FLUID MECHANICS

SECOND EDITION

A.K. MOHANTY
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology
Kharagpur 721 302

Prentice-Hall of India Private ft mited

New Delhi - 110 001
2006

isiiiiiiimIn
Rs. 250.00

FLUID MECHANICS, 2nd Ed.

by A.K. Mohatity

0 1994 by Prentice-Hail of India Private Limited, New Delhi. AU rights reserved.

No pert of this book may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ISSN-31-203-0094-S
The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.
Tenth Printing (Second Edition) ... ... June, 2006

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, Prentice-Hal of India Private Limited, M-97,

Connaught Circus, New Delhi-110001 and Printed by Rajkamal Electric Press,
B-35/9, G.T. Kamal Road Industrial Area, Delhi-110033.
Contents

Preface ix
Preface to the First Edition xi
1. INTRODUCTION • • • 1-20
1.1 Continuum 1
1.2 Solid vs. Fluid 2
1.3 Time Rate of Deformation and Viscosity 3
1.4 Pressure and Normal Stress 4
1.5 Compressibility of a Fluid 5
1.6 Compressible Flow 6
1.7 Vapour Pressure 6
1.8 Surface Tension 6
1.9 Dimensions and Units 7
1.10 Thermodynamic Systems 11
1.11 Thennodynaniic Properties and States 12
1.12 First Law of Thermodynamics 13
1.13 First Law of Thermodynamics for an Open System 14
1.14 Second Law of Thermodynamics 15
1.15 Perfect Gas 16
1.16 Summary 18
EXERCISES 19
2. FLUID STATICS •. 21-63
Part A: Absolute Test
2.1 Pressure at a Point 21
2.2 Hydrostatic Pressure 22
2.3 Atmospheric Pressure 26
2.4 Manometry 27
2.5 Hydrostatic Force on Plane Surfaces 34
2.6 Hydrostatic Force on Curved Surfaces 42
2.7 Buoyancy 44
2.8 Stability of Floating Bodies 47
2.9 Determination of Metacentric Height 48
Part B: Relative Test
2.10 Pressure Equation 53
2.11 Centrifugal Body Force 55
2.12 Summary 58
EXERCISES 59
NI
IV CONTENTS

3. FLUID KINEMATICS •• 64-85

3.1 Velocity Field 64
3.2 Acceleration of a Fluid Element 66
3.3 Conservation of Mass 68
3.4 Conservation of Momentum 70
3.5 Stream Lines, Stream Tubes and Stream Functions 73
3.6 Rotation of a Fluid Element 76
3.7 Euler's Equation 78
3.8 Summary 82
EXERCISES 83
4. ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES . . . 86-114
4.1 Definition 86
4.2 Conservation Equations 87
4.3 Inertial Control Volumes ... 89
4.4 Non-Inertial Control Volumes 103
4.5 Conservation of Moment of Momentum 109
4.6 Summary 111
EXERCISES • 112
5. MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION . . . 115-155
5.1 Bernoulli's Equation along a Stream Line 115
5.2 Bernoulli's Equatfon in an Irrotational Flow 116
5.3 Bernoulli's Equation from Thermodynamic Viewpoint . 118
5.4 Hydrostatic, Hydrodynamic, Static and Total Pressures. 120
5.5 Energy Conservation in Curvilinear Motion 121
5.6 Losses due to Geometric Changes 130
5.7 Flow Measuring Devices 134
5.8 Time Dependent Flow 147
5.9 Summary 151
EXERCISES 151
6. ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW . . . 156-199
6.1 Couette Flow 157
6.2 Flow through a Pipe 160
6.3 Laminar and Turbulent Regimes 164
6.4 Flow through a Concentric Annulus 168
6.5 Flow Potential and Flow Resistance 175
6.6 Flow through Branched Pipes 179
6.7 Flow through Perforated Pipes 187
6.8 Ventilation Network 188
6.9 Hardy Cross Method 190
6.10 Power Transmission by a Pipeline 191
6.11 Flow through a Porous Medium 192
6.12 Summary 195
EXERCISES 19.;
 CONTENTS V

9. BILIP14111814111, M41111,111 . . . 200-218

7.1 Buckingham's it Theorem 200
7.2 Dimensions of Derived Quantities 201
7.3 Pressure Variation in Frictionless Flow 201
7.4 Friction Loss in Internal Flow 203
7.5 Resistance to Motion on a Free Surface 204
7.6 Resistance due to Surface Tension Effects 205
7.7 Model Testing 205
7.8 Summary 213
EXERCISES 214
8. TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS . . . 216-245
8.1 Rotational and Irrotational Flows 216
8.2 Velocity Potential 217
8.3 Circulation 217
8.4 Relationship between Stream Function and
Potential Function 219
8.5 Basic Solutions 223
8.6 Superposition 232
8.7 Rankine Oval 234
8.8 A Stationary Circular Cylinder 236
8.9 A Cylinder with Circulation 239
8.10 Summary 243
EXERCISES 244
9. TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW . . . 246-262
9.1 Normal Stress 246
9.2 Shear Stress 248
9.3 Navier-Stokes Equations 250
9.4 Solutions of the Navier-Stokes Equations 252
9.5 Very Low Reynolds Number Flow 253
9.6 Order of Magnitude Analysis 255
9.7 Boundary Layer Equations 260
9.8 Summary 260
EXERCISES 261
10. LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS • • . 263 -287
10.1 Momentum Integral Equation 263
10.2 Solution of the Momentum Integral Equation for 266
Flow over a Flat Plate
10.3 Displacement Thickness 271
10.4 Momentum Thickness 273
10.5 Momentum Integral Equation in Terms of 61 and 62 274
10.6 Separation 276
10.7 Drag 277
vi coPrrerrs

10.8 Bluff Bodies 278

10.9 Aerofoils 280
10.10Boundary Layer Control 281
10.11 Entrance Region 282
10.12 Summary 285
EXERCISES • 286

11. TURBULENT FLOW . . . 288-310

11.1 Laminar-Turbulent Transition 288
11.2 Time Mean and Time Dependent Description 289
11.3 Coriservation of Mass ... 292
11.4 Momentum Equations and Reynolds Stresses 293
11.5 Shear Stress Models 295
11.6 Fully Developed Turbulent Flow through a Pipe 299
11.7 Turbulent Boundary Layer on a Flat Plate 302
11.8 Turbulent Flow at Very High Reynolds Number 306
11.9 Summary ••• 308
EXERCISES • 309
12. INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS . . . 311-319
12.1 Speed of Propagation -of a Pressure Front 312
12.2 Mach Number 314
12.3 Limits of Incompressibility ..▪ 314
12.4 Pressure Field due to a Moving Source of Disturbance. . • 315
12.5 Summary 318
EXERCISES 318
13. ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS . . . 320-356
13.1 Isentropic Flow 320
13.2 Frictional Effects on Nozzle Flow 332
13.3 Constant Area Adiabatic Flow 334
13.4 Constant Area Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer 342
13.5 Constant Area Isothermal Flow with Friction 348
13.6 Summary 354
EXERCISES 355
14. NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS . . . 357-377
14.1 Governing Relations for a Normal Shock 357
14.2 Thermodynamic Direction of a Normal Shock 359
14.3 Rankine-Hugoniot Relation 362
14.4 Strength of a Shock ••• 363
14.5 Moving Shock Waves 367
14.6 Oblique Shocks 369
14.7 Summary ... 375
EXERCISES ... 376
 CONTENTS VII

15. FLUID MACHINES . . 378-397

15.1 Classifications ... 379
15.2 Non-dimensional Parameters 380
15.3 Specific Speed 383
15.4 Blading Action 387
15.5 Degree of Reaction 390
15.6 Slip, Losses and Efficiencies ... 391
15.7 Summary 395
EXERCISES .. 396
16. HYDRAULIC TURBINES . . . 398-414
16.1 Selection of a Prime Mover 398
16.2 Felton Wheel 400
16.3 Francis Turbine 403
16.4 Kaplan Turbine ... 407
16.5 Cavitation 410
16.6 Summary 412
EXERCISES 412
17. PUMPS AND FANS . . . 415-442
17.1 Centrifugal Pump 415
17.2 Suction Limits 416
17.3 Centrifugal Fans 422
17.4 Blade Outlet Angle 422
17.5 Performance Curves of a Centrifugal Fan ... 427
17.6 Specific Speed in Terms of Pressure and
Volume Coefficients 428
17.7 Axial Flow Fans 431
17.8 Axial Flow Blading 432
17.9 Performance Characteristics of Axial Flow Fans 434
17.10Fan and System 434
17.11 Reciprocating Pumps 436
17.12 Summary 440
EXERCISES 441
18. OPEN CHANNEL FLOW • • 443-464
18.1 Specific Energy 443
18.2 Progress of an Open Channel Flow 445
18.3 Maximum Flow Rate for a given Specific Energy 446
18.4 Hydraulic Jump 448
18.5 Venturi Flume 453
18.6 Uniform Channel Flow 454
18.7 Optimum Cluinnel Shapes 457
18.8 Summary 462
EXERCSES 463
viii cortrurrs

19. HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS • • • 465-487

19.1 Waterhammer 465
19.2 Rigid Water Column Theory 466
19.3 Surge Tank 468
19.4 Elastic Water Column Theory 471
19.5 The Wave Equations 474
19.6 Wave Reflections 476
19.7 The Method of Characteristics 482
19.8 A Finite Difference Formulation 483
19.9 Summary 485
EXERCISES 486
20. FLOW MEASUREMENTS • • • 489-504
20.1 Pressure Measurement 489
20.2 Meters for Velocity Measurements 492
20.3 Flow Rate Measurements 494
20.4 Hot Wire Anemometer 500
20.5 Laser-Doppler Anemometer 502
20.6 Summary 503
EXERCISES 503
APPENDIX . . . 505-509
Table A.1 Conversion Factors .. 505
Table A.2 Transport Properties of Saturated Water and
Saturated Steam 507
Table A.3 Transport Properties of. Dry Air at Standard
Atmospheric Pressure •• 508
Table A.4 Properties of the Upper Atmosphere for Tentative
Standard Temperatures 509
Gas Tables . . . 510-521
Table A.5 Isentropic Flow 510
Table A.6 Normal Shock 515
Table A.7 Fanno Line 518
Table A.8 Rayleigh Line 520
SUGGESTED FURTHER READING • •• 523
INDEX • •• 525
Preface

The warm acceptance of Fluid Mechanics as a text and its adoption in the curricula
of several institutes of higher education and universities have been gratifying. In
this enlarged edition, I have included new chapters on Open Channel Flow, Hydraulic
Transients, and Flow Measurements. The material on Fluid Machines has been
expanded to cover' three chapters. In the process, the book has now 20 chapters
as against 15 in the previous edition. Additional topics have been added on One
Dimensional Viscous Flow. Solutions to almost all the exercise problems have
been provided. Information on transport properties of air, water and steam, and on
upper atmosphere has been furnished; a table for conversion of units has been
added to the Appendix.
I fervently hope that this will continue to be used as a text book and will be
of considerable assistance to the readers—the students as well as the faculty.

