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H C - OH CH,OH
HO C - H CH,OH
H - C- OH OH
H- C - OH HO HO
HC - OH
Ring Structure of D-Glucose
H
Carbohydrates 11
Iructose knonn fruit
Nahetosugar It is e
the d ot insuhn and soit
40"),
rhest source of fructose (30
ot sorbitol and mannitol.
C=0
CHOH
H C- OH
HO C- H HO
HO C- H OH
OH
H- C- OH OH
D-Fructose
H C- OH
C=0
CHOH
HO C- H
H C- OH
HO\OH OH
HC- OH
OH
H C- OH
Ring Structure of
H D-Galactose
D-Galactose
Note: In females during
lactation, galactose is
resynthesised ustng carbon aton sources.
roupsand are
Inthis
fomed
reaction a molecule
by
monostclharedes foms hetween
fesfte e) f tweo glostdic bond
digestion they ar spilt
Iwonto
the d a
relcasrd ahvdolysis by
or
2ty s
O a: structure of CM,O,. They are
harnte have their
varyin
mhvharfeN
Dshardes
cvstallisable. They maltose and sweetness
lactose
diffus1ble and sucrose,
atersubie tound disaccharides are Commonest
form of
(omonls invert sugar,is the
as enzyme action
othersise known hvdrolysis or by SUCroSe
Sn Either bv sugarcane,
<ugar in the diet 95 %). tructose. It is present in bectroot,
is formed by the
simpifhed into gucose andand vegetables. Sucrose molecule of fructose
s many fruits and one
hones and in molecule of glucose
Condensation of one CH,OH
CH,OH
OH/ OH
HO OH
OH
OH
Structure of Sucrose
fructose
released by one molecule of glucose/and
One molecule of water is
gluCOse
uhile forming sucrose.
disaccharide which contains two molecules ofStarch is
Maltose is a
is otherwise known as malt sugar.
It
joined by an alpha bond.before breaking down into glucose. It is present
Converted in4to maltose rich in maltose. Alcoholic beverages
Cereal grains are mixed
in sprouted grains. from cereal grains. Maltose in the cereals areethanol
are mainly prepared of oxygen. Maltose is converted into
absence
with veast in the
through fermentation. Wheat and barley are mainly
andcarbon dioxide
used for this fernmentation process.
CH,OH
CH,OH
OH
OH OH
HO OH
OH OH
Structure of Maltose
cala ts(olls milk contans about ive per cent ot Lactoe nd human
mlk ha abuto S per cent Itis easily digesible but it is not as
sweel
Is clhe ugar atose Is sVnthesised in the mammary gland. I is
less in
sINtnes ds Ompared to other sugars. Some people are born with
laxtose intolerance as theY cannot digest this sugar.
CH.OH CH,OH
HO
OH
OH
OH OH
OH OH
Structure of Lactose
Lactose intolerance in aperson is due to the reduction in the activity
of lactose splitting the enzyme lactase. In a normal person this enzyme
which is present in the intestinal cells splits lactose into galactose and
glucose. This is absorbed and the blood stream carries it into liver like
other sugars.
Tetrasaccharides
Thev contain four monosaccharides and like trisaccharides they are of no
nutritional significance, e.g., stachyose and scorodose.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large complex molecules of monosaccharides linked
together. Several hundreds of glucose units are linked together in
polysaccharides. They are insoluble in water. Starch, dextrins, glycogen,
pectin and cellulose are the common form of polysaccharides.
Starch: Plants store carbohydrates in the form of starch and it is the
main source of nourishment for human race. Cereal grains, seeds, roots
like potato, tapioca, yam and plantain contain considerable amount of
starch. On cooking, starch absorbs water and swells and ruptures. This
thickening quality of starch is used in cookery to produce a variety of
dishes. Different sources of starch behave differently. Maize starch and
cornflour are better 'thickening agents than rice or wheat starch. All
starch are broken down into glucose in the digestive system.
The characteristics of starch molecule depend upon the way in
which, 2,000 or more glucose units are linked. The number of glucose
molecules in starch vary from 2,000 to 15,000. The glucose chain in starch
are of two types. They are amylose and amylopectin.
() Amylose: Amylose is a long chain of glucose and starch has
about10-20 per cent of amylose molecule in it. One molecule of amylose
has 500-5,000 glucose molecules. Amylose is easily soluble in water and
it is mainly responsible for the stiffening of cooked rice on keeping
-GGGGGGGGG
Amylose chain
12 Foods, Nutrition and Dietetics
(i) Amylopectin: Starch contains about S0-90 per cent of amy)lopectin
in them. Amvlopxtin molecule has
more glucose units. Usuall
amvlopectin molecule has 50,000-5,00.000 glucOse molecule. G
molecules are arranged in branches.
G
G
G-G-G-G-G-G-G
G
G-G-G-G
G-G-G-G
G-G-G-G-G-G-G
G
G G
G
G
CH OH CH OH CH OH
H H H
OH OH OH
H OH H OH OH
CH,OH CH.OH
H H
OH H IOH H
H OH OH
CH.OH CH.
