composed

thegeneral Excess fromthroughout

manufacture
energy supply or tissues. of
form as Carbohydrates
nosaccharides
saccharides a.
and
on
Chemistry Chemistry storedAfter
Carbohydrates
glucose roots,
exceptions
in energy
they
Monosaccharides the
oxygen number Sunlight In
Carbohydrates
acarbohydrate
of using
molecule
oxygen
as varioUsliver,
number formula and about arbohydrates
ydrate are is ror inand
CH,O, polysaccharides
of and human like the
of certain is the
somecarbohydrate OXygern.
our
the form carbon, 45glycogen,
is
absorbed parts same
saccharide
are are
simplest saccharide
cannot saccharide
of
chemically carbohydrate
of
Classification
chemically
or
released
carbohydrate water
chemical
of world. to
milk Carbohydrates
are
80 is of proportion
body

stored Oxygen are

hydrogen
(CH,0) andmainly and
in Plants per
by thelactose
inare and Compounds
form be
our
b.
groups in
transferredthe the cent plants
animnal
as
the
and
simplified groups. the reactions after
body.
Disaccharides
of
groups known
Carbohydrates
6. known
isand of
plant.
for air,
plants.
through
its
starch
of
distributed
like
and only
hydrogenas
in
2
in
Carbohydrates
(CH,0) its and the cells
ribose source
Based and water. which
ydrates. Carbohydrates Chlorophyll
them. oxygen asfunctions use leaves,
in as follow. energy
the
Thuscarbon to store respectively.
neither saccharides, saccharides. sugar. among are
them: a which of contain
They
on n. molecule process energypresent
plants in stems,
the by
The is TwO them
requirement And are are
are the excessfixed in plant
umnber
hydrolysis empirical atoms as of fruits, present carbohydrates thecarbon,
in
This C.
classified ratio are plants
of the for
are as Carbohydrates as
polysaccharides.
photosynthesis
foods
carbohydrate carbon plarnt our main
Polysaccharides carbon, rich hydrogen
is classified, of carbohydrate. absorb of seeds muscles in
ofthe hydrogen of nervo
with sources
formula 1: indioxide. sources
carbon nor based 2: people
bsorbable hydrogen starch.
light anda few
digestion 1.
based The are is
atoms onfor
 Foods, Nutrition and Dietetics
biose (2
present in them, monosaccharides are grouped into
triose (3 carbons), tetrose (4 carbons), pentose (5 carbons),
carbons).
and
chexose
arbons),
(6
Monosaccharides

Biosc Triose Tetrose Pentose Hexose

(CHO) (CH,0) (4,H,0) (CH0) (C,H,0,)
(e.g. Glycolical (e.g. Glycolical (eg. Erythrose) (e.g. Xylose, (e.g. Glucose)
dehyde) dehyde) ribosc) fructose)

Brosc, triose and tetrose are not nutritionally sig1ificant.

Fig. 2.1: Monosaccharides

Pentoses like ribose, xylose and arabinose are of little dietar.

significance. Xylose and arabinose are widely found in many rom,
vegetables and also in many other vegetables. Ribose is part of riboflavin
and DNA and RNA can synthesise it and so it is nota dietary essential
Xylose and arabinose are not present in free state in nature. Both ot
them are present in gums of various origins like wood gum, cherry gum
or gum arabic.
In human nutrition only hexoses are of importance. Commonly
found hexoses are aldose and ketose. The three monOsaccharides of
hexose group are glucose or dextrose, fructose or levulose and galactose
and mannose.
Glucose: It is also known as grape sugar. Glucose is an aldose sugar
It is a white crystalline substance easily soluble in water with a sweet
taste. Glucose is readily absorbed from the stomach. Glucose is used to
detect the disorders in carbohydrate metabolism because it is in the form
of carbohydrate circulating in the blood. A normal healthy person has 80
100 mgs of glucose/100 ml of blood. Glucose is present in fruits and
honey. Free glucose is not found abundantly in nature. But starchis rich
in glucose.
In the body glucose is in the form of D-isomer glucose in a ring form
I-0 U-0 o-0-U-I H
D-Glucose
C-0

H C - OH CH,OH

HO C - H CH,OH
H - C- OH OH

H- C - OH HO HO

HC - OH
Ring Structure of D-Glucose
H
 Carbohydrates 11
Iructose knonn fruit

Nahetosugar It is e
the d ot insuhn and soit
40"),
rhest source of fructose (30
ot sorbitol and mannitol.

