Guidebook - Ispra

Field Trip Guide Book - B12 

Volume n° 1 - from PR01 to B15 

32 nd INTERNATIONAL 

GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS 

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE 

OF THE ROMANIAN 

CARPATHIANS 

Leader: M. Sandulescu 

Associate Leader: R. Dimitrescu 

Florence - Italy 

August 20-28, 2004 Pre-Congress B12

The scientific content of this guide is under the total responsibility of the Authors 

Published by: 

APAT – Italian Agency for the Environmental Protection and Technical Services - Via Vitaliano 

Brancati, 48 - 00144 Roma - Italy 

Series Editors: 

Luca Guerrieri, Irene Rischia and Leonello Serva (APAT, Roma) 

English Desk-copy Editors: 

Paul Mazza (Università di Firenze), Jessica Ann Thonn (Università di Firenze), Nathalie Marléne 

Adams (Università di Firenze), Miriam Friedman (Università di Firenze), Kate Eadie (Freelance 

indipendent professional) 

Field Trip Committee: 

Leonello Serva (APAT, Roma), Alessandro Michetti (Università dell’Insubria, Como), Giulio Pavia 

(Università di Torino), Raffaele Pignone (Servizio Geologico Regione Emilia-Romagna, Bologna) and 

Riccardo Polino (CNR, Torino) 

Acknowledgments: 

The 32 nd IGC Organizing Committee is grateful to Roberto Pompili and Elisa Brustia (APAT, Roma) 

for their collaboration in editing. 

Graphic project: 

Full snc - Firenze 

Layout and press: 

Lito Terrazzi srl - Firenze


32 nd INTERNATIONAL 

GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS 

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE 

ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS 

AUTHORS: 

M. Sandulescu (University of Bucharest - Rumania), 

R. Dimitrescu (Romanian Academy, Bucharest - Rumania) 

Florence - Italy 

August 20-28, 2004 

Pre-Congress 

B12

Introduction 

The fieldtrip “Geological Structure of the Romanian 

Carpathians” strives to cross the major tectonic units 

of this segment of the Tethyan Chains, with the 

purpose of presenting a general approach to the tectonic 

and paleogeographic (paleotectonic) problems. 

Knowledge of Carpathian geology allows us to understand 

the prolongation of the Alps toward the Balkans 

and the Dinarides. In order to accomplish the abovementioned 

tasks during the fieldtrip, a part of the 

significant geological cross sections in the East and 

South Carpathians as well as in the Apuseni Mts will 

be visited. Thus we will examine the tectonic units issued 

from the Tethyan Ocean - squeezed in the Main 

Tethyan Suture Zone or obducted on the continental 

margins – and their deformed continental margins. 

In the areas crossed by the fieldtrip geological maps 

and older fieldtrip guidebooks are available. It should 

be remembered that in respect to the geological maps 

or other guides, in the guidebook proposed here more 

or less important differences are possible, determined 

by the progress of our knowledge and/or a better understanding 

of the geological processes. 

Geological Map of Romania, scale 1: 200,000, sheets: 

Rădăuti, Topliţa, Piatra Neamţ, Odorhei, Brașov, 

Turda, Brad, Deva, Tg. Jiu, Baia de Aramă, Reșiţa. 

Geological Map of Romania, scale 1: 50,000, sheets: 

Vatra Dornei, Pojorâta, Câmpulung Moldovenesc, 

Dămuc, Voșlăbeni, Miercurea Ciuc, Brașov, Zărnești, 

Codlea, Zlatna, Câmpeni, Avram Iancu, Biharia, Brad, 

Deva, Lupeni, Schela, Tismana, Obârșia Cloșani, 

Orșova, Reșiţa, Bocșa. 

The Structure of the East Carpathians (Moldavia- 

Maramureș Area) by M. Săndulescu et al., 1981, 

Guide to Excursion B1. 

Structural Relations between Flysch and Molasse 

(The East Carpathians Model) by M.Săndulescu et 

al., 1981, Guide to Excursion A5. 

The Structure of the Apuseni Mountains by M.Bleahu 

et al., 1981, Guide to Excursion B3. 

Metamorphosed Paleozoic in the South Carpathians 

and Its Relations with the Pre-Paleozoic Basement by 

H.Kräutner et al., 1981, Guide to Excursion A1. 

The Structure of the South Carpathians (Mehedinţi- 

Banat Area) by S.Năstăseanu et al., 1981, Guide to 

Excursion B2. 

Excursion to South Carpathians, Apuseni Mountains 

and Transylvanian Basin. Description of stops by 

Berza et al., 1994 ALCAPA II. 

GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ROMANIAN CARPATHIANS 


Associate Leader: R. Dimitrescu 

Geology of the South Carpathians in the Danube 

Gorges (Romanian Bank) by Pop et al., 1997. 

General Geological Setting 

General Structure and Evolution of the Romanian 

Carpathians 

(according to Săndulescu, 1980, 1984, 1994) 

The Carpathians are a segment of the Tethyan 

Chains; toward west they join the Alps and toward 

south and south-east the Balkans and the Rhodope. 

The Carpathian Foreland includes several platforms 

(Scythian, Moesian) or cratons (East European) as 

well as the Cimmerian North Dobrogea Orogen 

(Figure1). The Carpathian Folded Area is the result 

of several tectogenetic events of different ages: Cretaceous 

(generating the Inner Zones named Dacides) 

and Miocene (the Outer Zones named Moldavides). 

Upper Cretaceous and/or Paleogene post-tectogenetic 

covers develop above the Inner Zones. The Pannonian 

and the Transylvanian, Neogene molassic depressions 

overlie important parts of the Inner Zones and a part 

of their post-tectogenetic covers. A Neosarmatian-Eopleistocene 

molassic asymmetric foredeep develops 

in front of the Orogen, partly (inner limb) superposed 

on its external zones (Figure 1). The Folded Area can 

be divided into several major tectonic ensembles: 

The Main Tethyan Suture Zone (MTS) which 

groups together tectonic units constituted by Middle 

Triassic-Middle Jurassic ophiolitic complexes overlapped 

by sedimentary formations whose age (Middle 

and Upper Triassic, Jurassic or Upper Jurassic-Lower 

Cretaceous) is different from the age of the ophiolites 

they cover. The MTS which runs along the Vardar 

Zone (between the European and the Apulian continental 

margins) splits – from Beograd toward north 

or north-west - into two branches: the South Pannonian 

(separating the Apulian microplate from the 

Fore-Apulian one) and the Transylvanidian-Pienidian 

(situated between the European and the Fore-Apulian 

margins) (Figure2). 

The Fore-Apulian Microcontinent (FAM) is situated 

on the opposite side with respect to the European 

margin, considering the MTS a major geotectonic axis 

of symmetry of the Tethyan Chains. The FAM groups 

together the Austroalpine, the Central West Carpathians 

and the North Apusenide units (Figure 1), as well 

as the units covered by the Pannonian Depression 

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Volume n° 1 - from PR01 to B15


B12 

B12 - 

Leader: M. Sandulescu

Figure 1 - Tectonic Sketch of Romania (acc. to 

Săndulescu, 1994). Carpathian Foreland: 1- East 

European Craton, 2 - Scythian (Sy) and Moesian (Mo) 

platforms, 3 - North Dobrogea Orogene. Carpathians: 4 - 

Inner Dacides (Northern Apusenides), 5 - Transylvanides, 

6 - Pienides (5 + 6 - Main Tethyan Suture), 7 - Median 

Dacides (Crist. - Mesoz. Zone, Getic and Supragetic), 8 

- Outer Dacides (Ceahlau- Severin), 9 - Marginal Dacides 

(Danubian), 10 - Moldavides, 11 - Post - tectogenetic 

covers, 12 - Neogene Molasse depressions and Foredeep, 

13 - Up. Cret.- Paleoc. magmatic arcs, 14 - Neogene 

magmatic arcs, 15 - thrust - sheets, 16 - faults. 

(Figure 2). 

The European Continental Margin (ECM) groups 

together the main part of the East Carpathians (the Pienides 

belong to the MTS) and the South Carpathians. 

There are two basic types of units: basement shearing 

nappes and cover nappes. The first type is built up of 

crystalline formations (metamorphics and sometimes 

acid and/or intermediate granitoids) and their normal 

sedimentary envelope (sedimented on the continental 

margin). This type of unit, which developed in the 

FAM too, constitute the Central East Carpathians 

(the Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone excepting the Transylvanian 

nappes which are obducted from the MTS 

- Figure 1,2), its correspondent in the South Carpathians 

(Getic-Supragetic ensemble) and the Danubian 


(Figure 1). The cover type of nappes are well developed 

in the Flysch Zone of the East Carpathians and 

in the Subcarpathians. In the South Carpathians only 

the Severin Nappe (situated tectonically between the 

Getic Nappe and the Danubian) is of this type. 

Geotectonic History. 

End-Proterozoic (Panafrican) cratonisation is recognized 

in the whole Carpathian Foreland and in 

the Carpathian Orogen as relics. This huge cratonic 

area, preserved actually in the East European Craton, 

was split south and west of the former within the 

Paleozoic mobile areas. The folded basement of the 

Scythian Platform proceeds from one of these, while 

the Paleozoic metamorphic series of the Carpathians 

comes from another branch. Within these branches, 

remnants of Paleozoic oceanic crust-bearing domains 

Figure 2 - The major Tethyan sutures and continental 

areas in the Carpathian realm (post- tectonic covers is not 

shown) (acc. to Săndulescu, 1987). 1 a - Inner Dacides, 

1/2 - Bükk Unit and correlative units, 2 - Major Tethyan 

Suture (Vardar, South Pannonian, Transylvanides, 

Pienides etc), 3 - Măgura Group (belonging to the 

suture, 4 - Median Dacides (Central East - Carpathians, 

Getic & Supragetic nappes), 5 - Outer Dacides 

(Ceahlău - Severin), 6 - Marginal Dacides (Danubian), 

7 - Moldavides. Bc - Bucharest, Be - Beograd, Bd - 

Budapest, K - Krakow, W - Wien. 

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Figure 3 - Palinspastic sketches of the Carpathians and 

their Foreland during the Mesozoic and Paleogene. 1 

- Tethyan oceanic crust, 2 - Thinned and / or oceanic 

crust (Pindus), 3 - Thinned and oceanic (a) crust (Outer 

Dacides), 4 - North Dobrogea - South Crimea Cimmerian 

Aulacogene, 5 - Continental crust, 6 - deformed oceanic 

crust, 7 - Thinned crust of Moldavides. AA - Austroalpine, 

Aai - Lower Austroalpine, Aas - Upper Austroalpine, AM 

- Apuseni Mts., B - Bükk, BA - Balkanides, Bi - Bihor, Cc 

- Choc, Ch - Ceahlău, COC - Central East Carpathians, 

CWC - Central West Carpathians, D - Danubian, Dj - 

Djirula, EA - Eastern Alps, MM - Moesia, M - Măgura, 

ND - North Dobrogea, P - Pieniny Klippen, Pd - Pindus, 

Pn - Pontides, Rh - Rhodopes, SC - South Crimea, SCA 

- South Carpathians, Sge - Getic and Supragetic, Si 

- Silicicum, Sv - Severin, SP - Serbo - Pelagonian, Ta - 

Tatrides, WA - Western Alps. 

seem to be acceptable. A second large cratonisation 

occurs after the Early Carboniferous, including the 

Carpathians and parts of its Foreland. 

The earliest riftings – Early Triassic – occur along 

the future Tethyan Ocean and in the North Dobrogea- 

South Crimea Aulacogene. The first one precedes 

the opening of the oceanic Tethys, the second one 

represents a possible pull-apart structure connected 

to the right-lateral strike-slip movements along the 

Tornquist-Teisseyre Lineament. Tethyan oceanic 

spreading starts in the Middle Triassic (in accordance 

with the age of the oldest ophiolites which were 

obducted from the Transylvanidian suture) separating 

the Fore-Apulian Microcontinent from the European 

Continental Margin. The spreading processes 

continue during the Late Triassic, Early and Middle 

Jurassic, the Pienidian segment of the Tethys opening 

and spreading during this last period (Figure3). Rifting 

processes occur during the late Early Jurassic and 

the Middle Jurassic within the European Continental 

Margin (the Black Flysch-Ceahlău-Severin Rift). The 

opening of the Tethys and the distension of the mentioned 

rift, accompanied by the north-eastern motion 

of the Moesian Block, determine the compressive 

deformation of the North Dobrogea-South Crimea 

Aulacogene. At the Middle/Late Jurassic boundary 

the Tethyan Ocean reaches its maximum size, the 

youngest ophiolites proceeding from it being of pre- 

Kimmeridgian age. 

The earliest meaningful crustal shortening in 

the Carpathian Tethys was recorded in the latest 

Tithonian/earliest Neocomian. It consists of oceanic 

crust subduction below oceanic crust (Marianne type 

subduction), expressed in the calc-alkaline volcanism 

which occurs in some units of the Transylvanides

(South Apuseni). A largely developed tectogenetic 

event is the Meso-Cretaceous one. It involved the 

European Continental Margin generating the basement 

shearing nappes of the Central East Carpathians 

(Median Dacides) and a part of the oceanic Tethys 

expressed in obductions above the former (Transylvanidian 

Nappes). Meso-Cretaceous shortenings 

are also known in the Getic-Supragetic Domain, as 

well as in the Ceahlău-Severin Rift. The Intra-Turonian 

(Pre-Gosau) tectogenetic compressional events 

affected the Fore-Apulian Microcontinent (Inner 

Dacides), although mesocretaceous deformations are 

also recorded. The End-Cretaceous tectogeneses determined 

the final closing of the oceanic Tethys in the 

Transylvanidian sector and partially in the Pienidian 

one (Figure3). The European Continental Margin was 

affected by the End-Cretaceous deformations, too. At 

that time the South Carpathians recess-type bending 

was accomplished by the westward motion of the 

southern panel of the Moesian Platform, facilitated 

by the right-lateral slip of the Intra-Moesian Fault 

(Figs.1, 3). The motion of the Moesian Platform was 

accompanied by the underthrusting of the Danubian 

(Marginal Dacides) below the Getic and Severin nappes 

determining the consumption of the crust of the 

Severin sector of the rift, process which generated the 

Banatitic (calc-alkaline) Arc intruded in the overriding 

units, the Getic-Supragetic nappes respectively. A 

similar calc-alkaline (“Banatitic”) arc develops within 

the margin of the Fore-Apulian Microcontinent, generated 

by subduction of the oceanic Tethyan crust 

below the continental crust of the yet deformed Inner 

Dacides (Figure 6 ). 

Starting with the Early Paleogene, the mobile areas, 

receiving important turbiditic (flysch) sedimentation, 

remain the Pienidian (Pieniny + Măgura) and 

the Moldavidian domains (Figure 3) as well as some 

post-tectogenetic basins (e.g. Maramureș-Bârgău). 

The Pieniny-Magura Domain, with a partly consumed 

oceanic crust, ends southward on the North 

Transylvanian Fault, which separated it from the 

yet “sutured” Transylvanidian sector of the oceanic 

Tethys. The Moldavidian sedimentary Cretaceous 

and Paleogene-Lower Miocene basins develop above 

a thinned crust, which will be consumed during the 

Miocene together with the crust of the Ceahlău sector 

of the Ceahlău-Severin Rift, during the Miocene generating 

the East Carpathian Neogene Volcanic Arc. 

The south-west end of the Moldavidian troughs is 

connected to the Intra-Moesian Fault (Figure1). West 

of it the Paleogene formations, which generally show 


changed lithofacies with respect to the Moldavides, 

fill the Getic Depression. This represents a (proto-) 

foredeep of the South Carpathians (where Tertiary 

shortenings are not recognized). 

Geological Structure of the East Carpathians 

The Romanian East Carpathians are the natural southward 

prolongation of the Ukrainian East Carpathians. 

Conventionally the boundary between the East and 

North Carpathians is situated along the Dniester, San 

and Uj valleys, but from the geological point of view 

there are only minor changes (if they exist). Roughly 

the boundary between the East and South Carpathians 

shows the same features, but the correlation is more 

difficult because of the development of post-tectogenetic 

covers and a complex system of Quaternary 

Depressions. 

The major geological ensembles of the East Carpathians 

are (innward-outward) (Figure 1) (Săndulescu, 

1984, 1994): 1) The Pienides, situated north of the 

Transylvanian Depression and the North Transylvanian 

Fault; 2) The Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone 

(Median Dacides and Transylvanian nappes) and its 

post-tectogenetic cover (above which the Pienides 

are overthrust); 3) The Flysch Zone, showing an internal 

and an external zone; 4) The Subcarpathians. 

The innermost units of the Flysch Zone are grouped 

in the External Dacides, while the Moldavides group 

together the other units of the Flysch Zone and the 

Subcarpathians. Inward with respect to the Crystalline-Mesozoic 

Zone and crossing the Pienides, a 

Neogene Volcanic Chain develops. 

The Pienides consist of cover nappes overthrusted 

above the Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene-Lowermost 

Miocene post-tectogenetic cover of the Crystalline- 

Mesozoic Zone, during the Burdigalian. 

The Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone is built up of basement 

shearing nappes, each of them showing large 

developed metamorphic formations covered by a 

Mesozoic or Permo-Mesozoic sedimentary envelope. 

The nappes, of Meso-Cretaceous age, cover each 

other. They are (up/down) the Bucovinian Nappe, the 

Subbucovinian Nappe and the Infrabucovinian nappes. 

The metamorphics consist of several superposed 

series (partly tectonically as a result of Paleozoic tectonic 

events) (Tab.1) (Kräutner, 1983, 1985; Balintoni, 

1985, 1997). The most important part of them are 

mesometamorphic and Precambrian. The youngest 

one (Tulgheș Series) is of Lower Paleozoic age and, 

perhaps, epimetamorphic. During the Middle Triassic 

a first paleogeographical differentiation took place: on 

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Table 1 - Correlation Sketch of the Metamorphic 

Formations of the Centre. East Carpathians 

the Bucovinian-Subbucovinian domain shallow-water 

(mainly dolomites) carbonatic rocks are deposited, 

while on the Infrabucovinian domain basinal, weakly 

bituminous, dolomites and limestones develop. The 

Upper Triassic formations are absent (stratigraphic 

gap). The discordant Lower Jurassic is of shallowwater 

environment (hard-ground type or paralic), the 

Middle Jurassic is generally detritic. During the Tithonian-Neocomian 

time a second paleogeographical 

differentiation is recorded: along the external part of 

the Bucovinian domain a flysch trough develops, its 

arenites being supplied by some elevated parts of the 

Subbucovinian domain, while on the central Bucovinian 

domain and the Infrabucovinian one, pelagic limy 

sedimentation took place. A meaningful formation 

developed in the top of the Bucovinian sedimentary 

succession is the Aptian-Albian Wildflysch which 

contains the sedimentary klippen (“olistoliths”) proceeding 

from the Transylvanian nappes which are 

tectonically superposed on the Wildflysch. 

The Transylvanian nappes proceed from the Main 

Tethyan Suture Zone (Figs.1, 2) obducted during 

the Meso-Cretaceous tectogeneses. There are three 

main nappes (Perșani, Olt and Hăghimaș) with different 

lithostratigraphic successions and ages of the 

ophiolitic complexes from the basal part of the nappes 

(excepting the Perșani one proceeding from the rifting 

zone which precedes the opening of the Tethyan 

Ocean). Transitional successions between these three 

basic units may be also recorded. 

The Flysch Zone groups together cover nappes built 

up essentially of sedimentary formations detached 

from their primary basement and overthrusted eastward 

above the underthrust Foreland (Figure 4, 5). 

The innermost nappes (Black Flysch, Ceahlău,Baraolt 

etc.) (Figure 1) contain only Tithonian-Cretaceous 

formations, the Paleogene ones building up their posttectogenetic 

cover. The other units (the Moldavides) 

(Convolute Flysch, Macla, Audia, Tarcău, Marginal 

Folds) comprise Cretaceous, Paleogene and Miocene 

(Lower and Middle) sedimentary formations. The 

Subcarpathian Nappe (Figs. 1, 4, 5) is the outermost 

overthrust unit of the East Carpathians. It consists 

mostly of Miocene formations to which – in the core 

of some anticlines - Oligocene and exceptionally 

Upper Eocene ones are associated. The tectogenetic 

events which generated the actual structural features 

of the Flysch Zone and the Subcarpathians are: 

Meso-Cretaceous (overthrusting of the Black Flysch 

and Baraolt nappes and folding of the Ceahlău one), 

End-Cretaceous (overthrusting of the Ceahlau Nappe; 

slight folding of the Convolute Flysch Nappe), Intra- 

Burdigalian (overthrusting of the Convolute Flysch, 

Macla and Audia nappes), Intra-Badenian (overthrusting 

of the Tarcău Nappe and of the Marginal 

Folds Nappe) Intra-Sarmatian (overthrust of the Subcarpathian 

Nappe, the last important underthrusting of 

the Foreland). 

