Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECOND EDITION
A.K. MOHANTY
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur 721 302
isiiiiiiimIn
Rs. 250.00
Preface ix
Preface to the First Edition xi
1. INTRODUCTION • • • 1-20
1.1 Continuum 1
1.2 Solid vs. Fluid 2
1.3 Time Rate of Deformation and Viscosity 3
1.4 Pressure and Normal Stress 4
1.5 Compressibility of a Fluid 5
1.6 Compressible Flow 6
1.7 Vapour Pressure 6
1.8 Surface Tension 6
1.9 Dimensions and Units 7
1.10 Thermodynamic Systems 11
1.11 Thennodynaniic Properties and States 12
1.12 First Law of Thermodynamics 13
1.13 First Law of Thermodynamics for an Open System 14
1.14 Second Law of Thermodynamics 15
1.15 Perfect Gas 16
1.16 Summary 18
EXERCISES 19
2. FLUID STATICS •. 21-63
Part A: Absolute Test
2.1 Pressure at a Point 21
2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure 22
2.3 Atmospheric Pressure 26
2.4 Manometry 27
2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces 34
2.6 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces 42
2.7 Buoyancy 44
2.8 Stability of Floating Bodies 47
2.9 Determination of Metacentric Height 48
Part B: Relative Test
2.10 Pressure Equation 53
2.11 Centrifugal Body Force 55
2.12 Summary 58
EXERCISES 59
NI
IV CONTENTS
The warm acceptance of Fluid Mechanics as a text and its adoption in the curricula
of several institutes of higher education and universities have been gratifying. In
this enlarged edition, I have included new chapters on Open Channel Flow, Hydraulic
Transients, and Flow Measurements. The material on Fluid Machines has been
expanded to cover' three chapters. In the process, the book has now 20 chapters
as against 15 in the previous edition. Additional topics have been added on One
Dimensional Viscous Flow. Solutions to almost all the exercise problems have
been provided. Information on transport properties of air, water and steam, and on
upper atmosphere has been furnished; a table for conversion of units has been
added to the Appendix.
I fervently hope that this will continue to be used as a text book and will be
of considerable assistance to the readers—the students as well as the faculty.
A.K. Mohanty
Ix
Preface to the First Edition
During the six years that I spent in writing and rewriting the manuscript, I have
often asked myself the question as to why I was writing this text, despite the fact
that 'Fluid Mechanics' by a number of authors were available. I am sure, the same
question shall be asked by many. My reasons follow in brief.
In teaching the subject to undergraduates and postgraduates, and during
interactions with colleagues and research scholars at ITT, Kharagpur for the past
fifteen years, some of the sample situations I faced are as below.
How does one apply Newton's second law to a fluid element; what is the
need, and how does one impart the concepts of velocity and acceleration fields;
how does one resolve the confusion of hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, static and total
pressures; how to realise an irrotational flow physically; how does one apply the
information of the solution of a potential flow to a viscous flow; how to bring in
convenience to solve problems of fluid networks with possible extension to computer
methods; why should geometrically similar fluid machines be assumed to have a
single value of specific speed, and the like.
The other kind of question that has exercised my mind frequently is how
much to teach in an undergraduate class. For instance, should Navier-Stokes
equation be taught in a first level undergraduate course? Whereas some teachers
feel and do introduce Navier-Stokes equations in entirety (say, as it is given in
Schlichting) at the first level course, I do not consider it prudent. Since these
equations are solved in the classroom only for parallel flows, the purpose is well
served by control-volume analysis.
Yet the N-S equations can be used to illustrate the power of an order of
magnitude analysis which, I think, is a useful tool for a variety of engineering
situations. In attempting to resolve the contradictions, I have resorted to a simpler
derivation of the N-S equation for a two-dimensional incompressible flow.
A study of hydrodynamic boundary layer has, of course, become desirable for
reasons of both momentum and heat transfer.
A have found it expeditious to convey, say, the definition of a fluid element;
the concepts of irrotational flow; the restrictions of Bernoulli's equation and
the like, through a touch of thermodynamics. Again, thermodynamics is the
means, the second law is the guardian, for a study of compressible flow. Fortunately,
both thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are now essential subjects for
most curricula in undergraduate engineering programmes, irrespective of
specialization.
In most undergraduate curricula, the subject of fluid mechanics is introduced
at two levels. At Kharagpur, the first level used to be taught by a group of
teachers drawn from different faculties. i have had the privilege of co-ordinating
xd
Xii PREFACe TO ThE FIRST EDITION
such a group teaching for a three year period. And I must acknowledge my
colleagues for the benefit I derived through discussions.
Chapters 1 to 8 in this-text reflect the topics covered in our common first
level course. The second course, offered at the final year level, is tailored more
towards the need of a particular discipline. The material in Chapters 9 to 15 are
representative for the second course in fluid mechanics for students of mechanical
engineering.
The long gestation period of the manuscript afforded me the opportunity to
class-test the entire material of this text. Perhaps, in the process, the language has
tended to be that in a classroom.
In each chapter, I have worked out, on an average, ten numerical examples
to illustrate the applications of the theory covered. A similar number of problems
have been appended to a chapter for students' exercise. At the first stage, answers
to only a selected set of exercise problems are given.
As in the classroom, I felt it quite useful to list the salient aspects of the
material covered in a Summary of the chapter.
I hope that the book shall prove useful as an undergraduate text, and also as
a reference for a first level postgraduate course in fluid mechanics.
A.K. Mobanty
Introduction
1.1 CONTINUUM
The three common states of matter are: solid, liquid and gaseous. At a microscopic
level, the three states of a given substance are different because of the difference
in the intermolecular distance, known as the `mean free path'.
The mean free path in a solid is the least and that in a gas is the longest,
yet of the order of 0.06 micrometer in nitrogen (hence, nearly in air) at room
conditions. At normal conditions, therefore, the mean free path of a gas is less
than the minutest of any physical dimension of practical interest. As a result,
a probe or a container cannot distinguish the behaviour of any single molecule;
it will experience only the average effect of all the molecules encountering the
probe or the container. Under such normal circumstances, the gaseous medium
is said to be a `continuum' affording characterization of its state in terms of
macroscopic observations, such as density, pressure, temperature etc.
It is in gases at very low pressures, as in the upper atmosphere, or at very
high temperatures, e.g. in a plasma, that the continuum concept may be violated,
and the study then has to be based on the behaviour of individual molecules.
The molecules being more closely spaced in a liquid, the continuum concept is
always satisfied.
The term `fluid' encompasses both liquids and gases, and for our purpose,
we shall assume the concept of `continuum' to be satisfied always.
2 FLUID MECHANICS
Fs
A Fluid --
element —
--
Fluid L7:
_-continuum—
is tilted downwards, the water continues to flow so long as the tilt is maintained.
In the tilted position, the body force has a component parallel to the channel
wall. This parallel component, which in effect is a shear force, causes deformation
in the fluid layers, resulting in motion.
The observations of the above experiment can be contrasted with the effects
of shear force on a solid and stated as follows:
(i) A fluid under an external shear force is in continuous deformation so
long as the force is applied.
(ii) The deformation, which is observed as motion of fluid layers, ceases when
the shear force is withdrawn. The fluid, however, does not return to its
original state obtaining before the application of the force.
In summary, therefore, the kinematic definition of a fluid is 'a matter that
deforms continuously under the action of a shear force'. Conversely, a fluid at
rest cannot sustain a shear force.
A point C on line BA at a height y will move to C' due to the local fluid
velocity u. The displacement CC' = u dt =y dt9, or de/dt = u/y.
4 FLUID MECHANICS
The angle de may vary with height for a fmite value of y. Therefore, we
make the above statement in differential form for the sake of precision:
de du
(1.1)
The point to be noted is that the displacement CC' and the angle of deformation
de increase with time, but the time rate, de/dt, remains constant so long as F,
is unchanged.
If A be the area of contact of the moveable plate, the force F, is resisted
by an internal shear stress of magnitude F,/A. The shear stress is of constant
magnitude, since F, is maintained invariant with time. The shear stress can
therefore be dependent on the rate of shear strain, but not on the strain, since
the rate alone is constant.
A fluid, in which the shear stress is linearly proportional to the time rate
of strain, is said to obey Newton's law of shear stress and is called Newtonian.
Thus in a Newtonian fluid,
de
=
Of
du
T=pw (12)
=—
The pressure p at a point is obtained when the area A is shrunk to zero, i.e.
(1.3)
By convention the pressure is stated to act in the inward direction of the exposed
surface; hence the negative sign before F.. The direction of a surface is positive
along its outward normaL Since an ideal fluid or a fluid at rest cannot develop
shear stress, the only stress developed is in the normal direction. And if we define
the normal stress to be positive when tensile,
a=— p (1.4)
in an ideal or static fluid.
When a real fluid is in motion, the normal stress is modified by an additional
term due to viscosity.
where vo is the initial volume and tip and Av refer to increase in the respective
parameters.
The lower the volumetric strain, i.e. the higher the bulk modulus, the fluid
is less compressible. For example, the volumetric strain in water is of the order
5 x 10-' for one atmosphere pressure rise and hence considered incompressible.
All liquids, for practical purposes, are treated incompressible.
The bulk modulus for an ideal gas, whose equation of state is p = pRT, can
be readily derived. The modulus, however, differs depending on the process of
compression. For an isothermal process we obtain
pv = RT = constant C
or
In p + In v = ln C
or
&._du
P 17
resulting in
dv (1.6)
(IP = P —t—)
or
tip = PI
6 FLUID MECHANICS
Thus, the isothermal bulk modulus is the pressure itself. Obviously, the volume
of a gas changes for even a small change of pressure and, therefore, a gas is
compressible.
forces of the two give rise to an apparent unbalance force at the interface. This
interfacial force is known as the "surface tension" and is said to act along the
line of contact of the two fluids.
Consider, for example, a hemispherical air bubble on a water surface as shown
in Fig. 1.3. The bubble is sustained by an excess pressure p over the ambient.
Water -
If the radius of the bubble is r, the balance of pressure force and surface tension
leads to
par2 = 2irra
Or
pr
a--2-
a is the surface tension force per unit length.
In view of the above difference in the units of force in the gravitational and
absolute systems, the values for work, power, energy and heat, consequently, differ.
The SI system is based on seven basic and two supplementary units as given
in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 SI Units
Parameters Dimensions Symbols Units
Basic Units
(i) Mass M kg kilogram
(ii) Length L m metre
(iii) Time T s second
(iv) Temperature t K kelvin
(v) Electric current A ampere
(vi) Luminosity cd candela
(vii) Amount of substance mol mole
Supplementary Units
(i) Plane angle rad radian
(ii) Solid angle sr steradian
The unit of viscosity may be derived by using Newton's law of shear stress:
T. du
or
dy N M•S_ kgnIS
µ OE -5- X m 717 1
71:1
or
P 111 kg/m • s = N • s/m2 = Pa s
The kinematic viscosity
p = kg m3 =m2 iS
v.—p m • s • kg
Since a pressure of 1 Pa is of very small value, the engineering unit for pressure
is adopted as bar
1 bar =10' N/m2 or 105 pascals
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 nun Hg
A table of conversion factors between different sets of units is given in the
Appendix.
Example 1.1 Calculate the density of air (i) at STP, and (ii) at 27°C and sea
level pressure; given the characteristic gas constant for air
R = 286.7 J/kg K
The standard temperature and pressure (STP) values are
p = 760mm Hg, T = 0°C = 273.15 K
p = 760 mm Hg = 1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
Applying the law of perfect gas to air p = pRT, where R is the characteristic
gas constant
L013 x 105
P= — 273.15 x 2863 — L29 kg/m3
The pressurization shall proceed when pumping is continued after the vessel
is completely filled with water.
At atmospheric pressure the mass of water required to fill the vessel is
m = 0.5 x 1000 = 500 kg. The additional quantity of water needed for
pressurization is accommodated due to: increase in the vessel volume and
compression of water under pressure.
x
InWNW = /Lo,
Of
Inm=lnp+In v
by differentiation
dm = am
d = dv
fit p v
Given
dv
—= 0.6% = 0.006
dP=P IE
or
LIE 1 dp
P
or
dp _ los
P x nonn - L013) = 0.15
Hence
dm
171 =0.15 + 0.006 =0.156
Example 1.3 A block of 50 kg mass with flat base area of 20 cm2 begins
to slide down a dry inclined plane at an angle of 30°. When the plane surface
is smeared with 1 mm layer of a lubricating oil, the same block slides down
the plane with a uniform velocity of 2 m/s at a lower inclination of 15° with
the horizontal. Calculate the coefficient of dry friction, and the kinematic viscosity
of the lubricant used.
The frictional force in case of solid to solid contact is µ mg cos 0, and in
the limiting condition of sliding:
mg sin 0 = µ mg cos 0 or kt = tan 0
i.e. µ = tan 30 = 0.577
INTRODUCTION 11
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4
When lubricated, the block attains a speed of 2 m/s at 15° inclination. Since the
motion is at uniform speed, the gravitational component balances the frictional
force
F = mg sin 15 = 50 x 9.81 sin 15 = 126.95 N
Since the base area is 20 cm2, the corresponding shear stress is
126.95 4
T = -20- X 10 N/m2
The problems of fluid flow, particularly for the compressible fluid, are closely
linked with the laws of thermodynamics. A brief review of these is given here
for completeness.
12 FLUID MECHANICS
Surrounding or 6W 6Q
Environment System
boundary
6W
./ ///
rni_ri- _____,3em2
- .............
-............/%7..
V.
It is obvious that the fluid flow problems correspond to the open system of
thermodynamics. In the language of fluid mechanics, an open system is called
a "Control Volume". Any material outside the system boundary is called the
"Surrounding" or "Environment".
The thermodynamic system can have exchange of "work" and "heat" with
its surrounding at its boundary. The heat 8Q and work 6W are considered positive
when there is heat addition to or work output from the system.
5 df = 5 df = 5 df
pall I path 2 "Wm/
Pal
and
fdf = 0
In general, work and heat transfer with a system, which occur at the system
boundary, are not properties, as their magnitude depend on the process or path
followed.
Mathematically, the change of a thermodynamic property is defined by a
perfect differential: dPE, dKE, 11' etc. and of a non-property by an imperfect
differential such as 6Q or SW.
By Eq. (1.10b), it is noted that (8Q — SW) together satisfy the requirement of
a thermodynamic property. Therefore, for a non-cyclic process, the law can be
14 FLUID IAECHANICS
stated as
60 — SW = dE (1.12)
where dE is the change in stored energy of the system and E is a property.
The total energy in a closed system is
E = KE + PE + Thermal energy U
The thermal energy U is known as the internal energy. Thus
SQ = 8W + dKE + dPE + dU (1.13)
for a closed system.
E E2 1
1:12 /71111
Ai
2 12
60
Fig. 1.7 Analysis of an Open System.
We shall now assume the system to be at steady state, i.e. its own stored
energy is not changing, signifying that
dE =0
INTRODUCTION 15
Hence
SQ = SW + (KE2—KE1) + (PE2 — PEI)
+ (u2 + p2v2) — (u1 + vi)
or
SQ = SW + dKE + dPE + d (u + pv) (1.15)
In Eq. (1.15), the changes in property values are as measured at outlet with respect
to the inlet. The sum of internal energy and flow work is defined as enthalpy
h = u + pv
which is again a thermodynamic property, being a combination of such. Thus,
the first law of thermodynamics for an open system at steady state is written as
SQ = SW + dKE + dPE + dh (1.16)
The property entropy, however, is not restricted to reversible process only. For
example, if a system is made to change from state 1 to state 2 by an irreversible
process, the entropy change would be estimated assuming as if the process between
these two states were reversible.
In general, the first law of thermodynamics for a reversible process can be
written as
SQ. = du + p dv (1.18)
or
= dh — v dp (1.19)
The second law of thermodynamics has been stated in more than one way.
Although the different statements shall lead to common results; for the purpose
of fluid flow, the statement of Clausius may seem convenient. A modified form
of the statement (inequality) of Clausius is known as the "Principle of increase
of entropy".
"The entropy of an isolated system always increases or, in the limiting case
of a reversible process, remains constant with respect to time."
(1.22)
(ds
Isolation means isolation of the system from its surroundings. Hence, there can
be no work or heat interaction with an isolated system. For example, consider
flow of a fluid through an insulated duct without any work transfer.
Thermodynamically, the process is isolated. According to the principle of increase
of entropy, the entropy of the fluid- shall increase in the downstream direction
owing to friction. If friction is neglected, the entrophy change between any two
stations in the fluid stream shall be zero. The entropy can, however, never be
lower in the downstream direction.
an (125)
For air c, = 1.0 and c, = 0.71 U/kg K, and the ratio of specific heats
k= =1.4
O
Furthermore, for a perfect gas
CI• R
Example 1.4 Air flows adiabatically in a duct. The inlet pressure and
temperature are 2 bar and 30°C, and the outlet conditions are 1.5 bar, 50°C.
Calculate the entropy change and state whether the flow is taking place reversibly
or irreversibly.
The entropy change is estimated using
Tds= dh- v• dp
or
dT v
ds=cp -.-- y •dp
Assuming air as perfect gas, we have
v_ R
T p
and
ds=c
PT p
Of
As=cp in!ti
where As is the change in entropy between states 1 and 2. Thus
323 1.5
As = 1.0 ln -- - 02867 In -2-
= 01464 kJ/kg K
Since in the adiabatic flow process the entropy is increasing in the downstream
direction, the flow is irreversible. The drop of pressure in the downstream direction
indicates frictional effect which, indeed, is the cause of irreversibility.
Example 1.5 Argon (molecular mass 40) flows through a duct of area
15 an2. At a section the pressure and temperature of the gas are 1.5 x 105 N/m2
and 310 K. If the velocity of the gas at this section is 55 m/s, calculate the mass flow
raw.
18 FLUID MECHANICS
n
D
=AR. =
-T,
8314
= 207.85 J/kg K
D 1.5x103
• = RT 207.85 x 310 in2 • m • N • K
or
p = 233 kg/m3
The mass flow rate
1.16 SUMMARY
where h is the film thickness and U.. the maximum velocity, y is measured from
the solid surface. The 'viscosity' of the fluid is µ = 0.5 in SI units, and n= 1.3.
Calculate the shear stress at the solid surface when = 0.2 m/s and h = 1
cm. What should be the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid to induce the same shear
tress value for similar velocity profile and the same maximum velocity ?
(Ans: 60.48 N/m2; 1.512 kg/ms)
7. A block of base area 20 cm2, weight 100 N slides down a 20° inclined plane
over an oil film of 1 mm thickness, µ = 500 poise. Estimate the steady state
velocity of the block, assuming linear velocity profile in the oil film and Newtonian
characteristic. Discuss the motion of the block from the time of its beginning
to the time of attaining steady velocity.
(Ans: 0.342 m/s)
8. A flywheel of 50 kg mass, radius of gyration 20 cm is mounted at the middle
of a shaft 3 an in diameter. The shaft is supported between two bearings, each
6 cm long. The clearance between the shaft and the bearing is 0.05 mm and
the clearance space is filled with oil of viscosity µ = 0.2 poise. Calculate the
angular retardation of the shaft-flywheel system due to frictional effects at a
nominal speed of 1200 rpm.
(Ans: 0.064 rad/s2)
9. A soap bubble of 1.2 an diameter has an internal pressure of 1.02 bar as
against an atmospheric of 1 bar. Calculate the surface tension of the soap solution.
(Ans: 6 Nhn)
10. In a cylinder-piston arrangement, 1 kg of air is compressed from initial
pressure and temperature of 2 x 102 N/m2 and 30°C to half its original volume.
The process of compression is frictionless and without heat addition. Estimate
the work done during compression, final pressure, temperature and volume of
air, the bulk modulus at the beginning and end of compression, and an equivalent
average bulk modulus. Treat air as an ideal gas of molecular mass 29 and
k = 1.4.
(Ans: — 69.387 kJ/kg; 5278 bar; 400 K; 0.21715 m2; 0.28 MPa, 0.7389 MPa;
0.6556 MPa)
Fluid Statics
21
22 FLUID MECHANICS
Ps = p.
The volume of the element is dvol = 1/2 dx • d y • dz. Since ds sin 0 =
Eq. (iii) reduces to:
P, — P, — PgyAz= 0 (iv)
At a point, P, = P, P, (2.1)
From Eq. (ii), p, = p;, we further note that the pressure is equal in a
horizontal plane.
p
p• E- [AZ
p• AX
Az
P(x,y,z)
Pg d vol.
Fig. 2.2 Variation of Fluid Pressure.
In prescribing the pressure values on faces away from P, we shall make use
of the Taylor's expansion:
p • Ay • Az —(12 + tAx)Ay • Az = 0
From Eqs. (i) and (ii) we obtain the earlier conclusion that the pressure in a
horizontal plane does not vary
=0 (2.2)
Equation (iii) leads to apa = — pg, noting that dvol = Lix • Lly • Liz.
Since dplax = ?play = 0, the pressure varies only with height as
digdz = — Pg (2.3)
The fact that hydrostatic pressure does not vary in a horizontal plane has
a useful corollary. Consider two immiscible liquids to be held in a container.
Imagine the interfacial plane between the liquids to be not horizontal. Now, if
24 FLUID MEMIANICS
we measured hydrostatic pressure along a horizontal plane intersecting the
interface, we world experience different pressures due to the difference in the
densities of the two liquids. However, hydrostatic pressure cannot vary on a
horizontal plane. It thus means that our imagination that the interface shall be
an inclined plane is wrong. Stated in a positive manner, the interface between
two immiscible fluids shall be a horizontal plane, barring such effects as due
to surface tension.
I Patm
B
#2
/777///71717,//i)//,
Fig. 2.3
By integration of Eq. (2.3), the pressure difference between two points A
and B in a homogeneous liquid is
P,-PA = pg (ZA-Z8)
Since ZA = h, the pressure difference is:
The component (p - paid, which in this case is pgh, is known as the 'gauge
pressure' whereas p is the 'absolute pressure'.
Example 2.1 A cylindrical vessel of 1.5 metre height and 5 cm2 cross-sectional
area is filled with water upto a height of 1 metre and the remaining with oil
of specific gravity 0.8. The vessel is open to atmosphere. Calculate the absolute
and gauge pressure on the base of the vessel in terms of (i) water head, (ii) oil
FLUID STATICS 25
head. and (iii) newton/m2, given the atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar. Also
calculate the net force experienced by the vessel base.
PA = Aghl + Pas
Pi =PA +Pdh2=Fiegi s•hd Amp
where s is the sp. gr. of oil. Taking
p, = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2
p, =1000 x 9.81 x (1.0 + 08 x 0.5) + 1013 x 105
= 01373 x 105 +1013 x 105 = L1503 x 105 N/m2
Nor = 01373 x 105 N/m2
(h2 + sh,)= 1.4 m of water
= Ss —175mofoil
p. =1.013 x 105 N/m2
1013 x 102
1000 x 9.81 —1 0326 m of water
-_ 10326 = 12907 m of oil
p,1 = 14 + 10326 = 11726 m of water
=1.75 + 12.907 = 14.657 m of oil
Fig. 2A
26 FLUID MECHANICS
The surface of the base exposed to water is acted upon by psi whereas
atmospheric pressure acts on the other surface. The net force experienced by the
base is, therefore,
F = path. • A — pd. • A
= pBsamp • A
= 01373 x 105 x 5 x 10-4 N
= 6865 N
dP
W =— Pg
The density at a location is obtained using the ideal gas law as
RT
Hence
Of
dz
P R(T° — Lz)
where L is the temperature lapse and To the sea-level temperature. Substituting
y= dy = — L dz, we have
p RL y
FLUID awcrica 27
In
Po
= k In -L,
Yo
0 referring to sea-level
-12)0 — (WiRL
For air,
R= 286.7 J/kg K
_ 9.81 x 10 (m
RL 63 JK)
=526
(273 + 15) — 6.5 x 8.848
15 + 273 0.8003
To
pz = 760 x (0.8003)
= 235.4 mm Hg
= 31.3 x 103 N/m2
2A MANOMETRY
That pressure in a fluid can be estimated by the height of the same, or another
constant density, fluid at rest forms the basis of measurement by manometers.
Consider the examples in Fig. 2.5.
In Fig. 2.5(a), a liquid under pressure is contained in a pipe of diameter D.
A vertical tube of diameter d is fitted on to the pipe with the tube end opening
to atmosphere. At the point A, the internal fluid pressure is balanced by the column
of liquid in the tube and the superimposed atmospheric pressure:
p = pgh + pa.
In Fig. 2.5(b), the fluid pressure is measured by a manometer with two vertical
limbs (U-tube) and using a fluid of different density p1. Since the pressure on
a horizontal plane in a continuous fluid at rest (manometric fluid) is equal, we
may consider the equality of pressures at points B and C on the plane 0-0.
p + pgh p.m + pighl
The tube diameter d should be smaller than 1/10th the pipe diameter so as
to introduce negligible disturbance in the flow conditions.
Note that the condition of rest being a necessity for the fluid in a manometer,
such a device is unsuitable for transient measurements.
Patm
(a) Piezometer
PA — PD P3)h3g (2.6a)
In Fig. 2.6(b)
h2 + h3 =
leading to
PA — P, = P3M3g (2.7a)
= 1 m, = 0.3 m
h2 = + ha = 1.3 m
We note that
PI = P2 = P4 = PS
• = — h3g
Fig. 2.7
FLUID STATICS 31
PA — Pa = (sin 0 + (2.8)
In practice, the reservoir area is chosen to be about 100 times that of the tube,
so that for reasonable values of 0, Eq. (2.8) can be approximated as
Use of Eq. (2.9) has the advantage that the readings are to be taken on inclined
tube only.
32 FLUID MECHANICS
Sensitivity, that is, the measured value of 1 for a given pressure differential,
is increased as 9 is decreased. Care must, however, be taken to use Eq. (2.8),
instead of Eq. (2.9), to ensure accuracy at low 0 values.
Micromanometers for measuring pressure differentials of the order of 0.001
mm Wg, generally have two reservoirs in a vertical plane, interlinked by a flexible
tubing. A sharp vertical pointer is provided on one of the reservoirs. Before
connecting to the pressure sources, the level of one of the reservoirs is varied
by means of a micrometer arrangement so as to coincide the tip of the pointer
with the liquid (generally water) level. The coincidence is observed through a
magnifying glass as reflection on a mirror. After application of the pressure, the
liquid levels are disturbed. The micrometer arrangement is then readjusted to vary
the reservoir height so as to bring back the water level to coincide with the pointer
tip. The difference in the two readings of the micrometer gives the pressure in
water column. The reading procedure being a null method, accuracy of the
measurement is limited only by that of the micrometer.
Exlimple 2.4 A U-tube has limbs which are of cross-sectional area A and its
lower part is filled with mercury. Each limb is reduced in area at the top, well
above the mercury levels. One limb is connected by a lead containing water to
the base of an overhead water tank. The other limb is terminated in a gauge
glass of area A/100 containing an indicating fluid. What should be the specific
gravity of the indicating fluid, so that changes in level in the gauge glass show
to full scale any corresponding change of water level in the overhead water tank?
Gauge Tank
g lass
h4
„Indicating Wat er
//\ fluid
h3
hi
Hg
A
Fig. 2.9
Considering pressure balance at the lowest point A:
Phhr hug + PH20 ha + Paan = pHs hag pkg +
FLUID STATICS 33
or
PHs ht Prho /12 = Pat h3 Ph4 (i)
When the water level changes, the level of fluids in the manometer shall change
so as to restabilise the pressure balance. The changes can be correlated by
differentiating the pressure Eq. (i),
We shall assume that the change in mercury level is confined to the larger area
A, so that the total volume of Hg remains constant.
A change dh3 in the Hg level in the left limb shall be reflected in the change
of level of the indicating fluid in the following way:
A dh, = a dh4
Equation (ii) can be rewritten as
pH, dh, + pH3c, elk = — ptig dh, + p adh3
or
The design however requires that change in the level of the RHS shall be equal
to that on the LHS of the manometer. So
d(h, + /12) = +
or
A
dhl dh2 = dhi dhl
or
dh2 = - + T
AI )dh,
Substituting in (iv), we have
Of
P 74.8
gr
PH 20 T(70 — 13348
•G
G
P
C. P
The force acting on an elemental area of width b is pb • clx, from which the
total force on the surface is obtained as
x2
P = pg sin 0 f bx dx
XI
The integral represents the first moment of the area about 0. Thus
P= pgA(Isin 0) (2.10)
where X is the distance of the centre of area or the centroid (G) of the surface
from the liquid line measured along the trace of the surface.
Clearly, x sin 0 =1/4 y, where y is the vertical depth of the centroid. In other
words,
FLUID STATICS 35
P.(pgy)A (2.11)
i.e., the total force is equal to the pressure at the centre of area multiplied by
the area of the plane surface.
In case of vertical submerged surface Fig. 2.10(c), 9 = 90°, x = y and
Eq. (2.11) is readily visualized.
The point of action of the total force on the surface is known as the centre
of pressure (C.P.).
Distance of the C.P. along the plane is obtained by taking moment of the
hydrostatic force about 0:
Or
X2
pgsin0 bx2 dr
X
X2
pgsin Of bxclx
x,
Integral of the numerator is the second moment of area I. By the parallel theorem
of the moment of area
4=
where lo is the second moment about the centroid. Hence,
(2.12)
Fig. 2.11
. 0 _ h2 — h,
=0.4 0 = 23.58°
sm ,
1
y=1.4- 7 =Lsm
= pgy = 0.8 x 1000 x 981 x 1.5
= 11,772 N/m2
A= 4x(25)2 = 4.908 m2
P = A • = 57,785.6 N
/o = • (23)4 =19174 m4
= —h=
si = 3.75 m
1.9174
H = z+ = 335 + 4.908 x 175
= 3.854 m
The depth of the C.P. is
Of
= 1.54 m
Example 2.6 Lock gates are used in irrigation and navigational canals to main-
tain the difference of water levels between the upstream and downstream side.
FLUID STATICS 37
Two gates of I lock, each6 m high Ind 3 ®aide. Rom os mei bitiei
under the action of water pressure. The depth of water on one side is 5 in and
on the other side is 1.5 m. The angle between the gates in the dosed position
is 130°. Each gate is suspended by two hinges at one metre from the top and
from the bottom. Calculate:
(i) the pressure force and its point of action on each side of the gate,
(ii) the value and direction of the reaction between the gates, and
(iii) the reaction and its direction at each of the pivots.
The plan view of the two gates in locked position is shown in Fig. 2.12(a).
Each gate is under equilibrium due to the action of Rs.from the other, Rh.„„
from the supporting hinges and the resultant water pressure force P. The three
forces therefore lie on one horizontal plane, and pass through a point 0.
h =5m
h =1.5m
P2
h2
T
(a) Gates locked (b) Pressure forces on
one gate
The water forces on two sides of a gate are Pi and P2. The points of action
of these forces from the free surface are at location h estimated as
Ay
Of
_ 1
+Ty•b•h?
14=hi = bbl
-11 bh,
i.e. at h/3 from the bottom, along the bisector of the gate width.
Resolving along the gate, we get
R, cos a = Ron cos a
P2 =pgbh4=1000x9.81x3x-12-=331081EN
at 1.5/3 m from the bottom. Thus
P = 334.766 kN
P acts at a distance h from the bottom given by
Ph =(P • hi Y3 - (P2 • h2)/3
Or
367.875.x (5/3) - 33.108 x (1.5/3)
h= = L782 m
334.766
Hence the resultant of the hinge reactions, and the reaction force of the gate
surfaces lie together with P on a horizontal plane at 1.782 m from the bottom
of the gate.
The total reaction from the hinges for each gate is
nn
R= a = 7v - 7= ha'
Ur
n
Of
334.766
R=-A—.--=
z sm 25
396• 061EN
FLUID STATICS 33
which is also equal to the reaction between the gates. The total hinge reaction
R is provided by the top and bottom hinges of value RT and Rs.
Taking moment about a line through one of the hinges, say the bottom, we
have
R(1.782 —1.0) = R2. x4
or
396.06 x0.782
Rr = 4 — 77.431EN
and
R. = R — RT = 396.06 — 77.43= 318.63 kN
E Y.ht A
1=3m
D -xt
B(1- x)
Fig. 2.13
The resultant hydrostatic forces P, and P2 on the gate surface above and below
the hinge-bar shall be balanced by the reaction of the hinge-bar. The hinge-bar
should be located along the line of action of the resultant so that the moment
of the couple will be zero. The gate shall be in neutral equilibrium and then
can be opened with little effort from external agency. Our objective, therefore,
shall be to determine x, the location of hinge-bar from the top of the gate, so
as to maintain neutral equilibruim.
The pressure diagram for the gate can be split into a triangle and a rectangle
each on either side of the hinge. By taking moment of the forces about the hinge,
we have
40 mutt MECHANICS
Note that when hi = 0, i.e. when the water height extends only upto the gate
x = 21/3, signifying that the hinge should be located on the line through the centre
of pressure. For the present problem, substituting the values of 1 and h, we have
for
2x32+3x3x12
x= 3 x 3 + 6 x 12
=1•55m
which in effect is the depth of the centre of pressure from the top of the gate.
Example 2.8 A pressurised tank is partly filled with water as shown in the
figure. A rectangular gate of 0.5 m width and 1.5 m length is hinged at the top
and is kept closed against hydrostatic pressure by a force F at the free end.
Calculate the value of F required for the configuration shown. Given
0 = 15°
p= 2.5 bar abs
Account for atmospheric pressure = 1.013 bar.
It would be realized that two different fluids, air at 2.5 bar abs over water,
together create the hydrostatic pressure on the gate. In order that the standard
hydrostatic pressure relationship can be used, we may account for p and in
terms of an equivalent water head.
The net superimposed pressure is (p — paw) and the equivalent water head
is obtained by
Pah,. = P —
Or
7- 'Ix
Fictitious rise
for pressure x
equivalence
1_____ -- k-
1
Fig. 2.14
F x 1.5 = P x 0.76
13157 x 0.76
F— 1.5
x 105 N
F = 66.662 kN
0'
-n— 1
1
II
Liquid I
II c,';''
9 tIA Sine
II I 1
A II — —ID ;6A p 6A Cose or,----i-G— --- A
G 1 6A C_09jEV_
9sol>'
11
1 I I 6A-51 n 8 I I Liquid
I i I
E i 1 I P
i
I
C C I ‘R
P
(a) Concave (b) Convex
Example 2.9 A circular tank 4 m in diameter and 10 long rests with its
axis horizontal on the bottom of a canal in which the dept of water is 10 m.
Calculate the depth of the centre of pressure on each of the flat surface, and
the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the tank.
0: A r—
D
B1 ID
//////////// ••"/".,/.
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.16
The centroid of the flat ends o' the tank is the centre of the circular cross-
section; its depth x = 6 + 2 = 8 m.
The depth of the centre of pressure
Lic_d a
in 42
TI=i+ = 8 +-0--= 8+
Ai re 16x
•8
= 8.125 m
In considering the resultant force on the tank we note that
(i) the horizontal force on each of the flat surfaces balance each other;
(ii) the horizontal force on the projected area of the cylindrical surface are
also balanced by each other, and
(iii) the vertical force on the curved surfaces only, give rise to a net force
on the tank.
For an understanding of the vertical force consider the views of the two halves
of the tank in Fig. 2.16(b).
44 FLUID MECHANICS
F, is due to the weight of the liquid over ABD and F2 is the upward vertical
force on the convex surface BCD. The magnitude of F2 is however, equal to
the weight of the liquid on BCD. The weight of liquid above the plane 0-0 being
common to both F, and F2, the resultant is to be estimated from OBADO and
OBCDO surface areas.
The volume of liquid in OBADO is
=(2r • r —icr2)1
and that in OBCDO is
X-r 2 + 2r2 )1
V2 = (1
Hence, the net upward force
Note that ail is the volume of the cylindrical tank. In other words, the hydrostatic
force is equal to the weight of the equal volume of water.
F=xx22 x10x1000x9.81N
= 1.232 x 106 N
2.7 BUOYANCY
Recall the salient aspects of Example 2.9. A cylinder was fully submerged in
water at rest; the (horizontal) forces on vertical planes were all balanced. The
net hydrostatic force was vertically upwards and was equal to the weight of the
equal volume of water displaced. This net upward force is called the "Buoyancy
force".
It is obvious that the buoyancy force shall be experienced by a solid in any
fluid, whether gas or liquid; or when the solid spans more than one fluid, one
above the other. Similarly, it is not limited to the situation that the solid be fully
immersed in a fluid. When immersed partially, the upward force is proportional
to the volume of fluid displaced by the extent of immersion.
With the above inferences in mind, the following discussions on buoyancy
force may now be undertaken formally (Fig. 2.17).
Consider a prismatic volume of area da across the height of the submerged
body.
The net upward force on the elemental area is
dF2 = p2 da — pi da = pgh da
The total buoyancy force is
Fs = pgv (2.14)
where p is the fluid density and v is the volume of the fully submerged body.
In other words, v is the volume of the fluid displaced by the body.
The "Centre of Buoyancy", which is the point of action of the resultant
buoyancy force can be located by taking moment about a convenient origin 0
on the body. Measuring horizontal distance, since Fe is vertical, we have,
Fig. 2.17(a),
pg hx da
=
hula
=
(2.15)
hi
Pg h1
Fe Horizontal forces on
p Pg (hen) any vertical plane are
2 balanced
( a) Elevation (b) Sectional view
Fig. 2.17 Buoyancy Force on a Submerged Body.
Equation (2.15) indicates that the centre of buoyancy is the centroid of the volume
of the displaced fluid.
In Fig. 2.18 below, we illustrate the case of a solid submerged in two fluids
at rest with their interface horizontal along 0-0.
The net excess pressure at the base of the prism is (p1gh, + p2gh2). The
buoyancy force is, therefore,
Fe = pi g' da + p2g f h2 da
Of
Fl = Agvl P2gv2 (2.16)
46 FLUID MECHANICS
P2
Fig. 2.18 Solid Submerged in Two Fluids.
Example 2.10 A metallic ring was first submerged in water and weighed against
a mass of 10 g. When the ring was submerged in oil of sp. gr. 0.8, the balancing
weight had the mass of 13 g. Calculate the true density of the ring material.
In Fig. 2.19, Mg is the true weight, Fs is the buoyancy force and F is the
balancing force. When the measurement is carried out in two different liquids
Mg=F,+p, gu, Mg=F2 +p2 gy
or
F2 —F, _m2 — ml
V=
g(Pi P1) 131
where m, and m2 are the mass of the respective balancing weights, v is the
displaced liquid volume,
13 — 10 =
v = 1-0.8 15 cc
Since the ring was fully submerged, its volume equals the volume of displaced
liquid and is 15 cc.
The true mass of the ring is
Af=m1 +/Iv
= 10 + 1 x 15 = 25g
25
Density p= T5- =1.667 g/cc.
FLUID STATICS 47
Mg
Fig. 2.19
the body acts through the centre of gravity G, whereas, the buoyancy force F8
acts vertically upward through B. Since the body is in floating condition, F8 = W.
In Fig. 2.20(a), both G and B lie on the same vertical axis and the body is in
an upright position of neutral equilibrium, the two forces balancing each other.
The lines of action of both the forces coincide.
In Fig. 2.20(b), the body is tilted through an angle 0 so that a part of the
body to the left of the centre line is uncovered, and an equal additional volume
is submerged on the right. The uncovered and additionally submerged portions
must be of equal volume so that the total submerged volume remains constant
48 FLUID MECHANICS
(b) Analytical Method The body in Fig. 2.22 was initially submerged along
0-0 with its geometric centre line in vertical position, and G and B lying on it.
As the body tilted through an angle 0 about A, OA moved up on the left
to O'A whereas it moved down on the right to 0"A. An area da on the horizontal
plane at a distance x from the vertical axis was lifted on the left through x0,
whereas an equal area was submerged through x0 on the right.
Hydrostatically this corresponds to shifting a weight of water (pg x0 • da)
through 2x. The consequence of the total shift is to move the centre of buoyancy
from B to B'. The total buoyancy force however, remains constant as the total
submerged volume is unchanged.
The cause and effect when equated, yield
j(pgx0 da)2x F, • BM • 0
0
b is the half width of the body, or
pit) • BM =2pg j x2 da
0
FLUID STATICS 49
Fig. 2.21
•
The integral 2f x2 da represents the second moment of the total area (plan view)
0
about the horizontal centre line which, in other words, is I. Hence,
BM= —
1 (2.18)
v
GM = BM — BG (2.19)
I- x22xhx1.02x1000=1.8x1000
50 FLUID Lecavacs
Or
h=03617m
Dia = -444
6 =d2 _ 4
"1" v ird2h TeX 16 x 05617
= 0.445 m
2.7 03617
BG = --2- - --2- - L069 m
MG= BM- BG = 0.445 - L069 = - 0.624 m
i.e. the buoy is unstable.
Consider the buoy chained down with a pull T, Fig. 2.23. Resultant
(W + T) of the pull and the weight acts at R
(W +7')x=W •
Or
W 1
x= irir • I
above the base of the buoy. The new depth of submerge hi is given by
T x4x/hx1.02x1000=(W+T)x1000
Or
1.8+T
Fig. 2.23
FLUID STATICS 61
In the Inkling cue of neutral stability of the Loy, the centre of oscillation shall
coincide with the point of action of the resultant downward force at R. Hence
nn I d2 1
BM = =—
16h, 4h,
From Fig. 2.23,
1 1 x
y=KB+BR+RGA+BR+
2 -
or
1=0
let
y=1.8+ T
Therefore,
2.7 „
3. 204 xi.0
—0
riff 4y
Or
y = 3.23 tonnes, Tension T= 3.23 —1.8 =1.43 tonnes
Example 2.12 A ship with cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. 2.24, displaces
1000 tonnes of sea water. Calculate the limiting value of the radius of gyration
so that the rolling period of the ship is limited to 15 seconds. The distance between
the ship's centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy is known to be 0.5 m.
Fig. 2.24
A floating ship can tilt about its metacentre, and therefore can oscillate about
it under the action of the couple due to Fs and W.
52 FLUID MECHANICS
d20 = — W • GM 0
/,‘ —r
dt
where la is the mass moment of inertia of the ship, I. = Mk2; k is the radius
of gyration and M the mass of the ship. Thus
2 d20
Mk - —r = — M • g • MG • 0
dt
or
IG) 9
el. aLA___
L
de k2 )
The solution of the above equation is given by
0 = A sin ax,
where
a:12 _ 024KG
k
The frequency of oscillation is
f = Ti (I ) = —2
and the time period
1_ 2rk
I- 7 - V,ga
The second moment of area of the ship cross-section about the rolling axis is
3
/=Tix20x83 +4x[x5x4 + I x5x4(4)2]
=960m4
The volume of sea water displaced is
1000 x 1000
v = 1.02 x 1000 — 98°351n3
I 960
BM — v = 980.35 — O. 9792 m
Given
BG = 0.5 m
MG= BM — BG= 0.4792 m
Hence
2xlc _ 2xk
Z=
9.81 x 0.4792 — rIll s
FLUID STATICS 53
brk
17-a -15
k = 5.176m
A higher radius of gyration would reduce the frequency of rolling and would
make the ship that much more comfortable.
z ap A
.
a ap A P*Ti —7
0 ax
maz = -(tAx)dy Az
ma = dy)dx Az
dp
maz = -(T 4z).4.x Az - mg
54 FWID IAECHANICS
The set of Eqs. (2.20) are used to estimate pressure variation along any arbitrary
direction s, at a point (x, y, z), by the rule of partial differentiation:
(2.21)
=
For ease of visualization, consider a two-dimensional case, in the x-z plane. The
plates of equal pressure are those on which the pressure is constant. If one such
plan is represented by a pace s, then:
(2.22)
Plane of
equal pressure
The solid line in Fig. 2.26 represents the free surface, exposed to pz,,, of
a liquid in a container subject to an acceleration U. The pressure on a parallelly
inclined surface at a depth h is naturally (p. + pgh).
From Eq. (2.23), we note that for a purely horizontal acceleration, az = 0,
a,
tan 0 = — — (2.24)
g
FLUID STATICS 55
c42R2
2g
L
Fig. 2.27 Rotation of a Liquid and its Container.
— + per -- 0
dp
-T - pg =0 (2.25)
The slope of an equipressure surface is, therefore, obtained as
dz —
dr dz
dz w 2r
g (2.26)
56 FLUID MECHANICS
dp=tdr+t-dz
rip=pw2rdr—pg dz
Hence, the pressure at a point (r, z) measured from the vertex is
nw 2r2
p (r z) — --2— p gz + pa. (2.28)
The constant of integration turns out to be atmospheric pressure as the one acting
at the vertex (0, 0) of the paraboloid.
ri
2
R
40cm- 4 g
40cm
60cm
(a)
Fig. 2.28
FLUID STATICS 57
1 03 r2 2
r-5—.40cm
or
2 04x4x9.81
•
=
= 251.136
Or
=1584 rad/s
The point, whose vertical position is 5 cm above the base, has the value
z = —(AO- 5)=—(20-5)=-15cm
p (r,Z)= p,,,, + Pw;r2 p gz
Or
1000 x 251136 x (02)3
p (r, + 1000 x 9.81 x 015
2
= 6.494 x 103 N/m2 gauge.
Example 2.14 If the cylinder in Ex. 2.13, was closed with a lid and was
rotated so that the point A at the centre of the base was just clear of water, what
would have been the angular speed? Determine the pressure at (20, 5) from the
base.
Since the forces continue to be the same two body forces even when the
container is closed, the equipressure surface shall remain paraboloid. However,
as the water is not allowed to spill out and the same in turn begins to readjust
the volume, there is not true free surface.
The free space of the container was nR2 x 0.4. The same space is occupied
by the paraboloid of revolution having a height h = 1 m. Hence
1= kR2 x 0.4
or
r1 =0.2236m
co2 /.12
z= =h
Or
= 42,77iE
/ri
=1981 rad/s
In order to determine the pressure at a, point we can use the pressure Eq. (2.28)
with reference to an imaginary free surface (dashed curve) in Fig. 2.28(b).
58 FLUID MECHANICS
The coordinate of the given point measured from the "vertex" 0 shall be r =
20 cm, z = 25 + 5 = 30 cm. Hence,
= 4.905 x 103N/m2
2.12 SUMMARY
1. Fluid statics is concerned with the conditions of "absolute rest" and "relative
rest". In either case the equilibrium is a balance of the normal surface force,
i.e. the pressure, and the body force. Whereas the body force is gravitational in
absolute rest, the additional one for relative rest is centrifugal.
2. The hydrostatic pressure at a point is the same in all directions, and acts
normally on a given surface. This is said to be the Pascal's law.
3. The interface between two fluids at rest is horizontal. A "free surface"
is the interface between a liquid and the atmosphere.
4. Manometry is based on the fact that the pressures on the same horizontal
plane in a liquid at rest are equal.
5. The average pressure on a submerged plane surface is equal to the pressure
at the centroid of the surface.
6. The centre of pressure of a submerged surface at rest is always below
its centroid.
7. The "buoyancy force" on a wholly or partially submerged surface is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced, and it acts vertically upward through the
centre of buoyancy. This is also known as the Archimede's principle.
8. The point of intersection of the line of action of the buoyancy force and
the geometrical centre line through the centroid of a floating body is known as
the "Metacentre". For stability, the metacentie should always be above the centroid.
9. The free surface of a liquid in a container under acceleration inclines
upward in a direction against that of the acceleration. A liquid, in a container
subjected to free fall, experiences no vertical pressure variation.
10. Under the condition of forced vortex, i.e. of rotation of the container
at a constant speed when the body force is centrifugal, the equipressure surfaces
in a liquid are paraboloids of revolution.
FLUID STATICS 59
EXERCISES
1. In a hydraulic press, the ram has a diameter of 20 cm and the plunger 2 cm.
The fluid is an oil of specific gravity 0.8. Calculate the load that can be raised
by placing a mass of 100 kg on the plunger:
(i) when the plunger and the ram are on the same horizontal plane, and
(ii) when the liquid level in the plunger is 0.5 m above that in the ram.
What would be the difference in mechanical advantage of the press in cases; (i)
and (ii), if the oil is replaced by water ?
(Ans: 98.1 kN; 98.22 kN; 0; 0.031%)
2. The altimeter used in aircrafts for measuring the flight altitude is a kind of
barometer. Estimate the altitude of flight of an aircraft when its altimeter reads
520 mm Hg, given that the sea level conditions were 760 mm Hg and 20°C.
Assume density of air to remain constant
(Ans: 2706.67 m)
3. In construction, a barometer is a graduated inverted tube with its open end
dipped in the measuring liquid contained in a trough opened to atmosphere.
Estimate the height of liquid column in the barometer where the atmospheric
pressure is 100 kN/m2: (a) when the liquid is mercury, and (b) when the liquid
is water.
The measuring temperature is 50°C, when the vapour pressures of mercury
and water are respectively 0.015 x 104 N/m2 and 1.23 x 104 N/m2; and the densities
13,500 and 980 kg/m2. What would be the percentage error if the effect of the
vapour pressure is neglected, for each of the fluids.
(Ans: 755 mm Hg; 10.4 m Wg; 754 mm Hg; 9.122 m Wg; 0.13%, 14%)
4. A vertical U-tube manometer is made up of a 5 mm ID glass tubing. Its left
limb is enlarged to 20 mm ID, Fig. 2.29 and contains oil of sp.gr. 0.8. The oil
free surface is in the enlarged vessel, and the mercury oil-interface is in the
Fig. 2.29
60 FLUID MECHANICS
left limb. On application of an unknown pressure, the free surface of the oil
is found to depress by 5 mm corresponding to both end open condition.
Estimate the absolute value of the applied pressure; given pi. = 1 bar,
pits = 13600 kg/m3.
(Ans: 1.20758 bar)
5. A multitube manometer using water and mercury is used to measure the
pressure of air in a vessel, as shown in Fig. 2.30. For the given values of heights,
calculate the gatige pressure in the vessel.
hi = 60 cm, h2 = 50 cm, h3 = 20 cm,
h4 = 70 cm, hs = (—) 10 cm, and h6 = 50 cm.
(Ans: 2.0266 bar gauge)
6. An inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure difference
between two pipes, one carrying oil of sp. gr. 0.8 and the other water. Considering
h6
tits ,4;;0"--
Fig. 2.30
Fig. 2.31
Fig. 2.32
Fig. 2.33
11. A water tank trapezoidal in shape is 1.5 m deep. The top and bottom cross-
sections are 3 m x 3 m and 2 m x 2 m. The sides and base are plane surfaces.
Calculate the resultant pressure force and its point of action on each face, when
the tank is full of water.
12. A ship weighs 3 x 10$ newtons. When a load of 5 x 105 newtons is moved
through a distance of 10 m across the deck, a 5 metre long pendulum swings
through 30 an. Determine the metacentric height of the ship.
13. The gates of a lock are each 5 m wide, and make an angle of 120° when
closed. Each gate is supported by two hinges, one at 60 cm from the bottom
and the other 60 cm from the top. The gates are each 8 m high. In the closed
position the water level on the upstream side is 6 m and that on the downstream
is 2.5 m. Calculate the forces at each of the hinges and the thrust between the
gates.
14. A cubical wooden block of 20 cm sides floats at the interface between water
and an oil of sp. gr. 0.75, Fig. 2.34, in the configuration shown. Determine the
sp. gr. of wood.
=
— 011 — —
--20cm-: Wood =Sp. gr 0.75
— k-72cierri4 -1 _4 cm=
m
Water — _ _ _
- • = = _ _ -
•
Fig. 2.34
15. A hollow sphere of inner radius 10 an and outer radius 12 cm floats 3/4th
submerged in a liquid of sp. gr. 0.8. Derive an expression for the density of the
material of the sphere, and calculate its value.
16. A buoy carrying a beacon has a cylindrical upper portion of 2.5 m dia and
1.4 m depth. The curved lower portion has an external volume of 0.5 m3. The
centre of buoyancy is 1.5 m below the top of the cylinder, and the centre of
gravity of the buoy and the beacon is 1.2 m below the cylinder top. The total
FLUID STATICS 63
weight is 2.7 tonnes. Taking the sp. gr. of sea water as 1.02, calculate the
metacentric height.
17. A hemispherial bowl of 0.5 kg mass is placed on a cylindrical vessel whose
cross-sectional area equals that of the bowl base. Water is poured into the bowl
through a hole on the curved surface. Find the depth of water in the bowl at
which the bowl shall start lifting from the vessel surface allowing leakage of
water.