C=0
CHOH
H C- OH
HO C- H HO
HO C- H OH
OH
H- C- OH OH

H-C - OH Ring Structure of

D-Fructose
H

D-Fructose

Fructose as high fructose corn syrup is used

drinks and confectioneries. commercially for soft
High fructose corn sVrup
fructose. contains 40-90% of
Galactose is not present free in nature. It is
lactose; on hydrolysis lactose yields present only in milk sugar
present in cerebrosides in brain and galactose and glucose. Galactose is
Once galactose is absorbed into nervous tissues.
the body it is converted into
glucose.
IO H

H C- OH

C=0
CHOH
HO C- H

H C- OH
HO\OH OH
HC- OH
OH
H C- OH
Ring Structure of
H D-Galactose
D-Galactose
Note: In females during
lactation, galactose is
resynthesised ustng carbon aton sources.
 roupsand are
Inthis
fomed
reaction a molecule
by
monostclharedes foms hetween
fesfte e) f tweo glostdic bond
digestion they ar spilt
Iwonto
the d a
relcasrd ahvdolysis by
or
2ty s
O a: structure of CM,O,. They are
harnte have their
varyin
mhvharfeN
Dshardes
cvstallisable. They maltose and sweetness
lactose
diffus1ble and sucrose,
atersubie tound disaccharides are Commonest
form of
(omonls invert sugar,is the
as enzyme action
othersise known hvdrolysis or by SUCroSe
Sn Either bv sugarcane,
<ugar in the diet 95 %). tructose. It is present in bectroot,
is formed by the
simpifhed into gucose andand vegetables. Sucrose molecule of fructose
s many fruits and one
hones and in molecule of glucose
Condensation of one CH,OH
CH,OH

OH/ OH
HO OH
OH
OH
Structure of Sucrose
fructose
released by one molecule of glucose/and
One molecule of water is
gluCOse
uhile forming sucrose.
disaccharide which contains two molecules ofStarch is
Maltose is a
is otherwise known as malt sugar.
It
joined by an alpha bond.before breaking down into glucose. It is present
Converted in4to maltose rich in maltose. Alcoholic beverages
Cereal grains are mixed
in sprouted grains. from cereal grains. Maltose in the cereals areethanol
are mainly prepared of oxygen. Maltose is converted into
absence
with veast in the
through fermentation. Wheat and barley are mainly
andcarbon dioxide
used for this fernmentation process.
CH,OH
CH,OH
OH

OH OH
HO OH

OH OH

Structure of Maltose

Trehalose another disaccharide has also got two molecules of glucose.

otherwise
Just like maltose which has two molecules of glucose. This is
trehalose
known as mushroom sugar as when dry mushroom has 15% of
in it.
 Carbohydrates 11

cala ts(olls milk contans about ive per cent ot Lactoe nd human
mlk ha abuto S per cent Itis easily digesible but it is not as
sweel
Is clhe ugar atose Is sVnthesised in the mammary gland. I is
less in
sINtnes ds Ompared to other sugars. Some people are born with
laxtose intolerance as theY cannot digest this sugar.
CH.OH CH,OH
HO
OH
OH
OH OH
OH OH

