meaning.<br />
When the does not refer back and is not followed
y a defining clause, it indicates a typical specimen<br />
<strong>of</strong> the class, as in the rat is larger than the<br />
mouse. Here the use <strong>of</strong> the approaches the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> o, which means “any.” The words man and<br />
woman are never used with the to indicate the<br />
type, but any other word may be, as in she was<br />
the perfect lady and he is always the artist.<br />
Formerly the was used with the names <strong>of</strong> diseases.<br />
Today we are likely to keep this the before<br />
names that we associate with the past, such as<br />
the cholera, the grippe, and to omit it before<br />
words that are current today, such as rheumatism<br />
and asthma. In the case <strong>of</strong> children’s<br />
diseases we are more tolerant and may say<br />
either the mumps, the measles or simply mumps<br />
and measles.<br />
The is dropped from certain prepositional<br />
phrases, such as at church, on campus, in jail.<br />
The rule is that the the is retained when one is<br />
thinking about the actual place, object, or institution,<br />
and omitted when what is uppermost in<br />
the mind is the thing’s purpose or function. If so,<br />
Englishmen must be more function-minded than<br />
Americans, because they drop a great many the’s<br />
that we keep. They say she is in hospital, we were<br />
at table, he looked out <strong>of</strong> window. The last example<br />
particularly interested Mark Twain, who<br />
claimed that out <strong>of</strong> the window was one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
distinguishing marks <strong>of</strong> the American language.<br />
The is primarily an adjective and qualifies a<br />
noun. But it may also be used to qualify the<br />
comparative form <strong>of</strong> an adjective or adverb, as<br />
in I like him the better for it. Here the is an<br />
adverb <strong>of</strong> extent and is equivalent to “that<br />
much.” (See comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives and adverbs.)<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> the before a measure term,<br />
as in six dollars the bushel, is an idiom borrowed<br />
from French. The natural, and preferred,<br />
form in English is with the word a, as in six<br />
dollars a bushel. (See nouns as adverbs.)<br />
thee; thou. These words are no longer natural<br />
English, but they were once in everyday use as<br />
the singular <strong>of</strong> you. At that time thee was the<br />
objective pronoun and thou the subjective. The<br />
difference in the use <strong>of</strong> these two words can be<br />
seen in the lines: Shall I compare thee to a<br />
summer’s day? Thou art more lovely and more<br />
temperate. By the end <strong>of</strong> the sixteenth century<br />
thee was <strong>of</strong>ten used in place <strong>of</strong> thou, very much<br />
as me is used in place <strong>of</strong> I. This can be seen in<br />
such phrases as I would not be thee and not so<br />
blessed as thee. But soon after this, the plural<br />
you replaced the singular altogether in natural<br />
speech and later poets have used thee and thou<br />
pretty much as they pleased. See also you; ye.<br />
When thou was standard English, it had a distinctive<br />
verb form ending in st, as in thou takest,<br />
thou hast, thou hadst, thou wast. The s was<br />
omitted in the four words art, wert, wilt, shalt.<br />
Anyone wanting to write archaic English must<br />
recognize the difference between these forms,<br />
used with thou, and the old forms used with the<br />
third person singular, that is, used in speaking<br />
about a person or thing rather than to someone.<br />
The old third person ending was th and it was<br />
used just as we now use the ending s, as in he<br />
theirselves<br />
tuketh, he bath, he doeth. It was not used in the<br />
past tense. One did not say he hadeth, he didet!?.<br />
Neither the st nor the th ending was used in a<br />
subjunctive verb form. That is, one said though<br />
thou fall and though he fall. (The form is has<br />
been preferred to beeth since before the time <strong>of</strong><br />
Shakespeare.)<br />
When thee and thou were becoming obsolete,<br />
the Society <strong>of</strong> Friends refused to accept the polite<br />
or flattering you and kept the old singulars,<br />
on the grounds that to use a plural word in<br />
speaking to one person was unnatural, unreasonable,<br />
and undemocratic. For a time the Friends<br />
used the words thee and thou conventionally.<br />
That is, thou was always the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
and thee the object; thou was followed by the<br />
old verb form ending in st, and was used only in<br />
speaking to one person, not in speaking to several<br />
people. But just as objective you drove out<br />
subjective ye in general English, objective thee<br />
drove out subjective thou in Quaker speech.<br />
Eventually thee, like you, was used as both the<br />
subjective and the objective pronoun. Unlike you,<br />
it was always used with a singular verb. For the<br />
last hundred years or so, it has been used with<br />
the form <strong>of</strong> the verb that normally follows he or<br />
she, as in thee is a good woman, Dorothy. It is<br />
now the only form <strong>of</strong> address and is used in<br />
speaking to any number <strong>of</strong> people.<br />
their; theirs. The form their is used to qualify a<br />
following noun, as in their home, their good<br />
friends. The form theirs is used in any other construction,<br />
as in friends <strong>of</strong> theirs, all theirs. Theirs<br />
is also the form used in a double possessive<br />
where it is separated from its following noun by<br />
and, as in theirs and your affectionate friend.<br />
Today this construction is generally avoided and<br />
their friend and yours or their own and your<br />
friend is used instead. Neither word order shows<br />
clearly whether we are talking about one thing<br />
or two, but the old-fashioned form, theirs and<br />
your friend, suggests one thing possessed in common<br />
more strongly than the forms which use<br />
their.<br />
The word their means “belonging to them.”<br />
It must be distinguished from they’re, which<br />
means “they are,” and from there, which sometimes<br />
indicates a place and sometimes is simply<br />
a functional word with no meaning at all. These<br />
three words have the same sound, but they are<br />
written differently.<br />
In current English, the word theirs is never<br />
written with an apostrophe. It must not be confused<br />
with there’s which means “there is.” See<br />
possessive pronouns. For the use <strong>of</strong> their in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> a single person, see they.<br />
thelrn is in use today but it has never been standard<br />
English, although it is formed on the pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> hisn, hern, ourn, yourn, all <strong>of</strong> which were<br />
once standard. The only acceptable form is theirs.<br />
tbeirselves. This word is not standard. The only<br />
acceptable form is themselves.<br />
Theirselves is made with the possessive pronoun<br />
in the same way that yourselves and ourselves<br />
are. An older form, theirself, was once<br />
literary English but it dropped out <strong>of</strong> the stand-
theism<br />
ard language at least five hundred years ago. A<br />
grammarian writing in 1762 thought that themselves<br />
was a corruption and theirselves the logically<br />
correct form. But themselves was the acceptable<br />
form in 1762 and is the acceptable form today.<br />
However, the possessive form their, and not<br />
the objective form them, is required when another<br />
word stands between the pronoun and the<br />
word selves, as in their very selves.<br />
theism. See deism.<br />
them. The word them should not be used as an<br />
adjective. That is, it should not be used to<br />
qualify a noun, as in them melons, them friends<br />
<strong>of</strong> yours. Actually, it is used in this way and<br />
has been for about four hundred years, but the<br />
construction has always been considered uneducated<br />
usage. Even when standing alone, them<br />
cannot be used to point out anything inanimate,<br />
but only to refer back to something that has<br />
already been mentioned. In a grocery store we<br />
cannot say I will take two <strong>of</strong> them melons. Nor<br />
can we look hard at the melons and say I will<br />
take two <strong>of</strong> them. In both cases we must say<br />
either these or those. However, if the grocer says<br />
these are very fine melons we can then say I will<br />
take two <strong>of</strong> them, because at this point them<br />
refers to something already mentioned and is<br />
not being used as a demonstrative pronoun. This<br />
distinction does not apply when speaking about<br />
human beings. We can say wait on them first<br />
without anything having been said about “them”<br />
before. And the rule does not apply to they.<br />
This word is never used before a noun, but it<br />
can be used to point out something. We can<br />
look hard at another box <strong>of</strong> melons and say<br />
they look nicer to me. (For the use <strong>of</strong> them in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> a single person, see they. For when<br />
to use them rather than they, see objective pronouns.<br />
)<br />
themself; themselves. Originally, the word self<br />
could be used as a singular or as a plural and,<br />
until about 1540. themself was the only form in<br />
use. Since then, the form.themselves has driven<br />
themself from standard English. Themself is<br />
now archaic. (For the ways in which themselves<br />
may be used, see reflexive pronouns.)<br />
then is primarily an adverb but it may also be<br />
used as an adjective before a noun, as in the<br />
then president, the then Prince <strong>of</strong> Wales. It has<br />
been used in this way for at least three hundred<br />
years.<br />
there may be a demonstrative adverb meaning “in<br />
that place,” as in there nothing is wrong; or it<br />
may be a function word without any meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
its own, as in there is nothing wrong. The demonstrative<br />
adverb always has a heavy stress<br />
and the function word is always pronounced<br />
lightly. One may use both in the same sentence<br />
without seeming to have used the same word<br />
twice, as in there there is nothing wrong.<br />
The only interesting thing about the demonstrative<br />
adverb is that it cannot stand before a<br />
noun. That man there is my friend is a dignified<br />
sentence. But that there man is my friend is at<br />
present unspeakable! Someone has said that that<br />
there is now ‘&the most illiterate noise one can<br />
make.” The expression is not wrong because<br />
there repeats the demonstrative that. We have no<br />
objection at all to repeating an elemental notion,<br />
as in the self-same song. What we object to is the<br />
adverb standing before the noun, and when there<br />
follows man, all is well. The expression is grammatically<br />
comparable to the above remarks, his<br />
then residence, but it has been made a scapegoat,<br />
and a wise man will not associate with a scapegoat<br />
unnecessarily.<br />
The second there (the function word) is much<br />
more interesting. It always stands where we expect<br />
to find the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, and in this<br />
resembles the expletive it. (See it.) But the<br />
there type <strong>of</strong> sentence is different from the it<br />
type <strong>of</strong> sentence in structure and in meaning.<br />
It may be used as a “dummy” subject with any<br />
verb, as in it astonishes me that. . . . In current<br />
English the empty there can only be used with a<br />
purely linking verb, principally be, come, seem,<br />
appear. The verb following it is always singular,<br />
even when the subject represented by it is plural,<br />
as in it was his friends who told him. The verb<br />
following there may be singular or plural. According<br />
to the rules, it is plural if the meaningful<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> the sentence is plural, and singular if it<br />
is not, as in there were friends who told him and<br />
there was one in particular. There is a strong<br />
tendency today to use only a singular verb after<br />
there, even with a plural subject. This is now<br />
acceptable English when the word closest to the<br />
verb is singular, as in there was a man and two<br />
women. A singular verb is <strong>of</strong>ten heard before a<br />
plural word, as in there was two women, but this<br />
<strong>of</strong>fends many people and is condemned by most<br />
grammarians.<br />
The subject represented by it may be a noun<br />
or pronoun but more <strong>of</strong>ten it is a that clause or<br />
an infinitive. The meaningful subject <strong>of</strong> a there<br />
sentence is never a clause or an infinitive.<br />
The expletive it is used simply to fill the subject<br />
position, so that we may place the true subject<br />
somewhere else, either to make it emphatic<br />
or because it is too long to handle efficiently<br />
before the verb. If we replace it with the words<br />
it represents the sentence loses emphasis or becomes<br />
unwieldy. The there construction on the<br />
other hand makes a vague or indefinite statement.<br />
It is used chiefly with indefinite qualifying<br />
words such as a, no, some, any, few, many, as in<br />
there are some who say, there is a man who says.<br />
When particularizing words such as the, this,<br />
that, my, are used, the individual in most cases<br />
is being <strong>of</strong>fered as a type or an example, as in<br />
there is the man who says and there is the child<br />
next door, for example. The principal statement<br />
in a there sentence is “this exists,” or “this seems<br />
to be,” and the meaningful statement is subordinated<br />
to this. The there construction detaches<br />
the statement from the speaker and makes it impersonal.<br />
If such a sentence is recast it does not<br />
lose emphasis but becomes more immediate,<br />
more concrete and more vivid.<br />
thereabout; thereabouts. These words are used<br />
interchangeably today, and have been for several<br />
centuries. Some grammarians claim that there-
abouts ought to be the preferred form, because<br />
the word is used to qualify a verb and s is a<br />
formal adverbial ending. But there is no evidence<br />
that it actually is preferred. Both forms<br />
may be used figuratively, as thereabouts in 5000<br />
inhabitants or thereabouts.<br />
there’s the rob; ay, there’s the rob. For those who<br />
choose to vary tedium with monotony the clich6<br />
there’s the rub may at times be replaced by its<br />
fuller form ay, there’s the rub. Rub, in this famous<br />
phrase (Hamlet, Act III, Scene l), means<br />
an obstacle, impediment, or hindrance, <strong>of</strong> a nonmaterial<br />
nature. It is derived from a term used<br />
in the game <strong>of</strong> bowls, where a rub is some obstacle<br />
or impediment by which a bowl is hindered<br />
or diverted from its intended course.<br />
thesaurus. The plural is thesauruses or thesauri.<br />
these. See this; that.<br />
thesis. The plural is thesises or theses.<br />
they. The words they, them, their, are used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> more than one Ldividual. They may<br />
also be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a single individual<br />
whose sex is unknown. For example, only the<br />
word his would be used in every soldier carried<br />
his O)Y~ pack, but most people would say their<br />
rather than his in everybody brought their own<br />
lunch. And it would be a violation <strong>of</strong> English<br />
idiom to say was he? in nobody was killed, were<br />
they? The use <strong>of</strong> they in speaking <strong>of</strong> a single<br />
individual is not a modern deviation from classical<br />
English. It is found in the works <strong>of</strong> many<br />
great writers, including Malory, Shakespeare,<br />
Swift, Defoe, Shelley, Austen, Scott, Kingsley,<br />
Dickens, Ruskin, George Eliot.<br />
They may be used generally or with a vague<br />
reference, as in they say, what have they done<br />
to you?, and they had strikes even then. This<br />
construction may be out <strong>of</strong> place when something<br />
more specific than they is wanted. But<br />
grammatically, this USC <strong>of</strong> they is in a class with<br />
the similar use <strong>of</strong> people or men and is equally<br />
acceptable.<br />
They may be used before a numeral, as in<br />
they two will wed the morrow morn. This is<br />
literary English, but archaic. To many people<br />
it sounds like the unacceptable use <strong>of</strong> them<br />
before a noun, as in them books, and the forms<br />
these two, those two, the two, are generally<br />
preferred. Traditionally, they and them may<br />
stand before a qualifying phrase or clause, as<br />
in blessed are they that mourn and the third<br />
and fourth generation <strong>of</strong> them that hate me, but<br />
in current English the words rhose or these are<br />
generally preferred in this position. (For when<br />
to use they rather than them, see subjective pronouns.)<br />
thick as thieves. As a humorous simile for a<br />
close, and slightly conspiratorial, intimacy, as<br />
thick as thieves, although it seems to be a creation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the twentieth century, is already a clichC.<br />
For those who want to avoid it but still feel a<br />
need for some such comparison, there are many<br />
established metaphors waiting: as thick as hail,<br />
as thick as hops, as thick as huckleberries, for<br />
those who wish to emphasize pr<strong>of</strong>usion; as thick<br />
as porridge, for those who have specific density<br />
509 think<br />
in mind; and for chumminess, a fine old Scotch<br />
simile, as thick as three in a bed.<br />
thief. The plural is thieves.<br />
thief; robber; burglar; bandit; gangster. A thief is<br />
one who takes another’s property by stealth, without<br />
the other’s knowledge. It is a word <strong>of</strong> contempt<br />
(Now does he feel his title/ Hang loose<br />
about him, like a giant’s robe/ Upon a dwarfish<br />
thief). A robber trespasses upon the house,<br />
property, or person <strong>of</strong> another, and makes away<br />
with things <strong>of</strong> value, even using violence (The<br />
robbers seem to have made their escape through<br />
the trap door and over the ro<strong>of</strong>s. Three masked<br />
robbers held up the First National Bank shortly<br />
after noon today). Where the robbery is committed<br />
in the open, with the threat or use <strong>of</strong> a<br />
knife or gun, or with felonious assault, the more<br />
common term in America today is hold-up man<br />
or men and the robbery itself is termed a holdup.<br />
Masked robbers or robbers whose depradations<br />
are accompanied by some dash or bravado<br />
are usually called, in the papers at least, bandits.<br />
It is a journalistic clicht, however, being little<br />
employed in ordinary speech or writing unless<br />
one is referring to Mexican outlaws. Gangster,<br />
a far-too-common word, is applied to members<br />
or assumed members <strong>of</strong> armed gangs, especially<br />
to those thought to be members <strong>of</strong> closely knit<br />
organizations controlled by some criminal mastermind,<br />
or to robbers or murderers whose violence<br />
is akin to that employed by the gangsters<br />
in their feuds or brushes with the law. Burglar<br />
is now a slightly old-fashioned term. It describes<br />
a felonious housebreaker, especially one who<br />
commits robbery by breaking into a house at<br />
night. See also steal; purloin; pilfer; etc.<br />
thieve. See steal.<br />
thieves. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> thief.<br />
thimblerig. See shell game.<br />
thine. See thy; tbine and my; mine.<br />
thing. In present-day English thing ordinarily<br />
means a material and inanimate thing, but the<br />
word is not limited to this meaning. Whatever<br />
can be talked about may be called a thing, as in<br />
men who were engineers and business managers<br />
and (I dozen other things. Under some circumstances<br />
even a quality may be called a thing, as<br />
in she was good, kind, honest, and everything a<br />
woman should be.<br />
think. The past tense is thought. The participle is<br />
also thought.<br />
If think is used in a passive form it may be<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in he is thought to<br />
have left. When it is used in an active form it<br />
may be followed by a clause, as in I think he has<br />
left. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is used it must be<br />
introduced by <strong>of</strong>, as in he did not think <strong>of</strong><br />
leaving. Think, in an active form, is sometimes<br />
followed by an infinitive, as in I did not think to<br />
tell him. If in this sentence the word think means<br />
plan or expect, the construction is archaic. If it<br />
means remember, the construction is condemned<br />
by some grammarians, but is standard usage in<br />
the United States today.<br />
Think for is the standard English idiom in<br />
comparisons with than or as, as in more than
think 510<br />
you think for and as much as he thought for.<br />
Today this for is <strong>of</strong>ten dropped, as in more than<br />
you think, perhaps out <strong>of</strong> fear <strong>of</strong> “ending a sentence<br />
with a preposition.” This usage is so widespread<br />
that it cannot be called anything but<br />
standard, but it strikes the ears <strong>of</strong> anyone familiar<br />
with literary English as a clipped phrase<br />
that has been stopped before it was finished.<br />
An old verb meaning “it seems” or “it appears”<br />
has become merged with the verb think. It is<br />
seen in such statements as I think it’s going to<br />
rain. When used in this sense, the long form <strong>of</strong><br />
the present tense with thinking, as in you’re a<br />
good woman, I’m thinking, is a Scottish or Irish<br />
idiom and not standard English. In most cases it<br />
is impossible to say which verb the speaker intended.<br />
I am thinking it is going to rain may<br />
mean that he is turning this thought over in his<br />
mind, in which case the construction is thoroughly<br />
acceptable. In the United States, guess.<br />
reckon, and sometimes calculate, are used for<br />
this sense <strong>of</strong> the verb think.<br />
The same old verb survives in thinks I. This<br />
is not in a class with says I, partly because it has<br />
a literary background but chiefly because it is<br />
not heard so constantly in the speech <strong>of</strong> uneducated<br />
people. Methinks is the same verb in its<br />
purest form, but this is now obsolete. It is used<br />
today only by people who believe they can create<br />
a Walter Scott atmosphere with half a dozen<br />
words.<br />
think; deem; judge; suppose. Think is the general<br />
word for forming or having a thought or<br />
opinion (I think; therefore I am. I think that I<br />
shall never see/ A poem lovely as a tree). Judge<br />
suggests a careful balance <strong>of</strong> reason and evidence<br />
and a judicial detachment in arriving at a<br />
conclusion (Do not judge me by my appearante).<br />
It is used a little pompously as a synonym<br />
for think by those who believe, or would like<br />
to suggest, that their slightest opinions are<br />
reached in judicial detachment only after weighing<br />
evidence and consulting reason (I judge it’ll<br />
take us about half an hour to get these potatoes<br />
peeled). Deem meant originally to pronounce<br />
judgment or to sit in judgment (As ye deme, ye<br />
shall be demed). It is cognate with doom and<br />
is the base <strong>of</strong> the family name Dempster. In<br />
modern use it is a formal synonym <strong>of</strong> judge,<br />
with a fine antique flavor suitable for commencement<br />
exercises, political orations, elegies,<br />
editorials, and other places and pronounceme s<br />
where clarity and ease are to be avoided 7I<br />
deem it an honor to be asked to speak before<br />
so distinguished a group. We deem that in these<br />
troubled times . . .). To suppose is to have an<br />
opinion that seems justified (I suppose he knows<br />
what he’s doing) but which we are not willing<br />
to back up as a definite conviction. See also<br />
calculate, consider, feel.<br />
third person singular. This is the form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
used whenever the subject is singular and is not<br />
either <strong>of</strong> the pronouns you or I. In the usual<br />
analysis <strong>of</strong> verb forms, the third person singular<br />
seems to be only one out <strong>of</strong> six forms. But in<br />
actual practice this is the form <strong>of</strong> the verb used<br />
most <strong>of</strong>ten. In a typical page <strong>of</strong> written material<br />
more than half the verbs are in the third person<br />
singular.<br />
this; that. These words may be used as demonstrative<br />
adjectives which qualify a following<br />
noun, as in this young child, or without a following<br />
noun as demonstrative pronouns, as in<br />
that tastes good. In general, this indicates what<br />
is close, and that what is distant in relation to<br />
the sneaker. This is always singular and has the<br />
plural form these. When used as a demonstrative,<br />
that too is always singular and has the<br />
plural form those. (For the use <strong>of</strong> that as a<br />
conjunction, see that; for its use as a relative<br />
pronoun, see that; which.)<br />
All four words are used, primarily, in speaking<br />
about something that can be seen or pointed at,<br />
as in this is my brother and is that you? They are<br />
also used to represent something that has just<br />
been said. This may be a single word or it may<br />
be an idea that required several sentences to express.<br />
The word that is preferred when an exact<br />
repetition <strong>of</strong> what has just been said is intended,<br />
as in I’ll repent, and that suddenly. The word this<br />
is preferred when the reference is less specific.<br />
It is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a summarizing word and<br />
means “all that has just been said.”<br />
This and these are also used to represent<br />
words that are to follow. In this construction<br />
the reference is usually specific, as in this above<br />
all, to thine own self be true and we hold these<br />
truths to be self-evident: That all men are created<br />
equal; that. . . . That and those may be<br />
used in speaking <strong>of</strong> something that is not immediately<br />
present and has not been mentioned before,<br />
but the reference is usually vague. As a<br />
rule, explanatory words follow immediately, as<br />
in that which is hardest to bear and those who<br />
say such things. That followed by a relative pronoun<br />
is frequently replaced by what. (See what.)<br />
In current English those is preferred to they<br />
or them when used with a defining word or<br />
phrase, as in those present, those in the basket,<br />
those he sent. The adjective those may also be<br />
used generically to indicate an entire class <strong>of</strong><br />
things, as in those large police dogs are very<br />
intelligent.<br />
The words this and that may be used in identifying<br />
a human being, as in do you see that<br />
woman crossing the street and that child looks<br />
sick. When there is no need, or no intention, <strong>of</strong><br />
identifying, the words are derogatory, as in that<br />
woman!, this son <strong>of</strong> yours. That seems to be<br />
stronger than this as an expression <strong>of</strong> contempt;<br />
those can occasionally be used in this way, as in<br />
those Joneses!, but these never is.<br />
This and that are sometimes used to show<br />
“how much.” It is unquestionably standard English<br />
to use this or that before much or many<br />
when these words are standing alone, as in I<br />
know this much and I did not think there were<br />
that many. Here much and many are interpreted<br />
as nouns and this and that as adjectives. But<br />
when much or many is used before a noun it becomes<br />
an adjective and this and that, in turn,<br />
adverbs <strong>of</strong> degree, as in to whom he owed this
much courtesy and to have that much science.<br />
Some grammarians claim that this and that<br />
should not be used to qualify an adjective and<br />
that these constructions are therefore wrong, In<br />
practice, this use <strong>of</strong> the words is acceptable English<br />
so long as the meaning <strong>of</strong> this or that is defined.<br />
It may be defined in speech by a gesture<br />
<strong>of</strong> the hands, as in the box was this wide. Or it<br />
may be defined by what has just been said, as in<br />
Can you come at six? I can’t get there that early<br />
and so long as men continue to live in this competitive<br />
society . . . that long will the scab continue<br />
to exist. When the word is not actually<br />
defined, as in we have never been this rich<br />
before, it is questionable. When the word is used<br />
purely as an intensive, as in I was that pleased!<br />
and I am that sleepy!, the construction is slang<br />
or dialectal.<br />
this world’s goods. There may have been originally,<br />
in some deeply religious minds, a sincere<br />
distinction between the goods <strong>of</strong> this world and<br />
those <strong>of</strong> some other world, or the hereafter. But<br />
in most mouths the term was a canting phrase<br />
and is now a cliche, especially in the expression<br />
rich in this world’s goods. The modem attitude<br />
is expressed in the hackneyed assurance that<br />
“You can’t take it with you.”<br />
thoroughbred; purebred. With reference to animals,<br />
these words are synonymous, but thoroughbred<br />
is preferred, especially in relation to horses,<br />
there being a tendency among many farmers<br />
and breeders to restrict thoroughbred to horses<br />
and to use purebred in relation to other animals.<br />
Both words, whether used as nouns or adjectives,<br />
mean <strong>of</strong> pure or unmixed breed, stock, or race.<br />
In reference to dogs, cats, cattle, and <strong>of</strong>ten swine,<br />
there is an increasing tendency in America to use<br />
the word pedigreed instead <strong>of</strong> either thoroughbred<br />
or purebred and pedigreed has the further<br />
meaning that the animal is not only purebred<br />
but that a valid document exists or can be procured<br />
to attest this fact.<br />
There is a special’breed <strong>of</strong> horses called the<br />
Thoroughbred, an English breed <strong>of</strong> racehorses<br />
developed by crossing domestic and Middle Eastern<br />
strains. Only thoroughbred may be applied<br />
to persons and only figuratively. That is, the<br />
reference must be not to genetics but to qualities<br />
<strong>of</strong> behavior or character. In this it is parallel to<br />
breeding. A thoroughbred is a well-bred person,<br />
well-trained, polite (She traveled with the thoroughbreds,<br />
and was always Among Those Present-George<br />
Ade). The word was a vogue word<br />
among the realists at the turn <strong>of</strong> the century<br />
(“By Jove,” he cried, “You are a thoroughbred”<br />
-Frank Norris) but it has fortunately fallen<br />
into disuse and would seem a little tiected and<br />
absurd today.<br />
thoroughfare retains its original meaning in the<br />
negative injunction: No Thoroughfare. It means<br />
literally a passage through, hence a street open<br />
at both ends, hence a main road or highway. It<br />
also means various passages <strong>of</strong> other sorts, as a<br />
strait, river or the like, allowing passage through.<br />
those. See this; that.<br />
thou. See thee; thou.<br />
511 thrash<br />
though: although. Though may be used as a simple<br />
adverb meaning nevertheless. When used in<br />
this way it must stand at the end <strong>of</strong> its clause, as<br />
in I believe him though.<br />
Either word may be used as a conjunction to<br />
introduce a clause that concedes a point. Zf may<br />
be used in the same way, but it always suggests<br />
that what is conceded is doubtful. Though and<br />
although make light <strong>of</strong> the concession. They indicate<br />
that what follows may be true but that it<br />
has no bearing on the point at issue, as in though<br />
he slay me, yet will I trust him. There is very<br />
little difference between even if and even though,<br />
and none at all between as if and as though.<br />
Although always stands first in its clause.<br />
The conjunction though usually does. It always<br />
stands before the subject and verb but may<br />
sometimes stand after a word describing the<br />
subject, as in young though he is. The verb in<br />
a though clause may be in the subjunctive or in<br />
the indicative mode. See subjunctive mode.<br />
thought. See think.<br />
thousand. This word was originally a noun and<br />
was followed by <strong>of</strong>, as in a thousand <strong>of</strong> sensible<br />
men. Today the singular form thousand is treated<br />
as a cardinal number. That is, it is an adjective<br />
and used without <strong>of</strong>, as in twenty thousand Cornish<br />
bold and a thousand thousand slimy things,<br />
except when it refers to part <strong>of</strong> a specified group,<br />
as in two thousand <strong>of</strong> these men. An expression<br />
involving thousand is usually treated as a plural,<br />
as in three thousand cars were sold, but it may<br />
also be treated as a singular, especially when referring<br />
to money, as in three thousand dollars<br />
was set aside.<br />
The plural form thousands cannot be qualified<br />
by a numeral. It is a noun and requires <strong>of</strong> when<br />
followed by the name <strong>of</strong> anything countable, as<br />
in thousands <strong>of</strong> men; the <strong>of</strong> is omitted only before<br />
a degree word such as more, less, too many,<br />
as in thousands more men.<br />
Few usually takes the adjective construction,<br />
as in a few thousand men; many usually takes<br />
the noun construction, as in many thousands <strong>of</strong><br />
men. But either form may be used with either<br />
word.<br />
thrash and thresh are, originally, two spellings <strong>of</strong><br />
the same word. Today thresh is generally preferred<br />
when the beating has some value, as in<br />
thresh grain or thresh out a problem, and thrash<br />
is reserved for a simple flogging, as in thrash the<br />
boy. Thrash is also the preferred word at sea, as<br />
in the ships thrashed to windward.<br />
thrash, beat, beat up all refer to the giving <strong>of</strong> a<br />
blow or blows. Beat implies the giving <strong>of</strong> repeated<br />
blows (How we boys used to hate the business<br />
<strong>of</strong> hanging the carpets on the clothesline<br />
and beating them). The use <strong>of</strong> beat to describe<br />
brutal attacks by hold-up men (An unconscious<br />
man, apparently the victim <strong>of</strong> a hold-up who<br />
had resisted and been beaten, was found in an<br />
alley early this morning) has given the word a<br />
more sinister and more violent meaning in<br />
America than it has in England where such<br />
felonious assaults seem to be fewer.<br />
Thrash imulies inflicting reneated blows as
threadbare 512<br />
punishment, to show superior strength (Dr.<br />
Keate’s admirers boasted that he had thrashed<br />
half the b&hops, generals, and cabinet ministers<br />
<strong>of</strong> England). By one <strong>of</strong> those associations <strong>of</strong><br />
words that get fixed in languages, bullies always<br />
seem to get thrashed. The English apply thrush<br />
more than the Americans do to the infliction <strong>of</strong><br />
punishment on children. In America whip and<br />
spank are the more common words and both<br />
(though whip only in that context) suggest<br />
lighter and less violent treatment than thrush.<br />
Though some English authorities regard the<br />
zcp <strong>of</strong> beat up as unnecessary, it does mean something<br />
when one understands beat up to mean, as<br />
it does mean to most Americans, not merely to<br />
beat but to beat until the one beaten is in a state<br />
<strong>of</strong> physical collapse (The hitchhikers beat up the<br />
driver and went <strong>of</strong>l with his car). In slang usage<br />
beat up, as an adjective, means battered, showing<br />
signs <strong>of</strong> excessive wear (He wore a wonderful<br />
old beat-up hat, sloppy corduroy pants and dirty<br />
sneakers) or utterly tired out. One who is beaten<br />
up is one who has sustained a severe beating.<br />
One who is beat up is tired, exhausted.<br />
threadbare excuse is a threadbare phrase for an<br />
excuse made so <strong>of</strong>ten (usually by the same person)<br />
that it can no longer be accepted with even<br />
the pretense <strong>of</strong> credence.<br />
threaten. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in he threatened to resign. It is also<br />
heard with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in he<br />
threatened resigning, but the infinitive construction<br />
is preferred.<br />
thresh. See thrash.<br />
threw. See throw.<br />
thrifty. See economical.<br />
thrilled. See bored to death.<br />
thrive. The past tense is thrived or throve. The<br />
participle is thrived or thriven.<br />
In the United States thrived is now preferred<br />
for the past tense and the participle. In Great<br />
Britain the preferred forms are the older throve<br />
and thriven (He that would thrive must rise at<br />
five;/ He that has thriven may lie till seven).<br />
through thick and thin. The “thick” <strong>of</strong> thick and<br />
thin is a thicket, that is, a dense growth <strong>of</strong> shrubs,<br />
undergrowth, and small trees, a brake. To go<br />
through thick and thin (thicket had been<br />
shortened to thick in this expression even by<br />
Chaucer’s time) was to go relentlessly ahead,<br />
through thicket and open spaces. Hence to push<br />
on through everything in the way, disregarding<br />
all obstacles and impediments, or to adhere to<br />
some party or course under all circumstances,<br />
come what may. The phrase is now hackneyed<br />
and lacks specific meaning.<br />
throve. See thrive.<br />
throw. The past tense. is threw. The participle is<br />
thrown.<br />
Throwed was once literary English but is no<br />
longer standard, except in the nursery where<br />
throwed up is sometimes used as an idiot euphemism<br />
for vomited.<br />
throw; cast. These two verbs mean to hurl or<br />
tling. Cast is the more formal, throw the one<br />
which serves everyday uses.<br />
Cost is chiefly used in idiomatic expressions.<br />
There are Biblical uses: Cnst noz your pea&<br />
before swine. Let him first cast a stone at her.<br />
There are everyday uses: cast a vote, cast lots,<br />
cast nets, cast a fishing line, cast <strong>of</strong>f the bow line,<br />
castaways, cast-<strong>of</strong>f clothing, and so on. Deer cast<br />
their antlers, snakes their skins. Men cast <strong>of</strong>i evil<br />
habits and bad companions, the doing <strong>of</strong> which<br />
is felt to be noble, but throw <strong>of</strong> prosaic things<br />
like colds or headaches. We cast aspersions, cast<br />
an eye over a manuscript or an audience, cast<br />
aside scruples, caution, fear (Cast a cold eye/<br />
On life, on death,/ Horseman, pass by!).<br />
Throw, in addition to its literal and prosaic<br />
uses, also has idiomatic senses. We throw <strong>of</strong>f disguises<br />
or illnesses. We throw a veil over a discreditable<br />
incident. In American slang we throw<br />
a party when we give one that we hope will be<br />
distinguished by unusual gaiety and verve. We<br />
throw a game when we deliberately, for a bribe<br />
or some other base motive, permit the opponent<br />
to win. To throw the book at someone is to make<br />
him suffer the severest penalties. The term is a<br />
cliche. To throw a scene is to put on an exhibition<br />
<strong>of</strong> temperament. To throw up, to vomit, is<br />
standard in America in relation to children. In<br />
England it is obsolescent. In speaking <strong>of</strong> adults,<br />
it is better to use vomit.<br />
throw down the glove. It has been many centuries<br />
since any knight threw down his glove or gauntlet<br />
to another in defiance. As a term for challenging<br />
someone, lo throw down the glove to<br />
him is now stilted and worn.<br />
throw <strong>of</strong>f the scent. Used figuratively to mean to<br />
divert attention, and especially to divert suspicion,<br />
to throw <strong>of</strong>f the scent is a cliche.<br />
thrown. See throw.<br />
thrust. The past tense is thrust. The participle is<br />
also thrzzst.<br />
thumbtack; drawing pin. American thumbtack, a<br />
tack with a large, flat head, designed to be thrust<br />
in by the thumb, is equivalent to English druwing<br />
pin.<br />
thusly seems to have originated in the Boston<br />
lortrnal in 1889. Whether it was the product <strong>of</strong><br />
illiteracy or exuberance is not known, but it is<br />
hard to see what purpose it serves. Thus is an<br />
adverb and nothing is gained by attaching the<br />
regular adverbial suffix -1y to it (as in For many<br />
months, motivated thusly by his curiosity . . .<br />
etc.).<br />
thy; thine. These words are no longer natural<br />
English. When they are used, they follow exactly<br />
the pattern <strong>of</strong> my and mine. See my;<br />
mine.<br />
ticket has a number <strong>of</strong> special senses in America.<br />
As a noun it can mean the list <strong>of</strong> candidates for<br />
election nominated or put forward by a political<br />
party. (See also slate.) To vote a straight ticket<br />
is to vote for all <strong>of</strong> the candidates nominated<br />
by one party. As a verb ticket in the United<br />
States can mean to furnish with a ticket or to<br />
issue a ticket to (The little girl was ticketed<br />
through to Cincinnati).<br />
tickle means primarily to touch or stroke lightly<br />
with the fingers, a feather, etc., so as to excite<br />
a tingling or itching sensation in, to titillate<br />
(Nothing tickles that does not pinch. Some chil-
dren when tickled lose aII control <strong>of</strong> themselves).<br />
In America an older meaning <strong>of</strong> fickle, though<br />
merely a figurative extension <strong>of</strong> its primary<br />
meaning, is to gratify, to excite agreeably. This<br />
is still standard, <strong>of</strong>ten intensified by the addition<br />
<strong>of</strong> to death or pink (Nellie wns tickled to death<br />
with thaf dress you sent her!). This meaning<br />
used to be common in English usage (But, lord<br />
Christ! when that it remembreth me/ Upon my<br />
youth, and on my jollity,/ It tickleth me about<br />
mine heart’s root./ Unto this day it doth my<br />
heart boot/ That I have had my world as in my<br />
time-Chaucer) but is now little used in England.<br />
Tickle may also mean to excite amusement<br />
in (That kid’s comic; it tickles me every time I<br />
see him).<br />
tidbit; titbit; delicacy; dainty. Tidbit only is used<br />
in America. The English prefer titbit but allow<br />
tidbit. The primary sense in both countries is<br />
that <strong>of</strong> a delicate bit <strong>of</strong> food, and the secondary<br />
sense is that <strong>of</strong> a choice or pleasing bit <strong>of</strong> anything,<br />
especially news. The secondary sense is<br />
becoming the more common in America, with<br />
the suggestion that the choice bit <strong>of</strong> news is<br />
slightly scandalous.<br />
In the primary sense, a tidbit is a particularly<br />
choice or delicious morsel <strong>of</strong> food, a small<br />
amount taken from a larger amount on account<br />
<strong>of</strong> its excellence. A delicacy is something choice<br />
(His table wus always furnished with delicacies).<br />
Overuse has weakened the word and it is usually<br />
strengthened, in common use, by rare. Dainty, as<br />
a noun, is a stronger word than delicacy. It is a<br />
rare delicacy and likely to be slightly curious<br />
and exotic.<br />
tidy in standard usage means neat, trim, orderly.<br />
But it has different colloquial uses in England<br />
and America. In England, especially among the<br />
lower class (according to Partridge), it may<br />
mean moderately satisfactory (He managed to<br />
become a tidy fisherman) or good <strong>of</strong> its kind (A<br />
tidy shot that, I Patter myself). In America,<br />
especially, it means considerable (He made a<br />
tidy fortune in cigarcts when he was stationed in<br />
Berlin). The English know this meaning but do<br />
not employ it as much as the Americans do.<br />
tied to his mother’s apron strings. To say <strong>of</strong> a<br />
child who is deeply attached to his mother or <strong>of</strong><br />
a grown man who remains under his mother’s<br />
dominance that he is tied to his mother’s apron<br />
strings is to employ a hackneyed term.<br />
tighten one’s belt. As an expression for practicing<br />
economy, bracing oneself to meet adversity, especially<br />
want, to tighten one’s belt is a clicht.<br />
tilde is the name <strong>of</strong> the diacritical mark (-)<br />
placed over a letter, as over the letter n in Spanish,<br />
to indicate a palatal nasal sound. Thus Spanish<br />
&ion is pronounced like English canyon.<br />
tllI; until. These words mean the same thing and<br />
can be used interchangeably. Till is the older <strong>of</strong><br />
the two forms and should not be written as ‘til.<br />
Both words are used in speaking <strong>of</strong> an interval<br />
<strong>of</strong> time and are equivalent in meaning to the<br />
more general word to. Either may be used as a<br />
preposition with a simple object, as in wait till<br />
tomorrow, or as a conjunction introducing a full<br />
clause, as in a son’s u son fill he tukcs Q wife.<br />
513<br />
timber<br />
They cannot be used without an object and so<br />
are not adverbs, but they are like the adverbial<br />
conjunctions before, after, since, rather than the<br />
pure conjunctions, such as if, unless, because.<br />
The words following till or until show the time<br />
up to which an action or state <strong>of</strong> affairs continues.<br />
The verb in the principal clause may have<br />
any tense. In the subordinate or time clause, a<br />
present or present perfect tense verb is used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> the future, as in wait till the ruin<br />
stops or wait till the rain has stopped. In speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a past event a past perfect or a simple past<br />
tense may be used without any difference in<br />
meaning, as in he waited till the rain stopped<br />
and he waited till the rain had stopped.<br />
Till (or until) may be used to qualify a negative<br />
statement, as in he did not learn <strong>of</strong> it till the<br />
next day. Here we may say that what continues<br />
is the negative condition, namely that “he did<br />
not learn.” This explanation is not nossible with<br />
a sentence such as it was not long till we realized.<br />
Here the principal clause it wns not long makes a<br />
statement which cannot be thought <strong>of</strong> as continuing.<br />
The same is true <strong>of</strong> he wasn’t in the<br />
room five minutes till I realized. . . . This loose<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the word till (or until) is acceptable in the<br />
United States but not in Great Britain, where the<br />
word before or when is required.<br />
tilt at windmills. As an expression, usually mildly<br />
contemptuous, for attacking imaginary foes and<br />
warding <strong>of</strong>f nonexistent dangers,-to tilt at windmills<br />
is a cliche. It is taken from Don Quixote’s<br />
attack on a windmill which he thought to be a<br />
giant.<br />
timber; timbre. Though these words are pronounced<br />
alike, their meanings and derivations<br />
are quite different. In America timher retains an<br />
older English meaning <strong>of</strong> the wood <strong>of</strong> growing<br />
trees suitable for structural uses, or the growing<br />
trees themselves, or wooded land (There wns<br />
some fine timber in his woods. The company had<br />
over two hundred thousand acres <strong>of</strong> good timber).<br />
The cry <strong>of</strong> Timber! is American lumberjacks’<br />
warning that a tree which is being felled<br />
is about to fall. A timber, in England and America,<br />
is a single beam or piece <strong>of</strong> wood fomring<br />
or capable <strong>of</strong> forming part <strong>of</strong> a structure (They<br />
support not only these sides, but also another<br />
timber which upholds the ro<strong>of</strong>. Though her timbers<br />
still held together, she was no longer a ship).<br />
Figuratively, especially in England, timber me&<br />
personal character or quality, the stuff <strong>of</strong> which<br />
a person is made (Men <strong>of</strong> that timber are not<br />
satisfied with promises). In English law timber<br />
has, or formerly had, some special and curious<br />
limitations. It means the trees growing upon<br />
land and forming part <strong>of</strong> the freehold inheritance,<br />
but is commonly restricted to the oak, ash,<br />
and elm, <strong>of</strong> the age <strong>of</strong> twenty years or more. In<br />
some districts, by custom, other trees are included,<br />
such as birch in Yorkshire and beech<br />
in Buckinghamshire. Such timber could not be<br />
taken by a tenant-for-life.<br />
Timbre is an acoustical and phonetic expression,<br />
common to England and America, meaning<br />
that characteristic quality <strong>of</strong> a sound, independent<br />
<strong>of</strong> pitch and loudness, from which its source
time 514<br />
or manner <strong>of</strong> production can be inferred. The<br />
trombone and the trumpet have different timbres<br />
and so do the vowels <strong>of</strong> gare and gout. In music,<br />
timbre is regarded as the characteristic quality <strong>of</strong><br />
sound produced by a particular instrument or<br />
voice, its tone color.<br />
time; times. When time means a period in the<br />
world’s history, either the singular or the plural<br />
form may be used without any difference in<br />
meaning, as in peace in our time and in these<br />
modern times. When it means a point in time,<br />
the singular form means one point and the plural<br />
more than one, as in at that time and at different<br />
times. Time may also mean any one <strong>of</strong> the occasions<br />
on which something occurs, and in this<br />
sense too there is a difference between the singular<br />
and plural forms, as in he came one time and<br />
he come several times.<br />
When the word time means occasion, it can be<br />
used as an adverb without a preposition, as in<br />
he will come this time. When it means a point<br />
in time, it is ordinarily introduced by a preposition,<br />
as in I expect him at this time. In the<br />
United States, time is used in this second sense<br />
without a preposition when it is combined with<br />
some, any, or what, as in I will see him sometime,<br />
come anytime, what time ure you leaving?<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> sometime is standard, literary English.<br />
Anytime is not used this way in England but<br />
is standard in the United States. What time is a<br />
more recent development. It is acceptable to<br />
most Americans, but not to all. (It is generally<br />
condemned by grammarians.) No time used in<br />
this way still requires the preposition, as in at<br />
no time. Every time always refers to occasions,<br />
and to speak <strong>of</strong> points <strong>of</strong> time in this way, we<br />
must say ut all times.<br />
The phrase all the time is sometimes used to<br />
mean at all times or always, as in he complains<br />
all the time. This is acceptable in the United<br />
States but is condemned by some British grammarians<br />
as “slang.”<br />
When the word time is used with the genitive<br />
<strong>of</strong> some word that represents an interval <strong>of</strong> time,<br />
as in a year’s time, an hour’s time, it has a s<strong>of</strong>tening<br />
effect and makes the statement vague. In an<br />
hour’s time is not as definite as in an hour.<br />
The article the may be omitted before last<br />
time and next time, but not before first time. WC<br />
may say he said so lust time he was here and do<br />
it next time you come, but tell him the first time<br />
you see him.<br />
The word times may be used in comparing a<br />
large thing with a small one, as in it is three<br />
times as large and it is three times larger. The<br />
first form is perfectly clear but the second is<br />
ambiguous. It means to some people three times<br />
as large and to others four times as large. For<br />
this reason, it should be avoided. When a small<br />
thing is compared with a large one the word<br />
times should not be used. The small thing is onethird<br />
us large us or two-thirds smaller than the<br />
other.<br />
Time as a noun has many senses besides its primary<br />
one. In England, for example, there is the<br />
famous phrase Hurry up, please, ifs time which<br />
marks the closing <strong>of</strong> the pubs. In America, in<br />
athletics, time may mean the end <strong>of</strong> the game<br />
or time out, that is, time not to be counted<br />
among the limited moments allowed in a football<br />