18. A ship of mass 2 x 106 kg has a cross-section at the waterline as shown
in Fig. 2.35. The centre of buoyancy is 1.5 m below the free surface, and the
centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the free surface. Calculate the metacentric heights
for rolling about x-axis and pitching about y-axis.
y
Hg. 2.35
Lice a solid body, the motion of a fluid element is governed by Newton's laws.
There are, however, a few differences in the method of application of the laws
to the two kinds.
Let us first consider the application of the second law- of motion to a solid
of mass m:
d
w (mV) = E Fa, (3.1)
where E Pa, is the resultant of the external forces in the direction of V , causing
time rate of change in the momentum of the body. In carrying out an experiment
to apply Eq. (3.1), we visualize the need for the following:
(i) identification of the particular solid from its surroundings, and
(ii) monitoring the velocity at different instants. This is more generally done
in terms of its location F(t), as a function of time, from a fixed
coordinate system.
Besides the above two observations, we also realize that a solid body encompasses
a fixed mass.
The convenience of a solid body, i.e., (a) identifiability, (b) fixed mass, and
(c) independent reference to its velocity are not available to majority of the fluid
motion conditions. The motion of smoke or air following a blast wave, or to
some extent the motion' of a smoke .ring ejected out of an engine are the few
exceptions that can be modelled after a solid body.
The kinematic descriptions of fluid motion therefore, need modifications of
the solid body methods.
.
Lv
A person moving from point to point in the room would experience different
wind speeds depending on the distance of the point from the fan. If this person
carried an instrument for measuring components of the wind velocity, he would
record different u and v values as he changed his coordimates. u and v are the
components of the wind velocity in the spatial directions x and y.
Let the numbers in the brackets in Fig. 3.1 represent the coordinates of a
few arbitrary points where the measured wind velocities have components and
magnitude as shown in the figure. We note from the figure that the velocity
components at a given point follow a pattern:
2
U ec X , V ec — y3
In the above expression, dildt represents the rate of displacement of the fluid
element in the x-direction due to the velocity field, and therefore dx/di = a.
Note that in the case of a solid body the expression for acceleration is a
simpler one: il = dif/dt , because it is possible to monitor its motion from a given
reference and independent of the environment.
Acceleration of the fluid element in (3.7) is written through a different symbol
Ft = DVIDt to convey the distinction, and is known as the substantive or the
Eulerian derivative. Thus
Or
-Di— = -- +V • IN (3.8)
4 4. 1
Wel Med come-
week- are
radon
FLUID KINEMATICS 07
where
V= ui +vj+ wk
In the right-hand side of expression (3.8), the first tom aV/at represents
the change of velocity of a particle at a fixed location, as would be caused in
a time dependent velocity field, and is known as the 'local acceleration'. The
second term (V . VV) represents the acceleration experienced by the particle
because of its drifting from place to place in the field. This component is known
as the 'convective acceleration'. Note that a fluid element shall experience
acceleration due to convection even if the velocity field was steady, i.e. not
changing with time.
Expansions of Eq. (3.8) would indicate that the accelerations in the x, y,
and z directions are:
Du du u "
= Dt = —t + v • v u
—
Dv dv
== + V • V%)
Dw aw
az .-b-r = w +V•Vw
(3.9)
find the acceleration of a fluid element at a point (1, 2, —1) at time t = 0.5.
Identify the local and convective components of acceleration in each of the three
directions.
u = 10x2y, = 15yz, w = — 3xy + 25t
az _ Du=du
— -DT + V • (20xyi + 10x2))
= 200x3y2 + 150x2yz
where
du
=0
= +V • (— 3y; +34)
= 25 + (— 30x2y2 — 45xyz)
where
= 25
[pu+N(pu)Ar]
FLUID KINEMATICS 69
a (Pw) Az
pv , a (P Ayi
ay J
tar .1(
PU r a(Pu)ax]
Lu
ax
(x,y,z
Pw
Pv
Fig. 3.2 Mass Efflux.
the increment being written by the use of Taylor's series. The area of either face
in the x-direction is (Ay • Az). Considering all the three directions, we note that
the net mass leaving the volume per unit time is
The effect of mass loss in Eq. (3.10) is to cause the time rate of decrease of
the mass encompassed by the volume: m = p (dvol). Since dvol = (ALA y4z)
and is chosen not to change with time, we obtain the conservation of mass as:
19u) + dr) +
ai _ (3.11)
(-a + V • (pV) = 0
-7 (3.12)
at
Equation (3.12) representing the conservation of mass is known as the 'Continuity
Equation'.
When there is no time rate of depletion of the mass of the volume, i.e. when
steady-state conditions prevail,
2
dt
=o, v qpV) = o (3.13)
For an incompressible fluid where the density neither changes with time or space,
the continuity equation reduces to:
v•v=0 (3.14)
70 FLUID MECHANICS
(puV) + T
(7 p u x
x
The net momentum transport across the control volume is, therefore, the sum
of the following:
Momentum being a vector quantity, each of the above three has components in
the x, y and z directions. For example:
The three components are then vectorially added to obtain the momentum efflux,
i.e. the net momentum crossing the boundaries of the control volume.
The expression to be so obtained can be arrived at by analogy with mass
efflux, through physical reasonings as below.
The net efflux of mass per unit time and volume, Eq. (3.11) was noted as
V • (pc')
i.e. V • (mass per unit volume times the vector V causing the transport).
The net efflux of enthalpy would have been, by analogy:
V •[(ph)rl]
or of the kinetic energy:
v P v
FLUID KINEMATICS 71
V • [(pfi)V] ( 3 . 1 S)
The time rate of change of momentum within the control volume is
d
(pVdvol)
The total momentum change per unit time and vlolume is, therefore,
DM a _
Di = (pV) + V • Rprlycl] (3.16)
0, by continuity
or
DM
17t P(V • VV) + p ar'
7r t
or
DM DV
(3.17)
Dt = P Dt
Physical interpretations of the left-hand and right-hand sides of Eq. (3.17)
hold the clue for the application of Newton's laws to a control volume.
Newton's laws of motion are basically defined for a given mass whose position
can be monitored from time to time. When a fluid 'system' of mass p is in motion
in a velocity field, its momentum change is:
DV
PDT
and the equation of motion
DV
(3.18)
PDT- = FeRi
where E Fr„, act on the system boundaries.
The objective now is to recognise the correspondence between a system and
a control volume.
The mass p is contained in an unit control volume for which the momentum
changes is DM/Dt.
By Eq. (3.17) we note that the total of the momentum change for a unit
control volume, obtained as the sum of the efflux and the time rate of change
72 FLUID MECHANICS
within the volume, is indeed equal to the mass (p) times acceleration of a
corresponding system.
This enables writing the equation of motion for a control volume as:
DM
(3.19)
Dt = Fai
where X F_, represents the forces acting on the boundaries of the control volume.
Example 3.2 An incompressible fluid flows past a solid plate. The x and y
coordinates are measured respectively from the leading edge and the surface of
the plate. If the x component of the fluid velocity is given by
u = x2y2 + 21y,
obtain the velocity field, and the acceleration at a point (2, 1).
For the incompressible flow, the conservation of mass requires
V•V=0
or
du „
w + w=v
Hence
dv
- 2xy2 - 2y
2 3 2
- — y + f(x)
V
= (x2y2 2xy); Gxy3 + y2)1
—
. ——
Acceleration + V • VV
Dt
0, steady field
+[(4+4)(_+(i4+,)(4+2)).
.201+_6-,
ds = dy2 (3.20a)
where dx =udt and dy=vdt are the distances covered in the x and y directions
due to the component velocities.
Thus along a stream line
Id
(3.20b)
The fact that no fluid mass crosses a stream line, or in other words the mass
flow rate between two adjacent stream lines remains the same at all locations
in the velocity field, can be utilized to obtain a mathematical equation to represent
the stream line.
74 FLUID MECHANICS
9n.1
.d
tit*".6%
• Sn
S2
SI
In Fig. 3.3, identify two streamlines S. and S.4.1 whose equations are given
by w and w + dw • w is a function of x and y, and it is our objective to obtain
the functional relationship.
The volume flow rate dQ, synonymous with mass flow in an incompressible
medium, is parallel to w and w+ dw, and is perpendicular to the surface MN.
The surface MN intersects S„ at (r. y) and S„+, at (x —dx, y+dY).
For the curved right angle triangle MON, the inflow takes place through MO
and ON, and the out-flow through MN. The lengths of MO and ON are (—)dx
and dy.
Considering unit thickness in the direction perpendicular to the x-y plane,
conservation of mass indicates that
dQ = u dy — v dx (3.21a)
Since w is chosen to convey physically the mass flow rate, we can write
thy dQ
But
dyr = ldx +1-dy (3.21b)
e
By comparing Eqs. (3.21a) and (3.21b), we obtain
u= a v=—
dw (322)
dx
as the desired relationship.
The function w is know as the 'stream function'.
We may easily verify that the expression for w in (3.22) identically satisfies
v
the continuity equation: V • = 0.
KINiMATIci 75
'Stream surfaces' can be deemed to be generated by several stream lines
passing through a dosed curve. The shape of. the curve derma the cross-section
of the surface. A stream surface is synonymous with a solid surface in the sense
that no mass can cross the stream lines, and hence the surface. A "stream tube"
is a stream surface when the curve through which the stream lines pass is a circle.
The concept of a stream line is applicable to three dimensional and
compressible flow as well.
In an unsteady flow, even at a given spatial coordinate, a fluid particle moves
in different directions with different velocities from time to time. In such a
situation, the stream line at a point changes from instant to instant. The trace
of the motion of fluid particles can be monitored by injecting a dye to the flow.
Such a trace in an unsteady flow is called a 'streak line'. A stream line in an
unsteady motion is only an instantaneous streak line.
u= a>V_ _3 2
j
or
tV = — y3 + f(x) (i)
dw
v=— — = — ox
dx
Or
w = 3x2 + g(y)
Comparing (i) and (ii), we have
3x2 — y3
n dy v _ 6.x . 2x
tan a = = — 3y2 y2
The stream line through (1, 2) makes an angle of 26.56° with the x-axis.
76 FLUID MECHANICS
U B
...- re;
0 x Ai x
v •DI tot
ax
(a) Rotation with shear strain (b1 Rotation without shear
strain (Irrotational)
Fig. 3.4 Rotation of a Fluid Element.
AA' = Ax dt
du
= .dy dt
The corresponding angles of deformation per unit time are obtained by dividing
the respective arm lengths:
0, = (anti-clockwise)
au
02 = Ty'
(clockwise)
in Fig. 3.4(a).
FLUID WIRIER 77
Adopting the convention of anti-clockwise rotation as positive, the average
angular velocity of the fluid element about the z-axis is
1
(Oz1 •+ `'21- aV - du ) (3.23a)
2 CFI W)
Similarly, for a three dimensional element, the rotations about the x- and y-axis
are obtained as
= (aw dv
(3.23b)
co, = (au dw
(3.23c)
= w ji + my; + rozi
2w is known as the Tonicity Vector' and is obtained by combining Eqs. (3.32a)-
(3.32c)
nii= V x ci= s2 (3.24a)
A fluid motion is said to be Irrotationaf when V x V = 0.
Irrotationality of a two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane would mean
1 (dv -w
au „
roz = 7 w )=‘, (3.24b)
du dv
(i) when = =0
or
du d v
(fi) when H - =0
dY
Condition (ii) is satisfied when (i) is true. In other words, condition (i) is more
stringent, and is satisfied in a rectilinear motion of an ideal fluid. When an ideal
fluid is physically following a curvilinear path, condition (i) is not satisfied, yet
condition (ii) may hold good at times; e.g. in a free vortex. In Fig. 3.4(b), whereas
both the perpendicular lines, OA and OB, rotate, the angle between them continues
to be 90°. This is satisfied in a forced vortex flow.
The shear strain in the x-y plane is the relative angular displacement between
the two axes. Hence, for Fig. 3.4(a),
E =(9I - 2 ) = (a
-ay + ax (3.25)
78 FLUID MECHANICS
Clearly, the shear strain is zero for the solid body-like flow modelled in
Fig. 3.4(b).
3 1 2
u= 2y-2y
1 ( du dv)
wz = 7Wy du
= - y)
co, at (3,2)=1R — 2)=
P• Az p . Ay
= p • Ay • Az-(p+ (214x),6Y
dx • Az
or
= - -a-dx
E • dvol
Similarly, the other components are obtained, and their sum per unit volume of
the control volume is
E -r dp -
x i - dy - dz k - pgk
or
F,„,= — Vp— pgic
By using Eq. (3.18), we, therefore, write the momentum equation as
Drf
=— Vp — Pgk
This is known as Euler's equation in three dimension. When the flow is one-
dimensional, say in the x-direction, Eq. (3.26) simplifies to
(3.27a)
P( i+u'd
a g)=-1
or, in the z-direction,
(3.27b)
P(-akv +wa
i)=-1-14
Examples of one-dimensional flows in the three different coordinate directions
are given in Hg. 3.6.
80 FLUID MECHANICS
In Fig. 3.6(a), the duct geometry, through which the fluid flows, changes
in the x-direction, and the magnitude of velocity varies to maintain the cross-
sectional flow rate. The same is the situation in Fig. 3.6(c), in the z-direction.
The wall effects on the velocity profile are negected in these two cases.
u(y)
pv dV _ _
(3.28a)
A reference to the free body diagram along a stream line in Fig. 3.7 affords further
physical interpretations.
The dot product of the two unit vectors
12 • :§ = cos a =As
Az—_ dz in the limit
Ts
The momentum Eq. (3.28a) is, therefore,
itV = dz
pv pg (3.29)
FLUID KINEMATICS 81
The same equation can be arrived at by writing the momentum change and force
balance for the free body diagram shown in Fig. 3.7.
A1
"1„ y
• x loye _J
Ax
PgALts
Fig. 3.7. Free Body Diagram along a Stream Line.
= 2x1 -
For stream function,
= u = 2x
or
W = 2xy + f(x)
82 FLUID MECHANICS
Similarly,
?./
= — v = 2y
Iv = 2,xy + g(y)
In order that the two expressions for the stream function represent the same
velocity field, f(x) = g (y) = 0, and
vr = 2xy
tan 0 1(1. 2) = -- 2
tanam i l: =- 4i,
ea 2) = — 63.4°
The pressure gradient is estimated by using Euler's equation. Since the x-y plane
is horizontal, the gravitational body force is absent
p(ut + vt= — I
and
p(uat
i- + v = — t
t
Or
1 dia= 4x,
— -1. = 4y
P
The pressure gradient
VP = — 4P (xl + Yi)
The expression for pressure at a point may also be derived in the following manner.
By integrating the x-component, we get
p = — 2px2 + f(y)
and for the y-component,
p = — 2py2 + g(x)
Since the two expressions must be identical,
p = —2p (x2 + y2 )
3.8 SUMMARY
1. The motion of a fluid element is governed by Newton's laws.
2. In a continuum, observation and identification of individual fluid elements
being impossible, resort is made to monitor the changes across a fixed volume
in space. The selected space is called a control volume.
3. The motion of fluid streams are then described through a velocity field.
A velocity field denotes the correspondence between the components of fluid
velocity at a point and the spatial coordinates.
FLUID KINEMATICS 83
EXERCISES
(Ans: v x2 + y2 9 0 = 5631
84 FLUID MECHANICS
(Ans: =÷
X 2 2 + c; Vp = pi— x3y2i + (y4 — x2y5h,
In the previous chapter, we noted that the motion of a fluid could be analysed
by considering either a 'system' or a 'control volume'. A system is defined to
encompass an identifiable and fixed mass because of which Newton's laws are
directly applicable. On the other hand, a control volume is defined in space and
is ordinarily of fixed volume, whereas the mass of fluid within it is changeable
with time. In order to apply the laws of conservation for a control volume,
we need to, therefore, account (i) change of properties of the fluid stream
crossing the volume, and (ii) property variations of the mass within the control
volume.
It is useful to recall from Chapter 1 that a fluid mechanical control volume
is identical to a 'thermodynamic open system'. The spirit of open system analysis
can be of much advantage. •
4.1 DEFINITION
Identification of a region of space in the fluid stream as a 'control volume' depends
much on the need of the problem, and often on the choice of the observer. The
closed boundary of a control volume is called the 'control surface'. Matters outside
the control surface are treated as 'surroundings'. For example, the 'external force'
on a control volume can be applied by the surrounding only at the control surface.
It is convenient to choose the control surface to be perpendicular to the fluid
velocity at inlet and outlet. The direction of a surface area is defined by the outward
drawn unit vector perpendicular to the area.
In Fig. 4.1, the relevant terminologies are shown schematically. n, and rt,
are the direction of area at inlet and outlet n is negative for the coordinate system
shown on the top. The velocities of the fluid stream are measured relative to
the control volume. In other words, the coordinate system is deemed to be located
on the CV. For a stationary CV there is no difficulty in visualizing this. When
a CV moves with uniform velocity, u, in a straight line, the volume can be imagined
to be stationary by superposing a negative u on the CV, as well as on the fluid
stream.
The stationary and the non-accelerating control volumes are called 'inertial',
for which Newton's laws are applicable without modification.
86
ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 87
0 ,/, Ex t. force
`/:
,ol ( normal )
Ext. force
( tangential )
LControl surface
Fig. 4.1 Model of a Control Volume.
+ V • ( 1-7) — 0 (4.1a)
P -
d(pV) - - -
+ V • (V pV)= (4.1b)
Both the equations represented conservations on the basis of a unit volume. Extension
to a control volume of finite size is, therefore, mathematically possible by performing
volume integral of each of the terms of the equations. Consider, for example,
Pxu)AxiiyAz [Art]dx,dz
555 V • (pV)dvol = J 5 {r4—
+ Vdz/lx.eiy}
The first term on the r.h.s. represents the excess of mass leaving the control
volume through the x face at the outlet over the mass entering the x-inlet,
Fig. 3.2. According to the sign convention for area shown in Fig. 4.1, the inlet
x face area is —(AyAz)i, and the outlet (Ay Az)i. The y and z face would be
88 FLUID MECHANICS
similarly associated with ±1 and ± k signs, whereas the velocity components are
v and w i.e.
dA = (Aydz)i + (4x4z)1+ (tizely)i
The right hand volumetric integral in the above expression is, thus, physically
equivalent to sum of the area integrals over the entire control surface
In view of expressions (4.2) and (4.3), we can write the conservation of mass
for a finite control volume as
where FB is the body force per unit volume and F, is the area weighted surface
force vector
= + Fyj Plc
It would be realized that the momentum Eq. (4.5) has three components in
the x, y and z directions. For example, the x-component is
Example 4.1 Water flows through an expander, as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). The
inlet pressure and diameter are 7 bar abs and 30 cm; those at the outlet are
2 bar abs and 45 cm. The velocity at inlet is 20 m/s and is parallel to the
x-direction. The expander is held in a vertical plane and the outlet velocity is
at 45° to the x-axis. The expander has a volume of 0.5 m3 and a mass of 20 kg.
The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar. Assume steady-state condition. Estimate the
force required at the expander support to hold it in position by choosing a control
volume to coincide with the interior of the expander.
450
0 ,/ • ,/
5.1.4
V1-.4 Fx
p
'-04 _ — Fy
Mg
Fig. 4.1(a) Interior Control Volume.
Areas 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1 together constitute the control surface. Water enters
through 1-2 and leaves through 3-4 and the pressures p1 and p2 act on these surfaces.
The external forces on the fluid over areas 2-3 and 1-4 arise due to interaction
with the expander interior surface and their effects are summarized through F. and
F,.
At steady-state, the time dependent terms are zero.
Expanding the closed surface integral in terms of the component areas, we
write the mass-conservation equation as:
p(-- VIA 1-2 + 0•A2_3 + V2443_4 4- 0 • A4_1 ) =0.
Hence
= = x 032 = 0.0707 m2
Before evaluating the values of F, and F, numerically, let us consider the free
body diagram of the expander.
Apart from the reaction of the fluid on its internal surface, the expander shall
experience the effects of atmospheric pressure on its outer surfaces.
The corresponding force shall depend on the projected areas on the x and
y planes.
In Fig. 4.1(b), 1'-4' is the projection of 1-4 and 2'-3' of 2-3 along the
x-axis (or y direction). We note that the atmospheric pressure forces on these
projected areas result into a balance of
Fon, = Fr-4' = PatmA2sine
Similarly, the projections on the y-axis yield
'Fn.= F3*-4.—Fr-2. = PonA2COS9 — Pewit,
17:4"
4.
1 11 38 t
11. 2' f jt t t t
Fig. 4.1(b) Resultant Force due to Atmospheric Pressure.
ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 91
The support has to oppose E. and 4 as well as the dead weight of the expander
S, = —
Sy = — Ey +
where M4 is the weight of the expander acting downwards.
92 FLUID MECHANICS
Therefore,
Sx = — 0.5055 x 105 N
and
Sy = 02503 x 105 + 20.0 x 9.81 = 02522 x 105 N
and
S= = 56492 N
at an angle of
Example 4.2 Solve the expander problem of Example 4.1 by using a control
volume that envelops the exterior of the expander.
The control surface 1-2-3-4-1 as chosen in Fig. 4.1(e) is subjected to
atmospheric pressure, fluid pressure and momentum at the two sections intersecting
the expander inlet and outlet, and the force from the support F, and F„.
^3
\
X=45°
2(
20 m/s
CS
MA \
4
0L.
Fig. 4.1(d) Support Force Diagram. Fig. 4.1(e) Exterior Control Volume.
Nozzle
(a) Moving vane ( b) Control volume at rest
by superimposing a -u
Fig. 4.2 Fluid Flow along a Moving Vane.
Since the vane is moving away at 3 m/s, the water with a nozzle velocity of
10 m/s, approaches the vane at (V — u) = 7 m/s. If the retardation of water jet
due to friction on the vane surface is neglected, the relative velocity of water
is unchanged from inlet to outlet. Consequently, the jet cross-sectional area is
maintained all along its path.
94 mum MECHANICS
The control volume at `rest' is chosen to coincide with the interior of the
vane and exterior of the jet.
Nozzle area = x 52 =19.635 cm2
Mass of water flowing along the vane, i.e. relative to the control volume
at (b):
= pA(V — u)
=1000 x 19.635 x 10" x 7 =13.74 kg/s
F, and F, are the forces from the vane on the water jet. Since the nozzle exit
is at atmospheric pressure, the net pressure effect is zero. Hence,
/kV— u) cos 30 —[— /KV— u)] = F;
th(V — u) sin 30 — 0 = Fy
or
F; =13.74 x 7 x (1 + cos 30) =179.47 N
F;=13.74x7x0.5=481N
The forces acting on the vane are due to the reaction of F„ and F,.
R, = — F; = — 179.47 N
R,,=—F,,= -48.1N
and
R = 185304 N
481
tan a = 1794t.7 = a = 15° with the x-axis.
17
The absolute velocity of water at exit from the vane is obtained by vectorially
combining the relative velocity and the vane velocity as shown in Fig. 4.2(d).
(fr.
Rx
(c) Force diagram for
(d) Velocity triangle
the vane
at outlet
Fig. 4.2
.5
tan #= 106 =114
# = 48.83° with the direction of motion of the vane.
The vane can do work under the action of the force on it in the direction of its motion.
Thus
W = Rx •u=179.47 x 3NrnIs
OT
W = 538.4 watts.
The absolute velocities of water at inlet and outlet being 10 m/s and 4.65 m/s,
the change in ICE is
2 2
ICE = — )= x 1334 (4.652 — 102) = 538.4 watts.
We draw the following inferences from the above example of a moving vane.
(i) As the vane is moving away, the distance between the vane and the nozzle
is continuously increasing at the rate of u m/s. A mass of fluid equal to puA
is occupying the increased distance. Consequently, the mass of fluid reaching the
moving vane is reduced by the same amount. Conversely when the vane is moved
towards the nozzle, an apparently higher mass flow rate would be felt relative
to the control volume. The nozzle flow rate and mass flow relative to a fixed
vane are equal.
(ii) The vane imparts forces F„ and F, on water causing it to change momentum.
The reaction of these forces act on the vane. Under the action of the reactive
force, the vane is capable of doing work in the direction of its motion. A fixed
vane, of course, can do no work.
In the absence of losses, the external work so done equals the decrease in
kinetic energy of water.
This is the principle of action—Ofiluid prime-movers called 'turbines'. A turbine,
however, has to have several vanes mounted on a rotor so that when one vane
moves away under the action of the jet, another takes its position. The reactive
forces at the vanes create a continuous torque on the rotor axis and mechanical
work becomes possible.
If we had moved the vane towards the jet, the relative velocity of water would
have increased resulting in excess of kinetic energy at outlet over that at inlet.
The excess kinetic energy would equal the external work done on the vane. This
is the situation in fluid machines classified as 'pumps' or 'compressors'. This
kinetic energy gained at outlet of the vane is converted to pressure by
means of devices generally known as 'diffusers'. A diffuser acts in a manner
reverse to the nozzle. A nozzle is one that converts pressure to kinetic energy.
In Example 4.4 we shall consider the momentum change of a fluid flowing
past a series of rotating vanes, as on the rotor of a turbine.
The rotor rotational speed is 400 rpm. The inlet and outlet angles of each of
the vanes to the peripheral directions are 30° and 45° respectively. The water
enters and leaves the vane tangentially so that the flow is shockless.
Calculate: (i) the exit velocity of water and its direction, (ii) the angle of
discharge from the nozzle, and (iii) the work done by the rotor.
When the water issuing from the nozzle glides along a particular vane, the
vane gets displaced due to the reactive force. Looking from any one vane, the
condition is, therefore, unsteady. Furthermore, since a vane is mounted on the
rotor, the vane is experiencing centrifugal acceleration. Consequently, a control
volume chosen to coincide with a particular vane is non-inertial. However, the
following simplifications are physically possible.
Since there are a large number of vanes on the rotor, the position of a displaced
vane is soon taken up by another. This implies that if a control volume is chosen
in space, but having the geometry of a vane, the mass flow rate and the momentum
change across it are time independent. The fluid velocities at inlet and outlet from
this spatial or stationary control volume are equal to the absolute velocities on
a vane. Since the CV is stationary, the effects of blade accelerations are absent.
In Fig. 4.3(b), the blade shaped stationary control volume, and the velocity
diagrams at inlet and exit from a blade are shown.
Series of van es
Rotor I
\ /
Nozzle
u=10.47 m/s
For shockless entry to the blade, the angles of relative velocity equal those of
the blade. From the velocity triangles, we get
VI sin a = 11,1 sin 30
and
V cos a — u = V„ cos 30 = 21/1 sin a • cos 30
Of
u _ s. 17
0.4
cos a — - VI 25
= 0.4188
By squaring we get
4 cos2 a — 0.8376 cos a — 2.8246 = 0
Solution of the quadratic equation yields
cos a = 0.95, a =17.9°
as the direction of nozzle velocity w.r.t. the blade peripheral speed.
In the absenceof friction Vt2 = Vri
V1 sin a
• V'' — sin 30 = 1536 m/s
For the exit velocity triangle,
V,2 sin 45= V2 sin fi
Vr2 cos45=u+ V2 cos /3
Of
A jet aircraft works on the principle of momentum thrust. The jet plane sucks
in ambient air through an inlet at the front. The air is then compressed in a compressor
driven by a turbine. The compressed air at outlet from the compressor is used
to burn a liquid fuel in a combustion chamber, and, in the process, the pressure
and temperature of the gas increase. The gas on exit from the combustion chamber
is partially expanded in the turbine to generate work for driving the compressor.
The partially unexpanded gas at outlet from the turbine is then expanded in
a nozzle from where the gas issues out at a high velocity, and sometimes at a
slightly higher pressure than the ambient. The nozzle gas velocity being much
higher than the velocity of air at inlet, the excess of momentum of the fluid creates
a thrust to propel the aircraft.
At a level flight, when the aircraft is not accelerating and the action of gravity
is at right angles to the direction of flight, the thrust is just enough to balance
the drag. The aircraft, of course, remains suspended in the air due to the 'Lift'
generated by its flight. We shall know more about lift and drag in later chapters.
For analysing the internal flow, we choose a control volume coinciding with
the interior of the aircraft. A negative V is superimposed to monitor changes with
respect to the CV. V is the velocity of aircraft in level flight.
yL,-- -----
—__ —
— — — -..
-...•
-..-....,,,
V r N
ACU•r 1 irrIl f u e I 1 Ve
1----..
I.-,
--- i 1'
Fig. 4.4(b)
The atmospheric air, tit*, enters with velocity V. The mass of gas leaving the
nozzle at V, w s.t. the aircraft is (m,, + At.). The exit plane gas pressure is
p, and area A,. F, is the external force acting on the CV due to interaction with
the aircraft interior. Hence,
(m:,+ litf,„,)Ve — 'la, V = — (p, — p.o.) A.
In practice the fuel-air ratio titheihiti, 4( 1, so that F. can be written as
F. = m,, (V, — V) + p,,A„
The thrust in the direction of aircraft motion arises due to the reaction of F. on
the aircraft body, i.e. F = — F„
F= tha, (V. — V) + p,,A, (4.7)
'it *V. is known as the 'jet thrust', p„A, the 'pressure thrust', and Ma. V as
the 'ram drag'. The 'propulsive power' is given by P = F • V.
Whereas the relative velocity of the exhaust jet is V„ its absolute velocity
is (V — V) referred to a stationary observer. Consequently, the lost kinetic energy
of the jet is tit/2 (V, — V)2. We can then define a "propulsion efficiency" as
propulsive power
71P = propulsive power + lost KE
Or
FV
71, - (4.8)
FV+i(V,—V)2
Note that the propulsion efficiency becomes high when the jet velocity is not
far from the flight speed V. But, that would mean reduction of the thrust F, by
Eq. (4.7).
100 FLUID MECHANICS
The exhaust jet is said to be fully expanded when the exhaust pressure equals
the atmospheric. Although the pressure thrust is then zero, because p., = 0, the
increased momentum of the exhaust jet is beneficial for propulsion. In any case,
the value of the pressure thrust is low compared to the momentum thrust and
it is expeditious to view F= tit(V. — V). The total energy input to the jet is then
pv 7(vir _ v)2 th
7(K2 _ v2) (4.9)
and is equal to the increase in kinetic energy of the fluid from inlet to outlet
of the aircraft.
The propulsion efficiency has then a simple form:
2V
(4.10)
ri p = K+V
Example 4.5 A jet plane on a level flight at a speed of 850 km/hr sucks in
45 kg of air per second. The air-fuel ratio is 50 and the exhaust gas leaves the
aircraft at a speed of 750 m/s relative to the craft. The exaust gas is fully expanded
to the ambient pressure. Calculate the thrust, the propulsive power and the propulsion
efficiency.
V = 850 km/hr = 2361 m/s
= 750 m/s
= 45 mg/s
1. 2
KE_ Ymrr+nl)(V, — V)
= x 45.9 x (750 — 236.1)2
= 6.0609 MW
5.6193
= 5.6193 + 6.0609 -
193+6.0609 _ 481
AP1Allglgof FINIW CONTROL VOLUM 101
The principle of jet propulsion can also be applied to navigating ships, although
the details of equipment differ. Consider the following example.
VR = 2.5 m /s
Boat
g= 6.9 4
m/s , V C. V. ,,i
...._
V Jet % Ai-- x
= 20 m/sN---------/
F tY Vwater=-( VC VR)
x ..—lo =9.44 m/s
( a ) Physical model (b) Control volume
Fig. 4.5
4.3.4 Propellers
In case of a propeller driven aircraft, the momentum change is produced in the
fluid stream outside the aircraft. A control volume encompassing the exterior is
chosen, in contrast to an 'internal' control volume of the jet plane.
The aircraft engine does work in rotating the propeller. The propeller action
increases the velocity of air relative to the aircraft from VI to V2. The excess
of momentum due to V2 propels the aircraft.
102 FLUID MECHANICS
Reverse is the situation with a wind mill, which essentially is an air screw
coupled to a generator. Whereas an engine produces work, hence a prime mover,
a generator is a work consuming device. The wind mill receives energy from
the air stream and ideally produces work equal to the difference in kinetic energy
at inlet over that at the outlet.
6 WOUt
--_Slip stream I
r--
•••1141,0
Generator •1111111.
_J 2 V1 L_...... 1 V2
L — ' F
V2 > Vi V2 < VI
(a) Air-craft propeller (b) Wind mill
Fig. 4.6 Air-Screw Action.
Consider the control volume for a wind mill. The diverging boundary is called
a slip-stream beyond which the air-screw effect is considered negligible.
The mass flow rate is given by
tit= pA1V, = pA2V2 = pAV
where A is the area and V is the air velocity at the propeller. Since pressure
is everywhere atmospheric,
= *(V2 — V1)
and the thruit on the propeller is F = F„ or
F= V2)
The propeller work
W = FV = ?kV (VI — V2)
= Loss in kinetic energy of air
. V2 — V2L
m
V= VI +V2
2
Thus
W = pAV2 (V1 — V2) = 2L(VI + V2)2 — V2)
W= (1+a)2 (1 — a) (4.11)
where a = V2/V, is the ratio of outlet to inlet air velocity.
‘MMLYSIS OF MIRE comma VOLUMES 103
= (1+ 1)2
C
l - 4). ;- inv3, (4.12)
On the other hand, the maximum kinetic energy available in the air stream at
V1 velocity for the air-screw area A is pAy (4/2).
A coefficient of power is defined as
Cp = KEW
Its maximum value is, therefore,
Cp.=(8/27)A VI 16
--s— = = 592596
+AV,
Ma
Water
1M
I
L J 4, Ve
Mg reverPa tm
(a) Free fall of a leaking liquid (b) Leaking container under
container a pull
Fig. 4.7
104 Fumb iciwocs
Choose a control volume encompassing the falling container. Assume that at any
instant the leakage rate is tit = pA,V„ where A, is the area of the hole. The container
mass with liquid is M. The external force acting on the CV is Mg due to
gravity. Hence,
Mg + mV, = Mg (4.13)
requiring that =0
In other words, water shall not leak out of the container during the free fall.
Let us now examine the dynamics of an additional external force, such as
an upward pull F, acted on the container. Let the upward acceleration be a. Then
the momentum equation becomes
Ma — F — Mg (4.14a)
If the initial mass of the container and its liquid were Mo, the mass at any
time t is
M = Mo — mt
Equation (4.14a) becomes
(M0 — pAyit) (a + g)— pA,V,2 = F
Or
pA,V,2 + pA,(a+ g)tV, —(Mo (a + g)— FJ= 0 (4.14b)
•The velocity of leakage is obtained as
Ci = F + pA,V,2
C2 = pAyi
and
— x = Mo — pA,Vit
SO that
ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 105
Or
a-- -g
dr
dV = - C - gdt.
Thus,
V=— In Alto — gt
2
Substituting back, we obtain the container velocity at any time t as
(F + pAY2 )
• 1„,
V= (4.17)
PAA Ala Mo Mo
PAY.t) gt
Again we get the condition of free fall: V. = 0, if we set F = 0 and V= — gt.
(4.18b)
g = h(R÷-Z)2
where go is the value of g on earth's surface and R the radius of the earth.
106 FLUID MECHANICS
Payload
Cornbstion
chamber
Propellants
(solid)
Nozzle
Pe
(a) Configurations (b) Control volume
Fig. 4.8 Schematic of Rocket Propulsion.
The bracketed terms in Eq. (4.19a) is also known as the thrust F. Note that the
expression for thrust in jet propulsion Eq. (4.7) is lower by the ram drag of magnitude
m V. being the momentum of the incoming air. The ram drag is absent in rocket
propulsion as no fluid is taken in from the ambient.
Substitution of Eqs. (4.18a) and (4.18b) permits writing (4.19a) in terms of
the altitude Z as
2
d 2Z
(Mo — hit) --r = (P.A. + my.) — (mo — hit)110( D (4.20)
di
Knowing the variation of parameters, e.g., pa with altitude or drag D with altitude
and velocity, Eq. (4.20) can be integrated numerically.
Analytical, but approximate, estimations of flight velocity is made by assuming
(p.s Ai +iitV,)—D=F—D= constant, and g invariant.
ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 107
If the actions of gravity and drag were negligible, the rocket velocity would be
p, A ) M
V= (V, „ . (4.23)
m mo — mt
Further integration of (4.22) yields
Z F—D t+ F
In Ai m) (1- In :4) — lgt2
0
(4.24)
Example, 4.7 A rocket before flight was subjected to static test. The force required
to hold the rocket during static test in a horizontal plane was found to be 12000 N,
when the rate of combustion of the propellants was noted as 8 kg per second
and the nozzle exit pressure atmospheric. The nozzle outlet diameter is 10 cm.
During flight, it was observed that the drag force is equal to the pressure thrust
at all altitudes. The empty mass of the rocket motor is 250 kg whereas the propellant
mass at lift-off was half the rocket empty mass.
Estimate the rocket velocity at 10 secs from lift-off, and at the end of the
powered flight, assuming constant value of g = 9.81 m/s2.
108 FLUID MECHANICS
During static test in horizontal plane, for a control volume coinciding with
the rocket exterior,
*V, = +S
Since
Pi= Paung p„ = 0
,_ 12,000
Ve 717 = —g--- = 1500 m/s
During flight
dV .
mV,=— Mg— D+
V =Kin m M2 nit gt
Mo = M, + Mr.openoo
= 250 + 125 = 375 kg
angles al and a2, respectively with r, and F2 . We note that the moments caused
by the momentum at inlet and outlet about the drigin 0 are
iitV2 sin a2 • r2 = yit(F2 x v2)
and
*VI sin al • = /KT; x fp
The net torque about an axis perpendicular to the plane of V and F is, therefore,
expressed as
4=6.4; x172 —11xci) (4.25a)
110 FLUID MECHANICS
Recalling that a positive area is associated with outflow whereas a negative with
inflow in the expression chit = prf • TA, we can rewrite (4.25a) in condensed form
by accounting over the control surface as:
Expressions at (4.25b) and (4.25c) together shall balance the moment of external
forces over the control volume. Thus
Example 4.8 Water flows through a bent pipe as shown in Fig. 4.10. The portion
AB is in a vertical plane whereas BCD is in a horizontal plane. The diameters
at A and D are respectively 5 and 2 centimetres; pressure 3 and 1.5 bar; inlet
velocity at A is 5 m/s. The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar. Estimate the torque
about the vertical axis through B and the direction of rotation of the pipe, if free
to do so.
Fig. 4.10
ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 111
Since the inlet momentum is purely in the vertical direction, the momentum in
the horizontal plane is solely due to V2 and is
m112 = 9.817 x 31.25 = 306.78 N
If the anti-clockwise torque acting on the water due to pipe action is T, the
conservation of moment of momentum leads to:
m1/2 sin a•r=r— p2s A2 sin a • r
or
T = (MV2 + P2,A2)r sill a
= 48.37 Nm anti-clockwise.
The torque acting on the bend as reaction from water is 48.37 Nm, but clockwise.
Hence the bend will tend to rotate in the clockwise direction about the vertical
axis through OB. This is the principle of working of a lawn-sprinkler.
4.6 SUMMARY
1. The choice of a finite control volume for considering the laws of conservation
is guided by the need of the problem.
2. The closed surface bounding the control volume is known as the control
surface. Matters outside the CS are known as the 'surroundings'. External forces,
torque or work can interact only at the control surface.
3. A stationary or non-accelerating control volume is inertial, and Newton's
laws can be applied to fluid stream crossing the CS, without modification.
4. In a non-inertial control volume, the external force. is required to balance
the momentum change of the CV in addition to that of the fluid stream ws.t.
the CV.
5. The reactive force due to the passage of a fluid jet along a moving vane
is capable of producing work. The work is done by the vane when it moves away
from the jet, as in a turbine. Work has to be done on the vane in moving it
towards the fluid jet, as in a pump.
6. In a jet propulsion system, the increase of momentum of the fluid flowing
internally provides the thrust for propulsion. The external fluid produces drag.
7. In a propeller system, the external fluid is accelerated due to propeller
work and a thrust results.
112 awl) MECHANICS
EXERCISES
1. A tapering pipe with a 30° bend is laid on a horizontal plane. The inlet and
outlet diameters are 30 and 20 cms, pressures 5 and 2 bar absolute, when the
inlet water velocity is 12 m/s. Considering atmospheric pressure to be 1 bar, estimate
the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on water, and of those
required to hold the bend stationary.
(Ans: 24960.2 N, 0 = 35.75°; 20552.9 N, 39.29°)
2. A jet of water impinges on a plate at an angle of O. Considering that friction
between the fluid and the plate is negligible, derive an expression for the distribution
of flow in the two directions parallel to the plate.
(Ans Q, = (1 + cos 0))
the blade inlet angle, change in the kinetic energy of water and the work done
on the blade. Draw the velocity triangles.
(Ans: p, = 120; 239.32 J/kg, 4.7864 kJ/s)
6(\ 2
Q2= 0.2 Q
2 d2 =10 cm
p2g = 0
1
VI =10 m /s
di =30 cm
Pig = 2 bar 3
Q1 = Q
45' / d3 = 20 cm
p =_ 0
39
Fig. 4.11
Fig. 4.12
8. A jet propelled aircraft has the nozzle exit area 0.25 m2. While flying at a
speed of 800 km/h, the air intake rate is 20 kg/s and the velocity of jet relative
to the aircraft is 475 m/s. Calculate the propulsive force and the thrust power
developed for the given conditions. State any assumption made.
(Ans: 5055.5 N, 1123.5 kW)
9.: A rocket in vertical dragless flight at 300 m/s, discharges exhaust gases
at a rate of 5 kg/s through a nozzle area of 0.5 in2. The gas velocity is 1400 m/s
relative to the rocket. The absolute pressure at exit is 9.81 x 10' N/m2
and the ambient air at 8.34 x 10' N/m2. Estimate the thrust on the rocket.
(Ans: 14.35 kN)
10. A flywheel of diameter 30 cm, mass 20 kg is supported on a vertical hollow
shaft rotating between bearings. Two compressed air lines are laid through the
shaft, and each of them terminate on a nozzle mounted on the flywheel. Each
nozzle is 5 mm in diameter and is located at the ends of a 20 cm diameter.
The nozzles face in opposite directions and discharge tangentially. The arrangement
is shown in Fig. 4.13. The flywheel rotates due to the nozzle action. Estimate:
(i) the frictional torque at flywheel support if the relative, air velocity at
nozzle exit is 45 m/s when the flywheel rotational speed is constant
at 200 rpm.
(ft) the flywheel angular acceleration at the beginning of rotation, for the
air-velocity of 60 m/s. If frictional effects are assumed to remain constant
as in (i).
Consider discharge at atmospheric pressure and the air density p = 12 kg/m3
is constant.
30 cm
20 cm
Flywheel
Fig. 4.13
3 is the unit vector along the stream line and k the one along the vertical
z-axis.
Equation (5.1) is a vector equation balancing momentum change and
external force. Application of the force through a distance ds along the stream
line would physically imply work interaction. An equation for conservation
of energy is thus obtained by making a dot product of Eq. (5.1) with ds 1,
resulting in
pV dV = — dp — pg (i • I) ds
Since k s = cos a, where a is the angle made by the stream line with the
k• s ds = ds cos a = dz. Therefore,
vertical,
V dV = — — gdz
115
116 FLUID MECHANICS
wherein dependence of fluid density with pressure, e.g., in the case of compressible
fluids, is accounted for.
For incompressible fluids, density being constant Eq. (5.2) is written as
+ V2 + _E
gz (5.3)
P
du du
p(uw + v- )= - (5.4a)
dv
+ vw). - - pg (5.4b)
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 11 7
du du 1
ur + v-y- = - -p- (5.5a)
x x
u gh dv (53b)
v = g
The momentum Eq. (5.5a) in the x-direction in multiplied by dr for
work interaction in the x-direction; and similarly Eq. (5.5b) by dy. Summa-
tion of the two then^ yields the conservation of energy during an arbitrary
displacement dF = dxi + dy j, as
u(d
idx + tdy)+ v(a
idx + .21
1-dy)
x y
1
(5.6a)
= (tdx I dyl g dy
The variation of a function f = y) is expressed as
df = + wdy.
u du + v dv = — —1 dp — g dy (5.6b)
1/2 = u2 + y2
Or
VdV=udu+vdv
Hence, Eq. (5.6b) implies that
1 — g dy
V dV =- —dp (5.6c)
Integrating, we get
V2 .
ff+ +gy=c
5,4__V2 +gz=c
T (5.7)
118 FLUID MECHANICS
6W=0 6Q = 0
r-- --------
VB
vA B— .
P
A
VA
B Horizontal
datum
Fig. 5.1 Thermodynamic Analysis for Bernoulli's Equation.
We then get
dKE+dPE+dh=0 (5.9a)
In addition to (i) and (ii), assume that (iii) there is no frictional effects, together
implying no change of entropy. The second law leads to
Tfis = dh - u dp
0
00)
dh=vdp=1 (5.9b)
dKE + dPE + =0
or, by integration,
f tlE V2
+ +gz=C (5.10)
P
Equation (5.10) is the same as Eq. (5.7). In other words, the fluid mechanimil
irrotationality is synonymous with the thermodynamic isentropic condition. The
condition in turn is satisfied when steady-state prevails in the absence of friction,
external work and heat exchange with the surrounding. The flow work Idplp
or plp, more frequently, although loosely, is called "pressure energy".
Bernoulli's equation is often expressed as a conservation of "total head" when
written in the form
p +
Z=H (5.11)
Pg
1 1 1
mime velocity static total
head lured lead head
Example 5.1 Water flows through a tapering pipe as shown in Fig. 5.1. The
diameter at A and B are 10 and 5 cm, and the heights above a horizontal datum
5 and 3 metres. The pressure at A is 300 kNim2. Water flow rate is 2 m3/min.
If the gravitational acceleration at the location is 9.5 mis2, estimate the pressure
at B stating the assumptions made.
Neglecting viscous effects we obtain by Bernoulli's equation
+z + +
P g A pg 2g
2 x 104
V
A = 78.54 x 60 — 424 mis
VB =424x4=1696m/s
110EL
pg
1
- Wit — VA2 ) ZA )
= 16.962 — 4242
+(3-5)=1219m
=1842 IcN/m2
We now propose to write the pressure at a point as the sum of two components:
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic. Substitution of the two components in Bernoulli's
equation along a stream line leads to
Equations (5.14) and (5.15) convey the following: While pressure at a location
has both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic components, the difference in kinetic
energy or the velocity heads arise due to the hydrodynamic components only.
Alternatively, when a flow is frictionless, the sum of the flow work due to
hydrodynamic pressure and the kinetic energy is conserved along a stream line.
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 121
Of course, such conservation shall apply to the entire flow field if the flow is
hrotationg.
The hydrodynamic component is often called the "static pressure" and the
velocity term pV2/2 the "dynamic pressure". The sum of the two p + pV2/2 = Po
is known as the "total pressure". Po is conserved in an isentropic irrotational
flow.
Note the use of a confusing terminology of calling hydrodynamic pressure
as the static pressure. This is more in practice in the study of compressible flow
where, ordinarily, the contribution of body force, responsible for hydrostatic
pressure variation, is negligible owing to very low value of the density of fluid.
mVr = P-)(r
r
+ dr)de — prde
122 FLUID MECHANICS
p.-t dr
8r
(r. dr) dir
Ss 7
/ de
rd
if-4.- -
\ 4 (P•ack) dr-c-gi 'x
/ 8r 2 2 0
S \
(7 mg
i
i
\ / 6
ti,
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /
VIV
E
\/
v
0
Fig. 5.2 Control Volume Analysis of Curvilinear Flows.
2( + ap
p a
dr) dr + mg cosa (5.16)
dr
where a is the direction of the stream line with the vertical, the mass of the
control volume being m = p (r de • dr).
Equation (5.16) is rewritten as
V2
p-r.=i+pgcosa (5.18a)
dE V 2 ,aV
= "
=
,V d kvr)
,„
(5.22)
Tr
Example 5.2 The velocity of water at the outer edge of a whirlpool where
the water level is horizontal and in the same plane as the bulk of the liquid is
2 m/s and the diameter 50 cm. Calculate the depth of water free surface at a
diameter of 10 cm from the eye of the whirlpool.
Since no external energy interaction takes place with the water of the
whirlpool, in the absence of viscous action, the motion is that of a free vortex
for which
Vr = C
Hence
2 x 2 = C or C= 0.5 m2/s
At a diameter of 10 cm,
C Cx2
V2 = = i(-177170- — mis
I 2
4 - = (1'2 Vi)= 2A
x 9 1 (100 — = 429 m
In a free vortex motion, the purely circumferential motion of the fluid at
the outer edge becomes a combination of circumferential and radial motion towards
the vortex core. The radial motion arises due to variation of depth in a water
whirlpool, or in general due to decrease of pressure as the circumferential velocity
is increased towards the core.
At a given radius r, the inward flow due to a radial velocity V, is Q =2/trV,
and the flow rate is conserved. The resultant of the radial and circumferential
velocity V makes an angle 0 with the circumferential direction where
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 125
tan0== T7 -1TrE
V xi
The flow path is consequently a spiral one. In practice, therefore, a free vortex
soon becomes a spiral vortex.
Example 5.3 In a flapper valve, air enters at the centre of the lower disk through
a 1 cm pipe with a velocity of 10 m/s. It then moves radially to the outer
circumference. The two disks forming the valve are each of 15 an diameter and
0.5 cm apart. The air pressure at inlet is 1.5 kN/m2 gauge. Assuming the air
density to be constant at 1.2 kg/m3, estimate the net fluid force acting on the
upper plate. The schematic and flow path of the valve is shown in Fig. 5.4.
Po
r0
V0 vo 0.5 c m
2 1 11 2
15cm13
1 cm
Ve
The centrally entering fluid at 1 undergoes a 90° bend to the radial direction.
The external force acting on the control surface identified at entry is in the direction
opposite to the entering fluid and equals
Fy = tfiVe
V — 7.85 x 10-4
— , = 5 m/s
x 0.5 x 10-2 x 0.5 x
126 FLUID MECHANICS
Or
A — Jp, = (10 2 _ 52) = 373
p
Or
During radial flow, the velocity at a radius r is Vr = Q12ffrt and the pressure
pr - - Q )2 1 1 1
p — 2 — x 2 71 TZ
Or
p, — p, —
_ ,,,( 1
L. —
1)
r T
where
Q ll2 x 1_ 7.85 x 10-4 )2 1
X = 312 x 10-4
Trt J 7 2; r x x 10-2
In particular, the pressure at outlet is
— 1 1
PO = 3.12 x 10-4 x 104 ( 052 7.52
=1242
p. = 12.42 x 12 + 1545 x 103 =156 IEN/m2
The pressure increases parabolically to the outer radius.
Conversely, if the pressure at the outer radius was maintained atmospheric,
pressure at all inner radii would be sub-atmospheric. The net force due to the
differential of atmospheric and fluid pressures would bring the plates together.
The flow rate shall subsequently reduce due to narrower passage and higher
resistance. In turn, the pressure differential would tend to cease and plates
separated, with consequent increase of flow rate. Thus, the process shall be
oscillatory and hence the name a "flapper valve". The oscillatory discharge
characteristic of a flapper valve is utilized in several fluid control devices.
The force on any one of the valve plate due to the internal fluid pressure is
F = f r°2ffr dr p
1 1
P = CP(-5- —
T, r
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 127
C
P = q -4
where
Cp
CI = -1- + pi, c2 = Cp
r,
Hence
C dr
F = 24 rb (CI - --I-)r
ri r
= 2 yr [ ci 2
r - C2 ln r
n
or
F = NCI (r20 - 4) - 2NC2 111 °
TrI
Substituting for ci and C2, we get
Cp + pi )x(r02 - r , ) - 2irCp In —
F =H r°
r, re
The total fluid force is the sum of F at (ii) and R due to inlet fluid momentum
change
Fr= 4
C + pi )x(r20 - 4) - 2.1rCp hi l
l +R (iii)
(r ri
whereas the atmospheric pressure exerts a reverse force p,,,2r4, on the upper
plate, and Ado,(r20 - 4) on the lower plate.