A.K. Mohanty

Ix
Preface to the First Edition

During the six years that I spent in writing and rewriting the manuscript, I have
often asked myself the question as to why I was writing this text, despite the fact
that 'Fluid Mechanics' by a number of authors were available. I am sure, the same
question shall be asked by many. My reasons follow in brief.
In teaching the subject to undergraduates and postgraduates, and during
interactions with colleagues and research scholars at ITT, Kharagpur for the past
fifteen years, some of the sample situations I faced are as below.
How does one apply Newton's second law to a fluid element; what is the
need, and how does one impart the concepts of velocity and acceleration fields;
how does one resolve the confusion of hydrostatic, hydrodynamic, static and total
pressures; how to realise an irrotational flow physically; how does one apply the
information of the solution of a potential flow to a viscous flow; how to bring in
convenience to solve problems of fluid networks with possible extension to computer
methods; why should geometrically similar fluid machines be assumed to have a
single value of specific speed, and the like.
The other kind of question that has exercised my mind frequently is how
much to teach in an undergraduate class. For instance, should Navier-Stokes
equation be taught in a first level undergraduate course? Whereas some teachers
feel and do introduce Navier-Stokes equations in entirety (say, as it is given in
Schlichting) at the first level course, I do not consider it prudent. Since these
equations are solved in the classroom only for parallel flows, the purpose is well
served by control-volume analysis.
Yet the N-S equations can be used to illustrate the power of an order of
magnitude analysis which, I think, is a useful tool for a variety of engineering
situations. In attempting to resolve the contradictions, I have resorted to a simpler
derivation of the N-S equation for a two-dimensional incompressible flow.
A study of hydrodynamic boundary layer has, of course, become desirable for
reasons of both momentum and heat transfer.
A have found it expeditious to convey, say, the definition of a fluid element;
the concepts of irrotational flow; the restrictions of Bernoulli's equation and
the like, through a touch of thermodynamics. Again, thermodynamics is the
means, the second law is the guardian, for a study of compressible flow. Fortunately,
both thermodynamics and fluid mechanics are now essential subjects for
most curricula in undergraduate engineering programmes, irrespective of
specialization.
In most undergraduate curricula, the subject of fluid mechanics is introduced
at two levels. At Kharagpur, the first level used to be taught by a group of
teachers drawn from different faculties. i have had the privilege of co-ordinating
xd
Xii PREFACe TO ThE FIRST EDITION

such a group teaching for a three year period. And I must acknowledge my
colleagues for the benefit I derived through discussions.
Chapters 1 to 8 in this-text reflect the topics covered in our common first
level course. The second course, offered at the final year level, is tailored more
towards the need of a particular discipline. The material in Chapters 9 to 15 are
representative for the second course in fluid mechanics for students of mechanical
engineering.
The long gestation period of the manuscript afforded me the opportunity to
class-test the entire material of this text. Perhaps, in the process, the language has
tended to be that in a classroom.
In each chapter, I have worked out, on an average, ten numerical examples
to illustrate the applications of the theory covered. A similar number of problems
have been appended to a chapter for students' exercise. At the first stage, answers
to only a selected set of exercise problems are given.
As in the classroom, I felt it quite useful to list the salient aspects of the
material covered in a Summary of the chapter.
I hope that the book shall prove useful as an undergraduate text, and also as
a reference for a first level postgraduate course in fluid mechanics.

A.K. Mobanty
 Introduction

The study of Fluid Mechanics is directed towards the behaviour of a fluid at

rest or in motion. Some of the notable examples of application are: consideration
of fluid statics for the design of a dam; flow of water through pipes and distribution
to domestic service lines; production of mechanical power in hydraulic, steam
or gas turbines; working of a hydraulic pump or of a compressor; load carrying
capacity of a hydrodynamic bearing; motion of an aircraft or a missitf in the
atmosphere and the like. The study also encompasses methods and devices for
the measurement of various parameters, e.g., the pressure and velocity in a fluid
at rest or in motion. Indeed the scope of the study of fluid mechanics is quite
vast and is of considerable interest to mechanical, aeronautical, civil, chemiCal
and mining engineers. Apart from engineers, the mathematicians and physicists
have made significant contributions to our knowledge of fluid mechanics.

1.1 CONTINUUM
The three common states of matter are: solid, liquid and gaseous. At a microscopic
level, the three states of a given substance are different because of the difference
in the intermolecular distance, known as the `mean free path'.
The mean free path in a solid is the least and that in a gas is the longest,
yet of the order of 0.06 micrometer in nitrogen (hence, nearly in air) at room
conditions. At normal conditions, therefore, the mean free path of a gas is less
than the minutest of any physical dimension of practical interest. As a result,
a probe or a container cannot distinguish the behaviour of any single molecule;
it will experience only the average effect of all the molecules encountering the
probe or the container. Under such normal circumstances, the gaseous medium
is said to be a `continuum' affording characterization of its state in terms of
macroscopic observations, such as density, pressure, temperature etc.
It is in gases at very low pressures, as in the upper atmosphere, or at very
high temperatures, e.g. in a plasma, that the continuum concept may be violated,
and the study then has to be based on the behaviour of individual molecules.
The molecules being more closely spaced in a liquid, the continuum concept is
always satisfied.
The term `fluid' encompasses both liquids and gases, and for our purpose,
we shall assume the concept of `continuum' to be satisfied always.
2 FLUID MECHANICS

In carrying out our studies we shall frequently refer to an 'element of fluid'

which encompasses an infinitesimal volume, or area, delineated in the continuum
under consideration. In Fig. 1.1, ABC is a fluid element identified through a
boundary in the continuum.

Fs
A Fluid --
element —

--
Fluid L7:
_-continuum—

Fig. 1.1 Forces on a Fluid Element.

1.2 SOUD vs. FLUID

As in the case of solids, the behaviour of a fluid element is reckoned with respect
to a set of external forces conforming to the laws of conservation: the conservation
of mass, the conservation of momentum (Newton's laws) and the conservation
of energy.
The external forces acting on a fluid element, as on a solid, can be broadly
classified into 'Body forces' and 'Surface forces'. The body force acts on the
total material content of the element, such as that due to the action of gravity,
whereas the surface force is transmitted due to the action of the fluid surrounding
the element. The magnitude and influence of the surface force are, therefore,
dependent on the extent of the area of the element and its orientation with respect
to the neighbouring fluid.
In Fig. 1.1 Fs and Fs are respectively the body and surface forces on a fluid
element. The surface force Fs on the face ADC can be resolved into normal and
tangential •components, viz. F. and F1.
The kinematic differences between a solid and a fluid lie in their response
to the tangential or shear force Ft.
We know that the behaviour of a solid under the action of a shear force,
within the elastic limit, are: (i) deformation by a definite amount depending on
the magnitude of the force, irrespective of the length of time of application, and
(ii) recovery of the shape prior to the application of the force, when the applied
force is withdrawn.
Consider water in a tiltable channel. In the horizontal position of the channel,
the water is at rest. In the vertical plane, the body force Fe = mg is balanced
by a normal reactive force from the channel on the liquid. When the channel
 symoDucnoN 3

is tilted downwards, the water continues to flow so long as the tilt is maintained.
In the tilted position, the body force has a component parallel to the channel
wall. This parallel component, which in effect is a shear force, causes deformation
in the fluid layers, resulting in motion.
The observations of the above experiment can be contrasted with the effects
of shear force on a solid and stated as follows:
(i) A fluid under an external shear force is in continuous deformation so
long as the force is applied.
(ii) The deformation, which is observed as motion of fluid layers, ceases when
the shear force is withdrawn. The fluid, however, does not return to its
original state obtaining before the application of the force.
In summary, therefore, the kinematic definition of a fluid is 'a matter that
deforms continuously under the action of a shear force'. Conversely, a fluid at
rest cannot sustain a shear force.

1.3 TIME RATE OF DEFORMATION AND VISCOSITY

Consider a thin layer of fluid contained between two parallel plates. The lower
plate is fixed and the upper plate moveable. A tangential force F's is applied to
the upper plate, because of which the plate moves with a velocity whose magnitude
depends on the resistance offered by the fluid layer.
It is observed from experiments that a real fluid has no relative velocity with
respect to the solid surface in contact. This observation is stated as the condition
of 'no-slip'.
Because of the no-slip condition, the fluid layer on the lower surface remains
stationary whereas the top layer moves with the same speed as the upper plate.
Consequently, a vertical fluid line AB will deform to the position NB in time dt
(see Fig. 1.2).

Pig. 1.2 Shear Strain in a Fluid.

A point C on line BA at a height y will move to C' due to the local fluid
velocity u. The displacement CC' = u dt =y dt9, or de/dt = u/y.
4 FLUID MECHANICS

The angle de may vary with height for a fmite value of y. Therefore, we
make the above statement in differential form for the sake of precision:
de du
(1.1)
The point to be noted is that the displacement CC' and the angle of deformation
de increase with time, but the time rate, de/dt, remains constant so long as F,
is unchanged.
If A be the area of contact of the moveable plate, the force F, is resisted
by an internal shear stress of magnitude F,/A. The shear stress is of constant
magnitude, since F, is maintained invariant with time. The shear stress can
therefore be dependent on the rate of shear strain, but not on the strain, since
the rate alone is constant.
A fluid, in which the shear stress is linearly proportional to the time rate
of strain, is said to obey Newton's law of shear stress and is called Newtonian.
Thus in a Newtonian fluid,
de
=
Of
du
T=pw (12)

where the constant of proportionality µ is known as the "Dynamic Viscosity"

or simply the "Viscosity" of the fluid.
All gases and water obey Newton's law of shear stress. Substances like tar,
molasses, which are commonly known as visco-elastic materials, and physical
mixtures of fluids and solids such as slurries, exhibit non-linear stress-strain
behaviour and are called "Non-Newtonian" fluids.
The concept of an "ideal fluid", where µ = 0, is of much analytical
convenience in the study of fluid mechanics. In the light of Eq. (12), an ideal
fluid offers zero resistance to deformation.
The condition of zero shear stress thus occurs in two cases: ideal fluid in
rest or motion, for µ = 0; and any fluid at rest, for u = O.
With the increase of temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases and that
of a gas increases. The change in the value of viscosity due to pressure variation
is negligible, both in gases and liquids. A "kinematic viscosity" is defined as
v = p/p, where p is the density of the fluid.

1.4 PRESSURE AND NORMAL STRESS

The average pressure acting on an area A of the fluid element due to the normal
component of the surface force is defined as

=—

The pressure p at a point is obtained when the area A is shrunk to zero, i.e.
 (1.3)

By convention the pressure is stated to act in the inward direction of the exposed
surface; hence the negative sign before F.. The direction of a surface is positive
along its outward normaL Since an ideal fluid or a fluid at rest cannot develop
shear stress, the only stress developed is in the normal direction. And if we define
the normal stress to be positive when tensile,
a=— p (1.4)
in an ideal or static fluid.
When a real fluid is in motion, the normal stress is modified by an additional
term due to viscosity.