Structure of Lactose
Lactose intolerance in aperson is due to the reduction in the activity
of lactose splitting the enzyme lactase. In a normal person this enzyme
which is present in the intestinal cells splits lactose into galactose and
glucose. This is absorbed and the blood stream carries it into liver like
other sugars.
Tetrasaccharides
Thev contain four monosaccharides and like trisaccharides they are of no
nutritional significance, e.g., stachyose and scorodose.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large complex molecules of monosaccharides linked
together. Several hundreds of glucose units are linked together in
polysaccharides. They are insoluble in water. Starch, dextrins, glycogen,
pectin and cellulose are the common form of polysaccharides.
Starch: Plants store carbohydrates in the form of starch and it is the
main source of nourishment for human race. Cereal grains, seeds, roots
like potato, tapioca, yam and plantain contain considerable amount of
starch. On cooking, starch absorbs water and swells and ruptures. This
thickening quality of starch is used in cookery to produce a variety of
dishes. Different sources of starch behave differently. Maize starch and
cornflour are better 'thickening agents than rice or wheat starch. All
starch are broken down into glucose in the digestive system.
The characteristics of starch molecule depend upon the way in
which, 2,000 or more glucose units are linked. The number of glucose
molecules in starch vary from 2,000 to 15,000. The glucose chain in starch
are of two types. They are amylose and amylopectin.
() Amylose: Amylose is a long chain of glucose and starch has
about10-20 per cent of amylose molecule in it. One molecule of amylose
has 500-5,000 glucose molecules. Amylose is easily soluble in water and
it is mainly responsible for the stiffening of cooked rice on keeping
-GGGGGGGGG
Amylose chain
12 Foods, Nutrition and Dietetics
(i) Amylopectin: Starch contains about S0-90 per cent of amy)lopectin
in them. Amvlopxtin molecule has
more glucose units. Usuall
amvlopectin molecule has 50,000-5,00.000 glucOse molecule. G
molecules are arranged in branches.
G
G
G-G-G-G-G-G-G
G
G-G-G-G
G-G-G-G
G-G-G-G-G-G-G
G
G G
G
G

Small branches of amylopectin have 20-30 glucose units and it has

thickening of starch
a colloidal property and this is responsible for the
water on heating.
(iüi) Dextrins: When starch is partially broken into tragments either
are like starch
by digestion or by acids they are called dextrins. Thev into
itself. Dextrin is broken down into maltose. Starch is broken down
amylodextrin, erythrodextrin, achrodextrin and maltose.
(iv) Pectin: Pectin is a polvsaccharide with no nutritional significance
But it is useful in the preparation of jam and jellv and thus it contributes
to the palatability of foods.
starch as it
(V) Glycogen: Glycogen can be described as the animal
is in this form animals store carbohvdrate in the bodv. Givcogen is stored
the
in the liver and muscles. This is the form of immediate energv for
body. About 350 gms carbohydrate is stored as glvcogen in the body
(vi) Cellulose: Cellulose is an insoluble, indigestible polvsaccharide
of human
More than 3,000 glucose units are there in cellulose but it is not
food
utilisation. Cattle can digest cellulose. Even though it is not of much
movement It
value it provides bulk to the diet and thus helps in bowel
bowel. It reduces the
prevents constipation and to an extent cancer of the
cholesterol level in blood as well as body weight. A high fibre diet can
contributes
help in the treatment of obesity as it delays digestion and
satiety to obese people.
SugarAlcohols
There are three sugar alcohols available commerciallv. Thev are sorbitol.
mannitol and dulcitol. Sorbitol is used by diabetic patients. Sorbitol or
D-glucitol is an alcohol made from glucose by hvdrogenation. By this
process the aldehyde (HO) group of glucose is reduced to alcoholic
groups (CH,OH). Mannitol is produced from mannose, a monosaccharide
which does nol occur free in nature.
 Carbohydrates 13

CH OH CH OH CH OH

H H H

OH OH OH
H OH H OH OH

Part of Amylose Molecule

CH,OH CH.OH
H H

OH H IOH H

H OH OH

CH.OH CH.
H H H

OH OH

H OH OH

Part of Amylopectin Molecule

CH,OH CH,OH CH.OH

H

OH H OH H OH

OH OH OH

Part of a Cellulose Molecule

Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate in the body is about 300-350gms. A major portion, ie.,
200-250gms is located in the form of glycogen in the smooth muscles,
skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles. About 100gms of carbohvdrate is
stored in the manufacturing and distributing system namely liver as liver
glycogen and about 15gms is present in the blood and extra cellular
fluids as glucose. Very minute quantities of carbohydrate are present in
essential body compounds like glucoronicacid, hyaluronicacid, heparin,
chondroifin sulphates, immunopolysaccharides, part of DNA and RNA
(Desoxy ribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid), Galactolipins and
4Foots, Nution and Dietetics
xlhoses lhee substances detoxity hver, beome Part
tisstes prevent lotting of blood, and torm part of skin, c
and heart ales eyetively Immuno polysaccharides provide
to the body DNA and RNA transter the gencic charactcteristic
carl ags, bo
(alactolipins form part of the nervous tissues and
glycosidesisinstero
and in adrenal hormeones. Other functions of carbohydrates ar