Considering the upper plate alone, the net fluid force is
FN =FCp 2 2 ro 2
T + pi)n(r 0 - r , ) - 2IrCp ln — + R - p.„Irr 0
r, ri
(iv)
Reverting to the numerical values for the present problem, we may neglect
the effect of pm and calculate on the basis of gauge pressure, and get
dE — 2a)2r (524)
37 -
The energy change across two finite radii r1 and r2 is obtained by integration
of Eq. (5.24)
E2 — El = 0)2 (r 2 - e) (5.25a)
Or
E2 — =(VZ— V;) (5.25b)
Bernoulli's equation for each of the streamlines at n and r2 yield, on the
other hand,
p, 11
+ 2 = E, (5.26a)
_E (5.26b)
P
p + 2 — 2
In Eqs. (5.26), we may consider that either body force terms is negligible or that
the pressures are hydrodynamic.
The pressure differential between two streamlines is obtained by combining
Eqs. (5.26) and (5.25)
P2 A = (E2 — A )
P2 - PI 11 - V?
p - 2 (527a)
or
P2 — w ..2‘
2 / (5.27b)
P
Obviously, the impeller outlet has to be at a higher radius than the inlet so that
P2 > • This also results in V2 >
The total energy input (E2 — A) causes both rise in pressure and increase
in kinetic energy at the impeller outlet. Increases in the two parameters are equal
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 129
in magnitude being (11 — V7)/2. The excess kinetic energy is further recovered
as pressure "energy" by passing the fluid through a "diffuser". A diffuser is
essentially a diverging passage.
x 1500
a) = x =157 rad/s
„2
P2 = tu 2 2%
-2-V2 - / I)
1572 x 10-4
2x4 (452 — 152) = 554.6 m2 /s2
=11092 Nm/kg
Applications
Bernoulli's equation is valid for steady and frictionless flow. While steady
state is often a reality, frictional effects are never absent in any flow of a real
fluid. Yet Bernoulli's equation has been applied to almost all kinds of flow
situations through a summary approximation. The approximation is in the form
of adding a loss term to the total energy at a downstream location. This is possible
since an energy equation does not require the details regarding the magnitude
and direction of a resisting force; but is satisfied if the scalar term representing
the energy dissipated due to the action of the resisting force is accounted for
quantitatively.
Consider again a fluid flowing through the control volume in Fig. 5.1.
The total head Bernoulli equation in the ideal condition is written for section
A and B as
4+z
g
.2L+11 +zz
A pg g
In order to account for the loss of energy in the flow of a real fluid, a term
hf is added at the downstream location. The Bernoulli's equation then has
130 FLUID MECHANICS
The loss of head arises due to viscous effects. For convenience, however, we
consider these to be of two kinds:
(i) one is due to the presence of shear stress between a solid surface and
the fluid flowing past it,
(ii) the other arising out of variation in geometric shapes.
Technically, the former is known as the "skin friction loss", and the latter
the "form drag"
Whereas both skin friction and form drag are present simultaneously in a
flow relative to a solid surface, approximations of their relative importance can
often be made. For example, when flow takes place through a smooth, long tube
of uniform cross-section, losses due to geometric variations can be regarded as
absent. Skin friction loss is the one to be considered.
On the other hand, if a fluid stream is required to move over a solid plate
whose main dimensions are perpendicular to the stream, losses will occur primarily
due to the disturbance of the stream lines. The wetted length in the flow direction
being small, skin friction is negligible. Form drag is the major loss.
In the remaining portion of this chapter we shall consider a few situation
of internal flow where losses occur due to variations in cross-sectional geometry;
length of the solid surface in the direction of flow is small by assumption.
Pe
I
Ii r---
DI I P
—Pt
par—
L___,
Ii
12
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5 Flow through a Sudden Expansion.
liratUJEIL NEE [ERTEN 131
Flow visualization experiments have indicated that the fluid stream follows
the dotted line, and the space up to the larger pipe is filled up by eddies that
are essentially at the upstream pressure, Pe =
A control volume representing the flow process is shown in Fig. 5.5(b).
By momentum balance, we obtain that
th(V2 VI) = (PiAt P2A2) —
Of
PA2 (V1 V1V2) = A2 (PI P2)
since
fit = PAY = PA2112
In other words,
A — p2 if; — 11
2g (5.30a)
= Pg
substituting for — P2)Ipg from Eq. (5.29),
17 — 11 + — 2VIV2
nz. 2g
V — 2
hL = (VI 2gV (5.30b)
is the head lost at a sudden expansion.
__
,
Vi _._,
.... ....._-
A.a.. v , c I
A II --I--- A
,
,-- IC '2
1
Fig. 5.6 Flow through a Sudden Contraction.
132 FLUID MECHANICS
the external. Consequently, the fluid is not in full contact with the smaller
pipe for a short distance downstream of the contraction, see Fig. 5.6. Further
downstream, the fluid fills up the smaller pipe and normal flow continues.
The minimum cross-section occurs at a section c—c known as the
"Vera-contracts". A coefficient of contraction is defined as
C, = (5.31)
(ra
1 —1)
2
11
or
V2
hL = 0.375-A-a-
Experiments however indicate a higher loss, and we shall use the value as
V2
hL = 0.5 -A-3- (5.32)
2g
for contraction.
Note that contraction loss could be avoided if the entry to the smaller pipe
is profiled according to the dotted streamlines up and downstream of the van-
contracts. Such shaping, or near about so, is indeed practised wherever possible.
The values of k for some of the common arrangements are—Bend: 90°, k = 0.9
to 1; gradual taper: 20° or higher, k = 1; 15°, k = 0.75; 10°, k = 0.4; 5°,
k = 0.15.
Fully open: globe valve, k = 10; gate valve, k = 0.19; angle valve, k = 5.
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 133
Example 5.5 Water flows from a reservoir through a stepped pipe shown
schematically in Fig. 5.7. The volume flow rate is 6000 litres/min. Estimate the
head of water required in the tank for such a flow rate, neglecting pipe friction
loss but accounting for losses due to expansion and contraction. Calculate further
the force required to hold the reservoir-pipe system in position on a horizontal
plane.
Control volume
Fig. 5.7
The cross-sectional areas of the delivery pipe are:
i-(0.2)2 = 0.03141 m2
A2 = r
A3 = 1(01)2 = 0.007854 m2
The velocities
0.1
= 0.01767 = 5.66 m/s
01
= 3'18 m/s
V2 = 0.03141
0.1
V3 0.007854 =12.73 m/s
Head loss at entry
h,,, =0 v2 =0.816m
Expansion loss
(112 )2 0.313 m
2g
Contraction loss
V2
by = = 4129 m
134 FLUID MECHANICS
H=+—
2g
Or
H = 5258 + 8259 = 13517 m
is the required water level in the reservoir.
Cbnsidering a control volume surrounding the reservoir and intersecting the
pipe in the outlet section, the momentum balance yields the force exerted by the
support on the reservoir as:
t Pt
( a) ( b)
Fig. 5.8 Schematic of a Pitot Tube Measurement.
5.7.2 Venturimeter
A venturimeter is in the shape of a converging-diverging short pipe. It is installed
in a flow system to estimate the rate of flow in terms of the measured pressure
differentials.
In Fig. 5.9, a venturimeter is shown in a horizontal plane. Points 1, 2, 3
identify the inlet, throat and outlet sections. pl is the pressure at inlet. Let
the superscript dash represent ideal values of the parameters at downstream
locations, and unsuperscripted ones the real values, taking into account the
frictional losses.
Assuming no friction loss, we get, by Bernoulli's equation between 1 and 2,
PI — p; _ Vi — Il; _ h, (534)
Pg 2g — '1
136 FLUID MECHANICS
TT hft
,h hf2
--
1 fi :
112
V2 ( A22 =
v2 v I2 —
2g zg
(5.35a)
Q = A,A245-
Flow rate (5.35b)
7A, -=2
The bracketted terms equal a constant for a given venturimeter at a particular
geographic location, and is called the venturimeter constant C. Thus,
Q= (5.35c)
In order to account for losses, Bernoulli's equation is modified to
v2
V
=_ h (536)
pg 2g
Since (II — V;)/2g = h' is the ideal head, the measured pressure differential for
the converging section is
A P2 h; + 11/4 = Ii (5.37)
Pg
>
The expression for volumetric flow rate is, therefore, modified through a
coefficient of discharge Cd less than unity
Q=CCenik (5.38)
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 137
a.!EEL (5.39a)
P8 28
whereas frictional effects modify Bernoulli's equation to
yj
pg pg "12
or
P3 - P2. _
pg 2g "12
i.e.
h2 = h2 - hh (5.39b)
and
h2 <
Note that frictional effects in the diverging portion cause differential pressure
reading less than the ideal, in contrast to a higher reading for the converging
portion. Cd for the diverging portion is therefore greater than unity.
Fig. 5.10
138 FLUID MECHANICS
rate. Estimate the flow rate (i) neglecting friction loss, and (ii) when friction head
is 20% of the head indicated by the manometer. Calculate the value of Cd . Assume
that the gravitational acceleration at the location is 9.7 m/s2 p, and p2 are the
fluid pressures at the inlet and the throat. The other parameters are self-explanatory
in Fig. 5.10.
In the absence of friction, Bernoulli's equation yields
+ +4 + 17 +
2g z2
Pg Pg
Of
PI — v;
pg = + (Z2 — (i)
Manometric pressure balance about the horizontal line 0-0, on the other hand,
indicate:
Pi+ Pg(2, — ho)=P2+Pg(Z2 — ho — h)+ pH, gh
Or
!LE..(pHs _ h
2g p (ni)
The important observation here is that a differential pressure reading gives directly
the difference of velocity head, irrespective of the orientation of the flow system.
If friction loss were included in Bernoulli's equation through /if, Eq. (i) would
have been modified to
— P2 = V2 — V1 (iv)
2g + (Z2 — 4) + 11/
Pg
and (111) to
v2 — V 2 = pH,
— 1 h — hI (v)
)
The inlet 'and throat areas are
Ai = x (0.1)2 = 0.00785 m2
A2 = x (0.05)2 = 0.00196 m2
In the ideal case,
= 293328 m2/s2
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 139
15V; = 293328
=13984 m/s
Q= = 0.01096 m3/s
=10.96 litres/s
Example 5.7 The inlet and throat diameters of a jet pump are 10 and 5 cm;
inlet pressure and velocity respectively 2kgf/cm2 and 5 m/s. The pump discharges
to atmosphere at 1 kgf/cm2 . Water is drawn in through a pipe at the throat from
a sump 2 m below the venturimeter. The fluid is water, both in the venturimeter
and in the sump.
140 FLUE) MECHANICS
Calculate the diameters of the venturimeter outlet and the lift pipe, if the
volumetric lift rate is 5 per cent of the main flow. Neglect frictional losses,
g= 9.6 m/s2.
The working of the jet pump in question is shown schematically in
Fig. 5.11.
ij
di = 10 cm I Q 3
—11-01,...
pi 2 kgf /CM2 1rd2:5CITI Q•Cl ip.
---412 p3-41— igt/cm2
,.....j L
i I
„-- ------
11 I
I
L-----------"----
f Platm
Al
A2 = 1 X (0.05)2 = 0.00196 m2
g, = 9.81 m kg/kgf s2
Control Volume II: The throat area immediately downstream of the lift pipe
shall be increased to make V2u = V21 and pm = p21. We can now drop the suffixes
for V2 and P2.
For the downstream end,
= 2;1 1.05 x:.03925 _ 0.00205
A2n m2
0
d2n = 5.12 cm (i)
Between 2 and 3
V2 — V2 __ p2p
_LT_L — p2 _ (1 — 0.09) x 9.81 x 104
1000
= 8927
V: = 202 — 2 x 8927 = 222.26
V3 = 14.90 m/s
5.7.3 Orifices
Fluid flow through an orifice at the side or bottom of a large tank is analogous
to the flow through a sudden contraction, see Section 5.6.2.
L_ _J
Fig. 5.12 Flow through an Orifice.
Example 5.8 Water flows out of a tank through a small orifice on a vertical
wall, under a constant head of 2 meters. The orifice diameter is 2 cm. The water
jet issuing out of the orifice drops downward due to the action of gravity. It
MUM MP RATION 143
is seen that the vertical fall is 10 cm, for a horizontal displacement of 85 cm
from the vena-contracta. Calculate
(i) coefficient of velocity,
(ii) discharge per unit time, if C,, = 0.62, and
(ill) horizontal thrust on the container due to the issue of water jet.
Take g = 9.8 m/s2.
If the actual velocity of water at vena-contracta is u the distance x travelled
by a water particle in time 4 in the horizontal direction is
x = ut (1)
Due to the action of gravity the distance travelled in the vertical direction is
y = Tgt 2 (2)
cv 4yH (4)
X = pQVie, = pQ • C. •
=1000x11585 x10-4 x0.95 x11-
2)77
8x 2
= 11585 x 0.95 x 6.261 N
=689N
The thrust on the container F = —X = 6.89 N in the direction opposite to
the jet
idH
I
Q Cdbliiiii• dH
Of
Q = Cd1,42g f
Hue
dH
or
2
Q = 3- Cdb115- (H3212 - H22 ) (5.42)
In the given example,
H2 = 5 m, H1 =H2 —h=5 — 0.6 = 4.4 m,
Cd = 0.6, b=lm
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 145
Hence
H1
H2 .L
kll__
ha
H3 = Water level in
i the downstream side
J >,,,z.
Fig. 5.14 Partially Submerged Orifice.
In Fig. 5.14, the free orifice flow according to Eq. (5.42) amounting to say
Qj takes place across a depth h1 . For the remaining depth hohe discharge, caused
by a constant head of H2, is equal to Q2 = Cd2 N2gH2. Thus the total discharge
5.7.4 Mouthpieces
It is a common practice to fit an external 'mouthpiece' on to the orifice on the
body of a container. The flow through an external mouthpiece is analysed in the
light of a sudden contraction of Section 5.6.2. The water jet after passing the
vena-contracta at c—c gradually fills up the mouthpiece and finally issues out with
the same area as the mouthpiece, improving the value of the coefficient of
contraction to unity.
146 FLUID MECHANICS
L —I.- V
Mouthpiece
where hL is the loss of head in the mouthpiece. Since the mouthpiece is a pipe
of short-length, frictional loss is negligible, and the only one that matters is due
to expansion from vena-contracta
V 2(—
1 - 1)2
hL —
(V.2g
- 11)2 Cc
2g
Or
hL = 0.375 Vg (5.45)
1225 2g
Pg
In other words, when a mouthpiece discharges to atmospheric pressure, a
partial vacuum equal to 1.225 (V2/28) is created at the vena-contracta. Conse-
quently, the discharge upto the versa-contracts takes place against a higher pressure
differential than would be with an orifice. The opposing factor, however, is the
expansion loss between the vena-contracta and the mouthpiece.
Other shapes, such as re-entrant or Borda's mouthpiece, converging and
converging-diverging mouthpieces me used to increase Ca , by decreasing the
expansion loss with respect to the vena-contracta in varying degrees.
Example 5.10 Water issues out of a conical tank whose radius of cross-section
varies linearly with the height from 10 cm at the bottom of the tank. The slope
1
ro-s1
V(t)
Fig. 5.17
MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 149
of the tank wall with the vertical is 300. A short pipe of 2 cm diameter is fitted
at the bottom for discharging the water. Calculate the time taken for the tank
to be emptied from an initial water level of 70 cm. Assume that the pipe entry
loss coefficient is 03, and is constant at all time.
The tank radius at a height h is
r = ro + h tan 30
and
area A = + .4'12
13
Approximating by Bernoulli's equation,
L V2 A , V2
• 2g g
or
V(t) —
Discharge pipe area a = (x/4) r: = 0.785 cm2. For the discharge through the
pipe, Cc = 1, and C, is accounted through the entry loss.
aV dt = — A dh
or
2
r
dt = —(-S1
h q1.5 dh
r, + 113r, rg 7IT
or
2
di =(10 + x 0.0276
Or
h-dh h
A, A
-
1, Id h2
A2
I
Q
I
dh2 = 4
1 -dhi
The original water levels being ii, and h2, the head causing the flow rate is
h = (hi - h2)
The new water levels are (h, - dhi ) and (h2 + dh2 ), and the differential head is
5.9 SUMMARY
1. The sum of flow work, kinetic energy and potential energy in a flow field
is known as the mechanical energy.
2. In a steady, frictionless flow the total mechanical energy is conserved along
a stream line. Such conservation is expressed through the Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli's equation affords calculation of pressure variation along a stream line.
3. Bernoulli's constant has the same value throughout the flow field when
the fluid flow is irrotational.
4. Mutational flow is characterised by absence of friction, interaction of
external work and heat transfer with the surrounding. A thermodynamically
isentropic flow is irrotational.
5. Whereas absence of shear stress is a necessary condition for an irrotational
flow, it does not conversely mean that rotational flow is associated only with
viscous actions. Rotationality can be induced by work or heat interaction even
in an ideal flow.
6. The hydrodynamic pressure head is commonly known as the static pressure
head, and the velocity head as the dynamic head. Sum of the two is the total
head, or the corresponding pressure the total pressure. The total pressure is
conserved in an irrotational flow.
7. A free vortex is irrotational except at the origin. A forced vortex is
rotational. The radial variation of energy in a circular forced vortex flow is 2w 2r.
8. In practice, frictional effects are accounted for by adding a loss bead to
the Bernoulli's equation at the downstream location.
9. The angle of a diverging duct is kept low (usually below 7°) to avoid
flow separation. Flow separation is caused by an adverse pressure gradient
and frictional effects. The phenomenon is akin to the rolling back of a solid along
a crest due to insufficient kinetic energy for overcoming friction and gravity.
10. The coefficient of discharge of a mouthpiece is higher than that of an
equal area orifice. Kinematically this is possible because the vena-contracta
pressure in a mouthpiece is below atmospheric.
EXERCISES
1. Water flows through a tapering pipe inclined at an angle of 30° with the
horizontal, see Fig. 5.19.
At sections 1 and 2 the diameters are 30 and 10 cm, heights above ground
level 1.5 and 3.5 meters, and the velocity at 1, VI = 7m/s. The flow losses are
negligible. If the manometer M2 reads 10 an Hg, estimate the reading of Mi .
Give the values of hydrodynamic, hydrostatic, static and stagnation pressures at
each of the two locations. What would be the manometric reading if MI and
M2 were connected differentially?
(Ans: M1 = 14938; put = = 14938, p,1 = 15.121, phd2 = p,2 =
"12 = 14.974 all in mHg; zipk,= 2 m of water)
152 FLUID MECHANICS
Fig. 5.19
2. The velocity of air at the outer edge of a tornado, where the pressure is 750
mm Hg and diameter 30 metres, is 12 m/s. Calculate the velocity of air and
pressure at a radius of 2 metres from its axis. Consider the density of air to be
constant, p = 1.2 kg/m3.
(Ans: 90 m/s, 714.22 mm Hg)
3. A hydrostatic bearing is formed by arranging two circular plates of diameter
30 cm separated by a distance of 5 mm. Oil of specific gravity 0.8 flows inward
froni the periphery of the disks, and drains out through a 2 cm ID pipe at the
centre of the bottom plate. The volumetric oil flow rate is 2 litres/s and the pressure
at inlet is 200- IEN/m2 abs. If the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, calculate the
load carrying capacity of the hexing neglecting losses and the momentum change
due to exit through the central pipe.
(Ans: 7014.6 N)
4. A tube carrying water has a horizontal portion 1.2 m long. The tube is rotated
in the horizontal plane about an axis at a distance of 50 an from one of the
vertical limbs. Calculate the difference in the level of water in the two limbs,
if the speed of rotation is 50 rpm.
(Ans: 33.46 cm)
5. A pitot-static tube at the centre of a 10 an diameter pipe is aligned in the
direction of flow. When air flows through the pipe, the differential manometer
across the pilot tube reads 6 mm of water gauge. It is known that for the air
flow under consideration, the centre line velocity is 18 per cent higher than the
average. Calculate the flow rate of air considering the coefficient of the pitot
tube as unity, and air density 1.2 kg/m3.
(Ans: 0.0791 kg/s)
MEDIANIC,Al ENERGY EOUATON 1§3
6. A venturimeter is installed in a vertical pipeline of 20 cm ID. The inlet and
outlet diameters of the venturimeter are equal to the pipe diameter, and the throat
is 10 cm ID. The total height of the meter is 2 metres. Calculate the flow rate
or water through the pipe, when a differential manometer between the throat and
the outlet of the venturimeter reads 8.5 cm Hg. Take Ca = 1.05 and d = 9.5
m/s2.
(Ans: 38.41 litres/s)
7. A sharp edged orifice of 4 an diameter is fitted on the vertical face of a
reservoir. The level of water in the reservoir is 2 metres, and g = 9.7 m/s2. If
the measured values of C, = 0.625 and Cd = 0.61, estimate the area of cross-
section and the velocity of the jet at the vena-contracta. Find also the flow rate
for the given head.
(Ans: 7.854 cm2, 6.08 m/s, 4.774 litres/s)
8. A circular orifice of diameter d/2 is installed in a pipe of internal diameter
d. The fluid streamlines due to the presence of the orifice plate are as shown
in Fig. 5.20.
111.111
rAir/ AV rm opmAw moirmAnymis
Fig. 5.20
A differential manometer between the upstream and downstream of the orifice
plate, as shown in the figure, reads a head h. Derive an expression for the flow
rate through the pipe in terms of d, h, and the densities of the working and the
manometric fluid.
Given that for an orifice plate Cd = 0.65, pipe diameter 15 cm, orifice opening
diameter 7.5 an, differential manometer reading 17 an Hg, calculate the flow
rate of water through the pipe.
Water leaks out at the bottom of the tank through an orifice of 2 cm diameter and
Cd = 0.62. Determine:
(i) the time taken for the water level to reach 20 an from the start of
filling.
(ii) the instantaneous velocity and quantity of leakage, and
(iii) the maximum height upto which water can be stored in the tank.
15. A pitot tube is traversed along a diameter of 18 cm duct through which air
is flowing. The average static pressure is measured over 4 wall tappings connected
in panillel, and is found to be 6 mm of Wg. The total head, h„ read by a manometer
connected to the pitot tube at varying distances, y, from the duct wall is as follows:
y in cm 2 4 8 9 12 16
h1 in mm Wg 9 13 15 16 14 10
(i) Considering that the air velocity at the solid wall must be zero due
to viscous effects, plot the velocity profile along a diameter.
(ii) Divide the duct cross-section to 5 equal areas. Using the air velocity
at the mid radius of each of these small areas, estimate the air flow
rate.
(iii) Calculate the factor to be multiplied with the velocity read by a pitot-
static tube at the duct centre, for estimating the average velocity.
Take pit =12 kg/m3, g = 9.75 m/s2
One-Dimensional Viscous
Flow
In Chapter 3, we briefly noted two types of one-dimensional flow. For the sake
of clarity, we illustrate these in Fig. 6.1. In Fig. 6.1(a), the velocity is uniform
across the diameter at any axial location. The velocity values vary from section
to section only in inverse proportion to the area of cross-section. The profile is
not affected by the losses, and Bernoulli's equation, without modification, is
applied for estimating the axial pressure variation.
Real
profile
Ideal
profile
1/2 ,d 2
v,d v,d
v3, d3
Non-viscous (b) Viscous
Fig. 4.1 examples of One-Dimensional Flow.
Clearly, the example in Fig. 6.1(a) is an idealized one, for viscous action
will no doubt force the velocity to be zero at the solid surface. The velocity
further into the core will increase, with the maximum higher than the uniform
value, so that the area averages of the ideal and real velocity profiels across a
given section are the same fora chosen volume flow rate. Probable shapes of
the real profile are indicated above the ciftact geometry. Velocity varies 1 oth in
156
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 157
the radial and axial directions, and in reality the divergent duct flow in Fig. 6.1(a)
is a two-dimensional one, provided that there is angular symmetry.
In Fig. 6.1(b), the viscous effect confines the flow at the wall to zero velocity.
The variation is in the radial direction, the axial variation is absent since the duct
chosen is of uniform cross-section. Such conditions are satisfied, in practice, far
downstream of the inlet. The flow in this case is also one-dimensional, but realistic.
Since viscous loss is present, Bernoulli's equation cannot be applied without
modification through the addition of loss energy.
The situations when the real velocity profile does not change in the axial
direction are called 'parallel flow'. In considering the one-dimensional viscous
flow, i.e. with only one non-zero component of velocity, we are necessarily
confined to parallel flows.
Our aim is to estimate the viscous loss by considering transverse variation
of velocity. Once the loss energy is evaluated and introduced in the modified
Bernoulli's equation, the effect of transverse variation can be tacitly disregarded
in the subsequent fluid mechanical calculations.
Du
p wdvol =—( 4x)Ay • 1 +( 4y)Ax • 1 (6.1a)
y= h
T. -ay
Ty d Ax
yr_ 14— P. a
P -aT
z
dr _ dp
(6.1b)
T= dP
W+
By definition, T = µ( du/dy), see Chapter 1; alternative, by kinematics of
Chapter 3, deformation 0 = du/dy.
du 1 dp
w=ii wy+L.
or
1 dp 2
U= + Cy + D (6.2a)
u y y2 )
1 ,. = 7-z +P (6.5)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 159
The curve A in Fig. 62(b), in this context, is the limiting or neutral one.
We note from the shape of this curve that the velocity does not change with
y in the neighbourhood of the solid wall.
Mathematically, this means that
du
Ty = 0 at y = O. (6.8)
t "( 7---1 3
--
p
IL dp
p•a-i Ax
4t-
Entry region Fully developed region
of changing of unchanging momentum
momentum
Fig. 63 Control Volume Analysis of a Fully Developed Pipe Flow.
The pipe is shown to be horizontal for convenience. However, the result shall
be wally applicable to arbitrary orientation if it is remembered that the hydrostatic
pressure is balanced by the body force, and the hydrodynamic pressure differential
alone is responsible for the velocity head.
A control volume 1-2-3-4 of radius r and length .dx is chosen. T(r) is
the frictional shear stress at radius r. Since momentum change is zero between
1-2 and 3-4, we can write
dp d1A(r) - T(r) • P(r).dx
0 =[p - (p + a (6.11a)
so that
T(r) = -1-9) (6.11b)
since the directions of increasing y and r are opposing, Fig. 6.3. Thus
du _ ( 1 dp) Kr'
dr ) 2,rr
or
u _(--
1
dp) r2
162 FLUID MECHANICS
u=0 atr=Rgives
=( 1 dp) 2
2p, W) 2
leading to
as the fluid velocity at a radius r. The maximum velocity occurs at the pipe centre,
r = 0, and is
u r2
(6.14)
U. R2
The parabolic velocity obtained, when the shear stress is Newtonian, is known
as the Haggen-Poiseulle profile. A similar solution is obtained for flow between
parallel walled ducts. The volumetric flow rate is obtained by integration of flow
through an infinitesimal width dr at radius r,
R2 R 2
Q = j2Kr dr u(r) = 27rn—(— Ms ( —r dr
4P o R
or
n= dp )
(6.15)
)1. 811. dx
A D
For a circular geometry, the ratio T, = T.
The concept of a 'diameter' is used for flow geometries of different shapes,
circular and non-circular, by defining
De =p
w (6.17)
w
where A,, and P; _pre respectively the net flow area and the wetted perimeter.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 163
h — p2 f LU,2,
r pg (6.21)
A= R 8µ
pU„ R2
Of
A =16(p )
Re = PU"D (6.22)
164 FLUID MECHANICS
Hence
, 16
=— (6.23a)
Re
Or
64
= Re (6.23b)
are the values of friction factor for fully developed flow at 'moderate' rates through
a circular pipe.
0 025
•
0 02 Laminar Jransition
flow region Complete turbulence, rough pipes, X =
0.05
0-018 - • 0.01.
0.016 - •
0.03
_, ca 0.014 -
C/0
3 002
,c
1
-e pa 0012-
,s 0 015
Relative roughness ,
,i 0.01 - 0 01
L -Re=20( 0.008
•
0.008 - Lower • 0 006
-
0.007 -limit 0006
x Iaminai
.a 0.006 - flow 11002
c II
o 0.005 Itl I
7; III.
Laminar flow, III
i 0.004 -
X:16/Re 0.0002
Turbulent flow,
0-003 - smooth pipe 0-0001
f I. 0.079/ Re" 0.00005
0 0025 - (Blasius Low) 000005
0-00001
0.002
10 10 10 10 10.
Reynolds number, Re = P uca,D/µ
Fig. 6.4 Variation of Friction Factor with Reynolds Number (Moody's Chart).
= p 3.653 x 1.1774
"1 p 1000 m Wg
= 43 mmWg
Example 6.3 Laminar fully developed flow of oil takes place through a 25 mm
pipe with a maximum velocity of 2 m/s. The dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.007
kgf-shn2. Calculate the pressure drop over 50 metres length of the pipe.
Since the density of oil is not given, we cannot estimate the value of Reynolds
number, and therefore cannot estimate f using Eq. (6.23). On the other hand, we
know that for laminar flow through a pipe
r
U. R4
and
du 2/1 71
T„ = - 11(-3-) =
r.R R
2 x 0.007 x 2 x 1000 x 2 kgf-s m
25 m 2M s
= 224 kgf/m2
From a control volume analysis, we obtain
(PI — p2 )A = r • PL for fully developed flow
Hence, for 50 metres length of the pipe, the pressure drop is
P 4L
— P2 =- • 'AL = —51;
Of
4 x 50 x 1000
— p2 = 25 x 2.24 kgf 2
=1.792 kgf/cm2
Example 6.4 Water flows through an eccentric annular duct of cross-section
shown in Fig. 6.5. The inlet pressure is 2 x 105 N/m2 , and the flow is fully
developed. Estimate the pressure at the end of 30 metres length of the duct, if
the flow rate is 0.2 m3/s. The kinematic viscosity of water at the operating
temperature may be assumed as 10-6 m2/ s.
The wetted perimeter of the duct is
P = 2 (15 + 18) + 2 (2 + 3) cm
= 76 cm
The area available for flow is
A = (15 x 18) — (2 x 3) = 264 cm2
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS Row 167
18 cm '1 -r
/ ..1..24-cm
-
-3cm4
15 cm
Dh _
(4r)=1395 cm
Since the flow rate is 0.2 m3/s, the average velocity
02 4
U„ = 264 X10 = 757 m/s
=1.052 x 106
Assuming the internal surface of the duct to be smooth, we note from Moody's
chart that for Re = 106, A = 0.003. Thus
d'C
rr`c7 dr
ilF(r r) =
Of
dp
1.= /W + 7 (6.25)
where C is the constant of integration. Note that Eq. (6.25) is valid for fully
developed flow both in laminar and turbulent regimes.
In order to obtain an analytical solution, we confine to laminar flow of a
Newtonian fluid, for which r = µ (dWdr) in the region of increasing velocity,
see Fig. 6.6(a).
du_ r d C
Tr - 2µ a +
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOM/ 169
Of
+ T lnr+D (6.26)
The constants of integration C and D are evaluated from the fact that u = 0 at
r = ri and r = r2, i.e. on the solid surfaces. Thus
„ (_ d)) [.2 2, 2
. (6.27a)
" `' I ' (r2/0
2 2
=E )[(r22 — r2) + Ir2 r r
n(r2/r1 ) r2 (6.27b)
The velocity profile between the two cylinders forming the annulus is parabolic.
The radius of maximum velocity is obtained by seeking du/dr = 0.
From Eq. (6.27b),
du _( 1 dp) ,r , r22 - r2 1
T-CIT ln (r2/r,) r r2 (6.28a)
At du/dr = 0,
_ ri 1
- 2r + ln2(r2/r,) r =0
Of
2
r.2 - r,2
2 0.2/0 (6.28b)
ro
)1
Since du/dr = 0, ro also defines the circle of zero shear stress. Knowledge
of the zone of zero shear stress affords many conveniences in fluid
mechanical calculations, especially in complex flows. The advantages
stem basically from choosing a control volume to coincide with zero shear
surface.
We shall demonstrate the principle in the case of an annulus through the
control volumes shown in Fig. 6.6(c).
r dp C
0 = TW
°
or
C= (6.29a)
170 FLUID MECHANICS
u r
IiP )
cx
[(r; - r2) + In -] (6.30)
is the expression for velocity in terms of the radius ro of the zero shear circle.
It would be readily recognised that Eq. (6.27) results by substituting for ro
in Eq. (6.30).
An expression for the velocity profile involving r2 and ro could be similarly
obtained by considering the control volume named B.
When the law of shear stress is known such as in laminar flow, or when
the geometry is a convenient one like the concentric annulus, there is no practical
reason for choosing one control volume in preference to the other.
On the other hand, in turbulent flow where the law of wall shear stress is
determined by experiments, control volume II is preferable since the measured
values at any one wall will suffice.
Similarly when a complex duct is involved, even in laminar flow, the method
of control volume II merits over the other. In Fig. 6.7, the cross-section of an
equilateral triangular duct is shown as an example. The duct is divided into six
identical sections by drawing perpendicular bisectors to the opposite sides. Such
sections are more technically called sub-channels.
Consider the sub-channel BGD. Only one solid surface is involved at BD.
BG and DG can be assumed to be zero shear stress lines due to geometrical symmetry.
The friction factor result for one sector is then suitably combined to generate
the value for the entire duct, treating that the pressure gradient for each sub-
channel is the same as for the whole duct. Since the uniformity of pressure gradient
is deviated in undeveloped flows, the sub-channel method is not recommended
for those situations.
B D C
Fig. 6.7 Sub-channel Analysis of an Equilateral Triangular Duct
ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 171
Q = jr22grit dr
(r2/0
I
r]
r2
r dr
and by substituting for u from Eq. (6.27b).
Define
2 2
B— lnr2(r2/r1rl )
Then
_
Q— A fr2 (r2r — r 3 + Br ln —
r
r2 ) dr
n
r2 tr. _ 1.4 ) ( r2 r r 2 )12
a--T± + B T ill —
= A [za- (r ;— rl f) — `—, r2 — —
4
or
=
du = dp)[_ 2r, + /2 — rj (6.32a)
41 4
in (r i )
172 FWID MECHANICS
Tin P(t)rz
The negative sign indicates decrease of velocity with radius as the outer wall
is approached.
4 p,2 „, (r2-/r)
r2 1
r2 (6.32b)
and
/ 1.1.
=/7(r +1-2)
1)2(r2 -ri )
Or
(6.32c)
The expression (6.32c) is the same as the one obtained for the simple pipe flow,
and can be obtained simply by a control volume balance of the pressure gradients
and the average shear force.
26
24
22
20
Re
18
16
14
ao G2 0.4 0.6 ae 1.0
= r1 /r2
Fig. 6.8 Laminar Friction Factor in Concentric Annulus.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 173
Fanning's friction factor for We annulus is obtained from the definition
1
= ZIA
4
T22 r2 D
1
IOU„ 1
S)[(r22 + 2 ) + in-0.
1/1. ) —
2
Defining the teams within the brackets as [B], we get
A = 8µDh _ 44 (
2p11.181 — [B] pU„Dh
Or
4D2
ARe =
For the annulus,
ph =-2(r2 — ri)
and
16 (r2 — 02
ARe (6.33a)
f(r 2 2 T22 -1
rd + In Wr2)
or
16(1— r21 `)
ARe — (6.33b)
*2 1 - T*2
[0+i-1 )+H
In r*,
Example 6.5 A single pass heat exchanger is used as on oil cooler. Cooling
water flows through the inner pipe of 2 an ID and 2.25 an OD. The outer tube
has an ID of 5 an, and oil flows axially in the annular space between the outer
and the inner pipe. The oil flow rate is 150 litres/min and the velocity of water
in the inner pipe is 9.5 cm/s. The density of water and oil are 990 kg/m3 and
880 kg/m3, whereas the kinematic viscosities are 10-6m2/s and 33 x 10-6 m2/s.
Calculate the pressure drop required on the water and the oil side, if the heat
exchanger has an effective length of 3.5 metres.
1 (52
The annular flow area = 4L - 2252) = 15.6588 cm2
174 FLUID MECHANICS
Oi l
5 rnso 1 f
-- Water 2.25 cm- 2 cm'--
Fig. 6.9
150 x 10-3
Via - -13965 m/s
60 x 15.6588 x 10-
Ph = 5 - 2.25 = 2.75 cm
x 2 x 10-2 x 10-2
Rewn= =1900
104
The Reynolds number for both water and oil flow being less that 2000, the flow
is laminar in either case.
16
= Toy - 0.0084
For the annulus,
* 225
-—5 ---0•45
= 16 x (1- 0.45)2
(fie)r = OAS 2 = 23.75
1 - 0.45
+ 0.452) +
23.75
loll = 1330.4 - 0.0178
42,fLU2
dp D
t
hA Oh I Patm
.L i a_
hB
ZB
Datum
,/,..z..
Fig. 6.10 Water Flow between Two Reservoirs.
pgL+h
20 A +Z
A = 20L+h
pg +Z +hj (6.34)
The lost head
hf = loss at entry to the pipe at reservoir A
+ friction loss in the pipe
+ lost kinetic energy at entry to reservoir B
i.e.
05V2 fry2 V2
hi = + -2--ti + 1.7
or
= (1.5 f L) V;
D (6.35a)
The velocity V is more generally written in terms of the flow rate Q which is
176 FLUID MECHANICS
is + 1 Q2
K D) 2a 8J
Or
= RQ2 (6.33b)
defining the square bracketted terms as the flow resistance R.
The difference in water level between A and B is, on the other hand, written
in terms of the heights measured from the datum as
.dh= (hs + Zs) - (hs + Zs) = HA Hs (6.35c)
Combining (6.34), (6.35b) and (6.35c), we can write
alth= RQ2 (6.36)
''Equation (6.36) is comparable to a purely resistive electrical circuit
V = ri (6.37)
where V is 'the voltage or potential difference, r the resistance in ohms, and i
the current.
The difference, however, is that while the voltage drop in an electrical circuit
is linearly proportional to the current, the head differential in a fluid circuit is
proportional to the sqaure of the flow rate. This non-linearity imposes restrictions
for direct use of electrical network analyser for solving fluid-flow problems,
although there are ways to approximate the procedure.
Now that we recognize the nature of Eq. (6.37) in Eq. (6.36), we can represent
the flow between the stations A and B through an equivalent circuit, Fig. 6.11.
Q2 Q2
R R
—711
kHA- H
HAI IHg
MaIMplit 6.6 If the pipe connecting the two reservoirs in Fig. 6.10 were made
up of two sections: 150 metres of 20 an followed by 100 metres of 15 cm diameter,
calculate the flow rate from the reservoir A to B. When HA = 6 m and He =
2 m. Given that ZA = 100 m and Zs = 4 m. Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
for both sections of the pipe is 0.015, g = 9.8 m/s2
The total loss = entry loss from A + friction loss in 150 m of 20 cm
pipe + contraction loss from 20 cm to 15 cm + friction
loss in 100 m of 15 cm pipe + exit loss in B.
Of
V2 AV; V2 f 1211, V 2
= 0.5 + 6 + 0.5 11 + 1Dg +
1.g
Suffixes 1 and 2 correspond respectively to the 20 an and 15 cm diameter pipes.
By continuity, Q= = a2V2.
1. 2 V, = 1.78V1
= (7
4
)
= 48.095 V2
48.095 Q2
hi = • = 2488.76e
a
Therefore,
R = 248876
The wit of R is (s2 ni-3) and is denoted Weisbach after the engineer Weisbach.
.0=HA -14=(100+6) —(4+ 2)=100m
Since
= RQ2
Fig. 6.12
(14 V2 4A1V2
•= 27 + DILF
=(03+ .4±211j1.p) V2
6 ) 2g
2
= (0.5+ 010664) 11
112 44112
his + 2Dg a + 0106612) -;;
1
ONE-01MENSIONAL viscous mow 179
V2 V2
= + h12 = (1.5 + 01066 x 800) Ts- = 8638 -5-
Ah =
V
12.5 = 86.78 -5-
Consider, for example, the flow system indicated in Fig. 6.13. Water enters
a pipe at A that branches into two at B. The two branches again meet at C, and
water is discharged at D through the pipe CD.
The total head at A is HA and that at D is Hp. The total head is the sum
of the height above a common datum, the pressure head and the velocity head.
HA and Hp are shown as batteries with their negative terminals at the common
ground potential. The grounded terminals can be joined together as shown by
the dotted line, in which case (HA — HD) is the potential difference. The flow
rate Q divides into Q1 and Q2 at B which recombine at C. A, B, C and D are
the nodal points.
Conservation of volume or mass flow rate at each of the nodes, and the
pressure head equation in the form of the modified Bernoulli's equation for a
closed loop are the two relationships used for estimating the flow parameters.
These two are equivalent to the two laws of Kirchoff for an electrical network.
Q
13,d3,f3
12 ,d f2 Q2 at 11,d1, ti
}Qt
1444, f4
a
(a) Physical model (b) Equivalent network
Fig. 6.13 Flow through Branched Pipes.
Choosing the flow to a node as positive and that from the node as negative,
we can write the mass conservation as
Ztit=0 (6.38a)
or, for incompressible flow,
IQ= 0 (6.38b)
Thus in Fig. 6.13 at B,
Q - - Q2 = 0
and at C,
+ -Q= 0
Qs are the volumetric flow rates.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 464
The pressure balance for a loop is
— dh+ ERQ2 =0 (6.39a)
In writing RQ2 in (6.39a) it is tacitly assumed that the true flow is in the same
direction as shown in the figure. There is no a priori knowledge to ensure this,
however, in all situations.
In order to account for the direction of flow, and consequently the pressure
gradient, RQ2 is written as RI Q IQ, where f2 without the modulus sign sets the
direction.
Thus it is more appropriate to write
—4h+ERIQIQ=0 (6.39b)
In deriving the resistance R, we had•assumed the friction factor f to be constant.
The laminar • derivations have shown that this indeed is not true:
f = 64/Re. In general, f is dependent on flow rate, and pressure drop should better
be expressed as Ral, it being an experimentally determined index.
The general expression for pressure balance is therefore:
—4h+ERIQI"Q=0 (6.39c)
We shall demonstrate the application of Eqs. (6.38) and (6.39) to the network
in Fig. 6.13 through numerical values of the following example.
104 x
— m of Wg
10 x g
10 x 9.81
= — 10326 m Wg
= leg'
= +
0.015 x 60) Q21
0.15 ) x 2g
X 2
= MI5) = 0.01767 m2
2
a2 =a (02) = 0.03141 m2
Ra2, =1347.47Q;
153
r47g =1.63Q,
Q2
Q=a+Q2= 2.63Q1
HA =11D + R3Q2 + R2Q1 +RsQ2 (1)
The total head at the pump discharge is that due to the pressure developed and
the velocity head, besides the datum difference. It would be unambiguous to
specify the pump pressure as a total pressure so that the velocity head at the
pressure measuring point is accounted for. This is, however, rarely so stated, since
total pressure measurement on a regular pipeline is inconvenient compared to the
static pressure measurement.
In the absence of specific statement, we shall take the pump pressure as the
static one. Hence
HA — 14.W + Palm + —L
112
Pg 2g
= 10326 x 11 +
a2 • 2g
HD = 10326 x 2.5 + p2
a, • 2g
a, = 4 (03)2 = 0.07068 m2
a, = 4
2 . (0.4)2 = 01256 m2
HA = 113.586 + 10535 Q2
ONE-DIMENMONAL viacoue rum 183
HD = 25.815 + 3336Q2
R3Q2 0.010x3100
100 = 35.118Q2
a;
R4
(22 = 0.01 150 y2 = 12.511Q2
4 a4 • 2g
Using (i)
HA —HD = R3Q2 R2Q22 +
Or
113386 + 10.535Q2 — 28.815 — 3336Q2 = (194.669 + 35.118 + 12311)Q2
Or
235.099Q2 = 84.771
Q = 0.6004 m3/s
Q, = 02282 ne/s
a = 03722 m3/s
Hp =HA — R3(22
= 113.586 + 10535Q2 — 35118Q2
= 104.724 m Wg
= P• e
Pg a: • 2g
Or
PS- — H —H Q2
pg 2g — c
= 25.815 + 3336Q2 + 12311Q2 — 3336Q2
= 30325 m Wg
Pc = 2.936 kgf/cm2 abs
= 1.936 kgf/cm2 is the gauge reading at C downstram of the bend.
184 FWD MECHANICS
(a) Layout
=0
E
(b) Network
Fig. 6.14
Node B:
12=t2+Q2
Path OABDO:
V:
—40+RQ2 +R2(A+2+-27 =0
A potential balance between the reservoir and the branching point B yields:
—40+RQ2 +c
i+20=0
ODBCO:
2
1712
- -2 — Rai + Rai + =0 (iv)
ONE-DILIENSIONAL viscous FLOW 185
RQ2 = k V2 +05
2dg
4 15 + 3) Q2
12.09d4
(, 3) 03308 (0.4962 0.99241
From
RQ2 Q2 20
=
Or a • 2g
0.4962 0.9924 03308
+ + - 20
d4 (4
Or
20d5 - 0.8270d - 0.9924 = 0
Or
d3 - 0.04135d - 0.04962 = 0 (v)
The value of d is obtained by trial and error. Write
d5 - 0.04135d - 0.04962 = e (vi)
Choose d = (0.04961)16 as the first value, and iterate to obtain a negative and
a positive value of e. The value of d is then estimated by interpolation. Of course,
the solution can be obtained more rigorously by improved numerical schemes
such as Newton-Raphson's when a computer is used.
Trial No.
1 0.5484 - 0.02267
2 0.5 - 0.0390
3 0.6 0.00333
4 0.57 - 0.01302
5 038 - 0.007967
We may now linearly interpolate between d = 038 and 0.6 to make e = 0.
01)07967 x (0.6 - 058)
d=
058 (0.00333 + 0.007967)
= 0.594 m
or
d= 59.4 cm
From (ii),
R2(A + g= 38 - RQ2
or
(03 + 0.015 x 130 + 1) 12;
2 = 38 - 17.4058
) a2 • 2g
(L5 195) 1
, = 20.5942
+ 3T ) 12.09d -2
or
1.5d2 + 195 = 248994
Or
d: - 0.006d2 - 0.00783 = 0
Trial No. d2
1 0.379 - 0.0022.
2 0.4 0.00001
3 0.39 - 0.00114
Therefore,
d2 =40 cm (viii)
From (iv),
Or
= 40 cm (ix)
which should suffice.
That 4 and d2 turned out to be equal must be considered as a matter of
coincidence in this problem.
Note further that the values of d, 4 and d2 have been calculated in this
problem to numerical exactness within a limit of accuracy. It is improbable that
pipes of varying dimensions to such calculated extent shall be available
commercially. For example, the available pipe would correspond to a d = 60 cm
and not 59.4 cm. When, and because, such practical choices have to be made,
a flow control arrangement such as a valve is installed in each pipeline for
obtaining the desired flow distribution. The control is essentially through varying
the resistances in a flow path.
Similarly, for example, if d, turned out to be, say, 38 cm whereas d2 = 40 cm,
the practical choice would be to use d, = 40 an also. But then flow would have
to be regulated through a valve.
dQ C
dx
( a ) Uniform draw-off (b) End-discharge
Fig. 6.15 Perforated Pipe Flow.
At a given section x of the perforated pipe, let the flow rate be q fora length
dx. Then the frictional loss for dx is
dh. = 112 dx
2Dga
For constant draw-off rate C,
= — Cx
188 FLUID MECHANICS
Hence
- =2Dhga - cx)
The total head loss for pipe length 1 is
— QC12) (6.40a)
h11 = 2Dh ga2 (Q21 + C2 I;
Since the discharge at the free end is zero,
Q = Cl,
Substituting in (6.40a)
fie
2D gat (6.40b)
hf I 3 — 3 11/.2
where hi, corresponds to the solid pipe in Fig. 6.15(b).
If the pipe diameter varied along the length, or if the drawn off was not
constant, accounting for such situations present no difficulty in principle. The
variable are to be then included within the integral.
Example 6.10 The flow paths in a tube railway ventilation system are shown
schematically in Fig. 6.16. The path resistances are in SI Weisbach units when
the fan total pressures are in mm Wg. Calculate the values of parameters marked
to be needed , in the sketch, given the other values.
Quantity of air:
station inlet x = 60 m3/ s at p,= 26 mm Wg
tunnel inlet y = 50 m3/s at p, = 21 mm Wg
ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 189
0
41 Tunnel
p I inlet
4
0 0 0
Station Under platform Mid-tunnel
inlet exhaust exhaust
Fig. 6.16 A Representative Ventilation Network.
It is adequate if all the flow quantities are included in the equations at least once.
From Eq. (ii),
R,,u2 = pi — Rxx2
= 26 — 0.0072 x (60)2
= 0.08
R„ = 0.08/52 = 0.0032 Wb (v)
From Eq. (iv),
p3 = lizz2 — Itu2
= 0.00073 x (80)2 — 0.08
= 4592 mm Wg (vi)
From Eq. (iii),
P2= Rww 2 — R,,u2
= 0.027 x (25)2 — 0.08
= 16.795 mm Wg
In general,
RQ2
H—R---
-
Or
RQ2
= 1 --w- (6.50)
The efficiency is unity at the trivial case of Q = 0 and is zero when Q = -4-17/2
1
The transmission efficiency varies quadratically with the flow rate.
Example 6.11 The water level above the nozzle of a Pelton wheel is 500 m.
Water is conveyed to the turbine nozzle through a 300 mm diameter pipe of 4.8 km
length. The pipeline is designed for maximum power transmission, and has a
Fanning's friction coefficient A = 0.009. Calculate the water flow rate and the
available water power.
For maximum power transmission friction loss, hf = H/3 and the head
available at the nozzle is Hp = 2H/3 = 33333 m.
hf =
4ALV2
or
4 x 0.009 x 4.8 x 103 i
V = (5=3)
2 x 9.81x03
or
31.648V2 = 166.66
or
V = 2.294 m/s
The water. flow rate
Q = 4 x (03)2 x 2294 = 0.162 m3 /s
The water power
= pQgHp =103 x 0.162 x 9.81 x 33333
= 529.7 kW
VOID
T8
_.2 - Pi - P2
dx
CROSS-SECTIOAL
AREA-A
Fig. 6.17 Porous Medium.
From Eq. (6.53), we get
A. Er d 2
Or 2PUIIV
A= 2 (6.54)
2ku„
when Darcy's expression from Eq. (6.51) is used. u,,, is the flow velocity on
the basis of the void area at a cross-section.
The flow rate is
Q= Ail = Awid u1, ,
from which we get
17 A = E
, (6.55)
U„ A
Defining a Reynolds number
Re =
and combining with Eq. (6.54), we can write
ed 2
ARe = = C (6.56)
Since both the porosity e and permeability k are determined by the size and
arrangement of the solid bodies in a medium, the value of Cis dictated by geometrical
parameters. This observation is consistent with the assumptions of the flow being
laminar and non-accelerating, see for example the results for a circular pipe or an
annulus.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 195
Example 6.12 A bundle of 7 rods, each 12 mm OD, are placed axially inside
a pipe of 54.5 mm ID. Six of the rods are arranged uniformly on a PCD of
31.5 mm and the seventh one is placed concentrically with the pipe. The laminar
friction factor Ain axial flow through the assembly was found to be A.Re = 21,
where A and Re are defined on the average velocity and the hydraulic diameter.
Treating the assembly as a porous unit calculate the values of porosity and
permeability.
Pipe area A = (x/4) x (0.0545)2 = 2.3328 x 10-3 m2
Rod cross-sectional area a = (e4) x (0.012)2 = U309 x 10-4 m2
Pipe perimeter P = x x 0.0545 = 0.1712 m
Rod perimeter p = x x 0.012 = 0.0377 m
Net flow area Al = A — 7a = 134117 x 10-3 m2
Wetted perimeter P., = P + 7p = 0.4351 m
4A,
Hydraulic diameter = p
. = 0.01417 m
A,
Porosity e = = 4= 0.6606
ED/2,
RRe = =C
or
eg 0.6606 x (0.01417)2
k= = 2 x 21
Therefore
Permeability k = 3.1584 x 10-6 m2.
6.12 SUMMARY
1. Viscous effects introduce variations in velocity profile in the direction transverse
to the bulk flow. One-dimensional viscous flow is hence possible only in
geometries of uniform cross-section and at sections far downstream of the entry
where momentum variation is absent.
2. In making a control volume analysis, the direction of shear stress opposing
the flow is fixed on the basis of whether the fluid layer immediately outside a
face of the CV is at a higher or lower velocity than the face.
3. Pressure increasing in the direction of flow, dp/dx> 0, is adverse as it causes
retardation of the flow. Fluid velocity near a stationary solid wall is reduced, and
sometimes reversed, under adverse pressure gradient. The condition of zero velocity
gradient, du/dy = 0, at the wall is said to be the situation of flow separation.