1.5 COMPRESSIBILITY OF A FLUID

The two categories of fluid: liquids and gases, differ in the extent of volume
change under an external pressure. The volumetric strain is defined through a
"Bulk modulus" A as
v (1.5)
AP = -P

where vo is the initial volume and tip and Av refer to increase in the respective
parameters.
The lower the volumetric strain, i.e. the higher the bulk modulus, the fluid
is less compressible. For example, the volumetric strain in water is of the order
5 x 10-' for one atmosphere pressure rise and hence considered incompressible.
All liquids, for practical purposes, are treated incompressible.
The bulk modulus for an ideal gas, whose equation of state is p = pRT, can
be readily derived. The modulus, however, differs depending on the process of
compression. For an isothermal process we obtain
pv = RT = constant C
or
In p + In v = ln C
or

&._du
P 17
resulting in
dv (1.6)
(IP = P —t—)
or

tip = PI
6 FLUID MECHANICS

Thus, the isothermal bulk modulus is the pressure itself. Obviously, the volume
of a gas changes for even a small change of pressure and, therefore, a gas is
compressible.

1.6 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

The question that concerns us in the study of fluid mechanics is whether the
pressure variation during the motion of a fluid causes a significant change in
the fluid density. Due to the motion of a fluid, variation of pressure takes place
in proportion to the square of the velocity. In case of atmospheric air, a 1 percent
density variation takes place approximately at a velocity of 66 m/s. The velocity
is scientifically expressed through Mach number, M = V/a, where V is the velocity
of gas and a is the velocity of sound in the medium. A velocity of 66 m/s
corresponds to M = 0.2.
In other words, at velocities less than 0.2 Mach number, the motion of a
gas can be considered incompressible to the extent that the density variation shall
be less than 1 percent. The motion of a liquid is, of course, always incompressible.

1.7 VAPOUR PRESSURE

We know that a liquid can be evaporated at a given pressure by increasing its
temperature. For example, water boils at 100°C under atmospheric pressure.
Conversely, a liquid is evaporated at a lower temperature if the pressure is reduced.
The pressure or temperature at which both the liquid and vapour phases exist
are known as the saturation pressure (at a given temperature) or saturation
temperature (at a given pressure).
Consider a liquid in a container. At the given temperature some liquid may
evaporate and the particles immediately in contact with the free surface of the
liquid shall be those of the vapour phase of the liquid with the surrounding air.
The total pressure exerted at the liquid free surface shall be due to a combination
of the partial pressures of vapour and of the air molecules. The pressure of vapour
particles, which in effect is the saturation pressure corresponding to the liquid
temperature, is known as the "Vapour Pressure".
Clearly, vapour pressure is a source of error in measuring pressure using a
liquid column. A more important consideration is, however, the danger associated
with the use of low vapour pressure liquids in hydraulic systems. When the vapour
pressure is low (at the working temperature), the evaporated vapour bubbles cause
vapour lock in the flow passage. The collapse of vapour bubbles, generally known
as "cavitation", results in local pressure forces that cause mechanical damage of
the hydraulic machines and components.

1.8 SURFACE TENSION

The intermolecular forces within a given fluid are balanced on the average. The
magnitude of intermolecular force differs from. fluid to fluid. When we consider
the interface of two different fluids, say air and water, the unequal intermolecular
 errRocluartoN 7

forces of the two give rise to an apparent unbalance force at the interface. This
interfacial force is known as the "surface tension" and is said to act along the
line of contact of the two fluids.
Consider, for example, a hemispherical air bubble on a water surface as shown
in Fig. 1.3. The bubble is sustained by an excess pressure p over the ambient.

Water -

Fig. 1.3 Interfacial Surface Tension.

If the radius of the bubble is r, the balance of pressure force and surface tension
leads to
par2 = 2irra
Or
pr
a--2-
a is the surface tension force per unit length.

1.9 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Consequent to our change over to the metric system, the units hitherto followed
in engineering practice belonged to the MKS Gravitational System. By an Act
of Parliament the units that are to be adopted in India, in keeping with the
international practice, are of the MKS Absolute System. The absolute system of
units are more commonly known as the International System of Units or simply
the SI units.
Fundamentally, the gravitational and absolute system of units differ in the
working statement of Newton's second law of motion. This law can, in general,
be written as
F ec ma
Or
F = c ma (1.8)
where F is the force when applied on a mass in causes an acceleration a.
In the absolute system, the constant of proportionality c is taken as unity
so that F = ma.
In the gravitational system, the constant of proportionality is so chosen as
to satisfy the connotation that 1 kg mass weighs 1 kg wt on the earth's surface.
8 FLUID MECHANICS

Since on the earth's surface a body experiences the gravitational acceleration

of 9.81 m/s2, Eq. (1.8) is written as
1 kg wt= c x 1 kg x 9.81 m/s2
Writing c =1/g, where ge is known as the gravitational constant, we get
_ 9.81 kg m/s2
gc — kg wt (1.9)

In view of the above difference in the units of force in the gravitational and
absolute systems, the values for work, power, energy and heat, consequently, differ.
The SI system is based on seven basic and two supplementary units as given
in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 SI Units
Parameters Dimensions Symbols Units
Basic Units
(i) Mass M kg kilogram
(ii) Length L m metre
(iii) Time T s second
(iv) Temperature t K kelvin
(v) Electric current A ampere
(vi) Luminosity cd candela
(vii) Amount of substance mol mole
Supplementary Units
(i) Plane angle rad radian
(ii) Solid angle sr steradian

In mentioning a unit, named after a scientist, it is recommended that capital

letter be used when abbreviated, and small letters when expanded. For example,
temperature in kelvin or K. When it is intended to specify temperature difference
°celsius or °C may be used.
Derived Units The units of common parameters of interest in fluid mechanics
can be derived using the relevant definitions.
Density = mass per unit volume a kg/m3
Force = mass x acceleration
- kg • m/s2 =Nor newton
Pressure= Force per unit area
• N1m2 = Pa or pascal
Work = Force x distance
a newton x metre = Nm = J or joule
Heat • Work a J
Power = Work per unit time
= J/s = W or watt
 INTRODUCTION 9

The unit of viscosity may be derived by using Newton's law of shear stress:

T. du
or
dy N M•S_ kgnIS
µ OE -5- X m 717 1
71:1

or
P 111 kg/m • s = N • s/m2 = Pa s
The kinematic viscosity
p = kg m3 =m2 iS
v.—p m • s • kg
Since a pressure of 1 Pa is of very small value, the engineering unit for pressure
is adopted as bar
1 bar =10' N/m2 or 105 pascals
1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 nun Hg
A table of conversion factors between different sets of units is given in the
Appendix.

Example 1.1 Calculate the density of air (i) at STP, and (ii) at 27°C and sea
level pressure; given the characteristic gas constant for air
R = 286.7 J/kg K
The standard temperature and pressure (STP) values are
p = 760mm Hg, T = 0°C = 273.15 K
p = 760 mm Hg = 1 atm = 1.013 bar = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
Applying the law of perfect gas to air p = pRT, where R is the characteristic
gas constant
L013 x 105
P= — 273.15 x 2863 — L29 kg/m3

when the temperature is 27°C,

1013 x 105
— U7 kg/m3
P = (273.15 + 27) x 2863

Example 1.2 A pressure vessel has an internal volume of 0.5 m3 at atmospheric

pressure. It is desired to test .the vessel at 3000 bar by pumping water into it.
The estimated variation in the change of the empty volume of the container due
to pressurization to 3000 bar is 0.6 percent. Calculate the mass of water to be
pumped into the vessel to attain the desired pressure level given the bulk modulus
of water as P = 2000 MPa.
10 FLUID MECHANICS

The pressurization shall proceed when pumping is continued after the vessel
is completely filled with water.
At atmospheric pressure the mass of water required to fill the vessel is
m = 0.5 x 1000 = 500 kg. The additional quantity of water needed for
pressurization is accommodated due to: increase in the vessel volume and
compression of water under pressure.
x
InWNW = /Lo,
Of
Inm=lnp+In v
by differentiation
dm = am
d = dv
fit p v
Given
dv
—= 0.6% = 0.006

The density variation is obtained by using bulk modulus:

dP=P IE
or
LIE 1 dp
P
or
dp _ los
P x nonn - L013) = 0.15

Hence
dm
171 =0.15 + 0.006 =0.156

Therefore, the mass of water to be pumped in after filling the vessel is

dm = 0.156 x 500 = 78 kg

Example 1.3 A block of 50 kg mass with flat base area of 20 cm2 begins
to slide down a dry inclined plane at an angle of 30°. When the plane surface
is smeared with 1 mm layer of a lubricating oil, the same block slides down
the plane with a uniform velocity of 2 m/s at a lower inclination of 15° with
the horizontal. Calculate the coefficient of dry friction, and the kinematic viscosity
of the lubricant used.
The frictional force in case of solid to solid contact is µ mg cos 0, and in
the limiting condition of sliding:
mg sin 0 = µ mg cos 0 or kt = tan 0
i.e. µ = tan 30 = 0.577
 INTRODUCTION 11

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4

When lubricated, the block attains a speed of 2 m/s at 15° inclination. Since the
motion is at uniform speed, the gravitational component balances the frictional
force
F = mg sin 15 = 50 x 9.81 sin 15 = 126.95 N
Since the base area is 20 cm2, the corresponding shear stress is
126.95 4
T = -20- X 10 N/m2

= 63475 x 104 N/m2

The shear stress is induced due to variation of velocity from 2 m/s at the block
base to zero on the plane surface. Considering linear variation of velocity and
using Newton's law of shear stress, we have
du u
T= PW = PI
OT
TXt
u

where t is the oil thickness. Thus

63475 x 104 x 1 x 10-3 N ms

µ= 2 m2 x M
= 31.7375 N s/m2

1.10 THERMODYNAMIC SYSTEMS

The problems of fluid flow, particularly for the compressible fluid, are closely
linked with the laws of thermodynamics. A brief review of these is given here
for completeness.
12 FLUID MECHANICS

In the study of thermodynamics, a closed boundary is defined to encompass

an amount of material or a component on which attention is focussed. If no mass
crosses the defined boundary, it is called a "Closed System". On the other hand,
an "Open System" identifies a system across whose boundary mass can go in
or go out, as illustrated in Fig. 1.5.

Surrounding or 6W 6Q
Environment System
boundary
6W

./ ///
rni_ri- _____,3em2
- .............
-............/%7..
V.

(a) Closed system (b) Open system

Fig. 1-5 Thermodynamic Systems.

It is obvious that the fluid flow problems correspond to the open system of
thermodynamics. In the language of fluid mechanics, an open system is called
a "Control Volume". Any material outside the system boundary is called the
"Surrounding" or "Environment".
The thermodynamic system can have exchange of "work" and "heat" with
its surrounding at its boundary. The heat 8Q and work 6W are considered positive
when there is heat addition to or work output from the system.

1.11 THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES AND STATES

It is observed that two parameters are required to uniquely define the state of
a physical matter. For example, to define the condition of water in a room, we
have to state (i) the pressure acting on the water, and (ii) its temperature. Similarly,
the state of air in a container can be defined by any two of its mass, volume,
pressure or temperature.
These parameters, viz. mass, volume, pressure, and temperature are known
as thermodynamic properties. A few others of this category, but less common
in layman's language, are: internal energy, enthalpy and entropy. Kinetic and
potential energies are also thermodynamic properties.
The identification of a parameter as a thermodynamic property requires
satisfying a few criteria, and once such identification is made, the parameter can
be treated at a status different from non-properties.
The ways of identifying a parameter as a thermodynamic property are to verify
(i) whether any change of its value from one state to another can be evaluated
by any arbitrary manner, or
(ii) whether a cyclic change of the parameter from and back to the original
state, performed in any arbitrary manner, results in a zero.
 INTRODUCTION 13

Consider, for example, the change of potential energy of a body of mass m

indicated in Fig. 1.6. We note that when the body is moved through a height
h, either along path 1 or path 2, or any other path, the change in potential energy
is m gh. Similarly, when the body is taken through arbitrary path 3 and brought
back by arbitrary path 4, the total or cyclic change of potential energy is zero.