game (In the lust minute <strong>of</strong> play Northwestern’s<br />
captain called time). On time in England simply<br />
means punctually; in America it means punctually<br />
but it also means by time or by installment<br />
payments (They bought a car and a refrigerator<br />
and u television set, all on time). An American<br />
has a time when he experiences difficulties (I<br />
had quite a time with that washer. It got stuck<br />
somehow). To make time is American slang<br />
meaning to ingratiate oneself with, usually spoken<br />
<strong>of</strong> a man in relation to a woman with the<br />
understanding that the ingratiation has sexual<br />
intimacy as its object. Two-time, a verb, is American<br />
slang for betraying, using duplicity in a<br />
relationship, especially in matters <strong>of</strong> love. TO<br />
do time is to serve a sentence in jail.<br />
time and time again is verbose for repeatedly.<br />
time immemorial and time out <strong>of</strong> mind are hackneyed<br />
expressions for a period <strong>of</strong> time beyond<br />
human memory.<br />
time was ripe. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that circumstances<br />
were propitious, especially the circumstance<br />
<strong>of</strong> a project’s being advanced to the proper<br />
point or public opinion being prepared for the<br />
unfolding <strong>of</strong> a plan or the statement <strong>of</strong> an idea<br />
or principle, the time was ripe is a cliche.<br />
time words. Names for intervals <strong>of</strong> time, such as<br />
minute, day, week, year, are <strong>of</strong>ten used with a<br />
final s that would not be used in measures <strong>of</strong><br />
distance. That is, we say a three mile drive but<br />
we might say a three hours delay. Historically,<br />
this is an old genitive ending which survives in<br />
a few adverbs, such as always and backwards,<br />
and in certain measures <strong>of</strong> time. See adverbial<br />
genitive, measures, and nouns as adverbs.<br />
Time nouns <strong>of</strong>ten serve as conjunctions, or<br />
relative adverbs, and introduce a subordinate<br />
clause, as minute in I remembered it the minute<br />
I suw him. See conjunctions.<br />
The article the is omitted before words or<br />
phrases used adverbially to show time “at which,”<br />
as in I saw him day before yesterduy and 1’11 do<br />
it week after next. In the United States the article<br />
the is also omitted after all in expressions that<br />
show time “during which,” as in all summer,<br />
all week. all veur. This is standard English in the<br />
1.Tnited States. In Greal uritain this theis omttted<br />
from all day and all night but is required with<br />
all other words, such as summer, week, year.<br />
timid. See cowardly.<br />
tirade. See harangue.<br />
tired; fatigued; exhausted. These words all suggest<br />
a depletion <strong>of</strong> physical energy, in the order<br />
<strong>of</strong> severity in which they are arranged. Tired,<br />
unless strengthened by some adverb, does not<br />
suggest a very serious condition (I’m tired for<br />
some reason this morning. 1’11 just sit down and<br />
rest my feet awhile). In American usage it also<br />
means impatient, disgusted, annoyed (You make<br />
me tired with all that big talk. I tell you frankly,<br />
the people in this town are tired <strong>of</strong> these street<br />
brawls and ure going to do something about
It). Fatigued suggests a degree <strong>of</strong> tiredness so<br />
great that, at least for the moment, continued<br />
exertion seems impossible (Lydia was too much<br />
fatigued to utter more than an occasional exclamation<br />
<strong>of</strong> “Lord, how tired I am!” accompanied<br />
by a violent yawn). One who is exhausted<br />
is fatigued to the point <strong>of</strong> having no strength or<br />
energy at all left. Hyperbole has weakened the<br />
word, in relation to the physical condition <strong>of</strong><br />
persons, by using it when fatigued or even tired<br />
would have been more suitable. But used in its<br />
proper meaning, it is a strong word (The exhausted<br />
horse had abandoned the struggle and<br />
lay half-buried in the mire, its flanks quivering<br />
and its belly heaving pitifully in great, intermittent,<br />
sobbing breaths). Fatigued and tired<br />
can be applied only to human beings and animals.<br />
Exhausted, meaning utterly emptied or<br />
completely used up, may be applied to almost<br />
anything (By January the food supply was exhausted.<br />
After three hours <strong>of</strong> discussion the<br />
topic was exhausted; there was nothing more<br />
to be said). See also wearied; weary.<br />
title (for book). See volume.<br />
tizzy. There was an English slang word for sixpence,<br />
a tizzy, but the current American slang<br />
term for a state <strong>of</strong> excited confusion must have<br />
some other origin. Perhaps in some obscure way<br />
it is connected with phthisis, a wasting away. Or<br />
perhaps it is a portmanteau combination <strong>of</strong> terror<br />
and dizzy. Or perhaps it is connected with the<br />
tizwin home brew that the Southwestern Indians<br />
crazed themselves with (When <strong>of</strong>icers learned<br />
that the Apaches were indulging in a “tizwin<br />
drunk” they knew that mischief wus afoot). But<br />
whatever its origin, it is certainly established in<br />
current informal use and shows signs <strong>of</strong> becoming<br />
accepted in formal usage. As a noun it means<br />
a state <strong>of</strong> trembling excitement and fear (Word<br />
that the Germans were preparing to attack threw<br />
the captain info a tizzy). Quite recently the word<br />
has appeared as an intransitive verb in a serious<br />
article in a highly respectable publication (In<br />
some respects, Americans <strong>of</strong> middle-class mentality<br />
have repeated the pattern <strong>of</strong> their counterparts<br />
in these European countries. They have<br />
shown the same quick readiness to tizzy, the<br />
jealous sense <strong>of</strong> property and statu&. . . . -Eric<br />
Goldman, The Reporter, September 14, 1954).<br />
It is interesting that this extension <strong>of</strong> tizzy was<br />
made not by a journalist but by a college pr<strong>of</strong>essor.<br />
to. The basic, physical meaning <strong>of</strong> this preposition<br />
is “in the direction <strong>of</strong>.” Where it approaches<br />
the uses <strong>of</strong> at or in, it always carries the implication<br />
<strong>of</strong> motion or change, as in he went ro the<br />
<strong>of</strong>ice, he had been to New York, but he was at<br />
the <strong>of</strong>ice, he wus in New York.<br />
To is used to indicate that a following verb<br />
form is an infinitive, as in he wants to go. (See<br />
int%tives.) It may be used to represent an<br />
infinitive that is not expressed, as in he wants to,<br />
This way <strong>of</strong> speaking began in the midle <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century. At that time it was distressing<br />
to some people, who considered it improper. The<br />
claim that the simple word to should not be used<br />
515 together<br />
to represent the full infinitive sometimes appears<br />
in textbooks today, but it is no longer true. This<br />
use <strong>of</strong> the word has now become standard English.<br />
To is also used to represent the relation <strong>of</strong><br />
indirect object. (See indirect object.) As an extension<br />
<strong>of</strong> this, it is <strong>of</strong>ten used after nouns or<br />
adjectives to indicate the person or thing affected,<br />
as in an injury to, injurious to, pleasing<br />
to.<br />
An apparently unnecessary to is added to<br />
many verbs meaning “assert,” as in admit to,<br />
attest to, certify to, testify to, swear to. Here it<br />
has the effect <strong>of</strong> weakening the sense <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
slightly, almost as if the verb meaning were<br />
being qualified by the basic meaning <strong>of</strong> to, “in<br />
the direction <strong>of</strong>.”<br />
toe the mark. As an expression for making someone<br />
live up rigorously to some prescribed course<br />
<strong>of</strong> conduct, to make him toe the mark is hackneyed.<br />
t<strong>of</strong>fee; totfy; taffy. Taffy, the oldest <strong>of</strong> these synonyms,<br />
is not now used in England, but it persists<br />
in the pronunciation <strong>of</strong> Northern England<br />
and is standard in Scotland and in the United<br />
States. It means a candy made <strong>of</strong> sugar or molasses<br />
boiled down, <strong>of</strong>ten with butter or nuts<br />
added. In the last two or three decades <strong>of</strong> the<br />
nineteenth century t&y was a widely used slang<br />
word in America, meaning crude flattery, blarney,<br />
s<strong>of</strong>t soap. Giving taffy meant flattering,<br />
especially in love-making (Taffy, just a little bit<br />
<strong>of</strong> taffy/ . . . You are giving t&y too). The<br />
English use the word t<strong>of</strong>fee (the spelling <strong>of</strong><br />
which may have been affected by c<strong>of</strong>fee) and,<br />
less <strong>of</strong>ten, t<strong>of</strong>ly. The word has with them become<br />
a part <strong>of</strong> several vulgar expressions, such<br />
as not for t<strong>of</strong>fee which means “not under any<br />
circumstances” and not to be able to do a thing<br />
for t<strong>of</strong>fee which means to be incompetent at it.<br />
In the United States t<strong>of</strong>lee is used to describe<br />
imported English t<strong>of</strong>fee or a form <strong>of</strong> taffy in<br />
which cream is used instead <strong>of</strong> butter. Taffy<br />
has a homely, rustic connotation, t<strong>of</strong>lee the elegance<br />
<strong>of</strong> an importation. A taffy pull is a social<br />
gathering in which taffy is made and the making<br />
involves a drawing out <strong>of</strong> the substance as it is<br />
cooling. A t<strong>of</strong>fee pull would be a linguistic and<br />
social monstrosity.<br />
together. This word is <strong>of</strong>ten used where, theoretically,<br />
it is not needed, as in we gather together<br />
to ask the Lord’s blessing, we will meet together<br />
this evening, and they consulted together. Usually,<br />
as in the examples given, it replaces a reflexive<br />
or reciprocal pronoun such as ourselves or one<br />
another. The verbs in these examples are all<br />
transitive verbs that normally require an object<br />
but are here used intransitively. The speech<br />
instinct apparently requires some word in the<br />
object position. Although together does not actually<br />
repeat the subject as one another would, it<br />
recalls the subject and rules out the possibility<br />
<strong>of</strong> any other object following the verb. The verb<br />
join normally requires a double object, as in<br />
join this to that. Here too together is <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> the second element and means “to
token 516<br />
one another,” as in those whom God hath joined<br />
together. This use <strong>of</strong> together is condemned by<br />
some grammarians as redundant. But the construction<br />
is standard literary English and the<br />
feeling for it is very strong. The word can always<br />
be omitted, and this may make for more precise<br />
English. But if it is omitted, many hearers or<br />
readers will have the uncomfortable feeling that<br />
they ought to ask gather what?, consulted whom?<br />
token <strong>of</strong> esteem. To designate a gift a token <strong>of</strong><br />
esteem, even when it is a token <strong>of</strong> esteem, is to<br />
employ a clicht. True esteem will find something,<br />
or should find something, more suited to the<br />
particular occasion than a hackneyed and pompous<br />
phrase that has been drained <strong>of</strong> meaning<br />
by endless repetition.<br />
told. See tell.<br />
tomato. The plural is tomatoes.<br />
tome. See volume.<br />
ton. Only the singular form ton can be used as an<br />
adjective to qualify a following noun, as in a<br />
five ton truck. We do not say a five tons truck.<br />
In the United States the nlural form tons is ureferred<br />
in any other con&ruction, when speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> more than one. But the singular form<br />
may be used in other constructions after a number<br />
word, as in several ton <strong>of</strong> coal and he<br />
ordered several ton. This is the usual practice in<br />
Great Britain and is acceptable in the United<br />
States.<br />
The context in which the word ton is used<br />
must be clearly understood before its sense is<br />
clear. It is first <strong>of</strong> all a unit <strong>of</strong> weight, now usually<br />
20 hundredweight, commonly equivalent to<br />
2,000 pounds avoirdupois (short ton) in the<br />
United States, and 2,240 pounds avoirdupois<br />
(long ton) in Great Britain. It is also a unit <strong>of</strong><br />
volume for freight, varying with the different<br />
kinds, as 40 cubic feet <strong>of</strong> oak timber, 20 bushels<br />
<strong>of</strong> wheat, etc. (freight ton) ; a metric ton (1,000<br />
kilograms); a unit <strong>of</strong> displacement <strong>of</strong> ships,<br />
equal to 35 cubic feet <strong>of</strong> salt water (displacement<br />
ton); a unit <strong>of</strong> volume used in transporting by<br />
sea, commonly 40 cubic feet (shipping ton); a<br />
unit <strong>of</strong> internal capacity <strong>of</strong> ships, equal to 100<br />
cubic feet. In all <strong>of</strong> these additional senses English<br />
and American use is the same.<br />
Ton is also used in a loose sense to mean a<br />
great amount (There are tons <strong>of</strong> pickles-everybody<br />
brought pickles. Her father’s got tons <strong>of</strong><br />
money). A ton <strong>of</strong> bricks as a metaphor for something<br />
that comes down with a smashing roar (He<br />
caught him sneaking out half an hour early again<br />
and came down on him like a ton <strong>of</strong> bricks) is<br />
hackneyed.<br />
tone; tune. Tune is a variant spelling <strong>of</strong> tone and<br />
originally had the same meaning. Tone retains<br />
the meaning <strong>of</strong> any sound considered with reference<br />
to its quality, pitch, strength, source; quality<br />
or character <strong>of</strong> sound; vocal sound. In reference<br />
to the human voice it <strong>of</strong>ten means an implication<br />
meaning which a particular intonation<br />
may suggest even though the literal meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
the words spoken suggests something wholly different<br />
(I know he said he didn’t mind, but I<br />
didn’t like the tone <strong>of</strong> his voice). Tune now<br />
primarily means a succession <strong>of</strong> musical sounds,<br />
a series <strong>of</strong> tones, forming an air or melody,<br />
with or without the harmony accompanying it.<br />
In a figurative sense, tone means style, distinction,<br />
elegance (That hotel certainly has tone.<br />
There’s a quiet distinction about it). Tony, an<br />
adjective based on this meaning, is, however,<br />
slang (He’s a real tony guy, always in style).<br />
Tune may also be used figuratively to mean<br />
accord (In Tune With the Infinite. The world<br />
is too much with us; late and soon,/ Getting<br />
and spending, we lay waste our powers:/ . . . /<br />
For this, for everything, we are out <strong>of</strong> tune).<br />
tongs. The plural form refers to one instrument<br />
but is most <strong>of</strong>ten treated as a plural, as in these<br />
tongs are hot. In Scotland it is commonly treated<br />
as a singular. This is acceotable in the United<br />
States, especially when used with a qualifying<br />
word, as in a fire tongs, a sugar tongs, but a pair<br />
<strong>of</strong> tongs is more usual. The construction with<br />
pair must be used after a numeral, as in three<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> tongs. The form tongs is preferred as<br />
the first element in a compound, such as u tongs<br />
maker, a tongs man.<br />
tongue in cheek. To say <strong>of</strong> someone who is insincere<br />
or who has affirmed something with<br />
unspoken reservations, whose words belie his<br />
intent and go contrary to his true meaning, that<br />
he is speaking with his tongue in his cheek is<br />
to employ a hackneyed expression. The term is<br />
fairly recent, the first recorded instance being in<br />
The Zngold.sby Legends (1842). It would seem<br />
to refer to some gesture which, like a wink, informed<br />
the knowing that the statement was not<br />
to be taken at its seeming value. But although<br />
some people, guided chiefly by the phrase, do<br />
stick their tongues in their cheeks as such a<br />
humorous warning, it is certainly not a widespread<br />
custom nor, so far as is known, has it<br />
ever been.<br />
too. When this word is used as a sentence adverb<br />
it means “also.” It has the same meaning when it<br />
qualifies a preceding adjective or adverb, as in<br />
he is young too. When it qualifies a following<br />
adjective or adverb it means “beyond what is desirable<br />
or allowable,” as in he is too young. In<br />
either case, it cannot be used with a comparative<br />
or superlative form. From meaning “in excess,”<br />
too has come to be used as an intensive in combination<br />
with only, as in only too anxious to<br />
leave. Used as an intensive without only, as in it<br />
was too wonderful!, it has a false ring and suggests<br />
that the speaker is trying to conceal a lack<br />
<strong>of</strong> interest by overstatement.<br />
When too means “in excess” it cannot qualify<br />
a verb. Participles, such as discouraged and discouraging,<br />
are verbs and adjectives at the same<br />
time and it is debatable whether or not one can<br />
say he was too discouraged to go on. Actually,<br />
this is acceptable English everywhere in the<br />
United States, but some grammarians claim that<br />
it ought not to be acceptable. The same arguments<br />
apply to the use <strong>of</strong> very before a participle.<br />
(For a fuller discussion <strong>of</strong> this question,<br />
see very.)<br />
took. See take.<br />
tooth. The plural is teeth. Traditionally, only the<br />
singular tooth can be used as the first element in
a compound, as in toothbrushes and tooth marks.<br />
In some parts <strong>of</strong> the country people are said to<br />
complain <strong>of</strong> the teethache. This is painfully vivid,<br />
but it is not standard English. On the other<br />
hand, dentists sometimes speak <strong>of</strong> the teeth roots.<br />
This cannot be classed with teethache. Since it<br />
occurs in technical material it must be considered<br />
a new or unestablished form rather than an<br />
illiterate one.<br />
tooth and nail, as a term for the utmost exertion,<br />
especially in contention or conflict, is a clich6.<br />
top; summit; peak; apex. All these words describe<br />
the highest point <strong>of</strong> something. Top is the everyday,<br />
working word (the top <strong>of</strong> a tree, the top <strong>of</strong><br />
the house). Summit literally describes the highest<br />
point, as <strong>of</strong> a hill (Two members <strong>of</strong> the expedition<br />
reached the summit <strong>of</strong> Mt. Everest). Peak<br />
is the pointed top <strong>of</strong> a mountain, a mountain<br />
with a pointed summit (Most <strong>of</strong> all they enjoyed<br />
the ascent <strong>of</strong> Pike’s Peak. The peaks were bathed<br />
in a rosy light). Apex is primarily understood in<br />
its mathematical sense as the vertex <strong>of</strong> a triangle<br />
or cone; more broadly, the tip or highest point <strong>of</strong><br />
something.<br />
Each <strong>of</strong> these words also has its figurative<br />
uses. We say that a boy finished at the top <strong>of</strong> his<br />
class or that a certain goal was the summit <strong>of</strong><br />
his aspiration. The highest-level political talks, in<br />
the summer <strong>of</strong> 1955, were called talks at the<br />
summit. Peak may be used to suggest a maximum<br />
in relation to other quantities during a<br />
specified time (Peak trafic on the Drive was<br />
from 8:30 to 9:00 in the morning and 5:00 to<br />
5:30 in the afternoon). Used figuratively, apex<br />
means climax, acme (That sixty-yard run was<br />
the apex <strong>of</strong> his college career).<br />
Top is used as an adjective more freely than<br />
the other three words. It has developed a superlative<br />
adjective form topmost, but no comparative<br />
form.<br />
topnotch; top-hole; tip-top. Topnotch is an American<br />
slang term for first-rate, excellent (He relegraphed<br />
lasi night for four ropn<strong>of</strong>ch people to<br />
join us. He did a topnotch job on fhat assignment).<br />
Top-hole and tip-top are British slang<br />
equivalents.<br />
tore; torn. See tear.<br />
tornado. See cyclone.<br />
torpedo. The plural is torpedoes.<br />
tortuous; torturous; tortious. Tortuous means full<br />
<strong>of</strong> twists, turns, or bends: twisting; winding;<br />
crooked (The driver must be alert as he drives<br />
along the tortuous road on the Tennessee-North<br />
Carolina border). In figurative senses tortuous<br />
means not direct or straightforward, as in a<br />
course <strong>of</strong> procedure, thought, speech, writing;<br />
deceitfully indirect or morally crooked (The inevitable<br />
result <strong>of</strong> this fortuous policy was rhe<br />
complete loss <strong>of</strong> the public’s confidence). Torturous<br />
means inflicting excruciating pain, especially<br />
from sheer cruelty or in hatred, revenge, or the<br />
like. Torrious is a legal term, meaning <strong>of</strong> the nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to a tort, a civil wrong (If a civil<br />
<strong>of</strong>icer . . . have process against one individual<br />
and through mistake arrest another, this arrest<br />
is wholly tortious).<br />
towering<br />
tortures <strong>of</strong> the damned, suffer. If you believe in<br />
the damned and their tortures, the expression to<br />
suffer rhe tortures <strong>of</strong> rhe damned will seem, when<br />
applied to any discomforts <strong>of</strong> our earthly state,<br />
an impious exaggeration. If you don’t believe in<br />
the damned and their tortures, the phrase is just<br />
mocking verbiage. In either case, it is hackneyed.<br />
total. See complete.<br />
tote is an American colloquialism, largely Southem,<br />
meaning to carry or bear, as on the back or<br />
in the arms, as a burden or load (He lored a fiftypound<br />
pack all over the state <strong>of</strong> Georgia). The<br />
best-known use <strong>of</strong> the word today, in the song<br />
“Old Man River” (“Tote dat barge”/ “Lift dat<br />
bale”/ Get a little drunk,/ And you land in jail),<br />
seems to be a misuse.<br />
Tote can also mean to wear or carry about one<br />
(led always toted a pistol) or to haul in a vehicle<br />
(The manure in the feed lots is scraped up by<br />
a bulldozer and toted away to the field in a<br />
spreader), though this, too, may be an attempt to<br />
convey a rustic flavor without too clear a knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the term. In New England logging roads<br />
are sometimes called tote roads.<br />
touch and go. As a term for a narrow escape,<br />
for a precarious situation in which the outcome<br />
was for a moment delicately poised between success<br />
and failure, touch and go is hackneyed.<br />
The expression seems to have been borrowed<br />
from pilotage where “touch and go” was said to<br />
be “good pilotage,” but to take a ship through<br />
so narrow a channel or so close to the rocks that<br />
you felt her touch and yet go on must have been<br />
precarious. There was also a boys’ game called<br />
touch and go which, from Austin Dobson’s description<br />
<strong>of</strong> it, must have been something like<br />
hide and seek.<br />
touch it with a ten-foot pole, I wouldn’t. Although<br />
many clichCs are pompous and stilted, there are<br />
slang cliches as well, for one can be just as stale<br />
informally as formally. To say <strong>of</strong> something one<br />
wants no part <strong>of</strong> or doesn’t want to meddle in<br />
that one wouldn’t touch it with a ten-foot pole<br />
is to employ a clichC. The English equivalent is<br />
Z wouldn’t touch it with a pair <strong>of</strong> tongs or Z<br />
wouldn’t touch it with a barge pole.<br />
touchy. See tetchy.<br />
tough, as an adjective, applied to people, conveys<br />
different meanings in England and America. In<br />
England it means stubborn, persistent. In America<br />
it carries the more sinister meaning <strong>of</strong> hardened,<br />
incorrigible, disorderly, rowdyish (He got<br />
into a very tough gang). In America tough may<br />
also mean hard to bear or endure (He’s had a<br />
tough time <strong>of</strong> it, what with the drouth one year<br />
and the ho<strong>of</strong> and mouth disease the next). As a<br />
noun, tough in America means a ruffian, a rowdy.<br />
The English equivalent is rough.<br />
toward; towards. These forms are both standard<br />
English. In Great Britain the form towards is<br />
heard more <strong>of</strong>ten and toward is considered archaic<br />
or Biblical. In the United States toward is<br />
the preferred form.<br />
towering passion or rage is now a clichC. The<br />
adjective, in a now-forgotten meaning <strong>of</strong> mounting,<br />
is taken from falconry (A falcon, tow’ring<br />
in her pride <strong>of</strong> place,/ Was by a mousing owl
tower 518<br />
hawk’d at and kill’d). It was originally a good<br />
adjective because it suggested that the mounting<br />
anger would be followed by a sudden, precipitous,<br />
murderous strike upon the victim, but this<br />
meaning is now unknown and the phrase empty.<br />
tower <strong>of</strong> strength. To refer to someone upon<br />
whom others can rely in time <strong>of</strong> need as a rower<br />
<strong>of</strong> srrength is to employ a worn and stale expression.<br />
Every city used to have its fortified tower<br />
(as The Tower <strong>of</strong> London) to which the besieged<br />
&rld resort for a last desperate stand if their<br />
walls were scaled or breached. Such a tower<br />
sometimes held out for months after the city<br />
itself had been taken and was the rallying point<br />
from which the invaders were sometimes driven<br />
out. So that so long as the tower was not taken,<br />
the city was not truly captured.<br />
town. See city.<br />
trace; vestige. A truce is a mark, token, or evidence<br />
<strong>of</strong> the former presence, existence, or action<br />
<strong>of</strong> something (On the worn features <strong>of</strong> the<br />
weariest face/ Some youthful memory leaves its<br />
hidden truce). Truce is the more general word.<br />
It may mean a last faint mark or sign, or it may<br />
mean a small amount <strong>of</strong> anything (There was<br />
barely a trace <strong>of</strong> sugar in the tea), or it may<br />
stand for the clue or track by which pursuit may<br />
be made (They came on the trace <strong>of</strong> game in the<br />
late afternoon). Vestige is more limited. It refers<br />
to some slight, though actual, remains <strong>of</strong> something<br />
that no longer exists (. . . the stickpin, the<br />
malacca cane, and other vestiges <strong>of</strong> his former<br />
wealth . . . Scarce any trace remaining, vestige<br />
gray,/ Or nodding column on the desert shore,/<br />
To point where Corinth, or where Athens stood).<br />
track is used more <strong>of</strong>ten and in more ways in<br />
America than in England. In America track or<br />
trucks describe a structure consisting <strong>of</strong> a pair <strong>of</strong><br />
parallel lines or rails with their cross ties, to provide<br />
a road for railroad trains. The English say<br />
the line or the rails. Tracks in America is the<br />
word to describe footprints or other marks left<br />
by an animal or person; the English tend to use<br />
truce. American trains jump the track or leave<br />
the track; English trains run <strong>of</strong>f the line. American<br />
race track is English racecourse. Trackman<br />
and trackwalker are exclusively American terms<br />
to describe a man who inspects, installs, or maintains<br />
railroad tracks. Track when used as a verb<br />
in America may mean to make a track <strong>of</strong> footprints<br />
on a floor (They’re always tracking mud<br />
into the kitchen). Track is used in American<br />
sports to describe collectively those sports performed<br />
on a track. A track meet is a series <strong>of</strong><br />
athletic contests such as running, jumping, vaulting.<br />
There are several idiomatic expressions in<br />
America such as make tracks (leave hurriedly),<br />
lose track (lose contact with), right side <strong>of</strong><br />
the tracks (the more socially acceptable part <strong>of</strong><br />
town).<br />
trade, in trade, the trade. See pr<strong>of</strong>ession.<br />
trademarks. A trademark is the name, symbd,<br />
figure, letter, word or mark adopted and used by<br />
a manufacturer or merchant in order to designate<br />
the goods he manufactures or sells and to<br />
distinguish them from those manufactured or<br />
sold by others.<br />
Trademarks are interesting in themselves and<br />
because they sometimes enter into general use as<br />
generic terms or catchwords.<br />
There have been a number <strong>of</strong> patterns <strong>of</strong> trademarking.<br />
For instance, after the Spanish-American<br />
war the Spanish -0 appeared in the names <strong>of</strong><br />
many products, such as Perfect0 cigars and Eterno<br />
lead pencils. In the 1920’s there was an extension<br />
<strong>of</strong> such suffixes as -teria (cafeteria,<br />
cattleteria), -burger (hamburger, cheeseburger,<br />
nutburger), -mat (Automat) and -matic. Use <strong>of</strong><br />
the medial connective -a- or -o- has been common<br />
more recently (Stack-a-Door, Perma-lift,<br />
Ford-o-matic, Expand-o Sock). Another favorite<br />
suffix is -tex, perhaps with an echo <strong>of</strong> texture:<br />
Playtex, Plastex, Kotex. One <strong>of</strong> the most popular<br />
devices is word-welding, as in Nabisco and<br />
Quink. Another is the substitution <strong>of</strong> k for c:<br />
Kake Kover, Bread Kabinet. Still another is<br />
manipulated spelling: Ayds (a reducing candy),<br />
Styl-Eez (shoes). Some trademarks rely on puns:<br />
Taylor-Made shoes, Enna Jettick shoes, Vermont<br />
Maid syrup.<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> inadequate laws, many words which<br />
began as trademarks, words like cellophane, escalator,<br />
linoleum and aspirin, have fallen into<br />
the public domain and ended in the dictionaries<br />
as generic terms. The Lanham Act <strong>of</strong> 1946 has<br />
helped to insure more effective protective measures,<br />
but some very popular trademarks still<br />
tend, in popular consciousness, to be regarded as<br />
generic. Kodak, for example, is <strong>of</strong>ten employed<br />
as a general term, and so too are Vaseline, Coke,<br />
Frigidaire, Jell-o and Victrola.<br />
trade with. See patronize.<br />
traffic in American usage has a special pejorative<br />
connotation in such phrases as The Opium truffit,<br />
The White Slave trafic. This embodies an<br />
older use <strong>of</strong> the word traffic, meaning trade or<br />
business, especially a trade or business that required<br />
considerable going to and fro (The pussage<br />
and traffic <strong>of</strong> merchants was forbidden).<br />
The word early acquired sinister connotations<br />
(They make a traffic <strong>of</strong> honor. You make the<br />
most shameless traffic and barter <strong>of</strong> yourselves),<br />
but since World War II many activities that had<br />
formerly been labeled trafics have become Black<br />
Markets. Trafic remains fixed, however, in the<br />
White Slave traffic, perhaps because a White<br />
Slave Black Market would sound ludicrous.<br />
tragedy; disaster. Tragedy applies first <strong>of</strong> all to<br />
art: disaster to life. In its primary sense tragedy<br />
means a dramatic composition <strong>of</strong> a serious or<br />
somber character, with an unhappy ending. There<br />
must be a sense <strong>of</strong> greatness in the person to<br />
whom the tragedy befalls and the unhappy ending<br />
must, at least in part, be the consequence <strong>of</strong><br />
some fault-even though that fault be an excess<br />
<strong>of</strong> virtue-in the person. The use <strong>of</strong> tragedy to<br />
describe some lamentable, dreadful, or fatal<br />
event, a common journalistic practice, is loose.<br />
Disaster or calamity is the right word when the<br />
event is <strong>of</strong> such magnitude as to involve many<br />
people, misfortune when it involves a single<br />
person.<br />
tragic; tragical. Tragic is the only adjective current<br />
in America meaning characteristic or sug-
gestive <strong>of</strong> tragedy; mournful; melancholy or<br />
pathetic in the extreme (His was a tragic plight);<br />
dreadful, calamitous, disastrous, or fatal (The<br />
decision to attack was a tragic error) ; pertaining<br />
to or having the nature <strong>of</strong> tragedy (He made a<br />
careful study <strong>of</strong> the Elizabethan tragic drama) ;<br />
acting in or composiug tragedy (Shakespeare<br />
may have been a minor tragic actor, bat he was<br />
a major tragic playwright). Tragical is a seldom<br />
used alternative that has an archaic flavor (“The<br />
Tragical History <strong>of</strong> Dr. Faustus” has some furcicul<br />
scenes). In England tragic is the general word<br />
but some English grammarians argue that the<br />
meanings “sad” and “gloomy” should be conveyed<br />
by tragical, and only “<strong>of</strong> or pertaining to<br />
tragedy” by tragic.<br />
train. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in tltey trained him to recognize rhese things.<br />
It is sometimes followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb and the preposition for, as in they trained<br />
him for recognizing these things. The infinitive<br />
construction is very much preferred, except<br />
when the -ing word is felt to be the name <strong>of</strong><br />
something some one would study, as in they<br />
trained her for nursing, they trained him for<br />
flying.<br />
transcendent; transcendental. Trunscendent is to<br />
be preferred as the term meaning surpassing, superior,<br />
or supreme (The conference is <strong>of</strong> trunscendent<br />
importance, since vital issues must be<br />
discussed now). In theology (used <strong>of</strong> God), it<br />
means transcending the material universe, as opposed<br />
to immanent, residing in the material universe.<br />
Transcendental, except as a term in metaphysics,<br />
means outside ordinary experience, thought<br />
or belief; extraordinary, supernatural; abstract,<br />
idealistic, l<strong>of</strong>ty (Such speculations are too transcendental<br />
for me).<br />
franaitive verbs. A verb that requires an object<br />
to complete its meaning is called a transitive<br />
verb. The action named by the verb is said to<br />
“pass over” to the object. (See object <strong>of</strong> a verb.)<br />
A verb that does not require an object, because<br />
its meaning is complete in itself, is called intransitive.<br />
The verbs are intransitive in a lonely<br />
cub horse steams and stumps. They are transitive<br />
in they bite their threads and shake their<br />
heads and gnaw my name like u bone. Some<br />
verbs, such as shall, may, must, require another<br />
verb to complete their meaning. These may be<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> as a special kind <strong>of</strong> transitive verb<br />
or as being in a class by themselves. (See auxiliary<br />
verbs.)<br />
A verb that is essentially transitive may sometimes<br />
be used intransitively, as in I hoed and<br />
trenched and weeded. Some grammarians say<br />
that in such cases the verb is a transitive “used<br />
absolutely,” because they claim that an object,<br />
here garden or farm, is understood. Others consider<br />
any verb intransitive when the sentence<br />
does not contain an object. This is a question <strong>of</strong><br />
terminology and makes no difference in practice.<br />
Sometimes the object <strong>of</strong> a transitive verb is a<br />
pronoun referring back to the subject or agent.<br />
For example, people could once say I will wash<br />
me and dress me and fix me up hne. Today, the<br />
519 transitory<br />
-self words (myself, himself, and so on) may be<br />
used in this way, but they are omitted more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
than not. We usually say he shaved and dressed<br />
rather than he shaved himself and dressed himself.<br />
In many cases, such as he overute, he<br />
overslept, the population doubled, the reflexive<br />
pronoun is no longer thought <strong>of</strong>. In others, such<br />
as he hid, he behaved well, don’t bother, it may<br />
be used or omitted. In still others, such as he<br />
prided himself on, he conducted himself well, it<br />
is required. Practically all grammarians consider<br />
verbs <strong>of</strong> this kind transitive when the pronoun is<br />
used, and intransitive when it is not.<br />
Verbs such as tear, split, sell, cook, are essentially<br />
transitive, but they are used intransitively<br />
in the cloth tore, the wood split easily, the pies<br />
sold, the apples cooked quickly. What is meant<br />
here is that somebody or something tore the<br />
cloth, split the wood, sold the pies, cooked the<br />
apples. What is logically the object <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
has not been dropped but has been made its<br />
grammatical subject. This happens also when a<br />
verb is put in the passive voice and some grammarians<br />
call these forms “passivals.” The verb<br />
is intransitive in form but passive in meaning.<br />
The construction is used widelydust brushes<br />
<strong>of</strong>f, foods spoil, boats upset, doors slam, hearts<br />
break, and the value <strong>of</strong> the dollar depreciates. A<br />
true passive, such as the dust was brushed <strong>of</strong>l, rhe<br />
boat was upset, always suggests an agent. A passival,<br />
on the other hand, presents the action<br />
itself, as if it occurred spontaneously. They are<br />
simpler than the passive forms and are preferred<br />
whenever the fact that there was an agent is felt<br />
to be irrelevant.<br />
This use <strong>of</strong> the transitive verbs lay and set has<br />
been severely attacked during the last hundred<br />
years. As a result <strong>of</strong> not being allowed to use<br />
these verbs naturally, many people are now<br />
afraid to use them at all. (See lay and set.)<br />
More recently, it has been claimed that graduate<br />
used as a passival, as in he graduated lust June,<br />
is ungrammatical. In the case <strong>of</strong> lay and set,<br />
there were intransitive verbs lie and sit which the<br />
grammarians thought they were protecting. But<br />
in the case <strong>of</strong> graduate, it is hard to see why<br />
someone chose this word to attack rather than<br />
any <strong>of</strong> a thousand others.<br />
transitory; transient; transitional. All <strong>of</strong> these adjectives<br />
suggest shortness <strong>of</strong> duration. Transient<br />
and transitory both mean passing away, not lasting,<br />
momentary, short-lived, ephemeral, temporary,<br />
impermanent. However, trunsient tends to<br />
be used with people, transitory with things (Transient<br />
guests at the hotel were more likely to tip<br />
freely than the permanent dwellers in its musty<br />
corridors. One can hardly be expected io sacrifice<br />
solid advantages for these transitory delights).<br />
Transient more frequently emphasizes<br />
the fact <strong>of</strong> brief duration, transitory the quality<br />
<strong>of</strong> brief duration.<br />
Trunsitionul means going from one thing to<br />
another (We are living in a transitional period<br />
<strong>of</strong> history. Every period, however original and<br />
creative, has a transitional aspect in its relation<br />
to the years before and after).<br />
Transient may also be used as a noun, mean-
transmit 520<br />
ing one who is transient, a transient guest,<br />
boarder, or the like. Transient is a bookish term<br />
in England but in common use, both as a noun<br />
and an adjective, in the United States.<br />
transmit. See forward.<br />
transom means basically a crosspiece separating a<br />
door or the like from a window or fanlight above<br />
it. In America transom is also used to describe<br />
a window above such a crosspiece. In the famous<br />
ballad Frankie rind Johnnie, Frankie looked over<br />
the transom, though looked through the transom<br />
would certainly be understood and perhaps more<br />
commonly used today. In England the window<br />
above the crosspiece is called a transom window.<br />
Publishers in America humorously refer to unsolicited<br />
manuscripts as coming in over the<br />
transom.<br />
More broadly, a transom is a crossbar, as <strong>of</strong><br />
wood or stone, dividing a window horizontally.<br />
In shipbuilding, a transom is a crossbeam in the<br />
frame <strong>of</strong> a ship, or any <strong>of</strong> several transverse<br />
beams or timbers fixed across the sternpost <strong>of</strong> a<br />
ship, to strengthen and give shape to the after<br />
part.<br />
transpire; happen. Transpire originally meant to<br />
breathe out through the surface or to exhale<br />
(The leaves transpire more fluid than the stem<br />
can take up. This, that, and ev’ry thicket doth<br />
transpire/ More sweet than storax from the hallowed<br />
fire). Then it meant to pass out, as an<br />
exhalation. The brilliant Elizabethan eccentric,<br />
Sir John Harington, believed that “his thoughts<br />
transpired from him and took the shape <strong>of</strong> flies<br />
or bees.” From such uses <strong>of</strong> the word it was<br />
natural for it to mean to escape from secrecy to<br />
notice, to become known where it was intended<br />
to keep secret (This letter goes fo you in confidence.<br />
You will not ler one syllable <strong>of</strong> it transpire).<br />
Dr. Johnson (in 1755) condemned this<br />
meaning as “lately innovated from France without<br />
necessity.” Nonetheless, this was until fairly<br />
recently the word’s standard meaning.<br />
Its commonest meaning now is to happen, occur,<br />
take place. Perhaps this change arose from<br />
a misunderstanding <strong>of</strong> such sentences as has<br />
anything transpired in my absence? where the<br />
coming to light <strong>of</strong> some secret knowledge and<br />
the taking action might be closely related. However<br />
this may be, there is no doubt that transpire<br />
now has the meaning <strong>of</strong> “happen” for many people.<br />
But there is also no doubt that a great many<br />
other people regard this usage as wrong. Indeed,<br />
with some it has become a shibboleth, a touchstone<br />
<strong>of</strong> literacy and refinement; anyone who<br />
uses transpire to mean “happen” is, in their estimation,<br />
vulgar, illiterate, and contemptible. Yet<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the best grammarians recognize this<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the word.<br />
Under these circumstances, what is the ordinary<br />
man to do? If he is timid, he can avoid<br />
using the word altogether: there are other ways<br />
<strong>of</strong> saying that something has escaped from secrecy<br />
to notice than saying it has transpired, and<br />
happen is always understood and acceptable. Or<br />
if the ordinary man is bold and self-confident he<br />
may defy the purists and use transpire to mean<br />
“happen,” stoutly insisting that what was good<br />
enough for the Adamses <strong>of</strong> Boston is good<br />
enough for him. But that won’t save him from<br />
being regarded as a vulgar illiterate by the purists,<br />
and if he is in a position where their so<br />
regarding him will be harmful to him, he must<br />
expect to suffer.<br />
Among the mass <strong>of</strong> people the use <strong>of</strong> trunspire<br />
for “happen” will pass unnoticed. Among<br />
linguists it will be accepted as a word that has<br />
acquired a new meaning through usage, however<br />
erroneous that meaning may have been when<br />
first acquired. Among quite a few who regard<br />
themselves as linguists, however, its use in this<br />
way will arouse contempt. So that when one is<br />
among such people and does not want, or cannot<br />
afford, to arouse their contempt, and has<br />
not the opportunity, time, or ability to enlighten<br />
them, it is better to avoid using the word in this<br />
sense.<br />
transportation; ticket. In one <strong>of</strong> its less prominent<br />
senses, transportation is used in the United<br />
States to mean the means by which transportation<br />
is obtained, that is, tickets or permits (I got<br />
transportation on the Super Chief).<br />
trauma. The plural is traumas or traumata, not<br />
traumae.<br />
travel; travail. Travel was originally merely a<br />
variant form <strong>of</strong> ~ra~~ail, labor, toil, strenuous<br />
exertion so severe as to cause suffering. The connection<br />
<strong>of</strong> the two words is at once a good, simple<br />
lesson in etymology and in social history, for<br />
it suggests what an arduous undertaking it once<br />
was to go from one place to another. Travail,<br />
which once meant to suffer in strenuous labor,<br />
has now narrowed to mean to suffer the pangs<br />
<strong>of</strong> childbirth, has become specialized, that is, in<br />
reference to one kind <strong>of</strong> labor. To travel is now<br />
simply to go from one place to another and<br />
would on the whole (especially by those who<br />
have not traveled much) be classified as a pleasure.<br />
In the United States to travel also means, in<br />
slang, to move with speed (By the time he<br />
reaching the city limits he was really traveling).<br />
travesty. See burlesque.<br />
treachery; treacherous; treason. Both treachery<br />
and treason imply betrayal <strong>of</strong> trust. Treachery<br />
may designate secret disloyalty to a friend, especially<br />
when the disloyalty is concealed beneath<br />
a seemingly friendly and loyal attitude (He was<br />
a timid enemy and a treacherous friend). In<br />
its personal application, treachery is a word <strong>of</strong><br />
strong condemnation and contempt. Treachery<br />
may also apply to traitorous conduct towards<br />
one’s country. Treason is, definitely and solely,<br />
wishing to harm one’s country or government<br />
and performing overt, open acts to help its enemies<br />
(The gradual steps by which Arnold progressed<br />
from loyalty to treason mark a path <strong>of</strong><br />
personal resentment). Treason, perhaps because<br />
<strong>of</strong> the enormity <strong>of</strong> the crime it designates, is a<br />
more dignified word than treachery. Every man<br />
has felt the treachery <strong>of</strong> friends and smarts at<br />
the recollection the word evokes. We suffer in<br />
common from the effects <strong>of</strong> treason and agree in<br />
universal detestation <strong>of</strong> it but it is too far re-
moved from our immediate knowledge or experience<br />
to be viewed with much personal rancor.<br />
tread. The past tense is trod. The participle is<br />
trodden or trod. When tread is used in the idiom<br />
tread water it is a regular verb and has the past<br />
tense and participle treaded.<br />
treasonable and treasonous both mean involving<br />
treason, traitorous (It was u treasonable/ treu-<br />
SO~OUS libel). In the extended sense <strong>of</strong> “<strong>of</strong> the<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> treason, perfidious,” treasonable is<br />
preferred. Indeed, treasonable is now generally<br />
preferred to freasonous in all possible senses.<br />
treble. See triple.<br />
trek is not to be used loosely as a synonym for<br />
travel (as in Now is the time to trek to the<br />
Wisconsin Dells). It means to migrate, and refers<br />
specifically to the migrations <strong>of</strong> the Boers in<br />
South Africa (Thus the early Cape Beers adopted<br />
the nomad hnbi: <strong>of</strong> trekking, which simply meant<br />
enlarging the range <strong>of</strong> their occupation <strong>of</strong> new<br />
land and a further advance into the interior). If<br />
it is to be applied to travel, it is properly applied,<br />
even humorously, only to the movement <strong>of</strong><br />
masses <strong>of</strong> people and, presumably, a permanent<br />
removal (The trek <strong>of</strong> retired Zowa farmers to<br />
California continues unabated).<br />
tremblor; temblor; tremor. Tremblor is a misspelling<br />
<strong>of</strong> the American word temblor, probably<br />
by association with tremor. Temblor is an<br />
American word (from the Spanish ternblur,<br />
tremble) for a tremor, an earthquake. A tremor<br />
is any tremulous or vibratory movement, a vibration<br />
(Modern research has shown a typical<br />
earthquake to consist <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> small tremors<br />
succeeded by a shock, or series <strong>of</strong> shocks). The<br />
English call a light disturbance similar to an<br />
earthquake an earth tremor.<br />
tremendous. See horrible.<br />
trend. See tend.<br />
trepan; trephine. Trrpnn is the older term and<br />
the one still largely in use by laymen. As a noun<br />
it means a boring tool for sinking shafts or, in<br />
surgery, an obsolete form <strong>of</strong> the trephine. resembling<br />
a carpenter’s bit and brace. As a verb<br />
it means to operate with a trepan. Trephine is the<br />
term for a surgical instrument resembling a<br />
small circular saw with a center pin mounted on<br />
a strong hollow metal shaft to which is attached<br />
a transverse handle and which is used to remove<br />
circular discs <strong>of</strong> bone from the skull. As a verb<br />
it means to operate upon with a trephine.<br />
trial; experiment; test. All <strong>of</strong> these nouns imply<br />
an attempt to find out something or to find out<br />
about something. Trial is the general word for<br />
a trying <strong>of</strong> anything (Two Weeks Free Trial!<br />
Knowing as little as we do, there is no course<br />
open to us but trial and error. A trial run). Experiment<br />
looks to the future, and is a trial conducted<br />
to prove or illustrate the truth or validity<br />
<strong>of</strong> an assumption, or an attempt to discover<br />
something new (As an experiment he and a companion<br />
lived on nothing but meat for more than<br />
a year). Test is a stronger and more specific<br />
word, referring to a trial under approved and<br />
fixed conditions, or a final and decisive trial as<br />
a conclusion <strong>of</strong> past experiments (After months<br />
521<br />
<strong>of</strong> experiment and trial, he was ready for the<br />
final test).<br />
trick; maneuver; stratagem; subterfuge. All <strong>of</strong><br />
these words imply gaining one’s ends by creating<br />
a false impression. Trick is always a pejorative<br />
term, in this sense, meaning to cheat (Jacob<br />
tricked Esau out <strong>of</strong> their father’s blessing) or, as<br />
a noun, an underhanded act (That was a dirty<br />
trick to play on a friend!). Maneuver is also both<br />
a verb and a noun. It is primarily a military<br />
term. As a noun it means a planned and regulated<br />
movement or evolution <strong>of</strong> troops; an adroit<br />
move; an artful procedure (It was only u muneuver<br />
to get defensive patrol vessels out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
wny before the commandos landed). As a verb,<br />
maneuver means to manipulate with skill or<br />
adroitness. The English spell the word manoeuvre.<br />
Stmtagem, in distinction to maneuver, means<br />
a plan, scheme, or trick for deceiving the enemy.<br />
It is the plan <strong>of</strong> action, literally, rather than the<br />
action itself. Subterfuge, like trick, is a pejorative<br />
term. It describes an artifice or expedient<br />
employed to escape the force <strong>of</strong> an argument or<br />
to evade unfavorable consequences (His disguise<br />
as an expectant mother was a brazen subterfuge<br />
to insure 4 place in one <strong>of</strong> the lifeboats).<br />
trillion; billion. A trillion is, in America and<br />
France, a cardinal number represented by one<br />
(1) followed by 12 zeros ( 1,000,000,000,000).<br />
In England and Germany a trillion is a cardinal<br />
number represented by one ( 1) followed by 18<br />
zeros (l,OOO,OOO,OOO,OOO,OOO,OOO). A billion in<br />
America is equal to a thousand millions (l,OOO,-<br />
OOO,OOO), in England to a million millions<br />
(l,OOO,OOO,OOO,OOO). Thus the American trillion<br />
is equal to the English billion. See also million.<br />
trim his sails. The sailor who trims his sails, who<br />
adjusts them, that is, with reference to the direction<br />
<strong>of</strong> the wind and the course <strong>of</strong> the ship, so as<br />
to obtain the greatest advantage, is a good seaman<br />
and from the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> seamanship<br />
admirable. But in its figurative uses, the expression<br />
is disparaging, because the emphasis, in the<br />
figure, shifts from the skill in management to<br />
the purposes <strong>of</strong> management. One who trims his<br />
sails metaphorically shifts with shifting winds and<br />
