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Art of Islam

Heavenly art
Earthly beauty
Lenders Authors of the descriptions

Athon. Adel Adamova (a.a.»

Benaki Museum Brahim Alaoui (b.a.i

Julia Bailey (i.b.)

Boston Anna Ballian (a.b.)

Museum of Fine Arts Milo Cleveland Beach (m.c.b.)

Emine Bilirgen (bji.)

Damascus Barbara Boehm (b.b.)

National Museum of Syria, Ministry of Culture. Hans-Casper Graf von Bothmer (h.c.b.)

General Directorate for Antiquities and Museums, Sheila Canby (sh.c.)

Syrian Arab Republic Stefano Carboni (s.c.)

Anatoli Ivanov (a.i.)

Istanbul Mark Kramarovsky (M-G-K.)

Topkapi Palace Museum Marta Kryzhanovskaya (m.k.)

Glenn Lowry (G.i.)

London Boris Marshak (b.m.i

The British Museum Yuri Miller (y.m.)

The Nasser D. Khalil! Collection of Islamic Art Mona Al Moadin (m. al m.)
Mina Moraltou (m.m.j
Suheyla Murat (s.m.)
Naw York
Michael Rogers (m.r.). with the assistance of
The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Nahla Nassar, Tim Stanley and Manijeh Bayanl

Abolala Soudavar (a.s.)

Faris
Insiltut du Monde Arabe Natalya Vencvtseva (n.v.J
John Vrieze (J.v.)
Daniel Walker (D.w.)
Rotterdam
Museum voor Volkenkunde Rotterdam Rachel Ward (r.w.)

Sanaa Editors

Oar al-Makhiulai (House ol Manuscript John Vriczc and Ainoud Bijl

TransUtiom
St Fetarsbu’g
Arnoud Bijl (Irom the Russian)
The State Hermitage Museum
Wendie Shatter (from the Dutch!
Michele Hendricks (from the Dutch!
Venice
Igor Naftulycv (from the Russian!
Procuratoria di San Marco

Washington. D.C.
Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. Smithsonian Institution
 Table of contents

Preface Part II

9 John Vriezc and Ernst It: Veen Several authors

tr
65 The mosque

Part 1
Mikhail B. Piotrovsky 77 Pilgrimages
IWWBiAZU \
’I
' O«(cf C' Introduction 87 The Word

S lOnOUN EMMEl UM* 13 The Enigma of Islamic an

97 The Qur'an

Chapter 1
125 Islamic mysticism
•*fMn 15 The World ol Islam

Chapter 2 153 The palace

25 Monotheism and Ornamentation

207 The mausoleum

Chapter 3
219 Garden and Paradise
55 Iconoclasm

Chapter 4
An for Everyday Life 297 Bibliography
37
THE ISLAMIC WORLD
310 Credits
(circa 600-1800) Chapter 5
49 The Qur'an as source of all inspiration

Chapter 6

53 The language of Islamic an

Chapter 7
57 Paradise - the major theme ol Islamic an
Foreword

In the Netherlands today a substantial portion of the God is Beauty and loves that which is beautiful.'
population is Muslim. In fact. Islam is the second Islamic art is radiant, it shines and dances with a

largest religion practised in the Netherlands, alter divine splendour. To make a beautiful work is an act

Christianity. In global terms, one person in six is of devotion that sanctifies the maker equally blessed

Muslim. But despite these figures, most Western is the person who gains enjoyment from the created

Europeans know very little about the faith of Islam, object.

let alone about the amazingly rich and varied culture
which it has inspired. Indeed, in Christian cultures We arc immensely grateful to the many museums
Islam is often represented as if it were a marginal and collectors who have lent us their precious objects.

phenomenon. It Is. on the contrary; with all its Without their confidence in us, we would never have

splendid diversity, one of the religious foundations been able to have put on this exhibition.

upon which our global culture is built.

We should like to extend a special word of thanks

So it was partly with the aim ol setting things to to our guest curator. Professor Mikhail B. Piotrovsky,

rights that the exhibition Earthly beauty, heavenly art director ol the State Museum The Hermitage in

was projected. The exhibition management of St Petersburg. His erudition, combined with his

De Nieuwe Kerk has over the past few years evident passion for Islamic art, have made an

concentrated on illuminating cultures of both invaluable contribution to this exhibition and its

neighbouring and distant countries. It has done so accompanying catalogue. After showing in

by means of exhibiting a selection ol highlights front Amsterdam, the exhibition will travel to Russia

these countries' artistic achievements and in this and be seen at The Hermitage.

way demonstrating the shared historic roots of our

contemporary culture. The world of the twentieth Many people have contributed to this exhibition and

century has expanded, in the sense that the customs we are most grateful to them all. Scholarly authors

and objects that our ancestors would have found have made fascinating contributions to the catalogue

puzzling and frightening are today encountered with and many have helped and advised us with their

a curiosity and openness which was formerly rare. expertise. We should like to mention in particular the

It is to be supposed that this will only increase as we stall ol the Inslitut du Monde Arabc in Paris, who, al

enter the third millennium The multi-cultural and a very' early stage nurtured the seedling concept of

multi-religious nature of our society will play a large the exhibition and gave us their full support. Finally,
we extend warm thanks to our many sponsors who
part in the process.
with their generous support have made this beautiful

This exhibition - which presents a selection of and memorable exhibition possible.

masterpieces from some of the major world

collections - makes very clear how powerful is the It is our hope that this exhibition will lead to a greater

voice ol Islamic art. It is the voice ol a deeply felt awareness and appreciation of Islamic an and culture.

belief, filled with a delight in the energy ol life, and

speaks of the joy of both the artisan and the owner. John Vrieze Ernst W. Veen

As one of the Hadith. or traditions about the Prophet Chiefcurator Director. NationalFoundation

Muhammad and his first followers, puts it: Verily, De Nieuwe Kerk

4 c*l.
Tilt' Foundation Projects De Nieuwc Kcrk would like to thank
the billowing persons for their extremely valuable consults:

Amsterdam New York

Maarten Frankenhuis, Frits Mmeris, Philippe de Montebello, Barbara Boehm,

Mauriis van Loon. Henk van Os. Najib Taoujni. Rik Vos Stefano Carboni. Daniel Walker, Lisa Yeung

Ankara Paris
H.E. Sjocrd Gosses. Alpav Pasinli, Nilfifer Filan Nasser El Ansary. Badr Arodaky, Brahim Alaoui

Athens Saarbrucken

H.E. Patil Brouwer. Angelos Delivorrias. Hans-Casper Graf von Bothmer

Mina Moraitou. Anna Ballian

Sanaa

Boston H.E. Arend Mecrburg, Yusuf Abdallah, Abdulmallk

Malcolm Rogers. Julia Bailey al-Maqhafi, 'All A Abu El-Rijal. Ursula Drcibholz

Damascus St Petersburg
H.E. Willem Andreae, H.E. Victor Goguitidze. Mikhail II. Piotrovsky. Vladimir Matveev,
Sultan Muhesen, Mohammed Quadour, George Vilinbakhov, Anatoli Ivanov,

Monna al-Moazem. Mona Al Moadin Adel Adamova, Yuri Miller. Natalya Vcnevtseva.
Marta Kryzhanovskaya, Mark Kramarovsky

Gouda
Dineke Huizenga Rotterdam
Hein Reedijk, Charlotte Huygens, Mark Hoos.

The Hague Fred Wartna

H.E. Bilgin Lnan

Venice

Istanbul Feliciano Benvenuti f. Mons- Antonio Mcneguolo,

Fili/ tjagman. Emine Bilirgen, Siiheyla Murat Ettore Vio, Giuseppe Fioretti

London Washington. DC.

Robert Anderson, Sheila Canby, Rachel Ward, H.E. loris Vos. Milo Cleveland Beach, Glenn Lowry,

Rita Phillips, Nasser D. Khalili. Naltla Nassar, Abolala Soudavar. Massumeh Farhad. Bruce Young

J.M. Rogers, Tim Stanley, Manijeh Bayani

no 274 »
 imam • IwtruMriUii

The Enigma of Islamic Art

The expression 'Islamic Art' is at once both simple Not surprisingly, Islamic art and that of non-Muslims
and complicated. Generally speaking, it refers to the from the same region, has much in common. The
an made by people who profess the faith ol Islam. exhibition shows several objects on loan that illus­
But whether we can make a strin definition of such a trate this fan dearly. Indeed, the unity often remains
thing as an artistic phenomenon has both raised, and because in the course of time qualities emerge in one
continues to raise, serious doubts among researchers world which in fact characterize the other.
and writers. Some of them prefer to see more worldly
origins for an. in terms of the culture from which it The characteristics ol Islamic art are: abstract designs,
emerges. Others support the notion of the continuity a wealth of rich decoration, and a tendency to avoid
ol a specific 'national' culture which is determined by of human or animal shapes. This may be summarized
having a common language or territory. in one single and all-embracing expression: the lan­
guage of Islamic art. Many of the details may or may
So far so good. However, everyone will understand not be immediately linked with the ideological foun­
what we mean if we speak of 'the art of Islam' and dations ol the culture, or cultures, of Islamic peoples,
even more so when we refer to the art of Islamic through the religion. It is a double connection: Islam
peoples.' This refleas the fan that in the an referred has determined the appearance of certain features,
to with this term - in all its manifold and radiant such as abstract design, and in their turn many ol the
forms - a number of characteristics that arc (airly features of art serve as unobtrusive and often hazy
easy to recognize, repeatedly return. propaganda for the basic values of the Islamic way of
life.
There is a clear distinction between the objects
made during the Islamic period and works by the Nothing shows so clearly the unique nature of
same peoples from a pre-lslamic time. And the Islamic art as a comparison with the pre-lslamlc
distinguishing characteristics provide a fairly clear heritage of Syria, Egypt and Iran. Because so much
division between an forms that arose contempor­ remains, it can easily be seen how within a short
aneously in places where several religions were period an entirely new artistic language has develop­
practised. Clearly, all this is highly relative. The roots ed. The origins of this language remain a mystery.
ol Islamic art in the prc-Islamic cultures of Iran. The Islamic conquest certainly spread the cultural

Central Asia. Egypt. China. India and other regions heritage of the Arabs through a large pan of the
are well known and enthusiastically studied. How world, but this fails to explain the radical changes
ever, ideas concerning these roots arc regularly and plurilorm synthesis that came as a result. The
adjusted, often in accordance with prevailing Islamic one explanation of the enigma is, for the time being,

politics and ideology. Traditions flow in and out of to acknowledge the dynamism in the Islamic spirit

each other and give rise to new creations. This is an which, passionate and forceful, found an aesthetic
expression of the universal and synthetic nature of form which was both expressive and convincing.
Islamic society which forms one worldwide commun­

ity for all Muslims.

cat.no.»
 rlWlwrWrfM—
ait • • <>• IUAM

1 The World of Islam

Islam is one ol (be three monotheistic religions continually sent people, one alter the other, prophets
which arose successively in what in Europe is called and messengers to warn the world, teaching about
the Middle East. They were, in order. Judaism, the way of righteousness and adjuring people to
Christianity and Islam and distinguished themselves convert to faith in Him. Among these prophets were
from other great world religions in that they believed Moses and Jesus. However, the prophets were either
In only one God. the Creator ol the world and all murdered or - if they were received - their leachings

living things. This one God. is the same in the three were soon rejected and people continued to pursue

religions but called differently by the name of Yahwe their more bestial urges. Finally Allah sent' His last
(Jehovah*. God, and Allah. The three religions have prophet, as a final warning. This is called the seal ol

a common history, in which the patriarch Abraham the prophets'. For in the same way that a seal on a

(Ibrahim in Islam) appears as a key figure. He was document confirms what it contains, so Allah con­

the first man to reject the then customary worship firmed the words ol earlier prophets and now com­
of idols. Indeed, he was even prepared to sacrifice pleted the text (nothing further may be added to it).

his own son for his belief. This is why these three
religions may be referred to as the ‘Abrahamic* Muhammad, chosen by Allah to be His Prophet,

religions. summoned people to repent for the final time, gave

them the laws by which to lead a righteous life, and

The holy scriptures of the three religions more or less proclaimed the original text of the holy scriptures.

follow each other chronologically in date of writing. Thereafter there would be no way out. A terrible

The Hebrew Bible forms the Old Testament of the Judgment Day would arrive when the dead would

Christians who sec in the prophecies concerning the arise from their graves to be judged lor their deeds

Messiah, references to the life of Jesus Christ. Islam, and either punished with Hell or rewarded with

in its turn, recognizes both the Tora ol the Jews and Heaven.
the Gospels of the New Testament, but considers that
both Jews and Christians have debased the original Muhammad was an ordinary man with a keen sense

teachings about God. have turned to the worship of ol the spiritual misery that was rife around him. He

Idols, and above all have distorted the idea that there was forty when Allah began to speak to him. either

is only one God. For Muslims, the Christian concept directly or via the archangel Gabriel, and commanded

of the 'Son ol God' and the Trinity (Father. Son and him to go and preach Islam to people. This preaching

Holy Spirit) appear somewhat unsubtle. The Qur'an implied among oilier things obedience to Allah and

was given to Muhammad by Allah as the final de­ faith in his uniqueness and al I-powerfulness. After

finitive Word (in Arabic qtir'an means a reading, some initial uncertainty both about himself and the

or recitation) which comes forth from the eternal nature of his holy Inspiration. Muhammad began
to preach with great conviction, proclaiming to Ills
heavenly source.
fellow countrymen what God had said to him

Muhammad
The bearer ol this third testament', the message ol These words, the direct messages from Allah to

Allah, was the prophet Muhammad (C.57O-6J2), the Muhammad intended for all people, are the source

son of Abd-Allah from the mercantile city ol Mecca. of the Qur'an. The holy text was first delivered

This city lies Inland in the Arabian peninsula, along orally and later recorded on parchment and papet

the ancient trading routes that criss-cross the deserts It became the cornerstone ol Muslim spiritual life

and oases of Arabia. According to the Qur an. Allah basis for their rituals and - most important for us
/Lmw cfihe alMutawuikilt Mmque. Samarra built 842-852

14
tartkit Njutt. hravmlr an ISLAM Tfcr MrM rf Itlmt

nmsi also give alms to the poor and donate a portion and Sassanid Persia. The latter was in decline; grad­
ol their possessions to the needy. The Qur'an consists ually Iraq and the ancient Iranian territories fell under
of powerful texts discussing the main points of faith, the caliphate, including Central Asia as far as the bor­
episodes recounting histories of holy figures, and der with China and north India. Byzantium handed
general prescriptions (or a pure life. It has rules apper­ c»ver Syria. Palestine and Egypt. Armies of fanatic
taining to inheritance law and the relationships within warriors, inspired by the faith of Islam, penetrated
the family and the wider community, as well as the the whole of north Africa, spreading westwards and
prohibition of games of chance, drinking alcoholic north into Spain.
beverages, and eating pork.
The Umayyads
The teaching of the Qur'an was directed towards Many ol the great battles took place after the first
the whole of humankind and prepared the way for 'righteous' caliphs had been succeeded by the
the expansion of its sphere of influence. Under Umayyad dynasty from Mecca. They moved their

Muhammad, Islam conquered the entire Arabian capital to Syria, choosing one ol the oldest cities of
peninsula. When in 632 he died, at the age of about the world: Damascus. A great burgeoning of new
60. the political and spiritual authority passed to Islamic art and culture found place under the
the caliphs (literally meaning ’follower' in Arabic) Umayyads, based on a system ol spiritual and politi­

The first four caliphs, called the righteous leaders' cal instructions. Those who exercised this authority

established Mecca and Medina as their political were the local population. They created highly
centres lor their community. They also held extensive impressive objects which became imbedded In the

military campaigns. The armies of Islam overcame ancient artistic traditions ol Syria, Egypt. Iraq and

Grt.no Mback a large portion ol the Near and Middle East. Their Persia. As a result, local artists made use ol their
neighbours were two powerful kingdoms. Byzantium indigenous traditions for the benefit and indeed the

the fundament for their artistic ideas and the source The Muslims spread their message with the word and

of their artistic creation. with the sword. Followers of Muhammad waged war 111. 2 rhe Dame ofthe Kock. Jerusalem, eompleied691
against Mecca, ending in the capitulation of the city

Allah foretold the terrible Last Judgment Day and and the destruction of all the idols that stood around

described the horrors of the end of the world, the the holy place of the Kaaba. The Kaaba itself, which

suffering of sinners in Hell and (he blessed nature of contained - set In its northeastern wall - the Black

the gardens of Paradise. As illustration he recounted Rock originally sent by Allah from heaven, became

how prophets and peoples from the past had been the centre of Muslim ritual and the place ol remem­

judged lor their lack of faith. He summoned people to brance. After the Great Flood, which destroyed the

turn aside from paths of wickedness and to convert to Kaaba, it was recreated by Abraham who came here
the true faith in the One who had created humankind to visit his son Ishmael (who is the forefather of the

and provided them svith all things necessary. Arabs). The entire ritual of remembrance, called the
hajj, is dedicated to the memory of Abraham, who

Many of Muhammad's fellow-townsfolk rejected his wrestled with temptation and was even prepared to

preaching. They wanted to continue living as they sacrifice his only son to God.
had always done. Persecution forced Muhammad
to flee from Mecca in 622 with a group of his sup­ The hajj became incorporated into the basic rules of

porters. He established himself further nonh in Islam and the Islamic way ol life. Beside this, faithful

Yathrib where the local folk received him enthusias­ Muslims believe that 'there is no god but Allah and

tically as their spiritual and political leader. The year Muhammad is His messenger.' Further, they must

and day when Muhammad moved. 16 September 622 observe the holy month ol Ramadan, must pray Five

is called the Hegira and was later taken to mark the times a day, either at home or in the mosque, and on

beginning of the Muslim era. Shortly alter this. Yathrib Fridays they must participate in special community

changed its name to Medina! al-naabi. meaning ‘the prayer which has a great symbolic value for the huge

city of the Prophet’ and now known as Medina. Islamic community spread across the globe. They
farthlv K.«wit taorntv <i»r

wars between various groups who had tasted the of Islamic Spain and North Africa. The horseshoe-

sweets ol power and didn't want to let go. One ol shaped arches and the combination ol red and white

the wars ended in 750 with the annihilation of the lines in the architecture, the pale blue leaves with

dynasty and the transition of the title of caliph to golden lettering ol the Qur'an and the wealth of

the Abbasid dynasty, whose claim to rule was based bone carving characterize the Spanish variation ol

on close lamlly ties with the Prophet - they were this dominant artistic language (ill 4).

descendants of his unde. Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib.

The Saljuq$

One Umayyad prince managed to escape the family In the course ol the 9th century the Abbasid caliphate

massacre of 750 and founded his own Umayyad and its rulers were overthrown by a new’ military

caliphate in the Spanish city of Cordova, assuming power. Turkish tribe* ol the Saljuq dynasty were the

the title of Abdulralunan I. This marked the begin­ new major political force. Under them traditional

ning of the inevitable decline ol the united Islamic rulers were placed on the throne, which was once

state, with the independent development of Islamic again located in Bagdad. In the meantime the Islamic

art in Spain. One aspect of this was that the Syrian- world had changed Into a conglomerate ol large
til 1 Tlic I 'mayw<( .Mrxque. Dumauui. built 706-714
Byzantine tradition came into contact with the cus­ and small kingdoms with a varying degree ol mutual

toms and tastes of barbarian Europe. The result was dependence. The Saljuqs followed a strictly orthodox

a sophisticated and elegant art with its own peculiar form of Islam. Under their influence and protection
glorious reputation of their new society. The old
characteristics bin which, with all its peculiarities a strong Islamic theology developed presenting the
forms of decoration and luxuriance were turned
svas still part of mainstream Islamic art - abstract, fundamental principles of Islamic dogma and of
into ways ol glorifying Islam and its followers.
decorative and extravagant. political organization.
III. 4 The Me^uita (Great Manuel Cerdc\a. aaned 750
It should be noted here that the political system in
Classical Islamic art gained its shape in particular in
the conquered territories was a model of gradual The Abbasids
the 11 th century. At that time in many ways all kinds
assimilation. Non-Muslims were allowed to retain The Abbasids moved their capital to Iraq, the land
ol artistic customs were king circulated which for and palaces, are undeniably open to several Inter­
their former religion but were heavily taxed. of the Sassanids. In 762 they built a new city, their
many centuries were to characterize Islamic an. What pretations. With its mysterious glowing colour and
Gradually, most of the conquered peoples chose to capital Bagdad, city ol Peace', vibrant centre of a
happened was that the taste of the Turkish steppes suggestive layers, rock-crystal was one of the most
follow the new faith. A clear illustration of this is mighty empire. It was a huge city, with many palaces,
was overlaid upon rhe layers ol Persian. Byzantine coveted materials.
given by two architectural monuments from the mosques and bazaars. Aller a while the caliphs grew
tired of it, and caliph al-Mutasim (870-8921 built and Arabic art. The cupolas and minarets became
days of the Umayyad dynasty: the Dome of the Rock
more regular, while new standard designs came The Fatimids were powerful rulers and would often
in Jerusalem (completed in 691. tee ill. 2} and the a new capital city about 80 kilometres north of
into vogue lor decoration. Metalwork witnessed the make use of art to assert their |M»sition. They built
Umayyad mosque in Damascus (built 706-714. Bagdad. Il was called Surraman-raa ( happy is he
appearance or brass inlaid with copper and silver in the city of al-Qahira ( the Conqueror'), today Cairo,
w ill 3). In the architectural methods and principles who beholds*) or Samarra'. It was a centre for study
which motifs are to be found from China and India adorning it with mosques such as the al-Hakim in
of these buildings, as well as the ornamental motifs and scholarship, for bureaucrats and warriors, with
which grandeur goes hand in hand with the ever­
and the mosaics, it is easy to find parallels in Christian palaces, hippodromes. gardens and mosques of enor­
The Fatimidt present possibility for the individual to withdraw into
architecture and Persian decorative art. In the Islamic mous size. The famous Great Mosque of Samarra'
At the same time Egypt and pan ol north Africa were contemplation and prayer. The immeasurable riches
world, however, monuments were created with an (w ill. I (was adorned with a spectacular minaret,
ruled by the Fatimld dynasty who were descended of the Fatimids were used in a demonstrative manner
ideological aim. that of preaching the triumph of which had a spiral pathway leading upwards to its
Irom Muhammad’s daughter Eatima and his nephew The Fatimid caliphs organized huge processions in
Islam. This embraced among other things the ties summit. The palaces were beautified with striking
Ali ibn Abi Talib. During an extended struggle lor which countless gold objects, often utensils, would be
with ancient religious traditions, the abstract concept wood carving and stucco. The style of this carving
power they developed a complicated religious law borne along and revealed to the crowds, along with
ol 'God', and the descriptions of Paradise. This agenda determined to a large extent the characteristics ol
containing many obscure principles and meanings enormous bronze figures and candlesticks, together
dictated the style and artistic language in which flam­ the plant ornamentation Irom the Abbasid dynasty.
which was only accessible lor the initialed Their with lamps of rock-crystal and splendid garments
boyant ornamentation and luxurious materials mix The Abbasids, then a world power and coining Irom
stress on the Inner significance ol religion, on secret embroidered with texts and motifs.
and merge with an almost iconoclastic asceticism. Persia, had a richer and more monumental manner
rituals and a secret system ol propaganda gave a
ol constructing their buildings, their metal or ceramic
unique attraction to the teaching ol the Fatimids, The Cruuiden. the Ayyubidt, and the Motululo
The Umayyads continued to wage war and built a domestic objects, their weapons and their clothing,
which was increased by the addition of a mystical In 1099 Jerusalem fell to the Crusaders. Palestine
state in the which Byzantine brilliance was toned than did the Umayyads Irom Syria. But lor both dy­
'sparkling' in their art. Many products of Fatimld art. came under European feudal overlords whom the
down by the traditions and practical wisdom ol the nasties the spirit and the style were one and the same.
such as illustrations on pottery, or motifs in mosques sophisticated Byzantines and Muslims considered to
Bedouin desert rulers. This period was lull of civil Less exuberant but no less impressive, were the styles
 Vir liU*
lattbl. bnuif, kMrraf)* .

jewels, serve as symbols, as it were, lor the later these vastly different historical periods and geogra­
Im- quite simply barbarians Much of Europe’s cultural who claimed descent from Jingghis Khan, ruled in
period ol Islamic art. They were taken to Russia by phical regions - Including China and Indonesia -
development is thanks to the dally contact and the Central Asia in the 14th century. He was a great war­
the ambassador to the Persian government of Nadir share certain characteristics which may Im- recognized
wars waged in the time ol the Crusades. Furthermore, lord and conquered Afghanistan. Iran. Iraq including
Shah who in 1739 demolished the Mughal state and while being difficult to describe. The stared nature
these wars and commercial lies helped create a kind Bagdad, Syria and Asia Minor. Timur moved his
plundered the capital city of Delhi. has many roots, but the chief of these is the inspira­
of unity in the Near East, turning it into a general capital to Samarkand (now in Uzbekistan) which
he made into one ol the most splendid cities ol the tion based on Islamic traditions and ideas. This also
cultural terrain where both Christian and Islamic
In the course of fourteen centuries dynasty followed made it possible for art to survive through various
art was made in a like spirit and often with like ma­ world. His descendants also made their contributions:
dynasty. Each in turn ruled over pan of the Islamic political and cultural scenarios.
terials. This exhibition shows some objects which, as thanks to them remarkable architectural monuments
world and each had its own ethnic, political and
far as their detail and motifs arc concerned illustrate appeared, richly decorated with tiles bearing flower
cultural peculiarities. The political structure and the The spiritual inspiration is not immediately obvious.
the enriching effect on Islamic art through these motifs, and graceful texts. The special school of
culture in the worltfof Islam changed from age to For it lies not in the subject, but in the manner of
miniature painting, the beautiful examples of elegant
contacts. artistic expression. It is unexpected, vital and alluring.
age. Clearly, the art of 9th century Egypt is totally
ceramics, and the weaponry, all bore the exceptional
different from that of Egypt in the 18th century. And This exhibition is designed to excite visitors, to intro­
The Fatimlds were driven out of Egypt by the Kurdish Timurid stamp.
equally clearly, the an of Muslims in 15th-century duce them to the outer beauty and the inner riches
Ayyubids, the dynasty ol the famous Salandin.
India varies markedly from that of Morocco in the of the an of a religion still so little known to many i
Following in the tracks of the Ayyubids. Egypt was The Ottoman*
same period. This will come as no surprise. However. In the West.
ruled for several centuries by the Mamluk dynasty, In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the forces

originally slaves captured in war who. from being of the Ottoman sultan Muhammad II. Gradually the

commanders ol military units, became the rulers of Ottoman Turks took over the whole ol Asia Minor,

the country. Under the Mamluks, who were both together with the Near and Middle East and the

courageous warriors and excellent merchants in the Balkans. For several centuries - into the 20th - the

Red Sea and Mediterranean areas, Egypt enjoyed a Ottoman empire was a power to be reckoned with in
world politics. This vast kingdom revived the arts of Ill 5 The TaiMahal. Agra. halt 1632- W
period ol great prosperity This is recorded in Cairo
with a number of remarkable architectural monu­ Islam by developing further the traditions ol the

ments from the period, as well as exceptional glass Mamluks from Egypt. Syria and Byzantium. Ideas in

lamps decorated with enamel, beautiful brass objects western Europe concerning Islamic culture and the

with an intricate overall design, and manuscripts ol daily lile ol Muslims stem largely from Impressions

the Qur'an rich in stunningly vivid decoration. gained about the Ottoman empire. The characteristic
social patterns ol this community, with their luxury

The Great Mongol* and ceremony, find expression in the exuberance of

At the same lime, in the 15th century, the eastern its art: brocade robes and turbans, domestic tvare.

part of the Islamic world was attacked by the Mongols weapons and garments encrusted with precious

under Jingghis Khan and his descendants. In 1258, stones and metals, the delicately decorated ceramic

the armies of Jingghis s grandson, Ogedei Khan, tiles and pottery with their blues and reds, not to

captured Bagdad after a bitter and bloody struggle. lorget the cult of the tulip in the Ottoman empire

Syria was the only place where the Mamluks could iteec.it.no. 274. p II). Alter all. the tulip was born in

offer resistance to the fierce Mongols. The Islamic Turkey and still possesses great symbolic value for

culture suffered a severe blow; bloodthirsty massacres Turks.

took place and countless jteople, including many
artists were killed. Also, many palaces. mosques and The Mughalt

libraries went up in Hames. Gradually, however, the The merging of luxuriousness with the greatest

aggressors converted to Islam, became assimilated refinement also characterizes the an from the period

into the already centuries-old culture, and indeed ol the Mughals, rulers of India who claimed decent

became its guardians. There are many schools and from Timur, or Tamurlainc. One of the wonders of

styles in Islamic art that take their names from dyn­ the world, built in Mughal style, is India's Taj Mahal

asties ol Islamic rulers whose roots lay in Mongolia. (tee HL 5), a mausoleum set up by shah Jahan in mem­
ory of Ids beloved wife, the beautiful Momtaz Mahal.

An exceptional place is occupied by the Tlmurid The objects Iroin the treasures of the Mughals, on

dynasty. Timur (known in the West as Tamurlane) show in this exhibition, glittering with precious

20
 2 Monotheism and Ornamentation

Islam is a religion of an emphatic, almost exalted, and Thine aid we seek.

monotheism. The entire message of the early preach­ Show us the straight uwv.
ing of the Qur'an was to abstain from idolatry. To The mr»- of those on whom
worship a person or a god other than Allah, the Thou hast bestowed Thy Grace,
Creator, was condemned by the Qur’an as the most Those whose (portion) is nor wrath,
terrible sin a person could commit, as a monstrous And who go not astray.
betrayal of the faith and traditions ol one's ancestors,
who believed in One Indivisible God. It should The original formulation of monotheism is found

be noted here that the three world monotheistic in sura 112. al Ikhlas. or Purity of Faith'. The text
religions - Judaism, Christianity and Islam - lias become one ol the most important elements in

all originated from the same source in the Near Islamic an. It is repeated in unending sequence in

East. calligraphic script round objects. round buildings both

spiritual and temporal, and on talismans (small pieces
For Islam, monotheism was equivalent to knowledge ol paper bearing a text from the Qur'an which will

about the religion ol the earliest people - something ensure good luck I. The opening of the sura reads:

that was often forgotten but continually revived Say: He is God. the One and Only.
by the prophets. The idea that belief in Allah isn't God. the Eternal, Absolute

something new but rather the rebinh ol an ancient He begerteih not. nor is He begotten;

religion, is of great importance in Islam, for it empha­ And there is none like unto Him
sizes the tradition stemming from Abraham which is
also a Central theme in Islam. It is fairly evident that this precise formulation is a
concrete rebuttal of both the Christian belief that

It is this total monotheism that arguably gave Islam God had a son. and the heathen Arabians who.

the right to call itself 'a more advanced religion than while recognizing Allah, saw Him (God) as one

those of the patriarchs, since they deviated (rom among many gr»ds.

the central concept of an unshakeable faith in one

God. The One Indivisible God was held and still is in Another passage in the Qur'an about Allah which

Islamic theology as both sublimely simple and end­ lias acquired the nature ol a powerful citation with

lessly complex, something both as intimately close as exorcising force, and is frequently used in Islamic

breathing and at the same time Immeasurably distant. calligraphic ornamentation, is the aya (verse) known
as the Throne Verse tS It 2SS(
The Qur'an begins with the sura (chapter) titled God! There is no god but He ■ the Living,

al-Fatlha. the Opening Chapter. In it the essence the Self-subsisring. Eternal

of Islam is so encapsulated that it became the most No slumber can seize Him. nor sleep

important text in Muslim prayers: His are all things in the heavens and in earth

In the name ofGod. Who is there can intercede in his presence,

Most Gracious. Most Merciful. except As Hepermitteth?

Praise be to God. He knoweth what (appeareth to His creatures as)

the Cherisher and Sustain" ofthe Worlds. Before or After or Behind them

Most Gracious. Most Merciful; Nor shall they compass aught of His knowledge

Master of the Day of Judgment. Except as He willeih.

Thee do we worship His throne doth extend over the heawns

59
lartMr frmrty lirawnfr.

descriptions, having the nature of a written formu­

and the earth, and He feeleth
Na fatigue in guarding and preserving them. la. which in different ways attest to the nature ol

Far He is the Mast High, the Supreme tin glory). Allah, such as Allah is the Greatest. Allah is the All­
Knowing. we all return to Allah.' The repetition of
this type of formula became an important element
Images
With regard to this aya, we may refer to one of the both in Muslim prayer and in daily conversation and

problems that arise in connection with pure theology such expressions became the source of calligraphic

as also with questions of an artistic nature. Namely, decoration.

the aya describes Allah seated upon a throne, and for
some this raises the picture of an earthly emperor. Allah's names
Indeed, other pans of the Qur'an refer to the hands One particular way of describing God was to list his

of Allah, or to His actions which may well suggest names. The Qur'an lists 99 names lor Allah. They

similar human comparisons. In Islamic theology ol arc written out in many ornamental decorations,

tite classical period fierce arguments arose over the on special talismans and magic rolls, on sheets of

question as to what extent these anthropomorphic manuscript and decorative plates and dishes. The

descriptions should be interpreted literally. The names refer to the many aspects of Allah's character.

overriding opinion, which was generally accepted, Here follows a list from the Qur'an giving His names

was to interpret these words metaphorically, to see Gad is He. than Wham there is no othergod;

the images as symbolic, and of a literary nature. In Who knows (all things) bath secret and open;

theological terms they are expressions which make He. Most Gracious. Mast Merciful

comprehensible for the lay person concepts of a God is He. than Whom there is no othergod:

profound philosophical content. This kind of many- The Sovereign, the Holy One

layered and therefore enriching understanding of The Source of Peace (and Perfection).

the text ol the Qur'an and of theological ideas is The Guardian of Faith

typical lor Islam. It is also customary for the Muslim The Preserver of Safety

to discover in everyday shapes and objects deeper Tlte Exalted in Might

meanings and layers, and indeed to find Inlier The Irresistible, the Supreme:

meaning in the actions ol daily life. Glory to God (High is He)

Above the partners they attribute to Him. CM.no. S2 Girpct containing the word Allah repealed
The Qur'an contains other passages which refer more He is God the Creator.

or less directly to making likenesses or images. In the Evolver.

behaviour, how then can humankind be- responsible He may be called Hashent. meaning the Name'.
Paradise, the Just, or righteous, behold God face to the Bestower of Forms (or Colours).
for their actions? Many are the Islamic and Christian Different too is Christianity, which adheres to the
lace. This led to lengthy controversies: can a man To him belong rhe most beautiful names:
writings on the question of free will and predes­ commandment Thou shall not take the name of the
behold God. and il so. what docs he sec? Docs God Whatever is in the heavens and on earth
tination, trying to explain what appears a highly Lord Thy God in vain' (Ex 20: 7» and teaches that
have a lace? Doth declare His Praises and His Glory
contradictory riddle. Variations appear in these the name ol God is holy and should be treated with
And He is the Exalted in Might, the Wise.
writings, granting people different degrees ol free great respect. In Islam, however, the rule is: the more
Symbolic explanations offered a means of solving (S. 59:22-241
will and responsibility. However, a general summing the holiest name. Allah, as well as His other names,
the contradictions between concrete physical words
up of the attitude of Islam is that choices must be arc spoken ami repeated, the better. To repeat them
and abstract concepts. It is not possible to describe The most important names here are those which
made within the limitations imposed by the will ol cither silently or aloud forms the basis ol prayer and
God s Being in human language, nevertheless these occur at the opening of every Islamic text. 'In the
Allah, that people must obey His will, hoping for of the mystics’ trance. Their repetition is one ol the
words represent a means whereby the believer may name of God, most Gracious, most Merciful.' Second
His mercy’ - which the faithful are sure to find: the ways ol attaining truth and of manifesting dedication
approach the Divine Presence. The many aspeas ol only to the statement of faith, this formula is the most
only question is where, when, and in which world. to God.
God’s Nature are described in episodes from the holy frequently found in Islamic texts. With the help ol a

scriptures and hymns of praise to the glory and complete understanding ol the mercy and goodness of
To repeat the name of Allah is an ad of piety In this Abstract ornamentation
majesty of Allah. The power of His Might and Will Allah. Islam managed to solve one of the major points
Islam is very different from Judaism, which considers With this, we have come close to the world of visual
are also apparent in the commandments, the debates ol debate in this and many other religions. Namely,
the name of God too holy to be spoken. Only variant an. For the basic nature ol ornamentation in Islamic
with unbelievers, and the terrifying prophecies if the Only God has created humankind and if as all-
forms of His name may be said, such as Jeluwah. or art Is formed from the repetition ol certain artistic
concerning the Day of Judgment. There arc many powerful God He can determine human action and

24
IjnbJf hntnif. bttvcaly tn •S1*M

formed a natural successor to the pre-Islamlc tradi­ Calligraphy ings. Its formal severity was remarkably appropriate
dements. This is one of the chief - if not the chief -
tions. Like the new- religion, (he decor was pruned ol Before long, calligraphy became the foremost artistic lor inscriptions on Arabian coins, which were decor­
areas ol development belonging to Islamic an. It is in
excessive tendrils and reformed into something that signature of Islamic art. Arabic script is in itself grace­ ated purely with texts declaring Islamic dogma anil
essence an abstract art and this is undoubtedly related
ful and elegant. Since the letters of its alphabet may stressing the supremacy ol the ruler who had ordered
10 the understanding ol God's nature. The attempt is was purely Islamic.
be written in various ways it presented many oppor­ this particular coin to be mimed. In the lield of ap­
made not only with words that describe Him. but also
In Islam, every part of life is holy. An essential dif­ tunities which the Islamic masters multiplied time plied art the elegant Kulic script would be used in
witlt art and abstraci ornamentation, to speak ol that
ference between Islam and Christianity is that the and again. Often, it is difficult to read a text in calligra­ carving, inlay and painted decoration. At a fairly
which is essentially abstract. To recount talcs of the
former docs not divide life into the temporal and phy. Thus its primary (unction is purely decorative - early stage two variations ol the script developed.
Invisible. The ornamentation, the motif. is continually
the spiritual. Every element In a Muslim s lile has a it delights the eye. it absorbs the viewer into an end­ The eastern variant was more relined and ebullient
repeated, teaching In a restrained but persistent and
religious significance and is judged by comparing it less river ol rhythmical lines gliding in and out ol than the classical Kulic; indeed, its joyful letters seem
subtle manner, how to nourish certain feelings that
with the standards and principles of their religion. each other and opening out into works ol refined to skip along the page. The western variant (Irom
are derived from the many representations ol Allah as
Every work ol an is assessed according to a religious ornamentation. In this highly complex dance of the Maghreb and Spain) retained the strong sobriety
the one, indivisible and immeasurably good Creator.
world view. And on the other hand, religious and Shapes, which is typical lor all Islamic decoration, of form and had dignified loops and angled links

there is a ceaseless movement which began with a between letters. Eventually this style developed into
The idea of the abstraci Allah, high above all else, political practice requires an artistic formulation.
There was a social decree' which, unlike analogous primal act of Allah and is one of the ways ol mani­ the Maghribi script.
became the main element in the inner world of every
decrees in the Christian world, was not essential to festing His Being to this world.
Muslim and also contributed to a feeling ol inner
The Kufic script was and is used for the most formal
pride: in Islam that has been preserved as an essential the religious history but was so, in the way that it
symbolized and represented abstract truths. The first The decorative nature ol Arabic script forms the basis purposes. However. Irom the 9th century cursive
and holy aspect ol life, something which they claim
for an elaborate system ol handwritten styles, varying Arabic scripts also developed, many ol these attaining
has been lost in Judaism and Christianity. Muslims ol these concerned the existence of one God without
from exuberant and monumental to one so delicate a monumental and ornamental form. Several rclorms
emphasize the fact that they have not succumbed whom there is no God, and to whom there is none
it resembles strokes of air. The ancient Arabic scripts, introduced a great advance in the development of
to the temptation to worship strange idols; they equal.' Ornamentation, which by its very nature Is
endless, was a perfect vehicle to illustrate this and which were used when people lirst copied out the script, one ol these being the introduction ol )>ointing
have preserved and continue to preserve the purity
Qur'an, were amalgamated into one script called lor consonants and vowels. This brought a system not
ol monotheism. Undoubtedly, this is the primary became the favourite means lor expressing the
Kulic iseecat.no. 56. p. 48). after the city ol al-Kula only into the meaning of the letters but also into the
clement ol not only the intellectual but also the Islamic attitude to life.
which the Arabs had founded in Iraq. This was a filling-in ol the space between the thicks and thins ol
emotional world ol the Muslim. In some way or
monumental script with strongly delineated vertical the letters. Furthermore, a system ol constructing the
another, it had to manifest itself in their works of art. It is important to note here that in medieval Islamic
bands ol letters and severe horizontals. Dots in various letters was established, making the script uniformly
literature there arc no discourses to be found on the
colours indicated groups ol letters and vowels. geometric. A basic module would be selected, such
Tlu- power ol the arts to transmit this Islamic message relation between art and religion. Furthermore, it
Generally black or dark-brown ink was used on a pale as a lozenge shape. formed by the diagonal stroke of
was well understood. From the start, Islam paid due seems probable that in the majority ol cases people
yellow parchment or paper. In the Maghreb region a the Arab reed pen. called a galant, which was the
heed to artistic representations of its victories, its scarcely considered that the artist was free to choose
type ol Qur'an was prevalent called 'Kairouan . in favourite instrument of the calligrapher. A fixed
supremacy and its grandeur. That huge masterpiece, the tenor ol a work ol art in a religious context.
which the text was written in gold letters on a dark number ol these lozenges (live or seven) determined
the Dome ol the Rock («e ill. 2. p / 7> was a combina­ Undoubtedly, internal factors of psychology and the
blue background. The golden lettering was commonly the height ol the letter alif which in turn determined
tion ol the reconstruction ol Solomon's Temple in spiritual standards that the artists held, would play
used to illuminate titles and as filling on ornamental the diameter ol a circle. This system was created by
Jerusalem, the creation ol a house surmounting the a role here. They would elicit a reaction from the
word divisions In the loan of palmcttcs. rosettes and Ali ibn Muqla (d. 940), a politician who served as
grave of Jesus Christ, and the proclamation of the community which would recognize the style applied
patterned disc-shapes. The Kulic script incorporated vizier under three Abbasld caliphs, and was also a
triumph ol Islam over the Christians and tile Zoro- as belonging to them, and thus acceptable.
the possibilities for both great dignity ol shape and most talented and inventive calligrapher. Many was
astrians, followers of the Persian prophet Zarathustra
elaborate decoration. The ends of letters could lx- the time when he landed up in gaol, and on one-
(or Zoroaster) who lived circa 1000 BC. The artistic Ornamentation became the most characteristic
developed by calligraphers Into tendrils ol plants, the occasion his right hand was chopped oil. but he
style of the decoration follows the Islamic thought: artistic genre, gaining enormous significance and
lop of the vertical stroke could be shaped like a plant simply went on with his left - producing more
there is luxuriant ornamentation without the use attaining a high level of refinement. Ornamentation
or even a human figure. The letters themselves could beautiful calligraphy than anyone else A system
ol concrete (human or animal) images. The Umayyad can lx- classified into three major types: calligraphy,
indicate direction, adding a sense ol rhythm and developed known as al-kliau al-mansub, meaning
mosque in Damascus (see ill. J. p. 18). the famous plant (that is, arabesque) and geometric. One of the
proportional script.
mosques of Kairouan (now Tunisia) and Cordova things these three forms have in common is that change.

(see ill. 4. p. 19) - all these formed the conquerors' they contain artistic references to and reminders of
The Kulic script is by its very nature huh monu­ Continuing the work of Ibn Muqla several famous
triumphant affirmations of faith. With their elaborate the divine Being.
mental and exuberant which is probably why it was pupils ol his. among them Ibn al-Bawwab (d. 1022)
beauty they were intended to amaze and delight.
the most commonly used, especially lor the solemn developed and used new scripts These Arabian cal­
And it wasn't long before this luxurious decoration
lists in the Qur'an and when decorating huge build­ ligraphers. whose name and patronymic lias been
gained Ils own agenda. Ornamental decoration

26
preserved for posterity, arc among the best-known list ol the names of God (n/-m//»fM abkhusna) and success’ and so forth. All the virtuous combinations derived from the intricate rhythmic undulations ol

creators of Islamic art. The makers of other genres descriptions ol the appearance of the Prophet derive from Allah, which is why on objects and orna­ the vine tendril. Not surprisingly, this motif was bom

may well be known to us (many of them Inscribed ishamttil). In the Ottoman world a gentle, rounded ment they are always associated with Allah. They are in the Mediterranean countries, where the vine grows

their name on their work) bin are now less famous. script became widespread tnaskh. thuluth). The cal­ a reference to His almighty power and rhe fact that plentifully. As motif it was very popular in Roman

The next star* in the calligraphic Armament was to ligraphers. who already enjoyed high social status, He alone, out of His great compassion, can grant true and Byzantine art. frequently lound in their mosaics.

be Yaqut al-Musta'simi (d. 1298). He survived the gained even greater prestige and the most famous welfare to humankind. The name ol Allah and His The Aral* would often have seen this motif, both

plundering of Bagdad by the Mongols, when thou­ ol them, such as Seyh Hamdullah (d. 1520) or sovereign power served as protection lor an objects or before and after the Islamic conquests in these

sands of manuscripts were destroyed. One piece that Ahmed Karakhisari (d. 1556) were among the buildings, and their owners. Furthermore, we find - countries. In itself it was an attractive design and it

also survived is a delightful miniature showing Yaqut most acclaimed people of their society. chiefly contained no idolatrous images. The Arabs soon

serenely concentrated in his work of producing on domestic pottery such as beakers and dishes (in adopted it and developed it in an Imitable manner,

beautiful calligraphy while all around him in the A major step in the development ol elaborate manu­ Imitation ol Chinese porcelain) various wise sayings. whereby it became one of the most distinctive marks

city ol Bagdad the battle raged. scripts were the lughrat of the Ottoman sultans. The Allah could not be named here, but the selection of ol Arabic ornamentation. Indeed, this is the source

name and title ol the sultan was embedded in an lauded qualities would always be consistent with rhe ol the word 'arabesque' in Europe for this looping

The calligraphers invented and developed various intricate pattern in which the loops and lines of many Islamic rules of conduct. Finally, writing on objects and twirling decoration.

scripts, some ol which remained In fashion lor many letters danced and Intertwined. In this way a sign of applied art. especially those coining from the

would develop bearing clearly distinguishable lines regions ol post-1 Ith-century Persia, would often take The curling movement ol the vine tendrils is enriched
centuries. Others disappeared together with their
and details making it possible to decipher the mono­ the form ol poetry. Generally, these would be mystic and interrupted in a rhythmical fashion by the leaves
creator. Generally, the number ol basic scripts Is
gram ol the sultan without reading the text. The verses, instilling people anew with an awareness of and fruit ol the plant. They may - and indeed should -
confined to six, known as al-akbna M-alU, meaning
written word flowed and merged Into the decorative the all-pctvading being of Allah. vary greatly. The space between the fundamental
the six leathers’ or handwritings. They consist of
icons that were characteristic for the Turkish families flowing lines is filled in with twirls, plant shapes and
three pairs of cursive script; first, the large rounded
and which are still often to be found in Islamic In this way we see that the content ol calligraphic their elements, and vases and animals. Gradually,
thuhtlh with its smaller variant, the itaskli. The latter
culture. Thus these tughras demonstrate in many ornamentation was always a highly conscious witness the aspect that became characteristic for Islam - that
has become the major standard used when copying
to monotheism, a 'story' about Allah, dressed as all the empty spaces should be Filled in - became
texts and forms the basis lor printed Arabic script. ways the development of ornamentation in Arabic
script The word became almost completely trans­ an appealing and visually attractive mold. The cal­ compulsory. This is generally done by using an
Second, there is the slightly elongated, solid-looking
ligraphic texts, especially those in Kulic, always interwoven plant motif on a small scale, which does
imhoqqaq and its smaller variant, the elegant rayliani. formed Into a symbolic motif (wa/iauioia Jttf).
require ol their reader a certain amount ol prep­ not obscure the basic rhythm but in fact enhances it.
Finally there is the script called tawqi with its smaller
aration, not to mention considerable concentrated The tendril motif is characteristic of the earliest
variant, the riqa. The former is a passionate script Parallel with this, virtuosic methods developed ol
effort. This results in a feeling of pleasure and Islamic art. Irom the lime of the Umayyad dynasty
with expressly curving letters which often transform producing mirror-image ornamental manuscripts,
satisfaction when the result is achieved and the (661-750). Under the Abbasids (750-1258) it
into the Intncate delicacy ol the second, which today and alxive all texts that took the shape ol objects
reader understands the text The feeling of satis­ developed further and since then has become an
is the most commonly used in Arabic handwritten such as lamps, books, birds, a seated figure, or a boat.
faction with an effort rewarded is to a certain extent essential feature in all Islamic periods and through­
texts. This form of artistic gymnastics Is both interesting
related to the processes of penetrating more profound­ out the Islamic world. The motif varies in different
and remarkable, but to a great extent breaks with
ly into an understanding of God, ol movement In ways but always retains the unbroken rhythm
The world ol the Persians had a strong Impact on the essence ol the calligraphic ornamental tradition.
His direction, of reading the Qur'an and reciting the ol an exuberant living plant, while with virtuosic
the standard scripts and led to their sloping more
prayers aloud. It is this connection that gives calligra imagination the empty spaces between the tendrils
sideways, becoming more elegant and more curling. In a way. calligraphic ornamentation see-saws be­
phic ornamentation its exceptional significance. are given flamlmyant filling.
A sheet ol Persian manuscript is utterly different from tween a beautifully produced text and a beautiful
an Arabic one - there is more flowing movement, motif as framework. The seamless link between these
There is yet another exceptional quality in calligraphy One ol the earliest and most remarkable examples
often with exuberant patterns. The Persian script two aims lies - in various ways - at the basis ol all
that reflects a religious notion. Arabic writing has the ol this type of ornamentation can be seen in the
seems to curl along across the sand leaving its great­ such ornamentation. It is almost everywhere to be
appearance ol an unending How ol line, a linked sculpted decoration on the walls of the Umayyad
ful traces. found. as In pious texts and in the writings describing
pattern ol letters, many-shaped and ever-moving. castle ol Mshatta in Jordan, where plant like shapes
the One Indivisible God. This decides the ideological
It projects the concept of continuity, of endlessness, curl in all directions. These curls sprout into vases
The Persians, and alter them the Turks, had the significance of the ornamentation. Generally, cal­
ol plurilormitv. These contribute in no small measure with plants in them or figures representing real or
habit ol making a distinction between the type ol ligraphers would inscribe on objects and buildings
to the attempt to imagine God. imaginary animals. The surface is a network of fine
calligraphy used for the main text and that of another the essential, specifically monotheistic citations from
motifs linked together by a lew geometric shapes
body ol text interwoven with It. Thus separate sheets the Qur'an. The names ol God were a frequent

would be yvrltten, bearing - in different handwriting - subject. The various blessings formed another The arabesque
The second type of ornamentation is the plant mottl. An interesting example of the development of the
citations from the Qur’an and sayings ol the prophet category, such as the wish May Allah grant the
or arabesque. an unbroken curling and waving line arabesque is provided by the sculpted panels tn the
Muhammad. Particularly popular were sheets with a bearer ol this happiness, prosperity, enlightenment.

2»
 .■><>» iu.« • MMMtlv/im 4>M «'.
tarthlr htJtin ^ctrnlt

Abbasid capital of Samarra' (Iraq!. a dty that was speaking, of the philosophical and concrete being

only granted a brief existence. Extensive archeol­ of the gcxlhcad. And in conclusion: the beauty and

ogical excavations in this once large metropolis, that the peaceful aspect ol a garden Idled with fruit is a

became neglected and abandoned, have produced pointer to the Qur'anic descriptions ol the gardens

large quantities of material. Among other things this of Paradise.

distinguished three types of plant ornamentation

which were found carved out of or applied onto a Thus the plant ornamentation gives rise to the same

certain type ol stucco. The first style lias curled vine kind of delight as that which the Qur'an arouses in

leaves on a branch either produced in one straight the righteous person. In this way, it alludes to the

line or on a curve. In the second type the vine leaves manner in which people should rejoice in the exist­

cannot be recognized any longer: the motif itsell is ence of Allah and His deeds.

Hatter and more geometric. In the third, plant shapes

can be detected, growing into forms that interweave Geometric ornamentation
through each other, occasionally interrupted by Moreover, in every plant ornamentation there arc

circles and curls. These are no longer recognizable, elements or indeed large parts present, containing

but nevertheless make a definite impression of ornamentation of the third type: geometric. The

growth and fluidity. straight lines, triangles and lozenge shapes, the circles
and rosettes add structure to the curling arabesque

The examples from Samarra' are no more than an apt and the calligraphic text. Indeed, they allude, as it

illustration ol the qualities and of a particular inner were, to the stern will of God in the midst ol a feast

evolution ol plant ornamentation as this was to be of swirling lorms. At the same time, however, the

found throughout the Islamic world, and then with geometric elements bring with them their own
regard to objecis made Irom certain materials such as specific ornamentation. It has become yet another

stone. wood, metal and potter)'. All these retain and aspect of the artistic language and an important

bestow the delight aroused by the internal movement means of expressing cardinal aspects associated

ol plant shapes. The shapes become increasingly with the divine.

abstract. However, the evolution here is lar from
straightforward. A splendid example ol plant decora­ Even Kufic script, with its geometric elements,

tion is provided by the Iznik pottery ol the Ottoman already possesses a certain rhythm of movement,

empire, in which the depictions of plants are totally but this is linear. However, an attempt to create an
because they are drawn in layers upon each other, people to glimpse the vastness of the unending. This
realistic while retaining all the charm and essential element ol depth can be discerned on paper and on a
create an unexpected effect of depth This can lx- is the illimitable, the more so because it presents an
nature ol ornamentation. stone. A rosette is depicted which symbolizes the sun.
seen particularly well on the title pages of Mamluk aspect of Allah.
suspended in unfathomable space. The manuscripts
Qur’ans. There arc countless geometric illusions. They
The arabesque has two inner meanings. Both on which the Qur'an was written were the first Hat
offer different impressions seen Irom different angles Possibly, geometric ornamentation is the nearest
delight the eye. and both hint at general spiritual surfaces to be given an impression of depth, through
and (most important! create a three-dimensional people come to expressing the abstract concept ol
representations and basic beliefs. The lirst of these the effect ol the geometric lines. Polygons, squares,
space in which they continually criss-cross and Allah, for it suggests a wealth of ideas. The lines
is the most profound. It expresses the eternal octagons and stars formed from triangles were at
and shapes flowing into each other fill the entire
first the framework for calligraphic texts and plant intercept.
movement and multiplicity ol form: the latter
surface of an Islamic work ol art. Five, six and
coincides with the understanding of Allah and is to ornaments, but quickly became the chief motif. In
An absolutely breathtaking way in which geometric eight-pointed stars, lozenges and rectangles live a life
be found in every ornamentation that repeats itsell this sense it is the 'carpet' pages of the Qur'an that
ornamentation Is implemented can be found in the of their own as well as combining with inscriptions
endlessly. The second meaning is more concrete: it are the most remarkable. They arc to be found Irom
architectural stalactites', arches carved in stone with and arabesques. Most remarkable is the eflea ol
is pride in and love for the world which Allah has the 11 th century on. The complete title page is filled
the fragility of finest lace which together somewhat geometric ornamentation when inbid with various
created lor people. The Qur’an frequently mentions with geometric patterns enclosing elegant inscriptions
resemble a beeswax honeycomb. These stalactites kinds ol wood and ivory. The geometric patterns
the plant and animal world as lavish evidence of and extravagant plant shapes, often obscured by
formed an important aspect of Islamic architecture in on wooden minbari (pulpit shaped like a staircase!
Allah's affection lor humankind, who may enjoy the wealth of pattern. Sometimes they can only be
buildings and domes In both cases they create the and balconies arc a significant aspect of the overall
this marvellous creation. The grape and the curling detected alter concentrated inspection, and some­
illusions of the vaulted sky, attracting and bemusing design in a mosque.
vine represent in part this affection for His people. times they are quite simply not there. The entire
the eye ol mankind, yet at the same lime allowing
The ornamentation is a reminder, in a manner of surface is coloured with geometric patterns which.
ftmMt t*nty hunntt *’•

Tlu- abstract implications ol the geometric forms are

further stressed by the symbolic and magic meanings
understand them completely when we have an Idea
of how the religious and philosophical implications
3 Iconoclasm
ol geometric shapes. The Star of Solomon (Suleyman), of ornamentation - dressed in a fine aesthetic robe -

the Star ol David (Daoud) and other signs were used arc part ol the story. But that 'part* actually often

as talismans. The profound meaning successfully means 'a great extent'. Indeed, it should be said

went hand in hand with the simple, so that the that In Islamic society there is no official distinction
It is well known that Islam forbids the representation Furthermore, almost nothing has survived Irom the
artistic content ol the ornamentation marched the between the temporal and the spiritual; lor Muslims,
ol living creatures in the form ol pictures, sculptures period before the Iconoclastic Controversy. However,
state o! mind ol the people who made use of it. every aspect ol life is connected with their religion.
and so forth. However, there arc many such represen­ the few objeas that have been preserved help us in
By means of the ornamentation they experienced This means that every Islamic work of art contains a
tations in Islamic an. both ol animals and people. But understanding the feelings of the Iconoclastic warriors
divine perceptions and perceived in it, to some reference to the overall immanence and deeply-felt
these arc never usedjor religious purposes and are and the Muslims. Byzantine painted ikons achieved
extent, a refleaion ol God. In a way. ornamentation indivisibility of God. And that Indication would un­
generally completely secondary to the ornamentation. an astonishing virtuosity in representing people and
and particularly calligraphy, acted like an icon, playing doubtedly also have been visible to medieval Muslims,
Indeed, they are oltcn elements of the decoration figures, producing piaures that were almost lifelike in
the role of negotiator between this world and the even though they would certainly have experienced
and as such are subject to the rules governing this. their realism. For example, the ryes appeared to look
next, creating a window beyond which there was a It in a very different way.
In Islam the pictures ol living creatures may not be at you and were moist, the wounds gushed blood,
vast space. And in that space God is present in all
used as exegesis or propaganda. The sacred history and so forth. The illusion ol reality was Impressively
His majesty. Allah cannot be seen and even attempts to reveal Him
ol the Muslims may only be told in words. Thus it is convincing. Il was as if people were trying to usurp
come to nothing. But Allah may be spoken of, as the
accurate to state that Islamic art is in essence abstract the prerogative ol the Lord and Creator. It is hardly-
It goes without saying that we cannot speak of the Qur'an does. Allah may be felt, as the mystics feel
and not figurative. In the previous chapter this has surprising then that those who believed with deep
•iconic' significance of oniamentation or ol Islamic art Him. The abstract an of Islam relates with artistic
been discussed in some detail. conviction in the One Indivisible Intangible God.
in general, without referring to the art of the religion means a story about Allah, the eternal Creator of
and for whom the Christian concept of the Trinity
itself, that is, the manuscripts ol rhe Qur'an or the everything that is. And this helps people along the
Seen in this way, Islamic art may best be described (three Gods in One) was an alxmiination. saw with
decorations of mosques and mausoleums. Indeed, Il way to experiencing his presence, to perceiving the
as iconoclastic, that is. non-ligurative. Iconoclasm is horror the images associated with religion. For them,
holds for all the other works ol an. that we can only ineffable beauty of His majesty and mercy.
an essential aspea ol monotheism, whose greatest these were not only blasphemous, they presented a

enemy is the worship ol Idols. Representations ol dangerous threat. They were a blatant and appalling

gods, saints, monarchs or pop stars is an immediate temptation and had to be attacked.

precondition lor their worship. In Judaism there is a

commandment against making images, although from Idolatry

time to time these may be found in their art. such as The prophet Muhammad condemned with heart

the frescoes ol the synagogue ol Dura Europos in and soul all that he saw to be idolatrous. To crowd

Syria (now in The National Museum ol Damascus) out Allah with other deities, beings of the same sort,

In Christian Byzantium, at the same period in which or divine sons and daughters, was anathema to

Islamic art began to develop (8th and 9lh century), him for it represented the deepest betrayal of God's

iconoclastic tendencies could be observed. Indeed, Indivisibility. In Muhammad's day people often

this period lias earned the name •Iconoclastic*. made representations of gods in the form ol idols,

It is not impossible that this arose out ol rhe need and these were placed in the Malta in .Mecca.

to distinguish Itself Irom Islam which claimed to be Believers approached these idols with their prayers,

the best guardian ol the original purity of Abraham's requests, and on some occasions, protests. What

religion. Icons were smashed and frescoes were this in fact amounted to was a form of polytheism.

whitewashed over or destroyed. In their plan* the In many ways Muhammad's struggle was one against

Byzantine world erected symbolic crosses, fishes and idolatry. The most significant demonstration of his

other mystical symbols, or sumptuous decorations. victory was his triumphant return to Mecca when
he solemnly destroyed the idols in the Kaaba.

Few examples of Christian an remain Irom the

Byzantine Iconoclastic period. They are sometimes Colleaions of legends recounting Muhammad's

assessed with a sideways glance at Islamic an objeas sayings (the Hadilh) provide many examples of how

from the same period, such as the mosaics in the he consistently demanded the destruaion of pictures

Dome ol the Rock in Jerusalem (teeill. 2. r W in the homes ol Mecca and Medina, since In them he
firthlr betvrah

in Jerusalem {see ill. 2. p. 17). the Umayyad masque in The chief of these were the Makamat (Sayings) ol al-
Damascus (sre ill. J. p. 18) and the baths in the palace Hariri (1054-1122). The literary genre of which they
of Kirba al-Mafjar. near Jericho on the west hank of form a part is highly individualized and is important
the Jordan. for an understanding of Islamic culture. In principle
these stories have much in common with picaresque
Influenced by monotheistic inspiration, the abstract novels: the storyteller encounters the main character,
an of ornamentation was given a kind of social the trickster Abu Zaid in various places and observes
mandate and became the main formula ol artistic how in different ways he cajoles people to part from
creation and the chief method for expressing the their money. This essentially popular literature is

ideas that were currently active in society. written in a highly vivid rhythmical prose and
saturated with the most unusual vocabulary and
The an ef the elite complicated allusions. It contains many verses, as
Al the same time, this didn’t mean the complete is common in Arabic literature, which come across as
rejection of visual art as a means of creating aes­ somewhat trivial in contrast to the weighty prose. The

thetic pleasure. In the art ol lhe Umayyads we beauty and subtle humour of these works can only be
find, together with the non-pictorial mosaics of the appreciated by those with considerable education and

mosques, frescoes in the reception rooms and baths even they need to have a commentary and dictionary

of the castles of Qasr Amra in Jordan and Qasr al- Because of its refinement and virtuosity, reminiscent
Hayr al-Gharbi near Palmyra in Syria, and relief of Islamic ornamentation, the Makamat became the

carving in the palace of Khirba al-Maljar (sec above) literature ol the educated and wealthy. Sumptuous

Clearly, images were permitted in places with a manuscripts were produced for them, containing
recreational function where they offered no religious brilliant miniatures showing scenes from daily life

threat. Thus pictures became associated with the which today provide us with a combination of elegant

everyday life of the ruling class, svilh the culture of composition, colouring and draughtsmanship, giving

splendid banquets, lavish festivities and sumptuous exclusive information about the customs of the

luxury. In this light, the finds from the Abbasid medieval Muslim.

capital of Santana' (Iraq) are highly characteristic.

The remains of a palace were excavated there, used Illustrations were created for a situation in which

almost exclusively for entertainment ol the caliph and they were non-threatening (to monotheism) and

his followers. Here pictures were found showing became part of a certain lifestyle. This wasn't a

female dancers, and shards from an earthenware conscious process. In Islamic society the spiritual

wine jar had illustrations of a monk. and the temporal gradually became separated,
despite all the theory to the contrary. This happened
Cal.no IK* The beads ol lhe birds have been hacked off by an •icimcxlasr'.
A fine example of the link between the visual nature first in the realm of learning where the distinction

on lhe one hand and richesand luxury on the other, was connected with the power-sharing between the
saw the danger ol idolatry. There is a famous saying for Muslims. This led to a beautifully written legend.
are the miniatures found In books. Illustrations first caliphs, who represented spiritual authority, and the
by him that at the Last Judgment a curse will fall One ol lhe Prophet's most pious supporters, his uncle
appear in Islamic books only when they have a sultans who saw power as the prerogative of the
upon the mtuawin. that Is, people who make large Idi Abbas, once saw a person making an image. He
pradical necessity, such as treatises on the stars, (physically) strongest.
images and pictures. They will be told: Like God. you laid his hand upon the man’s head and repeated the
writings on medicinal plants, and ’do-it-yourself'
have created beings (figures), so like God. breathe life words of tiie Prophet, that the fires ol hell would
handbooks on how to construct ingenious apparatus After the Mongolian conquests the traditions of
into them Together with the stern prohibitions, cases be tlte lot of sculptors. Then he added, 'll you really
to entertain party-goers (see camo. 85). Books about book illumination flourished in the Persian section
are also cited in which Muhammad permitted a piece must do this, carve out a tree, or something which
animals and plants, and collections of fables (such as ol the Islamic world. Miniature illustrations framing
ol pictured fabric to be kept in the home, provided it has no soul.' These words admirably express the
the I 5lh-cenlury Kalila and Diinna from Iraq) could handwritten texts became one of lhe major cultural
was torn and not used for idolatrous purposes but essence of the earliest period of Islamic an - the
also be illustrated with no problem In the 11 th phenomena, a means of reflecting Iran's artistic past.
rather for something like cushions which people transference of the creative artistic inspiration to
century a school for illustration ol artistic products In Persian miniatures an illustration became almost
didn’t treat in a ’respectful* manner. another sphere than that of Christian an. The
was founded in Iraq. The entire, quite considerable ornamental, or abstract, and developed into one of
suggestion ol Muhammad’s uncle was taken almost
repertoire' of illustrative miniatures derives front a the characteristics of Islamic art. The books, however
Gr.i i v the representations were suppressed until literally. That this was so is illustrated by the trees
small quantity of basically non-religious art objects remained luxury items because it required so much
they v no longer seen as a dangerous temptation that dominate in the mosaics of the Dome ol the Kock
effort 10 make them and were only accessible to a limited

range ol people.
eternal fame. The small human figures found on pottery,
especially Persian and Fatitnid Egyptian, were in a sense
4 Art for Everyday Life
part of tite ornamental language, comparable with the vine

The representation of living creatures leaves in an arabesque. Nevertheless they have many

For ihr masses, who were the main supporters of religious artistic characteristics ol their own that provide us with

fanaticism and who had both the intention and pretension the possibility of categorizing and studying them as artistic

of being strictly pure, to draw pictures and make represen­ products in their own right. In doing thLs we can consider
closely the way people both accepted and rejected the Almost everything that goes by the name ol Islamic purpose: these arc water and the garden. In the
tations remained wicked. In this group it wasn't long before
art (with the exception ol architecture) has a link mosque water has a ritual function: before praying
there was a complete prohibition against the representation doctrine.
with what in Europe is classified as Applied Art, people have to perform a ritual washing ol hands and
of living creatures. This was confirmed by the sentences of
It was the application ol the law in daily life and with it the that is, objects used m everyday life. In the previous feet. In the |ialaces and larger houses we find basins,
the theologian and severe judge. Ibn Taymiyn (1263-1328).
invulnerability to religious temptation that made possible chapter we saw how the religion didn't tolerate small channels and pools ol water which, together
He strove against idolatry in all aspects ol life lor it seemed
any form of image in its propaganda programme. with flowers, plants and shady trees create shadow
io him as il this pernicious phenomenon once again had the the development ol an Independent three-dimensional
It created delight with the impressive and elegant and companionable coolness and in their own way
world in its vice, threatening the very foundations of Islam. Islamic art. In this we find different types ol ewers, incense
burners, fruit dishes, candlesticks and suchlike that adorned architectural shapes such as domes, intricate mazes provide an extension ol the ornamentation that
From time to time the conviction that idols were unaccept­
the festive tables ol wealthy Muslims. We can only guess of pillars, endless rows of arches, richly alternating decorates the walls.
able and dangerous became a major topic of importance in
at how these feasts would actually have l»een. However, it with niches and carving. The walls ol the rnosque
the Muslim world. It is an issue which reappears regularly,
were covered in compact or isolated carved pat­ In such a setting. Iseauty and utility were combined,
would appear that figures ol creatures such as eagles, ducks,
and will certainly do so again.
terns consisting of rosettes, shells and polygonal and produced a vast number ol monuments to Islamic
and game birds, lions, cows being devoured by leopards,
compositions with arabesques. Carved inscriptions art. Almost all the objects that are discussed here,
In the Petersburg manuscript of the Makamat every figure horses, roosters, deer and stone griffins were intended to
encircled (he base ol the dome both the comparatively everyday and the world-
in the miniature illustrations has Its head cleanly cut oil. add a lively touch to the banquet scene. Rich and intricate
famous pieces that represent the most intricate master­
This was how a religious Muslim ensured that these figures motifs were carved out or inlaid. And often two-dimensional
In religious buildings the walls were covered with work, were intended to be seen from close quarters
weren't worshipped as idols. But before censoring him loo images flowed together with arabesques across the surfaces
mosaics, glittering mysteriously in the light ol many or indeed tube handled. Without this, it is impossible
strongly, we should be thankful that he only cut out the of huge platters, jugs and buckets.
lamps. They would also be decorated - at first to gain a true understanding ol the beauty of Islamic
heads - in this way the rest of the manuscript has been
partially and later completely - with tiles and Hower art. The objects ask to be felt, held up to the light
preserved. Alter all. he might simply have burnt the whole Whoever wishes to may refute the hypothesis concerning
motifs in marble. These acted as a reinforcement ol and gently revolved while their admirer attempts to
thing. the prohibition by Islam against making images, if they
the chiel ornamentation which was inscriptions in decipher the inscription, or to make out the details ol
produce examples similar to the ones just mentioned.
praise ol Allah and elaborate and extravagant curls the decoration, the shapes, the intricate arabesques
Meanwhile, in the world ol the middle class, illustrations However, the exceptions confirm the general rule. Islamic
and whorls ol plants, creating with their shapes and and elaborate flourishes of letters, an animal peering
ol people were accepted provided they formed part of the art is iconoclastic. It doesn't permit any image in the realm
patterns a remarkable Impression of depth. The two through the loliage. This is the secret of the delight
ornamentation and conformed to the canon and the rhythm of religious an, so that in many different ways the dogma
main items in the interior ol the mosque are articles that is created by viewing Islamic art. And indeed
- that is. didn't draw too much attention to themselves ol the indivisibility ol God is maintained in the face of the
ol applied art: lamps hung in abundance in the arches not only delight, lor the applied art ol Islam contains
individually. Initially the ornamentation also contained temptations introduced by idols. Where images ol people
and the niches, while carpets glowing with coloured references and reminders of a life that transcends the
animals, subsequently the figures ol horsemen appeared or animals are found they play a subsidiary role either as
patterns covered the floor. The carpets ate in the everyday.
(huntsmen), imperial courtiers, musicians and singers. an aspect ol a strongly developed ornamentation or serving
first place used for prayer: they show the picture ol
Scenes from the life ol aristocrats merged fluidly into a the limited areas of scholarship and everyday life.
a niche with a lamp hanging in it. Sometimes the Gold and silver
general ornamental Illustration of the world, as created by
mosque contains huge candlesticks or torchstands Let us begin with gold and silver. It is generally held
God. A major aspect of the ornamentation were furthermore The profound aesthetic feeling Ihat is connected with the
that the Qur’an condemns the use of gold in daily life
monotheistic conviction, is one of the chief spiritual corner­ which are carried In processions.
the illustrations with magical significance, drawings of the
as being too luxurious. Indeed, the Qur'an criticizes
zodiac and heavenly constellations made on ceramic objects, stones of the art of Islam.
The interior ol a mausoleum resembles that ol a vast riches and luxurious living but nowhere does it
bronze ewers and boxes and silver beakers. Like the benedic*
mosque, except that it also contains tombs with their explicitly condemn gold. In fact, as is the case with
lory inscriptions they were intended to grant the ruler
inscriptions and decorations. Palaces and ordinary many things that are unacceptable in this earthly life

houses., like mosques and mausoleums, are sparsely the righteous believer once in Paradise will bathe In

furnished and have richly decorated walls. the heavenly variations ol those very things which on
earth were forbidden. And in this list we lind, as well

There are two other items used to decorate the Islamic as 'wine that makes not drunken*, precious metals

home, which may or may not have a religious and jewels.

 o» imam • Art A” f«rrJ/r U/r

Objects nude from precious metal and jewels have appeared decorating silver services, on the platters
only survived in small quantities (or they were olten used lor serving Iruit. on exquisite gifts and as general
melted down. Early Islamic gold tmeal) services arc decoration. Often silver coins would be collected

thought to be a development Irom Sasanid objects inside a silver beaker. Small beakers bearing the
and became gradually more intricate and elaborate. image of the ruler would be made to commemorate
Gold goblets and beakers would be presented as gilts a specific occasion. Silver was an easy material to

and guarded in treasure houses. In most cases, early work with and an excellent surface on which to

examples of such objecis no longer survive, but in engrave inscriptions. These are to be found, together
museums the world over we can lind a large number with plant and animal decorations, on trays and
of objects Irom more recent periods. Irom the Safavids various types of carafe and vessels for scented water.