Fig. 1.6 Change of a Thermodynamic Property.

Thus, if I defines a thermodynamic property, then mathematically,

5 df = 5 df = 5 df
pall I path 2 "Wm/
Pal
and
fdf = 0

In general, work and heat transfer with a system, which occur at the system
boundary, are not properties, as their magnitude depend on the process or path
followed.
Mathematically, the change of a thermodynamic property is defined by a
perfect differential: dPE, dKE, 11' etc. and of a non-property by an imperfect
differential such as 6Q or SW.

1.12 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics relates the heat transfer, work interaction, and
the change in energy of a system. It is defined in a manner that "for a closed
system the net work output is proportional to heat input in a cyclic process".
Stated in equal units, the law can be written as

f (8Q — 8W). 0 (1.11)

By Eq. (1.10b), it is noted that (8Q — SW) together satisfy the requirement of
a thermodynamic property. Therefore, for a non-cyclic process, the law can be
14 FLUID IAECHANICS

stated as
60 — SW = dE (1.12)
where dE is the change in stored energy of the system and E is a property.
The total energy in a closed system is
E = KE + PE + Thermal energy U
The thermal energy U is known as the internal energy. Thus
SQ = 8W + dKE + dPE + dU (1.13)
for a closed system.

1.13 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS FOR AN OPEN SYSTEM

Open system (Control Volume) is one across whose boundary mass can enter or
leave.
The mass entering or leaving, carries with it certain amount of energy, and
work is expended in pushing the mass in or out of the system.
In Fig. 1.7, a unit mass is shown to enter the system at 1-1, and leave at 2-2.
The work done on the system to push the mass in is (MI) L = p, v,, and
similarly by the system at 2-2 is p2v2. These amount of workare associated with
the flow of the fluid and are irrespective of the external work done by the system.
Such work is known as the flow work.
For convenience, when we focus on a unit mass flow rate, we can write,
as an extension of Eq. (1.13), the relation
SQ + — E2 = SW — p2v2 + dE (1.14)
SW

E E2 1
1:12 /71111
Ai

2 12

60
Fig. 1.7 Analysis of an Open System.

We shall now assume the system to be at steady state, i.e. its own stored
energy is not changing, signifying that
dE =0
 INTRODUCTION 15

Hence
SQ = SW + (KE2—KE1) + (PE2 — PEI)
+ (u2 + p2v2) — (u1 + vi)
or
SQ = SW + dKE + dPE + d (u + pv) (1.15)
In Eq. (1.15), the changes in property values are as measured at outlet with respect
to the inlet. The sum of internal energy and flow work is defined as enthalpy
h = u + pv
which is again a thermodynamic property, being a combination of such. Thus,
the first law of thermodynamics for an open system at steady state is written as
SQ = SW + dKE + dPE + dh (1.16)

1.14 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

A few thermodynamic processes, such as frictionless adiabatic or frictionless beat
transfer at isothermal condition are reversible in nature. By reversibility of a
thermodynamic process, we mean that if the equilibrium state of a system is
changed from condition 1 to condition 2 by interaction with its surrounding in
one direction, causing a reverse interaction would bring back the system from
state 2 to state 1.
In a reversible process it is found that the term (SQ/l) is a thermodynamic
property, although SQ itself is a non-property. The property is defined as entropy,
s:
= (1.17)
T lemdbie

The property entropy, however, is not restricted to reversible process only. For
example, if a system is made to change from state 1 to state 2 by an irreversible
process, the entropy change would be estimated assuming as if the process between
these two states were reversible.
In general, the first law of thermodynamics for a reversible process can be
written as
SQ. = du + p dv (1.18)
or
= dh — v dp (1.19)

so that the definition of entropy from Eq. (1.17) will lead to

T ds = du + p dv (120)
or
T ds = dh — v dp (1.21)

p dv is the reversible work.

16 FLUID MECHANICS

The second law of thermodynamics has been stated in more than one way.
Although the different statements shall lead to common results; for the purpose
of fluid flow, the statement of Clausius may seem convenient. A modified form
of the statement (inequality) of Clausius is known as the "Principle of increase
of entropy".
"The entropy of an isolated system always increases or, in the limiting case
of a reversible process, remains constant with respect to time."

(1.22)
(ds

Isolation means isolation of the system from its surroundings. Hence, there can
be no work or heat interaction with an isolated system. For example, consider
flow of a fluid through an insulated duct without any work transfer.
Thermodynamically, the process is isolated. According to the principle of increase
of entropy, the entropy of the fluid- shall increase in the downstream direction
owing to friction. If friction is neglected, the entrophy change between any two
stations in the fluid stream shall be zero. The entropy can, however, never be
lower in the downstream direction.

1.15 PERFECT GAS

A gas is said to be perfect when it obeys the Chalk's and Boyle's law. These
laws, when combined, can be stated as
pv = RT
Or
p = pRT (1.23)
where p, u, T and r are the pressure, volume, temperature and density. R is
the characteristic gas constant given by
R. —
R" (1.24)

R, is the universal gas constant and M, the molecular mass.

R. = 1.986 kcal/kg mol K
= 8.314 kjoules/kg mol K
Thus, the value of the characteristic gas constant for air (M = 29) is
R= 286.7 J/kg K
Most gases at low pressure and high temperature tend to obey the equation of
state defined at (1.23). At normal temperature and pressure, air behaves as a perfect
gas.
The values of specific heats of perfect gas are also taken as constant. The
specific heat at constant pressure and volume are respectively related to enthalpy
and internal energy as
 wruooucTiou 17

an (125)

For air c, = 1.0 and c, = 0.71 U/kg K, and the ratio of specific heats

k= =1.4
O
Furthermore, for a perfect gas
CI• R

Example 1.4 Air flows adiabatically in a duct. The inlet pressure and
temperature are 2 bar and 30°C, and the outlet conditions are 1.5 bar, 50°C.
Calculate the entropy change and state whether the flow is taking place reversibly
or irreversibly.
The entropy change is estimated using
Tds= dh- v• dp
or
dT v
ds=cp -.-- y •dp
Assuming air as perfect gas, we have
v_ R
T p
and
ds=c
PT p
Of

As=cp in!ti
where As is the change in entropy between states 1 and 2. Thus

323 1.5
As = 1.0 ln -- - 02867 In -2-
= 01464 kJ/kg K

Since in the adiabatic flow process the entropy is increasing in the downstream
direction, the flow is irreversible. The drop of pressure in the downstream direction
indicates frictional effect which, indeed, is the cause of irreversibility.

Example 1.5 Argon (molecular mass 40) flows through a duct of area
15 an2. At a section the pressure and temperature of the gas are 1.5 x 105 N/m2
and 310 K. If the velocity of the gas at this section is 55 m/s, calculate the mass flow
raw.
18 FLUID MECHANICS

The characteristic gas constant of argon

n
D
=AR. =
-T,
8314

= 207.85 J/kg K

Assuming argon to obey perfect gas law,

D 1.5x103
• = RT 207.85 x 310 in2 • m • N • K
or
p = 233 kg/m3
The mass flow rate

= pAV = 233 x 15 x 1T4 x 55 kg/s

= 0.1922 kg/s

1.16 SUMMARY

1. A fluid is a substance that continues to deform so long as a shear force is

acted upon it. The term 'fluid' encompasses both liquids and gases.
2. The study of Fluid Mechanics is concerned with the macroscopic behaviour
of fluids at rest or in motion.
3. The shear strain in a fluid is proportional to the time rate of deformation,
in contrast to only deformation in a solid.
4. In a Newtonian fluid, the shear stress is directly proportional to shear strain,
and the constant of proportionality is the fluid viscosity.
5. An "ideal" fluid is a convenient concept for analysis, for which viscosity
is zero.
6. An ideal fluid (since it = 0) or a real fluid at rest (u = 0) cannot develop
shear stress. The ideal fluid, therefore, offers no resistance to deformation and
motion.
7. A thermodynamic "Open System" is comparable in connotation to the
"Control Volume" in fluid mechanics.
8. The change in the value of a thermodynamic property between two states
is independent of the path folloWed.
9. The entropy change of an isolated system is either equal to or greater
than zero.
10. All gases at low pressure and high temperature tend to obey the ideal
gas law.
 IffIMUOTION le
EXERCISES
1. Sketch the stress-strain curve for an elastic solid. In what respect does the
stress-strain relationship of a Newtonian fluid differ from that of a Hooke's solid?
2. Draw the stress-strain relationship of the following fluids in one diagram and
discuss the behaviour Of each fluid under an external shear force:
(i) An ideal fluid
(ii) A Newtonian fluid

(iii) A pseudoplastic fluid: s = n <1

(iv) A dilatent fluid: n >1

T=11(2)*'
(v) A Bingham fluid:

(vi) A plastic: n <1

(vii) A viscoelastic fluid:

where
E = modulus of elasticity, a < 1
3. Ten litres of a liquid of sp. gr. 1.3 is mixed with eight litres of a liquid of
sp. gr. 0.8. If the bulk of the liquid shrinks 1 percent on mixing, calculate the
sp. gr., the density, the volume and the weight of the mixture.
(Ans: 1.088, 1088 kg/ma, 0.01782 ma, 190.314 N)
4. During the polytropic expansion of an ideal gas it was observed that the density
decreased by 0.85 percent for every percent decrease in pressure. Evaluate the
law of expansion. What is the value of the bulk modulus at a nominal pressure
of 2 bar ?
(Ans: 1.1764; 2.353 bar)
5. In a 5 cm long journal-bearing arrangement, the clearance between the two
at concentric condition is 0.1 mm. The shaft is 2 an in diameter and rotates
at 3000 rpm. The dynamic viscosity of the lubricant used is 0.01 N s/m2 and
the velocity variation in the lubricant is linear. Considering the lubricant to be
Newtonian, calculate the frictional torque the journal has to overcome, and the
corresponding power loss.
(Ans: 9.8695 x 10-3 N m; 3.1 W)
6. During the flow of a dilatent fluid it is observed that the velocity distribution
within the fluid film can be expressed by
3
= 2 (1 ()
V1 h h,'
20 FLUID MECHANICS

where h is the film thickness and U.. the maximum velocity, y is measured from
the solid surface. The 'viscosity' of the fluid is µ = 0.5 in SI units, and n= 1.3.
Calculate the shear stress at the solid surface when = 0.2 m/s and h = 1
cm. What should be the viscosity of a Newtonian fluid to induce the same shear
tress value for similar velocity profile and the same maximum velocity ?
(Ans: 60.48 N/m2; 1.512 kg/ms)
7. A block of base area 20 cm2, weight 100 N slides down a 20° inclined plane
over an oil film of 1 mm thickness, µ = 500 poise. Estimate the steady state
velocity of the block, assuming linear velocity profile in the oil film and Newtonian
characteristic. Discuss the motion of the block from the time of its beginning
to the time of attaining steady velocity.
(Ans: 0.342 m/s)
8. A flywheel of 50 kg mass, radius of gyration 20 cm is mounted at the middle
of a shaft 3 an in diameter. The shaft is supported between two bearings, each
6 cm long. The clearance between the shaft and the bearing is 0.05 mm and
the clearance space is filled with oil of viscosity µ = 0.2 poise. Calculate the
angular retardation of the shaft-flywheel system due to frictional effects at a
nominal speed of 1200 rpm.
(Ans: 0.064 rad/s2)
9. A soap bubble of 1.2 an diameter has an internal pressure of 1.02 bar as
against an atmospheric of 1 bar. Calculate the surface tension of the soap solution.
(Ans: 6 Nhn)
10. In a cylinder-piston arrangement, 1 kg of air is compressed from initial
pressure and temperature of 2 x 102 N/m2 and 30°C to half its original volume.
The process of compression is frictionless and without heat addition. Estimate
the work done during compression, final pressure, temperature and volume of
air, the bulk modulus at the beginning and end of compression, and an equivalent
average bulk modulus. Treat air as an ideal gas of molecular mass 29 and
k = 1.4.
(Ans: — 69.387 kJ/kg; 5278 bar; 400 K; 0.21715 m2; 0.28 MPa, 0.7389 MPa;
0.6556 MPa)
 Fluid Statics