H H H
OH OH
H OH OH
OH H OH H OH
OH OH OH
Functions of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate in the body is about 300-350gms. A major portion, ie.,
200-250gms is located in the form of glycogen in the smooth muscles,
skeletal muscles and cardiac muscles. About 100gms of carbohvdrate is
stored in the manufacturing and distributing system namely liver as liver
glycogen and about 15gms is present in the blood and extra cellular
fluids as glucose. Very minute quantities of carbohydrate are present in
essential body compounds like glucoronicacid, hyaluronicacid, heparin,
chondroifin sulphates, immunopolysaccharides, part of DNA and RNA
(Desoxy ribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid), Galactolipins and
4Foots, Nution and Dietetics
xlhoses lhee substances detoxity hver, beome Part
tisstes prevent lotting of blood, and torm part of skin, c
and heart ales eyetively Immuno polysaccharides provide
to the body DNA and RNA transter the gencic charactcteristic
carl ags, bo
(alactolipins form part of the nervous tissues and
glycosidesisinstero
and in adrenal hormeones. Other functions of carbohydrates ar
1. Enegy Supply
The most important function of carbohydrate is to supply
energy fue
for the body. Energy from carbohydrate is utilised by the or
immediate use. Nervous tissues and erythrocytes use glucose bodyfor for
energy whereas other tissues can make use of fatty acids
for energ)their
2. Special Functions of Carbohydrates in the Liver
Carbohydrates have protective and detoxifying action in
protected against bacterial toxins by producing glycuronic acid liver.or Liver
group from carbohydrates. They are excreted through kidneys. Since acetyle
defences of the liver against toxicagents are of great
body, this function of the liver is very valuable. For this importance to #
is made use of and thus purpose
carbohydrates
poisonous substances from the
play a significant role in ycogen
removins
help the growth of desirable liver. Carbohydrat es, especialy
synthesis of some B-complex vitaminsbacteria in the small intestine and h
in the intestinal tract.
lactose,
helps in the absorption of calcium. Lactose al.
3. Carbohydrates and the Heart
Carbohydrate is used as the most efficient fuel for
Glycogen stored in the heart muscle is used for this muscular exercise
in an emergency. The purpose, especially
the supply of sugar toheart cannot stop to rest. Temporary
noted change in the
the normal heart is not reduction in
serious but there maybe
electrocardiogram.
regulated part by the anterior pituitary.
in The cardiac glycogen level is
4.
Carbobydrates and the Central Nervous System
Continuous supply of carbohydrate is essential for
function normally.Glucose as such has aspecific nervous tissues to
the functional influence
of glucose fromintegrity the nervous tissues.
of in
maintaining
the blood is
essential for Minute by minute supply
organ in the body need such the nervous
system as no other
tissue depends a great deal supply. The functional
supply. integrity the nerve
on glucose of
5.
If Carbohydrat es and
carbohydrate supply Prot
is ein-Sparing Efect
important functions of it. Thisenough in the diet,
effect excreted by protein is spared for
prot
acidseinto-spari
be ng effect. Insufficient intake of carbohvdrate is called
purpose. deaminated and are
converted carbohydrate
to fatty acidsforces amino
for enelb'
Carbohydrates 15
carbohvdrates.
The tomain
stomach on
actdigestive action on carbohydrate takes place in he smal
pancreatic juice hvdrolyses the
starch
intestine. Amvlase
into
maltase
glucose and
invertase,
of
maltose. the intestinal
The
and lactase.
fructose,
These enzymes Convert
maltoseinto glucose
rSuCreomseainingni
mucosa cells Contan SucraSe or
Role of Liver in Through portal circulation, the absorbed monosaccharides are carried t
the liver. There galactose and fructose are converted into glucose. The
Carbohydrate liver cells release some glucose into the bloodstream and blood carries t
Metabolism
to the tissues. In the tissues, this glucose is metabolised to release energ
Excess of glucose is polymerised in the liver into glvcogen and stordr
the liver and muscles. This is again converted into glucose when elt
isblood
required. This process helps the bloodstream to maintain the no
sugar level. The liver synthesises glvcogen from glucose andthe
Carbohydratos
dmy to the b o dndit known hooly
hownlon
Glycogen Galactose
In glvcolysis,glycogen is
into lactic acid. degraded to glucose and it glucOse is converted
The energy released in the process of
Anaerobic
breakdown of ATP (Adenosine glycolysis is calculated from the Phase of
Twomolecules of ATP are used Triphosphate) and
and four moleculesregeneration of ATP. Carbohydrate
of ATP are formed. Metabolism
Glycolysis takes place in muscular tissues.
Glycolysis is also known as (Glycolysis)
carbohydrate metabolism. The basicEmbden-Meyerhof-Pans
given in Fig. 2.3. steps involved in scheme of
glycolysis are
Aerobic phase of carbohydrate
lactic acid into pyruvic acid to metabolism involved oxidation of
series of chemical reactions Acetyl-CoA.
whereby Acetyl-CoA
carbon dioxide, undergoes a
formed. water and CoA are
After this reaction
atoms are released, andtwoa carbon dioxide molecules and four hydrogen
form two
molecules of acetylderivative
COA.
of the vitamin
pantothenic acid to
18 Foods, Nutrtion and Dietetics
Glycogen
ATP Glucose 1 phosphate ADP
Glucose glucose -6 - phosphate
3phosphoglyceric acid
2 phosphoglyceri acid
2ADP +2ATP
pyruvic acid
\H C-cOOH/
Cis aconitic acid H20
HC COOH
HOC COOH
Isocitric acid
O=C COOH
(oxalosuccinic acid)
Oxalosuçcinic acid
CO2 COOH
2- ketoglutaric acid
H,C
H20 CO2
O=C - COOH
(ketoglutaric acid)
CO2
H20
2H COOH CO2
ADP H2C 2H
Succinic acid ATP
H2C COOH ATP
(Succinic acid)
2H