(ruled in Iran I 501 - 173O>, Mughals and Ottomans.

Many types ol domestic goods were made Irom gold Gold and silver coins should also be listed among
to enhance lestive celebrations. Gold jewellery proves the works of art. On classical examples only the in­

eternally popular. Ol particular interest Is the gold scription appears, containing a couple of ayaj from

jewellery for women with filigree and kill decoration, the Qur'an, written in the strong harmonious Kulic

dating Irom the time ol the Fatimids. In the days ol script. These would be clear and easily decipherable

the Salavids and Mughals it became fashionable to admonitions, formulas emphasizing the importance of

enhance the jewellery and domestic ware with monotheism and the mission ol the Prophet. The date

precious stones such as rubles and emeralds. The and place ol production would also be given, and

glittering ol precious stones is a well-known image sometimes the ruler's name. Horizontal inscriptions

favoured by the mystics, one element ol that holy would be written inside a small circle, usually at the

ecstasy experienced as a person approaches the centre but sometimes on rhe edge. Clearly, as well as

presence of God. Even when precious stones were being symbols ol the ruler's power (the official

used to decorate daggers and swords, their glittering function ol such coins) these objects also served as

retained an added, unconscious message relating to talismans because ol their pious inscriptions. And it

the riches ol Paradise, where their luminous colour is presumably partly for this reason that before long

Is a reflection of the divine Light. coins became pan ol women s jewellery throughout
the Islamic world, although undoubtedly just as

Silver, with its soft sheen, was a favourite material important was the recognition of their aesthetic

among jewellers in both the Near and Middle East quality.

Artists front Sasanid Iran and Byzantium, the most
notable predecessors and inspirers of Islamic art. Inlaid bronze
created wondrous objects. Silver beakers, lor which The glorious glittering of gold and silver was without

the Sasanid empire was famous, were copied in the doubt not only a reflection ol their preciousness but

Muslim world. These beakers arc the earliest objects also of the world to come, ol the overwhelming

to be decorated with the iconography ol the imperial beauty of the Divine Presence. As such It found an

feast, which developed Into one ol the main set echo in the objects of art made out of other materials

themes in Islamic art. The beakers themselves wen- Bronze items formed the most important artistic

used at banquets. The famous Arab poet Abu Nuwas production of the Islamic world. Dillerent bronze­

(c.756-c.8IO» has left poems describing how the alloys. sometimes brass anti sometimes copper, were

frothy wine bubbles in the beaker and Irom that froth used to make beakers, large trays, ewers to hold

arise warrior figures who are etched upon the base. water for washing the hands, and incense burners,

Both the wine and the human figures were forbidden, candlesticks, large containers for washing hands and

but were certainly to be found In the world of the feel, and inkpots lor scribes. The surlace of domestic

nobility. An often flourished on the borderland of ware was elaborately decorated with inlay Fine

freethinking. More and more plants and wild animals copper, silver or gold wires were inserted into narrow

cai.no iso
 Aft If Ilf
Ijnhh btjutv. kitttuly

Another famous type of ceramics, first develo|M*d in

were produced. Although made from relatively
simple materials the objects became no less costly Iran, is the lustreware in which a metallic sheen is

than those of silver or gold. Even today, these ceramic produced on the surface after firing and combining

works, with their various types ol glaze and strewn with sulphuric acid, copper and silver. There are
various ways of decorating this lustrewarc with
with illustrations in many colours, still amaze and
delight the eye. The Islamic world has given us a wide- ornamentation and Illustration, and often it carries
lines from Persian poetry in cursive script. Sometimes
range of ceramic masterpieces of many kinds. In the
it was produced in the form of large vases, bearing
9th century a beautiful type of pottery with a white
relief illustrations showing animals and mounted
glaze was produced in Samarkand (Transoxiana.
polo players, as on the large vase from The Hermitage
now Uzbekistan! and Nishapur (Khorasan, now Iran);
(otr.no. 149). A masterpiece in this genre is the
It clearly imitated - and not without success - the
Fortuny Vase (swrar.w. 150. p. 13) made in Granada
exquisite porcelain of China. Across the white back­
and wondrously decorated with mysterious plant
ground flow circles of sober black or dark brown
ornamentation and Arabic inscriptions In various
Kufic script [cat.no. 23). The message of these texts
scripts ranging Irom a sturdy Kufic to an elegant
Is often Chinese in nature - wise sayings about the
Spanish Arabic. Lustreware was extremely popular
value of such virtues as patience, studiousness,
In Islamic Spain and remained so alter the expulsion
gentleness and so on. In the centre will be an elegant
of Muslims Irom the country, when production was
vignette containing a blessing lor the owner of the
further developed under Spanish and Italian masters Cat.no. 21
object.
A lair number of famous pieces of this type ol ware
came Irom north Africa. Ol particular note here are together with inscriptions. In Spain and north Africa

the Egyptian dishes Irom the 11 th century, the period ceramic tiles tverc also produced, darker, many

of the Fatimid dynasty With their sobriety and coloured and more geometric in ornamentation.
grooves. Calligraphic and plant designs were used in
precise illustrations, charming pictures of musicians,
ornamentation which pictured animals, astrological
dancers and animals both real and fabled, they are a Ceramic decoration in its various forms gradually
signs, tableaux and banquets, or showed hunting
began to predominate In Muslim artistic work in the
wonder and delight.
and battle scenes. The amazing delicacy of the
13th and 14th century. It is indisputably a magnificent
artisanry turned many ol these pieces into the most
The technique of enamelling (minai) gave rise to an expression of some ol the fundamental aims of Islamic
precious works of an. The most exquisite of them
unexpectedly delicate type ol ceramic ware. Their an: to bring balm to the sight, to presage coolness and
were just as costly as silver objects. In the bronze
lyrical light blue colour fits perfectly the content of rest in the desert.
works from Iran and Central Asia we detect the rich
the illustrations: langourous maidens with moon­
traditions of China and India, while the bronze inlays
shaped laces, elaborately refined young men. verses Rode crystal
from Syria and Egypt achieved a remarkable degree
Nowadays, when there is so much manmade crystal
from poetry and suchlike.
ol refinement. Bronze domestic ware is among the
on the market, it is sometimes difficult for us to
most well-known product ol Islamic art, striking imagine the enormous value that objects of rock
The Ottoman period gave the world the glorious
examples being the so-called Bobrinsky Bucket in
Iznik pottery. These dishes and vases have the most crystal possess. To begin with, it was necessary to
The Hermitage (ou.w. //4), the Baplist£re of Saint
exquisite decoration, painted wreaths ol flowers and find large crystals of this rare stone. This done,
Louis Irom The Louvre, and the Vescovali Vase from craftsmen carved out jugs or other objects with thin
plants in blues and reds olten appearing almost to
The British Museum. Such objects contain a wealth of sides, and decorated them with motifs. Crystal is
have a three-dimensional quality
miniature illustrations that teach us details about the extremely hard and therefore extremely breakable.
daily life of the medieval Muslim. They also Illustrate Thus services made from rock crystal are rare and
Ceramic tiles are an exceptional and most important
generally-held concepts about life on earth and in very valuable. The crusaders Irom Europe knew
category. Used to adorn both the inside and outside
heaven whereby everything is subservient to the will this very well. They perceived such objects as the
of buildings, as in Samarkand. Isfahan (Iran) and
of Allah. most costly of prizes and brought them home.
Karbala* (Iraq), they bear a wealth of motifs and
<»ften offering them to a church. Indeed, the finest
Inscriptions. They brought a distinctive character to
Ceramics examples of carved rock crystal from Islamic countries
the architectonic decoration lound in the eastern part
Th< .living sheen is also an aspect ol Islamic ceramics. arc often to be found in west European church
of the Islamic world. Typical lor these tiles is a light
Just as in the manufacture of metal objects, so here
blue colour and a predominating vegetal decoration. treasuries.
loo atueles ol high quality and extreme complexity Oi.no. 114

41
40
lanhlr K«iiO. bu"*h •

The light Is broken in a wondrous manner by rock- al-nur' (a niche where there is light) became wide­

crystal objects and they seem to hold it nestling in spread and found its way into the titles ol mystic
their centre. They bring a mysterious glow to natural texts. In the mosque there is an actual niche
light as il it shines Irom another world. A rock-crystal containing a light, called a miltrab which points
bmp suggests an intangible lire and when liquids arc the direction ol the Black Stone of the Kaaba in

poured into a rock-crystal jug they change into some­ Mecca. Towards this stone all Muslims turn in prayer,
thing Inscrutable and unfathomable. Some ol the wherever they may be in the world. The symbolic
crusaders perceived this as a reference to the Cup ol light in the niche is provided by a lamp that is
the Holy Grail. The exalted character ol the material generally hung in the inihrab. This concrete light
gave rise to a legend that recounted how Muhammad forms a concrete illustration of the verse (aya) cited
lay buried in a crystal tomb that hung in the air. above. Another reference to light is found in the
These stories transmit some ol the excitement the prayer nig which generally shows a picture of a niche
Europeans must have fell on seeing the creations ol with a hanging lamp. There is often a vase ol Howers
Islamic artists. And they reveal to a large extent that beneath this, as an allusion to the gardens of Paradise.
the Europeans and the Muslims had the same ideas The whole picture has a double message: the mihrab
about the beauty and value ol rock-crystal objects. in the mosque guides the believer into the ritual ol
prayer, and at the same time leads through the door­
In the Islamic world view, light is a major element. way ol this world, into Paradise beyond.
This is even more so lor the sufis. the Islamic mystics
who held that people can approach doser to God and Glass
can attain a state of ecstasy II they lead a pious life The play with light is a characteristic of the glass
and follow certain rules and rituals. They often objects for which the Islamic world is justly famous.

describe a strong sense ol the presence ol God as a These include remarkable pieces ol cut glass made
sensation ol light, piercing through the darkness of in imitation of rock-crystal, and blown glass with
the everyday world. In this connection they point to graceful arabesques. sometimes adorned with inscrip­
the famous verse from the Qur'an, the .rya of light tions. Even more widespread were the various types
t’avai al-nur') which speaks expressly ol this light ol painted glass whose surface would be covered with
(S. 24:55); colourful figures and motifs in enamel ami made into
Gad is the Light ofthe heavens and the earth beakers and goblets ol varying size. But the most
The parable of His Light is as if there were a niche typical Islamic glass objects are the large oil lamps.
And within it a lamp: These are the lamps pictured on prayer rugs, the kind
The lamp enclosed in glass that hang in every’ niche of the mosque. The lamps,
The glass as it were a brilliant star that have a definite religious-mystical significance, arc
Lit from a blessed Tree considered to be a sign of wealth and piety. Moreover
An Olive, neither of the East they would lie presented not only to mosques, but
Nor ofthe West. also as gifts to private persons.
Whose oil is well-nigh luminous
though fire scarce touched it: In Syria and Egypt under the Mamluks remarkable
Light upon Light! lamps were produced. They were large pieces ol
God doth guide whom He will glass with a wide uncovered neck. Across the base,
To His Light: usually in blue enamel, colourful inscriptions would
God doth set forth parables for men announce the name of the donor or the recipient,
And God doth know all things. set amid a luxuriant branching plant motif. It is
not uncommon, especially on lamps, to find heraldic
Light as a symbol for Allah was one of the central devices from the 11 th to the I 5th century referring
elements of Islamic art. The expression mishkat to the rank at court ol the person in question - the

Cat no 246 ►
 BUM • *n I ii''
H't • «M t» |UU

upon which they play. pray. eat. sleep, and converse comparison. Textiles triumphant with huge plant

with triends. Different patterns and techniques in and llower compositions, vast heraldic' shapes of

carpels provide convincing illustration ol the ever- lions, eagles and elephants, and richly filled medal­

changing marriage ol unity and diversity in the lions were the undeniable symbols ol wealth and

.Muslim world. power. They were more valuable titan gold or silver
and formed an admirable gift for princely rulers.

The figurative world ol the carpet is vast. The main In the late Middle Ages the designs became more
distinguishing features of all carpets - be they Persian. complex and the embroidered textiles would often

Turkish. Caucasian. Maghribi or other - are the be illustrated with thematic piciures. lor example

different combinations ol plant and geometric motils. scenes Irom the 12th-century Persian poem Layla and

For example, the plant motils may become more Majnun by Nizami Ghandjavi. or the figures ol people

geometric, and the geometric motifs may sprout curls dancing and making merry. These textiles would

and twirls. Often the geometric pattern derives from a often Ise made Imo garments with a severe design and

symbolism from prc-lslamlc times or Irom specific elegant noble inscriptions of benedictions, and they

districts in the Islamic world. Plant ornamentation recalled the royal workshops where the textile had

may have varying degrees ol abstraction. It Is some­ been produced. The weavings from 11 th- and 12th-

times extremely complex, forming part ol an overall century Syria and Egypt are possibly the best-known

rhythm, but then again, especially in Persian carjiets. They are called lira; (Irom the Persain word lor

there are recognizable plants, mingling in a luxuriant embroidery| and were made in special state work­

flowerbed and creating the appearance ol a garden shops. The name ol the workshop and often the date

(ueoir n.’. 192. p. 47). In some cases there is appro­ would be mentioned on the rfm? in the same way as

priate stallage in these gardens - peacefully grazing on coins. And like coins, the lira; served to demon­

animals, or wild creatures prowling alter the unsus­ strate the power of a ruler. It was a special privilege

pecting ones. The next step Is the appearance ol the of power to grant the right and means to produce

huntsmen, in their tum attacking both the wild lion works ol an at the cost ol the state. These works were
then presented to warriors who had distinguished
and the peaceful antelope. The so-called garden
carpets contain schematic pictures of not only frees themselves in battle, to scholars and to poets.

but also rivers and ponds (sometimes with fistw.

All these things might be presented in a highly Patronage and the marketplace

stylized manner, so much so as to become almost Court patronage, in some cases state commissions,
was an Important aspect ol the social structure sup­
unrecognizable.
porting artistic production. Attached to the largest

In contrast, the prayer rugs mentioned above show courts there would be entire districts where artisans

an almost realistic picture ol part ol the mosque, lived, working lor the rulers. The patrons ol art were

while at the same lime providing a symbolic represen­ rulers and functionaries ol all levels. The system was

tation ol certain 'doorways' into the presence ol God maintained partly through the custom ol donating

The carpets contain almost all the artistic principles of gilts. Those in a higher position rewarded those below
Cat.no. 171 (rjjndcat.no. 172 (IJ
Islamic an and almost its entire iconographk reper­ them who in then returned the gesture by honouring

toire. To a large extent they may be seen as the classic their superiors with other gilts
sultan’s shield-bearer, cupbearer, and suchlike. natural phenomena as gardens, flowers, fountains
example of how to answer the question: What is
and song-birds.
Many gilts and beautiful objects were presented to
An unusual type ol domestic ware was the container Islamic Art?’
the mosques and institutions dedicated to God.
lor scented water or lor incense. Some of these, Carpets and textiles
Islamic society supported the custom ol awqaf (plural
Islamic weavings have given the world a large
decorated with line fretwork and enamelling, would No product ol Islamic an is so characteristic or so
number of most beautiful works ol art. ol two types. ol uuq/)- donating possessions lor pious ends. In
be used as receptacles and others - especially those common as carpets. They are to be found in homes
many cases a waql would be a beautifully decorated
The ancient Sasanid tradition was continued in
with a long narrow neck - were used lor dispersing ol every- social level and In buildings of every ty|»e,
luxurious weavings, mainly Irom silk. The flam­ manuscript, a srlver-inlaid bronze candlestick or
rose-water (orf.na 168). Pleasing fragrances played whether they be mosques or palaces. They cover
boyance and extravagance ol the designs on these torchstand, or a leciem for the Qur'an made Irom
an Important part in the daily life of Muslims and the floor, they give structure to the entire life ol the
fabrics make the intricate carpet motifs pale by wood and ivory. The ornamental Inscriptions
became part ol their artistic world together with such Muslim, from birth to grave. The carpet Is the surface

45
44
decorating such objects preserve (or pmterity the The nature of the images it contains, the aristocratic
names of both the donors and the recipients. And lunquct with the riders playing at polo, certainly

not infrequently the artist would confidently an­ suggests a noble client. The object is, however,

nounce his own name, placing it in a prominent produced as a gilt for an Important tradesman. The
position. The Islamic artisans occupied a secure convergence ol tastes Irom differing social classes,
position in the hierarchy of urban life where the focal the mutual expansion of taste, had the result that
point was formed by the marketplace, serving both many of the ait objects were suitable lor a cultural
the aristocracy and all layers ol municipal society. middle class, somewhere between the nobility and
the uneducated masses. This ‘democratic’ aspect of
In addition, objects were produced for rhe free medieval Islamic society should be remembered when
market. Some ol these were articles on which the we arc considering Islamic art. Even witli all their
benedictory inscription contained no name In some sumpt uousness and costliness the examples that we
cases the name was added later to a work that was know of present us with a wide cross-section ol
finished. Thanks to the huge demand for applied culture. The artistic language that they spoke was
art objects there were Ixidies (like guilds) of artists, understood by many.
headed by the calligraphers who were given the
greatest respect and honour. In the production of an All domestic ware was subjected to a common artistic
object tasks became separated - a different craftsman style. This appeared in the most everyday objects
would, for example, make the inlay on a work, or since in principle even the most luxurious of these
decorate a piece that had been produced by another was intended lor everyday use.
group of craftsmen.
By handling and using these objects people encoun­
Medieval and post-medieval Islamic society was tered and came to recognize their beauty so that
highly urbanized. The city was the place where the gradually, the message that rhe artist had implicitly
aristocracy was always present and was a compre­ instilled in his work, was transmitted to those who
hensive centre lor trades and crafts. Consequently acquired it. At the highest level, this meant that the
there was considerable social mobility, an absence of quality ol the work was increasingly appreciated by
sharply delimited lines between social classes and a tlic viewer or user the more they handled the object
comparatively large middle class. With respect to art or looked at it. The next stage was the layer of
this could be wen in the fart that a great deal ol art inscriptions which were read - often nor wlihout
production was directed towards an extremely wide difficulty. There followed more profound experiences,
range ol the public with their associated broad spec­ when the patterns and their rhythm aroused certain
trum ol tastes. feelings flowing Irom the Islamic view ol life. Like all
medieval art. that ol Islam was saturated witli deeper
This didn't mean there was no elitist an. It certainly meanings. However, these were seldom expressed In
existed, open-minded and extremely luxurious, to concrete images, as in Christianity. They could be
be lound only at the most sophisticated courts. This understiMid because they made reference to certain
explains the existence of illuminated manuscripts, fixed ideas and feelings about the unfathomable God
frivolous frescoes and opulent garments. However, whom people could approach, and to the delight in
much of this sumptuous work has a more accessible the divine creation, and to the blessed realms of
equivalent. The general stylistic principles were the Paradise that would be reached at the end of the
same whether work was produced for palace or world alter the Day of Judgment.
market place. The basic elements ol the artistic
.mguage did not change. Indeed - the upper middle
• lass, consisting of wealthy and socially active
merchants - would often fill their homes with the
same sumptuous objects as the nobility. A good
example of this is the Bobrinsky Bucket fcar.m’. 114).
Cditbiy

5 The Qur'an as source

ofall inspiration
The Qur'an is the source of inspiration for everything features which influenced the development ol Islamic
a Muslim docs and feels. This holy book comprises art The text of the Qur'an is richly and almost ex­
ideas and principles out of winch Islamic society has cessively decorated’. It Is highly ornamental with its
developed its laws, rules of conduct and system ol many repetitions and various associations, cither

values. Immediate or secondary. On the whole the text lacks

a narrative flow and is moreover olten interrupted by

The Qur'an contains no direct statements concerning empiiatic statements or emotional passages. All this is

either ait or the artistic process. However, the text in keeping with Islamic ornamentation. However, the

itself is of great artistic value and quite clearly contains Qur'an is even more passionate and emotional - It Is
the sources and examples of which much Islamic art. art ecstatic text, streaming in an uninterrupted flow

not only the literary, makes abundant use. Irom the mouth ol the Prophet. Here it should be
noted that this ecstatic quality is apparent not only in

To Muslims, the Qur'an is Allah's greatest miracle, the early surat (where there is an emotional tension
given to His Prophet and by him to all humankind. connected with the prophecies concerning Judgment

The language ol the Qur'an is that in which Allah Day and the terrible doom that will ensue) but also In

spoke to Muhammad. What God revealed to the later chapters (which present the laws and rules

Muhammad by means of his messenger the angel governing daily life).

Gabriel (Arabic Jibril or Jibra’il) was |iasscd on by

the Prophet to his followers in the lonn ol sermons. The verses wwmi of the Qur'an are clear in their

Initially these were stored in the memory and substance and always well rounded off. They may

delivered orally, to Iv later committed to paper be moved Irom one part ol the text to another with­

In this way the material, earthly version was created out losing their meaning. Throughout the text ol

ol the Holy Word which is a divine phenomenon the Qur'an there are comparable or even identical

existing in heaven. formulae which combine to give the effect of a

specific semantic and artistic background. We do

It goes without saying that the language ol God. as well to rcmemlser in this context that the repetition

we should call the text ol the Qur'an, is by definition of the name ol AUah and of blessings is held In Islam

beautiful. In Islamic religious literature there is a to be a devout and pious act

distinct category of essays that concentrates on

analyzing the stylistic and linguistic beauty ol the Repetition is a characteristic feature of qur'anic prose.

Qur'an and posits that it is inimitable. For the book is It serves both to honour God (in the nature ol a

Indeed unique, containing as it does sermons that prayer), to emphasize a certain message, and to

were created in a state ol ecstatic inspiration, taking embellish the text. The repetitions have their own

the form of rhythmically shaped prose. rhythm which may change In different places in the

holy scriptures.
As artistic product the Qur'an is unique in Arabic
literature, in which it has no equivalent, either Irom The embellishing words do not always hold an Im­

before or alter the call of Muhammad. The text can mediate meaning. In many ecstatic, finely-worded

neither be repeated nor imitated. Indeed, to imitate it sentences we find expressions that are almost im­

would be considered a grave sin. possible to understand, and newly-coined words

The Qur'an olten gives a special explanation ol these

However, the Qur'an has special stylistic and artistic This clement ol incomprehensibility increases the

4# 49
r.'ihb fonvwfr tSLAM

called The Prostration ) and The One Wrapped Up' Monotheism The entire qur'anic preaching consists of short formu­
incantatory effect of many sentences. A great many
(74th). In most cases such a word is characteristic of The content ol the Qur'an is on the one hand diverse, lae, allusions and comments Indeed, it is through its
ol these were used later as talismans, as a protection
that sura. On closer examination it appears to be in also as regards style, while on the other hand it is commentary that the Qur'an achieves its unity. The
against misfortunes and the Evil Eye. Another factor
no way coincidental, for it defines the subject that extremely compact in its central ideas. The most commentaries are an aid to believers, helping them
that makes the text mysterious are the incompre­
connects the entire sura. For example, the second important of these is the concept ol monotheism: to understand lhe often gnomic utterances. Indeed,
hensible mixture of letters at the beginning of many
and longest sura is defined with the Arabic word for there is only one God. Neither the Jews nor the the believer gains an added and enriched under­
suras, such as aliflam ra ' (1 Sth sura). There are
cow'. Il is in this sura that the story is told about how Christians appeal to honour this basic concept. The standing front interplay of formulae and commentary.
many theories regarding their original intent. At
the Children of Israel tried to avoid the obligation laid Muslims, the true believers, should not allow any­ This is why lhe confrontation with a short qur'anic
all events, lor the majority ol Muslims they were
upon them by Moses to make an offering to God. thing to distract them from fulfilling the obligation text immediately gives rise to all kinds of possible
obscure, but God's Word and as such holy. Thus
They embroiled the prophet in a lengthy discussion to demonstrate their love for God and to fill their meanings and associations. in a way similar to how a
they were Inscribed on objects such as weapons.
concerning the question as to exactly what son of thoughts with Him. few letters on a computer screen may call up an
cow should be sacrificed (2:67(631-71(66)). This is the entire document and related references. In this way
The structure
In general, a qur'anic text is specific and strongly central story, with a good many additions and side­ The story ol humankind, created by God, is set out In lhe text becomes steeped in meaning, far more so

constructed. The basic unit is called an aya ( meaning tracks all indicating and illustrating how the Jews the Qur'an as il it were a river, an arabesque, cycles than would at first glance appear.

wonder') and is a more or fess separate verse, but rejected the law ol Moses just as they did that of ol civilization. Each successive generation appeared

written with the appearance ol prose. In lact, they arc Muhammad, without really knowing much about it. according to the will of God. Generation alter gener­ Layers of meaning
ation, human pride overcame piety and the prophets Another characteristic that increases the meaning ol
not actual verses, since the text ol the Qur'an isn't a
The suras appear in the Qur'an according to the were not believed. As punishment people were all lhe text is its many-layered nature. Behind a sentence,
poem. And although it is chanted aloud in a sing-song
number of their ayas. starting with the longest, but destroyed. The Qur'an recounts these historical nar­ a statement, a narrative or a description there arc
fashion, it is certainly not a song. In fan. it may be
with the single exception of the first sura. Thus the ratives in a highly summary manner, as a reference to often several layers of meaning. Often, the texts in
said ol the entire Qur'an that It reminds you ol many
earliest suras appear at the end, the words with which well-known events. Such stories cannot be visually Lite Qur'an appear very concrete, not to say earthy.
things, but is never quite the same as anything else.
Muhammad began his preaching - emotional sermons illustrated. The course of world history is determined There Is frequent use of jargon and demotic language,

in which the Prophet warned his listeners ol the by two major acts of Allah. The first is His creation ol of the sort used by the tradesmen ol Mecca, ex­
The text of the Qur'an, sent from heaven to earth,
approaching end of the world. The emotional tension the world and people; the second will take place on pressions like 'a poor deal', 'a business bonus' or
was first committed to memory by certain people and
in the text of the Qur'an gradually increases as it the Day of Judgment: the dead will rise again, judge­ 'a rip-off’. But on another level these refer to the
then written down. It was a disorganized text, with­
continues while the chronology appears to be going ment will be pronounced, and history will come to an value of the true faith and the late of the unbeliever.
out a definite beginning, middle or end. People set it
down in a harmonious and highly formalized struc­ backwards. This is arbitrary, but acceptable in holy end.
writings, which both may and must contain a great There arc many descriptions famous for their vivid­
ture. Single ayas were placed together In a separate
many contradictions that allow the reader to com­ Reward and punishment ness. Images ol hell and paradise astonish with their
sura. Critics may however place question marks
prehend the central idea in a more complex manner. The next basic idea is that all people arc divided into concrete detail. We often have the feeling we are
beside the manner in which this was done. All the
two categories: those who go to Hell and those who being recounted something that was actually seen,
suras, whether they be long or short, contain a selec­
Another apparent contradiction characteristic both enter Paradise. The description in the Qur’an of as in the story' ol Joseph (Yusuf) that tells how he was
tion of fundamental sermon devices. For example,
lor the Qur’an and Islamic culture in general is the punishment and resvard is perfectly clear. This is rescued from the well (S. 12:19), or in the description
there is always a narrative clement, exhortations,
existence ol several versions ol the text all ol which discussed more fully in Chapter 7. of the flood that was sent when Saba' turned against
exorcisms, explanations and hymns'. In each sura
are recognized as being equally valid. The first written God, and the dam burst (S. 34:15(141-17(16)).
almost all the chief ideas in the holy writing appear
and are always, albeit often in a most unexpected Qur'ans consisted ol words inscribed only with Rules ofantduct
consonants. When Arabic began to add the pointing A considerable quantity ol the contents ol the Qur'an The text becomes all the more convincing when it
way, linked with each other. Thus one sura resembles
Is dedicated to the third basic idea rules of conduct appears to be an eye-witness account, and the story
Indicating vowels, it became apparent that there were
a Qur’an in miniature.
many possible readings and interpretations of the Belief in Allah and the mission of His Prophet, pil­ becomes more immediate and dramatic. But always,

words. Although the variations were often small, they grimage. prayer, lasting and mercifulness lead to the the deeper significance ol the narrative returns, es­
Every sura begins (there is one exception, sura 9)
could alter the meaning considerably. Alter lengthy bliss ol Paradise. The acts that are forbidden include pecially since concrete images don't serve an artistic
with a formula reminding people of Allah's sovereign
adultery, usury, gambling, drunkenness, and eating purpose but rather are used to reveal a more profound
power and goodness. 'In the name of God, Most discussion, seven 'canonical' versions of the Qur'an
were selected, each reading treated as equally correct. pork. Laws are set out dealing with property inherit­ content.
Gracious. Most Merciful.' In Arabic this is known as
It is astonishing that this acceptance ol different ance, honest trading, distribution ol wealth and
the basmata. Every sura has its own name, most of
versions is connected with the general principle of general social intercourse. Such subjects proved even There are several places in the Qur'an where God is
them appearing somewhat strange and esoteric, such
the unity ol Islam in all its forms. Here we find, in less inspiring to the illustrators than did the historical described as a person, where it is said that people are
as The Cow’ (2nd sura). The Spider' (29th). 'The
narratives, although the linguistic style ol these mun­ made in His image, or where mention is made for
Elephant' (lOSlh). The Smoke’ (44th). 'The Sand lact, the same happy conjunction ol contradictions as
dane themes remains both ecstatic and ornamental. example ol His hands or the throne upon which Hr
Dunes (46th), or The Adoration' (52nd. officially we see in the heterogeneous Islamic art.
sits. These anthropomorphic metaphors in no way
diminish the greatness of Allah hut indeed act as a
above, below or linked to each other. The same thing
hap|M*ns in the ornamental art of Islam; it has a 6 The language of Islamic art
ladder that leads up to Him. They are Intended as the mission to present the fundamental feelings and

first rung in the ascent towards the knowledge of the apprehensions that are taught by the Qur'an.

complex and lolly being of God. More is to follow, Naturally, the Qur'an has many other individual

and step by step knowledge of God increases. Each characteristics which people need to be well aware

step, or layer ol knowledge, is expressed In a brief and of before they begin to study it. This chapter has only An has a language of its own. Il arises out ol the people make a model of the world which they imbue
simple description. An understanding of the text may dealt with those features that found an echo, some­ feelings and experiences that affect people the whole with meaning, and then transfer this meaning to
remain limited to one layer or rung, but equally may times an expression, in Islamic an - that is. strict svorld over. At the same time, however, many aspccis others. For outsiders it is appreciably easier to decode

extend to cover a larger area, more steps of the monotheism as the ideological cornerstone lor artistic ol an can only be appreciated when they have become an artistic language because they do this using con­

ladder. creation; a mingling and melting together of seeming familiar, or have been studied. We can divide an Into cepts which are not immediately recognizable to
nonchalance with ebullient expressiveness; countless many different components. The way in which art someone immersed in the language (who has spoken
Concrete descriptions of the deeds ol the just and of variations on one 'canon'; continuous mingling of gives shapes to things makes it into an active force it. as it were, from birth). However, if the 'native

those who worship many gods, naturalistic descrip­ separate elements to form one whole; and finally, its providing people with types of aesthetic information speakers' study the language more carelully they

tions ol Paradise and Hell, scenes from the Day of many-layered nature creating an arena in which that they gradually imbibe. The efforts of the scholarly will become aware of much that they had taken for

.Judgment - all these open the door onto the profound many elements appear to contradict each other or who devote themselves to the study of art are in most granted, and in the description of this possibly dis­

religious-philosophical nature ol history and help to indeed actually do, whereby the texts acquire a cases attempts to understand what a particular form cover aspects tliat arc both unexpected and Inspiring.
understand better the underlying reason lor. as well magical tone. ol art is talking about. Scholars search for the key to
as the nature and the essence of. Hell and Paradise. translate this transference ol the language ol one Basic materiah
One ol the Qur'an's main 'aesthetic' lessons is the culture to that of another. The language of art is to a great extent determined by

The short passages merge into one whole but still holy meaning of the Word, which is a direct inter­ the basic materials from which the artistic production

remain independent. Indeed, this is one of the most mediary between God and people. Other art forms We can speak in a comparatively serious and scientific is made. In a way, these resemble the individual

striking artistic features ol the Qur'an. The separate make use of the Word, but are of a secondary nature. way about the language of an. It is also possible to sounds (phonemes) of a spoken language. Islamic

ayas and the complete suras each have their own This explains the absence ol figurative art. In this use the expression 'language ol art' in a metaphorical art consists of objects made from gold, silver, bronze

demarcations, they are sections in their own right. context written script and calligraphy obtain a and somewhat hazy manner, as is generally the case and similar metal alloys, ivory, pottery (glazed and

In a similar way, it is completely permissible to chant distinctive religious and artistic value as being the in discussions about art. But we can also apply the unglazed), rock-crystal and glass, enamel, parchment,

passages from the Qur an - or read aloud in a singing most suitable means lor the direct transference of whole complex apparatus of modem linguistic and paper, leather, stone, brick, ceramic tiles and wood.

manner - in various different evays. the Word. This explains the desubstantiated nature semiotic definitions, approaching art as we would a Another aspect of these basic materials are the

of Islamic art and architecture, (or It consists ol an written text. Between these extremes lies another methods of decoration, including carving - with

All the separate elements, however, with all their unending stream of ornamentation that embodies way - that uses the 'language of culture’, a combina­ high or low relief, writing or drawing with paint, or

individuality. How together into one endless stream. the divine and formless Word. tion of formal analysis with contextual understanding mounted fittings. Finally, in this category we should

The different elements may be placed randomly of those elements which play an active role in works mention the colours used: gold for the sun, blue for

of art. Using this method, studies have for some lime the sky, green for the garden and Paradise, red for

now been made of, in particular, medieval cultures precious stones.

including that of Islam. On analogy with the analysis
of language, lor the purposes ol clarity these studies The 'lexical' level

define several groups, or categories. The division into Developing from these basic materials - keeping

categories of types ol art expression' is made on the the linguistic image - come words'. These fall into

basis of the presence of certain elements, at various another category, a dictionary' or lexicon which

levels ol creation and perception. In this chapter the includes different types ol elements acting as motifs

particular characteristics ol Islamic art will be listed, or Illustrations. In the first place these arc signs of

while providing a classification of this art into (lan­ the heavens' such as rosettes symbolizing the sun,

guage > groups that makes it as comprehensible as many types ol star shape, polygons piled one upon
the other, lozenge shapes, the symbols ol the zodiac
possible.
signs (possibly used In a figurative manner) and

Artistic language consists of a way of expressing the astrological signs and astronomical phenomena. In

things people feel and understand about the world. the second place there are the signs of the garden'.

When we analyze this language we perceive that Including palmettos. vine tendrils, trees, bushes and

5}
52
krtuft

bouquets of Howers in vases, animals both wild ing the basic elements. The next level is the morphol­ rupted by the delicate motifs ol each curl. In purely verses altout wine and profane love, poetry of
and domestic, and dragons. In the third place come ogical (incorporating new variant forms as when a geometric compositions the movement explores the supreme beauty describing human feelings and
the human figures, such as the ruler on his throne, word declines, while retaining its root). Here we may depth - the space expands and the ornamentation is situations. However, seen at a higher level, these
courtiers, warriors, mounted polo players, musicians, distinguish several recurring, complex compositions. absorbed into it The continuity of the movement is poems are an attempt to dcscriln- the intoxicated
both male and female singers and dancers, and wine The first are the arabesques: these may be formed by emphasized by separate accented figures, such as the ecstasy of the mystic and to recount the love of God.
pourers. Many of the figures arc astrological signs. the unending branches of the vine, that string onto cliffs against which the waves ol the ornamentation F.arihly elements were thus used as symbolic ol and
Finally, there arc the ‘signs of stones', or the symbols one necklace as it were the leaves and bunches ol beat. A similar role is played by medallions of figures as references to, divine inspiration, and indeed as a
of precious stones. These take the form of ornamental grapes, the tendrils and the isolated fruit. Second representing wiki animals in a plant-filled jungle. means of merging into and becoming part ol the
ovals, diamonds, pearl-drops and crystals. come the geometric sections of the space, such as a divine world.
rectangular page. |*art ol a wall, a dome rising into The second aspect is the use ol surface area, that may
In calligraphy loo. we find various categories of artis­ the sky, or craving in a niche. Polygons piled upon be seen as a 'game'. Sometimes this surface is entirely The applied art ol Islam also contains allusions to and
tic elements which are inherent to the aesthetics of each other, lozenges and star-shapes, often created as filled with subtle patterns. often subdivided into the evidence of an indirect link with other, higher levels
the Arabic script. We may. lor example, distinguish It were by chance, flow together into one space that is main pattern, a smaller one and a still smaller one. ol knowledge. These may Ik- the signs and reflections
between elements that claim attention through their forever changing in size because it is affected by the In other cases sections are left empty in order to of pious thoughts, of supernatural forces which bring
flamboyancy, such as looping letters (almost ara­ interaction of neighbouring geometric elements. create a contrast. This can be seen in particular on good luck (talismans) and divine favour, and finally
besques), letters that run sharply upwards with medallions in books, on silver Hat ware and services, of the world in which God reveals to people an aspect
their vertical tails, letters that transform themselves Close to this we find the third type, the medallions. and on carpels. The most extreme form can Ik- found of His Divine Being. In some cases the allusion almost
into plant motifs - leaves, branches and fruit, or into These arc closed areas that are crammed full of large in the sobriety of the facades of Islamic buildings, goes undetected. In others, the secondary meaning

human figures, and finally the letters that arc difficult and small (often plant) ornamentation. The back­ both public and - even more so private. This creates is obvious - Indeed, almost sell-evident, as in the
to recognize, being half ornamental geometric slia|K-s ground ol these areas often contains many patterns a sharp contrast with the luxuriousness and the accent magic amtent ol certain inscriptions and motifs.

and hall Kufic script. but equally well may be completely empty. In this on aesthetic pleasure which is to be found in the The presence of a second, third or even fourth layer
category we should also mention circular inscriptions interiors. ol meaning In objects ol applied art bestowed a more

We also find separate artistic elements in Islamic in which letters resembling arabesques entice into profound value on daily life; it became transformed

architecture. Here we may distinguish the following their presence a quantity of plant and geometric The third striking aspect is the combination of abstract (in complete agreement with the Islamic bellel in the

groups: the court, the central section of the mosque motifs. And finally, we list an important and deviant and highly concrete elements side by side. For ex­ indivisibility ol the earthly and the heavenly) into an

or palace, the garden, the wall (with or without type: this will be a tableau such as a banquet, a dance, ample. there arc realistic bunches ol grapes and intimation ol something more sublime And at the

decoration|. the tower (or the minaret*, the decorated a musical performance, a hunting scene, a duel, polo carafes within arabesques. The illusion is created that same time the link between the descrlber and the
doorway at an entrance, the large niche (iwan) and played by horsemen, the game of backgammon, or these objects can actually Im- touched and held and described became more complex since the 'described'

the pillars. There were different types ol pillars, com­ an epos’ which would be an intricate presentation reference Is made to wine as the symbol ol mystical might well contain several dimensions.

binations ol slender and thick pillars, and a fusion of of astrological signs such as a certain's person's intoxication arising from the love lor God. This
pillars into galleries with one or two levels, creating horoscope. produces a complex ol meanings and implications The entire system ol Islamic art was an extension ami

the effect of a kind of 'pillared woodland'. One par­ which arc to be found in all the elements and com- reflection ol the suggestions ol ideas found in the

ticular architectural element, highly characteristic for 'Syntax' po- sitions connected with the language ol Islamic art Qur'an. The many confirmations and reaffirmations

Islamic art, were the so-called stalactites (muqarnas) The above-mentioned, as well as other combinations ol basic formulae convened this into more than mere

resembling arches filled with wondrous dripping ol elements may all be seen as conforming to certain Lewis a/knowledge knowledge - it became |»an of people's unconscious.

stone endlessly repeated and thereby creating the principles which may be placed under the heading Continuing with the linguistic analogy, we may also This widened the audience ol believers considerably.

effect of an infinitely intricate honeycomb. The 'syntax'. By far the most important of these principles make use of the linguistic term ol the ' described - The basic Ideas - expressed in patterns and decoration

gardens were laid out with various combinations is that the elements in question should be ornamental. as opposed to the 'described'. Here we arc primarily - were accessible to everyone, according to the level

<•1 types ol plant - bushes, trees, and flowers set in A large emphasis Is placed on the express repetition concerned with perception. Select at random any of their education and spiritual development. Every­

a scheme of pools and streams. An important visual of elements (for example, the repetition of the name monument of Islamic art or architecture - these last- day objects could become the vehicle lor spiritual

element was the reflections in the water of buildings ol Allah). Here loo should be listed the endlessly on- mentioned may be apparent at various levels. The understanding or exercise, such as meditation. In

and plants The twitter ol birds and «he sound of their flowing uncompleted nature ol the composition, even lowest level is the ordinary everyday perception of this way Islamic teaching and art oiler the believer

wings in Hight formed an Inextricable part of this, as when it is not abstract. the object, of an attractive motif or a detail that is the possibility of solving questions that have arisen

did the scent ol various Howers and the incense that recognized. The highest level is that ol the theological through historical changes.

wafted into the air Irom place to place Three aspects of the syntax should be mentioned. or indeed, what should Ik- called the mystical, as a
The first is the movement ol the (lexical) elements in way of approaching nearer to God or of demon­ There are two ideas in Islamic art that occur repeat­

Thr morphological'kvd various directions. The movements shift in arabesques strating one’s love lor Him. Translated into terms ol edly at various levels with varying degrees of clarity

The abose may be seen as the lexical level, contain­ making a line across the horizontal surface, inter­ the 'described', Islamic |M»rts have written many and directness, both of them clamping art srcurelv to

ss
rj'thlf frfJIfl. jrl • .»><>• Ill AU

religion. The first idea is that ol the reality ol God.

Art contains many allusions to the image of God,
that of a Paradise to come, created lor the just to
inhabit, a place of peace and plenitude. Almost all 7 Paradise - the major theme
ofIslamic art
which people cannot apprehend. It nevertheless Islamic art is a reminder of this. Beautiful objects,

provides the aesthetic possibility of referring to His exquisite buildings serve not only to delight the
Being as the very essence of beauty and goodness, Muslim in this world; they are a promise of grace to
and the promise that meeting with Him will be come. They are the hopeful confirmation that the
something indescribably sublime. The second idea is religion of Islam is the one true faith. The Qur an was revealed to people to warn them When the World on High is unveiled:
against the coming Day ol Judgment. The early suras When the Blazing Fire
are filled with emotional and vivid descriptions of the Is kindled to fierce heat;
end of the world, the pangs ol hell and the pleasures And when the Garden is brought near: -
of paradise It will be a day of doom and terror Then shall each soul know
When the Sky is rent asunder What it has putforward.
And hearkens to (the Command of) its Lord -
And it must needs (do so): Or again:
And when the Earth ls flattened out. Verily, the Day ofSorting Out
And casts forth what is within it Is a thing appointed. -
And becomes (clean) empty. The Day that the Trumpet
And hearkens to (the Command of) its Lord - Shall be sounded, and ye
And it must needs (do so) Shall come forth in crowds.
(Then will come home the full Reality) And the heavens shall be opened

<S. 84: I -5) As ifthere were doors.

And the mountains shall vanish
The book describes how the dead will arise from their As if they were a mirage.

graves: ts. 78:17-201

When the Sky is cleft asunder;
When the Stars are scattered: These arc the dramatic descriptions ol the end of the

When the Oceans are suffered to burst forth. world, the Islamic Apocalypse. It is arguable that the
And when the Graves are turned upside down - whole of the Qur'an is a sermon prophesying the end

(Then) shall each soul know of time, and offering a prescription for how to prepare
What it hath sent forward for this end. For people are presented with a choice.

And what it hath kept back. One possibility is direful:

(S. 82:1-5* Therefore do I warn you

Ofa Fire blazing fiercely:

And, more extensively: None shall reach it

When the sun (with its spacious light) is folded up But those most unfortunate ones

When the stars fall, losing their lustre: Who give the lie to Truth

When the mountains vanish (like a mirage); And turn their backs.

When the shecamels. ten months with young. (S .92:14-16*

Are left untended:
When the wild beasts are herded together And the Wicked -

(In human habitations): They will be in the Fire.

When the oceans boil over with a swell. Which they will enter

When the souls are sorted out On the Day ofJudgment

(Being joined, like with like): And they will not be able

When the female (infant), buried alive. To keep away therefrom

Is questioned - (S- 82:l4->6>

For what crime she was killed:
When the Scrolls are laid open.
 rtraiio - iltr m«g*r ihme hltifiit

But never will he be near Is that the better entertainment story of the punishments and terrible tortures, spoke
Swallowing it down his throat; Or the Tree ofZaqqum? of the blissful lot which lay in store for true believers.
Death will come to him For we have truly made it (as) On the whole, descriptions ol Hell and Paradise
From every quarter, yet a trialfor the wrong-doers. balance each other in the Qur'an Both are spiced
He will not die: and For it is a tree with unambiguous language intended to arouse the
In front of him will be That springs out ofthe bottom of Hell-fire: listener. The images used are highly realistic and
A chastisement unrelenting. The shoots ofits fruit stalks comprehensible for every Arab. However, it should
(S.14:16-17) Are like the heads of devils be said that lhe image of Paradise in the Qur'an is
Truly they will eat thereof extremely detailed, and diffuses a sense ol delight.
The Companions ofthe Left Hand - And fill their bellies therewith. A picture is drawn of a shadowy garden, where the
What will be the Companions ofthe Left Hand? Then on top of that righteous recline on soft beds, feasting in the presence
(They will be) in the midst They will be given a mixture of beautiful virgins. Naturally, a description of this
Ofa fierce Blast of Fire Made of boiling water. sort only projects a superficial understanding.
And in Boiling Water. Then shall their return Concrete, sensitive images were an expression ol a
And in the shades of Black Smoke: Be to the (Blazing) Fire. deeper spiritual ecstasy which would be expressed
Nothing (will there be) (S. 17:62-68) in terms that the simplest listener could understand
To refresh nor to please: Furthermore, this demonstrates the many ways in
For that they were wont Those who reject Our Signs. We shall soon which the Qur'an may be understood. Depending
To be indulged, before that Cast into the Fire. on the apprehension of the listener, the image of
In wealth (and luxury). As often as their skins are roasted through. Paradise found its response in the soul ol the desert
And persisted obstinately Ut shall change them for fresh skins Bedouin or lhe fierce warrior (both commander and
In wickedness supreme! That they may taste the penalty: foot soldier), the philosopher, the theologian and the
And they used to say. For God is Exalted in Power, and Wise. mystic. The practical element ol the sermon proved
What! When we die (S. 4:96) highly adaptable in supporting the general aim. that
And become dust and bones ol convincing and converting, which had developed
Shall we then indeed The horrors of lhe inevitable catastrophe and possible in the earliest phases ol Islam.
Be raised up again? - punishment are intended to shake people out of their
(We) and our fathers ofold?' apathy and force them to listen to Allah The preach­ The pictures ol Paradise in the Qur'an are so vivid
Say: Yea. those ofold ing of Muhammad, as we know, had a tremendous that some oriental scholars have suggested that
And those oflater times. impact but didn't lead to a mass conversion. A hand­ Muhammad was inspired by the mosaics he had seen
All will certainly be ful of followers grew into an active community when in Christian churches. This seems most improbable,
Somefaces, that Day Gathered togetherfor the meeting the inhabitants of Yathrib (Medina) started to believe but the style ol the Qur'an incorporates comparably
Will be humiliated. Appointed for a Day well-known. in Allah. Their motives were mixed: partly spiritual, sensuous images.
Labouring (hard), weary, - Then will ye truly - partly political. After Muhammad had convinced the
The while they enter the Blazing Fire. - O ye that do wrong. people of Mecca of the power of his system of belief, But God will deliver them
The while they are given to drink And treat Truth as Falsehood! - there followed a mass conversion. But It took time From the evil of that Day
Ofa boiling hot spring. Ye will surely taste before the conquered countries would become And will shed over them a Light
No food uill there be for them Of the Tree ofZaqqum /the Cursed Tree/ Islamic. The inhabitants of those districts didn't Of Beauty and a (blissful) Joy.
But a bitter Dhari [a bitter, vile-smelling plantI Then willyefill convert to Islam out of fear, but because ol a social And because they were patient and constant
Which will neither nourish Your insides therewith system which held advantages for the converts. He will reward them with a Garden
Nor satisfy hunger. And drink Boiling Water Those who did not accept the new faith were forced And (garments of) silk.
(S. 88:2-7) On top of it to fulfil certain (considerable) obligations. This proved Reclining tn the (Garden) on raised thrones

Indeed, ye shall drink a more effective method of winning people over than They will see there neither the sun $ (excessive heat)

Or again: Like diseased camels holding up the threat ol a direful massacre or the Not the moon's (excessive cold).
In front ofsuch a one Raging with thirst! pangs of hell-fire. And lhe shades ofthe (Garden)
Is Hell, and he is given Such will be their entertainment Will come low over them.
For drink, boiling fetid water. On the Day of Requital! Punishment or bliss And the bunches (offruit) there

In gulps will he drink it (S. 5641-56) From the very start the sermons, together with the Will hang low in humility
 And amongst them will be passed round Nor any taint ofill. Like unto rubies and coral which the righteous are promised:
Vessels ofsilver and goblets ofcrystal. Only the saying. ’Peace' Peace!’ Then which of the favours In it arc rivers of water incorruptible:
Crystal-clear, made ofsilver: The Companions of the Right Hand - Ofyour Lord will ye deny? Rivets of milk
They will determine the measure thereof What will be the Companions of the Right Hand? Is there any Reward Of which the taste never changes;
(According to their wishes). They’ will be among lote-trees without thorns. For Good - other than Good? rivers of wine, ajoy
And they will begiven Among Talk trees /possibly a kind ofAcacia/ Then which ofthe favours To those who drink:
To drink there ofa Cup With flowers (or fruits) piled one above another. - Ofyour lord willye deny? And riven ofhoney pure and clear
(Ofwine) mixed with Zanjabd /ginger/ In shade long-extended, by water flowing constantly. In it there arefor them
A fountain there called Salsabil / ‘Seek the Way'/. And fruit in abundance And beside these two. All kinds offruits:
And roundabout them will (serve)youths Whose season is not limited, nor (supply) forbidden. There are two other Gardens. - And Gracefrom their Lord.
Ofperpetual freshness: And on Thrones (of Dignity) raised high, Then which of the favours (Can those in such Bliss)
If thou seest them, thou wouldst think them tv? haw created (their Companions) Ofyour Lord will ye deny? - Be compitred to such as
Scattered Pearls. Ofspecial creation Dark-green in colour Shall dwell for ever
And when thou lookest. And made them (virgin-pure and undefiled). - (From plentiful watering). In the Fire, and begiven
It is there thou will see Beloved (by nature), egual in age. - Then which of the favours To drink, boiling water
A Bliss, and a Realm Magnificent. For the Companions ofthe Right Hand. Ofyour Lord willye deny? So that it cuts up
Upon them will be Green Garments A (goodly) number from those ofold. In them (each) will be Their bowels (to pieces)?
Offine silk and heavy' brocade And a (goodly) number from those of later times. TWo Springs pouring forth water (S. 47:15-16)
And they will be adorned (S. 56:11 -W) In continuous abundance:
With Bracelets ofsilver: Then which ofthefavours And again:
And their Lord willgive to them to drink And again: Ofyour Lord will ye deny? But those who believe
Ofa Wine Pure and Holy. But for such as fear In them will be Fruits And do deeds of righteousness.
Verily, this is a Reward for you The time when they will And dates and pomegranates b? shall soon admit to Gardens.
Andyour Endeavour is accepted and recognized. Stand before their Lord. Then which of the favours With rivers flowing beneath. -
(S. 76:11-22) There will be two Gardens - Ofyour Lord willye deny? Their eternal home.
Then which ofthe favours In them will be Therein shall they haw
Or the passage: Ofyour Lord will ye deny? - Fair (Companions), good and beautiful. - Companions pure and holy:
These will be those nearest to God: In them (each) will be Then which of the favours We shall admit them
In Gardens of Bliss. Tw Springsflowing (free). Ofyour Lord will ye deny? To shades, cool and ever deepening
A number ofpeople from those ofold. Then which ofthe favours Companions restrained (as to (S. 4:57)
And a fewfrom those of later times. Ofyour Lord willye deny? - Their glances), in (goodly) pavilions. -
(They will be) on Thrones In them will be Fruits Then which of the favours Or:
Encrusted (with gold and precious stones). Ofevery kind, two and two. Ofyour Lord wilt ye deny? - (Other) faces that Day will be joyful
Reclining on them, facing each other. Then which ofthe favours Whom no man of Jinn Pleased with their Striving. -
Round about them will (serve) Ofyour Lord willye deny?- Before them has touched: - In a Garden on high.
Youths ofperpetual (freshness). They will recline on Carpets Then which ofthefavours Where they shall hear
With goblets, (shining) beakers Whose inner linings will be Ofyour Lord willye deny? - No (word) of vanity:
And cups (filled) out of Of rich brocade: the Fruit Reclining on green Cushions Therein will be
Clear-flowing fountains: Ofthe Gardens will be And rich Carpets ofbeauty. A bubbling spring
No after-ache will they receive therefrom. Near (and easy ofreach). Then which of the favours Therein will be Thrones
Not will they suffer intoxication. Then which ofthe favours Ofyour Lord will ye deny? (Ofdignity), raised on high.
And with fruits, any that they may select: Ofyour Lord wilt ye deny? Blessed he the Name ofthy Lord. Goblets placed (ready).
And the flesh offowls, any that they may desire In them will be (Maidens) Full ofMajesty, Bounty and Honour And cushions set in rows.
And (there will be female) Companions Chaste, restraining their glances. (S. 55:46-78) And rich carpets (all) spread out
With beautiful, big. and lustrous eyes. - Whom no man or Jinn (S. 88:8-16)
Like unto Pearls, well-guarded. Before them has touched: - There are also shorter descriptions that arc less
A Rewardfor the Deeds oftheir past (Life). Then which of the favours formal: And finally:
No frivolity will they hear therein Ofyour Lord will ye deny? - Here is a Parable of the Garden Truly the Righteous will be in Bliss
fjrtklt hhitirr ktttenlv trt Hl AM

On Thrones (of Dignity) with precious and semi-precious stones such as restrictions ol this world. In (act, the joys ol Paradise opulence. Clearly, these arc the gardens of Paradise,
Will they command a sight pearls, rubies and rock-crystal. The colour green are spiritual ones. Only they cannot be described h should be pointed out. however, that in some
(Ofall things): predominates - the colour of the garden and of the except in material terms and using images ol earthly Damascus mosaics as well as rivers and trees there
Thou wilt recognize in their Faces sumptuous garments worn by the blessed, while red objects. are pictures of many noteworthy buildings. It is quite
The beaming brightness of Bliss. gleams through in the rubies and the pomegranates. possible that here we have one ol the later (post-
Their thirst will be slaked Islamic theology has probed deeply into the question qur'anic) impressions ol Paradise imagined as a city,
With Pure Wine sealed: The description is that of a dweller in the desen - of paradisal pleasure Scholars have not only alluded comparable to the Christian representations in that
The seat thereofwill be Musk: and for this what can afford greater joy than reaching shade and to the possibility, they have indeed stressed the fact period ol the city ol Jerusalem.
Let those aspire, who haw aspirations, water after the long day's heat? The images are vivid that the qur’anic ayas arc ambiguous. They have
with it will be (given) and almost tangible, we feel the coolness, we slake shown indisputably that behind the physical images The entrance to Paradise
A mixture of Tasnim: our thirst. Clearly, these arc pictures to appeal to the there are references to Intellectual and spiritual The mihrab with Its lamp shedding holy light bears a
A spring, from (the waters) people ol the desen countries of the Near and Middle delights. Debates have also arisen in the context of reference tn entrance into Paradise, often taking the
Whereofdrink those nearest to God. East. Paradise over the qur'amc expression 'the person form of pictures of trees and vases of flowers. This
(S. 85:22-28) of Allah’. Some hold that the greatest joy lor the iconography was adopted for prayer nigs with a
At the same time as being down-to-earth, the righteous in Paradise will be to behold God (face to similar function. Indeed, all carpets, whether or not
Gardens description is also mysterious. Somewhere in these face). Others, however, fiercely refute the notion that with a religious purpose, serve as more or less
Generally speaking, the picture of Paradise is given Itaradisal gardens lies the source of the holy text of God can be seen in this way, while still others support formalised representations of the garden - which in
In concrete and detailed terms. It consists in the lirst the Qur’an, somewhere there grows the Tree of Life. the opinion that God can l»e seen, but then 'without the first place is the Garden of Paradise. The carpets
place of gardens (Paradise itself is called in Islam There arc constant references to the presence of form or being'. In general terms it is agreed that in often contain pictures ol streams and rivers, fountains
djanna. which literally means garden(s)). Shadowy Allah. Also, there is a mysterious clement in the fact Paradise people approach into the presence of God and lakes as if they had arisen Irom a description in
trees grew there, bearing at the same time both that some words and names of waters and drinks and perceive Him to a certain degree the Qur'an ol the waters of Paradise.
blossom and fruit that hung low ready to lie plucked. found in the Qur'an were unknown to the Arabs
Trees that generally had thorns now had smooth before Muhammad. The hermetic associations arc All the qur'anic images with their many explanations Finally, there were also the earthly gardens, which
barks. Scattered around were acacias, palms and further increased with the introduction of new and have become part of the general and psychological occupy an extremely important place in the Islamic
pomegranate trees. Through the gardens flowed incomprehensible words that give the Qur'an its mental scenario ol the broad mass of the population. aesthetic system, being a reflection of the heavenly
broad rivers and bubbled limpid brooks: names are special rhythm and particular charm. Nor should it The picture of Paradise gradually became the main ones. In Granada, the famous gardens were given
given to them, such as Kalur and Salsabil. There was be forgotten that behind everyday words there are topic ol sermons. In speaking of Paradise, compari­ the name Diannat al-arifm. meaning gardens of
water that never became letid. sometimes spiced with other, less immediate, meanings and associations. sons were made with beautiful objects front daily those who know the truth', which in one explanation
a plant such as ginger. Furthermore there were life which served as symbols for something more is a reference to the inhabitants of Paradise. Also,
streams of milk that never became rancid, purest Behind the concrete, realistic images of the Qur'an profound and complex. Earthly beauty was a rcllcc- the park around the mausoleum ol Taj Mahal was
honey and finally wine that didn’t make people there lurks a more profound meaning. Contentment tion of the splendour ol Paradise. consciously planned to suggest the gardens ol
drunken. and delight, the rewards of the righteous, appear Paradise, as is apparent not only from the ground

at first sight to be merely physical. In fan. they This explains why Islamic art. both the religious and plan but also Irom inscriptions on the buildings

In the cool shade of the gardens the righteous will represent the bliss of God's grace, that full spiritual the secular, has chosen Paradise as the most important which bear citations Irom the qur'anic descriptions
enjoy eternal bliss. They will recline on soft beds, tranquillity, the joy ol approaching into the presence theme that can be represented or referred to. This of Paradise.
propped upon brocade-covered cushions. Cushions of God. For this is - beneath the realistic represen­ was partly made possible because of the prohibition
are scattered all around and tents are set up. Moving tations and just as in the poetry of the mystics - against making pictures ol holy personages, partly Every plant decoration referred to some extent to the
gracefully about are beautiful maidens with lovely the essence of Paradise. also because of rhe general precept to think, speak, gardens of Paradise. Thus the walls ol the Ottoman
eyes The righteous are clothed in rich garments of and make with only Allah in one's mind. Paradise is, mosques arc covered with tiles bearing many distinct

green brocade with silver jewellery. They are served The bliss of Paradise after all. both what God has promised to the righteous plant motifs. This is a faithful analogy with the very
their drinks by lovely boys who arc forever young. We find a similar deeper meaning when reading the and also the place where He dwells, where He is first monumental buildings ol Islam.
They bear goblets ol silver and crystal, fruits of all descriptions ol the blessed in Paradise. There they closest to humankind.
kinds and game birds. They drink water, honey, milk have their fill of those things that were forbidden in Luxury items, too. referred to the delights to come -
and wine of a good vintage and scaled with musk'. this world. They drink wine, they enjoy unrestricted The first Islamic religious works of art to proclaim they were but pale reflections and suggestions ol the
There is no bickering, nor frivolous talk in these carnal pleasures, they arc surrounded by objects of loudly the victory of the new religion were mosaics life In Paradise. A hierarchical line developed: the

gardens; only such words are head as 'Peace, peace'. luxury. All this, however, also has a symbolic level: (see the Dome ol the Rock in Jerusalem, ill. 2.p. 17 splendour and luxuriousness of the paradisal life was

it is to show that in Paradise the righteous are recom­ and the Umayyad mosque in Damascus, ill i. p J.S). expressed in the first plate by objects ol gold and

In the descriptions there arc incidental comparisons pensed for their pious lives, lor the self-imposed they Illustrate gardens that are filled with verdure and silver then followed bronze and ceramics; finally
ftrtklr Wtfan.

came lustrcwarc. thai gave a dear reflection and had the Muslim. Islamic art doesn't Illustrate the Qur'an The word mosque means literally 'the place where men

The mosque
the gleam of metal. This sheen was a constant remind­ but offers an abstract artistic account of its chief Ideas. kneel down'. The mosque is a place for praying. On

er ol light. God's primary attribute, and was embodied Fridays and festivals this is done communally, while on

symbolically In lamps and everything that glittered This account is not only attractive, it is also cheerful. other days people pray individually. Beside this, the

and gleamed. Islamic religious buildings are intended to create mosque is a meeting place and a teaching centre for

warmth from the Inside outwards, to offer delight Islamic learning.

Beautiful objects made Irom rock crystal, silver to the believer. Abstraci references to God arc mag­
The very first mosque was in the courtyard of
lx-akcrs and other domestic ware were even some nified, arc made amazingly intricate, but they do
Muhammad's house in Medina. A great many mosques -
of the items found in the qur’anic description of not scare oil or overwhelm. The pictures ol Paradise,
though certainly not all of them - have an inner courtyard
Paradise These too symbolized the future union with or the descriptions of it, recount in a simple manner
containing a fountain for the ritual washing which
God. as did Sufic verses in which Intoxication with the blessed state which will be the reward ol the
precedes the act of prayer. Some also have a garden.
wine or love represented mystic radiance. And the righteous. Islam entices people with the promise of
Adjoining this is a covered section for prayer, which will
Imnquet scenes so frequently encountered in Islamic goodness, with the excitement ol insight and a re­
contain a mihrab. or prayer niche, often richly docorated.
art. with pictures of musicians and dancers may vivifying outlook. The pictures of Hell, that occupy
This points to the black stone of the Kaaba in Mecca,
simply be explained as visions presaging the leasts ol a secondary place in the Qur'an, are less realistic
and thereby shows the direction in which to face when
Paradise or symbols of spiritual blessedness expressed than those of Paradise.
praying. The mihrab symbolizes the gateway into the
in a human language <as in the Qur'an>
very presence of God and thus into Paradise. A second
Christian art. hlamk art
holy attribute of the mosque is the minbar. an elaborately
This kind of deeper meaning . often not entirely Finally, a word of coni|Mrison between Islamic art decorated pulpit which has the shape of a throne.
precise and nowhere explained more fully, gave an and Christian an. The main difference between the
impression of mystery, of something beautiful that two lies in their approach. In Christian art the empha­ Normally a lamp is hung in the mihrab, whose light
was holy and welcome. Almost all Islamic an in some sis falls on the forgiveness of sins, the suffering of symbolizes the presence of Allah.
way or another tells a story about Paradise, alludes to the Son of God that should be deeply felt by every
it. refers to it. Christian. God. embodied in His church, is a terrible The floor in the mosque is covered with carpets, upon
god and forces His servants to be humble. The great­ which men kneel in prayer. These prayer carpets gener­
In Europe and the Near East, medieval an was always est means ol making sinners t«»e the line is the Icar ol ally have a woven decoration showing a niche containing
strongly Influenced by religion. Indeed, it was dedi­ Hell. Man is born sinful. a lamp and sometimes a vase of flowers. This symbolizes

cated to religion. In Islamic art. unlike its Christian the garden of Paradise which the righteous will enter

counterpart, this was not so evident: it had no staiues In essence, the two religions, Islam and Christianity, when they leave this world and join the other world of

representing living forms. It had no Stations ol the are not dissimilar. Like Islam, Christianity promises God.

Cross, no pictures of martyred saints or holy ascetics. people heavenly bliss. And Christian ritual and
Islamic art at first glance apjiears non-religious. That Mosques are usually beautifully decorated, both on the
Christian art bring to those who truly believe an
is. however, by definition impossible, since in Islam overwhelming sense ol joy. But the approaches, inside and outside. Almost all the large mosques have
one or two minarets, which are towers from which
no distinction is marie between the earthly and the the methods of the two. are quite dillerent. While
believers are summoned to daily prayer. Generally, the
heavenly lile. This attitude underlies Islam's history, Christian art tries to convince the believer by
interiors of houses of prayer are decorated with texts
and Its social and cultural life (although gradually a emphasizing the suffering (of Christ). Islamic art
from the Qur'an written in calligraphy, particularly the
wave ol deviations did arisef. attempts to uplift the believer with the promise ol
chief statement, or creed, of Islam, There is no God but
bliss.
Allah and Muhammad is his prophet.’ The decorative
A careful investigation reveals the true nature of
nature of Arabic script is utilized to the full. Graceful
Islamic an. It doesn't force itself upon the viewer, but We should not lorget, however, that at one time or
ornamental arabesques and geometric patterns are very
calmly and steadfastly bears witness to two things: another, both make use ol these two approaches.
popular; they delight the eye of the beholder and are a
God and Paradise. Put another way. it speaks of the Islamic art and the an of the Christian tradition are
promise of the visual beauty of Paradise.
dogma of the One Indivisible God and the blessedness after all two branches of the same tree.
J.V.
* ' Me alter this world, that arc the chief treasures of

6-1
 *«r or >si«m • The mmtut
farrtly brmnf. btuttnlf art

using the same technique, with essentially No known sources can provide information
the same colour scheme plus a little red. on a craftsman named 'Ali Nushahadi.
This is dated Raid'll AH BOB (October 1405), 4.1.
along with rite artisan's name. 'Ali Baidak
dm Hajji Maibudi (?).

2
The letter forms of the inscriptions on the
Prayer rug
Hermitage fragment suggest it was woven in
the first hall of the 14th century, making It Mughd India. e«a >630-40
the oldest known Iranian Islamic carpet. Silk *wp. weR ond pile • length ’52 O",
-W«or>
The upper part ol the carpet bears a decor­ The N«w< 0 Khat* Collcar-on ol IMnuc Art.
ative Kulic Inscnptional register, which may loMon. mvno TXT 93
be interpreted as a mirror image stylization blMBtur. M*rtm woe. p 93. *9 217. W.Sw 1997
ol the word: PP M-W
G’/ary.
The design of a small but outstanding group
Below, in the spandrel areas around rhe ol Mughal carpets is dominated by a single,
arches, another word is repeated, also in large flowering plant, presented as though
Kulic script: growing in an arched niche. At least two
Ftmw. such carpets were made using ihe same
cartoon as this one. while a third, fragmen­
An inverted horizontal band across the area tary example has engaged colonnettes on
just below the lop of the niches, repeats the either side ol the main field, reinforcing
same iiiscnpnonal motif from the upper part the illusion of an architectural niche. The
of the carpet, below this there is another similarities in design are not matched by
register ol epigraphic ornament. consistency in the materials and technical
quality of this sub-group. Other examples
The vertical perimeters to each ol the have silk or cotton warps and wefts and are
central fields bear two registers with Kulic knotted in wool of varying quality, whereas
inscriptions. To the left, furthest from the this carpc-i has silk warps and wefts and is
centre, ts a Qur anic inscription (Sura 112. finely knotted in silk.
al-lkhlas, Sincere Belief). which is repeated Prom this Daniel Walker has concluded that
in mirror image on the right. Next to the carpets of varying quality were produces! in
central field on the left is the inscription lite same general perisd using the same
(also in mirror image on the o|>positc side): carloons, which runs counter to the notion
In the name of Gat. the Merciful. the that lower quality Indicates work ol a Liter
Companionate Work of I 'nad Ah Nnshahadi. date
in the month of Ramadan ofthe yrer

This H J fragment ol a large prayer rug The central composition shows a flowering
Fragment of a carpet
with a repeating design ol nlcha, ol a type Il is unfortunate that the inscription docs not double poppy flanked by two tiny tulips

usually called saf. The technique <4 manu­ give the year in which this carpel was made. beneath a pointed bracketed arch. The
S.(T«d By 'A* tenhjbadi
l>an. 14th centurj facturing such carpets, known as dlu. em­ The artisan’s nirba has no diacritical dots, spandrels of the arch are filled with a vine

ployed from early times; such carpets arc and the reading, ’Nushabadi’. Is only the bearing double poppies, while there is a
Coaon-lar^Hi iO4 5tm.«4*46cm
most probable. Although settlements called (lowering lotus vine in the mam border. colour scheme of this piece is clearly related
Th. Stat. M.^1 St Pci.iUxikj, mentioned in a 10th-century source. The
Nushabad can be found in various parts of The guard stripes are of stepped lozenges to that of the main firlds of other carpets in
<nvno. IR-2253 design ewers both sides it is difficult to
distinguish front Irom luck. The Friday Iran, there Is no indication which of these is The rich crimson characteristic ol Mughal this sub-group.
P-o.on.iK. unknow"; |.iiKnawd •> >985
nunque in Yard (Irani has a carpel produced referred to here carpets of this period is absent. Iml the
LIWM» Kvm* >W0. no. 61

67
 .arm imam • ne«Mfw

which seem to be engulfing the tips ol their

wings, arc severely modelled, with ears,
bulbous eyes and snouts, though their teeth
are not shown. Their feet are stylized and
show no sign n( claws.