We observed in Chapter 1 that the action of a tangential force is to cause relative

deformation in the layers of a fluid element, and hence cause motion. Conversely,
a fluid at `rest' is acted upon by body force and only the normal component
of the surface force.
The state of rest of a fluid element, which is our subject-matter for the present
chapter, is thus governed by the equilibrium of the body force and the normal
surface force. The normal surface force per unit area having been defined as the
pressure, the body force and the pressure shall be mutually interconvertible at
static equilibrium.
It is easy to visualize that when a fluid is at `absolute' rest, such that neither
the fluid nor its container is in motion, the body force in operation is that due
to gravity.
A fluid bulk could be subjected to body forces other than gravitational.
Consider, for example, the fluid in a sealed container; the container being rotated
about an axis. The fluid and the container are in motion together as a solid body.
The forces in play are the centrifugal body force and the normal surface force.
Such solid like motion, generally stated as the condition of `relative rest', are
also governed by the laws of fluid statics.
We shall study both the conditions of absolute rest and relative rest; first
the former.

PART A: ABSOLUTE REST

2.1 PRESSURE AT A POINT
Consider a prismatic element in a fluid at rest as shown in Fig. 2.1.
Let the average presssure in the x, y and z-coordinate directions be pi, py
and Pz • p,, is the average pressure on the inclined surface of length As.
Considering the equilibrium of forces for the condition of rest, we get

h(dz• AY) — pa (cos 0 As • Ay) = 0 in the x-direction (i)

py(I Ax • Az)— Ax • Az) = 0 in the y-direction 00

21
22 FLUID MECHANICS

Fig. 2.1 Static Equilibrium of a Fluid Element.

= (dx • dy) — p„ (sin 0 As • dy) — pg dvol = 0 in the z-direction (iii)

We note from the figure that ds cos 0 = dz, and therefore, from (i)

Ps = p.
The volume of the element is dvol = 1/2 dx • d y • dz. Since ds sin 0 =
Eq. (iii) reduces to:

P, — P, — PgyAz= 0 (iv)

The relationship between the pressure in different directions at a point is

obtained when the prism in Fig. 2.1 is shrunk to zero surface area. Thus in the
limit 0, Eq. (iv) yields pi =
The inclined surface in Fig. 2.1 was in the z-x plane. By considering an
inclined surface in the z-y plane, we could also find that p1 =
In other words, the pressure at a point, in a fluid at rest, is the same in
all directions. This is known as Pascal's law. This pressure, being referred to
the equilibrium condition of fluid, is also termed as the 'thermodynamic pressure'.

At a point, P, = P, P, (2.1)

From Eq. (ii), p, = p;, we further note that the pressure is equal in a
horizontal plane.

2.2 HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE

Consider the equilibrium of a rectangular parallelopiped in a fluid at rest,

Fig. 2.2.
The pressure at P (x, y, z) is p; the dimensions of the parallelopiped being
infinitesimal the pressure at a point is the same as the average pressure on a
face.
 FLUID STATIO8 23

p
p• E- [AZ

p• AX

Az

P(x,y,z)
Pg d vol.
Fig. 2.2 Variation of Fluid Pressure.

In prescribing the pressure values on faces away from P, we shall make use
of the Taylor's expansion:

p(r + 40= p(r) 44r +44g 9d r 2 + • • •

r
and retain only the first two terms in the limit Ar 0.
With the pressure values stated in each face following the above procedure,
we note by balancing the forces that

p • Ay • Az —(12 + tAx)Ay • Az = 0

p • ,dx • Az —(p+ tAy)Ax • Az =0

p • dx • Ay —(1) +1441x • ,dy — pg dvol =

From Eqs. (i) and (ii) we obtain the earlier conclusion that the pressure in a
horizontal plane does not vary
=0 (2.2)

Equation (iii) leads to apa = — pg, noting that dvol = Lix • Lly • Liz.
Since dplax = ?play = 0, the pressure varies only with height as
digdz = — Pg (2.3)
The fact that hydrostatic pressure does not vary in a horizontal plane has
a useful corollary. Consider two immiscible liquids to be held in a container.
Imagine the interfacial plane between the liquids to be not horizontal. Now, if
24 FLUID MEMIANICS
we measured hydrostatic pressure along a horizontal plane intersecting the
interface, we world experience different pressures due to the difference in the
densities of the two liquids. However, hydrostatic pressure cannot vary on a
horizontal plane. It thus means that our imagination that the interface shall be
an inclined plane is wrong. Stated in a positive manner, the interface between
two immiscible fluids shall be a horizontal plane, barring such effects as due
to surface tension.

I Patm

B
#2
/777///71717,//i)//,
Fig. 2.3
By integration of Eq. (2.3), the pressure difference between two points A
and B in a homogeneous liquid is
P,-PA = pg (ZA-Z8)
Since ZA = h, the pressure difference is:

Ps-PA = pgh (2.4)

where h is known as the 'pressure head'.

The interface of a liquid and the atmosphere in an open container is known
as the 'free surface'. When point A lies on the free surface, the pressure there
is atmospheric: PA = paw: The pressure at a depth h from the free surface is,
therefore,
P = pgh + (2.5)

The component (p - paid, which in this case is pgh, is known as the 'gauge
pressure' whereas p is the 'absolute pressure'.

Example 2.1 A cylindrical vessel of 1.5 metre height and 5 cm2 cross-sectional
area is filled with water upto a height of 1 metre and the remaining with oil
of specific gravity 0.8. The vessel is open to atmosphere. Calculate the absolute
and gauge pressure on the base of the vessel in terms of (i) water head, (ii) oil
 FLUID STATICS 25
head. and (iii) newton/m2, given the atmospheric pressure as 1.013 bar. Also
calculate the net force experienced by the vessel base.

PA = Aghl + Pas
Pi =PA +Pdh2=Fiegi s•hd Amp
where s is the sp. gr. of oil. Taking
p, = 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2
p, =1000 x 9.81 x (1.0 + 08 x 0.5) + 1013 x 105
= 01373 x 105 +1013 x 105 = L1503 x 105 N/m2
Nor = 01373 x 105 N/m2
(h2 + sh,)= 1.4 m of water

= Ss —175mofoil
p. =1.013 x 105 N/m2
1013 x 102
1000 x 9.81 —1 0326 m of water
-_ 10326 = 12907 m of oil
p,1 = 14 + 10326 = 11726 m of water
=1.75 + 12.907 = 14.657 m of oil

Fig. 2A
26 FLUID MECHANICS

The surface of the base exposed to water is acted upon by psi whereas
atmospheric pressure acts on the other surface. The net force experienced by the
base is, therefore,
F = path. • A — pd. • A
= pBsamp • A
= 01373 x 105 x 5 x 10-4 N
= 6865 N

2.3 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

The atmospheric pressure experienced at a point is due to the column of air
over it. The density of air changes with altitude and is available as a table of
"International Standard Atmosphere". An approximate estimation of atmospheric
pressure at an altitude can be made using the information of sea-level pressure
and temperature, and by treating air an 'ideal gas'.
In the troposphere that extends upto an average of 11 km altitude, the
temperature decreases linearly at the rate of 65 K per kilometre, and is known
as the "temperature lapse rate". The temperature then remains approximately
constant in the stratosphere upto an altitude of approximately 32 km. The air
density beyond this altitude is so low that its effect may be neglected for estimating
the atmospheric pressure.
Example 2.2 Given the atmospheric pressure at sea level as 760 mm Hg,
temperature 15°C and density 1.225 kg/m3, estimate the pressure on the top of
the mount Everest corresponding to an altitude of 8848 metres. Neglect variation
in the value of g.
Since density of air is varying, we use the differential expression (2.3):

dP
W =— Pg
The density at a location is obtained using the ideal gas law as

RT
Hence

Of

dz
P R(T° — Lz)
where L is the temperature lapse and To the sea-level temperature. Substituting
y= dy = — L dz, we have

p RL y
 FLUID awcrica 27

In
Po
= k In -L,
Yo
0 referring to sea-level

-12)0 — (WiRL
For air,
R= 286.7 J/kg K

_ 9.81 x 10 (m
RL 63 JK)
=526
(273 + 15) — 6.5 x 8.848
15 + 273 0.8003
To
pz = 760 x (0.8003)
= 235.4 mm Hg
= 31.3 x 103 N/m2

2A MANOMETRY
That pressure in a fluid can be estimated by the height of the same, or another
constant density, fluid at rest forms the basis of measurement by manometers.
Consider the examples in Fig. 2.5.
In Fig. 2.5(a), a liquid under pressure is contained in a pipe of diameter D.
A vertical tube of diameter d is fitted on to the pipe with the tube end opening
to atmosphere. At the point A, the internal fluid pressure is balanced by the column
of liquid in the tube and the superimposed atmospheric pressure:
p = pgh + pa.
In Fig. 2.5(b), the fluid pressure is measured by a manometer with two vertical
limbs (U-tube) and using a fluid of different density p1. Since the pressure on
a horizontal plane in a continuous fluid at rest (manometric fluid) is equal, we
may consider the equality of pressures at points B and C on the plane 0-0.
p + pgh p.m + pighl

p — p.. = (pthi — ph)g (2.4a)

The choice of a measuring fluid is guided by the range of pressure to be measured;
higher the range heavier the fluid. Besides, the measuring fluid should have low
vapour pressure (see, section 1.8), a defined miniscus at the interface for good
readability, and low surface tension to avoid capillary rise. Mercury is, therefore,
a frequent choice.
28 FLUID MECHANICS

The tube diameter d should be smaller than 1/10th the pipe diameter so as
to introduce negligible disturbance in the flow conditions.
Note that the condition of rest being a necessity for the fluid in a manometer,
such a device is unsuitable for transient measurements.

Patm

(a) Piezometer

(c) Inclined tube

Fig. 2.5 Manometers.

In Fig. 2.5(c), an inclined tube arrangement is made for amplification of the

pressure reading.
 FLUID STATICS 29

p + pgh = P.r + ',ugh; sin 0

P Pam = (AK sin 8 — Ph)g (2.5a)
Comparison of Eqs. (2.4a) and (2.5a) indicate that for reading the same pressure
difference the spread of liquid column in the inclined tube is longer: = hh /sin 0;
and that is the advantage of the arrangement.