4. In a fully developed flow through an internal geometry, the momentum
change being zero, the pressure gradient balances the shear force. Shear stress
196 FLUID MECHANICS
in a fluid obeys Newton's shear law so long as the flow velocity is moderate.
The flow is then said to be in the laminar regime. At higher velocities, the
Newtonian shear law is not valid, in fact far exceeded, and the flow is in the
turbulent regime.
5. In internal flows, transition from laminar to turbulent does not take place
until Re > 2000. The Reynolds number is defined as
pUDh
Re =
IL
where Ph is the hydraulic diameter, = 444./P., unifying ducts of arbitrary
cross-section.
6. Whereas shear stress in laminar flow can be theoretically estimated, the
value of friction factor differs for different geometries. Turbulent shear stress
cannot be theoretically predicted. However, the friction factor values for fully
developed turbulent flow through arbitrary geometries is found to be approximately
constant at a given Reynolds number so long as Dh is used as the characteristic
dimension.
7. In internal flows, it is sometimes convenient to chbose a control volume
coinciding with the fluid surface of zero shear stress. The number of surfaces
at which the shear stress is to be estimated is then reduced. The zero shear stress
surface may either be known experimentally or guessed from geometric symmetry.
8. The internal flow of a fluid can be likened to the flow of electric current.
The pressure differential is synonymous with electric voltage, friction and other
losses with the resistance, and Q2 with current. Note that while Q is the volumetric
flow rate, the correspondence with current is Q2 .
9. It is convenient to represent the flow through a number of pipes in series
and parallel by an equivalent network. The sum of flow rate at a node in the
network is zero, the pressure differential and Z RQ2 balance each other in a closed
loop; i.e. .1 Q= 0 and — dp+ E RQ2 = O. These two are sometimes referred
to as the ICirchoff s law for flow networks.
10. In a ventilation network, both positive and negative pressure fans are
present. The system design often aims at specifying suitable dp — Q character-
istics of the fans, and resistance in the leakage path.
EXERCISES
1. Derive expressions for the velocity profile, flow rate and friction factor for
steady, laminar incompressible flow of a fluid through a parallel plate channel.
Such a flow is known as the plane Poiseulle flow.
A liquid having a dynamic viscosity it= 0.06 gm/cms flows between two fixed
horizontal plates 20 mm apart. If the average velocity of the liquid is 0.2 m/s,
estimate the shearing stress at y = 0, 5 mm and 10 mm, y measured from a wall.
Plot the velocity and shear stress distributions over the channel depth.
(Ans: 0.36, 0.18, 0.0 N/m2)
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS Flow 197
of water above pipe openings are 6 in in the upper reservoir and 3.7 m in the
lower. Taking A = 0.006, calculate the discharge through the pipeline, ignoring
losses other than friction.
8. Two points A and B at the ground level were supplied equal quantity of water
through branched pipes each 2 cm diameter and 10 m long. Water supply is made
from an overhead tank whose water level above the ground is 12 m, and the
length and diameter of the pipe upto the junction point 0 are 14 m and 5 cm.
0 also is on the ground level, Fig. 6.18.
A new 2 an 0, 20 m length connection is to be made from 0 to C. A for
all pipes is 0.004. The pipe lines to A and B are provided for controlling flow
rates.
0, A, B, C are
at ground level
Fig. 6.18
Calculate:
(i) Flow rates at A and B when the valves are fully open, before C was
connected.
(ii) Flow rates at A, B and C with the valves fully open.
(iii) Valve resistances on pipe lines to A and B so as to obtain equal flow
rates at A, B, and C. The value of such flow rates.
Neglect all losses other than friction.
9. Two reservoirs are connected through a 30 cm pipeline, 1000 in long as shown
in Fig. 6.19. At a point B, 300 m from the upper reservoir, a valve is inserted
on a short branch line which discharges to atmosphere. The valve may be regarded
as a rounded orifice 7.5 an diameter, Cd = 0.65. If Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
for all sections of the pipe is 0.013, calculate the rate of discharge to the lower
ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 199
reservoir whcP 019 Ygn 29 P fully 9pcac Wthauti thu lalgu through Wu
short pipeline at B. Neglect entry and exit losses.
(Ans: 0.2347 m3/s, 0.0525 m3/s)
10. A pipe 1800 m long, 20 cm diameter connects two reservoirs. The pipe is
laid on a ridge at a height 8 m above the water level in the upper reservoir.
The leg of pipe from the upper reservoir to the ridge top is 320 m.
Fig. 6.19
Calculate the minimum difference in the levels of water in the two reservoirs
if the absolute pressure anywhere in the pipeline must not be less than 4 m of
water below atmospheric. Estimate the discharge under such limiting condition.
Neglect all losses other than friction and f = 0.021.
Dimensional Analysis
—
-FA;
lip V
The expression at (7.5a) could be then obtained by squaring n". In other
words the physical significance is in no way enhanced or diminished by choosing
`a' to be a fraction.
The dimensionless number
p
—
(v2pV2)
is called the Euler number, E. Physically, E can be interpreted as the ratio of
flow work (A p/ p) to kinetic energy (1/2V2) per unit mass; or the ratio of static
to dynamic pressure.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 203
7.4 FRICTION LOSS IN INTERNAL FLOW
We choose the hydraulic diameter D„ as the characteristic dimension. The other
independent variables are p, µ and V, whereas the dependent variable is either
the shear stress, or the pressure gradient if the flow is fully developed.
In terms of a functional relationship between the dependent and independent
variables, we can state the problem as
rtv = f(V, ph, A P)
Or
g (r„, V, A, p, A)= 0. (7.6)
By indicial notation,
]s
[ML T-2 [LT-']e [Me [MI:3]a [ML' M°L°T° (7.7)
Collection of the index of individual dimension results in
M: a+d+e= 0
L :—a+b+c —3d — e = 0 (7.8)
T: —2a—b—e=0
Since n = 5 and p = 3, two n parameters shall summarize the flow information.
Values of two of the indices are to be chosen.
First, we choose a = 1, as one of the gs must involve the shear stress. Choose
additionally e = 0. The following result: d = —1, b = —2 and c = 0, leading to
Difference would however occur if the flow was developing, to the extent
that the pressure gradient is then higher by the amount required for causing
momentum variation.
On the other hand, the pressure gradient in an external flow balances the
combined loss due to skin friction, zw, and the shape or form drag. It is then
customary to define a total drag coefficient CD = (dtp/ipV2), as one of the
is parameters.
The flow of water in a lake or a river with its surface exposed to atmosphere
is clearly a gravitational phenomenon. The formation of waves in an ocean, or
the resistance experienced by a ship are all grouped as 'free surface effects' and
are hydrostatic in nature.
The resistance R experienced by a body of characteristic length L and wetted
projected area A moving through a liquid of density p at velocity V can be
represented indicially through:
CD = (7.11)
i-pA V2
in view of the experience gained in the earlier sections.
We next search for the second it by choosing e = 0 and b = 1, for the latter
ensures influence of g.
We obtain: a = 0, c = — 2 and d = 1, from which
gL
Z2 = 2
V
This can be rewritten as
V
ir2 = (7.12)
IrCg
and is known as the Froude Number, Fr. Thus Fr signifies the ratio of inertia
force to gravitational body force.
DIMPADIAL ANALYglg 20§
7.6 RESISTANCE DUE TO SURFACE TENSION EFFECTS
Any imaginary surface in a fluid medium is acted upon by intermolecular forces
on either side. When the surface is completely submerged in a homogeneous fluid,
the forces on either side cancel each other. In other words, the net effect is felt
at the interface of two fluids or a fluid and a solid. The phenomenon is known
as the 'surface tension' and is defined as the force per unit length of the line
of contact, acting in a direction perpendicular to the line.
Consider a liquid column in a tube. Three surface tension forces are in action
on the free surface; the force between liquid and air, air and the tube surface,
and the tube surface and the liquid. The direction of the resultant force decides
the shape of the miniscus such as a concave one in water and a convex in mercury.
The surface tension force comes into reckoning when the motion is
discontinuous or through very narrow passages at low rates. The 'capillary action'
of a rising water level through a wick is a surface tension phenomenon. So is
the reason that a vapour bubble is spherical in shape, and maintains an internal
pressure higher than the external for counter-balancing the surface tension.
On the basis of the definition, the dimension of surface tension a is [MT-2].
The variable in a fluid motion due to an impressed pressure differential against
surface tension are: Ap, p, V, D and a. Hence,
[mut T-2r 3 b [LT- I lc [Lid [ML— 2 le mOLO TO
M : a+b+e= 0
L —a-3b+c+d= 0 (7.13)
T: — 2a — c — 2e = 0
Choosing first a = 1 and e = 0, we arrive at
Ap
= 2
zpV
Next choose a = 0, e = 1, from which
11.2= pV-D
We rewrite
pV 2D
n2 — cr (7.14)
and name it as the Weber number, Wr, signifying the relative magnitude of the
inertia force over the surface tension.
where x2, x3, ... contain the independent variables and it, contains the dependent
variable. For example, tr, = r./(1/2pV2 ), whereas x2 = Re in fully developed
flow.
The question now is to ascertain the functional relationship. This is done
in the following manner.
(i) Geometrical Similarity. Experiments are carried out using models that are
geometrically similar. For example, estimation of the drag force in flow of air
over a 2 metre diameter spherical shell could be made by experimenting on a
2 cm sphere in a laboratory wind tunnel.
(ii) Dynamic Similarity. Since the drag coefficient Co depends upon Reynolds
number, the laboratory experiments must cover the range of Reynolds number
that shall be experienced by the spherical shell. When the value of the independent
IC parameter for the model test (geometrically similar) equals that for the prototype,
`dynamic similarity' is said to be established. The fluid velocity for model is
then called the 'corresponding speed' of test.
The results of model test are plotted in terms of xi and 1r2. We could say
that functionally they are related as:
it, = C/C7 (7.16)
the question now being to determine C and m, restricting ourselves to two it
parameter for clarity.
A logarithmic plot is often convenient, since
log it, = log C + m log x2 (7.17)
is a straight line relationship.
The intercept on the it, axis yields the value of C, and the slope m. The
dots on the graph in Fig. 7.1 are supposed points obtained from experiments with
the geometrically similar model.
rn
K
.• . • • C 2, M 2
Iog C2 62
Laminar -6-4-0- Turbulent •
Transition m2 =tan 82
log 7C2 7C 2 = R e
Fig. 7.1 Logarithmic Plot of it Parameters.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 207
The Reynolds number at the two measured conditigns of water flow are:
2 03
Aei = CP X Ill 5
10-6
„, 4 x 0.3 ,,,
Ae2 = - x ,„
10
Both Reynolds number are far above the lower critical value of 2000. The flow
in either case is turbulent. The frictional pressure loss
f1V2
AP =p2D
1000 x 2 x 03
= = 0.015
1000 x 10 x 2
f._ __ 3500x 2 x03 - 0.013
moo TioT-.1-
4
Considering
f = CRem
_( Rei r
12 - kli;
Of
^„, 0013 „„x,
- =v.0pARD
z = 0015
and
m= - 0.206
Thus
0.015 = C • (6 x 105)-ams
Of
C = 0.232
Hence, the law of friction factor is established from the water flow experiment
as
f = 0232Re-°326
in the turbulent regime.
For the air flow,
duct atra A = 15 x 10 x 10-4 =0.015 m2
P=2x(15+10)x10-2 =0.5m
4 x 0.015
A— 0.5 = 0.12 m
0.5
V= Off = 3333 m/s
VDI, = 3333 x 0.12
Re =
v = 249975 x 104
16 x
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 209
Since the air flow is also turbulent, we recall the -law from experiments using
water, applying tacitly the criterion of kinematic similarity.
f = 0.232 x (24.9975 x 10410206
= 0.0179
The pressure loss over 25 m length of the air duct is
Example 7.2 A model test in a towing tank is intended for estimating the wave
resistance to the motion of a ship at 40 m/s in the ocean:the geometrically similar
model ship is made to 1/100th scale of the prototype.
Estimate the testing speed of the model. Assuming the specific gravity of
sea water as 1.025, calculate the resistance experienced by the ship, if the model
experiences 2.5 N resistance at the testing speed.
Since only one result of the model test is available, we can extrapolate the
prototype value only by assuming dynamic similarity. In other words
= Frp,,„,ype
Or
V. = Vp
rg
Or
1/2
L
17, = Vp(77-
: = 40 (11
+ 01/2 = 4 m/s
= 25652 x 106 N.
Example 7.3 As a part of the ventilation system design for the Calcutta tube
railway, tests were carried out at I.I.T., Kharagpur on 1/10 scale geometrically
similar models of the train and, tunnel. A photograph of the model is given in
Fig. 7.2.
21 0 FLUID MECHANICS
Fig. 7.2
In one set of tests, the following measurements were made with a section
of the tunnel occupied by a train (model). The schematic of the measuring section
is given in Fig. 7.3.
Train Fan
C m
Measuring section , 40.14 m long
Fig. 7.3 Train Tunnel Model Experimental Layout.
Hence
,dpcD = 142.5 — 371 = 105.4 mm Wg (v)
The pressure loss in the occupied portion, .dpa„ is partly due to the form drag
offered by the train projected area and partly for the friction loss in the annular
area between the tunnel and the train.
Example 7.4 Consider the model test data given in Ex. 7.3. Assuming the train-
tunnel annular area friction factor to be equal to that of the free tunnel, estimate
the train drag coefficient.
Evaluate the pressure loss in creating air flow over a prototype train of 120 m
length under dynamically similar condition.
Air velocity in the annular area of the model train-tunnel system is
03094
V = V, x —
111 = 14.51 x — 20.65 m/s
Amin 03094 — 0.092
Making a force balance for the section CD, we note
1 2
PcD x = AuxhaCIArgin Tiv • Pane • LcD
2 0.0626
— 2 x 116 x (20.65) x x 3.697 x 16.28
= 232.96 N
dpcp x A, = 105.4 x 9.75 x 03094 = 317.95 N
Therefore,
1
-2pV2 A „„„CD.i. = 31795 — 232.96 = 84.99
84.99 x 2
= , = 7.56 (i)
D
— 1.16 x 0.092 x (1431)2
Prototype Pressure Loss:
For dynamically similar condition,
Rep = Re.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 213
f p = f„, = 0.0626
Since the prototype and model Reynolds number are equal, the model tunnel
velocity is the corresponding speed. The prototype velocity is
1451
V= = 1.451 m/s
V = 2.065 m/s
P = 3.697 x 10 = 36.97 m
La, = 120 m
0.0626
Z,,, • Pg,„LcD = 7 x 1.16 x (2.065)2 x x 36.97 x 120
=17L71 N
2 1
pV Auai,,CD x 1.16 x (1.451)2 x (0.092 x 100) x 7.56
= 84.93 N
Thus
dpi x44, = 171.71 + 84.93 = 256.64
256.6
= 829 N/m2
pa' 03094 x 4 100
Or
dpi = 0.85 nun Wg.
7.8 SUMMARY
1. Dimensional analysis serves the purpose of generalising the information of one
set of observations' to other situations.
2. Dimensional analysis is carried out by writing all the number of independent
parameters influencing the physical phenomena. The number of dimensionless
parameters shall be (n — p) where p is the number of fundamental dimensions
involved.
3. The relationship between the dependent x parameter and the independent
ones is often conveniently derived by making logarithmic plot of the results.
4. The principles of model testing are based on satisfying geometric similarity
and dynamic similarity. The latter ensures equality of the ratio of the effecting
forces for both the model and the prototype.
5. When dynamic similarity is established, i.e. when the independent ir
parameters for both the model and the prototype have the same values, the
dependent parameter for the model is equal to that of the prototype. Under dynamic
similarity condition the velocity of fluid for the model is known as the
corresponding speed of test.
214 FLUID MECHANICS
EXERCISES
1. Consider incompressible turbulent fully developed flow through a rough pipe
of diameter D. The average height of the surface roughness is e. State the variables
that control the, pipe friction and derive the corresponding non-dimensional
parameters.
2. An orifice plate of opening d is located in a pipe of diameter D. When a
given fluid flows through the pipe at a volumetric rate Q, the pressure differential
measured across the orifice is zip. Derive the expressions for the non-dimensional
parameters influencing the orifice discharge coefficient.
3. When a body moves through a compressible medium at a high speed
V, disturbances are propagated at the speed of sound a. Considering the medium
pressure p, density p, ratio of specific heats k and body characteristic length
L, show that the relevant non-dimensional parameter is the Mach number
M = Vla, where a = •OFT,Ic R being the characteristic gas constant.
4. A thin disk of diameter D is rotated in a fluid medium at an angular speed
co. Write the variables effecting the resistance to disk rotation. Derive two non-
dimensional parameters representing the frictional torque and the influences of
disk speed, dimension and fluid properties.
5. Consider the rotation of a journal within a bearing in presence of a lubricant.
The lubricant viscosity is At, density p, shaft diameter d, rotational speed N rpm
and the load carried per unit surface area w.
Derive the expressions for x parameters that define the dependence of
frictional torque on the independent variables. Show that the corresponding speeds
of two similar bearings are related as
N2 2 x PI
—W
1471 /12
6. It is known from both analysis and experiments that when a sphere moves
at a very slow speed through a viscous liquid, such that the inertia forces are
negligible, the drag experienced by the sphere is proportional to its velocity.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 215
The underlying assumption in solving the problems of fluid flow by the control
volume analysis in Chapter 4, by the application of Bernoulli's equation in
Chapter 5 or its modification in Chapter 6 has been that the flow is
one-dimensional. We, however, know that one-dimensionality is not satisfied
by most flow situations, other than parallel, due to viscous effects (Fig. 6.1).
The momentum change along a fluid stream results from the interactions of
the body force, the pressure gradient and the viscous force. The effects of body
force are counter-balanced by the hydrostatic pressure gradient, and we may focus
on the hydrodynamic component of pressure and the viscous force only.
It is observed that in fluids of low viscosity, such as air or water, and when
the flow velocity is reasonably high, the pressure gradient is little affected by
the viscous force. In other words, the pressure distribution on the surface of a
body under such flow situations can be estimated from a solution of the non-
viscous conservation equations, like the Euler's or the Bernoulli's.
The purpose of the present chapter is to study the methods for estimating
the flow field and the pressure distribution around a body in motion through an
ideal fluid, where viscous actions are not in play. Two dimensional, incompressible
and steady conditions are assumed.
The pressure distribution so obtained could then be used to generate a
corrected solution for the velocity profiles sustaining the viscous actions. The
methods of viscous solution are discussed in later chapters.
= -dhd- (PE) k
or, in general, the force in a gravitational field is the gradient of the potential energy:
= - V(PE) (8.4)
Compare Eqs. (8.3) and (8.4). The scalar 0 is synonymous with 'potential' energy,
and the velocity vector V with F. The scalar 0 hence, by comparison, is called
the 'Velocity Potential'.
8.3 CIRCULATION
We further recall from the experiment described in Fig. 1.6, (i) that the work
done by moving the body in the gravitational field from position 1 to 2. was
218 FLUID MECHANICS
independent of the path followed, and (ii) that the net work done by moving
from 1 to 2 and back to 1, through closed paths, was zero.
The work done F • a has the correspondence with V • a in a flow field.
We note below that (i7 • d.T) also satisfies the properties of (T' • c/.3), in an
irrotational flow.
Consider a two-dimensional flow in the x—y plane, Fig. 8.1. The components
y
au„
u -- y
t a v ax
v Ay
Ax
.x
of velocity parallel to the x and y faces of a .dx — dy plane are shown on the
figure. We define 'Circulation'
T=f cf•d:f (8.5)
and evaluate
av du
dr, = udx +(v +— Ax)Ay —(14+ —, dy)Ax— vAy
dx uY
( dv du) •
ax — ay Ay
Since dx • Ay = dA, is the area of the plane, where z is the suffix indicating
reference to the z-axis, we obtain
_ (dv du)_,
(8.6)
dAz VFx TY - "z
In other words, circulation per unit area is twice the angular velocity or equals
the vorticity.
dv du
Clearly, when co, = (- — Ti) equals zero, the circulation is zero in an
Tx
irrotational flow.
Stated alternatively, an irrotational flow field is identified by the fact that
the circulation around a closed path is zero. Conversely, the (V • 1:0 between
any two points in an irrotational flow can be estimated by following arbitrary
paths. This is reminiscent of the characteristics of a thermodynamic property
(Chapter 1).
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 219
r. (Vxi7)•ddi (8.7)
u = - dx, = - ay (8.10)
Aat _- _ ay' ay dx
- 4.t (8.11)
in an irrotational flow.
The conservation of mass Eq. (8.9), together with Eq. (8.10), yields the
following governing equation for 0:
Of
(8.12)
220 FLUID MECHANICS
y=0, v=u = 0 or -0
0Y
(I) V
C2 = — (8.15)
Similarly,
dib = 71.7 dx + dy
=-udx- vdy=0on0=C,
Of
(1)= = (8.16)
If we define Ow and 0, as the slopes of the constant w and 0 lines, Eqs. (8.15)
and (8.16) imply
tan 0, • tan 0. = — (8.17)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 221
In other words, the O = C, and W = C2 lines intersect each other at right angles.
The curved rectangles formed by the intersection of 0 and yr lines are known
as the flow nets.
v.
Fig. 8.2 Cartesian and Polar Velocity Components.
stream functions, maintaining the compatibility with our Cartesian definitions, can
be derived with the help of Fig. 8.2. For the sake of clarity, we will temporarily
denote V, and V, as the velocity components in the x- and y-direction.
We note from Fig. 8.2 that
Vr =vcos0—usin8, Vy =vsin 0 +ucos0
and, therefore,
V, sin 0 + V, cos 0 = v (8.18a)
Now examine
1 d1 dx (2t1 dy
7 44 de + dy r de
= 7, sin 0 + cos 0
Of
_ _ do
0 4x - 7 -+ f(y) (i)
u dx dy
= 6y + 7 y2 + g(x)
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get
= (4x + 6y) — ; (x2 — y2)
as the potential function.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 223
8.5 BASIC SOLUTIONS
The harmonic equation on 4) or iv is solved by taking advantage of the fact that
the equation is linear. Linearity of a differential equation implies that several
plausible solutions of the equation can be combined to generate a general solution
that only can satisfy the given boundary conditions.
In practice, three to four solutions of V20 = 0 equation are derived for simpler
flow configurations. These simple solutions are then combined to solve relatively
complex problems.
In generating the solutions for simple flows, we may interchangeably assume
the form of either u, 0 or iv and then investigate the nature of the remaining
two.
V = C3
C2
Cl
x
Fig. 83 Flow Net for Uniform Flow.
-224 FLUID MECHANICS
-0
= C6
Fig. 8.4 Source Flow.
_ 1 A 1 A
Example 8.2 Show that yr = A rya sin (rcala) satisfies Laplace equation.
Derive the potential function for the corresponding irrotational flow. Generate and
sketch the flow nets when a = s/2. For what value of a, the given stream function
may represent an uniform flow.
yr = A rva sin (zOla)
ir (*la - I)
dr = A sin (sOla)• — ar
a2,,, (x/a - 2)
dr.r., - A sin (xela)•—
a (sla -Or
aVi x/a X
del = Ar • —a •cos (sOla)
(dot=-
2 Arid" (irla)2 sin OrOla)
z i=
m d 2w + 1 dw d 2vr
7 77 2 r dr + r2a02
dr
2
= A sin (rrOla)KT:Xi ( -1 + -0rr)
7 r(xla- 2) - (—
X)
• r(ski -
226 FLUID MECHANICS
2 x x x2
n.8 ) • '"(x/a - 2) Ti - Ti 4- Tic- a
= A sin (--a-
or
We know that
_ _ dip
t) — — 4dr—rd0
Therefore,
dr -
4 — - Arwa -')• ax •cos (r r01 a)
or
0 = — Ark/a cos (1101 a) + f(0)
f (0) is evaluated by comparing
slt _ 1 A
dr - r dO
dO irA
Te = Cr r"
Sin (1) + r
Of
1 A _ An. (oda - 1) sin KO
7- do -a r — +f'
a r —
and by comparing with ayllar, we note that f' = 0, f =constant, which we choose
to be zero. Thus
0 = — Ar" cos (sOla) (ii)
when a = tr/2,
w = Are sin 20
= 2A (r sin 9) (r cos 0)
or
lir = 2.A xy
and
0 = — Ar2 cos 20
= — A (r2 cos2 0 — r2 sine 0)
Of
= D' implies
x —y —_A _
2 2
—D (vi)
(v) and (vi) are two rectangular hyperbolas in the x-y plane as shown in
Fig. 8.5.
1- y
Fig. 8.5 Flow Net in a Corner.
The stream line pattern in Fig. 8.5 is typical of flow near a right angled
corner. For uniform flow,
= Uy = Ur sin 9.
The given stream function represents a uniform flow when a = n.
8.5.3 Doublet
Similar to a dipole in electrostatics, the fluid mechanical doublet is a combination
of a source and a sink of very high but equal strength, and spaced a small distance
apart.
In Fig. 8.6, the source and the sink, each of strength A, are located on the
x-axis on either side of the origin. The distance `a' from the y-axis approaches
zero in the limit as the source and the sink constitute a doublet. Physically, the
flow leaving the source terminates on the sink. The arrangement shown in the
figure is known as a `left handed doublet' with anti-clock-wise direction of the
stream lines. The angle is measured positive in the anti-clockwise direction. A
point P (x, y) in the flow field has polar coordinates r and 9, and is at a distance
from the source and r1 from the sink.
The flow potentials at P are:
Sink Source
Fig. 8.6 Source and Sink Flow.
a
= (1 + a)(1+ a + -2- + ..)
Of
r2 a2
T2 =1 + 2a + a2 + — +
T2 2 "
Of
r2
Hence
ir2
= 1 + 2a, neglecting higher order terms
r2 2
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOM/ OF IDEAL FLUIDS 229
Since the distance between the source and the sink tends to zero, 2a 4, 1, and
r 1( 4a2 8a3
Lt in-1- = 2a - -- +
a,0 r2
or
Lt In =a
4-0 '2
or
2ra cos 0
Lt In -L
r -
2-40 r2 r2 +
The doublet potential
A r,
= IT
therefore becomes
_ A 2ar cos 0
2,r r2 + a 2
Of
Aa cos 9
= r (8.28a)
The value of (Aaht) is maintained finite by increasing A to infinite value in
the limit a is reduced to zero.
The expression for 0 is written in the (x, y) coordinates, noting that
2 2
X +y =T ,
2
x=rcos0
Aa x
= • x 2 + y2 (8.28b)
It can be similarily verified that if the doublet was located on the y-axis, the
corresponding potential function would be
Aa y
= a: x2 + y2
For the x-axis doublet the stream function is evaluated from the condition
A_ „kit
dr rot
Since
Aa cos 0
= — • r, dr
2± = _ Aa cos 0
r r2
we have
diy _ Aa cos 0
-
Of
Aa sin (8.29a)
= r
230 FLUID MECHANICS
Equation (8.30) describes a circle of radius Aa/(2Cir) with the origin located
on the y-axis at y = Aal(200 . Obviously, the circle passes through the origin
of the co-ordinate system for all values of C.
The origin of the circle is located on the positive y-axis when A and C
are positive.
The constant potential lines are similarly obtained:
Aa x
0= n x + y2
or
Aa
x 2 +y2 —
car
leading to
Aa ( Aa 12
x— (8.31)
2C7( 0)2 = 0
91 = - C
=C
tis=c
ct) = C2
t
r
4:0= C r
Cl
VII
/ DI
0= C5 cP=
=C6
Free Vortex
When we consider u = A Ibrr, we obtain ur = Al2tr = C, for which the
vorticity is zero by Eq. (8.35). Recall (Chapter 5) that ur = C defines a free vortex
motion. Thus a free vortex flow is irrotational, except at the origin where u tends
to be infinity.
The circulation along a path surrounding the origin in a free vortex flow
is
2s
A
r=§Ufd0=i
brr • r de
0
Of
F=A (836)
corroborating that the flow is rotational when origin is included. A is known
as the strength of the vortex.
We note that while the origin is a singular point in both the source and vortex
flows, it is only in the latter that a net cirulation results.
Forced Vortex
Reverting to Eq. (8.35), we observe that the equation was derived by a contour
integration and is not restricted to irrotational flow. In case of a forced vortex
of angular velocity co, the velocity at a radius r is u = or. The circulation per
unit area is then
1 dr AieD 1 d „
r dr de = r ver2 1= `a) (8.37)
In other words, the vorticity of a forced vortex is 2ox
8.6 SUPERPOSITION
The expressions for efr or w derived for the so-called 'basic' flows of the
foregoing, i.e. the uniform flow, the source or the sink, the doublet and the free
TWO-DLIENSIONAL FLOW OF IDF_AL FLUIDS 233
vortex, can be put to practical use by 'superposition'. By superposition we mean
the algebraic combination of the 4 or tif functions of two or more basic flows.
The combined expressions then can represent potential flow over complex
geometries.
)'
The stream function in the flow field due to the combination of the two basic
flows is
A
= — Uor sin 9 (8.38)
also satisfies the Laplace equation, being a linear combination of two basic flows.
Now recall, from Chapter 3, that no fluid mass crosses a stream line. In other
words, a stream line is a virtual solid surface. Conversely, ty = 0 stream line
represents the outline of a solid body.
The crux of the method of superposition is to evaluate the shape for which
W = 0 condition is satisfied. The stream line generated by superposition then
represents the potential flow past the evaluated body.
The body so evaluated is known as a 'Rankine body'. When the result of
superposition is to generate only the front or the rear of a 'body', the Rankine
body is abbreviated as a 'half body'.
Reverting to Eq. (8.38), we note that the w = 0 stream line corresponds to
the curve
sin 0 A
= 2 xU0 (8.39)
234 FLUID MECHANICS
The typical values of the radial distance from the source are:
A
r = 1-- for 8 =0;
= 0;
Irt o
A
r = -470 - for 0 = ±x/2 and r —)ce for 0 =
The flow field due to Eq. (8.38) and the corresponding Rankine body are sketched
in Fig. 8.9. The Rankine body in this case is really a half body. The body extends
to infinity in the rear end.
u=—
dy, = U sin 0
°
which is zero for 8 = 0.
In other words, both the velocity components are each zero at the
point S on the body in Fig. 8.9, and the fluid is at rest. S is then known as
the 'stagnation point'.
Physically it means that the flow issuing out of the source exactly counter-
balances the uniform flow at S. The point S is located at a distance AlbrUo
from the source. At higher angles, the source flow diverts the uniform flow
resulting in the bending of the stream lines. Very far away from the 'body', where
the influence of the source is minimal, the stream line tends to remain parallel
with the x-axis.
The source and sink are each of strength A placed on the x-axis on either
side of the origin at a distance 2 m apart. The velocity of the uniform flow is
U0. Our objectives are to evaluate the body shape, lengths of the major and minor
axes and the locations of the stagnation points. In Fig. 8.10, the angles 01 and
02 subtended by a point P (X, y) respectively from the source and the sink are:
The stream functions for the source, sink and uniform flow at P (x, y) is
A 0l
= 2x 02 — oY
Of
A y
/V = — 2x + m) tanym) Uoy (8.40)
u= diy= — [ x+m
y 2 + (x n)2
x—m
y 2 + (x 102 U0 (8.41a)
v = ax
A
_[ y2
— nO + y2 (x + M)2 + y2 ]
(8.41b)
From Eq. (8.40), we realize that y = 0, i.e. the x-axis is a part of the w = 0
stream line. That v = 0 on the x-axis is corroborated by Eq. (8.41b).
The locations of the stagnation points are noted from Eq. (8.41a) by setting
u = 0 on w = 0 line. The result is
A 1 1 i_ r!
2rr[x+m x— nti—
236 FLUID MECHANICS
or
2m _ 2/cUo
x 2— m2 — A
or
(x2 — m2) inA
IcUo
Of
X= lint 2 + MA (8.42a)
sUo
y = 0 axis.
If the flow rate into the sink is q, which also is the rate out of the source,
then A = q, and we can write Eq. (8.42a) with greater physical significance as
x = ±4m2 + mq (8.42b)
icUo
on y = 0. The length of the x-major axis is
2 4m2 + mg (8.43)
7cUo
In order to trace the solid surface, we continue with investigating w = 0 condition
from Eq. (8.40), leading to
y
y
1( _ 2XUOY
tan —) tan — =
x+m x—m A
The points on the y-axis are obtained by setting x = 0, i.e.
(27cUoy)
2 tan- (y/m) = A
or
tan(xUA0Y)= — (y/m) (8.44)
gives the intersection of the body on the y-axis. The length of the y-axis of the
oval is twice the positive value of y obtained from Eq. (8.44). The oval is elliptic.
Substituting for wz, and w1/4 , in Eq. (8.45) for the configuration in Fig. 8.11(a),
we have
w — Uor sin 8+ 4
171 sin
Or
Aa
w = — (Uor — ) sin 8 (8.46)
Up, po
4 1.0
90 180 270
0
Cp
.0
-2.0
-3.0 V V
Fig. 8.12 Pressure Distribution on the Surface of a Stationary Cylinder in Ideal Flow.
to U0, and can cause a resistance to motion if the net effect is opposite to U0.
Similarly, a lift can result due to the y-component of the pressure force in a
direction transverse to the uniform flow.
Thus, the resisting force, normally known as the form or pressure drag, is
2s
D = f [Po — p, (9)] R d0 cos 9
0
or
2a
D=-U:R (1— 4sin2 0)cos0 d0=0
0
The prediction of a zero drag is the most severe limitation of the potential solution.
The zero drag result is physically absurd. In a real flow viscous effects modify
the pressure distribution to be asymmetric and a form drag results.
It will be seen, by taking the transverse component, that the lift also is zero
for a stationary cylinder.
u = — -i1-. Te
a0 _ [ Aa + u.I . n . r
— —2 sm u * Tirr (8.54)
irr
V = - 13, =[ i4
1 — Udcos 0 (855)
. r xr
We note from Eq. (8.55) that the transverse component of velocity is zero
for all angles on the curve r2 = AaIU0i r, which indeed is the cylinder of
Fig. 8.11.
From Eq. (8.54), the angular component of velocity on the cylinder surface
is
Aa
u,(0)=H+ r
uo ] sin 9 + l-TR
i -
nit
Or
u,(9) = 2U0 sin 9 + -- (8.56)
(8.57a)
90 = sin- 1 ( iszi o )
or at
Or — 00) (8.57b)
Since v = 0 on the cylinder surface, further absence of u, = 0 renders the two
angular points given by Eqs. (8.57a) and (8.57b) as the stagnation points. The
stream line corresponding to SI and S2 is iv = (172701n r by Eq. (8.52). From
Eq. (8.54) we note that u = U0 sin 8 as r tends to infinity.
The flow patterns are shown in Fig. 8.13(a) for the anti-clockwise 0, and
in Fig. 8.13(b) for a clockwise 0 reckoning. Note that in both Figs. 8.13(a) and
8.13(b) the stream lines are crowded on the positive y-axis, indicating local
acceleration, compared to the cylinder surface on the negative y-axis.
It is readily recognized that the two stagnation points in Fig 8.13 would
coincide when 00 = — tr/2. That happens when
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 241
Uo Uo
- r2- in r
Vvortex --
Alk
(a) Anti-clockwise 8 .ve (b) Clockwise 8 • v e
Fig. 8.13 Flow Pattern around a Rotating Cylinder.
r =1 (8.58)
47tRU.
When the circulation is higher, i.e. r >41cRuo, no stagnation point occurs on
the cylinder surface, but shifts to a point away from the cylinder where the radius
is
T=
r , 0. = — 7r12 (8.59)
2NU.
The cylinder is then completely surrounded by- a circulatory flow, and no fluid
particle from the uniform flow reaches the surface.
icy, = fs u,R dO
2z 2a
.2u0R f sin 0 de + 2rr i de
0 0
=r
which is the circulation of the free vortex.
The hydrodynamic pressure at a point on the cylinder surface is estimated as .
P, (0) — Po _ Uo u, (0)2
P 2 2
2 r(
RU )2]
= 7 u° Li — 2 sin 8 + 2irr
242 FLUID MECHANICS
Or
Or
L 21' f R sin2 0 dO
0
Or
L 21"
2r 0 —
10112 NU0
and
L = pUor (8.61)
The expression (8.61) is significant, for it states that circulation is essential to
create lift on a surface.
Physically, the circulation causes the stream line to be unsymmetric around
the body. The fluid is accelerated on the upper side compared to the lower,
Fig. 8.13. By Bernoulli's equation, the pressure on the accelerated side is lower
than that on the other. A net pressure force, i.e. the lift, results in the upward
direction transverse to the uniform flow. Lift of a rotating cylinder was fast
detected by H.G. Magnus in the 19th century and is known as the 'Magnus Effect'.
Since asymmetry of stream lines is the measure of circulation, lift can be
generated by suitably designing a shape and without necessarily imparting a
rotation. This is the principle behind aerofoils.
That lift L = puor, depends on circulation but not on the body dimensions,
is known as the Kutta-Jukowski law.
The reason that we choose to express the potential function for the free vortex
in terms of the circulation I" rather than on its strength, is now apparent. By
assigning a circulation, we a priori set the value of the lift to be expected.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 243
The drag experienced by a cylinder with circulation can be estimated by
integrating the parallel component of the pressure force,
2;
D= i [po — p, (0)] R dO cos 0
0
The integral shall, however, be found to be zero.
That drag is not estimable from a solution of the potential flow is an assertion
of the fact that ideal fluid connot support shear resistance.
The usefulness of the ideal flow solution lies in estimating the pressure
distribution to reasonable accuracy and the lift to a remarkable degree.
8.10 SUMMARY
1. Rotation of a fluid element is associated with shear strain and can be caused
by tangential stresses.
244 FLUID MECHANICS
EXERCISES
--.4
l.
.... e•
4..... ....
....----- aU A
--o I U +a—x taX
C 11' 0X
.
A px av
"a3LIA
(9.1a)
e. = dx
dv
E, = (9.1b)
8(Cyx
YX + .17 "Y C
y
Txy
x
•B
tx,
• y) fr yx
0
Fig. 9.2 Symmetry of Shear Stress.
The coordinates of point A are (x, y) and the increment of Sr,, and ry, on
faces BC and CD are written by Taylor's expansion.
Clearly, the action of the system of shear stresses is to cause a rotation of
the element ABCD about the z-axis, perpendicular to the plane x-y.
Consider the rotation of the element about C. Defining I. as the area moment
of inertia of the element and as the angular velocity, we obtain by taking
moments of the forces about C,
=(t,, • Ay • 1) Ax — (r), • Ax • 1) Ay
Unit thickness of the fluid element has been considered in the z-direction,
and the rotation positive in the anti-clockwise direction.
The area moment of inertia
Alc2 = (A x • A y)K 2
where K, the radius of gyration is proportional to one of the sides of the element.
Substituting in the moment equation, we have
2 dO)
K )
= (2.1Y —
Since the relationship is to be valid for infinitesimal dimensions of the element,
we obtain
d0),
• k -+ 0
i.e.
= ryx (9.8)
In other words, the shear stresses are symmetric and
( du dv)
(9.9)
Tx7 T)2 = a7)
recalling the expression for ezy
F da + dr
. H
. (9.10a)
dx dy
YI aa y
" rci A Y
arc yx
rE lf x • ay LIY
ex
eixy
try
0 x
Fig. 9.3 Stress in a 2-D Flow.
day + drxy )
Fy (9.10b)
Il\ ay dx
We recall that the momentum change per unit volume (Chapter 3) in the x-direction
is p Du/Dt; in the y-direction p Dv/Dt; o, = — p + a', and Cry = — p + dy .
Define further the body forces as BB and By in the two directions. Newton's
law then results in
Du dp (da ail
-t- =
p -b - - +l —
ax (9.11a)
Tx ay
and
'Dv dp (do; aril
P Dt = By Ty +
4. l dx (9.11b)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 251
&fir + _ v d 2 v)
dy dx P (3x2 ay 2
Thus Eqs. (9.11a) and (9.11b) are rewritten as
Du ap 2
P = Bx (9.12a)
-a7 PV u
Dv _ dp
P BY Ty P" (9.12b)
Combining vectorially,
-
13 -Dr = B - Vp + µWV (9.13)
2V
P TIT = (9.14)
VPd PV
The subscript d in Eq. (9.14) indicates hydrodynamic pressure. For convenience
of writing, however, d is often dropped. The absence of the body force term in
an equation of motion should be the indication that only hydrodynamic pressure
is being considered.
Equation (9.13) or (9.14) is known as the Navier-Stokes equation for the
incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid. The flow is laminar since only
molecular viscous stress has been considered.
Navier-Stokes equation expressing the momentum change, and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass together constitute the equations of motion of
a fluid element.
252 atm MECHANICS
9.4 SOLUTIONS OF THE NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
Although the Navier-Stokes equations describe the motion of a fluid completely
within the framework of the assumptions made, exact solutions of these equations
are possible only in 'simple cases. The majority of such solutions relate to 'parallel
flows'. The Couette flow, the fully developed flow through a pipe or a concentric
annulus discussed in Chapter 6 are examples of parallel flow where only one
component of velocity is non-zero.
We shall discuss below one sample case of parallel flow in order to illustrate
the method of solution of the Navier-Stokes equation. We reiterate that the flow
to be discussed below can be formulated and solved by the control volume analysis.
Obviously, the merits of the N-S equations lie in their capability to model complex
flow condition, not simply the parallel ones.
Continuity:
du
ax + =0 (9.15)
0
since v= 0, parallel flow
2 2
Iviomentum:p ( da;
d-u) (9.16a)
4x+ *1= 4 + ay2
by continuity • by continuity
u= 2µ (di) 2
F Y +CY+D
(9.18a)
The constants of integration are evaluated from the conditions
du
u=0aty = ±h, or w=0aty=0
TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 253
We then get
1 dp 2
C=O, D = — — h
'
from which
1 (
U= -271
-
dP) (h
-a 2 2
—y)
or
(9.18b)
then
0=— 17p + µV2I7 (9.19)
Solving the above equation, Stokes stated that a sphere in creeping motion
experiences a drag
D= (9.20)
where U. is the uniform velocity of the parallel fluid stream far from the sphere
of radius R.
A drag coefficient CD is defined on the basis of the projected area A = irR2
and the velocity head, as
2 1 2
D= CD • IrR • 2pU_
yielding
12p
CD pU_R
or
24
(9.21)
where
Re = 2 p
U_R
Equations (9.20) and (9.21) are valid for Re < 1. Oseen made a moderate account
for the inertia terms and generated results that are valid upto an approximate
Re .= 5, with the expression for CD as:
C° = + 16
3 Re) (9.22)
The expression becomes simpler when we consider the free fall of a sphere
in a highly viscous liquid for which we may write D = 6nRµU„ following Stokes.
Equation (9.24) then yields
3
6ffRµU, = rR g(p, — p)
3
or
2R2
U, = — (p, — p)g (9.26)
9µ
The terminal velocity can be measured by monitoring the descent of the particle
with time in a graduated vessel containing the viscous fluid. The monitoring should
be done towards the lower end of the descent when the particle has attained a
steady velocity.
The measured value of U, may be used in Eq. (9.26) to determine any one
of the four parameters: the particle radius R, its material density p„ fluid density
p or the fluid viscosity µ, given the other three. Viscometers working on the
Stokes' principle use the terminal velocity to determine the viscosity of a liquid.
The diameter of the vessel should at least be 100 times the diameter of the free
falling sphere, so as to replicate the Stokes results for free flow past a sphere.
of length L is shown in Fig. 9.5. The velocity of flow before encountering the
plate is U_ and is uniform in the y-direction. Friction forces the velocity to have
zero value on the plate surface. The velocity then continually increases with y,
until at y = 8 it practically attains its free stream value of U.. That viscous effect
is absent in the zone y > 6, does not imply that µ = 0 since the fluid is real,
but it states that the velocity no more changes in the y-direction.
Um p 4 0 Zero-shear stress
0 zone
y
„ 0
/p 40
a 6(x)
VISCOU se
zone 6(L)
yip it 0
I x xL
Fig. 9.5 Modelling of a Real Flow to Viscous and Non-Viscous Zones.
Apart from a low value of µ (more appropriately v), the condition 6(x)/
x 4( 1 is satisfied at reasonably high velocity. The truly necessary conditions are
arrived at by an 'order of magnitude analysis' of the Navier-Stokes equation. The
basis of an order of magnitude analysis lies in expressing all parameters, x, y,
u, v or p, in their non-dimensional forms. The non-dimensionalization is done
by reference parameters of relevance to the problem under investigation. For
example, the longitudinal distance x can be non-dimensionalized by the plate length
L; or u by U,„.
The expressions in the governing equations now written in their non-
dimensional forms are compared for relative importance.
For example, let us imagine that the forces acting on a body are of the
following magnitude:
= 1N, F2 = 10 N, F3 = 50 N, F, = 200 N, F5 = 700 N
We choose to non-dimensionalize the forces through F„ such that
F1 = 0.005, F = 0.05, F 3 =0.25, F = 1.0, F s = 33
where F* = F/F4 .
I:examining the F*„ we observ$ that F*1 and F2 are very small compared
to F„ whereas those of F 3 and F 5 are comparable. We would then say that
*
F3, F and F 5 are of order unity, expressed as 0 (1), and F;` and F 2 are of
0 (6*), where 6* « 1. Usually it is assumed that 6* is less than 1/10th of unity.
Clearly, F1 and F2 have negligible effect on the body compared to the other
forces.
It is to be emphasized that 0 (1) of a non-dimensional parameter does not
mean that its value is exactly one; the value is comparable to unity.
The objective of the order of magnitude analysis is to then ignore terms of
0 (6*) compared to those of 0 (1).
TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 257
TABLE 9.1
du dv
dx + dy =
or
d v* (9.27b)
dx* ay*
The expression for vw is suggestive of the fact that the induced transverse velocity
is indeed very small, but not zero.
Consider the x-component of the momentum equation, at steady condition,
for convenience.
= - 1 + v U H324* + 2̀24* )
P dx e
aX*2 82 dy*2
Or
By examining the orders of magnitude of each of the two terms within brackets
in Eq. (9.28b), we fmd that
a2u* 0 (0
dx*2 [0 Mr
L2 a2U* _ 1 0 _ 0( 1 )
62 ayt2 8*2 [0 (1)]2 — &la )
Since 3* 4( 1, the second term is much higher in magnitude than the first,
and we can neglect a2u/ax2 as compared to a2u/dy2 under the hypothesis that
6IL4(1.
We further note that the order of magnitude of each of the terms on the
1.h.s. of Eq. (9.28b) is unity, and hence each of the remaining terms on the right-
hand side should have unity order of magnitude in order that each has a bearing
on the flow in the x-direction. This implies that pre = pU_2 or 1/(2pU,.,2), the latter
for signifying kinetic energy.
The remaining viscous term on the right-band side is
.3201
[VTL
1 "16)2 21
and has 0 (1). In other wods,
(vIU_L) (L/6)2 = 0 (1)
TWO-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 259
(8IL)2 (v/U_L)
8IL E1/0
,T, (9.29a)
U
av
+
av= 1 M
ay +
(a2 v2- + a2v)
2- (9.30a)
ay Tx
in non-dimensional form
2 dv*
u* 21L
* * ?7* aP*
L ax* 8 p8 ay*
vvw (a2 v*+ L2 a2v*1
.4.14,2 e ay*2
The first term within the parentheses is negligible as compared to the second
term. Dividing further, by U_v„f /6, we obtain
dv* + v*—
u* — dv* --(Lis)2 ‘P + (v1U.,L)(L18)2 a
()yip (9.30b)
dx* dy*
In Eq. (9.30b) all terms but the pressure gradient are of order unity. Whereas
delay* = 0(1), the factor (L/6)2 amplifies its magnitude many times higher than
the other terms. The rest are then negligible. Equation (9.30b) can be written
as
o = - (Lib)2 2t (9.30c)
ay*
or
(9.31)
Equation (9.31) has profound significance. It implies that pressure does not
vary in the transverse direction within the viscous layer of thickness 8. In other
words, the pressure at the edge of 8 at a particular axial location is the same
at any y inside the layer. The edge of the viscous layer being common with the
non-viscous region, the non-viscous pressure gradient in the x-direction is
260 auuo MECHANICS
impressed on the viscous layer. On the other hand, the non-viscous pressure
gradient x can be conveniently estimated from a solution of the potential flow,
e.g. the Bernoulli's equation.
Continuity: (9.32)
Momentum:
du
uw+vw=—
du 1 w+v
dp 2u
ay2 (9.33a)
.)
—0 (9.33b)
uY —
The boundary layer model is applicable when 8(x)lx is .small, i.e. at locations
Re, is large. Clearly, Re, is small when x is small, and equals zero at the leading
edge (x = 0), irrespective of the flow velocity or the fluid viscosity. In other
words, the boundary layer approximations are not valid near the leading edge,
but a reasonable distance downstream.
Boundary layer form of the momentum equations are the ones frequently
adopted for solving problems of engineering interest involving flow of the most
common fluids: water and air.
Recall that a parallel flow, for which Navier-Stokes equations are solvable
exactly, is characterized by zero inertia effects. In contrast, in a boundary layer
flow the inertia effects are several times higher than the viscous action, yet the
viscous effects are not wholly negligible.
9.8 SUMMARY
1. The normal strain in a fluid in the x-direction is du/dx; similarly in the y
and z directions are dvIdy and dwIdz, where u, v and w are the components
of velocity.
2. The apparent modulus of normal stress in an incompressible, Newtonian
fluid is 2µ.
3. Whereas in a fluid at rest, or in an ideal fluid in motion, the normal stress
is isotropic and a = — p, viscous actions destroy the isotropy of normal stress.
In an incompressible, Newtonian fluid the deviations of normal stress from —p
are 2µ times the corresponding normal strain.
4. The average normal stress at a point in viscous flow is a = — p, irrespective
of whether . the flow is incompressible or compressible; p is known as the
thermodynamic pressure.
MO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 261
5. The shear stresses in a viscous flow are symmetric: r),:, 'zi„ =
T,), =
.
Tzi; Ts = To.
6. Navier-Stokes equations, together with the continuity equation, describe
completely the motion of a viscous flow within the constraints of assumptions
made, e.g. the stress-strain relationship.
7. Order of magnitude analyses are carried out by first non-dimensionalizing
the parameters involved. An order unity, 0 (1), does not mean that the value of
the term is exactly one. It simply says that the term has a value comparable to
one, and away from 0.1 or 10.
8. Navier-Stokes equations are approximated to boundary layer equations
when 5 (x)/x 4( 1. The thickness of the boundary layer is given by 8 (x)/x = C/ Rey .
The boundary layer assumptions are valid downstream of the leading edge where
Re, is large.
9. In a boundary layer flow, the axial gradients are orders of magnitude smaller
than the transverse gradients: d 2u/dx 2 0 a2U/dY2 .
10. Pressure at an axial location 'in the boundary layer does not vary in the
transverse direction, dpldy = 0. This implies that dp/dx can be estimated from
outside the boundary layer zone where viscous action is zero due to the non-
existence of a velocity gradient
EXERCISES
1. In a two-dimensional motion of a viscous fluid, the stress at a location is
evaluated to be a, = 8, ay =12 and "Tx, = 20 kN/m2 . Write the value of stresses
when the fluid is at rest What is the value of the thermodynamic pressure?
(Ans: 10, 10, 0, 10 k Pa)
2. The stresses in a three-dimensional flow field are written in matrix (tensor)
form as
az "T., "T,
X = To ay Tx
[ T, To a,
following the convention of subscripts discussed in the text of the chapter. Some
components of the stress tensor were measured and found to be as given in tr,
z Tiy T,
X1 = [a
24 8 ry, and p =11;
18 20 12
all values are in kN/m2. Write the values of the unknown stresses.
3. Starting with the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations, solve the following
parallel flow problems:
(a) Couette flow,
262 FLUID MECHANICS
We recall from Chapter 9 that the boundary layer model basically divides the
flow of a real fluid past a solid body to two zones: a viscous layer surrounding
the solid surface, and a zero shear stress zone beyond it. The model is applicable
to high Reynolds number flows in which the pressure distribution of the free
stream is impressed on the viscous layer. A flow, initially uniform having one
component of velocity say U_, becomes two dimensional on encountering the
solid surface. A transverse velocity component, an order of magnitude smaller
than the axial, is induced due to viscous actions.