Three impressive, monumental ligural

s<uIptu ics have sometimes been dcscrilied as
door knockers. Although other such dragons
have a lion's head between them, the three
great loops to secure them to a door would
have made them immovable. However, they
were not intended lor use as handies, and
they show very little wear Mosque doors in
the Jazira, Syria and Egypt of the 12th-14th
centuries frequently sport such 'handles’.
Hut they arc olten as much as nine feet from
the ground and must have been lor show
only.

The closest parallel to this pair ol dragons is

Iroin the Great Mosque al Cine (Ja/irat Ibn
'Umar) tn southeast Turkey, on the Syrian the figural allusions are dearly identifiable Diyatbaku (AH 589/AD 1181-84) and (he outward reach directly above the widely
bonier (Copenhagen, David Foundation, bui the creatures have been reduced to Citadel of Aleppo (All 606/AD 1209-10). splayed legs and convey lhe impression
no. 18/1971). though this is significantly bosses or scrolls. From the analogies they tlwt they ate galloping away. Ute elegant

smaller, 27 5 cm in height A dragon knocker show with stucco and woodwork Irwin the leaf-like contours id the spouts, like the
tn Berlin ot similar height <27. J cm; no. I. period of Badr al-Din Lu lu' (d. AD 1259) 4 openwork hexagon interlace ol the lid with

2242). has markedly fussier decoration, at Mosul (today Iraq) they have also been its acanthus-like palmetlcs, may suggest a
Large oil lamp
with teeth, decorated 'manes', claws, and attributed to the Jazira The closest ul these provenance from western Asia, perliaps
indications of fur on the legs. The scales have to the dragon group are in the David Col­ Iran ex 12th wntury 12th-century Anatolia or northern Syria.

a central dot. and the gryphons' heads liave lection (nos 2/199). 21/1991 and 1/1994) Qi-.’e-"®', aloy. fxecexAtf. ■tlh opennorl M.K.
a more developed wattle. The dragons in but there are two others in a Kuwaiti private .tccoreion . Ha^ln 19 4 on
al-lazari's well-known illustration of lire collection Th. D KMlfc CoII^Iko ol hMiwc Art.
knocker lie cast for tlie Urtuqid palace at UoMon. <rvro MTW 1293
Diyaitaklr (Topkapi Palace Library. A. 1472. The knotted tails ol the dragons may be an
folios 169 a»-b> are confronted, not addorsed, allusion to a pseudo-planet. Jawzahr. known
nor arc their tails knotted. in lhe West as CaputftCauda Draconis. which The flat-buttumed. lliree-spoulcd lamp

was invoked by Muslim astronomers to stands on three legs with faceted hool-like
These disparities show that there was a explain eclipses ol the mown.in mediaeval leet. with a candlestick surmounting the nng

W> IW-195. 274. loU.Mr» HVvy 1982 -o. 9$. 96 fashion lor dragon handles, or knockers, of asironorny, however, knotted serpents were handle. The lid is hinged and has a cast vase-

<ha*b Coft«t«n I99J. p 36: 1996. various sizes and physical characteristics In also an emblem ol the constellation Hygeia shaped finial The openwork decoration ol
Pair of door handles
no. ?1. rr^ndQO, M.xfcfiuxi S*.np»&n<* 1997 early I 1th century Jazira. Also noteworthy (Sunito ei duo draconcspaplexif and may the lid suggests that the oil or tallow in lhe

l-ow couthaaM huke,). aarty 13th wntury no 120. pp 206 209 is a series ol cast brass or bronze knockers, show the itersistcnce ol the serpents ol bmp contained scented substances which

Gw <«« • Me-oM 33.7 cm II), 335 on (2). some ol them evidently from ll»e same Aesculapius in Ilie eastern Hellenistic world. when burned might ollsei tlie smell ol

wtd* 395 cm (1). 31 The door handles are in lhe |i>nn ol addorved workshop which manufactured a headpiece In Iraq and the Jazira they also decorated burning

Th# Niue* O «h».. CWtoc >n ol Warn* Art. winged dragons, their scaly bodies knotted lot an astionomical instrument in the Khalili lhe gates of cities or lortresses. like the

londc". Im nos. MTV* ’(O’ MTW 1428 and terminating in gryphons’ heads. They Collection, using palmettcs or lull palmettes Talisman Gate (BafrrrAHtarar) at Baghdad The central spout faces straight forward, but

a«m> i»l' w '< hj !•»« have no hind legs. The dragons' heads. in more ot less 'post-Samarra* style, in which (1221. no longer extant), lhe Aleppo Gate al the side spouts, which curve gracefully
 ■ii>M • rtwaaio*)
Forklr ftruNri htawnN m ltt*M

Candlestick Candlestick

by ton Akiak Sha •'-jra.of AH 717/AD 1317-18

*»», WM wMl ..!.«< »nd 9okl • ts*gM S3 cm.

AH422'AD1Z25 Aamowr of the base 41 cm

t-Rw-iRad t-«». ic-tad and Intold wah aNw •

34 on, <Ha-n<no< 37 cn Lte'atie Afwmxfra 1925, pi 13; Devon/we 1925,

M-saur- of FinaAda. Bodon. Edn*d JacMon pi lc P 99-100. Ovoa.h«. 1928. p. 195. Combe

Mo&res COtocMn. «r«. $7 140 1930. pp. 51-54. W-r. p. 9. No 14, Mto* 1’37.
Uaeatu-a 1949. no 561. pp 334341. Oca p. Ml; PNto" 1980 lip 1>3. p 29

1H7 p 381-324, flaar 1983. p 22-2B. 32. Smr Mo

9<e 19SJ.pp 61-79 This brass candlestick Is inlaid with silver
and gold although a considerable quantity

lnscrl|Hion. main band, luisc of neck: ol these metals has been removed. It is

‘Work of Abu Bakr son ofal-Hajii Jaldak. decorated with inscriptions in the cursive

apprentice ofAhmad son of‘Umar son of scripi typical ol the period

Kamil. knows as al-Dhaki lhe engraver of

bland. in the year622 /AD 1223/ long lift to On lhe rim of the candle holder:
its owner' The work ofthe matter Ah. ton of Umar, son of
Ibrahim al-Shankari (?) al-Mawsili. and that
Inscription, outer raised rim ol candlestick was in lhe year 717 ofthe Prophet's hijra.

base:
Lasting might andgrowing success and ??and Around the candle holder
attending luck I pmenv the fire and its constantglow. Dress

and Gcd's blessings in eternity and ruing l"tk me in yellowgarments I am never present m
and helping destiny and sweeping victory and signature (lhe oldest is a modest box. with­ last Urtuqld sultan ol Atnida; it seems more an assembly withoutgiving the night the

enduring good fortune and perfea integrity out figural scenes, tn the Benaki Museum, likely that Ibn laldak made the candlestick appearance ofday.
The inscription around the edge of tire triumphant, the notorious. lhe holy wamor.
and . /damaged area/ and wide authority Athens), this candlestick was made by one there than in Mosul itself. After the Uriuqld
shoulder: the protector offrontien. the defender the
and toning life Ibn Jaldak. apprentice to Ahmad al-Dhaki dynasty fell in 1231. the deposed sultan In the medallions, which were onginally
I preserve the fire and its constantglow. Dress support of Islam and Muslims May Gadglorify
to in owner.' al-Mawsili, in 1225. eventually took reluge with al-Malik al- decorated with Z-shapcd patterns, an incised
me in yellowgarments I am never present in liis adherents and multiply his pouvr.
Muzaltar ol llanuh (in Synai, and Ibn inscription:
an assembly without ghing lhe night the through Muhammad and his family.
Graffito, inner rim of candlestick base: The candlestick is notable for its decoration, Jaldak's candlestick probably passed to a This candlestick was endowed to the sanctuary

The Vestiary of/al-MuHkfrd-Ma sud' which Includes two styles of script, abstract woman in al-Muzalfar’s harem, of which ofthe Prophet by Mirjan Aga. appearance ofday For its owner theglory and
prosperity Mil last and long lifefor infinite Inside the candlestick
and animated interfaces, and scenes of a eunuch named 'Alii was in charge.
days. Glory and victory and prosperity and Ibis most luminous candlestick mu endowed
Graffito, outside of candlestick base, above a human activity In eleven artlied compart­ r.B. irorft reuanh musuiM ofPenis tUrirkampi The band around the neck is inscribed with
grace and luck and splendour and excellence by Mirjan ofthe Sultan. to the sanctuary ofthe
pktunal medallion: ments around the have. Ibn Jakfak has pan of the Qur'an <lt 2Mt:
andgenerosity and forbearance and learning Prophet and The curse ofGod be upon the one
Fora ladv /under thr superytsionf of Afifal- depicted seated rulers, hunters, and gar­ God' There is nogod but He - the Living.
are the things-for which you arc exaired, that who changes it or attacks it or lakes possession
Musaffar. deners; iwofubly using contemporary book lhe Self-subsisting. Eternal
the Arabs and Persians arc embarrassed u ofit. tt n flogging in the open and before all
painting as his model, he has provided a No dumber can scire Him, nor sleep
His are all things in the heavens and in earth describe you. What is mated h very little betide
An important group of thineenih-ccntury glimpse into the different social strata ol
you. seeing that your gualhin artfor them the Furthermore, lhe candlestick is decorated
silver-inlaid brass objects b associated with hb day. Who is there cun intercede m His preseme,
prmaples ofemtence while the (other) people with standing ligurcs on a geometric
Mosul. Wliilt only one of these, the master­ except Ar He permittetlt?
haw disappeared background, the twelve signs of lhe zodiac,
ful Biotas ewer In The British Museum, TWo graffiti - inscriptions not original to He btoweth whai
bands with pain ol birdsand dense foliage
has an Inscription stating that it was made lhe candlestick - suggest where it was made (appeareth to His creatures as)
Around the body: Although the candlestick is dedicated 10 an
in Mosul, numerous others bear signatures and what happened to It. Tire al-Ma'sud Before or After or Behind them
Glory to our lard, lhe possessing king. the unnamed sultan, the titles of the sovereign
of artists using the sobriquer'al-Mawsrli'. mentioned in the earlier graffito (hidden
learned, thejust, thr fortified (by God), lhe around the burly suggest this mas have been
The second oldest dated object with such a inside the candlestick base) was probably Ilie

71
70
Barthly heautf heawnb art am oi .«i mi • ng

Shams abDin-Salih. lite Unuqtd Sultan <4 8

Manlin (southeast Turley) who reigned
Mosque lamp
between AH 712-765/AD 1 II 2-1)61-4.
At a later date Mirjan Aga presented the ■gNdbyMwii
candlestick in the Sanctuary ol the Propitet Ottorun Tunay(Un.k> Ju-MO. AH 9$6 fjun. !M9)
in Mecca alter attempting to remove some
ol the human figures from the decoration. Swpno cotourlau gUw •Hoghr 381 on.
Mirjan Aga ol. AH 755 I AD 1574) was a 24.® on
slave of Sultan Ufjaylu and twice governor the B'.’ish MuMsim luodon. z>. r>o 1M7$-I6 1
of Baghdad. PrtWMKe Gilt a* C. Drury Fonnu-i
Uteraiw D-ury fonr^n 186®. pp 387-3®7. HoMo-
1932, *fl U». Une IM7. 69 38. fcg-rs - Ward
1988, p 148 no 48. Arawy Raby ”8®. "c 355.
CmmII 1998, tg 39

Candlestick
Thh symbolic mosque lamp is the key
Sqned by the cru^jrrjn Suh tihli document lor the study of Iznik pottery.
lr»n, AH (Oocafro«-.Ja"u»^ The inscription around the lootring includes
1324-29 the dale, the name of the designer and
Broruo for trawl. slve>*Ho^h:47Ban a dedication to the local saint of Iznik,
The Slate tW»mrtago Muteire, St Poteotwg. Esrelzadeh Rumi. The majestic thuluth
inv.no (R-I98O inscriptions around the Up. neck and lower
Pnwananca traiwtaoad ■» ”66 f'W" Baki»clwaray body arc (Jiltanic verses. According to
Kit«y «<d A«hilKl-w Museum (Crimea) the donor of the lamp, it was found in
Uteorure: Kuwait 19W, no 50 the Mosque ol Omar in Jerusalem in 1865
and sulnequently given to him by the
The sliapc ol this candlestick is typical ol friend who found it. Scholars have deduced
14th-century Iranian metalwork. However, that the lamp was produced as part of
it Is inlaid only with silver, in a |>eriud when the rcfurbislunent ol the Dome of the
it was a more common practice to Inlay Iranian bronzes; as with many of these, candlesticks', the further text being Rock, instigated by Sulun Suleyman the
with both gold and silver. Ute only living the sultan's name is not mentioned unproblematic: Magnificent in the mid-16th century
creatures represented arc birds. ...the ittahcu master. king of mien. saviour
The most Important inscription is placed Ibencfanor) ofthe Haji and the two The repeating doud-bands on a white
Hie candle balder bears the artisan's name; In six cariouches on the shoulders of the Holy Shrines li e. Mesa and Medina). gtound. the black araliesques on turquoise
The work of Ruh ad-Din Tahir. candlestick. This has been damaged and Imad ad-Dunya wu d-Din Muhammad in Inbcd semi-medallions and the narrow
now we can read the contents ol only lour Falaki. may his vieiory be strengthened band ol tulip buds recur in several Iznik
as well as a ptubable Haduh: cartouches. The language Is Arabic, written and ha suam multiplied,..in Muharram, objects otherwise notable for their size and
The Prophet Mid. peaie he upon him . In naskh script: lofthel Hijrayear 725. decorative clarity, and help to date those
objects to the mid loth century The lamp
The base o| the candlestick bears an At the beginning, there is a Persian word - Regretfully. tve have not found this man s was made al a time when polychrome glazes
inscription in Urge thuluth script: ‘work doing', executed with a tool different name in historical sources. Impeding the were beginning to replace the blue and
Glory to out matter sultan ofthe tultam ofthe Irom that used lor the rest of the legible part solution to many problems connected with while and blue, turquoise and white palette
Arabs and th/ non-Arabs. holder ofthe power of the inscription (tsvo cartouches cannot be this piece. of early 16th-century Iznik wares The sober,
of life and death wvr the peoples, the pal, the deciphered and in addition. the owner's nisba A-L measured ornament of the lamp accord with
warrior for the Unit. has been changed). Its intended use in one ol the holiest build­
ings in Islam.
This inscription is of a standardized type and Thus, the In-glnning remains unclear.
many 14th-century Perhaps, the second word was 'two
tonbly braun. hearthit IM*H

And within it a lamp: 10

The lamp enclosed in glass
Mosque lamp

The inscription is interrupted by three large

medallions enclosing calligraphic Hawns: Glow. • He-ght 362 cm
Glory to our lord the sultan al-Malik al-Zahtt
”>• Slats Hamitag* St Patantxrg.
■v.oo. EG-8B3
The main decoration on the body is a wide
Prov«n»ne» >n 188$ from th»
calligraphic frieze, also in Mamluk thuluth
A.P B»nlevO, CoHMxm, Pan.
script outlined in red and reserved on a dark Utwaturp p-vzrx- 19S8JI. XP. f*. <H.B7
blue ground:
Glory m our lord the sultan al-Malik al-Zahir Inscriptions on the neck Juul body (‘High-
Abu Said. may Godgrant him victory. principled, noble, greatest |servant | of the
lord our sultan al-Malik al-.Mu/aflar, wn of
Tl»e inscriptions indicate tliat the lamp was the late sultan al-Malik an-Naslr'1 indicate
commissioned by al-Malik al-Zahir Sayf al- that this lamp was made lor the Mamluk
Din Abu Sa'id Barquq. He was the first in the sultan al-Muzallara ltadji, who ruled tor no
line ol Burii Mamluk sultans and ruled twice, longer than 15 monlhs in I 346 and I 347
between 1582-1589 and 1590-1599 It it
possible that this lamp was Intended tor the
madrasah he built in Cairo in I 584-86.

Gaston Wicf recorded 35 intact mosque

lamps, and a group ol fragments from several
others, bearing the name ol Barquq. Many
share the same decorative schemes teen tm
this example.
MJU

11

Mosque lamp
rhe lamp, which carries the name and Ma­
rons ol the Mamluk sultan Barquq. has a $»■•» O’ Fg.pt ISciccr-ur,
Mosque lamp
wide, funnel-shaped neck with a thickened, Glm. 30.7 cm

38S rounded rim. The straight walls ol rise body The State Hecm-ta^e St PwonButg,
Hare out from the doping shoulder before «v"O VG-17
tapering sharply towards the base; six sus­ Mfetwd m 1974 horn the

6 rd beat gtktad ->^al pension loops are trailed on to the body. Museum the fotnw. Baton A.N StwgUr
School ol T«h.u<al Dirwu-g

tliwnMa* n cm (manmum) Tire dark Nile inscription <>n the tied, in Ulwaru® unpuO^ed

TlwNnwrD •Owl* Collwtion cl Art. Mamluk thuluth script, outlined in red on a

gilded ground, consists o! the opening pan ol Tlic same title al Alim. the omniscient' is
COcdcr, C.GLS572
Aval al-Nur ('Hie Verse of Light'. XXIV; 551: repeated over llie neck and hotly. There
-i "rp9 ,<• >74-179, na* tn~ 163.
l..1—. tool a*..!! God u the Light ofthe heavens and the earth is no mention ol the individual who com-

The parable of Hr. Light is as ifthere were mtaioned this piece

a niche

74 75
 Once in their lives Muslims, provided they have the
12
means and are fit, should make a pilgrimage to the city
Mosque lamp with pendant

orf(M« 15«<^*ikv
of Mecca. The pilgrim undertakes this journey, called a
hajj, including a visit to the holy places mentioned in (D
GUu, ontrow • He>gtc ol Irr® 32 cm
connection with the prophets Ibrahim (Abraham) and
Muhammad. Mecca is the birthplace of Muhammad and O)
cu
Th. Stalo He-mitaT* Muwum, St txcWutg
the city where he began preaching in about 610. In 630,
^.ro. EO-493 l^pl. EGW7 tp«ndin<|
when the prophet gained control of the city, he purified
P'o'.'-nwxe th» lamp w»« acquit*! " >W trom the ancient temple complex from its idolatrous images
th. f V Shuv.lov. Colactton t-» omvUrl »•
and dedicated it to Allah.
brought ton Egjp. m !896 byVG. ix.
tnonmxa Ti**u 1’95 no 7a The holiest object in Mecca is the Kaaba. a rectangular
building which Muslims all over the world turn to face
The pendant on this lamp is probably older when praying. According to Islamic tradition the Kaaba
than the lamp itself. They were brought was built by Adam, the first prophet. Later on, Ibrahim
togeilter in The Hermitage. and his son Isma'iel (Ishmael), who is the forefather of all
*1. Arabs, are said to have rebuilt it after the fall. Set in one
corner of the Kaaba is the Black Stone, which Allah once
sent down out of heaven.

The Kaaba, which has one door, is covered with a black

cloth called the Kiswa. The Kiswa, replaced each year, has
a band beautifully embroidered in gold and silver thread
with the creed and verses from the Qur'an.

The holy shrine stands empty. But inside a few gold and
silver lamps burn, symbolizing the presence of God.
 or isi»m •

courtyard there arc another two inscriptions

in Arabic
Pilgrim '$ flask
7»miswjftftafG<Wand
Muhammad h the Menenaet ofGod

All .Muslims (urn in the direction ol the

Kaaba to pray and every Muslim must visit
the Kaalsi at least once in Ids lifetime Tiles
such as this had a votive or commemorative
funciion and were produced at Izmk in the
Flasks such as these were used by traveller) 17th century.
or to store water. The vessel can I* sus­
pended from one of the handles. The
porous day body kept the water cool.

15
Tlie flask has a thickset disc-shaped body
Tile
made with a mould and a broad base: there
arc two handles attached to the neck and
O«o«w Hw AH 1118'AD 1706
shoulder. The lip is broad and simple The
U9—M gland ■ H-gM 31.»cm. —»«< 3« cm
decorations comprise stylized Moral and
Benafc Musesm. Atbetn. Iiw no >25
geomeinc motifs surrounding two circular
cartouches which both contain a sword.
These are the emblems ol •the man who This rectangular tile Iras polychrome decora­ Footprints ol holy figures are revered in The footprints on this tile, however, refer
is responsible for weapons*. tion under a transparent glaze, depicting a Islam, as in other religions A small building to thine left by the Prophet belorr his mir­

pair ol footprints amidst Howers arranged Iwsiile the Kaaba Imuses a stone which is aculous night journey to heaven. This site

symmetrically on a green background Hie believed !<• bear ihe footprint ol Abraham was later marked bv the Dome ol the Rock

footprints contain Turkish inscriptions and (Ibrahim! in Jerusalem

the date AH 1II8/AO 1706.

16

16

Multyi al-Din Lari. Putuh al-

Haramayn (poetical description of
Mecca and Medina)
u

Ccp»d b, th. crfl-jwh.- Vbi W-Hm^.1

Mecca. AH 9ZQAX 15*2-63
glaze. The panel depicts a map of the Holy GouBcra pipe-
Sanctuary ol the Great Mosque (Masjid 25 Iomk lha Imai W IsncSc'O •
Panel ofsix tiles
al-Haram> at Mecca with the Kaaba in the

TurtwtUnau. mhcaMuiy centre. The rectangular courtyard is sur­ th. Stat* U"'”S’

pjztd -He^ht 73 cm. —dt* 49 5 cm rounded by live minarets and other build­ in.no V9 941

Muwum. A!h^. «,ao 124 ings. Inside the arched courtyard the Kaaha
Ifloratwe. Alexandsa 1925, pl. 24. 1980, is depicted in the centre surrounded by dll-

«P»-P- >5 lervnt buildings and sites which arc Ident­

ified by their names. On the top and between Tire manuscript contains 11

This panel consists of six square tiles with the two minarets are two lines of Turkish depicting the Mus

polychrome decoralion under a transparent inscription in cursive script Within the

 the Kaaba) in Mecca and tlte Haram al- Nur to its Iclt Is crowned by an Indian-sty lc
Nabawi (Mosque ol the Prophet) in Medina pavilion. Above it is the Jabal al-Kabsh. 'the
Three charts of pilgrimage sites
can be traced back as for as the 12lli century, place <4 the sacrifice ol Ishmael - Peace be
th- H»M It-HUy Sqtrfi*»». hul many more survive from later centuries, upon him!’ This gloss is a reference to the
17* or 1*h cantury appearing on a variety ol objects. One stimu­ sacrifice ot Abraham, when the patriarch's
Ink. gold. iIImm x>a wxtonolmxx on lus was the growth of proxy |Mlgrimagcs. willingness to sacrifice his son Ishmael was
mamlaid pts*' • langih •ppra.im«i»lr MA «m. Members ol Muslim imperial families, svho
trwarded by God. who sent an angel with
width ootnveo 419 an and 47.5 cm were not able to perform the hail themselves a ram lo be slaughtered In his son’s place
ThaNMwrD K"ol* Coition cHUatr<c An. lor political reasons, paid others to go in

London, -v.ro* MSS 7453. MSS 745.1. MSS 7452 their stead, and attestations in scroll form

literature TanirxA 1983. jo 401-437. Hogrtt - Ward weir issued by the authorities in the Hijaz to
I7B
1988, no. 34 43.-0, (topr. I9»2. pp 23S-X6. show I hat Ihe pilgrimage had been property
conducted. The most splendid surviving The Masjid al-Haram at Mecca
CoproMfi** 199& ro 38
example, although incomplete, is the scroll (MSS 745.1)

These depictions ol the Holy Plan' of the attesting to the proxy pilgrimage performed
laaratw Wmoir 1997. ro. 14, p 34
Hijaz form pan of a wry ancient and very in AH 951/AD I545 on behalf of Prince
conservative tradition. Although the dcUib Mehmed, a son of Sullan Suleyman the Ute monuments arc elegantly depicted,
may change with each rendition, the basic Magnlliccnl who had dud in 1541 (Istanbul. though the buildings in rhe courtyard and
schemes remain constant over long period*. Topkapi Palace Library. ms.H 1812). The the minarets have inauthentic onion domes
Tile view is always from the north, and the same conventions were adopted for illus­ Similarly, the arcades, which were vaulted
monuments arc invariably shown partly in trations of literary works on the Holy Ptaces, painted in colours, silver and g<4d. and
in Ottoman works <4 the later 16th century
elevation and partly in bird’s-eye view, al an such as Muhyi Lari’s Fuiiih al-tforamayn (mV glosses were added in black ink. under Selim II ami Murad III and would
angle ol about 60 degrees. The linages ol the cui.na. 76). which tlte author dedicated lo the have had hemispherical domes ol the
Masjid al-Haram (the mosque that contains Sullan of Gujarat (now west India) in 1506. Ottoman type, arc here shown with bracket­
and which was much copied in 16th-century 17A ed domes ol an Indian type. The Kaata Is
Persia, Turkey and India The conventions
Stations of ihe pilgrimage outside represented in the same manner as in
were also applied ill views <4 other shrines, nu.w. 18. folio b. but omitting the water­
Mecca (MSS 745.3)
notably those at Najaf and Karbala' in Iraq, spout. The building is covered with a black
which are so represented in a scroll acquired Tire chart represents tile area to the east of curiain. the A'ouu (wearUM 19). while the
by the Danish traveller Carsten Niebuhr al Mecca where the greater pan ol the hajj horizontal yellow band stands lor the girdle
Kartala' in 1765 (Copenhagen. National ceremonies took place. The underlying or Miami (mt car.w. 20). and the red and gold
Museum. EEA. 11 Comparable views of the scheme b identical tocar./ra. IS. folio a. but square, labelled Door ol the Kaaba*. marks
same shrines seem to have existed much the ellect is lighter and more obviously
the location of the Sitaro tw car.w 21).
earlier, as they occur in the Mccmu'a-i Indian, due to the colours used, and the The buildings in the courtyard include
Menazil prepared by Matrak«,i Nasuh in 1537 more lanciful rendition ol both the buildings Manons for the imams belonging to each ol
(Istanbul University Ubrary. ms.T 5964) and the five- mountains. The three main the four schools (AfodAAah) of Islamic law
stations on the ritual journey Irom Mecca (Shari a) That at the top (south) belonged I7C Below it is the cenotaph ol the Prophet with
As in the- case1 ol tatno. IS. ihe three illus­ to the plain ol ’Arafat are represented by to the Malikis, tlut on the right least) to the its characteristic zigzag cover, and below
The Haram al-Nahawi in Medina
trations in this gioup may be the work <4 an the Mosque of Mina (centre), the smaller lianafo. and that shown at an angle in the that the cenotaph of the Prophet’s daughter
(MSS 745.2)
Indian draughtsman working in the Hijaz. Mosque ol al-Mu/dalda above it. and the bottom left (north-west) to the Hanbalis Fatima. To the right, amidst the domed
This would certainly account lor tin- lanciful Mount <4 Mercy on the plain of ’Arafat The Shafi"is used the building covering the UtTJtwO Wnxx. no. 14. p 3$ arcades shown in bird's-eye view, stand a
Indian-style domes that adorn many of the Itself (top left). These arc complemented by Well of Zamzam. which is distinguished by minbar (pulpit) between two ntihrabi. one
buildings, and for the inscriplions in Persian. depictions of six other features. The Mosque a forge silver and red medallion, representing This chan shows the Haram al-Natawi. or labelled as the Hanali mihrab. the other as
I lie literary language ol many Indian Muslims ol the Prophet Adam is shown at the lop, Mosque ol the Prophet. This was construct­ the mihrab ol the Prophet. The courtyard
the well itself.
in tlte post. The diagrams were drawn on with Mount Thawr to its right, and Mount ed on lite site ol the Prophet’s house and ol the mosque contains the Tomb of Zaynab
large sheets ol paper (composite in the case Abu Qutays below that In the bottom right contains his tomb, which is marked by the a well and two palm trees, while the cem­
ol folioa) using a rule and compass, with corner are cemeteries, one ol which contains Green Dome tn the top Iclt corner. (It is etery bdow contains a number <4 monu­
some freehand drawing. They were then the Tomb <4 Khadija al-Kubra. while Mount shown as deep-blue, with green scrolls) mental tomb* That on the right to identified
tftMr to»r«. uh

as containing the graves ol ‘Abbas m the bottom right) and live stylized moun­ the unifying locus ol the Muslim world. This
(Muhammad's unde. and founder of the tains Mount Abu Quhays. which protrudes small, cube-shaped building is believed to
Ablusid Caliphate). Iniam Hasan (son ol into the chart from the right edge, marks have been built by Abraham but has been
Fatima and Imam 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the easiern limit ol ihe city. To the east is reconstructed many limes since, always
‘All's successor as linam) and two other the mosque at the pilgrimage site ol Mina, incorporating the holy Black Stone in its
Shi'i imams. Muhammad Baqir (the Filth which has arcades running along one side. eastern comer. The Kaaba is shown in tlie
Imam, 677-711) and JaTar al-Sadi<| (the Above is the tower and small mosque at al- centre of the diagram, covered with a black
Sixth Imam. 702-765). To its lelt stands the Mii/>Lilifa. and above this. In the top left and gold curtain and displaying three
tomb of Malik (circa 712-795). the founder comer, is the Mount of Mercy in the plain t»< features that arc labelled. They arc the
ol the Maliki school of law, and that ol the "Aralat, by which the central rite ol the lia|| 'Door ol the Kaaba' and the 'Mint Felicitous
Caliph Uihman id. 656). To the left, outside took place. The hill is shown surmounted by Slone', kith shown in red, and the golden
the cemetery, is the tomb ol Amir liam/a the domed Qubbat tan Salama, which is ‘Water-spout ol Mercy", protruding from the
(a figure from the Hadith, the legends about no lunger extant. The large building al the roof at Its western angle. The semicircular
the Prophet's life) lop of the chan is 'the" Mosque of Father wall called the Halmt is shown immediately
MX Adam', who according to Islamic tradition to the west ol the Kaaba: within it lie the
was buried in this area: the mountain shown graves of Abraham's son Ishmael and his
below the Mount of Mercy is described as mother Hagar Around the Kaal>a and the
IS the site of the sacrifice ol Abraham (compare Halim runs the circular walkway called
cat.no. 17, foliom. the Maiaf. ten other small structures arc
Three charts of pilgrimage sites
indicated in more or less their correct

«Vol>», the Hht Coda* Saudi A-*b<»). locations within the courtyard. Around the
I8(M or 19th Mntiuy The three charts were created by gluing two I8B courtyard runs a colonnade roofed with

l"4. fwmthtd vlver »nd watercolours, probtbly sheets of paper together along one side; the domes, which arc shown projecting into the
The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca
tvnpera. <x> dartown laid paper • langah diagrams and other images were executed in courtyard, as arc seven minarets. The blank
(MSS 745.5)
appro*imat«iy 62 Son. t-tw—r 41 7 cm silver, a brown wash. red. green and black, margins beyond the colonnade clearly

•rd Mon with north at the bottom of the cliart The Masjid al-Haram In Mecca is the vast rrpri-scnt the outer walls of the- building

the tuuar D ChMIi ColWcton oi titanic An. Captions were added in Persian, and the use enclosure within which stands the Kaaki. since they arc pierced by its many gates.

London nos. MSS 745 4. MSS 745 5, M$S 745 7 of this language indicates that, as in the case

Literature Wmoit IW. cp 27-Jfl of an no. 17. both the producers of these
images and their intended customers were I8C
These three charts, like coin.' 17. come from from the eastern hall of the Islamic world,
The Haram al-Sltarif in Jerusalem
a set tlut was probably prepared for sale probably from India. During his illicit visit to
(MSS 745.7)
during tire hajj, the great annual pilgrimage Mecca in 1851. Richard Burton noted Indian
performed in Mecca and its environs There painters who produced depictions of the holy iM
The llarain al-Sharil. or Temple Mount, in
was a longstanding tradition ol purchasing shrines, then works being a "mixture ol Jerusalem is depicted in much the same
such Items as souvenirs of the pilgrimage, ground plan and elevation, drawn with pen style, but with fewer, larger buildings, as one weighed on the Day ol Judgement, and they

winch every pious Muslim hoped to com­ and ink, and brightened with the most vivid would expect. The two main structures arc indicate that the Haram al-Sharif is the place

plete at least once in a lifetime The pil­ colours'. represented in an emblematic manner The where the assembly on the last Day will take

grimage to Mecca was usually combined Dome ol the Rock, identified as the Throne place (ire earn.’ 219. Mia tain.
with .1 visit to other holy sites in the region, ol the lord of ihc Worlds', is the domed
including the Tomb of the Prophet in ISA building to lite north, emblazoned with the
Medina, which was also shown in such footprints of the Prophet. while the llat-
Stations of the pilgrimage outside
sets of charts (ice car 17, jWia c) This roofed Masjid al-Aqsa is shown with its
Mecca (MSS 745.4)
group is unusual ui that it aho features minbar (pulpit) in one arch and a silver
a view of Jerusalem, which was the third The pdgnmage siu-s and other features of the roundd representing the Well ol the Leaf in
holiest city for Muslims and was included area immediately to the east of Mecca are the oilier. Tlie set ol scales between the two
in some itineraries. shown as schematically rendered buildings buildings ate conceptual rather titan real:
and cemeteries (the three rvciangular areas they arc the scales on which souls will be
ffarrMr tvuMy. tiravmfv

19 the band and Is composed so that lhe wind 20 Merciful, the Compassionate'), followed 21
Allah ap|»cais at Ihc apex. Ttic second half. by a quotation from the Qur’an (tit: ’MT):
Fragment of the Kiswa Panel from the Hizam Sitara
Muhammad rasul Allah ('Muhammad is (he Say.

C»m. 19t*> century Messenger ol God'), occupies the falling 'Godspeaketh the T’uih Moen, oto" 1945
Caro, 19th <®<itu<y
Silk. lorrpji -cm .nth a satin ground ard tal»y sections, but it is written sideways, so that Black and qort utir. the main ekmeon ot tho follow lhe religion of Abraham. Black Mtn. rmtxv.a.rfO M gold and

pettam • Ha,gbt 160cm. with 8Son (he word Allah again appears at lhe 'lop' dacotatio" oml»o><»o«Hl m guvl *«d oker shrwd the tone tn faith: vk«r thrrod -Hogtn 256 cm. wkRH 136 Cfll

Tim N.,w« 0 OwlA Collects ot IsUr^c Art. The inscription in lhe intervening bands over parting. the sneaker ~oo»s «re<o-3e<cd n tne he hut not ofthe Pagans Tlw Nmmi D Kha» Collwllon at Itlamc Art.

London. wv.no. TXT 38 consists ol the word Allah tn a larger size ol The first House appointed for men London, «w no TXT IM
fl—roof goM .nd fck- wo • $90 <m.
litoraturo w-not 1997. pp 28-27. "O 8 script, again set in the apex ol the zigzags nw that at Bakka- full ofbiasing and Literature Wmo.1 1997 27-33
-Kith «0 cm
It is flanked by lite phrase. fallajalalahu The Nne- D Oat- Ccllcct.on 0* IWmc Art. ofguidancefoe all kinds of beings:
The Ksnra, or Veil, was lhe outer rovrring of l'May His glory be glorified!'). written in in it are Signs Manifest- The Sitara is the curtain that covers the door
London, ew.no TXT 39.
ihc Kaaba in Mecca, li is renewed annually, positive In lhe rising sections and in reverse, the Station ofAbraham ' of the Kaaba lake the rest of the Kaaba's
Literature Verncrt 1997, pp. 28-29. no. 9
and in tltc Ottoman penod lhe new trap­ in so-called mirror script, in lite lallmg external covering It Is replaced every year

ping* lor lhe Kaalia were brought with ihc sections. during the hail For many centuries these
Tlte Hiram is part of the elaborate textile
pilgrimage caravan that came from Egypt textiles were brought from Egypt, where
covering lor the Kaaba in Mecca that Is
towards the dose of the Muslim lunar year. The outer covering ol the Kaaba also in­ they were made. This custom was associated
renewed every year during the pilgrimage
In lhe course ol this process lhe previous cluded the Hium <»re eal.no. 20 and the with lhe status ol lhe Mamluk and then the
season. Il is the belt-bke hand that engirdles
year's Kiswa was taken down and cut up, Sitara tree cat no. 21}. Ottoman rulers of Egypt as suzerains of tltc
the upper pan of the building: by this dale it
and ihc pieces distributed among ihc pious Hijaz, the region where Mecca it located,
look tltc form of eight calligraphic panels,
The sell-patterned black textile bears a this was expressed In their title of Servant
two to a side This section is emblazoned
design of zigzag hands with alternating of the Two Nolde Sanctuaries. In 1924.
with a magnificent inscription in the thuluth
however. King Abd al-'Aziz of the Al Saud
inscriptions. Every other lund contains style, executed in gold embroidery over
lhe Shahetda. the Muslim profession of faith, dynasty conquered the Htjaz. 'Abd al 'Aziz
padding with the diacritical dots, vowel
written in the ihuluth style of script. The first transferred production ol the Kiswa and
signs and other aids to pronunciation em­
other textiles associated with lhe Kaaba Io
half of the text. La ilah tlhTAIIdh ('There is no broidered m gold wire. The text consists
god but dod'i. cKiupirs the rising sections ot Mecca This example was made in Mecca
of tltc basmala ('In the name of God. the

S4
irthlf htjuir

For Muslims, the words that God spoke to the prophet

The Word
under lhe patronage of King Fahd. who
Muhammad are sacred. The Qur'an, which contains all the
attended lhe throne in 1985. information
revelations to the prophet, is literally the Word of God
contained in the silver inscription at the
which descended from heaven to earth. This endows the
base til the amain.
Qur'an with a sacred nature.

Moving production to Mecca did not entail

This exalted nature soon led to a special religious and
great alternations to lhe design of the Sitara,
artistic value being attached to the written word.
which continued to Ire made ol black satin
Indeed, calligraphy, or beautiful handwriting, was the
lavishly embroidered in gold and silver
most suitable method for transmitting the Word In the
thread with a complex pallcm of panels,
Islamic world the calligrapher is the most highly revered
roundels and other devices inscribed with
of all artists.
ap|N>site Qur'anic quotations and prayers.
The main Inscription ut silver, lor example, Allah revealed His words to the angel Gabriel (in Arabic
consists of the basmala and a quotation from Jibril or Jibra’il) in tho Arabic language. This is why Arabic
verse 27 ol Surat al-Falh (‘Vicloiy'; XLVUII: script has a special significance for all Muslims. It is to be
tn the name of(led, found on garments, on domestic objects, on valuable
the Manful the Compttmonait items and on both worldly and religious buildings. It
Truly did (ledfulfil the vision for Hu A/wtle offers a spiritual, protective power, and brings good luck.
Ye shall enter the Smred Mosque,
if God with. Arabic script is highly decorative. Down the centuries
with minds weurc Arab masters have developed handwritings that range
from the delicately refined to the hugely monumental.

The most sober and dignified form is Kufic script which

takes its name from the city of Kufa in southern Iraq, in
the Middle Ages a major centre of Islam. This handwriting
is the one most often used, on account of its formal
dignity and elegance, particularly for decorating large
buildings and works of art.

From the 9th century on cursive scripts were used Some

of them are so graceful and virtuosic that they appear
made more with the intention of delighting tho sight

than actually to be read.

J.v.
 nr imam car o> io.m • rhz

would have been coloured; there are a few 25

traces of paint on the frame and the back­
ground to the text. Bowl

DianwwrMSem
n Tlx Suto Hormrug. Museum 5t Fetenburg.

Bowl ovno CA-7013

Piortoanc* vantt-mKlm 1931 fcom
(HUupurl. Ill" l_V ftw»o» coltcctsm
Sanhecvwv. sl,p-p«mwd undar a ”»nco>>t«'>t UtirMurv Shshcpa 1979, p 10, 50. Mb X 3.
gtem -Haight 7 2 cm, dlamott> 25 1 cm Xuwan 1990, no. 13
’•» N-W D Unlit Collection o' 'Batn.c An.
London, m.no, K>T 1*92 This bowl of reddish day has been painted
Ulmtura G*Oo£hM>l 1986. p's 27, 41. 55,68, 101, with colored slips over a red engobe and
22 The inscriptions arc in simple ornamental 126 and 139 G-uba 1994. no 66. p 77. m« .<o covered with a colourless transparent glare.
Kufic script and seftaraied by a simplified p.76 The lour medallions contain similar, highly
Carved panel
rosette. Cenain letters such as mini and nun stylized. Arabic inscriptions. A comparison
Fattmid Egypt Illhcomu-y discreetly decorate the text by occasionally The bowl Is decorated with a fine Kufic with inscriptions on other vessels suppons
Wood, uftod . length 55 cm height 27 on extending above the line al the end of inscription, painted in a purplish Hack slip. the theory tliat the craltsinan repeated
8<—‘ hMe-m. Aihon., mnj 9136 a word, as do thr vertical intertwining Generosity a a ditpotitien oflite dwellers of tile won! 'Piety' several times, tn a highly
elements ol the lam-ahf. Originally the panel Paradise He Said simplified form The style is typical of late
10th- and early 11th-cenlury Samarkand
A Fatinud wooden panel Irom the door ol a lAfra.iy.ibi: the script itself suggests the
mosque carved with a seven-line inscription 11 th century, the beginning of the
with two verses from the Qur'an, IX: 18: 24 Karakhanid dynasty.
tn die name ofCod.
the Metaful. the Compaatonate. 24
This inscription seems to have been popular
Only he thall inhabit God'i plam of wnhip on this ware, as it is found - sometimes with
who believer in God and the Lan Day. and Bowl
minor variations - on 35 recorded objects.
performs the prayer. and payi the aims,
Cantril Am. Airwlyjb (old 11th wnhxy
andfears
Tlie script is datable by manuscript parallels Eafthcrwxe. sl®-p»nt»d .•>«< • transparent glare •
none bui God alone: it may be that those will to the 11 th century. The appearance ol H»ghe8<>n.dlMW*'r 28 cm
be among the guided
having been written with a pen is entirely n„ Nnw. D KXji* Collector ol IUhwc Art.
misleading since the slip is lar too thick London, rv.no POT >20*
and XXXIX: 71. 74:
instead the potter would have used a knife Litaratura Grub. 1994, no 68 p 79 San alao
That thorn that fear that Lard shall be driwn to sharpen up the contours, a technique 8ohhM<~ 1958. pp 21-38 pl VW »-b
in eompanies
requiring considerable skill
into Paradise, till when they haw ame The decoration ol the bowl in a heavy Mack
thither, and its gates slip, consists of a lu-rnngbone motif scratched
are opened and its heepen will say to them. in the slip below the rim. a bold band ol flori­
'Pout be upon you ated pseudo-Kufic with repeating letter tonus
Well )vu haw fated, enter in. to dwell forever. " on the sides and a plaited Kind round the
And they thall say. 'Praise Mongs to God. central well T\vo pieces colic.ted by Vyatkin
who has been true at Afrasiyab. with similar illegible inscrip­
m Hit prenw tom and has bequeathed upon tions. have been dared to the 11 th century:
the earth one is virtually identical to tlx* present piece.
tur'hh bMHV, »M»rn/r. n> WerJ

many other media, the visual Impact ol tlse With fortune, and blestn^. and well­
Samanid epigraphic wares most resembles being and completeness. andpenermitY and
that of writing on paper and lira: textiles. fratnude. and obedience and beneficence to in
Moreover, when the inscriptions are written owner
around the inner rim of a bowl, they
maximise the rhythmic possibilities of A lunher Inscription inside the inkwell, in
the circular form. nashlt script. reads.
SM.C Glory and prosperity. andpewet. and well­
being. and endurance. and perpetuity to its
owner.
27 A.I.

Inkwell
28

Iran. Ibhcaonxy
Inkwell
B'cxve (oi ix«wl. Wotr. «W* •He-yht 10S an
1h» StMa HiKmitjg* M-so-.m St PoterUnxy Khowun (HcO). •arty 13lh ewitury
■wno. IR-1S33 Quaternary alloy. <*». s-h* and copper .May. wrth
*o.-iu<ve "aorfo-M - 1925 1-or- The State Inr-.rnau.ddr.tfcl-McqH 11 I cm rSi-i-wr 10cm
Ac»l<my o< Mate,* Cultural HlMory til. N—> D Khalil Ce*eaio" IMmx An.
(N.I VewCncy Colkwcn) London, ifwno MTW 1466
MMhev IPS9. p. 61. Condo- 19/64. Ularauxe uryxAhih^ Soeabo Ccpe-heye- 1996.
no. 18ft /e-ner 1989. p 125, itg. 8-9. KuwM 1990. -o ai.M> 122-123. Mainer 1973-74. p 121, 8a*

-O 29 1983. f? 212 pp. 261-262

Literacy svas widespread in lire Muslim The inkwell lias a tapering cylindrical body

world, so there arc a large number of objects and a lid with an eight-faceted dome sur­
connected with writing. Most numerous mounted by a globular knob. The entire

26 According to ‘Abdallah Ghouchani. ilm arc inkwells and pencases made of various external surface, including the underside

saying is attributable to Imam All. Given materials. By the 12th century in Iran of both the base and the lid. is covered with
Bowl
the marked stylistic variety ol Samanid cylindrical inkwells had appeared with lids silver- and cop|>cr-inlaid decoration.

lra« or ce-xrW Am, area 1000 ceramics, it has been suggested that the attached using strings that ran through loops
black and white and red and black and on the sides and were lied to the Imdy. The facets ol the dome alternate seated
C«f«i»K. t>v* body, wtue *nd -unCMnew slip,
trn-sptro-t. <ok>urlMi ylm •CX«n«U< 34 6 on white epigraphic wares appealed to an figures with knotted interlaces: traces of

Arabic-speaking clientele, either the This richly-dcsoralcd example crimes Irom three animals, separated by copper-inlaid
The Brjiih M_si-n London. nv-o 1958 12-18 1
educated urban elite or Arabs living in the Hermitage collection: its surface is dots, can still be seen on the knob. Round
purthaw
tlse lar noriheastern reaches ol the Muslim covered with abstract ornament, the dome, mutinied figures with falcons or
Lferature Ooudw* 1986. p 292, no. 13a
world. representations of animals and Arabic stylized wiki beasts alternate with seated

Bowk dishes. and other vessels covered inscriptions. drinkers in roundels, all on a punch-doited

with while slip and Inscribed with Arabic The style of Kulic script used on this bowl is ground. On the sides ol the lid arc processing

sayings in manganese were produced in large slightly Freer than that found on the most Tlie inscription on top of the lid. in nasklt hare-like quadrupeds, while on the under-

numbers during the Sarnanid period: they severe Samanid epigraphic wares. As a result script, reads: side arc six sh-petalled renettes in silver and

have been excavated at Nishapur in Iran the rising, vertical letters such as lam and alif Glory and prosperity. and power. and copper.

(Khorasan) and Afrasiyab. the prc-Mongol curve to the left before terminating in a fork perieition. and endurance and happiness,
mound ol Samarkand in Transoxiana. now These curving verticals may mark a stage and., and ftenerasity. .uidpraise, and The decoration of the body is much richer

Uzbekistan Hie inscriptions tend to be pithy between the squared, simple Kufic found on perpetuity to its owner. and is of silver alone Round the Inset collar

sayings, such as the one on this bowl: some Samanid bosvls and the development is a frieze ol quails Its inner rim has a frieze

Hr is*.' tpcjh Iw tpetch is silver. but silence of the forked terminals into foliate devices. The inscription oil tile side of tlie lid. in Kufic ol hare-like quadrupeds and dogs marduni.

b a ruby It. tfood health and prosperity. While such letter hmm liavc parallels in script, reads: with a border of small circles The sides have
 »«r or !«■>■ • T»> ur,-J
KaHUy bemtt.

central roundels with mounted hunters, 29 chain interlace The design is interrupted by

and vignettes ol county pursuits above and three lobed plaques to w hich hinged loojis
Inkwell
below. The vignettes are tanked by twin were once attached: all but one are missing.

registers al zodiac signs with their planetary Wow Iran o* J./im how souihowt Underneath it bears a central interlace

domiciles Between these groups are narrow «•'!» 13th cowuiy roundel with three sections ol palmate scroll

panels with an enthroned figure above, Ou’.rrar, aXoy. CMt. •n9*a.od wl «U<i -it* sAw. separated by blank pointed ovals lor optional

confronted hares below and blank lobed izcoor and black paste • Hoght 10.1 on. Icel.
cartouches in the middle. On thr base is a Oarrwltr 8 3 cm
laige roundel with a sunburst surround lhe Hasse* D KM- CoHrctxxi of Islam* Art, The lid has a central dome of six lacets,

showing a mounted hunter and a frieze, lomSon lnv.no. MTW 1474 alternately decorated with interlace designs
broken by three blank pointed ovals lor UMttM -npubUsnod Saa abo. AU*n I982-11 no. 9. and six-paal rosettes. The dome Is sur­
optional feel, ol winged monsters inarchant. pp tO-69 1983, 6g 89 p 110 mounted by a knop finial and surrounded
with bird-headed or hare-headed tails and by a hand of benedictory inscription in
the heads ol dusks, lions or bearded men. rile sides ol the inkwell have ail all-over iw.d/r script broken by three eight-petalled
Hanner has suggested an astronomical pattern of eight-petalled rosettes set in a rosettes:
explanation lor the prominence of hares
and hares' heads tn Khorasani silver-inlaid 29
vessels circa 1200. At that time, in latitude
30*—10’. the constellation Lepus below
Orion's feet rose simultaneously with
Gemini.

The blank lobed panels on the sides ol the

Glory. and prosperity. and utahh. 30 The Inside of the lid is filled with a
body correspond to Wanks on the sides ol
and happiness. and wellbeing. and abundance, magnificent inscription:
the lid. Then- were originally Oiled with
Pen box
andgrace (?). and support. I desire only to set things right
loops l..’inpurcciir.wi’. 29) through which a
sofar as I ant able
cradle - used to carry rhe vessel without Mosul l-crtb Iraqi 1210-50
The edge of the lid has a silver-inlaid Kufic ■raw. MUM vlw* and c<w»* • length 36 8 cm My succour is only with Cod; tn Him
spilling the ink - was secured. The dif­
inscription, also benedictory The Bnt-sli Muwum, LonOon. in.no. OA 1884 7 485 Ihave pul my tnvt
ferences m workmanship between lid
With goodfortune. and Messing. and wealth, Prownanca g*-cr to Tha B-VS* Mueauin by iQur-dB XI. 88)
and body, however. suggest that they may
in Iasi Irotn two different vessels ol andfoy. and well-being, and happiness <?). Au^rtlua Wollaston rianks <n 1884
The sides of the pen box are decorated with
similar dimensions and gratitude. and support (?). and affection broratuv lan-.p<x« ISttop. 184no 12.
1949, 14 4 15. Ward 199J «»w and fig 62. twelve roundels containing personifications
(?)and
Btwton 1991 no. 247 of the planets in their day or night houses.
This is not improbable. In the David Col­
From the right end ol tlie from; Mars in
icciion (no. 6/1972), for example, is the Underneath the lid bears half palmate scrolls
Hie rectangular pen box has a long section Aries (a warrior holding a sword and severed
base ol a virtually identical inkwell, inlaid broken by three six-petalled rosates.
for pens, with smaller containers at one end head riding a ram). Venus in Taurus (a female
in copper as well as silver, and anoihcr was
(or ink. sand (for blotting the ink) and lute player riding a bull). Mercury’ in Gemini
publislied by Eva Baer. Both Use knotted Hie decoration on the sides is not known
threads (lor cleaning the reed pens). (two figures holding a stall), the Moon In
interface and punch-dotted ground, features from any otha Inkwell, but II is very do*
Cancer <a figure holdinga crescent). the Sun
present on the lid of the Khalili Inkwell but to that of a fooled cup. probably from
All the interior and exterior surfaces ol the in Leo (a ligure with the face ol the sun
absent Irom die decoration on its body. western Iran, now in the llargello Museum
pen box are finely engraved and inlaid with riding a lion). Mercury in Virgo (a female
MX in Florence Closer siill is the decoration
silvei and copper in a style associated with figure holding cars of com and a male
on an early 14th-century candlestick in the
the city ol Mosul in lhe I 3th century. The figure). Venus In Libra (a female lute playa
Nuhad es-Said Collection. which James
inlaid brass vessels produced there were beneath some scales). Mars in Scnrpio
Allan has compared to designs on 1 lih- and
highly esteemed by local noblemen and were (a warrior holding a sword and a scorpion)
early 14th-century buddings in Anatolia.
sometimes given to neighbouring rulers as Jupiter In Sagittarius la centaur turning io

diplomatic gilts. shoot a man). Saturn ui Capricorn <a man

with a ptek axe riding an ibex). Saturn In 31
Aquarius (a figure drawing water from a
Jewelled pen case
well). Jupiter in Pisces (a man seated
between three fish). Ottoman Empim, Ut* IMh-ojflj 17th comuty
e.w. Ebo"I 90M. it/quotw. rub-,. peorts. motho-oh
p**<t • Unpth 13 an, wdth 8 cm, ' <-
l<o^p< Polxe M.w^n tiUnbul, -w no 2/2110
Lwwuw Atacoy • Arian W. p, >53

lUrquMSc. rubies, pearls, mother-of-pearl

and gold enrich this ebony pen case which
wax used during ceremonies by lhe sultan or 32 (God) repeated In a plain rtaskh script, 33

ol his representatives rhe pattern is almost a visual representation

Silk textile Batik cloth
ol the ntnal ol dhikr ('remembrance') «s
practised by certain Suh orders, who attempt J—a. eat'f 20th cantur.
Pc-h«- north Africa. 18th W*IZ»
to release themselves Irom involvement with Cotton cloth rvw dyt-S Jin 230 on,
Silk. pUm -m.o -.th (•« pattan .a-nod on
adanon^wtftt-lr^ 158cm. wdth 130cm this world by repetition ol the name ol God. wWiatot.

II- H»M< D KK»I* CdIactton ol IW»n< Art. MJt. rwNMwtD KhalACxslteexmorni^Art.

London. «w no TXT 222 London, mna TXT 1C4

UMratu-e Vtrnort 1991. pp. SA-S9, -o JO
lltaatui. u-yxrtxIVwd

Traditional Javanese dress Incorporated a

This Urge panel ol indigo-blue silk is
number ol untailored rectangular clorli*.
decorated with an all-over pattern in white
usually decorated in the batik technique ol
which consists simply of the word Allah

95
fanMv fotMv. hravenlj «rr

roiM dyeing. This example has been For Muslims, the holy book the Qur'an (In Arabic the

The Qur'an
identified as a ulcndang. a shawl usually word qur'an means 'the reading aloud') is the greatest

dra|M.*d around the head or upper hall ol wonder that Allah has bestowed upon humankind.

the body. The sacred character ol tlte in­ What God revealed to Muhammad was handed on by
the prophet in his sermons. According to some traditions
scriptions. In which the name ol God plays
these were already written down in his lifetime, but
a central role, indicates that it was not lor
others state that this only occurred later under the
everyday use. and may have been |>ari ol a
first Islamic caliphs.
wedding outlit.

The Qur'an is divided into 114 chapters, called suras.

The background is dyed dark blue, and the
These always bear a name that is derived from the
reserved design Is divided into three com-
contents of the sura itself and generally occurs only in
panments. Lach compartment contains a
that chapter, such as the word Cow (Sura 2), Spider (29),
large square rotated 90 degrees, wilh a plain
Smoke (44), Sand Dunes (46) and Elephant (105).
ground At the centre ol the square h a
roundel containing the name Allah, written Each sura is divided into verses, called ayas. The number
in an elongated script, wilh the final stroke of ayas in a sura determines more or less their order of
ol the last letter (the ha) drawn out to form appearance in the Qur'an. The longest, which has 286
an ornamental flourish. The roundel is verses, stands at the boginning of the book, while the
bordered by a quotation from the Qur’an shortest, having a mere three verses, concludes the
(Sura LXI. verse I J) repeated twice: writing. The very first sura which has seven verses forms
Help from til'd an.l a itigh vklary an exception to this. In ordering the suras matters of
Sa thou *.vd tiding w the Bthexen! chronology were ignored and as a result the earliest
suras are placed at the end of the Qur'an
rile name Allah within a six-pointed star,
surrounded by the name Muhammad The Qur'an is a holy book and over the centuries Islamic

repeated six times, is disposed in the four masters have spared neither time nor effort in producing

corners of the square, which has a border beautiful copies. To do this was considered to be an act

formed from a repeat of the phrase la ilah ilia of piety.

Allah (’There is no god but God’t Irom the J,v.

dialtada. the Muslim creed, written so that is

readable Irom the reverse- side of the cloth.
The triangular comers of each compartment
and the framing lunch arc decorated in the
same manner: the ground is sown with
further medallions containing a siylizcd
rendering ol the name Allah, and represen­
tations ol Dhu’l-Faqar. the two-punted
sword ol Imam 'All. Between these motifs
arc Quranic verses, some readable on the
recto and some on the verso.
Eurthb beauty. benefit)' ttt The Que

34 Below this arc the Arabic letters aliflam mini 35-53 structcd, a pile ol old. tom fragments ol
ra which appear at tlie beginning of Sura 13. written material was found between the
Marble fragment Early Qur'an manuscripts found in
al-Ra'd (Thunder'; beneath these arc la tin, tool and ceiling. Since 1980. a German-
the Great Mosgue of Sanaa (Yemen)
Qmr (c*r®*l Sy««>. 8t* COTtiry the two letters which begin Sura 27, al-Nami Yemeni team has been working on this find,

Ink on marble • He^hl IS 5. —<*h 95cra (The Ant'). IrtcrMxc Moon 1938. AvW 1938. pp 2*9-274. concentrating on early parchment material,

Mui...™ of SrMirHtry of CUtura. GmAnram. pp 213-231; Dnt>cb» 1983 Pum 198S. nearly all of which proved to be fragmented

G*n«rat Ooxtorat. toe Anbq^tiM and MuMnroq, PP 9-17; Bathmor >984. pp 2233. BoeNmar 1987-1. Qur'an manuscripts.

Synan Arab RctxbDc <D*>n*Kvs). ...no 1798'-A pp 177-rflO.pl lflS-187.BoWrner19fl7.f1.pp 420.

Ponanance novation of Qair al-Oorti CMnxAe I’M, pp. 2029. Bother 1989. pp 45-47. The sheer quantity of these fragments

DmiMe 1991. pp. 299-313. Dnx"e 1992-1. -some 14.000 from more than *700 manu­
Marble fragments were found during exca­ 04-odw 1992-0. ft»n 1984. pp 107- fir. scripts - ha* revealed developments which
vations in the palace of Qa»r al-lfayr al- >998, pp 13-54. BotfWMW 1999. pp 4(M6, Pun were previously unknown. This has made
Chart*. Many ol these were insenbed in 1999 pp 37-40. Bo<hmerft"prap-ft BoWvnerf." it possible to ascertam which ol the manu­
both Arabic (Kufic script) and Syriac. scripts were locally produced and which
P"P «
came from elsewhere. Accounts rcgaiding
This fragment bear* the black ink inscription In 1973. restoration work in the Great the establishment <4 the 'canonical' version
In the name ofCai, the Merciful. Mosque of Sanaa was the first major cultural of the Qur'an can now be checked against
the Companionate activity undertaken by the government of contemporary manuscripts which, inci­
the recently established Republic ol Yemen. dentally. seem to agree with Islamic tradi­
Tltis is the basntala (the laudation) which This was an important statement which tion. Changes in orthography reported
begins 113 of the Qur'an's 114 nena. acknowledged the relevance of the past. in early sources are confirmed by later
When the western wall liad to lie recon- corrections made to satisfy modified rules.
More than a hundred illuminated manu­
scripts with bright, colourful ornamentation
represent artistic traditions which preceded
the severe style of Abbasid illuminations that

rely on gold.

Examination ol the manuscripts has led

to greater understanding of ths- energy
which calligraphers, painters and ulama
(llKohigisls) devoted ««> studying the
meaning <d God's word so that this could
be committed to writing and visually
presented in the most effective manner

This page, in Hijab script, represents the was written in thin, even lines. Here it is

earliest phase- of Qur anic design. Typical unusually controlled, Diacritical marks are
35
features arc the folio's modcsi proportions irequent.
Page from a Hijazi Qur'an
ansi the varying number* of lines per page
manuscript (this page has 26 lines, the reverse 28). Tile ends of verses air marked by vertical

However, dear definition both of the text lines ol dots; after every tenth verse there
Sural mw $ur‘. Ua 2S-.~» -nd Surat
area and ol the distance between the lines of arc red circles surrounded by dotted cirdes
aAOamar('»« Moon'. UV 1)
script has produced a uniform appearance Tlie illuminated bands separating the Sura*
Arata* tv half 8t»' e*rlu^
Which is not common In Hfjari manuscripts generally comprise a sequence of simple
In* .nd 9OU*d«4 on • "*9* *0 9 on.
Htjari script which is closely related to the motif* with an internal direction
w«Bh29.4on
earliest cursive scripts known from papyri. H.CJl.
Da. al-Makhtutat. S*nM, wv.no. 01-28 '

98
fanhlt btauty. tfffulv

able to draw lines that range from hair-line the image on the following leal Tills type

■<> bold and broad. He used dashes as line of mosque was first employed under Ihc

fillers io keep the pages in register. Umayyad caliph al-Walid. in the Great
Mosque of Damascus. The palmer ha* used

The rich illumination comprises lull-page an unusual comlMtiatlon of floor plan and

Images, sura dividers and frames. The elevation to show the main feature* ol lhe

repertory <4 ornamental motifs is Lite building, such as the ihrec sections of the

classical; Ihc relined technique suggest* prayer hall, nvo-storeys high, which run

lhe manuscript was produced in a place parallel to the tibia wall, and the axial space

with a long tradition of book making. which cut* across these sections, leading

Certain features of ihe manusenpt and the from the main gate to the milirab Important

iconography intimate that this work was details - ihc mtnbar in front ol the mihrab.

made lor a member of the Umayyad family, the niinque lamps suspended on long chains,

historical circumstance* suggest that caliph the ablution facilities between the monu­

al-Walid himself may have commissioned ii. mental flight* of steps, ewn the minaret

However, carbon dating points to a slightly (top lelti with ns inside staircase - arc

earlier date. depicted with a great fluency which testifies

M*4I
to a long pictorial tradition, now lost, which
Six leaves from a monumental must haw preceded this work.
Qur’an manuscript
36
Both ihc type of mosque shown here and
Syna (Drmwcu.’l, *-o*>-d 710-715 Frontispiece and architectural
the courtyard version on the opposite page
Wc, gouache. goW and. '*<*». »•!«>' on ■
image
arc closely connected with al-Walid's
Onginti d»n.m»one at l«Mt $1 cm.
architectural projeci*. The courtyard type
w«M<7on 41 cm. wHith 37 1 cm
was employed for the Haram al-Nabawi. the
D«r al-Matntutat Sanaa, n.na 20-33.1
Unlike any miler Qur'an manuscri|H this Mosque of the Prophet at Medina, and when

work opens with a group of full-page image* Ihc Great Mosque ol Sanaa was expanded
These pages cotne from one ihc most
a representation of Paradise based on a These fragment* ol manuscript were found
splendid Qur’ans ever made. Originally
•cosmogram'. a classical motif combining an in lhe Great Mosque of Sanaa; Ihc codex
ihc manuscript comprised some 520 folio*
Almost square tn format this Qur'an occupies octagon and a circle and. on the reverse, was apparently sent there soon after it*

a mosque Pie following page also deptcis a completion. Although these de|>kliuns ot
a middle ground between the vertical formal
mosque; on the reverse the text begin* with mosque* arc obviously related to al-Walid’s
of early Hifuu manuscript* <which it reflect*
the first sura. II the image had not occupied building programme, their exact role m this
in the text area) and lhe horizontal codices
the same leaf as the text, it* association with programme is as yet undcar
which were soon to fallow lor some two
centuries There are 20 lines to each page, a Qur’an context would haw been unlikely.

except when sura dividers arc required oi The images themselves suggest royal prov •

some stoner wrrnr are given a page to them­ enance The cosmogram mold sva* used a* a

selves. leaving space for wide frames. frontispiece in a Byzantine manuscript pro­
duced circa AD 512 lor an imperial princess.

Ai present this t* the earliest known manu­ Juliana Anicia. Here, however, it has been

script In Kulic script. The calligraphy is enhanced by lhe repetition of the inner octa­

superb and derives its dignity from ihc gon in the eight-pointed star, the ornamental

impact of the vertical and horizontal rirokes enrichment of the symbol and the luxuriant

on the articulation of Individual character* growth of the trees employed a* a metaphor

and groups ol characters. The cfosesi paraMel lor the surjiassing ol earthly experience.

can l»e found in tlie mosaic inscription on lhe

Dome ol die Rock in Jerusalem. Thanks to The mosque doe* not portray a specific

the wide cut ol hi* pen the calligrapher was building but rather a type of mosque as dor*
II-. nil • > .1'.- • un M Ml AM T«w Q‘r

Surat al-Qalam (' The Pen LXVIH.

Surat al-Baqara
4 3-end) and Surat al-Haqqa
( The Cow'; II: 39-43)
( The Indubitable -: LXIX: 1-6)
H«ght 29 > rar.—dth 43.6 cn>
42 3 on, wkW. 44.2 ox

Decorative frames were only u*rd on a few

One of the illuminator's artistic problems
pages ai lhe beginning ol the manusenpt
was choosing a form lor lite tura divider in
and on a few towards the end Hie first wra
a stepped field Here there arc two parallel
and lhe beginning ol lhe second sura arc
bands ol ornament, one largely geometrical,
distinguished by wide frames; these arc
the other a scroll echoing the first Anotlicr
followed by three pairs of |>agcs wilh narrow
corresfiondencc emerges where the curve cd
frames around the text area fas shown here).
the upper band meets lhe final letter of the
After nearly a thousand pages without frames,
sura ending, The sura dividers arc wider than
these reapjicar on lhe reverse ol mute. 41.
the text area, with or end motifs,
Five pairs of pages with narrow frames and
protruding into the margins.
three with wide frames, decorated wilh
increasingly rich ornamentation, make the IIX.B.

end of the codex only slightly less spectacular

than Its beginning
40

Where |xnsiblc vcitical letters arc grouped Surat al-Muddaththir (‘Shrouded '.
parallel to lhe frame, even inside the text IXXIV 56-end) and Surat al-Qiyama
area. There arc Byzantine counterpart* to ( The Resurrection'; LXXV: 1-26)
the decorations in the frame.
39 9 cm. —436 cm

This sura divider ctmiiasls geometrical and

floral ornamentation in another way. The
M
framed section to the left extends into senilis
Surat al-Mulk < The Kingdom . with golden leaves and alternating grapes
LXVII: 21-end) and pomegranates against the pale vellum
liackground.
•Wight M2 cm, w<*h44OT

There are different kinds of verse slop:

Despite the mutilation this page is beautifully
a series of line lines alter every verse, the
balanced and the text evenly distributed.
golden letter ha' <ha = 5) after every filth
The line register is less rigid tlian on (at.no. 17.
verse, and circles enclosing a gold letter,
Small dashes an- used as line Fillers, indicating
denoting the ap|»ropriatc numerical value,
that this manuscript was produced before the
after every tenth verse. The golden hot have
proverbial flexibility of Arabic script had been
obviously been added at a later date. There is
recognized and exploited
barely room lor the single verse stops which
are highly visible. Although the calligrapher
The wmr divider, with its scroll incorporating
did leave space for the circle markers alter
palmcttc motifs and grapes, features orna­
every tenth verse, their present appearance
mentation that figures prominently in
dates from an early modification which
Umayyad art.
replaced the original rosettes with letters
The sura headings written in gold over the

103
102
tvthh toinlt Attivn/r rile

ornamental tends were probably added al the 42

same time.
Page ofa Qur'an manuscript
Surat al-Tauha ('Repentance',
The small red dots which scan to wviri over
IX: 105-108)
the pags1 arc vowel marks.

f Ink and gouache on velum •Keqlx 29 1 cm,

M0i3S.$ms
41 De> ^-MakhtuUi. SeisM.mvno 01 29 2

Surat at-Fajr ('The Dawn': LXXXIX:

Among the Qur'ans found in Sanaa, there
I)-end) and Surat al-Halad {‘The
arc fragments ol two nuiftiscripts which
Land': XC: I)
resemble the monumental codex from Syria
Height 4JJ on, 427 cm (atfJkM. 16-41). Their similarities in size,
proportion, number of lines, script and
This page still gives a good impression of the Illumination suggest that the Syrian codex
codex's generous layout, with wide margins may have served as a model.
endosing the sacred text
This fragment comes Irom one of these
The will divider diIlers greatly Irom the two manuscripts Its calligraphy reflects that ol
previous examples. deriving its elicit Irom the Syrian manuscript in quality rather than
the deep blue (lapis lazuli) ground on which features; fluent beauty has replaced severity
the scrolls unfurl, and Irom the contrast The letters are spaciously distributed, wilh
between this blue and the red frame. ■less ink to the page’; they arc not as firm
and the curves arc more llcxiNe Once
The* manuscript svas hidden lor centuries connected individual letters tend to blend *3

between the tool and ceiling ol the Great with their neighbours, as In the final two
Mosque of Sanaa. This has caused some ol letters of Allah' Diacritical marks arc 41 bruited artistic skill on the pan ol the illumi­
nator. or a conscious decision to refrain
the parchment to become slightly translucent, sparsely distributed. There arc no vowel
Double leaf from a Kufic Qur'an
from ostentatious splendour, prompted by
allowing the frame on the reverse to show marks
manuscript humility in the lace ol the Word of God or
through a little.
Surat al-lsra ' The Night Journey
H.C.B. lack ol a royal patron Nevertheless, this
XVII 7-13 and 97-102)
double page does evince a certain grandeur

•■men t$»na«»), 8th cemixy

There arc Stops after every verse and every

width (of both leeveti 788 ent tenth verse, containing letters appropriate to

Dur ■l-Mabhtutn. Sanaa, <rn.no. 01-29.2 the number

N.C.8.
There arc just a few Instances ol narrow
frames in the Syrian codex iteecatiw. 37|.
Here they appear on every page, with only
minor variations. The other decorative
elements. the amt dividers, arc also fairly
simple. Certain features, however, such as
the scroll with grapes and the untrained
stepped sura divider with uncurling tendrils
reflect their Syrian model. The relative
simplicity of the decoration may indicate

104
UrtMr train kwh .tri • a.i ... • BrW'

This splendid page of calligraphy is both The margins have been carefully removed by

balanced and full of movement Many ol a parchment hunter in search ol material to

the Qur'an manuscripts found in Sanaa have make amulets.

been written in this script, suggesting that HX.lt.

tills may liave been what al-Hamdani. a

companion ol the Third Imam. Husayn. was
referring to over a thousand years ago when
he mentioned a special script used in Sanaa

Certain details reveal the calligrapher's

playful ingenuity. At the end ol line 5, for 47

example, he turns the final letter nun into

Page from a Kufic Qur'an
a near drdc resembling a verse stop: ibis is
manuscript
Indeed the end of a verse In the List line the
Surat Lugman (Lokman': XXXI
tails of the two final jab swing boldly while
32-end) and Surat al-Sajda
the others, within the text area, undulate
('Prostration'.XXX11:1-4)
unobtrusively.
’.n»n ISr>M> 9th omtucy
ktk .nd gouwh. on • Haight 18 2 cm.
wK»26.5<m
•16 D.r .IWrthtuMt. SmM. m no 17-25.1
44 This manuscript was produced in a |>eriod 45
Page from a Kufic Qur'an
when II was not yet considered necessary to This script is very dose to that on rat.no 46
Double leaf from a Kufic Qur'an Page from a Kufic Qur'an
include the sura name and number of verses manuscript but also shares features with cat no 45, such
manuscript manuscript Surat al-'Anlrabut ('The Spider':
inside the sura divider. This inlutnuikni was as the swinging tail ol the final oaf ami
Surat al-An’am ( Cattle VI. 135 Surat Yunus ( Jonah X: 2 7- 34)
added underneath, possibly at a later date XXIX: 8-15) the figurative tormulaiion ol words under­
139) and Surat al-A'raf
Vom«n (Sanai). 9th ce«u-» lined by their final letter, a tetrollex ya (for
('The Battlements'. VII: 1-3) 9th c«ntury
example, three lines above the sura divider) 48
Ini and po—ch. on valum • H.«ght 22 t on, Ink and go-ch. on -tUm -H.ight 193 cm.
CSanoal, 9th «"!».» width JI ! cm Double leaf from a Kufic Qur'an
~<nh277cm
W «nd goiatte on -e^m • Hatfiht 23.7 <n» Da. a’-MMhtvt.t. S»,m. nv.no. 17-25.1 D.r«l-Makhtuut. no 17-25.1 manuscript
—<*"> (both ImvmI 59 1 cm
Surat al-Bagara ( The Cow
0-> in.no 15-23 1 Dashes are used as line fillers tn order to ll 254-256 and 260-263)
create a dearly defined text area Normally
These two pages amid not be viewed to- these dashes appear at the end of lines; here Wixn (Sarjil 8* 9th ottuc.
geiher when the manuscript was intact. they are found at the beginning where Ink go-Mh. co -dlwn • H.kjH 29.6 on
The dearly defined text areas arr freely the calligrapher left some space to avoid wdth (both lo.U ?9 3 cm
filled with a beautiful, flexible script without colliding with letters descending Irom above. D«i O-Makhtmui. 5a*M. hmm 1>3> 1
diacritical marks but fully vocalized Tills script seems more self-assured in its
Soon alter 750. during the early Abbasld
execution than the script on rat.no 45. »t
The sura divider makes unusual use of the lieriod. some changes occurred In the

stepped field: a systematic pattern achieves The sura divider combines an ornamental conventions surrounding book production
There are few diacritical marks but many
added impact through a bleak in the band of squares with a field containing a These included a swit.h to hori/oinal format,
vowel signs, most in red and some in green,
pattern. Amor extend into both margins: subscription', the name and verse number possibly in order to distinguish Qur'an
indicating the ham:a (diacritical marks) The
their appearance varies according to the of tire preceding sura. This is the earliest manuscripts from Chrisiian writings, and
stops alter every verse arc minute, the slops
space available A rnotil by the fold is kind ol sura designation; such subscriptions an increased use of gold In Illumination.
after every ten verses are large circles con­
aimrnon. but is never used in the outer taining green and red quatrefoils would soon make way for headings The
margin. ansae at cither end of the sura divider arc These pages come from the largest of the

quite distinctive. horizontal Qur'an manusc ripts produced In

107
 fjnhh hruntt. HiMiYxZr T4r Qur

52

Page from a Kufic Qur'an Page from an ‘Eastern Kufic'

manuscript Qur’an manuscript ('New Style')

Sural al-Anbiya Sural al-Baqara ( The Cow .