2.4.1 Differential Manometers

In the examples of Fig. 2.5, the manometers were opened to atmosphere thereby
using atmospheric pressure as reference. Differential manometers are used
frequently in flow systems to estimate the pressure at a point with respect to
that at another, by difference.
In order to estimate the difference of pressure between points A and B in
Fig. 2.6(a), we shall consider pressure balance in any horizontal plane; for
convenience, at 0-0 through the lowest interface.
PA + Pighi Ps.gh) = Ps P2gh2
PA — P. Plhl P3hOg (2.6)

(a) Upright (b) Inverted

Fig. 2.6 Differential Manometers.
For the inverted manometer in Fig. 2.6(b), we consider pressure balance across
0-0 and arrive at
PA — Pighi = Pe P2gh2 P3gh3
PA — Ps = (PA — P2h2 — P3h3)g (2.7)
Consider the special, and frequent, case of pipes A and B at the same level carrying
the same fluid, pi = p2 = p.
30 FLUID talECHN41C8

For Fig. 2.6(a),

h3 = h3

PA — PD P3)h3g (2.6a)
In Fig. 2.6(b)
h2 + h3 =
leading to
PA — P, = P3M3g (2.7a)

Equations (2.6a) and (2.7a) indicate that there is no relative improvement in

sensitivity by using alternative vertical arrangement of the differential manometer.
The inverted arrangement would, however, be convenient for p3 < p and the other
for p, > p. Sensitivity of both the arrangements, for that matter of any manometer,
shall considerably increase with p3 approaching p, and yet the two fluids remaining

Exampli 2.3 An inverted U-tube differential manometer is used to measure

pressure difference in an inclined water pipe (Hg. 2.7). Calculate the pressure
difference between points A and B. The manometer fluid is oil of sp. gr. 0.7.

= 1 m, = 0.3 m
h2 = + ha = 1.3 m
We note that
PI = P2 = P4 = PS
• = — h3g

Fig. 2.7
 FLUID STATICS 31

Consider pressure balance on the horizontal plane 0-0.

PA + g = Pa + (h2+ 03) Pm. g - per , kg

pA - pa = (h2 - hi + 0.5)p g - poi kg
= 0.5p„,w g + pod hag
= [0.5 + (1 — 0.7) x 0.3] 9.81 x 103
= 5.7879 x 103 N/m2

2.4.2 Inclined Manometers and Micromanometers

An inclined manometer, Fig. 2.8, has a narrow tube connected to a reservoir at
an inclination. 0-0 is the liquid level in both the reservoir and the tube before
the pressure differential is applied. After application, the liquid level is Ah lower
in the reservoir and h higher along the tube. Hence
= p8 + (h + 4h)pg

Fig. 2.8 Inclined Manometer.

The drop of liquid level in the reservoir is caused by the rise in the tube, and
we have
Ah•A=I-a
where A and a are the respective cross-sectional areas. Thus

PA — Pa = (sin 0 + (2.8)

In practice, the reservoir area is chosen to be about 100 times that of the tube,
so that for reasonable values of 0, Eq. (2.8) can be approximated as

PA — Pa = pgl sin 8 (2.9)

Use of Eq. (2.9) has the advantage that the readings are to be taken on inclined
tube only.
32 FLUID MECHANICS

Sensitivity, that is, the measured value of 1 for a given pressure differential,
is increased as 9 is decreased. Care must, however, be taken to use Eq. (2.8),
instead of Eq. (2.9), to ensure accuracy at low 0 values.
Micromanometers for measuring pressure differentials of the order of 0.001
mm Wg, generally have two reservoirs in a vertical plane, interlinked by a flexible
tubing. A sharp vertical pointer is provided on one of the reservoirs. Before
connecting to the pressure sources, the level of one of the reservoirs is varied
by means of a micrometer arrangement so as to coincide the tip of the pointer
with the liquid (generally water) level. The coincidence is observed through a
magnifying glass as reflection on a mirror. After application of the pressure, the
liquid levels are disturbed. The micrometer arrangement is then readjusted to vary
the reservoir height so as to bring back the water level to coincide with the pointer
tip. The difference in the two readings of the micrometer gives the pressure in
water column. The reading procedure being a null method, accuracy of the
measurement is limited only by that of the micrometer.
Exlimple 2.4 A U-tube has limbs which are of cross-sectional area A and its
lower part is filled with mercury. Each limb is reduced in area at the top, well
above the mercury levels. One limb is connected by a lead containing water to
the base of an overhead water tank. The other limb is terminated in a gauge
glass of area A/100 containing an indicating fluid. What should be the specific
gravity of the indicating fluid, so that changes in level in the gauge glass show
to full scale any corresponding change of water level in the overhead water tank?

Gauge Tank
g lass

h4
„Indicating Wat er
//\ fluid

h3
hi

Hg
A
Fig. 2.9
Considering pressure balance at the lowest point A:
Phhr hug + PH20 ha + Paan = pHs hag pkg +
 FLUID STATICS 33

or
PHs ht Prho /12 = Pat h3 Ph4 (i)

When the water level changes, the level of fluids in the manometer shall change
so as to restabilise the pressure balance. The changes can be correlated by
differentiating the pressure Eq. (i),

Pat dhi Ptho dh2 = Pni dh3 P dh4

We shall assume that the change in mercury level is confined to the larger area
A, so that the total volume of Hg remains constant.

A(hi + h3 + curved length) = constant

OT
_dhl — dh3

A change dh3 in the Hg level in the left limb shall be reflected in the change
of level of the indicating fluid in the following way:
A dh, = a dh4
Equation (ii) can be rewritten as
pH, dh, + pH3c, elk = — ptig dh, + p adh3
or

2PH. dhi = a dhi — PH20 dh2 (iv)

The design however requires that change in the level of the RHS shall be equal
to that on the LHS of the manometer. So

d(h, + /12) = +
or
A
dhl dh2 = dhi dhl
or
dh2 = - + T
AI )dh,
Substituting in (iv), we have

2pHs dhl =— PH42 + a)dh,

A
= (2 +100 — 2 x 13.6)PH20
= 74.8PH,o
34 FLUID MECHANICS

Of

P 74.8
gr
PH 20 T(70 — 13348

2.5 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON PLANE SURFACES

The surface force acting on a submerged area in a fluid at rest is normal to the
area at each point.
A plane surface submerged in a horizontal plane in an incompressible fluid,
say a liquid, Fig. 2.10(a), experiences a uniform pressure p = pg y at all points.
The total force, P=pgy.A, acts at the centre of the surface area A. Consider
a plane surface submerged at an inclination 0 with the liquid free surface. The
pressure at a point x measured along the surface from the point of intersection is
p=pgy=pgx sin 0
0 00 0 0 0
-- -
Y p y p P VQY by
-1-sk

•G
G
P
C. P

(a) Horizontal (b) Inclined c ) Vertical

Fig. 2.10 Force on Submerged Surfaces.

The force acting on an elemental area of width b is pb • clx, from which the
total force on the surface is obtained as
x2
P = pg sin 0 f bx dx
XI

The integral represents the first moment of the area about 0. Thus
P= pgA(Isin 0) (2.10)
where X is the distance of the centre of area or the centroid (G) of the surface
from the liquid line measured along the trace of the surface.
Clearly, x sin 0 =1/4 y, where y is the vertical depth of the centroid. In other
words,
 FLUID STATICS 35

P.(pgy)A (2.11)
i.e., the total force is equal to the pressure at the centre of area multiplied by
the area of the plane surface.
In case of vertical submerged surface Fig. 2.10(c), 9 = 90°, x = y and
Eq. (2.11) is readily visualized.
The point of action of the total force on the surface is known as the centre
of pressure (C.P.).
Distance of the C.P. along the plane is obtained by taking moment of the
hydrostatic force about 0:

Or
X2

pgsin0 bx2 dr
X
X2

pgsin Of bxclx
x,

Integral of the numerator is the second moment of area I. By the parallel theorem
of the moment of area
4=
where lo is the second moment about the centroid. Hence,

(2.12)

The depth of the centre of pressure on the inclined surface is

/7= f-isin0=(h +i)sin0 (2.13)

It is easy to note that Ts = TI and I = y for a vertical surface, see

Fig. 2.10(c). Note further that the centre of pressure of a surface at rest shall
always be below the centroid.

Examplo 2.5 A circular plate of 2.5 m diameter is submerged in an oil of

sp. gr. 0.8. The maximum and minimum depths of the plate are 2 and 1 m from
the free surface. Calculate the hydrostatic force on one face of the plate, and
the depth of the centre of pressure.
36 am MECHANICS

Fig. 2.11

. 0 _ h2 — h,
=0.4 0 = 23.58°
sm ,

The centre of area of the plate is at a depth

1
y=1.4- 7 =Lsm
= pgy = 0.8 x 1000 x 981 x 1.5
= 11,772 N/m2
A= 4x(25)2 = 4.908 m2
P = A • = 57,785.6 N
/o = • (23)4 =19174 m4

= —h=
si = 3.75 m

Distance of the C.P. along the inclined plane is

1.9174
H = z+ = 335 + 4.908 x 175
= 3.854 m
The depth of the C.P. is

Of

= 1.54 m
Example 2.6 Lock gates are used in irrigation and navigational canals to main-
tain the difference of water levels between the upstream and downstream side.
 FLUID STATICS 37

Two gates of I lock, each6 m high Ind 3 ®aide. Rom os mei bitiei
under the action of water pressure. The depth of water on one side is 5 in and
on the other side is 1.5 m. The angle between the gates in the dosed position
is 130°. Each gate is suspended by two hinges at one metre from the top and
from the bottom. Calculate:
(i) the pressure force and its point of action on each side of the gate,
(ii) the value and direction of the reaction between the gates, and
(iii) the reaction and its direction at each of the pivots.
The plan view of the two gates in locked position is shown in Fig. 2.12(a).
Each gate is under equilibrium due to the action of Rs.from the other, Rh.„„
from the supporting hinges and the resultant water pressure force P. The three
forces therefore lie on one horizontal plane, and pass through a point 0.

h =5m

h =1.5m
P2
h2
T
(a) Gates locked (b) Pressure forces on
one gate

(c) Hinge reactions

Fig. 2.12 Lock Gate.
38 FLUID MECHANICS

The water forces on two sides of a gate are Pi and P2. The points of action
of these forces from the free surface are at location h estimated as

Ay
Of

_ 1
+Ty•b•h?
14=hi = bbl
-11 bh,
i.e. at h/3 from the bottom, along the bisector of the gate width.
Resolving along the gate, we get
R, cos a = Ron cos a

i.e.; &a ,. = Rpm = R

Balancing of the normal component of the forces lead to
2R sin a = P
where P = PI - P2 is the resultant of water pressure force.
52
= I pgbh,2 =1000x 9.81 x = 367.8751cN

acting 5/3 m from the bottom.