The Foredeep is an asymmetric molassic depression 

situated discordantly above the Foreland elements and 

the external deformed part of the chain (Figure 1, 4). 

In the Carpathian Bending Area the inner limb of the 

Foredeep is folded. The deformations took place during 

the Lower Pleistocene tectonic event known as the 

Wallachian “Phase” . 

Geological Structure of the South 

Apuseni Mountains 

The Southern Apusenides correspond on general lines 

to the prolongation of the Major Tethian Suture Zone 

which in the Balkan Peninsula is also known as the 

Axios -Vardar Zone. Around Belgrade, a branch of


Figure 4 - General cross - section through the Romanian 

Carpathians (acc. to Săndulescu, 1984). Inner Dacides 

(1+ 2) : 1 - Codru - Arieșeni nappe system, 2 - Bihor 

Unit; Main Tethyan Suture: 3 - Transylvanides: 

Median Dacides (4 - 6) : 4 - Bucovinian Nappe, 5 

- Subbucovinian Nappe, 6 - Infrabucovinian nappes; 7- 

Remnants of the primary basements of the Flysch Zone in 

the Benioff paleoplane; Outer Dacides (8 + 9) : 8 - Black 

Flysch Nappe, 9 - Ceahlău Nappe; Moldavides (10 - 15) 

: 10 - Convolute Flysch, 11 - Macla Nappe, 12 - Audia 

Nappe, 13 - Tarcău Nappe, 14 - Marginal Folds Nappe, 

15 - Subcarpathians Nappe; Foredeep : 16- Focșani 

Depression; Underthrusted elements (17 + 18) : 17 

- Crystalline basement, 18- Sedimentary formations (Pz 

- Paleozoic, Mz - Mesozoic, Pg - Paleogene). 

the latter curving to the NE joins under the mainly 

Tertiary and Quaternary cover (Vojvodina-Banat) the 

complicated Southern Apuseni orogenic system emplaced 

mainly on oceanic crust; another branch, also 

concealed by younger formations, runs WNW along 

the Sava river (South Pannonian Suture - Săndulescu, 

1980, 1984). North and South of the Southern Apusenides 

suture zone, units with continental basement 

represent its margins, called respectively Internal, 

Median Dacides. 

The different units of the Southern Apusenides, 

mainly obduction nappes, consist of sedimentary Upper 

Jurassic and Cretaceous formations, at the base of 

which magmatic complexes of ophiolitic or island arc 

character were conserved. The age of the ophiolites 

is Middle Jurassic, whereas the calc-alkaline islandarc 

series belongs to the Upper Jurassic (Berriasian, 

at most). 

From north to south, the tectonic units which will be 

crossed during the excursion are: Bucium Unit, Feneș 

Nappe, Techerău Nappe, Căbești Nappe and Bejan 

Nappe. We shall describe them according to Bordea, 

1992 and Bleahu et al., 1981. 

The Bucium Unit overlies a crystalline basement 

characteristic of the Northern Apuseni (Internal 

Dacides). The sedimentary sequence starts with the 

Ciuruleasa Formation consisting of black argillaceous 

shales with sandstone lenses in which an Early Cretaceous 

flora was found. A sandy calcareous-shaly 

flysch-like formation called the Valea Povernei Formation 

follows, of Upper Hauterivian-Lower Aptian 

age, established according to paleophytological data 

(Antonescu, 1973). The most characteristic term of 

this formation is a quartzitic sandstone with calcareous 

matrix and calcitic veinlets, interbedded with dark 

argillaceous shales. Graded bedding and parallel or 

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Figure 5 - Synthetic cross - section through the East 

Carpathians (in central Moldavia) (acc. to Săndulescu, 

Stănică and Visarion in Săndulescu , 1994). B - 

Bucovinian Nappe, SB - Subbucovinian Nappe, IB 

- Infrabucovinian Nappe, FN - Black Flysch Nappe, CH 

- Ceahlău Nappe, FC - Convolute Flysch Nappe, M - 

Macla Nappe, A - Audia Nappe, TC - Tarcău Nappe, MA 

- Marginal Folds Nappe, SC - Subcarpathians Nappe, 

Cr - crystalline formations, Pz - 3 - Upper Paleozoic, Mz 

- Mesozoic, N - Neogene, Th - Tithonian, k 1 - Lower 

Cretaceous, k 2 - Upper Cretaceous, Pg 1 - Paleocene, Pg 

2 - Eocene, o 1 - Oligocene, m 1 - Lower Miocene, m 2 

- Middle Miocene. 

cross lamination can sometimes be observed. 

Next, a shaly-calcareous flysch formation consisting 

of calcareous sandstones, calcarenites and calcirudites 

with intercalations of greenish-grey shales follows 

conformably. In the graded calcarenites elements of 

mafic rocks and of Neojurassic limestones can be 

observed. The Aptian age of this formation was demonstrated 

by Brachiopods (Belbeckella gibbsiana), 

Orbitolinids and a palynological association. 

The sequence continues with the Soharu Formation, 

which could be characterized as a grey argillaceous 

flysch with Wildflysch episodes. It consists of siltstones 

and weakly calcareous sandstones, dark clays, 

calcirudites and conglomerates with pebbles of mafic 

rocks and limestones. 

Micropaleontological evidence as well as Ammonites 

limit the age as Upper Aptian-Lower Albian. 

A grey Lower Albian Wildflysch Formation with 

olistoliths of Upper Jurassic massive limestones and 

mafic rocks represents a lateral facies variation of 

the Soharu Formation. Besides the chaotic blocks of 

calcirudites, calcarenites, polymictic conglomerates, 

basic tuffs or jaspers, a paratypic flyschoid facies 

also occurs. 

The Upper Albian is represented by the Pârâul Izvorului 

Formation. It consists of a grey flysch with evident 

graded bedding and convolute structure, the main 

rock types being micaceous sandstones and marls. 

The constraining macro-and micropaleontological 

data were found in the same formation occurring in 

another structural unit (the Curechiu Nappe). 

At its upper part, the Pârâul Izvorului Formation passes 

into the ortho-quartzitic Negrileasa Conglomerates 

(Cenomanian). 

The Senonian of the Bucium Unit overlies transgressively 

the previously described formations as well 

as the crystalline schists of the Northern Apuseni 

Mountains. It starts with a Upper Santonian Gosau 

Formation (rudist-bearing limestones) followed by

grey marls with Inoceramus balticus and a grittyshaly 

micaceous flysch. 

The Feneș Nappe is overthrown northwards onto the 

Bucium Unit and has an ophiolitic basement. It begins 

with the Feneș Formation, the most significant within 

the Southern Apusenides. It could be defined as a volcano-sedimentary 

calcareous olistostrome with flysch 

sequences, and starts with a thick turbiditic sequence 


Figure 6 - Structural cross - section through the Apuseni 

Mts. and the South Carpathians (acc. to Săndulescu, 

Stănică and Visarion in Săndulescu ,1994). 1 - Bihor Unit 

(BH) (a - sedimentary formations), 2 - Codru - Arieșeni 

nappes system (CA), 3 - Biharia nappes system (B) (a 

- Gosau Formation), 4 - Transylvanides (M) (Southern 

Apusenides) (Main Tethyan Suture), 5 - Getic (G) and 

Supragetic (SG) nappes (a - sedimentary formations), 6 

- Severin Nappe (SV), 7 - Danubian (DA), 8 - Senonian 

- Paleocene calc - alkaline magmatites (Banatites), 9 - 

Moho Discontinuity. 

of quartz sandstones and grey clays which towards the 

top grades into slumped clays with interbedded tuffs 

and spilitic lavas as well as with either massive bioconstructed 

or thin bedded micritic limestones. In the 

massive limestones, Pachyodonts were found providing 

proofs of their Barremian-Lower Aptian age. 

The Feneș Formation grades up into the turbiditic 

Valea Dosului Formation, consisting of calcareous 

polymictic conglomerates, alternating with sandstones, 

green clays and mafic pyroclastites. In intercalated 

calcarenites Orbitolinids were found, indicating 

an Aptian age. 

The Meteș Formation, overlying unconformably the 

two above-mentioned sequences, has a typical Wildflysch 

character. It includes two members: a lower 

one characterized by an olistostrome-like marly-silty 

facies with some interbedded turbiditic and coarse 

layered sandstones; an upper member which consists 

of breccias with silty-marly green, grey or reddish 

matrix and exolistoliths of ophiolitic rocks, Upper 

Jurassic massive limestones or granodiorites. 

The Upper Aptian-Middle Albian age of the Meteș 

Formation was established according to macropaleontological 

and palynological studies. 

Next follows the Valea lui Paul Formation, consisting 

of grey, loose sandstones which pass into sands. 

Micropaleontological and palynological studies have 

provided evidence of a Upper Albian-Cenomanian 

age. 

The Senonian of the Feneș Unit is represented by 

medium or fine-grained sandstones and polymictic 

conglomerates. A megabreccia Wildflysch Formation 

follows, interpreted by some authors as an independent 

unit (Valea Mică-Galda Nappe). 

The Techerău Nappe is developed in a widespread 

area in the western and the central part of the South 

Apusenides. It is the unit which shows a major part 

of the Tethian oceanic crust. Its basement consists of 

ophiolitic rocks as well as of an island arc calcalkaline 

series, which interfingers with Callovian radiolarites. 

The sedimentary sequence starts with these jaspers 

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11 - B12 



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B12 - 


Figure 7 - Structural sketch-map of the Apuseni Mountains. .... Neogene molasse cover; vvvv Neogene calc-alkaline 

magmatites; +++ Upper Cretaceous calc-alkaline magmatites; Sn, post-tectogenetic cover of the North Apusenides. 

Northern Apusenides: Biharia Nappes System – BA, Baia de Arieș Nappe; ML, Muncel-Lupșa Nappe; B, Biharia 

Nappe; H P, Highiș (H) and Poiana (P) Nappes; Codru Nappes System: Co, Colești Nappe; Va, Vașcău Nappe; M 

A, Moma (M) and Arieșeni (A) Nappes; Vt, Vetre Nappe; D Ba, Dieva (D) and Bătrânescu (Ba) Nappes; S F, Șasa 

(S) and Ferice (F) Nappes; U, Următ Nappe; Fi G, Finiș (Fi) and Gârda (G) Nappes; Vl, Vălani Nappe; UB, Bihor 

Unit. Southern Apusenides: Ri, Rimetea Nappe; Be, Bedeleu Nappe. Bedeleu Nappes System: Fu, Fundoaia Nappe; H, 

Hospea Nappe; Bj, Bejani Unit; Bo, Bozeș Nappe; V Ar, Vulcan (V) and Ardeu (Ar) Nappes; Cb, Căbești Nappe; VG, 

Valea Mică-Galda Nappe; T, Techerău Nappe; C, Curechiu Nappe; FB, Feneș-Blăjani Nappe; Cr Fr, Criș (Cr) and 

Frasin (Fr) Nappes; Gr, Groși Nappe; Bu, Bucium Unit. Median Dacides: DM, Supragetic Nappes 

followed by Oxfordian micritic limestones and massive 

limestones of Kimmeridgian-Tithonian age. Barremian 

-Aptian (?) marly or sandy limestones with 

Orbitolinids overlie the Upper Jurassic limestones as 

well as the eruptive rocks directly. 

Wildflysch sequences consisting of dark clays containing 

olistoliths of Upper Jurassic and Urgonian 

limestones and mafic rocks directly overlie the basement 

in several places. In places, interbedded sandstones 

and marly sequences, ascribed to the Albian, 

are also present. 

The following two units are bordered by EW trending 

vertical dislocations probably with a horizontal 

displacement, parallel to the South Transylvanian 

Fault. Consequently, their overthrusting character is 

impossible to evaluate. 

The Căbești Unit begins with the Cpbești Formation, 

an olistostrome with quartz sandstone-shaly flysch - 

like sequences. It is ascribed to the Barremian, by 

comparison with the Valea Povernei Formation. It 

is overlain by the Fornpdia Formation, consisting of 

quartzose conglomerates which laterally pass into 

calcareous sandstones, ascribed to the Vraconian 

(uppermost Albian) due to the Ammonites found. The 

calclithitic sequence which follows, as well as reddish 

marls, are considered to belong to the Cenomanian, 

also due to Ammonite faunas. 

The Bejan Unit is the southernmost one of the 

South Apusenides. The Bejan Formation consists of 

a Wildflysch with exolistoliths of basalts, Triassic and 

Upper Jurassic-Neocomian limestones embedded in 

black argillaceous clays with intercalations of basaltic

flows and pyroclastics. Its age was ascribed to the 

Barremian. 

The Deva Formation which follows after an evident 

unconformity is represented by poorly sorted, loose, 

thick bedded sandstones interbedded with silty marls. 

According to palynological data, its age may be assigned 

to the Turonian and Senonian. 

The Bozeș Nappe represents the uppermost unit in 

the south-eastern part of the Southern Apuseni. The 

Bozeș Formation represents its main lithostratigraphic 

term. It is a typical flysch formation in which the 

following rock types can be recognized: sandstones, 

silty marls and microconglomerates. Graded bedding, 

sole markings and bioglyphs are frequent. Towards 

the top, the flysch sequence is replaced by a molassic 

one, with conglomerate levels. The top itself consists 

of continental deposits. The age of the formation is 

ascribed to the Senonian, reaching the Maastrichtian, 

established on the basis of faunal remains and microfaunal 

studies. 

Mesozoic eruptive rocks. 

At the beginning of the eighties, Savu (1981) for 

the first time stated the clear distinction between the 

ophiolitic complex of the South Apusenides, consisting 

of a tholeiitic series, and an island arc volcanism 

forming a calc-alkaline series, emplaced in the same 

Carpathian unit. 

The most recent data concerning both magmatic complexes 

are due to Saccani et al. (2001), Bortolotti et al. 

(2002) and Nicolae, Saccani (2003). We shall describe 

them according to the latter. 

The ophiolitic sequence is characterized by: 1) an intrusive 

section represented mainly by small gabbroic 

bodies as well as scarce ultramafic cumulates; 2) a 

basaltic sheeted dike complex; 3) a volcanic sequence 

including basalts and rare pillow breccias; 4) very rare 

Callovian radiolarian chert. 

Basaltic rocks display MORB patterns and a high-Ti 

magmatic affinity; all the geochemical features suggest 

that the ophiolites were generated in a mid-ocean 

ridge setting and that they can be correlated with the 

ophiolites of the Vardar-Axios zone. K-Ar ages of 

microgabbros, dolerites and basalts from the Mureș 

Valley (Techerău Nappe) fall between 138.9 ± 6.0 

and 167.8 ± 5.0 M. a. (Middle to Upper Jurassic) 

(Nicolae et al., 1992). 

The overlying calc-alkaline rocks are represented 

by massive lava flows including basalts, andesites, 

dacites and rhyolites, as well as by some granitoid 

complexes intruded into the ophiolitic sequences; 

they show locally high-K calc-alkaline affinity. This 


series represents a magmatic island-arc setting developed 

over the previously formed oceanic lithosphere. 

Relations with sedimentary formations constrain the 

age of the calc-alkaline series to the Upper Jurassic. 

No genetic relationship with the underlying ophiolitic 

rocks exists. A younger alkaline series consists of limburgites, 

trachyandesites (oligophyres) and trachytes 

(orthophyres) intercalated in the Lower Cretaceous 

Feneș beds. 

Microtectonics and metamorphism 

of the Feneș beds. 

Two folding phases developed during the time-span 

from Early Aptian to Late Maastrichtian. The D1 

phase produced west-northwest-verging isoclinal 

to very tight folds, associated to a slaty cleavage. 

Illite and chlorite were formed, metamorphic conditions 

being close to the diagenetic zone/anchizone 

boundary. The subsequent D2 phase produced northnorthwest- 

verging, parallel folds. The burial of the 

formation took place at a depth of 8-10 km (Ellero 

et al., 2002). 

Main tectonic features The geotectonic evolution of 

the Southern Apusenides was typically polyphasic. 

The Mesocretaceous tectogenesis involved two 

moments:1) the first one, in the uppermost Aptian, 

marked some unconformities in the Bucium, Feneș 

and Căbești Units; 2) the second, an intra-Late Albian 

one, was much more important and caused thrusting 

between some units. The Wildflysch character of some 

Albian formations pleads also for important compressive 

movements; 3) The pre-Gosau tectogenesis does 

not display evident structures. It is the Laramian tectogenesis 

that accomplished the structural framework 

of the Southern Apusenides. The overall transport 

direction of the nappes is a north- western one. 

Concerning the Neogene tectonics, it is noteworthy 

that characteristic NW-SE structures can be considered 

also as tectono-magmatic alignments. 

Geological Structure of the North 


The Northern Apusenides (Internal Dacides) group 

together units issued from the deformation of a continental 

crust. These units consist of metamorphic and 

granitic basements of Precambrian or Paleozoic age 

and of sedimentary Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

formations. 

Bihor Unit. It has to be underlined from the beginning 

that, although this fact is not compulsory, every 

Alpine tectonic unit having a crystalline “sole” is 

characterised by specific features of this metamorphic 

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13 - B12 



B12 

B12 - 


basement. 

For the lowermost Bihor Unit, this basement consists 

of the medium-grade Somes Series (micaschists, 

amphibolites, leptynites) and the retrogressive Arada 

Series (chlorite-sericite-albite schists, metarhyolites), 

both intruded by the Muntele Mare granitic massif. 

The ages of the metamorphism and of the intrusion 

are Paleozoic. 

The sedimentary sequence of the Bihor Unit includes, 

(besides very scarce Permian) Triassic, Jurassic and 

pre-Senonian Cretaceous formations. The following 

specific lithostratigraphic features must be underlined: 

-development of a carbonatic platform series from the 

Upper Werfenian to the base of the Carnian; 

-absence of the major part of the Upper Triassic; 

-Gresten paralic facies of the Lower Jurassic; 

-marine sequence of the Middle Jurassic and of the 

base of the Upper Jurassic; 

-development of a carbonatic platform in the Kimmeridgian 

and the Tithonic; 

-lag of sedimentation at the base of the Cretaceous, 

marked by bauxites; 

-calcareous neritic lithofacies of the Barremian and 

Aptian, passing into a marly sedimentation which 

continues in the Turonian. 

The Bihor Unit corresponds to the Villàny Unit in 

southern Hungary and to the Tatride units in the 

Slovakian Carpathians, and is probably overthrust 

northwards onto the Tethysian Suture. 

Codru Nappes System. A number of nappes are overthrust 

from the SE onto the Bihor Unit; they correspond 

to the South Hungarian Bekes Realm. 

The first major unit, the Finiș-Gârda Nappe, has 

a metamorphic basement consisting of the Codru 

Granitoids and Migmatites, the oldest basic intrusions 

being pre-Hercynian (400 m. a.) according to 

Dallmeyer et al. (1994). As specific lithostratigraphic 

features, the following are to be mentioned: 

-large development of the Permian, with felsic ignimbritic 

volcanism; 

-complete development of the Triassic sequence, with 

Carpathian Keuper and Kössen facies in the Late and 

latest Triassic; 

-marine, marly-calcareous facies of the Lower 

Jurassic; 

-development of a flysch-type sequence in the Tithonian-Neocomian. 

The Următ Nappe is developed similarly to the Finiș 

Nappe, with lithofacial variations at the level of the 

Jurassic, which is of wildflysch type. 

The Dieva-Bătrânescu Nappe is characterized by: 

- a complex magmatism in the Permian, with mafic 

rocks intercalated between two rhyolitic sequences; 

- development of Reifling and Dachstein facies (until 

the Upper Norian); 

- a lag at the level of the Jurassic. 

The Moma-Arieșeni Nappe overlies all the other 

units including the Bihor Unit. The oldest formations 

of the former consists of the Lower Carboniferous 

Arieșeni Series (greenschists intruded by doleritic 

veins). The Upper Carboniferous and Permian molassic 

formations of reddish colour are well developped, 

including acidic eruptive products. The Middle and 

Upper Triassic formations, in calcareous facies, end 

with the Rhaetian. 

The highest nappes of the Codru System display Triassic 

sequences in Hallstatt and Dachstein facies. 

Biharia Nappes System. This group of nappes 

consists essentially of metamorphic formations of 

pre-Carboniferous age (Biharia Series: orthoamphibolites, 

chlorite-schists with albite porphyroblasts; 

Muncel Series: sericite schists, mylonitic granites, 

metarhyolites) overlain by the metaconglomeratic 

Upper Carboniferous Păiușeni Series. 