1. Enegy Supply
The most important function of carbohydrate is to supply
energy fue
for the body. Energy from carbohydrate is utilised by the or
immediate use. Nervous tissues and erythrocytes use glucose bodyfor for
energy whereas other tissues can make use of fatty acids
for energ)their
2. Special Functions of Carbohydrates in the Liver
Carbohydrates have protective and detoxifying action in
protected against bacterial toxins by producing glycuronic acid liver.or Liver
group from carbohydrates. They are excreted through kidneys. Since acetyle
defences of the liver against toxicagents are of great
body, this function of the liver is very valuable. For this importance to #
is made use of and thus purpose
carbohydrates
poisonous substances from the
play a significant role in ycogen
removins
help the growth of desirable liver. Carbohydrat es, especialy
synthesis of some B-complex vitaminsbacteria in the small intestine and h
in the intestinal tract.
lactose,
helps in the absorption of calcium. Lactose al.
3. Carbohydrates and the Heart
Carbohydrate is used as the most efficient fuel for
Glycogen stored in the heart muscle is used for this muscular exercise
in an emergency. The purpose, especially
the supply of sugar toheart cannot stop to rest. Temporary
noted change in the
the normal heart is not reduction in
serious but there maybe
electrocardiogram.
regulated part by the anterior pituitary.
in The cardiac glycogen level is
4.
Carbobydrates and the Central Nervous System
Continuous supply of carbohydrate is essential for
function normally.Glucose as such has aspecific nervous tissues to
the functional influence
of glucose fromintegrity the nervous tissues.
of in
maintaining
the blood is
essential for Minute by minute supply
organ in the body need such the nervous
system as no other
tissue depends a great deal supply. The functional
supply. integrity the nerve
on glucose of
5.
If Carbohydrat es and
carbohydrate supply Prot
is ein-Sparing Efect
important functions of it. Thisenough in the diet,
effect excreted by protein is spared for
prot
acidseinto-spari
be ng effect. Insufficient intake of carbohvdrate is called
purpose. deaminated and are
converted carbohydrate
to fatty acidsforces amino
for enelb'
 Carbohydrates 15

^Carbohydrates and on esential AminoAcid

3rkrleton of carbohvdrate is used by the body for the svnthesis of
Nh tial amin0 acids Amino group of an aminoacid is
exchanged
th the ketogroup of ketoacid derived from carbohydrate and hence
transamination takes place
Carbobydrates and Fats
Carbohvdrate is essential for the oxidation of fat. Excess carbohydrate is
converted to fat. In the metabolic pathway of glucose it is
pyruvicacid which in turn forms acetyl COA. In extreme degraded ofto
carbohvdrate, fat may be metabolised rapidly. restriction
8. Carbobydrates in Diet
Carbohydrate provides flavour and variety to the diet. Cellulose and
other ind1gestible
also retains water polysaccharides add bulk to the diet.
content of colon which helps intestinalCarbohydrate
motility.
Dietary Fibre
Irowell (1972) defined dietary fibre as the
that are resistant to skeletal remains of plant cells
digestion by the enzymes. There are two types of
dietary fibre - soluble and insoluble.
are Polysaccharides cellulose,
hemicellulose
soluble fibres. Apple, banana, pectin, gum and mucilage
kidney beans citrus
are rich in soluble fibres.fruit, carrot, barley, oats and
Legnins, cellulose and
Wheat bran, wheat, rye, ricehemicellulose are insoluble dietary fibres.
and vegetables have
Soluble fibres are very useful to the insoluble fibres.
and slow down glucose body. They delay gastric emptying
level. Fibre hold water absorption. Soluble fibres
so that the stools are lower serum cholesterol
readily eliminated. High fibre diet soft and bulky and are
prevents or
elimination of stools and the water content ofrelieves constipation. Easy
any potential stools in colon push out
substances
gums give fullness to meal and
of
carcinogenic. Pectins and mucilages and
intake can be reduced. High fibreenhance satiety value and thus energy
glucose and results in decreased diet helps in the easy absorption of
insulin
it is very useful.
High fibre diet has lowersecretion. For a diabetic patient
Therefore energy availability is less. coefficiency of digestability.
Pectins,
and this helpsmucilages and gums
to reduce the combine with acid and steroid material
cholesterol level.
Sources of Carbohydrates
Thebest sources of
carbohydrates
ragi, maize, roots and are
tubers like cereals like rice, wheat, millets like
colocasia, potato, tapioca, sweet potato,
pulses, sugar and jaggery;
other sources of honey, fruits and yam and
are also good carbohydrates. Banana, apple, vegetables are the
source of
carbohydrates. plantain and dried fruits
 Dletetics
Foods, Nutrtion and
10)
cubohydrt.
ot
about 300 1gs
Indan contms
Carbohydrates
digeston takes plae
In themouth
salhan
saliva prepares the broken
Digestion and mastication and the
present in the saliva, acts
down by the cnzyme
Absorption of spliting Paalm,
intodextrin
sallowing. and maltose. This action continues in he stonac
tor
Carbohydrates tillthe acidity ofthe gastric glandsinterleres. Thereiis not nydigustue
dchon on carbohvdratesin the stomach as there is no (nZVMe i n hr