has no fixed principle beyond the achievement <strong>of</strong><br />
his own advantage. That he pursues his own advantage<br />
skillfully is not, in common estimation,<br />
grounds for admiration.<br />
tri-monthly; quarterly. Quarterly means, quite<br />
unambiguously, once in a quarter <strong>of</strong> a year. Trimonthly,<br />
in its conventional use, is a synonym <strong>of</strong><br />
quarterly, since it means taking place once each<br />
three months. Yet tri-monthly is ambiguous,<br />
since it can mean, and is sometimes used to<br />
mean, three times a month. It would be useful<br />
to the language if it were fixed in this meaning<br />
and quarterly reserved to mean once in three<br />
months.<br />
trip; voyage; journey; flight. These words all describe<br />
a course <strong>of</strong> travel made to a particular<br />
place, usually for some specific purpose. In England<br />
trip means a short journey or voyage. An<br />
English tripper is the equivalent <strong>of</strong> an American
excursionist; he’s on a short outing, <strong>of</strong> a few days<br />
or a week or two at the most. In America trip is<br />
the general word, indicating going any distance<br />
and returning, by walking or any means <strong>of</strong> locomotion,<br />
for either business or pleasure and in<br />
either a hurried or a leisurely manner (We don’t<br />
go to the end <strong>of</strong> the line this trip, lady. A trip to<br />
the moon is now thought an at-least-remote possibility<br />
). A voyage is travel by air or water, USUally<br />
for a long distance, and for business or<br />
pleasure. In reference to travel by air, fright is<br />
replacing all other words; although if one announced<br />
that he was making a trip to New York,<br />
he would not feel it inappropriate if someone<br />
asked if he were going by air. Making a trip, by<br />
the way, in American contemporary usage, suggests<br />
that it is a business trip or undertaken <strong>of</strong><br />
necessity; taking a trip is more likely to suggest<br />
that it is a pleasure trip. If the journey is to be<br />
by water, voyage has a connotation <strong>of</strong> leisureliness,<br />
lacking from trip or journey (For their<br />
honeymoon they took a voyage around the<br />
world). Because <strong>of</strong> the emphasis on luxury in air<br />
travel, especially in the advertisements, and because<br />
it is still for most people a new, exciting,<br />
and slightly dangerous way <strong>of</strong> traveling, flight,<br />
in this context, is a glamorous word.<br />
A journey is a trip <strong>of</strong> considerable length,<br />
wholly or mainly by land, for business or pleasure,<br />
and is now applied to travel which is more<br />
leisurely or more fatiguing than a trip. A return<br />
is not necessarily implied (It was a sentimental<br />
journey into the past when he set out for the<br />
little village on the Mississippi in which he had<br />
spent his boyhood).<br />
triple and treble both convey the sense <strong>of</strong> threefold,<br />
but they may be distinguished. Except for<br />
its special musical sense <strong>of</strong> soprano, treble is<br />
pretty close in meaning to triple, though it is<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten used as a verb and a noun, at least<br />
in England, and triple as an adjective and in<br />
combinations.<br />
As a verb treble means to make or become<br />
three times as much or many (You can treble<br />
your income if you buy the right stocks). As a<br />
verb triple conveys roughly the same idea and is<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten used in America than treble. Indeed,<br />
treble is now rarely used in the United States,<br />
triple being preferred in almost every sense. As<br />
an adjective treble means threefold, three times<br />
as much, as in: There was a treble veneer on the<br />
table. Triple may mean this too, but it may also<br />
mean a veneer <strong>of</strong> three kinds or anything else <strong>of</strong><br />
three kinds (The poem has triple implicationsesthetic,<br />
ethical, and metaphysical). Triple has<br />
certain peculiarly American uses when applied<br />
to baseball. As a noun, a triple is a three-base<br />
hit. As a verb, to triple is to hit a three-base hit.<br />
As an adjective, triple, in the expression triple<br />
play, means a play in which three “outs” are<br />
achieved, three men are retired, before the balI<br />
is again put into play.<br />
Triple is used in many combinations; e.g.,<br />
triple-action, triple-time, triple-decker (sandwithes)<br />
, etc.<br />
trite. See commonplace.<br />
522<br />
triumphal; triumphant. These adjectives both pertain<br />
to a triumph, but triumphal is the narrower<br />
term. It means pertaining to a triumph; cele<br />
brating or commemorating a triumph or victory<br />
(A triumphal arch opens on the Champs<br />
Elyse’es). Triumphal cannot be applied to persons,<br />
but only to objects and activities, such as<br />
processions or celebrations. Triumphant means<br />
chiefly having achieved victory or success, and<br />
may be applied to the successful person or the<br />
success itself (The triumphant runner was carried<br />
out <strong>of</strong> the amphitheater on the shoulders <strong>of</strong><br />
admiring freshmen. He would have done well<br />
to have suppressed that triumphant laugh. The<br />
administration <strong>of</strong> the polio vaccine was hardly<br />
triumphant).<br />
Mvial. See petty.<br />
triviality. See commonplace.<br />
trod; trodden. See tread.<br />
troop; troops; trooper; troupe: trouper. These<br />
words all stem from a Late Latin word meaning<br />
flock. Thus a troop means an assemblage <strong>of</strong> persons<br />
or things, a company or band (A troop <strong>of</strong><br />
Oxford hunters going home,/ As in old days,<br />
jovial and talking, ride!); a great number or multitude<br />
(. . . as honor, love, obedience, troops <strong>of</strong><br />
friends). In American military terminology a<br />
troop is an armored cavalry or cavalry unit consisting<br />
<strong>of</strong> two or more platoons and a headquarters<br />
group. In English military terminology, a<br />
troop is “that subdivision <strong>of</strong> cavalry which corresponds<br />
to a company <strong>of</strong> infantry and a battery<br />
<strong>of</strong> artillery” (Partridge). In the American Boy<br />
Scout organization, a troop is a unit <strong>of</strong> thirtytwo<br />
scouts, equal to four patrols. In the English<br />
Boy Scout organization, a troop is simply a company<br />
<strong>of</strong> boy scouts. Troops (plural) describes a<br />
body <strong>of</strong> soldiers or police (The troops were<br />
brought up during the night and the prison surrounded).<br />
Troop is used as a verb in England in<br />
such an expression as to troop the colour or<br />
colours (to perform that portion <strong>of</strong> the ceremonial<br />
known as mounting guard in which the<br />
color, or flag, is received). A trooper is a horse<br />
cavalry soldier (An obscure trooper who called<br />
himself Silas Tomkyn Comberback was actually<br />
Samuel Taylor Coleridge); a mounted policeman;<br />
a horse ridden by a trooper: or, chiefly in<br />
England, a troopship (The trooper lay at the<br />
dockside, grim with the significance <strong>of</strong> her camouflage).<br />
In a number <strong>of</strong> American states the<br />
state police are <strong>of</strong>ficially called troopers.<br />
The singular troop means a body <strong>of</strong> men and<br />
the plural troops means several bodies <strong>of</strong> men.<br />
However, when the word is used with an improbably<br />
large number, such as two thousand<br />
troops, it is understood to mean two thousand<br />
individual men. But two men in uniform could<br />
not be called two troops, or even two <strong>of</strong> our<br />
troops. We would have to say two men from our<br />
troops. Only the singular form troop is used as<br />
the first element in a compound, as in troop<br />
movements.<br />
Troupe and trouper are very limiting terms.<br />
Troupe means a troop, company, or band, especially<br />
<strong>of</strong> players, singers or the like, or, as a
verb, to travel as a member <strong>of</strong> a theatrical company,<br />
to barnstorm. Trouper means an actor in<br />
a theatrical company, especially a veteran actor.<br />
It is <strong>of</strong>ten used figuratively <strong>of</strong> one who, having<br />
experienced many vicissitudes and known many<br />
hardships, can be relied on to play his part with<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional competence.<br />
trope. See figure <strong>of</strong> speech.<br />
troabled; troublesome; troublous. Troubled means<br />
worried or disturbed. It may apply to persons,<br />
atmosphere-as sea, sky-or to moods, thoughts,<br />
feelings (His troubled look frightened her. They<br />
love to fish in troubled waters). In the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
disturbed, it may have social rather than physical<br />
implications. Irwin Shaw’s book. The Troubled<br />
Ai; (N.Y., 1951), dealt with the problem <strong>of</strong> loyalty<br />
among radio artists. Troublesome means<br />
causing trouble, vexatious (He preferred a troublesome<br />
cough to a troublesome doctor). Troublous<br />
is an archaic word meaning characterized<br />
by trouble; disturbed; unsettled (The Reconstruction<br />
Era was a troublous time). Its use now<br />
would seem a little affected.<br />
trouser; trousers. Trousers, a plural substantive,<br />
is the usual form to describe a loose fitting outer<br />
garment for men, covering the lower part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
trunk and each leg separately, and extending to<br />
the ankles; or a shorter garment <strong>of</strong> this kind,<br />
reaching to the knees, especially as worn by boys.<br />
In America trousers in this second sense is customarily<br />
qualified (He wore short trousers until<br />
he was eleven). It would be felt as a little stilted<br />
or, perhaps, a euphemism, the common term for<br />
boys’ short trousers being pants or short pants<br />
(My Mama done tol’ me/ When I was in knee<br />
pants. . . ) and for men’s short trousers, shorts.<br />
A pair <strong>of</strong> trousers is the correct singular form.<br />
The English have a slang verb to trouser, meaning<br />
to put money into the trouser pocket, to<br />
pocket. Both Americans and English use the<br />
figurative idiom she wears the trousers in that<br />
house to mean that she (the wife) is the dominant<br />
person. Most Americans, however, say she<br />
wears the pants.<br />
A singular form trouser is preferred as the first<br />
element in a compound, as in trouser pockets,<br />
but the form trousers pockets may also be used.<br />
trousseau. The plural is trousseaus or trousseaux.<br />
truck; truckle. Truck in the phrase to have no<br />
truck with is derived from the French troquer,<br />
to barter. The phrase is now a clichC, devoid <strong>of</strong><br />
any specific meaning to most <strong>of</strong> those who use it.<br />
To truckle, in the sense <strong>of</strong> yielding obsequiously,<br />
is derived from sleeping on a truckle bed,<br />
a pallet on casters or truckles which was rolled<br />
under the regular bed. Servants used to sleep on<br />
truckle beds, sometimes directly under their masters<br />
in the old, high-raised four-posters with<br />
their canopies (Zf he that in the field is slain/<br />
Be on the bed <strong>of</strong> honor lain,/ He that’s beaten<br />
may be said/ To lie in honor’s truckle bed). Why<br />
<strong>of</strong> all the miseries and indignities which servants<br />
formerly had to endure this particular one was<br />
singled out as a symbol <strong>of</strong> servility is not c:lear.<br />
Housewives who wonder why it is so hard to get<br />
“help” might pr<strong>of</strong>it from setting down a list <strong>of</strong><br />
523 trustee<br />
words in English drawn from the living conditions<br />
<strong>of</strong> servants which express contempt for the<br />
servants on the part <strong>of</strong> the masters. It would be<br />
a long and instructive list.<br />
truculent does not mean base, mercenary, though<br />
a truculent man may very well be base and mercenary.<br />
It means fierce and cruel; brutally harsh,<br />
savagely threatening or bullying (One <strong>of</strong> my<br />
superiors was a truculent fellow who would have<br />
loved being a storm trooper under Hitler).<br />
true blue, as a term for one who is staunchly<br />
loyal, unshakable in admirable principles, is a<br />
clicht. It is a very old term, based on the fact<br />
that among the early dyes blue was one <strong>of</strong> the<br />
best, least likely to fade. The term today has the<br />
further disadvantage <strong>of</strong> suggesting high-minded<br />
schoolgirlish enthusiasm, the sort <strong>of</strong> term that<br />
the head <strong>of</strong> a summer camp might use in a pep<br />
talk.<br />
true verb. In this dictionary, the term u true verb<br />
means any verb form that has tense, that is, that<br />
refers to either the past, the present, or the future.<br />
The infinitive, the -ing form, and the past<br />
participle, do not have tense when they are used<br />
as nouns or adjectives. Some grammarians call<br />
these forms that do not have tense verbals, verbids,<br />
or nonfinite verb forms.<br />
truism. See commonplace.<br />
truly. See faithfully.<br />
trunk. English and American usage <strong>of</strong> trunk differ<br />
in some <strong>of</strong> its meanings. What the English<br />
call the main line <strong>of</strong> a railroad is in America<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten called a trunk line, trunk road, or simply<br />
trunk (Chicago in 1871 served as the junction<br />
point for thirteen trunk-line railroads). In the<br />
terminology <strong>of</strong> the telephone companies, trunk<br />
means a telephone line or channel between two<br />
central <strong>of</strong>fices or switching devices, which is used<br />
in providing telephone connections between subscribers<br />
generally. The trunk call <strong>of</strong> the English<br />
system is the long distance call <strong>of</strong> the American.<br />
The English colloquially say trunk, the Americans<br />
long distance.<br />
Trunks (plural) is used, especially in England,<br />
to describe short, tight-fitting breeches, as<br />
worn over tights in theatrical use. In the United<br />
States only, trunks may also mean short drawers<br />
worn by athletes such as runners, boxers, swimmers,<br />
basketball players. In this sense, trunks is<br />
always treated as a plural, as in these trunks are<br />
new. In order to use the word with a singular<br />
verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more than one such garment,<br />
it is necessary to say this pair <strong>of</strong> trunks is new<br />
or several pairs <strong>of</strong> trunks. The form trunks is<br />
used as the first element in a compound, as in<br />
the trunks pocket.<br />
trust. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in trust her to tell him about it. It is also heard<br />
with the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, especially in an exclamation<br />
that is meant to be condemning, as in<br />
trust her telling hinl about it, but this is not<br />
standard English.<br />
trustee; trusty. A trustee is a person, usually one<br />
<strong>of</strong> a body <strong>of</strong> persons, appointed to administer the<br />
affairs <strong>of</strong> a company or institution (He became<br />
a trustee <strong>of</strong> his college ten years after gradu-
tru6tworthy 524<br />
uting); a person who holds the title to property<br />
for the benefit <strong>of</strong> another. Trusty is a specifically<br />
American term to describe a well-behaved and<br />
trustworthy convict to whom special privileges<br />
have been granted. Many trusties have been recruited<br />
from the second sort <strong>of</strong> trustee.<br />
trustworthy; trusty. Both <strong>of</strong> these adjectives mean<br />
worthy <strong>of</strong> trust or confidence, reliable. Trustworthy<br />
is more <strong>of</strong>ten used, especially in reference<br />
to persons. Trusty is now slightly archaic<br />
(I shot him with my trusty flintlock. And here’s<br />
a hand, my trusty fiere,/ And gie’s a hand o’<br />
thine).<br />
truth. See veracity.<br />
truthful; true. See veracious.<br />
truth is stranger than fiction. It seems to have<br />
been Byron who first observed that truth was<br />
stranger than fiction and the observation when<br />
first made, by whomever made, was an original<br />
and arresting comment on the incredibleness <strong>of</strong><br />
reality and the feebleness <strong>of</strong> the human imagination.<br />
And the first million or so wits who repeated<br />
the observation earned thereby a reputation for<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>undity. But it is now exhausted, worn out,<br />
flat and banal.<br />
Like many banalities, however, it can serve as<br />
the basis for a stroke <strong>of</strong> wit, as when Mark Twain<br />
observed drily that truth certainly seemed stranger<br />
than fiction to many people but, as for himself,<br />
he was quite familiar with it.<br />
try. In literary English, the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb<br />
following try, as in he tried shouting, does not<br />
mean the same thing as the infinitive following<br />
try, as in he tried to shout. The infinitive names<br />
what he is attempting to do. The -ing form names<br />
something he is using as a means for whatever<br />
it is he is attempting to do.<br />
Try and is standard English for fry fo, as in<br />
try and come early. The construction is used in<br />
Great Britain more <strong>of</strong>ten than it is in the United<br />
States but it is standard in both countries. It<br />
can be used only with the form try, and not<br />
with tries, tried, or trying. We do not say he<br />
tried and came or he tries and comes. See also<br />
endeavor.<br />
try; try out; test; test out; tryout. Try out and tesf<br />
auf are recent introductions as synonyms <strong>of</strong> try<br />
and test. Try out has much greater currency than<br />
test out. One may, for instance, try or try out a<br />
new invention. Tryout is an American informal<br />
expression meaning a trial or test to ascertain<br />
fitness for some purpose (Sixteen Juniors attended<br />
the tryout for cheerleader last night).<br />
tube. What Americans refer to in radio and television<br />
sets as tubes, the English call valves. The<br />
English, however, make an exception in this:<br />
they, like the Americans, call the large glass bulb<br />
which is the “screen,” the picture tube.<br />
The English call the tubular tunnel in which<br />
an underground railroad runs a tube and, colloquially,<br />
the railroad itself. The American equivalent<br />
is subway.<br />
tubercular; tuberculous. These adjectives tend to<br />
be used interchangeably as meaning affected with<br />
tuberculosis. Actually, tubercular should be used<br />
to mean pertaining to or having the nature <strong>of</strong> a<br />
tubercule or tubcrcules or characterized by tu-<br />
bercules. But it is used so much to mean <strong>of</strong> or<br />
pertaining to the disease <strong>of</strong> tuberculosis (which is<br />
characterized by tubercules) that its use in this<br />
sense must be accepted as standard in the United<br />
States. Indeed, in popular usage, tubercular seems<br />
to be preferred to tuberculous in all contexts.<br />
Tuberculous is the pathological and medical<br />
term (X-rays disclosed a tuberculous growth in<br />
the lower lobe <strong>of</strong> the left lung) and, in strict<br />
usage, is the proper adjective to use when one<br />
means <strong>of</strong> or pertaining to the disease <strong>of</strong> tuberculosis.<br />
tummy. See belly.<br />
tune. As a phrase to introduce a sum <strong>of</strong> money<br />
owed or necessary to the accomplishment <strong>of</strong><br />
some end, to the tune <strong>of</strong> (You can do it, yes,<br />
but to the tune <strong>of</strong> five million!), even though<br />
used only as slang, is a clichC. Perhaps it derived<br />
from the idea <strong>of</strong> “paying the piper.” See tone.<br />
torn, when used in the sense <strong>of</strong> “become,” may be<br />
followed by an adjective describing what turns,<br />
as in it turned white, it turned sour. Even in this<br />
sense, it may also be qualified by an advert describing<br />
the turning, as in it quickly turned sour.<br />
The word turn occurs in a great many clich6s:<br />
give someone a turn or quite a turn for to frighten<br />
them; turn a deaf ear for a refusal to hear a<br />
plea or a request; not to turn a hair for remaining<br />
calm and unruffled; turn an honest penny,<br />
now chiefly jocular, for earning some money;<br />
turn in one’s grave, usually it’s enough to make<br />
so-and-so turn in his grave, spoken when something<br />
is said or done that would have startled<br />
so-and-so or left him aghast; turn over a new<br />
leaf, for starting anew with good intentions; turn<br />
tail for retreating; turn the other cheek, to accept<br />
insults or injuries meekly, especially when the<br />
phrase is used jocularly; turn the tables on someone,<br />
for reversing a position in relation to one<br />
who up to that time had an advantage; turn up<br />
like a bad penny, for some undesirable person<br />
who makes an appearance when he is not expected<br />
and not wanted; turn up one’s nose at, to<br />
scorn, especially when the scorn does not seem<br />
warranted to the speaker or at least when he<br />
feels that the person to whom he applies the<br />
phrase is not warranted in being disdainful.<br />
turpitude is a stilted and literary word, the common<br />
equivalents being indecency and depravity.<br />
It is perhaps this pompous nature <strong>of</strong> the word<br />
that makes the legal term moral turpitude seem<br />
slightly ridiculous.<br />
tweezers. The plural form refers to one instrument<br />
but is regularly treated as a plural, as in<br />
these tweezers are too small. In order to use the<br />
word with a singular verb or to speak <strong>of</strong> more<br />
than one <strong>of</strong> these instruments, it is necessary to<br />
say this pair <strong>of</strong> tweezers is too small or three<br />
pairs <strong>of</strong> tweezers. A singular form tweezer is preferred<br />
in compounds, such as a tweezer case.<br />
twelve good men and true. A reference to a jury<br />
by the old phrase by which juries were formerly<br />
described in writs and other legal documents,<br />
twelve good men and true is now a piece <strong>of</strong><br />
ponderous jocularity.<br />
twice; twicet. Twicet is formed on the same pattern<br />
as against, amidst, amongst, but it has never
een standard English. Twice is the only acceptable<br />
form.<br />
twice over. Some authorities consider twice over<br />
as redundant, insisting that twice conveys the<br />
identical meaning. But twice over has acquired<br />
the suggestion that the repetition is immediate;<br />
whereas that which happens twice simply happens<br />
again, any time after the first time. Browning’s<br />
wise thrush that sings each song twice<br />
over,/ Lest you should think he never could recapture/<br />
The first jine careless rapture hardly<br />
expects the listener to stand around all day waiting<br />
for the demonstration <strong>of</strong> his virtuosity.<br />
twinkling <strong>of</strong> an eye, in the. In addition to its present<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> scintillating, twinkling used to<br />
mean nictitation or the act <strong>of</strong> winking. Philemon<br />
Holland, in his translation <strong>of</strong> Pliny (1601),<br />
speaks <strong>of</strong> an ague accompanied “with head-ache<br />
and much twinkling or inordinate palpitation <strong>of</strong><br />
the eyes.” The 1609 Douay Version <strong>of</strong> Isaiah<br />
3: 16 speaks <strong>of</strong> the daughters <strong>of</strong> Sion walking<br />
with “stretched out neck. . . and twinglings <strong>of</strong><br />
eyes.” The King James Version has “wanton<br />
eyes” and the Revised Standard Version has<br />
“glancing wantonly with their eyes.” But, except<br />
for its lack <strong>of</strong> dignity, the informal “batting<br />
their eyes” wouid have been better.<br />
At any rate, this meaning <strong>of</strong> twinkling is obsolete<br />
and the phrase in the twinkling <strong>of</strong> an eye is<br />
now a clichC.<br />
twins. See pair <strong>of</strong> twins.<br />
twist around one’s little finger. To say <strong>of</strong> one<br />
who seems to have complete domination lover<br />
another that he can twist him around his Little<br />
jinger is to employ a hackneyed expression.<br />
tycoon is the transliteration into English <strong>of</strong> a<br />
Chinese term meaning “great prince.” The term<br />
was employed in Japan, from 1603 to 1867, as a<br />
title to describe the shogun <strong>of</strong> Japan to foreigners.<br />
Shogun was a Japanese term, originating in<br />
the eighth century, describing the commander in<br />
chief in their wars against the Ainu. In later<br />
Japanese history tycoon was applied to a member<br />
<strong>of</strong> a quasi-dynasty, holding the real power<br />
though parallel to the imperial dynasty, which<br />
was theoretically and ceremonially supreme.<br />
In the twentieth century, largely due to its use<br />
in the Lute publications, tycoon has become an<br />
American term (meant to be gay and informal) to<br />
describe a businessman having great wealth and<br />
525<br />
U<br />
power, an industrial magnate (One tycoon on<br />
Robinson Street had paved the thoroughfare in<br />
front <strong>of</strong> his house with blocks <strong>of</strong> marble. There<br />
was something indecent about this new pose. It<br />
was a little too much like the tycoon who spends<br />
the first part <strong>of</strong> his life sucking and crushing and<br />
the last part giving away dimes and Benjamin<br />
Franklin’s advice).<br />
type <strong>of</strong>. The singular form type <strong>of</strong> and the plural<br />
form fypes <strong>of</strong> may each be followed by either a<br />
singular or a plural noun. Bertrand Russell, for<br />
example, speaks <strong>of</strong> a type <strong>of</strong> relation, u type <strong>of</strong><br />
relations, the types <strong>of</strong> relation, and the types <strong>of</strong><br />
relations. Type is always followed by a singular<br />
verb, and types by a plural verb, regardless <strong>of</strong><br />
the form <strong>of</strong> the noun used. In this respect type <strong>of</strong><br />
does not follow the pattern <strong>of</strong> kind <strong>of</strong> and sort<br />
<strong>of</strong>.<br />
In the United States type is sometimes used<br />
immediately before a noun, in the sense <strong>of</strong> type<br />
<strong>of</strong>, as in this type car, that type person. This<br />
construction does not appear in written English<br />
but is too widespread in speech to be called anything<br />
but standard. See nouns as adjectives.<br />
typesetter; compositor. Typesetter is an exclusively<br />
American term to describe one who sets or<br />
composes type. The American alternative term,<br />
less common than typesetter, is compositor,<br />
which is the term used in England.<br />
typhoon. See cyclone.<br />
typical. See average.<br />
typist is one who operates a typewriter. In England<br />
the word typist also carries the older sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who uses type, a printer, a compositor.<br />
typographic; typographical. These adjectives are<br />
synonyms meaning pertaining to typography or<br />
printing. Typographical is more common (The<br />
pro<strong>of</strong>reader marked all <strong>of</strong> the typographical<br />
errors). In common use they are <strong>of</strong>ten substituted<br />
for stenographic or typewriting (Whenever<br />
he had been away from his typewriter for a few<br />
days he noticed that he made an unusual number<br />
<strong>of</strong> typographical errors when he began to type<br />
again).<br />
tyrannic; tyrannical. Tyrannic is rarely used and<br />
tyrannical is generally preferred as the adjective<br />
meaning arbitrary or despotic, despotically cruel<br />
or harsh, severely oppressive (He liked to blame<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the faults and misfortunes <strong>of</strong> his life on<br />
a tyrannical father).<br />
ugly as sin. Though sin is repulsive to the vir- is to employ a badly worn metaphor. The figure<br />
tuous, she is highly attractive to the wicked. is drawn from Hans Christian Andersen’s story<br />
But aside from any such argument, ugly ILS sin <strong>of</strong> the duck that hatched a swan’s egg among her<br />
is a clichC. own and regarded the cygnet, which eventually<br />
ugly duckling. To refer to an unattractive or became a beautiful swan, with dislike because it<br />
seemingly stupid child that turns out to be a was so ugly. The application is a natural one<br />
handsome or talented adult as an ugly duckling but it has been overdone.
ultimately 526<br />
The story, by the way, owes a great deal <strong>of</strong> its<br />
popularity in the nursery, as does Cinderella, to<br />
the unconscious appeal it makes to children’s<br />
egotism and self-pity.<br />
ultimately. See finally.<br />
ultimatum. There is no question but that ultimatum<br />
means the final terms <strong>of</strong> one <strong>of</strong> the parties<br />
in a diplomatic relationship, the rejection <strong>of</strong><br />
which by the other party may involve a rupture<br />
<strong>of</strong> relations or lead to a declaration <strong>of</strong> war. More<br />
loosely, it is used to mean any final proposal or<br />
statement <strong>of</strong> conditions (Her ultimatum was that<br />
he must get rid <strong>of</strong> the Great Dane or she would<br />
leave their trailer home).<br />
The question is over the form <strong>of</strong> the plural.<br />
The conservative Oxford English <strong>Dictionary</strong><br />
holds that ultimata is the plural, but more progressive<br />
English and American grammarians<br />
agree in preferring ultimatums.<br />
titimo; ult. See instant.<br />
oh-a, used as an adjective meaning going beyond<br />
what is usual or ordinary, excessive, extreme, is<br />
obsolescent in England but remains in standard<br />
use in America (He was an ultra sophisticate.<br />
The ultra conservative viewpoint has few rational<br />
adherents. . . ). It is not as much used in the<br />
United States now as it was in the 1920’s when<br />
the excessive was in vogue.<br />
umbrage. As a term for being <strong>of</strong>fended, take<br />
umbrage is a literary term and would seem a<br />
little strange or affected in ordinary speech. Yet<br />
it is a fine phrase, suggesting one shadowed in<br />
<strong>of</strong>fended pride, retreating into the darkness <strong>of</strong><br />
proud indignation, withdrawing into dark clouds<br />
<strong>of</strong> wrath whence will come the lightning <strong>of</strong> rebuke<br />
and retribution and a thunderclap <strong>of</strong> scorn.<br />
umbrella. See parasol.<br />
umlaut is a German word accepted in linguistics<br />
as the term to indicate an internal vowel change,<br />
usually caused by a following vowel or a semivowel.<br />
The term is also used to designate the<br />
diacritical mark ( * ’ ) placed over a vowel in<br />
German to indicate such a change, to show that<br />
the letter is to be pronounced with a different<br />
vowel than it would be pronounced with were<br />
the umlaut sign not there.<br />
The principle <strong>of</strong> the umlaut survives in English<br />
in a number <strong>of</strong> what are now considered<br />
irregular plurals. As the Germans say mann for<br />
the singular and mh’nner (rhyming with English<br />
tenor) for the plural <strong>of</strong> mann, so we have a<br />
normal umlaut in goose, geese and tooth, teeth<br />
and a development <strong>of</strong> what was a normal umlaut<br />
in mouse, mice and cow, kine, and so on. Umlaut<br />
also survives in some irregular verb forms: a<br />
tree falls, but it is felled, and so on.<br />
unable. See incapable.<br />
unalloyed pleasure, with its suggestion <strong>of</strong> “pure<br />
delight” or “golden hours,” is a cliche.<br />
unambiguous means not open to various interpretations,<br />
not having a double meaning, not<br />
equivocal. Yet even if there is only one meaning,<br />
one is not justified in equating unambiguous<br />
with clear or perfectly clear; for even a word or<br />
statement which has only a single meaning may<br />
be hard to comprehend.<br />
unapt. See inapt.<br />
unaware; unawares. At one time these words<br />
were used interchangeably. Today, unaware is<br />
the only form that can be used to qualify a noun<br />
or pronoun, as in he was unawure <strong>of</strong> his danger.<br />
Either form may be used to qualify any other<br />
part <strong>of</strong> speech, as in I blessed them unaware and<br />
he came upon it unawares. The form with s is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
unbeknown; unbeknownst. Neither <strong>of</strong> these words<br />
occurs in natural speech today, and one is as<br />
good as the other if the purpose is to be quaint.<br />
But a hundred years ago, when the words were<br />
used to mean “unknown,” the form unbeknown<br />
was standard English, and unbeknownst was<br />
condemned.<br />
unbelievable. See incredible.<br />
unbend as a transitive verb means to release from<br />
the strain <strong>of</strong> effort or close application or to relax<br />
by laying aside formality. In mechanical things<br />
it means to release from tension, as a bow in<br />
archery. It can also mean to straighten from a<br />
bent position (He unbent the paper clip and used<br />
it to clenn the stem <strong>of</strong> his pipe). In nautical<br />
terminology, to unbend is to loose or untie, as<br />
a sail or a rope, or to unfasten from spars or<br />
stays, as sails (As some grave Tyrian trader. . ./<br />
. . . held on indignantly/ . . . To where the Atlantic<br />
raves/ Outside the Western Straits, and<br />
unbent sails/ There . . .“). The intransitive form<br />
is more <strong>of</strong>ten used, and misused, <strong>of</strong> persons. It<br />
means to relax the strictness <strong>of</strong> formality or ceremony,<br />
to act in an easy, genial manner (Doesn’t<br />
he ever unbend? Is he always this stiff and<br />
formal? Sometimes he would unbend and spend<br />
a social evening with a few select friends).<br />
In using the ideas <strong>of</strong> bending and unbending<br />
in figures <strong>of</strong> speech, there is a danger that has to<br />
be watched for. As applied to physical objects,<br />
such as bows, bending involves increase in tension<br />
and unbending relaxation <strong>of</strong> tension. In<br />
regard to human beings, however, the situation is<br />
ambiguous. A state <strong>of</strong> tension may be conveyed<br />
by straightness, erectness, stiffness, which is relaxed<br />
by bending. Yet one may also be under<br />
tension when bending and relax by straightening<br />
up-as anyone knows who has ever picked berries<br />
or worked with a hoe. One has to be certain,<br />
therefore, when using bending and unbending in<br />
reference to human beings, especially in figurative<br />
uses, that one’s meaning is clear.<br />
uncomparable; incomparable. Uncomparable is<br />
more limited in meaning than incomparable. It<br />
means that cannot be compared (Apples and<br />
automobiles are uncomparable). Incomparable<br />
means matchless or unequaled, beyond comparison<br />
by reason <strong>of</strong> excellence rather than by reason<br />
<strong>of</strong> dissimilarity (Venezia’s beauty was incomparable).<br />
Incomparable is also used to convey the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> uncomparable, far more <strong>of</strong>ten indeed, in<br />
contemporary usage, than uncomparable itself.<br />
unconscious; subconscious. In popular usage subconscious<br />
means imperfectly or not wholly conscious<br />
(Some subconscious thozcght told me not<br />
to sell, attractive as the <strong>of</strong>fer then seemed). In<br />
psychological terminology, the subconscious
means those processes <strong>of</strong> being and awareness<br />
which exist or operate beneath or beyond consciousness<br />
(The subconscious self is the subject<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> many modern novelists).<br />
Unconscious in ordinary use means not conscious,<br />
temporarily without consciousness (He<br />
was unconscious for five minutes after Johnson<br />
knocked him out); not aware <strong>of</strong> something (Mrs.<br />
Wiggs was apparently zrnconscious <strong>of</strong> the sensation<br />
she was causing) ; not known to or perceived<br />
by oneself (It was an unconscious slip <strong>of</strong> rhe<br />
tongue and he was plainly puzzled by the rubdued<br />
laughter that greeted it) ; unintentional (He<br />
was the victim <strong>of</strong> an unconscious slight). As a<br />
psychoanalytical term, the unconscious means an<br />
organization <strong>of</strong> the mind containing all psychic<br />
material not available in the immediate field <strong>of</strong><br />
awareness.<br />
uncontrollable. See incontrollable.<br />
uncorrected. See incorrect.<br />
uncouth. See exotic.<br />
unctious; unctuous. Unctious is a common ,misspelling<br />
and mispronunciation <strong>of</strong> unctzzousthough<br />
the misspeller and mispronouncer may<br />
unctuously insist, if he chooses, that he is merely<br />
employing an obsolete variant. Unctuous means<br />
<strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> or characteristic <strong>of</strong> an unguent<br />
or ointment, oily, or greasy. Used figuratively, it<br />
is a term <strong>of</strong> disparagement, meaning complacently<br />
agreeable and self-satisfied, a little more than<br />
smooth, a little less than greasy. It is applied particularly<br />
to those who are characterized by religious<br />
unction or fervor, especially <strong>of</strong> an affected<br />
and insincere kind (There was no really good<br />
unctuous violence to be had except by turning<br />
chamoion <strong>of</strong> reli~ion--Sinclair Lewis). Used <strong>of</strong><br />
, I I<br />
certain minerals, with no suggestion ‘<strong>of</strong> disparagement,<br />
it means having an oily or soapy feel.<br />
The English have a slang word soapy which is<br />
somewhat stronger than unctuous as a figurative<br />
term <strong>of</strong> disparagement, or at least more open in<br />
its contempt (Bishop Wilberforce, colloquially<br />
known as “Soapy Sam,” was brought up as the<br />
heavy artillery to demolish the godless theory <strong>of</strong><br />
evolution once and for all).<br />
under is primarily an adverb or preposition. When<br />
combined with a verb it may carry the meaning<br />
“beneath,” “short <strong>of</strong>,” or “supporting.” It may<br />
also be used as an adjective to qualify a noun, as<br />
in the under portion, the under side. As an adjective<br />
it has a superlative form, undermost,. but<br />
no comparative.<br />
under (in clichts). Under introduces many clich&.<br />
To be under a cloud is to be temporarily out <strong>of</strong><br />
favor or in disgrace. To be under the aegis <strong>of</strong> is<br />
to be under the protection <strong>of</strong> someone powerful.<br />
The aegis was the storm-cloud and thunder-cloud<br />
<strong>of</strong> Zeus, imagined in Homer as a shield forged<br />
by Hephaestus, blazing brightly and fringed with<br />
tassels <strong>of</strong> gold, and in its center the drea.dfuI<br />
head <strong>of</strong> Medusa, the sight <strong>of</strong> which turned men<br />
to stone. It was borne not only by Zeus but by his<br />
daughter, Pallas Athene, and sometimes in battle<br />
the god or goddess interposed it between a fa.vorite<br />
and a threatened danger. Under the sun has<br />
passed almost beyond the stage <strong>of</strong> being a cllich6<br />
527 understand<br />
into being accepted as a phrase-word for anywhere.<br />
To be under the thumb <strong>of</strong> someone is to<br />
be completely controlled by that person, <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
with the suggestion that the controlled one has<br />
lost the very power <strong>of</strong> making decisions, or even<br />
wishes, for himself. To be under the weather is<br />
to be sick, not violently or desperately sick but<br />
vaguely unwell, usually with an accompanying<br />
dejection <strong>of</strong> spirits. The phrase is a nineteenthcentury<br />
coinage <strong>of</strong> uncertain origin.<br />
All <strong>of</strong> these expressions are now clichts. Each<br />
originally had an idea or a figurative application<br />
<strong>of</strong> some known fact that made it arresting and<br />
pungent. But overuse has deadened them.<br />
under the circumstances. See circumstances.<br />
under (over) one’s signature. That which is<br />
written over one’s signature is simply something<br />
to which one has signed his name. It could be<br />
a letter, a poem, anything. That which is written<br />
under one’s signature (as, in the legal phrase,<br />
under my hand and seal) is by the use <strong>of</strong> this<br />
phrase indicated to be authorized, warranted, or<br />
attested by the signer. See also superscription.<br />
under separate cover. See enclosed herewith.<br />
under way. See way; weigh.<br />
underground. For half a century underground<br />
has been the English term for underground railroad,<br />
what Americans call the subway. In United<br />
States history underground railroad, before the<br />
abolition <strong>of</strong> slavery, was the name <strong>of</strong> an arrangement<br />
among opponents <strong>of</strong> slavery for helping<br />
fugitive slaves to escape into Canada or some<br />
other place <strong>of</strong> safety. Underground has also a<br />
recent sense <strong>of</strong> a secret organization, fighting the<br />
established government or occupation forces,<br />
especially such an organization in the fascistoverrun<br />
nations <strong>of</strong> Europe before and during<br />
World War II. Since World War II underground<br />
has been applied to organized anti-Communists<br />
in Communist countries and to organized Communist<br />
sympathizers in Western countries.<br />
undershirt; vest. What an American calls an<br />
undershirt--an inner shirt, worn next to the skin<br />
-an Englishman calls a vest. What most Americans<br />
call a vest, an Englishman calls a waistcoat.<br />
Americans know and use the word waistcoat<br />
but not so much as formerly. It is interesting<br />
that Oliver Wendell Holmes, an American, re<br />
garded vest as a “cockney” term.<br />
understand. The past tense is understood. The<br />
participle is also understood. An old form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
participle, understanded, is sometimes used today<br />
for its archaic effect. It has not been normal<br />
English since about the year 1600. See know.<br />
understand, 1. So many meanings can be attached<br />
to the common phrase I understand that it must<br />
be used with caution if one wishes to be clear.<br />
It can mean, at one end <strong>of</strong> its scale, that one is<br />
not only fully aware <strong>of</strong> the meaning <strong>of</strong> something<br />
that has been said but comprehends all <strong>of</strong><br />
its implications as well (I comprehended all that<br />
he said, but I failed to understand why he was<br />
so upset). At the other end <strong>of</strong> its scale <strong>of</strong> meanings<br />
it can mean “I do not understand at all and<br />
never will be able to.” The English use it in this<br />
sense more than Americans do, interjecting it
understood 528<br />
with humorous modesty into technical explanations<br />
(These things work, 1 understand, on the<br />
principle <strong>of</strong>. etc.). What the speaker means is “I<br />
have been told, but it’s beyond my comprehension.”<br />
In between these extremes, the expression<br />
can mean to believe, to suspect, to know, to have<br />
been informed, or, as Sir Alan Herbert adds,<br />
“There is a strong rumor at the club.” Certainly<br />
there is a difference between saying I understand<br />
that you are not satisfied and saying I know that<br />
you are not satisfied and all the difference in the<br />
world in the signification <strong>of</strong> I understand in Z<br />
understand that you are not satisfied and I understand<br />
why you are not satisfied. See also know;<br />
comprehend; understand.<br />
understood. See understand.<br />
undiscriminating; indiscriminating. Undiscriminating<br />
is the term strongly preferred in England and<br />
America to mean not discriminating and indiscriminate<br />
to mean not discriminated.<br />
undoubtedlv: doubtless: indubitablv. Undoubtedly<br />
is thyusual word; signifying deyond doubt,<br />
indisputably. Doubtless is not so strong a word.<br />
It means without doubt, unquestionably; but it<br />
also is concessive, suggesting probability or presumption.<br />
Indubitably is a pretentious substitute<br />
for either undoubtedly or doubtless.<br />
undue, meaning not requisite, not necessary, excessive,<br />
too great, needs to be used with intelligent<br />
care. For instance, the statement He didn’t<br />
seem unduly concerned about his grades, that is,<br />
“He didn’t seem any more concerned than there<br />
was reason for concern,” is a pretty loose statement<br />
by itself. One has to know how much<br />
concern would have been reasonable before the<br />
statement can convey a clear idea. Even more<br />
unfortunate is the use <strong>of</strong> nndue in such a statement<br />
as There was no undue drunkenness in<br />
town Saturday night. One wonders how much<br />
drunkenness was due. Undue, in such a context,<br />
needs qualification. It has a meaning in: There<br />
was no undue drunkenness in town, if we remamber<br />
that this n’us the first liberty the crew had<br />
had in three months.<br />
undying, deathless, and immortal all mean not<br />
liable or subject to death, though they seem to<br />
express slightly different shades <strong>of</strong> conviction <strong>of</strong><br />
perpetuity. Undying has <strong>of</strong>ten the sense <strong>of</strong> unceasing<br />
(the undying worm, the undying buritone<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sea), a sense not shared with the<br />
others. In the common phrase undying affection<br />
the ideas <strong>of</strong> unceasing and lasting forever are<br />
combined. Deathless and immortal are closer together<br />
in meaning not subject to death or destruction,<br />
unceasing or perpetual in time (Ne’er<br />
shall oblivion’s murky cloud/ Obscure his deathless<br />
praise). While deathless stresses freedom<br />
from death, immortal emphasizes endurance<br />
through all time (Unto the King eternal, immortal,<br />
invisible. the onlv wise God. be honor and<br />
g&y for ever. Lap- me in s<strong>of</strong>t Lydian airs,/<br />
Married to immortal verse). The immortals are<br />
the classical divinities. The Forty Immortals are<br />
the members <strong>of</strong> the French Academy.<br />
unelastic. See inelastic.<br />
unestimable; inestimable. Inestimable is the only<br />
form now used in the United States (His opinion<br />
was <strong>of</strong> inestimable value). It is the preferred<br />
form in England, although unestimable is still<br />
accepted there in the sense <strong>of</strong> too great to be<br />
estimated.<br />
unexplainable. See inexplicable.<br />
unfertilized; infertile; unfertile. Unfertilized is the<br />
correct word meaning unimpregnated (as <strong>of</strong> animals<br />
or plants) or unenriched (as <strong>of</strong> soil). Znfertile<br />
is the preferred word meaning not fertile,<br />
unfruitful, unproductive, barren. Unfertile is its<br />
less used synonym.<br />
unfrequent; unfrequented; infrequent; infrequency.<br />
Znfrequent is greatly preferred to Llnfrequent<br />
to convey the idea <strong>of</strong> happening or<br />
occurring at long intervals or not <strong>of</strong>ten (These<br />
infrequent visits to the city became an increasing<br />
burden); not constant, habitual. or regular (He<br />
wus an infrequerzt visitor to the city). Unfrequented<br />
is correct, infrequented incorrect, in the<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> not frequented, little resorted to or visited,<br />
solitary (Kidd was believed to have hidden<br />
hi.7 gold on un unfrequented island). Infrequency<br />
is the preferred noun meaning the state <strong>of</strong> being<br />
infrequent (Gradually she became accustomed<br />
to the infrequency <strong>of</strong> his visits). The American<br />
alternative, infrequence, and the English alternatives,<br />
infrequence and unfrequency, are rarely<br />
used.<br />
unharmonious. See inharmonious.<br />
unheard-<strong>of</strong>. From its primary sense <strong>of</strong> that which<br />
was never heard <strong>of</strong>, unheard-<strong>of</strong> has come to<br />
mean such as was never known before, new,<br />
strange, unprecedented. In this changing meaning<br />
there is a likelihood <strong>of</strong> ambiguity that must<br />
be watched for. If a message, for instance, is<br />
described as unheard-<strong>of</strong>, the context must make<br />
it plain whether this means that the message was<br />
not received or heard <strong>of</strong>, or whether it was in<br />
some way, perhaps in its insolence, unprecedented.<br />
unhuman; inhuman. Znhuman is the correct adjective<br />
meaning lacking natural human feeling or<br />
sympathy for others: brutal (The inhuman treutment<br />
inflicted on the captives sowed the seeds <strong>of</strong><br />
undying hatred). In America inhuman also has<br />
the secondary sense <strong>of</strong> not human, unlike some<br />
human attribute or function. The English express<br />
this sense with the word unhumun (It was<br />
an unhumun voice, more like a crow’s). Americans<br />
use unhuman as the less desirable alternative<br />
to both senses <strong>of</strong> inhuman.<br />
unimportant. See inconsequent.<br />
unintelligible. See unthinkable.<br />
uninterested. See disinterested.<br />
unique once meant “only,” as in his unique son.<br />
It can no longer be used in this sense. Today<br />
unique may mean “in a class by itself,” but it<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten means “unparalleled” or simply “remarkable.”<br />
In this, it is following the pattern <strong>of</strong><br />
singular. In all its current senses unique may be<br />
used with words that imply degrees, such as<br />
more unique and quite unique. Some people believe<br />
that there is something about the meaning
<strong>of</strong> uniqzre that makes expressions <strong>of</strong> this lkind<br />
“illogical” or improper, but these expressions are<br />
used freely by outstanding writers and educators<br />
today. One grammarian, commenting on the<br />
much condemned quite unique points out that<br />
the word here means “unparalleled” and that we<br />
certainly do say quite unparalleled. He then says<br />
<strong>of</strong> the word unique itself: “I don’t see anything<br />
quite unique in it.” See also comparison <strong>of</strong> adjectives<br />
and adverbs.<br />
unique; singular; exceptional. Unique and singular<br />
may be used as synonyms, but singular is<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten used in the sense <strong>of</strong> extraordinary,<br />
remarkable (The child has a singular inability to<br />
comprehend the simplest instruction). Exceptional<br />
also may be used as a synonym for uniqcte<br />
in its sense <strong>of</strong> forming an exception, or forming<br />
an exceptional or unusual instance. However, it<br />
is more <strong>of</strong>ten used, like singular, to mean simply<br />
unusual or extraordinary.<br />
United States. National or geographical names<br />
that have plural forms are usually treated as<br />
plurals, as in the Netherlands are in Europe, the<br />
Hebrides are part <strong>of</strong> Scotland. But the United<br />
States is usually treated as a singular in English.<br />
We say the United States is in North America.<br />
The plural construction these United States is<br />
used, but it is felt to be poetic and it is avoided<br />
before a verb. That is, we might say in these<br />
United States we believe in elections but we<br />
would not say these United States are having an<br />
election. See America.<br />
unities. The unities are the three principles <strong>of</strong><br />
dramatic plot construction: action, time and<br />
place. The only really important unity is that <strong>of</strong><br />
action; that is, a logical connection between the<br />
incidents <strong>of</strong> a play. Aristotle called attention to<br />
the essential character <strong>of</strong> this unity when he defined<br />
tragedy as “an imitation <strong>of</strong> an action that<br />
is complete and whole.”<br />
The principle <strong>of</strong> unity <strong>of</strong> time was an outgrowth<br />
<strong>of</strong> Aristotle’s observation that “tragedy<br />
endeavors, as far as possible, to confine itself to<br />
a single revolution <strong>of</strong> the sun, or but slightly to<br />
exceed this limit.” It remained for sixteenth<br />
century Italian critics to convert this description<br />
into dogma. Once the rule was established it was<br />
interpreted variously: some followed Aristotle in<br />
judging a day to consist <strong>of</strong> a single revolution <strong>of</strong><br />
the sun, or twenty-four hours; others limited the<br />