P2 =pgbh4=1000x9.81x3x-12-=331081EN
at 1.5/3 m from the bottom. Thus
P = 334.766 kN
P acts at a distance h from the bottom given by
Ph =(P • hi Y3 - (P2 • h2)/3
Or
367.875.x (5/3) - 33.108 x (1.5/3)
h= = L782 m
334.766
Hence the resultant of the hinge reactions, and the reaction force of the gate
surfaces lie together with P on a horizontal plane at 1.782 m from the bottom
of the gate.
The total reaction from the hinges for each gate is
nn
R= a = 7v - 7= ha'
Ur
n
Of
334.766
R=-A—.--=
z sm 25
396• 061EN
 FLUID STATICS 33
which is also equal to the reaction between the gates. The total hinge reaction
R is provided by the top and bottom hinges of value RT and Rs.
Taking moment about a line through one of the hinges, say the bottom, we
have
R(1.782 —1.0) = R2. x4
or
396.06 x0.782
Rr = 4 — 77.431EN
and
R. = R — RT = 396.06 — 77.43= 318.63 kN

Example 2.7 A rectangular gate of height 3 m and width 2 m is provided

at the lower end of a vertical tank having rectangular walls of height 15 m. The
gate is hinged on to the tank wall by means of a bar passing across the
gate width so that the gate can be opened like a damper. Determine the
optimum location of the hinge-bar so that the gate can be .opened with minimum
effort.

E Y.ht A
1=3m
D -xt
B(1- x)

Fig. 2.13

The resultant hydrostatic forces P, and P2 on the gate surface above and below
the hinge-bar shall be balanced by the reaction of the hinge-bar. The hinge-bar
should be located along the line of action of the resultant so that the moment
of the couple will be zero. The gate shall be in neutral equilibrium and then
can be opened with little effort from external agency. Our objective, therefore,
shall be to determine x, the location of hinge-bar from the top of the gate, so
as to maintain neutral equilibruim.
The pressure diagram for the gate can be split into a triangle and a rectangle
each on either side of the hinge. By taking moment of the forces about the hinge,
we have
40 mutt MECHANICS

pgh, • x • b • + p gh • xb • 4=pg(x+ht)b (1 x)Y-

+-21 pg(H—x:ho•b•ti
„x .
Or

+ = (l- X)2 + hl ) + (1 — x)2 1(11.11)

Since H — h1 = 1, we get
3hix2 + x3 = 3(1 — x)2(x + h1 ) + 2(1— x)3
leading to
212 — 31x + 31/k — sizik =
212
x=

Note that when hi = 0, i.e. when the water height extends only upto the gate
x = 21/3, signifying that the hinge should be located on the line through the centre
of pressure. For the present problem, substituting the values of 1 and h, we have
for
2x32+3x3x12
x= 3 x 3 + 6 x 12
=1•55m

which in effect is the depth of the centre of pressure from the top of the gate.

Example 2.8 A pressurised tank is partly filled with water as shown in the
figure. A rectangular gate of 0.5 m width and 1.5 m length is hinged at the top
and is kept closed against hydrostatic pressure by a force F at the free end.
Calculate the value of F required for the configuration shown. Given
0 = 15°
p= 2.5 bar abs
Account for atmospheric pressure = 1.013 bar.
It would be realized that two different fluids, air at 2.5 bar abs over water,
together create the hydrostatic pressure on the gate. In order that the standard
hydrostatic pressure relationship can be used, we may account for p and in
terms of an equivalent water head.
The net superimposed pressure is (p — paw) and the equivalent water head
is obtained by
Pah,. = P —
Or

(2.5 — 1.013) x 105

hw = 103 x 9.81
=15158 m
 FLUID STATICS 41

7- 'Ix
Fictitious rise
for pressure x
equivalence

1_____ -- k-
1

Fig. 2.14

The centroid of the gate is now at an equivalent depth of

y= (15158 + 2) + 113— cos 15

= 1728 m
P= pgy •A
=103 x 921 x 1788 x (1.5 x 0-5)
= 13157 x 10514
The centre of pressure is at a distance h measured along the gate, from the
free surface, and the distance of the centroid is 5i.
i . y _ 17.88 1"
cos 15 — b- 66 = in
3 1
I G = U • bd = TT x 0.5 x (1.5)3 = 01406 m4
—_ 1
h=x+it
Of
h- = 12c+ 0.1406
AU.'' 1.5
x 0.5 x 18.5
= 18.5 + 0.01 = 18.51 m
The distance of the point of application of P from the top hinge of the gate is
0.75 + 0.01 = 0.76
42 FLUID MECHANICS

whereas F acts at 1.5 m from the hinge. Hence

F x 1.5 = P x 0.76
13157 x 0.76
F— 1.5
x 105 N
F = 66.662 kN

2.6 HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON CURVED SURFACES

When a curved surface is submerged in a fluid at rest, the direction of hydrostatic

pressure, being normal to the surface at every point, changes from point to point.
Consider an elemental area &A in a submerged surface ABC (Fig. 2.12a). The
force p&A at every point can be resolved into a vertical and a horizontal component:
p 6A sin 0 and p &A cos B. On the other hand, 45A sin 9 and M cos 9 are the
projection of the area M on the horizontal and vertical planes.

0'
-n— 1
1
II
Liquid I
II c,';''
9 tIA Sine
II I 1
A II — —ID ;6A p 6A Cose or,----i-G— --- A
G 1 6A C_09jEV_
9sol>'
11
1 I I 6A-51 n 8 I I Liquid
I i I
E i 1 I P
i
I
C C I ‘R

P
(a) Concave (b) Convex

Fig. 2.15 Submerged Surfaces.

The pressure p at a depth y is p = pgy. The vertical component of the force

is therefore the weight of the column of liquid over the projected area &A sin B.
The horizontal component is, as would be on a vertically submerged plane surface.
In other words, the total hydrostatic force on a curved submerged surface
is the resultant of the weight of the fluid above it and the total force on the
corresponding vertically projected area.The line of action of the vertical component
(W) is through the centre of gravity G of the surface ABCDOO' in Fig. 2.15(a),
and the horizontal component acts through the centre of pressure of ODC. The
two components intersect at E, and the resultant hydrostatic force R on the curved
surface is obtained by completing the force rectangle.
 RUE gTATICg 43
When a curved surface presses on a liquid level in a convex manner, as in
Fig. 2.15(b), it is slightly difficult to visualize the corresponding hydrostatic force
components. Imagine, however, the situation where ABC is in equilibrium under
the action of liquids above and below it. For the imaginary liquid above it, the
force polygon would be as in Fig. 2.15(a). The resultant of this imaginary polygon
would be balanced by R from the real liquid below it. In other words, the resultant
hydrostatic force on the convex surface is equal and opposite to that for the concave
orientation, and it is convenient to determine it in terms of the concave orientation.

Example 2.9 A circular tank 4 m in diameter and 10 long rests with its
axis horizontal on the bottom of a canal in which the dept of water is 10 m.
Calculate the depth of the centre of pressure on each of the flat surface, and
the resultant hydrostatic force acting on the tank.

0: A r—

D
B1 ID
//////////// ••"/".,/.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.16

The centroid of the flat ends o' the tank is the centre of the circular cross-
section; its depth x = 6 + 2 = 8 m.
The depth of the centre of pressure
Lic_d a
in 42
TI=i+ = 8 +-0--= 8+
Ai re 16x
•8
= 8.125 m
In considering the resultant force on the tank we note that
(i) the horizontal force on each of the flat surfaces balance each other;
(ii) the horizontal force on the projected area of the cylindrical surface are
also balanced by each other, and
(iii) the vertical force on the curved surfaces only, give rise to a net force
on the tank.
For an understanding of the vertical force consider the views of the two halves
of the tank in Fig. 2.16(b).
44 FLUID MECHANICS

F, is due to the weight of the liquid over ABD and F2 is the upward vertical
force on the convex surface BCD. The magnitude of F2 is however, equal to
the weight of the liquid on BCD. The weight of liquid above the plane 0-0 being
common to both F, and F2, the resultant is to be estimated from OBADO and
OBCDO surface areas.
The volume of liquid in OBADO is

=(2r • r —icr2)1
and that in OBCDO is
X-r 2 + 2r2 )1
V2 = (1
Hence, the net upward force

F = F2 — F;=(Sr2 + 2r2 —2r2 +.;r2 )1pg

=orr 2opg

Note that ail is the volume of the cylindrical tank. In other words, the hydrostatic
force is equal to the weight of the equal volume of water.
F=xx22 x10x1000x9.81N
= 1.232 x 106 N

2.7 BUOYANCY
Recall the salient aspects of Example 2.9. A cylinder was fully submerged in
water at rest; the (horizontal) forces on vertical planes were all balanced. The
net hydrostatic force was vertically upwards and was equal to the weight of the
equal volume of water displaced. This net upward force is called the "Buoyancy
force".
It is obvious that the buoyancy force shall be experienced by a solid in any
fluid, whether gas or liquid; or when the solid spans more than one fluid, one
above the other. Similarly, it is not limited to the situation that the solid be fully
immersed in a fluid. When immersed partially, the upward force is proportional
to the volume of fluid displaced by the extent of immersion.
With the above inferences in mind, the following discussions on buoyancy
force may now be undertaken formally (Fig. 2.17).
Consider a prismatic volume of area da across the height of the submerged
body.
The net upward force on the elemental area is
dF2 = p2 da — pi da = pgh da
The total buoyancy force is

Fe = pgh da = pg h da, for constant density fluid

 FLUID STATICS 45

Fs = pgv (2.14)
where p is the fluid density and v is the volume of the fully submerged body.
In other words, v is the volume of the fluid displaced by the body.
The "Centre of Buoyancy", which is the point of action of the resultant
buoyancy force can be located by taking moment about a convenient origin 0
on the body. Measuring horizontal distance, since Fe is vertical, we have,
Fig. 2.17(a),

pg hx da
=

hula
=
(2.15)

hi
Pg h1

Fe Horizontal forces on
p Pg (hen) any vertical plane are
2 balanced
( a) Elevation (b) Sectional view
Fig. 2.17 Buoyancy Force on a Submerged Body.

Equation (2.15) indicates that the centre of buoyancy is the centroid of the volume
of the displaced fluid.
In Fig. 2.18 below, we illustrate the case of a solid submerged in two fluids
at rest with their interface horizontal along 0-0.
The net excess pressure at the base of the prism is (p1gh, + p2gh2). The
buoyancy force is, therefore,
Fe = pi g' da + p2g f h2 da
Of
Fl = Agvl P2gv2 (2.16)
46 FLUID MECHANICS

P2
Fig. 2.18 Solid Submerged in Two Fluids.

where v, and v2 are the displaced volume of fluids of density p, and p2

respectively.
Consider when pi, is air and p2 water. The two densities are so widely different
that pip), can be neglected with respect to p2gu2. In such cases, it is customary
to treat the solid as partially submerged in water and F8 = p2g v2. Clearly, the
centre of buoyancy then would correspond to the centroid of the displaced water
volume v2.
When both forces are of comparable magnitude, F2,1 acting at B, and Fs, at
B2, the resultant F8 shall act at B obtained by: FBI • 1, = F,2 • 12, Fig. 2.18.