Solution of the boundary layer equations provides the methods for estimating
the frictional resistance along the wetted surface of a body.
For the sake of completeness, we write below the boundary layer equations
in a two-dimensional, steady incompressible flow:
du dv
Continuity: + ..ty (10.1)
Tx Ty
du du _ 1 tip d 2u
Momentum: u-g- +p-g- --T w+v ay2 (10.2)
x y
Solutions of these equations in their differential forms are said to be exact in
the context of boundary layers. Differential solutions are, however, not attainable
without considerable mathematical elegance.
height of the face 1-4 or 2-3 is /, and / is greater than the thickness of the
boundary layer.
1 r — -- — — —7 2
1
vas c---
. ky1 ......--1--- — — — -÷_.....
‘,...-- .• ------ --- a
p• 4
t3'
dy 1
,Iv 1 4 I— .—....=___/ ax 4 x
/ —
Tv, i
dx —6.1
Fig. 10.1 Control Volume Analysis of the Boundary Layer.
Fluid masses enter through faces 1-4,1-2 and 2-3 carrying with them the
momentum prevailing in the respective neighbourhood. No mass enters through
3-4, the face being coincident with the solid wall. The face 3-4, on the other
hand, experiences the wall shear stress and is dx long. A unit depth perpendicular
to the plane of 1-2-3-4 is being considered.
f pu dy,
0
f pu dy + f pu dy dx
o to
Since at steady-state no change of properties takes place within the control volume,
the excess of outflow through 2-3 is replenished through 1-2. In other words,
the mass coming from the free stream zone into the control volume is
Tx (0.1 pu dy)dx
Conservation of Momentum. The momentum in-flow through a strip dy is
put dy, and through the face 1-4 is
put dy (i)
0
Inflow through 1-2 due to the mass coming from the zone of U. is
pu dy)Ax
0
Combining (i), (ii) and we obtain the net efflux of momentum through the
control surface as
11 (GO dy AX - U. 1 ( pu fiy AX
1
(10.3a)
The face 1-2 being in the free stream zone, no shear stress acts on it. The pressure
on face 1-4 is p, and is independent of y by boundary layer theory.
The external forces acting on the control volume are hence
- r,,, dx - dP dx • 1 (10.3b)
Combining Eqs. (10.3a) and (10.3b), we write the momentum balance for the
control volume as
1 1
11_ 1 pu dy)- Td if pu2 -1-1-
aY - "-
us, ' a f, dy
1- dP (10.3c)
.. 0 S'
In order to evaluate the pressure gradient we can move into the free stream zone
and use Bernoulli's equation
11.2.
P + —=C
2
Or
dp dU_
= PU• (10.4)
Equation (10.3c) is now written using Eq. (10.4)
du _ d u2
(.1 u dy)+ ay - a - p (105a)
0 0 0
Or
w
d -u2 )4+ -
•&- 1 (u - 14)dY= (10.5b)
0 0. P
The limits of integration 0 to 1 can be split up into 0 to 5 and 5 to 1. In the
free stream region of S to 1, however, u = U., and each of the integrand is zero.
Hence, Eq. (10.5b) is, effectively,
o
2
fs (uu. — u )dY+-&
O
• — f g/.
0
dY = 12-
v (10.6)
It will be seen later that the two terms in the 1.h.s. of Eq. (10.6) represent variations
of significant physical parameters.
In its present from at (10.6) the integral equation for momentum can represent
both laminar and turbulent flows, since no assumption has yet been made for
the shear stress,
In case U.. = C, such as it happens when a uniform flow continues past a
flat plate at zero incidence, the second term on the 1.h.s. is zero, since the pressure
gradient or dU„Idx is zero.
The integral in Eq. (10.9) is evaluated, by substituting for u/U., from Eq. (10.8),
to be 39/280, or
el (_39 8) = rw
dr 2.80 ) pu2 (10.10)
, a —_
140 µ
0
W = 13 pU., (10.12a)
which upon integration yields
px
S2=280 +C (10.12b)
13 1,11_,
The hydrodynamic boundary layer starts growing from the leading edge when
the free stream flow first encounters the solid surface. We can therefore choose
8 = 0, at x = 0, resulting in C = 0. We should, however, recall that the boundary
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 269
layer equations are of course not valid in the immediate vicinity of x = 0, for
Res is low.
Thus from Eq. (10.12b), we obtain
8)2 280
= T3- (µ/p11...1)
or
8 4.64
.4 Rex (10.13)
Note that the information of the order of magnitude analysis of Chapter 9, that
(8/x) .= 1/ Rex is corroborated by a formal solution of the viscous layer. The
constant of proportionality C in the expression =
x C
-. varies slightly with
the choice of the velocity profile. Solution of the differential form of the boundary
layer equation for a flat plate geometry results in C = 5.
1 11 X , 1 I Re=
Cf (X)= a (--) — = 5
pil_x 8 Rex C
where C = 4.64 for the 3rd degree polynomial we chose for the velocity profile.
We thus have
3
Cf(X)=
4.64
Rex- 1/2
or
Cf(x)= 0.646 • Re; 112 (10.15)
The coefficient in Eq. (10.15) becomes 0.664 for the exact solution when C = 5.
The average value of skin friction coefficient over a plate of length L is
obtained by integration:
L
El = 4;
1 2 LT., (x)dx = 1 C (x)dx
u.
I
270 nue MECHANICS
ef =
E =0.646x2 .r/7
4
2 x (0.646 Rei v2 )
or
Cf = 2 x Cf (L) (10.16a)
Or
Cf =1292
Rei. 112
(10.16b)
Expression (10.16a) signifies that the average value of Cf is twice the local value
at the end of the plate. Note that when a plate is wetted on both sides, the friction
will be twice the value obtainable through (10.16).
du ( 3 y 3 13_)„ dS
dS
-2753- + 454 Li GI
or
or
(23_
8.3
using Eq. (10.12a), or
= 210 _ 3_
AT 3 (10.17)
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 271
But
v(y)= - j dy
dx
0
Of
210 µ ( y2
vw- TT pat (10.18)
- 483 )
is the local transverse velocity.
v is zero at y = 0. At the edge of the boundary layer it equals:
210 µ ( 8 81
v(8)= 13 --e
p 4)
Or
105
v(8)= — -8- (10.19)
26 p8
and is its maximum value.
Recall that while performing the order of magnitude analysis in Chapter 9,
we arrived at the condition
0 ( v = 8* (10.20)
105
- 26 1 -ife;
Re= 4.64
or
v(8 (x)) 0.87
(10.21)
-
Since
0 (45*)= Re; `12 , Eq. (10.20) is proved.
413
IP 2
%Pi
,,,,,,,440:0
x - Ax x
Fig. 10.2 Divergence of Stream Lines within the Boundary Layer.
the plate then the mass flux through a section x shall be less than through an
upstream section at (x — Ax). As the mass flux will decrease in the downstream
direction, other extensive properties such as momentum and kinetic energy will
also decrease between the parallel Wanes.
The downstream decrease in mass flow, between the plate and a parallel
plane, due to viscous effects can be visualized as equivalent to the
"blockage of the flow passage" by a thickness S, (x) whereas the velocity profile
is maintained uniform. The equivalence is shown in Fig. 10.3. S, is known as
0
—070 •
.
•
the 'displacement thickness' and its value is evaluated using the mass flux
equivalence indicated in Fig. 10.3.
a
tit (x) = p[f u dy + (h — 45)1= (h —
0
Of
U_ (8 - 8,)= J udy
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 273
Of
81
(10.22)
8, = 1(1- ±)dY
1
0
Typically for the 3rd degree profile in Eq. (10.8),
81 =5(1-4i+lfr)dy=8(1
a
_4,4)
Or
3
8, = if 8
or
62 = 15[(1 — ( 1 — C]cly
Or 0 11.2.
a
I
62= f ty: — v.7) dY (10.23)
The value of momentum thickness for the third degree velocity profile is evaluated
to be 62 = (39/280) 6.
In a similar manner, a kinetic energy thickness 83 is sometimes defined and
evaluated.
Using the definitions for 61 and 62 Eq. (10.24) is written in abridged form.
Of
do
U. - + (8, + 282)
al_ = T., (10.25)
8 4.64
x Ipte;
/
LAIAINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 275
U..L _ 8 x L5 _
Rey_ , 0.8 x 106
V 15 x 10-
8 4.64
— 5.18 x 10- 3
4Q8 x 106
2 x 0646
—144x10-3
1/0.8 x 106
1 1 -3 1A M2
27, = - pie.C = — x 1.2 x 82 X 1.44 x . , •
s_
2 f 2
= 24.96 x 10-3 N.
If the plate is wetted on both sides, the drag is 2D = 49.92 x 10-3 N.
Example 10.2 For the data given in Ex. 10.1, evaluate the momentum thickness
at the edge of the plate (i) using definition for 52, and (ii) using Eq. (10.25).
Comment on the two results.
By definition,
82 =j8 171 :
4 v=
u dy
0
which for the third degree profile results in
39
82= 8
Or
= p — 7 LI (x)
Integrating we have
1
62(L)= Cf (x)dx
or
6 2(L) = C f • L (ia)
Substituting the values, we have
Irx 1.44X10-3 o
5 2NA, X = I1..,
n0 111111
The values of 62 by both the methods agree, as it should. The expression (ii)
is significant in the sense that if 62(x) is estimated at a ideation, the skin friction
can be calculated. This procedure is adopted in experimental techniques, especially
for turbulent flows.
10.6 SEPARATION
In discussing the flow through the diverging passage of a venturimeter in
Chapter 5, or the Couette flow in Chapter 6, we observed that a positive pressure
gradient, dp/dr > 0, is adverse to a flow. Essentially, dp/dr > 0 acts as an
obstacle to fluid motion as much as the upward motion of a solid body along
a gradient. If the kinetic energy of the particle is not enough to climb the "hill",
the particle will roll back. The 'rolling back' of a fluid particle to the upstream
was stated as separation.
On the other hand, when we studied the ideal flow past a cylinder in
Chapter 8, the flow continued in the downstream direction even though a
pressure-hill existed beyond 0= 90°, measured from the forward stagnation point.
The summary of the above two contrasting statements is that separation shall
exist, if (i) there is an adverse pressure gradient, and (ii) there are mechanisms,
such as friction, to reduce the kinetic energy of the fluid stream.
Since the second effect is present in any flow of a real fluid, chances of
separation exist if the pressure gradient is adverse. Further, according to boundary
layer theory, the pressure gradient being derivable from free stream calculations,
the prediction of the location of the separation point can be made by boundary
layer consideration. In Chapter 6, while studying Couette flow, we observed that
the point of separation is characterized by (au/dy), = 0 = 0.
As soon as the flow separates from a solid surface, the fluid particles tend
to move upstream and interfere with the free stream. The thickness of the viscous
zone becomes comparable to the characteristic dimension of the body, and the
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 277
boundary layer assumptions fail. In other words, the end of the boundary layer
zone in the flow direction is marked by the point of separation. Consequently,
the pressure distribution following the point differs considerably from the potential
flow solution.
The phenomena are described schematically in Fig. 10.5 for viscous flow
past a cylinder. The pressure distribution predicted for potential flow (Chapter 8)
is shown for comparison between the ideal and real. In Fig. 10.5, SI is the leading
edge stagnation point and S2 is the trailing edge point predicted by ideal flow
solution. In practice the viscous flow does not attach to S2. The flow separates
on either side of the diameter at S; vortices are shed by the separating fluid layers.
Viscous
layer
The angle 0, subtended by the separation point increases with the kinetic
energy, and varies between a little over 90° in laminar flow to about 108° in
high Reynolds number turbulent flow.
10.7 DRAG
Recall that for flow of an ideal fluid past a cylinder, we obtained the drag,
computed as the net pressure force in the flow direction, as zero. This was so,
because the pressure distribution was symmetrical about the diameter perpendicular
to the flow direction.
Separation destroys the symmetry of pressure distribution. Beyond 90°, the
pressure is different from ideal. As a result, a net pressure force acts on the body
in the direction of flow. Its reaction opposes the flow and a drag force results.
This drag force being due to pressure variation arising from the body shape,
is known as the "pressure or the form drag". The skin friction drag, occurring
in the boundary layer, is in addition to the form drag. A total drag coefficient
278 FLUID MECHANICS
is defined as
CD = Cf CF (10.26)
where the latter represents the form drag component. In magnitude CF * Cf . As
separation is delayed due to higher kinetic energy of flow, CF and hence CD,
decrease with flow Reynolds number. In flow past a flat plate at zero incidence,
the form drag is zero since there is no pressure gradient to cause separation.
Body shapes, such as those of cylinder, sphere, or when a plate is held
perpendicular to the direction of flow, offer very high value of form drag. The
skin friction is practically negligible in comparison. Pressure loss due to skin
friction becomes significant only when the wetted surface area is large.
, -11.1, .,
r6 I pi' i
11.---1-
40
' I 1 --Rough cylinder
20 i i I Smooth cylinder
to
8 : '; ' ! 'I i
CD 6 .
, i
2 . I T
3.8
3.6 — — t 'T - f
3.4
2.2
DI I' I i • I i
. .., 2 68__n2 4 68 A 2 4 68_12 4 6 8
' -22 4 68..../.2 4 68 _a2 4 68
6
Re = VD
—
I)
Fig. 10.6 Drag Coefficient for a Circular Cylinder.
1329 x 10 x 10-2
Re= U_ D
v 15.98 x 10-6
= 8.69 x 104
From Fig. 10.6, Co 1.2 at Re = 8.7 x 104 . The wind load on the pole is equal
to the drag offered to the wind flow. The project area per unit length of the
pole is (d x 1), where d is the diameter. Hence
1
Drag D = CD = -2- pV 2 A
10.9 AEROFOILS
The aerodynamic converse of a bluff body is a "streamlined body". The profile
of a streamlined body is so designed that the flow pressure gradient, especially
the adverse type, is very mild. This inbibits flow separation, and results in a near
zero form drag at the design condition. The slowly varying shape usually, however,
results in a longer length that marginally increases the skin friction loss.
The aerofoil shape is taken as an ideally streamlined body. The major objective
of an aerofoil shape is, of course, to generate a high lift. Recall that lift L = pUor ,
Chapter 8. A circulation I' and the lift are created by making the underside of
an aerofoil concave while the upper surface is convex. A representative geometry
and nomenclature for an aerofoil are shown in Fig. 10.7a.
UPPER SURFACE
CHORD
c
the flow on the upper surface opiates. the drag imeases and decreases.
A sharp fall in the CL/CD ratio occurs around a = 10° when the aerofoil is said
to have "stalled".
The direction of L and D are shown in Fig. 10.8 as they act on the body.
In Figs. 10.9(a) and (b), the effects of suction and blowing are shown on
the boundary layer developing on a flat plate. The flat plate geometry is adopted
for illustration.
6B
UO3 Uco So
So —41
—•I 6s
Yt
-vo
(a) Suction; 65<60 (b) Blowing; 6B > 6 o
tolerated, since it results in a lower value of the form drag and, therefore, a low
total drag.
By increasing the thickness of the boundary layer, 82 > 80 (Fig. 10.9b),
blowing advances separation. The method can be adopted where an increase of
drag is desired. One such case could be the retardation and braking of an aircraft,
say at landing. Blowing is sometimes gainfully used to keep cool a solid surface
from a hot gas in the free stream. Very effective cooling can be achieved by
blowing a high heat capacity secondary fluid into the boundary layer. Such
methods are adopted, for example, in the cooling of gas turbine blades.
t
h
Soundary
layer
Inlet zone Filled zone
Entrance length ► Fully develop
zone begins
Fig. 10.10 Flow in the Entrance Region.
In order that the mass flow rate is constant through any section of the duct,
the velocity of the potential core U..(x) has to be higher than U0 . This is realized
from the simple fact that constancy of flow rate implies that the area of the velocity
curve is constant. As the boundary layer thickness increases, the potential core
becomes smaller in height, and U..(x) has to increase to compensate for the lower
velocity in the viscous zone.
We can state the above physical fact, mathematically as below. Mass flow
rate through any section x is
= 2 f pu dy + pU.,(x) 2 (h — 8) = pUo2h
0
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 283
5
u dy + U..(h — 8)=U° • h (10.28)
or
1dyi=
U_(x) [h - J(1- )
U_ Uoh
u 3 ( y ) 1 ( y )3
(10.8)
= Cg) TC(5)
ReLi = — („ h ) 2h
v u0 h _ 1 v
Or
Of
4 Li
Re!, = • Ti • Re (10.32b)
h— 4.64
TLi —
ie • if
r
Of
h _ 350
WRe
Of
Li
= 0 037 (10.33)
hRe .
We observe that the length of the boundary layer region, known technically as
the 'inlet zone', is directly proportional to Reynolds number. This is a characteristic
of laminar incompressible flow, irrespective of the duct geometry.
Equation (10.29) indicates the increase of core velocity in the downstream
direction due to viscous 'blockage' to the extent of displacement thickness. In
other words, the incompressible flow in the inlet region is accelerated. On the
other hand, far downstream in the fully developed region the velocity profile is
invariant, inertia effects are zero and the flow parallel.
An intermediate zone is physically called for, between the end of the inlet
zone and the beginning.of the fully developed zone, in which the fluid acceleration
is gradually destroyed. Since the boundary layers had already met on the duct
axis at x = Li , the velocity profile in the intermediate zone is purely viscous.
This intermediate region is known as the 'filled zone'.
The inlet zone and the filled zone together constitute the entrance region.
It is desirable to be explicit that the pressure gradient in the entrance region
accounts for both the inertia effects and the wall stress, and it varies with x.
In the fully developed zone, the pressure gradient balances the wall shear stress
only and has a constant value. The constancy of pressure gradient is taken as
the evidence of fully developed condition in experimental techniques.
Exact calculations yield the lengths of the inlet zone and the entrance region
for ducts of different cross-section as below.
Parallel plate channel:
Li L U0 • 2h
hRe = 0 029' = 011, Re =
hRe
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 285
Circular pipe:
Li n nu 4 U0 • 2R
= 010, Re =
R • Re = "*"""`" R • Re
where 4 is the entrance length.
10.12 SUMMARY
1. An approximate solution of the boundary layer equation is obtainable by either
integrating the equation from 0 to 8 in the y direction; or by considering the
conservation of mass and momentum over a control volume coinciding with the
wall surface and the edge of the boundary layer.
2. The velocity profile in the boundary layer is chosen by requiring it to
satisfy a certain essential boundary conditions: no slip on the solid surface, free
stream velocity, zero shear stress at the edge of the boundary layer; and a few
additional conditions with due order of priority.
3. In a flow over a flat plate, the boundary layer thickness is
EXERCISES
1. Compare and contrast the Couette flow and the two-dimensional boundary layer
flow at steady state.
2. Consider an infinitesimal control volume within the boundary layer. Making
the assumption that dp1dy = 0, derive the differential form of the boundary layer
equation from the control volume momentum balance.
3. Derive the integrated form of the momentum equation for the boundary layer
on a flat plate applying the pressure gradient condition right in the beginning.
Choose the control volume to coincide with the plate surface and extending into
the free stream.
4. Consider the differential forms of the continuity and the boundary layer equation
in the x-direction. Integrate the boundary layer equation for 0 to Sin the y-direction
and arrive at the integrated form of the equation.
5. Evaluate the values of boundary layer thickness S and skin friction coefficient
Cf for flow over a flat plate by using the following velocity profiles.
(i) u/U_ = y16;
u/U.. = 2 (y/S) — (y16)2;
u/U.. = 2 (y16)— 2 (y/6)3 + (y/6)4; and
(iv) u/U.. = sin (ny/28).
In each case specify which of the essential and additional conditions are
satisfied by the velocity profile.
6. Estimate the value of the kinetic energy thickness, 63, for flow over a flat
plate by selecting a suitable velocity profile for the boundary layer.
7. A plate is to be drawn submerged in water with the plate surface being parallel
to the free surface. The plate dimensions are 2 m x 30 cm, and the velocity
at which the plate is to be drawn is 6 m/s. Estimate the force required.
(Ans: 7.39 N)
8. It is intended to simulate 'free flow' over a flat plate in a wind tunnel. A
free flow is as it would exist in an infinite medium unaffected by the walls of
a surrounding surface. In order that the free flow can be simulated, the walls
of the wind tunnel have to be flared out proportional to the displacement thickness
on the plate.
Calculate the angle of divergence of the tunnel walls when the plate
being experimented with is 1.5 m long, 10 cm high and air velocity 2 m/s at
30°C.
(Ans: 0.248°)
9. A submarine is climbing to the surface of an ocean at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The submarine is cylindrical in shape
LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 287
8 U
83 = -u- (1 - U 2 1142.) dy (ii)
0 -
By considering the third degree velocity profile u/1/.. = (f)3, evaluate
83 from expression (i) and prove it to be equal to that given by the definition
at Cu).
Turbulent Flow
I
••••••••
••••
••••• 40.
oint of Transition
-10, X
instability point
+Laminar 4—Transition —4,Fully turbulent flow
zone _ length
The length of the transition zone decreases with the increase of the flow
(turbulent) kinetic energy. Experiments indicate that the flat plate flow becomes
turbulent at the location given by (U.,x/v) = 3.5 x 105 to 106.
an aW
By continuity, T; iT; + = 0
i az
or
+ ax., + ( au + w) . 0
0
y x (ay az) (11.1b)
parallel flow
Since du'/dx * 0, Eq. (11.1b) emphasizes that y and z components of velocity exist
due to turbulence effects, even in parallel flow.
290 FLUID MECHANICS
y y
Ti(y,t)
u(y) ....
.
-lommIA•mawAvA46..444••••••••*-0-
-4-1-fr vil''''" L., 14111..
ts• o tAr
-a; To
Time Time
(a) Steady (b) Unsteady
Fig. 112 Physical Model of a Turbulent Velocity Component.
On the other hand, the fluctuations interact with each other for transport of mommdurn
and energy. Hence, the long term observation of an interaction effect is non-zero:
u'v'dt* 0
J
-T
We can take time average of these integrals and make two general statements
that
felt
=0 (11.3a)
2T J
-T
and
T
r
1
f i e= f f' g'dt * 0 (11.3b)
2T
- T
TURBULENT FLOW 291
where f' and g' are fluctuations of any two parameters. The time averages of the
spatial gradients of the fluctuating components are also deemed to obey the same
laws, i.e.
af' —0 492f' —0
ds as 2
but
awn.*
as
0 (11.4)
= liET
5
[sin (2000:L1)12 dt = - - 03 = 03535
2 1/2
-
292 FLUID MECHANICS
not rigorous, but forms the basis of a popular analysis of turbulent flow. And we
shall consider it accepted.
Let us multiply the continuity Eq. (11.7b) for fluctuating components by pu' for
two-dimensional flow:
, ( du' dv')
pu
Ca; + Ty-) °
(5)
and add (5) to (3) without any-change of value. The result of the summation is
a (4 2)+*(u v )]
x " ' "
(6)
We now replace (3) by (6) and take the time average of the inertia terms. The
average values of (2) and (4) are each equal to zero by Eq. (11.4), and we have
the time mean inertia components as
_ aa _ aaj
_ + p [d oi' 2)
u +v (11.10)
p ( Tr Ty dx ay
dp dp + pl
dx dx dx
294 FLUID MECHANICS
and upon time averaging, the second term is zero. Similarly the viscous terms in
Eq. (11.9) on time averaging also reduce to the second derivatives of the respective
time mean components.
Hence the momentum equation is
dx ay dx dy
ap + m(a 2 a a 2 u)
(11.11)
dx axe aye
The square bracketted terms in the 1.h.s. of Eq. (11.11) represent the excess inertia
due to fluctuations in turbulent flow. All other terms are similar to those in the
laminar equation. It is customary to bring excess inertia terms to the right hand
and then rename these as additional or 'apparent stresses'.
‘9217
Recall from Laminar analysis that it — a x2 corresponded to the gradient of
d 2 ii
normal stress and µ a y, to the shear stress. The apparent stresses may similarly
be identified, and Eq. (11.11) rewritten as
(_ _ a) .., ( i , ,)
u
dx dy dx dx dx pu• dy dy - Pu
(11.12)
In other words, — pu' 2 represents the nonnal'component and — pu' v' the tangential
component of the apparent stresses. By proceeding similarly for a three-dimensional
flow, we get the whole set (tensor) of the apparent stresses, that are also called
'Reynolds Stresses', as
(i) aP =0 rt e= dP
dy dx dx'
TURBULENT FLOW 295
(5 eL)
dx P dx) 44 dy P
_ du , dfi a ( du „) (11.13)
" a x +vv
p(u-+
— =--+— µ--puv
dx dy dy
The entire research in turbulent flow is primarily aimed at evaluating the apparents
stress, e.g. — p u', and yet the result till date is not definitive.
Prandtl proposed that the transverse displacement of the fluid element is, on
the average, a length 'I', which he called the mixing length. The suggestion was,
obviously, influenced by the concept of mean free path for molecular motion.
( ciii
At a height (y + 1), the mean velocity existing is a + I — in line with
dy
Taylor's expansion. The fluid element from y with velocity ü brings with it a
momentum pii, which is lower than the momentum prevailing at (y + 1).
The average momentum at (y + 1) will therefore decrease instantaneously.
( a i7
The decrease is proportional to E pl —) and is assumed to give rise to a fluctuation
dy
— u'. Thus
— pl - — Cpu'
Ty
where C is a constant of proportionality, which can be merged with the still
unknown 1, and u' written as
au)
u'= I (11.16)
v'= -
au (11.18a)
tt = P12 dy dy
(25—
so that
Id 5
The reason for writing one of the velocity gradients in terms of its modulus: — ,
dy
C aul
is to retain the direction of c on that of — dy •
Our query for turbulent stress is still not answered, since the value of the
mixing length / is not known.
Several correlations, using experimental results for ;, have been proposed
for I. The most popular one is that derived from the experiments of Nikuradse,
and is given as
1= 0.4y (11.19)
where y is the perpendicular distance measured from a solid surface. We shall
adopt this value in our subsequent discussions.
Prandtl's mixing length theory has proved well in fully developed internal
flows through simpler geometries, e.g. a circular pipe, a circular annulus, and
reasonably on boundary layer flow in the absence of strong pressure gradients.
The hypothesis, though not fool-proof, is the most widely adopted one.
In subsequent discussions we shall remove the bar for time mean compo-
nents for convenience of writing. The fluctuating components will continue to be
identified by a superscript dash.
298 FLUID MECHANICS
U,
tw (11.20)
where U, is the fluid velocity at the edge of the sub-layer. A viscous velocity:
'1/2
Vs = [-L-
v (11.21)
is defined for summarising results of a turbu ent flow. We can rewrite Eq. (11.20)
in terms of v. and the free stream velocity, U„.,:
Us
•2= V —
as
Writing U, = CU.., we have
2 = a-
r•V —
U••
c
Os
or
8s vs — C [—e-
U (11.22)
V v„,
Experiments indicate that laminar effect exists in the neighbourhood of the wall
till Spay = 5.
yu.
In other words, if we defined a non-dimensional coordinate 77= ,
Turbulent
rrx 70 4zone
Buffer zone
U5
Sublayer
2NRT,,,=(—k)1cR2
dx
or
r= diR (11.23a)
w dx 2
On the other hand, the friction fractor is defined by
_dp
(11.23b)
dx 2D
from which
Tw = )2 Ei 2 (11.23c)
8 "
Blasius in 1911 summarised the available results for pipe flow and established a
correlation for f, viz.
f = 0.3164Re425 (11.24)
This correlation is valid for Re 5 105, where the Reynolds number is defined as
Re = Ua,„Div.
As a second information, Nikuradse's measurements yielded a power law
for the velocity profile in the pipe:
u = (Y)lin (11.25)
U
where U is the time mean velocity at the pipe centre and y measured from the
wall.
This law is valid in the range 4 x 103 Re 5 3.2 x 106. The value of n is
6 at low Re, increasing gradually ton =10 at the highest Re tested. For the Reynolds
number in the neighbourhood of 105, n = 7.
The relation between U,, and U for a power law profile is derived by
considering the volume flow rate:
300 FWID MECHANICS
Q= xR2U„„,= f 2irrudr
noting that r = R — y.
Upon integration, we get
Q = 2zU (R 2 R2)
n +1 2n+1
2n 2
= irR2U
(n +1)(2n +1)
and therefore
Ua~ _ 2n2
(11.26a)
U (n + 1) (2n + 1)
Uav
= 0.816 (11.26b)
U
Use of Eqs. (11.26b) and (11.24) in Eq. (11.23c) yields
0.3164
Tw = Re " 0• 25 PU 2
8
= 0.03955pUa2s, (v/U„ . 2R)"4
or
zw = 0.03325 (U,1U)7i4 • U7'4 (v/R)"4
= 0.03325p (0.816)7m U2 (v/RU)"4
or
Tw = 0.0225pU2 (v/Ru)u4 (11.27a)
and
•r„,Ip=o,2 = 0.0225U 2 (v/RU)I/4 (11.27b)
Equation (11.27) give the shear stress relationship for pipe flow at moderate Re,
Re 5 105, where the laminar effects are still not negligible and the sublayer influences
the outer zone stress pattern.
Example 11.2 Water at 30°C and atmospheric pressure flows through a smooth
pipe of 5 cm ID. The flow is fully developed and is at a rate of 2 litre/s. Calculate
(i) friction factor, (ii) pressure drop over a length of 5 m, and (iii) the thickness
of laminar sublayer.
TURBULENT FLOW 301
At 30°C,
= 797 x 10-6 kg/ms, p = 1000 kg/m3
SO
v = 0.797 x 10-6 m2/s
Q_ 2 x 10-3 , 1.0186 m/s.
u" XR 2 r x (0.025)2 --
1.0186 x 0.05 6
Re = U„ • Div — 0.797 x 10
Or
Re = 6.39 x 104
Since the Reynolds number is less than 105 and is in its neighbourhood, we expect
the 1/7th power law to hold good, for which
f = 0.3164/Re°25 = 0.3164/(6.39 x 104)0.25
= 0.0199
Or
= 0.02
Us _( 8417
U )
U = (1/0.816) U„ = 1.248 m/s
302 FLUID MECHANICS
Hence
T = • U(6 IR)117
w os s
or
2 .593 x 106
(6s/R) In • 1/5, = T,,,/µC/ —
797 x 1.246
= 2.606 x 10 3
Or
(65/R)-6a = 2.606 x 103R = 2.606 x 103 x 0.025 = 65.15
Or
(4:55/R)6n = 0.01535
45,/R = 7.6518 x 10-3 (iii)
4= 2.5 x 7.6518 x 10-3 cm = 0.01913 cm (iv)
The sub-layer thickness is less than1/100th of the radius.
8 2= f t.
0
(1-
6 6
=
J (y/8)"n dy — 5 (y18)21" dy
Or
62— (11.29a)
(n +1)(n + 2)
when
n=7
82 =72 6 (11.29b)
The law of shear stress for the plate flow is obtained by making substitution,
= R, in the pipe flow expression (11.27). Thus
r„,1p1I!.= 0.0225 (v/U„ 6)114 (11.30)
Substituting Eqs. (11.29) and (11.30) in Eq. (11.28), we get
7
12- • dO/dx = 0.0225 (v/1/..,6)1m
or
Sim • dO/dx = 0.2314 (VIU.31M
from which
854= 0.2892x( v/U..,)"4 + C
For convenience, assume the turbulent boundary layer to grow from the plate
leading edge, permitting C = 0. Then we get
81x = 0.37 (v/U„„x)15
Or
E f = -1E c f dx
0
L
r
= 0.057601/1W115 1- X-15 dx
0
Or
Ef = 0.072(v/U.L)1/5
Or
Ef = (11.35a)
Obviously, the above derivation is valid within the limit of Blasius correlation,
i.e. for Re = (U..281v) 5 105. The upper value corresponds to
8 = v/214„, x 105
Or
037x Rey 115 = v1211. x 105
Or
Rex = 2.6 x 106 (11.36)
Since the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate continues till the transition at
Rex = 3.5 x 105 to 106, we can state that the presently derived turbulent relation-
ships are valid in the range 5 x 105 < Re, < 107.
Example 11.3 Air at 40°C flows past a flat plate of length 8 m at a velocity
-Of 10 m/s. The plate width is 1.5 m. Assuming that airflows only on one side of
the plate, calculate the force required to hold the plate stationary (i) considering
that the flow is turbulent from the leading edge, and (ii) accounting for laminar
boundary layer near the leading edge. Given at 40°C, v = 17 x 10-6 m2/s and
p = 1.13 kg/m3 for air.
The Reynolds number on the basis of plate length is
ReL = U.,,Lly = 10 x (8/17) x 106 = 4.7 x 106
(i) Assuming the turbulent boundary layer to grow from the leading edge,
we have
E.f 0.072Re1115
Or
ef= 0.072 x (4.7 x 106)-(12 = 0.0033
TURBULENT FLOW 305
tw = 4 pl/2 C j = +
U1 31 x 1.13 x 102 = 0.188 N/m2
Drag force D = r,„,. b • I = 0.188 x 1.5 x 8 = 2.256 N
The plate will tend to move away in the direction of flow due to the drag force
experienced by it. Hence the force required to hold the plate stationary is 2.256 N
and applied opposite to the flow direction.
(ii) When laminar boundary layer is accounted for, we may expect transition
to take place say at Re, = 5 x 105. Thus the plate length at transition is
= IP U« b (eftuptoL X L — C
- f t upto xtr Xtr f I go xir Xtr)
= (auy (11.37)
dy
The subsequent evaluation of velocity profile can be made by integrating Eq. (11.37),
if (i) the nature of 1, and (ii) variation of r are known or assumed.
For example, r would vary linearly in a channel flow: (see Chaps. 6 and 9).
r = ro(1 — ylh) (11.38a)
or in a pipe flow:
= - yIR) (11.38b)
where h and R are respectively the channel half width and pipe radius.
On the other hand, the shear stress in a plane Couette flow is constant
(Chap. 6) and assumed To. Let the fluid be of thickness h and the top plate moving
at For r= To = constant, we get from Eq. (11.37) the relations
du
(11.39a)
dy = ° 1
We further assume 1= ky and write
du -
eT, = yak • l/y (11.39b)
v; + C)
u= (v.1k) • (In n + In —
Or
ulo. = llk • In + D (11.42)
where D includes the unknown constant C.
Equation (11.42) by itself does not give the velocity distribution for the
following reasons:
(i) It has been derived for an exclusive case of T = To = constant
(ii) k is not known
(iii) D is not known.
What it gives is the functional dependence of (u/v.) and n. The relationship
is generally known as the universal velocity profile for it can be extrapolated to
arbitrarily large Reynolds number.
The suggestion of Eq. (11.42) has been used to summarize results of pipe
flow. By comparing with the experiments the following laws are established.
Smooth pipe:
Velocity: u/v. = 2.5 In tl + 5.5 (11.43a)
Friction factor: 1/il = 2.0 logio (Re 1,17) — 0.8 (I 1.43b)
which is known as 'Prandtl's universal law of friction for smooth pipes'. The
friction velocity is defined on the basis of the shear stress at the wall.
Note that by comparing Eq. (11.42) with Eq. (11.43a) we find k = 0.4,
suggesting that 1= 0.4y is a good aproximation which has been also found applicable
for rough pipes.
A surface is said to be rough when the portrutions exceed the thickness
equivalent to laminar sublayer. For roughness of varying degrees, Colebook's
formula given below is found to apply well for friction factor in a pipe.
The above formula gives the smooth pipe result Eq. (11.43b) when e= 0. cis the
average height of portrution over the solid surface.
Example 11.4 Find the value of friction factor in a rough pipe of diameter
2 cm. The average height of roughness is 0.5 mm and the flow Reynolds number
Re = 2 x 107.
The value off can be determined by using Colebrook's formula by trial and
error.
e/R = 0.5/10 = 0.05
The first trial is made neglecting the second term within brackets in Eq. (11.44).
Thus
1/il = 1.74 — 2.0 log 10 (0.05)
= 4.342
308 Flue MECHANICS
Or
f = 0.05 (i)
Define an error
11.9 SUMMARY
1. As the flow Reynolds number is increased, the laminar layer first becomes
unstable and then transits to the turbulent regime. The length of the transition
zone depends upon the intensity of turbulence Tu. The points of transition and
instability coincide when Tu is 2 to 3 percent or higher.
2. The mathematical description of turbulence is based on imagining each
parameter to be a combination of its time mean and time dependent fluctuation,
e.g.
u = u + u'; (u' I .1
3. Even in a one-dimensional mean flow, u = u (y), fluctuations exist in all
the three directions:
u #0, v' * 0, w #0
4. The time average of a single fluctuating quantity is zero, but not of two
fluctuating quantities: ii' = 0; u'v' * 0.
TURBULENT FLOW 309
Tu = 1—1(u
02 -02 -02
+ v + w )1U.,
3
EXERCISES
1. Using Blasius law of wall shear stress and the 1/7th power law for velocity,
derive an expression for the thickness of laminar sublayer for turbulent boundary
layer flow on a flat plate.
2. Consider power law velocity profile la/ = (y1R) 161 in a flow through a circular
pipe. Find the value of radius, as a function of pi, where the local velocity equals
the area average velocity. List such values of the radius for n = 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
3. Mineral oil of specific gravity 0.8 and kinematic viscosity 2 x 10-6 m2/s is to
be pumped through a 200 mm ID smooth pipe over a length of 5 km. The flow
rate is 3000 litres/min. Calculate minimum pressure and power ratings of the
pump required.
(Ans: 400.475 kN/m2, 20.023 kW)
4. Water flows through a 300 mm ID pipe at a temperature of 20°C. The pipe is
smooth and the flow Reynolds number Re = 3.5 x 106. Estimate the value of friction
factor using Prandtl's universal laws. Find also the values of the wall shear stress
and friction velocity.
(Ans: 0.01, 169.94 N/m2, 0.4122 m/s)
S. Using the information given in Problem 4, determine the ratio of centre line
velocity to average velocity in the pipe. State why power-law relationship should
not be used for solving Problems 4 and 5.
6. Consider a parallel plate channel formed by two plates 2/1 apart. Assume that
Blasius relationship for friction factor and 1/7th power law profile hold good in
310 FLUID MECHANICS
low Reynolds number fully developed flow through the channel; Re = (2hU„Iv).
Assuming that the concept of mixing length is also applicable to low Re turbulent
flow, derive an expression for local value of 1 in the channel.
7. Water is to be supplied from a tank over a distance of 2 km. The head available
between the tank water level and the discharge point is 4.5 m. The water requirement
at the discharge end is 130 litre's during summer when the average temperature
is 30°C (v = 7.97 x 10-6 m2/s). What must be the minimum ID of a smooth pipe
connecting the tank and the discharge end? Neglect all losses except friction.
State the drop in flow rate during winter when the average temperature is 10°C
(v = 13 x 10-6 m2/s).
(Ans: 42.16 cm, 8 litre's)
8. A plate 20 m long is towed through water at a speed of 7 m/s. The kinematic
viscosity of water is 8 x 10-6 m2/s and density p= 990 kghn3. Transition is expected
to take place at Re, = 106, and the intensity of turbulence is high.
Calculate (i) the maximum thickness of the laminar boundary layer; (ii)
thickness of the boundary layer at the edge of the plate; (iii) average skin friction
coefficient for the length of the laminar region, (iv) average value of the skin
friction for the entire length of the plate; and (v) the force required to tow the
plate if its breadth is 2 m.
(Ans: 5.7 mm, 0.2634 m, 0.001328, 0.002378, 4.6148 kN)
9. In an experiment with fully developed turbulent flow through a smooth pipe,
it was observed that the velocity profile was expressible as u/U = (yIR)II5 and
f = 0.32/Re°•2S for Re 5 2 x 104. Derive an expression for the wall shear stress.
10. In a high Reynolds number flow for which the mixing length concept is
applicable, it was observed that the velocity at the edge of the laminar sublayer
is 50 percent of the free stream. The thickness of the sublayer is 6, = 8 • v/v.,
and the shear stress is invariant in the transverse direction near the wall. Using
k = 0.4y, derive an expression for the velocity profile.
11. Turbulent flow at moderate Reynolds number is taking place in the inlet
region of a parallel plate channel of depth 2h. Considering the boundary layer to
be turbulent from the leading edge of the plates, derive an approximate expression
for the length of the inlet region. State the approximations used. Compare the
value of turbulent inlet length with the value derived in Chap. 10 for laminar inlet
length.
12. Plot to scale the following two velocity ptofiles in fully developed flow
through a circular pipe.
(i) u/U„ vs y/R for laminar flow.
(ii) u/U„ vs y/R for 1/7th power law.
The profiles be superimposed on each other. Calculate the values of displacement
thickness for each of the above profiles.
Introduction to Compressible
Flows
Whenever a body moves into a region of fluid under consideration, local disturbance
is caused. A quantity of fluid equal to the submerged volume of the solid is
displaced. For example, when we place a solid in a tank of water with a free
surface, the level of water rises in proportion to the volume of water displaced.
In case of a liquid in a pipe, the introduction of a solid body is associated with
almost instantaneous discharge of an equal volume of liquid through the open end
of the pipe.
Essentially, the displaced volume creates a local pressure rise. In the liquid
with a free surface, the pressure rise is hydrostatic. That in a pipe is communicated
by the neighbouring fluid elements to the free end at practically infinite speed,
and the discharge results. The displaced liquid volume cannot be accommodated
within the pipe, without the corresponding discharge, since a liquid is incompressible.
We can, however, introduce a solid body into a gas pipe even with its far
end closed. This is possible, since a gas is compressible and the change in volume
can be accommodated by a rise in density.
The pressure communication in a gaseous medium takes place at a far lower
speed than in a liquid. So long as the pressure rise has not reached a location in
the fluid medium, the particles there are 'unaware' of the disturbances upstream,
say by introducing a solid body.
The pressure rise, or the pressure front, in moving through the fluid medium
causes a local compression. Since compression implies coglomerating fluid particles
larger in number than the undisturbed state, the excess fluid particles are drawn
in from the immediate neighbourhood. In other words, the compression is associated
with a rarefaction or depression in pressure and together they form a pressure wave.
Note that the speed of communication of the disturbance in the fluid medium
is different from the speed of the cause of the disturbance, here the solid body.
We shall call the former the 'wave velocity', since the disturbance is propagated
as a pressure wave. And the latter, of course, is the relative velocity of the body
with respect to the fluid medium.
The study of a compressible flow is based on the relative magnitude of body
velocity with respect to the wave velocity. Above a certain minimum value of this
ratio, known as the Mach number, the density change caused by the fluid motion
is appreciable and needs accounting for. At flow velocities lower than such threshold,
the density variation of a compressible fluid is negligible and information of the
incompressible fluid flow are applicable.
311
312 FLUID MECHANICS
The mass balance about a control volume, enveloping the pressure front
yield:
= pAa = (p + dp)A(a - dV)
where A is the area of the pressure front, or
a dp - p dV - dp • dV = 0
Or
dplp = dV/a (12.1)
neglecting the higher order term (dp • dV).
Further, from momentum balance,
th (a - dV - a)= pA - (p + dp)A
Or
pa dV = dp (12.2)
Combining (12.1) and (12.2), we get
dp _ dp
pat p
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 313
Or
a 2 = apiap (12.3a)
The bulk modulus is defined by
dp = _ 0 (1:)
7
where v is the specific volume, v = 1/p and dp/dp =13/p.
Thus the speed of propagation can also be written as
a= (12.3b)
= (12.5a)
C d'L kP
If we confine ourselves to a medium of ideal gas, say dry air, then
p = pRT
314 FLUID MECHANICS
and
a = Pp7cW, =.k1
kI FT (12.5b)
1 2
p + —pV = constant
2
The pressure change with respect to reservoir condition (V0 = 0) is
1 M2 5 0.02
2
or
M 5 0.2 (12.9c)
is the range of incompressibility.
-3
(a) Source stationary (b) Source moving at M=0.5
subsonic motion
Mach
cone
Mach
angle
cc
Zone of
Zone of silence
silence
Mach
cone
(c) Source moving at M = 2.0 (d) Source moving at M=1.0
supersonic motion sonic motion
Fig. 12.2 Pressure Field due to a Point Source of Disturbance.
M = 0.5. The source is moving from left to right with its positions at different
time marked on the line of motion. The origin of circles representing the spread
of the pressure disturbance due to the moving source is now displaced at/2 during
the time interval. As a result, the pressure is felt more intensely in the downstream
direction than the upstream. The pressure front nevertheless precedes the source
in Fig. 12.2(b) at subsonic speed.
When the source speed is supersonic, as in Fig. 12.2(c) for a representative
M = 2.0, the point source is ahead of the disturbance and an observer in the
downstream location is caught unaware of the approaching source. The disturbances
emanated at different times are enveloped by an imaginary conical surface known
as the 'Mach Cone'. The half angle of the cone, a, is known as the 'Mach Angle'
and is given by
sin a = at — I
Vt M
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 317
or
1
a = sin -1 (12.10)
Since the disturbances are confined to the cone, the area within the cone is known
as the 'Zone of Action' and that outside the cone as the 'Zone of Silence'. An
observer does not feel the effects of the moving source till the Mach cone covers
his position. At Mach one, i.e. when the point source moves at the sonic speed,
the disturbances remain attached to the source, Fig. 12.2(d). The Mach angle is
90° and the Mach cone is a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. A
point in the downstream is unaware of the disturbance, also in this case.
VT
Fig. 12.3
The Mach angle is a= sic1(112.5) = 23.5° and is independent of the motion
of the observer.
tan a = 0.4348
318 FLUID MECHANICS
12.5 SUMMARY
1. Disturbances of small pressure amplitude are propagated in a fluid medium at
the speed of sound, a = 44cTp),
(4 . The acoustic propagation is an isentropic
process.
2. The one single most important non-dimensional parameter of a compressible
flow is the Mach number, M = V/a, where a is the 'local speed of sound'.
a = 20.031ff m/s for normal air, k = 1.4.
3. The effects of compressibility are to be considered when the Mach number
is higher than M = 0.2. At lower speeds, the variation of density of a compressible
fluid is negligible and the results of incompressible flow are applicable for
M < 0.2.
4. A 'Mach cone' is an imaginary surface that envelops the disturbances
emanating from a moving source. The cone semi-angle, known as the 'Mach
angle', is given by a= sin (1/M). The space within the Mach cone is known as
the 'zone of action' and that outside as the 'zone of silence'.
5. An observer is unaware of the motion of an object past him at supersonic
speed until the Mach cone covers the position of the observer.
EXERCISES
1. The ratio of specific heats for monatomic gases is k = 1.66. Estimate the acoustic
velocity in argon and helium at a temperature of 300 K. Compare the value with
that of air at that temperature.
(Ans: 321.92 m/s, 1017.42 m/s; 0.9277, 2.932)
2. An aircraft is flying at a speed of 850 km per hour. Using a table for temperature
of the upper atmosphere, estimate the flight Mach number of the aircraft at altitudes
of 10 m, 1000 m, 4000 m, and 10000 m, assuming the absolute speed of the
aircraft to remain constant.
(Ans: 0.675, 0.681, 0.706, 0.761)
INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 319
3. In a laboratory test of rifle ammunitions, the Mach angle measured at the nose
of a bullet was 20°. The test house temperature was 30°C. What is the velocity
of the bullet? If the same rifle-ammunition combination is used in an arid zone
at 45°C and in a cold climate of — 5°C, estimate the corresponding Mach numbers
and Mach angles for the bullet motion. Superimpose the Mach cones at these two
temperatures on that at the test house temperature in one figure.
(Ans: 1019.4 m/s; 2.85, 20.51°; 3.11, 18.76°)
One-Dimensional
Compressible Flows
SQ =
SW = 0
Reservoir 1
A
V =0
P = po IT
T = To
h
h
th
p = Po
h = ho 1 kit 0
S
(a) Physical model ( b) Thermodynamic process
Fig. 13.1 Model of an Isentropic Flow.
V2 + —
d; = constant (13.6b)
(f) Momentum:
Imagine an upstream section 1-1 and a downstream section 2-2, the local
flow parameters being represented by suffixes 1 and 2, respectively.
p
1"-- 2 V2
1 41.
A2
— —J 2
F on fluid I
1 Li F on duct
(thrust)
Fig. 13.2 Thrust in an Isentropic Flow.
Since no frictional effects are involved, the force from the duct boundaries
on the fluid stream is normal to the cross-sectional area, and let us call it F. The
momentum balance for the control volume then yields
niV2 - = p - p2A2 + F
Or
Cp = kkR
Hence
To V 2(k — 1)
1 4. 1 +k — 1 —V2
T 2(kRT) — 2 • a2
Or
To = + Ic =.1 m2) (13.9)
T 2
is the relationship between the stagnation temperature and the static temperature.
An isentropic process is governed by pvk = C, and hence
Po = (v/vo)k = (po p)k
of frictional effects. The total pressure or density, however, can vary along the
flow due to frictional effects even if heat transfer is prevented.
From Eq. (13.7) we note that
V2 = 2C1, (T0 - 7)
Or
1/2
2kR
V =[— o - (13.12a)
k-1
is the relationship between the fluid velocity and static temperature in an adiabatic
flow. The flow can attain a maximum velocity of
)1/2
2k RTo
Vma, = (- (13.12b)
k-1
r 2k RT ]1/2
(13.14b)
Lk + 1 °
A Characteristic Mach number M* is defined on the basis of a* as a fixed reference
value for a given To:
M* = V (13.14c)
the variations of the parameters in an isentropic flow. For example, Eq. (13.6a)
indicates that
dp = — pV dV (13.15)
i.e. a flow is accelerated only if the static pressure decreases in the downstream
direction. The continuity Eq. (13.3b) leads to
dA
=dV
_dP= dp dp
A V p pV 2 p
or
dp (1 dp)_ dp 1)
A p V 2 dp p 0/ 2 a 2 )
since the process is isentropic. Therefore
dp 0 m2) (13.16)
A p V2
Since dp is negative in an accelerating flow, the conclusion of incompressible
flow: that area has to decrease for the fluid to be accelerated, is corroborated in
a subsonic flow (M < 1), Eq. (13.16). However, a seemingly astounding conclusion
is obtained for a supersonic flow (M > 1), that area must increase to achieve
acceleration of the flow.
The area change dA is zero for the sonic condition M = I, indicating a minimum
cross-section there. The M = 1 cross-section is therefore called a 'throat'.
The summary of the three conditions: M < 1, M = 1 and M > 1 is stated by
the fact that a flow cannot be continuously accelerated from subsonic to supersonic
condition withoue passing through a throat. And a subsonic to supersonic duct
must be coverging-diverging. A device through which a flow is accelerated is
called a 'nozzle'. The converse arrangement for deceleration, associated with a
rise in static pressure in the downstream direction, is known as a 'diffuser'. The
device in Fig. 13.3 is a nozzle with the flow proceeding from left to right. The
same device shall act as a diffuser when the flow is directed from right to left.
Whereas the static pressure varies along the length of the nozzle, the total
pressure remains constant for isentropic flow.
It is. important to point out that the flow through a converging-diverging
duct does not always end up being supersonic at the exit. The area ratio and the
back pressure pa must have the appropriate values necessary for attaining supersonic
condition.
If, for example, the back pressure Pat is higher than the value necessary for
supersonic exit, i.e. Pal , curve I, Fig. 13.3, the flow will accelerate in the converging
portion, the throat Mach number will be less than one, and the flow will decelerate
in the diverging portion. The flow will remain subsonic all along the nozzle
length. The pressure variation is shown by the dashed curve II in Fig. 13.3.
Even when the throat Mach number is unity, the flow in the diverging
portion can become subsonic, if the exit area is not suitable for supersonic discharge.
The back pressure will then be //By as shown by curve III.
326 FLUID MECHANICS
Po PB
M <1 M:1 M>1
jr7__77:= PO
M<1 pB2
ryi< 1 __ - ... Pg3
M<1 '* IV
P
-- - PB
M>1
ri-T-M71-- 4
1 Shock Psi
M<1 M:1
I
Fig. 13.3 isentropic Flow through a Converging-Diverging Duct.
1.461 - 1 . 439
AB/A* = 1.439 + x 0.006 = 1.4456
0.02
Consider isentropic flow through a duct from a reservoir at po and To. The mass
flow rate is rim = p AV, in terms of the local values of density, area and velocity
in the duct.