time to twelve hours (day, as distinguished from<br />
night); a fastidious few felt that the hours represented<br />
in the action should not exceed the<br />
hours actually consumed in the theatrical presentation.<br />
The principle <strong>of</strong> unity <strong>of</strong> place is not Aristotelian<br />
at all, but is the innovation <strong>of</strong> Italian<br />
Renaissance critics. Interpretations <strong>of</strong> what constituted<br />
unity <strong>of</strong> place have been various: some<br />
critics insist that the action <strong>of</strong> a whole play must<br />
be played at a particular spot; others are content<br />
if it is confined to a given locality, as a city.<br />
Ben Jonson’s The Alchemist is an English play<br />
which observes the unities. But good plays that<br />
do so are rare. From Shakespeare on, play-<br />
529 university<br />
wrights in English have generally observed unity<br />
<strong>of</strong> action, but unity <strong>of</strong> action only-though some<br />
neoclassicals, such as Dryden and Congreve,<br />
have observed the other unities as well.<br />
Actually the unities have interested critics<br />
more <strong>of</strong>ten than they have interested dramatists.<br />
Today the playwright is most concerned with<br />
unity <strong>of</strong> impression-which may or may not follow<br />
from a unified action.<br />
unity is one <strong>of</strong> the three basic principles <strong>of</strong> rhetorical<br />
structure. The other two are coherence<br />
and emphasis. Unity means the relation <strong>of</strong> all the<br />
parts or elements <strong>of</strong> a work in such a way as to<br />
produce a harmonious whole with a single general<br />
effect.<br />
A sentence, for example, becomes a sentence<br />
by virtue <strong>of</strong> having unity, <strong>of</strong> completing a<br />
thought.<br />
Paragraphs lack unity if they include unrelated<br />
materials. They are likely to have unity if<br />
their material is appropriate to fulfilling a definite<br />
segment <strong>of</strong> the writer’s larger purpose. A<br />
good way for the beginner to test his paragraphs<br />
for unity is for him to see whether or not the<br />
whole point <strong>of</strong> the paragraph can be summarized<br />
in a single sentence.<br />
A piece <strong>of</strong> writing as a whole has unity if the<br />
fundamental interest, the subject, permeates the<br />
entire composition and makes it one thing. A<br />
unified piece <strong>of</strong> writing is the fruit <strong>of</strong> clear, systematic<br />
thinking.<br />
university; college. In the United States a university<br />
is an institution <strong>of</strong> learning <strong>of</strong> the highest<br />
grade, having a college <strong>of</strong> liberal arts and a program<br />
<strong>of</strong> graduate studies, together with several<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional schools, as <strong>of</strong> theology, law, medicine,<br />
engineering, and authorized to confer degrees.<br />
In England, the university is the whole<br />
body <strong>of</strong> teachers and students pursuing, at a<br />
particular place, the higher branches <strong>of</strong> learning.<br />
In the United States college means an institution<br />
<strong>of</strong> higher learning, especially one not divided,<br />
like a university, into distinct schools and faculties,<br />
and affording a general or liberal education<br />
rather than technical or pr<strong>of</strong>essional training<br />
(The College <strong>of</strong> William and Mary is one <strong>of</strong> our<br />
oldest institutions <strong>of</strong> higher learning); a constituent<br />
unit <strong>of</strong> a university, furnishing courses<br />
<strong>of</strong> instruction in the liberal arts and sciences,<br />
usually leading to the degree <strong>of</strong> bachelor (Harvard<br />
College is the undergraduate unit <strong>of</strong> Harvard<br />
University); an institution for special or<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional instruction as in medicine, pharmacy,<br />
agriculture, or music, <strong>of</strong>ten set up as a<br />
part <strong>of</strong> a university (The College <strong>of</strong> Agriculture<br />
was some distance from the main university<br />
buildings). In England, a college is an endowed,<br />
self-governing association <strong>of</strong> scholars incorporated<br />
within a university (Pembroke College<br />
was in Johnson’s affectionate phrase, “a nest <strong>of</strong><br />
singing birds”); a charitable foundation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
collegiate type; or other educational corporations<br />
which prepare students for the universities<br />
(Eton College, Winchester College).<br />
In idiomatic usage, university and college are
UIlhOWIl 530<br />
differently referred to: one goes to college, one<br />
goes to Ihe university.<br />
unkuown; onknownst. Unknown is standard<br />
English. Unknownst is considered incorrect.<br />
unlawful. See illegal.<br />
unless is usually a conjunction. It introduces a<br />
condition and is equivalent to if not, as in how<br />
shall I know, unless I go to Cairo and Cathay?<br />
But it may also be used as a preposition, that is,<br />
without introducing a full clause. In that case, it<br />
has the meaning <strong>of</strong> “except” or “but,” as in nor<br />
was he ever known to curse, unless against the<br />
government.<br />
uumaterial; immaterial. Immaterial is the word<br />
used in both England and America to mean <strong>of</strong><br />
no essential consequence, unimportant (It’s immaterial<br />
to me whether you report it or not); not<br />
material, incorporeal, spiritual (The soul is immaterial,<br />
unfleshly ). If unmaterial is used, it may<br />
only be used as a less desirable substitute for<br />
immaterial in the second sense.<br />
unmeasurable; immeasurable. The English prefer<br />
unmeasztrable in the literal sense <strong>of</strong> incapable <strong>of</strong><br />
being measured (the unmeasurable depths <strong>of</strong><br />
space), whether because <strong>of</strong> size or insusceptibility<br />
to measurement In transferred figurative<br />
senses they prefer immeasurable (immeasurable<br />
courage, immeasurable gratitude). In the United<br />
States immeasurable is preferred in all contexts<br />
and unmeasurable is becoming obsolete as an<br />
alternative.<br />
unmindful. See oblivious.<br />
unmoral. See immoral.<br />
unnatural; supernatural; supranatural; preternatural.<br />
Unnatural means not natural, not<br />
proper to the natural constitution or character;<br />
having or showing a lack <strong>of</strong> natural or proper<br />
instincts or feeling (Her composure at her<br />
mother’s funeral appeared unnatural to many<br />
people). It also means contrary to the nature <strong>of</strong><br />
things; at variance with the ordinary course <strong>of</strong><br />
nature, unusual, strange, abnormal; artificial or<br />
affected, forced or strained (He will even speak<br />
well <strong>of</strong> the bishop, though I tell him it is unnatural<br />
in a beneficed clergyman-George Eliot).<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the commonest meanings, a derivation<br />
from the first meaning, is more than usually<br />
cruel or evil (No, you unnatural hags,/ I will<br />
have such revenges on you both. . . .).<br />
Supernatural means being above or beyond<br />
what is natural, something not being or done<br />
through the operation <strong>of</strong> merely physical laws,<br />
but by some agency above and separate from<br />
these (Supernatural beings were taken for<br />
granted by the ordinary Greek. These supernatural<br />
explanations which come so readily to<br />
the uninformed and undisciplined mind entail a<br />
series <strong>of</strong> consequences which the same uninformed<br />
and undisciplined mind would be the<br />
first to reject if it could understand them). Supernatural<br />
is also used loosely to mean extraordinary<br />
or abnormal (It’s just supernatural, the way<br />
that guy finds things out). Supranatural is a<br />
synonym <strong>of</strong> supernatural, used occasionally in<br />
England but almost never in the United States.<br />
Preternatural designates something out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
ordinary course <strong>of</strong> nature, abnormal, exceptional,<br />
unusual. It was formerly used to describe<br />
something which might have been a work <strong>of</strong><br />
nature, but was not (Dogs have a preternatural<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> smell. Bats have a preternatural sense<br />
<strong>of</strong> sight, for they can fly in total darkness and<br />
avoid objects placed in their way), but with the<br />
extension <strong>of</strong> our knowledge <strong>of</strong> the natural-<br />
“The unnatural,” said Goethe, “that also is natural”-it<br />
has come to be a slightly humorous<br />
hyperbole for abnormal, exceptional (Mr. Pickering<br />
was a widower-a fact which seemed to<br />
produce in him a sort <strong>of</strong> preternatural concentrafion<br />
<strong>of</strong> parenfal dignity-Henry James), or is<br />
used as an evasive synonym for supernatural by<br />
those who like to dabble in the occult but do not<br />
wish to accept the intellectual consequences <strong>of</strong><br />
full immersion.<br />
unnecessary. See redundant.<br />
unorganized; disorganized. That is unorganized<br />
which is not organized, which lacks organic<br />
structure (He could take an unorganized group<br />
<strong>of</strong> boys and mold them into a team) ; not formed<br />
into an organized or systematized whole (This is<br />
not a book but simply an unorganized mass <strong>of</strong><br />
notes). Unorganized has also the specific meaning,<br />
in contemporary American usage, when applied<br />
to labor, <strong>of</strong> not being organized into a<br />
labor union. Disorganized means having an<br />
existing organization destroyed or disrupted<br />
(Enemy infiltration had left the Command Post<br />
disorganized).<br />
unpractical. See impracticable.<br />
unqualified; disqualified. Unqualified means not<br />
qualified, not fitted, not having the requisite<br />
qualifications (Many students are unqualified to<br />
do advanced work). It also means not modified,<br />
not limited or restricted in any way (He rarely<br />
gave unqualified approval. He always had doubts<br />
and reservations and was hesitant to commend).<br />
Disqualified means deprived <strong>of</strong> qualification or<br />
fitness (He was disqualified from running for<br />
<strong>of</strong>ice because <strong>of</strong> a criminal record).<br />
unreadable. See illegible.<br />
unreligious; irreligious. In England unreligious is<br />
taken primarily to mean having no connection<br />
with or relation to religion. Only rarely does it<br />
have the secondary meaning <strong>of</strong> irreligious. In the<br />
United States, however, the primary meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
unreligious is irreligious, and an ordinary secondary<br />
meaning is the neutral one <strong>of</strong> having no<br />
connection with religion (A minister has many<br />
duties that may perhaps be called unreligious,<br />
such as the repair and maintenance <strong>of</strong> the church<br />
building, the care <strong>of</strong> the lawn, and so on). In<br />
both England and America irreligious is a derogatory<br />
term, at least from the standpoint <strong>of</strong><br />
the religious. It means not religious, impious,<br />
ungodly, showing a disregard <strong>of</strong> or hostility to<br />
religion.<br />
unresponsible; irresponsible. The currently used<br />
word is irresnonsible, meaning not responsible,<br />
not answerable or accountable, careless, reckless<br />
and indifferent to consequences (He entrusted
his business to an irresponsible relative and soon<br />
found himself ruined). It also means not capable<br />
<strong>of</strong> responsibility, done without a sense <strong>of</strong> responsibility<br />
(A young child is naturally, in many<br />
respects, irresponsible). Vnresponsible is a synonym<br />
used seldom in England, almost never in the<br />
United States.<br />
~~~sanitary; insanitary. Some authorities in England<br />
urge the use <strong>of</strong> unsanitary in the sense <strong>of</strong><br />
not possessing sanitation-though not posing,<br />
necessarily, a health problem (The unsanitary<br />
marshes, with their brackish smell . . .), and<br />
insanitary to mean injurious to health, unhealthy<br />
(insanitary slums. Open garbage cans and insanitary<br />
refuse lying in heaps showed all too<br />
plainly the city’s indifference to the health <strong>of</strong><br />
those who lived in this neighborhood). In the<br />
United States, where the menace to human<br />
health <strong>of</strong> any non-sanitary condition has, perhaps,<br />
been more insistently dinned into the general<br />
consciousness (though that does not mean<br />
that more has been done about it than in England),<br />
unsanitary is the term in all senses and<br />
insanitary is a seldom-used synonym.<br />
unsatisfied; dissatisfied; disgruntled. Unsatisfied<br />
and dissatisfied both mean not contented, but dissatisfied<br />
is the stronger term. Unsatisfied means<br />
not satisfied in the sense <strong>of</strong> falling short <strong>of</strong> satisfaction<br />
(The one helping <strong>of</strong> porridge left his<br />
hunger unsatisfied and, to the consternation <strong>of</strong><br />
Mr. Bumble, he asked for more). Dissatisfied<br />
means positively discontented, not pleased, <strong>of</strong>fended<br />
(I was dissatisfied with his manners at the<br />
party), showing dissatisfaction (He had a dissatisfied<br />
expression on his face). Dissatisfied is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten a euphemism for <strong>of</strong>fended, especially when<br />
spoken to one who has been remiss by one to<br />
whose satisfaction the other must perform a task.<br />
Disgruntled is a stronger word than dissatisfied,<br />
implying a sulky discontent, a feeling <strong>of</strong> resentment<br />
at the failure to be satisfied.<br />
unsavory reputation is a journalistic cliche for a<br />
bad reputation or a bad name. How fine, by the<br />
way, the old term bad name sounds in contrast<br />
to this cumbrous substitute! (Endow a canine<br />
with an unsavory reputation and you might as<br />
well immerse him in an aqueous solution until he<br />
expires).<br />
unsolvable. See insoluble.<br />
rmsophistisated; inexperienced; nake; artless. Vnsophisticated<br />
indicates an unfamiliarity with or<br />
an inexperience <strong>of</strong> the ideas, tastes or manners<br />
<strong>of</strong> a worldly society (The unsophisticated are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten charming in their innocence). Znexperienced<br />
is a more restrictive term. It means not<br />
experienced, without knowledge or skill gained<br />
from experience, and is usually applied to a particular<br />
activity (He was inexperienced at handling<br />
a large audience and gave way to panic at<br />
their laughter). Nai’ve means having or showing<br />
natural simplicity, ingenuous. It tends to be used<br />
<strong>of</strong> those whose behavior is so simple as to be<br />
laughable or at least amusing (One has to be<br />
pretty nai:ve to believe in the selflessness <strong>of</strong> the<br />
senator’s patriotism). Artless may be a neutral<br />
531 unthinkable<br />
term, describing one who is free from deceit.<br />
cunning or craftiness, guileless (The artless manner<br />
in which the child revealed the secret, without<br />
being at all aware <strong>of</strong> what she was doing,<br />
would have been amusing had not the secret itself<br />
been so dreadful). It may also be used, in a<br />
mildly deprecatory manner, to suggest a lack in<br />
art, knowledge, or skill (The little artless Rosey<br />
thumped the piano and warbled her ditties. Z can<br />
take only so much <strong>of</strong> her artless prattle). See<br />
also ndif; naive; naive.<br />
unspeakable and ineffable both mean inexpressible,<br />
but in their common, everyday uses they<br />
show how strongly connotation can color a<br />
meaning. For unspeakable, in its generally accepted<br />
sense, means that which cannot be expressed<br />
because it is so vile (His conduct in the<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> the ladies was unspeakable. He ought<br />
to be horsewhipped!) ; while ineffable means that<br />
which cannot be expressed or uttered because it<br />
is too wonderful (the ineffable joys <strong>of</strong> heaven)<br />
or dare not be uttered because it is too sacred<br />
(the ineffable name <strong>of</strong> God).<br />
unsufferable; insufferable. Insufferable is the usual<br />
word used to mean not to be endured, intolerable.<br />
unbearable (The man is an insuflerable<br />
jackass and Z refuse to go if he will be there).<br />
Vnsu.#erable is dying out as an alternative, both<br />
in the United States and in England.<br />
unthinkable; inconceivable; unintelligible. That is<br />
unthinkable, in the strictest sense, which cannot<br />
be thought or made an object <strong>of</strong> thought (What<br />
is contradictory is unthinkable). Except for infinity,<br />
the nature <strong>of</strong> God, and other metaphysical<br />
concepts, it is hard to think, indeed almost a<br />
contradiction in terms to try to think, <strong>of</strong> anything<br />
unthinkable. It is most commonly used,<br />
however, to mean something which will not be<br />
entertained in the mind or the imagination because<br />
it is highly improbable or because it is too<br />
base or degrading (It is unthinkable that he<br />
should be this late and not cull me, unless he has<br />
met with an accident. Such a compromise is unthinkable;<br />
we prefer to accept the consequences<br />
<strong>of</strong> refusing to agree to your terms). Unthinkable<br />
should not be used to mean unlikely or impossible,<br />
for the mind is well able to think <strong>of</strong> the<br />
unlikely and the impossible.<br />
Inconceivable means that which cannot be<br />
conceived or realized in the imagination (Zt is<br />
inconceivable that two straight lines should enclose<br />
a space). In common usage it means incredible<br />
or inexplicable (Zt is inconceivable that<br />
Alda should have taken the money. Z will not<br />
believe it without absolute pro<strong>of</strong> and her own<br />
full confession). In this sense it is a close synonym<br />
for unthinkable, but it does not carry as<br />
strong a condemnation as unthinkable does.<br />
Unintelligible is sharply restrictive. It is confined<br />
almost exclusively to words which convey<br />
no conception whatever but are, for any reason,<br />
mere confused sounds or gibberish (I could distinguish<br />
his voice shouting to me through the<br />
storm across the arroyo, but the words were unintelligible<br />
to me).
UIltil 532<br />
until. See tin.<br />
untimely end as an expression for an early, particularly<br />
a premature, death, and especially in<br />
the phrase to come to an untimely end, is a hackneyed<br />
expression.<br />
untold wealth does not mean income feloniously<br />
concealed from the Collector <strong>of</strong> Internal Revenue<br />
but wealth so great that it cannot be<br />
counted. (An amusing illustration <strong>of</strong> the ineffectualness<br />
<strong>of</strong> euphemisms (which see) is supplied<br />
by the fact that this unpopular <strong>of</strong>ficial has<br />
been renamed the Director <strong>of</strong> Internal Revenue<br />
without, so far as can be ascertained, mitigating<br />
the misery <strong>of</strong> payment or decreasing its attendant<br />
resentment one iota.) Told in the expression<br />
is the past participle <strong>of</strong> the verb tell in the now<br />
obsolescent meaning “to count.” The old meaning<br />
survives in the teller <strong>of</strong> a bank, telling one’s<br />
beads, in the phrase all told, and various other<br />
fossilized forms such as the nursery rime Young<br />
lambs to sell,/ Young lambs to sell./ If I’d as<br />
much money as I could tell,/ I never would cry,<br />
“Young lambs to sell!” The shepherd who was<br />
telling his tale under the hawthorne in the dale<br />
was not relating a narrative but counting his<br />
tally <strong>of</strong> sheep. Untold wealth is now a clicht.<br />
untruth. See lie.<br />
unwanted; unwonted. These words must have<br />
their meanings carefully distinguished. Unwanted<br />
means not wanted, not needed, not desired<br />
(They made little effort to conceal from the<br />
boy that he was an unwanted child. Unwilling,<br />
unwieldy, unwanted George). Unwonted means<br />
unaccustomed, not customary, not habitual, not<br />
usual (The unwonted exercise soon had the fat<br />
man pufing heavily).<br />
unwritten law. In England the expression the<br />
unwritten law means the general code <strong>of</strong> decency<br />
which by common understanding, outside <strong>of</strong> the<br />
specific injunction <strong>of</strong> statutes, governs the conduct<br />
<strong>of</strong> reasonable men. This meaning is recognized<br />
in America, but in common usage the<br />
unwritten law refers exclusively to the supposed<br />
principle <strong>of</strong> the right <strong>of</strong> the individual to avenge<br />
wrongs against personal or family honor, especially<br />
in cases involving relations between the<br />
sexes. It must be said, however, that except in<br />
Texas, an appeal to the unwritten law is not<br />
accepted (though frequently made) as an extenuation,<strong>of</strong><br />
murder.<br />
up. This word is primarily an adverb meaning<br />
“toward a higher position,” as in look up; but it<br />
may also be used as an adjective to qualify a<br />
noun, as in the up stroke. As an adjective it has<br />
the comparative form upper and the superlative<br />
forms upmost and uppermost. Upper is comparative<br />
only in form. It is felt as a positive,<br />
descriptive adjective and cannot be used in a<br />
comparison. Up is occasionally used as a preposition,<br />
as in up the river, and as a verb meaning<br />
raise, as in he upped one end <strong>of</strong> the plank and<br />
he upped the price. In the nursery it is sometimes<br />
used to mean vomit.<br />
The adverb up has a variety <strong>of</strong> meanings. It<br />
may hzve its literal sense, as in climb up, sit up,<br />
get up. The idea <strong>of</strong> “higher” is easily extended to<br />
what is superior, increased, or advanced, and up<br />
may be used with these implications, as in up<br />
from slavery, heat up, speed up, grow up. It carries<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> “advanced in time” in up to now<br />
and from his youth up. It is also used in a great<br />
many ways that are not so obviously connected<br />
with its basic meaning. Two <strong>of</strong> these are worth<br />
noticing.<br />
Up sometimes carries the idea <strong>of</strong> “completion,”<br />
which may have grown out <strong>of</strong> the idea <strong>of</strong><br />
“advanced in time.” Both ideas can be seen in<br />
the time is up. In any case, many <strong>of</strong> the so-called<br />
meaningless up’s actually have the force <strong>of</strong><br />
“completely,” as in buy up, fill up, hush up,<br />
hurry up, wake up, and should not be condemned<br />
as useless verbiage.<br />
Up is also used to suggest commotion, or increased<br />
energy, as in their sounds rouse up the<br />
astonished air, up in arms, and the more homely<br />
expressions, an up and coming town, he up and<br />
ran. Speak up asks for more energy than speak.<br />
And the dialectal he up and died surprises us<br />
with its note <strong>of</strong> willfulness; he lay down and<br />
died seems a more natural way to act. A number<br />
<strong>of</strong> verbs can be used with either up or<br />
down, without any real difference in meaning.<br />
Often, but not always, down is the reasonable,<br />
descriptive adverb that one would expect to see<br />
used and up is substituted for it when a greater<br />
effort is required. Men drink down their beer but<br />
children are told to drink LID their milk. We<br />
write down an address but we-write up a report.<br />
Slow up is perhaps more abrupt than slow down.<br />
On the other hand, there is no such difference<br />
between burn up and burn down, sober up and<br />
sober down.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> verbs may be used with either<br />
up or out, but here there is usually a slight difference<br />
in meaning, as in think up, think out;<br />
figure up, figure 01/t; clean up, clean out; crop up,<br />
crop out; act up, act out. The word out always<br />
adds something <strong>of</strong> the sense <strong>of</strong> “from within” or<br />
“from concealment” that is lacking in the compounds<br />
with up.<br />
Up is also used in speaking <strong>of</strong> geographic<br />
directions. In Great Britain it may mean inland,<br />
or away from the coast, or it may mean toward<br />
a place <strong>of</strong> greater importance, such as London<br />
or a nearby city. In the United States we<br />
are more map-minded and up usually means<br />
“north,” or toward the top <strong>of</strong> the map. If a city<br />
is neither up nor down from us on the map, we<br />
are likely to go on to it; and although we say<br />
down on the farm, we usually go out to rural<br />
areas.<br />
up in arms, as a term for being aroused, especially<br />
with indignation, and ready to take<br />
action in defense or reprisal, is worn and stale.<br />
up to scratch. This used to be to come up to<br />
scratch or to come up to the scrutch. The scratch<br />
was a line drawn formerly across the boxing<br />
ring, up to which the boxers were brought to<br />
start a bout. One who came up to (the) scratch<br />
did what was expected <strong>of</strong> him, was prepared to
go through with the encounter to which he was<br />
committed. The expression is used to mean this<br />
today but is also used loosely to mean up to<br />
normal, doing as well as could be expected. In<br />
either sense it is hackneyed.<br />
up to the hilt. A dagger plunged into someone’s<br />
body up to the hilt was, plainly, in as deep as it<br />
could go. But one may be deeply involved in<br />
many things <strong>of</strong> such a nature or in such a way<br />
that the phrase is ludicrous. And, in any event,<br />
it is a clich6.<br />
upper; upmost. See up.<br />
upset t6e applecart. The Romans had a saying<br />
You’ve upset the cart, meaning “You’ve ruined<br />
everything.” What genius in the eighteenth century<br />
thought <strong>of</strong> making it an applecart will now<br />
never be known, but it was one <strong>of</strong> those additions<br />
to a homely phrase (like Shakespeare’s “son<br />
and heir <strong>of</strong> a mongrel bitch”) that surprised<br />
with a fine excess and caught the popular fancy<br />
at once. Unfortunately the humorous vigor and<br />
vividness <strong>of</strong> the amended expression had too<br />
wide an appeal. It was soon overworked and is<br />
now exhausted.<br />
upward; upwards. Upward is the only form that<br />
can be used to qualify a following noun, as in<br />
nn upward movement. Either form may be used<br />
in any other construction, as in he looked upwards<br />
and he looked upward. The form upward<br />
is generally preferred in the United States.<br />
Both forms, upwards and upward, may be used<br />
to mean “more than,” as in upwards <strong>of</strong> five hundred<br />
people and upward <strong>of</strong> twenty years.<br />
urbane.. See polite.<br />
urge. This verb mav be followed bv an infinitive.<br />
as in I urged him-to go, or by the-ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in I urged his going. It may also be followed<br />
by a clause but the clause verb must be a<br />
subjunctive or a subjunctive equivalent, as in I<br />
urged that he go. The infinitive construction is<br />
generally preferred.<br />
us. See objective pronouns.<br />
use; utilize; exploit; work. Use is the everyday<br />
word for making something serve one’s purposes<br />
(Use your eyes, child! It’s right there in front <strong>of</strong><br />
you!). When applied to persons, it has a selfish<br />
and even sinister connotation (He’s only using<br />
you). It would be more tactful, for example, to<br />
say, I could use your help this afternoon than to<br />
say, I could use you this afternoon; though where<br />
the relationship is friendly the second wording<br />
would be accepted as a mere shortening <strong>of</strong> the<br />
first. The use <strong>of</strong> used as a commercial euphemism<br />
for second-hand or worn has given it a<br />
depreciatory meaning.<br />
Utilize implies a practical or pr<strong>of</strong>itable use<br />
and, in its stricter sense, making a practical or<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>itable use <strong>of</strong> something when something else<br />
more desirable is not available C Well. vou’ll iust<br />
have to utilize what’s there. Such &s <strong>of</strong>-the<br />
tongue are <strong>of</strong>ten utilized by unscrupulous men<br />
when they luck anything definite to charge their<br />
opponents with).<br />
To exploit is to turn to practical account, to<br />
use for pr<strong>of</strong>it (He exploited the concession to the<br />
533 used to<br />
last penny). It <strong>of</strong>ten means-and when applied<br />
to persons invariably means-to use selfishly for<br />
one’s own ends (They have exploited that child<br />
mercilessly).<br />
To work, as a transitive verb, in its serious<br />
senses, is to expend labor upon (He worked the<br />
soil. If the clay is worked in the hands it will<br />
soon become s<strong>of</strong>t and malleable). In loose speech<br />
it is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a synonym for exploit and<br />
utilize in their pejorative senses (She’s been<br />
working him for forty years).<br />
use; usage. Use is the act <strong>of</strong> employment or<br />
putting into service (Have you any use for a<br />
good set <strong>of</strong> matched irons?). Usage means either<br />
a manner <strong>of</strong> use-<strong>of</strong>ten, in a derogatory sense,<br />
rough and therefore somewhat damaging use<br />
(These tools have had hard usage, friend: I can’t<br />
give you much for them), or a habitual practice<br />
which has served to create a standard, especially<br />
in matters <strong>of</strong> language and the meanings <strong>of</strong><br />
words (A <strong>Dictionary</strong> <strong>of</strong> Modern English Usage).<br />
It is in this last sense that the word usage is<br />
employed in this volume.<br />
used to. The verb use, meaning to make use <strong>of</strong>,<br />
is perfectly regular with a past tense and participle<br />
used, as in I used it yesterday. It is never<br />
followed by a verb form and presents no problems.<br />
The expression used to means something quite<br />
different. When it is combined with a form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb be it is followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, as in he was used to sleeping late, and<br />
means accustomed to or familiar with. In any<br />
other construction used to is followed by the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb (or we might say used is<br />
followed by a to-infinitive), as in he used to sleep<br />
lute. Here it means “habitually did, at some unspecified<br />
time in the past.” Would may also be<br />
used to express habitual action, but with would<br />
the time at which the action was habitual must<br />
be specified. We may say I used to get up early,<br />
but if would is used there must he some specifying<br />
clause, such as when I was a child I would<br />
get up early. Would in this construction suggests<br />
endless repetition more strongly than used to<br />
does and is a more literary form. When used in<br />
ordinary speech it gives the impression that the<br />
speaker is composing his memoirs rather than<br />
giving a factual account <strong>of</strong> the past. Would cannot<br />
be used in this sense with a verb that does<br />
not imply action. We can say I used to like<br />
chocolate but not when I was a child I would<br />
like chocolate.<br />
In speech the d <strong>of</strong> used merges with the t <strong>of</strong><br />
to and the two words are always pronounced<br />
use to. But in the United States the form use to<br />
never appears in print except after the verb did,<br />
and there it is required.<br />
In the United States, questions and negative<br />
statements involving used to require the word<br />
did, as in did there use to be owls here?, he didn’t<br />
use to drink, didn’t you use to like her?. In Great<br />
Britain, the auxiliary did is never used and<br />
these American constructions are generally condemned.<br />
Englishmen say used there to be owls
usual 534<br />
here?, he usen’t to drink, and use& you to like<br />
her?. The negative statement he used not to<br />
drink is acceptable in both countries.<br />
Used to may follow had, as in where they had<br />
used to be, but this is an extremely literary<br />
construction. In everyday speech we say merely<br />
where they used to be. Used to cannot follow<br />
a subjunctive auxiliary. Sentences such as Z<br />
couldn’t used to are sometimes heard but are<br />
not considered acceptable.<br />
usual; customary; habitual. That is usual which<br />
occurs more <strong>of</strong>ten than not, which is to be expected,<br />
is the normal state <strong>of</strong> affairs (Business as<br />
usual during alterations. The poor, there as elsewhere,<br />
live in their usual misery). That is customary<br />
which occurs in the larger part <strong>of</strong> all<br />
cases observed, which is consonant with the custom<br />
or use or practice <strong>of</strong> an individual or,<br />
especially, a community. (Zt was customary<br />
among country folk then to proportion the blessing<br />
to the food, and Sunday dinner, the heaviest<br />
and best meal <strong>of</strong> the week, was always prefaced<br />
with an unusually long grace. ‘Tis not alone my<br />
inky cloak, good mother,/ Nor customary suits<br />
<strong>of</strong> solemn black). And as a habit is more deeply<br />
ingrained than a custom, so habitual goes beyond<br />
customary (as customary goes beyond<br />
usual) in indicating a uniform and unbroken<br />
vacant. See empty.<br />
vacation; holiday. Although the English recognize<br />
vacation as a holiday, they no longer use the<br />
word much in this sense, confining it to those<br />
periods during which the activities <strong>of</strong> the law<br />
courts, universities, and schools are suspended.<br />
In the United States the word means any freedom<br />
from release <strong>of</strong> duty, business, or activity,<br />
a holiday period (Visitors to Oregon have a wide<br />
choice <strong>of</strong> attractions from which to supplement<br />
sight-seeing and other vacation activities in Oregon’s<br />
cool, green vacationlands. Z think 1’11 take<br />
a vacation this weekend; I’m fed up with always<br />
taking work home from the <strong>of</strong>ice). In this, as is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten the case, the American usage is the older<br />
English usage.<br />
For vacation the English would say holiday;<br />
for those on vacation, holiday-makers; and for<br />
the verb to vacation, to take a holiday (Zt took<br />
place about ten years ago when Z was vacationing<br />
at Mackinac Island. Z was taking my holiday<br />
at Margate when Ethel’s husband died). Holiday,<br />
in American usage, is pretty much confined<br />
to some one specific day fixed by law or custom<br />
on which ordinary business is suspended or to a<br />
special dav <strong>of</strong>f from school (Washineton’s birth-<br />
&v has been declared a holiday. *he teachers<br />
had their annual convention and the kids got a<br />
adherence to some act, or a response so deeply<br />
ingrained as to be beyond conscious control and<br />
a part <strong>of</strong> the character (The habitual frown that<br />
darkened his countenance had so come to be<br />
considered his ordinary expression that this unexpected<br />
smile, cracked grimace as it was, tended<br />
more to alarm than to warm the onlookers. The<br />
habitual tendency <strong>of</strong> all people to turn on their<br />
former idols . . .).<br />
usual; usually. The form usually is required immediately<br />
before or after a verb, as in he spoke<br />
more than he usually does, he spoke more than<br />
he does usually, and immediately before an adjective,<br />
as in he is usually quiet, he was more<br />
than usually quiet. In any other position the<br />
form usual is required, as in he spoke more than<br />
usual and he was more quiet than usual. The<br />
form usual may be used to qualify a noun, as in<br />
his usual reticence.<br />
utilize. See use.<br />
utter. In addition to its common, everyday meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> giving audible expression to, the verb to<br />
utter has several specialized legal meanings that<br />
sometimes startle the ordinary reader. To utter a<br />
libel is to publish it, to make it publicly known<br />
by any means. To utter forged documents or<br />
counterfeit money is to put them into circulation.<br />
utter; utmost. See out.<br />
holiday). In this second meaning, day <strong>of</strong>f would<br />
probably be more common.<br />
vacuity; vacuous; vacuousness. Vacuity and vacuousness<br />
are nouns referring to emptiness. Vacuous<br />
is the adjective. It means empty, without<br />
contents. Its connotation <strong>of</strong> “vacuum” makes it<br />
a stronger word than empty. Used figuratively,<br />
and it is commonly used only figuratively, it<br />
means empty <strong>of</strong> ideas or intelligence, completely<br />
empty-as empty as a vacuum is <strong>of</strong> air; stupidly<br />
vacant; showing mental vacancy (I could tell<br />
from the vacuous look on his face that we were<br />
wasting time asking him questions). Vacuity is<br />
the usual noun to describe the state <strong>of</strong> being<br />
vacuous or empty; absence <strong>of</strong> contents; emptiness;<br />
an empty space; a vacuum; absence or<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> something specified; vacancy <strong>of</strong> mind,<br />
thought; absence <strong>of</strong> idea or intelligence; inanity<br />
(The vacuity <strong>of</strong> these conversations is depressing);<br />
something inane or senselessly stupid.<br />
Vacuousness is the noun commonly used to describe<br />
a face or an expression which is vacuous<br />
(From the vacuousness <strong>of</strong> their expressions he<br />
could tell that he was not in the presence <strong>of</strong><br />
intellectual giants).<br />
vacuum. The plural is vacuums or vacua.<br />
valise in England is now used only in a military<br />
context to describe a soldier’s knapsack; specifi-
tally, a cylindrical cloth or leather case for carrying<br />
the kit or outfit <strong>of</strong> a soldier, especially <strong>of</strong> a<br />
cavalryman or artilleryman (The <strong>of</strong>ficer commanding<br />
a piquet will decide if patrols are to<br />
wear valises or not). In the United States the<br />
word continues to have its old meaning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
traveler’s case for holding clothes and toilet articles,<br />
now especially one <strong>of</strong> leather, <strong>of</strong> moderate<br />
size, for carrying by hand, a traveling bag (I<br />
usually carry my valise myself and leave the<br />
heavier suitcases for the porter).<br />
valuable; valued. Valuable applies to whatever<br />
has value, but especially to what has considerable<br />
value either in money or because <strong>of</strong> its<br />
usefulness or rarity (He kept a valuable edition<br />
<strong>of</strong> Comus locked in his private safe). That is<br />
valued which is highly regarded or esteemed,<br />
estimated or appraised, or has had its value specified<br />
(His was a highly valued opinion. The car<br />
was valued at not more than fifty dollars). Something<br />
which is valuable may not be valued, and,<br />
conversely, something which is valued may not<br />
be valuable.<br />
valuable asset seems, on first thought, to be redundant,<br />
since asset itself, a useful thing or<br />
quality, a property, is regarded as valuable. Yet<br />
where there are many assets one may be valuable<br />
compared to the others or even a single asset<br />
may have a special value. It’s illogical, but it is<br />
serviceable and standard usage to refer to a<br />
valuable asset. (Moore is a valuable asset to the<br />
department; we wouldn’t want to lose him).<br />
vanish into tbin air. Since our ancestors knew<br />
very little about the varying density <strong>of</strong> air, thin<br />
air was simply an intensive for air which was<br />
thin compared to the other substances they knew.<br />
When Prosper0 in The Tempest said that the<br />
actors in his pageant were all spirits and/ Are<br />
Melted into air, into thin air, he was simply<br />
using (and, what’s more, going back and repeating<br />
himself in order to do so) what was even<br />
then a hackneyed phrase, for ghosts invariably<br />
melted or vanished into thin air. The phrase,<br />
now not used <strong>of</strong> ghosts so much as, usually in a<br />
tone <strong>of</strong> irritation, lost articles, is hackneyed.<br />
vanity. See pride.<br />
vantage and advantage were once interchangeable<br />
but are now distinct. Advantage means any<br />
state, circumstance, opportunity, or means specially<br />
favorable to success, interest, or any desired<br />
end (He had the advantage <strong>of</strong> familiarity<br />
with the terrain); benefit, gain, pr<strong>of</strong>it (It is to the<br />
advantage <strong>of</strong> any young man to learn to depend<br />
on himself) : superiority or ascendancy (The fact<br />
that the one wrestler weighs thirty pounds more<br />
than the other gives him an unfnir advantage).<br />
It is an interesting reflection on the highly competitive<br />
nature <strong>of</strong> our society that the amenities<br />
and cultural pleasures <strong>of</strong> a well-to-do home are<br />
so frequently referred to as advantages or, <strong>of</strong>ten,<br />
every advantage (The child’s had all the advantages,<br />
coming from a nice home like that and in<br />
one <strong>of</strong> the best suburbs, tool).<br />
Vantage describes a particular sort <strong>of</strong> advantage.<br />
If advantage means opportunity, vantage<br />
means particular, special opportunity. It applies<br />
535<br />
to a position or condition affording superiority,<br />
as for action (He operated from the vantage <strong>of</strong><br />
the New York publishing centers. Henry Tudor<br />
at Bosworth Field had the vantage <strong>of</strong> wind, sun,<br />
and ground). It may also mean position likely<br />
to give superiority: literally this may be used<br />
to describe a man looking over the countryside<br />
from the vantage <strong>of</strong> a hill or tower; figuratively,<br />
it might describe, for example, a poet reading<br />
new poetry from the vantage <strong>of</strong> his own knowledge<br />
<strong>of</strong> the art.<br />
vapid; insipid. Vapid means savorless and insipid<br />
means tasteless. Both words, that is, refer to<br />
something without or with very little taste, flat,<br />
without sharpness or distinction in savor. Insipid<br />
is more <strong>of</strong>ten used in the literal sense (Those<br />
shiny red apples look fine but the taste is insipid).<br />
In figurative terms, both words mean<br />
without animation or spirit, dull, uninteresting,<br />
tedious, as in talk, writing, or persons. Vapid has<br />
more <strong>of</strong> the suggestion <strong>of</strong> stupidity (This vapid,<br />
meaningless talk. Ninety-nine percent <strong>of</strong> all that<br />
appears in newspapers is vapid stuff). Insipid<br />
simply means without distinction, interest, or<br />
attractive qualities (The verse in ladies’ magazines<br />
is usually free from technical faults, but it<br />
rarely has any passion or even sensuousness and<br />
avoids any serious ideas. It’s insipid). In America<br />
insipid is used in all senses far more <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
than vapid.<br />
varicolored and variegated mean practically the<br />
same thing in the United States. Varicolored<br />
means having various colors, variegated in color,<br />
motley; and, more loosely, varied, assorted.<br />
Variegated means varied in appearance or color,<br />
marked with patches or spots <strong>of</strong> different colors:<br />
and, more loosely, varied, diversified, diverse.<br />
The words are used similarly in England, though<br />
some recent authorities insist that varicolored<br />
must be used in reference to color and that<br />
variegated should be. This would leave only<br />
varied to designate assorted or diversified.<br />
variety (in writing). See repetition.<br />
various. See different.<br />
varlet, for a low fellow or rascal, is now relegated<br />
to fraternity-house rodomontade.<br />
varmint; varmit. See vermin.<br />
vastly means to a great extent or in great proportions,<br />
especially when part <strong>of</strong> a comparison<br />
(He spoke in a vastly larger hall and found it<br />
disconcerting), but it may also be used to mean<br />
much, greatly, to a great degree (The Dean was<br />
vastly annoyed at the committee’s delay). The<br />
English regard this last use as an affectation.<br />
Vastly amused is almost a clichC.<br />
venal and venial look and sound much alike but<br />
they are quite different. Venal has implications<br />
<strong>of</strong> corruption, while venial, a word <strong>of</strong> mild reproach,<br />
means excusable.<br />
Venal, as applied to a person, means ready to<br />
sell one’s services or influence unscrupulously,<br />
accessible to bribery, corruptly mercenary (Many<br />
city politicians are not venal, but honest aldermen<br />
are in the minority). As applied to a thing,<br />
it means purchasable like mere merchandise, but<br />
always with a suggestion that there is something
sordid and improper in the transaction (The<br />
temple itself is exposed to sale, and the holy<br />
rites, as well as the beasts <strong>of</strong> sacrifice, are made<br />
venal). As applied to conduct, it means characterized<br />
by venality (They managed to come to a<br />
venal understanding with the police).<br />
That is venial which may be forgiven or pardoned,<br />
which is not seriously wrong (He committed<br />
the usual venial indiscretions <strong>of</strong> college<br />
boys), excusable (Those venial slips <strong>of</strong> the<br />
tongue, which are excusable and seem trivial,<br />
though <strong>of</strong>ten amusing in what they reveal, are<br />
not without considerable significance). In the<br />
Roman Catholic Church, a venial sin is a voluntary<br />
transgression <strong>of</strong> God’s law which, without<br />
destroying charity or union with God, retards<br />
man in attaining final union with Him.<br />
venal; mercenary; hireling. All <strong>of</strong> these words,<br />
when applied to persons, mean willing to be<br />
employed for pay and each carries a different<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> derogation, a suggestion <strong>of</strong> a different<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> dishonor involved in the willingness.<br />
Venal is the strongest in its condemnation. A<br />
venal man is willing to sell his honor, his individuality.<br />
He has no principle above “getting<br />
ahead” and acquiring wealth (Venal and licentious<br />
scribblers, with just suficient talents to<br />
clotlie the thoughts <strong>of</strong> a pander in the style <strong>of</strong> a<br />
bellman . . .). Venal, when so applied, also has<br />
a suggestion that the person referred to has sufficient<br />
intelligence to be aware <strong>of</strong> the moral problem<br />
involved and <strong>of</strong>ten has a high degree <strong>of</strong><br />
intelligence and ability. Mercenary stresses the<br />
greed involved and the activity it incites, the fact<br />
that the sole motive for action is the desire for<br />
money (Mercenary troops, perfectly acquainted<br />
with every part <strong>of</strong> their pr<strong>of</strong>ession, irresistible in<br />
the field, powerful to defend or destroy, but<br />
defending without love and destroying without<br />
hatred. These mercenary considerations, at a<br />
time when the thoughts <strong>of</strong> the others were moved<br />
by pity, came as a shock. What should have been<br />
an art, he has made a mercenary trade). When<br />
used as a noun, mercenary now refers exclusively<br />
to soldiers who fight solely for pay, and it<br />
is to the credit <strong>of</strong> human nature that the word in<br />
this sense does not carry quite as much opprobrium<br />
as it does when, as an adjective, it is<br />
applied to non-military matters. There may be<br />
something base about a man’s <strong>of</strong>fering to sell<br />
his life for money, but there is also something<br />
pitiful, especially when the money was so little;<br />
and there is something noble, mitigating the initial<br />
baseness, in the fact that mercenary soldiers<br />
so <strong>of</strong>ten lived up to their bargain and died for<br />
their pay. It was the Swiss mercenaries, for example,<br />
that died defending Louis XVI when the<br />
mob stormed the Tuileries (August 10, 1792).<br />
Hireling as a noun, however (even though<br />
almost everybody today works for hire), is used<br />
only in contempt or reprobation, possibly because<br />
it has become fixed in scorn in the famous<br />
Biblical passage (The hireling fleeth, because he<br />
is an hireling, and careth not for the sheep). As<br />
an adjective, hireling stresses servility (A hireling<br />
host and rufian band/ Affright and desolate<br />
the land / While peace and liberty lie bleeding).<br />
It carries strong contempt but its effectiveness is<br />
weakened by the fact that it is now a literary<br />
word and if you are out to abuse someone it is<br />
well to avoid literary words.<br />
venerate. See reverence.<br />
venery. There are two venery’s. One means the<br />
gratification <strong>of</strong> sexual desire, the other the practice<br />
or sport <strong>of</strong> hunting (A monk ther was, a fair<br />
for the maistrye,/ An outridere that lovede vcnerye).<br />
The word in both senses is now archaic.<br />
A famous old English work. The Boke <strong>of</strong> Venerye<br />
Ljust to prevent undergraduates from putting<br />
library staffs to unnecessary trouble], is<br />
concerned with hunting.<br />
vengeful. See avenge.<br />
venom and poison both describe substances that<br />
injure the health or destroy life when absorbed<br />
into the system, especially <strong>of</strong> a higher animal.<br />
Poison is now the general word. Literally, it<br />
means any substance which by reason <strong>of</strong> an inherent<br />
deleterious property tends to destroy life<br />
or impair health (Prussic acid is one <strong>of</strong> the most<br />
powerful poisons known). Figuratively poison<br />
means anything harmful, fatal, baneful, or highly<br />
pernicious, as to character, happiness or wellbeing<br />
(The poison <strong>of</strong> totalitarian ideology is in<br />
almost everybody’s veins).<br />
Venom is a more limited term, describing the<br />
poisonous fluid which some animals, as certain<br />
snakes, spiders, scorpions, bees, secrete (Toad,<br />
that under cold stone/ Days and nights has<br />
thirty-one/ Sweltered venom sleeping got.. . )<br />
and introduce into the bodies <strong>of</strong> their victims by<br />
biting or stinging (The venom <strong>of</strong> a rattlesnake<br />
will make a man very sick but will not necessarily<br />
kill him). Figuratively, venom means something<br />
resembling or suggesting poison in its effect;<br />
spite; malice (There was considerable venom in<br />
his criticism). The word carries the suggestion<br />
that the one who secretes or discharges the<br />
venom is reptilian.<br />
venture; adventure. Both words convey the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> a hazardous or risky undertaking or enterprise.<br />
Venture is used chiefly to describe a business<br />
enterprise or proceeding in which loss is<br />
risked in the hope <strong>of</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it; a commercial or<br />
other speculation (Zf the venture succeeds, they<br />
stand to make well over a million. Zf it fails, they<br />
will be wiped out, to a man!).<br />
Adventure means any exciting experience,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten one in which there is an element <strong>of</strong> danger<br />
(In the night’s battle he had enough adventure<br />
to last a lifetime). When commerce had its real<br />
physical dangers, adventure could be used <strong>of</strong> a<br />
business undertaking. The Merchant Adventurers<br />
was an incorporated group <strong>of</strong> London merchants<br />
(whose Governor, by the way, was Sebastian<br />
Cabot). Perhaps business has become safer or<br />
more prosaic or perhaps excitement and glamour<br />
are now romantically conceived <strong>of</strong> as lying<br />
wholly outside <strong>of</strong> any commercial activity.<br />
In the phrase at a venture there is now no<br />
suggestion <strong>of</strong> danger or risk; it simply means “at<br />
random.”<br />
The adjective <strong>of</strong> adventure is adventurous.<br />
The adjective <strong>of</strong> venture is venturesome, with<br />
venturous leas <strong>of</strong>ten preferred.