carbohvdrates.
The tomain
stomach on
actdigestive action on carbohydrate takes place in he smal
pancreatic juice hvdrolyses the
starch
intestine. Amvlase
into

maltase
glucose and
invertase,
of
maltose. the intestinal
The

and lactase.
fructose,
These enzymes Convert
maltoseinto glucose
rSuCreomseainingni
mucosa cells Contan SucraSe or

and galactose, respectively

amylase Maltose + glucose

Starch
SUcrase glucose + fructose
Sucrose -
maltase
glucose + glucose
Maltose

lactase glucose + galactose

Lactose

The end products of carbohydrate digestion -glucose, fructose and

galactose areabsorbedin the intestine. Bulk of these sugars are absorbed
in the duodenum and jejunum and Small amounts are absorbed in the
ileum. Glucose and galactose are readily absorbed while tructose is
absorbed slowly. These monosaccharides are absorbed bv the capllars.
bloodstream s
in the walls of the intestine and they are carried by the
the liver and the tissues.
The absorption of carbohydrate from the intestine is controlled h
certain factors like condition of the intestinal tract and muscle tona
endocrine glands like anterior pituitary, thyroid and adrenal cortex and
their functions and vitamin B-complex content in the diet.

Role of Liver in Through portal circulation, the absorbed monosaccharides are carried t
the liver. There galactose and fructose are converted into glucose. The
Carbohydrate liver cells release some glucose into the bloodstream and blood carries t
Metabolism
to the tissues. In the tissues, this glucose is metabolised to release energ
Excess of glucose is polymerised in the liver into glvcogen and stordr
the liver and muscles. This is again converted into glucose when elt
isblood
required. This process helps the bloodstream to maintain the no
sugar level. The liver synthesises glvcogen from glucose andthe
 Carbohydratos
dmy to the b o dndit known hooly
hownlon

Glycogen Galactose

Glucose-1-Phosphate Galactose 1-Phosphate

Glucose
Fructose Glucose-6-Phosphate
Fructose-6-Phosphate
Fig. 2.: lomation ot Gluoc ol olWI Mouosiches
\Metabolsn reters lo the entire chemical
ils function Gluwose is the torm of reaions ina nulrient topertom The
sugr
nay be trom tood sources 0r trom body available to the body. (lu0S Carbohvdrate
Thecarbohvdrate metabolis in the body
synthesis.
a series of chemcal Metabolism
reactions. Glhcogen tormation, breakdOwn involves
of
supplv energy, loration ot glucose Iron aminoglycogen and glucose to
acid and glycerols of tat
and tomationof tt trom
carbohydrate are the main changes related to
carbohydrate metabolisn. Liver deaminases amino acid and the
skeleton is used tor the anaerobic phase of carbon
Breakdown of glycogen and metabol1sn.
of gradual reactions. Some of glucose to yield energy involves a series
these
absence of oxygen and it is known as chemical
the
reactions take place in the
metabolism. anaerobic phase of carbohydrate