The flow rate per unit area is
rit/A = pV = pl RT • V
= -P- x
Po li To
x TT°Tx k x 1-1
IFIFT R
-
or
m/A = 17-
k
Po (1 k - 1 Ap 1/2- k/(k -1)
11 2
Or
i
/W A= —
Po ai (1 k 1 m2)-(k (13.17)
R • 11
R 2
Thus for a given reservoir condition, the mass flow per unit area is a function of
the local Mach number. The unit area flow rate is maximum when
d (ml A) -
0
dM
328 FLUID MECHANICS
Define
1+ k -1 m2 = f (m)
2
The maximum condition then corresponds to
d [ Ai f (m)-(k+012 (k - = 0
dM
Or
f m - ( k + I )/ 2 ( k - I ) - k +1 m f 0
(M)- (k - 1)M
2(k — 1)
Or
k +1 2
f (m) - M =0
2
Or
1 + k — 1M2• — k +1 M 2 = 0
2 2
leading to
1 _ ite = 0 (13.8)
That means the flow rate per unit area is maximum when the sonic condition,
M = 1 is reached.
)-(k+lo(k-I)
(±) = Po (k + 1
kA /max 7? lrfo 2
or
(ph) pa ( 2 yk +1)12(k -1)
(13.19)
= lfl.;
A max 7X + 1
is obtained by setting M = 1.
Using R = 286.7 J/kg K and k = 1.4 for air,
= 0.04044 11
r._. kg? (13.20)
To m2
where Po is in N/m2, To in kelvin and A in m2.
It is useful to note from Eq. (13.20) that the maximum flow rate per unit
area increases directly with the stagnation pressure and decreases as square root
of the stagnation temperature.
nozzle. As pa is gradually reduced, the flow rate shall increase. The exit plane
pressure PE shall remain equal to pa so long as the maximum discharge condition
is not reached. When (rid A) has attained its maximum value, given by Eq. (13.19),
the exit plane Mach number shall be unity and pE = p*. Since the nozzle does not
have a diverging portion, further reduction of the back pressure pa will not accelerate
the flow to supersonic condition. As a result the exit pressure pE shall continue
to remain at p* even through pa is lower.
The converging nozzle discharge against the back pressure variation is shown
in Fig. 13.5. The maximum value of (rh/ A) at M = 1 is stated as the choked flow
through a converging 'passage. With a given nozzle, the flow rate cannot be
increased further unless the reservoir conditions are altered.
0.04044
A NI
00 O. 52 8 2 1.0
Po
Fig. 13.5 Choked Flow through a Converging Nozzle.
Example 13.2 In an isentropic flow of air through a duct, the static pressure
is 1.3 x 105 N/m2, Mach number 0.7, and the area of cross-section 6.5 cm2. If the
mass flow rate is 0.15 kg/s, calculate the reservoir temperature and pressure.
Estimate to what extent the duct area can be reduced without affecting the
mass flow rate. What would be the value of the static pressure and temperature
at the maximum reduced duct area condition. Use gas tables. For
M = 0.7, plpo = 0.7209;
T/To = 0.9107, A/A* = 1.094
Since
A = 6.5 cm2
A* = 5.94 cm2 = 5.94 x 10-4 m2
rit/A*=
a is x 104 = 0.02525 x 104 kg/s/m2
5.94
But by Eq. (13.19),
th/A*= 0.04044po/A
Hence
potx. 0.02525
x 10 . = 0.6244 x 104
0.04044
Po = p10.7209 = 1.3/0.7209 x 105 = 1.8033 x 105 N/m2
where m is the mass flow rate from the pressure line to the vessel at an instant
and dEldt is the time rate of change of energy in the vessel. We are ignoring the
kinetic energy of air in the pressure line.
For the vessel,
E=U
and
mhdt = 1/4 - = Mf Mi
j
where the subscripts i and f refer to initial and final conditions in the vessel.
The line condition is constant and therefore
or
hmf = mfup mf = total mass of air coming from the line
Thus
Cprf = CPT
or
Tf = kT = 1.4 x 300 = 420 K
Note that as the enthalpy. of the line air gets converted to internal energy in the
closed vessel, the temperature in the vessel is higher than that in the line.
Final pressure in the vessel is pi = 4 bar.
Therefore
pivARTf) = 105 x 4 x 0.2/(286.7 x 420) = 0.66 kg
During the time T, the back pressure of the nozzle varies from 0 to 4 bar.
The corresponding throat pressure is p* = 0.5282p0 = 5.282 bar. Since the back
pressure, all through the period r is less than p*, the nozzle shall discharge choked
and the mass flow rate is constant.
332 FLUID MECHANICS
►n = 0.04044p 0 /1/70 • A*
= 0.04044 x 10.0 x 105/,560 x 1.5 x 10-4
= 0.350 kg/s
T=m fl th = 0.66/0.35 = 1.898 s
S
Fig. 13.6 Nozzle Flow with Friction.
Recall the flow through a venturi-meter from Chap. 6. where it was reasoned
how the unfavourable pressure gradient could lead to flow separation if the divergence
angle was not kept small.
Flow separation could as well take place in the diverging portion of a
converging-diverging nozzle.
In order to avoid separation, therefore, the diverging portion of a nozzle is
made with very small divergence and is considerably longer than the converging
portion. The penalty is that the skin friction in the diverging portion is significantly
higher. The loss in the converging portion can be neglected in comparison. In
such a situation, the expansion can be shown as AED in Fig. 13.6. A nozzle efficiency
is defined as a ratio of the actual kinetic energy in presence of friction, e.g. for
expansion AC to the ideal one,
V2 hehA — (13.21)
r1=
2(hA — h8 ) hA — he
and the nozzle velocity coefficient
= VT/ (13.22)
The nozzle discharge coefficient is similarly defined on the basis of actual to
isentropic mass flow rate.
CD = th actual/ m isentropic (13.23)
Hence,
TB = 373 x 0.519 = 193.58 K
a9 = 20.03 193.58 = 278.73 m/s
VB = 2.15 x 278.73 = 599.27 m/s
pa =1 x1051(286.7 x 193.58) = 1.80 kg/m3
AB = IhOB VB) = 15 = 0.0139 m2
1.80 x 599.27
AB = 139 cm2
for isentropic flow. When friction in the diverging portion is accounted for:
= hE - hB -TE.-
ILZ TB
7°- for ideal gas
wAlrIttOdlIWMAFA /41,./A,
(h-
1•11
III A. 'ff/MMIF/MAI Fir
Etd= 51411+ dh + d KE
0 0
Or
dh = — V dV (13.25)
Since a subsonic flow is accelerated, the enthalpy decreases for M < 1. Conversely,
the enthalpy increases in the downstream direction of a supersonic flow.
336 FLUID MECHANICS
The foregoing discussions and summary of the behaviour of flow parameters can
now be used to plot the thermodynamic state of a fluid in compressible flow
though an adiabatic duct.
Consider representation on an enthalpy-entropy plane.
Since negative temperature does not exist, and since entropy must always
increase in the adiabatic flow, the state points are confined to the first quadrant
of the h-s plane. Because of the fact that enthalpy increases for M > 1 and decreases
for M < 1, the locus of the state points shall be either of the four diagrams in
Fig. 13.8.
h h h1 h
M<1
0 )0
M >1
S S S
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 13.8 Postulated h-s Diagrams for the Constant Area Adiabatic Flow.
The two curves in all the four figures meet at point 0 when extrapolated.
For the figures a, b and c in Fig. 13.8, the gradient of entropy with enthalpy
(ds/dh) has two values at 0; in other words the thermodynamic properties are
discontinuous there. This cannot happen to a pure substance in single phase.
Therefore, the curves in the first three figures are not plausible representations of
the thermodynamic state.
ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 337
In Fig. 13.8(d), a single value of the slope is possible when the two curves
join smoothly. The slope is then, ds/dh = 0, indicating a maximum value of
entropy.
The curve in Fig. 13.8(d) is known as the Fanno line and is reproduced in
Fig. 13.9 for different mass flow rates. Examine now the conditions at the inflection
point:
ds/dh = 0. Recall the T ds relationship:
T ds = dh — dp
or
dp
Tds=—VdV--
p
or
T ds = — V 2 — ti
p (13.27)
M.c 1
M>1
S
Fig. 13.9 Fanno Line Representation of Constant Area Adiabatic Flow.
p
Tds = V 2 dP —ti (13.28)
P P
as the variation of entropy in a constant area adiabatic flow.
At the maximum entropy condition alone ds= 0, and Eq. (13.28) is rearranged
to yield
a 12 ) =
V2 (13.29)
l P ds = 0
338 FLUID MECHANICS
(a p = a2
a P)ds=0
It must be emphasized that (ap/ap) anywhere else along the Fanno line is not
equal to a2, since entropy is not conserved at other locations. Thus the inflection
point corresponds to
v2 = a2
Or
M=1 (13.30)
In other words, both the subsonic and supersonic flows move towards the sonic
condition. Friction in a constant area duct flow consequently leads to choking,
irrespective of the flow Mach number at inlet.
We next note that a subsonic flow accelerated to the choked (M = 1) condition
cannot proceed further along the supersonic branch, for it would mean decrease
of entropy in an adiabatic flow. This is prohibited by the second law of
thermodynamics. Similarly, a supersonic flow can nor be decelerated beyond
M = 1 condition.
This implies that there is a maximum limit on the length of a pipe through
which a given mass flow rate can take place under adiabatic condition.
dx
4A = — dpl(pV 2)— dV/V
2D
or
„ dx 2 — dP dV
44— = — — (13.32a)
D kM 2 p V
The right hand side of Eq. (13.32a) is a function of Mach number and we write
it as g (M) dM, without trying to evaluate g (M). Thus
dx
= g(M) dM (13.32b)
The maximum length of pipe for a given flow rate is obtained by integrating
the 1.h.s. from 0 to 4„,,, and the r.h.s. for M to 1.
emu 1
dx
4. = g(M)dM (13.33)
0
The integration on the r.h.s. of Eq. (13.33) has been performed numerically and
the results are available in Fanno Tables for different values of the ratio of specific
heats.
Suppose that in a pipe flow the Mach number at a station 1 is M1 and that
at station 2 is M2. For both these sections, the choked condition shall take place
at the same location, Fig. 13.10.
1 21
1 Mt 21M2 IM=1
Choked
condition
Lm aX1
L L MCIXE-1
Fig. 13.10 Length between Two given Sections in Adiabatic Constant Area Flow.
The length between the two sections 1 and 2 are then computed from the
physical model as
Note that we have adopted the symbol. for friction factor to be consistent with
our definition for incompressible flows. In Gas Tables, often the symbol f is used
to mean our A.
dT
ds= Cp 7- - dp
s2 - si = Cp In T2 - R1n -12
1-
11 pi
C,, = 1.003 kJ/kg K, R = 286.7 Nm/kg K
Hence
0- - 286.7 In
s2 - si = 1.003 x 103 1n -2-9-
303 1.5
= - 43.983 + 41.027 = - 2.956 J/kg K
The measurements are definitely erroneous since the entropy cannot decrease
in an adiabatic flow.
We shall apriori assume a supersonic flow condition and calculate the flow
parameters. At the end only, we shall know whether the assumption was correct.
Considering nozzle flow to be isentropic, we obtain the throat conditions
or
rill At = 4571.6 kg/s m2
At = (2.5)2 x 10-4 = 4.908 x 10-4 m2
Therefore
= 2.244 kg/s
If the pipe is shorter than the above length, the discharge end pressure will be less
than the back pressure and the pipe flow shall remain supersonic. The exit plane
pressure shall rise to the back pressure through a discontinuity, named the shock.
In the event a pipe longer than the above length is used, the shock may be
located within the duct with a part •of the discharge end of the pipe running
subsonic.
ei
dVIV = — dp l(pV 2 )
But
pV 2 = kpM 2
Therefore
dV = 1 dp
(13.38b)
V kM 2 p
A control volume representing the variation of flow and thermodynamic parameters
is shown in Fig. 13.11.
T
p —1.1
r i T. AT
p•dp
1 1
I I
y —.I L--a- V • d V
1
S
M
I 1S.dS
L_____A _ __ _ __ ....1 m d M
k• d 6
.
Fig. 13.11 Control Volume for a Constant Area Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer.
(d) Momentum:
d(pV 2A) = pA — (p + dp) A = — A dp
Hence
pV 2 = — p
or
p + pV 2 = C (13.39)
We had defined f= A(p + pV 2 ) as the impulse function, and that is conserved
in this flow.
(e) The equation of state:
p = p RT
or
dplp = dplp + dTIT (13.40)
(13.41)
344 FLUID MECHANICS
dT „ dp
ds = — — -,
T p
and using Eq. (13.41), we have
ds = [Cp — km
i 2 ) — (Cp — cd]
or
ds =CP I 1 — 1
k kM 2 J p
Or
C„ Ai 1 p
ds = —=
k • 2— p (13.42)
dM I M = — 1 + kM 2 • dP (13.43)
2kM 2 P
Since the pressure decreases in subsonic flow the Mach number must increase.
and in supersonic flow the Mach number shall decrease with heat addition.
In other words, reversible heat addition causes changes in the static pressure
and Mach number in the same manner as does friction in a constant area adiabatic
flow.
The acceleration of a subsonic flow or deceleration of a supersonic flow
shall continue so long as the second law of thermodynamics is not violated, i.e.
till a maximum in the value of entropy is reached. This corresponds to ds = 0.
From Eq. (13.42), we note that the inflexion condition occurs at M = 1. Thus, both
ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 345
the subsonic and supersonic flow proceed towards the M = 1 choking condition
when heat is added to a constant area frictionless flow.
Using the definition of total pressure
Po I P(1 + k 2- 1 M2)"")
we obtain
In po = In p + k ln + M 2)
k ——1 2
and by differentiation
d Po dp k (k — 1)M 2 dM
Po P k-1 1+ k-1m2
M
2
Substituting for dM/M from Eq. (13.43), we get
dpo dp [ 1 1+ km2
Po p 2 + (k — 1)M 2
or
dpo = (1 — M 2) dp
(13.44)
Po 2 + (k — 1)M 2 P
For M < 1, the total pressure decreases as does the static pressure. In a supersonic
flow the total pressure also decreases, although the static pressure increases.
The information derived in the foregoing are summarised in Table 2 below.
Variation of the parameters takes place in the reverse direction to what have been
indicated in Table 2, if the gas is cooled. The locus of state points, known as the
Rayleigh line can now be sketched, as in Fig. 13.12. As for the Fanno flow,
numerical calculations for Rayleigh line flow are carried out with reference to the
choking condition. The Rayleigh Tables are convenient for such calculations.
Table 2 Effects of Heat Addition to Constant Area Frictionless Duct Flow (Rayleigh
Line) for (5Q > 0, ds > 0, dr > 0
Example 13.7 Air at 1.5 bar and 30°C enters a constant area pipe of 5 cm
diameter with a velocity of 35 m/s. During the flow through the pipe, heat is
346 FWD MECH•fiNICS
Ii
Rayleigh line
Ln- Constant
-
A-
I
re IM =1
S Smax
Fig. 13.12 Rayleigh Line Representation of Constant Area Frictionless Flow with Heat
Transfer.
added to the air stream by a chemical reaction. Frictional effects are negligible,
and the values of Cp and C. are that of pure air.
Calculate: (i) the maximum heat that can be added with the given inlet conditions
(ii) exit Mach number, if 50 percent of the maximum permissible heat
was added
Inlet conditions:
a = 20.03 .065 =348.66 m/s
M1 = 35/348.66 = 0.100
From Isentropic table,
To/ To = 0.0467
Or
= ro = 6501.2 K
Qmax = Cp (To — Tod= 6197.6 kJ/kg
taking C,, = 1 kJ/kg K. The inlet density
= = 1.5 x l05/(286.7 x 303)
Or
= 1.7267 kg/m3
ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 347
To, 3402.4
0.5233
= 6501.2 =
for which
0.5233 — 0.4389 =
M2 = 0.35 + 0.05 x 0.3968
0.5290 — 0.4389
is the exit Mach number.
Example 13.8 In a diabatic constant area flow of dry air the Mach number at
a section is 3 and stagnation temperature 400 K, static pressure 50 kN/m2. Calculate
the amount of heat to be transferred between this section and a downstream one,
if the Mach number is to be increased to 4.5. Evaluate the stagnation and static
values of pressure and temperature at the downstream section, and the thrust or
drag on the duct.
For M = 3, from Isentropic tables
(1_ )4Adx
pp kM2 2 D
Using Eqs. (13.54) and 13.47), we get
dp
p V
Thus
dp w2 4A dx (13.49)
p 2(1 — kM 2) D
Since A is positive and dx chosen increasing in the downstream direction, the sign
of dp/p depends on whether (1 — kM2) is negative or positive.
In other words, pressure shall decrease so long as M < 1/1ifc and shall increase
for higher value of the Mach number. Note that the reference for an isothermal
flow is not whether it is subsonic or supersonic, but whether
M> 1/11i
The acoustic speed a = (k RT)1t2 is constant all along the flow as the static
temperature is invariant.
V = Ma
Or
dVIV = dM/M
and the Mach number variation is
dM _ km2 4A dx (13.50)
M 2(1 — kM 2) D
350 FLUID MECHANICS
To T (1+ k 1 m2)
2
Or
ln To = ln T+ 141 + k 2 1 hi2)
)
Or
dTo (k —1)M 2 dM
To (1 k — 1 m2) M
2
Substituting for the variation of Mach number, we get
dTo k(k-1)M4 dx
'SA • - (13.51)
To k—1 D
2(1 — kM 2)(1 + M'
2
From the factor (1— kM2), we note that the total temperature increases for M <, 1/41
and decreases for higher values. That means heat is added to the gas at lower
value of M and rejected by the gas when M > 1/
k kl(k - I)
PO= 41 4. 2
)
In po= lnp + + k 2 1 M2)
k 1 In 2)
Or
dPo = dp k (k-1)M 2 dM
Po p k —1 ( k —1 „,2) M
1+
2 `" )
kM 2 41 dx 1 km2
dpo —
Po 2(1 — kM 2) D 1+ M2
2
Or
(1 k +1 Af2)
km2 2 ) dx
= 4A — (13.52)
Po
do 2(1 — kM)2 • (i k — 1 Af2)
+
2 )
ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 351
It is apparent from Eq. (13.52) that the total pressure variation depends on the
composite sign of
1 (k + 1) 4121
2
1 — kM 2
For M < 1/11r, the sign of this expression is positive and the total pressure
decreases. On the other hand, for 1/4r • < M < (2/(k + 1))1/2, the sign is negative
indicating increase in total pressure. The total pressure shall fall again when the
Mach number exceeds the value M = [2/(k + 1)]1/2.
(e) The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Tds=ih—vdp
0
Or
ds = — R • dplp
Or
RIM 2 A , dX
ds = • 411. -"-* (13.53)
2(1 — kM 2) D
Entropy increases for M < 1-a and decreases thereafter, obvious due to heat
transfer as was indicated by the variation of the stagnation temperature.
The above behaviour of an isothermal flow are listed in Table 3 for ease of
reference.
Linn I/ 4r
4A 2(1 — kM 2) dM
— ax = km2 (13.54)
M
INT 'Ark-
f Jr M — ( 1 2 In M)1:141
kM 3 kM 2 1
= — 1 — 2 In + 2 In M
,ffc + kM2
= 1— khf22 + In km2
km
Hence
4A L = [1 — kM 2 (13.55)
+ ln kM 2
kM 2
The r.h.s. of Eq. (1335) is plotted in Fig. 13.13 for computational purposes.
The length L between two sections at M1 and M2 computed in a manner
similar to the Fanno Line calculations is
4A r4AL.A1
= (13.56)
D D JA,1 L D _1m2
If we define the property values at the limiting M = lisrfc with a subscript 1, then
for the isothermal constant area flow,
Pr = Pt = V aM (13.57)
p p ahfi z— "
1+ k —1 1)
Toi .( 2 k) _ 3k — 1 1 (13.58)
To (1 4. k — 1 hf2) 2k ( k— i m2
• 1+
2 ) 2
k/(k-1)
poi p [ 1 +
k—
1/k
i
1
i
=
Po P 1+ ki1;m2
kl(k -I)
[3k — 1 1
= M 4T. 2k ' ( k —1 2) (13.59)
1+ 2—m
ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 353
O
E
0.01 I I 11.111
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
M
Fig. 13.13 Maximum duct Length for Isothermal Flow, k = 1.4.
These relationships can then be used for evaluating the parameters at different
sections.
Example 13.9 In an isothermal flow of air through a pipe, the inlet conditions
are: velocity 140 m/s, pressure 3.5 bar and temperature 40°C. The pipe diameter
is 30 cm and A = 0.005.
Calculate: (a) the maximum permissible pipe length, (b) the choking velocity
(c) the choking pressure, and (d) the length of the pipe, where M = 0.75, k = 1.4
2.02645 x 0.3
L= = 30.396 m (d)
4 x 0.005
13.6 SUMMARY
1. The stagnation or total value of a property means the value assumed when the
fluid stream is brought to rest isentropically. A local stagnation value for T, p, p
or h is defined to mean isentropically decelerated value, even if the flow was non-
isentropic.
2. The stagnation enthalpy and hence To are conserved in both isentropic
and adiabatic flows. The stagnation pressure is constant only in isentropic flow.
3. A choked isentropic flow implies attaining M = 1 at the minimum cross-
section. For a given Po and To, the flow rate cannot be increased even by decreasing
the back pressure once the flow is choked. The isentropic flow rate increases
directly with po and inversely with 4. Under choked condition the isentropic
throat pressure is always p*, p* = 0.5282p0 for k =
4. The flow rate of air, R = 286.7 Nm/kg K and k = 1.4, through a choked
passage is
EXERCISES
1. A converging nozzle having an exit area of 6 cm2 is connected to a large tank
in which the pressure of air is 1.4 bar abs and temperature 30°C. Estimate the exit
velocity and mass flow rate if the nozzle discharges to an ambient at 1 bar
pressure.
What largest ambient pressure is permissible if the nozzle were to discharge
the maximum mass of air per unit time?
(Ans: 235.8 m/s, 0.18 kg/s, 0.74 bar)
2. Show that for an adiabatic flow
k Pi + V? k P2 4. V22
k — 1 p1 2 k — 1 p2 2
where the suffixes 1 and 2 indicate two different sections.
3. A venturimeter with throat diameter 20 mm is installed in a pipe line of 60 mm
to measure air flow rate. The inlet end pressure and temperature are 4 bar abs and
25°C, and the throat pressure is 3 bar abs. The flow in the venturimeter is considered
frictionless and without heat transfer. Estimate the mass flow rate of air.
4. A steam nozzle is to be designed for discharging 10 kg/s from the boiler
condition at 15 bar abs and 400°C. The nozzle flow is isentropic upto the throat
and the adiabatic flow between the throat and the exit is expected to be at an
efficiency of 90 percent. The nozzle discharges to a back pressure of 2 bar. For
superheated steam p*/po = 0.5457.
356 FLUID MECHANICS
(a) Estimate the throat and exit areas of the nozzle for the desired flow rate.
(b) The thrust experienced by the nozzle.
Use Moiller chart for steam for solving the problem.
5. An insulated pipe, for which A = 0.005, is used for supplying compressed air
to a building located 390 metres away. The air temperature and pressure at the
inlet are 27°C and 8 bar gauge, and the inlet Mach number 0.10. If the pipe
internal diameter is 15 cm, calculate the air flow rate in m3/min, the velocity, Mach
number, static pressure and temperature at the delivery end of the pipe. Consider
the environment pressure as 1 bar.
(Ans: 73.35 m3/min., 69.18 m/s, 0.2, 3.487 bar gauge, 298.2 K)
6. A sampling tube, 0.25 mm ID and 15 mm long, is inserted into a section of
a fluid stream where the static pressure and static temperature are 2 bar and
700°C, and the fluid stream velocity is 300 m/s. The sampling tube exit is connected
to a very large space connected to a vacuum pump. Determine the maximum rate
of sampling of the stream mass, and the pressure the vacuum pump must maintain
to achieve the rate. Assume that the properties of air apply to the stream.
(Ans: 14.569 x 10-6 kg/s, 1.2368 bar abs)
7. Show that in a constant area frictionless flow with heat transfer, the fluid
velocity at any section is given by V = 11-0/ 40. Hence prove that the choking
condition occurs at M = 1.
8. Consider Fanno Line flow and show that the entropy change is given by
A = IcRM 4 dx
—2 • 44 —
2
Hence argue that a negative value of friction factor is against the second law of
thermodynamics.
9. The mass flow rate of air through a short heat exchanger is 150 kg/m2 s. The
inlet static pressure and temperature are 1.5 x 105 N/m2 and 30°C. If the temperature
at the exchanger exit is 200°C, estimate the inlet and exit Mach numbers and the
pressure drop in flow through the exchanger, although friction is negligible.
(Ans: 0.25, 0.354, 11.22 kN/m2)
10. Air is to be made available at the end of a 10 cm ID, long pipe line at 1.5
bar abs static pressure, 30°C. The pipe line is 500 m long and the friction factor
is A = 0.004. Heat transfer to the surrounding maintains the flow isothermal. If
the inlet end static pressure is 8 bar abs, what is the volumetric discharge rate
computed at 1.013 bar and 20°C.
(Ans: 114.16 m3/min)
Normal and Oblique Shocks
During our discussions in Chapter 13, we had tacitly mentioned the term 'shock'
which is associated with the off-design conditions of a supersonic flow. For example,
consider the flow through a converging-diverging nozzle of Fig. 13.3. When the
back pressure is either pB2 or pa3 , the isentropic flow in the diverging portion is
subsonic. The true design condition is for back pressure NI, for which the flow
in the whole length of the diverging portion shall be supersonic.
However, when the back pressure is pB4 , higher than NI but lower than
pB3, the flow supersonic for only a portion of the diverging portion. The flow
properties undergo sudden changes at a location and the Mach number adjusts to
a value which will result in the exit pressure being equal to pB4 . Such sudden changes
are said to occur across a flow discontinuity termed 'shock'. The discontinuity is
called a 'normal shock' when it is perpendicular to the flow direction. The Mach
number downstream of it is invariably subsonic. A shock inclined to the flow
direction is called an 'oblique shock' downstream of which the Mach number may
still be higher than unity.
In the event the nozzle back pressure is lower than the design value NI, the
flow continues its expansion outside the nozzle, and the flow is said to be over
expanded.
k —1
1+ Al;
(1 +khil) 21(1 + klif?) 2 = MZI Af? (14.7b)
1 k-1
M -2
2 I
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 359
2 2kx
+x+y —
k
k —1 —u
Or
x + 2/(k — 1)
Y— 2kx
k—1 1
i.e.
— M? h 2 1 (14.9)
2kM?
k—1
Equation (14.9) is used to evaluate the Mach number downstream of a normal
shock for a given Mi. The ratio of other flow parameters are then calculated
readily for a perfect gas. Such results are available in tables.
S
Fig. 14.1 Entropy Change during a Normal Shock.
360 FLUID 1 CI4ANICS
to take place in the direction 1 to 2. Since 1' and 2' correspond to the respective
stagnation conditions of 1 and 2.
s2 - SI =- sr
With the above recognition, we proceed to evaluate the entropy change in terms
of To and po for convenience:
Toils = dho - vodpo
Or
ds = - R dPosukce
. dho = 0
Po
Hence
s2 - s1 = Rin Poi
n (14.10)
P02
But
( k - 1 21k"k-"
Cl + 411
Po1lPo2 PtIP2 •
( 1 .,2)kl(k-1)
k-
"r 2 in2 )
k 1 ya(k-1)
+
1 +ky (1 2 x
1 + kx k jiick-I)
1+
2
P02 (1 + kx) rx
(k + 1)2]ki(k-1)
2
defining
g=l+( k -
Mx f = 2Jcx - (k - 1).
Thus
kl(k-I) i ll(k-1)
Poi 2g r 2k k
Poe = [(k "I' 1) x +xl k+- 1,
Or
k/(k-1)
k — 1) hi?
11(k-1)
POi w il 2 UM? k -1
P02 k + 1 M2 k+1 k + 11
2 I
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 381
]1,0_1)
poi r 2 m2 4. k — ikl(") [2kM? _k — 1
(14.11)
pot Lk+ 1 I k + 1 .1 k+1 k+1
R I. ( 2 , k— 1) (2kM? k— 1)]
s2 — SI = k - 1 kin
in k „C ITT) + In k+1 k+1
(14.12)
In the limiting case of Aft = 1, each of the terms within the parentheses become
unity, and the entropy change is zero. The entropy change is positive only if M1
is greater than unity, and is negative for MI < 1. In other words, shocks can occur
only in supersonic flow.
We can now show the thermodynamic path of a normal shock on a h-s
diagram in Fig. 14.2 where the Fanno and Rayleigh lines are superimposed.
Equations (14.9) yield further that (i) the flow is always subsonic after a normal
shock, and (ii) M2 decreases as M1 increases.
Fanno line
Rayleigh line
S
Fig. 14.2 A Normal Shock on a h-s Diagram.
The minimum value of Mach number downstream of a normal shock is
obtained from Eq. (14.9) by setting the limit of M1 to infinity.
2
= Lt ,L
Mi —0 es 2k
1/M2
k 1
Or
2 _k—1
M221=2
1=. — 2k
362 FLUID MECHANICS
For k= 1.4,
(k +1)(1+ kM?)
1 + kM? -
2kM? - (k -1)
from which
= 2kM? k -1
(14.14)
k+1 k+1
The pressure ratio tends to infinity with the rising value of the upstream Mach
number.
The temperature ratio is
+k- M
T2 1 — 2 I
T1 1 k -1 Aw 2
2 2
Substituting for MI, the denominator becomes
k_1 2_ (k +1)2 M?
1+ M,
2 2 [2kM? - (k - 1)]
Hence
[2 + - 1) M?] • [2kM? - (k - 1)]
T2/T, = (14.15)
(k + 1)2 M?
The limiting value of T2/TI as M1 -4 00 is
The ratio of densities after and before the shock is obtained by combining
Eqs. (14.14) and (14.15):
P2 /PI = P2/PI X T1 /7.2
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 363
or
p2I A = (k + 1) M?I[2 + (k — 1) M?] (14.16)
As M1 00, the limiting value of the ratio is
P = (2kM? — (k — 1) — (k + 1)]1(k + 1)
or
2k qv
k + 1 I — 1) (14.17b)
P
Equation (14.17b) implies that a shock wave has vanishing strength as the upstream
Mach number is reduced to the neighbourhood of unity. The phenomenon is then
nearly isentropic as is observed in Fig. 14.3. The pressure-density ratios of a
shock wave for M1 near unity coincides with those of an isentropic flow. That is
to say, very weak shocks are acoustic waves.
100
co
imm
50
Rankine -Hugoniot
relation
5
Isen tropic
2 3 4 5 6
P2
A* = (1.687/1.215) A, = 1.3814 A,
Ae/A* = (3.0A,)/(1.3884 Ai) = 2.1606
for which Me = 0.28, from isentropic tables, as the exit plane Mach number.
Poe — P2 = 0.4285 P2
= 0.4285 x 3.2835 x 105 N/m2
corresponding to a mercury column of
A moving shock
F
P21 P02
k Observer
/ ///// /ern/ //////////////////P//////////////,
The air on the right of the shock now "moves" to the left with velocity V1
corresponding to M1 = , where T1 is the temperature of the undisturbed
Example 14.3 A normal shock is created due to the explosion of a bomb. The
shock wave is moving at 1725 m/s into undisturbed atmosphere at 25°C and 1.013
bar. Calculate:
(i) the Mach number of the air moving in the wake of the shock, relative
to an observer stationary on the ground,
(ii) the static and total pressure behind the shock,
(iii) the static temperature behind the shock,
(iv) change in the total temperature of the air due to the passage of the
shock.
= 1.013 x 105 N/m2,
= 298 K, al = 345.42 m/s
M1 = 1725/345.42 = 5
From isentropic tables, Ti/Toi = 0.1666 for M1 = 5.0
From shock tables, M2 = 0.4152 for Mi = 5.0
T4 = = T1/0.1666 = 298/0.1666 = 1788.7 K
When
= 0.4152, Ti ITA= 0.9675
Therefore
= T2 = 0.9675 x 1788.7 = 1730.5 K
a2 = ai = 20.01 41730.5 = 832.42 m/s
= 0.4152 x 832.42 = 345.62 m/s
V2 = — = 1379.38 m/s
M2 = 1379.38/832.42 = 1.65'7 (i)
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 369
Note that the ambient air is dragged in the wake of the shock at a supersonic
velocity. Again from the shock tables, for
M1 = 5.0, PiPi = 29.00
Hence
P2 = 1.013 x 105 x 29 = 29.377 x 105 N/m2 (ha)
for
M2 = 1.657, p2Ipo2 = 0.217
Therefore
Po2 = 29.377/0.217 x 105 = 135.377 x 105 N/m2 (iib)
The discontinuities in supersonic flows do not always exist as normal to the flow
direction. More often, the discontinuity is at an inclination to the stream, and then
it is called an 'oblique shock'. For example, in a supersonic flow through a duct,
viscous effects cause the shock to be oblique near the walls, the shock is normal
only in the core region. The shock is also oblique when a supersonic flow is made
to change direction near a corner.
On the other hand, a design may conspicuously be adopted to create an
oblique shock instead of a normal one, for the losses in case of the former is
relatively small. An example is the installation of a spear like structure in front
of a supersonic aircraft, or the sharp nose of a high powered bullet.
In Fig. 14.5, a supersonic flow at Mach M1 is made to flow along a corner
0 with a not too large deflection angle 6. V1 and V2 are the fluid velocities before
and after the shock. V, makes an angle e and V2 an angle p with the shock. e is
known as the wave angle.
The components of velocities normal and parallel to the shock are:
V,„ = V, sin E, V,, = V, cos e
370 FLUID MECHMSCS
Oblique shock
and
V2„ = V2 sin 13, V2, = V2 COS
where
/I = (e — 6)
The conservation equations across the oblique shock can then be written as: Mass
flow rate across the shock yields,
It is noted from the foregoing that the oblique shock reduces to a normal
shock when calculations are made on the basis of the normal component of the
velocity. The normal shock tables can be used to estimate the variations of flow
parameters, if M1 is replaced by Min = M1 sin E. It is important, therefore, that
the normal component alone of the upstream velocity is supersonic. In other
words, oblique shock shall take place provided M, sin E > 1.
Using, M1,,, we can determine M2,, from normal shock tables, and then evaluate
M2 = M2„/sin $. It is thus implied that only V2„ shall be subsonic. The value of
V2 = V2 + V22„ can, of course, exceed sonic velocity, due to the vectorial addition
of the tangential component with V2„.
The question, therefore, now remains to know the value of E for a given M1
and deflection angle 8.
Derivation for a relationship of E with M, and 8 is involved, and we quote
here the expression that is available in several advanced texts.
1 k+1 M2
1) tan E (14.23)
tan t5 2 M? sin 2 E— 1
6 = 06 ( Normal shock )
90
80'`\
a, 70
cn
17 60
50
40
30
6 = Deflection angle
8=0
20 (Mach wave)
III I I I
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 35
M1
Fig. 14.6 Wave Angle vs. M, with 3 as Parameter, k = 1.4.
k+1 M?
E„ = 1/tan „ 1Jtan €
2 MI E -1
= 1/tan 10 — (1.2 x 9/(9 sin 2 27.5 — 1) — 1) tan 27.5
= 5.67128 — (10.7531) x 0.52056 = 0.07357
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 373
3.5
3.0
2.5
M2
2.0
1.5
1.0
05
10 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Fig. 14.7 Mach Number after an Oblique-Shock, k = 1.4.
M1
M
-------s "
2
Pe p t
i
Fig. 14.8 Prandtl-Mayer Expansion.
If we took e = 28°,
E„ = 5.67128 — (1.2 x 9/(9 sine 28 — 1) — 1) tan 28
= 5.67128 — 5.3063 = 0.3649
374 FLUID MECHANICS
For M1 = 3.0, pip° = 0.0272 and T/To = 0.3571 from isentropic tables. Therefore
For M1„ = 1.3852, we get, using the table for normal shock, the relation
M2„ = 0.746, p2/pi = 2.06
Then by calculation, M2 = M2„/sin $ = 2.48.
And from Fig. 14.8,
M2 = 2.5 for MI = 3.0 and 6 = 10°
From isentropic tables, for M2 = 2.5, T/T0 = 0.4444. Hence
T2 = 848.50 x 0.4444 = 377.07 K
a2 = 20.03 1/1f1T7 = 388.56 m/s
V2 = 388. 56 x 2.5 = 971.40 m/s
V2„ = V2 sin /3= 292.10 m/s
from which M7, = 0.75 which agrees well with the shock table value.
P2 = 2.06p1 = 2.06 x 1.5 = 3.09 bar
For M2 = 2.5, p2/p02 = 0.0585 from isentropic tables. Therefore
s2 — s1 = R In Poi
P02
14.7 SUMMARY
1. A shock wave takes place in a supersonic flow when the conditions are off-
design or when a disturbance is introduced into the flow.
2. No shock can occur in a subsonic flow.
3. Mach number following a normal shock is always subsonic. The value of
downstream Mach number decreases as the upstream Mach number is increased.
The asymptotic value of M2 is 0.3779 for k = 1.4 as M1 —> co.
4. The conditions before and after a normal shock are defined by the points
of inter-section of Fanno and Rayleigh lines on a h-s plot.
5. The shock process is adiabatic and irreversible. Total enthalpy is conserved,
total pressure is decreased and entropy is increased.
6. Whereas the ratios of the static temperature and pressure down and upstream
may approach infinity with rising value of MI , the maximum value of the density
ratio is finite, (p2I pl ),„„ = 6 for k = 1.4.
7. Variations of fluid thermodynamic properties due to a moving shock can
be estimated by the method of relative velocity wherein the observer is imagined
to be stationed on the shock.
8. An oblique shock occurs when a supersonic flow is made to change
direction such as in moving past a wedge or along a corner. Normal shock results
are obtainable as special case of the oblique shock.
9. An oblique shock makes a wave angle E with the upstream velocity due
to deflection through an angle S. 3.= 45°22' for k = 1.4 in order that an oblique
shock may remain attached to the wedge.
10.The tangential component of velocities before and after an oblique shock
are equal‘ Results for an oblique shock can be obtained by using the normal shock
tables provided that calculations are made on the basis of M1 , = M1 sin E. The
normal component of velocity after an oblique shock is always subsonic. However,
the absolute value of V2 can be higher than sonic due to the unchanged value of
the tangential component. In other words the flow can be supersonic downstream
of an oblique shock.
EXERCISES
1. An air stream at static temperature and pressure 50°C and 125 kN/m2 with a
velocity of 650 m/s undergoes a normal shock. Calculate the static and stagnation
376 FLUID MECHANICS
values of pressure and temperature behind the shock, and the change in entropy
due to the shock.
(Ans: 453.8 kPa, 583.7 kPa; 494.5 K, 532.3 K; 59.5 J/kg K)
2. Consider supersonic flow of air through a converging-diverging nozzle from a
stagnation condition of 500 kN/m2 and 400 K. The throat area is 1/3rd of the exit
area. Air enters the nozzle at a Mach number of 0.2. The exit plane pressure is
maintained at the value corresponding to an isentropic operation of the nozzle.
Assuming the throat condition to be choked, calculate the throat diameter for a
mass flow rate of 10 kg/s. Estimate also the nozzle diameter at inlet and exit, the
exit Mach number, temperature and pressure, and hence evaluate the force required
to hold the nozzle stationary for the given mass flow rate.
(Ans: 11.23 cm, 19.32 cm, 19.45 cm; 2.64, 167 K; 23.55 kPa, 7520 N)
3. Imagine that for the nozzle flow stated in problem 2, a normal shock takes
place half-way in the diverging section. The flow is otherwise isentropic and the
mass flow maintained. Calculate the Mach number where the shock takes place,
and evaluate the static and total values of pressure and temperature on the exit
plane. Estimate the force required to hold the nozzle stationary.
(Ans: 1.86, 363.1 kPa, 395 K; 3267.3 N)
4. A 2 cm ID pipe is fed air by a converging-diverging nozzle whose throat
diameter is 1 cm. The stagnation conditions at entry to the nozzle are 3 bar and
350 K. The pipe has a friction factor of A = 0.0025, and is insulated against heat
transfer. Calculate the mass flow rate, Mach number and fluid conditions at inlet
to the pipe and the maximum possible length when: (a) flow in the nozzle is fully
isentropic and (b) flow in the nozzle is isentropic, but a normal shock takes place
at entry to the pipe.
(Ans: 0.0509 kg/s, 2.94, 8.94 kPa, 128.24 K, 1.025 m; 0.4788, 88.65 kPa,
334.5 K, 2.56 m)
5. An aircraft flying at an altitude of 15000 metres has its inside pressurized to
100 kN/m2. Calculate the force experienced by the window at the nose end of the
aircraft, if the projected normal area of the window is 0.15 m2 when the aircraft
flight Mach number is (i) 0.2, (ii) 0.8, and (iii) 2.0 and a normal shock remains
attached to the aircraft nose. Use tabulated properties of standard atmosphere.
(Ans: 13.161, 12.4, 4.916 kN)
6. A pitot-static tube is introduced into a supersonic stream. A normal shock
stands in front of the tube, and the static and total pressure recorded by the tube
are 1.2 bar and 1.66 bar absolute. Calculate the'Mach number of the supersonic
flow. A thermometer held stationary in the stream reads a temperature of 80°C.
Calculate the velocity of the supersonic flow.
(Ans: 1.5, 468.7 m/s)
7. A normal shock moves into still air at the standard conditions of 760 mm Hg
and 25°C. If the velocity of the shock is 1360 m/s, calculate the static and stagnation
values of pressure and temperature of the fluid in the wake of the shock as
referred to from an observer sitting on the ground.
(Ans: 18.12 bar, 71.56 bar, 1162 K, 1720 K)
NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 377
1. Ina Supersonic wind tunnel of test section Mach number 3.0, a symmetrical
wedge of total included angle 40° is used to instrument the flow. The stagnation
pressure and temperature for the undisturbed tunnel flow are 35 bar and 50°C.
Calculate the wave angle of the oblique shock, Mach number behind the shock,
the static and total pressure and temperature behind the oblique shock. State also
the value of the minimum Mach number for which the shock shall remain attached
to the wedge.
(Ans: 37°, 2.10, 3.44 bar, 31.47 bar, 171.6 K)
9. In a supersonic flow of air, the Mach number is 3.0 and the static pressure and
temperature are 100 k/4/m2 and 30°C. The stream can be decelerated through (a)
a normal shock, or (b) through an oblique shock over a wedge of semiangle 15°
and followed by a. normal shock. Calculate the flow properties behind the oblique
and normal shock in both cases (a) and (b). Estimate the entropy change in each
case and show the thermodynamic processes on T-s diagrams. State whether the
process in (a) or in (b) is to be preferred in a design where irreversibilities and
loss of total pressure are to be kept to a minimum.
(Aus: 10.33 bar, 811.7 K, 319.5 J/kg K; 32°, 2.78 bar, 412.3 K, 15.5 J/kg K)
10. Diffusers are installed in the air intake of jet planes to convert the kinetic
energy of incoming air as rise in static pressure.
A jet plane designed to fly at 15000 metres at Mach 2.5 has its diffuser
designed for choking condition at the throat. The exit area is such that the air
leaves the diffuser at M = 0.2 under design condition. While flying at M = 2 at
the same altitude, it was observed that a normal shock took place mid way in the
supersonic section of the diffuser. Calculate the Mach number, static and total
pressure at the exit of the diffuser for M = 2 flight condition. Flow through the
diffuser is isentropic except for the shock.
Draw a sketch of the diffuser and mark the values of Mach number at
salient locations for the designed and off-design operating conditions stated here.
(Ans: 0.35, 80.2 kPa, 87.3 kPa)
Fluid Machines
Fluid machines are energy conversion devices in which mechanical work is either
produced (turbine) or absorbed (pump) due to the momentum change of a stream
of fluid.
Recall the action of a jet of water gliding along a moving vane in Chapter 4.
When the vane was moving away from the water stream, the velocity of water at
the exit from the vane was less than at the inlet, and the reduction in kinetic
energy of water was equal to the work that could be performed by the vane. If
a series of such vanes were mounted on a rotor, continuous mechanical work
could have been generated at the rotor shaft.
The system just described is a turbine. Its essential components are: a nozzle
that can convert pressure head to kinetic energy of a fluid jet, and a set of blades
mounted on a rotor.
The pressure head for a hydraulic or water turbine is provided by a dam; by
a boiler for a steam turbine, and a gasifier in the case of a gas turbine.
The opposite case of vane action, when a vane is moved towards the fluid
jet, results in a higher kinetic energy at the exit than at its inlet. The increase is
equivalent to work done on the vane in moving it against the jet. The kinetic
energy at vane exit is recovered as pressure by the action of a diffuser. This is the
principle of action of a pump whose principal components are: a set of vanes on
a rotor, and a diffuser.
The fluid prime movers (turbines) and pumps just outlined are grouped
together as `rotodynamic' machines. Apart from the primarily rotary motions,
they are distinguished by the fact that there is no mechanical barrier between the
inlet and outlet ports for the fluid. Rotodynamic machines have the advantage that
the fluid flow is continuous and the machine capacity can be large. On the other
hand, the absence of a physical barrier can cause leakage flow from the high to
low pressure side; for example, from the discharge to inlet in a pump. Consequently,
the operating pressure range is limited.
The other category of fluid machines is of the 'positive displacement type',
in which a given quantity of fluid is bounded by physical surfaces. Usually one
surface is moving and the other is stationary, or moving in the opposite directions
such as a piston and cylinder in a reciprocating pump. The inlet and outlet ports
are not open simultaneously, and hence the pressure differential can be made very
large without creating leakage flow. Obviously, the necessity to bound the fluid
on all sides limits the volumetric capacity of the positive displacement machines.
Further, the flow rate is not continuous.
378
FLUID MACHINES 379
Reciprocating pumps and compressors, the vane pump, the gear pump, the
hydraulic ram, and the compressed air motors are examples of positive displacement
machines. On the other hand, turbines, centrifugal and axial flow pumps, fans,
blowers and rotary compressors belong to the category of rotodynamic machines.
15.1 CLASSIFICATIONS
The blade and rotor assembly for a turbine is known as its 'runner', and the
assembly for a pump is called its 'impeller'.
The variation in nomenclature and design of a rotodynamic machine depend
on: (i) the stages of pressure-momentum conversion, (ii) the path followed by the
fluid, and (iii) the direction of curvature of the moving vanes.
(i) Impulse and Reaction Turbines
The turbines are classified as 'impulse' or 'reaction turbine', depending on whether
the pressure head available is fully or partially converted into kinetic energy in
the nozzle.
The pressure at exit of the nozzle of an impulse turbine is atmospheric and,
except for losses, the pressure does not vary along the moving vanes. The wheel
can therefore be operated freely in air. The thrust experienced by a moving vane
of an impulse turbine is solely due to the change in direction of the momentum.
The most common hydraulic impulse turbine is a 'Pelton wheel' which works
satisfactorily under high water heads of the order of 150 to 1500 metres.
'Reaction turbines' are, in fact, impulse-reaction prime movers. A stator of
guide vanes is used to surround the rotor of moving vanes. The guide vanes act
as nozzles, allowing only partial expansion of the pressure to kinetic energy.
Further expansion of the pressure head takes place during the motion of the fluid
over the moving vanes. Consequently, the thrust exerted on the blade is partly due
to momentum change (impulse) and partly due to pressure action (reaction). As
water is admitted all over the wheel periphery through the stator vanes and since
the pressure varies across the moving vanes, a reaction turbine is operated, completely
sealed from the atmosphere.
A commonly used reaction turbine for medium heads of the order of 20 to
200 metres is a 'Francis turbine'. The one best suited for very low heads down
to 2 or 3 metres of water is a 'Kaplan turbine'.
(ii) Axial, Radial and Mixed Flow Machines
Both turbines and pumps can be classified depending on the direction of flow
with respect to the rotor axis. In 'axial flow' machines, the flow is parallel to rotor
axis, see Fig. 15.1(a). Figures 15.1(b) and 15.1(c) represent 'radial' and 'mixed'
flow impellers/runners. Depending on whether fluid flows from the periphery to
the centre of the rotor or the reverse, the machine is called 'radially inward' or
'radially outward'.
A Francis turbine is radially inward, whereas a centrifugal pump is a radially
outward rotodynamic machine. The Kaplan turbine is an axial flow machine.
(iii) Backward, Radial and Forward Bladed Impellers
The vanes of a radial outward flow machine, e.g. a centrifugal pump, fan or
380 FLUID MECHANICS
Stator
compressor can be set at different outlet angles to the direction of the local
peripheral velocity. The impeller is then classified according to the direction of
the blade angle as shown in Fig. 15.2.
Flow rate
(2°DblicpdNe = M°L°7° (15.1)
from which
M:c+d=0
L:3a+b—c-3d=0
T:—a—c—e=0
Assuming a = 1 and c = 0, we get b = — 3, d = 0, e = — 1, and evaluate
RI = (15.2a)
D3 N
For the second s-tenn, we set a = 0 and choose d = 1, leading to b = 2, c = — 1
and e = 1. Therefore,
pND2 (pND)D
7f2
Of
A2 = pUD = Re (15.2b)
382 FLUID MECHANICS
where the peripheral speed U of the rotor is taken proportional to the product of
D and N. Thus the flow rate can be represented as
=KO
' • Rem (15.3)
ND3 -
If we proceed in the same fashion for pressure and power; we obtain the relations
pNAP K'P • Re
2 D2• (15.4)
Q (re p -3/2
017)3/2 = N..121 A p312) N
FLUID MACHINES 383
pra
N= •74 )(4p1p)314 • 1/1,1Q (15.7a)
( AP
Defining Llp = pgH, where H is the fluid column across the machine, we get
Since for all machines in a series the values of KQ, Kp and K p are constants, the
right-hand sides of Eqs. (15.8) and (15.9) are constant having the same value for
all machines in a homologous series. Either of these two is stated as the 'Type
Number' or the 'Specific Speed' Ns of the series:
Ns =.P7
I 21Kp314 (15.10a)
or
Nt = liT/Kp5/4 (15.10b)
•
15.3 SPECIFIC SPEED
Equations (15.8) and (15.9) gave us two definitions of specific speed. It is customary
to ascribe the former to pumps where the output parameters of importance are the
flow rate Q and the head H. On the other hand, the power developed P, is important
for a turbine, and the latter is, therefore, said to represent a group of turbines. Thus
N 11-6
N (0)34 (15.10)
N
s — (00514
is that of a turbine.
384 FLUID MECHANICS
1611,1 • Qg H
=
N3 (On 5/4
Or
N .4Q
Ns = (01) 3/4 (15.12)
NI Q1 _ N24-0;
41-103/4 (012)314
(H2 )314 =N
Hi Hi ""
w 2 xN lerd
— 60 (gH)3I4
2x x 300 .4T2
=
0.9 =0.419
60 (9.8 x 30)3/4
386 FLUID MECHANICS
Thus, 0.419 = 1, or
Q = 5.675 m3/s
Power output P = ti(pQgH) = 0.9 x 1000 x 5.675 x 9.8 x 30
= 1.5016 x 106 W
The possible power output is 1.5016 MW.
An examination of the input and output information given in Example 15.2
would be highly satisfying. The available head is site-dependent, dictated by, say,
the height of the dam. The machine speed, a designer's choice, is related to the
synchronous speed of the alternator for power generation driven directly by the
turbine. Once we choose a turbine, and its runner design through the specific
speed, the possible power output is decided.
Conversely, if we wish to generate some power at a given site, i.e. given H,
we can make our choices by rewriting the expression for the specific speed as
Example 15.3 In the Hirakud hydroelectric power station there are four Kaplan
and two Francis turbines, as in 1985, operating under an average head of 26.5 m.
The overall efficiency of the Kaplan type is 90 percent and of the Francis type
is 88 percent. Both types have a mechanical efficiency of 94.4 percent between
the turbine and the alternator.
(a) The design flow rate for the Kaplan turbine is 170 m3/s and the operating
speed 150 rpm. Calculate the shaft power, the electrical power output, and the
specific speed.