veracious; truthful; true. True is the general<br />
word. Truthful means conforming to the truth<br />
(It was II truthful statement, not misrepresenting<br />
the event in any way) or habitually telling<br />
the truth (All through the valley he wus known<br />
us (I truthful person) or corresponding with<br />
reality (It was a truthful representation <strong>of</strong> their<br />
family life and all <strong>of</strong> them hung their heads in<br />
shame to hear it thus publicly stated). Veracious<br />
is roughly synonymous with truthful, but it is<br />
rather formal and pretentious and therefore, by<br />
a subtle suggestion, unsuited to the very quality<br />
it designates. It is seldom used.<br />
veracity; truth. Veracity is not a synonym for<br />
truth. Indeed, it is incorrectly used in the hackneyed<br />
statement I doubt the veracity <strong>of</strong> that<br />
statement. Veracity means not truth but truthfulness<br />
in speaking; habitual observance <strong>of</strong> truth<br />
(He was a man <strong>of</strong> proven veracity); or Conformity<br />
to truth or fact.<br />
veranda; verandah. See porch.<br />
verbal. See oral.<br />
verbal adjectives. See participles.<br />
verbal nouus. The infinitive and the -ing form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb both express the meaning <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
without any further limitations. That is, they<br />
refer to the action without giving the specific<br />
information that is shown by tense, number,<br />
person, voice, or mode. They can be handled in<br />
a sentence as if they were nouns and are therefore<br />
called verbal nouns.<br />
Both forms can be used as the subject <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb and as the complement <strong>of</strong> the verb to be,<br />
as in but to see her was to love her and seeing is<br />
believing. Both forms can be used in an unattached<br />
or independent phrase, as in speaking<br />
frankly, I don’t like it and to be candid with you,<br />
I don’t like it. And both forms can be used as the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Betty likes to travel and<br />
Betty likes traveling. But as a rule, bcth forms<br />
cannot be used with the same verb. We say<br />
John wants to hear the story or John enjoys<br />
hearing it, but we cannot say John wants hearing<br />
the story or John enjoys to hear it.<br />
When either form can be used, some people<br />
feel that the infinitive is more concrete, and<br />
more forceful, than the -ing form. But frequently<br />
there is no choice. Avoid, postpone, stop, tolerate,<br />
can be followed by an -ing, but not by an<br />
infinitive. Agree, ask, desire, expect, can be followed<br />
by an infinitive, but not by an -ing. There<br />
is no reason for this. The difference is entirely a<br />
matter <strong>of</strong> custom, but it is <strong>of</strong>ten obligatory.<br />
Verbs that give the most trouble in this respect<br />
have been listed individually in this dictionary.<br />
The statements in these entries about what kind<br />
<strong>of</strong> object is acceptable with a particular verb<br />
represent American usage, not British. A construction<br />
that is acceptable in Great Britain is<br />
usually acceptable in the United States, but it<br />
may not be the preferred form. On the other<br />
hand, what is the preferred form in the United<br />
States may be unacceptable in Great Britain. In<br />
general, an American uses more infinitives than<br />
an Englishman does. In a book on language published<br />
in England recently, the author says in the<br />
preface that what the book aims at doing is to<br />
537 verbs<br />
show that there is no real reason for being discouraged.<br />
These -ings have a curious, countrified<br />
tone to most Americans, who are more likely to<br />
use aim to do and no reason to be.<br />
verbiage; verbosity. The distinctions between<br />
these two words are somewhat differently drawn<br />
in England and the United States. In the United<br />
States verbiage means an abundance <strong>of</strong> useless<br />
words, as in writing or speaking, wordiness (One<br />
had to cut a swathe through verbiage to get his<br />
main ideas). The word connotes contempt and<br />
there is <strong>of</strong>ten a suggestion <strong>of</strong> insincerity (Oh<br />
that was all verbiage! You didn’t expect a real<br />
promise to be hidden in that twaddle, did YOU?).<br />
Verbosity means a quality <strong>of</strong> being verbose;<br />
wordiness; superfluity <strong>of</strong> words, prolixity. It may<br />
be used <strong>of</strong> the speaker or writer or <strong>of</strong> what is<br />
spoken or written (He was a kind man, but his<br />
verbosity was exasperating. The verbosity <strong>of</strong> the<br />
statement could not conceal its real intent or<br />
s<strong>of</strong>ten the blow it dealt). It is not quite so contemptuous<br />
a word as verbiage (which may, perhaps,<br />
have acquired something from the resemblance<br />
<strong>of</strong> its sound to garbage). Verbiage describes<br />
a result and verbosity either a quality or<br />
a result.<br />
In England verbiage is applied mainly to<br />
writing, verbosity to speaking. Also, with the<br />
English, verbosity may mean wordiness, circumlocution;<br />
whereas verbiage suggests excessive<br />
wordiness.<br />
verbosity is the use <strong>of</strong> too many words, and it is<br />
a serious fault. This does not mean that one<br />
should never use a word that one can get along<br />
without; the laconic have their own way <strong>of</strong> being<br />
tedious. Very <strong>of</strong>ten repetitions and extra syllables<br />
that are not strictly necessary to the sense<br />
add a great deal to the tone or rhythm <strong>of</strong> a sentence.<br />
(See pleonasms.) But when a superfluity<br />
<strong>of</strong> words dilutes or drowns out the meaning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
sentence, it is a different matter.<br />
The fault is a common one. We find it among<br />
all kinds <strong>of</strong> people, from Shakespeare’s simpleton<br />
who says: “The young gentleman according<br />
to fates and destinies, and such odd sayings, the<br />
sisters three, and such branches <strong>of</strong> learning, is<br />
indeed deceased, or as you would say in plain<br />
terms, gone to heaven” to the twentieth century<br />
pundit who writes: “As <strong>of</strong>ten with history, interesting<br />
questions may be forever closed to the<br />
adequate answers because the tattered evidence<br />
which has been left to us by the rats who have<br />
gnawed at the documents in the archives, and<br />
the loss <strong>of</strong> pertinent documents, and the undeveloped<br />
state <strong>of</strong> the social sciences at the time<br />
when the relevant data were not collected preclude<br />
us from making significant comparisons<br />
historically on some points.”<br />
These are not rich, colorful or luxurious outpourings.<br />
They are simply “an infinite deal <strong>of</strong><br />
nothing. . . two grains <strong>of</strong> wheat hid in two bushels<br />
<strong>of</strong> chaff; you shall seek all day ere you find<br />
them, and when you have them, they are not<br />
worth the search.”<br />
verbs. In a normal sentence we say something<br />
about something. Usually we say that there has<br />
been a change <strong>of</strong> some kind. that something has
happened, although we can also say that no<br />
change has taken place. Changes involve the idea<br />
<strong>of</strong> before and after, which is what we mean by<br />
time. Words that are grammatically constructed<br />
to express time are verbs. Words that refer to<br />
aspects <strong>of</strong> reality as if they were independent <strong>of</strong><br />
time are nouns. In the &+tt flushes at eleven<br />
o’clock, the word flashes is a verb and indicates<br />
an event or change that takes place in time. In<br />
the flashes were seen at eleven o’clock, the flashes<br />
are treated as things, which may change but<br />
which are not the change itself, and the word is<br />
therefore a noun. (Sometimes we want to make<br />
a statement involving time without saying that<br />
anything has changed. This is the principal function<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb IO be and <strong>of</strong> the other linking<br />
verbs. See linking verbs.<br />
A verb may be defined as “a word that has<br />
tense.” Most verbs show tense, or relative time,<br />
by their form, as present or current time is<br />
shown in I always walk to work, and past time<br />
in I walked to work today, and future time in I<br />
will walk today. A few verbs have the same form<br />
in the present and the past, as put in I always put<br />
it there and I put it there yesterday, but in any<br />
given sentence the word refers to either the past<br />
or the present. It is never indifferent in respect to<br />
time as the noun rug is.<br />
In English the verb has two simple tenses, the<br />
present and the past, as in he walks and he<br />
walked. We form a future tense by means <strong>of</strong> a<br />
compound verbal phrase, such as he is going to<br />
walk, he will walk. We may also use verbal<br />
phrases to express distinctions inside the tenses,<br />
as in it flashed, it was flushing, it had flashed.<br />
These forms are all past tense but they express<br />
different aspects <strong>of</strong> the past. They are sometimes<br />
called simple action, progressive or continued<br />
action, and perfect or completed action tenses.<br />
See past tense, present tense, future tense, and<br />
tense shifts.<br />
In addition verbs have mode and voice, which<br />
also tell us something about the action being reported.<br />
Mode is the form <strong>of</strong> the verb that shows<br />
whether a sentence is to be understood as a<br />
statement about matters <strong>of</strong> fact, a supposition,<br />
or a call for action. The form <strong>of</strong> the verb used<br />
in talking about matters <strong>of</strong> fact is called the indicative<br />
mode. It is the form we use most <strong>of</strong>ten.<br />
In this dictionary, statements about verbs are<br />
always about the indicative form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
unless another form is specifically mentioned.<br />
(For the other modes, see subjunctive mode<br />
and imperative mode.)<br />
Voice is the form <strong>of</strong> the verb that shows<br />
whether the thing spoken about (that is, the<br />
subject <strong>of</strong> the verb) is the agent or the recipient<br />
<strong>of</strong> the action. When the subject is the agent, as in<br />
he jumped <strong>of</strong>f, the verb is said to be in the active<br />
voice. When the subject is the recipient, as in he<br />
wus pushed <strong>of</strong>f, the verb is said to be in the pa.+<br />
sive voice. See passive voice.<br />
Verbs also have person and number. Person<br />
shows whether the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb is the<br />
person speaking, as in I am, I have; the person<br />
spoken to, as in you are, you have; or some per-<br />
son or thing spoken about, as in it Is, it has.<br />
Number shows whether the subject <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
is one person or thing, or more than one, as in<br />
he is, they are; he has, they have. These differences<br />
in the verb forms do not affect the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb itself but are devices for relating it to<br />
its subject. The verb has the same person and<br />
number as its subject, and in some languages<br />
this is the only thing that shows which word in<br />
the sentence is the subject. In English the relation<br />
<strong>of</strong> subject and verb is shown by position,<br />
and person and number are a nuisance rather<br />
than a convenience. (For problems <strong>of</strong> person and<br />
number in present-day English, see agreement:<br />
verbs. For archaic forms, such as wert thou and<br />
he bath, see tbee; thou.)<br />
Throughout this dictionary, the forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb that have tense are called true verb forms<br />
or true verbs. The infinitive, the -ing form, and<br />
the past participle do not have tense. They are<br />
actually nouns or adjectives with the same meaning<br />
as the verb. They are <strong>of</strong>ten used in combination<br />
with another verb, as in he ought to step<br />
aside and I hove heard it said. In such cases the<br />
other verb provides the tense (and also person<br />
and number) and the whole phrase is a true verb<br />
form. But these parts <strong>of</strong> the verb may also be<br />
used alone, simply as a noun or an adjective, as<br />
in to step aside is human and heard melodies are<br />
sweet. It is these uses <strong>of</strong> the word that are excluded<br />
when we speak <strong>of</strong> “a true verb form.”<br />
See infinitives, participleq -ing.<br />
Verbs are classified according to what is<br />
needed to complete their meaning. For example,<br />
he slept is complete in itself, but he must and he<br />
made are not. Must requires some other verb,<br />
such as go or speak, to give it meaning; and made<br />
requires a noun or noun substitute, such as a<br />
table or a mistake. (For the different kinds <strong>of</strong><br />
verbs, see transitive verbs, intransitive verbs,<br />
auxiliary verbs, and linking verbs.)<br />
If one tries to distinguish a noun from a verb<br />
by saying that a noun represents a thing and a<br />
verb an action, one runs into trouble. Is a flash<br />
<strong>of</strong> lightning, or a war, or a man’s life, a thing or<br />
an action? Some philosophers claim that even<br />
an oak tree is really a long, slow action when<br />
properly understood. The chances are that the<br />
difference between a thing and an action is not<br />
something in the real world that has forced itself<br />
on language, but a grammatical device that distorts<br />
the way we think about the real world. It is<br />
much better, therefore, to recognize that nouns<br />
and verbs are simply different kinds <strong>of</strong> words<br />
and to define nouns as words that have number<br />
as their distinguishing characteristic, and verbs<br />
as words that have tense.<br />
In English we can always form a verb from<br />
a noun, as in he carpeted the floor, he papered<br />
the wall, he pocketed the money. We can form<br />
verbs from adjectives by adding the syllable -en,<br />
as in he blackened his shoes, he sweetened his<br />
c<strong>of</strong>fee, or sometimes without adding -en, as in<br />
he blacked his face. In fact any part <strong>of</strong> speech<br />
can be used as a verb if the sense allows, as in<br />
he upped the price and she oh’d and she ah’d.
On the other hand, the essential meaning <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb can always be expressed as a noun. We can<br />
always use a relatively empty verb, which does<br />
little more than show tense, person, and number,<br />
with a noun that carries the meaning <strong>of</strong> what we<br />
want to say, in place <strong>of</strong> a meaningful verb. This<br />
practice has become very popular in the last<br />
thirty or forty years. Many people would rather<br />
say there wus (I heavy snow full lust nighr than<br />
it snowed heavily. Some grammarians object to<br />
this. But in spoken English, constructions such as<br />
he took a walk, we had a swim, she gave u sigh,<br />
are heard more <strong>of</strong>ten than the direct forms he<br />
walked, we swum, she sighed. The same preference<br />
is seen in technical writing where we find<br />
make an examination and reuch a decision more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten than examine or decide. Obviously, the<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>essional man sitting down to write an article<br />
and his friends and neighbors in their relaxed<br />
moments all feel that a noun is more forceful<br />
and more concrete than a verb. To call the construction<br />
pompous or stilted in one situation<br />
and careless or colloquial in another is foolish.<br />
It is simply a very powerful trend in present-day<br />
English. If carried through completely, we would<br />
need only the verb ro 6e and the appropriate<br />
nouns to express all our verbal ideas.<br />
For the primary forms <strong>of</strong> the verb, see principal<br />
parts <strong>of</strong> a verb and irregular verbs.<br />
veritable, for being truly such, genuine, real (Ii<br />
wus a veritable fairyland, with all the Japanese<br />
lanterns and the colored lights playing on the<br />
fountain), is a little affected. The emphasis that<br />
it hopes to lend is slightly shrill and forced.<br />
vermin. Originally this word was a singular, as in<br />
a suvuge vermin in a trap, and had a regular<br />
plural, as in full <strong>of</strong> maggots, vermins, and worms.<br />
The singular could also be used, as all singulars<br />
can, to typify the class, as in a vermin in our<br />
pillows which did bite fur worse than fleas. None<br />
<strong>of</strong> these constructions are in common use today.<br />
In these vermin are driving us oat, the singular<br />
form vermin is being used as a plural. Sixty<br />
years ago this was condemned as ungrammatical.<br />
Today it is standard English, and is practically<br />
the only way in which the word vermin is used.<br />
Vurmit, or varmint, is a variant form <strong>of</strong> vermin<br />
heard in many parts <strong>of</strong> the United States.<br />
It has a regular plural vurmits and presents no<br />
grammatical problems. It is not standard English,<br />
but it is a much more useful word than<br />
vermin.<br />
vernacular; language; dialect; jargon. All <strong>of</strong> these<br />
words refer to patterns <strong>of</strong> vocabulary, syntax,<br />
and usage characteristic <strong>of</strong> communities <strong>of</strong> va,rious<br />
sizes and types. Language is applied to the<br />
general pattern <strong>of</strong> a people or a race (The English<br />
language is common to the United States and<br />
the United Kingdom). Dinlect is applied to certain<br />
forms or varieties <strong>of</strong> a language, <strong>of</strong>ten those<br />
which provincial communities or special groups<br />
retain or develop even after a standard has been<br />
established (The East Tennessee dialect is ulmost<br />
impossible to imitate accurately). One who<br />
has been reared to speak a certain dialect almost<br />
never loses it entirely. Slight variations in pro-<br />
nunciation, cadence, vocabulary, and so on, will<br />
mark his speech. Sir Walter Raleigh. thouah an<br />
accomplished courtier, spoke with a Somersetshire<br />
accent and Dr. Johnson, though he edited<br />
the greatest dictionary <strong>of</strong> his century and was<br />
the acknowledged dictator <strong>of</strong> letters in his time,<br />
kept “a slight Staffordshire burr” in his pronunciation.<br />
Where a dialect is native, there is nothing<br />
wrong in this; indeed, it <strong>of</strong>ten confers a<br />
pleasing distinction. But, unfortunately, snobbery<br />
sometimes attaches opprobrium to some<br />
dialects (such as the cockney or that <strong>of</strong> New<br />
York’s lower East Side). Outside <strong>of</strong> the community<br />
where such dialects prevail, even a tincture<br />
<strong>of</strong> them may do a man harm. It’s cruel,<br />
but that is the way <strong>of</strong> the as-yet-imperfect world.<br />
A jargon is an artificial pattern used by a<br />
particular, usually occupational, group within a<br />
community; or a special pattern created for communication<br />
in business or trade between members<br />
<strong>of</strong> the groups speaking different languages<br />
(The jargon <strong>of</strong> sports writers varies from nation<br />
to nation). Special words, <strong>of</strong> course, must be<br />
used in each trade and pr<strong>of</strong>ession and the use <strong>of</strong><br />
these technical terms to each other by members<br />
<strong>of</strong> these trades or pr<strong>of</strong>essions when engaged in<br />
their work or when talking about their work<br />
does not, in the common acceptance <strong>of</strong> the term,<br />
constitute jargon. It does not become jargon<br />
until it is used outside <strong>of</strong> the special field in contexts<br />
where standard English words and expressions<br />
are available and would make their<br />
meaning clearer to the ordinary man. Thus if a<br />
doctor says <strong>of</strong> a patient, after examining him,<br />
that rest “is indicated,” meaning “is needed,” or<br />
“is advisable” or “would do him good,” the layman<br />
is not justified in accusing the physician <strong>of</strong><br />
speaking jargon. Other words might do as well,<br />
but the members <strong>of</strong> the medical pr<strong>of</strong>ession, in<br />
their inscrutable wisdom and Eleusinian ways,<br />
have decided on the term for the circumstances<br />
and they have the privilege <strong>of</strong> so deciding. But if<br />
the same physician at the corner filling station<br />
should, when the rod drawn from his engine<br />
shows him to be two quarts low, say that two<br />
quarts “is indicated,” meaning “needed” or “is<br />
advisable,” he would be guilty <strong>of</strong> speaking jargon;<br />
for the common acceptance <strong>of</strong> the phrase<br />
would lead the filling station attendant to assume<br />
that only two quarts were indicated on the<br />
rod and, therefore, the supply <strong>of</strong> oil in this particular<br />
crankcase was dangerously low. Most<br />
jargon does not mislead in this way, but it remains<br />
incomprehensible and therefore defeats<br />
the chief end <strong>of</strong> speech.<br />
A vernaculur is the authentic natural pattern<br />
<strong>of</strong> speech used by persons indigenous to a certain<br />
community, large or small (South Boston<br />
vernacular is not, or at least in a happier age<br />
was not, the same us Back Bay vernacular).<br />
versa; stanza. These are terms for metrical groupings<br />
in poetic composition. Verse is <strong>of</strong>ten mistakenly<br />
used for stunzu (as in Now read the next<br />
verse, all eight lines, please) but it is properly<br />
only a single metrical line (“Something there is<br />
that doesn’t love a wall” is the opening verse <strong>of</strong>
vertebra 540<br />
Robert Frost’s “Mending Wall”). A stanza is a<br />
succession <strong>of</strong> lines (verses) commonly bound together<br />
by a rhyme scheme, and usually forming<br />
one <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> similar groups which constitute<br />
a poem (A quatrain is u stanza consisting<br />
<strong>of</strong> four verses).<br />
The term verse is also used <strong>of</strong> metrical composition<br />
in general, as opposed to prose (Verse<br />
that a virgin without blush may read). In<br />
church music a verse is a passage or movement<br />
for a single voice or for soloists, as contrasted<br />
with chorus. Verse as a term for the divisions<br />
<strong>of</strong> the books and chapters <strong>of</strong> the Scriptures has<br />
a special meaning.<br />
vertebra. The plural is vertebras or vertebrae.<br />
vertex. The plural is vertexes or vertices.<br />
vertigo. The plural is vertigoes or vertigines.<br />
verve, a word for energy or enthusiasm, especially<br />
in literary or artistic work; spirit, liveliness or<br />
vigor, is a French word and slightly affected.<br />
There are plenty <strong>of</strong> English synonyms expressing<br />
many shades <strong>of</strong> meaning, some one <strong>of</strong> which<br />
will usually do better as far as the meaning goes<br />
and a great deal better as far as not annoying<br />
the reader or listener goes.<br />
very was originally an adjective meaning true and<br />
is still used as an adjective. It may mean actual<br />
or identical, as in the very man I was looking<br />
for. It may be a pure intensive, as in the very<br />
jaws <strong>of</strong> death. Or it may have the force <strong>of</strong><br />
“even,” as in lo! the very stars are gone. Very<br />
once had a comparative form verier but this is<br />
now obsolete. It has a superlative form veriest<br />
which is used as an intensive, as in the veriest<br />
rubbish. It also has an adverbial form verily,<br />
which means “truly,” as in Z verily believe. The<br />
superlative and the adverbial forms are in use<br />
today but they are considered either old-fashioned<br />
or bookish.<br />
About five hundred years ago very began to be<br />
used as an adverb before adjectives and adverbs.<br />
It has now completely replaced full as an intensive,<br />
as in full high, full many, full well, and is<br />
preferred to right in this role. It has also replaced<br />
much before the simple form <strong>of</strong> an adjective.<br />
We can no longer say I am much happy, I am<br />
much sorry, as was once normal English. When<br />
the past participle <strong>of</strong> a verb is used as an adjective<br />
before a noun, as in a disappointed man,<br />
a worried man, it may be qualified by either very<br />
or much. Today very is preferred here. Very is<br />
not used before adjectives or adverbs in the<br />
comparative form. We cannot say it is very<br />
greener. It is not used to qualify a verb. We<br />
cannot say I very prefer or I very appreciate. It<br />
cannot be used even in a passive verb form,<br />
which is composed <strong>of</strong> some form <strong>of</strong> the verb to<br />
be and a past participle. We cannot say it was<br />
very praised or it was very remembered. We can<br />
say very much in cases like this because much is<br />
a true adverb that can qualify a verb, and very<br />
here qualifies the word much and not the verb<br />
itself.<br />
About a hundred years ago very began to be<br />
used with participles following forms <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb fo be, when these compounds were not<br />
actually felt as passive verbs, as in he was very<br />
pleased, he was very amused, he was very worried.<br />
A philologist writing in 1861, and discussing<br />
the ways in which languages change and develop,<br />
chose very to illustrate his point. He wrote:<br />
“There is apparently a very small difference<br />
between much and very, but you can hardly<br />
ever put one in the place <strong>of</strong> the other. You can<br />
say I am very happy but not I am much happy.<br />
On the contrary, you can say I am much misunderstood<br />
but not I am very misunderstood.<br />
It is by no means impossible, however, that this<br />
distinction between very, which is now used<br />
with adjectives only, and much, which precedes<br />
participles, should disappear in time. But if that<br />
change takes place, it will not be by the will <strong>of</strong><br />
any individual, nor by the common agreement<br />
<strong>of</strong> any large number <strong>of</strong> men, but rather in spite<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exertions <strong>of</strong> grammarians and academies.”<br />
Although the distinction between very and<br />
much has not disappeared, changes have indeed<br />
taken place in the use <strong>of</strong> these words. Anyone<br />
who now says that very cannot be used before a<br />
participle that follows a form <strong>of</strong> the verb to be<br />
is merely repeating what was true seventy-five<br />
years ago but is not true today. Some careful<br />
grammarians say that very may be used before<br />
the participle in a construction <strong>of</strong> this kind when<br />
what is being talked about is a mental state, such<br />
as pleased, amused, worried, but not when what<br />
is being talked about is a physical condition, as<br />
in he is very changed, it is very scratched.<br />
In the United States today very is preferred to<br />
much before participles that name mental states.<br />
That is, most people consider he was very<br />
pleased, he was very amused, more natural English<br />
than much pleased, much amused. Very is<br />
also acceptable before participles that name<br />
physical conditions, such as very changed, very<br />
scratched, but mlcch is not considered as unnatural<br />
with words <strong>of</strong> this kind as it is with the<br />
others. In all cases, the two words very much<br />
may be used with everybody’s approval.<br />
A prepositional phrase, such as on his own, at<br />
a loss, may be qualified by much but not by very.<br />
Certain peculiar adjectives that begin with a-,<br />
such as afraid, aware, alive, were originally<br />
prepositional phrases and are still treated in some<br />
respects as phrases. For example, they cannot be<br />
used before the noun they qualify as other adjectives<br />
can. Some grammarians claim that they<br />
cannot be qualified by very. But in the United<br />
States very afraid, very aware, are as acceptable<br />
as very amused.<br />
vespers. This word has a singular form vesper<br />
which is still in use today, as in a vesper well<br />
sung, but the plural form vespers is heard more<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten. It is usually followed by a plural verb, as<br />
in vespers were sung, but may also be followed<br />
by a singular verb, as in vespers was sung. The<br />
singular form is preferred as the first element in<br />
a compound, as in vesper bell and vesper book.<br />
vessel. See ship.<br />
vest. See undershirt.<br />
vestige. See trace.
vestigial; rudimentary. Vestigial means pertaming<br />
to or <strong>of</strong> the nature <strong>of</strong> a vestige, and a vestige<br />
is a mark or trace or a visible evidence <strong>of</strong> something<br />
which once was but no longer is present or<br />
in existence. It is incorrect to use vestigial as a<br />
synonym for rudimentary (as in In Transjordan<br />
there is a council, recently established: but it is<br />
vestigial, it has no power, though some hope that<br />
in time if will acquire power), because rudimentary<br />
means pertaining to or <strong>of</strong> the nature<br />
<strong>of</strong> a rudiment, and a rudiment is a mere beginning,<br />
the first slight appearance, the undeveloped<br />
or imperfect form <strong>of</strong> something. A<br />
rudiment and a vestige are the very opposites<br />
<strong>of</strong> each other.<br />
veteran. See old.<br />
veto. The plural is vetoes.<br />
via, strictly used, means by way <strong>of</strong>, by a route<br />
that passes through (She traveled from Boston<br />
to San Francisco via Chicago). In American<br />
usage, however, via is <strong>of</strong>ten used also to describe<br />
the means <strong>of</strong> travel or the agency employed in<br />
shipping, and while the first <strong>of</strong> these uses (You<br />
folks going via car or railroad?) is still informal,<br />
the United States Post Office has given sanction<br />
to the second. On the front <strong>of</strong> the American airletter<br />
appears the phrase VIA AIR MAIL. The corresponding<br />
English airletter reads BY AIR MAIL.<br />
Almost all stickers and envelopes specially<br />
printed for airmail use in the United States have<br />
VIAAIRMAIL onthem.<br />
vicar. See rector.<br />
vice. See fault.<br />
vice; vise; visa; vi&. The immoral and evil habit<br />
or practice is always spelled vice. The device<br />
with two jaws which may be brought together or<br />
separated by means <strong>of</strong> a screw, lever, or the like,<br />
used to hold an object firmly while work is being<br />
done upon it, may also be spelled vice but is preferably<br />
spelled vise. The endorsement made upon<br />
a passport <strong>of</strong> one country, testifying that it has<br />
been examined and found in order for passage<br />
to a country which so indicates, is called a visa<br />
but may be spelled vise.<br />
vicegerent and vice-regent are uncommon words,<br />
especially the first, but the very fact that they are<br />
uncommon makes it necessary, if one is going to<br />
use them at all, to use them correctly. The use <strong>of</strong><br />
a strange word is always accepted by the common<br />
reader or listener as an assumption <strong>of</strong> superiority<br />
on the part <strong>of</strong> the user-as it generally<br />
is-and superior people make easy targets.<br />
Viceperent has much the wider avvlication. It<br />
descrides an <strong>of</strong>ficer deputed by a -ruler or supreme<br />
head to exercise the powers <strong>of</strong> the ruler<br />
or head (These popes claimed that they were<br />
God’s vicegerents upon earth, and that the kings<br />
ruled solely as their representatives) or any<br />
deputy. Vice-regent (which should be spelled<br />
with the hyphen) means a deputy regent.<br />
vice-queen; vicereine. These words have some use<br />
in England but are so little used in the United<br />
States that they do not even appear in some <strong>of</strong><br />
the most recent authoritative American dictionaries.<br />
A vicereine is a viceroy’s wife and, less<br />
usually, a woman ruling as the representative <strong>of</strong><br />
541 Victrola<br />
a queen. Vice-queen takes this latter meaning<br />
only. A vice-queen in America would probably<br />
be assumed to be the head <strong>of</strong> a syndicate <strong>of</strong><br />
prostitutes.<br />
vi&age; vicinity; neighborhood. These words all<br />
may refer to the region near or about some place<br />
or thing. Vicinage, a holdover from early English<br />
law, is least used <strong>of</strong> the three. It is a legal term<br />
and is not current in American speech or ordinary<br />
American writing. Vicinity is a familiar<br />
term. It differs in meaning from neighborhood<br />
largely in emphasis: vicinity describes a larger,<br />
neighborhood a compact or smaller area (When<br />
we began to see driftwood we realized we were<br />
in the vicinity <strong>of</strong> land. The nineteenth-century<br />
Unitarians are said to have believed in the<br />
fatherhood <strong>of</strong> God, the brotherhood <strong>of</strong> Man,<br />
and the neiahborhood <strong>of</strong> Boston). Neighborhood<br />
is sometimes used, as vicinity is not, to mean<br />
those dwelling in the neighborhood (The whole<br />
neighborhood was aroused at the crime). Perhaps<br />
because <strong>of</strong> its association with neighbor, in<br />
its sense <strong>of</strong> friend (Which now <strong>of</strong> these three,<br />
thinkest thou, was neighbor unto him that fell<br />
among the thieves?), and neighborliness, and<br />
perhaps because <strong>of</strong> the natural gregariousness 01’<br />
the American people, and perhaps because <strong>of</strong> the<br />
relentless reiteration <strong>of</strong> the word neighborhood<br />
in radio and television commercials, neighborhood<br />
has connotations <strong>of</strong> warmth and friendliness<br />
wholly lacking from vicinity. Your<br />
neighborhood grocer is a friendly member <strong>of</strong> the<br />
community, wholly different from the cold and<br />
mercenary fellow who merely happens to sell<br />
groceries in the vicinity.<br />
vicious. See abandoned.<br />
vicious and viscous are unrelated, though <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
confused, especially in college freshman themes.<br />
Vicious means addicted to or characterized by<br />
vice or immorality; depraved; pr<strong>of</strong>ligate. Viscous<br />
means sticky, adhesive, glutinous or ropy. Warm<br />
tar is viscous.<br />
vicious circle was originally a term in logic, and<br />
still is. Vicious in this context means impaired or<br />
spoiled by a fault. Circle means a mode <strong>of</strong> reasoning<br />
wherein a proposition is used to establish<br />
a conclusion and then this same conclusion used<br />
to prove the proposition. It is called a circle because<br />
it has no real starting place-and, one<br />
might add, because there’s no end to this sort <strong>of</strong><br />
thing. It is one <strong>of</strong> the most popular <strong>of</strong> all fallacies,<br />
the darling <strong>of</strong> the pompously ignorant.<br />
The term vicious circle is commonly used to<br />
describe a situation in which solution <strong>of</strong> one<br />
problem creates other problems whose solution<br />
is incompatible with the original circumstances.<br />
Or, more loosely, some bad situation that, by its<br />
nature, seems to get worse and worse. In any use<br />
but as a term in logic the expression is now a<br />
cliche.<br />
victim. See martyr.<br />
Victrola. In the United States any phonograph is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten called a victrolu. Properly speaking, the<br />
word should be capitalized, Victrola, and used<br />
solely in reference to the phonograph made by<br />
the Victor Talking Machine Company. That il is
7<br />
ViCtUdS 542<br />
not proves the superior wisdom <strong>of</strong> the Greek admonition<br />
“Nothing in excess” to the Yankee<br />
slogan “Nothing succeeds like success.” Like<br />
Kodak and Frigidaire, Victrola “caught on” so<br />
successfully that the populace simply adopted it<br />
as a generic name, thereby completely defeating<br />
its advertising and identification value.<br />
victuals, food; viands. Food is the plain, useful,<br />
everyday word for what is eaten or taken into<br />
the body for nourishment, at all stages from the<br />
furrow to ingestion. Like all basic, necessary<br />
words, it has strength and dignity. Victuals<br />
(rarely used in the singular and <strong>of</strong>ten spelled<br />
vittles) does not mean simply food but articles<br />
<strong>of</strong> food prepared for use. As a verb, especially<br />
in military contexts (to victual an army. The<br />
garrison was well victualed and could hold out<br />
indefinitely), it is standard. The noun use was<br />
introduced as an elegancy and, like many elegancies,<br />
has sunk below a vulgarism into a<br />
quaintness (I shore like my vittles on time. Lan’<br />
sakes, the vittles that man eats!) and its use is<br />
now an affectation not <strong>of</strong> elegance but <strong>of</strong> rusticity.<br />
Wittles was a favorite word <strong>of</strong> the Wellers.<br />
Viands is reserved for dishes <strong>of</strong> food, presumably<br />
<strong>of</strong> a choice and delicate kind. It is an<br />
elegancy, <strong>of</strong>ten coupled, with double vulgarity,<br />
with costly.<br />
view; viewpoint. View, used figuratively, means<br />
a particular way <strong>of</strong> regarding something; a conception,<br />
notion, or idea <strong>of</strong> a thing; an opinion or<br />
theory. View and opinion are <strong>of</strong>ten, unfortunately,<br />
supplanted by more pretentious, longer,<br />
yet no more precise terms, like viewpoint, point<br />
<strong>of</strong> view, and standpoint. For a fuller discussion,<br />
see point <strong>of</strong> view and angle.<br />
The phrase in view <strong>of</strong> must be followed by a<br />
noun or noun equivalent, as in in view <strong>of</strong> what<br />
you have said. The phrase with a view to may be<br />
followed by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in with<br />
a view to preventing such a catastrophe, or by the<br />
simple form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in with a view to prevent<br />
such a catastrophe. The construction using<br />
the -ing form is preferred. Sometimes the preposition<br />
toward is used with the -ing, as in with a<br />
view toward increasing our skills, and sometimes<br />
the preposition <strong>of</strong>, as in with a view <strong>of</strong> rousing<br />
his friends, but IO is generally preferred.<br />
vigil, strictly speaking, means a keeping awake<br />
for any purpose during the natural hours <strong>of</strong><br />
sleep, a watch kept by night. There are connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> seriousness <strong>of</strong> purpose about it; an allnight<br />
carouse could only be called a vigil in<br />
humor. More loosely, a vigil means a watch kept<br />
by nights or at other times (He put his hands in<br />
his coat pockets and turned back eagerly to his<br />
scrutiny <strong>of</strong> the house, as though my presence<br />
marred the sacredness <strong>of</strong> his vigil. So I walked<br />
away and left him standing there in the moonlight-watching<br />
over nothing). Vigil also means<br />
a course or period <strong>of</strong> watchful attention, or a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> wakefulness because <strong>of</strong> inability to<br />
sleep. It may not be used as if it meant a wait,<br />
least <strong>of</strong> all a short wait.<br />
vinculum. The plural is vinculums or vinculu.<br />
viudictive. The chief meaning <strong>of</strong> vindictive in<br />
America today is disposed or inclined to re-<br />
venge, vengeful (A vindictive man will <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
regard a position <strong>of</strong> power as primarily a means<br />
for “getting his own back”), or proceeding from<br />
or showing a revengeful spirit (The vindictive<br />
look she gave him was full warning <strong>of</strong> what she<br />
would do if she ever had the opportunity). In<br />
England, but in England only, vindictive is still<br />
also used to mean involving retribution, retributive,<br />
requital according to merits. If an Englishman<br />
said that a certain attack was solely<br />
vindictive he might mean something entirely different<br />
from what an American listener would<br />
understand him to mean.<br />
vine. In the United States vine means any plant<br />
with a long, slender stem that trails or creeps on<br />
the ground or climbs by winding itself about<br />
a support or holding fast with tendrils or claspers<br />
(The mock-cranberry’s red-berried creeping<br />
vine). In England vine means plants bearing the<br />
grapes from which ordinary wine is made. Americans<br />
call these grapevines.<br />
violin. See fiddle.<br />
violincello; violoncello. Violincello is an incorrect<br />
spelling, based on the mistaken assumption that<br />
the word is related to violin. Actually it is related<br />
to viol and violone (the bass viol) and the<br />
correct spelling is violoncello.<br />
V.I.P. See personage.<br />
virile. See male.<br />
virtual. See practical; constructive.<br />
virtually. See practically.<br />
virtue <strong>of</strong> necessity, make a. The phrase properly<br />
means the doing <strong>of</strong> what must be done, especially<br />
when it is something unpleasant or humiliating,<br />
with such a grace that the doing <strong>of</strong> it will be a<br />
virtue. The meaning is <strong>of</strong>ten lost or ignored, and<br />
the expression is used to mean “Well, we’ve got<br />
to do it, so we might as well do it and get it over<br />
with.” If so used. it is certainlv a cliche.<br />
virtuoso. The plural is virtuosos or virtuosi.<br />
virus. The only plural is viruses.<br />
visa: vi& Visa is the term ureferred in the United<br />
States to describe a government endorsement on<br />
a passport <strong>of</strong> one country testifying that it has<br />
been examined and found in order, for passage<br />
to the country granting the visa. The British<br />
prefer vise and they italicize both forms. In the<br />
United States and England the words may be<br />
used as nouns or verbs.<br />
v-e. To use visage as a synonym for face is an<br />
affectation, a pomposity. The visage is the face<br />
as affected by the state <strong>of</strong> mind (His visage was<br />
stern). It is much the same as countenance, but<br />
it regards the face as seen by an observer. See<br />
also face; countenance.<br />
viscera. This word is a plural. The singular, which<br />
is seldom used, is viscus.<br />
viston literally means the act <strong>of</strong> seeing with the<br />
eye; the power, faculty, or sense <strong>of</strong> sight (Your<br />
vision is excellent: you have no need <strong>of</strong> glasses).<br />
It also means the act or power <strong>of</strong> perceiving what<br />
is not actually present to the eye, whether by<br />
some supernatural endowment or by natural intellectual<br />
means, or that which is so perceived<br />
(your old men shall dream dreams, your young<br />
men shall see visions). Vision also means an<br />
imaginative power to see the consequence in the
future <strong>of</strong> present acts or trends, to look into the<br />
seeds <strong>of</strong> time (Where there is no vision, the people<br />
perish). This solemn term has been debased<br />
in current usage to refer, in effect, to facile<br />
optimists or promoters, especially in the hackneyed<br />
term men <strong>of</strong> vision. A true man <strong>of</strong> vision<br />
might be a very depressing fellow whose sighs<br />
would precipitate a financial crash. Most men <strong>of</strong><br />
vision in Germany in the 1930’s, who could,<br />
walked quickly to the nearest exit.<br />
visit is largely an American term. The English<br />
say call. unless they mean to designate a stay <strong>of</strong><br />
considerable duration. A very brief visit is informally<br />
called a char in England. It’s a pity that<br />
Dr. Johnson’s “dawdle over a dish <strong>of</strong> tea” didn’t<br />
catch on. Americans still use visit to describe the<br />
act <strong>of</strong> visiting, regardless <strong>of</strong> duration, or a call<br />
paid to a person, family, etc. (Oh, do not ask,<br />
“What is it?” / Let us go and make our visit).<br />
Yet-such are the ways <strong>of</strong> language--the small<br />
card bearing one’s name, used on social occasions,<br />
is called in America a calling card and in<br />
England a visiting card. Visiting curd was formerly<br />
used in America but has been out <strong>of</strong><br />
fashion for well over a generation.<br />
visit; visitation. Visit&on is a more formal term<br />
than visit. It means a visit for the purpose <strong>of</strong><br />
making an <strong>of</strong>ficial inspection or examination. In<br />
Christian theology the Visitation was the visit <strong>of</strong><br />
the Virgin Mary to her cousin, Elizabeth (Luke<br />
1: 39-56). or a church festival, held on July 2, in<br />
commemoration <strong>of</strong> this visit. It may also mean,<br />
uncapitalized, a visiting with comfort or aid, or<br />
with affliction or punishment, as by God; a special<br />
dispensation from heaven, whether <strong>of</strong> favor<br />
or <strong>of</strong> affliction; any experience or event, especially<br />
an unpleasant one, regarded as occurring<br />
bv divine dispensation -(He<br />
reparded his illness<br />
as a visitation, a plain mark <strong>of</strong> Divine disapproval<br />
<strong>of</strong> his recent utterances).<br />
vituperation. See abuse.<br />
viz represents the Latin word videlicet and means<br />
namely. It need not be followed by a period.<br />
vocation. See avocation, business, calling, job.<br />
vocative case. The vocative is a Latin case that<br />
marks a word used in direct address. In some<br />
Latin names the vocative is not identical with<br />
the nominative and the distinction between the<br />
two cases has some meaning. But this is not true<br />
in English. All that can be said about the vocative<br />
in an English grammar is that we do not<br />
address people in the genitive. We do not say<br />
Sarah’s, how are you?<br />
Words <strong>of</strong> address may appear anywhere in a<br />
sentence except between the verb and its complement.<br />
They are always set <strong>of</strong>f by commas, as<br />
in these, Sarah, are very good and this, my dear,<br />
Is wonderful.<br />
voice. The form <strong>of</strong> the verb which shows what<br />
relation the subject has to the action expressed<br />
by the verb is called its voice. The form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb which shows that the subject is the agent <strong>of</strong><br />
the action, as in he wrote the report, is called the<br />
active voice. The form which shows that the subject<br />
is the recipient <strong>of</strong> the action, as in the report<br />
WQS written by him, is called the passive voice.<br />
See passive voice.<br />
543 vulgarity<br />
voice; express. Voice as a verb means to give<br />
voice, utterance, or expression to an emotion,<br />
opinion or idea. In the United States it is also<br />
acceptably used as a synonym for express. English<br />
grammarians insist that voice may not be<br />
substituted for express except in those circumstances<br />
where speech is involved. One may,<br />
therefore, voice an opinion in a letter to the<br />
New York Times but can only express an opinion<br />
in a letter to the London Times.<br />
voice crying In the wilderness. Aside from the<br />
danger <strong>of</strong> blasphemy in any reckless or flippant<br />
use <strong>of</strong> this phrase, it is to be avoided because it<br />
is a clichC and, as such, is usually misused. It was<br />
the voice <strong>of</strong> John the Baptist that, crying in the<br />
wilderness, foretold the coming <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ.<br />
The phrase, therefore, has some application to<br />
any great foretening or, even, perhaps, warning<br />
But it is <strong>of</strong>ten used to indicate that the foretelling<br />
will go unheeded because it is uttered where<br />
none can hear or, if hearing, cannot or will not<br />
understand. This is a distortion <strong>of</strong> the original<br />
meaning, affected probably by the general associations<br />
<strong>of</strong> wilderness.<br />
volume; tome; title; book; work. These words all<br />
refer to a collection <strong>of</strong> printed sheets bound together.<br />
A volume is a collection <strong>of</strong> printed sheets<br />
bound together and constituting a book, or a<br />
book forming one <strong>of</strong> a related set or series<br />
(He brought out the first volume <strong>of</strong> his history<br />
just before the war). Tome is adopted from the<br />
French and is synonymous with volume in its<br />
second sense. It may also mean any volume, especially<br />
a ponderous one. The use <strong>of</strong> the word,<br />
however, is confined to the pretentious or the<br />
feebly witty. Title, though it properly describes<br />
the distinguishing name <strong>of</strong> a book, poem, picture,<br />
or the like, is now used in publishers’<br />
jargon as if it meant book (We are bringing out<br />
six new titles in our paperbacked series). A work<br />
is a product <strong>of</strong> exertion, labor, or activity, and<br />
a book has long been considered such. In the<br />
singular the word may sound a little pretentious<br />
(It is a work <strong>of</strong> singular merit) but the plural<br />
(His works are the glory <strong>of</strong> our civilization.<br />
Collected works. The works <strong>of</strong> Charles Dickens<br />
in thirty-five volumes. . .) is commonplace. Book<br />
is the basic term to describe a written or printed<br />
work <strong>of</strong> some length, as a treatise or other literary<br />
composition, especially on consecutive sheets<br />
fastened or bound together (Of the making <strong>of</strong><br />
books there is no end. Another damned, big<br />
thick book! Always scribble, scribble, eh, Mr.<br />
Gibbon?).<br />
vortex. The plural is vortexes or vortices.<br />
vouchsafe does not mean merely to give. It means<br />
to condescend to give, to grant as a favor, to give<br />
as an act <strong>of</strong> grace. The word is a little pretentious,<br />
but this is <strong>of</strong>ten felicitously consonant with<br />
what it designates. In prayers to the deity it is<br />
straightforward. In almost all others uses it is<br />
tinged with irony.<br />
voyage. See trip.<br />
vs. is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> the Latin word versus<br />
and means against.<br />
vulgar. See common.<br />
vulgarity. See blasphemy.