( The ProphetsXXI: 18-22) II: 177-180)

N«m Cm! CgrptT). ’th century Nra» Eau. 10* century

Ink. go-art* and gold on ve*j» • He«gM 40.3 cm. Ink and colons on ratkim • Hm^»I 34 on,

rad* 45 4cm rad* 429 an

Dor .1-MMhtuUt, S*nM, ow.no. 13-34 I Dm aCMUhtul.t Saisaa. *'"«• 12-29.1

Tile verve stops in this manuscript are very 51 Althoug the script appears slightly stiff.

different from the others shown here. Aller Ils ornamental quality is strong and most
Page from an 'Eastern Kufic'
every verse there h a triangle ol six gold evident in ‘figures’ such as the lam-alif. lor
Qur’an manuscript (‘New Style')
circles with accentuated centres; alter every example in the centre ol the third line from DMd-MxkMuUt.SanM.wvM 13-8 1
Surat al-Baqara. (‘The Cow': II 125-
tenth verse a circle enclosing the verse the end: in the final line Awr-d/ifappears in
Yemen. Tlie script is strong and dean vertical 129) Unlike most ol the early manuscript*
carefully calculated, as i* the position ol nuinlicr as a gold word is surrounded by ‘normal' script
letters extend hr above and below the lines the few diacritical marks. Red dots mark exhibited here, this small work doe* not
overlapping circles marked by either a red or Nwrfau. 10thcratwy
while horizontal letters preserve the lulancr the vowels, green dots the Aumro. A typical feature ol non-Yemeni manuscript* pretend Io relied the rank of its owner or
green dot. lr>> rolc^f on «ll-n - H..gM 3*2 on
In Mime instances the connecting line is the method ol marking the end ol every donor, or to represent a specific theological
width 42-9 on
between two letters is elongated although No pages have been preserved intact. How­ tenth verse: twice in the text area and once position or tradition. Manuscript* such as
At the beginning ol the tilth line there is a Dm ahMrtMuUl. Sanra, rano 12-29 1
dashes still serve a* line fillers. es er. the margins must have been very large, in the margin by a more elaborate ornament this were cheap pocket editions, as can lie
gap to prevent the lint letter Irom colliding
measuring up to 9.5 an lor the outer margin with the number in words. Here, both types gathered Irom the poor quality ol the
with the word above which extends well This script differs greatly from standard
Sura dividers incorporate the sura heading of stop have been added later. vellum They- were designed to tie carried
and 8.9 cm lor the upper margin below* its line. Elsewhere such gaps arc filled Kulk. It appeared during the 10th century
and number ol verse*. The illumination IIX.B. about and act as a memory aid. for their
with a dash which is missing litre. and was adopted for Qur anic calligraphy
employs bright colours in combinations This folio ami its companion, m.h>. 46. are owner probably knew tlielr content* by
H.C3. somewhat later The most splendid examples
which indicate a workshop preference among the lew manuscripts found in Sanaa heart Like amulets, small Qur'an* were
ol such script can be found in vertical-
which possibly retain their original. Impress­ also regarded a* a charm against evil.
formal paper manuscripts Irom the 5th and
6th centuries AH (I I th and 12th centuries ive dimensions.
The script is written with a pointed pen.
ADl. Ils characteristic angularity has been
thereby abandoning many ol ns diarac-
achieved through the sophisticated trans­
icri*tic features It is templing to describe
formation of most letters. Articulation ol the
Page from a Kufic Qur’an this script a* cursive, a forerunner of
majority ol letter tops and many letter ends 51
manuscript Qur'anic scripts ol the future which would
recalls the 'foliated Kufic' <»l monumental
Surat al-Baqara ( The Cow': Double leaf from a Kufi Qur'an
predominate alter the introduction of paper
Inscriptions
II 159-160) manuscript
Surat al-Ma’ida
E.u ttgypi’). ’ll, emtur, Although diacritical marks arc absent, the
( The Table’: V: 41-47 and 61-68)
Ink. gouxcM nd flcirf on »Hura • Hraght 3? B on. text is almost fully vocalized. Originally there
rad* 43.9 cm were no verse stops One such mark lus
Dm U-Mikhtunt. Sanai, ra.no 13-381 been added, al the end ol the filth verse.
U.C.B.
This page comes from a monumental codex
with highly ambitious calligraphy and
double-page illumination marking the breaks
between the different sections w/ru i, Tile
calligraphy is powerful and vigorous, some ol
tltc honzontal letters arc mure tlian 12 cm
long Hie connection between the letters is
 nr u«r a-

55 other aids to pronunciation have been

provided, using a combination ol coloured
Bifolillin (quinion) from a copy
Quire from a Qur'an section
dots and the system ol symbols cd different
of the Qur'an
shapes still in use today. Oilier features ol
P*f«'mo AH 372/AD 982-983
earlier Qur’an production have been pre­ ftobabi, Tumw. ea-b 11th canruw
Ini,vMMulom and aoW on wMum;
served. including the use ol vellum, the Ht, wat«-colou-s and gold on wllun • Each W.o
mod«n bmOng • 10 tol.os, 17.6 a 25 on,
oblong format. and the use ol inscriptions 45.30 cm. ftwwrsxn k~gth ot •*<" !*• 19 cm.
tert am* 95.16 cm
in gold Kulic script as mra headings This •Mertowr tpoeng 6.5 cm
Tlw Nawai D KhaBli CotWctxin of *la~ic Art.
fragment consists ol a complcie quire: it Ik. Nasw D Khallll Cofcicho" ol Mamie Art.
London. «uso OUR 26’
shows that the manuscript was composed Undo", in.no KHJ94
Uamturn DaiocM 1992-H. pp 8'
<4 gatherings of live bilolia (quinions),

As this example shows, the type ol Kulic which was also traditional.

script seen in or/.rre 54 went out of use lor

Qur'an production during the I Oth century, The manuscript was written in 17 lines

being supplanted in some cases by a formal of dense script that is dear and regularly
M
version ol the normal copyhand ol the composed, although there are no traces ol

lplural a/u>'}. one for each day of the month a pair of illuminated double spreads ifolun period (Deroches NS.HIl Other material ruling. Verse stops arc rosette-like mcrtils

icmr.mcai.wt 49. >9 6Oa*d6l} This early lb-2a and 97b-9An The four pages all have from this Qur'an manuscript has been in gold and colours: there arc more complex
Qur’an section
example contains die secund of the JO aju*. different designs of Interlacing polygons or preserved In Istanbul tNunmsmaniye decorative slops lor every filth and tenth

Aobnxl calphaw. orc. 900 lake most fine Qur'an manuscripts of the circles enclosed in gold frames edged svith Library, ms.2J). and an inscription on it verse. Other textual divisions and points

fr*. fftteiutour. gold on nlo(Je,- Hrli-IOth centuries, it was written on vellum rows ol coloured dots. Each of the eight Vb/w lb} states that it was written In the city at which the reader had to perform a pros­

bax»ng • 99 Mot 20.6 . 212 on, IM ama lease* whose width is greater than their of Stcrty'. that is. Palermo, in AH J72/AU tration (rdjiLri arc marked In the margins by
decorative frames in (he manuscript has a
104.192cm length The script used is Kulic ol a type hasp motif, not quite joined to it by a short 982-983. At this time Sicily formed pan ol inscriptions in bold Kulic within ornamental

fbeNMutO KhaihCoHcctoncrflilameArt. (Deroche’s D.ll) that has been dated to the stem, in the outer margin. lhe Fatimid caliphate, this is the only Qur an devices.

London, mno QUO 372 later 9th century, and the vowels arc manuscript known lor certain Io have been MX

lawal-m Mxxhe 1992-4. pp 22-/6. m. 2» indicated by a system ol red dots. Each page produced in a Failmid centre.
bears six lines ol text, except the first two
Over the course «»l Islamic history the and the last two (/WMr 2b-3a and 97b-9ga}, A concession to tradition is tlie absence- ol X

Qur anic text was often c-ijxcd in JO which have lour lines surrounded by gold diacritics to distinguish letters with the same-
separately hound sections known as wt' frames These are preceded and followed by basic shape, although tlie vocalization and

110
tj"hh hnutr T»< Qur

This monumental bifolium comes from tlw

centre of a gaihering as it bear* a continuous
text, beginning in the middle of vent 2i ol
lhe f»»ra Sheba tXXXIV) and ending in the
middle of verse 28 Each page has five lines
ol a swash Kulic senpt wntten in a brownish-
black ink. Tltc ascenders are fall, without
serifs (MnitM). and some lerinlnations are
exaggeratedly angular The/wrote (vowel
mark! Is in red, and other textual signs tn
blue and deep green. On folio 2a (here is
a marginal ornament In the litem ol an ex­
tended fo/engc. in Ink and gold, with green
dots.

The script is very dose indeed to that ol the

Qur'an manuscript known as the Mushaf
al-IUdina. which was commissioned by the
former nurse ol the Zind iMaghnbr dynasty
971-1115j ruler al-Mu'izz ibn Badis and was
written, perhaps at Kairouan. by ‘AH ibn
Ahmad al-Warraq in All 410/AD 1019-20
(Katrouan. Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab Museum)
Nothing is known, however, ot the copyist s
origins, and the letter forms seem Io orig­
inate from Qur'ans of similar date Iron)
Mesopotamia and Iran

57

three rectangular panels. two with rmuc. Variations tn both the calligraphy and the
They consist of one illuminated page, the the components ol the Qur’an:' and the
and two medallions, one marking the end illumination suggest ihe panidpMlon ol at
left-hand half ol a double s|xcad and text number ol words is 69.4 M. The number ol
Leaves from a Qur'an section least two craftsmen in the production ol the
from the Surat al-Faiiha and Surat al-Haqara diacritical points is 1.025.000.’ The text in ol Sura I. verse 5 Within the text the verse
stops consist of small medallions in gold and manuscript.
■ran. later tttfcrantery (I; II. 1-7. 11-19, $4-74). Another 112 lhe first and third column is in white on
gold or gold and blue grounds ornamented colours, each inscribed with the number ol M.B.
watercolor ana gold on tteck. Cte*>n Ixd leaves from the same manuscript are also
preserved in the Khalili Collection. and this with palmette scrolls. while the text in the verses. The exception is Sura L verse 5.
pap* ~<x»ei- tendng . 10 tollo*. J6 5.2J • cm.
material may be dated by its close relation­ secund column is in gold on grounds hatched which is punctuated by a gold letter ha
let a<M 272. 18<m
In red or brown and set with palmetto and The same pattern of verse stop and marginal
Th, Nmm.D Khalil Colteetioo of Wamic Art. ship in terms ol senpt to a Qur'an section in
London, in. no OUR 89 the library ol the Aslan-i Quds-i Ki/avi in rosette devices. There is also an elaborate devices marking each filth and tenth verse is

Mashhad (ms.4116). This was copied and palmetto-based hasp' in the middle cd the repeated through the ml of the manuscript
Lwrature: Lmgs 1976. pi 11 D*och« 199?at,
pp >56-165, no 84 illuminated by ‘Utlrnun ibn Husayn-I outer margin.
The text was written in eight lines of a Kufic •
Warraq In AH 466/AD 1071-74.
These leaves come from the first volume ol a The same type ol palmetto device accom­ style script, with tlie vocalization and other

large copy of the Qur'an prepared in seven The illuminated page has a chessboard panies the illuminated sura headings on aids to pronunciation given in their modem

parts (arte singular «*'». an alternative to folios 2b-la. as pan ol the elaborate decora fomis but In colours that reflect the old
pattern ol three columns of six squares, each
the division into thirty a/.-a' seen in oiw M Ifon ol these pages In lhe margins there arc system of red. green, blue and yellow dots.
containing one or two words Iroin a list ol
StrtUv **MMv »*«<■!>■ an ItlAM >1 isicu • TluQut<ni

58

Copy of the Qur'an

AH 596'AD 1199-1200

to«*«Q • 122 fotos. 17 . 16 an. re.t inb

!1 $■ 11 9<m
Th* Umk- 0. Ktal* ColUaon of An,
lanSon. in>no QU® 318
Le«f«tu<e. Mfr*, 1992-1, pp. 86-9S. no. 20

Tliis manuscript was copied in the diminu­

tive Andalusi senpt. with 25 lines to the
page The 1cxt concludes with a detailed
colophon written in gold nadth, which tells
us that it was produced in the city of
Valencia in All 596 by a scribe called Yusuf
ibn Abd Allah Ibn Abd al-Wahid ibn Yusuf
ibn Khaldun and that the patron was Ahmad
ibn Muhammad ibn Abd al-Rahman ibn
Biyatush al-Makhzumi Biyatush is evidently
a form of the Latin Bcatus.

The form of this manuscript is typical of a

class of single-volume Qur'an manuscript
produced in Muslim Spain in ihe 12th
century: it is the last in a scries of seven
the 1220s to 1250s; it can therefore be dated A similar hasp’ accompanies the wra
published examples that were produced This imposing manuscnpi is the eighth
to the late 12lh or early 15th century heading on Mu Ma. which consists of the
in Valencia between 1160 and 1200 This volume from a set of ajza . each of which
title and sene count written in white Kufic
indicates that the city was an tmponant contains one-thirtteth of the Qur anic text
The main text, written in three lines to the within an illuminated pancL Oilier decor­
centre of manuscript production during the fowr/nirr «mws f». M. Wand 61). Another
page. is in a stately form of the »r«Mw ative features arc the verse stops, which
second period of Muslim rule in the city, juz'. the seventh, is tn die Chester Beatty
script, in black. The diacritic dots arc also follow the count ol Basra, an unusual choice,
between 1102 and 1258. Library In Dublin (ms. 1487). and a third is
in Nack, while the vocalization is in gold and a senes ol rectangular panels containing
reported as being in the National Library in
outlined m black; other aids to pronun­ statistical Information. which were in the
The homogeneity of this group of manti- Tehran Although this material is undated, it
ciation are in Hue. On the opening pages margins at the beginning of the manuscript
scripts is demonstrated by the design of the Is related in terms of both its script and Ils
(Wais lb. Jul there are only two lines ol and Inscribed in gold mutt script
illuminated frontispiece, only one halt of illumination to a copy ol the Qur'an In seven
script set on illuminated grounds surrounded M.K.
which survives ifafc la). It consists of a marginal medallions marking the division of 59 parts dedicated to Abu 1-Qasim Harun ibn
four-pan pattern of knotted interlace tlic text into 120 Sections - both hizbs and All ibn Zafar. the vizier of the a/abra Ozbeg, by strapwork frames. The frames also enclose
Qur'an section pairs ol panels, above and below the text,
surrounded by borders of denser strajiwork: half-htztn who ruled Azerbaijan between 1210 and
a similar design was used in another Valencia 1225. The firsi volume of this manuscript, which arc Idled with a striking form ol
lian <pc*oci» cxca 1175-122$
Qur’an, dated 1168 ITunis. National Library, which was written in five lines to the page knotted chain motif and the title in Kuhc
M. wxl gold on -»ll-polish^ oown
ms. Ahmadiyya B.727) The headings of and has Persian interlinear glosses, is pre­ script over palmclte scrolls, all In gold on
Ixl ptpw. totw bnttng .92 folios. 39 2.32 4 cm.
Suras I and II. airangcd one above the other served in Paris (BibUotheque Natumale de gold grounds Attached to the frames arc a

on /.Vh- lb. arc set in illuminated panels. but France, ms. Supplement persan 1610). On pair ul hasp’ motifs formed ol symmetrical

tire remainder were written in gold, in a that basis this Quranic manuscript may be arrangements ol gold pabnette scrolls,
London, o.no OUR8?
form <d KuIh. script. Eadns accompanied by taken as an example of a type that was pro­ which arc filled with diminutive scrollwork

a marginal palincite. now trimmed; there are duced In Iran before the Mongol invasions ol In white on blue and black grounds.
1987. no 30; 1992-1. pp. 24-19. no $

114
larthtr bratuy. httvrnty Tfcc Vi"

61

Qur'an section

Bor"9- *” «>*<AD 1401

M. warwroloun and gold on 4 ynoots c-aa-i l»d
papa* mada «i i*'®" boo’d • boonh bead
w0i iMthm too«0 -n K-nJ »-d gilt and lined with
BaqixMa cows- • 56 'oboe. 24 5 - 17 5 cm. i^d
te.tar.a 15* x 108 cm
Th. tax D KhaU. Cotocw o» An.
LoMon. wv«o Ql* 974
Literate S*y*h 1999. pp lJ-17, w 1

This book contains lhe 29th pan (juz') ol

a Qur'an bound in 30 parts ow/wre
an no. 54). Il was copied and illuminated
by Hajji Rashad ibn All al-Sbil In lhe Great
Mosque of the city of Khanhaliq. one ol
the cities ol China', and completed on
30 Muharram 804. equivalent to 9 October
1401. Khanhaliq was the Mongol name for
the Yuan capital, renamed Beijing in 1421
The city's Great Mosque, remodelled in
1427. is now known as the Niu Jie SI
(-The Mosque on Ox Street*).

This manuscript is a comparatively early

specimen ol a type ol Qur'an manuscript
60 Muqla (d. 940| in the 10th century; it was he colophon ol pan 15, despite its unorthodox combined with Chinese cloud-scrolls. The 62
produced bv the Huihui. or Chinese
who gave the repertory ol calligraphic styles placing. The other three pans have all been Muslims, under the Ming and Qing leather binding, which may be somewhat
Qur'an section Copy of the Qur'an
known as the Six Pens their canonical lorm. substantially refurbished, so lhe illumination dynasties. The ancestors of most Chinese bier, bears a medallion with the hmib

frcDatfr B49M*d. AH 481/AD t282-83 His relined version ol lhe Six Pens was in use ol pan 15 is also an important document lor Muslims had been brought Irom eastern fin lhe name ol God, the Merciful. lhe Iran CS6..M or Qan.nl AH 959/AD 1552

►k. wxe-totoun and gold on doop-crvam l»d in many parts ol the Islamic world in the illumination at Baghdad under Mongol rule. Iran during the Mongol invasions of the Compassionate'! in similar script on a looted M. ^0 9o*d cr pobsnto. t-ul U-d

P»(*< late, bndng-M lotos. 24 5.17 c™, 14th-17th centuries. 13th century; Chinese Qur'an production and gilded ground fupo*. «xMxr«<xx» bind.<>9 • 203 <<*«>

to«l area 19,2 x 11.5 cm The frontispiece (folio la). executed in gold, reflects these origins. The text ol this MJl. 42 7 ■ 30 cm, ruled le>t *r«a 233.15 9 on

Th. N..M- 0 CoHochon oH.Unx M. Tlus manuscript, which contains pari 15 of black, white, blue and ted. is somesvhat example was copied in the imr/idtfiw '<ript. r»«» Naswi 0 «h«*S Cotoctcn ol htemic An.

London, xw.no OUR 29 a Qur'an prepared in 30 rtjat' (c.vnpure comparable to the work of Muhammad ibn with five lines to the page. Sura headings arc tendon. «»iso OUR 729

blw.hxr Twi >984 pp 140-152 Jamw 1992-1. tat no 54), has a colophon written down Aybak al-Baghdadi. the outstanding illumi­ in red in a Chinese version ol tlx- rrqu' script, Dwratu* Falk 1985, -c U »992< no 43

«> 58-42 no 11 the left-hand side of the page on lolio 58a. nator ot the early 14th century, although it and marginal ornaments and verse sto|w are
This large and magnificently decorated
staling that it was written by Yaqut in is markedly simpler, owing to its smaller in gold, red and blue Mistakes, where de­
Yaqut al-Mustanmi (d I298» is one id the Qur'an is a product ol one ol the high points
Baghdad in AH 681. Parts 2 and 12 ot lhe format. tected by lite reviser, were papered over and
of |NM>k production in Iran. Neither the
most important figures in the history ol same Qur'an are in Istanbul (Topkapi Palace MJt. rewritten.
scribe's nor the patron's name is given, but
Islamic calligraphy; this manuscript is one library, mss EH 227, 226). and pan 8 is in
ot the very few pieces bearing lus signature the Urgr ore and magnihtrnt dhranatm
Dublin (Chester Beatty Library, ms. 1452). The most conspicuous ol the illuminated
must indicate a special commission. perhaps
that can be accepted without hesitation as Tite colophon ol part 2 is a later addition, pages is the frontispiece (folio 2a>. which has
ln»m the Salavid Slub Tahmasp himself.
a genuine example of his work. Yaqut is perhaps by another famous calligrapher, a central roundel Inscribed with the uti'aMa
The manuscript later pasted Into the Imperial
traditionally regarded as die third great Ahmed Karahtsari ol. 1556), but that ol Cl seek refuge in God Irom Satan lhe
Mughal library. tor/bha M bears a partially
calligrapher in the m l>. >.d founded by Ali Ibn l>att 8 is clearly genuine and justifies the accursed | m a rounded script Ingeniously

117
116
 The Qu’
la"hit *oi«fr tn

h mainly in gold and blur and nukes

conspicuous inc of chinoiscrie cloud scroih
in various (Mltcrm The second sum, al-
B*W (The CW. jWfoJ*). begins with a
vpleiidid head-piece. In the num body of
ihc manuscript the text area on each page
is subdivided by rulings into live horizotil.il
compartments. Three arc filled with ihc firn,
middle and Ian lines of text, cadi wntten in
Ihc larger muha^qat] style, while two larger
compartments cadi contain seven lines of
MiA* uript The panels containing the linen
ol naskh are narrower, and four vertical
compartments fill the remaining space
within the ruled text area.

Tlic Qur'an ends with a prayer, the Du a t

Khatitn. to lie recited on c<*m|tlcting the
reading ol the whole text if.'list 200b-20)a),
and a falnatna giving instructions on how to
use the manuscript lor divination. the biter
written in line naiM'Zif ifiUn 20lb-2<»a).
Both sections arc decorated with ilinmi-
nation ol ihc same quality as in the rest of
Ihc manuscript. This high standard is also
Amanal Khan was bom in Shirai in Iran ami designed the mam inscription (completed
matched by the binding, which is of Nack 61
followed his brother. Shukrallah Afzal Khan AH 1050/AD 1640-11). He died shorily
morocco. with all-over stamped and gilded
Copy of the Qur'an Shiran, to the Mughal court, where AImI afterwards.
ornament The rectangular field contains a
Khan ultimately became Shah lahan's chief
central medallion with pendants; the border Zrobib*, s»»r' Khan Uh<«
minister. Amanat Khan evidently made his The present Qur an was evidently written
Is formed ol a row id cartouches that arc (fcxlj. row m Patosuo). AH 1050.AD IMO-41
career on his achievements, receiving a series while the calligrapher was in retirement at
alternately llllcd with Haiti h texts and Gold on.1 <■*»<» on vrool*. l-< !-<->'
ol promotions within the ranksol senior the Saray-i Amanat Khan. The hand is not
chinoiseric cloud-urolls. The leather Iqlffly tofwshed. (O'umpo’jr, l«aihe< ti.iwr.nQ with
office-holders during the 1610s. Among Ihc especially distinguished, perhaps because of
doiiblures also have stamped and gilded uar-jx-l doorat-m »nd p«pw do>ib*»'«
positions he held was head of the imperial his advanced age. or perhaps because he was
decoration. while the centre- and cumer- 512 tokos, 13.9>9 cm. n/-l 1-' .re. I ■ 4 on
library, but lie Is most famous as a calligra­ more used to working on a large scale
piecn and tlie border of cartouches are ol Th. Nmw> O Kh.1.1 Collection d IsUm-c Art.
pher He designed the inscription lor the Tlicrc are 11 lines ol naM to the page,
fine gilt filigree London. >w no OUR 614
main gateway of the tomb ol the Emperor written in blue, gold and orange and
liters.™- IW pp l/a-182 no M
Akbar at Sikandra (completed All 1022/ arranged within ruled compartments The
There is a similarly illuminated Qur'an ol
AD 1611-14); on ihc death ol Shah Jahan's runt headings are tn naskh ol similar size,
.lltnosl identical dimensions in the Cltcster The colophon of this manuscript. on folio
beloved wife Mumtaz Mahal, lie also in blue or orange. Tlie lirst pages ol text
Beatty Library in Dublin (ms. 1558). 512a. is in the name of 'Abd al-llaqq Amanal
designed the inscriptions lor the Taj Mahal ((offers lb-lai each have three short lines
Khan Shirazi and states that it was copied
(completion dates All 1046/AD 1617-18 and of gold naskh set within clouds' reserved
in AH 1050. Arnanal Khan was a court
AH 1048/AD 1618-19). though he left Agra in a hatched ground and surrounded by
official ol the Mughal emperors ami ihc man
before the inscriptions of the gatehouses panels illuminated mainly in gold and blue
erased inurfptioti In Sltah Jahan s own liarnl. The iiMiiuwripi opens (A’/iar lb-2.i> with a responsible lor the design of the great Ihuluth
were executed On his brother's death in This work is distinctly archaic in appearance,
on lolio 201b there are librarians notes and sumptuous setting for the lint how. al-Fatihu inscriptions on the Taj Mahal in Agra: this is
1619 he retired to a village near Lahore being renunbceni of Aqqoyunlu and
imprrsstoew ol the seals nt trvrral Mughal (’Tlte Opening'), winch includes a border the only one of his works on paper that has
where he built a great orrawnurnw. the Ottoman ornament of the late 15th century
court officials, possibly cqjjucfn lit the containing Hadrth. that is. sayings attributed w far been published.
Saray-i Amanal Khan, lor which lie also MJL
icrvuc ol the raiiana. the womrn's quaricis n> ihc Prophet Muhammad The Illumination

I 19
 T8rq-r

flic binding is also a remarkable example ol 65

its type. The outer covers, which are not
Copy of the Qur'an
exactly Identical, have a rich composition
of birds and flowers, with a lx>rdcr<d roses todofwva. ’6* <x IWi cermxy
on a gold ground. The doublure* also differ tok and watorcolou** or. • cup. cmom E-opean l»d
slightly, having a central composition of an (»(>•>. bar^y bum.sMd nxxtem binding •42$
Iris on a skilfully executed imitation tortoise- 313 x 21.5 cm. ruled tail 21 . 11 cm
shell ground, with borders <>| Qur'anic The Nnsv 0 Khat* COIocPo- o' IsUiwc Art.
inscriptions in naskh. London. -w.no OUR 133
M.K. (Jteritu-* Vernot 1997. no 31; B-yam 1999. no. 4

This manuscript is an exaiqple «»f Qur'an

production in southeast Asia. llsc region
known in medieval Muslim source* as Bibd
al-Jjwj. tlte 'Lands of Java*. The text was
written in 14 lines of a script close to Middle
Eastern naMt but with a pronounced
forward slope, which i* traditionally called
Jawi. Sura headings are in red. and vene
stops are in yellow. Ute line illumination,
in yellow, red. black and white, is mainly
concentrated on the opening, middle and
final pages [fdm ib-2a. 280a-209a anJ
id. 1846). and his sons arc known to have 4l6b-4l~a), the last being very similar to
cooperated with Lutf 'Alt Khan on a number faba lb-24. but with the central fields left
Copy of the Qur'an
ol projects sponsored by the leading figures blank. The frames arc highly distinctive,
Iran filwan. md-19lh <««tuy in 19th-century Shiraz; it must have hern with elegant finial* and marginal projection*
II*, ?<xacN> and gold on f»m, cretin led paper. in that context that this line Qur'an was M.R.
produced.
289 Mice, 36 ■ 215 an. ruled wxt area
249» 135cm The Illumination, in gouache and gold,
The Neuer O (habli CoMcto- of Name Art. begin* with three double pages ol progressive
Uondon.aw.no QUR914 sumpiuousness: firstly, an index <4 sura
laeraltx. (hall. >9W4, pp 206-210, no. 156. heading* set within a lattice design: secondly,
IWnort I9W. pfi 20-21. no 4 prayer cartouches in given and gold on a
blue ground overlaid with dense gill scroll-
Although the main text of this manuscript ts work; and thirdly, the Suralal-faithii (’The
anonymous, it is equipped with interlinear Opening ) and the beginning of the turn al-
glosses and a marginal commentary; the Baqara (The Cow i. with zigzag and crenel-
latter completed on 25 Shahan 1272 (I May lalion borders and magnificent head-piece*
I8S6> and signed by Mahmud ilm Visal containing a floral plume. The main text was
Sliitj/i. whose pen-name. Hakim fdoctor*), written tn black naskh. 14 line* to the page,
alluded to the fact that he was a physician and the interlinear glosses are in red naaa'liq.
by profession He died ol cholera In All 1274 while the marginal commentary is in black
(1857-58). In addition, the line lacquer nasta'liq. The textual divisions were also
covers were signed by the celebrated painter recorded in black nasia'liq, within marginal
Lull All Klun Shiraz. andjjated AH 1269 medallions.
ll85J-5»i Hakim s Lather the port Vital

121
120
 isiam • l»<Qur

Although lhe latter date has been preferred There is a further Inscription (in thuluth 67 shape ol a lobed ogival arch, carved in relief

by other authors, there is clearly no figure '1' script! on a blank hackground on the lapis svith a stylized lotus plant
Qur'an stand (rahlalt)
in front ol the '2‘: AH 1002/Ab 1591-94 is lazuli seal set on lhe Ud. Researchers have
therefore more probable. managed to deciphet only the lirst line The scalloped inner edge of the leel creates
IM.A 12th
(niHra) of this Persian bayt (stanza) The an arched opening In the lower hall The
Mo'xAtfx <p9yjade. carved •
The cartouches on three sides, on the front metre is ha:ai which is not observed tn Ke-yrt 26 2 on. ."dth 138 on spandrels are decorated with lotus spray*,
(with the exception ol two smaller round n>. Sm-. D KX.U CollMZtK.1 ol Wxtx Art. their sinuous stems standing tn stark contrast
the second mnra
medallions) and the border ol lhe central Oh Dust-Muhammad. Shah-Muhammad's to the symmetrical arrangement id the plant
London, rv.no. MXD 117
medallions on the back arc inscribed svith ton. You have received eternal happiness above.
verse 255 from Sura 2 ol the Qur'an, from the blood ofthe time. M.R.

renowned as the Throne Verse with The rahlah. which connstsol two inter­
additional words at lhe end: The script and the background dale this seal locking leaves, is carved from a single piecr
Oh. CodtO. Muhammad! Oh. Ali! to late 15ih- or early 16th-century Iran ol jade The upper hall of each leal Is in lite

Unfortunately, there is no information in

1Uo small medallions on the front contain literary sources concerning its original
Arabic verses, in a metre called reja:. pre- owner.
ceesied by the basmala (Tn the name ol AX
God. the Merciful. the Compassionate!.
The inscriptions are continued in lour round
medallions on lhe back (in naMr script).
Callan 'Ali. the revealer of miracles. You will
find him a helpfor yourgriefs. Every concern
and despair will disappear according to your
prophecy. Oh. Muhammad, byyour patronage.
•d. Qasltn. who gave his name to the (ormer Oh Ah. Oh Ali!
town <>l Gorodets and the entire princedom
Case for a Qur'an manuscript
He was succeeded by unrelated ruler* ol Added at the end Is:
Central Rum>» pusr-no.) varying origins. By Your mercy, oh. Mort Compassionate among
AH 10|0|7 'AO 15919* the compassionate!
$*.w. tur^ono lapn urJ> • 11 3.8J . 33 <m One ol these was Uuz Muhammad (1592-
The Sura Hvmtuge Museum, St Petwiborg, 1610), lor whom this case was made Tlie The central part ol the medallion in the
In. no VZ-279 case later came into the possession ol Yakov middle ol the back encloses a luskli in­
fShTwe. trandwred in 1930 front the Acarlera, Bryus. a nobleman during the reign of Peter scription with the name and genealogy of
lhe Great. Uraz Muhammad
bra-aftn. F.aehn 1822-1 part WU. pp 497-522. Urus Khan fathered Quyruchuk Khan, /uho]
FraWtn 1822-0. pp I* Don 1846, pp 6. 28 133, The case Is richly decorated with inscriptions. fathered Barati Khan, /who]fathered Janibek
169 Voy—i.no. /ono. 18631864, pert I. ub W Those on the lid. in two canoudics, read: Khan, fwho]fathered Yadik Khan. ]who/
W.pp >13-121; ShrsMin 1891. p 30. Kuwpt In the name ofGod. the Merciful, fathered Shigwsrv Khan, /who]fathered
1990 no 109 the Compassionate. fin the/ year 102. Undan Sultan. [whoffathered Uraz
Muhammad Khan
This Qur'an case, designed t<> be anached to The date Is somewhat problematic, because
» belt. wax made lor Uraz .Muhammad Khan, the case is only inscribed '102'. lira/ The inscription is highly unusual, beginning
one ol the rules ol lhe Kasimov Khanate un Muhammad became lord of Kasimov on with the ancestor. Urus Khan, and ending
the Ryazan district along the Oka river, its 15 Ramadan 1000 (25 June 1592). and was with the latest descendant. Uraz Muhammad;
centre at Kasimov), which existed Irom the murdered in Kaluga at the end of 1610 (AH usually, the order is reversed. The names arc
mid I Sth century until lo*i This state was 1019) So the dale could be either AH 1002 linked by the word ibn’ which can be read
ruled by different Tatar prince* as vassals cd /Ab 1591-94. or AH 1012/Ab 1601-04. as son’. Although the suffix his' is alnent. the
.Moscow's Czars The lint ol these rulers was likely meaning is 'his son |is|' or 'fathered'.

121
Baritsly Veann heawnl, IMAM

For many Muslims, the world of the spirit was palpably

Islamic mysticism
68
present, and some strove for a mystical union with the
Kursi. a chest to hold the Qur'an divine. The followers of this mystic path in Islam are
called sufis. The sufi wishos to concentrate on his woy
>B»K 19* cantiuy
of life undisturbed by any earthly distraction and is thus
Wooo. inUd with ebony vid othoi wood MXU.
generally celibate and ascetic.
UxTOiMih.il .nd -rcy nwhkd popar •
■Iwghl 16fl «n
According to certain important writings from the 10th
Incilut du Mono. A/.tH- Pam. xrvno Al 84 21 to tho 13th century the practice of the mystic was com­
Ptovonanto: Th. ph MiHon Co*a<eon (n d.) pared with making a journey to God The mystic path
would begin with a purification process: he must learn
self-control and how to tame his moods and passions.
Tim ktini. a chcM to hold the Qur'an. con- He must take up against his rebellious self, as it were a
slfls ol two sections. Its octagonal shape is holy war (a jihad) in honour of God. When he continued
reminiscent ol the architecture of a mosque. down this road he would achieve an experience of God
The lower section rests on eight lion feet, of such intensity that it would seem as if he himself were
while the upper section is dome shaped annihilated and had been absorbed into the divine Being
This dome is made horn marbled papet with In this state of ecstasy or trance he would experience
ribs of ivory, and also surmounted with oneness with God. After his journey into mystical realms

ivory. Both sections haw lour doors and he would return to this world and devote his life to his

arc elaborately decorated with abstract orna­ fellow men.

ments. animal and plant shapes. The panels,
adorned with bouquets ol Howers, may come From the 12th century onward various mystic orders

from an earlier piece ol furniture, poeibiy arose. Each one preached its own way of journeying
down the mystic road. Most of these orders had a sheikh
17th century.
as their spiritual teacher, who generally assumed his
authority from his ancestors. The founders of the orders
The luxurious calligraphy on lite cornice -
were often revered as saints. The samo was true for
which is made Irom marbled paper known as
members of the order whose religious insight and
tortoiseshell paper - is inscribed on marbled
exceptional piety excelled that of their master.
paper and can lie recognized as a 19th-
century Turkish variant ol ihuluih senpt
These many orders were largely distinguished by their
Tlie text consistsol two verses Iroin the 25th
different rites and practices. Some, for example, empha­
tuta of the Qur'an, which is titled Al-Furqan
sized the holiness of silence and self-control, while others
( Salvation i. The sequel to the text is no
would dance wildly, sing and cry, or castigate themselves.
longer legible.
The orders also differed in their lifestyles. Sometimes
lit the Name ofGod. the Merciful. men would live together in a cloister, while sometimes
the Comrassion.ite the monks would wander begging from place to place

(for example, tho dervishes).

Biased be He
who lias tern down the Salvation upon Down the centuries the mystic element in Islam has made
His servant, that he may be a warner to all a strong remark on Muslim socioty. It gave a concrete
beings. form to the life of devotion and ritual.
to whom belong the Kingdom ofthe heavens J.V.
and lhe earth, and He has not taken
to Him a son. and He has no assestare
in lhe Kingdom: and He created everything
then He ordained n very exactly.

24
 69 70

Two wandering dervishes Dervish

Iran (prooatiy Tibnr) law 1St* kin. erty 17t* cMury

■nit* <> -sk. wawrcolcx. go-**- •"<» gold The i* o"<*o»od m meunw c- tsh.»

on wrwth. bj"uh*d pw*». •no D»n« toth goo Ho>» o<-amer«. tJoea or ds-S

•Pfu-C-Ily t*«d. tMcfcad on to too fl'll • «O*1 card On t*« r»--vo •<• hmt ii-p«worrt of

Height 48 6. -<«" 315cm three rectangulei stamp*, one ol these •» also

lh. N«mo> 0 KMIA CoII<kt-o" «• An. mpreseed on the front of the minrtture •"tried

London. »wno. MSS619 The ronCey on the bear'. Heritage ««.no W9C8

W^Jtizv Gmbn l«2 no 225. pl XLVM Pape-, gouxhe. god • Site IX8 ■ 7.9 cm, atxan
pag. 77.19 cm
The figure on lhe ngltt lus a gold bell with The State Hermitage M-seurn. Si Peteistorg.
an S-shapcd fastener Irom which lungs a enowVR-953
pune w«h a ussel He wears a gold torque Ptorenance: unCnoen
and gold eamngs and carries a hoc* in ufina 1,1-jnx. Acamov. IW6 no 16
('boat-shaped') formal, which was popular
Against a background characteristic of lhe the dimensions are the same). the ligure
tor Persian and Turkish verse anthologies in
Isfahan school in lhe early 17th century port raved here should I* similarly inter­
ihe later 15th century and 16th century
(gold silhouettes of plants and cloud*), a preted. Tlie miniature was painted by an
He wears ankle bools, while the figure on
man is deputed leaning slightly forward as artist ol the Deccan school (central/south
the left wears sandals. This second figure
il addressing an invisible interlocutor He India) who worked Irom an Iranian proto­
has a tasseled purse and a two-taswled bag
wean a slum shirt and a long yellow scarf type. Hie Persian inscription (which is
(perhaps lor the book). also lunging from his
wound around his entire body. His headgear possibly later) identifies the figure as The
bell. He holds a wooden dub in his lell hand:
is striking: a tall hat of cunqilex slw|»e blessed Sharm-i Tabriz' This undoubtedly
on his right hand he wears a ring on his little
fastened beneath the chin. triers to the dervish Slumseddin Tabriri.
linger and an archer's ring on his thumb.
a friend ol lhe poet Jalal-ad-din Rumi who
He wears gold anklets and a studded earring
The figure portrayed was lonnerly assumed took the name Slums as a pseudonym alter
Both have stubbly faces anti shaven heads,
to he a buffoon or a professional dancer the dervish was treacherously murdered.
with two brand marks, one above the left ear
and one near the crown ol the head (rac/qui). a theory based on folk dancers*
clothing in 16th-century miniatures. In this miniature there are red and white­

However, material has subsequently spots im the figure's hands and legs. Many
Despite their garments and ornaments, whic h
emerged which suggests that this early miniatures Irom the 16th and 17th centuries
do not exactly suggest material poverty, these
17th-century miniature, and two other depict dervishes with bums on tlieir body,
figures have been identified as wandering
miniatures, does not depict a dancer but demonstrating their contempt lor pain.
dervtsl.es ^alanJar^. In lad. the drawing is
a dttvuh. A dervish is an Islamic mystic, A.A.
a version ol a Chinese genre of the Yuan
period and shows tofaim. Buddhist holy men. generally a member ol a mystic order

although some of their attributes may have

been thoughtlessly copied. There is a com­ A miniature in lhe Kcir Collection In London

parable study in New York (Metropolitan shows the same figure in mirror image,

Museum ol An. Rogen Fund. 68.48). also although lhe Kcir figure has a beard and his

after a Yuan original. Earlier attributions ol clothing is somewlut different the hat is the

such work, including a group of markedly same but nude ol leopard skin, the kaftan

chinoiseric paintings in Istanbul (Topkapl cut the same but from a tige-r skin. This

Palace Library. H.2I53). were to early 15th- supports the conclusion that the Keir figure

century central Asia, but now Tabriz in the is a dervish as dervishes always wore robes

later 15th century is favoured made hum animal skin. Since the Kcir
miniature and this work arc so similar (even

127
126
ttrthly Seamy. hfJwnN art ISCSM • •r m i»i»m • IltMdi ■WII.IIW

I Hili century (Mugamcd Jcnuf also appears to lhe overall history ol sucli items. This The purpose u fthel track fin our life/ lhai iw Everyone who has drunk a handful of
in Russian on the card passe-panotii*. There kashkul is dated AH 1207/AD 1792-93. the fane the water. says

is every reason to include this drawing in decoration appears to concur with this date It n a thousand tunes better than water

the oeuvre id Muhammad Yusuf: the high Ascribing this work to the 17th century as The other inscription is lhe craftsman's from Heaven or Ktwthar!'
horizon, the three-dimensional treatment of wine journals have done is therefore signature: Through the work ofa skilled craftsman

the rods, coloured pink and light blue, the questionable. uvrk ofHafii Abbas. Has (this kashkull been made
tree with a fat crooked trunk, even the use Abbas is a celebrity tn seven regions
of black and red Indian ink and the character James Allen, however. has established iliaI There arc six medallions on the sides of ofearth. 1207.
of the lines support this attribution. Hajji 'Abbas worked in Isfahan In the Lite the kashkul. each containing the same

19|h and early 20th century, where he died exdamation:

The portrayal of Sufn and dervishes is one ol In AH 1380 (1960-61). This topples lhe May tl be pleasing'
the most popular themes found in an of the above theory and Implies ilmi lhe date
Mahan School. This drawing by Muhammad and/or lhe name ol Hajjl Abbas has been There are also larger cartouclws with Persian
Yusuf obeys the conventions that applied to falsely inscribed on the bowl. verses in a metre called muzan. plus lhe dale
this subject. in nana Tig script:
A.A. There arc two inscriptions in naskh script on Wcndrously beautiful kashkul. full efgold and

lopol tile bowl. The lirst is a fragment Irom ornaments fait/ steel.

the 'Gulistan' by Sa'di (a mtsra '. in ha:a> See. Il is as fine as pndmu Slone!
72 metre):

Kasliknl (begging bowl

for a dervish)

Signod by the CTsfwnm K»y. Abbas

Iran, AM 1207/AO 1792 93
Sled gOd • Diameter 27 <m
Th. Stat. Hmetq. MuNum. St Pet.-U.mtj,
-i.no VS-KH
P'ovft-arxe unknown purchased in 192$
Litereture ».w*r 1990. no. lia AlUn 1994; Turin
1995, no IM; toertoono Ivanov 199a no. 253

This bowl resembles a coconut in dupe;

indeed some kashkub are made of coconut
shell. Great skill was required to produce
such an object in steel. More ol tliese steel
bowls are known. all inscrilied with the
name Hajj' 'Abba*.

7! 13.3.7 8 cm. un mt" pamad hamat Unfortunately this signature is not accnm-

25.5 ■ 1& 1 cm. card baw 36.5 • 25 cm panted by a date. Neither does the name
Dervish holding a rosary
The Slate Hermitage Muwmti. St Powcbutg. of the craftsman appear In oiher sources,
KMwmnwU ftaul mvno. VH-’*OXXV The tyjie of decoration indicates that this
fc»n, mid 17th tammy was applied in the laic I Sth or early 19th

Tha <»awng n anOowd <" a pl»« Oar* brow" mount UoitKC Advnova 1996, no 22 century.

g-ou-O pantro <n gold mt"

The note on the drrwdr’s left knee ‘this w. Every objcci made by this craftsman is of
baOgnxxtd. b*kod no bmam-co^irad cinl drawn by Muhammad Yusuf’ Is not a major Impoiiance. not only lor greater
Papot Indian M, watam*>m «$<n al 4’ening signature but an attribution added in the understanding of his life and work but alw

128
Earthly Wann bnnvw/r ■•I oi irah • Harir»

Kashkul (begging bowl

for a dervish)

Iron, 19th contu-y

Caco-de r"** orvod; uho chan and *Hegs •
13 5 a 28- 14 cm
The Kastar 0 KhaSh Colloctron ot Hlor-.c An,
London, mvno MXD 256
Uterotwe WokmI W pp 42-43, no 19

The kathkul consists <>( one half of a aico-dc-

mer (La/idtM mMMto. Lodokea Sashelkitumt,
a nut famous lor its medicinal, especially
aphrodisiac, properties. Although native
to the Seychelles and cultivated in the .Mal­
dives, it is cast up on all the shores ol the
Indian Ocean and occasionally as tar as the
Persian Gull and Zanzibar The vessel is
carved with the Aytii al-Kunt ('Verse ol the
Throne'. Sura II, verse 255> and Arabic and
Persian verses. 74

Kaslikul (begging bowl

Partly because of its alleged properties, the
for a dervish)
coco-dc-mer accumulated legends all over
south and southeast Asia In later Salavid
Irom. 19th cwitury
Iran its lantastk sea-voyages came to l>e seen Cocc-ut she* • 31 - 11 2 cm. hoght 14.5 cm
as a metaphor lor lhe dovish's spiritual Th. 5uw H.or.',iQ. Mu-ii-. St P.lM»bu<g
search. Hence it was an appropriate choice
im.no. VW-10/4
<d material for a dervish's begging bowl.
UiwMum u%>U>l*x<d
Boat-shaped begging bowls are known
earlier In Iran and may derive Irom alms The walls are decorated wilh floral motils
bowls ol similar shape inffh in mediaeval and Arabic inscriptions
Europe A_*.

75

Kashkul (begging bowl

for a dervish)

Iran. 19m omtury

Coconut shell, raising *16-28 cm. he-^t IS 5rm
The walls ol this kathkul arc decorated
Th. Sl.1. IWmlMJO Mvmxx". St ftn-nb-nj
with caned lloral ornaments and Arabic
Tw.ro Vtt-1077
inscriptions IVnisho are depicted <m the
Prowmrc. V«"«.r..d - 192J from th. Sim.
uppermost section; one is smoking a ja/M/r

LW«u- IbAw WAS. no 140

fatihh frr«vrnJ«.

In medieval Islamic society, cultural and economic life was carried out to a large
extent in and around the palace of the ruler. Surrounding lhe courts of great
rulers there would be large districts whore artists and artisans lived, who worked
on commission. These craftsfolk. often members of guilds, produced thoir
goods not only for the rulers but also for merchants, courtiers and officials
This was partly because of lhe system of presenting gifts, which prevailed.
Those in a high position presented gifts to those occupying lower positions,
who in turn offered gifts back again.

In Islam there is no strict division between the spiritual and the earthly.
Each aspect of tho life of a Muslim, whether he be lord or lowly servant,
has a religious significance and may be compared with the standards
of the faith. The same is true of art.

One of the early Hadith, that is, a traditional saying of Muhammad or one of tho
earliest examplerary Muslims, runs as follows: 'Truly, God is beauty and loves
that which is beautiful’. Seen in this way, it was the important task of art to act as
a reflection of the glory of heaven. Princes, in their turn, and all who were suffi­
ciently wealthy to do so, would surround themselves with beautiful objects,
perceiving it as an act of devotion to support the arts and to beautify thoir
palaces. The most precious materials were employed - gold and silver were not
only a manifestation of worldly wealth but also of the beauty of God. Since the
use of gold and silver utensils was explicitly forbidden by Islamic tradition,
bronze and later copper items, became popular, pronding a gleeming and
acceptable alternative Bronze and copperware attached such superb variety
and complexity that they were considered no less inferior than their precious
metal counterparts. Carpets and costly textiles, the most characteristic and
widespread examples of Islamic art, are a reminder of the Paradise to come,
where the righteous will behold God. The function of art was to seduce the eye.
to amaze and delight, thus bearing witness to the glory of God.

Another haddith condemns the use of figures in art. fearing lest it tempt people
to tho worship of idols. Because of this. Islamic art developed into a form of
The walls ot (his kathkul arc decorated with
expression which is dominated by the abstract shape. Ornamentation became
hunting scenes and inscriptions in Persian
Kashkul (begging bowl the most characteristic artistic genre. It grew to have great significance and
which allude to wine drinking by dennhey.
for a dervish) achieved a high degree of refinement. The three most important examples of
ornamentation are: calligraphy, plant and flower motifs (such as tho arabesque),
and geometric patterns in which repetition is an artistic feature. All these ele­
Fmocv, gliiR’-iM'rtco with i»u». txtnv- and t>»c» ments have an ideological meaning. In the case of the calligraphic decoration
22 Sir* the citations are often from the Qur an and the name of Allah frequently occurs
The Stale Hennu®. Mjwum. St P«en&txg. The plant ornamentation is a reminder of God the Creator's tender affection for
ww.no, VT2707 His people. The geometric patterns often have a magic and symbolic moaning.
FrwerMrxe » l«8S a« a o" from lhe IN.
PtMXW and T9 X'^.ndnwt^ CoBMon Despite the prohibition against representing living creatures, in practice we see
llW-neur. Adamo.* !W6. M>p. no. 41 many examples of figurative Islamic art. We find this in particular in the art made
for a decidedly elite circle. For example, the festive meals of wealthy Muslims
would rejoice in elaborate metal services perhaps inlaid with creatures from the
zodiac, or jugs and candlesticks in the shape of animals. At lhe most luxurious
courts manuscripts were produced illuminated with miniatures in which human
figures appear, illustrating literary or scientific texts. In such learned and indeed

private circles people felt they were immune from danger of idolatry.

IU
r<tnMv

77 79

Carpet Chasuble

Turtay <x (ran. 16th COTtucy <mi16th remury (UtmcJ: ftiw*.

SA. >lit-t<f>mtry •He»ghc 212 on. w<flh M an

The Nww- D XXAll CrAeCItO" of IsUnx to. Si*. threod -Uhph 136 cm
Th. Sut. Museum. Si P.torWv-g,
Undo*. hw*o TXT 1«9
UWWe M-ne/i 1979. 69 T •i.no rit-2327
PnweMhe. trWorod in 1930 from the

The main field is entirely tilled with a design Sure M.oof.t.1 Muwo-,

Incorporating a number ol cliinoiseric UrwMure Mwomcnt '99». no. 26.

elements. The dominant motifs are sprays lov»on.n. • f^-ov :W6. 182

of flowers, which branch out from a vertical

Precious old fabrics were traditionally popu­
stem dressed with fantastic composite
lar with the Russian clergy who used them
blossoms. This floral tree' grows Irom an
to nuke liturgical vestments, regardless ol
ornate vase which rests on a curious device
the scenes depicted. This chasuble has in­
set with a pair ol plHienix Itcads. it is In­
corporated a piece ol fabric whic h shows
habited by a pair ol snarling lelines. Tl>e
Majnun in the desert, surrounded by wild
upper corners of the field arc filled with a
n animah (ire .ur nt> K7\. a theme taken from
|siir ol shlnoisetic clouds. while iIk- lower
the writings ol tile great Persian poet Nizami
comers are filled svith sprays ol flowers that
rise Irom the phoenix-headed device-: the with sea monsters and roundels with human Ganjavi.
78
Sprays have been broken' to fit Into the figures. The shoulder bands also have hasp­
Tunic like appendages very similar to the marginal The chasuble comes from the collection ol
comers. An Ottoman note is provided by
ornaments placed lieslde rura headings in Russian textile collector PI Shchukin who
the six tulip heads that rise directly Irom Upp*EWpt*ha'9*c.nw
early AMmskI Qur’an illumination. specialized in textiles produced by both
the vase Wool. mom of O"'arwit u> UipoVy won-® •
Iranian weavers and Russian embroiderers.
Hx/n 221 cn< width 106 cm
The design and fine workmanship are TH. NiMr. O. XhAII Coltacbon of Hln~ An
reminiscent of the so-called Palace kilims
Icodoo. ns.no TXT 1
that Itasr come to light In a numler ol
mosques in Turkey. These include the Great
Mosque at Drvngi (northeast Turkey), This tunic of dark-blue wool probably sur­
restored by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent vived because- it was used as a shroud and
In 1521-1). and the Esrefoglu mosque al buried in the parched earth ol Egypt- I" cut
Beysehir (central-south Turkey), which was and technique it belongs to the traditions
restored tn All 982/AD 1574-75. The Palace established in the Roman period, but the
kilims tend, though. Co have all-over designs style of decoration suggests tlrat such •Coptic'
rather than a principal composition. textiles were also produced in the early

Islamic period.
A kilim ol this type now in lite Bayerisches
Armcemuseum in Ingolstadt I A. 11*55) svas There is a slit for tlie neck running at right
captured from the tent of the Ottoman grand angles to the warp, arid extensions on either
vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha at the relief of side to form short sleeves, the piece only
Vienna in 1681. required sewing along the sides to make it
into a tunic The areas of ornament, woven
In mauve, pink, ivory, yellow and blue wool,
include panels with horses at the collar and
the nape of the neck, the shoulder bands
fanhtr hcKCxh.

80

Silk kaftan

Butm O< liunbul. era 1550

134 cm. Mdth wsth 124 on
Muwtm. ‘then in. no .l^OC
iMrafur*. 6t 1951, pt CV» **l<*-e 1990, *9 204.
Franthyr >985. p*T ■. 259. no. 5/6

Tills kalian is cut with straight Haring skirl*

from a crimson silk fabric of lampas weave
brocaded with gib metallic thread The
loom width of ihc fabric is woven with lour
undulating vertical sterns which bear round
stylized pomegranates and small rosettes.
Diminutive tulips adorn the pomegranate*
wldch are delineated with a while pearl
border on a blue ground, curiously remi­
niscent of medieval silks. Louise Mackie
dates this kalian to the mid 16th century,
a dale which fits well with a group ol Iznlk
dishes also decorated with pomegranate
motifs. Other fabrics woven with larger
vertical stems bearing pomegranates arc
ascribed to the second lull ol the 16th cen­
tury or the early 17th century dor example,
an Osman II kalian;. The short sleeve* have
been repaired with a later fabric
A*

81

Child's kaftan

Ottoman &npir». loo ’61" «nh»y

S.lCb.oc-JcUogih >6.5 er*
TopkMX P.Ik« Mowon. bUnto-J. mv.no >3/267
Textile designs with venial *tcm* or
tavaruv Or »»5» p* XU! »'•» 19,4 PP ,4’5-
branches were popular in lhe second halt ol
AJUr 1979. p. 31. OiWOar • «eo*1. • / 41
ihc 16th century and lhe early 17th century

This cuflarles* kalian with shun sleeves lias They were used lor various purposes. This

a front opening and slii pocket* in lhe sides, kalian is lined with ruby-red silk edged with

n k made III fcwfei. Mik brocade. J«mird green.

with two vertical Menis t haI curve and ovei

lap. These l»car narcissi, tulips, roses and Die museum archive* record that this kaftan

serrated leaves which bend and intersect the belonged to Sultan Ahmed I who ruled Imm

stems The motif* arc embroidered tn while 1603 to 1617.

and blue on a ruby-red gmund. f.B. -

 This saddle doth is nude from two lengths weave. It must liavc been commissioned by
of fabric sewn down the centre and woven a high-ranking official and used, if ever, at
Velvet saddle doth
with a mirror-image design on either side. official parades.

KWX.I Im. 16t* «ntwy A Charactcristic Ottoman Hora ol tulips and A-B.
carnations with pomegranates and serrated The cut of this red velvet coat is very similar
H.igh« IBS <”.-«» 1293 an 84
leaves proliferates from a central ogival to those depicted In Safas Id paintings of the
6«H0> Muwum. Arhen*. m» -o 3784
caciouche: this is brocaded with metallic 81 Coat mid 17th century. In Shaykh Al-basi’s Shah
Imim Orv-.-.h^ 1028. *90. '•« t
threads on a maroon ground. The doth Abbot It and lhe Mughal AmbauaJer of
MUwix- ,»74. 14; ton** 1976J. 36t no. 645 Irm.cwa 1640-60
Panel front a tent
is bordered by a loop pattern and a band AH 1074 (1663-64) (ex-Mahboubian Col­
OV.c-ui 1980. 48 *>g 38, PMon I9B4M, 50. no (tod Nik Awl. of doth ol gold .nd
containing a uroll with tulips and car­ lection). for example, a coat of this cut. and
2Sd M*ck« >980, 357 fig. 200. fnnlfoa 1985. 365 Hobot*, F«le*pz SAn (India). Ute- 16di Or-tix, (gain and pMc-n-d 'ttoon. aiMxodc^.
nations. This exceptionally line textile SA Umpas .Haight «1 on, with heavy (rugging. is worn by the Shah
no 11/75* pl XXX AU</mdf 1996. port". I>g Ml. hogging bunco* and !•«» o* «<twi 'hrwd •
contains almost no repeat patterns in the himself Tltc most dramatic feature ol this
FotopoJo* • DWmxdm 1998. 30 th- *Uu» D KKili Collect-)" ol Mamie Art. Umph 735 e”
object is its 'cloud collar' ornament. which
London. in.no TXT (IND) 17 T>w D KhaTili Cotton ot Mimic An,
was made by applying doth ol gold over
B-*-d Io", 1985. pp 100-109. flg 70. London. In.no TXT 65
the velvet Although such ornaments are
McLeon 1994. pp. 70-83. SiCto-i 1998. p 162 and WMcb 1973. no 62. Khallb Colewo"
not shown in depletions ol Iranian costume
plif 1993. p 50
from this period, the doth of gold is dearly

This impressive textile is a product ol the a product ol 17th-century Iran, as is the

Mughal imperial workshops in the reign ol brixade ribbon that runs along the hem and

ihc Emperor Akbar (r. 1556-1605). It shows around the wrists.

a princess standing under a lobed arch with a

headed border She Is depicted in profile. her 'Cloud collar’ ornament* were a popular

head surrounded by a nimbus; she wears a fashion at the Tlmurid courts in the I Sth

yellow M"u trimmed with green and a green century, but these earlier examples were

jabot. and holds mu rods, one pointing up smaller and had mote elaborately bracketed
contours. Here the design extends almost
and one down.
down to the waist and along the arms as lour
large pahneltc motifs. The cloth ol guid used
The piece is a <jan<it. a panel from a tent;
is seme with a floral sprig in green and pink,
it may have formed part of a monumental
scries of courtly types. A companion panel and the wide brocade ribbon al the wrists
and along lhe Item Isas a repeat pattern ol
in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art
small two birds perched between two large
(73.5.702) shows a male courtier holding a
blossoms on an undulating scroll. These
wine cup This figure is in Persun costume,
elements are edged with narrow nbbon ol
and the image Is doubtless, as Robert Skelton
varying types, and there Is silver Irogging on
has argued, after a Mughal or Dcccani copy
the chest. The remaining decoration was
ol a portrait ol the Qarvin school (Iran).
worked in silver thread The frogging is
Tlie princess mi the panel shown here svears
matched by the conical buttons In the centre
Indian dress; the contrast ol Indian and
and by the large taswls al cither end. of
Persian type* is presumably deliberate
which only two survive. There is a modest
amount of embroidery along the cuffs.
l.nihlr bfnatt. Immlr tn

Innctlons and components necessary lor

their construction. This page is Irom the
Mi lion ol lhe manuscript that discusses the
construction ol vessels and ligures suitable
for drinking sessions. According to the text,
the automaton depicted here is to be used lor
entertainment at formal gatherings When
the man's cap Is removed, wine is poured
into a reservoir in his head The cap is then
replaced and the automaton brought before
lhe guests. Aller several minutes the liquid,
(lowing through a series ol concealed tubes,
begins to lill the goblet held In tlie figure'
left hand, entertaining those assembled.
The detailed drawings at the bottom ol the
page describe the construction ol various
components id the device

86-88

Two miniatures and an ornamental

composition from the manuscript
'Khamsa' bv Nizami Ganjavi

CaAgr.f*, b, lor $<A.n $X.tlwUh

Hvat, :i<m. now Afghanise.-), AH B35/AO 1431 •
S^w-hou boding 237.137cm
Suit Muwu-., Sr P..p.,1«.u
irwro VR XXX)
Tf.nd.rwd n 1924 from *0 Muwum ol the lorm«
Barco A.N. StogliU School of Techr-ck Drawng
Dy-wrov fWO pp 2’5286. »ot»wo«
l«M. pp 12-13.1963. pp 201-204.
On lhe title page to every poem is 87
tmograd 1967. AtmnHin i.**«w 1966. pp 910, scripts ol these poems, ric lily decorated with
Illustrations and ornaments. This lotnc- a medallion |«/»m) with lhe title. Majnun in the desert, surrounded
33. SamacUrxl 1969. l«»da- 1976-U. OoUk>±>^
leaved specimen Irom The Hermitage is Each medallion is an exquisite work ol
U^WVXTeO T<v« hind* Sm«taoniV> Ccdecboni 1978. CP 149-151. Goibe 1979. pp 152-154, Me, by wild animals
ornamental art tn its own right. The
Arqunrfion Program, and Dr Anlwr M Sarilar 1961. trretz - low, 1999, no 38. Arfonw. 1992. pp one ol the finest
Pic ture of a mechanical device for beginning of every poem is marked with tor th. rx-"-' hw 5twy o» t«ta
in.no S86.01M1 95-101. Ad—nova 1996. p 96 AX
pouring a drink
a small decorated Inmtispicce (-/nun).
Irtarirura torn,- Nonveo I9M. no 6
P*g.200A
From a cop, al IM Krub fr ma'nf* *■ The Klwtw (Qulniel) by lhe renowned
This |Mgc is particularly interesting as an
"xnruc,,. ol 3a* uzrama" b *hna ir-M/tx 11>e Knob fi ma nfat dlliiyal al-lwtddsin^ Iranian poet Nizami Ganjavi (1141-1’0*)) 86
ornamental design lias been pauited in the 1$. fan. 197941 no IQ Ad.mou 1996. "o 1'2.
"Mdr rn. t’.a'iay ol Arm, ,~,«i iBook ol Knowledge ol ingenious Mwhan- comprises five poems: ’The treasury ol
Ornamental design position usually reserved lor a miniature.
Egypc. AN Safe 735 (••bc-ar¥ M«l> 1354) kal Devices). popularly called the duitvmuii. mysteries', ’Khusiaw and Shirin'. 'The Story
In The Story rd Layla and Maimin’, the rm
OpAQua wmtofow. ink. 9o>d 0" PH** ■ n devoted to the explanation and construe* ol layia and Majmm*. The Seven Beauties DMor.t.on fcx rhe poor- Th. Slow ol uyU .nd
lamotis poem Irum the poet Miami's Kham
tion of lilty mechanical devices, or autiwna- ami 'Book rd Alexander the Great' which Is M^n-n' F.ge: (”W MJtjmin gives his heart entirely to Lavla.
Antlu< M Swtoe. Cwlk-,. 'T-rHonnn Hejtutron. tons. Divided into chapters and sections, divided into two pans, Sharal-Nameh' and D^fonc >940 pp. 275-286. tab. I;
with a devotion which nude him a lieto ol
each pan of the book describes the various Tqbal-Nameh*, There arc numerous manu­ IPSU low, 1989. no M. Ad.-....,. 1996 no 1'30

141
 88

Bahram Gur in the Sandal wood

Palace

Mirxwra aooi-p.'rng Uw poor- ‘Hitt

(The Seven Be«ut*i|; Pago 30*
bterafura Ivanov 1979, -o 13. Adamova f®9»
<K> 1/34

The poem Hall Paykar* recounts how

Bahram Gur. the Sth-ccmury Sassanid
emperor of Persia, married ilic daughters
of seven padnlialn (emperors) of seven
different countries. For each one of these
beautiful damsels tire architect Shldeh
designed a palace in a different colour,
conceptmding to the colours ol the seven
plancis.

Each day ol the week Bahrain Gur would

visit one of Ins seven wives: on Saturday -
the day of Saturn - he went to lhe Indian
princess in her Mask palace; on Sunday - the
day ol the sun - to the Byzantine princess in
het golden palace; on Monday - the day ol
the moon - to the princess ol Khorezm in
her given palace; on Tuesday (the day ol
Mats) to lhe Slavic princess in her red palace,
on Wednesday - the day of Mercury - to the
Maghrebian princess in her blue palace; on
Thursday - the day ol Jupiter - to the
Chinese princess in her brown (sandalwood)
Chi the left the inscription reads:
isalace: and on Friday to lhe princess of Iran 89 tab 59-M. Wyraa-n t"4. 69 183-W4. Rob«w-
Work by rhe humble Rtzahi Abbist
in her w hile palace. On each occasion lhe 1«ez n9 35, StoUhoHi IH5. P 171, no 54 p 173.
Feast in the open air
emperor went clothed in tire colour of the Adamora I996.no IS
On the right hall ol lhe composition, on the
palace he was visiting,
RlMb-'AM»»>
Both lulves ot iliis composition have been card at the luce, is a Russian inscription
flic miniature here belongs with the chapter Inn. AH 1020/AO 1612
signed by lhe artist, on painted areas at lhe ret KQffrd IHijra) 1020 Mt n« prirHed by
relating the Thursday visit Io lhe Chinese TN. co'^->vn<- ionv>i~« Nro —-.l-.fr. both
have On the right this reads: Raza Abbasov
princess, lhe lace ol the princess has been t^lOMK) in . ,HK~ fame *r'i N.Mon pr- <*">
palmed over. Bahram Gur's lace lias been Ht a /God/. GunpfeMd« Monday I iu l-
O th. ravon. o< boO-ora irra>~t. ol .
kada ofthe yw 1020 Work by the humble This composition with many figures, loldcd
the Sufis (Ma mic mystksi. Following animals - Rons. deer, wolves and loxes - remodelled, like the texts. (town cMrap <Mh l)« due 1171 (17M-591
cstablishot 11.idilKHi. reflected tn two Rizali-t Abbott Into two pages, obeys the conventions
defer to Majnurv he is their emperor, die A.A. P^por flouMh.. void • Rght be* 2ft . 16 ’ era.
'Anthologies from Shiraz (1410-11 and (see Akimushkin - Ivanov 1968. p. JB. which governing sub|eci and treatment lot lidded
equal of Suleyman, as described in Sura 27 KANWI26 2.16S«n
I42d|. M.ijnu 11 is <li pitted surrounded by reveals that the day Of the week and the date frontispieces which were used to decorate
of the Qur'an. The Stat. Hvo-Hag. Muwiyn, $« Pete^Uxg.
do not match: I zu-l-k'ada 1020 fell on a sumptuous manuscripts. Tl*e painting shows
animals. Hr h slinking a gazelle whose eyes A.A. VW 74Q1 .nd VR.7«an<V«l
remind him Thursday, not a Monday) a regal youth and Ins retinue holding a least
1 I avia's eyes, as rite poem
P-ov.n.n-c uranown
in lhe open air Hits theme was particularly
‘nitons Ihc^Huimpanymg imratura. imtylo.. 19«M pp Sz StchouWi.
t~l~l*r inUlr IMll-cmUOT iMlnlir... rlw
lines of text describe how all the wild
1964. pl XXXW *XX1X. Alwn<.Wi*«i 19*6.
 >■1 Of HLAM • Th* l«l®<
ftnthtr btanlv iiwrrnfr. o» NUM

This painting belongs In a great cycle ol In this scene Shah Jalian it shown watching
elements on the two pages Me perfectly 91
illustrations of events In lhe reign of the an elephant liglit from the audience window
balanced. The foreground scenes form a
Shah Jahan watching (Benita i in the Red Fort at Agra.
unity with Ilie decorative background Mughal emperor Shah Jahan 11628-57).
an elephant fight To either side ol him ate princes, probably
painting which includes donds. tree* and Many ol the linages were incorporated into
a copy ol the AUdw/moma. an account ol the Dara Shikoh and Slub Shop ttr<dt.iv.
animal*. North India. cwca 1640-1645
reign by Abd al-Hamid Laliawn. which was their strictly formal representation in profile
In*. gouarh. x-.d gold cn papf. mounud « ar
destined for the imperial library. This manu- renders them distant from the principal
Presumably these two pages originally served abum pag. o- !•-> bo»d. wit*m a boo*.< ol papa*
scri|M. which is one of lhe supreme ol scene in the foreground Below, against lhe
as a frontispiece Im an album or manuscript dyod a SghMan cokxz and mar^ec o' go'OsprnXWd
Mughal art. passed to the ruling family of walls ol the fort, arc two groups ol olbcUls.
which has not been preserved. In which case owam papa- -Fo*o 50 4 x 3$ cm pa®t«»g
Awadli. and then to the Royal library at many of them dearly identifiable, standing
the central figure could be the person who 33.5x20.5 cm
Windsor CtMlc in England, where It is now cm the rool ol a white marble loggia In front
commissioned the work. Most of the cliarac- Th. Name* 0 KhalA Colleton o< Wamc An.
preserved. Other images Irom the cycle, of this building are groups ol officials and
lets prevent at the least - musicians. servants, London, in* no MSS 900 *
including this example, were mounted as petitioners, also showing little interest in the
youths seated or standing. a comatose man uaratiaw: laach 19®8, pp 110-115. no 31
(lying foreground right i being coddled by album pages and ate now dis|»erscd light before them.

a servant - are generally found in many

Among the courtiers standing on the loggia
pictures ol feasts. However, the scene is
is the Persian ambassador Muhammad All
unusual In its Inclusion of a woman with
Beg (in a white turban on the lar left I. while
child.
one of the two dark-skinned men in the
crinvd below (above the elephant on the
Apparently lhe miniature was mil completed 90 A coloured background with gold surround
right). Ims been identified as a Deccan! called
and was subsequently ’touched up’. It is not is not common. It was chielly used in minia­
Reclining youth I'timad Khan, who was welcomed at the
inconceivable that the orange lines used Io tures from the late 16th or rally 17th cen­
Mughal court as a defector from Bijapur
model the faces arc a later addition. Extreme Iran, betwec* 1700 and 1'35 tury. Daggers ol this shape encrusted with
Leach has observed that the simultaneous
magnification reveals that the musicians* Th« nwinture it andoted «1 tao frx—M. w® pnfc. precious stones are also depicted in a num­
presence of these two men in the scene links
anus have been overdrawn with the same one yettow, bof> deccxated with » gold plant motf. ber of other miniatures Irom this period.
it lo the brief description In the Padthahnama
orange colour, while orange ol a different and on Uld-iis ( gcAI *o.Z tnoM
of events on 23 October 1632. Shah Jahan'S
shade appeals tn have been used under this Pape-. go-»cKe. g<Al -Sim 9 8 x 18 8 on. The absence ol light and shadow in the
lunar birthday Nevertheless, lhe painting
tn the original drawing. This overdrawing is albim p»g® 20 ■ 308 cm artist’s rendering of body and fact dates
scans to have been executed as much as
dearly visible on the face of the tambourine rt«> Suto Homxaga Moteixn. St PaMobtxg. this miniature to the first 35 years of the
a decade after the event, since one of the
player who is shown in profile. Some details itwno VR-706 17th century.
figures on the loggia (the man seventh from
- the stones and plants tn the foreground, trantfaned to 1974 fcom th. Muwur- o' A.A.
lhe right, who is wearing an orange turban
the servants' arms (and the lower edge ol the the twmer B*on AN. Stieglitz School o' Technical
and green Unwi lias been Identified as a
miniaturei - have not been overdrawn at all Do—g (pNMOual, AA Potovlcov CoMcutn)
portrayal of Shayasta Khan as he looked in
L<M<atwa Ivanov 1959. no B Uotnnton • - S-ll
the 1640s.
1978, no 45. no T 12; Adamova 1998, no. 17
M.H.