Post-tectogenetic cover. The nappes building up the 

Internal Dacides (Northern Apusenides), characterized 

by a Turonian principal tectogenesis (similarly to 

the Slovak Central Carpathians or to the Eastern Alps) 

are post-erosionally overlain by the Senonian Gosau 

Formation. The post-tectonic subduction magmatism 

is represented by banatites. 

Banatitic Late Cretaceous magmatism. In the 

Apuseni Mountains, an outstanding example of 

Late Cretaceous magmatism is the volcano-plutonic 

Vlădeasa Massif; a volcano-sedimentary formation is 

overlain by andesites, dacites and ignimbritic rhyolites, 

all crossed by quartz-dioritic and monzogranitic 

minor intrusions. 

Southwards, a granodioritic-granitic batholith crops 

out only on restricted areas and is also associated to 

andesitic and rhyolitic minor intrusions. 

Neogene magmatism. Neogene magmatic rocks in 

the Apuseni Mountains range in age from 14.8 to 

7.4 M. a., their calc-alkaline composition varying 

from basalt-andesites to dacites, andesites prevailing; 

many plot at the edge of the adakite field (Roșu, 

2001). They crop out along three main WNW - ESE 

to NW - SE trending lineaments (Brad-Săcărâmb, 

Stănija-Zlatna, Roșia Montană-Bucium), plus the 

Baia de Arieș zone.

Geological Structure of the South Carpathians 

As results from the general introduction, the South 

Carpathians, which extend from the Prahova Valley 

in the east to the Timok Valley in the south, consist 

of the following main Alpine structural elements: 

Lower Danubian Units, Upper Danubian Units, Severin 

Nappe, Getic Units, Supragetic Units. Important 

pre-Alpine tectonic units (nappes) are involved and 

preserved in these Alpine nappes. The Danubian on 

the one hand, the Getic and Supragetic Units on the 

other hand, represent two sialic microplates, while the 

Severin Nappe, lacking a metamorphic basement, is 

related to a basin with oceanic crust. With the exception 

of the latter, all the main Alpine units consist of 

a metamorphic basement including Precambrian and 

Paleozoic rocks and of a sedimentary cover beginning 

with a Variscan molasse and including Mesozoic formations 

up to the Senonian. 

South of the Danube, in Serbia and Bulgaria, the Danubian 

Realm corresponds to the Stara Planina, Miroc´ 

and West Porec´ Units (Krstic´, Karamata, 1992). 

Lower Danubian Units The Lower Danubian units 

are represented by several pre-Alpine nappes with 

a common Upper Paleozoic-Mesozoic post-nappe 

cover; only in the south-eastern part of the area an 

important Alpine overthrust was recognized (Schela). 

The main pre-Alpine nappe (Retezat-Parâng Unit), 

consisting of a distinct sequence of polymetamorphic 

rocks (Drăgșan Group) intruded by granitoid 

bodies and covered by Lower Paleozoic low-grade 

formations, is overthrust onto metadetrital sequences 

of polymetamorphic rocks (Lainici-Păiuș Group), 

associated granites and low-grade Lower Paleozoic 

formations (Vâlcan-Pilugu Unit). 

Metamorphic basement. The Drăgșan G r o u p is 

exposed in the Retezat Mountains in the north and in 

the Mehedinţi-Vâlcan-Parâng Mountains in the south. 

Its main part is represented by an Amphibolite Formation, 

in which the dominant banded amphibolites are 

interlayered with biotite augen-gneisses, leptynites, 

mica gneisses and scarce serpentinites, crystalline 

limestones or kyanite-staurolite gneisses. Retrogressive 

events have caused alterations of amphibolites to 

greenschists over large areas. The volcano-sedimentary 

origin of the amphibolites from mafic igneous 

rocks and tuffs is evidenced by rock associations and 

chemical data. 

The Drăgșan rocks are intruded by the Retezat, Parâng 

and Culmea Cernei plutons, dominantly granodiorite 

bodies with biotite-hornblende diorites or biotite ± 

muscovite granites occurring in restricted areas. 


Zircon U-Pb data on an intercalated augengneiss have 

given an age of 777 ± M.a. for the emplacement of 

the protolith of the gneiss, while Nd model ages for 

the amphibolites range from 717 M.a. to 817 M.a. 

(Liégeois et al., 1996). Major and trace elements from 

the Drăgșan amphibolites consistently display an island 

arc signature. K-Ar model ages of the Drăgșan 

rocks or the associated granitoids range between 325 

and 97 M.a. (Grünenfelder et al., 1983), showing later 

reworking. 

The Lainici-Păiuș Group is exposed in the same two 

areas mentioned above (Retezat and Mehedinţi-Vâlcan-Parâng 

Mountains). The main features of this 

group are the sedimentary origin and the invasion 

of granitoids as a number of large plutons, countless 

small bodies and various migmatites. 

Two formations were recognized: a lower Carbonate- 

Graphitic Formation, consisting of crystalline 

limestones and dolomites, sillimanite-andalusite- 

cordierite-graphite mica gneisses, amphibolites and 

calc-silicate gneisses, and an upper Quartzitic and 

Biotite Gneiss Formation. 

The two main types of plutons intruded into the 

Lainici-Păiuș Group are the Șușiţa type and the 

Tismana type. The former is made up of medium-K 

calc-alkaline granodiorites and tonalites; the latter 

(Tismana and Novaci) belong to the shoshonitic 

series, displaying a complete range of compositions 

from ultramafic to felsic rocks. Widespread minglingmixing 

relationships give rise to a variety of facies. A 

liquid line of descent from the diorites to the granites 

was reconstructed. The intermediate and felsic rocks 

are commonly porphyritic (Duchesne et al., 1998). 

The ages of the various syn-to late-kinematic granitoid 

intrusives in the Lainici-Păiuș basement are in 

the 588 - 567 M.a. range (U-Pb zircon ages). The 

regional LP- HT metamorphism is probably not much 

older (Liégeois et al., 1996). 

Lower and Middle Paleozoic very low-grade formations. 

Although the presence of the Cambrian in the 

Lainici-Păiuș Group was advocated, the evidence is 

not convincing. The oldest Paleozoic sequence, the 

Upper Ordovician age of which was proved by paleontological 

evidence (Corals, Crinoids, Brachiopods 

as well as Acritarchs and Chitinozoans) is the Valea 

Izvorului Formation (quartzites, metaconglomerates 

and slates); notwithstanding its scarce development, 

it serves to constrain the age of the high-to mediumgrade 

metamorphic formations underlying it. 

A younger sequence is the Valea de Brazi Formation 

(metaconglomerates, sandstones, slates) attributed to 

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15 - B12 



B12 

B12 - 


the Devonian. 

Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic. The formations 

overlying the Variscan and pre-Variscan basement 

are the following: Permian red-beds; Lower Jurassic 

Gresten facies deposits (conglomerates, sandstones); 

Middle Jurassic sandstones with carbonatic matrix; 

Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous massive limestones; 

Middle Cretaceous shales (Nadanova beds); 

Upper Cretaceous turbidites, reaching into the Senonian. 

A special mention has to be made of the northern part 

of the Lower Danubian Mesozoic displaying very 

low metamorphism: the Liassic Schela Formation 

(metaconglomerates and phyllites with chloritoid and 

pyrophyllite); the Upper Cretaceous volcaniclastic 

sandstones with prehnite and pumpellyite. 

Upper Danubian Nappes 

Metamorphic basement. 

The Upper Danubian Nappes are exposed in the 

northern and western parts of the Danubian Window. 

The Zeicani Group represents the polymetamorphic 

basement of several nappes and consists of a prevailing 

amphibolitic sequence, with associated leptynites 

and mica gneisses (± kyanite, staurolite) generally affected 

so strongly by retrogression that they look like 

greenschists or sericite schists. Berza and Seghedi 

(1983) compare this group with the Drăgșan Group of 

the Lower Danubian. 

The metaterrigenous Măgura Marga Group consisting 

of a prevailing quartzitic sequence, muscovite 

plagiogneisses, amphibolites, is highly migmatised. 

It was compared by Berza and Seghedi (1983) to the 

Lainici-Păiuș Group of the Lower Danubian. 

The two groups of metamorphic rocks (and others 

with restricted extension) are intruded by granitoid 

plutons (Muntele Mic, Sfârdinu, Cherbelezu, 

Ogradena, etc); special mention has to be made of 

the mafic-ultramafic Tisoviţa-Iuţi complex. The 

dextral Cerna-Porecˇka Reka fault system with a 

horizontal displacement of 40 km (trending NE) has 

dismembered a formerly much larger ophiolitic body, 

the southern part of which consists of the Deli Iovan 

massif of Serbia. 

The K-Ar model ages of samples from the Upper 

Danubian metamorpfic rocks and associated granitoids 

range between 447 and 96 M.a., demonstrating 

Variscan and Alpine reworking of the basement 

(Grünenfelder et al., 1983). 

Lower and Middle Paleozoic very low-grade formations 

are represented by the following: Nijudimu- 

Râu Alb Formation (Ordovician-Silurian phyllites, 

conglomerates, sandstones, mafic tuffs); Brustur 

Formation (probably Silurian conglomerates); Râul 

Rece-Drencova Formation (Devonian conglomerates, 

sandstones, slates, mafic tuffs and flows); Sevastru 

Formation (Lower Carboniferous limestones, slates, 

sandstones, mafic volcanics). With the exception of 

the latter which bears macrofaunal remains (Spiriferidae, 

etc), the ages of the former formations are 

constrained by palynological associations. 

But south of the Danube, in the Stara Planina Unit, 

the oldest fossiliferous formation is found as blocks 

in a Devonian olistostrome; its Arenigian age is constrained 

by Acritarchs. In the same unit, the Upper 

Silurian and the Devonian could be parallelized with 

the Drencova Formation, the age of the former being 

proved by Tabulate Corals. 

Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic 

The formations overlying the Variscan and pre-Variscan 

basement are developed in two main zones: 

Sviniţa- Arjana and Cornereva-Mehadia. 

The following are to be mentioned: Upper Carboniferous 

coal-bearing conglomerates, sandstones and 

slates; Permian red-beds with rhyolitic volcanic 

and volcaniclastic rocks; Lower Jurassic coal-bearing 

conglomerates, sandstones and slates (“terres 

noires”), sometimes developed in Schela anchimetamorphic 

facies; Middle-Upper Jurassic, represented 

either by a volcano-sedimentary formation with mafic 

and alkaline lava flows, pyroclastic deposits, limestones 

and shales (Arjana), or by limestones (Sviniţa); 

Upper Cretaceous flysch (Arjana). 

The intensity of Alpine metamorphism varies in these 

formations between high-grade diagenesis and lowgrade, 

increasing eastwards. 

Severin Nappe. The Severin Nappe in the South 

Carpathians consists of obducted slices generated 

in a rift with oceanic or thinned continental crust, 

formed in the Jurassic on the European margin. It 

includes a Upper Jurassic tectonic melange (olistoliths 

of basalts, gabbros, serpentinites, harzburgites, 

crystalline schists, limestones, in a matrix of siliceous 

marly pelagic deposits-anchimetamorphic Azuga 

beds), and Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous flysch 

deposits (Sinaia beds: distal limestone turbidites with 

a microfauna of Calpionellids). In Serbia, this unit 

corresponds to the Kosovica and Sub-Kosovica Nappes 

(Grubic´ et al., 1997). 

Getic Nappe Metamorphic basement. 

The L o t r u G r o u p represents the basement of the 

main part of the Getic Nappe, extending over more 

than 300 km in length and 80 km maximal width on

Romanian territory. It consists of a thick sequence 

of polymetamorphic rocks, mainly in amphibolite 

facies (sillimanite-kyanite-staurolite-garnet-bearing 

micaschists and plagiogneisses, orthogneisses, leptynites 

and amphibolites), as well as of dismembered 

ophiolitic slabs of metaperidotites, metagabbros; a 

siliceous manganiferous formation with tephroite 

concentrations; only in the deepest horizons are 

calcareous or dolomitic rocks found e.g. Armeniș; 

tectonic inclusions of anisofacial rocks-eclogites and 

granulites-are hosted in places). An elaborate subdivision 

of this group is still in progress. 

The bulk of K-Ar ages as well as the preliminary 

40 Ar / 39 Ar results “suggest that regionally penetrative 

high-temperature mineral assemblages and associated 

ductile structural elements are likely related to Late 

Variscan tectonothermal activity” (Dallmeyer et al., 

1994). Isolated pre-Variscan mineral ages still suggest 

a Precambrian age of the protoliths as well as of 

a first metamorphism of the Lotru Group. The main 

part of the Getic corresponds in Serbia to the Kucˇaj 

Nappe and in Bulgaria to the Srednogorie. 

Lower and Middle Paleozoic (?) low-grade 

formations. 

The Miniș Formation is a monotonous metaterrigeneous 

sequence (mainly chlorite-biotite-quartzitic 

schists) with minor bodies of metarhyolites. 

The Buceava Group (Ordovician?) includes a discontinuous 

slab of metabasaltic rocks with associated 

black shales, siltites, carbonatic rocks, metapsephites 

and metapsammites. 

In Serbia, the Lotru Group corresponds to the Osanica 

“Series”; it is overlain by an anchimetamorphic Ordovician, 

beginning with Cˇaradoc, with Trilobites, 

Brachiopods and Acritarchs. The sequence continues 

with the Kucˇaj-Cernogorje Flysch (Devonian) bearing 

floral remains and Conodonts and with a Lower 

Carboniferous, both non-metamorphic (Pantic´, 

1963). 

The Sicheviţa granitoid massif (Brnjca in Serbia) is 

the most important of the Getic Realm, its length in 

the north - south direction on both sides of the Danube 

being about 100 km. It post-dates the Paleozoic 

formations in the Banat region. Two magmatic suites 

can be distinguished, a plagioclasic and mafic one (including 

trondhjemites and tonalites) and a predominantly 

potassic-felsitic one (including leucogranites, 

monzogranites, granodiorites). Isotopic age determinations 

gave results of 237 - 310 M.a. (K / Ar) and 

328 - 350 M.a. (Rb / Sr and U/ Pb). 

Another small granitoid intrusion in the Lotru Group, 


e.g., is exposed at Criva (329 M.a. K / Ar) in the 

southern Poiana Ruscă. Older intrusions are found as 

orthogneiss associated with the crystalline schists. 

Upper Paleozoic and Mesozoic formations. 

The post-Variscan formations of the Getic Nappe, 

exposed mainly in the Reșiţa-Moldova Nouă zone, 

begin with Upper Carboniferous coal-bearing conglomerates 

and sandstones, followed by Permian 

black shales and red sandstones. 

A new transgression begins with the Lower Jurassic 

coal-bearing detrital sequence, continued with Middle 

Jurassic marls or sandstones, Upper Jurassic 

limestones, Lower Cretaceous marls and Urgonian 

limestones. The Upper Cretaceous is represented either 

by red marls, by a volcano-sedimentary formation 

(Rusca Montană basin), by sandstones and red 

clays with Dinosaurs (Haţeg), or as conglomerates, 

sandstones and marls (Vânturariţa, Olănești). 

Reșiţa-Sasca-Gornjak Nappe. The following structural 

unit is characterized by the presence of Triassic 

formations. In Serbia, its basement consists of an 

anchimetamorphic Devonian-Lower Carboniferous 

flysch, with Corals, Tentaculites, Orthoceratids 

and Pelecypods, including olistoliths with Late 

Silurian Orthoceratids and Crinoids (Dimitrijevic´, 

1997). Upper Carboniferous conglomerates and Permian 

black shales and red sandstones are overlain by 

Lower-Middle Triassic conglomerates followed by 

fossiliferous dolomites and limestones, the Jurassic 

being similar with the same formations of the Reșiţa- 

Moldova Nouă zone. 

Supragetic Nappes. The Supragetic Units can be divided 

in Western and Eastern ones; the former appear 

in Banat while the latter are exposed in the Făgăraș 

Mountains, east of the Olt. 

Western Supragetic Units Metam 

orphic basement. 

The Bocșiţ a - Drimoxa Formation consists mainly 

of garnet-bearing paragneisses with oligoclase porphyroblasts, 

and amphibolites overprinted by retrogression. 

It corresponds probably to a part of the 

Locva “Series” exposed at the entrance of the Danube 

into Romania. Its age could be Upper Precambrian to 

Lower Paleozoic. 

The Caraș Group includes the Naidăș-Rafnic volcano-sedimentary 

Formation at the base, the Dognecea-Zlatiţa 

terrigenous Formation and the Tâlva 

Mare quartzitic Formation, all exposed either in the 

Bocșa Massif or in the Locva Massif (SW Banat). 

The characteristic feature of the Caraș Group is the 

development of a bimodal magmatic association: rhy- 

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olites, gabbros, dolerites (Iancu, 1982, 1986; Iancu, 

Mărunţiu, 1994). The metamorphic parageneses point 

to a polymetamorphic history. 

The Moniom Group consists of the volcano- sedimentary 

Valea Satului Formation (Upper Devonian- 

Lower Carboniferous). It includes mainly mafic 

metatuffs with interlayered metapelitic and carbonatic 

rocks, scarce acid metatuffs and small bodies of gabbros 

and diorites-granodiorites. 

Their metamorphism is low-grade (Iancu, 1982; 

Iancu, Mărunţiu, 1994). 

In Serbia, the highest structural unit corresponding 

to the Western Supragetic is the Morava Nappe. The 

main part of its basement consists of the “Vlasina 

Series” (Dimitrijevic´, 1997). It is overlain at Bosilegrad, 

in south-eastern Serbia, by the anchimetamorphic 

Lisina beds, the Tremadocian age of which 

is constrained by Brachiopods. Consequently, the 

Vlasina Series could be compared to the Locva “Series” 

or to the Bocșiţa-Drimoxa Formation. 

Mesozoic formations. The Bocșiţa-Drimoxa Formation 

is overlain, west of Reșiţa, by limestones, the 

age of which could be ascribed to the Upper Jurassic- 

Lower Cretaceous. 

E a s t e r n S u p r a g e t i c U n i t s. M e t a m o r p h i c b a s e m 

e n t. East of the Olt, the Supragetic basement is represented 

mainly by two groups: Cumpăna and Făgăraș. 

The C u m p ă n a G r o u p is composed of the Cumpăna 

linear Gneiss (originating in a polymetamorphic granite), 

the Cozia Augengneisses and the Măgura Câinenilor 

Micaschists (+ kyanite, staurolite). 

The F ă g ă r a ș G r o u p consists of a sequence of micaschists, 

crystalline limestones and dolomites, para-amphibolites 

and graphite schists; an intensive retrogressive 

overprint developed over large areas. 

The L e a o t a G r o u p is considered by Săndulescu 

(1984) and others as belonging to the Getic Nappe. Its 

sequence consists of the Voinești Formation (Upper 

Precambrian, according to palynological data), similar 

to the Bocșiţa-Drimoxa Formation, the Bughea 

Amphibolite, the Lerești Formation (definitely Lower 

Ordovician, according to palynological data) of albite-porphyroblast 

schists and albite gneisses and the 

Călușu Formation (Devonian ?) consisting of greenschists. 

The Bughea Amphibolite is intruded by the 

Albești Granite (473-486 M.a., K / Ar). 

Serbo-Macedonian Massif. The Serbo-Macedonian 

massif falls outside our observation area. It is considered 

by some authors (Săndulescu, 1984; Dimitrijevic´, 

1997) as part of the same structural unit as the 

Supragetic. However the two units are separated by a 

major shear zone (Dusˇanovo, Rozaj-Bovan or Vrvi 

Kobila line, Kräutner, Krstic´, 2002). North of the 

Danube, the western parts of the Vrsˇac (Serbia) and 

Buziaș (Romania) crystalline “islands” belong to the 

Serbo-Macedonian massif str.s. 

Main tectonic features. Similarly to the South 

Apusenides, the geotectonic evolution of the South 

Carpathians was polyphasic: 1) During the Mesocretaceous 

tectogenesis, the Getic Nappe was overthrust 

onto the Severin Nappe. 2) During the Laramian tectogenesis, 

the Severin Nappe bearing the Getic Nappe 

“piggy-back” was overthrust onto the Danubian (Codarcea, 

1940). The overthrust of the Upper Danubian 

onto the Lower Danubian as well as that of the Western 

Supragetic onto the Getic probably belong to the 

first phase. Each of the main Alpine units described 

above is complicated by pre-Variscan, Variscan and 

even Alpine subunits. The age of overthrust of the 

Eastern Supragetic is controversial. 