wad is generally taken to mean a small mass or<br />
lump <strong>of</strong> anything s<strong>of</strong>t (He always had a wad<br />
<strong>of</strong> grim in his mo&h); a small mass <strong>of</strong> cotton,<br />
wool, or other fibrous or s<strong>of</strong>t material, used for<br />
stuffing, padding, packing; a ball or mass <strong>of</strong><br />
something squeezed together (The throwing <strong>of</strong><br />
paper wads, or shooting them with rubber bands,<br />
is now an almost sacred tradition <strong>of</strong> American<br />
schoolchildren). In American usage a wad is<br />
also a roll, as <strong>of</strong> paper money: American wad <strong>of</strong><br />
bills is the equivalent <strong>of</strong> the English sheaf <strong>of</strong><br />
notes. In American slang a wad is a large amount<br />
<strong>of</strong> money (He’s really got a wad, that guy; he<br />
could buy the whole town if he wanted to). A<br />
stingy person, called in England tightfisted or<br />
close-fisted, is in America most commonly called<br />
a tightwad (There’s no use asking that tightwad<br />
for any money. He won’t give a cent).<br />
Wud is also used to describe the plug <strong>of</strong> cloth,<br />
tow, paper, or the like, used to hold the powder<br />
or shot, or both, in place in a gun or cartridge.<br />
It is probably from this meaning that the slang<br />
phrase shot his wnd, meaning having done all he<br />
can, expended his resources, derives.<br />
wade is used colloquially in the United States to<br />
mean to make a sharp attack or energetic beginning.<br />
In this sense it is followed by in or into<br />
(You waded single-handed into a man almost<br />
lwice your size). By figurative extension, it may<br />
also mean to criticize severely (Father [Theodore<br />
Roosevelt] spoke in Chicago, wading into<br />
the New York and Indiana machine crowd). In<br />
both uses it is now slightly outmoded.<br />
wages. A few centuries ago this word meant<br />
recompense for services, regardless <strong>of</strong> the person<br />
being paid. But later it came to mean only money<br />
paid to “a workman or servant.” Originally the<br />
two forms wage and wages were used indiscriminately,<br />
without any difference in meaning, and<br />
the plural form was <strong>of</strong>ten followed by a singular<br />
verb, as in their daily wages is so little.<br />
In the United States today wages has lost most<br />
<strong>of</strong> its connotation <strong>of</strong> low-paid labor. It is always<br />
used with a plural verb, as in his wages are good.<br />
This is a mass word and cannot be used with<br />
many, few, or a numeral. But the singular form<br />
wage is used with the article a, as in a better<br />
wage. The singular form is preferred as the first<br />
element in a compound, as in a wage increase.<br />
See also honorarium.<br />
wages <strong>of</strong> sin. Used jocularly, the wages <strong>of</strong> sin is<br />
a clichi5. It is from Romans 6:23 (For the wages<br />
<strong>of</strong> sin is death: but the gift <strong>of</strong> God is eternal life<br />
through Jesus Chri.yt our Lord) where wages,<br />
though plural in form, means a single payment<br />
and is construed as singular.<br />
waist, for a garment or a part <strong>of</strong> a garment covering<br />
the body from the neck or shoulders to<br />
the waistline, especially in women’s or children’s<br />
dress, though occasionally heard, especially in<br />
relation to children’s dress, is now a!most obsolescent<br />
(Handsome Flaxon finish, Checked white<br />
dimity, Desirable for waists-Sears, Roebuck<br />
and Co., Catalogue No. 135, 1917). Shirtwaist<br />
is still in use, but blouse is now the preferred<br />
word and, with the trend towards mannishness<br />
in women’s styles, shirt has also come to be<br />
used. A recent advertisement in The New<br />
Yorker shows a picture <strong>of</strong> a young woman in a<br />
woman’s adaptation <strong>of</strong> a man’s checked shirt.<br />
That the word is to be applied to a garment intended<br />
solely for women (though one is never<br />
certain in these days) is suggested by the text<br />
<strong>of</strong> the advertisement: “Notice the way Hathaway<br />
cuts and shapes their shirts to a girl’s greatest<br />
advantage. Bosoms are such. Shoulders are<br />
natural. Waistlines go tiny.”<br />
Waist is now usually restricted to meaning the<br />
waistline or the actual, physical waist. Pantywaist,<br />
a slang and rather affected term for an<br />
effeminate and over-elegant young man, is borrowed<br />
from schoolboy derision <strong>of</strong> a generation<br />
or so ago for boys whose mothers dressed them<br />
in what the other boys regarded as feminine<br />
attire.<br />
waistcoat. See undershirt.<br />
wait on hand and foot. As a term for assiduous<br />
personal service, spoken usually in annoyance<br />
and resentment, to wait on somebody hand and<br />
foot is hackneyed.<br />
waive; wave. Waive, a derivative <strong>of</strong> waif, meaning<br />
to make waif or to abandon, means basically<br />
to forbear to insist on, to relinquish, to forgo<br />
(He waived the prize money awarded him). In<br />
law it means to relinquish a known right intentionally<br />
(He waived diplomatic immunity in order<br />
to contest the issue). It can also mean to put<br />
aside for the time, to defer, to put aside or dismiss<br />
from consideration (He waived these unpleasant<br />
thoughts from his mind, however, and turned to<br />
the pleasure at hand).<br />
Wave always involves motion. As an intransitive<br />
verb, it means to move with advancing<br />
swells and depressions <strong>of</strong> surface (At last the<br />
American flag waved over Iwo lima) or to move<br />
the hands in greeting (She waved to us from the<br />
train). As a transitive verb, it means to cause<br />
to wave, to move (The boys frantically waved<br />
their hnnds as we drove awny).<br />
wake; waken. The past tense is woke, waked, or<br />
wakened. The participle is waked, wakened,<br />
woke, or woken. Each <strong>of</strong> these nine forms may
have the prefix a, as in awake, nwakerr, alvoke,<br />
and so on, or it may form a compound verb with<br />
up, as in wake up, woke up, wakened I/P, and so<br />
on. This gives us twenty-seven forms for the<br />
principal parts <strong>of</strong> this verb, where ordinarily two<br />
forms are enough, as in talk, talked. This is certainly<br />
more words than we need for such a simple<br />
act.<br />
The participles that have the vowel a, as in<br />
had woke, has awoken, and so on, are not considered<br />
standard in the United States but are still<br />
acceptable in Great Britain. Aside from this, all<br />
the forms are equally acceptable and which one<br />
is used is entirely a matter <strong>of</strong> individual taste.<br />
There is a tendency to prefer the forms with<br />
en when the verb is used in the passive, as in he<br />
was wakened. There is also a tendency to prefer<br />
the forms with the prefix a when the verb is used<br />
figuratively, as in she awoke to the danger. When<br />
the verb is both passive and figurative these<br />
tendencies combine and awakened is the preferred<br />
form, as in she has been awakened to her<br />
danger.<br />
There is a theory that the past tense form<br />
woke is preferable for an actual waking up when<br />
the verb does not have an object. as in he woke<br />
at six, and the form waked when the verb does<br />
have an object, as in she waked him at six, but<br />
this is not borne out in practice.<br />
There is one more form <strong>of</strong> this verb that has<br />
not been mentioned yet, making twenty-eight<br />
forms in all. This is an old participle awake. It is<br />
now used only as an adjective following a verb,<br />
as in she is awake.<br />
wale; weal; wheal. Wale is the best word to<br />
describe a streak, stripe, or ridge produced on<br />
the skin by the stroke <strong>of</strong> a rod or whip, a welt<br />
(A livid wale across his back testified to the force<br />
<strong>of</strong> the blow). Whenl means a small, burning or<br />
itching swelling on the skin, as from a mosquito<br />
bite. Because ea was formerly in many words<br />
pronounced (as it now is in great) to rime with<br />
say (Where thorn, great Anna, whom three<br />
realms obey,/ Dost sometimes counsel take, rind<br />
sometimes tea. Perhaps the plensrrre is as great/<br />
In being cheated as to cheat), wheal and wale<br />
were easily confused. Weal (not the weal <strong>of</strong> weal<br />
or woe) in this sense seems to have no justification<br />
other than as a sort <strong>of</strong> variant spelling <strong>of</strong><br />
wale or wheal.<br />
walking encyclopedia, as a term for someone who<br />
has an astonishing fund <strong>of</strong> general information,<br />
is a clich6.<br />
walking on air. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that someone<br />
is ecstatic, usually with exultation at some good<br />
fortune, to say that he is walking on air is hackneyed.<br />
wane; flag. To wane is to decline, to grow less, to<br />
decrease, in extent, quantity, importance, brilliance,<br />
splendor, or the like (The long day<br />
wanes: the slow moon climbs: the deep / Moons<br />
rortnd with mnny voices. His influence in the<br />
company had, actually, long been waning and his<br />
displacement was not the sztdden reversal that<br />
if seemed to those who were unaware <strong>of</strong> this<br />
fact). When applied to the moon. wnne is to<br />
545 want<br />
decrease in the periodical manner characteristic<br />
<strong>of</strong> the second half <strong>of</strong> the lunar period (A savage<br />
place! as holy and enchanted/ As e’er beneath a<br />
waning moon was haunted/ By woman wailing<br />
for her demon-lover!).<br />
To flag is to fall <strong>of</strong>f in vigor, energy, or activity,<br />
to droop (He begun with great bustle and<br />
e#ort but soon flagged). Flagging differs from<br />
waning in that an effort that pugs may revive.<br />
The slackening <strong>of</strong> exertion or interest may be<br />
only temporary and may revive to full force, but<br />
that which wnnes (except for the moon) declines<br />
or decreases permanently.<br />
want (noun). See need.<br />
want. This verb may mean desire or will, or it<br />
may mean need or lack. It may have either<br />
meaning in the sentence he wants the proper<br />
clothes.<br />
When want means need it may be followed by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in it wanted saying,<br />
the coat wants mending. In this sense, want may<br />
be followed by for, as in he u*ants for nothing.<br />
When want means desire it may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in she wants to mend the coat,<br />
I want you to come. It cannot be followed by an<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a clause. I want YOU<br />
should come is not regarded as acceptable English.<br />
In this sense, want cannot be followed by<br />
for. I want for you to cotne is usually condemned.<br />
At one time it was usual to omit verbs <strong>of</strong> motion<br />
after verbs <strong>of</strong> willing, as in thou shalt to<br />
prison. This custom survives in Scotland and in<br />
some parts <strong>of</strong> the United States, as in I’ll uwa’<br />
up the glen and the cat wants out. A similar<br />
contraction is seen in let me in. After let this old<br />
usage is standard everywhere. After wnnt it is<br />
standard in some sections <strong>of</strong> the United States,<br />
principally the Middle West and South. In other<br />
sections it is unusual and is thought to be Pennsylvania<br />
Dutch.<br />
Want may also be used as a very weak form<br />
<strong>of</strong> ought, as in yort wjant to go slow. This is acceptable<br />
English, at least in the United States.<br />
want; wish; desire. Desire is the most formal <strong>of</strong><br />
these three words. It suggests a strong wish<br />
(The people desire political reforms and will<br />
make their displeasltre known at the polls). In a<br />
specialized sense it means to desire in sexual<br />
intercourse. Wish is the familiar term meaning<br />
to feel an impulse toward attainment or possession<br />
<strong>of</strong> something (I wish you were here). The<br />
feeling it expresses may be <strong>of</strong> greater or less<br />
intensity (I wish you would pay attention; I’ve<br />
had to ask you twice. I wish I were dead. I wish<br />
the wind may never cease,/Nor fushes in the<br />
f?ood,/Till my three sons come home to me,/ln<br />
earthly flesh and blood!). Wish has connotations<br />
<strong>of</strong> desiring the unattainable, or <strong>of</strong> an impulse but<br />
weakly connected with any energetic or disciplined<br />
will to accomplish. Want is the least formal<br />
<strong>of</strong> the three words. It suggests a feeling <strong>of</strong><br />
lack or need which imperatively demands fulfillment<br />
(I want my supper! Mr. Watson, come<br />
here. I want you). Wish is sometimes misused,<br />
in vulgar elegance, for want in such demands as
wapiti<br />
Do you wish some more potatoes? The fault<br />
here is that the bodily wants (the satisfaction <strong>of</strong><br />
which, presumably, is the sole reason for the<br />
potatoes being <strong>of</strong>fered) are so basic and fundamental,<br />
so imperative in their demands, that only<br />
want will do. The various shades <strong>of</strong> meaning<br />
latent in wish are all inapplicable to the situation.<br />
wapiti. See elk.<br />
-ward; -wards. Originally, -ward was an adjective<br />
ending that meant “having the direction <strong>of</strong>.”<br />
Words ending in -ward were used to qualify<br />
nouns, as in the homeward journey. The final s<br />
in -wards was a genitive ending which made adverbs<br />
<strong>of</strong> these adjectives, very much as the ending<br />
-1y is used today to make adverbs from<br />
adjectives. The -s forms were used to qualify<br />
words that were not nouns, as in homewards<br />
bound.<br />
Today the -ward forms are still the only ones<br />
used to qualify a following noun. But either form<br />
may be used in any other construction. Some<br />
grammarians claim that either form may be used<br />
when the word describes direction, as in look<br />
homeward. Angel, but that the form with s is<br />
required when the word describes manner, as in<br />
he does everything backwards. This distinction<br />
is not observed in the United States, where the<br />
forms without s are generally preferred for both<br />
direction and manner.<br />
Words may be freely coined on this pattern,<br />
as stationward, dinnerward, usward.<br />
warden means one charged with the care or<br />
custody <strong>of</strong> something, a keeper. In the United<br />
States it has been specialized to mean the chief<br />
administrative <strong>of</strong>ficer in charge <strong>of</strong> a prison. (The<br />
warden told them, over the loudspeaker, that<br />
they had one hour in which to surrender and<br />
evacuate the cell block). Though the term is employed,<br />
or was, in one specialized instance in<br />
England in the same sense (Warden is the title<br />
<strong>of</strong> the man in charge <strong>of</strong> the Fleet prison), it is<br />
used today in England, in relation to prisons, to<br />
designate what in America is called a guard (A<br />
prison has many advantages over a school. In<br />
prison, for example, the wardens protect you<br />
from attack by your fellow prisoners). The<br />
American warden is the English governor.<br />
Warden may also mean any <strong>of</strong> various public<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficials charged with superintendence, as game<br />
warden, fish warden, fire warden. These are<br />
chiefly American terms, but fire warden was<br />
taken over in England during World War II to<br />
designate those who watched for and attempted<br />
to control incendiary bombings. In England<br />
warden is also used as the name for the heads <strong>of</strong><br />
certain colleges (The Warden <strong>of</strong> All Souls, Dr.<br />
Pember, was that year Vice-chancellor) and<br />
other educational and charitable institutions.<br />
ward heeler is an exclusively American expression<br />
to describe a minor hanger-on <strong>of</strong> a political<br />
machine who canvasses voters and does party<br />
chores, a man who, like a dog, comes to heel<br />
when his master, the political boss, the Ward<br />
Boss, gives commands (He said that the Census<br />
Bureau is violating the constitutional rights <strong>of</strong><br />
the American people when it “sends 168,000<br />
546<br />
political hacks and ward heelers . . . to snoop<br />
into the people’s finances”).<br />
Wardour Street English is an expression used in<br />
England but unknown in America, except to the<br />
learned, for the affected, and <strong>of</strong>ten erroneous,<br />
use <strong>of</strong> archaic words. Ye Olde Radio Repaire<br />
Shoppe would be a good example <strong>of</strong> Wardour<br />
Street English. Wardour Street was a street in<br />
London famed for its fake antiques.<br />
warm as toast is a hackneyed comparison. In<br />
former days when houses were cold in winter,<br />
toast taken directly from before the fire was,<br />
apparently, strikingly warm, but today one does<br />
not think <strong>of</strong> it as particularly warm. In England<br />
where - by American standards-the toast is<br />
frigid, the phrase is meaningless.<br />
warm the cockles <strong>of</strong> one’s heart. To say <strong>of</strong> something<br />
pleasing that it warms, or rejoices, or delights<br />
the cockles <strong>of</strong> the heart, is to employ a<br />
cliche.<br />
Cockle is the name <strong>of</strong> bivalve molluscs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
genus Cardium. The resemblance in shape between<br />
the shell <strong>of</strong> the mollusc and the heart has<br />
long been recognized and is, indeed, implicit in<br />
the name <strong>of</strong> the genus. But the cockles <strong>of</strong> the<br />
heart implies some special part or parts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
heart, though just what or why is unknown.<br />
Probably it is no more than an intensive, like in<br />
my heart <strong>of</strong> hearts.<br />
warn may be followed by an infinitive, as in I<br />
warned him to leave at once, or by a clause, as<br />
in I warn you I am leaving. If the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb follows warn, it must be introduced by the<br />
preposition against, as in I warned him against<br />
leaving.<br />
warp. See wo<strong>of</strong>.<br />
warrant; warranty; guarantee; guaranty. Warrant<br />
and guarantee are frequently interchangeable to<br />
indicate that something is safe or genuine. To<br />
warrant is to give a pledge or assurance that<br />
something is what it seems or claims to be (I<br />
warrant he’s telling the truth). To guarantee is<br />
to make something sure or certain by binding<br />
oneself to replace it or refund its price if it is<br />
not as represented (The watch is guaranteed for<br />
a year). The word is thrown around recklessly<br />
in advertisements and only ,the most careful<br />
reading can ascertain just what is guaranteed, if<br />
anything. Warrant has the meaning, not shared<br />
by guarantee, <strong>of</strong> to justify (This does not warrant<br />
such expenditures!).<br />
Warrant and guarantee may also be used as<br />
nouns. In the specialized sense <strong>of</strong> an authorization<br />
for arrest, warrant alone may be used. The<br />
prevalence <strong>of</strong> this use, with its unpleasant associations,<br />
tends to make guarantee the common<br />
word for all other uses.<br />
Warranty, a noun only, and guaranty, noun or<br />
verb, are used in specialized senses. Warranty is<br />
chiefly a legal term meaning an engagement,<br />
express or implied, in assurance <strong>of</strong> some particular<br />
in connection with a contract, as <strong>of</strong> sale; or a<br />
covenant in a deed to land by which the party<br />
conveying assures the grantee that he will enjoy<br />
the premises free from interference by any person<br />
claiming under a superior title. A warranty
deed is a deed containing such a covenant, as<br />
distinguished from a quitclaim deed, which conveys<br />
without any assurances only such title as<br />
the grantor may have. In the law <strong>of</strong> insurance, a<br />
warranty is a statement or promise, made by the<br />
party insured, and included as an essential part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the contract, falsity or nonfulfillment <strong>of</strong> which<br />
renders the policy void. Warranty may also mean<br />
a judicial document, as a warrant or writ. Guoranty<br />
means a warrant, pledge, or promise given<br />
by way <strong>of</strong> security. As a verb it means to guarantee.<br />
Guaranty is used in England in many<br />
contexts where Americans would use gunruntee<br />
which, in the United States, is by far the commoner<br />
<strong>of</strong> the two forms in all uses.<br />
was; were. These two words form the past tense<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb be. Was is always singular and cannot<br />
be used with a plural subject. We cannot say<br />
we wus, fhey was, or you wus. Were is usually<br />
plural, but it may also be used, under some circumstances,<br />
with a singular subject.<br />
Were is used with the pronoun you, even<br />
when you refers to only one person, as in were<br />
you there, Charlie? This has been standard English<br />
since about 1820. Before that, educated<br />
people said you were when speaking to more<br />
than one person and you was when speaking to<br />
only one, as in you was mistaken, lohn. This<br />
was a useful distinction that may someday come<br />
back into the language. At present we have no<br />
standard way <strong>of</strong> showing whether you is singular<br />
or plural and resort to makeshift plural forms<br />
such as you people, you all, and the unacceptable<br />
yous.<br />
The other cases in which were may be used<br />
with a singular subject are not as clear-cut as<br />
this. It is not true that the singular were can<br />
always be used after the word if. Sentences such<br />
as in my childhood I admired a mun if he were<br />
rich, where were is wrong and was is required,<br />
show that the writer is using were self-consciously,<br />
out <strong>of</strong> anxiety about his grammar, and not<br />
out <strong>of</strong> any feeling for the old literary forms.<br />
Were is the singular, as well as the plural, in<br />
the old past subjunctive <strong>of</strong> be. It is therefore<br />
permissible to use it with a singular subject wherever<br />
a past subjunctive is appropriate, principally<br />
after the verb wish and in hypothetical<br />
statements that are indefinite as to time, as in<br />
I wish I were wonderful, suppose it were true,<br />
and if I were living in a desert. (See subjunctive<br />
mode.) But, with two exceptions which will be<br />
discussed later, the singular was may also be<br />
used in these same constructions, as in I wish Z<br />
was wonderful, suppose it was true, and if I<br />
was living in a desert. This is not a recent development.<br />
Was has been used as a past subjunctive<br />
in literary English for more than three hundred<br />
years and is the preferred form today.<br />
In current English there are two constructions<br />
in which were is preferred to the subjunctive<br />
was. One is the simple expression if I were you.<br />
Wus is also used here, and is not wrong, but were<br />
is generally preferred. The other is a purely<br />
literary construction. The idea that is ordinarily<br />
expressed by an if clause may be expressed with-<br />
547 wash<br />
out the if, by placing the verb before the subject,<br />
as in were I in a desert. Formerly, was might be<br />
used in this way. Sterne, for example, wrote<br />
was I in a desert. But this is no longer standard.<br />
In present-day English were is required in this<br />
construction and was cannot be used. In any<br />
other construction where both forms are pcrmissible,<br />
was is now felt to be more forceful,<br />
more vivid, than the singular were.<br />
As a rule, the singular were cannot be used in<br />
a statement about the past. If we are uncertain<br />
about the facts, the indicative was is required,<br />
as in if he was thirty when I met him. Sometimes<br />
if introduces a statement which we know was<br />
true and this also calls for the indicative war, as<br />
in she was sixty if she was u day. If we know<br />
that what we are saying is contrary to the facts<br />
and we are speaking about a specific event, the<br />
past perfect with had is required, as in if he had<br />
been there. In speaking <strong>of</strong> the past, the singular<br />
were is used only in descriptive statements,<br />
which are relatively timeless, and only when<br />
these are known to be contrary to the facts, as<br />
in he looked us grim us if he were made <strong>of</strong> stone<br />
and he treated her us tenderly us if he were her<br />
own mother. Even here, was is permissible and<br />
hod been is generally preferred.<br />
To sum up, the singular were is used with the<br />
pronoun you in the expression if I were you<br />
and in hypothetical statements with inverted<br />
word order, such as were he here. It may be<br />
used, but need not be, to express what is imaginary<br />
or doubtful, provided the statement refers<br />
to the future or is indefinite as to time, as in<br />
if he were given a chance. In current English<br />
was is heard more <strong>of</strong>ten than were in such state<br />
ments. Some grammarians claim that were is<br />
required in a contrary-to-fact statement that<br />
does not refer to a specific past event. But these<br />
same men also complain that was is now invading<br />
this “last stronghold” <strong>of</strong> the singular<br />
were. The invasion has been under way for<br />
several centuries and no one should be frightened<br />
into using were where was seems more natural.<br />
It is almost impossible for anyone who has a<br />
high school education to use was where were is<br />
required. But the writer who gets self-conscious<br />
about his subjunctives can very easily use were<br />
where literary English requires was. To be safe,<br />
one should write as one speaks.<br />
wash is more frequently used in compounds in<br />
America than in England. Wushbourd is <strong>of</strong><br />
American origin. American washbowl is English<br />
washbasin. American washcloth or washrag is<br />
English face-cloth or face-flannel. American<br />
washroom (<strong>of</strong>ten a synonym for privy) is English<br />
lavatory, which is <strong>of</strong>ten, to an American’s<br />
annoyance, a mere washroom. American wushday<br />
is English washing day. Both English and<br />
Americans say washstand and washtub. Wushhouse,<br />
an English term for a small separate outbuilding<br />
used solely for washing clothes and<br />
containing the coppers (in America called boilers<br />
or tubs) is unknown in the United States. In both<br />
England and America the older word to describe<br />
a woman who washed clothes for hire was
washing 548<br />
washerwoman. American usage only permits<br />
washwoman as well. The word is being largely<br />
replaced by the more elegant laundress and perhaps<br />
justifiably so, as the heavier, dirtier work<br />
that used to be a part <strong>of</strong> the week’s or season’s<br />
wnshirzg is now sent to the laundry and the dry<br />
cleaners, leaving only the lighter and finer things<br />
(which were properly handled by a laundress<br />
instead <strong>of</strong> a washerwoman) to be done at home.<br />
To say washlady is to speak vulgarly in England<br />
or America.<br />
In America washout describes a washing out<br />
<strong>of</strong> earth by water, as from an embankment or a<br />
roadway by heavy rain or by a freshet, or the<br />
hole or break so produced. As a figurative slang<br />
term, washout in America means a failure or<br />
fiasco (The whole dramatic production was 4<br />
washout). In England washout is a special term<br />
in mining engineering.<br />
washing. See ablution.<br />
washing dirty linen in poblic. As a term for those<br />
who in mutual recriminations reveal matters,<br />
especially family matters, discreditable to themselves<br />
and expose to public view things that in<br />
decency should be kept private, washing their<br />
dirty linen in public is now a clicht.<br />
washing one’s hands <strong>of</strong> something. As a term for<br />
a public disavowal <strong>of</strong> all further connection with<br />
some enterprise or the disowning <strong>of</strong> all association<br />
with some person, washing one’s hands <strong>of</strong><br />
the matter or business is a clichC. It is derived, in<br />
English, from Pilate’s washing his hands in public<br />
as a sign <strong>of</strong> his refusal to accept responsibility<br />
for the crucifixion <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ; yet from the<br />
very manner in which Pilate performed this<br />
ablution it is apparent that the term and the<br />
ritualistic nature <strong>of</strong> the act were established.<br />
wastage; waste. Wastage is neutral, waste (except<br />
in a number <strong>of</strong> technical applications) deprecatory.<br />
Wastage means loss by use, wear, or decay<br />
(A certain amount must be allowed for wastage).<br />
Waste, in common everyday usage, means<br />
useless consumption or expenditure, or use without<br />
adequate return (Zt is 4 waste <strong>of</strong> time to<br />
listen to him).<br />
waste your breath. Used commonly in some negative<br />
adjuration, as an assurance that speech,<br />
usually <strong>of</strong> persuasion or admonition, will be<br />
vain, to waste your breath is hackneyed.<br />
wastebasket is now standard and almost universal<br />
in American usage, though the longer form,<br />
wastepaper basket, still used in England, is<br />
known and used occasionally in the United<br />
States.<br />
watch. This verb may be followed by an object<br />
and the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in Z watched them<br />
working, or by an object and the simple form <strong>of</strong><br />
a verb, as in Z watched them work.<br />
watchword. See slogan.<br />
water; waters. Water is a mass noun and in everyday<br />
English does not have a plural form. But<br />
the plural waters was formerly used, and may<br />
still be used, in certain limited senses.<br />
The ulural form is alwavs used in sneaking <strong>of</strong><br />
the seas belonging to a paiticular nation or in a<br />
particular part <strong>of</strong> the. globe, as in American<br />
waters and southern waters. It is also used in<br />
figurative expressions such as deep waters and<br />
troubled waters.<br />
The plural form is still used occasionally in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> mineral water, as it is in it is long,<br />
very long, Mr. Pickwick, since you drank the<br />
waters. It may be used in poetry or dramatic<br />
prose in speaking <strong>of</strong> large bodies <strong>of</strong> flowing water,<br />
as in like waters shot from some high crag<br />
and the waters <strong>of</strong> the Danube.<br />
Formerly, the plural form was used in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> a flood as in the waters had risen. This is<br />
now felt to be artificial or bookish. The amniotic<br />
fluid was also called the waters. We now speak<br />
<strong>of</strong> it as the water, and waters is considered old<br />
fashioned or dialectal.<br />
water, <strong>of</strong> the first. Used figuratively, as a designation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the highest worth, the expression <strong>of</strong><br />
the first water, drawn from a now outmoded<br />
classification <strong>of</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> diamonds, is a<br />
clichC.<br />
water under the bridge (and over the dam). As<br />
a way <strong>of</strong> saying that much has happened since<br />
a certain event took place, much water has<br />
flowed under the bridge since then is a clichC.<br />
The water seems to be the stream <strong>of</strong> time or life,<br />
the bridge, perhaps, the bridge <strong>of</strong> sighs. It’s all<br />
very mystical and tedious. Water under the<br />
bridge, by the way, is not to be confused with<br />
water over the dam which is a term for something<br />
that has happened and cannot be recalled.<br />
It, too, is a cliche. Every now and then some<br />
luckless orator blends the two.<br />
watershed; divide. Watershed is chiefly English<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> the ridge or crest line dividing<br />
two drainage areas, a water parting. Americans<br />
usually say divide. In both England and America<br />
watershed is also used to describe the region or<br />
area drained by a river, a drainage area (A<br />
number <strong>of</strong> government dams have been built in<br />
the Tennessee River watershed).<br />
wave. See waive.<br />
wave <strong>of</strong> optimism. As a term for an access <strong>of</strong><br />
courage or a widespread renewal <strong>of</strong> hope, 4<br />
wave <strong>of</strong> optimism is hackneyed. It always<br />
“sweeps through” the group referred to.<br />
wax. When this is a verb meaning grow or become<br />
it may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
the subject, as in it waxed lute, it waxed cool. It<br />
may also be followed by an adverb describing<br />
the waxing, as in it waxed steadily worse.<br />
way. The noun wny may be used as an adverb to<br />
show direction or manner, as in step this way<br />
and do it your own way, Shakespeare uses the<br />
form ways to show direction in what cursed foot<br />
wanders this ways tonight?, but this is no longer<br />
standard English.<br />
The noun way may also be used as an adverb<br />
showing distance, as in II long way from home<br />
and he had come quite 4 way. In the United<br />
States the form ways is also used in this sense,<br />
as in a long wnys from home and quite 4 ways<br />
inland. This construction has not been considered<br />
standard in England for more than fifty years,<br />
but it was used by most <strong>of</strong> the great writers <strong>of</strong><br />
English and is still standard in this country.
The word way is sometimes used without the<br />
article a to mean “far <strong>of</strong>f ,” as in way down upon<br />
the Swanee river. This is a Scottish idiom. It is<br />
acceptable in the United States but not in England,<br />
where away is required, as in away down<br />
the river, a hundred miles or more.<br />
The sutlix -ways (but not the sufTix -way) may<br />
be added to a noun to show direction, as in edgeways,<br />
endways, sideways. Both forms, -way and<br />
-ways, are used in adverbs <strong>of</strong> manner, as in nnyway<br />
and anyways. Some grammarians hold that<br />
words expressing manner should not have the s<br />
ending, but should be anyway, someway, and so<br />
on. This restriction is not observed in literary<br />
English, but the forms without s are generally<br />
preferred in the United States today.<br />
wny; weigh. Under way is the correct expression<br />
to mean in motion, or moving along, as a ship<br />
that has weighed anchor and is moving on her<br />
course (We got under way at midnight and by<br />
sunrise were in position to bombard the coastal<br />
defenses). Weigh, when applied to an anchor,<br />
has the highly specialized meaning <strong>of</strong> to lift or<br />
raise. Many people use under weigh, being apparently<br />
<strong>of</strong> the impression that it has something<br />
to do with weighing anchor. But while a ship<br />
cannot be under way until she has weighed<br />
anchor, she may weigh anchor and yet not get<br />
under way. The term is no less incorrect when<br />
used figuratively (as in Now that he had a<br />
project under weigh his spirits rose).<br />
we. The word I does not actually have a plural.<br />
We means “I and others” rather than “more<br />
than one I.” Who the others are is sometimes<br />
vague. When necessary we can make it specific<br />
by adding words, as in we the people or we here<br />
present.<br />
We is sometimes used to mean a single individual.<br />
One form <strong>of</strong> this is called the modest we.<br />
Here a person uses a plural form in order not to<br />
call attention to himself as an individual. This<br />
device is sometimes silly, but it is very old and<br />
is found even in classical Latin.<br />
There is also a royal we. At one period in<br />
history the Roman empire was governed by two<br />
or three men who ruled together and issued joint<br />
proclamations, using a plural form. Later, smaller<br />
rulers used the same form because they were<br />
speaking for themselves and a body <strong>of</strong> advisors.<br />
In this way the plural became associated with<br />
the highest authority and was eventually used by<br />
single, independent rulers as a sign <strong>of</strong> royalty.<br />
In English the old form ourselj, and not the<br />
modern plural form ourselves, is used in referring<br />
to a royal we, as in we will ourselj take time<br />
to hear your cause.<br />
The editorial we is <strong>of</strong>ten a true plural. That is,<br />
a writer <strong>of</strong>ten uses we to mean himself and his<br />
associates or himself and his readers. When he<br />
does, he will also use the plural form ourselves,<br />
as in we ourselves believe. When the form ourself<br />
is used here, as in we oztrselj believe, the<br />
editorial we slides into the royal we and becomes<br />
pompous.<br />
Finally, there is a we that is only used in<br />
speaking to very young children or adults who<br />
weasel<br />
are sick. Here we actually means you, as in how<br />
are we feeling today? and can’t we operz our<br />
mouth a little wider? This might be called the<br />
patronizing we, or the humiliating we.<br />
For when to use we rather than us, see snbjective<br />
pronouns.<br />
weak verbs. See strong verbs.<br />
weaker sex. To refer to women as the weaker sex<br />
is to employ a tedious -and questionablebanality.<br />
weakness. See fault.<br />
weal. See wale.<br />
wealthy. See rich.<br />
wear. The past tense is wore. The participle is<br />
worn. A participle wore, as in had wore, is heard<br />
but is standard only as a term in sailing, where<br />
it means a particular way <strong>of</strong> bringing a ship<br />
about.<br />
Wear may be followed by an adjective describing<br />
what wears, as in it wore thin. It may<br />
also be followed by an adverb describing the<br />
wearing, as in it wore well.<br />
wear and tear, especially when used as a mere<br />
intensive for wear, is hackneyed.<br />
wear one’s heart upon one’s sleeve. As a term<br />
for making an ingenuous display <strong>of</strong> one’s feelings<br />
and hence, one’s affections being known, to<br />
be vulnerable to slights and scorns, to wear one’s<br />
heart upon one’s sleeve is a clich& The expression<br />
is taken from one <strong>of</strong> Iago’s early speeches<br />
in Othello when, boasting to the gullible Roderigo,<br />
he says that he is not what for his own<br />
purposes he seems to be, For when my outward<br />
action doth demonstrate/ The native act arzd<br />
figure <strong>of</strong> my heart/ In compliment extern, ‘tis<br />
not long after/ Bzct I will wear my heart upon<br />
my sleeve/ For daws to peck at.<br />
wearied; weary; wearisome. Weary is now simply<br />
a synonym for tired. It is slightly bookish. Wearied<br />
still retains a little <strong>of</strong> the older idea <strong>of</strong> being<br />
exhausted with exertion, worn out <strong>of</strong> strength or<br />
patience. Wearisome has now almost exclusively<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> “tedious.” See also tired.<br />
weasel. Figurative uses <strong>of</strong> weasel are apparent11<br />
an American phenomenon. A weasel is a cunning,<br />
sneaking fellow who models his behavior<br />
on the sinuous animal. Weasel words mean intentionally<br />
ambiguous statements. The image is<br />
not, as commonly assumed, <strong>of</strong> words that can<br />
glide, as a weasel glides, out <strong>of</strong> their seeming<br />
meaning. It is a better figure than that. It is<br />
based on the weasel’s habit <strong>of</strong> sucking eggs. And<br />
a weasel word is one which, by equivocal qualification,<br />
sucks all the real meaning out <strong>of</strong> the<br />
word to which the hearer or reader has attached<br />
significance. The phrase seems to have been<br />
coined by Stewart Chaplin in an article in<br />
Century Magazine in 1900 and popularized by<br />
Theodore Roosevelt in a speech delivered at St.<br />
Louis in 1916. Roosevelt said, “One <strong>of</strong> our defects<br />
as a nation is a tendency to use what have<br />
been called ‘weasel words.’ When a weasel sucks<br />
an egg, the meat is sucked out <strong>of</strong> the egg; and<br />
if you use a ‘weasel word’ after another there is<br />
nothing left <strong>of</strong> the other.”<br />
Weasel is used colloquially as a verb, mean-
weather 550<br />
ing to make ambiguous. It is also used colloquially<br />
(perhaps a portmanteau combination <strong>of</strong><br />
wiggle and greasy, with a suggestion <strong>of</strong> the<br />
weasel’s cunning and ferocity) to mean to get<br />
out <strong>of</strong> something by shady means (He’ll weasel<br />
out <strong>of</strong> his promise; he never kept one yet unless<br />
it was to his advantage to do so).<br />
weather, everybody talks about . . . It was<br />
Charles Dudley Warner, not Mark Twain, who<br />
first said, Everybody talks about the weather,<br />
but nobody does anything about it. It was a fine<br />
drollery on its first utterance, a pr<strong>of</strong>ound criticism<br />
<strong>of</strong> the “let’s-do-something-about-it” school<br />
<strong>of</strong> moral zealots with which the country then<br />
abounded, a pensive reminder that we are not<br />
omnipotent and that at least some <strong>of</strong> the troubles<br />
<strong>of</strong> our proud and angry dust are from eternity<br />
and will not fail. As a witticism it merited the<br />
first five or six hundred million repetitions it received.<br />
But now that it has been said countless<br />
billions <strong>of</strong> times (and always ascribed to the<br />
wrong man), it deserves a rest. This is something<br />
we can do something about.<br />
weather the storm. As a term for surviving some<br />
period <strong>of</strong> stress and danger, weathering the<br />
storm is a clicht?<br />
weave. The past tense is wove. The participle is<br />
woven or wove. A past tense and participle<br />
weaved is heard but is not standard when applied<br />
to actual weaving. However, this is the preferred<br />
form when the word means “follow a winding<br />
course,” as in the drunken man weaved his way<br />
through the crowd.<br />
web. See wo<strong>of</strong>.<br />
wed. The past tense is wed or wedded. The participle<br />
is also wed or wedded. In the United<br />
States wed is the preferred form for the past<br />
tense and the participle. In Great Britain wedded<br />
is preferred. Wedded is the preferred form in<br />
both countries when the word is used as an adjective,<br />
as in (I wedded life and I am not wedded<br />
to the idea.<br />
Actually, this verb is seldom used in contemporary<br />
American speech, except in the expression<br />
the newly weds. We ordinarily prefer the<br />
word marry.<br />
wedded bliss, as a term for ecstatic happiness in<br />
marriage, is a cliche. It is now used almost entirely<br />
in heavy jocularity, but it is nonetheless a<br />
clichC.<br />
wedding; marriage; nuptials. Marriage is the<br />
simple and usual term for the ceremony which<br />
unites couples in wedlock. It has no implication<br />
BS to circumstances and is without emotional<br />
connotations (They announced the marriage <strong>of</strong><br />
their daughter. Marriage is a basic social institution).<br />
Wedding has strong emotional, even<br />
sentimental, connotations, and suggests the accompanying<br />
festivities, whether elaborate or<br />
simple (Will you dance at my wedding?). Marriage<br />
may be used to describe the union <strong>of</strong> a<br />
wedded couple throughout its entire duration;<br />
wedding is restricted solely to the ceremony <strong>of</strong><br />
union and the immediate social events. Nupfials<br />
is a formal and l<strong>of</strong>ty word applied to the ceremony<br />
and attendant social events. It does not<br />
have emotional connotations but strongly implies<br />
surroundings characteristic <strong>of</strong> wealth, rank,<br />
pomp, and grandeur (Millions <strong>of</strong> Britons bought<br />
newspapers to read <strong>of</strong> the royal nuptials). Nuptials<br />
is too elegant a word to be applied to the<br />
ordinary wedding ceremony.<br />
weep. The past tense is wept. The participle is<br />
also wept. See cry.<br />
weft. See wo<strong>of</strong>.<br />
weighty and heavy both mean weighing a great<br />
deal, but heavy is the usual term. In figurative<br />
senses their meanings differ. Weighty means<br />
burdensome (He had weighty cares <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>ice)<br />
or important (The weighty problems <strong>of</strong> the<br />
o&e seemed to find the;r best solutions on the<br />
golf course). Heavy may also mean burdensome,<br />
yet the sense is <strong>of</strong> very great burdens (Heavy<br />
taxes made the amassing <strong>of</strong> a competence almost<br />
impossible). It is sometimes used as a synonym<br />
for great when the greatness has a figurative<br />
sense <strong>of</strong> burdening, pressing down (The whole<br />
family sustained heavy losses in the stock market<br />
crash) and is frequently used to mean sorrowful<br />
(One can only view these ravages with a heavy<br />
heart).<br />
welkin. It’s been about five hundred years since<br />
ordinary people in everyday speech referred to<br />
the sky as the welkin. The word seemed to have<br />
a fascination for poets, however, and remained<br />
in their vocabularies up into the nineteenth century,<br />
though Shakespeare (Twelfth Night, III,<br />
1, 65) was apparently amused at it as an elegant<br />
variation and Mark Twain (Tom Sawyer<br />
Abroad, Chapter V) had Tom Sawyer use the<br />
word and justify it as pure ornament, “like the<br />
ruffles on a shirt.” To make the welkin ring (or<br />
howl, or crack, or roar), as a hyperbole for some<br />
clamorous noise, is a venerable clichC.<br />
well. This word is, first <strong>of</strong> all, the adverbial<br />
equivalent <strong>of</strong> the adjective good and has the<br />
comparative and superlative forms better and<br />
best.<br />
In standard English the word good cannot be<br />
used to qualify a verb, as in she sings good. But<br />
the word well may be used after verbs <strong>of</strong> appearing<br />
where the formal rules <strong>of</strong> grammar<br />
require the adjective good. That is, we may say<br />
it sounds good or it sounds well and it looks<br />
good on you or it looks well on you. See linking<br />
verbs.<br />
Well sometimes means in good health. Here<br />
the word has the same comparative form that it<br />
has when it means “good.” We say Rowan is betfer<br />
today not Rownn is Weller. But it does not<br />
have the superlative form best. If a superlative is<br />
used, it is &lest, as in the wellest <strong>of</strong> them all,<br />
but this form is auestionable. In literary English<br />
we are compelled to say healthiest. In &e U&ed<br />
States well meaning healthy is thoroughly established<br />
as an adjective and we speak <strong>of</strong> a well<br />
baby. In Great Britain the word still has an<br />
ambiguous status. It is not used immediately<br />
before a noun, which is the primary position for<br />
an adjective, but only after a verb, as in the baby<br />
is well, in a position where both adjectives and<br />
adverbs may appear. The comparative form is
not used immediately before a noun even in the<br />
United States. We do not say a better baby,<br />
meaning a healthier one.<br />
well earned rest deserves one.<br />
well nigh which, as a synonym for almost, Partridge<br />
lists as an elegancy or vogue word in<br />
Enrrland. is. in the United States, rustic or comic.<br />
Welsh Ra6bii; Welsh Rarebit. The proper name<br />
for the melted cheese dish is Welsh Rabbit.<br />
Rarebit is a corruption, due to highbrow folketymologizing.<br />
Any chef is, <strong>of</strong> course, free to<br />
call any concoction by any name he chooses. But<br />
he is not free, among the informed, to overawe<br />
others with his own ignorance.<br />
wend one’s way, an archaism revived by Scott,<br />
is affected.<br />
went. See go.<br />
wept. See weep.<br />
were. See be.<br />
west; western. The comparative form is more<br />
western. The superlative form is westernmost.<br />
wet. The past tense is wet or wetred. The participle<br />
is also wet or wetted. In the United States<br />
wet is the preferred form for the past tense and<br />
the participle, as in he wet his lips, he had wet<br />
the grass, and wetted is seldom used except when<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> something other than water, as in<br />
the particles were wetted by the oil. In Great<br />
Britain wetted is the preferred form in all contexts<br />
and wet is seldom heard.<br />
wet to the skin is hackneyed.<br />
wharf. The usual plural is wharves, but wharfs<br />
is also acceptable and has been standard English<br />
for several centuries.<br />
what is primarily an interrogative pronoun or adjective,<br />
as in what do yen mean? and what kittens?<br />
It is also used as a compound relative,<br />
equivalent to that which, as in he did what he<br />
could and he spent what money he had.<br />
The interrogative what differs from the interrogative<br />
which in two ways. (1) Which asks<br />
about members <strong>of</strong> a limited group, as in which<br />
do you want? and which books did you take?,<br />
where the questions mean “which <strong>of</strong> the ones we<br />
are talking about.” What, like who, is unlimited<br />
in range. What do you want? and what books<br />
did you take? ask about anything possible. (2)<br />
The interrogative which is used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
persons as well as things. What on the other<br />
hand supplements wlro, which is used only as a<br />
pronoun and only in speaking <strong>of</strong> persons. As an<br />
adjective what may be used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
human beings, as in what child is this? As a<br />
pronoun it may ask about a human characteristic,<br />
function, or o&e, as in what is he?, but<br />
not about the person himself. The interrogative<br />
what may be used in exclamations, as in what<br />
strange men!, what nonsense! When used in an<br />
exclamation before a singular concrete noun,<br />
what always precedes the article a, as in what a<br />
Zalef<br />
What may also be used as a compound word<br />
equivalent to the demonstrative pronoun that<br />
followed by the relative which, as in I heard<br />
what he said. It does not represent a preceding<br />
word in the sentence, but can be thought <strong>of</strong> as<br />
551 what<br />
a relative that carries its own antecedent, or as<br />
a substitute for that which. At one time what<br />
could be used as a simple relative and represent<br />
a preceding word, as in I had a horse what<br />
wouldn’t go, but this is no longer standard.<br />
The that contained in the compound relative<br />
what always represents or is explained by a following<br />
group <strong>of</strong> words, as in she was still what is<br />
called young. In order to refer to what has already<br />
been said we use the word which, as in he<br />
is a well-known man, which I am not, and, what<br />
is more, I am poor. In current English what is<br />
usually preferred to the two words that which<br />
when the that is defined by the following clause,<br />
as in believe what he tells you. What cannot be<br />
used when the contained that represents something<br />
not defined by the following clause, as in<br />
it was that which brozrght me here.<br />
The interrogative what may also be used in a<br />
subordinate clause, as in Z know what he said.<br />
In a sentence <strong>of</strong> this kind the difference between<br />
the interrogative what and the compound relative<br />
lies in the intention <strong>of</strong> the speaker. If what<br />
is meant is “I know the answer to the question:<br />
what did he say?” the word is an interrogative.<br />
If, as in the sentence using the word heard, the<br />
meaning is “I heard the words which he said,”<br />
we have the compound relative. Very <strong>of</strong>ten the<br />
distinction is meaningless.<br />
What should not be used in referring to a<br />
person. Otherwise, the word is being properly<br />
used whenever it carries an implied question or<br />
can be replaced by that which or those which.<br />
What can be replaced by that which and is therefore<br />
standard English in an easier yoke than<br />
what you put on me and Padua affords nothing<br />
but what is kind. It cannot be replaced by that<br />
which, and is therefore not standard, in I laughed<br />
heartier then than what I do now. What is also<br />
not standard in there’s no one but what says. . . ,<br />
because here it refers to a person. When it does<br />
not refer to a person, a technically improper<br />
what after but, as in not but what you’re right<br />
and who knows but what it’s all true, is acceptable<br />
English in the United States. But it is condemned<br />
by some grammarians and avoided in<br />
formal writing.<br />
The adjective what may qualify either a singular<br />
or a plural noun, as in to what green altar?<br />
and what men or gods are these? The pronoun<br />
may be followed by either a singular or a plural<br />
verb, as in what appears to be the important<br />
points and what appear to be the important<br />
points. When the words represented by what are<br />
unknown, as in a true question, it is usually<br />
treated as a singular, as in what is going on?<br />
Whatever means “anything, no matter what.”<br />
It should not be used as an interrogative, as in<br />
whatever have you done? But otherwise, it may<br />
be used as a pronoun, as in eat whatever you<br />
like, or as an adjective, as in for whatever reason.<br />
The adjective is <strong>of</strong>ten placed after a noun qualified<br />
by any, for additional emphasis, as in if for<br />
any reason whatever. The word whatsoever is<br />
now archaic in Great Britain, but is still natural<br />
English in the United States, especially when
wheal 552<br />
used to make a negative statement emphatic, as<br />
in for no reason whatsoever.<br />
At one time +he word what could be used as<br />
an indefinite relative equivalent to whatever, as<br />
in unmoved, I stand what wind may blow. This<br />
is now archaic except in a few set phrases, such<br />
as come what will, say what you please. The<br />
same indefinite what could also be used as an<br />
adverb or conjunction. This is now obsolete except<br />
for the set phrase wlznt with, as in what with<br />
one thing and another.<br />
wheal. See wale.<br />
wheels within wheels, as a term for bureaucratic<br />
complexity or the involvements <strong>of</strong> administrative<br />
responsibility in a power hierarchy <strong>of</strong> some<br />
kind, is a clichC. It may derive from Ezekiel’s<br />
vision <strong>of</strong> a wheel. . . in the midst <strong>of</strong> a wheel.<br />
From this also-though more likely from the<br />
Negro spiritual based on it-may also derive<br />
the slang term <strong>of</strong> big wheel or just wheel for a<br />
man <strong>of</strong> power in an organization.<br />
when is primarily an interrogative adverb meaning<br />
“at what time,” as in when will he come? But<br />
it is also used in several senses as a conjunction.<br />
When used to introduce a clause, when may<br />
still be an interrogative and mean “at what<br />
time,” as in he didn’t tell me when he would be<br />
back. But it may mean “at that time,” as in he<br />
didn’t tell me when he was here. In this case<br />
when approaches the meaning <strong>of</strong> while but suggests<br />
a particular point in time rather than a<br />
period <strong>of</strong> time. In speaking <strong>of</strong> a future event,<br />
when in this sense is used with a present tense,<br />
rather than a future tense, verb. We say when<br />
the end comes, it will come quickly.<br />
WIlen may mean no more than “considering<br />
that,” as in who shall decide, when doctors disagree?<br />
Here the idea <strong>of</strong> “at that time” has paled<br />
to a mere logical connection. The word has<br />
almost the meaning <strong>of</strong> if, except that it does not<br />
carry any suggestion <strong>of</strong> doubt.<br />
When may also be used to introduce a sharp<br />
contrast, as in yell rub the sore when you should<br />
bring the plaster. Here again it approaches the<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> while. But the contrast introduced by<br />
when is sharper than the contrast introduced by<br />
while. As a contrasting conjunction, while never<br />
entirely loses the sense <strong>of</strong> although, and none <strong>of</strong><br />
this is carried by when.<br />
These uses <strong>of</strong> when are all standard English,<br />
and have been for nine hundred or a thousand<br />
years.<br />
When cannot be used to join a clause to a<br />
noun as children sometimes do in giving a definition,<br />
as in intoxication is when you’ve had too<br />
much to drink. There must be two full clauses,<br />
as in a man is intoxicated when he has had too<br />
much to drink, or intoxicafion is the condition a<br />
man is in when, and so on.<br />
whence is,a bookish word, not very much used iu<br />
contemporary speech. It means “from what<br />
place” or “from which place,” as in look unto<br />
the rock whence ye are hewn. It may also be<br />
used with the word from, as in too proud to care<br />
from whence I came.<br />
whenever is used to introduce a clause and means<br />
“at any time” or “at whatever time,” as in come<br />
whenever you like.<br />
It is sometimes used to mean “as soon as,”<br />
as in we will start whenever you are ready. This<br />
is a Scottish and Irish idiom. It is acceptable in<br />
the United States but not in England.<br />
In Great Britain whenever is sometimes used<br />
as an interrogative adverb, as in whenever will<br />
he come? This is not considered a literary construction<br />
but it is accepted spoken English.<br />
Whensoever is an archaic form <strong>of</strong> whenever,<br />
where. This word is primarily an interrogative<br />
adverb meaning “in, at, or to what place,” as in<br />
I know where to go; but it may also be used without<br />
the implication <strong>of</strong> a question and mean<br />
merely “in, at, or to which,” as in he is in heaven,<br />
where thou shalt never come.<br />
At one time the word whither was used to<br />
indicate “place to which,” and the word whence<br />
to indicate “place from which.” Both words are<br />
now archaic and in current English we express<br />
these ideas by means <strong>of</strong> where. The word where<br />
has not absorbed the meaning <strong>of</strong> whence and we<br />
have to add the word from to express this idea.<br />
We cannot say where are you coming? On the<br />
other hand, where has absorbed the meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> whither and it is possible to say where are<br />
you going?. But we may emphasize this meaning<br />
by adding the word to, as in where did it go<br />
to? Some grammarians claim that this redundant<br />
to is improper, but it is used by educated people<br />
throughout the United States and can be found<br />
in the most formal writing. Where has always<br />
contained the meaning <strong>of</strong> “at” and sentences<br />
such as where are you staying at? are generally<br />
condemned. But they may become standard in<br />
time. It is as if the speech instinct argued: It<br />
was all very well not to say at when that was<br />
what wkere meant. But now that it means three<br />
things it should get a specifying word each time.<br />
Where may be used in place <strong>of</strong> the phrase<br />
in which or at which to introduce a clause that<br />
qualifies a noun, as in teas, where small talk dies<br />
in ugonies. Formerly it could also be used like<br />
the word that to introduce a clause that is the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in I have heard where many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the best respect in Rome have wished that<br />
noble Brutus had his eyes. This construction can<br />
still be heard today in the speech <strong>of</strong> educated<br />
people, as in I read where a plane was lost, but<br />
it is condemned by many grammarians and does<br />
not <strong>of</strong>ten appear in print, Where cannot be<br />
used, as the word what can, to introduce a de&<br />
nition, a.s in perjury is where a man lies under<br />
oath.<br />
whereabout; whereabouts. These words mean the<br />
same thing and are used in the same ways. The<br />
form whereabouts is preferred, but whereabout<br />
is also acceptable. Either form may be used to<br />
qualify a verb, as in whereabouts is it? and<br />
whereabout is it? Either form may also be used<br />
as a noun. Both forms are considered singular<br />
and are followed by a singular verb, as in her<br />
whereabouts is unknown.