Tin- robe and the dagger stuck in his girdle

indicate that this figure is a young man.
despite his extremely feminine lace. He is
resting, reclining on brocade cushions in
an easy, relaxed posture. Everything in this
unsigned miniature is based on contrasts.
Tlte plastic modelling ol the youth's form
contrasts with the flat, roughly painted back­
ground. Even lhe colours went to dash (the
youth’s vivid orange robe*, the light yellow
curtains with gold fringes, the narrow lilac
scarf, the dark siolel edge to the cushion}.

145
144
 94 95

Fragment of a figurine
Fragment of a figurine

Qasr af-Kayr alGharb (Contral Syria), 8<b esntuty

Qov ot-Hoyr al-Gbarb iCamral Syria). 8"> carm-ry
Plaslor • Ho^lrt 12 5 cm, »«*h ’ cm BlMto- • Haight 37 cm. Icngis 22 cm. width 8an
National Musejn al Syria. Mnrwy oi Cultm*.
Nitonal Muwum o< Syria. M-s-ry at Culture.
G-r—.l Dwetorata fry Ant-Quit-H ana Museums General DrecUxate lo- A*t-Q.t« and Museums.
Sy"** A-.b »epubt-c (Damascus;. i"v.»o 324BSA
Synan Arab it-fxibw {Damascus! imno 31772-A
92 9J Provananco axavabon o* Qasr d-H*yr al-Qba-b Prowamixe excavation of Qmr a*May- alGhoris

Part of a frame Part of a frame

A large number ol figurines and sculptured
Like <AT.NO. 94- this fragment was found in
Q«. *' Hsyr .1 Ghortn (comral Sy"*). Bl" conlury Qwr "H.y il-Ghortx lC<-t»W Synod. 8~- century reliefs base been found in the palace of the palace ol Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi
Stucco • Haight 7S cm, length 10 cm, watth 10 cm Stucco • Hst-ghl aa <n. long!" 28 Cm, «Mlh 14 cm Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi. These were used

Hatonal Museum of Sy-a Mmerry of Cuftizo, No-on*' Mutaum oi Syria. Mmstr, at Cuhuro. io decorate the interior, the facade and lhe This is the lowest part of a figure of a man
Ganm.l OfWtOXte for Antiqu-tm o-d Museums. General Directorate far Anticyritiet end Mutecrm, porches. Subjects include human figures, with a loosely lunging robe secured around
SyMn Arab Republic iD*rwc-us). -n.no 32484-A Syn*n Arao Pep_t>< IDamawuc). -rrr.no 3177J-A animals and motifs from nature. his thighs The figure seems to be moving to
Prtwmanca: cravotio" of Quo of-Hoyr oi-Ghvbi Prorcutence eacavetion o» Oev ol-Hayr el Ghartn the right. The shape of his legs is revealed
through the folds in tile doth. Tins statue
Some so km lo the southwest ol Palmyra ui During excavations in the palace of Qasr al-
may have formed part of ihe decorations in
Syria lies Qasr al-Hayr al-Gliarbi. one of the llayr al-Gharbi thousands ol pieces id plas­
tlie section of the palace interior overlooking
many palaces built by the Umayyad caliphs terwork were found. These had been used lo
the inner courtyard.
and princes in lhe Radical Ash-Slum desert decorate doors and windows. No two pieces
M. Al M.
which lies ui both Syria and Jordan. weir lhe same in size, shape and design, esen
pieces from the same dumber. All the dec­
Qasr al-llayi al-Gluibi represents one of the orations are based on the interplay ol lutural
earliest, schools in Islam* architectural his­ and geometric motifs. This is regarded as one
tory. The stucco decorations are rich, varied of the earliest types of decoralion to distin­ ••
and exuberant. Natural motifs in the decora­ guish Islamic art Irum other ari traditions.
tion of a window arch arc always oflsei by 96 This fragment pan ol a fresco representing
gcomcinc dements on the sills and vice vena. This fragment is part of a frame for a door or two people lace to face, shows a woman's
Fragment of a fresco with a
window. The design dearly shows the inter­ head with an elegant transparent veil whose
Tilts piece is pan of a frame for a door or woman's face
action <4 natural motifs such as flowers and folds reach to her shoulders, A little ol her
window. It is remarkable for its geometric leaves and geometric forms such as semi­ black hair hangs over her lace. She is
Q» al-Hayr at-Ghartx Sy-w). AD 777
decoration which comprises a simple pattern circles. The spaces inside these- semicircles wearing cosily carrings.
Fax" oa planar • H^ht 42 cm. wdlh 41 cm
ol interlacing rectangles jre filled with a selection ol leaves.
NobonW M.scxr at Syna, Mimu-y a* Crftur*.
General Drectotote lor Ant-qu-ties and Museums. The woman is cncirded by stylized floral

Synan Arab RepubW (Damases! -nv.no 32«6-A and geometric motile. She seems to be one

•» Frmenarx. of Qasr alHay, of the palace ladies.

This head is jurt of a figurine, with long hair Frescos ol varying sizes, depicting diverse
curling from right to left across the forehead, themes, have also been lound in the palace
j beard and a moustache. The smiling face ol Qasr al-Hayr al-Glurirt, in ihe reception
has large eyes looking to the right. The nose halts on the ground floor and the caliph’s
has lieen broken oil. chamber on the litsi floor

146
farthlt hra»rv. heaveuly art in.am • The palate

This fragment, front palace B. was discovered 98

tn 1950 II Ionin pan of a window Irame.
Capital
The vine branch decoration hat been con-
xtrained into geometric forms. Lilies have Ar«aqq» (n<yib«an S^ra) Orb contucy
been applied to the leaves to produce a Mort.* • H«^ht 27 5 on. udo. ol top tquvv 30 5 cm
shadow effect. National Museun o' Syna. Mois&y ol Culture.
G^O-jl DoacUxat* for AMI<*jlt«l and Mvwrxnc
This piece h extremely important as it Syman Arab Republ* (Damascus! irwno. 9S57A
allows comparison ol decorations from Prowmarxo a-ca.Mio* o’ Ar-Raqq.
the Umayyad and Al>basid jieriods.
During the Ablsasid period many types ol
decoration emerged. This capital is carved
with motifs from nature, recalling art of the
Umayyad penod. The lower seclion ts round
and decorated with a kind ol braid. The
central section comprises stylized leaves
while lhe upper section is square, edged
with a braided band and a Held of stylized
vine branches The capital originally formed
part of a column on lhe first floor of one
of tlte palaces in Ar-Raqqa: lhe capiialson
ground-floor columns were generally larger

99

lar and stand (kilga)

Egypt, too 11th-12lh coMuft

Marti* • Jat heqfo 55 cm. nm dametec 18 cm;
97 •t*-d ho-ght 33 cm. 48 w-hn 32 cm
e«AabMut4Mn.AtM0s.<nvnM 10833-10834
Relief
UMratuv Knai^c 1080. !$ and 34 PMo- 1080
A. B.W tonheao Syr*). AD 835 Itg d.p 15
Stucco * Haight 80 c-. 3ft cm. depch 8 5 cm This type "I jar stand, known as a kilfa. with feline heads on lhe Ironi and a mask on
Hat—^l tAiwum o' Mimb, o' CUtuo, The jar stand is richly decorated and beats a would normally support an unglazed porous either side. The lour diagonal niches and the
Jar and stand (kilga)
Gone>M DflKtOfXB toe Ara>qu.twt and Museum., Kulic inscription around the rim of lhe basin: earthenware jar through which water would back feature the outline of a lobed leal. The
Syoan Ano R^hAU (Dxrosc-.sJ, m.no 32487-A Prr/nt bkmtif andfranc and perpetualflcry filler into the protruding basin However, ratmdEgnx. 11tb-12th <wit-y fluted jar with two handles is not the original
Pio^runc ..Coupon at Ac-Raqqa and perpetual happtneu and perpetualfMd this particular jar has been catved from a Mart** Hand and alabauct Q),ac • Jm he<cg<l SCkm. lor lhe stand. The upper |*art is decorated
frtune single Nock of marble and cannot perform rm <$»-><*•< 23 cm, «•"<! "c-qhi 36 cm with medallions bcanng ornaments that arc
The city ol At-Raqqa lies on lhe caw hank of too damaged to be identified with certainty:
this (unction. It may have served as a water length 50 cm. width 33 cm
Ihc Euphrates where the great river is joined It rests on four fluted feet separated by possibly floral motifs or human figures.
container in the courtyard ol a house or Beni* Muteum. Alhanc. in. nos 10831-10832
by a tributary the Balikh Ar-R.sqqa readied pointed arches. The sides are ornamented The hole in the lower pan of the jar allowed
mosque. Uecmni Kruoo. 1980. 6g 19. p /« W*ton 1980
in heyday during the Abbasid period <750- with mut/ariiai and figure-of-eight motifs. water to tun into the basin through a pouring
M.M. tg. 3. P 15
I258>. In 1949 56 and 1990-98 a number The front diagonal niches support sealed device.
of archaeological et|*edltinm revealed lour nude figures with raised arms; on the front The marble jar stand known as a kilfa rests
palaces. designated A. B, £.and D. is a |>atr of leluie heads carved in the round. on lour fluted leel separated by pointed
The back is decorated with a stylized leaf. arches The decoration is relatively plain

>48 149
 101
102

Pair of brackets Jali

North lraoO.M[n Agf*. Sultmata penod North IntSa. lata* 1601 century
leafy lMhc»-H*y) M sandatono. ca-vod and ported •
Mon«d p-« aandoona. carved • Haight 134 • Hmghr 134 5 cm. wdth 100 5 cm
w-Jth The Naw D. KhaUi CoUacttors o* Idarwc An.
Th. Naw D O.h« Ccllxtoc <rf Wamic An. London, m« M*D W
London in. no MXD 266 a, b Literature See Smith 19B5.pl Ul

The double-sided /tf/i is deeply carved with

Die brackets arc carved, on one side only, bold intersecting ogival tracery over tine
wiih panel' • interlacing itrapwortt motifs Mnpwork of concentric octagons and
between bnrd. 4 undulating scrtslb elongated hexagons. The border is ol
Fhe inner edgers ' the brackets are tn the stepped lozenges. Parallel screens exist at
form of a Mylired water monster (maktn). Fatehpur Slkrl in Uttar Pradesh
 105

Pair of doors

A<r» $>,»" Atan panod t'630-1640)

(Baghdad). -«d Blh c-mzy
Monied pnk Mralttona. cxvo.1 end p<o«»d •
Hegtit 124 cm. width 105 cm Barsik. Mmaum. Athwnt. irrv no 0121
th. Uw D Khali. Coll«bo« o» Id-n-c Art LrM'Mum ”«-ty 1931. pp 22411. $Mb
Ltmdon. <nvn>. MXO 260

The design of this double-sided rectangular A pair of doors with carved decoration,
rah consists ol a lobed arch with iris and found in a tomb neat Baghdad. The main
knus finials. It is filled with a finely profiled, design, which is repealed lour times, com-
stepped ogival lattice enclosing lour-petalled prises a tree mold amidst dense naturalistic
flowers and stems flanked by Irises. The deep foliage and under a lotted arch. Tlie centre
carving is equally elaborate on both skies of ol each panel bears a geometric design with
the screen (awparr rW.rw. Z(M). a star within a circle and a stvli/cd vine
scroll. Four smaller panels al tlie lop and
Imm* contain three medallions separated by
rosettes. This unique |>aii ol doorsdisplays
a variety of decorative element* which
combine to |troducc a rich and sumptuous
effect The combination of elements has l<ecn
Bhurtpora o-g^lt, (torn (he Red Fort at Agra, carefully |>lanncd to juxtapose various motifs
Shah Ahan pet®d (1630-1640) and degrees ol naturalism in an organtred
Monlad pok Mfthtone carved and pierced • manner. All these elements can l>e found in
Hoghs 150.5 cm. w<hh 111.2cm later Umayyad an. at (Jab’ al-Hayr al-Gltarix
The Nasser O KhaWr Collection of loarrx Art. (Syria) and Mshatta (Jordan!, along with
londos, m-.no MXD 261 classical and Sasantan Influences. They arc
also related to motifs associated with Abbasid
ornamentalion
The rounded anil, which lias been slightly
cut down, is filled with a squashed stejiped
ogival lattice enclosing four-petalled flowers
and stems flanked by irises. The filler motifs
arc very similar to those on (.at mi 103). and
the work Is equally relined on leilh sides of
the screen.

In 1761. Agra was sacked by the Jal Raw of

Bhutlporc. The city was looted and many of
its treasures, includingJaJit, were taken to
Bhurtporc. The comers of this jali have been
cut down. suggesting that it may have been
reused in another budding.
tanhb, I»U*M

107

Pair of doors

t«". 1**<wiurf
Wood and ivoty •Height 197 on. wdtfi 90 <n>
Banak) lAnou-n. Athens, tn. no. 9281
UeWum WiAjo 1990, I14, p. 29

This pair of doors comprises a symmetrical

geometric frame lor small ivory or wooden
polygonal panels. Each panel is decorated
with intricate arabesque designs The two
surviving rectangular panels at the top and
Rise <4 the doors bear inscriptions in cursive
script against the background ol a scrolled
stem:
FroBc w God. from the higher to the louwt
and
Dau/fhien of Kirijt rise through your

feoemitv

Such inscriptions arc commonly found on

doors from Coptic churches. This method
ol panel-based construction was |Mipular in
the Islamic world from the I’th century
The technique allows wood to expand and
contract according to variations in tempera­
ture and humidity During the Mamluk
period Ivory and costly wood such as ebony
were commonly used

lisa

Doors

MvaUtA (Morocco), 18*ct«Mi*v

o.lx-c-xl -on Mlirq. ■ H.<gM JSO cm.
106 \ door leal with three Identical inset represents Samarra' C style at Its finest.
width 192 cm, dept* 23 on; height of oxxsiro
decorative panels. Each panel is carved in Marble panels with identical decoration were dosed and people use a smaller entrance a smaller scale. The doors arc crowned with
Door 40 cm hwghr erf towon 45 <"
the lievdled style with a composition of two found in the throne mom ol the Jausaq al- In the lower section ol these doors two two richly decorated towers surmounted by
Mi^n. Vetoed. ttpOwsUm. -..no 68168
superimposed stylized motils: a Urge Un* Khaqam palace in Samarra'. Tins door, to­ layers ol wood have- been used to create a green root tiles.
im.atu'r Rortwdwn 1993-1996 |y> 22-23
Wood, orwa . H»ghr 13V m. writh 55 an shaped lotus flanked by two hall palmettes gether with two other door panels in the perspective elfeci In the first layer the
tn.no 9128 and an inverted five-lobed palmette Hanked Benaki Museum, was found tn a ruck-cut The reception rooms ol palacesand wealthy outline of two mihraln. or prayer niches, has
Cmm- • o rd. ». p 233, fg. 56tt by two scrolling leaves. TVvo sphere molds sepulchre at Takrit. just nonh of Samarra'. homes in ihe major cities ol Morocco arc l>ecn carved out; the nm is decorated with
Ph.*n I9K. *9 74 ,-4, AnglxM 19®8 p 20. feature at the base ol the lotus, There is a used lor the interment ol Assyrian notable for their magnificent carved and wsiod carving. The deepest layer has been
keyhole between the flrat and second panel. Christians. decorated wooden doors. During the briel carved with Hower patterns which echo the
The decoration is of the highest quality and but cold winters these large doors arc kept designs on the upper section of the doors, on

154
 The goddess is accompanied by lour pea­ evrymtw and the wings), with a boss over
cocks. Other motifs are placed in three con­ one ear; their heads ate depicted in almond-
centric circles. From the inner circle outwards, shaped luloes witli Sasanian streamers.
these comprise: running animals, medallions
Their robes fasten at the Ich: their belts
containing representations ol a vase, hunters, have tongue-like attachments. and tliey
animals and birds, and an arcade with mostly
have braided boots (compart attno. !38\.
seasonal images, such as reapers, grape Each is holding a rounded cup. apparently
collrclors. cLhkcis etc. The spaces between containing a llame. possibly recalling some
the medallions ami between lhe hands ol Zoroustnan ritual although the figures have
tcprescnialions are filled with vines. no veils. Tlie ground is densely ring-matted

This tray belongs to a series whose earties: Around the composition is a Isold frieze ol
designs followed Byzantine iconography, warriors, each with a pair of lances. one ol
iio while the last were strongly Iranized. which bears Sasanian streamers. They are
Their evolution evidently reflected the matching over stylized trees. Their shields
Carved panel Tray
development of early blamk culture, with hear various emblems* a six- or seven-
Egrpt. I3vicantui> Pl 8th W>C"tc»Y ihe Byzantme-Hdlcntalc traditions ol Fgypt |>cialled rosette wilh two pips. Sasanian
Wood carved • length 63 on. he-jM 28 tm BronM (0 tx«o) . Ovnoter 68 5 cm □nd especially Syria prevailing in Umayyad streamers, and seven circles. This is followed
Bonata MutMxn Al*rr-s, TOrc 9244 n« Sato Horrr,Museum. St Po-oob«g times and those of Sasanian Iran dominating by a benedictory Kufic inscription at the rim
Oteretu, Ala.andn., 192$ pi 2. Dc^.hx, >928. •"•no KZ5762 under the Ablwsids. This tray is one of lhe which, unusually, combines both Arabic and
pl. H Cd. p. >96. PTOoo 1980. 80 166, p 36 Provp-anco transferred in 1925 from The State most highly stylized and one of the last to Persian:
Acadwo, of Matinal Cutlural HrU.x, (A A Bcftr^nl, preserve Classical motifs. Ewrfarnty jp.v and happliten on the drinking
A wooden panel wilh a complex symmetrical ColMoti H.M. oflhe purple (wine)! Dieinc favour on your
arabesque design carved In two levels ol
Dwratuf* Obe* • Tnw >935. ub 67 Mtn** life Connmtmait bleaing. andperpetual grace,
relief, wilh Incised derailing in ihe flor.il >938. pp 29-31. 38. 41. 42, 44. 46-48. *g 3. 14. and util-being. and happinea. and...
inoiilc .inti headed outlines. The reverse ol MarwA.U >986. pp 294-29$. t>g 200. 205. KumM III plate, Jtid lhe coin-like medals which hear 112
lhe panel is decorated with a carved shell >990. no 4 a similar motif, was probably a gilt com­ Ute exterior also bean a bold Kufic inscrip­
niche painted light blue This piece ol wood­ Plate Hemispherical basin
missioned by the king to mark a special tion at the rim and a double hexagon at
work was probably reused during lhe A standing goddess wearing a amm? muralh Van tor Afghanistan), rurl, 11th century occasion such as Mjhmud ol Ghazna's KlorMar Ol Gb*«rj, 11U-I2U. century ihe base which subtends six compartments
I Ith century. .1 not uncommon practice, is depitied in the centre of lhe tray. She is $<•.«--CXameter 103 cm proclamation as The King ol the East', H<gh-er> bronze. Celt tnd angrafad • with blank alinond-siu|>cd medallions
especially ui periods when wood was scarce. probably the patroness ol a city. In the early Tie State HeoMage Minatm, St Potoobu-g, in 1000 AD. IX-talls of clothing and certain Me-jM 21 J<n. d<*rwo< SO 4 <>«i and palmclte filling in their spandrels
The arabesque was a popular surface Middle Ages such representations had a .11.00 5*99 furnishings display similarities with I Illi- The Naewf D KhaMr CoUcrtxn of Warn* An.
decoration for wood Irum the 12th century purely secular function as a symbol ol a city. Provenance- acquimd n 19$1 Found in Vanalo century objects, while the technique ol London, rw-o MTSV924
onwards Designs became increasingly
deepening the background and several other Lrteratuw txipuDhthed
complex and refined.
RuWie! details, connect the plate to the tradition
laereture hew I960, pp 256-270 K<M«t >990. of early 9th-century Khurasan silverware. Unlike many vessels ol this valuable
no 19 Special attention should be paid to the king's material, which mostly bear ring and

features; lie is evidently ol Turkish origin, dot or chip-cut ornament, the engraved
This plate is decorated with a representation possibly one of the early Ghaziuvkis who decoration on the interior of tlie basin
ol a king sitting on his throne between descended from a Turkish military slave and is elaborately ilgural.
two servants, each of whom has a homed commander who conquered all Afghanistan.
cap of the kind usually worn by Ghaznavid Khurasan and a pan ol India Al the* centre are two figures sealed cross-
courtier* during the I lih and 12th century. legged on a low throne with lions’ or gry­
The Gliaznavids were an Islamic dynasty Tilts item was probaMy brought to the Arctic phons' paws. Ivncaih an oval mat with a
descended from a Turkish warlord or by fur-trading merchants. On (he reverse of lozenge diaper, with rather curious palmetto
prisoner of war. They ruled over Afghanistan the plate are primitive representations ol birds below what is possibly a fringe The figures,
and the Punjab <962-1186) from their base which were certainly drawn tn the north which are almost mirrur-inuges, wear
in the Afghan city of Ghazna This silver stylized Sasanian crowns (showing the
f.*rthly Anfaly. hruvmlr < IMAM '*< relate

114

Bucket

iflrwd by Bm> An AM
•I W.IU3 *xl Mm ud .bn A‘<n*d
ton M«ran AAhar.,>—. AM, 559 tDwn-.br- 11631
BronM'ItagM IM cm
Ihc State HermitAQe Muwvn, St Pete-slxiq.
■W.AO. M-226B
Provenenie transient^ « 1925 Iron. Th- $t.lr
fe.d.'w, <* MmwMI Cultural H.st~y
(AA BotmeUy Collectton) •
bwratu-o V-wlo-rt, 1910 M»w- 1959. p. 61
Undo" 1976-1. no 180. Kuwait 1990 "o 30 Wird
1993. pp- 74-75, pl. 54. Bloom - BU« 1997, p.260,
*0 138

Thanks to the inscriptions, which give the

names of the person who commissioned it.
the intended owner and two craftsmen, as
well as the date and place of production. this
bucket is lite most famous Khorasanl bioii/e
piece from the 12th- early I 5th centuries.
Tliis the piece has liecutne a standard for
attributing other Khorasaiu objects.
Although we <lo not know the biographies
ol all the people mentioned on this bucket,
it is nevertheless ol the highest importance
lor Iranian cultural history.

The inscriptions are as follows: lhe m.nt trustworthy ofthe faithful, grace of and glory and resurrection, and life after

a) along tl»e upper surface ol the Iwndlc. in the pilgrimage and the two Shrines ti e Mean death, andgrace, and continuation and prune

Kufic script: and Medina). Rashid ad-dm Aiizi ibn Abu-l- and power. and recompense. and compassion,

In the mouth ofMuharram /ofthel year 55* Hutain az-Zaniani. may his glory last and perpetuity to its owner.

(December I I6f) d) in the up|»er register on the body in I) in the lower register, on lite body in
The inscription. which is also benedictory, IB b) along the side ol the handle in cursive human-headed naskh script: naskh script:
teads Tins figure was originally pan of a more script: Glory andprosperity. and power and Glory and prosperity andpower, and well-
Figure of a horse
With goodA-hmw. and blessing. andray. and complex composition, ft was probably a Good famine and happiness. and health and tranquillity. and happiness, and intercession, being. and happiness, and tranquillity, and
well-being. and happiness. and wealth. Irao. 10th criHjry lamp support and cairied a horseman. order, and tranquillity. andgenerosity. and and continuation and well-being, and health intercession, and health, andgratitude. and
MX. B<o (or tvam) •Hetqht 36 o", length 42 on Tlte hone's croup had Arabic inscriptions completeness and well-being and perpetuity and generosity, and perpetuity to its owner assistance, and elevation, and exahedness. and

TN< State Marivitega MutMvn, St in registers, only one of which has been c» along the edge ol lhe bucket's rim in e) in lite middle rrgluer on ihc body comphtenm. andgeneromv. and support and

Invno *-1984 preserved: naskh script: tnscnplion in KuDc script: defence, and mercy, and order, and

ProsenanCB to»id»r-»d <i 1925 IrumTha Suta Blessing front God to in owner. Abd ar-Rahman tbn 'Abdallah ar-Rashidi W'/r/r blessing andgood fortune. andpower, continuation and perpetuity w iu owner

Aioderw, o* Matenal Cmur.l Hstcvy (A*. BobnnUy ordered this thing to be made (formed) by and well being, and harpmen. and

Collwt-x) The form of lhe characters in the inscriptions Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahid: made intercession, and completeness. andgenerosity,

btauluv; MimkA 1912. pan il M> 136. D>a4ono. firmly dales the figure Io the 10th century. (decorated) by Hayb Mas ml ibn Ahmad an andgratitude, and victory. and assistance, and

1947. part IV. pp 159-1M). 172474; SrodthoVn. AX artist from Herat, for its owner. the brilliant happiness, and support, and tranquillity. and

p IIS.-a 24 Kuwaa 1990.no 10 Khodia Ruhl ad-Din. pride oflhe merchants strength. and health and order, and might.
 • ■•or isi cm e Tkrpaiarr

Sagittarius, which is replaced by a liarpy.

They arc arranged in group* of three, with
Bucket
aquadripanile medallion between them
!’•»!, 12tfi rentier Above K a band with a benedlciory in­
Bmnw l» txwci, cop»—-lw^t 21 0<m scription in Kufic. broken by interlacing
TW SUM l«Rnwt*9« MuMlMI, «C e.t^Mxzg, medallions:
in.no t0 1*«9 With goodfortune. and Messing. and wealth
rwsw<e Vani'eoM - l»2S trom tN> Mum and honour. and gratitude. and intercession,
olfotmw th- B*o~ AN SOMjIfQ School andcontentment. and abundance. and wealth
o* Tochn>col Diming and comfort
Unrature Kuwait I9TO. no. JI

A second inscription in iia.d* script decorates

The shape ol this bucket is similar to that ol
the lower part id the body, while a third is
(cof.w. //4l (which is dated AH559ZAD116»»
engraved in three cartouches on tlie under­
although this object is much more modestly side of die base:
decorated. its Inlay including no silver.
Glory, andprospenty and wealth, and
The style, which differs from that of pieces
happiness. and well-being. and interceaion,
which may lie attributed to Herat svorksliofn,
andcontentment, and care, and good health,
suggests that it may have come from another
andabundance, and duration, and comfort,
centre in Kltorasan during the Ulll-early and everlasting perpetuity to ns owner.
I lilt centuries.

Glory, and prosperity, and wealth, and

There arc lour Arabic inscriptions on the harpincss. and well-being. and comfort. and
surface ol tins bucket: The lira. in Kulic
cate, and intercession, to in owner.
script, runs along lhe upper edge and reads:
With goodfortune and blessing andjoy. and
The Isand decorating the edge of the lid
destiny. and ampkteneu. and tranquillity,
balances that on the lower |tart ol the body
and perpetuity to ib owner.
It is simitar in content and in style, and has
the same background ol spiral pahnette
The second inscription, in naslth script, runs tu scrolls reserved on a ring-matted ground:
aruund the up|>er body and reads:
Glory, and prosperity, and wraith, and
Glory and prosperity. and piwr and intercession, and order, and and 116 happiness, and well-being, and intercession,
tranquillity. andcompassion. and mtenoMon. thankfulness. andgratitude, and perpetuity and contentment. and care and duration to tts
Casket
and wrtl-heing. andgrace. and order and forever to itsowner
owner
perpetuity forever to in owner Kl«awn later 12lh omtury
There is one more short Arabic inscriptinn The flat top of the lid bears further
Tire third inscription in naskh script, atul on the bottom of the pot. Inside its foot (in nng-motod *nd <nU<d *<W •*■<". copper .nd benedictory Inscriptions in both naskh
reads naskh senpt. the background having been a btort compound • HogM M on, (Samnter 23 5 cm and Kulic scripts, inlaid or engraved, some
Glory and prosperity. and happiness. and well­ worked with a puncheon): The Nasser D KhalA ColIccPoo of lUjox Art interrupted by roundels enclosing cress ent ­
being. and power. andgrmr. and intercession, Glory andprospetUy. and power to ib iwr. Icmdcn, rx.no. MTW 1266 shaped motifs. These* are arranged around
and divine support (?) and compassion. and LllerMure a handsome finial in the form of a pointed Glory, andprosperity, and wealth, and compassion. andgrace, andgood health, and
tranquillity and perpetuity to ib owner. There arc two extra letters, a waw and an happiness. and wdl-bcmg. and intercession, good health, and and compassion
dome surmounted by a stylized Buddhist
alii, before the last word. Tlic cylindrical casket stands on three lotus and a hawk or dove The Inscriptions and conientntent and are. and duration and
The fourth in .iTlptlon. in Kufic script, on the knobbed leet. The slightly tapering body abundance. andperpetuity to its owner. The hinge and hasp of the casket arc also
on the list, starring from the innermost band,
lower pan o! tire Ixidy is decorated with a scries ol medallions with cast; they ar fixed to plaques in lhe form ol
read:
iVirhgood • nd Messing. and foy. and interlacing contours, enclosing the signs of With good fortune, and blessing, and wealth eagles displayed. wink* the tip of the hasp rs
W’rt/i good fortune, and blessing, and wraith,
happtno* ana heinj, and divine support, lhe zodiac These arc mostly conventionally and honour andabundance, and duration, andjoy. and happiness, and honour, and similar in form
and assurance and mppovt. andgrace, and represented, with the exception of permanence and . and well being, and
andperpetuity to its owner

lol
Kariblv kca.tv heavenh ■SCAM • ntpalM

117 Herat worksltops of the late 12th Io early

13th century This conclusion is supported by
Casket
Persian verses Inscribed on one such ewer in
Khe.M*' ’21* nntucy the Museum ol Georgia, in Tbilisi which is
IV„. o. i*<7. p*«<> ■-■«'. <—jr.-ci dated AII 5771 AD 1181-821, and inscribed
rmg-ntflrt md irt*d *«i copper • H..9M 417 on. with the name ol the artisan. Mahmud ibn
22 • «n Muhammad al-Hcrevi. wlui recorded that
Th# Hum. 0 «h.M. Colle.l—’ ol Wom< Art. such Jugs were made in Herat.
london. «i«no MTW 1106
La..«i.™ wnpUUuhod All these esvets arc richly decorated in silver
and copper inlay, with fkiral ornaments,
The cylindrical casket stands on three frequent human figures and Arabic in­
knobbed feel, lit slightly tapering body l» scriptions; lhe necks usually bear Item
decorated with a series ol roundels with figures in relief.
intcilacing contours enclosing the signs
ol tlte zodiac. These arc more or less The inscriptions are as follows:
conventionally represented, although a) around the neck. In Kufic script:
Capricorn, Aries, Leo and Taurus arc all famur.
shown winged. This is bordered above by happinnr.
two panels, cadi wllh the same benedictory entirety
inscription in a cursive senpt. 'with good peace:
fortune. and wealth and wB-Mnn'. Below air
Kuflc panel* repealing the word hi'lyumn b) on lhe shoulden till ruaWrof thuluih
t'witlt good lonunc'i. separated by roundels script);
with split palnicttcs. The cupper-inlaid G'fory and proiperity. and wealth, and
decoration on the underside of lhe base happmas, and health, andfavour. potency,
consuls of an interlacing roundel at lhe and pouvr. and divine mppcrt, andaainance
centre, surrounded by three panels, each and perpetuity to iff .’uwr
enclosing the word 'wealth'

c> around rhe up|*er part of the body,

The llai lid carries similar bencdictory fin Kufic script, the upper ends of the
inscriplions At the centre is an openwork letters being interwoven):
dome, surmounted by two knobs. The upper Hit/r good fortune and Nosing. and wealth,
knob is also openwork, and is downed with and honour, and rauerection and inter-
a stylized peacock perched on a lotus loscttc cation ... andpotency. and power, and
The inside of the ltd bears a central quadri­ gratitude. and endurance, and entirety
partite medallion framed by a Imnd ol and perpetuity to iti owner
undulating scrollwork.

d) around lhe lower part of the body.

Like latino U6>. the hinge and Itasp in naskh or thululh script:
arc cast: however. the lunge attachment Glory and prosperity and wealth. and
118 Auden,, ol Cultur.l Ho>my
•' a bird-headed human, while the lusp happinns. and health, and mlerceutcn. and
(AA BotxinWy CoMoorC
attachment w probably an eagle displayed, Ewer resurrection. and kmd-hcarudness. and mercy.
l.teMuro Munch 1917. pel U ul, 141,
lhe tip* of its wings terminating in bints' and favour. and contermtmt. and honour. and
12tM»<1»Bt*«nh«y 1925-1. *g 112. f’yoa" l«*. *0 244; 1951.
heads. entirety, and success and perpetuih- to in
Bron/. (<• brosst • ’••'flht 36 5 CM Dywionw 1962. no. 36, KumM 1990. no 3$
MJL owner.
Th* Sute He.ttA.19. Muscirtt. St PeWnbw?.
mvno 18-1468 This ewer belongs to a large group of simi­

Pro-e—. ...nsle.ei W25 lb. SU1. larly shaped objeos which can be linked to
laithh kMMj itun-A j>.' • liTW SIAM nt ruitu

119

Waler jug (aquamanile)

b» t«« craftsman Al. <bn M.h»mmad 4>n

Mu+Qwlm
Ion. MiAarrom AH 601 lAuQ^r Srptember ’Kb)
Bronze 10/ b/au). elver • Heght 3$ cm
T-o State HC-T-4W Miwin. St Petersburg
in.ro AZ-225
Provenance acqu/ed In 1929 from the Stat*
Anbqvenun Shop
bft-.t-TO DytKooov 1939. pp 4541. Maye- >959
p 36. Gnirafy*! 1968. pp 102 >05. >990.
no. 39

This famous aquamaniic. once richly

decorated with silver inlay, b probably
lhe last known in ihe series ol iheriomorphic
vessels n» which ii belongs. The casting ol
such a complex composition was obviously
considered a difficult task, since the artist
stresses in Ins inscription that the entire
piece was cast simultaneously The insenp-
lion Is in Persun, with a tew Arabic phrases,
which b rare lor bronze objen* "I 'he period.

The inscription is placed on the cow’s neck The ornamentation links this water jug lo 120

and head Khorasani bronzes ol the late 12th and early

Cauldron
r/in oneand the calfand lhe lion livre all 11th century.
three castsnuitlutneoustr wiih ihe asshtance of by the craftsman B« BWr Mahmud
God. lhe Just. the Almighty thanks to lhe Iran. 12th century
action fix. order> of Ruzbeh ibn AfnJun /ibn) Bronze (or brawl • "eight 29 on. a»m«er S3 on
Bunin Rlessimi to in Shah Rur:in ibn Th. State He-mMQ. Museum St Pr-orUnirq,
Afndun flbnl Bunin Work of Ali tbn mvno TP-207
Muhammad ibn Abu-1 Qaum amtawash In Provonar>co nnns’cmtd in 192$ from The State
Muharram. 603. Acedemy ol Mutenel Ou.nl H>«to>y

The firsi publications which considered this This cauldron by lhe artisan Mahmud al-

water jug stated that it was made somewhere Qazvini is remarkable in a large group ol

in Shirvan (northern Areitaijani. However, similar objects lor its huge size.

during the last fifty years no other bronze

vessel ol ibe late 12th or early 1 Mh ceoiury Vessels such as this were extremely jxpular

has come to light which can I* associated in central Asia where they were used at

with Slurvan. suggesting that there was no open-air banquets

school id copper manulacture in this region

during the period.

in

IM
 121 sultan of Islam and ofthe Muslim. subduer 122
oflhe tnsurgents and the rebels. the sultan
Brazier Rectangular casket
al-Malik al-Muzaffar Ymtf. ffbrv /to him!

£W (Ca.h» 2-1 hall 13th century Jw-a ('ow lOutMau m 13W c^itu-y
Bran <nl*d with ■.».« *nd bturnen •length W each The Rasulid dynasty ol Yemen (1228-14541 Suwt b«« wth of iub«t«nt>al iriay « aHvar;
■ide) 34 Ocm. ma> ha^jh* 34 6 cm was a prmpcrous one. The country was an the s-des a-e held togethfli Dy t-iii lI««. th. b.-j-
The Metropal.tan Muietim <fi Art. Now Yoi. -i-ng Important trade crossroads with connection* mounts «rsd th* faUming hasp am soldced to lhe
91 1 .540. Edrwd C Moore CoHect-on. Bequett to India, the Arabian peninsula, and Africa ■hM natal • 20.3 • 19 S« 154 cm
al Edwa-d C Moore. 189! M*Oe lu iho IbiU'd and had strong cultural and commercial lies Tho turn 0 MuMl CoMcoon of SUmic Art.
»!*•" ot Yemen. 5ham» al-D(n YUwf to the Mamluk sultanate ol Egypt and Syria London. i~.no MTW850
fr. 12SO-U95I lrte-*tun- rftft 1924, pp. 199-201,274. Colour.
UterMurr Ponf 1987 pp 232-53. fig p 255. The corner pieces arc decorated on each side 1983. pp 96-97- >985. pp. 141-157.
Now >o« 1987. p S5. M*dco Gry 1994. ,«i 204-0$ with ihc* Rasulid emblem, a five-petalled Ch'>««» 1989 it, lot no. 524. KhjAfc Collection 199J,
rosette, against a field ol floral scrolls. p4ft Corxebagan 1996. no 82. p 123: -
Braziers served a dual purpose. as ponable Running above the mam inscription is a Savage $ni4h 1997, no 344. pp 39QJ9!
healers and also grills. A flat pan. now narrow band of coursing animals, typical
missing, would have held lhe charcoal. of Mamluk iconography. Eulogies in Kulic The casket has a gabled lid. and rests on four
Following the pattern of oilier domestic script surround the two original legs. knoli feet. Hie lid has lour dials and knobs,
metalware made during the period, this 5.C. lhe remains til a combination kick, and a
unique, elegant, monumental, and probably loop (or suspension The lavish silver inlay
ceremonial brazier is one of the best must have been dazzling in its pristine state:
examples of early Marnluk silver-inlaid even now enough remains for tlie ambitious
metalwork to survive. decorative programme to be descried. In
addition to the 16-lettcr dialsol the lock,
The object. perfectly square, is composed ol the lid bears a lobed medallion of a prince
four panels bolted to four corner sections,
each cast with a finial and a leg (two legs arc
122*
modern replacements) Each rectangular
panel was cast with two confronted dragon's
heads at the top and a lobed pendant at lhe
base. The pairs ol Hon’s heads that protrude
from two of the funds arc probably later
replacements of originals. Apart Irotn their
decorative role, the dragon's and lion's heads
arc functional: the dragon's heads and the
holes beneath them may have been used to
hold grilling skcweiv the rings protruding
horn the lion's mouths were probably meant
to hold handles Each panel is decorated
with a large band of honorific titles in thiihitk
script, set against an intricate vegetal back­
ground. dedicated to the Rastilid sultan al-
Muzallar. who may have been tlic recipient
of this gilt from the Mamluk sultan. The
Inscription reads:
Gtory W our matter, the sultan. the utsr. the
ruler, the just. the fyhter/ofthe faithf the
twden /of Islam/. the mfghty. the viMtUm.
Parthlt btjun. kuvwily an

enthroned. below a sun medallion. The short rear panel has a central lolled medallion ol illustrated in al-Jazari * Klubfi Matifai al­
irxrraunggoodness. great rismg
sides ol the gable show an enthroned prince a drinking prince svith attendants and two iiintial-Handasiyvah (Topkapi Palace library'
fortune, lottingpower. quietgevd ..life,
Hanked by musicians or cup bearers: the long figures Haying backgammon in front. This is A.M72). TW’o oilier specimens of this type
fulfilled action
sides bear a pair ol musicians between the Hanked above by musicians in small roundels are known, one on a similar casket in a pri­
(the inscription is repeated almost In full)
hinges and two pairs ot musicians. one with and below by even smaller roundels ol cross- vate collection in New York, and another rm

a trav of beakers between them. on the legged seated figure* bearing crescent moons. an ivory casket, made in the eastern Medi­
The broad inscriptional lund in the tray’s
front. Below all these medallions are tolled arches terranean. or possibly Palermo. circa 1200.
Interior is indecipherable owing to its
with standing figures, hands clasped ot aims and now in the treasury of St Servatius,
extreme stylization
Around the base of the lid is a benedictory folded, with attributes ol Christian priests or Maastricht. The letters on the dials of these
Also, small drums (or tambourines) in the
inscription in naskh script broken by six­ deacons. three locks arc all in ab/ad order. They arc
hands of musicians arc engraved with the
petalled rosettes a simplified form ol two late 12th-century
word:
Perpetualglory mid cafe life. and increasing The liom panel has two quatrefoil medal­ Persian combination locks, in Copenhagen
tambourine.
prosperity. and ruing diligence. and immediate lions ol mounted figures, one a lancer and I David Collection, no. LI984) and Boston

goodfortune. and helpful destiny andeffective one a falconer, each with small medallions of (Museum ol Fine Arts. no. 55.11 B).
The outside base is inscribed with two names
authority, and.. and .. Mil-bang . cross-legged sealed ligures bearing crescent
ot later owners:
moons above and below. Between tlie Muhammad
The narrow sides on the casket show qitJilt-foils is j standing Christian figure with
and
drinkers or musicians in the arcs ol cross and book rest. The ground is a uniform hoja Raykhan.
intersecting circles, with an enthroned prince mass of vigorously spiralling split-palmcite
and attendants, al) drinking, at the centre. scrolls and six- or elglu-petalled rosettes.
This central medallion is flanked by smaller
lubcd medallions, each with a cross-legged Tlie remains of the combination lock 124
seated figure bearing a crescent moon. The associate it with the lock with 16-letter dials
Tray

Spi*. nvd-131h <•"!«<»

B«xu« (Of b>*M). kIv* •OiamMoi 43.1 on
Tho $t*l» Minoum, St P»te-cb.ra
f- rx.. CA 142’0
P-ovena-ce ixrtrx** . 1-xiqM •> 1890
Izotov S» 19Ql.p S9. *9 157.
1912. P*n R crt> 153 Ya.ubo.-rty 1938. pp 209-
214. tab 23-27, B.- 1989 p 10, 23,25-34.
125 surrounded by servants. The scene with the KuwWt 199ft no. *1
ruler is similar to certain miniatures ol the
Tray This tray is inlaid with silver, which is fairly
Meabpotamian School, which links the tray
to Iraq. The style ol the figures and oilier well preserved Hie decorations include
k»q, 1sthai* 13tr> century
ornamental aspects shows the influence of an Arabic inscription, representations ol
Bwue to. txonl. ■.<•«- • ** cm
riw Stole Hernstaa* Mucecm. St Pete-.b-ry I2th-carly I Jth century Khorasani metal­ animals and lloral ornament. However, the

ewno 18-1*55 work. mam distinguishing leature ol this tray arc

P-jv^anco transferred I 925 So~i IM %>’. Christian sainis in twelve separate niches
The inscription around lite ritn. in naskh Such objects. winch combine Muslim and
Academ. O» Mzc-al CuHu»* History
script, read*- Christian artistic styles, were produced in
(AA Botrrir^, Coilocnon)
l*.r.ti.-» Muruch 1912. I. tab 153. W-orrtl-ia Lastingglory and increasing prosperity. actual Bth-century Syria, w here Muslims and
destiny. long life eumalfinvirr, increasing Christians were neighbours
1*1. p 61
goodness. great sitam. ruingfortune. lasting
Tltis tray is decorated with Arabic pnirr.._ the one fbUouring the order given u tt> The Inscription leads.

inscriptions, representations of musicians ownerf). Lottingglory, maeasing prosperity Lasting glory and increasingprosperity. and

and drinkers and an enthroned ruler actual destiny. long life, eternalfavour. continuing wealth and sublime peace /andf
larthlr htantt. hmtnlv

The double-headed eagle was a popular

motif in Syria, northern Iraq and Anatolia
during the I Mh century. Although n un­
doubtedly had imperial significance- and
lealured on coins and at the entrances to
palaces. it was also used as a decorative
motif on metal and pottery vessels.
R.w.

126

Lidded box

Egypt. 1st 14th century

Bmnw tor faroM), 90H. *•«•< <i<llo •
(bo04<m.<f>*n>M.r 105<m
T-o Stare Ho-rn,t>ge Museum. St *'ete-sbvu
itw.no. EO 745.,b
P-nen»n<'e urdnown
lrerWb-e Moscow 1957. DyoEoncvo 1942. no 59.
KMv*t 1990. no 37

176
Inscription Kinds around the incense burner
read:
One of the thtngt made for lhe honourable
authority, the lofty, the lordly, lhegreat amir,
the revered the mauerful. the chiefofthe
armin. the holy warrior. the defcnder the
protector offronnen thefortified by God.
the triumphant, the vktoriouf. al-Badri Badr
al-Din Sayuri al-Zahiri al-Sa idi al-Shamd

Badr al-Din Baysari was a well known

rianfi forruw. and aaual dntiny, and effective 125 Bxren 1949, flg 22; londo- 1974 no 210. W*d Mamluk amir (local ruler) ol the 13th
authority. andpood luck. andfull honour and 1991 fg» 12 8 17; W»-J 1993 4g. 87
Spherical incense burner century Confidante of Sultan Bashars, he
total happmar. .andtu/fkient tufficiency.
became Immensely wealthy and powerful
and total favour. and rhing fortune. and Made Bo« al-Olit Bayswi The incense would have been placed inside
and was tamed lor his extravagance. This
tncreanngyi'odnm. andgloty. andgratitude, Syno. 1277-7* a small saucer suspended from a scries of
incense burner may well have been destined
and crane and genenmn. and beneficence B>m mbld —th Uw «0<ametw 18 4 cm metal rings or gnnbak within the incense
for his palace in Cairo, which was one of
and MWn fthe Heaven over you. and The BM-lh Museum londw. n> no OA burner, allowing the saucer io remain
the num magnificent in the city. The title
glory, andy . /perpetuity toyou. eh 1878 12 30.482 upright and the contents secure even when
cil-Saidi is a sign ol Baysari's allegiance lo
lordhigh with digmt nd fortune, and luck r-o.w*c* Gwon to The B<it»h Muieun the vessel wa* rolled across lhe Door The
Sultan al-Malik al-Sa'Id Baraka Khan <1277-
and happinen land/ h yhHaitian. by John Mwtdcnsonm 1878 loop at the top ol the incense burner is a
79) and so the vessel is likely lo luce been
l«o-*ture Uneftoo/o 1884 pp 1747 fg 81 bier addition.
made during Ills reign.
tartklv beamy. heatenlt
.bioiisi.m • Du rat*.

Each ol the incnptions in the three round

128
medallions along lhe box's lower side, in
naskh script, reads: Cauldron

Glory u» our lord lhe sultan.

Dagestan, 2nd na" 14th cantury
B>onw (o> t-anO •Ha^ht 66 cm. dwnoter 66 5 on
Th* State Harrmlagw Muslim, St IManburg.
in.no TP-135
127
P">«^ianc. !r«ni*o"<xl In 10/4 Son t»» formar
Bucket Museum o( Boron A N S_gl’i School o’ Technical
Oawiq
jig-eO by the Mubxrmad Shah acb-$>wiw>
btmmun: Ortnk 19M-H. pp 300-326. tab 47 50.
»•". AM 733/AO 1333
Atamrea^v 1987 pp 101-127 *fl. 6; Kuwait 1990,
Brow (O’ tx*ss' gold. vlwr • Me-yr AS 7 cm
no 72
Th. State Mo'm.'ag. Museum. St Peteutxxg,
Mvno 41-I4M Cauldrons of this type, displaying a wide
PfMrjnc. «vxf»<n>d in 192S h"- th. Muwum ol range of decoration, come Irom Dagestan
the foonot Baron A N. SbegliU School ol Technical
Dialling Certain elements in its construction, such
Crte-ar-te KuhnM 192S-II. pl. S6. Persian Art 1939. as the exaggerated horizontal nm. hint at
p< ’363 B. Grurityon 1963. pp 174.1/8, a connexion with cauldrons made in
i960, no. St Kuluchl (western Dagestan t Nevertheless,
both the floral ornament and distinctive
Tilts bucket is one of the most important
shape - which is of the so-called 'closed
pieces of 14th-century Iranian art as it type’- suggest another centre, probably In
records the exact date when it was made, as
close contact with Kuhachi.
well a* the names of the artisan and owner
However. nothing is known of these people This particular example might be attributed
from other sources. Since lhe artisan's msba to Zarkan. a village ol chain-mail makers,
Tim box is decorated with Arabic inscriptions The inscription along the periphery ol the was 'Shirazi'. and lhe sultan's title contained
may God muhiptv Ins putke. tn theyear 73) in ha vraoria over enemies. Gcd s shadow on mentioned by Arab geographers, thought to
containing the name ol a Mamluk Sultan. shoulder area of die lid. in naskh script, Ihc expression ’....the heir to Solomon's
May rhe world be as ivrr wish it. and Heaven lhe earth, suppressor offaithlessness and have been situated west ol Kuhachi The
al-Malik an-Nasir Muhammad ibn QalTun reads: kingdom ..'. (the latter often met in the
be your friend May lhe Creator ofthe world be paganism. /may God/ make hit kingdom dating tor this piece is indicated by the floral
•who ruled In the bn- 13th and early I4lh Glory io our lord. victorious king. Inscriptions from the province ol Farsi, the
yourprotector eternal and perpetuate hts rule. Im well-being ornamentation's resemblance to that on the
century*. which conlirms dating of this piece assistant ofpeace and faith. bucket can be linked to the south <d Iran,
and his nihanship. stone tympanum in the Museum of History
to the carb Nth century. Both the box and Muhammad ton of Qala 'un. may hit victory most probably IO Shiraz. This attribution Is
The inscription in lhe cartouche* on the AX In ihc Dagesiam capital Makhachkala, which
Its lid aie decorated with a line and elaborate be magnified. leinlorccd by the artist’s description ol upper part «d the body in thuluth script reads is dated AH 807/AD 1404-05
ornamentation ol lotuses, flying ducks, and himself as a 'slave' of the amir Mahmud Inju. Glory and suans. and prosperity. andfavour
Atabu inscriptions of a win usual in Mamluk Each of the inscriptions in three round who ruled the region during this period.
and fortune, andexcellencr. /and/generosity
art of the penod The design, created in gold, medallions on the shoulder ol the lid. in
and learning, and discernment. through which
silver and niello inlay, achieves a visual naskh script, reads: The Inscription around Ihc upper nm In
victory is achieved..
richness which attests to tlie artisan's skill. Victorious king. naskh script reads:
The inscription on the dome of the lid. Following the order oflhe master. thegreatest The inscription in the cartouches on the
in lliuluth script reads Tlie inscription In tile cartouches along die sahib. honor and order ofIran, decoration of
middle parr ol the body In thuluth script
G/ery ro «rr lord theudlan. mctorioia king, box'* lower side, in thuluth script, reads: lhe Hate, peace and faith, amir Siyavuth ar.
reach:
fomitopeable ,u,t assistant ofthe peace and Glory io our lord the sultan. victorious Ktda i. /may God/ strengthen hts /Mowing In lhe days ofthe rule of the greatest sultan
lhe faith. Muka,, > -n oflhe king al- assistant ofpeace and faith. Muhammad ibn /and/ hit rule. The work oflhe wrak flaw.
holder ofthe power oflife and death over the
MansurQala un .r< hi (if formerly in Qalaun. may his victory be magnified. Muhammad Shah ash-Shirart. the smallest peoples, master oflhe sultans oflhe Arabs and
lilt service as-Sahh bam ad-Din) may ha among the slam of the great amir. Khuyraw of lhe non-Arabs, lhe heir to Solomon s kingdom
victory If magnified honrons. amir Sharafad-Din Mahmud Inju the Menander offhts/ time, assistedfrom abow
Earthly beamy. hrarrnh .
•irurauM • The prime

andfortune. and splendour. and excellence,

However the figure ‘8’ cun tie dearly seen
land/generosity,
Moreover vinually nothing is known about
the evolution of ornamental style on metal
Tlie Persian verses in naskh scrip! in tire
objects the 14th and 15th centuries.
smaller compartments in the Itoltom ol lhe
Certain elements in the decoration of this
tray arc written In a metre called mutagarib
piece clearly follow conventions applied in
and read:
the first half ol the 15th century. The in­
May the uvrld beyvur friend as heaven
scribes! date cannot, therefore, be rejected
wishes. may lhe Creator ,y the world be your
out of hand
Protector lYouf the well-wisher ofthe
thousandfold happiness. place tn the front of
Another surprising dement in the decoration
your lord flikef a tray lyourfgratitude ffor] the
of this bowl is die style ol the Inscription in
good deed.
ths- second exterior register, which resembles
wliat is called nastd'liq. or ‘hanging’, script.
Although this style developed In manusenpts
in the 14th century, it only became wide­
HO
spread on Iranian metal objects tn the second

Bowl hall ol the 16th century So the bowl stands

outside the mainstream ol development in
Iran, AH 811'AD 1*08-09 this respect as well Further study is obvious­
Copp*. to • 0<»n** 23 9 cm ly requited
O>« Star* H*m«age Museum, St Petersburg,
-wno. IR-2173 One inscription in the cartouches inside the
PnwonaiKe trandowd in 1890 from the rim of the bowl (in Arabic In thuluth senpt)
Archaeological Commtwrcn gives the owner's name and the dale:
I'tWMure berw 1960-1, pf> *1-44. Kuwart 1990. Its owner andproprietor is Imam Quh K
129 This large tray represents a rare example of •0.75 811
14th-century copperwork which in many
Tray You will be able to send thegrief Bl
respects resembles decoration on broivc or Tire decorative style of this ImwH. with iis
The five other cartouches contain Haliz away from your heart with this song
It*", Mt* 14* century brass pieces. riel-like covering of curvilinear geometric
verses (in Persian, in muzari metre and As long as you are wishing for your
Copp<« • 70 «w compartments. floral and mscriptional loser's mouth and lhe edge oflhe bowl.
thuluth scriptI: Srgnad Dy ojtuman J4v*nb*ht ibn Huw>
D* Sure MuWum, St P®tersburg. A 14th-century dating is also supported ornament, wav an innovation which
It is morning Oh. cup bearer Do not pretend you can do anything Iran. Ute 15* century
io.no IR-2170 by the llgural decoration as depictions ol appeared on Iranian copper objects in lhe
fill this bowl with wine! Brorue lor b>M*J. go*> •<».* • K-X' >2 ’ «•
Tr^.Wrr»J M 1«25 from »a $<*M A<*d«my of animate creatures had disappeared from mid 14th century. Despite the richness ol
Skies rewtve quickly. so be quick! The Persian inscription m nasta hq script in r— Swre HKmrjoo Mutou-". Sr Petcntxxq
Mfanal Cuhu»*l Hntory <A A Bobnruky Cofcacionl metalwork by lhe I5lh century. decoration, this type is more modest than
Before this mortal wrld h destroyed. the rrrond register on the exterior (in ramal in,no 1R-20M
liWaturr 6»n,>. ’967 pp 94.104 Kuwait 1990 bronzes inlaid with gold and silver, which metre) reads.
Destroy (Le. intoxicate) tu with a bowl ftownance. mrslerred - 1923
no 7J The Inscription in reserved compartments were more usual in the 14th and early 1 Sih
of red wine' ivfcar is better than rhe thought of wine and by th* Suw M-smm Fund
around the perimeter, in naskh script, reads: centuries. Such copper objecis were
Ifyou are looking for pleasure, howl. LiMraeuro Kuw»t 1990, no 80
From the 14th century cop|H-r was inrd on a The euwr am/proprietor ofthis it Sharafad- generally tinned.
forget about sleep! As long as we do not see the end
large scale ui the manufacture ol household Dm dm Yusuf may the endofhts endeavors
For how long can a heartgrieve about The- place ol manufacture for such jugs was
utensils in the Middle Fast, tuning in Iran. he successful. The Inscriptions on this object feature a pre­
The Persian inscription in thuluth wnpi the lack ofremaining days? Do say. let not determined with certainty until the
Previously bronze or brass lud dominated. (lhe end is illegible). cise date of manufacture as well as direr
along the outside rim (in mupas metre) reads the heart perish together with days 1960s. Among other theories, they ..ere
Bronze was not entirely dispensed with, different ghazals (love poems) by Haliz.
You will then be able to see the mystery of lams fandf what else?Dnnk wute. do not believed 10 have been made in V« by
however. and considerable amounts ol The Arabic inscription in the larger com­ Sjiedallst literature lias expressed the opin­
bowl. bother or listen to the sermons of buffoons. Iranian artisans. However, variuu udics
bronze metalwork were still produced. Over partments in the bottom of the tray (in ion that the date should be read as AH9II /
HWm )vu make the ashes ofthe inn your eye s Howcan you trust the wordofanybody? proved that the jugs were madr it t lie east
the decade*, copper vessel production in­ thuluth script with some diwani script Al) 1505-06, a theory which is supported by Iranian province of Khorasan 11 4y in
paint. A-i.
creased. especially in Iran^Thcse vessels elements) reads: the ornamentation which K dose to that of
Do not be without wine and musicians, Herat) in the late I5ih to rath entury.
were usually tinned. Glory and victory, andprosperity. andfavour copper objects Irom lhe early 16th century.
because under the dome ofthe skies The jugs were usually inla.d >1 .Id and

74 175
 ISl»M
or oom • the peta.r

1)2
The first zig-zag register on rhe central |Mti ol

Lamp the lamp is Inscribed in nasta'llq script with

verses by Hairati Turn in ntuitas metre.
Iron. AH WZA01579-1580 IVAcrt my heart fit full of] love
Bronjo (or b'Mi) • HmgM 40 7 cm
towards my ideals, which bums my
Tho Slaw Memvuga Museum. St Petarsburg,
soul.
in.no »2203
Mr low burns me every moment with
•“’ovenance ’ramferrad m 192$ from the Sute
another stamp
Ac»d."y o» Material CuhurH Mncry
I am like a moth near a candle.
(A A Bob-^Uy Collection)
As soon as I move ahead, my wings
LWTOtw* S-»-<n IWI.pp 337-345; Kuwait 1990.
anJ myfeathering get burned
no 17, Mo. ■ Btor 1997. p 400. fig 222

The second curved register on the central

In the 1540s a new type ol lamp appeared in
part «l the body is insc ribed hi nasta liq script
Iran, a combination ol lamp and torch whose
with verses by Ahh Shiran (the author
upper part (the reservoir) could be earned
identified by A.S. Melikyan-Shirvanir in
separately on a stick or set on its base, inside
ha;a> metre:
the house. Later, many of these lamp-torches
Thanks so you. I sec the lamr of
were turned into candlesticks < with the torch
generous people hl.
inverted upside down into the base). This
Isee all wise hearts turned to you.
explains why specialist literature considered
You are thegood ofthe world, may
these objects candlesticks lor many years.
hair on your head nevergrow less.
Because I see the world as a parasite
1)1 This example from the Hermitage is precisely
on your hair s end.
dated, wilh lhe owner’s name and the dale
silver, decorated with floral onumrm and The Doomsday came. unheard ofbefore' incised on both the reservoir and the base:
The third zigzag register on the central pan
Persian verses, lhe biter often written by ■I thousand holy souls nere the viitims of the In owner is Hajji Chelebi. 987
is inscribed with the- same verses by Hairati
famous poets Arab 's shah
Tlrni as the lirst zigzag register. The base
lie The Prophet Muhammadpeace he upon The torch reservoir is oho inscribed with
repeats the verses by Karitri Turshizi on lhe
The cartouches on the neck and body ol this him). verses by Katibi TUrshizi. in naslahg script:
torch reservoir
piece contain an extraci from a ghazctl (love So Kasimi < jar became total due to hit loir to That night when the moon ofyour
AX
poem) by a known poet-mystic from the him face became the lamr ofour solitude
first hall of the 15th century, Qasim-i Anvar The candle melted {for it] could not
Tabrizi. It h wntten in itaskh script, in the The artisan's signature Is on the fuse of the hear lhe heat ofcur being together.
meter called mafias: jug (in a thuluthAike script): The moment when wu throw unity the
When the refleaton ofthe plate with the Work cfthedaw Jantnbakht ibn Husain cover offyour moondikeface. 132
morning ofthe eternity dawned. Will be the sunrise ofour happiness'
The friend's beauty became clear in all atoms of
I))
the Universe. The verses mt the u|»per pan of the base are This group of candlesticks with bell-like
The door to the treatury of mercy had been an extract Irom Sa di'S 'Bustan', in mutagarib Candlestick
liases and candle holders in lhe form of
locked by wisdom. metre, in rMSU'Uq script:
Inn, 1st halt 17th renhey dragons' headsand necks (twistedabout
Hut with our happiness coming it opened. I remember one night, when wy eyes
Bronte <«• brow) • Haight 26 $ cm each other) poses a number of problems
The pot fullofeternal wine had been always were not sleeping,
th* Sute Htmtage Muwum St Pctcius-'g, for the art historian. Although ihr candle
pure. I heard a moth tell the candle.
in.no IR-2270 holders are identical, with scalc-fw.tern
Bi tn the bowl ofour hearts thr mw became I am in love fond] I am to die m
Provenance. colacton ot lhe Counts St-ogunov. )«•> ornament. the ham vary wtnr have no
the rrnnt. flames.
ofecqurMion u>*nown ornamentation at all. others are 1 i -•udy
• legendofmy friend reached the baeaar of Why should you weep andget
IrteroTuro Aeroun Art 1939. pert VI. 1377B. Oub* decorated
■rated ones. burned3
1974. pp 233-269, ti9 100. Kuma 1990. no 100

176
177
Baithlt bMMy. hrtvmlr an

nude in the early 17tli century, an attri­ and invocations In Arabic and Persian and

bution based on a study of its features. Qur'anic texts in an elegant nadth script.
Tlie dragonesque candle-holder is of the Between these arc numerical magic squares Celestial globe

same metal and could have been made at which arc not. however, entlrdy error-free,
Im**, peK»p, Uh«e (no- <" Pakisun}. A” 10?*'
il»c same time, although this lus not been and graniinatological talismanic squares.
AD 16*3-64
confirmed.
Th* glol» It brMS. cart O> lhe lotl-waa proem,
The inscriptions include an invocation
or->->-oa wth vl-w
against demons [mtn kulldtnytM>> and the
of staM 25 4 cm. Might of tund 20 8 <m
Persian and Arabic titles of a Suit shaykh.
The Hicwr D. KhaUi Cobeet-oo of Hlam>c An.
Ill although his tariqti (Suh order) is not
London, ilW.no SO 45
Identifiable.
Magic medicine bawl UHrature Swage-Sm** '99S. ro. 29.
1985. no 69 M-Mw - 1997
Iran, Vthcentizy
pp ’68’75. 234-22$. no 134
Hxjh-sn t»onr» CM and ipiz'. •<'fr*v*d <»-co<»t>c
•nW » wtXB patM • 17 3 on. Ulis globe was made by a prominent
dirrnawrJUem 17th-century Instrument maker, Muhammad
’•-> Nusw. D Khali. Clkcl-x. rf Wanuc Art.
Salih Tatavi, who was responsible for at
Lonefcn. nvno M7W 14*4 leasl one other globe and three astrolabes.
L.r«Mure ■ S.^ge-5-n.eh 1997 no 32 .Muhammad Salih's Pcrslanized pisba, TatavL
pp93-9$ marks him as a native ol the city ol Thatlha
In Sind, but the highly specialized production
Sonic ol Ihc bases can l»c dated. through The inside of the bowl is engraved with an
technique he employed suggests that he
study of their unumau. to the late I Sth eighl-lobed medallion at the centre with
worked in the metalworking and instrument­
century; the majority were made bier. concentric surrounds of circles, lobed squares
making centre ol Lahore. Il is also possible
Around I s years ago. a candlestick Iroin and oblong cartouches, al) filled witli prayers
that during the period when this object was
the David Collection (in Copenhageni with
made, his workshop had followed the
a scale pattern covering both dragons and
Mughal enuH to Delhi
base was discussed in a publication. This
graduated in size to indicate the magnitude celestial globe lost their validity alter 50
unity <>l decoration supported the theory
In the Islamic tradition, which continued ol the star in question. The other features years. The instrument's loss of scientific
tlut the piece should be considered a fully
Hellenistic and Roman practice, the heavens shown arc the Nonh and South Poles, ihc precision did not end its useful life, as it
preserved original from late 14th-century
were interpreted as a hollow revolving celestial equator, the two tropics (the circles could still be used as a star map In 1767
han although the base n ol a slightly
sphere that enclosed the Earth On globes of marking the maximum declination of lhe tor perhaps 1802). more than 110 years
different shape.
this type, the sphere is shown as though the sun nonh and south of the equator), the alter this celestial globe was made, it was re­
observer were looking down from above; ecliptic (the path of the sun through the engraved with Sanskrit captions by a Hindu
The existence ol candlesticks with similar astronomer called Nandaraya. The meridian
the constellations arc therefore represented fixed stars as it appears from Earth), and
ornamentation on both the base and candle
In reverse of what is seen from Earth On six great circles at right angles to tftc ecliptic, and horizon rings were no longer strictly
holder raises the question of why this tradi­
this globe, as on all Islamic specimens, the lor measuring rhe latitude of stars. necessary. They and the original stand have
tion was not continued, and why the decora­ been Itnl. while the present support is a later
human figures used lor certain constellations
tion of hose and candle holder diverge in
arc depicted facing outwards, towards the It would once have been possible to use lhe replacement.
other examples. The bases were apparently
observer, rather than lacing inwards, as on globe as an analogue computing device lor
made at various later periods. for candle
examples from Christian Europe. The globe's solving various astronomical, astrological
holders in the lorm of dragons, most ot
Islamic character is further demonstrated and time-keeping problems For this purpose
which were probably Iroin the I Sth century the globe liad to be enclosed in an a|>paraius
by lhe presence of numerous inscriptions
However it Is not clear why the original
in Arabic, which were engraved at the rime which incorporated meridian and horizon
bases had disappeared and hard to believe rings, allowing it to be oriented so that
the piece was made. These include the
lliat they were intentionally destroyed.
names ol the 48 Classical constellations readings could l»c taken lor a particular
These questions have yetjo be resolved.
engraved on Its surface, ami some of lhe location. The positions of the Mars changed
Th. ' .isc of lhe llcnnitagc candlestick was over time, however, and the markings on a
1018 stars marked by silver points, which arc

178
farthtv honrtr hrjvnh < o» hi.»m • rft< |mU.>

I asked a quick-witted matt thr Jett of it Hr 137 A Fatimuf bowl decoralcd with Inure painting
said. It is AltsanJcr > mirror and the tup in over an opaque white gkwc, and on the
Lustre-painted bowl
u9n.-/i ewe can set the world. reverse with lustre circles and strokes. The
When the values of the letters are added Egrf* 11th cantuty surface of the l>owf is treated as a canvas
together, they produce tlie date AH 1060. Elite***, glared • Dwiratw 20.4 cm with no divisions and depccis a leopard and

Bvwiii Mot*/". Athant. mno 11119 its keeper in reserve. Il belongs to a group

Uwatuf# SourtW 1963. -*>. 143. PMon ITOCM. ol Fatiimd lustre-painted ceramics decorated

«7, p K; »h/<« 1980c •to 467. p 221. Pio. 1998 with court activities and genre scenes in a

•to J'. p 112; Van-a 1998. «t> 34. p 10$ semi-realistic style. The keeper reaches out

IM

IM ol tlte Prophet's move to Medina. in 622). by means ol the alidade. the sighting vane on
these calculations were most frequently the hack. When the vane was aligned so that
Planispheric astrolabe
nude using astronomical Instruments such sunlight passed directly through the holes in

p-nl-»bS M»h*r>. *H IOoO'AD 16W as this. Al the same time, the Hellenistic both ends, or a siar could be seen through
B<M4. shcat «nd cm», cut and engrawd • tradition of star-lore remained vigorous, these holes, the altitude rd the sun or star
O^iwIK cm. haaght 14 ft cm. axciudi*) thartle at least in Iran and Indra, and astrolabes could be read oil a scale marked along lhe

Mid img; masimum thakrwii of mator 0 7 cm were pan of thr standard equipment ol edge of the instrument. Uris information

The Nasser D KhalA CoU«t«o c4 littmc Art. the astrologer. could then be interpreted by reference to

London, rw.no, SO 161 one of the sei of plates engraved for different
Lllrroturr ’Wl.C' ■ Srna^r-Smit*. 1992. no 144 rhe astrolalie contains a circular web-like latitudes that were kept in the mater.
star map, called the rele in Europe and the Iiencath the rrte. All these elements - trie,
Despite ill very different shape, the classical ankahui. or spider", in the Islamic world. mater, alidade and plates - were kept to­
origins and theoretical bases ol the plain- Tins is the pbntspheric element, being lhe gether by the (»tn that passed through the
spheric astrolabe, as svcll as the practical projection on to a plane of part ol the hole in die centre ol each, and which was
ptirjMiscs to which the Instrument was put. celestial sphere as seen Irom above: the secured by a wedge called the lione
were very similar to those ol tlie celestial centre is the Nonh Pole, and the rim is the
globe (MVCd/W /J5). The astrolabe took Tropic ol Capricorn. On this example -14 of The astrolabe was made by the instrument
on a new lease ol life with lite advent of the brighter stars are marked by the tip* of maker Muhammad Mahdi ai-Yazdi, who
Islam, as the correct performance ol Muslim foliate pointers. Tire rete sits snugly tvithin worked lietween 1649 and 1663; his lather
rltu.il requires all lominiinitics ol lieliesvrs. the rimmed body ol the instrument <the and uncle were also instrument makers.
nt " ver they may be, to know the direc­ mater), which is fitted with a bracket and The piece is superbly engraved with a mass
tion 't the Kaaba in Mecca and the precise ring Through the ring passed the cord used ol technical information. which Is supple­
Ur lor lhe live daily prayers. For more to suspend the astrolabe during observations mented by Qur'amc quotations and Persian
that millennium alter the Hijra (the year ol the sun or sian. which were accomplished verses. The Utter include the chronogram:
farthh ktaMf. huvnlt 01AM
nt«M • Tfcr |mU.«

1)8
To his left is a dachshund trailing a palmetto

Large bowl ami biting a leaf, lo his right is a small feline

or rabbit and a legless bird. The costume ts
<» pc««My Airwyib (old 5*ma<**"<1>. not markedly central Asian and its Sasanian
OK* 1000 elements arc more characteristic ol the Buvtd
Earthenware, s-p-sxiir-cd under a varapi-ar' glaze • <94$-10411 revival in western Iran
H^ght 10.8 cm. diwrwo- 36 5 <m
The Hauer D KhMIl CoBectaxi o< Wx-lc Art. The densely dotted background panels,
London, n,no POT 99 like lhe choice ol slip colours and the figure’s
UarMure Sous*** 1985. pl 29, Some<«y» >986 X>l physiognomy. suggest a Mesopotamian
no. 99; C-ut- 1994. no. 36. Pf> 46. 48 Abliasld lustre original There >' also a some
what similar pKUdo-lustracdlsh with a
The decoration ol the large bowl, painted in
Xthluk figure in ihc J.-P. Cruiser Collection
ohve-green and reddish slips. depKis an
in Geneva. The dotting, however, is also
enthroned prince His tresses are curled at
highly reminiscent ol the ring-matting ol
the ends. Although his crown has stylized
high-tin bronze vessels (compare at »;<■ 112)
Sasanian wings there is very little trace of the
Il is probable that both Abbastd monochrome
curymbos: a veil appears to lung front this to
lustre wares and their Nishapur imitations
lhe shoulders. His gown, with a lozenge
owe much of their decoration to this source
diaper, is open almost to the waist; the skirt
MJt.
has a bolder teardrop pattern. A belt with
tongue-like appendages is schematically
IM indicated. Un his left hand a bird h perched
119

to the animal creating a rap|M>rt between the IM Bowl

two figures and some degree of movement.