B a n a t i t i c L a t e C r e t a c e o u s m a g m a t i s m. In the 

Romanian South Carpathians, the Upper Cretaceous 

magmatism was mainly intrusive and developed 

along three lineaments; it is represented by calc-alkaline 

plutons (granodiorites, granites, diorites) as well 

as by hypabissal minor intrusions of porphyry quartzdiorites, 

monzogranites, andesites, dacites, rhyolites 

and lamprophyres. Only in the Rusca Montană Upper 

Cretaceous basin overlying both the Getic and Supragetic 

an andesitic volcano-sedimentary formation 

is exposed. Isotopic K / Ar ages are comprised between 

91 and 65 M.a. (Berza et al., 1998). 

Field itinerary 

DAY 1 

Suceava - Gura Humorului - Câmpulung Moldovenesc 

- Vatra Dornei 

Aims : This is one of the northernmost profiles (excepting 

the Maramureș) across the whole East Carpathian 

structure. Along it there is the possibility to 

examine the Subcarpathians, the Flysch Zone and the 

Central East Carpathians (with their superposed nappes). 

The XV th century frescoed Voronet monastery 

will be visited. 

From Suceava the fieldtrip leaves toward the west, 

following main road no. 17. Until Păltinoasa, about 

30 km from Suceava, the Sarmatian formations of the 

Foreland will be crossed. At Păltinoasa, the frontal 

part of the Flysch nappes is well expressed.

Stop 1.1: 

Păltinoasa Quarry. 

On the left-hand bank of the Moldova, at Păltinoasa, 

a sequence crops out of the Lutetian - Bartonian formations 

of the Păltinoasa “Rabotage” Slice. The most 

important part of this sequence is represented by the 

Păltinoasa Sandy Limestone of Lutetian age (Ionesi, 

1971). It is equivalent to the Paszieczna and Doamna 

limestones (see Tab.I). On the top of the quarry, above 

the Păltinoasa Sandy Limestone, lies the Strujinoasa 

Formation, a variegated shaly - clayey formation, in 

which red - purple clays are dominant. The Lutetian 

/ Bartonian stratigraphic boundary is situated within 

the Strujinoasa Formation. 

Upstream, in the town of Gura Humorului, the front 

of the Tarcău Nappe will be crossed. In front of 

the Tarcău Nappe the Păltinoasa “Rabotage” Slice 

is situated. Furthermore, all along the front of the 

unit such “rabotage” slices are common, until the 

East Carpathians Bending Area (Vrancea Mts.). In 

the Gura Humorului area boreholes situated on the 

external part of the Tarcău Nappe, penetrated in the 

Păltinoasa “Rabotage” Slice and, crossing a narrow 

Subcarpathian Nappe, reached the underthrust 

Foreland, there represented mostly by the Scythian 

Platform. Similar geological situations were drilled 

northward in the Putna Valley (near the Roumanian / 

Ukrainian boundary). 

Stop 1.2: 

Voronet. 

In Voroneţ, along the river with the same name, the 

Paszieczna Limestone (Lutetian) crops out. It is a 

pelagic lithographic white-yellowish limestone, with 

cherts and, sometimes, with resedimented Nummulites. 

They are followed by the Plopu Formation (see 

the next stop). 

In the southern part of the village the Voroneţ Monastery, 

founded in the XV th century by Stephen the 

Great, Prince of Moldavia, will be visited. The outer 

and the inner walls are covered by frescoes. 

Stop 1.3: 

West of Gura Humorului. 

At 1.6 km upstream from the western end of Gura 

Humorului a profile open on the left-hand bank of the 

Moldova allows us to examine the Lutetian-Rupelian 

succession, specific for the external part of the Tarcău 

Nappe (Suceviţa lithofacies). Above the Lutetian 

Paszieczna Limestone, follows the two-component, 

dense rhythmically turbiditic sequence (“hieroglyphic 


beds-type flysch”) of the Plopu Formation 

(Uppermost Lutetian-Priabonian). Red and purple 

clayey shales (an equivalent of the Strujinoasa Formation) 

are inlayered in the lower third. The Eocene 

/ Oligocene boundary is situated within a sandstone 

sequence (Săndulescu et al., 1987). The lower part 

of it - the Lucăcești Sandstone - shows inlayerings 

of “Globigerina marls” (white compact marls rich in 

planktonic microfauna, nanoplankton and silicoflagellates 

of Late Priabonian age), while the upper part 

- the Fierăstrău Sandstone – has inlayerings of dark 

bituminous siltstones and/or clays (containing nanoplankton 

and silicoflagellates of Earliest Rupelian). 

The sandstones are both orthoquartzitic (oligomictic), 

the Lucăcești one also containing grains of glauconite. 

The Lower Menilites with Brown Marls is the 

next lithostratigraphic unit. It is built up by well-layered 

bituminous silicolites (menilites), which proceed 

from the diagenesis of the Diatomaea rich muds. 

Dark brown bituminous marly limestones (the so 

called “Brown Marls”) are associated with the Lower 

Menilites. Very thin intercalations of bituminous 

clays or siltstones also occur. The Lower Dysodilic 

Shales follow between the Lower Menilites and the 

Kliwa Sandstone. They are dark-coloured bituminous 

clays or clayey siltstones, very thinly layered in submm. 

sheets (“paper-sheeted”). Intercalations of cm. to 

decimeter-fine quartzitic sandstones occur. Massive 

orthoquartzitic sandstones – Kliwa Sandstone - develop 

in the top of the succession of this outcrop. The 

quartzitic grains of the Kliwa Sandstone are of aeolian 

origin, subsequently transported and resedimented in 

the outer part of the Moldavidian sedimentary basin. 

The source of this detrital material was situated in 

the Foreland, a conclusion documented by the lithic 

fragments of “Green Schists” (Dobrogean type) included 

in the arenites. Of the same origin as the Kliwa 

Sandstone are also the Lucăcești and the Fierăstrău 

sandstones. The first three lithostratigraphic units of 

the Oligocene belong to the Rupelian. The boundary 

between the Rupelian and the Chattian runs within 

the Kliwa Sandstone. The complete succession of 

the “Bituminous Lithofacies with Kliwa Sandstone” 

above the Kliwa Sandstone consists of: the Upper 

Dysodilic Shales (the Oligocene/Miocene boundary 

runs within their lithostratigraphic unit), the Upper 

Menilites (without “Brown Marls”), the Goru-Mișina 

Formation (coarse-grained rocks rich in “Green 

Schists” debris), the (lower) Evaporitic Formation 

(Burdigalian) (Săndulescu and Micu, 1988). 

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Stop 1.4: 

Frasin. 

The locality of Frasin is situated at the confluence 

of Suha Bucovineană with the Moldova. On the 

left-hand (northern) bank of Moldova, in an imbricated 

structure, also belonging to the Tarcău Nappe, 

several Senonian and Paleocene sequences crop out. 

The Hangu Formation is a Senonian calcareous 

turbiditic (flysch) formation. Two-components (limy 

arenites/marls) or three-components (limy arenites/ 

marls/marly or lithographic limestones) rhythms are 

developed. The graded-bedded arenites show at their 

basal part grains of “Green Schists”, limestones and 

fragments of Inoceramus. Ammonites, inocerams 

and a rich pelagic foraminifer assemblage (Ion- 

Săndulescu, 1975; Antonescu et al., 1989) document 

the Senonian age for the Hangu Formation. The Paleocene 

is represented by the Putna Formation. This is 

a sandy/marly flysch with a two-component rhythms 

in which the sandstones are rather dominant in thickness. 

The arenitic material is of polymictic type (as 

for the Hangu Formation) containing “Green Schists” 

too. The Paleocene age (Antonescu et al., 1989) is 

supported by a rich pelagic microfauna and by scarce 

examples of Dyscocyclina. The Straja Formation is 

younger than the Putna one. It is a variegated flysch 

built up by two-component rhythms in which the 

arenites are polymictic, with a silica matrix and the 

pelites are red-purplish, green and grey. Glauconite 

may be frequent in the sandstones. The age of this 

formation is (according to the microfaunal content) 

Uppermost Paleocene-Lower Ypresian. The source 

area for the Straja arenites is external (Foreland), as 

well as for the whole Cretaceous-Paleogene-Lower 

Miocene succession of the external part of the Tarcău 

Nappe as well as those of the Marginal Folds and 

Subcarpathian nappes. 

Stop 1.5: 

Vama. 

The locality of Vama is situated in an area corresponding 

to the inner subunit (digitation) of the Tarcău 

Nappe, the Vama Digitation respectively. On both 

banks of the Moldova River the Paleogene formations 

of the digitation crop out. The oldest sequence (cropping 

out) is the Moldoviţa Sandstone. It represents a 

sandy flysch with mica-rich arenites, which prevail in 

respect to the clayey pelites, within two-component 

rhythms of 30-100 cm. The arenitic material proceeds 

from an internal (Carpathian) source situated 

in the Central-East Carpathians and the innermost 

nappes (Black Flysch, Ceahlău) of the Flysch Zone. 

The age, according to the agglutinated foraminifera 

associations, is Lower-Middle Eocene, possibly uppermost 

Paleocene also. Some red-purplish shales are 

inlayered at different levels. Above the Moldoviţa 

Sandstone follows the Plopu Formation (see Stop 

1.3). The Lower Oligocene sequences are developed 

in two lithofacies. In the external scales of the Vama 

Digitation, above the Plopu Formation, the Lower 

Menilites and the Lower Dysodilic Shales crop out, 

as in the more external zones (see above). In the inner 

scale of the Vama Digitation above the Plopu Formation 

the “Shaly Horizon” with grey, dark-grey and 

blackish clays and silts, thin sandstone inlayering and 

also rare, sideritic pelagic limestones are developed. 

It is an equivalent of the Lower Menilites and Lower 

Dysodilic Shales. In the inner parts, the Fusaru Sandstone 

follows. This is a massive, micaferous sandstone, 

lithologically similar to the Tarcău Sandstone, 

proceeding from the same source area (Carpathian). 

In the outer part of the Vama Digitation the Fusaru 

Sandstone is mixed with Kliwa Sandstone, stressing 

out their interfingering. The youngest sequence is 

the Vineţișu Formation, a two-component flysch 

with limy arenites, often convolute, and marls. The 

Oligocene/Lower Miocene boundary runs within it 

(fide Săndulescu et al., 1995). 

In Prisaca Dornei the front part of the Audia Nappe, 

which overthrusts the Tarcău one, is well expressed 

in relief. 

Stop 1.6: 

West of Prisaca Dornei. 

On the left-hand bank of the Moldova River, 700 

m west of the western border of Prisaca Dornei village, 

massive sandstones representing the Prisaca 

Sandstone crop out. This is the youngest formation 

of the Audia Nappe in this area; its age is Maastrichtian-Lutetian 

(Săndulescu et al., 1992). The arenitic 

material of the Prisaca Sandstone, polymictic, rich, 

mica-bearing, proceeds from the Carpathian source. 

In the analysed outcrop it is possible to observe “soft 

pebbles” (“galets mous”) of “Black Shales” reworked 

by the fluxoturbiditic currents - perhaps in submarine 

canyons - from the Lower Cretaceous “Black Shale” 

Formation of the same sedimentary basin. 100-200 m 

downstream from the outcrop slided variegated shales 

may be observed which represent the condensed sequence 

of the Vraconian-Lower Senonian (the “Variegated 

Clay” Formation) situated between the Prisaca 

Sandstone and the “Black Shale” Formation.

The town of Câmpulung Moldovenesc, about 10 km 

long, develops along the Moldova Valley, more or less 

parallel to the tectonic structures. 

Stop 1.7: 

Câmpulung Moldovenesc – Izvorul Alb brook. 

The frontal part of the Bucovinian Nappe is well exposed 

in the lowermost part of the Izvorul Alb Brook, 

at the periphery of the town. At the same time it corresponds 

with the anticlinorium which limits the external 

limb of the Rarău Syncline. In the Izvorul Alb 

brook a complex of anticline folds are marked by the 

outcropping of the Anisian massive dolomites (shallow 

water, with intratidal “cracking breccia” zones). 

With a large erosional gap the Pojorâta Formation, 

which is a two-component flysch sequence, 700-800 

m thick, follows. The arenites are polymictic (subgreywackes) 

with limy or marly matrix, the lutites are 

marls. Red and yellowish marly pelagic limestones 

are intercalated at different levels. The age of the 

Pojorâta Formation is Tithonian-Neocomian, stressed 

by their Tintinnides and Aptychus content (Lamellaptychus 

beyrichi, L. beyrichi var. fractocostata and 

Lamellaptychus gr.A and Calpionella alpina, C. elliptica, 

Tintinopsella carpathica - cf. Turculeţ, 1971; 

Săndulescu, 1973; Săndulescu et al., 1976). Above 

one of the dolomitic anticlinal cores, between them 

and the Pojorâta Formation, red-purplish silts may be 

observed. They may be an equivalent of the “Radiolarite 

Beds” of Callovian-Oxfordian age, which in 

other areas of the Rarău Syncline are well developed. 

The filling of the Rarău Syncline and consequently, 

the youngest sedimentary formations of the Bucovinian 

Nappe, is represented by the Wildflysch Formation 

of (Upper Barremian ??) Aptian-Albian age (Mutihac 

and Bratu, 1965; Săndulescu, 1975). It can be examined 

along several km in the Izvorul Alb Brook, upstream 

of the confluence with the Limpede Brook (the 

dolomites quarry). Wildflysch is a mixed formation 

with a dark-coloured, clayey or siltic-clayey matrix 

in which sedimentary klippen from different rocks of 

different ages are incorporated, but all older than the 

matrix. In the Bucovinian Wildflysch Formation the 

sedimentary klippen – of very different sizes - belong 

to the different lithofacies of the Transylvanian Nappes 

(basic and ultrabasic rocks, Middle and Upper 

Triassic limestones and dolomites, Lower and Middle 

Jurassic sandy-marly rocks, Upper Jurassic-Neocomian 

and Urgonian (Barremian) massive limestones) 

(Săndulescu, 1975, 1976; Săndulescu et al., 1981). 

The sedimentation of the Wildflysch Formation 


precedes the “arrival” – at the end of the Albian - of 

the Transylvanian Nappes, the sedimentary klippen 

involved within the wildflysch proceeding from the 

front of the nappes in movement. 

From the Izvorul Alb Brook or from the suburbs, 

downstream from the town of Câmpulung Moldovenesc 

it is possible to see the Rarău Mts. The white 

cliffs which are visible correspond to the Middle Triassic 

dolomites and the Urgonian limestones, tectonic 

outliers of the Transylvanian nappes. 

Stop 1.8: 

West Sadova. 

On the left-hand bank of the Moldova River, 120 m 

west of the railway/national road crossing, an anticline 

of the Bucovinian Nappe can be examined, marqued 

by the outcropping of the “Aptychus Beds” Formation 

of Tithonian-Valanginian age. This formation consists 

of well bedded, white, yellowish, grey or red-purplish 

lithographic limestones, sometimes with cherts. Typical 

assemblages of Tintinnides (Calpionella alpina, 

C. elliptica, Crassicolaria massutiniana, C.parvula 

followed by Tintinopsella carpathica, Calpionellites 

darderi and Calpionellopsis simplex - Săndulescu, 

1976) corroborated with the Aptychus fauna (Turculeţ 

1971) support the above-mentioned age. The “Aptychus 

Beds” Formation is, more or less, a stratigraphic 

equivalent of the Pojorâta Fm., but with a more 

internal position, stressing that the arenitic material 

of the latter has an external source in respect to the 

paleogeographic position of the Bucovinian Nappe, 

the source being situated in the area corresponding 

paleogeographically to the Subbucovinian Nappe. On 

the western limb of the complex anticlinal structure of 

West Sadova the Muncelu Sandstone (conglomerates 

and coarse grained sandstones outcropping in a large 

quarry) of Hauterivian age, develops. This Sandstone 

is recorded also, slighty discordant (?) above the Pojorâta 

Formation. 

The Wildflysch Formation constitutes, normally, the 

filling of the Rarău Syncline, but with an asymmetrical 

position: the post-Triassic formations known on 

the outer limb of the syncline are absent on the inner 

one where the wildflysch lies directly on the Triassic 

dolomites and the “Radiolarite Beds”, both cropping 

out in Pojorâta in several quarries. From Pojorâta 

the fieldtrip follows the Moldova Valley upstream to 

Breaza. In this tract the road crosses the metamorphic 

formations of the Bucovinian Nappe and, once more, 

the Rarău Syncline. 

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Stop 1.9: 

Breaza Ultramafic Tectonic Outlier (the visit of the 

Breaza tectonic outlier will be conditioned by the 

time and weather situation). Above the Wildflysch 

Formation of the northen sector of the Rarău Syncline, 

ultramafic rocks which represent a tectonic outlier of 

the Transylvanian nappes are developed (Săndulescu, 

1973; Săndulescu and Russo - Săndulescu, 1981). It 

is located in the axis of the syncline, which has an 

asymmetric shape in this area, with the external limb 

less developed than the internal one. On a left-hand 

tributary of the Moldova River, in Breaza, in front 

of the church, the following cross-section may be 

examined: on the first 300 m the Sinaia Formation 

of the Ceahlău Nappe (Tithonian-Neocomian calcareous 

flysch) crops out; it is overthrust by the metamorphic 

rocks of the Bucovinian Nappe, overlapped 

by Anisian dolomites and Callovian-Oxfordian (?) 

(or Ladinian?) “Radiolarite Beds”; the Wildflysch 

Formation, as a rule, represents the filling of the syncline. 

On the summits situated north of the brook the 

peridotites and serpentinites of the Breaza Tectonic 

Outlier crop out. This nappe outlier may be an equivalent 

of the Olt Nappe, which also contains ultramafic 

rocks of Ladinian/Carnian age. Further northward 

in the Păltiniș Summit conglomerates and coarsegrained 

sandstones of Cenomanian age are preserved 

from erosion. They seal the tectonic contacts between 

the Transylvanian and Bucovinian nappes and between 

the latter and the Ceahlău Nappe. 

The field-trip returns to Pojorâta and enters the Putna 

Brook (left tributary of Moldova River). Both slopes 

of the Putna Valley consist of metamorphic rocks of 

the Tulgheș Series, which belongs to the Bucovinian 

Nappe. At 4 km along the Putna Valley within a 

tectonic window the sedimentary formations of the 

Subbucovinian Nappe are exposed. 

Stop 1.10: 

Putna Valley Tectonic Window. The oldest formations 

cropping out are the Anisian dolomites. Thin red 

siliceous silts, possibly Ladinian, certainly Triassic, 

cover the dolomites. The youngest sequence known in 

the window are Lower Jurassic (according to the silicoflagellate 

assemblages) limonitic sandstones with 

blackish siltstone intercalations. The Subbucovinian 

sedimentary rocks are tectonically overlapped, at 50 

m above the brook, on its slopes, by the Tulgheș 

Series formations. Massive metamorphosed dolomites, 

which may belong to the Rebra Series, tectonically 

transported at the base of the Tulgheș 

Series, can be examined at the eastern border of the 

window. In the thalweg of the Putna brook, in front 

of a small tributary, a thin bank of graphite quartzites 

and schists crop out. The rocks belong to the “Median 

Complex” (Tg2) of the Tulgheș Series. Descriptions 

after Kräutner in: Sndulescu et al., 1981. The western 

border of the window is a vertical fault with a displacement 

of about 500 m (controlled by a borehole 

situated 100 m west of the fault). The borehole was 

drilled in the Bucovinian Nappe and reached the Subbucovinian 

Anisian dolomites. 

The fieldtrip continues upstream, westward. At the 

Valea Putnei Railway Station the erosional contour 

of the Bucovinian Nappe is stressed by the tectonic 

superposition of the metamorphic formations of the 

nappe above the Subbucovinian sedimentary formations 

which shows the same lithostratigraphic succession 

as in the Valea Putnei Tectonic Window. 

In the Mestecăniș Pass (1083 m in altitude), which is 

reached 5 km west of Valea Putnei Railway Station, a 

beautiful view opens out on the Bistriţa Mts. and the 

Bistriţa Aurie Valley, where the deepest Central East 

Carpathains unit, the Iacobeni Nappe, the highest of 

the Infrabucovinian nappes crops out within a tectonic 

window. 

From the Valea Putnei Railway Station up to 

Mestecăniș Pass and from there down until the western 

margin of the Mestecăniș Village, the road crosses 

the Tulgheș Series of the Subbucovinian Nappe. 

Stop 1.11: 

Puciosu Valley Cross Section. 