In current English the form whereabouts is<br />
sometimes followed by a plural verb, as in her<br />
whereabouts are unknown. This is heard too<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten to be called anything but standard, but<br />
it is distressing to some grammarians. Historically,<br />
the final s in whereabouts is an old adverbial<br />
ending, similar to the s sound in once,<br />
twice, endways, towards, and not a noun plural.<br />
whether was once a pronoun or pronominal adjective<br />
and was used like the modem which, as in<br />
whether thing is heavier, water or wine?. Today<br />
it is always used as a conjunction and introduces<br />
an alternative. The choice may be between<br />
more than two alternatives, as in for whether<br />
beauty, birth, or wealth, or wit, or any <strong>of</strong> these<br />
all, or all, or more. Or only one may be mentioned,<br />
as in I know not whether heaven will<br />
have it so. Here one can say that the alternative<br />
or not is understood. Fifty years ago grammarians<br />
were insisting that this or not had to be<br />
expressed, on the grounds that if it was omitted<br />
whether ceased to introduce an alternative and<br />
became merely an adverb <strong>of</strong> doubt. But the<br />
struggle to tidy up the word was short-lived. It<br />
always had been used in just this way and still<br />
is. Whether is not used when there is no doubt.<br />
In literary English one does not say I don’t<br />
doubt whether you are right. Here the conjunction<br />
that is required.<br />
which. The word which is primarily an interrogative<br />
pronoun, as in which do you like best?, or<br />
adjective, as in which boys did you send? It may<br />
also be used as a relative to introduce a qualifying<br />
clause, as in the books which I brought with<br />
me. When used as an interrogative, which may be<br />
singular or plural and may refer to persons,<br />
animals, or inanimate things. It always asks<br />
about some out <strong>of</strong> a definite, known group, in<br />
contrast to what or who which imply an unde<br />
fined or unlimited group. That is, which are you<br />
taking with you? means which <strong>of</strong> these people or<br />
things we have been talking about. Who are you<br />
taking with you and what are you taking with<br />
you have no such limitation. The group implied<br />
by which is not necessarily limited to two members<br />
but may include any number greater than<br />
one, as in I don’t know which thought <strong>of</strong> it,<br />
John, Evelyn, or Sally.<br />
Theoretically the interrogative pronoun which<br />
is referred to by a third person pronoun such as<br />
his or their and we should say which <strong>of</strong> you<br />
left his umbrella? and which <strong>of</strong> us have finished<br />
their work? In practice we do use the third person<br />
form after which <strong>of</strong> us but are more likely<br />
to say your after which <strong>of</strong> you.<br />
The interrogative which is <strong>of</strong>ten used in a<br />
subordinate clause, either as a pronoun, as in<br />
Z don’t know which he took, or as an adjective,<br />
as in I don’t know which road he took. When<br />
used in this way it is sometimes confused with<br />
the relative which. There are important dif7erences<br />
between these two uses <strong>of</strong> the word in<br />
contemporary English. (1) The relative which<br />
always represents a noun or pronoun that has<br />
been mentioned previously. This is called its<br />
antecedent. The interrogative which asks about<br />
something unknown and cannot possibly represent<br />
a word already mentioned. (2) The interrogative<br />
clause always implies a question, while<br />
the relative clause gives information. (3) The<br />
interrogative which may refer to individual,<br />
adult human beings, but the relative which is no<br />
longer used in speaking <strong>of</strong> anything that is felt<br />
to have personality. (For the regular uses <strong>of</strong><br />
the relative pronoun which, see that; which.)<br />
Which may be used as a relative adjective, as<br />
in we came to a cross roads, at which place we<br />
parted company. Formerly, it might be used<br />
without an antecedent, as the equivalent <strong>of</strong> that<br />
which or what, as in they interpret literally<br />
which the doctors did write figuratively, but<br />
this construction is now obsolete. At one time<br />
the article the could be used before a relative<br />
which, as in (this world) o’er the which we stride<br />
so fiercely and the which tokens <strong>of</strong> homage he<br />
received graciously, but this is now obsolete,<br />
Which can sometimes be used as the equivalent<br />
<strong>of</strong> this or and this, as in if you had seen<br />
her, which I doubt. Here which is not a relativo<br />
because (1) it represents a clause and not a<br />
noun or pronoun, and (2) it introduces an independent<br />
or coordinate statement rather than a<br />
subordinate clause. This use <strong>of</strong> the word h<br />
standard English when it refers to something<br />
preceding. The construction is not standard<br />
when which is used in place <strong>of</strong> what to refer to<br />
something that follows, as in which I wish to<br />
remark, and my language is plain-the heothrn<br />
Chinee Is peculiar.<br />
Whichever is an indefinite pronoun and can<br />
also be used as an adjective, as in take whichever<br />
yo11 like and take whichever piece you like.<br />
It may be singular or plural. It does not refer<br />
to a preceding word in the sentence and should<br />
be thought <strong>of</strong> as a telescoped word containing<br />
a demonstrative and a relative pronoun, equivalent<br />
to that (or those) which. It is not an interrogative<br />
and should not be used in a question,<br />
as it is in whichever did you take? But it is like<br />
the interrogative which and unlike the relative<br />
which in its meaning. That is, it may be used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> persons as well as <strong>of</strong> things, as in<br />
ask whichever <strong>of</strong> the boys you see first, and<br />
differs from whatever and whoever in that it<br />
implies a limited group. Whichsoever was once<br />
the preferred form, but this is now archaic.<br />
while; whilst; whiles. These three words are conjunctions<br />
and are used to introduce a clause.<br />
The form whiles is now archaic, but while and<br />
whilst are both in regular use in Great Britain.<br />
In the United States while is the preferred form<br />
and many people consider whilst a would-be<br />
elegance.<br />
The form while was originally a noun meaning<br />
“a space <strong>of</strong> time.” It may still be used aa a<br />
noun, either in a prepositional phrase, as in<br />
once in a while, or alone without a preposition<br />
to show “an extent <strong>of</strong> time,“‘as in stay a while<br />
and I’ve been waiting all th/s while. Wait a
while is grammatically comparable to wait a<br />
minute, but when used in this way, as an adverb<br />
<strong>of</strong> extent, custom allows the two words to be<br />
written together, as if they were a simple adverb,<br />
as in wait awhile. But when the same form is<br />
used after a preposition, as in wait for awhile,<br />
it is generally considered a mark <strong>of</strong> il!iteracy.<br />
There is no justification for this distinction, since<br />
true adverbs sometimes follow a preposition, as<br />
in away from here, but many people feel very<br />
strongly about it.<br />
When it is used as a conjunction, while may<br />
mean “at the same time,” as in it ruined while<br />
Bill was ut the theater. Or it may be used to<br />
introduce a contrast. Used in this way while<br />
may have the force <strong>of</strong> although, as in while<br />
Dave is good in mathematics, he is not good in<br />
English; or it may have the force <strong>of</strong> but, as in<br />
Mr. Chapman likes classical music while Jim<br />
likes modern jazz. These three uses <strong>of</strong> while are<br />
all literary English and have been for centuries.<br />
Sometimes while is used where no contrast and<br />
no reference to time is intended, as in Charlie<br />
comes from Michigan, Sandy comes from New<br />
Jersey, while Bill comes from New York. Here<br />
it has only the force <strong>of</strong> and. This use <strong>of</strong> while<br />
is about a hundred years old and is usually condemned<br />
as “journalese.”<br />
whip. The past tense is whipped or whipt. The<br />
participle is also whipped or whipt.<br />
whip hand. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying that one has a<br />
decided advantage over another, so decided that<br />
resistance would be useless, to have the whip<br />
hand over (formerly <strong>of</strong>) him, or just to have<br />
the whip hand, is a clicht.<br />
whipped cream. Although the form skim milk is<br />
preferred to skimmed milk, the form whipped<br />
cream is preferred to whip cream. This may be<br />
because <strong>of</strong> the sound. Or it may be because<br />
thirty years ago a study <strong>of</strong> English usage chose<br />
whip cream to represent words <strong>of</strong> this kind and<br />
found that it was “illiterate.” This may have<br />
kept students <strong>of</strong> domestic science from using<br />
the word. But nothing had been said about skim<br />
milk and so there they may have felt at liberty<br />
to do as they pleased. (This same study found<br />
that it was perfectly all right to speak <strong>of</strong><br />
“driving” a car.)<br />
whipsaw, literally, is a saw used for cutting curved<br />
kerfs, consisting essentially <strong>of</strong> a narrow blade<br />
stretched in a frame. Americans use the word<br />
figuratively in colloquial contexts to mean to<br />
win two bets from a person at one turn or play<br />
or, more loosely, to defeat or worst in two ways<br />
at once, or, even more loosely, simply to get<br />
the better <strong>of</strong> (They were just hoodwinked and<br />
whipsawed by Michigan’s slickers). Whipsaw<br />
may be used figuratively as a noun to describe<br />
a double defeat, and as an adjective to mean<br />
violently opposing (The Santa Vittoria reached<br />
Georges Bunks with its whipsaw currents and<br />
dangerous shoal waters).<br />
whtrl; whorl. Though their meanings are related,<br />
these words are not interchangeable. Whirl is<br />
both a verb and a noun; whorl is a noun only.<br />
As an intransitive verb, whirl means to turn<br />
round, spin, or rotate rapidly (In the ballroom<br />
the dancers wheeled and whirled); to turn<br />
about or aside quickly; to move, travel, or be<br />
carried rapidly along on wheels or otherwise<br />
(The stagecoach whirled merrily along). As a<br />
transitive verb, whirl means to send, drive, or<br />
carry in a circular or curving course (We whirled<br />
his hat across the room. Whirling a light malacca<br />
cane, he strolled along the avenue). As a<br />
noun, whirl means the act <strong>of</strong> whirling, a rapid<br />
rotation or gyration, a whirling movement, a<br />
quick turn or swing (The eddy and whirl <strong>of</strong> the<br />
whispering flood waters. He could see the whirl<br />
<strong>of</strong> the carousel in the distance). In the United<br />
States whirl is also used in the slang expression<br />
give it a whirl meaning “have a try” (I still<br />
think it won’t hurt to give ‘em a whirl and see).<br />
This figurative use would seem to be drawn<br />
from the roulette wheel. To give a girl a whirl<br />
means to press attentions upon her, to hurry<br />
her from one pleasure to another, until she is,<br />
supposedly, giddy with delight.<br />
Whorl is used only in special connections. In<br />
botany it means a circular arrangement <strong>of</strong><br />
like parts, as leaves, flowers, round a point on<br />
an axis; a verticil. In zoology it describes one<br />
<strong>of</strong> the turns or volutions <strong>of</strong> a spiral shell. In<br />
anatomy it describes one <strong>of</strong> the turns in the<br />
cochlea <strong>of</strong> the ear. In general, it may describe<br />
anything shaped like a coil.<br />
whiskers; moustache. Whiskers is not so inclusive<br />
a term as it once was. If used to describe the<br />
full beard now, the use is intended to be humorous<br />
and is confined to Santa Claus, hoboes,<br />
Russians, and other quaint folk. It is now used<br />
only dialectally to describe the hair growing on<br />
the upper lip; the more acceptable alternative<br />
is moustache. Yet the bristly hairs growing<br />
about the mouth <strong>of</strong> certain animals, such as cats<br />
and rats, are always whiskers. The slang expression<br />
<strong>of</strong> admiration, It’s the cat’s whiskers!,<br />
may simply be an elaboration <strong>of</strong> “outstanding.”<br />
Sometimes whiskers describes the beard generally<br />
(Admiral Blake was very fond <strong>of</strong> combing<br />
his whiskers) but usually today the term<br />
describes the hair growing on the side <strong>of</strong> a<br />
man’s face, especially when worn long and with<br />
the chin clean-shaven.<br />
When people had more occasion to speak<br />
about whiskers than they have today, the hair<br />
on a man’s face might be referred to generally<br />
as whiskers, or it might be called a pair <strong>of</strong><br />
whiskers, or it might be treated as a singular,<br />
like the word beard, and called a whisker, as<br />
in a tall gentleman with a carefully brushed<br />
whisker.<br />
white; whitened; whited. That is white which has<br />
the color <strong>of</strong> white, whether it has always had<br />
it or has acquired it some way. That is whitened<br />
which has become or been made white (His<br />
hair whitened over night when he used up the<br />
lust <strong>of</strong> his dye). Whited has become fixed in<br />
a specialized pejorative sense by its use in<br />
Matthew 23~27: Woe unto you, scribes and
Pharisees, hypocrites! for ye are like unto<br />
whited sepulchres, which indeed appear beautiful<br />
outward, but are within full <strong>of</strong> dead men’s<br />
bones, and <strong>of</strong> all uncleanness.<br />
white as a sheet is a natural comparison. But to<br />
characterize pallor as as white as a sheet is to<br />
use a hackneyed expression.<br />
white-collar is an American adjective which<br />
means belonging or pertaining to workers, pr<strong>of</strong>essional<br />
men, and others who may wear conventional<br />
dress at work, especially clerical<br />
helpers and lesser executives (D. H. Lawrence<br />
had a strong distaste for white-collar workers,<br />
men who lived by head rather than by hand).<br />
The white-collar worker draws a salary rather<br />
than wages and is, for the most part, not organized<br />
into labor unions. The equivalent English<br />
term is black coat.<br />
white elephant, as a term for a costly but useless<br />
possession, usually one that requires considerable<br />
maintenance and cannot be gotten rid <strong>of</strong>,<br />
is now a clich6. The term, once apt and simply<br />
worn out by overuse, is drawn, as is well known,<br />
from the fact that formerly in Siam immense<br />
importance was attached to an albino elephant.<br />
All that were born were the property <strong>of</strong> the<br />
King <strong>of</strong> Siam and none <strong>of</strong> them could be used<br />
for work or destroyed without his permission.<br />
It is said that he would sometimes bestow one<br />
<strong>of</strong> these beasts upon some courtier whom he<br />
disliked, the luckless recipient <strong>of</strong> this royal<br />
maleficent munificence being required to keep<br />
the creature in idleness at ruinous expense.<br />
who; whom. The word who may be used as an<br />
interrogative pronoun or as a relative pronoun.<br />
In either case it may be singular or plumI.<br />
INTERROGATIVE<br />
There are three interrogative pronouns,<br />
which, what, and who. The interrogative which<br />
asks about something belonging to a limited and<br />
known group. That is, which do you want?<br />
means “which, among those we are speaking<br />
about.” It may refer to persons or to things<br />
and may be used as a pronoun or as an adjective,<br />
as in which ones do you want?. (See<br />
which.) What and who refer to an unlimited<br />
group. That is, what do you want? and who do<br />
you want? put no limits on what the answer<br />
may be.<br />
Who is used only as a pronoun and only in<br />
reference to persons. What may be used as a<br />
pronoun or as an adjective and may refer to<br />
animals and inanimate things. The adjective<br />
what can be used in asking about a person’s<br />
function, status, reputation, as in who is Sylvia?<br />
what is she? Three hundred years ago it could<br />
be used in asking about the person himself, as in<br />
and what are you thar live with Lucifer?, but<br />
this is no longer customary. Today only the<br />
word who is used in a question <strong>of</strong> this kind<br />
and what suggests something subhuman or<br />
monstrous.<br />
RELATIVE<br />
Who is also used as a relative pronoun. That<br />
is, it may be used in a subordinate clause that<br />
qualifies a noun or pronoun which appears<br />
earlier in the sentence and which is represented<br />
in the clause by the word who, as in Z know the<br />
man who told you that. Here who told you that<br />
qualifies the word man, which in turn is represented<br />
in the clause by who. The interrogative<br />
who may also be used in a dependent clause,<br />
as in I know who told you that, but it is unlike<br />
the relative in function and in meaning. The<br />
interrogative who never represents a preceding<br />
word, and always implies a question. That is,<br />
the sentence just given could be paraphrased as<br />
I know the answer to the question: who told<br />
you that? The relative does not imply a question<br />
and must refer back to another word.<br />
As a relative pronoun who competes with<br />
that and which, and we do not have the clearcut<br />
distinctions that exist between the interrogative<br />
pronouns which, what, and who. That<br />
has been the standard relative pronoun for<br />
about eight hundred years and can be used in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> persons, animals, or things. Four<br />
hundred years ago which became popular as a<br />
substitute for the relative that and was used for<br />
persons, animals, and things. Three hundred<br />
years ago who also became popular as a relative.<br />
It was used in speaking <strong>of</strong> persons and<br />
animals but not <strong>of</strong> things.<br />
This left English with more relative pronouns<br />
than it has any use for. Grammarians first tried<br />
to get rid <strong>of</strong> the relative that and failed. More<br />
recently they have tried to limit that to one<br />
kind <strong>of</strong> relative clause but they have not succeeded<br />
in this either. In the meantime, the<br />
users <strong>of</strong> English gradually restricted who until<br />
now it is used only in speaking <strong>of</strong> persons. In<br />
this specialized area it has driven out the relative<br />
which, and this is now used only in speaking<br />
<strong>of</strong> animals or things. Who may in time<br />
drive out that as a relative referring to persons,<br />
but it has not yet done so. For the difference<br />
between that and which, see that; which.<br />
That may still be used in speaking <strong>of</strong> a<br />
person, as in the child that has been subject to<br />
nagging is in perpetual terror. It is required<br />
when the antecedent, that is, the word in the<br />
principal clause which the relative represents,<br />
is an interrogative pronoun, as in who that has<br />
seen her can deny . . . and which <strong>of</strong> us that is<br />
over thirty would say. . . . We apparently object<br />
to doubling these wh- words and saying who<br />
who has or which <strong>of</strong> us who is. On the other<br />
hand, the word who is required when the antecedent<br />
is the proper name <strong>of</strong> a familiar person,<br />
as in Nathaniel Hawthorne who was born in<br />
1804 entered Bowdoin College in 1821. When<br />
the person is not familiar and is identified by<br />
the following clause, some grammarians claim<br />
that the relative that is required, as in the<br />
Nathaniel Hawthorne that was born in 1776<br />
was his father. But who is also used here and<br />
is preferred by many people.<br />
In current English who is preferred to that<br />
when the antecedent is a personal pronoun, aa<br />
in he who, we who. Formerly it was customary
who 556<br />
to use that after a personal pronoun, as in he<br />
rhur. we rhar. This is still acceutable English<br />
but it now has a bookish tone. In speaking about<br />
more than one person the form those who is<br />
now preferred to they (or them) who.<br />
The choice between who and which depends<br />
on what seems to have personality and what<br />
does not. We must use which and not who when<br />
we are speaking about a type, function, or role,<br />
and not about the actual person, as in if I were<br />
his wife, which I thank goodness I am not and<br />
he is exactly the man which such a school would<br />
turn out. Which must also be used in speaking<br />
about a group <strong>of</strong> people considered as a unit,<br />
M in the family next door, which is large. If we<br />
are thinking <strong>of</strong> the individual members <strong>of</strong> the<br />
group we use a plural verb and the pronoun<br />
who, as in the family next door, who stay up<br />
till all hours. Very young children are <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
spoken <strong>of</strong> as if they did not have personality.<br />
We might say they had one child, which died<br />
in infancy but we would certainly use who in<br />
they had one child, who went away to college.<br />
When the relative refers to both a person and<br />
a thing, the rule is that we should use that. In<br />
actual fact we consider only the word that<br />
stands closest to the pronoun. We may say<br />
unything or anyone who wasn’t familiar to him<br />
and anyone or anything which had amused him.<br />
Theoretically a relative pronoun has the same<br />
person and number as its antecedent and these<br />
determine the form <strong>of</strong> the verb when the relative<br />
is the subject <strong>of</strong> the subordinate clause. But<br />
this rule is not strictly observed. (For exceptions,<br />
see agreement: verbs and one.)<br />
INDEFINITE<br />
At one time who could be used as the equivalent<br />
<strong>of</strong> a personal pronoun and a relative<br />
pronoun combined, such as he who or they<br />
who, as in who was the Thune lives yet. This<br />
is similar to the way in which we now use<br />
what, meaning “that which.” The construction<br />
is no longer natural English when who refers<br />
to one or more specific individuals, as in the<br />
quotation just given. It may be used when who<br />
refers indefinitely to anyone or everyone, as in<br />
who steuls my purse steals trash, but even here<br />
the form is archaic and whoever is preferred.<br />
See whoever.<br />
WHOM<br />
If English followed the rules <strong>of</strong> Latin<br />
grammar we would use the form whom whenever<br />
the word was the object <strong>of</strong> a verb or<br />
preposition and the form who (or whose) in<br />
all other situations. But this is not the way these<br />
words are used in English. The interrogative<br />
pronoun who is treated as an invariable form,<br />
similar to whui and which. The relative pronoun<br />
has the two forms who and whom, but<br />
whom is used where the Latin rules would call<br />
for who more <strong>of</strong>ten than it is where they would<br />
call for whom.<br />
Sentences such as whom are you looking for?<br />
and whom do you mean? are unnatural English<br />
and have been for at least five hundred years.<br />
Eighteenth century grammarians claimed that<br />
this form ought to be the one used, but Noah<br />
Webster vigorously opposed this theory. He<br />
wrote: “Whom did you speak to? was never<br />
used in speaking, as I can find, and if so, is<br />
hardly English at all.” He goes on to say that<br />
this whom must be the invention <strong>of</strong> Latin<br />
students who had not given much thought to<br />
English, and concludes: “At any rate, whom<br />
did you speak to? is a corruption and all the<br />
grammars that can be found will not extend<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> the phrase beyond the walls <strong>of</strong> a<br />
college.”<br />
The literary tradition was with Webster and<br />
against the Latinists and this use <strong>of</strong> whom never<br />
became standard English. Today the form who<br />
is preferred when the word stands before a<br />
verb, as in who did you see? The form whom<br />
is required when the word follows a preposition,<br />
as in to whom did you speak?, but this is an<br />
unnatural interrogative word order. The form<br />
whom may be used, but is not required, when<br />
it follows the verb, as in you saw wkom? A<br />
few people habitually observe the eighteenth<br />
century rules <strong>of</strong> grammar, but this is likely to<br />
be a disadvantage to them. To most <strong>of</strong> their<br />
countrymen, the unnatural whom’s sound priggish<br />
or pretentious.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> the relative pronoun the situation<br />
is different and the form whom is required<br />
in certain constructions. Two <strong>of</strong> these however<br />
are purely literary. (1) The indefinite who is<br />
now archaic but if used, the Latin rules must<br />
be strictly observed, as in whom the gods love<br />
die young. (2) The form whom is required<br />
after than, as in Beelzebub, than whom none<br />
higher sat and Dumas the Elder, than whom<br />
there never was u kinder heart. Theoretically<br />
these sentences call for the subjective form who,<br />
but this irregular use <strong>of</strong> whom is so well established<br />
in our finest literature that all grammarians<br />
accept it as the standard idiom.<br />
The form whom is also used as the subject<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb when a parenthetical clause stands<br />
between the relative pronoun and the verb, such<br />
as they sny in the lines from Shakespeare,<br />
Arthur, whom they say is killed tonight, and I<br />
really think in the sentence by Keats, I have<br />
met with women whom I really think would<br />
like to be married to a poem. This construction<br />
is used frequently in speech, as in we are jeeding<br />
children whom we know are hungry. Many<br />
grammarians claim that it is a mistake and that<br />
who is required here. But this technically incorrect<br />
form represents the principal use <strong>of</strong><br />
whom in natural English today. In sentences<br />
such as these either who or whom is acceptable<br />
to all except purists.<br />
The form whom is required after a preposition,<br />
as in the man to whom I spoke. This construction<br />
can be avoided, as in the man I spoke<br />
to, but it is used more <strong>of</strong>ten, and is more<br />
acceptable, in a relative clause than it is in a<br />
question. When the relative is the object <strong>of</strong> a<br />
verb, that is generally preferred to whom, as
in a mnn that 2 respect, or a contact clause<br />
containing no relative is used, as in a man I<br />
respect. Neither that nor a contact clause can<br />
be used after a proper name. Here whom is<br />
preferred to who when the word is the object<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb; but who is also acceptable, as in<br />
Fanny, who I hope you will see soon.<br />
whoever; whomever. Whoever is an indefinite<br />
pronoun and may be used as a singular or a<br />
plural. It can be thought <strong>of</strong> as a combined<br />
personal pronoun and relative pronoun, such as<br />
he who or they who, and is used in statements<br />
about everyone who fits the description that<br />
follows, as whoever comes, whoever likes me.<br />
It is not an interrogative and should not be<br />
used where no description can be given, as in<br />
whoever do you mean? and I can’t imagine<br />
whoever you are thinking <strong>of</strong>. Sentences <strong>of</strong> this<br />
kind are not standard and nothing is saved by<br />
writing whoever as two words, as in who ever<br />
do you mean? However, a question such as who<br />
ever heard <strong>of</strong> that? is entirely different. Here<br />
ever is an adverb attached to heard, and is<br />
above reproach.<br />
The form whoever is required whenever the<br />
word is the subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in whoever<br />
told you that is mistaken. It is also acceptable<br />
as the object <strong>of</strong> a verb or preposition, as in<br />
ask whoever you see and ask whoever you speak<br />
to. The form whomever is not required but may<br />
be used when the word is the object <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
or <strong>of</strong> a preposition in the subordinate, descriptive<br />
clause. It should not be used when the word<br />
is the subject <strong>of</strong> the subordinate verb. For<br />
example, whoever is required and whomever<br />
would be a mistake in he iells whoever comes<br />
along and he was angry with whoever opposed<br />
him, because the form <strong>of</strong> the word is determined<br />
by the fact that it is the subject <strong>of</strong> the<br />
following verb, comes or opposed, and not by<br />
the fact that it is the object <strong>of</strong> a preceding verb,<br />
tells, or a preceding preposition, with. Whomever<br />
is an extremely literary word and should<br />
not be used unless it is used in the literary<br />
manner.<br />
Whoever (and whomever) came into general<br />
use a little more than three hundred years ago.<br />
The King James Bible uses an older form whosoever,<br />
which is now archaic. A still older form,<br />
whosomever, was archaic in 1600 and does not<br />
appear in Biblical English, but it is still heard<br />
in rural areas in the United States.<br />
In current English the possessive form <strong>of</strong><br />
whoever is whoever’s, as in whoever’s dog it is.<br />
But an older form, whosever, is also used, especially<br />
when no noun follows, as in whosever<br />
it is. Since whosoever is a purely literary word,<br />
it has only the old possessive form whosesoever.<br />
whole. See complete.<br />
whorl. See whirl.<br />
whose is a possessive pronoun. When used as tho<br />
possessive form <strong>of</strong> an interrogative pronoun, it<br />
refers only to persons, as in whose it is? When<br />
used as the possessive form <strong>of</strong> a relative pronoun,<br />
it may refer to things as well as to<br />
557 Wild<br />
persons or animals, as in a land whose stones<br />
are iron and out <strong>of</strong> whose hills thou mayesf dig<br />
brass. A country whose rainfall is abundant is<br />
better English than a country, the rainfall <strong>of</strong><br />
which is abundant.<br />
The form who’s is a contraction <strong>of</strong> who is<br />
and should not be used in place <strong>of</strong> the possessive<br />
pronoun whose.<br />
why. This word may be used at the beginnlng <strong>of</strong><br />
a sentence to show surprise, as in Why! This &<br />
a pleasure! It may be used anywhere in a<br />
sentence so long as it means “the reason” or<br />
“for what reason,” as in I know why he didn’t<br />
stay.<br />
The word reason is <strong>of</strong>ten followed by the<br />
word why, as in I know the reason why he<br />
didn’t stay. This use <strong>of</strong> why is sometimes condemned<br />
as redundant or pleonastic, but the<br />
phrase the reason why is a standard English<br />
idiom, and has been for many centuries. Anyone<br />
who wants to can always omit words that<br />
are not strictly necessary to his meaning, but<br />
if this is done consistently the result ia a stiff,<br />
unnatural English. As a rule, it is better to be<br />
natural than to be correct according to theories<br />
that other people have never heard <strong>of</strong>. (For<br />
the reason is because, see because.)<br />
The use <strong>of</strong> why in the middle <strong>of</strong> a sentence,<br />
as a loose connective with no reference at all<br />
to a reason, does not have the same standing.<br />
Sentences such as when I got there, why she<br />
was waiting for me are heard only in careless or<br />
uneducated speech.<br />
wide. See broad.<br />
-wide. See soilixes.<br />
wide awake; wide-awake; wideawake. Wide awake<br />
means fully awake, alert, keenly conscious and<br />
aware. In England wideawake and wide-awake<br />
may be used as adjectives meaning fully awake,<br />
with the eyes wide open (He gave him a wideawake<br />
stare); alert, keen, or knowing (only a<br />
wide-awake young man can fill the position).<br />
As nouns, wideawake and wide-awake were<br />
used formerly to describe a s<strong>of</strong>t, low-crowned<br />
felt hat. In the United States only wide-awake<br />
is now used as an adjective, though wideawake<br />
(especially in reference to the hat) once was.<br />
wideness, width. See breadth.<br />
wide open spaces. Used seriously in reference to<br />
the unsettled sections <strong>of</strong> the country, particularly<br />
the western desert and semi-desert, Ihe<br />
wide open spaces is a clichC. Used facetiously,<br />
it is a bore.<br />
wife. The plural is wives.<br />
The expression an old wives’ tale contains an<br />
old form <strong>of</strong> the genitive and is equivalent to<br />
an old wife’s tale. This is not an instance <strong>of</strong> a<br />
plural noun used as the first element in a compound.<br />
And wife’s here means “woman’s” not<br />
necessarily “married wornan’s.”<br />
wild horses could not drag it from me. As a hyperbolic<br />
affirmation <strong>of</strong> secrecy, the assurance that<br />
wild horses couldn’t drag it from me is a clich&<br />
The reference is to a form <strong>of</strong> torture and<br />
punishment in which each arm and each leg <strong>of</strong>
the victim was attached to a horse and the<br />
horses were driven in different directions until<br />
the victim was dismembered.<br />
wfll; would. Will is a present tense form. Its past<br />
tense is would.<br />
He will does not have the s ending that we<br />
ordinarily expect in a present tense verb. This<br />
is because will is an ancient past tense form<br />
that had come to be felt as a present tense<br />
before English became a written language.<br />
Would is a new past tense that was created for<br />
it. Today would is sometimes used as the past<br />
tense <strong>of</strong> will, as in he said he would come, but<br />
it has also acquired a present tense meaning,<br />
as in would yore help me with this? Will has a<br />
negative form won’t which is less emphatic than<br />
the full form will not.<br />
This verb has no infinitive, no imperative, no<br />
-ing form and no past participle. Because the<br />
words will and would are grammatically past<br />
tense forms, just as the word went is, they cannot<br />
follow (that is, they cannot be dependent<br />
on) another verb. We can no more say might<br />
will or used to would than we can say might<br />
went or used to went.<br />
English also has a regular verb to will which<br />
has an infinitive, an imperative, an -ing form,<br />
and a past participle. It has a regular past tense<br />
willed and final s in the third person singular<br />
<strong>of</strong> the present tense, as in what God wills. This<br />
verb is used chiefly in the progressive (or continuing<br />
action) forms and is followed by a toinfinitive,<br />
as in he is willing to go. (When used<br />
without a following verb,the infinitive to be can<br />
always be supplied, as in he willed it so.)<br />
The auxiliary verb will, with its past tense<br />
would, cannot be followed by a to-infinitive but<br />
requires the simple form <strong>of</strong> the verb, as in he<br />
will go. When followed by have and a past participle<br />
it expresses completed action, as in he<br />
will have gone. In present-day English the complementary<br />
verb must be actually stated or<br />
easily supplied from the context, as in he won’t<br />
go and why won’t he? But at one time verbs <strong>of</strong><br />
motion could be omitted after verbs <strong>of</strong> willing<br />
and this construction is still heard occasionally,<br />
as in murder will out.<br />
The auxiliary verb will originally meant to<br />
desire, wish, or choose. It is still used in this<br />
way, as in will you come in? and who will have<br />
c<strong>of</strong>lee? It is also used to express determination.<br />
When used in this sense it is spoken with a<br />
heavy stress, as in he WILL not see us and he<br />
WILL meddle in things that don’t concern him.<br />
But the principal use <strong>of</strong> the word will today is<br />
to indicate futurity. That is, it is used without<br />
any meaning <strong>of</strong> its own, simply to indicate that<br />
what is being said refers to the future. In a<br />
verbal phrase <strong>of</strong> this kind the principal stress<br />
falls on the meaningful verb and not on the<br />
auxiliary, as in he will not SEE us and he will<br />
MEDDLE in everything. In the United States<br />
will is used as a future auxiliary in all persons<br />
and in all types <strong>of</strong> sentences. (See hrtnre tense.<br />
For the English use <strong>of</strong> shall and should as<br />
future auxili&ies, see shall; will.) Will may also<br />
be used to express what is customary or<br />
habitual, a timeless state <strong>of</strong> affairs, as in a nmn<br />
will tire <strong>of</strong> carrying a baby before a nurse maid<br />
will and boys will be boys.<br />
The past tense form would is used in all the<br />
ways that the present tense form will is used.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the principal uses <strong>of</strong> would is to show<br />
desire or determination. When used in this way<br />
it is a past subjunctive. (See subjunctive mode.)<br />
In this sense it does not refer to the past, but<br />
refers indefinitely to the present or the future, as<br />
in would you help me? and he would come if<br />
he could. When used in a conditional clause<br />
would always expresses volition or willingness,<br />
as in if he would tell me. To express a simple<br />
condition without the idea <strong>of</strong> willingness we<br />
must use a simple past subjunctive, as in if he<br />
told me, or the auxiliary should, as in if he<br />
should tell me.<br />
Would is <strong>of</strong>ten used as a past subjunctive<br />
form <strong>of</strong> the simple future auxiliary. Here it<br />
always refers to the future. For example, the<br />
verb hope is followed by an indicative form <strong>of</strong><br />
the verb and we say I hope the snow will melt,<br />
but the verb wish requires a past subjunctive<br />
form and we therefore say I wish the snow<br />
would melt. Would is used in place <strong>of</strong> the future<br />
will to indicate uncertainty or unreality. It<br />
usually has this meaning in the conclusion <strong>of</strong> a<br />
conditional statement, as in what would you<br />
think if Z told you . . . . Sometimes this would<br />
is used apparently in place <strong>of</strong> a present tense<br />
verb, as in Z would think and it would seem.<br />
Expressions <strong>of</strong> this kind represent the moat<br />
extreme caution. The thinking or seeming is<br />
first placed in the future and then made conditional<br />
or uncertain. It is a very modest way <strong>of</strong><br />
speaking.<br />
Occasionally would is used in a future tense<br />
phrase that has been shifted to the past, as<br />
when Z know he will come is changed to Z knew<br />
he would come. Here would is a past indicative<br />
<strong>of</strong> the future auxiliary will.<br />
Would is also used to express customary or<br />
repeated action. It may be used in speaking <strong>of</strong><br />
the past but in that case the time when the<br />
repeated events occurred must be specified, as<br />
in every morning he would get up at six. If no<br />
time is specified would indicates that the action<br />
is customary or characteristic <strong>of</strong> the person<br />
spoken about and does not refer to the past, as<br />
in what else would he do?, what would you<br />
expect him to do?, and that is what most men<br />
would do.<br />
Would is used with have in a conclusion<br />
following a contrary-to-fact condition, as in Z<br />
would have gone if Z had known about it. It<br />
cannot be used with hove in a conditional<br />
clause Zf Z would have known is not standard.<br />
Would may be used in place <strong>of</strong> had in the expression<br />
had ruther. (See rather.) It should not<br />
be used in place <strong>of</strong> had in the expression had<br />
better. (See better.)<br />
Will and would may be contract& to ‘11 and<br />
‘d, as in he’ll be here soon and he’d have come<br />
sooner if he couM. These contractions are stand-
ard spoken English and there is no reason why<br />
they should not be used in print.<br />
win. The past tense is won. The participle is also<br />
won.<br />
win hands down. As a term for winning easily,<br />
lo win hands down is hackneyed. It is drawn,<br />
Partridge says, from a jockey’s letting up on the<br />
reins and allowing his hands to fall when victory<br />
is certain.<br />
Wind. The past tense is wound. The participle is<br />
also wound.<br />
This verb means twine or twist. Another verb,<br />
meaning blow a horn, has become confused<br />
with it. At one time the noun wind, meaning<br />
a moving current <strong>of</strong> air, was pronounced with<br />
the i as in wine, and there was a regular verb,<br />
wind, winded, meaning more or less “make a<br />
wind.” One would say he winded his horn. But<br />
when wind came to be pronounced with the i<br />
as in win, the old verb seemed to have no connection<br />
with it and people began to say he<br />
wound his horn. Since horns <strong>of</strong> this kind do not<br />
play much part in our lives today, these words<br />
are now found chiefly in poetry and it is impossible<br />
to say which is the preferred form.<br />
Since then, a new regular verb wind, winded,<br />
with the i as in win, has been formed from the<br />
noun wind with its modern pronunciation. This<br />
may either mean “exhaust the wind <strong>of</strong>,” as in<br />
the climb winded him, or “get the wind <strong>of</strong>,” as in<br />
the hounds winded the fox.<br />
windshield; windscreen. American windshield<br />
equals English windscreen.<br />
wire. During the nineteenth century wire used as<br />
a verb meaning to telegraph was considered an<br />
Americanism and people who used it were said<br />
to be “striving to debase the language.” It is<br />
now thoroughly respectable (It’s wise to wire).<br />
It may be followed by a clause, as in she wired<br />
she was coming, or by an infinitive, as in she<br />
wired us to come. The infinitive construction is<br />
also frequently used with the preposition for,<br />
as in she wired for us to come. This construction<br />
is condemned by some grammarians but<br />
is in respectable use in the United States.<br />
wish. This verb may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I wish to see it. It may also be followed by<br />
a clause, but the clause verb must have a past<br />
tense form, as in I wish he was here.<br />
When wish expresses a desire that involves<br />
only the speaker it can no longer be followed<br />
by a direct noun object without the preposition<br />
for, as in eagerly I wished the murrow. This<br />
construction is now obsolete. But the form is<br />
still acceptable when the wish is for something<br />
or someone other than the speaker, as in I wish<br />
the plan success and I wish them happiness. See<br />
also want.<br />
wishful thinking, although introduced only a<br />
generation ago, is already a cliche. It lent itself<br />
too facilely to a superficial explanation <strong>of</strong> other<br />
people’s opinions.<br />
wist. See wot.<br />
wit. See humor.<br />
with. Originally this word meant “against.” This<br />
meaning survives in a few compound verbs.<br />
559 witness<br />
such as withstand, withhold. But the usual<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> the word today is “accompanying”<br />
as in fo go with. By extension, it is used to indicate<br />
means or attendant circumstances, as in<br />
cut it with the scissors and handle it with care.<br />
When with, meaning “accompanying,” joins<br />
something to the singular subject <strong>of</strong> a verb, the<br />
rule is that the verb remains singular, as in the<br />
sheriff with his men was at the door. In practice,<br />
a plural verb is also acceptable here. See agreement:<br />
verbs.<br />
With may be joined to a verb to indicate that<br />
the action is mutual, as in talk with, agree with.<br />
But occasionally it retains something <strong>of</strong> its old<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> “against,” as in fight with, make<br />
way with, dispense with.<br />
with a vengeance, which meant originally with<br />
a curse or malediction thrown in for good<br />
measure, has been used as an intensive (even,<br />
formerly, <strong>of</strong> good things) for more than four<br />
hundred years. It is now worn out.<br />
with bated breath, that is, with breathing reduced<br />
or subdued under the influence <strong>of</strong> awe or fright,<br />
is a cliche. Bated, now archaic, except in this<br />
phrase, is the participle <strong>of</strong> the verb to bate, to<br />
lower, reduce (Yet Z argue nor/ Against<br />
Heaven’s hand or will, nor bare a jot/ Of heart<br />
or hope), an aphetic form <strong>of</strong> abate.<br />
with might and main, usually with cdl one’s might<br />
and main, is hackneyed. Might is the quality <strong>of</strong><br />
being able and main is sheer brute force or<br />
violence.<br />
withdraw. See retreat.<br />
without may be used as an adverb with no object,<br />
as in we must go without. Or it may be used as<br />
a preposition with a simple noun or pronoun<br />
object, as in without supper, without him. The<br />
-ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb is treated as a noun and<br />
may be used after without, as in they never met<br />
without quarreling. But in current English without<br />
cannot be used as a conjunction to introduce<br />
a full dause. Formerly this use <strong>of</strong> the word was<br />
acceptable, as in he may stay him; marry, not<br />
without the prince be willing. The construction<br />
is still heard, as in they never met without they<br />
quarreled, but is no longer considered standard.<br />
without let or hindrance, to mean unhampered,<br />
unimpeded, is a cliche. It is pompous and is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten used as a jocular expression intended to<br />
ridicule pomposity but pompous in its jocularity.<br />
Let originally meant hindrance, impediment,<br />
obstruction. In 1649 it was possible to<br />
speak <strong>of</strong> one whose talents recompensed his<br />
natural let in speech, but the word is now<br />
archaic except in the phrase let or hindrance.<br />
Until quite recently, however, it survived in<br />
other combinations, such as let and disturbance<br />
<strong>of</strong> the peace, doing as one pleases without let<br />
or inquiry, without let or stay.<br />
without rhyme or reason, unless used literally,<br />
as it might be in reference to some modern<br />
poetry, is a cliche.<br />
withstand. The past tense is withstood. The participle<br />
is also withstood.<br />
witness as a verb means to bear witness to, to<br />
testify to, to give or afford evidence <strong>of</strong> (The
witness 560<br />
fossfls, in fheir own way, also witness to the<br />
glory <strong>of</strong> the Lord. The prisoner brought several<br />
persons <strong>of</strong> good credit to witness to her reputation).<br />
As a synonym for see (I witnessed un<br />
amusing incident yesterday) it is now acceptable<br />
in American usage, but it is stilted and see<br />
ls to be preferred where it is applicable. Witness<br />
is to be preferred where one’s presence is formal<br />
or where one’s seeing is likely to be the basis<br />
<strong>of</strong> subsequent testimony. One sees a new model<br />
automobile; one witnesses an accident.<br />
witness stand; witness box. The place occupied by<br />
one giving testimony in court is called the<br />
witness stand in the United States, the witness<br />
box in England. These are usually shortened to<br />
stand and box respectively. The witness takes<br />
the stand and enters the box.<br />
wives. See wife.<br />
woke; woken. See wake.<br />
wolf. The plural is wolves.<br />
wolf in sheep’s clothing. As a term for one whose<br />
inner evil nature or intention is concealed under<br />
an innocent-seeming exterior, a wolf in sheep’s<br />
clothing is a clich6.<br />
wolves. This is the plural <strong>of</strong> wolf.<br />
woman. The plural is women. Compounds that<br />
have woman as a qualifying element have the<br />
form women in the plural, as in women friends,<br />
women writers. This is contrary to the usual<br />
practice in English, according to which the first<br />
element <strong>of</strong> a compound remains singular even<br />
when the whole is made plural, as in lady<br />
friends, lady writers.<br />
When the first element <strong>of</strong> a compound is the<br />
object <strong>of</strong> the second element, and not a qualifier,<br />
only the singular form woman can be used,<br />
as in woman haters.<br />
woman; female; lady; gentlewoman. Woman is<br />
the general term for the adult female <strong>of</strong> the<br />
human species (Woman’s place is in the home.<br />
Her voice was ever s<strong>of</strong>t,/ Gentle and low-an<br />
excellent thing in woman). It is a word <strong>of</strong><br />
dignity (though the plural women, for some<br />
reason, does not have quite the same dignity)<br />
and is always to be preferred when in doubt.<br />