Xttniot~>nt (ceotid Aval. 10th cneaixy
The details are carefully painted, particularly
Earth*"-*-, tfazad • Damato* 17 4 cm
the man’s costume and lace, while the
The Stata Harr-rtago Muw<z". St Pelenlxitg.
animal’s skin is dotted with spots of varying
lrw.no CA-7194
size. A swirling palmette tree is used as an
P>Ov*i»-<w trarwtanad " ’936 from the D tiup--
effective background for the scene During
Cdlccticc'
the Falimid perimi leo|>ards were a status
Lt«*ar<r- BoHfrator 1963. p«oi> Wf
symbol, owned by the court and used In
1990.no 7
hunting. Tile circular inscription reads 140
M.M.
This vessel is made of reddish clay and Generally U the fuaranlee ofhaiour
Bowl
covered with a white engobe on both
interior and exterior. The blackish-brown Tills text, known in more complete versions, Tr.nwx.xra (central Aval IO"
slip painting Is covered with a transparent is one of those most frequently seen on Earth*"-*—. guzerl •OixnM*- 13 cm
colourless glaze. The Inscription exemplifies Samanid earthenware. The doited back­ r>w $u» Haxmcago Museum. Sc Pet<-si>-<g
a style employed in ceramics found both at ground. with outlined spaces around the tnvno CA-7074
Alrasiyab (old Samarkand! and Nlshapur. letters, follows the decorative tradition of n—ta-.-d • 1931 tool • *-*1
and is one of several distinct styles on these metal items.
Samanid wares (the Sattunids ruled from B.M. L4»Mure S*m"*«a 1979 p II. 5? t.n 109.

8l9to999>. Kuwxt 199ft 6

 □ x
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 on or iucm • ritr paMo

The British Museum piece In addition to his

142
miridi scares, hictrewares signed by Abu Zayd
suggest that he was the driving force in the Bowl

luxury ceramic svorkshop at Kashan in the

hax. Imo 12tf» -13th eootu>,
late 12th century. Since both niinal ami
Composite body, starved ana ovc-gJre panted I'd
lustre waits require two brings. Abu Zayd**
pided-Ma. dierwto< 19 7 cm. r>o.ght 8 9«r"
bowls required a high level of technical
The Metropo'ta-. Museur" of Art. New 'ort.
proficiency which he must have hel|K-d
•n.rto 5761 16 Hr~yG lebanhoi Colledw".
to perfect. However, perhaps his greater
gift at Mi and Mo A W.l... C».(^<e,. 1957
contribution svas to the development ol
btWATuro tcu/nc Potw, 1983. car »>o 19
the pictorial style ol mlnai wares, which so
Kr. Vcv* 1987. pp 36-37
closely reilecis that of miniature painting,
and then to the emergence of the distinctive
TWelfih-ccntury Iranian polices developed
Kashan lustre style with myriad designs
a technique known as Huiui (literally,
incised through the lustre glaze.
'enameled'). Stable colours were stain-
painted in a lead gLi/c that was rendered
The iconography of this bowl and others in
opaque by the addition ol tin. Aller the llrst
the group generally adhere to the medieval
firing, less stable colours were applied over
Iranian repertoire ol courtly scenes: hunting
the glaze and the object was fired again at a
(casting ami enthronements. However, the
lower temperature This technique enabled
lact ihat all the bowls date to Muharram
the artist to paint in a greater variety ol
suggcsis that they had a special purpose
colours tit was also known as haft among-
connected with the New Year. The month
or "seven colours'! with complete control,
ol Muharram is particularly important to
lending a miniature-like quality to the design
Shiites because the martyrdom ol Imam
and creating a unique and complex style ol
Husayn occurred at Karbala* on the 10th
painting on pottery- -Minai painter* usually
This bowl ol reddish clay Is covered with 141 ol the month (the dshurai In AH 61. a dale
preferred ligural designs, as opposed to the
while engobe on both interior and extenor commemorated annually. Kashan. the
Bowl more common vegetal ones ol other ceramic
The painting inside is blackish-brown on probable source of the Muharram bowk, had
products. Many objects - bowls, cup*, jugs,
a red background. in which there arc SigiwdbyAbuZayd a reputation as a centre of Shiism and the
and bottles - illustrate scenes Irom the
sgraffito dots reaching to the white engobe. Iran, d.tod AH 583 (Mat*April 1187) bowls with their sad verses may have been
Iranian national epic, the Shaltruim.t (The
The painting, in coloured dip. Is covered Cwimc, butt body. ugUas and o^orglara used or displayed at ibis lime. On the other Book of Kings'), written in Persian by the
with a transparent colourless glaze. Hie bowl docoratio". V*nioor»nt. coIou>*oh gbM • hand, the imagery of The British Museum
poet Firdausi at the end of the tenth century
may be considered a typical example of Domatai 21 1 cm bosvl. with its smiling figures, pool and bird
The style of these- figures eclroes that ot those
Afrasiyab ceramics. Afrasiyab now being Th. Br-tdh M.se--TT London, «vno 1945 10-17 261 in the foreground and floating canopy above, A tcmale lute player figures prominently in
illustrating contemporary manuscripts of
the name used Io denote the remains ol Prrzrcrunra: Oscar Raphael Baquan docs not seem to relate in any way Io the- the centre: two footed trays stacked with
whlcii very little has survived. Thus initial
pre-Mongol Samarkand. L/terae-re. Persian A-r 1939. p 680. Wx«- 198b. Battle ol Karbala* and may have more to do Iruit symbolize food refreshment; and
ware serves to increase our knowledge ol
*9 51.pp 70. 79. 84 with the traditional Persian New Year, which painting In Iran In the early medieval period. courtiers literally surround the musician in a
Alrasiyab ceramics from the time of the occurs on March 21 st and is a time ot lamily well-balanced coniptbiliiMi that follows the
Samantd* (819-999) strongly resemble those This bowl, in which an enthroned figure celebration, than with the Muslim New Year profile of the bowl Inscriptions oil one ol the
Minai ware has an off-white background
front Nishapur (Khurasan) ol the same surrounded by attendants converses with ol Muharram two fruit bowls and below the rim (both on
under the translucent glaze over which the
period. a llgure seated on a cushion, is one o! a the interior and the exterior) wish
figures are painted, bill a limited number
group of five bowls dated to the month ol of extant pieces have a pale blue glaze, ha|«pinc-ss. power, and well-being to the
Muharram, the first month of the .Muslim owner.
such as this example, which represents one
calendar. in the years AH 582/ Al) 1186 and
of the most accomplished objects in this
All 58T/A1) 1187. All live bowl* in the group small group. A traditional scene of courtly
have been attributed to lite master potter entcnammeni is represented here
Abu Zayd on the basis of his signature on

184
 14-1
145
Bowl
Dish

tmia, late 12ttveaHy »3th century

ir» (Kachan) urty 13th centixy
faolwrware. glued lsm» wo-e| • Diameter 19 3 cm
Pntwnre. in cho«Wt* lufro on* an oc*>-
8en*i M-wu", Athene. nno 715
whro glu* • M*^l* 6 9 cm. «amato> 22 9 cm
We-Xu* MK'tdy 1937. p 159 Bota*/ Muuv-i
Th* Naux O. KMI« Colloaxm o» IcUnx Art.
1972 rv. 6S p 17
lo-rlon. m.no. POT 491
uterxure Grube 1994. no 24fi vp 233. 334
This bowl is decorated with polychrome
enamels in the minai technique over a
The shallow dish is conical and elands on a
turquoise glaze: on the reverse is a blade
low loot. Al lhe centre are lour figures while
inscription in cursive script. In the centre
the rim has a vigorous inscription with
a ruler is depicted seated on a throne with
Persian verses written in naskh script. The
a high back; to the sides live horsemen
exterior has a series of large, heart-shaped
alternate with live stylized trees. Each tree
patmelles.
is Hanked by two falcons except the tree
above the ruler's head which is Hanked by
The figures may Ik* interpreted as two
two harpies. Thr branches of the trees are
couples and suggest that the content ol lhe
verse Inscription may I* mutual reproaches
on the pangs ol unrequited love
Oh you. whose nt?/ H u to hurl me
143
for years and montin.
Fooled bowl are free from me andglad at my anguish.
Yau vowtd not to breakyour promise again.
It is I who haw caused this breach
Fntware pairtad «i cobal m«l<* an opaQ.a w"ire
Oh helcnvd. through you many
glua. and osat-pxnwd n block, red and turquono
have come u> life
ware; • Hatgbl 9 on, duowtar 21 7 cm
I-torngriefeveryou, many hearts
The N.»<r D Khalil. Cofecticnot IsUr-K An.
and eyes have bled
Undon.mr.no POT 12
depicted with line lines and ted and blue You are like and idol in hardness ofheart,
UMM G-utw 1994. no 229. pp 210. 334
dots. During the twelfth and thirteenth out ofutter helplessness.

centuries Iranians developed this technique Your equal has become the dust ofvourfeet
howl is underglaze painted in cobalt
1 ?

ol enamel decoration for luxury ceramics, May the Creator of the world protest /the
overglaze In red. turquoise and black
thereby extending their palette. The general owner ofthis vessel. wherever he may bel
nek with two seated prinedy figures.
i

style of deccnaiion resembles miniature

a schematic landscape, Hying birds and a
painting of the period; even the subject
pond with tw.i fish. lhe inscription on the
matter often comprises themes from
inner rim is pseudo-Kufic. doubtless based
literature or conn scenes and activities.
on a repetition ol the word al-'tn t'Glory'i,
The inscription on the outer rim makes no
tj/thlt ftruwn/.arr

147
bearing the name TUghtil. namely. Tlrghril I
Double-shelled ewer I AH 429-4 55/AD 10 38-6.3). TUghni II (AH
526-529/AD 1132-34) and Tughril III (AH
Iran (Kachan), .art, 13th cnMiry
571-590/AD 1176-95). What is more, there
Fatwa™ pxrtad n Hack under a tuu^xxw glam
is no known portrait tradition lor any inetn-
™tf> coUih Maoiog at Hw rrotzr, .Ht-gtt 282 cm
lier ol the dynasty, and lhe costume shows
Tha Nasw- O Khaiili Colacnon ofhlwnx An.
no alluiines with the traditional represen­
Uxxto". in.no POT 773
tations ol Turkic rulers.
Lra-atum; Una 1953 pl 838 Gnea 1994. no. 211.
p tn«aafaono 2!2,pp 196-197
Thr (unction ol the figure is not known, but
om* possibility Is that it was made as one ol
The body is of double-shell construction,
a set ol pieces used in a board game such as
willi o toltd inner wall and a pierced outer
/wftin or chess. II this is the case, a literary
one. This lias boldly spiralling arabesques
reference hum later In lhe Svljuk period may
with dotted outlines, while the neck has
provide a clue In Ins account ol the reign ot
hexagonal reticulations. The slender
Sultan llighnl II. the historian Rawandi gives
spout and inner lace ol the rim have kill
a long desenption ol how to defeat one's
[Mimetic*, and on the base is a spray ol
enemies on the iMtilclield. declaring that:
Haskin ‘water-weed'. Tl»e glare has pooled
‘Like a chess player, one has to observe the
thickly around the low foolring.
enemy's move as well as one's own ' As the
date AH 538/AD 1143-44 tails within the
The ewer belongs to a small group of vessels
reign of Tughril's brother and successor.
with opensvork outer shells. These include
the ‘Macy jug’ in the Metropolitan Museum
ol Ari. New York (no. 32.52.11. which is
dated AH6I2/A0 1215-16, and a very
similar, but undated. jug in the Khalili
Collection.

Over his shoulders is a ckx>k decorated, like

the hat. wilh water sveed' motifs. On the
Figure of 'Sultan Tughril'
brim ol ihe hai. in reserve, is an inscription

Iran (Xachaii) later 13th canlixy in nadh scnpi referring lo Sultan Tughril.
146
and bearing the date AH 538/AD 1143-44.
Frttwa™ pa'"’*’ •>!*» «!«•
rile Jar has a collar neck and a slightly
Jar ■wd u.quo.aa —I cobalt • ISwgM 40 5 cm Our lend TUghri! the Sultan lhe Learned, lhe
evened rim. The body bean an elegantly
Th. D KhaM Coll-ton of Wam.c An. Jun /in the/ rear ihttty rightfive hundred
Spw, 1200-1250 written inscription on a dotted ground;
loach™ <nvno. POT 1310
• ntwatw, paintnd «i blart .odet a owwpMvm The inscription reads:
Uwatum S 1921. pp 208. 212. W-I.l.
■I.U. glM wll> CgM tux^MMM Uwn^a • Piety b thr driving fora ofwUien. im drink
Co*Kt>o" 1993. p 69 The date AH 538/AD 1143-44 docs not refer
H. |M25 2<m pi time.
to the date of manufacture, as the piece can
Nacaa. O KMI.S Cafectlon H Idatm Art,
The heavily bearded male figure wears a be attributed to the Liter I 3lli century on
Ur.lt., awno FOt 2
conical hat with upturned brim, and is sealed siyltsilc grounds. Nor dors it fall within the
1 >twn Gniba 1994 no 337. n> 292-293. 336
cross-legged with his hands on his knees. reign of any ol the three great Seljuk sultans

IKS
 Suhan Marud (AH 529-547/AD 11T4-521 ISO Similar Alhambra vases can he found in the
mid as die two licothcn engaged tn a Instituto de Valencia de Don Juan in Madrid,
Alhambra vase
Moody struggle lor ihc throne, it may be th.it the Carthusian monastery in Jerez de la
Mas'ud had a monumental chess set made to Gunada, aaHy 14th contizy Frontera and the Galleria Rcgionalc della
commemorate these events, and his ultimate Fa*n<*.H*-gM 117cm ShiIi.i m Palermo
Vklory. Indeed, there is a Persian Inscription Th* H*tmt*9*. St Potwaborg. ><w no Mil
on the figure's cloak that has not Itecn lulls IWmiw aojutmd m ’885
deciphered, and ii ends with ihc phrase from *• A.P Banlrwty Coltoctioo, Pa's
•your heart on waves ol blood', which would LiWranxe N*w Xx« 1992, No. I 11
In these circumstances. Tim ligure may
therefore lie a I ith-century copy id one The Alhambra vases arc unquestionably
ot the pieces in this hypothetical set. some ol lhe finest examines ol ceramics
produced m Sjuiii under the Nasrid dynasty
(1246- I492i. Although traditional in form,
lhetr large size and unwieldy contours meant
149 they were prolubly decorative rather than
functional.
Large vase

Van.m-1 Uthcenhxy Tills magnificent vase, in exceptionally gc»id

»**n<* • H*<qM HO «n> condition, is one ol ihc lew examples of this

Th* Sure Hwmiuge St Prteotiurq. monumental pottery to survive. Il is known

wv no. IR-1595 as the Fortuny Vase, alter the painter who

Pro«<un« uamlotwd m 1865 discovered ami purchased it in 1871 from

from th* AP. Bap<*rt*y Collwtxx' Pjoi the Q Salai church in the province ol

IXmtw*. lixArxww h»no» 19*6, x> 1M Granada. The vase had stood in Ihc church
for centuries, supporting a holy water basin.

In the mid I llh century Iranian potters were In 1875 Fortuny sold the vase to the Russian
working al such a high level they were able collector A.P Bazilevsky whose collection

to produce this magnilicenl large vase. Its was acquired Ivy the Romanovs in 1885.
size and ornamentation sets ii apart from all
oilier ceramics. The decorative scheme is based on a serie's
ol horizontal bands. The two mosi impotuni
The vase is decorated with live bands, aic in Ihc centre; both contain insenphons.
the broadest ol which, around the belly, These arc bordered above and below by

shows polo players on honchadt On the zones with arabesques. The upper ol the

topmost band, around the neck, figures two bands comprises a design of contiguous
playing musical instruments arc depicted. circle's, each containing the word 'pleasure*
The three other bands arc Idled with animals The lower band repeats the word lieahli in

and probably symbolize hunting. The vase as ihc Kufic scnpi ol Granadd. Tlie handles
a whole is a eulogy on the pleasures of Hie display ihr hand ol Fatima, daughter <4 ihs'
Prophet Muhammad. above a 'sleeve' in
In place's the whitc/gold lustre glaze is the form of a schematically rendered Tree ol

flecked with blue. Tills may have been Life. Oiw ol the handles is decorated with

caused by a maker's error, or a deliberate arabesques while the other incorporates an

addition to llie glare, in older Io diminish epigraphic motif which can be read as
ihc extravagant and luxurious character ol 'Messing'
this monumental vaw

190
fdfibf* hra.n hijitiity ISLAM
ra« wAl,.

152
154

Dish
Tile

Sya. 14th century

•an. 1Jtli cezitury
C»«”ic • OaiTMta* 77 cm, 7 cm
E>*nc«. • D-r-'r 10 3 on
Na&on*l Museum ol Sy-u. Mimwy ct Culture.
Th. $im. H<—.rt.g. Muwum. St r.l^W^g
GeneMl DimctoraW for Anlq-ties end Muf.im
■woo. IR-11B8
Syr-an Arab Republic ©otascus). in.no. 19061-A
Rnx.rjnc. trnr-ifornrri in 1925 from th. Muwjm
Pnxwuince AsRmka (-orthe.*? Syne)
ol the •ormer Boron AN SMec^O Smttf of
Teehmwl Dramng
Many cities in tlic Islamic world were lamed
Lle-.'-o Ku-.’ IW>0. no 46
lor their ceramics These included Kashan
(Irani. Sainarra' (Iraq). Ar-Raqqa and
The shape of this tile to not the usual star,
Damascus (both in Syria*. Ceramics with
but an octagon. It Is a fairly tare type,
black decorations under transparent blue
since it is painted with iwnglazc enamel,
enamel were know as Raqqa ware' and
a technique which is known lo have been
became Widespread in the 14th century
used in the 15th century lor pamluig vessels
tow/wreturwt 14b 144), but which was not
This dish has a central decoration ol geo­
usually thought suitable for tile decoration.
metric forms with stylized floral motifs,
surrounded by bands ol geometric
decoration.
151

The rim is also ornamented with geometric

Lamp
elements, plus an epigraphic inuription in
Svru Eimi-uiJ, 13th-14lh ««ctixy «ci*Wi script All the decorations arc Nack,
Cw—c «H»gM 11 cm. la^gth IS cm under a layer ol transparent blue enamel.
N»oe*l Museum of Syn., Miruoy o» Cwlt-e. M. Al M.
Go-«oi Dirretoat. lor Ant^Mim and Muiouni
$yn*> **> «epU»l( .".no 20891 A
9>o.m»nc» DamMOn
Iran. Kachan. early 13th century
Fnlwor. poirrted •> cnocoraro N«rm t-o«i!r.g ruby
This ceramic lamp Iras a spiral-shaped body,
onr an opaque -hiHgUz. -Oar" 14 9 cm
two openings - one tor the oil ihe other lor
The Naw« 0 Khahl. Ct-lnoo- o> hlam.t Art.
the wick • and a pierced handle decorated
lorxfcx ln.no POT 1477
with a palm leaf. It is ornamented with
stylized floral and gcomciric motifs. plus
an inscription:
The six-pointed star tile shows a moon-
hnvur r.’ rte owner
laced dancer, barefoot with spotted trousers
and a long-sleeved tunic above her waist
The decorations arc black and blue im
pulled aside by her gestures. The tile is
a In-lge base under transparent glare
also decorated with a lat chicken and half
palmettes in reserve.
Ceramic objects such as this were generally
i under the Mamluks who ruled Syria
The tile would have been combined with
260 io Is 16
hexagonal tiles, doubtless in contrasting
colours, to achieve all-over tessellation

1*2
rj'thl, 4vit.lt, hrjttnh

155

Tile
Eight tiles

Iran 2nd hill ’ 3th r.ntury

•ran, -Mt, 14th cooaury
France. liaVe. cobalt • Hoogte 21 <m
Fawnc- -forh tte hmgM 15 rm. width 1$ cm.
bmift»2tcm
w«h|h...UptM>nol t»-1296 (14Sa 14 5 cm)
Slate Iternuteg. Muwum, St r.I.-U-uy
and 113-1298 QO a19 6 on)
ia.no «-»an
Tlw Stet. ilwmitag. Muaaum St r-t.-Un^j.
Prowoanc.. rfiknown bought m 19.36
-n.no. • 129) 1298
Uo^lw. Kuw*t 1990. no 47
•"trnenatK. trnm<i-w>> in 1932 <mm th. Stela
Muwimi Fund (frwt tfo. ar. marl.rl a>4bm
This rile is similar in technique to the
D.A Ba<K*.nd<*ff'|
example dewribed above (Mr M/.m> /Mb
alihotigh it has no inscription along rhe edge
Tin- ornamentation supports attribution to
The walls of various buildings were
late I Jth-ccntury Iran.
decorated with such stellate and cruciform
tiles. Faience obfecis svith dark-blue glaze
and gold Inscriptions are typical produc ts of
early 11 til-century Iran. The largest tile (IR-
156
1298) did not originally belong to this series,

Tile although its Inscriptions are technically no

different from those on the other tiles.
Iran, 2nd hall 13th c-nhiry A.I.
FMmm lutite, cobalt .Haight 20 5 cm.
mdth 20 5cm
T*. Staw Homirtaga Mumu**, St Poteratwrg.
Itw.no. 8M129
P-wun<«- trumlmml m 1925 hom die Miwum
al the forma. 8an>n A N Sllegliu School ol
Technical Drawing
(.toutiro Kuwait 1990 no U

In 1 Jth-cvntury Iran buildings were often

adorned with eight-pointed star tiles. The Tile

tiles themselves were decorated in various

Ho. laaa 1 Jth-wly 14th canlury
techniques, with Persian inscriptions running
Faianco. lustre • Ooneter 12.2<m
around the edges, often verses by swell-
Th. State Hee-M^o Muwum. St Poterat-rtg.
known poets.
•SUMS at-1186
Womnatica tranrfowad in 1925 horn th.
This tile H painted in overglaze lustre
Mummt o' th. forma. 8-cn AN SMfltal
The verses inscribed along its edge are still
School o' T-cteuol Oawmq
undeciphered. However. such inscriptions,
bteratx. Kuw.it 1990. no 45
in large letien over a blue background, are
lypkal ol the Ute I 1th century.
This small tile, with its stylized represen­
tation ol a bird, is painted with lustre and
may be regarded as typical ol late I iih-or
early 14th-century manufacture
A.L

194
fjithtr kmUf. Itmrah < Tbr fc

commissions. Unlike lhe mosque lamp. 162

Imwevcr. the interior and exterior decoration
exuberantly combines green and blue saz Plate

leaves utr att.no. 162}. lotus blossoms,

Owomwi Turley tent). 2nd heN 16lh century
prunus, carnations, hyacinths and purple
Frihrare. grazed • He-gM 29 cm
tulips with arabesque medallions. Alasoy
Be—*, Mvm—< Athene tmM, 27
anil Raby have noted that this basin's less
restrained decoration is the result cil Ils
Intended use in a secular selling. Certainly An l/nik plate ornamented with flowers
many of the molds present on the basin over a white slip under a transparent glaze.
recur on Iznik dishes, jugs and bottles ol the Hie centre is decorated with a serrated leaf
1550's which would have been employed known as a w leaf, red roses, a tulip and
domestically. The basins' function, however, Nue garden Howers, all ol which nw from
is debatable .I.M Rogers has proposed that a central leafy tuft. Around the rim is a
the Turkish description of 'loot basins' may stylized wave-and-ruck design. The reverse
refer to objects such as these in which the is decorated with small blue leaves alter­
Ottoman royally soaked or washed their feet, nating with small blue sink’s. This Is a
rather titan simply deep bowls on high fool typical plate from ihe second half of ihe
rings. 16th century with a viskl palette and
Site. asymmetric design dominated by lhe saz
leaf In the centre The leal is surrounded by
swirling (lower stems which convey a sense
of movement
M.M.

159 160 161

Tile panel Fooled basin Dish

l<an. early 14tn century Turkey. 1545-50 TUAay toil), rad 16t»> century
*..<« •H»ghe 69 5, width 5 cm Oamic. nonepaMe bod, und^lu. decoration. FH(x..O-T.ir 31 cm
’•< $Mte Heo«.iage MuMum, $t P.mbury tran»par«<ii colrxirtnt glace • HoghC 27 3 cm. The State Hemscage Museum. St Petersburg.
n. no* 1R-1390-1419, iR-1621-1665 nm dorr-tor 42 cm. loot <ha~wr 196 cm Mvno T-35
Provenance trw«l«red in 1925 So™ th. Muwum al The Briton Minoum.london.rn.no 1963 66 Provwnarce transterrmi - 1’25 tror-i mo Mux>u-> o'
lorn—• Baren AN $t*gl<tz Schoo! o' TcOvucf Provenance Godman Co4ecsoo the tornwr B»ro" A N Stwglitz Tetomtal D'pm-g
btwaturo Uno 19$7, Ag 37 Au.oy feby 19B9. School
no 35d. Ca-swcW 199», *g 45 Uttrarum K.-rtolOt 1947 Mb KW M#** 1972
p 40. Kuwaf 1990. no BS
11 .inch of this type, bearing reprewn- This large and impressive basin on a high.
nt living c features. inscriptions or Haring loot has been attributed lo Musli. In shape, colours and ornamentation. this
i icnt*. were used to decorate large lhe designer of the mosque lamp dated dish ts typical of iznik 16th-century faience
s on the walk of secular buildings. All 956/AD 1549 (let cdl.no. S). Ils size and pieces.
decoration leave little question llul this
ami two related basins were imperial

196
Ptrlhlv h/ant). brjunh ■itomuM • Tltf ptltfif

164 balls, the origins of Qntamani seem to lie in

both Buddhist jewel imagery and the spots
Jug
and stripes ol leopard and tiger skins that
Tiekey IlmilJ Imai Quxto- 16<h century clothed the Iranian epic hero. Rustam.
tquwti clay, and g*aN *10. with colon With possible apotropaic connotations and
pamted on whit* s»p end*. cl*» <>•;* • ■incontestable visual power, Qntamani
H-gh» 23 5 cm. dianwSm M 6 cm became a decorative staple ol Ifttli-century
Museum ol F«>e Am. Boston. GA <6 Ottoman an; the items which it decorated
G^xga W WUm. mvno 85 482 ranged from kaftans and carpels to inlaid
UWrarur* S-i" aSo ton, ■ Hto, furniture. Alter 1550. Iznik artists likewise
IW.Panum '992. pp IM-119 featured the (intamani design on their
tiles and wares, or used its Elements - in
Aller 1550. the chromatic range ol Iznik particular the paired stnpes - as independent
ceramics expanded to include an emerald motifs.
green and a thickly applied, brilliant red
J.B.
that stood up in relief. The colourful tiles
and tablewares of this period were most
often decorated with stylized flowers but in
some cases featured animals. Imais, or
abstract forms. Jty

Tu-.oy (Im-k) liril Ou»-to- 16th century

Although they have been termed lips,
Forwi-o «u»ti day. •'’d *"1 "m “ioxo
waves, or clouds, the motifs on this jug are
p»"!"d on wfiM* lie -nd*. deargtaz* •
profiably excerpted Irom a more complex
HeqM 2t,4 cm. diamew 133 cm
design known as pmamani. Consisting of
Muwum ot Fww Am. Boston GA o*
paired, wavy lines combined with trios of
Georg* W W.l«, mv.no. 85 481
Irterarur*- i^puefis-ec $** .Ho Ausoy - »aby '989

163 decoration of the sphere is relatively austere From the latter part ol the 16th into the
and restrained In comparison with the 17th century. Iznik tankards, bottles, dishes,
Hanging ornament
elaborate floral designs on Iznik ware of and jugs were often decorated with fleets
Turkey tanik). md 16th century the same period, certain details such as the ol dAav-like. laleen-rigged lioats. their
Fwtwtr*. gUoxJ • Height 23 cm floral motils date it to the mid 16th century'. triangulai sails typically sporting jaunty blue
Athe-t. n.no 9 The decoration Is similar to that on a mosque stripes.
I w*cum Mjnxfy 1937. p. 136, Un* 195711. lamp in The British Museum dated 1549

Frankfort 1985. fig 2/!6.p. MS. Au»oy - ®*Ly, (RTcrrfna S», so this ornament may lie a Irregular red and green motifs between
fig 263, p. '62; Cwt 1998. fig 42 p 67 product ol the same workshop. the boats on this jug represent islands:
on slightly earlier Iznik wares of the same
A hanging ornament from a mosque, type, the intervening shapes are larger, with
decorated with turquoise cartouches. a discernable rocky contours and. on at least
line black arabesque design, rosettes, large one tankard, trees and towers.
and small circular stylized Howers and
clot bands below a band divided into
cat hrs with small flowers alternating
wit inganese brown flowers. Tills
oni nt was intended to lie viewed ln»m
bci< the lop is undecorated and lias
lhr< :<• spur marks Although the overall
fathh kraah. hrjimlt an ISt»M

Middle Ages. On the belly is a fiie/e id

167
drinkers and musicians with cups and
flasks, three ol which are similar in shape Drinking horn in silver mount

to the present vessel, ol ruby wine, on a

Syr* 14th<W«j'y (giaw). G^-ian, (7). 155’ «<»>»).
gold ground with enamelled details.
&aw. r«M"«A s»<« g<t -H^gnt 29 S cm
Th. StM. M.""rt.go Muwuni Si Potortburg
Comparable 'Christian* figures also appear
VZ-W
on a pilgrim flask in Vienna iDom- und
tro—ntnc* t-ar-co-W n I860 from
IMdzcsan-Museum L.6>. presented to the
P»t» IM Great s Catonw of
Cathedral rd St. Stephen by the Archduke
liWatcee St "ctrnst-j-a ’998. no. 68
Rudolph IV and datable ana BIO. and on
a drinking horn now in the Hermitage,
This glass luim with its Arabic lmeri|»tion
St Petersburg Ufr.ai.ua. 167). They are not
and pictures of Christian saints was made,
however, so similar as to demonstrate that
presumable for a Christian client in 14th-
lhe three vessels are all from the same
century Syria. The Arabic inscription dstes
workshop.
not refer directly to Islam.

What journeys this drinking hom under­

went before the 16th century are not
known. By this point it had arrived in the
Baltic states ol Latvia and Lithuania, which
then bordered on lands belonging to the
Ottoman Empire It is possible that one
of lhe last knights of the Teutonic Order
drank Irom this hom in celebration of a
final viciory. To judge Irom the inscriptions
the silver-gilt mount was commissioned in
1551 by Bruno von Drolshagen In view of
the style and technique. it was probably
made in Germany. The figures of the saints
and the divine supreme power presiding
over the world are unmistakable- Christian
elements, which reinforce the symbolism
ol lhe glass hom.
166 The pyriform llask stands on a high Haring
loot which retains a pontil-scar. which marks
Flask
the place where lhe piece was removed front

Sr •> *.*st>~r. c<o» ’280-13’0 the glassNuwer's stick. The rim has a gill

C'>«te»gi.>. —h Uw.y-.tM. -d-cx. ,.. edge and (lares slightly above lhe flange on Tins bulious glass buttle with a long narrow There indkaic that the bottle imu belonged

•nd om; b»c—> rooted and .na-wtod m op»qu« lhe lull neck. The neck is decorated below Qumg u lit to a prince or ruler The decurmiutts are
neck, known as a atan^um. is decorated with
lhe rim with a frieze of palmettos In while, (bottle with narrow neck) executed ui green, white and dark-blue
wM» <«> IAib. gw«n and yellow on gold. «wth a band of wale-like ornamentation In the
... Moot* *nWy draw" m trownis* red • with a guillodic band below lhai. Al lhe centre ol this band are two ardes with enamel. Such boule* were generally used
Sym (Alappol Uth-iarht^mxy
base of the neck is- a frieze o< 'Christian* Inscriptions. Tlic first reads lor perfume
GtawHegM 18Son
iwer D «haM, CollKtexi ol Art. figures with Western European coiffures and ntf^reatrsi. M. At M
Nrtowl o» Sf-» o* Crfi-o.
’ -w-O Gt$35O coloured shawls or stoics On lhe shoulder,
CUrtval D>"*t.x.te fcx Art-»w|.. and Muwum,.
,re ur*x4>l.|A»» Sa. tho Koh. Maul IW. seven-pointed star interlaces alternate with Tile secund:
Synan AuB KopubU (Danwcawl '".no 9C9O-A
24andfig» 16-26 pelicans, the widely used symbol of Christ (tlaiyto our Lent
the Redeemer tn the Western European

200
ftithb hrtun, Itanvitiy <nt ISIAM »»r futocc

170

Egypt. 0^1300-1350
SightlyEro.r-.tf) DuMA glass. Dieva- and l<x<eO.
—th opaqua rad. "Mo. Wuo, groan amt yollov.
enorrch . Height 28.4 cm
Th. Noam O KMil Cc4.<t.O" of islOTrc Art.
London. inane GLS172
l/fe-itiro Ar- 197$. no 74. p. 138; Chnwe. f«88
IM no. 357

Hie flask has a depressed globular body,

tapering neck flaring at ihc rim and a high
Oaring loot. There is no pontil-scar: llie loot
was made Kparately and joined io the body

The neck bean hands of dense sine scroll

in red between lunds with firms de Iri at
the rim and ihc base. The shoulders have
an inscriplion showing traces ol gilding.
In reserve on a ground ol spiral scrolls:
Glory to our l.cr.1 the Sullen, the km.]. th/
teamed. thejmt.

Hie fool bears more sine scrolls, enhanced

with enamelled dots and a border with flours
de lis.

A much larger and more highly decorated

169 (Meorrmt 166/ The decoration consists ol flask in Washington. D.C. (Freer Gallery ol
a single Ine/e of strolling palmcltcs, with Art. no. 34.20). but with a flcur de lis on
Three beakers
hands of while dots and of gilt above and ihc neck, bears ihc name of the Tilth Rauili.l
$ynJ.egrt».d«>xn below There arc traces of gilding at the rim Imam ol the Yemen, Sayl al-Din 'All
"-•'Went <othw f-Mi, glow wrth * »*low«v- anti on ihc secund largest, round ilw base (r. 1322-631. The Lick of a ruler's name
tw> l»9» «M 4au>aM •> »«••, pad on die present piece may reflect the
'rd Mu. and Wfi« en*met» and gold • Rasuhds' somewhat ambiguous status in
K—|M IB cm, 121 cm (GL5 578«V A beaker with kfcniic.il decoration, probably Mamluk eyes.
HU<irj 158 ot. danner It 4 ot (GIS 578b)' lire second smallCTI of the original group
M.H.
HogM 12Sot. danger84cmKk$S78d ol lour, is in Kuwait <Ai-Sabah .Collection,

The Naum 0 OuM> Cotodran of litemlc M. no. K97g|; another, but <d rather squatter

lOTdon. irwno.. GLS 578 k form, was also sold at Sotheby's, London

llxocuro CamOndge 1978. m> 132a; lucarna 1981. (sale ol 12 October, I9«l, lot no. -7$».

na AJI Kh^CMWaxm 1993. p 54 A fragmentary beaker with similar

decoration h in Cambridge (Fiizwilliam
hi beakers come from a stacking ki. Museum, C.I.C 19401
i. nnpei-shaped and ihc small |m<1 M.R.

i domed kick wiih a pomtl-scar

 171
I thumb-rest or finial. The loot has a central pared to a camco-dccorarcd ewer in the

Cup or bowl circular depression underneath Corning Museum ol Glass trio. 85.1.1», and
MX a fragmentary relief-cut ewer In the Victoria
ProtMtof, Frtimd EgrtH, circa loco and Allien Museum (the so-called Buckley
D.ep t..,o o,e. • co/ou.Icts "UW. mould ewer . C.l 26-19)61.
blow". Uit»-iixi>t<J and i«l>ri-<ut '<*->«-? Wchrxju?) 17)
Mo<{F>t 6ftm> damrtn* 9®cm Tltc body bean confronted ibexes, their
Th. Hauo. O Khabh Co«*ci«<- ol Islam* Art. Ewer
heads turned backwards Their great spiral
Lcodon. m.no GlS 5S0 horns are surmounted by a central triangular
Eg,Ot.<xWh.€^.’000
LttT.tu-. W>rt 1930. no 90; C**o 1969. no 1S9. spike. Between them is a Tree of late. with
Auborgna gins, mould-blown wrth t-M-r-l
London 1976-t. no 130; Khalil Co*ecr>on 1993. p 56 wheel-cut details, composed ol confronted
oponwol dacorabon. t»® f>ii—<> nt and wetem ol
the handle Mresto>at>ons • Haight 25.2 cm tendrils with arrow-shaped liall-palmettcs
This Is probably the most important piece Tlte contours are mostly rouletted.
The Nn*e> D KMl* Coflectio" o' Itfamc Art,
ot Islamic cameo-cut glass in exisrcncr. The
l„rdon rt.,00 GlS 589
coliMiricn matrix was first blown in a mould,
Lire^tunr unput*»hed Seeeho Co-tMtf* ’9®8
aficr which It was dipped in a layer of blue
‘g. 19.20
glass The bold design was created by cutting
away most ol both layers to leave the pattern
The short-necked pyriform ewer has an
standing in relief, to a depth of I cm in everted pointed oval mouth, a Haring foot
places.
and a carved openwork handle wilh vertical
finial. There arc two angular flanges below
The bowl is decorated below the rim with a the rim. The centre of the base is recessed
double ridge and then with a whirling design
172 and the pontil scar (we car NO 166) has largely
ol three ibexes round a central triangle. been drilled away. Tlic shape may be com­
A circular depression In lhe middle ol tlte Small ewer

triangle marks the point where the vessel

ProbaWy Fatrt»d Egypt. orca 1000
was evidently turned on lhe lathe. Some
0nep Wu» g'JM. mould blown, with tntar-. chp-
contours arc roulcttcd. and other details are
•nd NtafrNdonation • Mo-git 16 5 Cm
hatched. The treatment strongly recalls the
Th. Nattor D Khibi Collwt-O- o' l«m< Art.
|>ost-Samarra style as it was adapted, for
London. i<w no GLS 551
example, for Fatlmid woodwork Somewhat
literature Loxion 1976-1. no. 13ft
coni|Mrablc is a fragmentary cameo-cut cup
1993. p $6. Conudn, >999. *g» IS. 16 and pl 7
or liowl in lhe Islamic Museum in Cairo
(no. 246)). though that has rather more
The shape ol the ewer is very close to a senes
In common with Faiirnid nick-crystals of
ol rock-crystal rivers associated with Fatimid
circa IOOO.
Egypt, even to the evened pointed oval
mouth and lhe flanges below it. although
the neck in this example is markedly narrow
and elongated.

The body has two confronted pouting birds

ol prey separates! by a palmctie nee enclosed
within s-scrolls The bodies of the birds are
filled wilh small circular depressions, similar
to those lound on a cameo-cut cup in Cairo
(Islamic Museum, no. 246 H The rcllcl-cut
outlines are partly nniletted The strap
handle has cut decoration and an openwork
 E
174 Below the inscription are scrolling In the ancient Islamic legal code, systematized in sharr'a,
compositions made tip of double and the decoration of a tomb or grave is prohibited. It was
Isirt/e bowl
reversed curves, with lozenges between. permitted to mark a grave with a stone or a piece of
wood, but not to give the name of the buried person.
f®P " Ire". <«• 1000
The inscription is in donated Kullc script. Nevertheless, there is a long tradition of decorating
glM* ore. • toWleM n-.tn-. mould-blown
Some letters have Ian-like engraving, others graves with carved stone, often with verses from the
and reW-art (canwo itd'rwv*) -M.-jht 9 J cm.
stylized palmetto. and ascenders terminate Qur'an and even the name of the dead person, and a list
d«Twt«1Man
tn horizontal hall palmetto: the swan-like of his or her good deeds. Mausoleums were sometimes
n« Nmw D. KhaHII Cdocnon of Btanuc Art.
appearance ol some ol the letter forms may erected for high-placed officials and Islamic saints,
London. <n«no GlS S0S
despite the commandment that graves should stand
L-reretum Hur, I’M. 7»WXV. Khalil Co#«Ucn be deliberate. No parallels for the style ol the

199J p S3 Inscription are known on glass, but letters

with Ian-shaped terminals, albeit much less
open under the sky. The most renowned of those grave
monupients are the Taj Mahal in Agra (India) and the in
The Is the largest known piece ol Islamic
cameo-cut glass. Its w alls arc exceptionally
exaggerated. can be seen In a carved wooden
inscription ol the first hall ol the 11 th
Dead City of the Mamluks in Cairo
□
thin. I»cing no more titan 0.1 mm in places, century, in the Maqsura ol Skli Oqba in
Just as inside a mosque, a mausoleum generally contains
a mihrab, a prayer niche, as sign of the gateway to tu
E
and although broken and repaired, it has Kairouan (Tunisia!.
Paradise. There will also be a lamp, symbolizing the
survived almost complete.
presence of God. Verses from the Qur'an, written in
calligraphy, together with the statement of faith There
The bowl has munded sides and a profiled,
is no God but Allah and Muhammad is His Prophet’

The
slightly everted rim; the low loot lias been
decorate the walls. At the centre of the mausoleum
lathe-turned The exterior bears a benedic­
stands an impressive tomb, decorated with patterns
tory inscription.
and writing.
Sieving. andflMdfortune. and floodfortune
P). andgrace, and ioy. and Itarrineu. and Generally, mausoleums are set in a garden, a reference
well-being and long life to ns owner to the Paradise that awaits the righteous Muslim after

death.
Benker
J.v.
»-•" P). orc ICOO
YeflonuMxown grew. mould-bkmn and relief-cut
H*ght 13.4 cm. duo-o- 13 4 cm
lhe Homo* D. Uwkli CoAKtcn o» Hlamic Art.
icodoo. mvno GlS 351
loereture

The tulip-sluped beaker rests on a low

foolring which has hern applied and ground
down. The main band ol decoration is ol
two running ibexes, their heads turned
backwards, with roulcltcd outlines and
incised dots on rhe body, on a ground ol
rather still palmcite* Below this, on lhe
swelling base, arc running stylized palmettos,
some with Inrd-hcaded terminations Below
the rim is a band ol concave discs.

20«>
fjrthlt bttun. *<.n«»Uy art

180

Funerary stele Gravestone

Effrpt 0. AH 252/AD 866 Khanate at the Golden Monte iSoAhar.

M.M • Ho^ht 92 cm. width 55 cm no. Stary, Krym .n Vw Cnmwl AH 776/AD 1374-75
Bceafc Museum. -vno 10771
Sandwona • 80 > 45 > 716 cm
Liteteture Cmd 19V. no 472 The State Hcfmiuge M-ie-rr. St Pe-xiUxitg
Froraranca: brought back m 1981 Irorr $ta-yy Kzy—
A funeral stele carved in low relief with
by The Hermitage trpedition
a sixteen-line inscription tn donated
lirarature AkchokzoHy 1927
Kufic script which mentions the name ol
al-Husain. son ol Yusuf. sun ol Yazid. ton The lorm of this stone is characteristic ol
of al-Garrah al-Kluirasanl and the dale gravestones from Solkhat which date from
AH 252 The text is evenly distributed the late I Ith or 14th century. The inscrip­
over the surface and decorated with hall tions arc in a Turkic language.
palmetto. They have not. however, been completely
deciphered. Some ol die inscriptions
Although Islamic tradition (Hadiiht prohibits 178 comprise verses; at the end a specific
Similar panels in the Islamic Museum ami
the embellishment of graves, this prohibition lite Gayer Anderson Museum in Cairo alamdaroi standard bearer is mentioned.
Funerary stele
is widely disregarded in Islamic societies, Panel from a cenotaph
confirm that ihere was an active school of
particularly Shiite ones where it Is common Egypt. AH 257'AD 871 stone carvers producing open cenotaphs in
Mada «oc Vw gram oZ MuhxmmM
custom to mark a place ol burial with a hUrtM *Hoght 42 cm. .MXh 3t <m
b Fol* aNUhmsA this style lor the citizens ol Fatlmid Cairo in
funerary stele. Some stelae are tnsenbed Benoki Muwum. Afhoni. mv no 10775 the 10th century.
Egypt (Caeo), AH 356/40 967
svith beautiful calligraphy and are remark- Utouture. Coi'O 1932. no. 617
Mj-tCc - Haight 45 cm. Oogth 76 on.
176 aide works ol sculpture.
•WtewM 5 J cm
M.M. A funerary stele carved with a ten-line Kulic
Funerary stele The 0r/,»h M-sojr. lordco.
inscription inside a rope pattern around
•nvno OA 1975 4-15. 1
Egypt. AH 249'AD 863 three sides. The text mentions lhe name ol
Fromnanca: AcQjred by T-« 8<mh Muwum
100 <m SO cm Ramadan, son of Ishaq and lhe month Rabi
o 1975 from the Brnoke 5—-' Fund
Bcnaki Miomif", Arhans. <rr>.no 10770 al-awal 257 <871 AD). The text on such
Moralise ZMipc 1995 no 7 43
Ute'MU’o Ca-o 1932. no. 49$. Mtct-ty 1937, p 116 stelae from ihe early periods follows a
standard formula which begins with the
Rectangular m.irble panel carved with
This funerary stele is carved in high relic! basmala fin the name of God. the Merciful,
ornamental Arabic inscriptions in Kufic
with a nine-line inscription in foliated Kufx the Compassionate'i and includes the name
script. The panel would have been at the
script whkh mentions the name ol al- ol the deceased, confirmation ol his faith head ol a four-sided open cenotaph placed
Hassin. son o! Hals, son ol Yarid al-Tai and through quotations from the Qur'an,
around the grave of lhe deceased- The
the date AH 247. The text is set under a blessings and eulogies, and the month and inscription on the exterior is carved in high
pointed, cuspcd arch that rests on two year of death. The rope pattern is a frequent relief and consists of the beginning ol the
columns with capitals tn the lorm ol two device, especially on stelae found In ligypt.
btmnala fin rhe name ol God. the Merciful,
stylized leaves. The upper pan ol the stele M.M. the Compassionate'I. it would have
is decorated with leafy branches and an
introduced a verve from the Qur'an which
undulating stem with tlvc-kibed leaves
continued on the exterior surfacr ol the
alternating with half leaves. In the Islamic
three missing panels. The inscription on the
Mum um tn < atro there are vorul luiieral
interior is incised into the crone: it again
stelae with similar decorations surrounding
begins with lhe bamtala then gist* tlie name
text, dating from approximately the same
ol the deceased, Muhammad b. Fatlk
Ashmuli and the dale of his death in the
month of Jumada 11 356 AH (967 ADl.
 h/jKrt'i *■1 ISI.CM • tin minw/ram

rounded arches with prominent imposts,

alternating with rectangular openings.
Incense burner
The 'drum' of tlx- domical vault bears lightly

$»'i* carMury engraved acanthus fronds, the segments of

Quaternary ultcy, p«<e-ca*r. wth «x-iwnrt: ihe vault having openwork lozenge diapers

and lurlaca angravin^ * He>yht 26 6 <m with acanthus borders anil toppings. The

The Nasser 0 KhdlH Coawncn ol Warne Art. classicising motifs strongly recall both lhe

lonifcxt xi.no MTW 1014 Aby incense-burner in Denmark and the

bttrKW*. unputoUZted. See aSo; AW 1925. no. 8; monumental incense burner In the Freer

Allan 1086 pp 25-H Gallery of An in Washington. D.C.C52.1i.

though these are treated in more three-
The cylindrical base of the incense burner dimensional fashion, which seems to relate
rests on three feet and its cover is in the form them to early Islamic Egypt with its strong

of a quadri|>aiillc domical vault, surmounted Coptic tradition. Here the treatment may
by- a stylized eight-petalled lotus with drop- point to Syria In the same period (8lh-91h
like tips. The divisions between the segments century).
ol the vault are dearly marked MJt.

The openwork decoration of kith the base,

which Is surmounted by stepped crenel- •8!

latlons. and the handle is an arcade ol

183

Small incense burner

•ran. 10th-1 1tf> cafWxy

Quatc-n,., *4o>. pte«te-ca»« ■ Haqhl 14 5 on
Th* 0 Khat* CollKt.cn W IsNrrK Art.
Condor. mv«o MTW 106$
LtKatu/e orpuWitfie* SaeaSo FoOacrt 1990.
p. TV!. Aten 1986. p 77. Kg 23

The incense burner has a square base, with

a spherical dome and lotus finial in the form
ol a pomegranate riveted to it. The dome
resembles a lattice of metal strips held to­
gether by rivets - a similar method of con­
181 letters weir manipulated to create the A similar textile In the MuWe Htstorique des struction can be seen on a brazier tn the
semblance of a cartouche. The script h in Tissue in Lyons bears the date AH 1123/AD Copenhagen (David Collection, no 64/
Silk textile
the thuluih style, and the text employed Is 1711 -12; It has been suggested thaI they arc 1979). The body has small oblongs executed

Iran, 18th cnntury a Qur*anic quotation, being the lint verse sections Irom tomb covers. in openwork and is surmounted bv stepped

S*. of ft-Uced compound Ubby • of the Surat al-talh ( Victory'; XLVIII); rmra crcnellatlons. The base is hinged doubtless

40 cm, width 35 cm faraltna laka fathan mnbtnan ( Surely We have to allow the inwiiusn of a separate coal-box.

I-n tUuor D ■>!•«. Co*KUn tA Art. given liter a manliest viclory i. The words A hasp with two prongs must has < served

london irrano IXT 74 mnafalahiu and lakti Jattuin are similar in to attach a handle which would liave

i'turatum: Wrth Wt, "O *4 form, and they have been arranged at either simultaneously held the base in place.
end of the 'cartouche' Io suggest a mirror
' ip • unison Mik is decorated with eight image, while the word muhtnan ('manifest') This Is an ingenious version of the standard

i ■•!! • of .i calligraphic design in which the takes the centre. domed incense hunter wimu rd bv a

210 211
tdnMy Oraatr. htjwntr mt oi m .m • Hn MMrlma

central rounded bosses with chip-cut dec­ Sultan ofthe Sultans. the Pole ofthe World
oration of small circles - reminiscent of the and the faith. Amir Timur Gurpan. may Cad
chip-cut decoration of high-tilt bronzes of makr hn krnftshtp and plory eternal.
11th-12ih centuiy Khurasan The hinged
lid has side panels ol openwork interlace, The upper inscription around the shall reads.
while the eighl-lacetcd pointed dome has Glory and proi/v'ity /and/ wealth. and
further openwork, with circular medallions haprtnns. and peace. and lomj Ufe...
below. inside, lite base ol tl»e coal-bo* with
chamfered sides is lilled Ivy a circular medal­ The next inscription around the shall reads:
lion with concentric funds of ring and dot Glory and prosperity. IandI wealth land/
ornament and small chip-cut circles. The happiness. reate to its auwrr.
dome is surmounted by a linial on a luce
ol openwork palmettos. Ttie inscription around the shah ol the base
reads-
Technically and decoratively, the piece Is Gloty and prosperity. /and/ wealth, and mercy
transitional between the high-iin bronzes theftreat Sultan and respected Khaaan
ol I Ith- I2lh century Khorasan and the
more elaborate cast and engraved brasses The inscription on the torus of the base
of the later 12th century. The faceted dome, reads:
misleadingly Mughal Indian in its form. ts. Thu ts amcnit that which hoc been made
lor its period, sheer fantasy, and the relation according to tire order of Hit Excellency the
ol tlus group of incense burners to actual King. the Ruler the Wise. the Acme (?). the
domes therefore quite distant. Just. Glory and prosperity /andI wealth and
M.B. happiness. land/ peace and may hu lift last
as lc<n^ as the pipeon coos. To our Lord
Sultan
185
The inscription along the lower edge ol the
iMinp
base (incised later, not included In the

S-jnod by th» <■jfivrun "In •dOm ibn I»| «(IDn onginal ornamental scheme) reads:
lotus and recalling a Buddhist stupa which, 184 tatohmi Work ofthe slate 'Is ad-Pin ihn Taj ad-Din
io judge from a Hellenistic lotus incense Traiwxiana (central Ana). early 15th cantury Isfahani. 799
Incense burner
burner Illustrated by James Allan, fc an li-cm to. ■ He-gM 90 cm fie. AH 799/AD 1196-97)
adaptation of a pre-lslamic type. »iw»un. 1»> century Th* $Ut» Mtmugo MuMu". St Pat«cburg.
QuMornory »Soy. p-acocMl with opanwoA and ar.no SA159J2 All inscriptions are in thuluth script

lurface «mgf*«i»g. Bw partially tifMinwodi fiandln « Pro.arranca trarnfe..ed<n 1935 Oom

broken al the tp and the top ot *e final of the the mausoleum ot hop Ah*rud Vusavi <i TurkaUan
doo® alto wetnt to bo mining • Ho^la 38 cm Literature Yakubortty 1939, pp 277-285. that an inscription on a similar objea In leum were made by Syro-Fgypn.in artisans

The New- 0 Onlft Collection of Ittamc Art. May*. 1*59. pp $2-53. 103. (Vano. 1981. pp 68-84. tlie museum al tlie Shrine of Imam Rida, Tlie name ol the artisan. Izz ad-Lhn ibn Taj

London, Mm MTW 1417 Kuw.r 1990. no 74 ill Mashhad, refers to it as a 'lamp' .id-llin Isfahani was incised on the base later

LiKraiura rfiouMsNM he could not have directly participated In the

A new type ol lamp appeared tn the 14th Timur's name on the present lamp points onginal manufacture ol this lamp
The Itirin is architectural, with rounded century, with an oblate spheroidal reservoir to a pre-1405 dating, but there Is nothing
comer buttresses rising from the knobbed llxed on a tube attached to a special ftase which necessarily indicates that II was made The inscription on the cavetto ol the
ieci and terminating in vase-shaped finials (sometimes even to a candlestick base) for luija Ahmad Yasavl s mausoleum Certain reservoir reads:
with stylized civscml tops. flic sides have Usually, such lamps were not as latgc as formulae, and the style cd background treat­ This is among that which was made according
openwork panels ol overlapping antes and this example, and they are occasionally ment of the epigraphic decoration, suggest to the order ofHis Excellency the King. the
engraved plaited funds almvc anti below and mistaken for candlesticks, despite the lacl that tiiis and other lamps from the mauso­ Ruler the Whe. the Active 0 the Just, the

212 213
 Huity htjwnh urr

IW> 187

Tile panel Two tile panels

Man, AH 660661/ AO ’ 262 6J •raw. AH 66O66VAD 1262-6J

Fmsci-H^ght 227 cm width 68 cm fwence -He^ht 226 cm. width 32 cm
Th. Mwm.u»9a. St Polacsbunj trwnn SW-1118
xi.no t»-1026 1062 and IX 1119 1160
Provenance tf»csle.i»<J <" 1925 Museum 0* Pnwance vanjleoed in 1925 hum th. hAiseum of
th. former 811on A N St.gLtx School of technical tlw former B«cx> A N StMgta School of TachnKai

Oawisg
Lnemnirr irpAWiad ULrarur. iirpUri'hwd

These tiles must once have decorated the These tiles come from lhe same scries as
tomb of Tm.im-zadch Yadia in Verarnin. ON ne 1X6. Tiles from this scries arc found in
not lai from Teheran. Each tile is decorated major museums throughout the world. The

differently, mainly with floral ornaments inscriptions are also various suras from tlic

Quotations from the Qur'an have been Qur’an.

exquisitely applied around the edges o! the A.I.
tiles, with lhe exception of otic tile which is
inscribed with verses from the poem 'The
story of Ijyla and Majnun' by Nizami
Ganpvi (»ce a/*.- caf.»w. X7j.

214
t'arthlv Staiiy. hravnlt

190

Tile panel

Tho State Homvtogo Museum Sr ’otorsburg.

Prowmince •-am'n-co in 192* bom the Museum of

the former Beron AN. StiogMr School of Technol
Dnewmg
Lta.ofc.ro XrechoviMy*. pp 124-12* tab AC Furtv
•995. no 213

This panel decorated the mausoleum of

Sheik Pit Husayn Rawanan in the north
of Azerbaijan. The tiles were made in Iran
188 heads of the birds have been conspicuously These three tiles are part <»f an exceptionally between 1284 and 1286. according to the
lucked off by a fanatic 'Iconoclast’. long frieze, which may be deduced from dates on some ot them. The stellate tiles are
Three large tiles from a frieze
the fact that the inscriptions arc taken from adorned svith inscriptions from the Qur'an
«•". 13th century various rum from tbe Qur'an. Tile number and. in two cases. Persian verses
F«rK.-J7.34cm> USiUm 37.34 5 cm IR-1346 is inscribed with Sura X1VIII

The Stalo Hermitage Muieum, St Potorsburg. 189 (al-Fath. ’Victory’). aya (verse) 29. IR-1347

■nvnoe IR-1363-1345 has Sura XLVI11. aya 38. while IR-1 348 is
Three tiles
Provononco tron.lo.rod m 1925 bom the Muxum of inscribed with Sura II (al-Baqara, *The

the forme* Boron A N Stieglitz School of Technrcol Iron. eorfy 14ch contixy Cow'), aya 255. lhe famous Throne Verse.

D*»**-<j ’eence • Hei^tt 37 cm. width 26 5 cm

UWWSa-o u-pUtfithorJ State Museum The Hermtage, St Petersburg,
,-r-os Ht.1346.1J4?
These tiles were intended for a frieze, or provenance trentferred m 1925 from the Museum of
as pari of a frame around a ntihrab. The the former Baron AN Stioghtr Technical Drawing
inscriptions arc fragments front the 13th, School
14th (IR-1363-13641 and loth (1R-1 365) Lecture urpvtrtshed
verse of Sura LXXVI tal-lnsan. 'Man') The

tw

216
 191 The Arabic word for Paradise, djanna, also means 'garden'.
Indeed, in the Qur'an the description of Paradise is of a
Five tiles from a frieze
luxuriant green garden where trees offer delightful

Iran, *ary 14th contisy shade, and whose branches bear at the same time sweet-

f»«n<o •Mamroiwnti of **ch 14*18 5 > 19.$ cm scented blossom and plentiful ripe fruit. In this garden
stream rivers of water, milk, honey, and wine - which
StHe Myie»j<n The Hen^tage, St Fotc'itxirg.
— r®. «127MM2 doesn't make men drunk. Enrobed in costly garments,
the righteous lie upon couches, enjoying endless feasts
Procure. twtlarrM « 1923 from tie Sale
in the presence of beautiful virgins. Handsome boys,
•Aweum Find
forever young, serve them from silver and crystal bowls
Leeratur* Turku 1WS. no BA
and wash them from beakers of ginger-scented water
There is no idle chit-chat - the only words heard are
Tbcw tiles formed pan of the dctoraiion in
greetings and blessings.
a trim. it is not known in what kind of
building they were placed. The Inscriptions
Not surprisingly, for the dweller in the Arabian desert,
arc fragments from ujm (verse) 286 from the
such a vision was extremely attractive. Gradually the
second sura titled al-Ba<|ara. or ‘The Cow'.
picture of Paradise became the most prominent theme
in Islamic preaching.

Behind such a realistic and recognizable picture, the

Qur'an packs many associations and suggestions. There
is contentment, enjoyment and other blessed aspects of
Paradise, which are promised to the righteous; these may
appear to be purely physical but are in fact spiritual. They
describe in earthly terms the joy of the blessed believers
as they approach the divine presence.

Indeed, beautiful objects in everyday life served the same

purpose. Like the descriptions of the heavenly gardens
they represent aspects of a higher life. Earthly beauty is
a reflection of that which is to be found in heaven.

This explains why Paradise is a major theme in Islamic art

Each ornamentation derived from a plant shape refers in
its own way to the gardens of Paradise. Precious stones,
costly objects made from rock crystal, gold and silver,
bronze, glass, ceramics or textile are all a promise of
the heavenly glory to be found in Paradise. Not least,
the gardens of this world which in the Islamic culture are
always laid out with care and devotion, are a promise
and suggestion of the future union with God.

J.v.

218
 farlltty beams taoMurt • «n<H IRAN

The main cumpusItMm consists of a large, 191

lobed central medallion svith a red ground
Carpet with pictorial design
and four green corner-piecrs of 'cloud-collar*
form, which are extended on the long sides Lahore Ir-ortbort. Inda. tod*, Pak-UK U<-
of the main field by yellow hall palmeitrs. 16th o- or), 17th Motury
Iliis composition is framed by a band con­ Wool ole on cotton foundation •Length 8JJ on.
taining treacly Persian verses in a series of —lo­
Ivory cartouches, and there is a wide red th* M«C<0©oHat> of An. New Tert.
Inner border and a narrow black outer nv-o 17 1908S8 GftotJ Pwrpont M<xjpn. 1917
border The main Held is also Nack and Is Ea-coll.ct.on 1*4, $Kkv4te. Knole P»k. Kort
covered with lush chlnokenc lotus scrolls UWritwn: Sar-0 . TmnhwM 1926-29. vol Z p 25.
inhabited by lour lions in silver thread. The pl 55, Dcnand . Ma4.y 197J, no 54. pp 119JO,
central medallion is filled with an overlay of 129 128. Ganj-ftaodn 1984, pp 82-83.pl B3
two types ol spiralling scrollwork, organized • Lowry 1985. pp. 11M* 6g 12; Wah.r 1997,
around a central rosetie modi: a more cat. no. 4. pp 40. 42-44. 164. Sgt 3J-34
restrained form ol polychrome lotus scroll
and feathery palmetto untile in two colours During the reign of Akbar (1555-56), carjset
Similar patterns (ill the corner-pieces and lhe lactones were estaNished in the Mughal
Inner border, while the outer border has a cities of Lahore. Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri
192 repeating Iosus-sctoD pattern. (today Uttar Pradesh, India), beginning a
craft tradition that continues to be vital to
Carpet
The counterpoint between the different this day. The impetus for the weaving ol
Iran (pertaps Kashan). IttH «nt>y layers or scrollwork is perhaps not as well­ knotted-pilc carpels on an imperia) level
Wool (Hl* with maul tfirwd on a tft lounditxxi • handled as on the ’Ardabil* carpets, but lhe probably came with the introduction of
HegM 2‘8 <">. *"«l> 199 on cursing lines of the naualiq hand used for weavers from Iran in Akbar's lime. Many
Tr-n Nav-r D KhaU> ColWdton ol Mamie Art. the inscription are certainly as well rendered descriptions by European travelers to the
toroSon, >"."O TXT 220 The verses contain grandiose references to Muglial courts, as well as Muglial records,
Uterxure. Beane 1987, pp.36$-3M floor coverings decorated with floral describe the wealth ol textiles and carpets
Khal.t Coition 199J. pp 48 49 patterns: that were used to decorate and furnish
Ojw irfw haw had the blossom-filled Imperial Mughal palaces, tents, and garden
The group of extraordinarily sophisticated meadow ofthe htgheu heaven tpreadout m pavilions.
caqtets io which this example belongs can be jwrr path lhe megarden ofyour earpet h the
dated on the bash ol a celebrated matc hing envy ofthe picturegallery ofChina! Pictorial carpets from 16th-century Iran hint
pair, now divided between lhe Victoria The patterns and leaves in lhe garden ofyour at the origin of tlie design on this splendid
and Albert Museum. London and the Los earpet showthe hyacinth. lhe basil. the wild carpel. Scenes ol animals in combat or
Angeles County Museum ol An. Known as and the garden rose and the jasmine hunting were probably adapted lor patterns
the 'Ardabil' carpels, they were- both signed Thh carpet is spread out on the path of a king on carpels Irom Persian miniature paintings,
as the work ol Maqsud-i Kashani’ and dated sosublime that the tenant who carries hit mat indicating that court artists must have been
AH 942/AD 1515-16. The 'Ardabil' carpels it better than the Emperor ofChina! instrumental in siqiplymg designs or patterns
arc outstanding lor their technical quality O you who ate exalted in lhe uvrld! Even those lor the production ol woven fabrics. This
and their enormous dimensions (the London who haw been dust on your path are exalted composition clearly illustrates a combination
tree and naturalistic portrayal ol birds and the production of loom-woven textiles but
carpet now measures 10.51 x 535 ml, but in both worldsfor sure. of Persian and Indian concepts. A formal
animals not in pile carpels (except In the preparation
their unprecedented size clearly placed a The tun has kissedyour feet with the flowers Persian landscape inhabited by myihlcal of a smaller cartoon), which are knotted
burden upon lhe design resources ol the on the airpet. out ofa desire to kiss them he lieasts, birds, and hunted and hunting by hand The use of |Mtlcrn rqieats In pile
The field design consists of a single pattern
workshop that produced them, and their places his face on the ground animals pulses with lhe life and vigor of carpets thus represents an aesthetic choice
unit repeated vertically 2 im times, each time
overall layout is not entirely satisfactory M.R. Mughal inspiration. Delicate trees placed on and suggests a close- rcialfonthip between
reversed (follow the placement of the palm
TIUs carpet Is much smaller, but the design rocks and flowers echo Persian style, con­ the carpet and texllle workshops.
tree) It is interesting to consider that the use
is perfectly matched to lhe scale trasting vividly with the sturdy Indian palm ol a pattern repeat saves time and labor in

220
nnhlr bmtr htjwtflf ,trt rrfrm aa4

194
The only borders arc at ihe narrow ends, and
they have a lotus-and-roscttc vine pattern
Carpet
on a red ground
“in .p«h«ps <""Mnl 17th «n«ui»
Wool w»p. and p-W • length 591 cm.
wW.244.rn
1h« Kauai O KhaliliCaBatiion ol iilwn< An. 195
London. in* no TXT 191
laaratu-a Etkanari >W pi 25. fc>de K-hrol 10fl4. Carpel

*»« Iran tprrhap* Isfahan). 1* hall 17th canttxy

Woo* warp, waft and pita • Urngth «23 cm,
One daw of Safavid carpets has an all-over
w«M317an
pattern ol scrollwork in the main field.
the Nnw O Khalil, CoUrtion of l.bnw Art.
The designs employed are varied, bill they
Umdon.im.no 1x1176
often incorporate the two types <>l scrollwork
l-fc-atira vnpuhi«lM<i
that were standard in this period: palmcite
scrolls, which were sometimes so thick thill The deep-red ground ol the carpet is over­
they lake on the form of 'arabesque' strap­ laid with a net of line scrollwork set with
work (fcrcw.nc. 195). and sinuous vines
fantastic composite blossoms and leaves,
bearing composite lotus blossoms and which is overlaid in turn with a dominant
rosettes and leathery, sickle-like leaves.
'arabesque' strapwurk pattern. The
•arabesques' arc composed of undulating
In the group to which this carpet belongs,
ptlmctte scrolls which lorm four parallel
however, only lhe latter were used, and the chains. The scrolls ate worked in contrasting
pattern has been transformed by increasing colours and are themselves overlaid with
the size of some of the floral elements and fine floral chains. The burden have an
leaves and reducing the scrollwork linking undulating vine set with chinoiserie lotus
them loan almost geometric net. In the flowers and hall palinettes on a dark ground
process, the complex structure of lhe pat­
tern lias been obscured, and the enormous
blossoms give the imprvNlon of being ar­
ranged In orderly rows. The elfect is very
striking indeed. not least because the bright
colours employed lor lhe flowers ami leaves
are set against a dark navy ground.

The basic module ol the pattern is arranged

In staggered rows. but it is mi Urge that
there arc only three complete tV|H*ats: two
modules appear side by side in one hall of
lhe carpel, while only one appears in the
other halt Hanked by two hall modules.
As a result, the pattern of the whole carpet
Is symmetrical along the longer axis only, but
each hall is symmetrical along a transverse
axis.

’22
 «rMr hr.