Along the national road, which runs on the righthand 

slope of Puciosu Brook, the basal sequence 

of the Subbucovinian Nappe and the sedimentary 

formations of the Iacobeni Infrabucovinian nappe 

are exposed. Upstream-downstream it is possible to 

examine: (1) the Black Quartzitic Formation (TG2) 

of the Tulgheș Series of the Subbucovinian Nappe 

(Bercia et al., 1975) represented by sericitic-quartzitic 

and chloritic-graphitic schists, with two levels of 

black quartzites; thin intercalations of metabasalts 

or limestones and calcschists, are known, south and 

north of Puciosu Brook. The black quartzites mark the 

level of syngenetic manganese ores, which consist of 

Mn-carbonate and silicates, enriched in Mn-oxydes in 

the oxidation zone. The principal mines are located 

some kilometers southwards; (2) the “Argestru Formation” 

(see also below), built up of metapsammites 

and phyllites with intercalations of metabasalts; (3) 

weak bituminous (“stinking”) Anisian dolomites

and limestones. Up on the slope, with a large stratigraphic 

gap, Middle Jurassic limy sandstones follow 

(Săndulescu, 1976). 

Before the first houses in the Iacobeni locality, downstream 

from a right-hand tributary, a small window 

of Infrabucovinian Anisian dolomites are exposed 

underneath the metamorphic rocks of the “Argestru 

Formation”. The western border of the window is a 

vertical fault. About 350 m downstream the well-layered 

Anisian dolomites crop out in a large quarry. At 

its uppermost part, massive dolomites seem to cover 

the layered dolomites with tectonic disconformity. 

Downstream, west of the large dolomite quarry, 

towards the Bistriţa Aurie River, blocks and fragments 

of Lower Triassic quartzitic sandstones 

and conglomerates as well as purplish siltic clayey 

shales occur. Near the confluence between Puciosu 

Brook and the Bistriţa Aurie River, along the road to 

Ciocănești, an outcrop of muscovite-quartz schists 

with chloritised biotite can be examined. It is ascribed 

to the Bretila Series, which also crops out several 

hundreds of meters upstream on the left-hand bank 

of the river, where gneisses may be recognized too. 

In the metamorphic schists axes of mesoscopic folds 

trend N 20 W / 10 NW. Descriptions after Kräutner in: 

Săndulescu et al., 1981. 

The tectonic framework and the age of the “Argestru 

Formation” was subject of controversy. Firstly it was 

considered a lithostratigraphic Paleozoic unit which 

builds up an independent tectonic unit (“Argestru 

Unit”) situated between the Subbucovinian Nappe 

and the Infrabucovinian nappes. Afterwards the “Argestru” 

sequence was considered an equivalent of the 

Rebra Series or later of the Bretila Series, squeezed 

in both interpretations at the base of the Subbucovinian 

Nappe (Kräutner, 1980, 1988; Balintoni, 1985, 

1997). 

DAY 2 

Vatra Dornei – Bicaz - Lacul Roșu - Gheorghieni 

- Miercurea Ciuc 

Aims: Along the Bistriţa Valley, south-east of Vatra 

Dornei, the formations which built up the inner units 

of the Flysch Zone (the Ceahlău, Convolute Flysch 

and Audia nappes) can be examined, as well as the inner 

part of the Tarcău Nappe. In the upper Bicaz Valley 

the Hăghimaș Syncline (Bucovinian Nappe and 

Hăghimaș Transylvanian Nappe) will be crossed. 

From Vatra Dornei the fieldtrip follows the Bistriţa 

valley downstream. Until Broșteni it crosses the 


Central East Carpathians nappes (Crystalline-Mesozoic 

Zone). The Infrabucovinian, Subbucovinian 

and Bucovinian nappes crop out represented by their 

metamorphic formations. 

Stop 2.1: 

Broșteni-Cotârgași. 

At the downstream margin of Broșteni and 700 m 

upstream, the confluence of Cotârgași Brook with the 

Bistriţa River, the frontal contour of the Bucovinian 

Nappe crosses the Bistriţa Valley. 200 m upstream 

of this contour a small tectonic window is opened 

in the metamorphic formations of the nappe; within 

this window Anisian dolomites crop out. They belong 

to the sedimentary sequence of the Subbucovinian 

Nappe. The dolomites were transported as a tectonic 

outlier (“lambeau de charriage”) by the Bucovinian 

Nappe. Such situations are frequent all along the frontal 

contour of the Bucovinian Nappe (see also Stop 

2.10). Downstream from the front of the Bucovinian 

Nappe the innermost unit of the Flysch Zone – known 

in this area - crops out. It is the Cotârgași Unit (Scale). 

The Cotârgași Formation can be examined in a large 

outcrop where well-bedded pelagic micritic or marly 

limestones are exposed; they show relatively rare intercalations 

of polymictic graded bedded sandstones. 

In the Cotârgași Formation at different levels and with 

different thicknesses, polymictic (amphibolites, micaschists, 

chloritic phyllites, quartzites, Triassic and/ 

or Jurassic dolomites and limestones) limy breccias 

and/or microbreccias, are inlayered. From the lower 

and middle part of the formation poor Tintinnide associations 

(with Calpionella alpina, C.elliptica, Tintinopsella 

carpathica) stress the Tithonian-Neocomian 

age. The upper third, where the breccias prevail, may 

be Hauterivian or even Barremian. 

Following its tectonic position between the Central 

East Carpathian nappes and the Ceahlău one, the 

Cotârgași Unit may be correlated with the Baraolt 

Nappe known southward in the inner Bend Area. In 

fact the lithofacies of the Cotârgași Formation shows 

some similarities with the isochronous sequences of 

the Baraolt Nappe. 

The fieldtrip proceeds downstream. For more than 20 

km the Bistriţa Valley crosses the Sinaia Formation 

of the innermost sub-unit (digitation) of the Ceahlău 

Nappe, the Ciuc Digitation respectively. 

Stop 2.2: 

Sinaia Formation in the Bistriţa Valley. 

The Sinaia Formation (4-5 km in thickness) is a 

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calcareous flysch, with turbiditic two- and three-component 

rhythms (limy sandstone / marls, silty marls 

/ marly limestones, limy sandstones / marls / marly 

limestones), 25-75 cm thick. The sandstones are polymictic, 

the marly limestones are pelagic, micritic, 

containing Tintinnides at different levels. Generally, 

taking into account the whole Ceahlău Nappe, the 

Sinaia Formation can be divided into three members. 

The lower one is dominantly pelitic (marls and siltic 

marls) with inlayerings of marly pelagic limestones 

and scarce sandstones. In the limestones Calpionella 

alpina (frequent) and C.elliptica were found, the 

age considered as Tithonian. The median member 

shows the typical lithofacies of the Sinaia Formation 

(see above) and represents 75-80% of its thickness. 

The presence of Calpionella elliptica, Tintinopsella 

carpathica, Calpionellites div.sp. was determined, 

supporting the Berriasian-Valanginian age. The Upper 

Member , Hauterivian in age (with Peregrinella 

peregrina), is represented by a two-component flysch 

(limy sandstones and dark coloured marls) characterized 

by inlayerings of limy polymictic breccias (meso- 

and epizonal metamorphics, Triassic and/or Jurassic 

dolomites and limestones, quartzitic sandstones). The 

Sinaia Formation shows frequent diaclases filled with 

calcite and also some zones of schistosity. 

Stop 2.3: 

Ugra Formation at Săvinești locallity. 

The Barremian-Aptian formations of the Ciuc Digitation 

are represented by a turbiditic and fluxoturbiditic 

sandy flysch – the Ugra Formation. In the 30-150 cm 

thick, two-component rhythms, sandstones (65-90 %) 

prevail over marls or silty marls. The arenitic material 

is polymictic (subgreywacke-type) (quartz and 

quartzites, meso- and epizonal metamorphics, Triassic 

and Jurassic limestones and dolomites, as well as 

mafics and ultramafics) its source area being situated 

inward relative to the sedimentary trough. 

Downstream of Săvinești near Topliceni the field trip 

enters the Durău Digitation, external in respect to the 

Ciuc one. The specific formations of this sub-unit of 

the Ceahlău Nappe, above the Sinaia Formation, are 

the Piscu cu Brazi Formation and the Ceahlău Conglomerates. 

Stop 2.4: 

Piscu cu Brazi Formation at Poiana Teiului. 

On the right-hand bank of the Bistriţa River, 1 km upstream 

of the large viaduct from Poiana Largului, and 

also on the western bank of (antropic) Bicaz Lake, 

the Piscu cu Brazi Formation crops out. It is a twocomponent 

flysch, with rhythms 10-50 cm thick. The 

sandstones are polymictic (same composition as the 

Ugra sandstones – see above), the pelitic component 

is marly or silty marly. Toward its upper part the Piscu 

cu Brazi Formation grows more massive with 0.5-1.5 

m of sandstone (Poiana Maicilor Sandstones). The 

age of the Piscu cu Brazi Fm. is Barremian-Aptian according 

to the different ammonitic faunas recorded at 

different levels (fide Săndulescu, 1990). The Poiana 

Maicilor Sandstones are developed in the Upper Aptian. 

The youngest formation of the Durău Digitation 

are the Albian Ceahlău Conglomerates, which built 

up the Ceahlău Mts., visible south of Bicaz Lake. 

At Poiana Teiului a calcareous isolated rock is situated 

at the northern end of Bicaz Lake (near the viaduct). It 

is built up of Urgonian limestones with Pachyodonta 

and Orbitolina (Barremian-Lower Aptian) and represents 

a tectonic slice, pulled out from the outer margin 

of the Outer Dacidian trough – the Peri-Moldavian 

Cordillera - and transported to the base of the Ceahlău 

Nappe. From Poiana Teiului the fieldtrip proceeds 

along the north-eastern slope of Bicaz Lake. 

Stop 2.5: 

Frontal contact of the Ceahlău Nappe / Convolute 

Flysch Nappe. 

About 4 km downstream from the Poiana Teiului 

viaduct, the fieldtrip reaches the erosional contour 

of the tectonic contact between the outernmost part 

of the Ceahlău Nappe and the youngest formations 

of the Convolute Flysch Nappe. Massive micaferous 

sandstones representing the outermost sub-unit of the 

Ceahlău Nappe (? the Bodoc Digitation) is overthrust 

above the Upper Convolute Flysch Member (twocomponent 

turbiditic rhythms, 10-20 cm, with more 

or less frequent inlayerings of red marls). The age of 

this lower sequence of the Upper Convolute Flysch 

Member is Vraconian-Cenomanian; in some other 

areas of the East Carpathians, where this Member 

is fully developed, the micropaleontological assemblages 

specified a Vraconian-Lower Senonian age 

(Săndulescu J., 1976; Antonescu and Săndulescu, 

1985; Săndulescu et al., 1993). 

Stop 2.6: 

Cotumba Sandstone and Leţești Conglomerates. 

About 1.6 km downstream along the national 

route, massive sandstones with conglomerates and 

microconglomerate intercalations crop out. The massive 

sandstones represent the Cotumba Sandstone

situated at the middle part (Middle- and a part of the 

Upper Albian) of the Convolute Flysch Formation. It 

is a quartzitic-micaferous sandstone, graded bedded 

or with fluxoturbiditic features, showing thin to very 

thin (joints) intercalations of dark or grey marls. The 

Leţești Conglomerates develop as lenses of different 

sizes within the Cotumba Sandstone. They are dominantly 

quartzitic, with few lithic fragments represented 

by metamorphic schists. The source area of the 

Cotumba Sandstone and of the Leţești Conglomerates, 

as well as for all arenites of the Convolute Flysch 

– represented by the Peri-Moldavian Cordillera - are 

situated on the inner border of the Convolute Flysch 

sedimentary trough. 

Stop 2.7: 

Lower Convolute Flysch Member at Chiriţeni. 

3.5 km downstream from the preceding stop, several 

outcrops of Convolute Flysch may be visited. This is 

a two-component flysch, with rhythms of 10-25 cm 

of arenites (limy or marly sandstones, graded bedded, 

frequently with convolute laminated bedding at 

the upper part) and pelites (marls or silty marls, dark, 

grey or green). According to the micropaleontological 

and palynological assemblages, this Lower Convolute 

Flysch Member is of Lower and partly of Middle 

Albian age. In the Bicaz Lake area the Lower Convolute 

Flysch constitutes the frontal part of the nappe, 

overthrusting the Audia Nappe. 

Stop 2.8: 

“Black Shales” Formation in the Audia locality. 

The Audia locality and brook are situated in the Audia 

Nappe outcropping area. The main formation known 

in this nappe, developed in the so-called “Silesian 

Lithofacies”, is the “Black Shales” Formation of Barremian-Albian 

age (according to the palynological 

assemblages and the ammonitic faunas). This Formation 

may be divided into three sequences: Member 

with pelosiderites (lower), Shaly Member (middle) 

and Quartzitic Sandstones with glauconite Member 

(upper). The specific lithology is represented by black 

or dark-grey clays and silty clays. Different inlayerings 

make the difference between the different members: 

calcareous sandstones and sideritic limestones 

(pelosiderites) in the lower member, black jaspers 

(lyddites) in the middle and largely developed graded 

bedded quartzitic sandstones in the upper one. The 

sandstones also contain lithic fragments of Dobrogean 

type “Green Schists”, which is proof that the source 

area of the arenites is situated within the Foreland 


(actually underthrust – Figure - below the nappes of 

the Flysch Zone). The “Silesian Lithofacies” is also 

known in the more external nappes (Tarcău and Marginal 

Folds) and represents the outer development of 

the Flysch Zone sedimentary basin. It was sedimented 

in euxinic conditions, the dark shales having a relatively 

high content of bituminous material. 

A few hundred of meters downstream from Stop 

2.8 the field-trip penetrates into the Tarcău Nappe 

outcropping area. The Hangu Formation (see Stop 

1.4) crops out in numerous points. 700-800 m before 

reaching the Bicaz Dam the “Black Shales” Formation 

crops out in the core of the Cârnu Anticline, a 

structure of the Tarcău Nappe. 

Stop 2.9: 

Tarcău Sandstone at the Bicaz Dam. The Bicaz 

Dam is built on massive Tarcău Sandstone. The latter 

can be examined near the western margin of the 

dam. It is a typical sandy flysch with two-components 

(quartzose-micaferous, with rare lithic fragments, 

arenites and clayey lutites) rhythms of 30-120 cm.. 

The age of the Tarcău Sandstone (total thickness of 

about 3-4 km) is Upper Paleocene-Middle Eocene 

(Lutetian), according to the micropaleontological 

data (agglutinated foraminiferas assemblages); at the 

Bicaz Dam the uppermost level of the Tarcău Sandstone 

(with Cyclammina amplectens and Sphaerammina 

subgaleata) crops out also showing red clay 

intercalations. The Tarcău Sandstone is followed by 

a two-component flysch (limy sandstones / marls and 

clays) with rhythms of 10-25 cm of Upper Eocene age 

– the Podu Secu Formation – with inlayerings of 

Globigerina Marls (see also stop 1.3) at the terminal 

levels. The “Shaly Horizon” of the lower part of the 

Oligocene and the Fusaru Sandstone (see Stop1.5) 

follows. 

From the Bicaz Dam the field-trip reaches the town 

of Bicaz and from there it turns westward along the 

Bicaz Valley. It will cross the whole inner part of the 

Flysch Zone in reverse sense (Audia, Convolute Flysch, 

Ceahlău nappes) as the field-trip crossed them in 

the Bistriţa Valley. 

Stop 2.10: 

The front of the Bucovinian Nappe at the locality 

of Bicazul Ardelean . 

On the right-hand bank of the Bicaz River, at the confluence 

with the Dămuc Brook in the western part of 

Bicazul Ardelean, the front of the Bucovinian Nappe 

as well as a tectonic (“rabotage”) outlier carried from 

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the Subbucovinian sedimentary envelope, are well 

exposed (Săndulescu, 1975). 

In the S u b b u c o v i n i a n o u t l i e r the following lithostratigraphic 

succession can be examined : Anisian 

dolomites representing the main part of the outlier/ 

Lower Jurassic (?) coarsegrained quartzites/Middle 

Jurassic sandy limestones with Trocholina div.sp., 

Bositra buchi,Zeilleria div.sp., Parkinsona parkinsoni 

etc. Discordantly, thin bedded Tithonian limestones/ 

limy polymictic breccias with inlayerings of marly 

limestones. Along the frontal part of the Bucovinian 

nappe such “Rabotage” Outliers crop out frequently 

(cf. Stop 2.1 too). Another lithostratigraphical succession 

with respect to the Gura Dămucului shows: 

Callovian-Oxfordian radiolarites, Tithonian-Neocomian 

pelagic limestones, with breccias inlayerings 

in the Neocomian. This two types of successions 

proceed from different parts of the Subbucovunian 

domain, with different paleogeographic evolutions. A 

third type of Subbucovinian lithostratigraphy may be 

considered the Putna Valley succession (Stop 1.10). 

The F r o n t a l p a r t of the Bucovinian Nappe is represented 

by metamorphic formations of the Tulgheș Series 

(sericitic-quartzitic and sericitic-graphitic schists 

with inlayerings of metabasalts and porphyroids). 

Stop 2.11: 

The External Limb of the Hăghimaș Syncline : 

At 1,5 km west from the Bucovinian front, upstream 

along the Bicaz Valley, the massive Anisian dolomites 

mark the outer limb of the Hăghimaș Syncline. 

Lower Triassic quartzitic sandstones discontinously 

develop at their base. A pre-Barremian or even - taking 

into account the general structure of the outer limb 

of the syncline – pre-Late Jurassic imbrication may 

be demonstrated on the left-hand bank of the Bicaz 

where a scale involving Middle Jurassic rocks may 

be examined. With an angular discordance, the Wildflysch 

Formation follows, with a similar lithologiy to 

that of the Rarău Syncline (see Stop 1.7). 

The Wildflysch Formation is tectonicaly overlapped 

by the outliers of the Hăghimaș Transylvanian Nappe 

(the big limestones quarries upstream from Stop 

2.11). Both Wildflysch Formation and Transylvanian 

Nappe are transgressively covered by the Bârnadu 

Conglomerates (Vraconian ? – Cenomanian) which 

constitute the Post-Tectogenetic Cover. The conglomerates 

crop out along the road 2 km upstream from 

the quarries. The Hăghimaș Transylvanian Nappe can 

be examined in the Bicaz Gorges (Cheile Bicazului) 

upstream until the eastern margin of the touristic lo- 

cality of Lacu Roșu. 

Stop 2.12: 

Bicaz Gorges (confluence with the Bicăjel Brook). 

In the area of the confluence between the Bicaz with 

the Bicăjel the Tithonian-Neocomian succession 

of the Hăghimaș Nappe is exposed (Săndulescu, 

1975). The Tithonian is represented by massive 

light coloured neritic limestones which contain 

gastropods (Nerinea), foraminiferas (Trocholina 

alpina, T.elongata, Kurnubia, Kilianina, etc.), calcareous 

algae (Salpingoporella anulata) as well as 

Elipsactinia, Cladocoropsis mirabilis, Clypeina 

div.sp., Actinoporella podolica etc. The Berriasian 

is represented by well layered pelagic limestones 

with Calpionella elliptica, Tintinopsella carpathica, 

Calpionellopsis oblonga, Neocomites neocomiensis, 

Berriassiella privasensis. The Neocomian has a similar 

lithology (massive neritic limestones) and follows 

clearly above the Berriasian formations. Downstream 

from the confluence (about 600 m ), the Neocomian 

limestones are covered, with a slight discordance, 

by Urgonian-type ones (white, yellowish and light 

reddish limestones and calcarenitic breccias which 

contain Pachyodonts [Requienia div.sp. Toucasia 

carinata], large foraminiferas [Orbitolina conica] as 

well as calcareous algae and briozoarians; the age of 

these limestones is at least Lower Barremian, possibly 

Barremian as a whole but not younger because they 

are inbedded as sedimentary klippen in ([Upper Barremian 

??] Aptian formations of the Wildflysch). 

Stop 2.13: 

“Cheile Bicazului” Tectonic Half - Window. 

On the left-hand (northern) slope of the Bicaz River 

around the Chalet “Cheile Bicazului” (Bicaz Gorges) 

erosion has exposed a tectonic half-window from 

which the Wildflysch Formation crops out below the 

Hăghimaș Nappe. At the base of the latter, bodies of 

mafic and ultramafic rocks emplaced (Săndulescu 

and Russo-Săndulescu, 1981). Along the left-hand 

bank of the Bicaz River the following succession 

may be examined: above the Wildflysch, pillow-lava 

basalts and amygdaloid basalts, overlapped by siltic 

siliceous shales and red marls (Kimmeridgian), representing 

the first sedimentary levels above the Middle 

Jurassic oceanic crust. The succession continues with 

the massive Tithonian limestones. On the left-hand 

slope of the Bicaz River, 300 m behind the Chalet 

at the base of the Hăghimaș Nappe are transported 

serpentinites which also proceed from the obducted

oceanic crust emplaced at the base of the Transylvanian 

nappes. 