In glvcolysis,glycogen is
into lactic acid. degraded to glucose and it glucOse is converted
The energy released in the process of
Anaerobic
breakdown of ATP (Adenosine glycolysis is calculated from the Phase of
Twomolecules of ATP are used Triphosphate) and
and four moleculesregeneration of ATP. Carbohydrate
of ATP are formed. Metabolism
Glycolysis takes place in muscular tissues.
Glycolysis is also known as (Glycolysis)
carbohydrate metabolism. The basicEmbden-Meyerhof-Pans
given in Fig. 2.3. steps involved in scheme of
glycolysis are
Aerobic phase of carbohydrate
lactic acid into pyruvic acid to metabolism involved oxidation of
series of chemical reactions Acetyl-CoA.
whereby Acetyl-CoA
carbon dioxide, undergoes a
formed. water and CoA are
After this reaction
atoms are released, andtwoa carbon dioxide molecules and four hydrogen
form two
molecules of acetylderivative
COA.
of the vitamin
pantothenic acid to
18 Foods, Nutrtion and Dietetics

Glycogen
ATP Glucose 1 phosphate ADP
Glucose glucose -6 - phosphate

ATP fructose -6 - phosphate ADP

fructose - 1,6 - diphosphate
Glvceraldehyde 3-phosphate dihydroxy acetone phosphate
1,3 diphosphoglyceric acids
2ADP 2ATP

3phosphoglyceric acid
2 phosphoglyceri acid
2ADP +2ATP

pyruvic acid

kreb cycle lactic acid

Fig. 2.3: Glycolysis

TCA cycle is a sequence of chemical reactions where the ares

portion of acetyl-CoA is degraded to carbon dioxide and hydroga
atoms.
The conversion of acetyl-CoA is otherwise known as Kreh!
Tricarboxylic acid or T.CA. cycle.
Most of the absorbed glucose is oxidised to energy. During thË
process carbon dioxide and water are also formed. Some portion o
glucose is converted into fatty acids and some amount combines with fres
amino group to form amino acids.
Bvitamins like thiamine, niacin, riboflavin, pantothenic acid and B
and minerals like magnesium and phosphorus are very essential for tha
proper metabolism of carbohydrates.
Certain hormones like epinephrine, thyroxine and gluoxine and
glucagons and islets of Langerhans are essential to maintain norma
blood sugar level in a person. Ahealthy person's blood shows the fasting
Sugar level as 80-100mg/100ml of blood. After a meal it rises to 130-150
mg/100ml. If the blood sugar level is above this the person is termed as
a diabetic patient.
If the carbohydrate intake in the diet is inadequate, it leads to
malnutrition and other metabolic disorders. Tissue proteins and tats W
wil
be utilised for energy purpose. If excess carbohydrate is taken, it
contribute towards obesity and diabetes.
 Carbohydra
Kreb Cycle
Glycolysis
Glycerol Protein

-Pyruvic acid + Amino acid

+ CO2
Acetyl COA Fatty acid
(Acetyl coenzyme A)
Amino acid Oxalactic acid o=C-COOH
+H20 H2C - COOH
Citric acid Oxal acetic acid/
HC-COOH
HOC--COOH
H2C-C0OH
Citric acid
-H20
Cis acontic acid
H, C-c0OH
C-COOH

\H C-cOOH/
Cis aconitic acid H20

Isocitric acid COOH

H20

HC COOH

HOC COOH

Isocitric acid

Isocitric acid COOH

H20
2H COOH
HC

O=C COOH
(oxalosuccinic acid)
Oxalosuçcinic acid
CO2 COOH
2- ketoglutaric acid
H,C
H20 CO2

O=C - COOH
(ketoglutaric acid)
CO2
H20
2H COOH CO2
ADP H2C 2H
Succinic acid ATP
H2C COOH ATP
(Succinic acid)
2H