197
The composition of the design, lhe stencils,

Cloth fragment the geometric ornamentation, the em­

broidery technique and the quality of the
Egypt. 12th-14»hco"tury fabric, led Pevzncr to attribute this textile to
Lnon. amE*o<lofy • Height 99cm. mdth 56 cm ihe 14til or 15th century, ie . to the period
The Stito Herm-uge Museum St PrtOfttx.rg, when the production o| linen textiles
•nvno EG-661 flourished in Egypt
P'ommnce Drought ht*n Egypt Dy V.G Bock m
1897 Both linen and silk textiles, designed with
Lte-atu-e Pevzntr ”M. p 6!. tma.iou 19601, printed drawings, or decorated with stencils
P 36; Kunwt 1990. no 38 ix block printing, wre produced In Egypt
during the I Jth and 14tli centuries. It seems
A rectangular fragment of bleached linen
likely that the linen textiles were made tor
textile. embroidered in Hade thread the larger markets of the* well-to-do popu­
Geometric figutes of roosters arc placed in lation. while lhe silk ones were produced for
staggered rows over the whole field, while
lhe courts ol sultans.
along the left edge there is a vertical bolder
X.v.
consisting of two stripes enclosing oblique
diagonals constructed from squares and
rhomboids.
198

Since all details ol the ornamentation in Fabric fragment

these lines, as well as the loans of the

kan. 3M quarter '6fr century
roosters, arc similar In shape and size, it is
Silk • Height 465 cnc writ* 26 5 an
certain that stencils were used In this design.
The SUtO Ho"nrUQ« SA-lo-«n St Potoribu-y.
wv.no. VT-IO’O
P<<w*runro t'intfor’od in ”25 from the IW-eeum o'
St-egMz School <4 TechmcW
Om-mg
Lto-etum XwrfeWt 1960. pp 263-272. ub It,
Pbwrdyar 1969. pp 39-42. Kuw»t 1990. no 84

Inin lias always been famous for its silk

fabrics. but the vast majority of those which
have survived date Irom the 16th to the 17th
centuries, the period ol Satavid rule, when a
wide range of an manufactures flourished

This fragment of silk fabric, with its represen­

The first silk carets of this type examined by tation of different scenes, is one ol the finest
researchers were decorated with the amis «»f objects in the Hermitage collection. Ollier
Carpel
the king ol Poland. Hence their designation fragments of the same piece arc preserved
Imn. Isth.4 'Polish carpets' It was not until lhe 1910s tn various other museum collections.
S*. aivar thraad • Heght 141 on,M3 cm that these caqiels were actually proved to Certain details of the clothes worn by |>eoplc
’--if- H.rr-,-89. MuMum. 5- p.fe-ib-zq have come front Iran.
depicted in the design indicate a date ol
irwno. VT-1S47 manufacture tn the third quarter ol the
PUMAMM unkncmr, ncqu^d <n 1933 16th century
I lootorxno f-n. 199# no 234
 <*J'4.ir. ml taraJiu

This remarkable zoomorphic aquanianilc.

201
bearing remains ot silver and copper inlay,
is the oldest firmly dated bronze item from Ewer

the Islamic period. It was most probably

liH. 8th 9th canary
used as a vessel for water.
B>onr« (O' b>■ Hcighl 40 5 on
th« State IWrrvtage Mu.W", St 9atent»g
The neck bears an Arabic inscription written
in.no KZ-$7$S
in simple Kufic
Provenance tia-iHrrwJ in 1925 *tn
In the name ofGod the Merciful lhe
tfe Sure AcJdenv, o< Matenal Cultul. H„tvy
Companionate, Blenintflfrotn/God. [Thit hl
(AA. Bobrmsky, collection)
front amonj that which mb by Suleiman in
bseratu*. Mixxh 1913, pan ft. ub 132;
the lawn of .t/inl the year ISO
Ote* ■ TB.*r 1935. tab. 75. Marshak 1972.
pp Bftfll. 89 4g 16. Kuwait 1990. no J
This date was first read as AH 180 by
Gyuzalyan In 1949 (and mil by Rice in This piece belongs to lhe group which
1959); the reading is now accepted as
Includes bird-shaped aquamanilcs (tee
beyond question, cat.no. 199). The features displayed by this
group comprise an almost spherical body,
The piece's place ol origin is more com­ a high cylindrical neck with its cut' rim.
plicated. In 1959. Rice suggested the reading a spout in the form ol a bird and the handle
'Madinat al-Fazz'. a qiianer in Nishapur. with an almost circular upper section and
In 1971. Melikyan Shirvani read it as 'the a vertical lower part.
town Kashan' in Iran, or as the town Kasan. Such vessels can be dated to rhe 8th to 9th
in central Asia. Regretfully, all these readings centuries.
involve different interpretations of the letter
forms, none ol which correspond to the The floral decoration on ihe body ol
actual inscription. the famous bronze ewer in the Georgian
Museum resembles the ornamentation on
However, the art ol inlaying metalwork did
not begin to spread over eastern Iran 701
(the province ol Khorasani before the 11 th
century, and over central Asia before tlie upprr part ol rise neck. The handle is shaped
200
late 12lh century, although the first bronze like a question mark, with animal heads
(or brass) items with inlay appeared in the Ewer where it meets the body. The lower pan ol
late Sasanun periods (7th century) and were the neck and ol the body arc Outed The
Vaq, (Mh-9ri cant-ry
199 plentiful during the Umayyad (661-750) and decorations employ copper Inlay. The ewer's
Bow W txau). copper • 39.2 on
early Abbasid <8th-carly 9th century) form resembles that of Sasantan gold and
Th. State Hermitage Si PeWoburg.
periods. silver specimens However, the spout is
mv.no KZ-S753
199 Utereture Gyv--aly*n 1949. pp 129.13ft Mjyw 1959. closed from above and the lip prefects from
Ptownvu. VMHfor-od in 1975 fmm
pp 85 92 (for lha Ml tabfegraphy *<d the reeding Given the inlay on the figure, its origin the side. Indicating a later date lor manu-
Aquamaitile in the form of a bird the State As**™, O Matenal CuHumI Wstofy
at the ro»n» name after OS. Bee see 4xdl Sotetfei- should be sought somewhere to lhe west lactute Vessels ol similar shape were pro­
(A A Bwx-iUv Collection)
Scgnea by th. o^nan 5^ym*« Thcenn. Sp«(^ 1973. W XV. p 187 Mil* A S ol Iran, most proliably in Iraq, which was duced until the 11 th and 12th centuries.
Ueratum. Munich 1912. put A Mb 128. Obe*
AH 1B0.AD 798-797 «>-W ShitvoraS annotation conrjmmg ha r*x*og the centre ol tlie Caliphate In the 8th The shape, decorative motifs and ornamental
Twwr 1935. tab 72, Maohab 1972. pp 81-84,
8-r-un lot Drew). uber, copper •Ho.ght 38 cm Ol thv name o' the iotvj; Kuwait 19<V. -o. I; Ward century. However, the exact place (or even details suggest Byzantine influence. The
hg 11.4. Kuwait 1990, no. 2
Th. Sialo Hormruga Museum. St Powdxirg, 1993. p 4*. pl 31. Bloom - BUir 1W, p. 122. «g 67 the general region) where such objects palm tree positioned on steps resembles
•wno W-1S67 were manufactured remains unknown. Hie ewer is decorated with two peacocks the Christian 'Tree ol Life . the Cross and
oendened M*t939 bom th. O*C*.no- AJ. flanking a palm tree, a lox and some vine a Zoroasuian fire altar

scrolls to the side ot the spout and on lhe B.M.

227
SartUy hnrxnfr. 7artJh<

this ewer's neck and body. The Inscription on 204

the body states that the piece was maile in
Squatting lion
Basra, so it is reasonable to assume that this
ewer comes from Iraq. Iran, !2lK-13ih cemivy
Qiatr-r^-y eBpy tnl 13 on
Th» N».wt 0 Kh^l< ColWcboo of An
London, ov-o M1W916
202 LIMrMur. u-publ.-icrt S— alw At*- t®82«.

litcense burner pp 100-101. no*. I2J.J7S

•-*<>, till r<nMy The cast detail is ol high quality: the eats
Bronte Wr txauj. vlvw, coppe* • Height 45 on have hall palmettes. ilie mane is a lozenge
Th. $t*t. H*ml*g# Musecx". St Petersburg diaper sviih almond-shaped bosses: the
vw.no «.1S45
Provenance unknown
Ut»/.tvr. O.b.G l«Bl. pp 293 300. tab 53-54.
CVWcviov 1947. pp 103. 166. 17$; Mtytf 19$9,
p 37. Seorfhokn 19tS. p 179 -o S; Kuwait 1W0
no. 18

Open work incense burners in feline shape

were widespread in I Ith- to 12th-century forelegs bear almond-shaped medalbons
Iran, often being inlaid with silver and 202 with split -palmclte Idling, bangles and
copper. This example, which Is must exaggerated clawv Around the neck Is an
probably a lynx, has been rkhly decorated engraved chain or fillet reminiscent of a
with Arabic inscriptions in Kufic script. leash. The circular hole in tlie rump may
The creature's breast bears a name:)?) 201 The tapering neck, which lias a filter at its be a casting Haw.
All ilm Muhammad al-Tajil?) haw. has a foliate medallion between bands
Pouring vessel
of benedictory inscription at the rim and The silt and the Hat projection in the lion's
It is not known whether this is ttie name Khorawn, 12t*>centi*y base. The former is in naskh script and reads: back indicate that it was a suppon lor some
of its owner or the artisan. Quatou-u/y alloy, cast, engraved end ailaid «Mlh nl«e» Glory horizontal object, such as a Urge tray. Such

Haight 22.8 on support fittings, in the form of standing lions,

Both the neck and body have narrow bands ’Ke Namr D Khalil, CoKettio- ol Islamic A”, and the latter. In Kufic: were excavated in Nislupui hi Khorasan.
lieaiing Kufic inscriptions, with good wishes tendon. m.rx> MTW 1430 With jiood fortune and Neving. MJt.
that begin thus: bforaliro: unjxibUhed
mth^ood fortune, and blrmiui TWo small lugs on the neck may indicate
The vessel is in the form of a stylized long­ that it was completed with a detachable hall­
’Die last word, as usual, refers to the necked bird, with a plump body and a cylinder The base of the vessel, which is
object’s owner. The script, together with stubby tail, standing on a rectangular base. open, was evidently plugged with a stopper,
lhe ornament, point to lhe 11 th century The plumage of the wings is delicately now missing.
as the date ol manufacture for this object. executed. The back bears undulating scrolls M.a.
and tlie breast a benedictory inscription in
naddr script with elongated ascenders,
reading:
Glory and Protpenty

228
Farrt/y hrairty httnmlt ISCAM Gardrai auJ r<it*Jtn

and is markedly more rectangular than a 208

mint There do not appear to be enough
Incense burner Incense burner
hirers lor an alternative reading of lhe
KhcMMn. 12th century nifhii as al-Marvmi. Khorasan. 12* century
ahoy. call. with opo<>wo«« and Quaternary alloy, cast, with cocnwix* and *na»y
eagvwd Mroraon • H*ght 1? cm The engraved decoration includes the •*—j’und dm:«»at«oti •Hwght 24 2 cm
TX. Nmw> D Khalil. Cofccnon erf Hl«w An. plumage, with interlace roundels at the the Nasser O Kha*ll CoWectKH. ol Wamic Art.
Lockn. M1W 100 svmg joints. palmettos, a roundel ivith a leader, mvno M1W412
bW-aruro. Khrffc Colocfon 1993. p 72 deer on ihe breast, similar roundels on the IiNraturo larpubfah—d. 5w abo Rope • AcLarman
sides of tlie neck and lhe thighs, and an 1939-39. pl 129BA
The incense burner is in die form ol a dove. almond-shaped medallion with a stylized
The body of the bird is covered with finely peacock underneath the tail The tail The incense burner is in lhe form ol a lynx
engraved decoration. The plumage is plumage is turned slightly, giving a vivid fedraath. The head, with its perked cars,
elegantly realized with a bold medallion Impression of movement from the back. its almond-shaped eyes terminating in a
of seven roundels at llie wing joints. and The splayed webleet arc joined by a hoop, palmetto. its flattened nose, moustaches, and
a scale pattern at their tips and on the tail. which makes a stand lor lhe vessel. toothy grin, is particularly well realized, as is
The luck has a roundel on the head and a M.H. the openwork decoration The back ol the
panel between die wings, both filled with neck has an elaborate four-fold knot pattern,
palmetto scrolls, as is the Isaml encircling the and medallions filled with related interlace
base of the neck. Holes pierced in die latter
allowed the incense smoke to escape.

The burner was Idled through a rectangular

205 opening in the breast Its flat cover is lilted 207
svitli a small loop lundlc.
Figurine of a cat
M,R. Aquamanile

*»", ’2e>w1> 1 Jth cenWfy Signed by Abu’1 QMir- .re lAihammad at^arovi
»6
Brom tai brass). copper • Hwg"t 8 8 <m Khormrsr. 12th <«nrury
l«*g- 179cm QaAlorwy allo,, pcce osl. -in .rsg'aveg
Th*$»»'- He—>t»pe Miwjm. St Fworsbxg. and fracas rrf » bl»<> toi-pMuml th. oy« ‘nix’
•woo. •-’4JJ wah fragments at turtNOoe-gUNd pottery •
Provonanco iiiodorred n 1925 from Height 37 cm
th. StM Acwr-y <rfMatwIH CuttN.I H-tory The Nasser O KhaUt Colee’.on o* We-X Art.
MX* Botonrn.,C^C!.o» London, awno. MTW846
Wcrotw* Mj"<- t9!2. pm w> 152. LtW-an.ro KhaUt Coffecbon f«*J p 70
fgr^d ms. ff.pM.Cp 1. Xuwm >990. no. 37

The aquamanile is In lhe form ol a goose,

The function of such ftgunnes remains its beak slightly agape. The hollow lundlc
obscure, although they were probably just which is soldered to the body, has a circular
decorations. This piece is covered with hole for Riling rhe vessel, with a hinged lid
engraved ornamentation, inlaid with co|»pcr. In lhe form ol a Uon's mask.
The style ol these ornaments link it to oilier
pre-Mongol Khorasani bronzes On the back ol die bird is a craftsman's
signature in florid KuIk.
The wvr* a/-IM. 7 Qa<im al-Hjravi

The letter hr in al-Hartwi has no horizontal

stroke, although ft reaches below the ductus
fMthlv hotair ftravra/y.

209 The liead. wliich is raised as if in greeting, generally ridden, either In Islamic

is amusingly realized, with a wide grin, iconography, except by Suli mystics like
Cover of oh incense burner
flaruig nostrils and ridged eyebrows (cumparr Ahmad-i Jam [eompareaU.no . 2)9. folio 17b).
Khorwan, 12ihc<-Mury catno 204). The eye-holes arc fourdobed. or anywhere eke.
Qu.>te<n»ry *lkry. cast and angtisod • Hn^ir 6 t The lail. lor realism, is lunged, as is. lor
’bo Nauor 0. Kh>.b Cotetton o' Ah. purely practical reasons. the protonic,
London. in.no MTW f339 which opened to allow coals and incense
Ueratum to be inserted, presumably, the vessel was
carried on a tray
The cover, which conics from an incense
burner ot the type illustrated by .u/.nc. 210, An unusual feature ol this incense burner
is in lhe lonn ol a horse's or mule’s head. is thr saddle on the lions back The saddle,
Hie large eyes may have been filled with which is dearly represented complete with
turquoises or turquoise-glazed pottery an engraved saddle doth, may be a purely
Compare tai no 207). Alternatively, they whimsical addition, lor lions are not
were meant to remain open, so that they
and the mouth allowed lhe smell of the
burning incense to escape. The forehead
bean a stylized head ornament, the mane
Is elaborately plaited In v-shapes and the
reins and bit arc clearly indicated. ZH

211

Bottle
210
Iran or Mevx.ooo'j Sch-Zth century
Incense burner
20»

KMXSW'. 12th<»"tunr and pobtbod ■ Height 35 CN|

Quaternary alloy, cast wrh opannork and inowd The Hwm. D KMI* Collect." o' M^ruc Art.

.Hmgtit 26 fl cm. length 21.2 cm London, m-no Gl$3M

T-o Nauar D OiaHI CoBoctro" of htamic Art. Ul.-aru-« unouebchcd S— Hv> VOvtcarC >«85
designs dcctwJtc lhe front and hind leg* M through the o|*enuig in lhe chest. This would London. <n«.no MTW824 Ag M--
the haunches: a plaited band encircles lhe have been filled originally wilh a cover like Lte'itu'e tstpubWied. Seeafco KUwart. 1990.
neck that seen in eai.no. 206. Traces on the rump The thick-walled bottle is tn the shape ol a
no 1J
suggest that a tail was once attached, but ihis watermelon. The thickened rirn lias been

The incente burner bears additional too is now missing. Incense burners in lhe form of birds faw- tooled and. while ihe vessel was still hot.

engraved definition. aU <mce inlaid with a pareeat.no. 2061 and beasts, both real and has been indented to form a pouring spout.

black compound, only tracts ol which mythical, were especially popular in 12th- The mdon-likc appearance is enhanced by

remain This includes four roundels filled and I Jth-ccntury Iran, none more so, wheel-cut vertical grooves Remarkably,

with an eternal-knot’ on the checksand [terhaps, than those tn the shape of lions or the bottle is so cracked that it leels like a

cither side of lhe neck, two panels with other felines. These range in size from rhe watermelon.

Kuhe inscriptions, |ierhaps benedictory, on monumental, (Metropolitan Museum ol An.

the flanks, and a plaited hand framing the no. 51.56. dated AD 1182), to the large Related rims and necks have come to light at

rectangular opening in the chest. All but the iTlie State Hermitage .Museum, 1R-I565, ler.wh (today Jordan! and at Qasr-I Abu Nasr

latter are missing Irom a very similar piece, also in tills exlubnfon. eat.no. 202) and (near Shiraz. Irani In 5th-7th century con­

once in the Demotic Collection smaller examples like this one. which is texts. though no exact parallel* in size or

tn the form ol a saddled lion. shape arc known

Unlike wr.w 210. this burner was filled

212
tUrlUy Petuh. htittrnh IMAM GarJtm

Pot

Tnwnc (c*nv*l Asiil, 10th century

UrtMtww*. ijl^ed • M»gM 29 cm
Th. Sqm Hermitage SAusevnt St PeSeOtxrg.
Wvwo CA 13204
Prowcisnce acquired m 1906 horn
212 211 The bowl is decorated svith two birds, their
the A. Polorttev CoAtcBon
feet apan as il on perches. Their bodies each Umbrt. Oaha-b* 1980. 69. 93. KuwM 1990.
Flask Bawl
bear the word barakah ('blessing').
no •
Irsn o MnopoUnu. 8th 9th cvrtiry I'*" tHrth.pur) muw M.R.
’’•« Wunb-groen 7«>. Uo*" .nd ptiteinmxulaad EwthMiMr*. ibp-palnted ixder a colourien. glue; Tills pear-shaped pot. the neck of which has
H*0* se.1 cm. dtsm^e-lcm broken *K1 r®f>*i>9d, with yn.ll ren ol rmtcvation • been lost, is made from reddish day and
1»< H.M.. D Kh.ll. GXUctron o* IiIkm Art Haight 6 cm. d^r-te- 21 cm covered with a layer of white clay. The
Landen, wv»o. GLS2S6 The lUtw. O. Khaltl. CoMcwn oi Warn* Art. brown, red and olive-green strokes painted
LiWur. irpucA^d Sm 4<r> WMco-b 198S. London, at.no POT 763 on it are covered with a yellowish transpa­
6g 59« pl 43. r,„ I99l.no MO. p !I6 WerMixr; Grutw 1994. no 9. p BS rent glaze. The colours of the paint strokes
arc somewhat reminiscent of the poly­
The tube-tike flask has a smooth rim and chrome lustrework of 9ih-century Iraq
rounded lose whkh retains the |*hiiiI scar However, this type of decoration is Samamd.
Il is decorated with pattern-moulded spiral in the style of Khurasan and Tiansoxiana,
flutes. not that of Iraq. Since luslreware was not
produced in central Asia as early as the
Sherds of comparable vessels, though with 214 Sainanid period <819-999). this piece must
cut rather than moulded decoration. Itavc
been found at Nineveh (Mcso|>otamia) and
at Qasr-i Abu Nasr (Iran). Their function
214
remains unclear. A fragmentary example in
The British Museum (WAA. no. 91498A). Large bawl
also with facet-cut decoration, is described
Iran (Nwhapurl, ’ Ur century
as a scent or unguent container. Suggestions
Earthenware sSp peimeO u«-W< a tmmpervnt glue
that these vessels may base been used for
• H«<ght 16.3 cm, d.amate» 41 cm
scrolls or for writing implements, however
The N3sm> 0. Ot*h Collottoo of KUmic Art.
arc somewhat implausible.
London, etvno POT 1623
Irtaraturv Grube 1994. no. 80. pp S8S9

The sides ol the Ixiwl arc decorated by two

birds with forked tails. The birds' heads art-
turned backwards At the centre a smaller
bird with half-palnwtle wings may derive
Irom an animated inscription.

The birds are painted in a purplish-black slip

with a touch of ochre on a while ground
under a colourless glaze Tlie bow) tv Intact

214
fjrihlv Murry. hretruh .

be pbced in the category of Samould 216 The deep-sided bowl belongs lo a group ol
mutation lustreware ol the IOlh century clip-painted wares with somewhat grotesque
Bowl
decoration of birds or animals associated
This is one ol lhe finest examples ol Islamic with north Persian production centres.
ornamental ion in which the expressive 10th century
slu|»es ol the birds are subtly arranged Eathoiwvo. Dinted r. **>te pu«t><sholodc .clow T1>i' small tailless bird, with a crest and
within a Kickground filled with dots. and ilipa under ■ cotoutteaa <y«J<- • outstretched icings may be* a stylized quail

••Select 10.5 cm, darnel" 23.7 on It appears to lie lurching on rosettes.

n- N.s-r D Kh»M< Coll^t-Xi of Wamic Ao M.R.

LoMon. mv»o POT 30$

Uwxu" Grube 1994. no. 11 J, p. 170

2’4

or champleve designs with bright colours

217 London.rn.no POT 604
applied in the glaze Hie carving prevented
Lte.alM* Grube !»M. "ci 28i pp 240 2W
Dish lhe colours from running into each other.

Tlie dish, which is exceptionally well pre­

$yn4. orca 1200
served. Is decorated with a brilliantly Tlie shape ol the dhh. with its flat rim.
Fntww. with fMvmd oacoent-o- ■>-*' a v-ynly
coloured, stylized peacock in the centre, carinated profile and low loot is tepical ol

and three bands ol pseudo-inscription on lustre and carved (laqabtl Tall '-liniv wares
y«low and gram Iba*1 wan) •HwgM 6 on
the rim. Tile decoration is in the so-called
<Mm"or 29 1 on
l*jabi technique, which combines carved
The Nasse'D Khaw. Co1«’->.. D< blamx. An
Earthly hrauty Itcatrnlr- M>M Carirnt anj hiiadnr

219 pseudo-inscri|nion. or pcrliaps a simulation

of fur. around a raised roundel with a
Large aguamanile or
moulded diaper design on the chest, petal
table fountain
motifs on the dishes; and palmetto chains on
Iran <x Alghamslax, ®»l, 1 <®ntu<y lhe base of the pipe .Most of the decoration
Fntwi(s. panted in tuck undec a VMisparamt is now obscured by the heavy iridescence.
bngM turo^nw gU/e overgtiue fwiMad m md
•He^ht45_7 an
Th® Haw 0. KMili C<*®cK>n of hlw—c An.
London. <1.no POT 941 220
Umw: KhaW Colson 1993. pp 70-71
Figurine in the form of a camel

Tlie aquamanile is in the form ol a stocky

Iwi (Knh®n|, <*»*» 1 llh CWrtury
(dine with a flattened face. Tlte vessel is
Fntware. p®<nted n ptnkoholi,® lutite o.e- an
hollow, but dosed at lhe neck. It is filled by a
cosav- wMe <jt*zo -Hc-ght 39 5 on
vertical pipe with narrow opening and a cup-
The N»w 0 KM* Codectton o< Uhrrnc Art.
shaped mouth over the ramp, and can only
London, tn^no POT 857
be emptied through a narrow tube concealed
Lrto-itixe Anavw-t Col»wr«»n ’976. no 33.
below the extended tongue To either side ol
Grube 1994, no 267 pp 236-237.^^00 191.
lhe neck ate shallow circular dishes. |>erhaps
pp 186-183
for sweetmeats.

The body of the camel Is covered with lustre-

The black undeiglazc-painted decoration is painted floral and scroll designs, and its
outlined in red. and covers the entire vessel, trapflings and harness arc indicated. The
with the exception of the belly. It consists camel bears a flower vase ol a type which
2’8 of finely drawn palmettos on lhe face, neck was also made as a separate vessel The
and back, a tasselled chain on the forehead, decoration on the latter includes medallions
218 have unearthed related ceramics in both stripes on the legs and die curled tail, a with seated figures The camel's body also
Iranian and Russian Azerbaijan). While the has holes for flowers.
Bowl
sjmrffidW technique may have been used as

Prob.**, rx.-th.wii han lao-allad early as the «th century in eastern Iran, in A small section of the rim was broken oil
fKOe'y), 12th o evly IJth ITOtvfy 12th-century Aghkand wares it performs during firing. The fragments can be seen
f*-th»nw»'e wrth r«iwd Hgrafliato) dacootio* a new, dual function, both outlining lhe attached to the lower pan of the neck and
•nd .otourt <xi white *0p unde* clow gU/o • design and serving to prevent, or at least the interior of Ihc vase.
Height 1J on. domoto. 30.4 an impede, tlie coloured pigments - gold-
M».
M-w.n< of F«i» Art*. Bomo" BdnaM Jacksott brown. green, and blackish-purple - from

HCtnea Collecbon. mvno 58.93 running.

UtrMim Boston 1992. no. 217 p 22* <aa a<w

P«o.*- M 1939, part a. p 1326-9 and pad V Although Aghkand vessels arc sometimes

p> 607-611;lara 1947. p 25. Sdtrydor >985. decorated only with vegetal and abstraci
M.nrgtn >994, p I >9 133 forms, the most imposing have interiors
dominated l>y lively, large-scale animals -
A splendid rooster picks his way through usually hares or birds - amid thick-stemmed
.1 thicket id vines on this bowl. which vine scrolls. As if to keep the central exuber­
exemplifies the incised, polychrome-painted ance in check, the rims ol these bowls ex­
wares known as 'Aghkand'. alter a village hibit relatively austere geometric ornament
southeast of Tabriz where many such vessels such as tlxe reciprocal triangles on this bowL
w re piitpoticdiy found. (Recent excavations
Earrkty Mun. Mrmlv GarJem tu4 Far*tost

Tlic bowl lias rounded sides and an everted unusual, but other examples with a similar 224 that my face may not be yellow lhe non day
nm. and stands on a low loot articulated in profile in the Khahli Collection arc decorated Flesstng to its owner.
Conical bowl
a manner characteristic of Tall Minis ware with lustre, or hear carved flutes.
The inside is decorated with a lion and a Iran (Ka*an>, eerty 13th century At the rim is a benedienwy Kufic Inscription,
small animal, a lox or a hare The rim is The exterior of lhe bowl has a frieze ol quails fritware, panned •> cAve lustre wrth ■ cop&c-y *oen in reserve:
festooned and the cavetio has an undulating with sprigs in their beaks and at their tails. Perpetualglory and prosperity, perpetualfiery,
ove- an op**- -hit* glare • Hoic^t 6 4 cm
scroll in reserve. The palnieites above lhe Inside is a central eighi-pcralled rosette frieze <ham*i*r 18 cm and triumphant victory. and durable fllon
lion are characteristic ol Egyptian Fatimid and a band ol floriated Kulic. The inscription Th* Nmm» D Khalil. Collect** ot tM™ Art. and wealth. anJ happiness, and well-being,
wares ol the Sa'J type. is benedictory: and wraith, and happiness.
London. etr.no. POT 1586
Perpetualglory. sovrrrifnty. perpetualglory, Literatize. G’uBe 1994. no. 223. pp. 241. 335.
sovereignty. perpetualglory. Outside arc more Persian verse inscription*,
togrre 1994. pp 24-31
M.R. in reserve, above a frieze of stylized palmetto
222 The bowl is in exceptionally line condition chains:
Inside, at the centre, is a leopard pursuing Since the world is not permanent for any one
Straight-sided bowl
»1 a long-horned goat through a schematic Surely It is best that goodness is left to be
U1 Syn*. ’2”1 ce"»l*y landscape with a fish pond. This is followed remembered.
22»
fntware. (uintad in ,«1lowch4wown knam with a by a hand with a Persian verse relating to the Since the world is an inn, and wv
221 Bowl Perhaps you would not suffer a lot in it.
copoory W-oon ttaodng ruby, over a :r*nw»ront pangs of love, written upside down In naskh
crowd glare ho<all*d T«B Mntf wore) script: You said that in it /the worldl
Bowl Sy>a. total 12* century
•Heighr 10.7 cm. dumetm 19 5 cm / talk ofyour tale every night with my heart. .. willpass in sorrow
Frrtwar*. pam-^d n cAv^lxnwn lustre with < cccp-ry
Syria. 12th century Th* Nnm D Khat* Collection <fl ItUrnc Art. thMw 0.0- ■ tr*mp*ren< glare. oared and poo*ng I seek vour Kent from cwn- morning breeze.
FntwMe. pxntod m chocolate luUie o>» a London. rn.no POT 1750 pale green isoo'wa tai Wnn' ware) • I muk myfate with the blood ofmy heart for

' ■ ■■’■■ - ■■ ■ -I I- v ■ - • IXMtur* urwuM$h*d $** **> Out* 1994. Height 8.2 cm dumeto-23 cm lhe purpose
Ha<gh« 105 cm. «*anwte* 36 cm no 292-296. 306. pp 260-261. 2'0 Th* Naw* 0 Khalil Cotaction of Mam* Art.
The Mauer 0 Kholili Cohocton ol atomic An. lontton.ew.no POT 1749
London. rn.no POT 1249 Tile bowl lias straight sides, slightly everted
literature unputAahed
UwMire: GnXw 1994. no 292. pp. 262-263 at the rim. and a losv foot. The shape is

The bowl, svith flaring sides and a slightly

212 everted rim. is finely potted. The centre has
addorsed birds with a foliate spray between
them. Tlie details arc incised in the lustre,
somewhat in the manner of Fatimid pottery
known as Sad. The sides have a pseudo-
Kufic inscription ol repeating letter forms
with wvags and curlicues below.

The exterior has two inscriptions. One

consists of a single word, probably khass
('private'!. The secund appears to be a
signature:
From the work ofIbn al-Hatif(?)

The bowl is in excellent condition there is

a single tridized spot on lhe wing ol the
righthand bird.

240 241
 ISLAM Ganlrn- tn4 Porn*"

near Cairo, The colour has Ih-cii achieved 228

227
through the oxidaiion of metal, in |umcular
F/dsfc Fish
silver.

Van. 15th urn «.nroy Tiztay (nB-brtod io Iranbu'l. 3rd 16th

The bowl is decorated with intertwining
f pooled In black ««»« a tr«p»panmt ccmtury
plant motifs around the sides and a dove-like
hmjuow glare •H»qln 35 cm «t!w. aiitr-d Svth l»W> *Mit«w nredcloW
bird surrounded by stylized floral patterns in Hmght 10 5 cm, length 26 cm
Th. Nxw D KMIiU CoUctltm o' IMmc Art.
the centre The outer walls arc adorned with
UxxJon.inv.no. POT 1320 Be—> Mutmar. Athtms. no. 10
the following text. uwr«ur» Grub. 1966. lig 11. p 168:
LiNcture «»IIICoT«ti<m 1*93. p 28
Hcttw favour, kafftmeu.ivav and money
AtMOy tjby 1989. bg 124. D 106
M the mvner. The pvriform flask has a narrow neck with
M. Al M. an evened flattened rim. and a broad fool The function of this object. a fish resting on

ring. It is rather heavily potted. and the three feel, is not dear. It may be a flask or a

footring has been ground flat The decora­ candlestick. The fish is decorated with blue
226 tion is of staggered rows of confronted birds designs over a white dip under a transparent

and chinotserie cloud-scrolls reserved on a glare Apart from the fish-scale pattern the
Bowl
black ground under the clear turquoise glare body of the Ihh is decorated with flowers,

**• ItUshan. o< p<*-"*ps Kho»as*"J, 14th Mnbxy leaves and another small Itsh on Its Kick.
FntwM., parted ,n tutquotw. tnanganew and The flask has been broken and repaired, Ceramic figurines are relatively rare in
black undec a traniputont gluo -Hrnght 97 on. witii small areas ol restoration. Islamic an. especially in the early Ottoman
d,*nett>r 19 7 cm period. Tins suggests tliat the fish may have
Tlw hiauat D Khnlfc Collection ot Warn* Art 2Z1 been specially commissioned or nude lor a

London. POT 1100 non-Mushm client.

UW'Mur* .evxA^ad

The rounded bowl stands on a low loot. It is

undcrglaze-paintrd in turquoise, manganese
and black with concentric rings of fish
swimming to the centre The rings are
staggered so that they create a whirling
pancm. The contrast between lhe sharp
colours and the rather runny, now indirect,
22»
225
turquoise is very pleasing. The exterior has

Bowl radial Mac* stripes

Iran, 13th 14th coreury The shape and the motifs arc a development
Ce*TK .H»gM 6 cm, lioirwtc- 15 cm from early I Jib-century Kashan blue and
National Miwizi c* 5yn«. Mnotiy ol Culture. black wares, generally with rather sharper
Gawoi Okwik «o» *»<»«»< ano contours.
Sy— A,^> lUpUAc (Dam.iKud, m«.no 14294 A ALB.
Pnt^nanco: lean

This small bowl represents one ol the most

sophisticated types of Islamic ceramic. The
colours range from red-brown to golden-
low with gold lustre. Such ware was
known lit Samarra during the 9th century
from where Its production subsequently
sprc.nl lo Ar-Raqqa (Syria). Persia and Fustat

242 24)
 ISC*M

210

Dish

l**n 16?i cartury

ban. I4th«ntury
’ painted w”> <obilt ■ Djnvto JS an
Faianca •Dtwnate' 3’ cm
The State neor.iage lAisaj!". St Pete-it-irg
The State Her-nsage Muwum St Petersburg.
in.no VG-2392
mv.no VG-732
Prownence unknown. acqu-ad m 1949 by
Frotenan.a unknown. bought n 192*
The Honnnaga Puimacng Qwnmmoe
literature Xuwan l990.no fl!
l«or*tM-» Goiomba* - Mason • Batey >996.
p tflnapl 68 on p. 22*
Technical and stylistic peculiarities place
this dish in a group generally referred lo as
Tills deep dish with an outward flaring rim
'Kubachi ceramics', as the majority come
on a ring-shaped loot is painted wilh cobalt
from Kubachi. a village high tn the moun­
under transparent glaze In the centre are
tains of Dagestan.
chinoiserie douds and nvo lislt on the walls
blossoming branches The rim is decorated
These pieces arc predominately large, heavy
wilh a sinuous flowering shoot.
dishes of a soft, reddish, porous faience
A.A.
covered with a white engobe, over which
the decoration is painted, under a thin
transparent crackled glare.

The ceramics known as 'Kubachi' in fact

229
include three separate groups ot objects

Plate differentiated by their painting style and

technique, all of which ate believed by most
Krtey tan*), nvd IMh caMixy
scholars to have been made in Iran, probably
Fotwoe, gfewd •Owmet*' 37.5 cm
Tabriz or other cities in the northwest pari ol
Banakl Albany mvno 4
the country. The blue-and-whiic 'Kubachi'
Laeutize Migeyi 1903. pl 44; Koecr.un M.90- 23*
type, like other Iranian ceramics, incorporate
1928. pl Xtrr. AGe.Kly f937. p. 138. Banaki Muwon
ornamental elements which display strong
1969 p 4. Phton 1980-1, 238, p. 42
Chinese influence

This large Iznik plate wilh (dialed rim is

Tire two large birds among widely spaced
decorated with flowers on a dark-blue ground
flowers and Chinese-type cloud motifs
under .1 transparent glaze The centre is
exhibit die slightly blurred outlines ly|mal
painted with a duster of petalled Howers and
ol the 'Kubachi' type to which the piece
tulips springing from a single root in lhe
belongs
form of a half flower. Around the wavy rim
are groups of three small tulips alternating
Tlic exterior walls bear a register of curve*
wilh a blue flower On the reverse arc more
broken in several places by elongated leaves
small blue flowers alternating with pairs of
A.A.
leaves. This plate dates from the middle of
the 16th entury and dhjitays the floial style
inspired b) indigenous flowers which was so
l-ipular on Iznik pottery.

244
f teaaty.

differences, can be seen on three mure such

bottles, in the Hermitage collection, lhe
Chanuryjskle Museum in Cracow and the
Victoria and Albert Museum, London.

Kapopon believes tliat this bottle can lie

attributed to Mashhad, one ol the most
important Iranian ceramics centres, in the
period when cobalt-painted ceramics were
hunter aiming lib gun at a running animal produced, during the 16th and I7ih cen­
and a heron; on the other, there is a standing turies. Ihe same view was taken by Line
nun dressed in lhe European fashion, regarding the bottle belonging to the Victoria
carrying a slain animal over lus shoulders, and AllH'tl Museum. A number ol this piece s
anti a kneeling woman wilh a bowl in her peculiarities arc shared by others ascribed to
lund. The same scenes, with minor Mashhad, stull as the white body. the Nack
outlines, lhe way lhe plants are represented
and the Hying birds in reserve against a
colull luckground.

incomplete state <4 the piece This is a

232 231 fragment ol a larger comjtositlon depicting,
perhaps, a least in a garden. Such panels
Bottle Panel of tiles
composed of separate tiles were commonly
It*". Uta 16th-e»l, 17th century used in 17th-century Iran to decorate
WmwIMbktaMaii OWabi9Ua 33 * «■ houses
The Sure l*»wur-. St I'ocb Tha Sure Hwmmg. Muwum. St PotarsDurg,
•l.rso VG-290 •’•no VG-1319

Fizxl. yvv unknown LrlrlV. KuwX 1990. bo 106 234 The painting In glaze of various colours uve
,i while clay slip, represents a scene in a
Two tile panels
1985, p 147. no 6. 1990. no 100 Tins panel consisting ol four tiles bearing garden. Merrymakers, musicians and an

polychrome painting against a blue back­ archer are deputed against the background

This bottle is painted tn cobalt stain with ground. represents a standing man wilh F*t»r<o. gluo painting •Ha-ght 165 cm.
scenes reserved in while Ipw relief. One ol outstretched arms, as if offering something blossoming trees and bushes
the sides Is decorated with the figure of a to an invisible companion. lost due to lhe
 CtrJnt

216 son - Hamzc Mirza (1566*86). In that lime,

2»5 With it! intense colours, carefully controlled people commissioned such pieces to confirm
Court scene in a garden
lines. and elegant details. this linage- reson­ their high status. Tile young man to the right
A prime enthroned surrounded by
ates with subtle rhythms and patterns ol the pavilion could be the prince, while the
attendants Stg-cd by ‘Abdollah-« MarahAeb
Although lhe manuscript Ironi which the courtier holding a stall in the lower nght
ProboWy MmhMd. AH 9897AD 1 $81
««wn «n unidentified t»«t painting was removed has yet to be idem- corner ol the left page might well represent
WMarcolcur. ark. and gold on papar •
Kan (M..TO, orc* 1*2$30 ilied. lhe seated prince, with his round Mirza Salman.
Paga dimerwom b*g“t 2* on, nuffi 10 cm
Opx»Ai-*t*rolo». mk. and gold on pap* • lace and thin moustache. appears <° '*
Tha AH and Hirtory Trust, courtesy ot th- Arthur
Pogo Amanxont. height 21 1 cm. «dtS 13 4 an an idealized portrait ol ths* Timurid prince The manuscript, titled Sefaifl- ‘Adttqm. is a
M SacSI- Gsll*y. Snsthionun InVrtuloi.
Arthu- M Sertl* G1H*». Smthtonan mwxuton. Baysunghtir (I >99-14 H). Devoid of any compendium of 15th-cciiiurv poems about
Washington. OC, mv no. ns 1995 2 9* (Mio’s l». 21
A'oihmgtoo. 0 C, Purthoto. Srn'heonun outward signs ol emotion. lhe figures present UNraeuro Sotnnaon -7*14 - Sm. 1976, no. 24. hive and devotion and other works.

JnrePnaed True fundi. SmchMTMon Collection! a glacial facade typical ol images lound In A-S. U.v.)
Soudmm B*** 1992 pp 227-231
ArqumPon Pogrom, nd 0- Arthur M Sadi*. paintings associated with Baysunghtir’s

■co. S860I42. $86,014] patronage. This manuscript was commissioned by Grand

Low^-no 4fi Vizier Mina Salman, possibly as a gilt Io his
CBonpp 156 157 brother-in-law - and Shah Muhammad’s lust

24#
 rtf htjttnh

2)8

Sluih Shaja The elderly Shah Jahan

kx*a oca 16S0

W«so<colou' O" E>M*e* • *ap"> 34 7 cm. Watxtoiosx on Mpe • Paga M^ht 36 9 on.
w-ocs 1*9 cm. ->*>• h^hc 12.4 cm. w-dt" 7 2 cm width 2S C", *riaga nxflht 21 4. 12 7 on
fh» Art and Ihurxy Truer. iourt«s, o» th* rise Art ."d H.tf<xy Trust courtesy at the Art*tx
Arthur M 5»WGaf.r». Smithwwr hwttuW. M Sadlo. Salary. SriMhaoniar InmtutiOrt,
WachmgkMi DC, xc.no LTS 199$ 2 98 Wnbrngton DC. rn.no ITS 199$ 2 96
eioncnance acouimd horn d» Fnxo-xancs KQuired <rom tba Ba-cm Maunca
■othachild Collacnon 'roar wnknoo") do BoBtocMd coUcno- (year unknown)
Maratura 4tcl-xA.no 1935. p> UM fcj-2 Fatt trferawa Smx^ona 1935. noJOV. pl. LXK Ap 8.
1974. no I»1. Sovdarar - Beach 1992. no 129. 1974. no 121, Soudomr - B»*- 1992. no 129d
p 216-21/ p 315-314

Shoja. the second son of Shah Jahan and Around 1909. some 100 individual sheets
Mumtaz Mahal. the woman lor whom the Irom a royal allium apficared on the Paris
Taj Mahal mausoleum was built. was bom an market Most dated from the mid 17th
on 23 June 16)6. Jahangir, hit grandfather century. The majority of the pictures were
and Shah Jahan's predecessor on the Muglial portraits, a large number of which showed
throne, recorded the event in lih memoirs: the aged Shah .lahan None portrayed any
•On the eve of Sunday . . there came Irom of his successors. This suggests that the
the womb ol rhe daughicr of Asaf Khan album dales to between ibe years 1650 and
a precious peart into the workl of being. 1660. the final decade of Shah Jahan's reign
With joy and gladness at this great boon the
drums beat loudly, and the door ol pleasure Many portraits ol Shah lahan. builder of the
and enjoyment was opened in the lace ol the Taj MahaL are virtually identical. Early in his
people. Without delay or reflection the name reign, an official formula for royal portraits
id Shah Shap'at (Shoja) came to my tongue replaced the spontaneity and Immediacy
I hope that his coming will be auspicious and found earher within the imperial portrait
blessed to me and his lather.' tradition. During the reign ol Jahangir
(1605-27). portraits emphasizing grandeur
This is far more enthusiastic than an earlier and majesty became fashionable, many
statement by Jaliangir noting the birth ol the stressing the unapproachable. godlike
elder prince. Hara Shokuh Shoja actually character ol rhe ruler. This aspect was
became hh favourite grandson; from at least developed further by Shah Jahan's artists,
his third year, he Used at lib grandfather's and the many images made for diplomatic
court. Jahangir also recorded an incident gifts or dispersal among lhe nobility dearly
tiuii occurred when Shoja teas two: proclaimed the emperor's might Margin
(Hr was| attacked by a specially inlanlile designs continued this symbolism through
disease and lor a long time his senses left the use of angelic figures holding canopu->

him. Although many experienced people forward would not harm any Being thing shi|w. TWO year later. Shoja fell out of a his brothers in rebellion against Shah Jahan, or emblems of rank, as well as images ol a
seems to Ik- the only Mughal prince who was
devisrd many remedies, they were un­ with my osvn hand By the Grace of Allah w indow of the palace at Agra, his fall broken who brought the country to the edge of lion and lamb - a symbolic representation
regularly portrayed as a child by the imperial
profitable, and his Insensibility took away his Illness diminished.* by a caqiet laid near the rivcrlunk. and the bankruptcy, with projects such as the Ta; of peace The spread of these images beyond
arrisrs.
my senses. As visible remedies were hopeless following year he contracted another nearly Mahal. However, he was defeated by the Indian or Persun worlds is attested by

|l| would give up hunting ... IIH were However, despite lliew good intentions. fatal illness. Jahangir discusses these events imperial troops in 1658 and farced to Hee copies of similar portraits nude by Rembrandt
As an adult Shoja was himsell an imporuni
I .ssible that... Gad Ahnurhiy might give Jahangir's memoirs continue to detail further too svith great concern. His devotion to his patron of painters, and many illustrations India He never returned to his homeland in the mid 17th century.
him <.> me I vowed to God that I thence hunting expeditions and Icals <4 marksman- grandchild was dearly unusual. Shoja also chronicle major events in his life. He joined
E4riMy >c«r» kumfr «n iuai

259 awaiting their judgement. They include The fortune indicated by this scene is not as of owls and their nest in tlie top left comer
figures familiar from Islamic cosmography dire a* one might tear Tribulations must be make the source ol this vetting dear. It
Eight pages from the Khalili
literature, such as the six dog-headed expected, but those- who perform good deeds was taken from Nushirvan and the Owls,
Falnama
men. the five black bodiless heads and the and avoid temptation will enjoy eternal life an illustration found in Satavid copies of

H«ubl, Golcooda. ok* 1610-30 four representatives of lhe upside-down in Paradise. Nizami’s Makhzan al-Airar (The Treasury

lr», gotach*. gola *"d vw tr> tSck. de^fxnMm folk. Below, a group of six fat white men of .Mysteries'), the first book ol his Khanna
I... p-p«. .gbrly txxwsfwd • •olio, w^o.^.ly - perliaps denoting the vicious - is being < Quintet: tee cat net M*S8).

41 . 28 4 cm. Minting* 30.5«21 cm led by a blue demon towards the Sirat 259B
r-« Nmwi 0 OiaU. CoUu->- ul Wamic An. al-Mustaqim. 'the strait and narrow path' The person who opened these pages is
Jesus raising the dead (folio lib)
Lonaon. m.no MSS 979 across the pft of Hell, winch must be tra­ promised good luck in a whole range ol

LMranx* U«h 1998. pp 221-225. no 65 versed to enter Heaven. Two thin, hairy- Jesus, shown mourned and with his face circumstances. Including making a journey
chested men are making thclt way along the veiled, lias raked lhe son of the old woman or a marriage, recovery from illness, com­
This Fahtama. or 'book of divination', thin red line that represents this slender who crouches before him. giving thanks. mercial transactions, moving house, weaning
consists of a scries of double opening*. with bridge. whBc below them the naked figures According to the caption, the miracle has a child, and circumcision.
a large nunialurc on each right-hand page. of lhe fallen are being tortured by Hames and been performed to the wonderment ol all
On the opposite page ihcrc arc two Persian serpents. In tlie regtsler at the top, the scene present, including the monarch shown
texts. One written in an Indian variant of 1$ sun-eyed impassively by four scaled iigures mourned, bottom left. The miracle, which
lhe thuluth style provides a caption tor the with flaming nimbuses, evidently prophets, recalls that ol the centurion and his son in
painting, although the reference K some- and live incorporeal livings, also with the New Testament (Matthew 8 5 /J), takes
limo oblique, while lhe second, written nimbuses. place atnid ruins, and the presence ol a pair
in draws a moral from the story
depicted in the Image to give a good. bad or
variable fortune. The paintings could also
be viewed for their own sake, lor which
purpose a secund caption in Persian was
added beneath each scene at a later date
In Ils current state the Klialili manuscript
has J5 double openings and is one of only
a small group of illustrated lalnantas that
survive in something like their original lorm
(others are in the Topkapi Palace Library.
Istanbul) The published material suggests
that the lonn became popular in Persia m
lhe later 16th century and spread quickly
Iroin there to Ottoman Turkey and to the
Qutb Shahi court at Golconda in southern
India, where this falnania was produced.
Pages from a dispersed volume, much larger
in formal <59 x 44.5 cm), have when been
2MA
attributed to lhe Salavtd Shah Tahmasp I
(r 1524-1576). but they ate not up to the
standard ol his earlier commissions. It is
interesting to note, however. that one 2MA has blown his seven-branched trump, to
illustration in the Khahli Falnama (folio 22b) mark ihc end of Time. The recording angel
The Day of Judgement (folio 10b)
shows Shah Tahmasp leading his troops into (lop left) is weighing the deeds of men.
battle. Al tlie very least, this illustrates lhe In the main scene the sun. represented by an depicted as rolkd-up scrolls (compare the
• lose links beiwcen Safaud Persia and Qutb inverted human face, no longer moves motto on cat.no. 276). To the nght are
Stahl Gokunda. through its course, because Israfil (top right) groups of humans and other creatures

252
E4riMy >c«r» kumfr «n iuai

259 awaiting their judgement. They include The fortune indicated by this scene is not as of owls and their nest in tlie top left comer
figures familiar from Islamic cosniograplus dire a* one might tear Tribulations must be make the source ol this vetting dear. It
Eight pages from the Khalili
literature, such as the six dog-headed expected, but those who perform good deeds was taken from Nushirvan and the Owls,
Falnama
men. the five black bodiless heads and the and avoid temptation will enjoy eternal life an illustration found in Satavid copies of

H«ubl, Golcooda. ok* 1610-30 four representatives of lhe upside-down in Paradise. Nizami’s Makhzan al-Airar (The Treasury

lr», gotach*. gold *"d vw tr> tSck. de^fxnMm folk. Below. a group of six fat white men of .Mysteries'), the first bonk ol his Khanna
I... p-p«. .gbrly txxwsfwd • »oh« - perliaps denoting the vicious - is being (Quintet: tee cat net 86-88).

41 . 28 4 cm. Minting* 30.5«21 on led by a blue demon towards the Sirat 259B
r-« Nmwi 0 OiaU. CoUu->- ul Wamic An. al-Musiaqim. 'the strait and narrow path' The person who opened these pages is
Jesus raising the dead (folio lib)
Lonaon. m.no MS$ 979 across the pft of Hell, winch must be tra­ promised good luck in a whole range ol

LMranx* U«h 1998. pp 221-225. no 65 versed to enter Heaven. Two thin, hairy- Jesus, shown mourned and with his face circumstances. Including making a journey
chested men are making tliclt way along the veiled, lias raked lhe son of the old woman or a marriage, recovery Irom illness, com­
This Fahtama. or 'book of divination', thin red line that represents this slender who crouches before him. giving thanks. mercial transactions, mewing house, weaning
consists of a scries of double opening*. wilh bridge. while below them the naked figures According to the caption, the miracle has a child, and circumcision.
a large nunialurc on each right-hand page. of lhe fallen are being tortured by Hames and been performed to the wonderment ol all
On the opposite page ihcrc arc iwo Persian serpents. In tlie regtsler at the top, the scene present, including the monarch shown
texts. One written in an Indian variant of 1$ sun-eyed impassively by four seated ligures mounted, bottom left. The miracle, which
ihe thuluth style provides a caption tor the with flaming nimbuses, evidently prophets, recalls that ol the centurion and his son tn
painting, although the reference K some- and live incorporeal beings, also with the New Testament (Matthew 8 5 /J), takes
limo oblique, while lhe second, whiten nimbuses. place atnid ruins, and the presence ol a pair
in draws a moral from the story
depicted in the Image to give a good. bad or
variable fortune. The paintings could also
be viewed for their own sake, lor which
purpose a secund caption in Persian was
added beneath each scene at a later date
In Ils current state the Klialili manuscript
has J5 double openings and is one of only
a small group of illustrated lalnantas that
survive in something like their original form
(others are in the Topkapi Palace Library.
Istanbul) The published material suggests
that the lonn became popular in Persia m
lhe later 16th century and spread quickly
Irom there to Ottoman Turkey and to the
Qutb Shahi court at Golconda in southern
India, where this falnania was produced.
Pages from a dispersed volume, much larger
in formal <59 x 44.5 cm), have when been
2MA
attributed to lhe Salavtd Shah Tahmasp I
(r 1524-1576). but they ate not up to the
standard ol his earlier commissions. It is
interesting to note, however. that one 2MA has blown his seven-branched trump, to
illustration in the Khalili Falnama (folio 22b) mark the end of Time. The recording angel
The Day of Judgement (folio 10b)
shows Shah Tahmasp leading his troops into (lop left) is weighing the deeds of men.
battle. Al tlie very least, this illustrates lhe In the main scene the sun. represented by an depicted as rolkd-up scrolls (compare the
• lose links beiwccn Safaud Persia and Qutb inverted human face, no longer moves motto <»n cat.no. 276). To the nght are
Stahl Gokonda. through its course, because Israfil (top right) groups of humans and other creatures

252
ffitly an • »■« O» IMAM

259C Buraq. ascending Irom rhe Temple Mount In 2WD

Jerusalem toutpareatt.no. !8,ft>Uo<). He Is
Muhammad ’s Night Journey Ahmad-i Jam riding a lion
surrounded by angels bearing insignia and
(folio 12b) (folio 17b)
doing whai the kier caption describes as

L-r.oCi.si ’99f. pp V0-J13. for* IW8 'pouring light over him'. Itorrtr. lbby l«a>. pp 140* !&J

no,4S. p2J6
Good fortune is promised in lhe text on the Ahmad-i Jam was a celebrated Suli master

The scene depicted is lhe Mi’raj. lhe opposite page, where tlx* caption in thuluth who lived between 1049 and 1141 tlis

miraculous night journey during which the gives a Shiite gloss to the scene: 'The night tomb became the centre of the town of
Prophet Muhammad travelled to Jerusalem when the l ord ol the Two Mansions made Turbat-i Shaykh-i Jam in Khorasan. and
and ascended trom there to the Throne ol the Ascent, lie heard a vokc coining from tile reverence in which he wa* held led Io
God By the later I Sth century’ lhe Mi rai had the Haram ol the Lord (the Temple Mount). the accumulation of a large body of legend
become a standard illustration to lhe Khamui God spoke in 'All's graceful tones since the around the bate bones ol his life story. Here
ol Nizami but this depiction Is doser to that Prophet loved ’All's way ol talking.* he is shown riding a lion, using one serpent
tn a manuscript ol the Haft Auraiy of Jami as reins and another as a whip. The Sull
(Washington. DC. Freer Gallery ol An. sheikh riding a lion » a favountc ftyvt
46.12, (olio 275a). which was produced hi among Suli hagiographers. and this depiction
Mashhad in eastern Iran about 1565. lor the of the miracle belongs to a genre with paral­
Safavid prince Ibrahim Mirza. It chows the lels in both Europe (for Samson) and China
Prophet mounted on the supernatural steed In lhe caption in thuluth opposite we arc

/V’,* .v-

J3K

told that. The great men of religion can ride tigers and leaping gazelles. To Ilie left sits 2W

on lion* because they passed their time on Solomon's virier Asaph; they arc attended
The death of John the Baptist
earth more slowly than an ant.' Selecting the by a pen. a white demon and a human,
(folio 28b)
image of Ahmad-i Jam brought good hick representing the races under Solomon's
command. Solomon's dominion over John the Baptist, known in the Islamic

creation is further indicated by the mass tradition as tiie prophet Yahya, is executed

of birds, animals and inserts that surround by the minions of Herod, here termed the
239E
the royal pair. Some arc fabulous beasts, misguided emperor The murder rakes plat
The court of King Solomon m the foreground ><«hn is J as a
including two chinoiserie phoenixes and
(folio 21b) young man, whose prophetic status H
a ijilin, and some arc accurate represen­
tations of real creatures. One is the hoopoe. indicated by a ILinung nimbus. His unban
UtwMum Otgc< I99S.PP ror-l’l. Uach two.
Solomon's messenger, who is perched i»n the has been knocked off. and Ins head is held
no45,p-Z27
throne at his right hand Even the pond at over a dish while his throat Is dn Behind

This composition is a worked-up version ol a the base of lhe picture is filled with animals him. within a royal hwwr. Herod sits

- a talk two terrapins, a crab and a snake enthroned with hrs ev< ("unw<4i<s ««n
type ol frontispiece illustration found in
manuscripts produced in Shiraz in lhe mid The omen interred from the scene is a good either vide. and the scene w waidied trom

one, allhough the subject need* to wear windows above Ilx iwan by five ladies ol
I6ih century II shows Salomon (Suleyman)
and Bilqis. the Queen of Sheba. seated on 'Solomon's annk-i lor protection against the tlir court, perhaps an echo i>! Salome s role.

machinations of demons, pens and humans Indeed this event was rarefs rvurrsmted tn
a golden throne decorated with couched

25'
 oi isi«m • Garden* ana Paraddr

339H

The Queen of the Peris

enthroned in the garden of train
(folio 30b)

Pera. assisted by a demon musician and a

demon gardener, wait upon their Queen,
who sits enthroned within a domed
pavilion. Opposite her Isa smaller
pavilion containing an empty throne. The
setting is identified as the Garden of Iram,
the legendary garden of ihe'pre-lslamic
Himyaritic kings of Yemen, but the scene
reads like a parody of the al fresco feasts
ol late 15th-century Timurid Herat

The omni inferred is excellent, although

the subject must always share his good
fortune with the poor.
MX

240

Fragment of a carved panel

Ea,pt Of $.■>* 8th century

Kory. carved • Laoflth 1$ on. height 1 on
21*0
Banaki Muscixn, Athens, ww.no. 10411
btwatuiz- A*9eon W,pxt I. hg 146 p 338.
Islamic miniature palming: Its depiction here »J9G surrounded by a flaming nimbus, emerge
Creswefl NN, «> 2V-42, pi Vt. Stem W54. 6g
suggests some acquaintance (gaitiledi with from the rich cloths covering his tomb, and
Murra miraculously cut in half 17. pp 130-131; Gemell >969. boot I. pvt it.
the version in the New Testament. Murra is miraculously deli ui two. The tomb
(folio 29b) *g 683, p 631 1971. no 5. tab «. p 26.
servants show their amarcment. as do the
Phikin fashion. linked by a leal motif alternating
Tlic text of the accompanying exegesis does Hie scene depicls a posthumous miracle <>( crowd on the Imrizon. who may be Murra's
1980-1 fig !0. p 16 with a rosette. This plaque can be dated to
not refer to the episode displayed, repeating All ibn Abi Talib. who appears here in his companions. Murra r> not lunher identified,
the 8th century: Its decoration compares
one associated svith the Ilium ‘Ali. role as the first Ilium ol the Shiite tradition but he may have some association with the
Tills superb ivory plaque, carved in high with the late Umayyad mild Silt century>
The Klullli Falnama contains a number ol Ikinu Murra. an Arabian tribe ol the time ol decorative repertoire, such as the facade of
relief. 11 decorated with a vine scroll with
images with an explicitly Shiite content and the Prophet which, initially at least. ranged the palace ol Mshatla In Jordan, although
fivc-lol»cd leaves and bunches of grapes.
the link B greatly reinforced by list many itself on lhe side of his enemies
The vine stalks curl symmetrically, creating there are also precedents in pre-lslamic
Shute references in the text (compare folu>
circles around the leaves and lhe two birds vocabulary, particularly Coptic carving.
12b). This is one sound reason for attributing The omen derived from this image is a good
whose heads are turned luck to pluck the mjh.
the work to Golcwnda. the main centre of one. However, as in the case ol lhe Court ol
fruit. Outside the scroll arc smaller leaves,
painting in 17th-century India that was King Solomon liftfolie21b) good fortune
a hare and another bird.
undei Shiite rule- lhe location is the tomb ol could lie assured only by wearing an
Ah at Najaf in Iraq, to which one Murra ibn amuletic armband
This fragment was part ol a larger panel
(jays has come in lull armour to commit which was probably intended to decorate a
some act ol desecration He receives his just
piece of furniture. The missing pan to the
rewanl when two of the Imam's fingers.
right was presumably decorated in a similar

257
Karlfely Araun htotuh

241 time, the stylization here is more suggest that the casket should be attributed 243

Four decorative panels pronounced than that on a casket tn Berlin loan Arab workshop ol the 11 th century.
Horn
which was made earlier
Fabmol fgypt. 11th cwntixy Such caskets were prolwMy used as South Italy. 11» cantiay
Wood. cvcd •length 2J cm. —»t" 11 cm (aadi) The large Mank space left on the ivory reliquaries Iwxy .L—g»>47S cm
B--*i M.seu", Athens. -1« no, 4164. 9169. 9170. plaques for the lock, hinges, and the animals' T»« State Hamtago Muwu", St P«—ntxxg
9171 outlines, plus the arabesque framing and ifw.no B 5
bfe.a-i.-r W-na 1990, 6g 14-19. p 44 several other features, prompted Ktihnd to Pmwoimc. *q!—d n IMS heo- tfia A F
B®d-ws»y CoHtctam. Pans p-aro-U, m th* Vtrasu-y
T\vo pain of Fatimid ik-corative panels
o< Sant F-a-boufg Ou-ch - S—l<U
carved in high relief, lhe details obtained
be-rafu- tXir.al ■ 0-MMwUy 1874. 1925.
1 hrough incised lines. The |xinrh are
no 44. Fain 1929. bcoi IV p 514; XiZ-.ne 1959.
coloured in red; two bear traces of wlutc.
bool I. pp 37. 41. XrwIianortUyw 1949. p 153.
The composition on each panel tomprises
K-hn-7 1971, no 44. lar-g-ad 1973, no. 1».
Iw<» aildoncd biids wilh spread wings above
1—ingrad 19M. no 3. Kuwait 1990. no 26
a creature. cither griffin or goat. amongst
foliated stems which create a pear-shaped Such carved ivory horns were produced in
frame lor tlie creatureM their centre. large quantities in various Mediterranean
regions during lite 11 th to the 12th cen­
All the panels Itavc extensions for lilting into
turies. Among the representations carved
a larger frame and probably decorated the on this one are fantastic beasts. as well a*
same door or chillier. The ornamentation b animals from warm ciimates. such as the
typical of imagery Irom lhe Fatimid period m antelope, lion, ibex and camel. The latter,
Z41A
cither an Islamic or Coptic context however, has no humin and its image is not
realistic This could support the hypothesis
pul forward by Kuhncl and several other
researchers, who claim that tfiis bom was
242 made in an Italian or Byzantine workshop,
where Islamic artists were employed
Casket
Originally, this horn was regarded as a
South luly. I19i«.n«ury SHh-ccntury Byzantine object, until Kobe
lio-yr. wood *33 6 ■ 18 a 16 cm attributed It to western Europe. Orbell
•n. Stat- Itwrn.ta.jn Mum—v. St p-1.-tb.irg, however suggested that its origin lies in
•w.no. FG-1244 Cilicia tsoutheast Turkey».
Pwv—c< in IMS Worn ttw A B—temay M.K.
CollKMn, 9an»
t<r«>Mum Darrvi ■ Savlrwsiv >874, pp 15-16.
no 51. pl X. *-*<—> 1971,«. 4465 tab XXXVH
XXXVM. Kuwa« 1990. no 23

Similar caskets, and carved elephant lusks,

were produced in various Mediterranean
legions In the 11 ill to 12th centuries.

The animals represented in the medallions

on this casket < lions. antelopes, ilexes,
rootten and fantastic beasts) resemble those
depicted Oil the carved tusks. Al the same

25g 259
 Ndktv. beenutf 40

Kuhnel believed that this plaque, like concave disks. The forelegs are carved with In 969 tlic Fatumds annexed Egypt to their
cat.no.244. could have liven made in Sicily, overlapping scales: the tails arc curled and existing North African territories The ewer

no earlier than the late 12th century. The terminate in palm leaves. The outside of the was nude in Cairo. After lhe Turks pillaged

collection at the Ravenna National Museum handle is decorated with half palmcttcs the treasury ol the caliph al-Musumir in
contains a fragment of an ivory plaque The shoulder ol the ewer bears the Kulic 1062, the fourth successor to al-’Azil bi'llah.

with an almost identical composition, inscription: the ewer came on the market. Possibly this

lhe only difference living the mirror-image the Nfsinfi ofGod on the inun a/- 'Ati: bi Ilah precious object carnc into possession of the

positioning of lhe warrior and the lion. Venetian Republic at this date.

This Kuhnel also dates to the same period tinman al-'Aziz bi'llah was ihc fifth Fatimid J.V.
caliph, who reigned from 975 until 996. (bated on a denription by !>aiue! Akouffe)

24b

Ewer of caliph al-'Aziz bi'llah 346

Ssortewo* Fata-tet. 975976.

18th century o' loto
Rock cryu.l gOd. .mm* • Mmght 23 or
width 12.5 on
Piocteatona <5 San Mito Verne*, m"O 80
btetetur. Pm*, IMS- (M6, p 93. pl lit *9 1 >•.
MoAne- 18c8, p 38-A7. -o W. t*nm 1929-1930 I
p 192-193. Itpi 67, 1. Gallo 19*7. p XX) no 85. p
375. no 29. HaAnOsw- 1971. pl. XCVJn-XQx tw4h
bbUogupM Akoof*. 1991 pp 224229 Boo- -
8U.r !997. p. 253. Ag 135. Vienna 1998. "o 106

This magnificent ewer, a key piece in the

Identification ol Egyptian Fatimid rock-
245 crystal objects, is one of lhe the most famous
hardstone vessels in the treasury ol San
Marco in Venice. The thin-walled ewer Is
244 with decorative animal motifs within a back­ 245 entirely monolithic, cut Irom a single blin k
ground <>l tendril ornaments, resembles the ol flawless crystal. The underside of the
Plaque Plaque
Fatimid style of carving, although these vessel, which is slightly convex, has a broken

Stoty. oiu AO 1200 features also compare with tlie style ol $<A. oru 1200 footring, which made the present gold
C-r^dwwyUngW 24 7OT.w-3th 12 6 cm certain Sfuiiish pieces. Cf»<Kl ivory • length 24 6. wxRh 12 7 cm mount necessary. The handle cd the ewer,
’I- Stet* Muworn. St Pete-Unzy Th* Stet* Hmir.tege Muwcn $1 ’O.-Un-J which is >ut from the same piece ol crysial as

<1.7,0 EG-803 Kuh nd who studied and compared this rvno. EG-8M lhe body ol the vessel, has a small sculpture

Prco-an.® ■<qur*d in 188$ from t"* A. B.llil—U , plaque (and also cat.no 245) with Mozarabic' Prowmirx* <1 1885 from the the ol a crouched ibex as a finial. The relief

Corecliu". **«u objects, and the Valencia casket, decorated A. 8a»lmnl<* CotWetoo. Pans decoration, enlivened by engraved detail.
UNrMur, UW 1971, pp 80. Ub CM. Kuw»t with hunting lions (dated circa 1050), Uterasuf* Kulvwl 1971, pp 80. ub CM). Cuwart Is of high quality. On the body it is sym­

tWO, no 24 believed that it could have been made in l990.no 25 metrically conceived and well placed
Sicily, no earlier than lhe late 12th century, Below the spout. arabesques terminating in
Tin- ornamentation on this rectangular ivory The ornamentation on this rectangular ivory palmettes and half palmcttcs spring from a
plaque b oriented vertically, the design bring This plaque was probably the side panel plaque is vertically oriented, the design being thtcc-lobed cartouche, the lions' heads are
■rved in high relief. ol a box. carved in high relief. marked off by grooved collars Irom their
Tin gcomctrically-orgaitizcd composition, set w.v. bodies, which have an overall pattern ol

260
fjrthlf btjan ttmrxly ■ ISLAM 4«M

247

Ewer

Egypt. 10th 11* Camay wi* 17«Kctmixv

ItokMh kMKm
Rock crystal qoki co*>u-»<1 Vimn •
HatoW 16.4 cm d-r-wt- 5 • cm
The State Muwian, St f“®t«bu<c
imno VZ-341
PtOvano'C* i»*nown. aiqucod by the DeDMtmem

UMTMum feltor/jm 1913. p S 197< .. 113

fig. 6. Stocfciutn IW. p 119, ao J4. Kuwac 1990
no 16

The body <>l this ewer was m<Hk- ol nick

crystal by Egyptian artisans in the IOiIi to
11 th century, its entire surface lieing covered
with rcficl-cut geometrical and floral
ornaments.

Ihc decoration ol gold and coloured stones

set within a golden tranie and fixed on the
body was usual in Turkish items of the mid-

nth century.

This ewer Indicates that Egyptian rock-

1U
crystal pieces were highly valued during
the Middle Ages, not only in western Europe Cologne later It found its way into the 249

but also in the East where they received a Stroganov Coilection.

Vial
second life in the hands ol the jewellers, and
found their way into royal treasuries. The pear-shaped belly Ims a wide opening l9»P«. 9*10* <«"tiz>
without a spout The foot is relatively high, Rock crystal • Length 10 cm, Hegm JS cm
and the handle is rectangular There arc The Stete Museum. St fntmsf—'g
incised decorations representing two lions WML CA-9993

248 lacing each other below- a frieze around the pKwananrv tr»ndB<ted - 1931 town The Step
neck, consisting of hall palmeties. The A-eaem, <* Metenal Cuku.W K-lc-v
Fiver mouth of the neck is silver, ol a much later bwoftw • fcmoe- 1964, 21S.
date, as arc the two pieces of silver on the London 19764 no W; <vw»i 1990, no 17
Egypt. lfl*c«>t-y
Rock ernt*. *v«'H~7ht 198 cm handle. They are ol European make.
The ewer is related to a large cdlecllon of Among ihc items made of rock crystal in
Stete 1l< Har—I^o. St *rt.obo"j,
rock-crystal ol>|ccls that were produced In Egypt were vials hi the stupes ol animals
mv.no. V7-801
Egypt during the Fatimid dynasty (969- several of these, in the lorm ol recumbent
PtOrVAaru • Kqwted * 1911 Com tbn G S
I I7I|. Similar decoration can be found, lor lions, have survived Imm ihe Faumid period.
SvogaAo. Ctftoctxm (p*i o' P-nc-u ShcnmlMt.i.«
example, on the ewer <4 caliph al-’Azi/ This lish-shaiied sial Is. howvvet unique In
Utmatizo 1941. Wrnrn. 1998. ao U»
bi llah from the Treasury ol San Marco the known repertory.