From the Chalet “Cheile Bicazului” the fieldtrip 

continues upstream. After 2 km crossing the massive 

Tithonian limestones the road arrives at the inner 

erosional contour of the Hăghimaș Nappe and enters 

the inner limb of the Hăghimaș Syncline. There the 

Mesozoic sequence of the Bucovinian Nappe crops 

out largely. 

Stop 2.14: 

Lacu Roșu - Bucovinian Middle Jurassic-Triassic 

formations. 

Along the northern bank of the Lacu Roșu (Red 

Lake), a lake generated in 1837 by a natural dam 

formed by a huge landslide of the right-hand slope 

of the Bicaz Valley, the following geological section 

(upside/downside) may be examined: sandy limestones 

(several hundred meters) with massive layering 

(Aalenian-Bajocian) / oolithic-hematitic silty 

limestones (50-200 cm) containing condensed fauna 

of Sinemurian-Carixian age / rauhwacke dolomites 

and limestones (20-70 m) with calcareous algae 

(Upper Anisian-Lower Ladinian) / massive Anisian 

dolomites. 

In the filling of an inward overturned syncline, situated 

westward in respect to the previously analysed sequence, 

above the Middle Jurassic sandy limestones, 

well layered radiolarites of Callovian-Oxfordian age 

are exposed. 

Stop 2.15: 

Hăghimaș Granitoids. 

Below the Anisian dolomites or the Lower Triassic 

quartzitic sandstones and/or conglomerates of the 

inner limb of the Hăghimaș Syncline, the basement 

of the sedimentary formations consists of compact 

red augengneisses, with fine intercalations of biotitemuscovite 

paragneisses. Their general attitude is N 

50-67 W/55 NE. The red gneisses consist of quartz 

(35%), orthoclase (49%), oligoclase (11%) and biotite 

(5%). A gradual transition can be seen from red 

orthogneisses to gray granular gneisses, which also 

carry garnet. The augengneisses are interpreted as 

laminated granitoids.The Hăghimaș Granitoids are 

a part of the Bretila Series which is overthrust above 

the Tulgheș Series, during the Paleozoic (a Caledonian 

or a Hercynian tectonic event). This overthrust, 

corresponding to the Rarău Nappe, is a structure of 

the metamorphic basement of the Bucovinian Nappe 

and was not involved in the Mesozoic tectogeneses 


(N. Stan, 2000). 

The fieldtrip reaches the Pângăraţi Pass (1257m) situated 

on the main East Carpathian crest, separating the 

Transylvanian hydrographic basins from the Moldavian 

ones. From the Pângăraţi Pass a panoramic view 

of the Volcanic Chain and the Gheorgheni Quaternary 

Depression opens westwards. Eastwards the Mesozoic 

Hăghimaș Syncline with the Hăghimaș Nappe 

in the axial part shows its panoramic view. From 

the Pângăraţi Pass downstream along Belcina Brook 

(left-hand tributary of the Mureș River) the metamorphic 

formations of the Tulgheș Series of the Bucovinian 

Nappe are crossed. Below it the Negrișoara Series, 

belonging also to the Bucovinian Nappe metamorphic 

basement crops out in several points. The Pietrosu 

Gneisses (cropping out 4 – 4.7 km east of Gheorgheni), 

a schistose gneiss with relict phenoclasts of violaceous 

quartz can be examined. From Gheorgheni 

the fieldtrip turns toward south proceeding to Miercurea 

Ciuc. After crossing the Gheorgheni or Ciucul de 

Sus (Upper Ciuc) Quaternary Depression, situated 

between the Volcanic Chain (west) and the Crystalline-Mesozoic 

Zone (east), 11 km from Gheorgheni in 

the village of Voșlabeni, the median part of the Rebra 

Series crops out. 

Stop 2.16: 

Voșlăbeni Quarry – Rebra Series 

(middle sequence). 

The Rebra Series is the lowermost series known in 

the metamorphic basement of the Bucovinian Nappe. 

The same position is recorded in the Subbucovinian 

Nappe. The Rebra Series is divided into three Formations. 

The middle one – named in this area the 

Voșlăbeni Formation – consists of dolomitic marbles 

with tremolite and talc, exposed in the Voșlăbeni 

quarry. From Voșlăbeni to Miercurea Ciuc metamorphic 

formations (mainly Rebra Series) of the Bucovinian 

Nappe will be crossed as well as the Ciucul de 

Mijloc (Middle Ciuc) Quaternary Depression. 

DAY 3 

Miercurea Ciuc - Brașov - Sibiu 

A i m s : In the Brașov and Perșani Mts. it is possible to 

approach the problems concerning the correlation of 

the East and South Carpathians. 

From Miercurea Ciuc the fieldtrip proceeds southwards, 

downstream along the Olt Valley. In the 

suburbs of the town, on the left-hand slope of the 

valley small quarries are opened in lava flows of py- 

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roxene- and hornblende-andesites of Upper Pliocene 

? – Lower Pleistocene age, which belong to the calcalkaline 

volcanic arc of the East Carpathians. After 

crossing the Ciucul de Jos (Lower Ciuc) Quaternary 

Depression, the Olt River (and the fieldtrip) crosses 

the south-east end of the volcanic chain. At Tușnad 

spa, east of the valley, the Sfânta Ana volcanic structure 

is well preserved. It is a very young volcano of 

Pleistocene or even Holocene age. Downstream, in 

the Micfalău area, on the right-hand slope of the Olt 

Valley, two subvolcanic bodies of basaltoid andesites 

(Lower Pleistocene) are exposed in two large quarries. 

On the left-hand slope and tributaries, Lower 

Cretaceous flysch formations of the Ceahlău Nappe 

are developed. At Malnaș the tectonic contact between 

the Ciuc Digitation and the Bodoc Digitation 

(both sub-units of the Ceahlău Nappe) is crossed. 

From Ghidfalău the Olt River runs within the Sfântu 

Gheorghe Quaternary Depression, filled - as the 

whole complex developed Quaternary depressions of 

the inner part of the Carpathian Bend Area - with Upper 

Pliocene-Pleistocene formations. 

Between Hărman and Brașov, south of the Depression, 

it is possible to reconstruct (if the weather is 

favourable), along the skyline, a cross-section of the 

Ceahlău Nappe and the front of the Getic Nappe. 

Stop 3.1: 

Săcele - Jurassic formations in the front of the 

Getic Nappe. 

In the town of Săcele, the main part of Bonloc Hill 

is built up of Jurassic formations similar to those of 

the whole Postăvaru Mts.-Codlea-Piatra Craiului 

Mts. area, which belong to the Getic Nappe. After 

a few siltic black shales of the Grestner Lithofacies 

of the Lower Jurassic, Middle Jurassic quartzitic 

sandstones follow, hosting a sill of trachytes, also 

of Middle Jurassic age. The Upper Jurassic is represented 

by massive neritic limestones. The absence of 

the Callovian-Oxfordian radiolarites which are usually 

developed in the other parts of the Getic Domain, 

accentuates the existence of a stratigraphic gap in the 

frontal part of the Getic Nappe. 

The Săcele Jurassic Getic formations are overthrust 

above the Piscu cu Brazi Formation (see Stop 2.4) 

of the Ceahlău Nappe. 

Brașov is one of the main towns of Transylvania. It is 

an early medieval city with many important vestiges. 

The Black Church is a famous Catholic church built 

in the XV th century in Gothic style. The building 

material consists of limy sandstones, which were 

worked out from quarries around Teliu village (east 

of Brașov) and are massive sandstones intercalated in 

the Piscu cu Brazi Formation of the Ceahlău Nappe. 

The organ of the church is one of the biggest organs 

in the Catholic or Protestant churches in Transylvania. 

Council Square is the old centre of the burg, with a 

city museum. South of the Black Church, upstream, is 

the Orthodox Saint Nicholas Church, where the first 

Romanian printing occurred. 

Stop 3.2: 

Brașov – Ladinian limestones in Dealul Melcilor 

Quarry. 

Dealul Melcilor Hill is the northern end of Tâmpa 

Hill, not far from the centre of town. On its eastern 

slope Ladinian organogenous massive limestones 

are exposed in an old quarry. They constitute the core 

of an E-W oriented anticline belonging to the Getic 

Nappe. Above the Ladinian limestones the Gresten 

Lithofacies of the Lower Jurassic follows (black siltic 

shales dominate with intercalations of quartzitic sandstones); 

a sill of arfvedsonite granite porphyry is intruded 

in a black siltic sequence. The Middle Jurassic 

is represented by quartzitic sandstones, while the 

Kimmeridgian-Tithonian by the massive Stramberg 

limestones. Tâmpa Hill consists of these limestones 

as does the north slope of the Dealul Melcilor. 

From Brașov the fieldtrip proceeds to the village of 

Cristian (6 km toward south-west) situated in the 

western foothills of the Postăvaru Mts. 

Stop 3.3: 

Cristian – Anisian limestones (Guttenstein type). 

North of Râșnov, at the southern margin of the village 

of Cristian in an old quarry, well layered limestones 

crop out, blackish or dark-grey, slightly bituminous 

(“stinking”), frequently with diaclases. Their Anisian 

age is documented by ammonitic fauna and by the 

palynological assemblages. The Guttenstein-type Triassic 

was folded before the Lower Jurassic; Grestentype 

formations overlie the Triassic formations with 

angular discordance . 

The Anisian limestones of Guttenstein type, of the 

Cristian-Vulcan area, may be correlated with the Anisian 

dolomites and limestones of the Iacobeni quarry 

(Stop 1.12). Consequently it is possible to correlate 

the Getic Nappe (to which the Cristian section belongs) 

with the Infrabucovinian nappes of the Central 

East Carpathians.

Stop 3.4: 

Râșnov – Upper Jurassic limestones. 

About 7 km south of the Cristian quarry, in the center 

of Râșnov, massive neritic Stramberg-type Kimmeridgian-Tithonian 

limestones crop out in a clifflike 

hill. The specific feature of the Cetăţii Brook 

outcrop (at Râșnov) consists of a changed lithofacies 

of the lower part of the carbonate sequence (welllayered 

limestones, probably Kimmeridgian-Lower 

Tithonian. Such situations are scarce, but emphasize 

that in some areas sedimentation starts with basinal 

lithofacies, synchronous with the massive neritic one, 

passing upwards to neritic, generalized lithofacies. 

On the top of the limestone relief, in the XIV th century 

, a peasant fortress was built, which is one of the several 

defence fortresses built around Brașov. 

From Râșnov the fieldtrip returns to Cristian and from 

there proceeds west crossing the Bârsa Plain (which 

corresponds to the Bârsa Quaternary Depression) 

until Vulcan . 

Stop 3.5: 

Vulcan – Anisian / Spathian boundary. 

At the western margin of the village of Vulcan, 250 m 

from the Vulcan-Holbav road, in a small old quarry, 

limy shales and thin black limestones, weakly bituminous 

crop out. With a thickness of 10-30 m, they 

develop at the base of the Guttenstein-type Anisian 

limestones. From the stratigraphical point of view 

they are situated at the boundary between the Middle 

Triassic (Anisian) and the Lower Triassic (Spathian). 

From Vulcan village the fieldtrip follows a local road 

until Holbav village and west of it. 

Stop 3.6: 

Dealul Merezi (Merezi Hill) – metamorphics of the 

Voinești Formation. 

In several small outcrops, on the western slope of 

Dealul Merezi in the eastern suburb of Holbav, 

feldspathic quartzites and retrogressed micaceous 

paragneisses are exposed. They belong to the Voinești 

Formation of the Leaota Group. 

Stop 3.7: 

Holbav – Lower Jurassic in Gresten Lithofacies. 

130 m upstream on the Bisericii Brook, in Holbav, 

in several mining, the rocks which constitute the 

Gresten lithofacies developed in the Holbav area may 

be examined: quartzitic sandstones, coarse-grained 

sandstones with quartzitic grains and coal-bearing 

siltic matrix, coal-bearing clays or clayey silts, 


sideritic limestones. In the middle part of the Gresten 

lithofacies, in the Holbav area, alkaline rocks (alkalibasalts, 

trachytes, camptonites, bostonites) are inlayered 

as lava-flows or sills. This volcano-sedimentary 

formation is a specific feature of the Holbav Gresten 

Lower Jurassic and is absent in the other zones where 

the Gresten Lithofacies is known (Cristian, Brașov, 

Săcele). 

Stop 3.8: 

Holbav Gneiss west of Holbav. 

150 -200 m downstream from the westernmost houses 

of Holbav, large outcrops of the Holbav Gneisses may 

be examined. They consist of augengneisses with centimetric 

pink or white augen of K-feldspar, interpreted 

either as migmatites or as orthogneisses derived from 

porphyric granites. 

The Holbav Gneiss is overthrust above the Lower 

Jurassic. This overthrust coresponds to the frontal 

part of the Supragetic nappes, the Șinca Nappe respectively. 

Northward the frontal overthrust of the 

Supragetic nappes can be followed, in outcrop, until 

the Dealu Mare Fault (easternmost segment of the 

South Transylvanian Fault) (Figure1). The Supragetic 

nappes correspond, in the Central East Carpathian 

area (Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone) to the Subbucovinian 

and the Bucovinian nappes. 

The fieldtrip returns to Vulcan and from there continues 

northwards to Codlea. The Măgura Codlei Scale 

is well expressed in the relief. It is constituted mostly 

of Upper Jurassic massive neritic limestones (Stramberg-type), 

which preserve at their base Callovian - 

Oxfordian radiolarites and Middle Jurassic calcareous 

sandstones. The Măgura Codlei Scale is thrust in front 

of the Subbucovinian (Șinca) Nappe. 

From Codlea, where a medieval fortified church 

marks the center of the locality, the fieldtrip turns 

west, entering the Vlădeni Couloir. This is well 

expressed in the flat and lower relief. The southern 

margin of the Vlădeni Couloir is represented by the 

Dealu Mare Fault (see above). This fault is marked 

by a sharp morphology corresponding to the elevation 

of the southern border of the Couloir, which is 

in fact a half-graben, tilted at its southern part. The 

Vlădeni Couloir filling consists of Upper Cretaceous 

conglomerates and coarsegrained sandstones and of 

marls (Senonian), thin and discontinous developed 

Eocene formations (sandstones and marls) and Oligocene-Lower 

Miocene dominantly marly lithofacies, 

slighty bituminous. 

Near Perșani village the south-east border of the 

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Transylvanian Depression is crossed by the national 

road which is followed by the fieldtrip. In some quarries 

on the slope, north of the road, the Dej Tuff crops 

out. It is a general marker of the basal sequence of the 

Depression clearly followed in boreholes and on the 

seismic lines. 

Stop 3.9: 

Panoramic view of the innermost part of the 

Carpathian Bend Area. 

From Șercaia village it is possible to have a panoramic 

view of the Perșani Mts., the Vlădeni Couloir, 

the Dealu Mare (South Transilvanian) Fault and the 

north-eastern end of the Făgăraș Mts. The highest 

visible relief of the Perșani Mts. corresponds to a 

large domal anticline (Gârbova Anticline) in the core 

of which metamorphic formations of the Bucovinian 

Nappe crop out. On the north-western slope (left-hand 

slope of Gârbova Mts.) the whole sedimentary succession 

of the nappe develops. The south-eastern slope is 

overlain by the Upper Cretaceous post-tectogenetic 

cover of the Bucovinian Nappe. It corresponds to the 

northern limb of the Vlădeni Depression. The Dealu 

Mare Fault is well expressed in relief (see above). The 

Făgăraș Mts., with the beautiful panorama of their 

skyline, correspond - with a small exception - to the 

Subbucovinian Nappe. On a small area at Șinca Nouă 

and Vârful lui Petru (the latter visible as the highest 

peak on the skyline), a tectonic outlier of the Bucovinian 

Nappe is preserved. 

From Șercaia to Sibiu the fieldtrip runs across the 

southernmost part of the Transylvanian Depression. 

Southward (left-hand) the Făgăraș Mts. border the 

Depression. Northward the hills are built up of Sarmatian 

and, mostly, Pannonian formations. 

Sibiu is also an important medieval town. The 

Evangelic Cathedral was built in the oldest part of 

the town, where the medieval architecture was well 

preserved. Parts of the defence works of the XV th - 

XVI th centuries are also well preserved. The Ortodox 

Cathedral was the first one built in Transylvania, 

showing an architecture similar to that of Saint Sophia 

in Constantinople. The Brukenthal Museum* is the 

oldest painting exhibition, opened one year before 

the Louvre. 

DAY 4 

Sibiu - Alba Iulia - Câmpeni 

From Sibiu to Alba Iulia the fieldtrip runs along the 

southern border of the Transylvanian Depression. Af- 

ter crossing Alba Iulia, the fieldtrip enters the Ampoi 

Valley. 

Stop 4.1: 

Șard - Miocene molasse. 

The oldest formations belonging to the Transylvanian 

Depression, cropping out in the Alba Iulia area, are 

exposed in Șard, on the right-hand bank of Ampoi 

Brook. Conglomerates, microconglomerates and 

coarsegrained sandstones of red or grey colour may 

be examined. The pebbles and grains are of different 

types, proceeding from the Miocene erosion of the 

South Apuseni Mountains.This molassic formation 

is older than the Dej Tuff (Lower Badenian). Consequently 

they may be correlated with the Hida Formation 

which is of uppermost Burdigalian/lowermost 

Badenian age. 

After Șard, along the Ampoi Valley the fieldtrip runs 

across the Feneș Unit of the South Apuseni Mts. 

(Transylvanides). 

Stop 4.2: 

Ampoi Valley - the Meteș Formation. 

The Upper Aptian -Albian sequence of the Feneș 

Nappe is represented by the Meteș Formation. This 

is a typical wildflysch formation, the sedimentary 

klippen (“olistoliths”) being represented by ophiolitic 

and sedimentary rocks which proceed from the inner 

(southern and eastern) units (Techerău-Drocea and 

its prolongation east of the Brad Depression, or the 

Trascău Nappe). 

The outcrops of the Meteș Formation show a layered 

(turbiditic) or massive siltic matrix and sedimentary 

klippen of: basalts, calc-alkaline rocks, Oxfordian, Tithonian 

and/or Urgonian (Barremian-Lower Aptian) 

limestones. 

The road continues across the same Meteș Formation, 

the landscape dominated by characteristic “Klippen” 

of Upper Jurassic limestone olistoliths. Between 

Poiana Ampoiului and Presaca Ampoiului, the area is 

built up by the Fenes Formation, but the favourable 

exposures are situated on the left (northern) affluents 

and slopes. 

At Presaca Ampoiului, after crossing a fault, the road 

enters the Valea lui Paul Formation in which some 

Upper Jurassic olistoliths can be observed (Bleahu 

et al., 1981). 

Stop 4.3: 

Feneș valley. Very low-grade Feneș beds. 

Along the Feneș valley siltic clayș chemolitic lime-

stones, greywackes, spilites, are exposed; they are 

very slightly metamorphosed. This formation is 

considered (Bleahu et al., 1981) volcano-sedimentary-olistostrome, 

with sequences of turbiditic rocks. 

The age of the Feneș Formation is probably Tithonian-Barremian. 

Stop 4.4: 

Petringeni. Faţa Băii conglomerates and volcanites 

(Paleocene). 

The molasse deposits of the post-tectonic Paleogene-Miocene 

Zlatna basin, transgressive on the 

Cretaceous Flysch are represented by the Faţa Băii 

conglomeratic Formation. The polymictic conglomerates 

admit intercalations of sandstones, red clays, 

as well as interlayered lavas and volcaniclastics of 

rhyolitic and andesitic composition. The rhyolitic 

flows, sometimes brecciated, consist of plagioclase, 

sanidine, quartz and biotite. The andesites are amphibole-and 

pyroxene-bearing. The thickness of the 

lava flows does not exceed 50 m. Paleocene age was 

confirmed radiometrically and biostratigraphically. 

Westwards the age of the sedimentary and volcanic 

formations extends well into the Miocene (E. Roșu in 

Udubașa, 2001 ed.). 

At Zlatna, at the crossroad to Almăș, Senonian formations 

are exposed in a small quarry, consisting of 

sandstones, microconglomerates and conglomerates 

with pebbles of quartz and limestones. 

Upstream from Izvorul Ampoiului the valley crosses 

the tectonic contact between the Feneș Nappe and the 

Bucium Unit, the latter being represented by the Upper 

Albian Pârâul Izvorului Formation (coarse convolute 

sandstones, marls and clays). 

The road traverses the watershed between the Ampoi 

and Arieș basins at Dealul Florii. 

Stop 4.5: 

Confluence Abrud valley - Cerbu valley. 