(b) For Francis turbines, co, = 2.25, and an electrical power rating of Pe =
24 MWe. Determine the flow rate and the rotational speed. Take g = 9.8 ni/s2.
(a) Kaplan Turbine
Water Power P,, = pQgH
Shaft Power PM = rk,P,,
Pm = 0.9 x 103 x 170 x 9.8 x 26.5
= 39.734 MW
Electric Power Pe = ti,„Pm
= 0.944 x 39.734
= 37.5 MWe
FLUID MACHINES 387
x 150 lc Ai
= 30 = 30 = laRs's
Ws
wlficr
lp
(gH)514
15.7 x l,r3i.TT003
=3
(9.8 x 26.5)94
(b) Francis Turbine
Pm = 4— IT§7
24 - = 25.42 MW
7 4
Piw = noNgH
Pm 25.42 x 106
Q— nopgH — 0.88 x 103 x 9.8 x 26.5
Or
Q = 111.2 m3/s
r-- Ira
(03 = 11 no (003/4
Or
s (gH)314
—
471c2
We note that under the same operating water head, the output of a Kaplan
turbine is significantly higher than that of a Francis turbine.
dimensional. For example, in a radial flow machine (Fig. 15.4), the fluid velocity
is assumed to depend only on the radius. It is further assumed that the thickness
of the blade is negligible and the rotor carries an infinite number of blades.
In Fig. 15.4, the rotor radius is r1 and the radius to the tip of the blades is
r2. The rotor rotates at w rad/s so that the peripheral speeds at the base and tip
of a blade are
Ul = wri 142 = wr2
In order that the fluid enters and leaves the blade passage without shock, the
relative velocities V,.1 and K2 at inlet and outlet are in the directions of the respective
tangents to the blade. The relative velocities make angles and /32 respectively
with u1 and u2. The absolute velocities of fluid at inlet and outlet to the blade are
obtained by a vectorial combination of V, and u, and make angles al and a2 with
u1 and u2.
The components of absolute velocities parallel to the tangential directions
are V,,1 and V,4,2 and those to the radial directions are Vfl and V12.
Clearly, Vf1 and Vf2 are associated with the flow rate through the impeller.
For example, if bi and b2 are the width of the cylindrical flow passages at the inlet
and outlet radii, then
W= 11m(Vw2r2 — Vwlrl) w
The parallel component V„, is more frequently called the 'whirl component' of
velocity.
Each of the velocity triangles in Fig. 15.4 is a combination of two right-
angled triangles. For example, the outlet triangle yields
f2 = V 2 Vwl
V12 2
V2 r2 — (U2 - Vw2) 2
f2 = V2
(V? + — VA)
ui Vwi — (15.17b)
2
and substituting in Eq. (15.16), we obtain
=
V22 — V? u?- — u? a
— Vr22
HE 4.
(15.18)
2g 2g 2g
We recognize that the first term represents the change in the kinetic energy
of the fluid; the second, the pressure head developed in a forced vortex, Chap. 5
(Eq. 5.27); and the third, the head generated due to the reduction of the fluid
relative velocity from the inlet to the outlet of the blade. In other words, the head
developed in a rotating bladed impeller is a combination of three distinct effects.
If we applied the first law of thermodynamics to the stream of fluid acted
upon in the impeller, we will notice that the work done is given by
— 6W = dE = dh + dKE (15.19)
in the absence of heat transfer and change in potential energy.
390 FLUID MECHANICS
We know from the second law that Tds = dh — dplp. When entropy change
is neglected, we get the enthalpy change as a measure of the static pressure
variation: dh = dplp. Since the first term in Eq. (15.18) is dKE, the other two terms
together represent the change in static pressure. The energy change dE is the Euler
head in Eq. (15.18).
It is illustrative to recall the conclusions of the work interaction on a single
blade in rectilinear motion (see Example 4.3). In that example, there was no
centrifugal action, nor was any change in the value of the relative velocity from
the inlet to the outlet. The second and third terms in Eq. (15.18) were identically
zero, and hence, no change in static pressure. The work was done solely due to
the change in kinetic energy.
Thus Eq. (15.18) or (15.19) could be viewed as the changes in the static,
dynamic and total pressure:
In a pump, the fluid kinetic energy at exit from the impeller, v22/2, is partially
converted to pressure in the stator. But this conversion is quite outside the impeller
action, and is not a work transfer. The converse action of pressure to kinetic
energy in a turbine-stator is also not a work interaction.
R — A P: (15.21)
A Pr
A rotor for which R = 0 is called the "Impulse" type, and can be operated
open to the atmosphere since the fluid static pressure does not vary due to blade
action. The single blade in Example 4.4 was under pure impulse. Besides, there
the blade was not subjected to centrifugal action. A rotor, however, experiences
centrifugal effects during operation. Yet the degree of reaction can be zero in an
impulse type when ui = u2 and V,.1 = Vr2, by Eq. (15.20c).
The degree of reaction can be negative, if there is a decrease in static
pressure even though the total fluid pressure increases due to blading action.
In common machines of the reaction type, the degree of reaction is less than
FLUID MACHINES 391
unity, R = 0.5 being a favourite steam turbine design. Since the fluid static pressure
continuously changes in a rotor of the reaction type, such machines are operated
with pressure sealings.
Example 15.4 A centrifugal impeller has inner and outer diameters of 250 and
500 mm. When rotated at a speed of 550 rpm, the inlet and outlet absolute
velocities of water are 1.77 and 12.4 m/s. The corresponding relative velocitiei
are 7.42 and 2.75 m/s. Calculate the degree of reaction of the impeller.
xls1 x x550
co= 30 = = 57.59 rad/s
30
u2 u2
-2 - -I =
77.76 m2/s2
2
Vr? — Vr? _ 7.422 — 2.752 = 23.75 m2/52
2 2
V22 — V12 12.42 — 1.772
= 75.31 m2/s2
2 = 2
P t
= 101.51 + 75.31 = 176.82 m2/s2
ps 191.51 _ 0
Degree of reaction R = 2p7 — .574
176.82 —
The theoretical or Euler head derived at Eq. (15.16) or (15.18) is not available at
the discharge of a rotodynamic machine due to frictional and volumetric losses,
and due to the fact that a real impeller has a finite number of blades.
Consider two adjacent blades on a centrifugal impeller in Fig. 15.5. The
concave and convex sides of a blade are the surfaces of positive and negative
pressure respectively. A fluid particle, besides having a primarily radial outward
motion due to centrifugal action, has the tendency to move in a circumferential
392 FLUID MECHANICS
direction from the concave side of one blade to the convex side of another due
to the pressure differential. Such a cross-motion is Called a 'secondary flow' since
the circumferential velocity is much smaller than the main radial velocity.
Nevertheless, the effect is to cause a reduction in momentum change at the blade
outlet by modifying the velocity diagram. (Fig. 153).
The effect of the secondary flow is deemed to cause a reduction of the whirl
component of the outlet velocity, equal to
4V 2 = aa)
where a is a representative radius. The value of a is generally taken as half the
perpendicular distance between the two adjacent blades at the outlet:
xd2 sin 02
a=
2 z
and
X142 o
Vw2 = — Stu p 2 (15.22)
where z is the number of blades on the impeller. The loss of head due to secondary
flow is known as the 'slip' and is equal to u24V,,21g. Consequently, the net theoretical
head developed by an impeller is
Hth = HE — Hap
Or
„ U2
nth = rw2 —1(142
— sin P2 (15.23b)
Hd, = HE X SF (15.23c)
Since the head loss due to slip depends on w, it is generally negligible in
slow speed machines such as a hydraulic turbine.
The theoretical head Hd, is further reduced due to frictional losses in the
impeller and in the casing. Let hi and k represent the respective lost heads.
Due to the forced vortex action the head at the impeller outlet is higher than
that at the impeller inlet. This head differential would cause a leakage flow from
the outlet. Besides, flow leakage can occur in the inlet and outlet pipes as well
as through the casing. Let the total leakage be q.
The losses can then be schematically shown as in Fig. 15.6, typically for a
pump. Imagine that we need a discharge Q at head H at the outlet of the pump.
In order to accommodate the losses, the head at the inlet to the casing has to be
,(H + he), that at the inlet to the impeller should be. (H + k + hi) and the flow rate
(Q + q), so as to account for the leakage. The theoreticil head has to provide for
H as. well as the losses. That is to say,
Hd, = H + + hi (15.24)
Discharge
Q, H
or
pg + q) X Hth
(15.25a)
The head loss in the impeller and casing. assembly is represented through a hydraulic
efficiency
(15.27)
711 X = Hth
The losses for a turbine would affect in a converse manner. For example,
if Q is the flow rate at inlet to the turbine, the actual quantity available in the
runner will be (Q — q) due to leakage of q. The number of blades on the runner
of a hydraulic turbine is small and the inter-blade passage is wide. The secondary
flow effects are weak. Head loss due to slip is ordinarily neglected, and the Euler
head is treated as the theoretical head.
If H is the head available for a turbine, the hydraulic efficiency
Nth
71/1 H (15.28a)
FLUID MACHINES 395
Example 15.5 A reaction type hydraulic turbine works at the foot of a dam. The
effective water head is 18 metres, and the velocity of water at the exit from the
turbine is 4.5 m/s. The machine develops a shaft power of 2 MW when the water
flow rate is 13.2 m3/s. Calculate the hydraulic, mechanical and overall efficiencies.
The exit velocity head
V2 432
= 1.032 m
2g 21 2 x 9.81
Hth m H —v2
— = 18 — 1.032=16.968m
2g
16.968
=18 =94.2%
11h
The water power W = pQgH
or
W= 103 x 13.2 x 9.81 x 18
= 2.33 MW
o = P = 2 = 85.896
w 2 33
110 0.858
„, = = = y170
h 0.942
As has been implied, the terminologies and information given in this Chapter are
applicable both to turbines and pumps. Details, specific to each of these two
classes of machines, are discussed in the two Chapters 16 and 17:
15.7 SUMMARY
1. Fluid prime movers are called the turbines, and the fluid handling machines are
the pumps, fans, blowers or compressors. The basic components in a prime mover
are the nozzles and the moving blades. Those in a rotodynamic pump are the
moving blades and the diffuser.
396 FLUID MECHANICS
=
(gH)3/4
4. Geometrically similar rotodynamic machines are said to belong to a
homologous series. Any given series has one value of specific speed or type
number, essentially implying conditions of dynamic similarity.
5. With a given head, the work output of a turbine of higher specific speed
is larger than in a turbine with a lower specific speed.
6. The Euler Head HE is the ideal work interaction in a machine. The
theoretical head Mil = HE x SF. The slip factor SF is unity in slow speed machines.
7. The Euler Head is equal to the change in the total pressure head due to
rotor action, Ap, = Apd + Aps. The ratio /? = 42,14pi is known as the 'degree of
reaction'.
8. An impulse machine, for which R = 0, can be operated open to the
atmosphere since the fluid static pressure does not change in the rotor.
9. The hydraulic efficiency, rik, is a measure of the ideal work output, say
in a turbine, due to an impressed head.
10. The overall efficiency 1 , = q,„rb,, where ti„, is the mechanical efficiency,
for both pumps and turbines.
EXERCISES
1. Write the independent parameters affecting the performance of a rotodynamic
machine. By dimensional analysis, show that the power consumed by a pump is
related as •
p gH pND2
.
pN3
D5 —f( ND3'
f N 2 Dr IL )
where the parameters have their usual significance.
2. Illustrate how the roughness of the pump passages can be accounted for ip
deriving the non-dimensional parameters for a rotodynamic machine. Show that
the pressure developed by a pump is a function of parameters, i.e.
p
=f (QIND3, pN D2I El D)
pN 2 D2
where E is the absolute roughness of the passages.
FLUID MACHINES 397
Impulse turbines are exclusively meant for high water-heads, say above 100 m.
The topography of a country permits installation of impulse wheels only at a few
hilly locations. A large majority of installations are of the reaction type. The basis
of selection of a suitable prime mover for a location is guided by several
considerations which we now discuss.
40.0
E 30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.0 100 200 300 400
Q m 3 /s
Fig. 16.1 Theoretical H-Q Curves for Turbines.
15.71, 30x103
W, — —3
(9.81 x 20)94
The best choice is, therefore, a Kaplan tutine. If a Francis turbine of 0), =
2.25 is installed, the water-power would be 11.07 MW. The generation would
drop drastically to 0.087 MW if a Felton wheel of a), = 0.2 was chosen for the
same H and Al values.
The selection of a prime mover may also be constrained by the permissible
flow rate through the power channel. Another constraint may be the quantity of
water that can be spared or diverted for power generation in a multipurpose hydel
project.
A high specific speed is associated with high flow rate and low head for
which the Kaplan turbine is the best. Francis turbines are suitable for medium
400 FLUID MECIANICS
0.94
— 0.90
0.86
z
0.78
0 I 2 3 4
SPECIFIC SPEED I id s I
Fig. 16.2 Efficiency vs. Specific Speed of Hydraulic Turbines.
head installations. Due to its very low specific speed, a Pelton wheel is suitable
only when the head available is very high. Representative efficiency values for
different types of turbines presented in Fig. 16.2 can be included in the H-Q
calculations for an appropriate choice.
from reservoir
Vt
U
Nozzle
Vt = Vw1
Since the flow along the bucket is axial, the inlet and outlet jets are at the
same radial distance for which the peripheral speed is u1 = u2 = u. The inlet relative
velocity is V,I = VI — u and the outlet Vr2 = kV,I , where k <1 accounts for frictional
effects.
Considering the outlet velocity triangle, we write
V,„2 = Ve2 COS 132 — U = k (Vi — u) cos — u
V,,2 is in a direction opposite to V„1
Work done per unit mass of fluid flow, from Eq. (15.15) is
W = u(V,„2 —
= u[k(VI — u) cos 132 — u — (— VI )]
= u[V1 (1 + k cos 132) — u(1 + k cos 132)]
= u(111 — u)(1 + k cos P2) (16.2)
Blading efficiency is defined as
Work done
Tib — Energy at inlet
or
u(Vi — u)(1 + k cos P2)
= (16.3a)
Vi2/2
OT
"'opt = 1 (16.4)
Note that friction does not influence the optimum speed ratio. The maximum
blading efficiency is then given by Eq. (16.3b) as
It is noted from Eq. (16.5) that the maximum efficiency is unity when the
discharge is axial, i.e., ii2 = 0 and friction is negligible; but, when /32 = 0° it would
result in interference between the inlet and outlet jets.
In practice, /32 = 15°, the optimum speed ratio is about 0 = 0.46, and maximum
blading efficiency of the order of 93 percent. The overall efficiency of a Pelton
wheel is about 85%; higher values being possible in very large units. The wheel
pitch diameter is ordinarily higher than 12d, where d is the nozzle diameter.
The variation of blading efficiency with speed ratio is plotted in Fig. 16.5.
The 0 = 0 value means a stationary blade which can produce no work. The 0 =
1.0 is called the "run-away" condition, because the bucket and jet speed being
equal, no water strikes the buckets and no work is produced.
1.00
0.75 RACTICAL
12 "
0.25
0.0 ,
00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
eP
Fig. 16.5 Blading Efficiency of a Pelton Wheel.
Since hydraulic turbines are used for driving electric alternators, prime movers
are required to maintain rotational speeds even under part-load condition, so that
- the frequency of the electric supply does not change. In other words, the peripheral
speed u has to be maintained at all loads.
The requirement of constant u and the need to maintain optimum for best
HYDRAULIC TURBINES 403
efficiency controls the jet speed to be constant at all loads. Since the jet speed is
given by V1 = cvlerigli, the implication is that the head cannot be reduced say
by throttling the flow, when the load decreases.
The control has to be brought about through Q by varying the flow area.
This is achieved by moving the spear in the nozzle (Fig. 16.2)". When sudden
control is required, the flbw to the buckets is deflected by placing a plate in front
of the nozzle.
Example 16.1 A Pelton wheel is to work at the foot of a dam whose reservoir
level is 220 m. The full opening of the turbine nozzle is 200 mm, and the coefficient
of velocity is Cn = 0.98. The turbine is to operate at 250 rpm and develop a power
of 3.75 MW. Assuming the blade to jet speed ratio as 0.46, estimate the desirable
wheel diameter at the pitch circle of the blades. The blade outlet angle is 16°.
Calculate the blading efficiency, and the turbine efficiency, neglecting frictional
effects.
consequent increase in centrifugal force retards the fluid motion. The chance of
overspeeding due to sudden reduction in load is, therefore, low. The reaction
turbine installation consists of a 'penstock' at the inlet end and a 'draft tube' at
the discharge end. Water from the reservoir is led through the penstock which is
essentially a circular duct of gradually narrowing cross-section. The water then
enters the turbine 'scroll case' which is a spiral casing surrounding the turbine
proper. The inner periphery of the scroll case is slit open by stationary gates set
at an inclination (see Fig. 16.6).
Water from
penstock
Stator
Stationary Adjustable
gates guide vanes
Turbine
haft
Scroll
case
Tail-race
Fig. 16.6 Francis Turbine.
The scroll case opening is followed by the ring of guide vanes of the turbine
stator. The angle of the guide vanes can be adjusted by rotating the stator ring.
In a Francis turbine, the sole control of flow rate is attained by changing the guide
vane angles. After crossing the guide vanes, water enters the turbine rotor all
along its periphery and proceeds radially inward along the moving vanes.
Partial conversion of static head to kinetic energy continues right from the
inlet to the penstock, and pressure decreases in the radial inward direction along
the moving vanes with consequent increase of the kinetic energy. Water exits
from the turbine through the draft tube to the 'tail-race'. The draft tube is a
diverging duct which acts as a diffuser to partially recover static pressure and
reduce the fluid kinetic energy at the exit.
HYDRAULIC TURBINES 405
The Draft tuhe also provides a mechanical structure for the installation of the
turbine and allows the turbine to be located above the tail-race without the loss
of an effective head. The hydrostatic head impressed across the turbine is that
between the levels of the reservoir and the tail-race. The draft tube can be given
a 90° bend to install the turbine with its axis horizontal. The schematic of a
Francis turbine installation is shown in Fig. 16.6.
Unlike an impulse turbine, there is no theoretically optimum value of the
ratio of the blade speed to fluid velocity in a Francis turbine. Usually, the ratio
ultgeri varies between 0.6 to 0.9, where H is the head impressed. The hydro-
dynamic analysis for a Francis turbine is illustrated through the following example.
G.L.160.63W-""6-
TWL
157.02
..tof
PEN ;
EL. 141.13 H
1. VOLUTE
2. SPIRAL CASING WITH
FIXED GUIDE VANES
b. ADJUSTABLE INLET
GUIDE VANES
I.. TRANSITION PASSAGE
S. RUNNER
6. DRAFT TUBE
7. ALTERNATOR
SCALE 1: 200
aerofoils'. The examples given here are, however, based on the momentum theory
for the sake of simplicity.
Example 16.3 The mean diameter of the runner of a propeller turbine is 1.5 m.
The turbine works under a head of 15 m and the rotational speed is 150 rpm. The
kinetic energy coefficient for the moving blades is 0.95 and the losses in the
penstock and the guide vanes account for 8 percent of the head available. Water
leaves the guide vanes at an angle of 20° with the peripheral speed, and the
moving blade outlet angle is 30°. Estimate the values of (a) the inlet angle of
the moving vane, (b) the axial and whirl components of the velocities at inlet
and outlet, (c) the magnitude and direction of the absolute velocity at outlet, and
(d) the hydraulic efficiency.
Since for an axial flow turbine u1 = u2 = u, we shall draw the inlet and outlet
velocity triangles on a common base of u in accordance with a popular geometric
practice.
a) = R x 150/30 = 15.70 rad/s
The mid-section blade velocity is
u = cor = 15.70 x 0.75 = 11.78 m/s.
MIDRAULIC 1114111NO IOU
Fig. 16.10 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Flow Turbine at a Given Section of the Blade.
Since 8 percent of the head is lost in friction, the velocity at exit of the guide
vanes is
= 2 X 9.81 x 0.92 x 15 = 16.45 m/s
V11 = V1 sin at = 16.45 sin 20 = 5.62 m/s (i)
= Vi cos at = 16.45 cos 20 = 15.45 m/s (ii)
tan 131 = Vfl/( 1 — u) = 5.62/(15.45 — 11.78) = 1.53
Or
A = 56.85° (iii)
V,1 = Vii/sin p, = 5.62/sin 56.85 = 6.71 m/s
The relative velocity at the outlet of the moving blade shall be lower than
-11,1 by the amount of kinetic energy lost in overcoming friction. Hence,
Vr2 = 4-4-
0
where is the kinetic energy coefficient.
Hdi = HE = 1 — VW 2 112)
= g1 U(VwI —Vw 2 )
or
„ 11.78(15.45 — 6.71) =
HE — 10.495 m
9.81
E 10.4 95 = 70%
Hydraulic rih =-17 —
15
16.5 CAVITATION
The total pressure of fluid downstream of the rotor of a reaction turbine is low
because of the work done on the blades. In regions of high velocity such as the
exit plane of the blades or at inlet to the draft tube, therefore, the static pressure
could be so low as to be substantially below the atmospheric; the limit of fluid
vapour pressure could be reached and sporadic vapour bubbles formed. Apart
from vapour locking the flow passage, when the bubbles collapse they can cause
severe structural damage to the turbine blades and runner. The phenomenon of
formation and collapse of bubbles is called 'cavitation', and is explained in the
following manner.
It is believed that the formation of bubbles begins on nucleation sites, such
as cavities due to roughness of the surfaces of the solid components, or due to
impurities and dissolved gases in the liquid. Due to buoyancy, the bubbles formed
in the low fluid-pressure region move towards high pressure locations. The difference
of pressure between the fluid and the interior of the bubble consequently increases.
At some locations, the force of differential pressure exceeds the force of vapour-
liquid surface tension and the bubble collapses. The space earlier occupied by the
bubble now acts like a sink and water rushes in from all directions to fill the
space. Such formation and collapse of bubbles takes place in large numbers at
very short time intervals, i.e., at high frequency. The rushing fluid causes strong
forces to be experienced by the neighbouring machine and structural elements and
the components become fatigued over a period of time and get damaged.
Imagine a section of the fluid machine, such as the exit plane of the blades
of a reaction turbine, where the absolute pressure is at its minimum per. The fluid
velocity there is V, and the section is at a height Z, above the tail water level
which is exposed to the atmosphere. Applying Bernoulli's equation between this
section and the TWL, we write
ac
V2 //atm Plain Zs (16.8)
2 gH pgH H
a = Patm Pv Zs
pgH H
or
16.6 SUMMARY
1. The selection of a turbine for an installation with available head H, a chosen
operating speed and, the desired power output or permissible flow rate, is made
by estimating the specific speed.
2. Pelton wheels are suitable for very high heads; Francis turbines for medium,
and the Kaplan turbines for low head installations.
3. Since hydraulic turbines are used for driving electric alternators, the
turbine peripheral speed is maintained constant even at part-load conditions so
that the frequency of electric power does not change.
4. Governing is achieved through control of the flow area, not flow velocity.
5. Wider flexibility to control flow rate by both, guide and rotor vane
adjustments makes possible a flat efficiency curve over large variations of loading
for a Kaplan turbine.
6. A Francis turbine cannot overspeed at reduced load since the inward
motion of fluid in the rotor takes place against centrifugal force.
7. The draft tube in a Francis or Kaplan turbine is a diffusing passage to
recover exit kinetic energy and provides structural support for installation.
8. The reaction turbines work pressure-tight against atmosphere.
9. Cavitation in a reaction turbine may occur at high velocity zones where
the absolute pressure approaches the fluid vapour pressure.
10. The runner of a reaction turbine may sometimes be placed below the tail
water level to prevent cavitation.
EXERCISES
1. A turbine is intended to be installed at a location where the available head
is 30 m. The maximum flow handling capacity of the downstream channel is
25 m3/s. Select a suitable turbine if its speed is to be 150 rpm. Calculate the water
horsepower.
(Ans: a), = 1.1, Francis, 7.3575 MW)
2. Justify why a Pelton wheel should be used for an installation where the reservoir
head is 150 m, flow rate 1 m3/s and the rotor speed has to be 375 rpm. Estimate
a nominal diameter of the wheel. Calculate the shaft power, if the overall efficiency
is expected to be 90%.
(Ans: 0.165, 1.27 m, 1.324 MW)
3. A Pelton wheel works at the foot of a dam because of which the head available
at the nozzle is 400 m. The nozzle diameter is 160 mm and the coefficient of
velocity 0.98. The diameter of the wheel bucket circle is 1.75 m and the buckets
deflect the jet by 150°. The wheel to jet speed ratio is 0.46. Neglecting friction,
calculate the power developed by the turbine, its speed and hydraulic efficiency.
(Ans: 6.065 MW, 435.8 rpm, 89%)
HYDRAULIC TURBINES 413
relative velocity to 91% of the inlet. Estimate the inlet blade angle and the turbine
hydraulic efficiency.
(Ans: 61.7°, 80.1%)
10. The critical cavitation parameter ac for a turbine of co, = 3.5 was found to be
0.9. The runner is located at a depth of 1.5 m with respect to the TWL. Calculate
the maximum permissible velocity in the draft tube where the working temperature
is 45°C and the atmospheric pressure 10.3 m of water.
(Ans: 14.572 m/s)
Pumps and Fans
Pumps and fans, especially of the centrifugal type, are the most common fluid
handling machines. Basically, a pump differs from a turbine in that the former is
used to lift a fluid against a pressure head, whereas the latter works because of
a pressure differential. A fan, a blower, or a compressor all belong to the same
class except that the term pump is used when the device handles a liquid.
H = Hs + vj (17.1b)
g
PUMPS AND FANS 417
p„,p and cavitation (Chapter 16) conditions may prevail. It is, therefore, desirable
to keep the suction pipe short and usually of a diameter larger than that of the
delivery pipe.
The pump manufacturers prescribe a net positive suction head NPSH as a
measure of the permissible value of the inlet pressure p, with respect to the liquid
vapour pressure.
Ps — Pvap
NPSH = (17.3a)
Pg
Or
Ps
= NPSH + Pvap (17.3b)
Pg Pg
Substituting Eq. (17.3b) in Eq. (17.2), we get the limiting conditions on the
suction as
V2 ) Patm PvaP
(its + hfs + t NPSH (17.4)
pg
=
NPSH = 23 = 0.0885
H 26
Patin P vap
Maximum suction lift = NPSH
Example 17.2 The inner and outer diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal
pump are 25 and 50 cm respectively. The pump discharges 8 m3 of water per minute
while operating at 550 rpm against a head of 12 m. The diameter of the discharge
outlet is 15 cm. The outlet angle of the backward curved impeller vane is 40°.
The flow area from the impeller inner to outer radius is constant and is equal
to 750 cm2. Draw the velocity triangles and calculate:
PUMPS AND FANS 419
Vw2
Euler's head
HE = (1/ g)(Vw2u2 — Vw1 t4 1)
Of
HE = (12.29 x 14.4)/9.81 = 18.04
Area of discharge outlet Ad = ir14 x (0.15)2 = 0.0176 m2
Discharge velocity Vd = 8/(60 x 0.0176) = 7.545 m/s
420 FLUID MECHANICS
Ha = — u1)/2g
Since at starting there is no inflow or outflow from the pump, the head due
to change of ICE or relative velocity is not available (Chapter 15), nor are there
friction losses in the suction or discharge pipe. Hence, the starting speed should
be such that in the limiting condition H = H. Thus
— ub/(2g)= H,
Or
2 2 x 9.81 x 12
co = = 235.44/0.0468 = 5022.72
(0.252 — 0.1252)
w = 70.87 rad/s
Hence the starting speed
N = 30co/x = 676.7 rpm (iv)
Observe that the starting speed can be higher than the running speed if the
pump has to start against the full impressed head. Alternatively, when the prime
mover speed is limited, the pump can be started against a lower head and the
discharge head can then be increased slowly.
Example 17.3 The test results for a model pump are Q = 4 m3/min of water,
H = 10 m, speed N = 1400 rpm, and the power consumed 8.5 kW. The model
pump could be started against the impressed head at the rated speed of 1400 rpm.
Estimate for a geometrically similar pump, the speed, power input, and the
impeller diameter required if the pump is to be used for delivering water against
a head of 40 m. The scale of the prototype it 4 times that of the model pump.
Calculate the values of specific speed and efficiency of the pump.
PUMPS AND FANS 421
Or
Q2 = 4 x 32 = 128 m3/min = 2.133 m3/s (iv)
tv
1
ol
',k .--Thi
+w +w
(a) Backward curved, P2<90° (b) Radial , p2 = 90°
cmkw
+
(c) Forward curved, 82> 90°
Fig. 17.4 Effect of /32 on Velocity Triangles.
Define:
, AP — 2 (1 L cot p)
I 2 - M42 1,2142 2
I PU 2
Or
A= (17.9)
Equations (17.8) and (17.9) are plotted in Fig. 17.5 for different values of
the volume coefficient with P2 as a parameter. The characteristics in Fig. 17.5
lead to the following conclusions:
(i) Forward curved fans (/32 > 90°) will develop the highest pressure for a
given impeller diameter and speed.
(ii) The power requirement of a forward curved fan increases steeply for
small variations in flow rates.
(iii) The pressure developed decreases fast with increasing flow rate in a
backward curved impeller.
Further, from Fig. 17.4(c), we note that the radial length of a forward curved
vane is small. This allows the impeller inner diameter (for 112 > 90°) to be large
A2>90
or
7'
P2< 90°
for a given outer diameter, and hence, a larger flow area. In other words, a higher
flow rate is possible for this type of fan with a given V11 .
In summary, forward curved fans have large volume and pressure ratings
but suffer from higher power requirement. Losses in a fluid machine being
proportional to Q2, the forward curved fans are also the least efficient and are
unsuitable for off-design operating conditions. These fans are used mostly for
fixed duty, such as in a ventilating system.
Backward curved fans are the most efficient centrifugal machines, and the
drooping power characteristic makes them suitable for varying operating conditions.
Radial-bladed fans are less efficient compared to the backward curved and are
preferred for handling dust-laden fluids so that the solid particles do not get stuck
to the blade curvings.
Typically, the number of blades in a centrifugal fan is Z = P/3, where 132
is expressed in degrees. The number of blades in a backward curved fan may vary
from 12 to 16, the median values are: /32 = 40°, w = 0.80 and = 0.18. Those for
the forward curved fan are: Z az 60, /32 = 145°, w = 2.15 and = 0.5.
Hydraulic efficiency values of 80% for P2 < 90° and 70% for 132 > 90°
are good approximations. The specific speeds of centrifugal fans vary between
0.5 to 1.8; efficiency is low at the lower range of ak. A centrifugal machine
exhibits best efficiency for 132 of the order 25°. About 1 percent fall in efficiency
occurs for every 5° increase in /32 till a purely radial discharge condition is
reached.
Example 17.4 A centrifugal fan delivers 350 m3/min of air at a static pressure
of 30 mm Wg when operating at 400 rpm. The power input is 4 kW. The diameter
of the outlet duct is 60 cm. Pressure losses due to friction of the inlet and outlet
ducts and constriction of the inlet passage are negligible.
Calculate the static and total efficiencies of the fan. The pressure and
temperature of room air are 1.013 bar and 20°C respectively, for which p =
1.2 kg/m3.
1.716
42.9%
n sugic = 4.0 -
3.206
timed = . :1 = 80.15%
Example 17.5 If the fan in Example 17.4 was required to handle air at 70°C,
what would be the static pressure developed if the speed was kept unchanged?
What would be the speed, volume handled and power required if the fan was
required to develop static pressure of 30 mm Wg?
Assuming room pressure to remain constant as in Example 17.4,
L . T1 _ 273 + 20 _ n 2cA
PI T2 - 273 + 70 - "--
By Eq. (15.6b),
.ip = KppN2D2
Hence
4042 =1,14:02
or
412= 0.854 API
= 0.854 x 30 = 25.62 mm Wg
If the fan was required to develop the same static pressure of 30 mm Wg, the
speed would have to be
4 p 2 /4 PI = < P2NDI(PIN?) for the same fan
or
N2/N1 =IFF
( I/P) . for developing the same pressure
Hence
= 400 400 = 432.8
N2 40.14 0.924
Q2 _ N2
Qi NI
The volumetric flow rate would be
350 = 378.7 m3/min
Q2 = 0924
P2 _ Q2'402 Q2
PI - Qi' API - Qi
PUMPS AND FANS 427
Therefore,
P2 = 0.924 = 4.328 kW
180 -18
- 16
- 14
POWER
- 12
O
▪ 100
TOTAL
rs 80 RESSURE -8
TATIC
z
▪ 60 EFFICIENCY - 6
a.
a 40 - 4
20 -2
II till I I 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
VOLUME FLOW RATE , 0 ag10 3 m3/ hr
Fig. 17.6 Characteristics of a Centrifugal Fan (Arco Ltd., Size 36'/2 SISW-1000 rpm).
428 FLUID IAECHANICS
We may notice that the behaviour of the machine to the left of point S is
opposite to that on the right. The behaviour to the right is normal, since a decrease
in Ap is expected with an increase in Q at a given input power (see also Fig. 17.5).
The decrease of Ap with Q to the left of B is, however, unsuspecting, but real. The
point B is referred to as the 'surging limit' of a machine and operation to its left
is guarded against. The flow rate in the region becomes intermittent and unstable.
When the flow rate is' significantly higher than the design point, the fluid relative
velocities at inlet and outlet of the blade no longer remain tangential to the blade
profile. Significant shock losses take place and the machine performance drops
sharply.
The performance curve shown in Fig. 17.6 is reproduced from a bulletin of
M/s ARCO Ltd, Calcutta for a single inlet 1000 mm diameter impeller with
aerofoil blades operated at 1000 rpm. The flow path and the impeller shape may
be observed in the insets to the figure.
= cilu20
and
dp = pgH = poly,
Hence on substitution, we have
d2 VT2 v4T)
W, = co4-7—
—r • 2 3/4 „M2 v3/4
s
Or
HE = - (,U2
2 — U2V f 2 cot 1
3 2)
Ku? sin $2
Hap =
gz
Hence
,,2
2 K .
Hd, = HE - = I cot $2 - sin P2
g u2
Of
u2
H= =0.0375u2
Therefore,
83.33 + 4857 x 10-34 = 0.0375141
or
ui = 2548.86, u2 = 50.48 m/s
and
H = 95.71 m of air
The pressure coefficient
w Lip
= pgH 2 gH
— 1 2 1
pu t2 — u 22
PU2
Or
2 x 9.81 x 95.71
= 0.7368
2548.86
The volumetric coefficient 0 is given by
Q = 0idiu2
300
Qd = 1
77
0 = 5 m 3/s
and the quantity handled by the impeller is
Qd 5
Q= = 5.263 m3/s
th, 0.95
Hence
4 x 5263
d2 = 0.8297
2 n X 0.16 x 50.48
Of
d2 = 0.91 m = 91 cm
Take
d2 = 92 cm
d1 = 0.5d2 = 46 cm
ird2 N
U2 - 60
Of
60 x 50.48
N= =1047.9 rpm
x 0.92
N = 1050 rpm would be a good choice
with
N = 1050 rpm
PUMPS AND FANS 431
Ir x 1050 i An n i
CO = = . 0 Law s
30
u1 = con = 109.95 x 4
11 6 — 25.29 m/s
10.116
tan /31 = ofilui i•-• = 0.4, 131 = 21.8°
2529
pre-rotation to the fluid reaching the moving vanes. Similarly, guide vanes may
be located at the exit section in order to align the outlet flow with the axial
direction, and also to recover some static pressure by diffuser action. A rotor
rotating in the opposite direction is sometimes placed at the exit plane for higher
pressure recovery. The fan is then said to be contra-rotating.
Example 17.7 The diameter of the rotor of an axial flow fan is 300 mm
on which 20 blades of height 100 mm and chord 49 mm are mounted. The
blades are designed for uniform work output at all radii, and the rotational
speed is 1500 rpm. If the nominal relative velocity is 35 m/s at an angle of 25°
with peripheral speed at mid radius, calculate the work done, given CL = 0.45,
CD = 0.21 and p = 1.2 kg/m3. Estimate the Euler head if the mass flow rate of
air is 4.5 kg/s.
A = 49 x 100x 10-6 = 49 x 10-4 m2
— pV 2 A = —
1 x 1.2 x 352 x 49 x 10-4 = 3.6015 N
2 ' 2
F = 3.6015(CL sin fi + CD COS P)
Of
Fnu 861.0
HE 19.5 m of air
mg 4.5 x 9.81 —
434 FLUID MECHANICS
80
▪ 70
z
LU
C.' 60 STATIC
EFFICIENCY
a▪ SO
z
D, 40
E 30
E
o. 20
10
1 11 1 I i 1 1 1 II 1111 1 1 1 1 I
0 2 4 6 8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
VOLUME FLOW RATE Q 10-3 m3 / hr
Fig. 17.8 Characteristics of an axial Flow Fan (ARCO Ltd., Size 28 AFT—I460 rpm).
A
/
//
System
characteristics
Op
1
2
Fan
characteristics
a
Fig. 17.9 Fan and System Matching.
The objective may be to select a fan that would serve the need of the
system. The procedure then is to choose a fan out of the several available.
Ap vs. Q characteristics of the available fans i.e., curves 1, 2 or 3 are superimposed
on the system curve, and the best one is selected. Points 1', 2' and 3' represent
the intersections of the characteristics of fans 1, 2 and 3 respectively on curve B.
Two observations can be made now. Fffst, points 1', 2' and 3' do not represent
the same volume or pressure points. If any particular fan is chosen, the speed of
the fan may be decreased or increased to attain the desired flow rate. If the
pressure in the process is higher, a throttling arrangement has to be provided.
The second observation relates to the difference in the characteristics of the
fans. For example, if Fan 1 is chosen, in preference to Fan 2, the flow fluctuation
shall be wider between the system limits A and C. On the other hand, if Fan 3 is
chosen, the pressure fluctuation shall be wider. The choice is then to be made as
to which, Q or 4p, fluctuation can be tolerated while satisfying a given need.
Another consideration in choosing a fan is the reference to the stalling/surge
condition. It is recalled that the pressure developed by a fan decreases when the
volumetric flow is less than that corresponding to the point S of maximum pressure
in Fig. 17.6 or Fig. 17.8. The flow becomes unsteady and intermittent to the left
of S. Hence, the fan chosen should be such that the limiting characteristics of the
system are always to the right of the maximum pressure point.
Two fans of equal volumetric capacity may be connected in series to obtain
436 FLUID MECHANICS
a higher pressure rating. Similarly, two fans of, preferably, identical characteristic
may be connected in parallel to handle a higher volume flow rate. Mismatching
of the fan characteristics in parallel connection sometimes results in "hunting".
One convenient solution in such cases is to connect the two fans to a large
chamber (surge chamber), the outlet of which is coupled to the system. These
discussions apply equally to matching of pumps and liquid flow systems.
Patm.
pe
Water level
The connecting rod is very long compared to the crank so that the plunger motion
can be considered simple harmonic. As the crank rotates from the inner-dead-
centre position, the plunger displacement causes a partial vacuum inside the cylinder,
leading to opening of the suction valve and lifting of water through the suction
pipe of length Ls, Fig. 17.10.
At a time t, the crank makes an angle 0 = wt with the line of traverse of
the plunger whose
displacement x = R(1 — cos ax)
velocity V = wR sin ax
and acceleration f = aiR cos ax
The instantaneous volume flow rate of water due to V is AwR sin an, where
A is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder. The corresponding velocity of water
in the pipe is
v, = A
— toR sin tot (17.16)
a
and acceleration
f,= A co 2R cos an (17.17)
a
where a is the area of cross-section of the suction pipe.
The mass of water in the suction pipe is m = paL, and the inertia force due
to the acceleration f, is
= mf, = pAL,02R cos ax (17.18)
The equivalent pressure in the suction pipe is
H = • Ld (0 2R cos wt (17.20)
g a
In Fig. 17.10, we have indicated a ground level e-e over which the atmospheric
pressure acts. The water level is at a depth h on which the pressure acting is p,.
This configuration is as would be experienced with a pump lifting subsoil water.
Po = Pam + Psgh (17.21)
In the event the water surface is exposed to atmosphere,
Po = Pum, h=0
If we apply Bernoulli's equation between the water surface and the water at S at
the end of the suction pipe, we can write
438 FLUID MECHANICS
v2
Po = Ps + Ps g(H, + h)+ pgh f + pt+ Pi (17.22)
f Lsv
h f = 2g (17.23)
PgHs Vs
pT Ls) — p oTi
1+ —fer A Ld w 2R cos cot (17.25a)
Ps = Plum
Or
= 2AR
A volumetric efficiency, to account for the leakages, is expressed as
Qactual
?No] — 2 AR (17.26)
If the discharge head is given by Hd, the total lift for a pump with water level
exposed to atmosphere is (11, + Hd) when the frictional losses are neglected. The
theoretical power requirement then is,
P = pgQd,(H, + Hd ) (17.27)
It would be noted from Eq. (17.25) that inertia of water in the suction pipe
causes a fluctuation of pressure at the end of the suction pipe. A similar fluctuation
is also noted at the discharge end due to inertia of the liquid in the delivery pipe,
especially when the pipe lengths are large. Such fluctuations are reflected in the
volumetric discharge and power requirement for the pump during a cycle of
operation.
PUMPS AND FANS 439
_ — — 15 = 1.57 rad/s
w = 30 — 30
Inertia pressure head in the suction pipe at the beginning of the stroke is
His = g cd (0 2R cos 0
a
=1.81m at0=0
hs = Hum — H, — His
or
h,= 10.334 — 5 — 1.81 = 3.524 m
At the end of the suction stroke 0 = x, and the inertia head is
= — 1.81 m
h,= 10.334 — 5 — (— 1.81) = 7.144 m.
For the delivery pipe, the inertia head is
to 59.475
50.334
E 42.193
c
0
w 40 m = Hd
w
a_ 10.334 atm.
7.144 5m = Hs
3.524 -----
DISPLACEMENT
Fig. 17.11
and at the end of the stroke is
hd = 10.334 + 40 — 8.141 = 42.193 m of water
Note that the inertia heads affect the shape of the pressure-displacement
curve but the area of the curve remains unchanged. In other words, whereas
power requirement during a cycle varies from time to time, due to inertia effects,
the average cyclic power remains the same as would be estimated simply on the
basis of (Ha + H,).
17.12 SUMMARY
1. It is essential to prime a centrifugal pump before it is started.
2. The maximum suction depth of a centrifugal pump is around 6 to 8 m so
that the water at inlet to the impeller is above its vapour pressure.
3. The most important parameter affecting the performance of a rotodynamic
machine is the outlet angle fh.
4. The operating or design point of a rotodynamic machine is the point of
its maximum efficiency.
5. Centrifugal fans with forward curved blades have higher volume and
pressure ratings, but are unsuitable for varying load conditions due to their steeply
rising power requirement. Backward-curved fans are more efficient and are stable
under off-design operating conditions.
PUMPS AND FANS 441
EXERCISES
1. A centrifugal pump is designed to start against a static head of 15 m. The
impeller inner and outer diameters are 225 and 450 mm respectively. Accounting
for a manometric efficiency of 75%, calculate the minimum speed at which the
pump will start operating. 4
(Ans: 970.8 rpm)
2. Show that for a centrifugal impeller, the optimum value of the flow component
of velocity V12 for maximum efficiency is given by
!2
—u2
- 2 tan p2
For a given centrifugal pump, 132 = 25°, impeller diameter is 20 cm at outlet and
width of outlet passage is 2 cm. Calculate the flow rate and power requirement
while operating at 300 rpm under the condition of maximum efficiency.
(Ans: 0.55 m3/min, 45.4 W)
3. A centrifugal pump operating at 600 rpm delivers .4 m3 of water per minute
against a head of 8 m with a power input of 7 kW. Determine the size of its
impeller if the pump has to start operating at the rated speed. The diameter ratio
of the impeller is 2, and the hydraulic efficiency 85%.
A geometrically similar pump, four times in linear dimension, is to be
designed to work against a head of 40 m. Calculate the speed, flow rate, power
requirement, efficiency and specific speed of the larger pump.
(Ana: 112.76 mm, 335.4 rpm, 2.385 m3/s, 1.2523 MW, 74.74%, 0.615)
4. A centrifugal pump delivers 120 litres of fuel oil of sp. gr. 0.85 per second
against a pressure of 200 kPa while running at 1000 rpm. The impeller inner and
outer diameters are 200 and 400 mm and the blade passage widths 50 and 25 mm
respectively. Ten percent of the passage area is blocked due to blade thickness.
Determine the inlet and outlet angles of the impeller blade and the power
required to drive the pump, if the manometric and overall efficiencies are 85 and
70 percent respectively. What would be the inlet angle if the pump had a vaned
diffuser?
,(Ans: 22°, 28.74°, 34.285 kW, 17.8°)
442 FLUID c►wacs
5. Draw the theoretical H-Q curve for a backward-curved centrifugal pump with
a 300 mm impeller running at 1200 rpm. The outlet blade angle and passage
width are 27° and 40 mm. Express the Euler head as HE = A — BQ and determine
the values of A and B.
The pump has a slip factor of 0.89 and the hydraulic losses can be accounted
for as KQ2. At the best operating point, the pump delivers 0.18 m3/s of water against
a head of 14 m. Calculate the value of the loss coefficient K.
(Ans: 36.22, 100.033, 68.21)
6. A centrifugal fan runs at 900 rpm and delivers 1.8 m3/s air at 20°C and sea
level barometric pressure. The impeller outlet and inlet diameters are 75 and
50 cm. The inlet and outlet angles of the impeller blade are 22.5° and 45°. The
impeller width at inlet is 15 cm and is designed for constant radial flow velocity.
Draw the inlet and outlet velocity triangles, and calculate the theoretical head and
the air power. Neglect slip.
(Ans: 105.5 mm Wg, 1.863 kW)
7. Consider a fan with equal cross-sectional area at inlet and outlet working
in ambient atmosphere. Show that. the total gauge pressure at the outlet is
equal to the static pressure differential measured between the outlet and the
inlet.
The static pressures measured across the inlet and outlet of an axial flow
fan are respectively —13 and 35 mm Wg. The diameter of the stator of the fan is
600 mm. Calculate the volume flow rate, fan total pressure at the outlet and its
total efficiency, if the power consumed is 2.5 kW.
(Ans: 4.1224 m3/s, 48 mm Wg, 77.64%)
8. An axial flow fan has a tip diameter of 0.9 m and a hub diameter of 0.5 m. The
air flow rate through the fan is 5 m3/s at a rotational speed of 720 rpm. There is
no whirl component of velocity at the inlet to the blade, and the blades are
designed for uniform specific work output along its height. Calculate the inlet and
outlet blade angles at the hub, mid-height and tip, if the Euler head has to be
22 mm Wg.
(Ans: $ = 31.09, 23.3, 18.52°; 132 = 50.68, 30.15, 21.65°)
9. A single acting reciprocating pump has a stroke of 30 cm and plunger diameter
of 15 cm. The pump is driven at 45 rpm and is used to lift water through a height
of 75 m. If the volumetric efficiency of the pump is 82%, calculate the discharge,
and the minimum power required to drive the pump.
(Ans: 3.26 x 10-3 m3/s, 2.398 kW)
10.The radius of the driving crank of a single-acting reciprocating pump is 10 cm
and the plunger diameter is half the stroke length. The pump is driven at 20 rpm.
The suction and delivery heads are 4 and 15 m. The length of the delivery pipe
is 18 m and its diameter 6 cm. If the pipe friction coefficient f = 0.02, calculate
the pressure at the beginning, middle and end of the delivery stroke. Neglect
inertia and friction loss in the suction pipe.
(Ans: 332.59 kPa, 311.80 kPa, 289.91 kPa)
Open Channel Flow
h v
/.,,,1,,,,,,,,,ri,,,,,/,,,,
E = V2
— + gh (18.2a)
2
or
Specific head H = h + V2 (18.2b)
gg
In terms of the flow rate Q,
H=h+ Q2 (18.3)
2 gb2 h2
Equation (18.3) indicates a non-linear dependence of H in terms of the hydrostatic
head (or depth) h. The condition for the minimum value of specific head is obtained
as
Q2
dH =1—
=
dh gb2h3
or
Q2
gb2h3 — 1
Defining the corresponding static head to be critical, we have
Q 2 )1/3
k= 2 (18.4)
gb
The minimum specific head is then
h3
11„ii, = k +
2h2
or
Hmin = 3 k (18.5)
The significance of Eq. (18.5) is that if a flow is to take place at a depth h, it must
have a minimum kinetic energy equivalent to 1/2h so that 1/.6, = 3/2 h. The specific
head variations with depth may be calculated for a chosen flow rate per unit width
Qlb, and plotted as shown in Fig. 18.2. The kinetic energy and static head variations
are also indicated.
The critical head condition can be conveniently stated through a non-
dimensional parameter. Expressing the flow rate Q in terms of velocity V, we get
from Eq. (18.4) the relation
h3 - Q2 - V2b2q
C gb2 gb2
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 445
3.00
2.00
E
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
H . m of water —.
Fig. 18.2 Specific Head Variations at a Constant Q/b.
V2 = shc
or
V =1 (18.6)
F,
Since by definition, the Froude number Fr = VI Irg-h , the critical condition marked
C in the curve in Fig. 18.2 is characterized by
Fr, = 1 (18.7)
3.00
SUB CRITICAL,
Fr < 1
2.00
E
.c
e—
a.
o 1.00
SUPER CRITICAL
Fr >1
0 00
0 00 1.00 2.00 3.00
H , m of water
Fig. 18.3 Open Channel Flow Directions.
A subcritical flow is referred to as a "tranquil" or "streaming" flow and a
supercritical one as a "rapid" or "shooting" flow. A subcritical flow is associated
with Fr < 1 and the supercritical with Fr > 1.
Note the similarity with the subsonic and supersonic compressible flows
which are identified by M <1 and M > 1, the critical condition occurring at M = 1.
In the absence of any work input, an open channel flow can proceed only
in the direction of decreasing specific energy. The flow direction in the h — H
curve of Fig. 18.3 will therefore, be as shown from 1 to 1' when subcritical, or
from 2 to 2' when supercritical. It is thus seen that the depth in a subcritical flow
will decrease and that in a supercritical flow will increase in the downstream
direction. The flow rate shall be maintained by corresponding changes in the
velocity. Both subcritical and supercritical flows will proceed towards the critical
condition; but cannot continue to the other portion of the curve, because that
would mean increase of specific energy.
and
Q = bh 2g (H — h) (18.8)
is the flow rate through a uniform rectangular channel of width b and depth h. The
flow rate becomes maximum at a depth given by
dQ 0
dh = 42g b P71-71 2 7-
4
or
h-
H — hopt 2
Or
hope = 3 H (18.9)
The expression for optimum h is seen to be the same as that for he of Eq. (18.5).
Hence, the critical depth he = 2/3 H and•Fr =1 are also the conditions for maximum
flow rate for a given specific energy.
Substitution of h in Eq. (18.8) yields the maximum flow rate as
= 2bH gH (18.10)
V2 = etc
448 FLUID mezeimacs
Or
= = 3.9 g = 38.259
= 3.3696 m/s
h, = 1.1574 m
H, = = 1.7361 m
( a) PHYSICAL MODEL
rT_,
P1 JUMP P2
--gib •
I
L— ----J
1;(112 - ) P I Al- P 2 A2
pb(h2V22 -
blV12) = Pbg T- 2
1
Q- = 02? - hi)
hi ) 2
Or
hi +hih 2 - 2 21 =0
ghi 2
The solution of this quadratic equation yields the height h2 after the jump as
8 Q2
ghib2
h2 = (18.12)
2
The term
Q2 VI2
= Fr?h?
gh1b2 gh1
Hence
-hi +hi 17
. 1-1 8FTI2
h2 - 2
or
h1
AM3F'52 -1)
h 2 = — (14
2
or
h2 _1
(18.13)
/71 -
450 FLUID MECHAMCS
[(h2 — h1)2]
LtHioss = (hi — h2) 1 + A h2h2
-•••1".2
or
(h2 — hi)3
— (18.14)
4h 1
2 h22
The loss Mi.> 0, only if h2 > h1. In other words, the hydraulic jump shall take
place only if Fri > 1, i.e., in a flow initially supercritical and from a lower head
to a higher head. That is; if
Fri < 1, h2 < hi, the flow will continue as tranquil. If
Fri > 1, h2 > hi, the jump may occur, and
Fri = 1, h2 = hi, is the limiting condition without a jump.
Since the channel width is assumed constant across the jump length,
V2 — hi
VI — h2
Fr2 _ 2
Fi 4-7
1 4 87V —1)312
or
)3/2
2
Fr2 = Fri (18.15)
—1
is the Froude number after the jump.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 451
The downstream Froude numbers Fr2 for selected Fri are given in
Table 18.1 and the variations are plotted in Fig. 18.5.