One <strong>of</strong> the finest touches in Shakespeare’s delineation<br />
<strong>of</strong> Mistress Quickly’s garrulous vulgarity<br />
is her indignation when, in the course<br />
<strong>of</strong> an argument, Falstaff calls her a woman<br />
(FALSTAFF: Go to, you are a woman, go!<br />
HOSTESS: Who, I? No; I defy thee! God’s light,<br />
I was never call’d so in mine own house<br />
before!).<br />
Female refers especially to sex. A woman is<br />
a female human being, and she is a female as<br />
a man is a male, but since the word is applicable<br />
to all females in all species in which there is<br />
a sexual differentiation, from philosophers to<br />
cockroaches (The female <strong>of</strong> the species is more<br />
deadly than the male), its application to a<br />
woman usually has a contemptuous implication<br />
(She’s a scheming female, my boy). Female<br />
used to be used as an elegant euphemism for<br />
woman or yolmg woman or woman’s or<br />
women’s (A charming female, egadl Bolton’s<br />
Female Academy for Accomplished Young<br />
Ladies. Recommended for All Female Complaints),<br />
but this usage is obsolescent and no<br />
longer even funny when used in mockery <strong>of</strong> its<br />
pretentiousness.<br />
In England lady has a social connotation.<br />
Fowler calls it an “undress substitute” for<br />
marchioness, countess, viscountess, and baroness.<br />
It is also a courtesy title for the wife <strong>of</strong> a<br />
knight or baronet or the younger daughters <strong>of</strong><br />
an earl. Such uses are unknown in America<br />
where lady carries implications <strong>of</strong> gentility (She<br />
behaved like a lady) but, in the proper democratic<br />
way, is used for almost any woman <strong>of</strong><br />
whom one wishes to speak with some formality<br />
(Is the lady <strong>of</strong> the house in?). Well-meaning<br />
souls have carried it further until, in its excesses,<br />
it is almost a joke word (“Who was that<br />
lady I seen you with?” “That wasn’t no lady;<br />
that was my wife.” The scrub lady called.<br />
Tables for ladies and gents). It is sometimes<br />
used as a formal term in direct address (Lady,<br />
you dropped your glove. I gave you the right<br />
change, lady! What are you arguin’ about?) but<br />
the proper form (and the more effective term<br />
if one wants to be disagreeable) is madam.<br />
A gentlewoman is a woman <strong>of</strong> good family<br />
or breeding (It has gotten so that you can’t keep<br />
half a dozen young gentlewomen at their needlework<br />
but you are accused <strong>of</strong> running a bawdy<br />
house!), but the word is now archaic and is<br />
used chiefly in hackneyed (a decayed gentlewoman)<br />
or facetious phrases. In America,<br />
except as a literary affectation, it is not used<br />
at all. See also female.<br />
womanly. See female.<br />
women. See woman.<br />
won. See win.<br />
wondrous is a bookish word, whether used as an<br />
adjective or an adverb. As an adjective it means<br />
wonderful, marvelous (Some <strong>of</strong> serpent kind/<br />
Wondrous in length and corpulence. When I<br />
survey the wondrous cross/ On which the<br />
Prince <strong>of</strong> glory died,/ My richest gain I count<br />
but loss,/ And pour contempt on all my pride),<br />
though this use is archaic, surviving chiefly in<br />
humorous passages (A saloon near a newspaper<br />
<strong>of</strong>ice is always a lovely institution, filling the<br />
nights with wondrous sights and sounds). As an<br />
adverb it is archaic for wondrously, which is<br />
also a bookish term. As such, it means in a<br />
wonderful or surprising degree, remarkably<br />
(There was a man in our town/ And he was<br />
wondrous wise./ He jumped into a bramble<br />
bush/ And scratched out both his eyes).<br />
wont. This is a present tense form. The verb does<br />
not have an infinitive or an imperative. The past<br />
tense is wonted. The participle is wonted or<br />
wont.<br />
There was once a verb won, meaning “stay”<br />
or “be used to.” It gradually disappeared from<br />
the language leaving only its two participles,<br />
wonted and wont, which came to be used as<br />
adjectives meaning “usual.” This old construction<br />
survives today in such expressions as his
wonted energy and he is wont io act with<br />
energy, where wonted is used only before a<br />
noun and wont only after a form <strong>of</strong> the verb<br />
to be and before an infinitive.<br />
Out <strong>of</strong> this limited use <strong>of</strong> two words, some<br />
new verb forms have developed. There is a<br />
present tense, singular and plural, as in he wonis<br />
to act wifh energy and they wont to act with<br />
energy, and a past tense form, in those days<br />
he wonted to act with energy. The verb has no<br />
other forms, and these forms are very rare.<br />
Although they are standard, they are decidedly<br />
artificial.<br />
This verb should not be confused with want,<br />
or with won’t, which means “will not.”<br />
wood; forest; woods. A forest is an extensive<br />
wooded area, preserving some <strong>of</strong> its primitive<br />
wildness and usually having game or wild<br />
animals in it (This is the forest primeval, the<br />
murmuring pines and the hemlocks, The National<br />
Forests are among our most valuable<br />
possessions). In England forest is applied to an<br />
unenclosed tract, regardless <strong>of</strong> whether it has<br />
trees, used as a game preserve. The famous<br />
New Forest was not wholly wooded and there<br />
are deer forests in the Scottish Highland where<br />
there are few or no trees.<br />
Wood or woods describes a wooded tract<br />
smaller than a forest and resembling one, but<br />
less wild in character and nearer to civilization.<br />
Woods, when it means a grove <strong>of</strong> trees,<br />
usually takes a plural verb, as in the woods are<br />
full <strong>of</strong> them and there are woods near the house.<br />
But it is sometimes treated as a singular, as in<br />
there is a woods near the house. This is acceptable<br />
in the United States but not in Great<br />
Britain, where the singular form a wood is required,<br />
as in there is a wood near the house. In<br />
the United States the singular form, a wood, is<br />
a purely literary word. It suggests a romantic<br />
and poetic place utterly unlike any stand <strong>of</strong><br />
trees in this country. The feeling that woods is<br />
singular is so strong in the United States that<br />
it has produced the adjective woodsy, as in<br />
woodsy and wild and lonesome. In Great<br />
Britain the adjective is always woody, as in a<br />
woody glen.<br />
wood for the trees. As a figurative description<br />
<strong>of</strong> someone who is so taken up with details that<br />
he cannot see or loses sight <strong>of</strong> the whole, to<br />
say that he can’t see the wood for the trees is<br />
to employ a clicht. It ha-s been in use as a<br />
proverb for over four hundred years and it is<br />
more than two hundred years since Swift listed<br />
it as a clichC.<br />
wooded; wooden; woodsy; woody. Wooded means<br />
covered with or abounding in woods or trees<br />
(Heavily wooded banks were an important feature<br />
<strong>of</strong> flood control). Wooden means consisting<br />
<strong>of</strong> or made <strong>of</strong> wood (The wooden steps <strong>of</strong><br />
the back porch had been painted battleship<br />
gray). Used figuratively, wooden means stiff,<br />
ungainly, or awkward (A wooden Indian is<br />
wooden in every sense <strong>of</strong> the word. The recruit<br />
pave the captain a wooden salute). It may also<br />
561 word<br />
mean without spirit or animation (The only response<br />
to his encouragement was a wooden<br />
stare), or dull and stupid (These wooden-headed<br />
louts don’t seem able IO understand the simplest<br />
siatemenis!). There are several American idiomatic<br />
expressions containing wooden, such as<br />
the dreary, rustic jocularity, don’t lake any<br />
wooden nickels. Woodsy is an American word<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong>, like, suggestive <strong>of</strong>, or associated<br />
with the woods, sylvan (Ship Island region was<br />
as woodsy and tenantless as ever-Mark Twain).<br />
Woody has the special meanings <strong>of</strong> resembling<br />
wood (The center <strong>of</strong> the stalk was a thick,<br />
woody substance), or sounding as wood sounds<br />
when it is struck (The piano had a dull, woody<br />
tone). It shares with wooded the meaning <strong>of</strong><br />
abounding in woods (Between the hills and the<br />
river there was an extensive woody area) but,<br />
unlike wooded, it is not qualified by an adverb<br />
(a heavily wooded area, a woody area).<br />
wo<strong>of</strong>; warp; web; weft. All <strong>of</strong> these words refer<br />
to weaving. The warp is a set <strong>of</strong> yarns placed<br />
lengthwise in the loom. The yarns which travel<br />
from selvage to selvage in a loom, interlacing<br />
with the warp, are called collectively the wo<strong>of</strong><br />
or weft Sometimes wo<strong>of</strong> is used more loosely<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> texture (There was an awful<br />
rainbow once in heaven:/ We know her wo<strong>of</strong>,<br />
her texture; she is given/ In the dull catalogue<br />
<strong>of</strong> common things-Keats).<br />
Something formed as by weaving or interweaving<br />
<strong>of</strong> warp and wo<strong>of</strong> is a web (Penelope’s<br />
web was a means <strong>of</strong> delaying the acceptance <strong>of</strong><br />
a proposal).<br />
woolen; woollen; woolly. Woolen (or especially in<br />
England, woollen) means made or consisting <strong>of</strong><br />
wool (The Western Isles <strong>of</strong> Scotland are famous<br />
for their woollen goods). Woolly may also mean<br />
consisting <strong>of</strong> wool or having the property or<br />
feeling or appearance <strong>of</strong> wool, but even in this<br />
sense the wool is understood to be attached to<br />
its producer or what would seem to be its producer,<br />
unlike woolen which refers to a detached<br />
material (My father gave me a woolly Shropshire<br />
lamb on my seventh birthday. In the most<br />
lucid brains we come upon nests <strong>of</strong> woolly<br />
caterpillars). Keats’s and silent was the flock<br />
in woolly fold is an exceptional use. Figuratively,<br />
woolly suggests blurred, imprecise (This<br />
woolly, maggotty metaphysics . . . The third<br />
drink made his speech woolly). In the United<br />
States the Old West was called, colloquially,<br />
wild and woolly because <strong>of</strong> its rough atmosphere.<br />
In England woolly is used colloquially<br />
as a noun to describe a sweater or other light<br />
outergarment <strong>of</strong> wool; in America it is used, or<br />
was when the object existed in the plural, to<br />
describe an undergarment <strong>of</strong> wool (Ten below!<br />
Boy, you’d better puf on your woollies).<br />
word <strong>of</strong> mouth. By word <strong>of</strong> mouth is a wordy<br />
way <strong>of</strong> saying “orally” or “verbally” or “he told<br />
me so.” It is redundant and stilted, and to be<br />
avoided.<br />
word’s as good as his bond. To say, as an assurance<br />
that someone can be relied on, that he will
WOdS 562<br />
keep his promises and fulfill his obligations,<br />
that his word is as good us his bond is to employ<br />
a wornout expression. Bond here means a written<br />
or signed agreement.<br />
words cannot describe and words fail are hackneyed<br />
as hyperbolic phrases <strong>of</strong> introduction. If<br />
taken literally, the rest should be silence. If not<br />
to be taken literally, they should be omitted and<br />
the speaker or writer get on as best he can with<br />
what words he can command.<br />
wore. See wear.<br />
work. The past tense is worked or wrought. The<br />
participle is also worked or wroughf. When this<br />
verb does not have an object, only the form<br />
worked may be used for the past tense or the<br />
participle, as in he worked all day. Wrought<br />
may be used when the verb has an object, as in<br />
he wrought happiness for many and see what<br />
God bath wrought, but even here it has a<br />
decidedlv bookish tone. Wrought is preferred<br />
as an adjective in some expressions,- such as<br />
wrought iron, but worked may also be used<br />
here.<br />
Work is sometimes used to mean “become,”<br />
and in that cake may be followed by an adjective<br />
describing what becomes, as in the hinge<br />
worked loose. When not used in this sense it<br />
may be followed by an adverb describing the<br />
working, as in the hinge worked loosely. Sea<br />
use.<br />
work (for book). See volume.<br />
worked to death has been worked to death. Let<br />
it rest in peace.<br />
workingman; working-man; working man; workman;<br />
workmen. Working man is a general and<br />
vague term. It simply describes any man who<br />
works. English working-man, American workfngman<br />
describe a man <strong>of</strong> the working class;<br />
more specifically, a man, skilled or unskilled,<br />
who earns his living at some manual or industrial<br />
work (When Jurgis had first come to the<br />
stockyards he had been as clean as any workfngman<br />
could well be). Workman means specifically<br />
a man employed or skilled in some<br />
form <strong>of</strong> manual, mechanical or industrial work<br />
(A workman’s compensation law was passed<br />
lute in the century). Used in the plural, it differs<br />
from workingmen in plainly implying some skill<br />
(I got me cunning workmen. The workmen<br />
always had their tools packed and were ready<br />
to quit on the stroke <strong>of</strong> four. We have had<br />
workmen in the house, papering, painting, plastering,<br />
tiling, sanding!).<br />
work one’s fingers to the bone. As an expression<br />
for working very hard, used commonly in pitying<br />
or self-pitying reproaches, to work one’s<br />
fingers to the bone is a cliche. Applied originally,<br />
in the nineteenth century, to seamstresses,<br />
it had a hyperbolic meaning that is now pretty<br />
well dissipated.<br />
works. In Great Britain factories and industrial<br />
shops are sometimes called works, as in the<br />
steelworks south <strong>of</strong> the town, and opinion is<br />
divided as to whether the word takes a singular<br />
or a plural verb when used in this sense. The<br />
problem does not arise in the United States<br />
where we use the word plant instead. Plant is<br />
clearly singular and takes a singular verb.<br />
world. See earth.<br />
world, the flesh, and the Devil. The world is the<br />
sum <strong>of</strong> worldly things, as opposed to spiritual<br />
matters. The flesh is human weakness with its<br />
susceptibility to the allure <strong>of</strong> worldly things.<br />
And the Devil is the tempter, always playing<br />
upon that susceptibility. The phrase is from<br />
The Book <strong>of</strong> Common Prayer. Used in any<br />
context but its original one, it is now a cliche,<br />
even when used humorously.<br />
world <strong>of</strong> good, world <strong>of</strong> troth, world <strong>of</strong> trouble,<br />
etc. World <strong>of</strong> is used for “a great deal <strong>of</strong>” in a<br />
number <strong>of</strong> phrases. Most <strong>of</strong> them are now<br />
hackneyed.<br />
world is mine oyster. When Ancient Pistol (in<br />
The Merry Wives <strong>of</strong> Windsor, Act II, scene 2,<br />
lines 3-4) said that the world’s mine oyster,/<br />
Which I with sword will open, he coined a metaphor<br />
so ludicrous and at the same time so apt<br />
that it caught the popular fancy and became a<br />
saying and in time a cliche. It’s not quite so apt<br />
anymore. Artificial pearls are now superior to<br />
all but the very finest natural pearls and, as<br />
0. Henry observed, a sword is a far more suitable<br />
instrument than a typewriter for opening<br />
oysters.<br />
worldly. See earthen.<br />
worn. See wear.<br />
worn-out. See outworn.<br />
worse, worst. See bad.<br />
worship. See reverence.<br />
worth; worthy. These words are both adjectives<br />
and qualify nouns. Worth always follows the<br />
word it qualifies and is itself followed by an<br />
object. The object may be a noun, as in the book<br />
is worth ten dollars, or it may be the -ing form<br />
<strong>of</strong> a verb used with a passive meaning, as in<br />
the book is worth reading.<br />
The adjective worthy may stand before a<br />
noun, as in a worthy cause. It may be followed<br />
by an infinitive, as in he is worthy to take his<br />
place. The compound worthy <strong>of</strong> may be followed<br />
by a noun, as in worthy <strong>of</strong> his position,<br />
or by the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb, as in worthy <strong>of</strong><br />
taking his place.<br />
worth one’s weight in gold. As a way <strong>of</strong> saying<br />
that something or someone is extremely valuable,<br />
usually spoken <strong>of</strong> someone who is not only<br />
efficient and industrious but exceedingly goodnatured<br />
and willing as well, it or he is worth its<br />
or his weight in gold is a cliche. When spoken<br />
<strong>of</strong> persons, it loses some <strong>of</strong> its metaphorical<br />
value from the fact that quite a few persons<br />
(specifically anyone who owns more than $lOO,-<br />
000 and weighs less than two hundred pounds)<br />
are actually “worth,” in the meaning <strong>of</strong> possessing<br />
that much wealth, their own weight in gold.<br />
wot. The past tense is wist. The participle is also<br />
wist. There was once a verb wit meaning know.<br />
The infinitive survives in zo wit and the -ing<br />
form in witting and wiffingly. It had a past tense<br />
wot. Since there is very little difference between<br />
once knowing and still knowing, wot came to<br />
be felt as a present tense. Later a new past tense
was made for it, wist. Exactly the same thing<br />
has happened with some other verbs, such as<br />
can and ought. Like these other verbs, war did<br />
not have an s in the third person singular, as is<br />
seen in the expression God wot. Except in this<br />
expression, woi is no longer natural English.<br />
When it is revived for its archaic effect, a false<br />
s <strong>of</strong>ten appears, as in he wots not <strong>of</strong> the danger.<br />
would. See will.<br />
wound. See wind.<br />
wove; woven. See weave.<br />
wrack; rack. Both wrack and rack are correct in<br />
the sense <strong>of</strong> ruin or destruction, especially in<br />
the phrase to go to wrack/rack and ruin. Except<br />
for that phrase, however, wrack, a cognate<br />
<strong>of</strong> wreck, is more general than rack, a variant<br />
<strong>of</strong> wrack.<br />
Rack, however, may be used in senses exclusively<br />
its own. It describes, for instance, a<br />
framework <strong>of</strong> bars, wires, or pegs, on which<br />
articles are arranged or deposited (There was<br />
a clothes rack just inside the door) or a spreading<br />
framework set on a wagon (As a boy he<br />
rode the hayrack to and from the fields). One<br />
<strong>of</strong> its best known meanings is an instrument<br />
formerly used for torturing persons by stretching<br />
the body. The terror <strong>of</strong> this particular instrument<br />
<strong>of</strong> torture caught the public imagination<br />
and the word, in consequence, appears in many<br />
figurative uses (I am on the rack until I hear<br />
from him). It is the figurative extension <strong>of</strong> this<br />
word as a verb that is used for a strain in mental<br />
effort (I’ve racked my brains for a solution<br />
but haven’t thought <strong>of</strong> a thing!).<br />
wrangle; wrangler. In England and America<br />
wrangle is to argue or dispute, especially in a<br />
noisy or angry manner (The radio breakfast<br />
program has as its chief characters u married<br />
couple who wrangle). However, in the idiom <strong>of</strong><br />
the western United States, wrangfe also means<br />
to herd, to tend horses. Wrangler has the general<br />
meaning <strong>of</strong> one who wrangles or disputes<br />
and the special western United States meaning<br />
<strong>of</strong> one who wrangles horses. Little Joe, the<br />
wrangler, hero <strong>of</strong> a pathetic Western ballad,<br />
was neither disputatious nor scholarly; he just<br />
took care <strong>of</strong> the horses. At Cambridge University,<br />
in England, up until 1909, wrangler was<br />
the name given to one <strong>of</strong> those in the first class<br />
<strong>of</strong> honors in mathematics. The man first on the<br />
list was called senior wrangler, and the other<br />
first classmen were numbered in decreasing order<br />
<strong>of</strong> merit, as second wrangler, third wrangler.<br />
wrap. The past tense is wrapped or wrapt. The<br />
participle is also wrapped or wrapt. In the<br />
United States wrapped is generally preferred to<br />
wrapt. Both forms are used in Great Britain.<br />
wrapt; rapt. Wrapt is a little-used variant spelling<br />
<strong>of</strong> wmpped, the past and past participle <strong>of</strong> wrap,<br />
to wind, fold, or bind about (He carried an<br />
extra pair <strong>of</strong> shoes wrnpt in a newspaper. The<br />
mother then brought a mantle down and wrapt<br />
her in it). Rapt (etymologically akin to rupture)<br />
derives from a verb meaning to snatch or hurry<br />
away, to transport, ravish. It is now confined to<br />
ecstatic states <strong>of</strong> delight or contemplation in<br />
563 wrest<br />
which we have been carried outside <strong>of</strong> ourselves<br />
(Looks commercing with the skies/ Thy rapt<br />
soul sitting in thine eyes), or, more loosely,<br />
engrossed or absorbed (He found her in rapt<br />
contemplation <strong>of</strong> the necklace).<br />
wrath; wrathful; wrathy; wrath. Wrath is the<br />
noun meaning strong. stern, or fierce anger,<br />
deeply resentful indignation, ire (The wrath <strong>of</strong><br />
God descended upon them); or vengeance or<br />
punishment, as the consequence <strong>of</strong> anger. Wrath<br />
is also used, though undesirably, as an archaic<br />
adjective meaning the same as wroth.<br />
Wrathful is the attributive adjective meaning<br />
full <strong>of</strong> wrath, very angry, ireful (Such wrathful<br />
words destroyed all hope <strong>of</strong> reconciliation), or<br />
characterized by or showing wrath (Heshot him<br />
u wruthfulglnnce). Wrathful, by itsverystrength,<br />
its emphasis on an excess and impetuosity <strong>of</strong><br />
anger, is a word to be used carefully. It should<br />
not be used where angry will do. Wrathy, originally<br />
early nineteenth century and chiefly American,<br />
is an informal expression meaning wrathful<br />
or angry. It is (fortunately) falling into disuse.<br />
Wroth is a predicate adjective meaning angry,<br />
wrathful (Cain was very wroth, and his<br />
countenance fell). It is largely a literary word<br />
today.<br />
wreck is <strong>of</strong>ten used colloquially in America to<br />
describe a person who is seriously disorganized<br />
in one way or another (The ordeal made a physical<br />
and nervous wreck out <strong>of</strong> him). Wrecker<br />
and wrecking also have special meanings in<br />
American usage. In America a wrecker or a<br />
wrecking crew tears down a building; in England<br />
it is a housebreaking gang. In America a wrecking<br />
crew removes wreckage from railroad tracks,<br />
in England it is a breakdown gang.<br />
wrest; wrestle; wresting; wrestling. Wrestle and<br />
wrestling are related to, and derive from, wresf<br />
and wresting, yet their meanings must be distinguished.<br />
Wrest means to twist or turn, pull, jerk or<br />
force by a violent twist (He wrested the gun<br />
from him with u sudden motion), or to take<br />
away by force (England wrested much <strong>of</strong> eastern<br />
Canada from the French in the fighting that<br />
culminated with Montcalm’s defeat at Quebec),<br />
or to get by effort (He wrested a bare living<br />
from a barren soil). Wresting is the present participial<br />
form <strong>of</strong> wrest, meaning to extract or<br />
extort by twisting, pulling, turning.<br />
Wrestle, as an intransitive verb, means to<br />
engage in wrestling, or to contend, as in a struggle<br />
for mastery; to grapple. As a transitive verb,<br />
it means to contend with in wrestling, to force<br />
by or as if by wrestling (He wrestled the packing<br />
case to the corner <strong>of</strong> the storage room).<br />
In the western United States wrestle also means<br />
to throw an animal for the purpose <strong>of</strong> branding.<br />
Though one wrestles with physical objects, the<br />
word is used figuratively where a struggle a~<br />
fierce as a physical struggle takes place (He<br />
wrestled with religious doubts all through the<br />
years at the seminary). Wrestling is the act <strong>of</strong><br />
one who wrestles. It commonly describes an<br />
exercise or sport, subject to special rules, in
wring 564<br />
which two persons struggle hand to hand, each<br />
striving to throw or force the other to the<br />
ground.<br />
wring. The past tense is wrung. The participle is<br />
also wrung.<br />
write. The past tense is wrote. The participle is<br />
written. A past tense and participle writ were<br />
once literary English, as in we are persuaded<br />
that he writ the truth and one whose name was<br />
writ in water. This form is now archaic or<br />
dialectal.<br />
Write may be followed by a clause, as in she<br />
wrote she was coming, or by an infinitive, as in<br />
she wrote me to come. The form she wrote for<br />
me io come is condemned by some grammarians<br />
but is in general use in the United States.<br />
Write is frequently used without a true object,<br />
that is, without naming what is written, as<br />
in write me soon. This construction is standard<br />
usage in the United States but is considered<br />
illiterate by some British grammarians who<br />
claim that the preposition to must be used if<br />
the verb does not have a true object, as in write<br />
to me soon.<br />
writer. See man <strong>of</strong> letters.<br />
writer; the present writer; the author; I. Though<br />
these expressions are not downright incorrect,<br />
they are <strong>of</strong>ten superfluous. That is, an opinion<br />
which is obviously the author’s opinion need<br />
not be introduced by the preseni writer believes<br />
that . . . or if seems to the writer or the author<br />
mainfuins. Though such expressions may seem<br />
less egocentric, more modest, than I, actually I,<br />
if any identifying word is needed, is the word to<br />
use. It is straightforward and brief and avoids<br />
the implication <strong>of</strong> over-solemnity that sometimes<br />
lies in the use <strong>of</strong> the third person when<br />
alluding to oneself.<br />
written. See write.<br />
wrong; wrongly. Only the form wrong can be<br />
used to qualify a noun, as in the wrong answer.<br />
Only the form wrongly can be used immediately<br />
before a verb, as in the words were<br />
wrongly spelled. Either form may be used<br />
X. There are very few words in English which<br />
begin with the letter X. In the great Oxford English<br />
Dictionury the entire section under X takes<br />
up less space than the single word gel. The words<br />
that do begin with X are almost all scientific<br />
terms, consciously borrowed from Greek or<br />
made up to meet a special need. Two-thirds <strong>of</strong><br />
them were coined in the nineteenth century.<br />
Because words beginning with X have been in<br />
the language such a short time and are used in<br />
such a restricted field, they are completely regular<br />
so far as usage goes and present no problems<br />
for the grammarian.<br />
X<br />
following a verb, as in the words were spelled<br />
wrong and the words were spelled wrongly. The<br />
form wrong is preferred to wrongly in this<br />
position.<br />
wrong side <strong>of</strong> the tracks. In many American towns<br />
the railroad tracks did at one time make a clear<br />
social demarcation and whoever first observed<br />
this and used it as a symbol <strong>of</strong> social position<br />
coined a good phrase. It was meaningful,<br />
pungent, penetrating, and evocative. But like<br />
many good phrases it has been overworked and<br />
is now as tedious as the endless sniggering <strong>of</strong><br />
the Restoration wits at those who had the misfortune<br />
to live in the city <strong>of</strong> London instead<br />
<strong>of</strong> in the West End. Furthermore with the proliferation<br />
<strong>of</strong> our cities and the decline <strong>of</strong> at least<br />
the social importance <strong>of</strong> the railroads the phrase<br />
has lost much <strong>of</strong> its meaning. It is now a hackneyed<br />
anachronism.<br />
wrong tack. On the wrong tuck, as a term for<br />
pursuing a wrong course <strong>of</strong> inquiry or conduct,<br />
is a jaded expression. In its original nautical<br />
use, the tuck <strong>of</strong> a ship is her direction in relation<br />
to the position <strong>of</strong> her sails. When used <strong>of</strong> a progression<br />
on land, a tuck is one <strong>of</strong> the movements<br />
<strong>of</strong> a zigzag course. In no sense is it<br />
merely a synonym for direction.<br />
wrote. See write.<br />
wrought. There is an amusing passage in one <strong>of</strong><br />
Robert Benchley’s essays in which he tells <strong>of</strong><br />
his frenzied search for the present form <strong>of</strong> the<br />
verb <strong>of</strong> which wrought is the past participle.<br />
He thinks <strong>of</strong> wrught, wrouft, wraft and a few<br />
other strange combinations <strong>of</strong> letters and gives<br />
it up. And certainly anyone who tried to guess<br />
it from the analogy <strong>of</strong> other participles <strong>of</strong> the<br />
same sound would come to some queer conclusions.<br />
On the analogy <strong>of</strong> caught, it ought to<br />
be wrutch; on that <strong>of</strong> taught, wreath; on bought,<br />
it should be wruy; on thought, wrink; on fought,<br />
wright: on fruught, wreight. Actually, - as<br />
Mr. Benchley no doubt knew. it is the narticiule - .<br />
<strong>of</strong> the verb work. See work.<br />
wrung. See wring.<br />
Xmas is an abbreviation <strong>of</strong> Christmas. Here X represents<br />
the syllable Christ. This is not a modern,<br />
commercial invention. X has been used in this<br />
way in English, as in Xtiunity for Christianity,<br />
since at least the year 1100, and the form Xmns<br />
is found in print as early as 155 1.<br />
X-ray. In the United States this word is customarily<br />
written with a hyphen, probably because it<br />
became popular at a time when hyphens were<br />
popular. Similar scientific terms are usually<br />
written without the hyphen, as in X chromosome.
yclept; y-cleped. These are both participles and<br />
are the only surviving forms <strong>of</strong> an old verb<br />
clepe meaning call. One form is as good as the<br />
other and neither <strong>of</strong> them is good. The verb,<br />
already archaic, should be allowed to pass into<br />
oblivion and is included here only to complete<br />
the list <strong>of</strong> irregular verb forms found in English<br />
today.<br />
ye. The word ye is a special form <strong>of</strong> the pronoun<br />
you that is no longer used in natural English.<br />
(For more about the history <strong>of</strong> this word, see<br />
YOU; ye.1<br />
Many Americans believe that the word the<br />
was pronounced ye a few hundred years ago.<br />
This is based on a misunderstanding. Today,<br />
the letters th may represent either <strong>of</strong> two distinct<br />
sounds, both <strong>of</strong> which can be heard in the<br />
words this thing. At one time the first th sound,<br />
which is also heard in the, that, they, and so<br />
on, was represented in print by the letter y.<br />
Governor Bradford <strong>of</strong> Plymouth sometimes<br />
used this form in his writing and sometimes<br />
rh. For example, in speaking <strong>of</strong> a renegade Mr.<br />
Blackwell, he wrote: He declined from ye trueth<br />
wth Mr. Johnson & ye rest, and went with him<br />
when yey parted asunder in yt w<strong>of</strong>ull maner.<br />
Bradford was not usually so consistent, and he<br />
also wrote: full litle did I thinke yt the downfall<br />
<strong>of</strong> ye Bishops . . . and they had done them<br />
no wrong, neither did yey fear them. But regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> which symbol he used to represent<br />
the sound, he pronounced these words as we do.<br />
Current English, therefore, has a new adjective<br />
ye, which is pronounced like the old<br />
pronoun ye. It is used instead <strong>of</strong> the in the<br />
names <strong>of</strong> certain shops and restaurants, such as<br />
ye olde gifte shoppe, and should probably be<br />
called the “decorative the” or the “interesting<br />
the.”<br />
year in and year out, as a term for continually,<br />
or for a very long time, is hackneyed.<br />
yearn. This word may be followed by an infinitive,<br />
as in I yearn to hear from you, but not by<br />
the -ing form <strong>of</strong> a verb or by a clause.<br />
yellow dog. In the United States yellow dog is<br />
used figuratively to describe a contemptible,<br />
worthless or cowardly fellow. Yellow-dog contract<br />
refers to a contract <strong>of</strong> employment which<br />
provides that the employee promises not to join<br />
a labor union under pain <strong>of</strong> dismissal if he does.<br />
yellow journalism; yellow press. The use <strong>of</strong> sensational<br />
reporting and conspicuous displays as<br />
a means <strong>of</strong> attracting readers to a newspaper<br />
or journal is called in the United States yellow<br />
journalism (The story she was playing up was<br />
a natural for yellow journalism: a messy divorce<br />
case involving some <strong>of</strong> Arizona’s best people).<br />
565 Yet<br />
Y<br />
The term is said to have originated in the New<br />
York World (1895) with a cartoon in which<br />
the central figure, a child, was in a yellow dress.<br />
The chief purpose <strong>of</strong> this color printing-then<br />
a novelty-was to attract attention. The expression<br />
was borrowed by the English but<br />
slightly adapted to the yellow press.<br />
yeoman’s service. To say <strong>of</strong> one who or something<br />
that has performed a task or fulfilled a<br />
function efficiently and usefully that he or it has<br />
done yeoman’s service is to employ a cliche.<br />
yes man is an an American slang expression to<br />
describe one who registers unequivocal agreement<br />
with his superior, without consideration;<br />
a man who never takes an independent stand<br />
(A military staff conference is an excellent<br />
situation fur the encouragement <strong>of</strong> yes men.<br />
In Wakeman’s The Hucksters the hero is defeated<br />
when he realizes that he too has become<br />
ayesman).<br />
yet; already. These words are both adverbs <strong>of</strong><br />
time. Yet may also be used as a conjunction.<br />
German-speaking people sometimes have difficulty<br />
distinguishing yef and already. Sometimes<br />
in desperation they use both words at once, as<br />
in he’s a sergeant already yet. But the words are<br />
not interchangeable and one cannot be used<br />
where the other is needed.<br />
Already shows that an action had occurred<br />
or was occurring at a particular time. It is used<br />
freely with verbs in the perfect or progressive<br />
tenses, but in literary English it is not used<br />
with a verb in the simple past, present, or future<br />
tense unless the verb itself names a continuing<br />
action. That is, one may say he already knew<br />
about it but not he already looked at it. A<br />
perfect or progressive tense is required, as in<br />
he has (or had) already looked at it or he was<br />
already looking at it.<br />
In the United States this rule is frequently<br />
disregarded in speaking <strong>of</strong> something in the<br />
past. Many educated people would say I already<br />
saw that movie, and sentences <strong>of</strong> this kind are<br />
therefore acceptable spoken English in this<br />
country. But the rule is not disregarded in<br />
speaking <strong>of</strong> something in the future. One can<br />
say tomorrow he will have seen it already but<br />
a sentence such as tomorrow he will see it<br />
already is not standard.<br />
Already should stand as close to the verb as<br />
possible. We do not ordinarily say he will have<br />
seen it tomorrow already. In a negative statement<br />
already must stand before the meaningful<br />
element in the verb phrase, as in he hasn’t<br />
already seen it. It may follow a negative verb<br />
in a question, as in hasn’t he seen it already?,<br />
or in an if clause, as in if he hasn’t seen it
Yiddish 566<br />
already, but not in a statement. He hasn’t seen<br />
it already is not literary English. The word yet<br />
is required here.<br />
Yet, used as an adverb <strong>of</strong> time, indicates an<br />
indefinite period preceding a particular moment.<br />
It encroaches on the meanings <strong>of</strong> still and<br />
already. Like these words, it cannot be used<br />
with a simple past, present, or future tense verb<br />
unless this is understood in a continuing or progressive<br />
sense. When used with a progressive<br />
tense verb in an affirmative sentence, yet is<br />
equivalent to still, as in he is thinking about it<br />
yet. In this sense yer is a bookish word and still<br />
is generally preferred. When used with a pro<br />
gressive tense verb in a negative sentence, yet<br />
is the counterpart <strong>of</strong> already. Unlike already, it<br />
may follow the verb in a negative statement, as<br />
in he isn’t thinking about it yet, as well as in<br />
a question or an if clause. When used with a<br />
perfect tense verb, yet is always the counterpart<br />
<strong>of</strong> already. It can be used in a negative or an<br />
affirmative question or if clause, and in a negative<br />
statement, such as he hasn’t seen it yet, but<br />
in an affirmative statement, such as he has seen<br />
it yet, it is meaningless.<br />
Yet may be used to qualify the comparative<br />
form <strong>of</strong> an adjective or adverb, as in louder yet.<br />
Here it has the same meaning as still.<br />
It may also be used as a connective or loose<br />
conjunction to introduce a contrast or contradiction.<br />
When used as a connective it stands<br />
immediately before the contrasting word or<br />
phrase, as in he is old yet energetic. Thissmay<br />
be a full sentence, as in yet I believe what he<br />
says.<br />
Yiddish; Hebrew. Yiddish is a language used by<br />
many Jews, but it is not linguistically related<br />
to the Hebrew language. Yiddish is actually a<br />
group <strong>of</strong> closely similar High German dialects,<br />
with vocabulary admixture from Hebrew and<br />
Slavic, written in Hebrew letters, spoken mainly<br />
by Jews in countries east <strong>of</strong> Germany and by<br />
Jewish emigrants from these regions, and now<br />
the <strong>of</strong>ficial language <strong>of</strong> Biro-Bidjan, an autonomous<br />
Jewish region in the southeast part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Soviet Union in Asia. Hebrew is the name <strong>of</strong><br />
a Semitic language, the language <strong>of</strong> the ancient<br />
Hebrews, which although not a vernacular after<br />
100 B.C. was retained as the scholarly and liturgical<br />
language <strong>of</strong> the Jews and now is used as<br />
the language <strong>of</strong> Israelis. See also Hebrew;<br />
Israelite.<br />
yoke. When this word means a pair <strong>of</strong> draft<br />
animals, it has the same form in the singular<br />
and the plural, as in a yoke <strong>of</strong> oxen, five<br />
hundred yoke <strong>of</strong> oxen. Yoke cannot be treated<br />
as a numeral. It cannot be placed immediately<br />
before a following noun but must be joined to<br />
it by <strong>of</strong>.<br />
yonder may be used as an adjective, as in on<br />
yonder hill there lives a maiden, or as an adverb,<br />
as in but, as I live, yonder comes Moses.<br />
The word is archaic in either construction.<br />
Yorick. See Alas, poor Yorick!<br />
you; ye. At one time, normal everyday English<br />
had four related words, thou, thee, ye, and you,<br />
which corresponded to the four related words<br />
I, me, we, and us. Today, <strong>of</strong> the first group,<br />
only the one form you is in general use.<br />
In the thirteenth century the plurals ye and<br />
you were used in speaking to a single person,<br />
as a mark <strong>of</strong> respect. This is still the practice in<br />
many European languages. But in England this<br />
courtesy was gradually extended to everybody,<br />
even one’s own children, and the singular forms<br />
thee and thou disappeared entirely. (See thee;<br />
thou.) We are paying for this excessive politeness<br />
today by not having any way to distinguish<br />
between a singular and a plural you. For a time<br />
a plural verb was used in speaking to several<br />
people, as in you were there, and a singular<br />
verb, in speaking to only one person, as in you<br />
was there. But this distinction is no longer<br />
standard and yore is now always used with a<br />
plural verb. In Ireland the old ye is sometimes<br />
used to indicate a plural, but this is not standard<br />
English. In the Southern United States you all<br />
is an accepted and respectable plural <strong>of</strong> you.<br />
But in literary English the mural cannot be<br />
shown except -by adding some other word, as<br />
in you ladies, you people.<br />
Of the two plural forms, ye was the subjective<br />
pronoun comparable to I and you the objective<br />
pronoun comparable to me. The difference in<br />
use is seen in ye shall know the truth and the<br />
truth shall make you free. But by the year 1600,<br />
you was generally used for the subject as well<br />
as the object <strong>of</strong> a verb and ye disappeared from<br />
natural English. If grammar books had not<br />
become so popular a hundred years or so later,<br />
the same thing might have happened to the<br />
other subjective pronouns, I, we, he, and so on,<br />
and questions about case, such as when to use<br />
I and when to use me, would no longer exist.<br />
The pronoun you may also be used indefinitely<br />
in the sense <strong>of</strong> “one” or “anyone,” as in at<br />
that time you had to have property to vote. This<br />
is good, literary English. But the construction<br />
must be handled with care. If it is at all possible<br />
to apply the word you to oneself, somebody is<br />
going to do it, and general statements such as<br />
when you think how insignificant you are or<br />
when you have had too much whiskey are likely<br />
to be taken in the wrong way.<br />
When used as a term <strong>of</strong> abuse you may<br />
appear after the principal word as well as<br />
before it, as in you fool you, you traitor you.<br />
you took the (very) words (right) out <strong>of</strong> my mouth,<br />
as a way <strong>of</strong> saying that someone has anticipated<br />
you in expressing a thought or has said what<br />
you were about to say, is a cliche.<br />
young; youthful. Young is the general word for<br />
that which is undeveloped, immature, and in the<br />
process <strong>of</strong> growth (The young trees must be protected<br />
from the strong west winds. Bliss was it<br />
in that dawn to be alive,/ But to be young was<br />
very heaven!). Young may be applied not only<br />
to persons but to things and institutions (Young<br />
hares are called leverets. We’re living in a<br />
young country, don’t forget that!). Youthful<br />
has connotations suggesting the favorable<br />
characteristics <strong>of</strong> youth, such as vigor, enthusiasm,<br />
hopefulness, and freshness and physical<br />
grace (How do you keep your youthful figure?).<br />
Only the young are young, but we all long to<br />
be youthful.
young in heart. Usually applied to those among<br />
the elderly who are hopeful and good-natured<br />
and are interested in the affairs <strong>of</strong> others in a<br />
helpful way, young in heart is hackneyed. It’s<br />
really not very apt, for the hearts <strong>of</strong> the young<br />
are <strong>of</strong>ten tortured and timid and almost always<br />
self-concerned.<br />
your; yours. The form your is used to qualify a<br />
following noun, as in your uncle, your careful<br />
consideration. The form yours is used in any<br />
other construction, as in an uncle <strong>of</strong> yours,<br />
yours truly. Yours is also the form used in a<br />
double possessive where it is separated from its<br />
following noun by and, as in yours and your<br />
uncle’s opinion. Today this construction is generally<br />
avoided and your opinion and your uncle’s<br />
or your own and your dncle’s opinion is used<br />
instead. Neither word order shows clearly<br />
whether we are talking about one thing or two,<br />
but the old-fashioned form, yours and your<br />
uncle’s, suggests one thing possessed in common<br />
more strongly than the forms which use your.<br />
The word your, like the word you, may be<br />
used indefinitely in the sense <strong>of</strong> anyone’s or the,<br />
as in your gravest beast is the ass.<br />
Your means “pertaining to you.” It must not<br />
be confused with you’re, which means “you<br />
are.”<br />
In current English the word yours is never<br />
written with an apostrophe.<br />
your earliest convenience. As a term for “soon”<br />
or “when you can” or ‘Ias quickly as possible,”<br />
at your earliest convenience is hackneyed.<br />
youm. This word was once acceptable English but<br />
it has not been used in the literary language<br />
for three hundred years. The only acceptable<br />
form today is yours.<br />
yourself; yourselves. Originally, the word self<br />
could be used as a singular or as a plural and<br />
yourself was the reflexive form <strong>of</strong> the plural<br />
pronoun you. The form yourselves did not<br />
appear until the sixteenth century. Since then,<br />
the word you has come to represent one person<br />
as well as more than one. Today we use the<br />
form yourself in speaking to one person and<br />
the form yourselves in speaking to more than<br />
one.<br />
Yourself and yourselves are sometimes used<br />
in place <strong>of</strong> the personal pronoun you, as in<br />
zany, for a fool, especially a rustic, exuberant<br />
fool, is archaic. It is all right to use it in historical<br />
contexts or where one deliberately seeks a<br />
rustic or antique flavor, or for humorous effect,<br />
or in any way at all so long as one is aware that<br />
it is out <strong>of</strong> fashion and bookish.<br />
zeugma. See syllepsis.<br />
zoom. To zoom is to drive an airplane suddenly<br />
and sharply upward at great speed for a short<br />
567 zoom<br />
Z<br />
yourself and your friends are invited. Thirty<br />
years ago this construction was frowned upon.<br />
But it provides a singular and a plural form<br />
for the word you and many people like it for<br />
this reason. It is in better standing today than<br />
it was thirty years ago, and, although it is not<br />
literary English, it can no longer be regarded<br />
as unacceptable.<br />
For the regular uses <strong>of</strong> yourself and yourselves,<br />
see reliexive pronouns.<br />
yous. Some grammarians feel that the word yous<br />
is an attempt to create a separate plural form<br />
for the word you, comparable to the Southerners’<br />
you all. Presumably the word you would be<br />
used in speaking to one person and the word<br />
yous in speaking to more than one. This is a<br />
distinction which the language needs. But in<br />
New York City, a single person is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
addressed as yous. In any case, no matter what<br />
the word means, it is not standard today.<br />
youth. When this word means a young person, it<br />
is a true singular and has a regular plural in s,<br />
as in one youth and two youths.<br />
The singular form may also be used with the<br />
article the as a group name, to mean all the<br />
young people in a given area. In this sense it<br />
takes a plural verb, as in the youth <strong>of</strong> this city<br />
are well behaved. But this is not a true plural<br />
and the word cannot be used with a numeral<br />
or a word implying number. In standard English<br />
we may speak <strong>of</strong> twenty youths but not <strong>of</strong><br />
twenty youth or many youth. When used in<br />
this sense the word is distinctly literary. In<br />
normal speech we say young people or the<br />
young. For this reason, anyone using youth in<br />
this way should use it correctly. Otherwise he<br />
is distinguishing himself by his mistakes.<br />
When youth means the period in which one<br />
is young, it is a mass word and, traditionally,<br />
does not have a plural form. In literary English<br />
we say they knew each other in their youth.<br />
The plural form is sometimes heard, as in they<br />
knew each other in their youths. This is not<br />
literary English and is <strong>of</strong>fensive to some people.<br />
But here the word youth is not being used<br />
pretentiously. In this sense it is part <strong>of</strong> normal<br />
speech. And the plural construction is<br />
heard too <strong>of</strong>ten not to be recognized as standard<br />
English.<br />
distance, as in regaining altitude, clearing an<br />
obstacle, signaling, and so on. It may be used<br />
transitively and intransitively (We zoomed unexpectedly.<br />
He zoomed his plane unexpectedly).<br />
It is incorrect to use it <strong>of</strong> a downward<br />
motion (as in Albert zoomed down the incline<br />
in two minutes f?at, seconds ahead <strong>of</strong> his nearest<br />
competitor).