Soharu Formation (Upper Aptian-Lower Albian). 

An overturned Wildflysch sequence of the Bucium 

Unit can be examined in a small quarry. The sequence 

consists of grey-greenish convolute shales alternating 

in the higher levels with calcarenites and calcirudites. 

Conglomerates with calcareous cobbles and green 

tuffaceous-clayey matrix are also exposed, as well as 

greenish or violaceous siltites (S. Bordea, 1992). 


DAY 5 

Câmpeni - Petru Groza - Brad - Deva 

Stop 5.1: 

Vadu Moţilor. Contact between Lupșa 

and Gârda Nappes. 

After Paleozoic marbles exploited in a quarry and 

a rather monotonous sequence of either sericitic 

or chloritic schists, for several kilometers, at Vadu 

Moţilor, south of the confluence with the Neagra valley, 

at the base of the Muncel Nappe, chlorite-sericite 

schists with an intercalation of tuffogeneous amphibolites 

are exposed, dipping 35°SE. 

North of the confluence, silvery-violaceous laminated 

conglomerates crop out with strongly flattened pebbles, 

the schistosity dipping southwards. Their age is 

Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian; the conglomerates 

belong to the Finiș -Gârda Nappe, the basement 

of which consists of the Codru Granitoids, exposed 

upstream (Bleahu et al., 1981). 

Further on, the road runs across the Codru Granitoids 

and migmatites of the Gârda Nappe, as well as across 

violaceous quartzitic sandstones and conglomerates 

belonging to the Bihor Unit, the basement of which 

consists of retrogressed chlorite-sericite schists 

(Arada Series). The contact between the two units is 

a vertical fault. 

Stop 5.2: 

Albac Gorge. Skythian-Anisian boundary 

in the Bihor Unit. 

At the confluence with a small left-hand tributary 

decimetric beds of Skythian violaceous or white 

quartzitic sandstones are conformably overlain by 

Anisian yellowish-white bedded dolomites. The 

abrupt contact suggests a break in sedimentation 

(Bleahu et al., 1981). 

Stop 5.3: 

Zugăi Gorge, Bihor Unit. Detrital formation 

at the base of the Ladinian. 

After crossing for a longer distance massive, brittle 

yellowish-white Anisian dolomites, a detritic formation 

is exposed along the road for about 100 m, its 

sequence being as follows: dolomitic breccia with 

clasts of black dolomites; white limestone breccia 

with rounded pebbles of Wetterstein limestones and 

of Anisian black limestones (regionally unknown in 

outcrops); violaceous argillaceous or marly shales, 

appearing yellow or grey when weathered, with interbeds 

of violet quartzitic sandstones. 

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The top of the sequence consists of massive greyishwhite 

Wetterstein limestones. 

The detritic formation presented above gives evidence 

of a continental environment deposition, the 

limestone pebbles and the violet clays possibly representing 

a karst infilling. 

Some hundreds of meters upriver, the Wetterstein 

limestones overthrust by Codru Granitoids and 

migmatites of the Gârda Nappe are transformed into 

calcite mylonites (Bleahu et al., 1981). 

Stop 5.4: 

Scărișoara - Gârda. Upper Carboniferous-Lower 

Permian of the Gârda Nappe. 

After crossing laminated Codru granitoids and migmatites 

and a horst exposing Wetterstein limestones in 

a half-window, the road reaches the first sedimentary 

term of the Gârda Nappe, namely the Laminated Conglomerates, 

the Upper Carboniferous-Lower Permian 

age of which was evidenced by palynology. They consist 

of flattened, mainly quartz pebbles in a violaceous 

slaty matrix. An oblique foliation may sometimes be 

obseved. Upsequence follows laminated violet or 

green rhyolitic ignimbrites and violet shales with 

interbeds of red micaceous sandstones (with hyeroglyphs) 


Measurement of the pebbles has shown that the strain 

was predominantly an extensional one, but in places 

the main deformation was flattening (Dimitrescu, 

1995). 

Stop 5.5: 

Gârda de Sus - confluence with Iarba Rea. Lower 

Permian of the Gârda Nappe. 

After crossing again, due to the Gârda major fault, 

the Anisian dolomites of the Bihor Unit, the road 

continues across the formations of the Gârda Nappe, 

the place of the Laminated Conglomerates being 

taken by a breccia consisting of fragments reaching 

20 cm in length of gneisses, muscovite, schists quartz 

and quartzites included in a shaly matrix. They are 

believed to be an alluvial deposit, without fluvial 

transport and present a striking similarity to the “Conglomerati 

di Dosso dei Galli” of the Southern Alps 

and with the Medódoly (Kopersady) breccias of the 

Tatrides (Bleahu et al., 1981). 

Stop 5.6: 

Confluence with the Buciniș valley. Arieșeni Nappe 

overthrusting the Gârda Nappe. 

After crossing a spectacular gorge cut across a syn- 

cline of Skythian violaceous quartz conglomerates 

and sandstones overlying the Permian micaceous or 

feldspathic sandstones and shales, at the confluence 

with the Buciniș valley the contact between the Gârda 

and the Arieșeni Nappes is exposed. The former is 

represented by laminated conglomerates, sandstones 

and rhyolites, while the latter consists of green phyllitic 

schists of Lower Carboniferous age, the attitude 

of their schistosity being about EW with southern dip 


Stop 5.7: 

Arieșeni. Greenschist Formation 

(Upper Carboniferous). 

From the front of the Arieșeni Nappe overthrust examined 

at the previous stop, the road crosses exclusively 

the Lower Carboniferous greenschists of this 

unit. The large outcrops reveal the schistosity of the 

Arieșeni Formation showing various dips, generally 

towards W and NW. 

At km 40 + 350 m of main road nr. 75, in an exposure 

about 10 m long on the left side of the Arieșul Mare, 

a subhorizontal exposure may be observed consisting 

of weakly metamorphosed conglomerates with 

strongly rolled pebbles, composed predominantly of 

quartz and with greyish-green quartzitic matrix; the 

metaconglomerates admit an intercalation of greyish-green 

sandstone and overlie green pelitic schists 

cropping out just at the water level. The alternation 

of the lithological horizons expresses the S 0 bedding 

of the rocks, on the planes of which no foliation has 

developed; the attitude of the graphically determined 

bedding is approximately N 45° W / 12° SW. Directly 

measurable foliation planes correspond to a schistisity 

S 1 (flow cleavage) oblique with respect to the bedding; 

its attitude here is N 70°W / 45°SW. Along this 

foliation small faultings of the lithologic horizons occur 

locally. The intersection lineation trends N 67°W 

/ 04°NW. 

The regional trend of the stretching lineations, marked 

by the elongation of the pebbles in the Greenschist 

Conglomerates of the Arieșeni Nappe, is NW, signalling 

the direction of Alpine tectonic transport in the 

Northern Apuseni (Dimitrescu, 1995). 

Stop 5.8: 

Arieșeni. General view of the Biharia Massif. 

The whole crest of the Biharia Massif is built up of 

the formations of the Biharia Nappe consisting of the 

Biharia crystalline series. It overlies horizontally the 

Poiana Nappe made up of a narrow strip of metacon-


Figure 8 - General cross-section in the Bihor Mts 

(M.Bleahu in Ianovici et al., 1976) 

I Bihor Unit: SA, Arada Series; ws, Seisian; wcan,Campilian-Anisian; 

ld,Ladinian; J1, 2, 3 , Jurassic; 

br, Barremian. II Arieș eni Nappe: P, Permian; 

T1,Werfenian; III Poiana Nappe: SP, Păiușeni Series; 

IV Biharia Nappe: SB, Biharia Series; SP, Păiușeni 

Series. V Muncel Nappe: SM, Muncel Series; g, 

granitoids. 

Southern Apusenides: b, ophiolites; br, Barremian; 

st-cp, Santonian, Campanian; ma, Maastrichtian.Posttectogenetic 

formations: gd, granodiorites; a, andesites; 

gdp, granodiorite porphyry. 

glomerates and sericite-phyllites (Upper Carboniferous-Păiușeni 

Series). The Poiana Nappe overlies the 

Arieșeni Nappe, which covers the whole area lying at 

the foot of the Biharia Massif; this nappe consists of 

the Arieseni Greenschists Formation and the reddishviolet 

formations of the Upper Carboniferous-Lower 

and Middle Permian. 

In front of and under the Biharia (Cucurbăta) 

MicăPeak, a lower peak covered by wood, rises. It 

is the Stânișoara Peak, which consists of banatitic 

granodiorites piercing the whole pile of Permian 

formations. The intrusion determined a contact metamorphism 

changing in large areas the red colour of 

the Permian into black (“Black Series”) (Bleahu et 

al., 1981). 

Stop 5.9: 

Arieșeni. Unconformity Upper/Lower 

Carboniferous. 

After leaving the centre of Arieșeni, at km 36 + 550 m, 

after the confluence with the Șteului valley, in a large 

exposure the unconformity between the Laminated 

Conglomerates (Carboniferous-Lower Permian) and 

the Arieșeni Greenschists (Lower Carboniferous) may 

be examined. In this exposure the pelitic greenschists 

are overlain by laminated conglomerates containing 

as pebbles weakly rolled quartz fragments included in 

a violaceous-silvery sericitic matrix; the conglomerates 

alternate with schistose quartzitic sandstones and 

argillaceous violet phyllites. 

The attitude of the common schistosity S 1 of both 

formations is N 40°W / 35°SW. The S 0 bedding of the 

greenschists, graphically plotted according to a slight 

banding is N 40°E / 38°NW, the trend of the intersection 

lineation being EW / 30°W. 

The attitude of the bedding of the laminated conglomerates 

cannot be observed here. However 200 m upriver, 

this attitude put in evidence by pebble grading 

and by shaly interbeds is NS / 60°W (trend of inter- 

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section lineation: N53°E/ 36°SW). The regional trend 

of the stretching lineations marked by the elongation 

of the pebbles in the Laminated Conglomerates of the 

Arieșeni Nappe is also north-western, confirming the 

direction of the Alpine tectonic transport. 

The strain of the pebbles was exclusively an extensional 

one, as measurement of their shape has shown, 

the intensity of deformation being medium. 

Comparing the Es parameters for the pebbles of the 

Greenschist conglomerates with those of the Laminated 

Conglomerates in the Arieșeni Nappe, it may 

be concluded that the former were more intensely 

deformed (Es = 0.55 - 1.22 versus 0.55 - 0.80), having 

undergone an older Midcarboniferous tectonic phase 

that did not affect the latter. On Flinn’s diagram, the 

majority of the pebbles shows a k~1, the strain having 

been a plane one in the Laminated Conglomerates of 

the Arieșeni Nappe (Dimitrescu, 1995). 

Stop 5.10: 

Bubești Hill. Permian Vermicular 

Formation. Banatitic sill. 

At km 32 + 120 m, on the left slope of the valley 

above the road, the Permian is represented by red 

micaceous sandstones and argillaceous shales. In the 

sandstones, bioglyphs of burrow - fillings type can 

be observed. The Permian is pierced by a banatitic 

andesite sill. 

Stop 5.11: 

Piatra Muncelului. Lamprophyre dykes crossing 

Urgonian limestones. 

After reaching the main watershed of the Apuseni 

Mountains, the road leaves the Arieș hydrographic 

basin and enters the Crișul Negru basin, intersecting 

reddish Permian and quartzitic Lower Triassic 

formations. 

After a number of road windings and hair-pin bends 

across Lower Jurassic detrital formations changed 

into hornfelses (“Black Series”), a fault is traversed 

and then white massive limestones of Barremian in 

Urgonian facies belonging to the lowermost Bihor 

Unit are continuously exposed. 

At km 21 + 50 m, three almost vertical lamprophyre 

dykes striking about NS are intruded into the limestones. 

The thickness of the dykes ranges between 

1 and 3 m; the eastern one presents at its contact a 

breccia about 1 m thick, composed of angular fragments 

of white limestones (recrystallized as marbles) 

and of igneous rocks, enclosed in a calcareous-gritty 

cement. 

The lamprophyres correspond to odinites, consisting 

of basic plagioclase and augite, the ground-mass 

having an intergranular texture. It is worth noting the 

presence of pyroxenes as phenocrysts (Bleahu et al., 

1981). 

Stop 5.12: 

Arieșeni - Băiţa road. Contacts Arieșeni 

Nappe / Următ Nappe / Bihor Unit. 

In the last outcrops of the limestones (km 20 + 60 m) 

numerous Coral traces as well as remnants of Megalodonts 

are to be observed; then, at the road surveyor’s 

cabin, the road crosses from the Bihor Unit into the 

Următ Nappe. The latter consists of slight micaceous 

shales, yellowish quartz sandstones and greyish calcarenites, 

all of them assigned to the Lower Jurassic. 

Further on, the road leads again into the Arieșeni 

Nappe consisting mainly of the Permian violaceous 

rocks. Red coloured rocks are gradually replaced 

by black coloured ones (“Black Series”) due to the 

thermal action of the banatitic body intruded here at a 

small depth (Bleahu et al., 1981). 

Stop 5.13: 

Băiţa Bihorului. Rhyolites in the black Permian. 

On entering the old mining locality of Băiţa Bihorului, 

opposite the first houses, on the right slope, a 

rhyolitic body is exposed. Its colour is light grey, due 

to thermal metamorphism with very slight violaceous 

hues at places. The rock presents a feebly pronounced 

foliation; the attitude of the layering is approximately 

N 20°E / 40°SE; two main joint systems are observable. 

The footwall consists of blackish vermicular 

micaceous sandstones, while in the hanging wall, the 

contact with black argillites and quartzites may be 

observed (“Black Series”). 

Past the town of Băiţa, on the right-hand side, the formation 

of the Bătrânescu Nappe appear contacting the 

Arieșeni Nappe along a fault. Skythian quartzites followed 

by dolomites and limestones of Middle Triassic 

age can be noticed. Finally the road reaches the Beiuș 

Depression with outcrops of Pliocene. 

Stop 5.14: 

Vașcău. Permian ignimbritic rhyolites. 

Ignimbritic rhyolites are exposed about 400 m west of 

the Vașcău railway station. White feldspar and quartz 

crystals about 1-3 mm in size are conspicuous, as well 

as leafy biotite, included in a greenish-grey schistose 

matrix. Characteristic “fiamme” are often noticed in 

the latter (N. Stan in Borcoș et al., 1980).

Stop 5.15: 

Dealul Mare. Metaconglomerates of the 

Păiușeni Series. 

The road crosses the divide between the hydrographic 

basins of the Black and the White Criș; at this point, 

the metaconglomerates of the Poiana Nappe are exposed. 

Measurements on their pebbles indicated an extensional 

strain for the whole Poiana Nappe, in one point 

only the strain is a flattening one. 

The road continues across the Miocene post-tectonic 

basin. 

Between Brad and Vălișoara upriver the Luncoiu valley 

on both sides of the main road, Mesozoic islandarc 

(U3-K1) andesitic-basaltic volcanics (basalts and 

andesites are associated with gabbros, but also with 

dacites, rhyolites as well as with orthophyres and oligophyres 

as pyroclastics) as well as the Miocene molasse 

deposits represented mainly by the red “Almasu 

Mare gravels” (Badenian) are exposed; the latter belong 

to the Brad-Săcărâmb sedimentary basin where 

the Neogene volcanics are widely developed. 

In the Dealul Mare col the characteristic landscape of 

volcanic peaks is to be seen. 

At Vălișoara, the Upper Jurassic andesitic and basaltic 

flows and pyroclastics are overlain by Upper 

Jurassic calcareous olistoliths and by Aptian Wildflysch 

formations. 

Downstream the Vălișoara valley, after the island-arc 


Figure 9 - Simplifi ed map of Vâlcan-Parâng Mts. 

(T.Berza and V.Iancu, 1994). 

complex beginning at Săliștioara the road crosses 

ophiolitic rocks belonging to the Techerău Nappe, 

porphyritic basaltic lavas with augite phenocrysts, 

andesites with hornblende as well as porphyroclastics 

(aglomerates and tuffs) are conspicuous (Savu et al., 

1986). 

Some “Klippen” of Upper Jurassic and Urgonian 

limestones can be noticed. 

Succeeding the ophiolitic complex, after an EW striking 

fault, the Căbești Formation (Barremian-Lower 

Aptian) is exposed, namely black gritty shales with 

intercalations of siliceous sandstones; they belong to a 

particular unit, the Căbești Unit (Bleahu et al., 1981). 

Stop 5.16: 

Fornădia. Mesocretaceous unconformity. 

A small hill marks the unconformity between the 

Căbești Formation, represented by strongly disturbed 

quartzitic sandstones and clayey shales and the gently 

dipping Fornădia Beds (Vraconian-Cenomanian). 

The latter start with quartzitic micro-conglomerates 

and calclithites. The coarse bedding becomes thinner 

(15-50 cm) towards the top of the formation. In thin 

slides Paraphillum primaevum is frequent. 

After another EW oriented fault, the road reaches 

the area of the Bejan Unit, in which the Bejan Formation 

is characteristic. This formation consists of 

B12 

35 - B12 



B12 

B12 - 


black argillaceous shales with olistoliths of Jurassic 

basalts, Upper Triassic and Upper Jurassic micritic 

limestones, interbedded with basaltic flows, pyroclastics 

and epiclastics and sandstones, representing 

an olistostrome. 

Along the Mureș valley, again after an EW trending 

fault, outcrops of the Deva Formation can be examined. 

The conglomerates, massive sandstones and 

marls are of Coniacian-Santonian age, constrained by 

micropaleontological data (Bleahu et al., 1981). 

The fieldtrip reaches Deva, a town dominated by a hill 

built up by a Neogene amphibole andesite (+ biotite 

volcanic neck) with a ruined fortress of the XV th century 

on its top. 

DAY 6 

Deva - Tg.Jiu - Turnu Severin 

From Deva, the fieldtrip reaches Hunedoara, a town 

famous in the country not only for its metallurgical 

plants but also for the beautiful castle, built in the 

middle of the XV th century. Its foundations rest on 

a cliff of Lower Carboniferous crystalline dolomites 

belonging to the Supragetic Units of Poiana Ruscă. 

Underlying the dolomites, low-grade iron deposits 

were mined representing the basis for the local metallurgical 

industry. 

From Hunedoara, the road crosses the Neogene Strei 

basin. 

Stop 6.1: 

Crivadia Bridge. Getic Nappe: Lotru basement 

and Mesozoic cover. 

Between Crivadia and Băniţa, national road 66 

crosses the Getic (Austrian) Nappe represented by the 

Lotru Group basement and the Lower Jurassic-Lower 

Cretaceous cover. Aalenian-Bathonian sandstones 

and bioclastic limestones are followed by bioclastic 

limestones with siliceous deposits (Lower-Middle 

Callovian) and Upper Jurassic-Aptian pelletal and 

micritic Urgonian limestones (T. Berza, in: Berza et 

al., 1994). 

Before entering Petroșani, the Lotru Group is exposed, 

consisting of micaschists and micaceous paragneisses 

with muscovite, biotite and garnet. They are sometimes 

affected by retrogression, by which the primary 

minerals are substituted by sericite and chlorite. 

The Petroșani Tertiary basin follows, with red Aquitanian 

conglomerates and coal-bearing Chattian 

sandstones. 

Stop 6.2: 

Gambrinus Motel. Liassic Schela Formation. 

At the confluence of the Eastern and the Western Jiu 

(km 125 on national road 66 ), a small road after 150 

m leads to the Gambrinus Motel. The Liassic Schela 

Formation is exposed along a forest road beginning 

immediately before the motel. It consists of black 

metapelitic and metapsammitic rocks of Gresten type. 

On the southern slope of the Vâlcan Mountains, the 

Figure 10 - Schematic cross-section along the Jiu Gorges (Berza, Drăgănescu,in Berza et al.,1994). 1,Tertiary 

deposits; 2,Lotru rocks; 3,Upper Cretaceous Flysch with Lupeni limestone klippen;4,Schela Formation;5,Lainici- 

Păiuș rocks; 6,Drăgșan amphibolites; 7, Șușiţa Pluton; 8,unconformity; 9, ”decollement”stratigraphic boundary; 

10,Alpine overthrust; 11, pre-Alpine overthrust

same formation bears fossil flora. 

The dominant attitude of the schistosity in the black 

phyllites is N 75°E / 40°SW; it represents an axial 

plane foliation of concentric decimetric and metric 

folds trending N 22°E / 30°SW (B 1), accompanied 

by a faint crenulation lineation with the same attitude. 

Younger chevron folds trend N 50°W / 75°SW (B 2). 

Along B 1, conspicuous boudins of quartzose material 

can be observed, due to contrast in competence; 

they indicate a tectonic transport top-to-NE. A parallel 

system of short centimetric quartz veins lead to the 

same conclusion. 