Fri Fr2
1.0 1.0
1.5 0.6892
2.0 0.5474
2.5 0.4646
3.5 0.4095
4.0 0.3697
4.5 0.3153
5.0 0.2956
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
00
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
F ri
Fig. 18.5 Froude Numbers across a Hydraulic Jump.
We note from the table as well as from Fig. 18.5, that the Froude number
after the jump is always less than unity. The higher the upstream Fri , the higher
452 FLUID MECHANICS
is the head loss and the lower the Fr2. The jump is an irreversible and discontinuous
process as sketched in Fig. 18.6, and its "strength" is a measure of the loss in
specific head.
3.00
E 2.00-
-
.c
a.
O
1.00-
0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
H, m of water
Fig. 18.6 The Process of a Hydraulic Jump.
Example 18.2 The depth and velocity of a stream of water are 80 cm and
4 m/s respectively. State whether a hydraulic jump is possible. If so, determine
the conditions after the jump, and the loss of specific head.
Fri = — = 4 14278
.47:1 .9.8l x 0.8
h2 = -D
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 453
0.8
h2 = (4.1605 — 1) = 1.2642m
•Q bVih i =bV2h 2
hi 0.8
V2 = h2 = 4 x 1.2642 — 2.53 m/s
V2
Fr2 = = 0.7187
02
V2 42
= hi + = 0.8 +2 x 9.81 — 1.6155 m
2g
V2 2.53 2
H2 = h2 + —2— = L2642 + — 1.5904 m
2g 2 x 9.81
dH = 1.6155 — 1.5904 = 0.0251 m of water.
We note that the downstream depth or the lost head is not much, because Fri was
only moderately higher than unity. The strength of the jump, i.e., the loss will
increase if the upstream Froude number Fri is considerably higher than unity.
Patm
I FREE
SURFACE
hi
-•••••110. V2
h2
4, ,f 4, ff,74 mf, '4/ fir/eff,f,
(a) ELEVATION
h2
10 PLAN
The channel width a short distance upstream of the flume is bi and water
level is h1. The flume width is b2 and the level h2. For a subcritical flow
h2 < h1 . Neglect losses and assume that the specific head is conserved between
the two sections.
Flow rate Q = V1b1h1 = V2h2h2 (18.16a)
V2 -
_ V12
v 2 -Q2
i
02 1 1
hi — h2 = 2g
2g bihi
Or
2g(h 1 — h2)
02 (18.17a)
1 .1
bihi bih?
or
112
— 2g(hi — h2)
(18.17b)
1 1
bihi b?h?
Equation (18.17b) indicates that the volume flow rate through the channel
can be estimated by making measurements of water-level h1 and h2: upstream and
on the venturi flume. The water-level is ordinarily measured by depth-gauges
operated from platforms above the water surface.
dV = 7? dy dx + pg(sin a) dy dx (18.18)
ric ay
FREE SURFACE
X.AK
ay
dy
d71 V dv
v cht
1/////44,,, 77
,...(0r=vf-pd-rrim9.7,
Or
= - (pg sin d)y + C
Taking the air-water free surface shear stress as .9 at y = h, we get
T.= pg sin a (h — y) (18.20)
For practical purposes, we can choose = 0, and write
Z= pg sin a (h — y) (18.21)
Or
pgh 2
u= sin a (271 — 2) (18.22)
where t1= y/h. The velocity profile in Eq. (18.22) has its maximum on the free
surface, 11 = 1. In practice, however, the maximum occurs at some depth below
the free surface because of which has been neglected after Eq. (18.20).
The volume flow rate is obtained as
Q=b udy
Or
,
pgbh2
Q= h sin a j (2 ri —17 2)dr7
2µ
0
456 FLUID 1C-CHANICS
or
pgbh3 sin a
= 3/2
Or
gbh3 sin a
Q— (18.23a)
3v
and the average velocity in laminar flow as
gh2
U =Q- sin (18.23b)
" bh 3v a
where v is the kinematic viscosity of the liquid.
V2 = sin a
f P
or
V=C pa (18.26b)
Define m = —
A = hydraulic mean depth, and then
V = C ma (18.26c)
c.r g_ 1 M116
f n
(18.27)
where n is the roughness coefficient. Typical values of n are: 0.01 for concrete;
0.012 for brick; 0.025 for earth; 0.013 for cast-iron lined and 0.04 for natural
bed channels.
1 m 116
C =—
Or
4TIjW7
V=Cr
-ta=65.57 x
1500
or
V = 1.049 m/s
Q = AV = 1.2484 m3/s
Flow rate Q = AV = AC ma
or
Q=C p3 (18.28)
The flow rate for a given cross-sectional area will be maximum when P is minimum.
A
P=b+2h= T +2h
Or
dP A 4. 2 0
d(h) h2 =
Or
2h2 = A = bh
(18.29)
tan 0 = 1— (18.30)
where s is the slope.
Each of the inclined sides has a length
I= s2
The cross-sectional area A = (b + sh)h
Wetted perimeter P = b + 2h4—
1-t- s2
As in case of the rectangular channel, the flow rate will be maximum when
P is minimum. Expressing
We get
P= - sh + 2irstiTTII
dP _
dh - A s+2 4-7-s2
1- =0
b + 2(s -1,1-s2h)=
1-
Of
hop = b (18.31b)
2(. 1+s2 - s)
Example 18.4 Calculate the flow rate of water through a trapezoidal channel
of base 1.3 m, side slope 60° and the liquid depth at its optimum value. The
channel is laid at 1 in 1300, and has a Manning's n = 0.011,
tan e= 1
s
Of
s = cot 60° = 0.57735
414
77= 1.1547
A = 2.19531 m2
P=b+ 2h11—
1-t-s2 =1.3 + 2 x1.125 x1.1547
Of
P = 3.8999 m
A
m=— = 0.563
Chezy's constant C = -M
1 116 , or
,
V=C ma=C -=1/1YM/S
1300 •
Q = AV = 2.19531 x 1.719 = 3.774 m3/s
B
Fig. 18.10 A Circular Channel.
The flow area A = area of the sector OABCO
— area of the triangle OAC
or
A = r20 — r2 sin 0 cos 0
or
A = 1.2 (8 sin 2 0)
(18.32a)
2 )
The wetted perimeter P = 2r8 (18.32b)
A
m=
dm _ 1 p dA A dill
dB — p2 dO dO 1 =
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 461
or
dA =nA —
dP (18.33)
de de
From Eqs. (18.32),
i = r 2(1 - cos20)
-th
dA
and
SI L. - 2r
de -
Substituting in Eq. (18.33), we get
sin 20)
2r3 0(1 -cos 20)= 2r3(0
2 )
or
20 cos 20 = sin 20
Or
20 = tan 20 (18.34a)
whose solution is
Boa = 128.75° (18.34b)
hope = r(1 - cos 0)
Of
hope = 1.626r (18.35)
In other words,
kit = 0.813 diameter of the channel.
Maximum Discharge
17
4 3—
The discharge Q = AV = C 1
3A2P—
dA = A3 dP
de dO
Or
3P1 -A 7if
dP (18.36)
Substituting for dA/d0 and dP/d0 we get from Eq. (18.36) the relation
sin:0)
6 r30 (1 -cos 20) = 2r3(8 -
Or
68 - 6 cos 20 = 20 - sin 20
462 FLUID 1C-CHANIC8
Of
6 cos 20 — sin 20 = 48 (18.37a)
The solution of Eq. (18.37a) is
Oope = 154° (18.37b)
hope = r(1 — cos 154)
Of
hops = 1.9r (18.38a)
Of
hope = 0.95 diameter (18.38b)
for maximum discharge.
Example 18.5 Calculate the hydraulic mean depths for a circular channel of
1 m diameter for maximum velocity ancrmaximum discharge.
Maximum Velocity
hope = 1.626 r = 0.813 m
Bops = 128.75° = 2.247 rad
A= (.._ sin 20
r2 u = (2.247 + 0.488) r2
Of
A = 2.735r2 = 0.68375 m2
P = 2r0 = 2 X 0.5 x 2.247 = 2.247 m
m= A = 0.3043 m
Maximum Discharge
Bops = 154° = 2.6878 rad
A = r2(8 sin 20)
— 3.0818r2
2
Of
A = 0.77045 m2
P = 2r0 = 2 x 0.5 x 2.6878 = 2.6878 m
A
m= T, = 0.2866 m
18.8 SUMMARY
1. In an open channel flow, the liquid has a free surface exposed to the ambient
pressure.
2. The specific head H of a liquid in an open channel flow is the sum of the
velocity head V2/28 and the hydrostatic head h : H = V2I2g + h.
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 463
EXERCISES
1. Derive an expression for the loss of specific energy due to a hydraulic jump
and show that a hydraulic jump cannot occur if Fr < 1.
2. A hydraulic jump occurs on a level bed. The upstream depth and velocity are
1 m and 12 m/s. Calculate the height of water after the jump and the values of
Froude number before and after the jump.
(Ans: 4.9413 m, 3.8313, 0.3488)
3. A venturi flume is installed in a channel to measure the volume flow rate
of water. The channel width is 1.5 m and the flume width 0.6 m; both are of
rectangular cross-section. Measurements by a depth-gauge indicate water depth
upstream of the flume as 0.8 m and in the flume as 0.5 m. Calculate the volume
flow rate.
(Ans: 0.7517 m3/s)
4. The Chezy's constant for a given rectangular channel is 65.5. The width of the
channel is 3 m and the depth of water 1.7 m. The flow rate was measured as
8 m3/s. Estimate the slope of the channel.
(Ans: 7.1972 x irk)
464 FLUID MECHANICS
Transient conditions in a fluid flow system arise, more often than not, under off-
design conditions rather than by design. Imagine a pipeline connected to a pump
for handling liquids. The liquid flow parameters are time dependent when the
pump is just started or is stopped. A different kind of transient may arise when
the flow through a pipe or duct is obstructed by sudden or gradual closure of a
valve on the line.
A rupture at a location in a pipeline would result in excessive loss of fluid,
and give rise to sudden flow-starvation at other locations in the system. Such a
transient is visualized in case of a loss of coolant accident (LOCA) in a nuclear
reactor. Consider yet another example of hydraulic turbines. When the electric
power demand fluctuates, the shaft power of the turbine has to be altered by
varying the water flow rate through the machine and transient conditions ensue.
Transients in the long water supply pipes of Pelton turbines can cause severe
structural damage.
In this chapter, we shall study some cases of transient flow of water through
a pipeline. The flow would be considered normally under a steady state, the
transients having been brought about by sudden or gradual interruptions. An important
feature of the transients is that the pressure and velocity fluctuations in the conduit
can become several times higher than their steady state values.
19.1 WATERHAMMER
Consider a long water pipeline with a valve at the exit. When the valve is suddenly
closed, the water flow is retarded and an inertia force results. The inertia force
gives rise to a pressure over and above the steady pressure value. Due to inertia,
the pressure changes with time and varies spatially along the length of the pipe.
In other words, the resulting pressure is a fluctuating one which in turn causes
velocity fluctuations.
A common observation, the "knocking" of a domestic water pipeline on
sudden closure of a tap is due to these pressure fluctuations. The knocking heard
as a hammering sound has given rise to the nomenclature of `waterhammee to a
transient liquid flow in a pipe-line.
The pressure rise resulting from such inertia effects may be so high as to
cause a severe hoop strain in the pipe diameter and even to effect a variation in
the density of water. Similarly, the sudden opening of a valve in a waterline, can
introduce a pressure reduction that may lead to the evaporation of the liquid.
465
466 FLUID MECHANICS
F = — m (— "
dr
or
dV
F = pAL-1-ii- (19.1)
u F L dV
(19.2)
"i = pAg = g dt
The total liquid head at the valve is then
H„ = Ho + (19.3)
Ordinarily, the velocity through a valve follows the relationship
V, = k 74 (19.4)
Since, Hi, is higher than Ho, the flow velocity through the valve under partially
closed condition will be higher than the steady value. If at a time t from the start
of the transient, the velocity of water in the pipe is V(t), the valve open area A,(t)
is obtained from continuity considerations
AV(t) = MOM° (19.5a)
or
A„(t) V(t) V(t) (19.5b)
A Mt) k 4T17,
Alternatively, the velocity of water in the pipe is dictated by the valve characteristics
as
„(t)
V(t) = A 4- k4r 1„ (19.6)
when the valve at the end of. the pipe is fully open and the head acting there is
30 m. The valve is desired to be closed fully in 15 seconds in such a manner that
the velocity of water in the pipe is decelerated uniformly. Calculate the required
area of the valve opening at 5 and 10 seconds from start, if the initial opening area
is equal to the pipe cross-sectional area.
The deceleration of water at uniform rate is
Av 2
f=—— = -m/s2
At 15
Vv = k 1FHT,
Initially,
= 30 m, V„ = 2 m/s
Hence k = 0.365. The inertia head
L dV 3 x 1000 2
x 15— 40.77 m
= dr = 9.81
and is constant at all time for uniform deceleration. The velocity of water in the
pipe at different times would be
V(0) = 2 m/s, V(15) = 0.0 m/s
2
V(5) = 2 — x 5 = 1.333 m/s
15
2
V(10) = 2 — T3- x 10 = 0.666 m/s
the velocity Vk = Q/Ak, where Q is the volume flow rate. The inertia force in the
length Lk is
dVk
Fk = n k dt
or
h — Lk dQ (19.7)
k gAk dt
The total inertia head in the stepped pipe is
Hi = E hk = 1- Lk dQ (19.8a)
2 (E
k=1 -
dl
1 L dQ
(19.8b)
H' = Tit
Comparing Eqs. (19.8a) and (19.8b), we get
L_ Lk (19.9a)
A — k=I Ak
or
L Li L2 L„
= (19.9b)
7t- AI + A2 + • • • + AR
L and A are the length and area of the equivalent pipe of uniform cross-section
for which the analysis of the previous section can be applied.
SURGE TANK
RESERVOIR ..--AREA- A --•
t
HTO
tARE A- a -+V Q HYDRAULIC
MACHINE
The tank cross-sectional area is A, A/a > 1. At steady operating condition, the
water level in the tank would be equal to that of the reservoir if frictional losses
are neglected.
The flow rate Qt into the surge tank due to a transient would cause a change
in its water level, such that Qt = A (dzldt). z is measured from the steady state
water level. With the instantaneous water velocity at V, we get by continuity:
aV = Qi + Q
Differentiation with respect to time yields
dV dQi dQ
(19.10)
a dt dt + dt
dV dQi A d2Z
(19.11)
a dt dt dt 2
Let . us imagine that the effect of the transient is to cause an acceleration
dV/dt of the mass of water, m = paL, in the pipe. The resulting inertia is opposed
by a rise z in the liquid level of the surge tank. The rise z imposes an extra
pressure pgz on the surge tank end of the liquid column. The corresponding
opposing force is pgaz. We can then write the dynamic condition as
m--V = — pgaz
dE- (19.12a)
e
Or
dV
paL — = — pagz
dt
470 FLUID MECHANICS
or
dV g
(19.12b)
dt = T,'
Substituting for dVIdt from the continuity consideration of Eq. (19.11), we get
z ag A
(19.13)
eh 2 + z="
as the differential equation controlling the water level in the tank.
Solution of Eq. (19.13) yields
z = C1 sin 127—
it t 4. C2 cos F
AL
ag t
AL
(19.14)
Since z is measured from the steady water level in the tank, z = 0 at t = 0, yielding
C2 = 0. Hence
z = CI sin A
a t (19.15)
A 1) t=o
= Qo (say) (19.16a)
dz
d = C1 "T.
cos AL t
or
d)
dt 0
= cTH.
AL
Therefore,
Qo = c 4718- (19.16b)
A AL
and then
1 t Q0
z = 7 — sin— t (19.17)
ag A AL
The water level in the surge tank is highest when t = 2 ' yielding
AL
Z =
Qo (19.18a)
"'" ag A
HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 471
AL
r = 2yr — (19.18b)
ag
Since the water level can fluctuate between —Z,„„„ and +4„,„ measured from
the steady water level, the height of the surge tank should be greater than 2Z„,,„.
Similarly, the minimum water level should be better than Z1 so that the water
under oscillation does not drop to the opening of the pipe which would then cause
an airlock.
Example 19.2 Water to a Pelton wheel is supplied through a 1.5 km-long pipe
line 1 min diameter; at the rate of 3 m3/s. A 2.5 m diameter surge tank is installed-
close to the turbine for protection against transients caused by nozzle movement.
Consider a condition of complete rejection, i.e., when the pipe discharge-end is
fully closed suddenly. Estimate the consequent time period of oscillation of water
column in the surge tank, and the time required to reach the maximum fluctuation
from the instant the discharge is stopped.
Qo 3
A — 4.9087 = 0.6111 m/s
fir
Time period T = 2 n
g = 194.2 s
The maximum amplitude occurs at r/4 = 48.55 s from the onset of rejection.
IMPP
I.UID MECHANICS
B 1p p,V)WA
p *VA
A ( dp v (3p) + dA v d A) dV A
(19.20)
dt dx ) v dt dx )+ 11.1 dx = ‘'
The terms within parentheses represent the respective substantive or total
derivatives which, for convenience, we shall write in terms of ordinary total
derivatives of density p, and area A. Thus, we have
dp dA dV
A—
dt + p— + pA—= 0
dt dx
or
1 dp 1 dA dV n
(19.21)
p dt -A- dt dx =
as the continuity equation for the control volume.
The density and area changes can be related to the fluctuating pressure in
the following manner.
By definition of the bulk modulus,
dp 1 d
. (19.22a)
P /3 P
Or
1 dp _ 1 dp
(19.22b)
p dt B dt
HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 473
1 dA 2 dD
(19.23)
Virt =
The radial or hoop strain dD/D can be expressed through the hoop stress a = E
dD/D, where E is the elastic modulus of the pipe material.
Considering the pipe wall to be thin, ti 4cD, where ti is the pipe wall thickness,
we can write hoop stress due to the pressure fluctuation as
Q= do
211 '
Hence, the strain
dD a _ d (19.24a)
D_ 2ti E P
or
1 dD D dp
(19.24b)
D dt = 2tI E dt
The area change in Eq. (19.23) then becomes
1 dA _ D dp
(19.2.5)
A dt ti E dt
The fast two terms of Eq. (19.21) can now be combined as
1 dp 1 dA 1 D dp 1 dp
(19.26)
p dt 71. dt =( ti E) dt — k dt
where k is an equivalent bulk modulus for the pipe and liquid system, given by
1 (1 D
- 4" u (19.27)
DV dp dz P
(19.30)
P Dt dx Pg dx iT
where .r is the wall shear stress and P the wetted perimeter. Expressing .r in terms
of the Darcy-Weishbach friction factor f, we get
P = f pV2 x
Or
T A= 15
f .oV 2 (19.31a)
P IVI V (19.31b)
A 2D
On substitution, the
the momentum equation is written as
/ dV) dp dz
ti fP IV! V = 0 (19.32)
P t v dx ) 4. dx "dx 2D
These simplify the continuity and momentum Eqs. (19.29b) and (19.33) to
dp 2 dV
- + pa w = 0 (19.34)
7t
HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 475
di/ lap
+ = (19.35)
dt p ax —0
Differentiate Eq. (19.34) w.r.t t to get
a2P Da 2 a 2V 0
(19.36a)
ate u - dx dt -
and Eq. (19.35) w.r.t. x for
d 2V d 2p
(19.36b)
P axe= °
Combination of Eqs. (19.36a) and (19.36b) yields
d2p
alp 2
a axe u (19.37)
ate
We can get the following equation for V by changing the order of the differentiation
and combining.
a2v a2 v
2 (19.38)
at2 a ax2
Each of the Eqs. (19.37) and (19.38) represents a wave motion. The former describes
the pressure and the latter the velocity variations of the wave with space and time.
The general solutions of Eqs. (19.37) and (19.38) are given by
Ap=F(t+ + f — L) (19.39)
a
AV = — [F + —f— (19.40)
pa a a
Ap and AV represent the changes over the respective steady state values of p and
V in the pipeline. The distance xis measured downstream of the source of disturbance,
say the valve, in Fig. 19.3. The wave with amplitude F(t + x/a) moves upstream
and that with At — x/a) moves downstream.
VALVE
Fig. 19.3 Directions of Waves in a Hydraulic Transient.
476 FLUID MECHANICS
IA pl
IZI =
1 ,01
= pa (19.41a)
The maximum pressure rise occurs in an instantaneous closure, i.e., within a time
less than Tp during which fit - x/a) = 0 at the valve. Correspondingly,
1_1 D
kr1+ 7
Or
1 10-9 0.6 x 10-9
2.2 + 50 x 10-3 x 100
Or
= 10-9(0.4545 + 0.12)
or
k = 1.74 x 109 N/m2
k = pa2
Therefore,
The action of closing the valve is propagated along the pipe at the acoustic speed
a = 1319.3 m/s.
Since the valve is at a distance of 3 km from the reservoir, the action will
3000
be felt there after a time lapse of = - 2.274 s.
19.
1319.3
Ap.Ff t _a )
=0 for t r (19.42)
or
F( )=—f( 4
Define a coefficient of reflection CR, and get
CR = = - 1 (19.43)
During time less than r, 0 5 t 5 r the only wave in the pipe is F(t + x/a)
and moving upstream towards the reservoir (see Fig. 19.4). The velocity change
in the pipe under its influence is AV = — 1/pa. F(t + x/a), by Eq. (19.40). When
F() reaches the reservoir and f() is born by reflection, the velocity change there
becomes
AV = — pa
2F + (19.44)
a
RESERVOIR
x
1
t 0 VALVE
F
0 >t< 1C t= 1./a
f F
t>
Fig. 19.4 Incident and Reflected Waves in a Reservoir-Pipe System.
478 FLUID f.leCHANICS
since
F(t + —) = —f (t —
a
The valve experiences the reflected wave only at the elapse of t = 2r, i.e.,
after the first time period. The discharge through the valve shall be governed by
the undisturbed pressure po for t 5 Tr For time Tp 5 t 5 2T,,, the discharge would
be controlled by the pressure at the valve at the end of the first time period, and
so on.
The reflection condition at the reservoir end (Eq. (19.43)), also applies to
the open end of a pipe.
1
H = —(V/k(t))2
2g
or the exit end pressure as
and
ev= v- vo = --
pa (F - f) (19.48b)
P V2
T 0)2 ' P° 21 — Pa — V0 )
Or
2 k (t)2
V 2 + 2ak(t)2 V — p (P0 1. f+ pa Vo ) = 0 (19.50)
8 k(t)2
— 2ak(t)2 + 114a2k(0 4 + (Po +2f+ paVo )
V= 2
or
2
— 2ak(t)2 + 2ak(t)2 111 + (Po + 2f + patio)
pa 2k(t)2
V—
2
or
Example 19.4 Water flows through a 300 m-long pipe under a reservoir pressure
of 200 kPa, and is discharged at the free end through a valve. The undisturbed
velocity at discharge is 0.8 m/s. The valve is then closed in 5 seconds. Calculate
the velocity and the pressure at the valve at 0.1 second into the closing of the
valve. Given a = 1200 m/s, estimate the pressure at the valve, if the gate was
closed completely in 0.1 second.
The time taken for the acoustic wave to travel the length of the pipe is
=L = 300
yro - 0 . 2 5 s
The time period of the waves is Tp = 2T = 0.5 s. For the valve
( V) 2p
= 2 gH =
k() 2 p
At the undisturbed condition
5 — t)
k(t)= koH
5
At 0.1 s,
4.9
k(t) = 0.04 x = 0.0392
Since at t = 0.1 s, t < T, the reservoir is unaware of the closing operation, nor is
there a reflected wave: f = 0. By Eq. (19.51), the velocity
2
V= ak(r)2 11 + pa 2k (02 (Po + paVo) —
[
Or
1/2
2 x 103
V = ak(T)2 1[1 + (200 + 1200 x 0.8)] — 1
103 x (1200 x 0.0392)2
Or
V = ak(t)2 x 0.43124
Or
Example 19.5 Tabulate the values of valve coefficient k(t), velocity through
the opening, F, f and p at the valve for 2 time periods at intervals of half time
periods into the valve closing operation.
As discussed earlier, f = 0 for t <
For the given problem, Ti„ = 0.5 s
Time V F f F+f p
(s) k(t) (m/s) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) Remarks
0 0.04 0.8 0 0 0 200 Undisturbed
0.25 0.038 0.7876 14.82 0 14.82 214.82 F reaches reservoir
0.50 0.036 0.7740 31.15 0 31.15 231.15 End of the first
time period
0.75 0.034 0.7429 53.59 - 14.82 38.77 238.77 f(t) = - F(t - T,,)
1.00 0.032 0.7097 77.13 - 31.15 45.98 245.98 fit) = - F(t - To)
The calculations indicated in Example 19.5 have been carried out step by step
using Eqs. (19.49) and (19.51). See the remarks column for sequential estimation
of F and 1.
The procedures outlined in this section can as well be applied to the transient
conditions following the opening of a valve. The initial velocity 1/0 = 0 and the
left running F(t + xla) is a rarefaction wave at that time.
The calculation can be carried out by graphical methods, a popular one
being the Bergeron construction. Both the step by step, and graphical methods are
482 FLUID MECHANICS
tedious and become very involved when frictional effects are to be accounted for.
The method of characteristics using a digital computer affords a convenient alternative
and we consider the basics in the' following.
aV ()V)
+ pg sin a+ 21VI V
P (Tt- +117; j +
dp p 2 dV
+A(—+V—+pa —)=0
at ax ax (19.52)
Upon rearrangement, we obtain
l [d V 2 aV
Al + + + (Aa + V)
at ) ax P at ax ]
pf iviv=o
+pgsina+—
2D (19.53)
Since p and V are functions of time and space x, we can write the derivatives as
dp ap dp dx
dt dt ax dt
dV aV aV dx
(19.54)
dt = at + ax dt
In view of Eq. (19.54), Eq. (19.53) can be written in terms of the total derivatives,
if
dx
T + r m-d7
Aa2 + V = dt
dt
i.e., if
from which
1
A=±— (19.55)
a
HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 483
dV dp
p- IVIV=0
+pgsina+ T (19.56)
1). Ti + A CF
When A = 1/a ,
dr
—
dt = V + a = a, since V (K a in a liquid,
x
Fig. 19.5 Characteristic Lines.
R
1 ir X
(i-1)
Fig. 19.6 A Finite Difference Scheme.
- xi_1 = a At
- = - a At
The difference forms of the terms in Eqs. (19.58) and (19.59) are:
dV V,.i - V,+ dp
dt At
, dt
Pi+14-1 along C-
At
It is deemed that values of p and V are known at P(i - 1, j - 1) and R(i + 1,
j - 1), and we now aim to determine their values at Q(i, j).
Substituting the difference forms in the two equations, we have, along C+,
the equation
1
Vi-14-1)
and along C;
1
(Vi.j - pa (Pa.i
-—
p, j PaVi = P4 (19.62)
P++ P -
(19.64)
1)4 =
13+
(19.65)
= 2pa
The solutions of the difference equations are carried out marching in time
and space. The initial condition is set at the location of the change, such as a
valve. The values of p and V at all locations are evaluated at increasing time
t = t + At. The end conditions, such as a reservoir, open end or a valve discussed
in Section 19.6, are introduced as boundary conditions. Other situations like the
step or joints in a pipe or starting or stopping of a pump can also be introduced
without difficulty.
A convenient way is to introduce different kinds of boundary conditions
through a generalized form such as
p = A + BQ + CQ2 (19.66)
The values of A, B, C.
C . . would be dictated by the type of the end conditions.
For instance, a reservoir would be prescribed by A = po, B=C=...= O.
The solutions po and are the values of pressure and velocity respectively
at a location x and time t.
19.9 SUMMARY
1. Hydraulic transients are caused by a sudden disruption in a flow system, such
as rapid closing or opening of a valve in a water pipeline. The phenomenon is
often referred to as a waterhammer associated with a knocking noise.
2. The waterhammer analysis for a stepped pipe can be conveniently carried
Lk
out by adopting an equivalent pipe of length L and area A, where Ti = Ak
-.
3. Surge chambers help reduce pressure fluctuations in the downstream
locations and are, therefore, provided for protection of hydraulic machines.
486 FLUID MECHANICS
EXERCISES
1. Water flows through a steel pipe, 10 cm in diameter, and 6 mm thick, with a
velocity of 4 m/s. Calculate the maximum stress induced in the pipe if the flow
of water were suddenly stopped. For steel E = 200 x 109 pascals and for water
= 2200 x 106 pascals.
(Ans: 45.46 MPa)
2. State the limitations of the Rigid Water-column Theory. Under what circumstances
can this theory give satisfactory results?
A stepped water pipeline has a length of 150 m at 60 cm diameter, followed
by a length of 200 m at 40 cm. Water flows through the pipe at the rate of
1.2 m3/s. Calculate the pressure rise at the control valve if the flow is brought to
rest uniformly in 5 seconds. Assume the rigid water column theory to be applicable.
(Ans: 509.3 kPa)
3. A small hydraulic turbine is supplied water through a 1.5 m diameter pipe of
200.m length. A surge tank of 3.5 m diameter is placed a short distance upstream
of the turbine. If the not mal flow rate to the turbine is 2.5 m3/s, calculate the
HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 487
maximum rise of the water level in the surge tank in the event of a rejection.
Neglect friction. Derive the formula used.
(Ans: 2.74 m)
4. Derive a differential equation for the change in the water level of a surge tank
accounting for the friction in the upstream length of the pipe. The head lost due
f LI V I V
to friction is expressed as hi =
2dg .
Write a computer program for the solution of the differential equation and
obtain results for the data given in Problem 3, if the Darcy-Weishbach friction
factor f = 0.02.
S. Consider a pipeline of length L, diameter D with a valve at one end. The valve
characteristic is given as V, = k NITI„. Assume the valve to be initially closed, the
pipe filled with water and the head acting as H. Derive an expression for the
value of the discharge as a function of time following a sudden opening of the
valve.
A pipe 1000 m long is fed from a reservoir with a head H = 150 m. The
pipe diameter is 3 m and the acoustic speed is 1200 m/s. If a valve at the end of
the pipe is opened suddenly, calculate the head at the valve at 1.5 second from
the time of opening. The steady velocity through the valve is 3.5 m/s.
(Ans: 149 m)
6. Oil of specific gravity 0.9 is conveyed through a 700 m-long pipeline with a
valve at the end. The acoustic speed in the medium is 850 m/s. The steady state
velocity at the discharge end is 1.5 m/s and the tank pressure 300 kPa. The valve
has a parabolic characteristic. If the valve is closed linearly in 3 seconds, calculate
the maximum pressure experienced by the valve at the end of the first time period.
(Ans: 672.6 kPa)
7. Consider the wave motion at the junction of a stepped pipe from area Al to A2.
Derive expressions for the coefficient of transmission CT and for reflection CR and
show that CT — CR = 1.
8. A pipe of cross-sectional area Ao branches into pipes of areas AI , A2 . . . A, at
a junction. Show that for a wave propagating along the pipe of area Ao, the
coefficients of reflection and transmission are:
10. A 1.6 km-long pipeline is fed from a reservoir with a head of 130 m. The
acoustic speed a is = 1000 m/s. The discharge end of the pipe is initially closed.
The time-history for gate opening is tabulated as follows:
t (s) 0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4
A/A, 0 0.5 0.75 0.90 1.0
where A, is the full open area of the gate. If the velocity through the gate at the
full open condition is V, = 1.5 m/s, calculate the maximum and minimum head
at the gate.
Flow Measurements
1 zz 2 (20.1)
Po P + Pv
where p is the static pressure, V the stream velocity and M the Mach number. k
is the ratio of specific heats of the gas.
It would be noted from Eq. (20.2) that the static and total pressure
measurements in a compressible flow yield only the Mach number. A thermometer
can be inserted into the flow to read the stagnation temperature. The static temperature
is then calculated for the estimated Mach number. The local stream velocity is
computed as V = aM, where a = i is the acoustic speed. When a Pitot tube
is used in a supersonic flow, a normal shock stands before the tube. The value
read by it corresponds to conditions after the shock. The supersonic flow parameters
are evaluated using the relationships for a normal shock.
Whereas it is common to call a simple bent tube for measuring stagnation
pressure a Pitot or impact tube, local measurements of both the static and total
pressures are made in a combination arrangement: the Pitot-static tube.
The general design of a Pitot-static tube is sketched in Fig. 20.1. Both
hemispherical and tapered nose shapes are used without any noticeable change in
accuracy. As the fluid flows past the nose, a static pressure variation occurs along
the parallel limb of the Pitot tube. The effect of the stem causes a pressure
variation of the opposite nature. The combined pressure variations nullify each
other at a location about 6D from the nose. In other words, if a measurement of
static pressure is made along the parallel limb of the Pitot tube, the true pressure
of the stream will be measured at 6D from the nose. This is where the static holes
are drilled on the exterior tube periphery. In some designs, such as the one suggested
by Prandtl, the static holes take the shape of a slit.
A Pitot-static tube, made according to specifications serves as a laboratory
standard for calibration. Independent calibration of a Pitot-static tube is seldom
carried out.
FLOW MEASUREMENTS 491
14 0
_10/2
HEMISPHERICAL
B-HOLES 0.120.
EQUALLY SPACED
FREE FROM BURRS
SECTION A-A
GD t
Prandtl's design
Fig. 20.1 Pitot-static Tube.
Example 20.1 A Pitot-static tube was used to measure the velocity of air in a
duct. The static and total pressure readings were 1.02 and 1.08 bar. A thermometer
inserted into the stream read 45°C. Calculate the velocity of the stream.
Po 1.08 • ,
= = 1.U3b
p 1.02
( k —1 hi21 k4k-I) =
1+ 1.0588
2 )
Or
M = 0.287
492 FLUID MECHANICS
k 1
—2 = 1 + M 2 = 1.01646
2
273 + 45
T= = 312.8k
.01646
a= •knFT
k = 20.01 1/51Ei = 353.9 m/s
V = Ma = 0.287 x 353.9 = 101.57 m/s
Pitot tubes are sensitive to yaw. The yaw angle is measured between the
probe axis and the flow-stream line. In a fairly parallel flow, the probe may be
slightly rotated in either direction about the geometrical axis of the duct till it
reads the maximum value. The maximum reading is then taken as the flow static
pressure.
The sensitivity of a Pitot probe to yaw can be reduced by locating it inside
a small venturi as shown in Fig. 20.2a. The arrangement is called a Kiel probe.
The measurement of flow direction is carried out by a 3-hole probe (see
Fig. 20.2b). The arrangement is a combination of 3 impact tubes: two side probes,
Si and 52 spaced at equal angles about the central probe C. The angular separation
is of the order of 5°. The 3-hole or yaw probe is first aligned along the geometric
axis of the flow system, a protractor is mounted on the probe axis to monitor the
angular position of the sensing head introduced into the duct. The probe is then
rotated slowly in either direction fill the two side holes Si and S2 read equal pressure.
At this condition, the central hole C will read the highest pressure and its angular
position marks the flow direction.
the shaft has a rigid attachment with tail fins for self-alignment of the meter with
the flow direction when the instrument is lowered into a water stream. The flowing
water causes the wheel to rotate because of its action on the vanes. The vanes
are so designed 'that the speed of rotation is proportional to the velocity of the
stream. Electric connections from a battery above the water level are provided
to the meter. The circuit is broken every time the wheel completes a revolution.
The breaking of the circuit is detected above the water level by an, electric
bell or a headphone. Thus, the number of clicks on the headphone over a given
time becomes a measure of the speed of rotation and in turn, the velocity of the
stream.
Current meters are calibrated by towing them at a known speed in a long
water tank. When the tank length is not long, a meter can be calibrated by fixing
it at the end to an arm and revolving the arm about an axis.
Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and his the measured pressure differential between
sections 1 and 2.
The relationships (20.3) and (20.4) are applicable for all types of obstruction
meters. Whereas section 2 for a venturimeter is the throat, for the orifice meter
and nozzle it is at a point immediately downstream, as shown in Fig. 20.4.
RI METER
bI FLOW NOZZLE
2L2Fili.jri7.=7:1722.427127arzz:vr_Wr.-z.r.rxzfca1
l cl AN OPIFICE METER
Fig. 20.4 Obstruction Meters.
The standard dimensions for a venturimeter are indicated in Fig. 20.5. The
coefficient of discharge for a venturimeter, made to standard dimensions, is practically
constant at Cd = 0.984 for Red, > 105 , where the Reynolds number is defined on
the upstream diameter. The constant Cd characteristic makes a venturimeter a
convenient device for calibration of other flow meters.
(b) Orifice Meter A sharp-edged orifice plate held between flanges in a pipeline
is a convenient inexpensive device for measuring flow of gases and liquids
through the pipe. A straight length of atleast 10 diameters of the pipe should
precede the location of the orifice plate. The differential pressure across the orifice
plate can be measured over differing up- and downstream distances, but the discharge
coefficient would then vary correspondingly. A frequently adopted arrangement is
496 FLUID MECHANICS
RADIUS
0-1.11d1
0.1 d 0.1 d2
,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, N\W•NN
\N\NNNS,,,,
"..3„77
,4er
I 0-5.5d2 Z
0.66
0.67
.. d2
0 = di
0.6
0
0.6
•er
I 0.6
12 0.6 3
•
0.6 V,47/114
0.61 61.,.._
0.6 (1 ... 11\e...--
0 5 ?.__iLui__LLL=._.a__c=E
2 46 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6
103 104 106 105 107
PIPE REYNOLDS NUMBER, Red1
(a) Dimensions ( b) Discharge coefficient
A2
The area ratio = = 0.2423
A2 A2 A2
C
1 — (0.2423)2 — 0.9702
1
1 CA S )
Q = CCd112gh
or
Q = CCd 112g x (13.6 — 1) hi%
Note that the specific gravity of water is subtracted from that of mercury for
computing the head, because of the differential arrangement of the manometer.
Thus,
2018.86 x 10-6
Q= 0.9702 Cd 12 x 9.81 x 12.6 x 10-3 hi%
odi = 4Q
Reds - v xdiv
Or
4 x 5.538
Red , 6 = 8.5895 x 104
x 103 x 0.797 x 10
We read from Fig. 20.6b, for p = 0.49,
Cd = 0.607 for Reds = 8.6 x 104.
498 FLUID MECHANICS
Since the Cd from the curve is different from the assumed Cd = 0.61, we recheck
the flow rate
Q = 9.0787 x le x 0.607 = 5.5108 x 10-3 m3/s (iii)
The percentage difference in the Cd, and hence the flow rate, values is
0.61 — 0.607
= 0.494%
0.607
Since the difference is low, we may accept Cd = 0.607 in the range of Red, =
8.6 x 104
Ordinarily a first assumption of Cd = 0.6 to 0.62 at Red, = 105 and p = 0.5
would result in a convergence in one or two iterations.
I I_ 0.304 d2
—1"
R=
0.2 c12. Not less than 0.3 02
.
r
i — Not greater than 0.03d2
0.333d2 v
"
diameter matches with the ID of the pipe, and the exit diameter is 3 mm. At a
given setting, the pressure at the nozzle inlet is measured across a static tapping
to be 30 mm Hg gauge. The nozzle discharges to atmospheric pressure at 760 mm
Hg. A thermometer inserted into the air stream at the nozzle discharge reads
40°C. Calculate the velocity of air at the exit of the nozzle.
The nozzle inlet to exit area ratio is
1 (25)2 40 A A
A2 = 3 ) =
Po 790
—= = 1.03947
p2
Since
klag-q
Po ( k -1 2\
k = 1.4
'
T2 = M2 )
(i k 1 m2))
T k 2
the nozzle will remain constant. Recalling Chapter 13, we know this as
A sonic nozzle is often used as a metering device for permitting a fixed flow rate
even when the back pressure is varied: 0 5 pc 5 pc.
FLOW
TRIM
OUTPUT
CONTROL REF SET
RES 11,
.0- FLOW
PROBE
( a) A CIRCUIT
SENSOR
STAINLESS STEEL
BODY
GOLD PLATED
PLUG IN
CONTACT PINS
GOLD PLATED
STAINLESS STEEL
SUPPORTS
circuits of the meter can maintain the sensor in either (i) constant temperature
condition (CTA) by increasing the current flow rate or in (ii) constant current
mode (CCA) by changing the impressed potential differential across the sensor.
Modern anemometers are usually of the CTA type.
The hot-wire sensor can measure both the steady and the fluctuating
components of velocities. The lower the wire diameter, the smaller is the wire
response time and the more sensitive the sensor becomes to velocity fluctuations
of higher frequencies. Turbulence fluctuations in kilohertz range can be monitored
by a hot-wire sensor. Recent trends have been to replace the wire sensor by thin
film sensors which extend the frequency response to about 50 kHz.
FLOW DUCT
FILTER
MIRROR
SEAM
SPLITTER
L : LENS
PHOTO-
MULTIPLIER
READOUT SPECTRUM
ANALYZER
transmitted component of the beam maintains the frequency of the laser beam
emanating from the source, the frequency of the scattered beam is slightly different.
The difference arises due to the well-known Doppler effect and is proportional to
the velocity of the scattering particle.
In other words, the difference in the frequency of two beams combining at
the splitter is a measure of the velocity of the scattering particle. Since the particle
moves with the same velocity as the fluid, the Doppler Frequency shift is also a
measure of the fluid velocity. The combined beams are sensed by a photomultiplier,
the output of which is connected to a frequency (spectrum) analyser for measuring
the Doppler frequency. Usually, He-Ne gas lasers are used for LDA measurements.
The source frequency is of the order of 5 x 10" Hz.
20.6 SUMMARY
1. An impact or Pitot tube is a convenient device for measuring the total pressure
in a moving fluid. Alignment of an impact tube with the flow direction is reckoned
at maximum reading.
2. Flow measurements using meters working on the windmill principle, e.g.,
the vane anemometer, current meter or turbine flow meter are carried out by
monitoring the number of rotations over a given time.
3. The volume flow rate through all types of constriction meters can be
summarized as Q=CCd1,11F.
4. In a hot-wire anemometer, the velocity is measured by measuring the
change in the resistance of a heated wire due to the cooling caused by the flow.
5. The measurement of fluid velocity by an LDA is based on measuring the
Doppler shift i.e., the difference in frequencies of the incident and scattered beams
of laser radiation.
EXERCISES
1. The average velocity of flow through a pipe is estimated by arithmetically
averaging the flow rate through equal-area strips. Consider a circular pipe of
radius R. If it is necessary to divide the cross-section into n equal areas, derive
an expression for the corresponding radii.
(Ans r, =
3. Air flow through a duct is monitored by a venturimeter whose inlet and throat
diameters are 30 and 10 cm respectively. In the given flow condition, the pressure
differential across the inlet and throat is 15 mm Wg. The meter Cd = 0.97. The
gauge pressure of air in the pipe is 200 mm Wg, temperature 35°C and the
barometer at 755 mm Hg. Calculate: (i) the volumetric flow rate at the measured
pressure and temperature, (ii) the volumetric rate at STP of 27°C and 760 mm Hg,
(iii) the mass flow rate and (iv) the Reynolds number of flow.
4. A venturimeter and an orifice meter are placed in series in a 100 mm ID air
flow pipeline. The pipe ID and the outer diameters of the meters match smoothly.
The coefficient of discharge for the venturimeter is constant at Cd = 0.98. Each
of the meters has a diameter ratio of p= 0.5. At different flow rates, the readings
of the two meters are as listed below. The experiments were performed at an air
temperature of 35°C. Plot the Cd of the orifice plate against the Reynolds number.
Venturimeter: 32 37 40 44 47 51
mm Wg
Orifice plate: 77.4 92.5 101.6 113.2 121.3 131.6
mm Wg
Temp. Saturation Density Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity Surface ten- Bulk modulus
pressure bar (kg/m3) (kg/ms) (m2/s) sion of water of water
(Wm) (MPa)
Water Steam Water Steam Water Steam
Pf pa pi x 106 pg x 106 of x 106 vg x 106 a x 106 P
000.01* 000.006113 1000.0 000.00485 1775.0 08.8 1.755 1814.4 75.64 2050
10 0.012272 999.7 0.00940 1301 9.1 1.308 968.1 74.22 2110
20 0.02336 998.0 0.01729 1002 9.4 1.004 543.7 72.74 2200
30 0.04243 996.0 0.03037 797 9.7 0.800 319.4 71.20 2230
40 0.07375 992.1 0.05116 651 10.1 0.656 197.4 69.60 2270
50 0.12335 988.1 0.08303 544 10.4 0.550 152.2 67.95 2300
60 0.1992 983.3 0.13023 462 10.7 0.469 82.16 66.24 2280
70 0.3116 978.5 0.19818 400 11.1 0.409 56.01 64.49 2250
80 0.4736 971.8 0.29334 350 11.4 0.360 38.86 62.68 2210
90 0.7013 965.2 0.42351 311 11.7 0.322 27.63 60.82 2160
100 1.0135 957.8 0.59777 278 12.1 0.290 20.24 58.92 2070
125 2.322 939.0 1.2982 219 13.3 0.233 10.240 53.96
150 4.761 917.4 2.5482 180 14.4 0.196 5.651 48.75
175 8.928 892.9 4.6179 153 15.6 0.171 3.378 43.31
200 15.55 864.3 7.8641 133 16.7 0.154 2.124 37.68
225 25.50 833.3 12.763 118.2 17.9 0.142 1.402 31.91
250 39.79 800.0 19.988 106.5 19.1 0.133 0.956 26.05
275 59.51 757.6 30.553 97.2 20.2 1.128 0.661 20.17
300 85.95 714.3 46.211 89.7 21.4 0.126 0.463 14.37
XION3ddV
325 120.5 653.6 70.472 79.0 23.0 0.121 0.326 8.79
350 165.4 574.7 113.64 64.8 25.8 0.113 0.227 3.68
360 186.8 529.1 144.09 58.2 27.5 0.110 0.191 1.89
374.15.. 221.27 315.5 315.5 45.0 45.0 0.143 0.143 0.00
Log
*Tripple point; "critical point
508 FLUID MECHANICS
Table A.4 Properties of the Upper Atmosphere for Tentative Standard Temperatures
(Based on NACA Rept. 218 and NACA TN 1200)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
GAS TABLES
A
M M*
Po Po To A*
P P T A
M M*
Po Po To A*
TabkAi (con)
A
M M*
A*
Po Po To
2.10 1.676 0.1093 0.2058 0.5313 1.836
2.12 1.685 0.1059 0.2012 0.5266 1.869
2.14 1.693 0.1027 0.1968 0.5219 1.901
2.16 1.701 0.0995 0.1924 0.5173 1.935
2.18 1.709 0.0965 0.1882 0.5127 1.969
2.20 1.718 0.0935 0.1840 0.5081 2.005
2.22 1.725 0.0906 0.1799 0.5036 2.041
2.24 1.733 0.0878 0.1760 0.4991 2.077
2.26 1.741 0.0851 0.1721 0.4946 2.115
2.28 1.758 0.0825 0.1683 0.4902 2.153
2.30 1.756 0.0799 0.1645 0.4859 2.193
2.32 1.763 0.0775 0.1609 0.4815 2.233
2.34 1.771 0.0751 0.1574 0.4773 2.274
2.36 1.778 0.0728 0.1539 0.4730 2.316
2.38 1.785 0.0705 0.1505 0.4688 2.359
2.40 1.792 0.0684 0.1472 0.4646 2.403
2.42 1.799 0.0663 0.1439 0.4605 2.448
2.44 1.806 0.0642 0.1407 0.4564 2.493
2.46 1.812 0.0623 0.1376 0.4524 2.540
2.48 1.819 0.0603 0.1346 0.4484 2.588
2.50 1.825 0.0585 0.1317 0.4444 2.636
2.52 1.832 0.0567 0.1288 0.4405 2.686
2.54 1.844 0.0550 0.1259 0.4366 2.737
2.56 1.844 0.0533 0.1232 0.4327 2.789
2.58 1.851 0.0517 0.1205 0.4289 2.842
2.60 1.857 0.0501 0.1178 0.4251 2.896
2.62 1.863 0.0486 0.1153 0.4214 2.951
2.64 1.869 0.0471 0.1127 0.4177 3.007
2.66 1.875 0.0456 0.1103 0.4140 3.064
2.68 1.880 0.0443 0.1079 0.4104 3.123
2.70 1.886 0.0429 0.1055 0.4068 3.183
2.72 1.892 0.0416 0.1032 0.4032 3.244
2.74 1.897 0.0404 0.1010 0.3997 3.306
2.76 1.903 0.0391 0.0988 0.3962 3.369
2.78 1.908 0.0380 0.0967 0.3928 3.434
2.80 1.914 0.0368 0.0946 0.3894 3.500
2.82 1.919 0.0357 0.0926 0.3860 3.567
2.84 1.924 0.0346 0.0906 0.3826 3.636
2.86 1.929 0.0336 0.0886 0.3793 3.705
2.88 1.934 0.0326 0.0867 0.3761 3.777
2.90 1.939 0.0316 0.0849 0.3728 3.849
2.92 1.944 0.0307 0.0830 0.3696 3.923
2.94 1.949 0.0298 0.0813 0.3664 3.999
2.96 1.954 0.0289 0.0795 0.3633 4.076
2.98 1.959 0.0280 0.0778 0.3602 4.154
514 FLUID MECHANICS
DOUGLAS, J.F., GASIOREK, J.M. AND SwAFFIRD, J.A. Fluid Mechanics, Pitman, London,
1979.
Lawn-r, E.H. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, ELBS and Pitman, London, 1963.
OSBORNE, W.C. Fans, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1966.
RAMSEY, A.S. Hydrostatics, Cambridge University Press, London, 1947.
SCHLICHTING, H. Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
SHAMES, I.H. Mechanics of Fluids, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
&UMW, A.H. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
Vol. I, Ronald Press, New York, 1953.
Index
Meter Prandtl
current, 493 boundary layer, 255
nozzle, 498 mixing length, 296
orifice, 495 Prandtl-Mayer expansion, 373
rota, 500 Pressure
turbine, 494 absolute, 24
vane, 492 at a point, 5, 22
venturi, 494 atmospheric, 26
Mixing length, 297 choking, 329, 499
Model testing, 205 coefficient, 238
Modulus drag, 277
bulk, 6, 11, 313, 472 gauge, 25
elastic, 247, 473 gradient, 158, 276
rigidity, 247 head, 25
Momentum thickness, 273, 303 hydrodynamic, 120, 251
Moody's chart, 165 hydrostatic, 24, 120
Mouth piece, 145 stagnation, 318
static, 121, 318, 489
thermodynamic, 23, 248
total, 121, 137, 318, 490
Navier-Stokes equation, 251 vapour, 7, 28, 410, 416, 438
Newtonian fluid, 4 Priming, 415
Newton's law of shear stress, 4 Propeller, 101
Nikuradse, 295 turbine, 407
Normal stress, 247 Propulsion
Notches, 145 efficiency, 99
Nozzle, 93 power, 99
choking, 328 Pump, 93
converging, 329 centrifugal, 391, 415
converging-diverging, 326 impeller, 385
efficiency, 333 multistage, 416
impulse turbine, 400 reciprocating, 436
maximum discharge, 328, 500 specific speed, 383
meter, 498 volute casing, 415
NPSH, 411, 418
by
A.K. MOHANTY
In this new edition of Fluid Mechanics, which is a revised and substantially expanded
version of the first edition, several new topics like open channel flow, hydraulic turbines,
hydraulic transients, flow measurements and pumps and fans have been added. The
chapter on one-dimensional viscous flow has been expanded. With the addition of five
new chapters, the treatment is now more indepth and comprehensive.
The book begins with an introduction and goes on to give a thorough analysis of such
topics as fluid statics, fluid kinematics, analysis of finite control volumes and the
mechanical energy equation. It also provides a comprehensive description of, among
others, one-dimensional viscous flow, dimensional analysis, two-dimensional flow of
ideal fluids, and normal and oblique shocks. Each chapter ends with a Summary and
Exercises, which enable the student to recapture the topics discussed and drill him in
the theory. Finally, the worked-out examples—with solutions to most of
them should be of considerable assistance to the reader in comprehending the
problems discussed.
The book is a happy fusion of theory and applications and should prove to be an
ideal text for the undergraduate student and as a ready reference for the first-level
postgraduate student.
Prentice-Hall of India
New Delhi
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