Tradition Isas it that this ewer was found «re aii.no 246?
AX Thr cylindrical depression along the body is
under the altar in a mined church in
Birthlr Srttrr. ht<nr*h Pt 141.M • J»J hrjJii'

Both sides of the Ixuly arc cut with orna- 250 of the crystal itself all point to a court work-
mentation probably imitating scales, and shop, whatever its place of origin. Written
Lamp
a rectangular fin with two curves. Similar sources state that in the I Oth to 11th cen­
curves can be seen on other rock-crystal »*t P>. lOthcantury turies. Basra in Iraq, rather than Egypt,
objects horn the 9ih century The figure as Bock oysul . 22 ■ 65 . *5 on played the leading role in rock-crystal manu­
a whole is ratlscr crude: list head. body, ’be Slate Hemtuge Museum. $1 *etent>.»g. facture. This permitted Lamm, in 1950, to
fins and tail arc merely suggested by lines. mno E&938 regard it as that ol 10th- Io I llh-crntury
frovenmee icceved>n IBS’l<om the toimai Iraqi artisans

Uttrahse ft Pet.-Ux-g 1902. "O 12. p 332. Tills lamp was brought to Europe during the
D*t U.XXVlt. V««i IW,part 11. p. 383. 69 28’. Middle Ages along with other items ol rock
Lamm 1929-1930 Pi-nm.W* 1961. p S $ro<*"om crystal. In 16th-century Italy, it was used as a
249 1985, p 113.no. 33. Be^n 1989. p 190. no 290, bowl. having been decorated with figures of
p 547. no. t/10. Kuwi-r 1990. no t$ sea gods and animals. All these decorations
characteristic of smaller rock-crystal objccis were made ol gold and enhanced with
from (he Tulunid (868-905) and Fatimld This lamp is a line example ol 10th- to I Ith-
enamel
(969.117b periods The lower part of the cenlury rock-crystal work Indeed, it seems 252
N.V..
body has been cut so tliat the fins, head and to be the only rock-crystal lamp id that

tail support the vial, thereby making it highly period which has been preserved. The high curved body. long hind legs and short cars. lite technique ol wheel-cutting, etching and
stable. level ol craftsmanship. the beauty of its 251 The plaque is badly chipped at the edges; polishing glass, found in both Roman and
decoration with floral motiis and the quality Its function is difficult to determine. Sasanian periods, was adapted and perfected
Square plaque *.«. by the succeeding Islamic civilization. par­

Egypt lllti - 12lh<an»ury ticularly in 9th and 10th-century Iraq and

HO
Iran, and was known by the late 10th
Rock uysul • 6 cm. wdlb 6 cm
252 century in Egypt. The Islamic artists found
ex|sres$ion in a new repertory of shapes and
LMrotuf l»nm 1929-1930. pt 76-77 intmtno
Turquoise glass bowl designs This opaque turquoise-glass lobed
1940. p. 133. <>g 16; C^kx'I 1977. p 104.
GUw Ion c- I'xj 9th o< ’On c»OTu<y Enamel- bowl is one ol die best known of the relief­
no 354. pl. XXI i. Pluton ’980-1, p 23. no 5*
Byjantirw. 11th emtwy. Obe- law 10th cut type, although it is unique in colour lor
V«nrw 1998. 137. no 111
■nd iSthcaMwyfh this production. Generally. colourless glass

The figure ol an animal, possibly a camel, is GtoM. sMKgiit. 90M Closo-n6 boom •
was preferred at this time, though some

carved in iliuglio on this square plaque. The Haight 6 cm. domete' 186 an undecorated turquoise glass fragments are

animal, which is depicied with a blossoming known. The accomplished an ol glass-cutting

PiDcu-elixie-J- s»- Mxro Ver»ce. nv-a ’40
twig in its mouth, has a conspicuously (tegntered M 1M «w»to<y ot 1571 os no. 62) is one thal follows the lapidary tradition in

Mo^fouca- 1702. p 52. Monn«a>o 172? which the material is laboriously abraded to

<8 1. p. 72. pt Vfl. VU txt. 1885-1896. pp 94 lorm the patterns By this process, the relief

99, no. 105. pl. XtVTW. Mohn— 18M. po 40-41. 95- design is seen on a smooth, usually polished

96. no. »3. Urwn 1928. p 63. I*"— 1929-1930 I. ground, the patterns having been created by

pp 144. 133-9. 8. pl 58-23 f-Mthbtilog-jp^). both high and counter-sunk relief. On the

Umm 1939. H. pp 2597-2398. VI. pl 14444 Pan, wall ol tills bowl is a lively He of running

1952. no 73. P^ 1956. no 436 GA> 1967. pp stylized hares, one animal placed in each of

206-212 299. no 62. 352. no. 70:361. no 199. 369- the five lobes.

370. no 42. 397, no ICO pl 64. 108-109 Mh

tsOAog-ap*,! WoIom' 1971. p 101 104. no. 117 A low foolring encloses an enigmatic in­
scription in a 9th-/10th-century type of Kuflc
pi U000X-XC. CMrtotton '980. p 68-73. SOdrn
1967-1969. pp 142-143. 1991, pp 224-229. script It has been translated as Khurasan'.

Bloom - 8J*r 1997 pp 126-127. 6g 70 Tim cannot refer to tlie place of production,
as Khorasan was a Urge undefined region in

265
Ftrtklv Fnutt Aar4/»> and faradiw

eastern Iran. However, the area was known 254

for its turquoise production. and according

f to the literature, coloured glass was alien
Ring

accepted as being precious stone. II this Fatlndd Eg»pt e»*» ’ ’th century EMimd Egypt. 10th or 11* century
bowl was made to simulate and be taken lor Gold sheet gdd-w-e ‘ligrea and yarxjlanon • Go*d sheet. gold -we Ugree end granulobon •
turquoise it might be inferred that lhe w<>id Maic^t 26cm bez* 22a 1J an Height 21 on; bezel: 1.7 • t cm
was added to support lhe deception. An The Homo- 0 KhalA Collection of Me-n.f Art. The Id— 0 KhaUi Collection o' Marrnc Art
explanation ol Its significance is still awaited. Lender irwno AV 267 London, awno AV 1861
LitMtu-v WaczH 1«93. no. 122 pp 4$, 48-19 203 Literature WWW 1993, no. 124 pp 45, 49-49, 2Q3
The vessel is traditionally believed to have
been presented by tlse Sliah ol Iran to live The ring, which is constructed ol gold sheet, The stirrup-shaped ring is ol hollow box
Venetian Republic in 1472. is ol broad stirrup shape wilh cusped shoul­ construction. The rectangular bezel is
ders. The rectangular bezel is of granulated decorated wilh flligtee and granulated
(twd on a dntrption by GinrliiH Konel filigree openwork, lite sides and shank have opensvork wilh an s-scroll within a border
applied circles and arch shapes ol thin A 2S4 A ol llgure-ol-cight pattern. The shank and
twisted gold wire. sides bear scroll designs in twisted-wire
251 M.R. appliques and granulation

Belt elements

POSS&, Szmarra10f cenUry 255

Gold sheet <*cc»ated m* gr*>ul»oon *nd avrsted

RfH./
■ue • Diameter ol central rowtta 55 cm. length o»
tors 4 cm. w«Kh of *nah 4 an. Wngth of fir.aU 5 cm •irinsa Egypt, 1 ’th century

Benaki Museum. Athene <yno 1856 Gold .beet y>ld —• fillgrM and gr*r<il»tion •

btMfc-ir Seg«l 1938. 177. no 280, oL 55. P*./on He.tfit 2.7 cm; bezel: 2.3 • 12 cm

’980-1 -o 48. Pan. 1998 136. no 77. Wonna 1998. Th»N»swrD KhaUi Collection of Ishrmc Art.

123. no 93 London, irw.no. AV 1846

W«tvre WWW 1993. no 142 pp 44. 52 206
Comprising a central rosetie. eight rhomboid
liars and two finials, these line, gold bell This Is one of three rings ol similar stirrup

elements display a design largely composed shape tn the Khalili Collection (compare
of domes and granulation outlined by single, car.NiU 257am/J5.V>. and one of only 11 A ?SS A

or double-twisted wire. Several features such rings known today.

recall Iranian pieces, including lhe box

construction with solid sited on lhe back The ring Is tn filigree and granulated open-

and the astonishing use ol minute granu­ work. the hoop wilh an inner lining ol gold

lation which completely covers most ol tlte sheet It has a high circular bezel surrounded

domes. This latter feature appears on a pair by a figure-of-eight wire border. The slunk

of bracelets dated to the first hall of the 11 th and sides have roundels, ovoids and hall

century, and on a basket-type earnng palmetto.

avcrilxxl to Egypt or Syria in lhe late lOih M.8
io early I lilt century. An early dating lor this
bell is supported by the conspicuous absence
ol openwork filigree and the decoralive
des ice ol hemispherical and oval domes
which seems to derive Irom Samarra'-lype
decoration.

26ft
 ... ... IMAM • 1-0J'

258
and ihe bracelets are not fitted svith lhe

RlHjI hinge seen on, lor example, a bracelet in

Jerusalem (LA Mayer Memorial Institute.
Filled (g,pr ’ Itn contizy Inv.no. J46) or a pair in the al-Sahah
Gold iha-t. ^idwr. lAgma and 9-^uUt— ■ Collection in Kuwait (LNS 7 I a-b). all of
Hmghr 2.9 cm; be«* 23 x 1.2 on which arc somewhat smaller in diameter
The M*m«> D lhall ColUHo- ol hl*m< Art than the Khalili bracelets.
London.ina.no. JI*’84? MJt.
Uararvm Wwwti IW no 141. pp 44. 52. 206

The sUnup-shaped ring, in gold filigree and

granulated openwork. has an oval bezel with
two heart shapes, lip to lip. Ute shank and
sides have medalfions, those* al lhe Ironl and
hack filled with granulated crosses. Tile* hoop
is lined wilh gold sheet decorated under lhe
bezel wilh a filigree rosette
M.l

259

Tit’o bracelets

Fahmal. Egypt « Syna 1 lift cartiry

Heavy oold sheet liamme«rd .nd <h<Md. arth
<p>l<>aire Wigtee and granulation •
Oanietar 9 2 cm and 88 cm. wtpKtnely
’he Naom D Khalil. CoVaetton o’ An. 260
London, In. no. JLV 1853. JL» 1854
Bead
Lawacuw unpublshed See abo Hauen 1987. pp
59-60 and no 74 p M. Ant 1990. no 43. p 14J Fatamd. Syria tn Egypt. 11th cantury
Strips o’ gold tfmet. 00*3-e and granulation •
Ihc bracelets were shaped and decorated Length 3 6 cm. dianwtm 1 6 cm (maxrmian)
over a con*, probably wax or bitumen, which Tha Nawm D KhaJ. CoUcnon of Wamic Art.
still remains inside erne ol the rings. Their London rn.no JLY 1852
chined decoration consists ol a design ol LtcraTiza ixipubta/iod. $«*e aho: JanAma ■ Kaona
open strapwork filled with scrollwork, 1982. w>. 86-37 andno 5Id. p 38
rabbit-like animals, winged sphinxes and
Flic high siiriiip-thaped ring with an oval bird*. some with intertwined necks. The The bkimlcai bead tsconstructed in granu­
bezel iv constructed in filigree and granulated clasp at the front consists ol two triangular lated openwork Each hall is divided into
Ring
openwork. The bezel has filigree scrollwork, panels beating granulated filigree designs six panels with scrollwork roundels and

Filiwd (gipt. while* ihc deleft and lhe shank have dense with central roundels ol (out-pctallcd s-shaped volutes. The sheet cellars are

G..M ehaal goMwin Ulpw ami gnmuUton • spiral Strolli. Hie- gold shed lining ol (he Howers composed ol heart-shaped palmcttes. decorated with rows of granulation.

Haight 11 cm. boail Z5» Uon hoop Iwv a pierced four-petalled rosette trained within a narrow band ol ligurc-ol-

Th. N.tM> D KhiAli Colhccon ot Wane Ail. edged in filigree. CTght wire filigree. A slightly larger Uconkal Ixrad with similar

taoton, nwno JI.* 1678 decoration h in the Metropolitan Museum

l*«aium W*n»l IWJ. no>17. p V The ‘clasp’ is non-luncilotul and purely of Art. New Yolk (no. 1980.457).
decorative. The draw-pin is soldered shut M.B
tarlMy Reelr htettoh err • ««i or isiam

262 265

Plaque Bracelet
Egyt* or Syne. 11* century Ai Rxn* (nathani SprA 11tf>-1» century
Gold sheet H'S Steps. (*4‘" *'“> t-'«ed god- Gold -Oametw 13 an. dimeter fl hinge 4 $ cm.
NlBlwsH^lUai wght 2TO33 g
”• Naw D KhaM. Collwton ol htexic Art. National Muw-m ol $r'« M-mstry of Culture.
lenoon .nvno JL’ 12S6 General Directorate lor Antx»,rt<» and Museums.
LterMixe Jartt.ni. Keene 1983. pp. S3 S3; Syrian Arab Kcpubic DamatcuU. xw.no. 2799-A
Society) W. lor no 334. Khahb Cobraon 1993, P'SV’-I'" A».«nq<W
p 57
This hollosv bracelet Is made of embossed
The upper side of thh plaque lias scrolling gold and is decorated svith benedictory
designs and a large six-petalled rosette in Inscriptions in Kutic script within a border
2*1 wire filigree openwork; the back is of sheet ol stylized floral motifs. On one side llic
gold. Although the filigree is supported by inscription redds:
261 strips of gold sheet, these arc placet! so as lo Generalgloryt evalMtinf happinea / all
l»e invisible. prosperity t for the nwr
Two beaJs

ftomd. pomaps $^.a 11th century Tlie lobed plaque retains two hinge elements On the other side:

Gold iSwt. wire *-d granUMed openwork • «>n one side, and two circular loops behind General pmyeritv. total Hie. enduring mans

Dameter 2 ’ 0" for attachment, probably to a licit. The central

T>- Naw 0 KhaM Cordon oi idar-x An. heart-shaped depression was evidently a The hinge, in the form of a disc, used to be

London, in.no JI* 1017 setting for a stone adorned svith precious sioncs. all of svhich

Lnerature* u-p-O'-snod Soo af*o: JerWnt - Keene MJt. 283 are missing. The piece dates from the Fatinud

«?. pp 84-87 end no. Sid P BB period (969-1171).

263 M. ALM.
The nvo large spherical beads arc decorated
Pair of earrings A pair of earrings
with a finely granulated tracery'd spW
scrolls. Tlieir delicate structure is reinforced Fatimid. Sy-ia e> Egypt, lit* cenuxy A. RaqcH InorthoMt Syr-}. 12t" century
by lhe sheet gold lube that connects the two Gold sheet. *-<• and granulated • Gold •Length 3 an. wnfth 3 cm. —«jh1 12 4 g
threading holes. Haight 4 1 cm. w-xb 3.1 cm Natonai M.i*eum of Sy^a. Mrnrttry o* Culture,
Tha 0 Khalili Ci-KW o' Hlar< Art. General Orectorate kx Antrq<»ues »■<! Museums,
Uodon. rn.no. Kt 1725 Syr.an Arab Ra<x«hc (Damascus}, "v -c 3052-A
Ue^ftre• unpubHhed See afro: Jarsiint - Keene Wotenance Ar-Raqga
1982. not. pp 84-85

These earrings, in the form of a bird with a

The crescent-shaped earrings are of hollmv lull in its beak, arc hollow tn construction
box construction. Panels ol granulated They were suspended from lhe car using the
filigree on the front, luck and sides arc hooks between the bird's head and its rump
framed within strips of gold sheet. The front
and sides also bear granulated and wire­ Tlie earrings date from the Fatimid period
filigree bosses. (969-1171).

262 The earrings were originally further decor­

ated svith pcarte. strung through a scries of
small loops on the front and back.

270
ta'thh btuatv. Mflf. iss*M • Garivni amf ra>a.fi>>

This necklace is composed of 16 teardrop enclosing a single shot One bead is different
l*ead*, 14 rosettes and two pendanis which from the rest and decorated with a filigree
were sitting together in modem times. The scroll. These beads are similar in fctnn and
crescent-shaped pendant and lhe stellate construction to two beads in the Metropo-
pendant - not originally pan of lhe same Ilian Museum ol New York, of unknown
object - are similar lo much Fatimid origin but asenbed to the I Ith or 12th
jewellery of ihe 11 ih century, being ol box centuries, and a number of beads in lhe
construction wilh openwork liligree and Uenaki Museum, also ol unknown origin.
granulation, incorporating s-curves made ol A.B.
ILai wire. The varying colours ol lhe gold
alloy suggests the necklace elements are of
diverse manufacture. Each rosette is made 268
ot two similar pieces soldered back-Ui-back,
Pair of gold earrings
the openwork section is made ol s-curves
with a central hemisphere and crenellated
Spam, late 12» century
border ol three grains. Similar crcnellation is 26’
Gold •Haight 5 5cm
found on jewellery ascribed to lhe 11 th to BmiA> Muwum. Arhcns. mv.no 1862
11th centuries. The teardrop beads arc made shaped earrings were also popular in the 269
I$cg*U 1938. 4g 285. pl St lo»do"
of sheet gold, decorated with filigree and 1976-11. *9 652. p 3M. RWcn 1980-1. ly 22S p 46. Fatimid period although the basic design
Bracelet
granulation that forms triangular facets Fwm - Wurjm 1997. «g 279, p 421 had its origin tn prc-lslamic times. These
earrings are very similar to another pair in $>•'« (AWppo ov Ar-lUqqrt, century
Necklace
This pair of gold crescent-shaped earrings is the Museum ol Mallorca which were found Gold • O-imoter 8 cm. wmgM 50.2 g
lit
Sr-a <*l<rpo CT Ar-Raoqa). Itth-’2m c.<Wy ornamented with granulation and filigree. in a jar with other jewelry and coins dated Nxicmal Mvmm of $yr>». MmHriy of Culture
Gold.pevh*Length J2 cm. wt'ghl IftKg The upper edges terminate in trefoils: the from the 12lh century. Genmil Doeclornlv lor Antrquitxi MuMuini,

National Museum o» S»"». M-><sr-y ol G/huvo. area between h filled with a cursive in­ M.M. Svm-mi Ar» R«>ur« O*wm|. "vno 2”5-A
Gmuw«I CwiKtoala lot AnbQuhos and MiMtani. scription. The main decoration of two birds Piovmimwo Alappo or AMUqg*
Synar Arab Fapublc (DamaousL irtvoo 3053-A Hanking a tree motif is contained within the

Provpnarxo Aleppo Or Av Raqqa cTcsccnt. The five triangular projections The ends ol this cylindrical gold bracelet

around lhe edges were probably hung with terminate in triangles which arc decorated in

This necklace comprises gold beads and pearls or other precious stones. Crescent- gold wire with sivhied floral and geometric

pearls; in the middle are larger pearls, motif*. Small Kills adoni the function ol

elongated forms, round beads and gold bracelet and mangles.

circle*.
MALM. Ulis piece was nude during ilie Mamluk
period <1260-1516).

267

Gold necklace

Egypt mSyni, 11th 1M< ceotur,

GcM with flLgree and granulate" • length al
rsackiaco without p—Ur>H 34 2 cm. length ol
crmcent ahaped pendant 27 cm. dumator ol uoflaie
pendant 1.5 cm
Hanak. Moeum. Athene, mv.no 1858
lacrMure Segafl 1 938.no 262. pl. 55, Wuton 1980-!
p 21. no 58. Wm— 1998J28. no 9t

272
Kt’tlilr btaaty, kravrah art

Ten elements of delicately crafted gold, preserved In Damascus Yet these pieces are
27J
consisting ol a medallion. four pendants irrevocably bound to the history of medieval

shaped like lotus (lowers, four spool-like Spain, where they were excavated. On Parcel-gilt silver bowl
bead*, and a smaller tube tor tutei. once the basts of common technique, the use of
Otloiwn Emjwo. 1481-1512
formed pan of the same ensemble, a portion enamel and appearance, they have been
Pfc-a-g-ll *lw •Dir*r 12 5 cm, hmgM 3 cm
ol a treasure unearthed in Granada, Spain attributed to the same workshop as a num­
Borukr Mtrt»um. Arbans, mvno EA 909
before 1916. Given that all the elements can ber of other pieces, including gamiiure lor a
GWcm™ 8.A.H 1988-1989. 199* 123
be strung and arc ol precious material. they horse and a torah shield. Tlic quality ol the

arc presumed to come Irom a necklace, goldsmith s work suggests a patron ol the Tills small hemispherical bowl is made of
though the original arrangement, number <il highest level.
sheet silver with a facetted honeycomb
270 components and range ol materials arc not cavctto resting on a mw of cmluwscd petal-
known The work of a virtuoso goldsmith, The large, circular medallion bears an oven Itke scallops. One of the cells is stam|>ed With
the surviving pieces combine llltgrec (In proclamation of the Christian context lor
270 the tiyhra of Baverid II which is also found
which fine gold wire is used to create which n was created Inscribed around the on a bowl in the Freer Gallery of Art Ui
Ri»y openwork decoration), granulation (in perimeter ol the circle arc the words AVE
Washington. D.G A rivet in lhe centre
which tiny spheres of gold, individually MARIA GRACIA PLENA. ( Hail Mary, lull ol shows where a disc was once attached. The
S^-. (Al^po), 13th Utt. aotury
soldered, duster together), and doisonm* grace') lire greeting ol Gabriel tn the Virgin underside is engraved with an interlacing
GcM-WeigM 3 395g
enamel (in which tiny partides ol red. white Mary when tire archangel came to announce design of elongated split leaves and small
rMicxi.' Muwutn ol Sr>» Moiwy o« Culhxv.
and green glass arc fused to metal within that Mary would bear the Messiah. Recorded lotus palmeltes on a ring-punched ground,
Geio-.l DfKto.u fw r<i Mtooums.
areas defined by gold wire). in the Gospel of Luke, the angel’s salutation radially arranged around a central llowcr.
Sl-ian Anb»t>fMblc (Dor-H<n' m»e 134*4
became one ol tire most frequently intoned all enclosed by a band of overlapping leaves.
The artistic heritage ol these elements can pravcis of medieval Christianity Similar elongated leaves can be found in
This gold ring it set with two semi-precious be seen in beads and pendants created and B.B. illuminations from as early As the last years
■tones. J turquoise and a ted silan. omi- of Mehmed the Conqueror's reign (died
mented on both sides with gold wire in the 1481). and on Iznik wares from circa 1480-
form of a stylized heart There is also a text 1510, Bonds of this type evolved Irom late
in gold wire: Gothic prototypes in Balkan countries;
Hwrlastinj htnew andfawwr fyt thf .mwr, during the late 15th century they exercised
and Ln* 272 rosette design. Broken stems around the considerable influence on lhe design of early
perimeter ol the base recall the painterly Iznik ceramics
This object dales Irom the Mamluk period Silver-gilt bowl mannerism of the Simnct Odasy ponds, the
(1260-1516). Oiicxtm" <-<• 1550 Rustem Pasha tiles and ceramic dishes Irom

S4w* gUi -O-fn^tw 1S5 cm. hogM 1$ cm circa I MS-50. A giiillochc pattern on the

8enah Musm-m. A.-hcnt. mv.no. 13772 rim, a scroll with split leaves and lotus

Ularatum BcbcxU.^ 19*4 -o 9J palmettes below, and waving petals at

271 the base complete the decoration.
Tliis shall!>w bowl is made of sheet silver A.B.
Elements from a necklace
with a separate disc riveted Io the centre.
G<*n»<M IBM ISth ’6th contury The ornamentation displays a variety of
Gold «<1 (fonenni o-jn-l motifs and styles, svhich represent almost
Th. Mot~>pclit*n Muieum o* Art. N« »<x», the entire repertory ol Ottoman decoration
irrii-o l’l*0161»| G*o»J Plwpom Morgan in the mid 16th century A spill-leaf ara­
1917 besque is engraved on lite disc; the cavetio
Lwoum fcwob^g 1918, »d3, pp 154-55. fig» is engraved with interlaced quatrefoil medal­
277-280 pp. 211 JI. top 21618 (M» lions filled with split leaves and adorned
1992 CM no. 78, pp 302-03 MI See Osmj , with cloud bands al the intentkes. The lobed

Stull 1916, pp 7-8 Olli ■ Km>w 1982 no 52. half medallions on the outer walls and base

fp 92-93, Uv^won 199l.no SS.pp 132-73 are engraved with a uz (Kt MM. 102/ and

274
fariM/i Arauiv. tumeuly tn IHAM GarJmc 4«4 Paradtw

The narrow sides of lhe matara arc decorated the Altai mountains ol southern Siberia.
In Uvelver Shiism (the dominant Shiite The l»asr and the domed lid are covered with
with medallions and a cypress tree motif; A flask ol the same shape-, made cd appli-
movement), the Peisian term ihah-i-viluyat sixteen emerald panels, carved with styli/cd
the lowest medallion contains a small jade qued leather, was presented to the Austrian
('King ol Divine Amity') is an attribute cypress irees and acanthus borders. in a gold
plaque. The centre of the domed lid is set Emperor Rudolf II in 1581 by Murad III.
exclusive to lowin 'Ali. and reflects his framework The lid has a faceted diamond
with a large rose-cut ruby; tile collar inverted Similar vessels arc still used today by lhe
dose personal relationship with Cn>d. knop hi a gold bezel.
into the nrck is engraved and decorated with noinadk tribes ol Anatolia.
niello. The dragon holding the pearl is in- IB. - S.M.
Beginning from the lower right-hand comer, Hie emeralds used, some 91 tn total, arc
senbed witli the weight of the object 640 the Persian verse reads: perfectly matched and were evidently cut
dirhem". and the word ‘leedtd’. indicating that When the list ofmy oflemes wot tolled up Irom the same matrix, a Colombian stone.
the matara has been restored: the gold 275
and taken to be uvyhed on the balance of The underside is engraved with concentric
decorations and settings must have been human deedt. floral designs enamelled emerald green.
Turban ornament
repaired when this inscription was added.
my sun outstripped thou ofany other person, M.B.
Ottoman Error*. m<J 16* cantjy but I hwforgiven, for the love of 'Ah.
Similar mataras can be seen in Ottoman GoM. <■«*-•« lu-quow. drarrsoncta. nAws.
paintings from the I6tli century: they were ive4o • Heigtit 19.4 cm In addition, the namesol Allah. Muhammad
carried by lhe QthadarAga. the official Topkw *»hce Mucaum. HtanbU. mv.no. 2/2912 and ‘Ali arc- written in the middle ol the top.
274 responsible lor the sultan's clothing who Waratu-a Qgman 1983 L84. AW 1987. -o. 83. 7’6 lelt- and right-hand sides, with the date 961
always accompanied the ruler, together with ftogon - W3<d 1988. no. 61. SeMm 1988. no. 63; Pa's (AD 1555-56) along the bottom.
Ceremonial canteen (matara)
the Silahtar Ayo who carried the sultan’s 1990. no 251; Sydne, 1990. no 101. BucOpe.1 1994. sapphires and diamonds. The gold leather
Ottoman Emp>e. 2nd K»H 16th cannxy sword. Paintings produced during the reigns no SO socket on lhe back is decorated with bands
GcAd. pde ome'.IrM, nAwa. pa«'» • 28 ol Selim II (1566-1574) and Murad III of clouds in niello on gold. The techniques
11 $74-1595) often show such malaras which This ornament, in the lorm of a lotted halt
—*ti 24 cm. d«Xh 13 cm employed to decorate this turban ornament, 277
were supervised by officials cd the Hm Oda. medallion, is attached to lhe pin shaft with a
Toptape Palace Mumw- lUarAxcl. m. no 7/382$ in particular the combination ol niello and
the treasuries of Topkapi Palace. convex ring. On both sides cd the medallion Box (pandan)
lrla-anze *M>y 1982. pp. 17-33. pl. 28. Cajrnan gold, can also be found on a number of other
and ihc ring delicate twigs have been
1983. F2C6. Gagman 1984. pp $1-87, pl '0; objects from this period India. Shah Jahan pmlod. circa 1635
1987, f*>. 85-91, pl. 1. AW 1987. pp 123 Tlic shape of this canteen has been derived engraved on a niello ground: the ornament
Gold cheat. carved eme«ald», domond. green
from central Asian leather prototypes such as is also encrusted with rubies and turquoise.
125; Boge^-KdaeogM 1981. pl 49; Aracoy Arta- enamal -Ha^ht 4 cm damato* 5 on
those found m the Paryryk burial mounds in The centre of the ornament is set with
1992, p 47. Ward 1993. p 13 pl 5. Bloom Knr KhaAIr Cofactors a< hlamrc Art.
1997, pp 403-40$, pl 210 276 LoncSxi. mvno. JLY 1857
275
lawxiaa KhaU. Co«echon 1993, p $8
Seal of Shall Tahmasp
This unusual mctfcrra, which was used to hold
in
ihc sultan's drinking water, lias a flattened
Iran, datad AM 963'AD 1555 56
bulbous body that tapers at the top, and a
Bode cryua. ahaal-cut • Marght 31. width 2.4 cm
round, slightly elevated foot. On the shoul­
The N.5-.0- D Khal* CoHrnlnx W Warn* Art.
ders are two dragon heads, one with a pearl
london.rw.no. ILS 2714
in its mouth, lhe other with an emerald;
titwatuu' ’98$. p 107, no 67
between these arc the neck and a gold mesh
handle A short curved spout ending in a The rectangular seal is cut Irom flawless
dragon head is also attached to the body. The rock crystal. It is densely inscribed in a
canteen, of solid gold, is ornamented with Tine cursive script with lhe name <4 Shall
rebel cartouches in the form of palmellcs: Tahmasp. the second Safavid ruler ol Iran
lisbed medallions containing plaques of green (r. 1524-76). and lour lines ol Persian verse
jade. decorated with emeralds and rubies in in the corners.
gold floral mounts, adorn the centre ol lhe
canteen front and back. The entire surface of Tlie name of Shah Tahmasp appears in the
Ihc object is encrusted with small blossom centre of lhe seal:
ar i • al motifs, plus emeralds and rubies in The flaw ofthe kin<t ofDivine Amity
raised petalled mounts. Tahmatp

276
 11 iHf «»• ISCAM

the minion were ol Indian origin (Including The 1741 mission brought two practically
14 elephants). which can Im- explained by kli-ntical bracelets to St Petetsburg only the
the fact tlsat Nadir Shall liad captured Delhi number ol precious stones ditiered (ut a/.v
in 1739. and had ranted away the treasury OUJIM 278.280. 282 and 288).
ol the Mughals. Il was from there that he AX
sent his mission to St Petersburg tn October
1739 The journey therefore took two years,

280

Ewer for rosewater

279
*<*■>, 17<hc*stury

Hracelet Gold, srfver. preoous stone, *He-jlrt 26 cm

TU StatoHoming. Uortum. St Pwftrtbizg.
I(X»II 17* century ■wno.VZ-701
GeZO. (xccicms stone,. anamtl • Oamnur 11 8 cm Pro^tunca: brought to Russo in 1741 by the
Th. Stat* H-mt.ig- Mumu". St P.tonbizn drtg*" from Nadif Sh* (g4l to *o T^r^,
ns.no, VZ-721 Eltuboth)
m Profane* brought in 1741 by NMir 5H*! miwon litwaturr Ivanov lutonr- S™o.» 19B4. no 10$
LM*alur» London 1931, N 314 B. Art 1939.
part W. pl !4Jft B. London 1982. N313; i.*»v - Tills sumptuous ewer decorated with
278 made lor Slwh Julian indicates that this piece LiAcrwi • S<-w«cvi 19B4, no 91 fig 14J, precious slunes is a splendul example of
was made for him personally. KuwM 199ft no 95 the svork of 17ih-centtuy Indian jewellers.
Aniter's riitfl
A motif is engraved on the large emerald
Tl»e ring was brought to St Petersburg to In India, such bracelets svere worn on the
ftvia, 2ndquart* 1/th concur,
the Russian court Ui 1741. 2) years before left, Tlus one can be divided into two halves. The highly functional lorm of this ewer was
Gold, prooovs »<*>« -Oiam^.r 4 cm
the Het milage was founded, together with The outer surface is decorated with three a characteristic design in all Islamic cultures
th. Stat. MtHmitaga Mman St Potorsbueg.
other gifts from Nadir Shah, who ruled han diamonds. 547 rubles and 34 emeralds; the where life svas made more pleasant through
mno VZ/OJ
Pro^nanc. b.u-ght * 1741 by Nad. Shuh. rmson between 1736 and 1747 (w aIw 279. inside is decorated with champk-ve enamel. the use ol scented water

Ulronsro Iwio. 1972. pp »-29; Hwmrtag- 1WI, 280. 282 and 288). All the gilts presented by A.I.

p 95, >.*•.>, LcAonin S-uno.* I9M. no 9ft Ag 2”

rsa IW, «u«rt 1990, no 93

Tile form is typical ol an archer’s ung. which

was designed to lie worn on the thumb and
protest lhe skin from bowstring damage

Hus ting, an opulent example lor a courtly

milieu, n set with six diamonds. twenty-one
rubies anil fourteen emeralds. Its inner stir-

lace bears a Persian inscription:

lotdoftht AuspiMui /planruryl
Conjimafait

Tins formula was pun of the official mu-

laturr of Shah lalian (t 1628-1658). tlie
Hurd in the series ol gtrat Mughat eni|»cruts
. .. oiled India in the I7*h century The
well.established usage of this Hile on objects

278
faitUli kcaww/r • or <«i >• Ganfrtu a.J ParaJiw

282

Turban ornament Pendant

IndJ. 17t*i «"b*y Morocco, 17th century
Nophnt. Qad«>. p-KHM end wir.pr.oout MOOM •
Slwr-gh. pexh. pKX 9 cm.
Height 155 on wxMh68cni
Th. $uts Mowurr S’ PMMtbtxg, Bo-jk. Ma.an.Atb.nl. mv.no. 2010
*l."O VZ-M4 Ltwatwo Segal' 1938 fig 378. p 205
Proro-J-K. btouflM <" 1741 by Nadr Shah't ’,««■
Taoatorrod I" 1M6 Irom IM A«wn«l in Ttxtkoy. This line silver-gilt pendant in the shape of
Selo (today Pushkin. St Powiburg cfct-ct) an eagle, decorated with openwork filigree,
litoreM* G* IMS-1853. port I. pl LXW. no 8 b set with pearls, emeralds and rubles. The
I^rne.r. 1869. p 234, no. 264.1.jno. - uAon- - eagle has spread wings and a silver crest on
Srwor* 1984, no. 92. fig 150-15 1. Kvw*» 1990 its head. Hie filigree decoration on the body
AO 94 ol the eagle lakes tile form of a delicate
scroll. According to the museum’s records
Jewels such as this were called fat and worn this pendant once belonged in the collection
on a shah’s or a sultan's turban as a sign ol of Princr Vasenskv who was given the piece
dignity. by Tsarina Alexandra, wife ol T*ar Nicholas II
This ornament h decorated with six rubies, of Russia.
one emerald, three beryls and seventeen Mat,
agates, the latter being of especially beautiful
quality. Tins jiqa was also among the pits
brought to St Petersburg by Nadir Shah's 284
mission of 1741 tree c4Mt«. 278-2»>«imJ
288). Dagger and scabbard
Ml lr»n. late 16m wntixy (blade). Vkey. ’7th century
(hOt end ccabCwdl
Steel. nephnw (.jdti. jrlvc. gold preccos Hones •
281 of these weir made in Iran, in the late I6lh Hermitage piece is a good representative of
01x1. ergth 21 Scm
century, although their hilts and scablwds this group. and lias verses inscribed tn
the State He.rr.rag. Muwum. St Petersburg,
Ring were nude much later in Turkey. The 'lie script:
m.no OB-504
SculS UuSa pxh.pt Mywral. 17th co-tu-y Profane. ■cgu-.cl probably m 1924 from th.
Gold. C»O tod sbe«t. wtn «nd granules, set w>tb former P«kenc" Collection
{■borhon rabiM, turo.o.tm Nm« World •nwraWt. UMratur. I.wov 19794. p 66. "0.7. Kuwxt '990.
■nd ■ paarl-Hargnt 4 J on. wdth 2.5 cm no Be
T-e Natter D Kh»M. Coltectcn of Kl*mc An.
London. mvno. JL» 1109 A limited number ol Iranian weapons have

Lrterwxe- Wewl 1993, cat 493, pp 154-155,270 survived from the 16th century, or earlier
periods Since 16th-century pieces are
The betel is in the form of a hawk, or a extremely rare, every item Is of great
parrot, on its perch. The technique suggests importance. As a result of this dearth,
late 17th-century Persian workmanship, weaponry from the Iftth to 17th century
hut the ring closely resembles the so-called lias not yet been adequately classified, and
hawking ring of Tipu Sultan of Mysore researchers are still soning the material
<r 1782-1799) captured from him at the Among the few pieces known is a group of
battle ol Seringapatam Id 1792. double-edged blades decorated with floral
ornaments and Persian verses. The majority

281)
Iddhly hMaty, hrevenlr <

The presumed date. AH 1021/AD 1614-15.

cormponds to the fierkxl when Shah 'Abbas
I ruled in Iran (1587-1629); the second
medallion ot the blade bears his name:
A slave oflhe Shah of Holiness
(ic. of Imam All). Abbas.

However, such inscriptions are io be encoun­

tered on a variety of blades, some of which
are Inscribed with false dales. the authentic­
ity of this example lus therefore to k- inde­
pendently established. •

T\vo cnnmichcs on the blade contain a Shiite

Pious saying
There is no stalwart but Alt: there « no sword
bUDhu-Ihgai ( All’s sword).

The shape of the ipiillon and the golden

ornament on lhe hih and scabbard Immgs
seem to |»c of Iranian origin, although not
earlier than lhe 18th century.

The scabbard is covered In gold slicci

One side ol lhe blade hears lhe following 2&S inscriptions. A large round medallion on repousse’ work wilh large-scale floral orna­ 286 long lor ihc blade - is decorated in a dif-

/wb'oyjw (tour-pan verse): the Nade bean ihc artisan's signature and ment in a style seen in many Items from lerenl fashion The stone sellings prolude
Sword and scabbard Dagger and scabbard
Even fmr your darker spoke of revenge. probably the dale: ibe Khiva treasury, wluch were captured Irotn the surface; llic background between

Ii n'nfuiid time with itt blocxlshed Signed by tb» ci«*t»man S<4»«"-‘Ai Mtn Work ofSultan- Ab Misri 023. by Russian troops in 1871 and taken to them has been worked lo achieve a granu­
Irdli. 17th mntur* (ttoda. g-p and lockcrt).
lite beautv and purity of in damask steel Blodo: Syria P). AH |IP23/AO 16'4-15, Mt Iran, St Petersburg. The two upper sections arc Iran, late 17th concur* (subbard) lation effect Some ol the items In lhe State

ornament 17th cwitur*. <»tr» Avn (Khva) The writing ol the name (‘Sultan’ and 'Ab' also set with lour beryls and eleven Stool gold, praclrxrt u-xx>. • Armour Museum (in Moscow) with a similar

Made it like a uiltow leafcovered with dew 111 halt 19th tainury arc joined), as well as lhe rrnfu which lacks aquamarines. background were brought from Iran in ihc
Length n maMmM J9.7cm
ihc prefix al. suggest that the craftsman AJ. The Stale Hermitage Muwum, Si Petenixirg 17th century. Thus it is likely that the

oil ihc other Mlle is an incised line ol verse lo~|t*> in scabb-d 9B cm worked in Iran, probably in tlw 17th cen­ scabbard svas made- in Iran.
mv.no OR-452
by a little-known pool ol ihc laic I 5th Tba State Hotmiage Moevm. St Pk-oOixo. tury: the numerals over lhe character lam. Provenance Vtrwtetn<J j> I SB* iron tSe Arsenal in
century. named Bayayzi Hisarf (in ihc ■>--> 0R-1M7 021 may mean AII |l]02VAD 1614-15. Ttorrtow Selo (no~ Pud*m. Sr Prtenbixg <Mv*t|
metre known as hardly Protonvica Vanihurod m 1900 tram It- Pitots However, this is diHkuh io prove as nothing fjUMtum Ka-nmem- 1669. Ub XX no 6 fveno. -
Strike mv chat with your dagger Adm*nitration i" Peto*<i< (now PatrccMxeti. is known ol other examples ol Sultan-All UAonm - Smewr* 1904 no 109. Cg 17X7S
several times. S« Patsrabutg dittrict). oripnaty (turn llta Khiva Misti’s works. Kuweit 1990, no 112
itpcw several Jamfor pleasure in my WBMWy
heart Idarahxr Kuwa< I990.no OS The strongly curved blade, widened al the This dagger was already in Peter lhe Great’s
end, does not resemble blades attributable Caliinet ol Curiosities as rally as ihc 1710s.

On lhe same side, there follows another Tills sword is composed of elements to 17th-ccntury Iran. This, together with die although nothing is known of how it arrived

bayl (kUtual. also in hazaj metre manufactured al ddlcrcni periods. a rrrr/w. ’Misri’ (meaning Egyptian), makes ii in Russia
Take out wur daggerandget my phctnoncDon frequently encountered. unlikely ihai ihc ariisan was ot Iranian

heart out. ongin. He may have liecn a Syro-Egyptlan The piece is ol complex constniciion: the

So that you could we our heart among The cursed blade ol paIicm-welded steel is craftsman who came to work in Iran, or was Nade, grip and locket arc evidently Indian,

the loving. decorated with grooves along Ils luck edge bom in a family of Syro-Egyptian artisans the previous stones sei in deep cavities,
and inlaid wilh gold (Doral) ornaments and who had already Milled there whereas tile scabbard - which ic slightly too
•arrMy Waot, hravtnlf

Stade by Muhammad hm With the blade I preserved together. The Hermitage has
widened the wx'und forsplit). AH 10)1 another octagonal gold tray, without lhe
bn*.
Later, in lhe second half of the 17th century,
the dagger was reworked. a common occur­ Both pieces were brouglu to St Petersburg
rence.. The chain is probably ol a later date by Nadir Shah's mission in 1741 (ue eat nos
There is another dagger made- by this crafts­ 278-280. 282)
man. in the Moscow Armoury.
A.l.

289
288
Tray and casket (pandan)
Box with a tray
North Indm. circa 1700
12th catauty Gold. 9rwy*.a«i .pvt c-amoliad «> bass. t»lle and
Gold »ru™l . 33 cm(tray). IS 2 on too.) dotccnn. in translucent >«l asd.merM gwn and
t»w Sure noo’.taoo Mumn, St r.lt-'l-ury opaque who. •Meqh: 9 7 cm. dimeter:
imnoc. VZ-706. VZ-707 14 3 on fcadett 31 rm ftray)
Pmwnanca trough! tn 1741 by Nad* »** mnvon the Nasser 0. XhaMi Collecbon of blomrc Art.
l<wr*tur» Landon 1982. no 327; hanov lu*orw> London. «wro AYI72Qa-b
Smotov* 1984 no 99. 6g 16J. Ki—mt I9W no 96 tuararure Kh»M CoUectnxt 199J, p M. Z.trows*I
1997 pU 30, 34. 35, pp 53. 56 59
Both the tray and I lie bo* arc octagonal
and made ol gold covered with polychrome The panda/i and lhe tray arc enamelled with
cltampleve enamels exemplifying lhe poppy-like flowers, dwarf cypresses and
extremely high level of I7tli-cemury Indian acanthus fronds. The interior of the pandan
craftsmanship. Tills piece is particularly rare and the underside ol its Itasc are enamelled
as both tray and bo* have Itecn emerald green over engraving with large
Imus flowers and designs suggesting scales
or plumage.
ns
287
In style and workmanship these pieces, as
Ikiflfier with slieath
well as cat.no. 290, arc close to gilts, now in

S^twd by tho an**" Muha-unxl Lan the Hermitage. St Petersburg, offered bv an

Ir^iAH 1031/AD 1621-22 embassy from Nadir Shah to the Empress

SMA 90M..namd. praocM *«. • Elizabeth, which reached the Russian capital

Ungbi 42.8 cm in 1741 (ue ailtm. 278-280.282 and 288).

State Museum the HeoniUgo. S< Colesburg. M.«.

•w.ro OB-448
Pxiwian... tranWaimd •" 1BS6 bum th. Arwral -
1.10*0,0 Salo (today Pwsh*m. diWXS St Pot^Wu-gl
(—arum . !«*<«,« . Sm^ov. 1994 no 52

Hits Is a classic example ol a 17th-century

Iranian dagger, it* shape typical of the
(teriod he master craftsman Muhammad
lari, active in the first qwanerof lhe 17th
century, signed lhe piece as follows:

284
Carthtv tvantx. »t<itrnh uh Cwr4or> <nJ Paradin’

2W

Spitloan Jewelled pendant

BtorthintM. area 1700 Ottoman (rrpira. Sultan MuiupAa III puriod

Gold, ungnm-d and .A»moWa in bane talite In (1754-74)

treneKxent rad. ■"•*! yean, gcAle* ya*ow and Emerald, poid, diamonds, poarh. rutws •

<toi< b*»a. and opaque bku*-Me • Ha^ii 5 5 an Length 19 cm; we ot etneraU 5 ■ 6.6 on;

diametar Irani 11.1 on total length 45 cm

The Hester D. OiaMi Collection ol Wamic Art. fopAapl Palace Mineum. Htanbvl. mv.no. 2/761B

London. -1.1*0 A* 1072 1W.pl 9

Lmratura UM Collect.™ 1993. pp «Mt.

This pendant comprises ap emerald cut as
ZuOrowrt. »W. pl 37. H> M. «
a hexagonal prism and a baroque jewelled

The spittoon has a depressed globular gold mount inscribed with the name of

body on a lobcd loot and a broad evened Sultan Mustapha III (1757-74). The gold

bracketed rim. Tlte rim has eight petal- mount elements arc set with small
diamonds. Beneath the emerald lungs a
small gold ornament set with rubies and a
tassel made of 58 strings of seed pearls.
sliaped cumpanmenis with alternating
stylized poppies and Crown Imperials This pendant was originally intended lor
fFritillarut tmperialit); underneath it has the tomb of the Prophet at Medina.
an undulating llor.il scroll. On tl»e body are U. - S-M.
llowcrs enamelled on a gold or a while
gtound. The underside ol lhe loot is wotked
as a four-petalled lotus with emerald-green
enamel over scale-like engraved ornament.

The treatment ol lhe background, where

opaque, bluish-white enamel has been
applied in short, wave-like grooves, is
unusual.
M.R.

291

287
Barthtr traury. kravraly < taro. MUM • dMMfMld6RN*M

295

Reservoir fora qalian (waterpipe)

Van. 1tf haff 19th conin',

Goki. enamel * Ha-T-t 202 cm
hit- State HormrtoQo Musr..<n St Peteiburg.
-v.no. VZ296
P-o»-nao<e ttemtewed - 1927 from
the Stele Mu-u-F-id
LteteUze tvano, - Ukorun . Smetoue 1994. no 69.
Boih daggers have a hill made of steel loutorwte r.ano. 1%>6 no 775
decorati'd with stylized floral ornaments In
Bell Two kalars (push-daggers)
gold overlay. The smaller dagger lias been During the reign ol Fath All Shah (1797-
set with turquoise The hilts arc of paiiem- 1814, set cat <w. 3O3> gold objects decorated
India, late IBtb <•"**»
weldcd steel; on the smaller dagger this is with bright, mulucolouird enamel* became
*l«l. <joW Wc— 'ubm. pewh end <*•><" Staai. SM>ld. turquoise *l—7h 16.1 cm (OR-1196k
also decorated with a stylized floral orna­ widespread These were showy hems, initial­
.Uwffif10 <>»..>«* II law. Won (OR 1180
ment overbid with gold and set with ly made’ by jewellers al court This reservoir,
lhe State Hem.teg. S| Pet-steng.
turquoise. which held water lor a ^a/ion. is a line ex­
ow.no 11*6
huwrur-. trnn.lt-md m 1*85 Imm the Anonal " V.
M. ample ol such work Tlic connecting pipes

Henkoye Seto tnow Pushlm. $• Petenbwg *Wtn) and lop section lor smoking tobacco have

This Itch comprise* two Urge gold buckle* (Count P Sehykov GAwnon) bcm lost.

and 11 small gold plaque* on dark-red vel­ btetetum Kuweit >990. no lift 111
vet The gold element* arc decorated with
twMed gold wire, large mines. emerald*,
Cover for a Qur’an
pearl* and lurquoKc; the edges are delinea­
ted with a Kind gold granulation. Ottoman tmpec 16th century

Hi ll* ol this design adorned with lillgrce and Haight 14 cm. width 10 cm
granulation were apparently first made In topwp. Pauc. M-se-m ittantsil. mvno 2'2*00
the 18th century. However. the- simple jewel Weotem: Atesoy At- 1997. pt 21. BA»- 1995.
settings ami cabochon stone* recall early pp J8SJ95
16th-century Ottoman jewellery. This belt
it ihcteloie an Inictciuing example id This Qur'an cover has a gold binding which

combined style*. is decorated with an openwork floral patient

and lavishly embellished with turquoise and
rubies The spine is inscribed with a lexl
from the Qur'an.

288
 hum

297

Signet ring of Fath 'Ali Shah

Iimi.AH 12J8/AD 1022*23

HngM 2-/ an. width 2.2 cm

l>- NdM.1 0 K».W.l. C.oW«or o< hl*m< Aft.
landon in, no JUT 17»
OwrrtiMt Chmh.* 1*8*1, tot no 3« WWuel 1993.
ear *52. pp 1« 169 280. »•*» '999. no 133.
tv ea-«9

Hie ring is sei with a llat Siberian emerald

caned in line imm lit) script, oil a ground
of delicate floral scrollwork. » 2»Z A
Gfory Mongt w GW /Ae king $the kinjt
TH
<VrAr wor/J. Fath Ah. 1218

296
In a recent study. Julian Raby has pointed
Turban ornament
mil dial there can be little doubt that lhe seal

han, O- <19* <wrtury> impression on a letter Irom Fath 'Ali Shah

tree ait ne Wli io his Head Treasurer was 298 The shape of this sword In-trays the influence
made using tins signet ring Ute personal ol Russian (or Furopcan) weapon* which
N-ght D I cm Two coffee cup holders Sword with scabbard
lone ot the letter suggests that the Shah used would subsequently become widespread In
Alhnno, 21232
his signet nog on less official document*, Otlcoun Empre 19* cenhxy Central Am thMiaml. »<m» quMW 19th ce«twy Bukhara (now Uxbekblan) during die la(e
LltorafUr* irfiMtiUmd
reserving lhe seal in lhe form ol a tabula GoM. dwmon*. s*/e. —... StMl. *♦*. fxooovs Monet. pearfi > Length 94 on 19lh and early 20th century, flic style ol

A turban ornamcni in die form of 4 leal tuuata for royal order*. diaiMwta' 4 cm Th, Suto Nenniug, Musewin St Pounbuw). decoration and the meticulous setting of the

delineated t»y MUll pearl*. The from I* *ct Toptap. P*a« KfciWum. loanBul. in.no 2/229/. mVr*> OR-172 slimes, however, are characteristic of central

wilh coloured glass which simulate* precious The cusped oval *ha|>e of lhe seal seem* to 2/2308 Asia in this period

clones mh h as rubles ami emerald*. The have had some significance, as cartouches ol Meraeum. • «0*eo?G 1987. pt. 10/
reverse is enamelled wilh the partrail of a this sha|»e arc used lo enclose die name and Auroy • Ana" 1992. P 256
woman on a blue ground below colourful lilies of Falh 'Ali shall on many of his early

Hower* and a bird. The woman is delicately pollrails, including an enamelled miniature These two holders (2<irf) lor porcelain codec

IMinied with fmc detail* in her fate, hair and in the Khalili Collection (inv.no II.Y 1211). cup*, from a set of 12. are enamelled and

cosIume Enamel painting was a popuiai encrusted wilh brilliant*.

decoration on Qaja« Jewellery Irom the ».B. - 5.M.

Salavid period (1501-1710) onwards,

initialing European miniature* ol ihe 18th
century Contemporary oil pointing* reveal
lhe extensive use ol such Jewels al court II
was quite usual lor the from to I* sei wilh
stones, aiul enamelling applied to the back.

290
 precious stones. Is typical ol the work of painted scenes arc closely related in style to
armourers al thr Iranian court during the the works ol Rirah-I -Abbasi from the 17th
reign <4 Fatli All Shah (1797-1854; streamer century. Moreover lhe figures* clothing,
hill Such sabres were purely for ceremonial especially the headgear - lavish turbans,
purposes They were a symbol of dignity anil pointed fiats with wide brims trimmed with
station: a fining gill from a ruler to a sub­ lur. a small ladies* hat - is typical ol the
ordinate or a group of subjects to their ruler. 1610s and 1640s
A.I. A.A.

102 301

Book rest Full-length portrait of Fath ‘Ali

Shah
ban, 1’Biceotury
Wood, part iml* •Hoght 58 cm. wdth 20 cm M*«'M
Th. State Momvtage Muwum. Si PeteobiMg, tex. AM 1224/AD 1809-10
MO mvno VR-184 OM on hnx • 253, moth 124 cm
Prortnmc: acquired m 1924 from tho Srieglitt The $»t. Memscape tAjsewm. S> Pcwibcug.
wi Mucum ItoimmV the *V Clu/kouri, CotlwCmr.) tnrno VR-1107
literature lA-yn*" •*«, frg 2>6. Adxw 1996. Pmvenance transixM in 1932 W lhe palace
Sword and scabbard Sabre and scabbard
no 37 muwum o' Gatdwn (S» P.tcmTwg <Mmcl>

Iran, eoHy 19th century Ut^Mur. Solt,«o" 1853. p 352. Adtnvvt 1996
Cxt'»' Ava *>»• KhanMi, 19W contury
Stool, gold. ivory, onomw. prec-Xi. 'loro. . On the outer surfaces of lhe book rest genre no 64
scenes have been painted in bright colours
gl»vLxgrh79San Length 99 5 cm
on a black background. These Include girls Fath Ali Shah, who ruled Persia from 1797
T»>« $UIO Hi-rn'ago Petersburg, Th. Stat. Hormnoqo St Petersburg,
in a garden a husband and wife, dervishes to 1834. is portrayed lull-lengih against a
uwno OR-102 irwno. OR-22
in a garden and hunters on horseback. Tl»e dark background. In his right hand he holds
Pto.enatxe trxvtertted *» f—’ of the looted tWMtry Pn>vonance trx*4."«l n 1886 from the AzvenW in
flat multi-coloured figures. stylized trees, a sceptre crowned with a hoojx>e. the bird ol
ol Kbfra, eitet Uf»u>« ot »io city m 1872 lurMofe Solo (today RuOiLm, tfrttncl Si Pe1.rsb.irg>
flowers, animals and birds form a rhythmic Sultan Suleyman mentioned In the Qur'an In the comer Imvcr left is written:
Lrtxrtuie o-puf'iViod I" >836.9* *om the Tunna to t.cboln I
and ornamental unity The landscape com­ (XXVII: 20>. He wears a sumptuous ollicial This linen is a portrait ala padtshah (sultan)
LCwaruw: fr.no, LiAonln - taWM 1984. no 65
ponents are painted in brawn, red and green: costume: a huge crown with three plumes of urthout equal has in rhe light ofdear
The blade is typical ol 19th-century central
the tree trunks, leaves and flowers are black lieron leathers - a symbol of tank and sanatfied beauts acquired qualities membling
Asian swords The gilded scabbard, encrusted This sabre. which Iscnciustcd with many
dignity during the Qatar dynasty (1795- the sun. and has been asstnulaud without
witli precious stones like hull hanging from
|925> - robes of yellow silk, a sabre, a girdle. fanyf change nt a senes ofportraits, executed
a branch, indicates that this piece was made Ml
bnubands. his sceptre Is encrusted with In the fortunate brush ofthe feeble slave Mihr
by armourers from the Khanate of Khiva.
Iwarts and precious clones On lhe wall Ali in 1224.
AX
upper right behind the shall is an inscription
in a medallion: Four portraits ol Fath All Shah arc known ui

Sultan Fath Alt Shih Qatar which he is portrayed full-length: three ol

these were painted by Mihr All Tim portrait

A rectangular cartouche under the medallion is the first ol the senes. It may be assumed

contains Itic following verses: that Mlhr All introduced this type of royal

outlined in gold This technique, which AnvnfBW a,y wiU hast Than, 0 Thau. portrait.

derives Irom 16th-century lacquer painting, Serene Ptovider,

Created this iUmtrwm monarch. Probably this painting ol Path Ali Shah from
heightens ihe decorative effect Fanciful
When Thou didst create this being. 1809 or 1810 <■*•» hebxtgrsl m thr ..*lirs»on
mollis on the inner surfaces ol die book rest
Thau didst create luni as he htmelf had of A.D. Saltykov who travelled through Iran
also form a rhythmic whole.
In 1838 When Saltykov deunbed the shah s
There is no date on lhe hook rest but the desired

293
292
 • Canton ami KwoKm
hfjuti. Urtvrah. ii or

On the evidence ot stylistic qualities this designated lor our sojourn, our glances
treasury Hi Tehran, lie mentioned seeing
painting can be dated to the first decade of pencirated neighbouring houses, some
amongst the other clothing a robe ol yellow
the 19th cenuuy. This dating is also con­ swiftly and naturally, others with the aid
silk sown with pearls the sire ot peas. He
firmed by details in the dothing of both ol a spyglass. Ohl women with children on
added; 'I recognized the cfolhing in which
women which match descriptions by visitors their arms appeared on bakonies or behind
Fath All Shall was portrayed larger than lilc
to Iran at the beginning ol the 19th century. windows without demur; young women and
in a painting svhich hangs in my home in
girls wilh veils were seduded behind them,
Russia and was made by a Tehran artist ’
Boro/dna. the secretary IO the Russian em­ standing or sealed, and their heads could
AA.
bassy at the court ol Fath 'Ali Shah, wrote: barely be seen. Several pictures and

'Before 1 had concluded my article on paintings also served to complete the

dothing. I began to tear that suspicion description ol costuming.'

MM
would arise amongst my esteemed readers
Tughra of Sultan Mahmud II Boro/dna also wrote; ’...In exceptionally
with respect to the costume ol Persian
women, seeing that I had informed them wide pantaloons, ol velvet or wind, and
Ottofmr Empire. AH 122 AD 1K8O9
myself how difficult it is to see these recluses. cotton for ordinary ladies, going down to
Ck*d md bU«k p»et on trosm eotoured ww- •
I must vindicate myself to them. the heels and covering almost all ol ihe leg.
28X 34 .-i
A pirokhan (gown). ol muslin, silk or cotton,
Topkjpr P»Iko Minou-n, Manbul. mv.co. 6’825
High-ranking ladies in Persia do not show extremely shoo and not reaching to the
luoaluir 1983. f 335
themselves in public and live in seclusion in knees, is worn above the wide pantaloons

tlieli harems. We have never obstructed and lastened Irom tlie top with a decorative
This lujhra. the emblem with lhe sultan's joi
these sacrosanct females, wc have not been button, and has an opening in the nuddlc
monogram. was drawn lor Sultan Mahmud
guilty ol deception or attempts to penetrate which extends beneath thr bosom to reveal
II (1808-39) in black on cream-coloured
paper by the renowned calligrapher Mustafa 105 to litem; however, sometimes horn the a portion ol the body.'

Rakirn 11757-1826). The monogram has balconies ol prominent Persian houses.

Female .lamer with castanets The woman with the raw wean a trans­
been copied upper right and combined with
parent pimkhan beneath a small (ackct
the word adit, the sultan's honorific, in an Van, to wiatef 19th «nt<r
immutancht of typically Iranian striped
illuminated medallion. Odon lint" •H*ght 158 cm. width 90 cm
fabric, with wide ihalvan bearing a motif ol
The State Ho-m-a^e Muwum. St Pvtaobon).
repeated stylized betel palm leaves (buui
The date and artist's signature have been Mvno.VR-1110
Hie female dancer's costume is richer and
inscribed in thuluth script in a number ol Provenance tra-sfe-’M in 1932 from the p»l««
more complex: over the mmmaneh she
registers lower lelt in a pear-shaped muMum o< Gatchina ($t P.r«burg dtoncfl
wean a small brown jacket tari/ra/w^).
canouche. The entire tughra is adorned Uwroturv AtW"x»a 1996. no 66
obviously ol velvet, with short sleeves,
with Hural sprays and leaves; the squares in
secured around the elbows with boculwidt.
the corners are decorated in lhe style ol the For commentary sec an no Wo
The otkhalu^ Is fastened around the waist
period The panel is enclosed by black and
with .1 massive belt; a red scarf with long
gold bands; gold drawings and ornaments
Innges, printed with lloral motifs, hangs
embellish the margins. 506
irom the little metal plate on the belt. The
Woman with rose border of the wide pantaloons or skin (the
fabric appears to be European) is decorated
Iran. 1st quarts 19th atraury
with a pearl ami emeralds which lorm a
O* on limn • H-ynt 184 on, width 94 on
geometric pattern Both women wear a small
riw $*•!• H-vT.t.9® Muwum. St Peto-sboq
round hat. with ssde Haps, and a i^a (ue
Uvt.no VW-1113
cM.no. 282) on the crown, stiffened with a
Provwwnce mlf"M hi 1932 from the Sti-jhu
string ol pearls which hangs beneath the
Mmik (fxw^ou.y In th. PV OaAovsky Cc-tac*<xO
chin without touching it
Lttnturt ftxordna '821. pp. 120. 12J. AdwnlM
AA.
1996. no 67

295
294
 hum • HHwfrarkt
Dtrl»h JlMUty. ftwreh art

Lach cartouche contains a prose verse from a Bibliography

ghazal (love poem) by the 14th-century poet

Haiti
The nightingale held in Iib beak a petal from
a rote and as well at beguiling song gaw to
that petal sad moatis.
larked him Wherefore these laments and The following Qur'an was used for quotations. Allan 1982-1 Atil 1987

pleat for deliverance, ifyou are fully one [with Abdullah Yusuf All. The Holy Qu> an Text, J.W. Allan. Nnhapur Metalwork ofthe Early The Age of Suleyman the Magnificent, exhibition

the rose/? He raid I haw been brought to this Translation and Commentary. Dar al-Liwaa Islamic Period, New York 1982 catalogue National Gallery of Art.

by the passion ofone in low.' Publishing. Saudi Arabia (nd.) Washington. D.C 1987

Ifthe beloved did not come ro tit with ut. we Allan 1982-11
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a free gueen who did not detcend to the poor A.T. Adamova. O probleme povtoreniya es-Said Collection. London 1982 B. Atil (cd.). Mamie An and Patronage Treasures

rabble. kompozhsii v penidskikh illyustrirovannykh from Kuwait. New York 1990

hue up. and let lit lay our scult before the rukopisyakh i v ‘murakka*. Kultura Vostoka. Allan 1986
brush ofthat anist who disseminated all those prcblcmy i pamvamiki. Kratkive tezav dokladov J.W. Allan. Metalwork ofthe Mams World. Baer 1983

darling motifs thanks to hit artistic skill nauchnoy Iconferentui. St Petersburg 1992 The Aron Collection. London 1986 E Baer. Metalwork in Medieval Islamic An.
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Flowers and butterflies arc painted on the Adamova 1996 Allay 1974

support and leet. A.T. Adamova. Perstdskasa ;htwpn i risuiwk XV- F. Allay. 'TUrk Kumudari*. Sanat Dunyamt. I Baer 1989

XIX vrkov vsobranii Ermitazha/Persian Paint and 11974) Baer. Ayrubrd Metalwork with Christian images.

Tlic painting on the round table clearly Leiden/New York 1989

Drawing from the Hermitage, exhibition
displays the artist’s ability to subject all catalogue. St Petersburg 1996 Allay 1979

elements to a decorative system: despite the F. Allay. Kafianlar. Istanbul 1979 Bago 1995

complexity ol live subject each component S. Bagci A new version of the Shirazi
Akchokrakly 1927
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decorated by the same artist show that he Habib Anavian COlMton. Iianian An from the Solomon*. Muqarnat. XII (1995)
nodptsl XIII-XV vv*. Hwsttya Tavncheskogo
was capable of positioning similarly com­ obshchesna ittorii. arkheologii ietnegrafii. Sth to 19th Century. New York 1976

plicated compositions on both round and Ballian 1988-89

Simferopol 1927
Atasoy - Artan 1992 A- Ballian. ‘Ekklesiastika Asemika apo ten
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N.Alasoy, T. Arian. Splendors of the Sahara. Konstantinopouii kat o Ptnarchtkos Thrones
and eight cartouches are iwintcd in cartouches. Bright colour combinations Akimushkin • Ivanov 1968
Small table exhibition catalogue. Memphis 1992 lou lercminu B*. Deltion Kenrrou Mikrasiatikon
concentric circles around the medallion. and accentuated contrasts between light O.F. Akimushkin. A.A. Ivanov. Perudtkye
Spoudon 7 (Athens 1988/89)
Four ol the cartouches contain a quatrain and dark arc characterislic features of this nitniarury XW-XVU vv., Moscow 1968
Abul Qaum al Hiaayw aHsfaMm
attributed to Onur Khayyam <1048- II221, artist's wort. Atasoy Raby 1989
AM 130WAD 168J84
N. Atasoy. J. Raby. Iznik: The Pottery of Ottoman Bayani 1999
Wood. patnt (!".*► On o.— lags. •nth • round top • in white on Mack: Alcouffe 1991
Turkey. London 1989 M. Bayani et al.. The Decorated Word'.
I da mm knew at all whether my creator There is another piece by Abu-I Qasim D. Akoufle; Kan van Kalief al-'Ariz bi’Dalt*.
Oiamete* of top MS an. hei^it V <m
The Nasser D Khalili Collection ot tslamsc An. IV.
inhabited blessed paradise or awful hell. al-Husayni al-Nahani in The Hermitage De Schatkamer van San Marco, exhibition
Tfw $u«e Harnutego Museum. St P—ob^q
Atil 1973 Part One. London 1999
Hut one thing I newly know I haw mt the collection, a picture frame from AH 1119/ catalogue. De Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 1991
rtvno VR-I2B1
edge ofthecmfield a beauty spot AD 1901-02. inv.no- VR-1282 All four sides (before in a.o. Grand Palais. Paris. Tire British R. Atil. Ceramics from the World of Islam.
Provenance (Vthawd <r ”7/ bom M V. Itsna
Washington, D.C. 1971 Benaki Museum 1969
/on the cheek ofa lowly woman/, ol ihis frame are decorated in the centre Museum. London and The Metropolitan
literature Mafia 1927. p 21. no. S6. p 87. no 1*8.
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and the lute in hand, and you Inn creatorI Irom the ghatab of Hafiz.
A.A. Alexander 1996 E. Atil. An from the Arab world. exhibiton
lii die centre id the table lop is a round haw only one paradUe, and that a only yntr
catalogue Freer Gallery of Art. Washington. Benaki Museum 1972
medallion with a picture <4 two lurch in a promite. 0. Alexander (cd.), Eurusiyya. Riyadh 1996
Persian Art in the henah Museum Athens 1972
D.
C. 1975
tree. Above the birds' heads is the artist's
name and date, in white paint: Around the edge ol the table are mote Alexandria 1925
Benaki Museum 1974
Made by Abu l Qasim abHutaym al-lsfahani. cartouches (Mack on gold). alternating with Lor Amir de IArt: Espmition d An Musulman.
Betukt Museum. Maim. L-vnf. >. Allien* I974
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Exhibition Credits Catalogue Credits

Director Technical staff Published by Lund Humphries Publishers All rkjhn reserved. No pun olthispublication may be
Author of th* introductory chapter* Natalja Vcnevtseva. The State Hermitage
Emst W. Veen Paul Brekclmans Park House, 1 Russell Gardens Mikhail B. Piotrovsky Museum transmuted in any formor by any mean*. efeewook or
Gerrit Schom London NWI1 9NN
John Vric/r, National Foundation
Guest curator Nasar Ahmed Qazi General editor De Nieuuv Kerk any storage and retrieval system, without the poor
Mikhail B. Piotrovsky This book was published concurrently with penntsston in writing from tire publkhrr. Any jxrson
John Vric/c » Daniel Walker, The Metropolitan MuseumofAri
Chief security officer the exhibition Earthly beauty, heavenly an. Rachel Ward, The British Museum who does any unauthorized act in rclauori ui this
Chief curator Ed Koning Art of Islam held in De Nieuwe Kerk, publk.ition may be liable to criminal prmccWfcio and
Editing
John Vrieze Amsterdam, from IS December 1999to Translation* Civil claims lor damages.
Arnoud BiJi
Museum shop 24 April 2000. and organized by the
We thank Wendie Shaffer and Wendle Shaffer
logistics and personnel Heleen van Ketwich Verschuur Foundation Projects De Nieuwe Kerk. Michele Hendricks Michele Hendricks
Marijke Gelderman Marianne de Raad
ISBN 085331 8069 (hardcover edition)
With contributions of Photography of exhibitioe objects
Assistant curator Transport logistics ISBN 90 6611 692 7 (paperback edition) Adel Adamova. TheStateHermitage Museum The State Hermitage Museum.
Mir)am Hoijtink Jan Konmann NUGI 911,63) Julia Bailey. MuseumofFine Ans. Boston Leonard Helfets; Yurt Molodkovets;
Anna Ballian, Renaki Muieum Darya Bobrova: Vladimir Tcrebenin;
Exhibition design Transport British Library Cataloguing In Publication
Milo Cleveland Beach. Arthur Af. SA’kkr Georgiy Skachkov
Archiieclenbureau Jowa, Amsterdam Gerlach Ari Packers fr Shippers Data Gallery. Smithsonian Institution The Nasser D. Khalill Collection ofhlamh Art
A catalogue record for this book is available Barbara Boehm, TheMetropolitan Museum Christopher Phillips
Consultant Production from the British Library National Museum ofSyria
ofArt
Dineke Huizenga Vcchnneiaal B.V. Hans-Casper Graf von Bothnier, 1/rwwrxir.W Anwar Abdel Ghafour
copyright © 1999 Photographic studios of the other lenders
dcr Saarlander,
PR V.K Publishing, Blaricum Sheila Canby, l ire British Museum
Marijke Geldeiman Bureau D’Ans, Amsterdam: Paul Spies, Foundation Projects De Nieuwe Kerk Stefano Carboni. TheMetropohtanMuseum Photography of architectural monuments
Nannie<len Exter Maaike Nillescn and Hester Scholvinck ofArt R.Tlxador (fig. I): F, Meyst (fig. 2):
We thank Sue Bond, London, for her help Distributed in the USA by Anatoli Ivanov, TheStateHemutt^eMuseum W. Isphording (fig. 3): A. Garrido (fig. 4);
Financial administration Antique Collectors' Club Mark Krarnarovcky. The State Hemtit-i/te I. Lloyd (fig- 5)
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Secretariat and administration We thank Fred Oster for his help USA Glenn Lowry, Arthur At. Stickler Gallery.
Paulanha van den Berg-Diamant Graphic design
lluibje Laumen Translations Dutch into English Cover Boris Marshak, The State Hermnaae Museum Pin* it. Amsterdam
Marianne de Molennaar Wendie Shaffer Front: Mosque lamp (cal.no. 8), courtesy of Yuri Miller. The State Hennita.ae Museum UNA. Amsterdam (cover)
Sander van Ooijen Michele Hendricks The British Museum. London Mona Al Moadln. NationalMuseumofSyria.
Marlijn van Sevcnter Back: Fragment of the Hi;am (cat.no. 20). Ministry ofCulture. General Directoratefor lithography
Krijn van Veggel courtesy of The Nasser D. Khalili Collection Antiquities and Musea. Syrian Arab Republic Nederlof Repro. Cruquius-Hcemstcde
Jacqueline Weg of Islamic Art, London Mina Motailou, Beriaki Museum
Michael Rogers, with the assistance of Nahla Print
Nassar. Tltn Stanley and Manijeh Bayanl. Kunsidrukkerij Mercurios, Wormcrvcer
The Nasser D KhalillCollection ofIslamic An
Alrolala Soudavar, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery. Printed on Hello Silk, ISOgpersq. metre.

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