Stop 6.3: 

Km 118.500 on national road 66. Amphibolitic 

Formation of the Drăgșan Group. 

A typical leptyno-amphibolitic formation is exposed, 

with an alternation of millimetric to centimetric 

black and white layers dipping 45°SE. All proportions 

between 100% hornblende and amphibole-free 

oligoclase + quartz layers can be found. Biotite, 


garnet and muscovite are frequent. Scarce layers of 

mica-gneisses occur in the amphibolites (T. Berza, in: 

Berza et al., 1994). 

Stop 6.4: 

Cârligul (Cornul) Caprei bridge, km 115.500. Pre 

- Alpine tectonic contact between two distinct basements 

(Lainici - Păiuș and Drăgșan) of the Lainici 

Nappe. 

The last outcrops of the Drăgșan Group are fine- to 

large-grained massive garnet amphibolites (metagabbros), 

preceded by serpentinites (metaperidotites). 

Downriver to 100 m north of the bridge, the retrogression 

is limited to fracture zones, frequently with 

quartz veins. Near the bridge, contrasting mechanical 

properties of carbonates and silicates and pervasive 

deformation produced black (amphibolite) or white 

(leucogranite) boudins in the marbles. 

On the following hundreds of meters downriver to 

km 114.500, the road exposes para-amphibolites, 

mica-gneisses, graphitic metapelites and silicate 

Figure 11 - Tectonic sketch-map of the south-western part of the South Carpathians. (Codarcea et al.,1968). 

B12 

37 - B12 



B12 

B12 - 


marbles with ubiquitous leucogranite injections; 

the entire sequence is strongly sheared, with a steep 

foliation and EW - trending horizontal lineation. Manolescu 

(1937), Pavelescu et al., (1964) and Berza et 

al., (1983) ascribe this carbonatic-graphitic sequence 

to the Lainici-Păiuș Group, while Savu et al., (1984) 

consider it as part of the Drăgșan Group (T. Berza, in: 

Berza et al., 1994). 

Stop 6.5: 

Km 111. Lainici-Păiuș Group in the 

Lainici Nappe. 

Downriver to km 106 (Lainici Monastery), the Jiu 

Gorges are carved into the Lainici-Păiuș Group, 

exposing its Quartzitic Formation (an alternance of 

various quartzites, biotite gneisses and mica-gneisses). 

Leucogranitic injections and various migmatites 

are widespread. The general aspect of the rocks is 

mylonitic, with a pervasive north-dipping mylonitic 

foliation and retrograde greenschist facies recrystallization. 

Several porphyritic dykes are emplaced in this 

sequence. Relict mineral assemblages of an early high 

T-low P metamorphism (Precambrian) are preserved 

in places (andesine, garnet, sillimanite, andalusite, 

cordierite, hornblende), strongly overprinted by later 

greenschist retrogression (albite, chlorite, tremolite, 

epidote, stilpnomelane) (T. Berza, in: Berza et al., 

1994). 

Stop 6.6: 

Km 105. Rafaila - Lainici-Păiuș gneisses 

and Schela Formation. 

At the Rafaila Cross, the left bank of the Jiu shows 

mostly Quaternary deposits at the mouth of a lefthand 

tributary, with huge blocks of sandstones and 

conglomerates and smaller debris of pyrophyllitechloritoid 

slates (famous occurrence of chloritoid). 

The Liassic age is well documented by plant remains 

further west. The Schela Formation is overthrust 

southwards by the Lainici-Păiuș Formation (Lainici 

Nappe). On the next 500 m of the road, rocks of the 

Lainici - Păiuș Group are exposed: quartzites ± plagioclase 

± biotite ± muscovite ± garnet ± diopside 

alternate with mica gneisses ± sillimanite. The latter 

may reach 2 cm in length and show a strong horizontal 

EW-trending lineation. Dikes of porphyritic microdiorites 

show a pervasive Alpine mylonitization. 

The first outcrops of Șușiţa granitoids begin at km 

103.700, the rocks being foliated and altered, being 

transformed into quartz-albite-K feldspar-muscovite- 

chlorite-stilpnomelane-epidote mylonites. 

Down to the Runc brook, the granitoids have been affected 

by a Hercynian schistosity. They are laminated 

and transformed into sericite-chlorite “orthoschists”; 

the K feldspar megacrysts resist better to the deformation 

processes (T. Berza, in: Berza et al., 1994). 

Stop 6.7: 

Km 97. Șușiţa granitoids. 

The Șușiţa pluton consists of biotite granites and 

biotite- hornblende granodiorites and tonalites. The 

texture is more or less massive. It is the longest pluton 

of the South Carpathians (50 km in length). 

After leaving the Jiu Gorges the fieldtrip proceeds 

across the Neogene formations of the Getic Piedmont. 

Stop 6.8: 

Tismana monastery. Tismana granite. 

The porphyritic coarse-grained Tismana granites consist 

of microcline, plagioclase (An 30), quartz, biotite 

and accessories. The K-feldspar megacrysts reach 

lengths of 10 cm; the plagioclases do not exceed 1 

cm. Equigranular granodiorites also crop out in the 

vicinity of the hydroelectric adit. A subhorizontal 

metric vein of aplitic rocks crosses the granitoids. 

Associated in the same magmatic suite meladiorites 

are exposed, upriver consisting of clinopyroxene, 

brown hornblende, biotite, plagioclase (An 40-50), 

interstitial quartz, apatite. The fabric is massive. 

Static retrograde mineral alterations include formation 

of chlorite, prehnite, epidote. 

The Mesozoic cover consists of Liassic conglomerates 

and arkosic sandstones (T. Berza, in: Berza et 

al., 1994). 

The church of the Tismana monastery was built 

in the XIV th century; its other buildings date from a 

much later period. 

Stop 6.9: 

Brebina valley at Bratilovu, km 48 along the Baia 

de Aramă - Băile Herculane road. Getic Nappe 

overlying the Danubian. 

Between Brebina and Titerlești, the road crosses the 

uppermost term of the Lower Danubian cover, namely 

a Upper Cretaceous Wildflysch formation, consisting 

of a highly broken sequence of turbidites showing 

a block-in-a-sheared matrix texture. The olistoliths 

include Mesozoic rocks, basalts, serpentinites and 

crystalline schists, while the matrix consists of siltites 

and argillaceous shales. 

The deformational history includes tectonic shearing


Figure 12, 13 - Geological map and cross section-Danube Valley between Gura Văii and Orșova (V.Iancu, 

Fl.Marinescu, S.Năstăseanu, M.Conovici in Pop et al.,1997). 

and gravitational mass transport. Shear-sense indicators 

suggest dextral shearing, connected to a major 

EW -trending dextral strike-slip fault (8-10 km of 

horizontal displacement). (A. Seghedi, in Berza et 

al., 1994). 

In Bratilovu, the mylonitic rocks with western dips of 

the Lotru Group belonging to the Getic Nappe crop 

out. 

Across the villages of Mărășesti and Stănești, the 

road exposes outcrops of crystalline schists of the 

Getic Bahna outlier. 

Stop 6.10: 

Obârșia Cloșani. Km 52-56. Severin Nappe. The 

Severin Nappe in this area is represented by the 

Obârșia Complex, a melange formation with ophiolites 

and siliceous pelagic deposits (radiolarian cherts) 

assigned to the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous. 

The ophiolitic rocks are basalts (in places with pillow 

texture), dolerites, harzburgitic ultramafites and 

minor gabbros, pervasively sheared and disrupted. 

Geochemical features suggest MORB -tholeiites. The 

rocks preserve fresh pyroxenes. Along the Brebina 

valley, spotted basalts show low-temperature meta- 

B12 

39 - B12 



B12 

B12 - 


morphism in prehnite-pumpellyite facies. Other secondary 

minerals of the sheared rocks include chlorite, 

epidote, albite, calcite and zeolites. The structural 

elements of the ophiolites consist of slickensides and 

S-C fabrics, with a penetrative scaly-cleavage. Flat 

lying banded mylonites develop on basalt protoliths 

along the western border of the nappe. Sheared green 

rocks are traversed by epidote-quartz-albite veins (A. 

Seghedi, in Berza et al., 1994). 

The road continues across Neogene formations till 

Drobeta -Turnu Severin. This town was built at the 

emplacement of Trajan’s bridge over the Danube (105 

A.D.), one pillar of which can still be seen. Medieval 

ruins can also be visited. 

DAY 7 

Turnu Severin - Timișoara 

Stop 7.1: 

3.5 km west of Gura Văii, km 352, between the 

Scarpia (Padina Mică) and Ungureanu viaducts. 

Pre-Alpine polymetamorphic basement of the 

Getic Nappe: Lotru Group. 

The road crosses the Iron Gate outlier of the Getic 

Nappe, on which the Iron Gate Dam is built. The 

Lotru Group consists of metaterrigeneous micaceous 

paragneisses and micaschists associated with 

amphibolites, quartz-feldspar gneisses and scarce 

marble lenses. The outcrops display up to three fold 

generations, S 1 layering, S 2 dominanat transposition 

foliation and a S 3 crenulation cleavage, mineral and 

intersection lineations. 

Relict mineral assemblages (biotite, garnet, staurolite, 

kyanite) characterizing a first barrovian metamorphism 

M1 are overprinted by a sillimanite + biotite + 

muscovite association M2 of intermediate low-pressure 

type. The dominant S2 foliation has a general 

NE-SW attitude, while the mineral (stretching) lineations 

lie between ENE and ESE. 

The Iron Gates outlier of the Getic Nappe crosses the 

Danube southwards into Serbia (Sip) (V. Iancu, in: 

Pop et al., 1997). 

Stop 7.2: 

Slătinicu Mare viaduct (km 354) and Oreva 

viaduct (1.3 km westwards). Tectonic contact at 

the sole of the Getic Nappe (Bahna outlier ) with 

Lower Cretaceous turbidites (Sinaia Beds) of the 

underlying Severin Nappe. 

Metamorphites of the previously examined Lotru 

Group, with small bodies of sheared diatexitic gran- 

ites, overlie the Sinaia Beds, lying in the core of a 

large scale open antiformal fold. On the eastern end of 

the viaduct, the outcrop consists of crystalline schists 

of the Lotru Group, while on its western end the Sinaia 

Beds are exposed. 

The Sinaia Beds include mostly distal turbidites; 

thicker sandstone beds up to 40-50 cm occur in the 

vicinity of the Slă˘tinicu Mare viaduct. Grey pelagic 

limestones form thin interbeds. Chondritid ichnofauna 

is often preserved in siltstones and mudstones. The 

age of the sequence is ascribed to the Upper Tithonian- 

Lower Valanginian, according to Calpionellids. 

The structural style of the Sinaia Beds consists of tight 

to isoclinal recumbent folds (B 1) strongly refolded 

by steeply dipping normal folds (B 2). The recumbent 

folds are strongly disrupted by normal folding and 

they are often preserved as isolated dismembered fold 

hinges. Various types of kink- and chevron-folds with 

axial planes steeply dipping E or W are common. 

Slaty cleavages are seldom visible in the pelitic interbeds. 

Sandstone beds may show fracture cleavages 

fanning in fold hinges. Younger structures are high 

angle normal faults. 

The relationships between the Lotru Group of the 

Getic Nappe and the Sinaia Beds are exposed on 

the right-hand bank of the Slătinic valley, where the 

metamorphic rocks show pervasive brittle deformation. 

The tectonic contact can be followed uphill, 

where the metamorphic rocks of the Lotru Group 

build up the top of the hills, while the road is cut 

across sedimentary deposits. 300 m east of the Oreva 

viaduct, strongly sheared and brecciated metamorphites 

reappear in the core of a tight synformal fold; 

a steeply dipping shear band foliation occurs in both 

formations, several meters away from the contact (A. 

Seghedi,V. Iancu, in : Berza et al., 1994; Pop et al., 

1997). 

Stop 7.3: 

Km 357, Vodiţa viaduct - Vârciorova viaduct. Tectonic 

contact between the Severin Nappe and the 

Danubian Domain. 

At the confluence with the Vodiţa valley, the Lotru 

Group is exposed. 

The oldest sedimentary deposits exposed eastwards 

are massive grey limestones strongly jointed and 

crossed by numerous calcite veinlets, exhibiting in 

places a pseudobreccia aspect. Their age is ascribed 

to the Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous, by comparison 

with the Cerna-Coșuștea zone. These deposits 

represent a huge olistolith embedded into a paratypi-


Figure 14 - Geological sketch of the Bârzava Valley (Moniom-Bocșa) (Iancu, Năstăseanu in Năstăseanu et al., 1981). 

1, Quaternary; 2, Neogene; 3, Banatitic magmatites.Locva Unit:4, Upper Carboniferous and Lower Cretaceous; 5, 

Lower Carboniferous(Cârșie Formation); 6, Devonian, volcano-sedimentary formation:a, metapelites; b, metatuffs 

and metatuffites; 7, metamorphoseded igneous rocks; 8, Ordovician(?), Tâlva Mare Quartzites;Bocșa Unit: 9, 

Upper Carboniferous and Middle Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous; 10, Precambrian-Lower Cambrian,Bocșiţa-Drimoxa 

Formation; 11, Precambrian,Tâlva Drenii Formation. Reșiţa Nappe:12, Upper Carboniferous. 

cal Wildflysch Lower Senonian Formation consisting 

of red and green marls, black shales and of a sequence 

known as Vârciorova Sandstone. The latter consists of 

massive calcareous sandstones, grading up to stratified 

sandstones, with interbeds of conglomerates and 

microconglomerates, including unsorted lithoclasts of 

gneisses, quartzites, micaschists and limestones. 

Trace fossils occur within the pelitic terms, mainly 

Chondritids. The major constituents of the sandstones 

are plagioclase and quartz; detrital micas are muscovite 

and partly chloritised biotite. The carbonate cement 

is micritic to largely recrystallized. 

Walking eastwards the overlying Severin Nappe 

(known in Serbia as the Kosovica Nappe) consists 

of Azuga Beds = Kasajna Beds in Serbia (red and 

green shales, displaying sometimes a phyllitic aspect; 

red radiolaritic cherts, manganese cherts, sandy calcarenites 

and sandstones), their age being ascribed to 

the Upper Jurassic, and by the previously examined 

Sinaia Beds. 

The overthrust plane of the Severin nappe is marked 

by mylonites. Before the construction of the new 

road, the lower part of the nappe contained small 

exposures of ophiolites. 

A comparable succesion was described by Grubic´ 

(1992) in the Dzevrin hill in Serbia, south of the 

Danube. 

A vertical fault separates the Danubian from the 

Bahna outlier of the Getic Nappe, the latter being 

prolonged south of the Danube into Serbia (Tekija). 

Orșova is built upon a Miocene basin (V. Iancu, A. 

Seghedi, in: Pop et al., 1997). 

Stop 7.4: 

Bela Reka valley. Mehadia. Lower Lias. 

At the southern entrance into Mehadia, on the lefthand 

bank of the Bela Reka river, the Lower Lias is 

exposed. It overlies transgressively the Permian, represented 

by red conglomerates with argillitic matrix; 

in the dominating Străjiuţul hill, Permian eruptive 

rocks crop out. The Lower Lias consists of an alternance 

of conglomerate banks, quartzitic breccia and 

sandstones, grey or blackish, with black gritty shales 

as intercalations (Codarcea et al., 1961). 

B12 

41 - B12 



B12 

B12 - 


Stop 7.5: 

Bela Reka valley. Middle Lias. 

Upstream the Bela Reka valley, black shales with 

gritty intercalations of the Middle Lias crop out, 

characteristic for the Gresten facies. Their age is constrained 

by faunas with Ostrea cymbium, Belemnites 

paxillosus, Pholadomya sturi. Upwards they grade 

into the Upper Lias, with Posidonia bronni (Codarcea 

et al., 1961). 

Stop 7.6: 

Timiș valley between Teregova and Sadova Veche. 

Armeniș Formation of the Lotru Series. 

The lowermost term of the Lotru Series consists of 

nodular sillimanite-bearing biotite gneisses, pearlgneisses, 

quartz-feldspar gneisses, amphibolites and 

amphibole-gneisses, marbles and calc-silicate rocks 

(Savu, 1970; Săbău, 1994). Pegmatite veins are frequent. 

The top of the formation is represented by the 

thin Piatra Scrisă amphibolite level, overlain by almandine, 

kyanite and staurolite bearing micagneisses 

and schists (Săbău, 1994). 

Stop 7.7: 

Moniom. Relations between the Getic Reșiţa 

Nappe and the Supragetic Moniom Nappe. 

Leaving Moniom, the (Westphalian C.) Doman Beds 

of the Reșiţa Nappe will be crossed up to the Cârșie 

Hill, where they are overthrust by the metamorphic 

rocks of the Moniom Nappe along the Oraviţa tectonic 

line. The uppermost term of the Reșiţa Nappe is 

represented by the Carboniferous Cârșie Formation. 

It consists of metaconglomerates, metasandstones and 

phyllites. In the former, the pebbles decrease in size 

westwards. The stretching lineations are materialized 

by the N30 - 40°E / 10 -30°NE trending elongations 

of the pebbles. Analysis of the finite strain put in 

evidence its high intensity (Rf > 2,5) and its plane 

character. The Oraviţa tectonic line represents a post- 

Supragetic Nappe dextral transcurrent fault, inducing 

a simple shear in the Carboniferous formations (M. 

Dimitrescu, 2000). 

Westwards along the Bârzava river, the Devonian 

Valea Satului Formation of the Moniom Nappe consists 

of chlorite-epidote-actinolite-albite schists (± 

quartz, sericite, calcite) representing mylonitic basic 

metatuffs, metatuffites and metaaglomerates, with 

intercalations of carbonatic and graphitic rocks, acid 

metatuffs also being present, as well as metagabbroic 

intrusions. 

The described formations exhibit subhorizontal ini- 

tial stratification surfaces (S 0 ) and almost vertical S 2 

cleavages. 

The Valea Satului Formation was parallelized with 

the Leșcoviţa “Series” exposed along the Danube (V. 

Iancu, in: Năstăseanu et al., 1981). 

Stop 7.8: 

Colţan tunnel. Bocșa Nappe overthrust onto the 

Moniom Nappe. 

Along the Bârzava valley, above the Colţan railway 

tunnel, the Valea Satului Formation of the Moniom 

Nappe is overthrust by the Bocșiţa-Drimoxa Formation 

of the Bocșa Nappe. The latter formation consists 

of muscovite-chlorite-albite plagiogneisses, with biotite 

and garnet relics ( mainly enclosed in plagioclase 

porphyroblasts); it crops out about 200 m west of the 

forest chalet. The rocks exhibit intrafolial transposition 

folds, the limbs of which are cut by a S2 foliation 

with a westward dip. Westwards, the plagiogneisses 

alternate with rare microcline augengneisses and 

orthoamphibolites (V. Iancu, in: Năstăseanu et al., 

1981). 

The Mesozoic cover of the basement formations is 

represented by marbles, the age of which is ascribed 

to the Middle-Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous. 

The Bocșiţa-Drimoxa Formation was parallelized 

with the Locva “Series” exposed along the Danube 

(V. Iancu). 

Stop 7.9: 

Bârzava valley - Bocșa Nouă. Banatitic massif. 

The contact zone between the Bocșa banatitic pluton 

and the intruded Supragetic augen-and plagiogneisses 

is exposed. A first intrusion of micromonzodiorite 

porphyry is penetrated by a granodiorite, carrying 

xenoliths of both crystalline schists and eruptive 

rocks. The micromonzodiorite porphyry of the early 

magmatic stage (Western Unit) contains large hornblende 

and biotite phenocrysts. The monzogranites 

and granodiorites Medium Unit consists of zoned 

plagioclase (20-35 % An), microcline, quartz, biotite 

and hornblende (Russo-Săndulescu et al., 1975; in 

Năstăseanu et al., 1981). 

The respective K - Ar ages of the succesive intrusions 

are 87 m.y. (B 1) and 80 - 81 m.y. (B2) that is, intra 

- Senonian. 

Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to express their gratitude to 

Dr. Mihaela Dimitrescu, Miss Elena Negulescu and 

Miss Delia-Georgeta Dumitraș (Geological Institute

of Romania) for carefully editing the manuscript and 

figures of this guide. 

Thanks are due to the Geological Institute of Romania, 

Bucharest, for the facilities generously put at our 

disposal. 

The authors acknowledge with thanks a Grant from 

the Romanian Academy (Nr. 94 / 2003) which enabled 

them to carry out the elaboration of this guide. 

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Back Cover: 

fi eld trip itinerary

32 nd INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS 

Edited by APAT 

FIELD TRIP MAP

Guidebook - Ispra

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