Example 2.10 A metallic ring was first submerged in water and weighed against
a mass of 10 g. When the ring was submerged in oil of sp. gr. 0.8, the balancing
weight had the mass of 13 g. Calculate the true density of the ring material.
In Fig. 2.19, Mg is the true weight, Fs is the buoyancy force and F is the
balancing force. When the measurement is carried out in two different liquids
Mg=F,+p, gu, Mg=F2 +p2 gy
or
F2 —F, _m2 — ml
V=
g(Pi P1) 131
where m, and m2 are the mass of the respective balancing weights, v is the
displaced liquid volume,
13 — 10 =
v = 1-0.8 15 cc
Since the ring was fully submerged, its volume equals the volume of displaced
liquid and is 15 cc.
The true mass of the ring is
Af=m1 +/Iv
= 10 + 1 x 15 = 25g
25
Density p= T5- =1.667 g/cc.
 FLUID STATICS 47

Mg
Fig. 2.19

2.8 STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES

Consider in Fig. 2.20, a body partially submerged in a fluid. The weight of

(a) Neutral (b) Stable (c) Unstable

Fig. 2.20 Stability of Partially Submerged Bodies.

the body acts through the centre of gravity G, whereas, the buoyancy force F8
acts vertically upward through B. Since the body is in floating condition, F8 = W.
In Fig. 2.20(a), both G and B lie on the same vertical axis and the body is in
an upright position of neutral equilibrium, the two forces balancing each other.
The lines of action of both the forces coincide.
In Fig. 2.20(b), the body is tilted through an angle 0 so that a part of the
body to the left of the centre line is uncovered, and an equal additional volume
is submerged on the right. The uncovered and additionally submerged portions
must be of equal volume so that the total submerged volume remains constant
48 FLUID MECHANICS

so as to maintain F8 = W for the floatation condition. Because of the additional

submersion however, the centre of buoyancy will shift to the right, say to B'
in Fig. 2.20(b).
F, and W no more act along the same line, resulting in a couple of
W • GM • sin 0. M is the point of intersection of Fs with the geometrical centre
line. Although M does not necessarily coincide with the water line in all cases,
it is customary to treat the body to tilt about M, the distance of the point from
the water line being small. M is known as the "Metacentre" and GM, the
"metacentric height".
In Fig. 2.20(b), the couple W • GM • 0 (sin 0 = 9 for small tilts) acts opposite
to the direction of tilt, and thus, has a stabilizing effect.
In Fig. 2.20(c), the line of action of Fit intersects the geometrical axis at
a location below the centre of gravity. The couple formed by W and F, acts in
the direction of tilt and aggravates the instability.
.Stability of a submerged body, therefore, requires that M be above G.

2.9 DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT

(a) Experimental Method Consider a submerged body of weight W with centre
of gravity at G, Fig. 2.21. The geometrical centre line is initially vertical when
a movable mass was located at P. By shifting the mass to Q through a distance,
1, the C.G. shifts to G' as the centre line orients through an angle 0 due to unequal
submersion of the body. While the cause is the moment due to mg through 1,
the effect is W • GM • O. Hence
GM = IV • 0 (2.17)
for small angle of tilt.

(b) Analytical Method The body in Fig. 2.22 was initially submerged along
0-0 with its geometric centre line in vertical position, and G and B lying on it.
As the body tilted through an angle 0 about A, OA moved up on the left
to O'A whereas it moved down on the right to 0"A. An area da on the horizontal
plane at a distance x from the vertical axis was lifted on the left through x0,
whereas an equal area was submerged through x0 on the right.
Hydrostatically this corresponds to shifting a weight of water (pg x0 • da)
through 2x. The consequence of the total shift is to move the centre of buoyancy
from B to B'. The total buoyancy force however, remains constant as the total
submerged volume is unchanged.
The cause and effect when equated, yield

j(pgx0 da)2x F, • BM • 0
0
b is the half width of the body, or

pit) • BM =2pg j x2 da
0
 FLUID STATICS 49

Fig. 2.21

•
The integral 2f x2 da represents the second moment of the total area (plan view)
0
about the horizontal centre line which, in other words, is I. Hence,

BM= —
1 (2.18)
v

v is the submerged volume. The metacentric height

GM = BM — BG (2.19)

On the basis of Eq. (2.19), a positive value for GM indicates stability

whereas a negative the contrary. At neutral equilibrium, Fig. 2.20(a), M coincides
with G.

Example 2.11 A cylindrical buoy 2 m in diameter, 2.7 m high, weighs 1.8

tonnes. Show that the buoy will not float with its axis vertical in sea water of
sp. gr. 1.02. If one end of a vertical chain is fastened to the centre of the base
of the buoy, find the pull on the chain in order that the buoy may just float
with its axis vertical.
In the floating condition, Fi = W. If h is the depth to which the buoy is
submerged in sea water:

I- x22xhx1.02x1000=1.8x1000
50 FLUID Lecavacs

Or

h=03617m

Dia = -444
6 =d2 _ 4
"1" v ird2h TeX 16 x 05617

= 0.445 m

B is midway of the submerged depth h, whereas G is at l/2. Therefore,

2.7 03617
BG = --2- - --2- - L069 m
MG= BM- BG = 0.445 - L069 = - 0.624 m
i.e. the buoy is unstable.
Consider the buoy chained down with a pull T, Fig. 2.23. Resultant
(W + T) of the pull and the weight acts at R

(W +7')x=W •
Or
W 1
x= irir • I
above the base of the buoy. The new depth of submerge hi is given by

T x4x/hx1.02x1000=(W+T)x1000
Or
1.8+T

Fig. 2.23
 FLUID STATICS 61

In the Inkling cue of neutral stability of the Loy, the centre of oscillation shall
coincide with the point of action of the resultant downward force at R. Hence

nn I d2 1
BM = =—
16h, 4h,
From Fig. 2.23,
1 1 x
y=KB+BR+RGA+BR+
2 -
or

1=0
let
y=1.8+ T
Therefore,
2.7 „
3. 204 xi.0
—0
riff 4y
Or
y = 3.23 tonnes, Tension T= 3.23 —1.8 =1.43 tonnes

Example 2.12 A ship with cross-sectional area as shown in Fig. 2.24, displaces
1000 tonnes of sea water. Calculate the limiting value of the radius of gyration
so that the rolling period of the ship is limited to 15 seconds. The distance between
the ship's centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy is known to be 0.5 m.

Fig. 2.24

A floating ship can tilt about its metacentre, and therefore can oscillate about
it under the action of the couple due to Fs and W.
52 FLUID MECHANICS

The dynamics of the oscillation can be written as

d20 = — W • GM 0
/,‘ —r
dt
where la is the mass moment of inertia of the ship, I. = Mk2; k is the radius
of gyration and M the mass of the ship. Thus

2 d20
Mk - —r = — M • g • MG • 0
dt
or

IG) 9
el. aLA___
L
de k2 )
The solution of the above equation is given by
0 = A sin ax,
where
a:12 _ 024KG
k
The frequency of oscillation is

f = Ti (I ) = —2
and the time period
1_ 2rk
I- 7 - V,ga
The second moment of area of the ship cross-section about the rolling axis is

3
/=Tix20x83 +4x[x5x4 + I x5x4(4)2]

=960m4
The volume of sea water displaced is
1000 x 1000
v = 1.02 x 1000 — 98°351n3
I 960
BM — v = 980.35 — O. 9792 m
Given
BG = 0.5 m
MG= BM — BG= 0.4792 m
Hence
2xlc _ 2xk
Z=
9.81 x 0.4792 — rIll s
 FLUID STATICS 53

brk
17-a -15

k = 5.176m
A higher radius of gyration would reduce the frequency of rolling and would
make the ship that much more comfortable.

PART B: RELATIVE REST

So far we have discussed the cases where both the fluid and its container were
at rest; the so-called absolute rest. In situations where the fluid and its container
as a whole are in motion, the laws of hydrostatics still apply. Since there is no
relative. velocity between the layers of the fluid; only the normal component of
the surface force is in play. This is known as the condition of relative rest

2.10 PRESSURE EQUATION

Consider a volume element of a fluid whose container is subject to an acceleration
A

= aii + ay j + azk as observed from a fixed reference 0, Fig. 2.25.

z ap A
.
a ap A P*Ti —7

0 ax

Fig. 2.25 Relative Rest of a Fluid Element.

Applying Newton's second law of motion in each of the three coordinate

directions, we note that

maz = -(tAx)dy Az

ma = dy)dx Az

dp
maz = -(T 4z).4.x Az - mg
54 FWID IAECHANICS

Since m = p (2ex dy dz), the above equations result in

= — pa,, = — pay, =— p(a,+ g) (2.20)

The set of Eqs. (2.20) are used to estimate pressure variation along any arbitrary
direction s, at a point (x, y, z), by the rule of partial differentiation:

(2.21)
=
For ease of visualization, consider a two-dimensional case, in the x-z plane. The
plates of equal pressure are those on which the pressure is constant. If one such
plan is represented by a pace s, then:

t=0 —& dx & dz

ar + az
The slope of this plane is, therefore,

(2.22)

On substitution for the pressure variation, we get

dz a,
(2.23)
W =tanel= az +g
The negative sign indicates that the inclination shall be in the direction opposite
to az.

Plane of
equal pressure

Fig. 2.26 Free Surface under Relative Rest

The solid line in Fig. 2.26 represents the free surface, exposed to pz,,, of
a liquid in a container subject to an acceleration U. The pressure on a parallelly
inclined surface at a depth h is naturally (p. + pgh).
From Eq. (2.23), we note that for a purely horizontal acceleration, az = 0,

a,
tan 0 = — — (2.24)
g
 FLUID STATICS 55

When the acceleration is vertical, a, = 0 and tan 0 = 0, indicates that the

equipressure surface shall remain horizontal.
When a container with liquid is allowed to fall freely under gravity, a, = 0,
a, = — g, and the free surface is horizontal. The fact that dp/dz = 0, Eq. (2.20),
signifies that a point in the liquid under free fall of its container experiences
no hydrostatic pressure due to the column of liquid above it! This is an interesting
and significant conclusion in the sense that liquid would not leak out of the
container through a hole on its base, during a free fall.

2.11 CENTRIFUGAL BODY FORCE

When a vessel containing a liquid is rotated about an axis, the fluid elements
experience both centrifugal and gravitational body forces.
Under equilibrium conditions these body forces are balanced by the respective
pressure gradients.
Consider a cylindrical container with liquid rotated about a vertical axis at
a constant angular speed co. Under the actions of centrifugal and gravitational
forces, the horizontal liquid line at rest shall assume a curved free surface, see
Fig. 2.27.

c42R2
2g

L
Fig. 2.27 Rotation of a Liquid and its Container.

A fluid element at (r, z) shall be in equilibrium by

— + per -- 0
dp
-T - pg =0 (2.25)
The slope of an equipressure surface is, therefore, obtained as

dz —
dr dz
dz w 2r
g (2.26)
56 FLUID MECHANICS

The shape of the free surface is obtained by integration of Eq. (2.26):

2 2
0)
= (2.27)

as a paraboloid, with the constant of integration vanishing by the choice of the

origin of the coordinate system as the vertex 0, Fig. 2.27.
The maximum height to which the liquid level shall rise is ant2/2g, where
R is the container radius. Clearly, the initial liquid level was midway between
the new vertex and the maximum level, since a paraboloid has half the volume
of a corresponding cylinder. Fluid mechanically, this situation of fluid rotation
by an external agency is known as a "forced vortex'.
The pressure variation is

dp=tdr+t-dz
rip=pw2rdr—pg dz
Hence, the pressure at a point (r, z) measured from the vertex is

nw 2r2
p (r z) — --2— p gz + pa. (2.28)

The constant of integration turns out to be atmospheric pressure as the one acting
at the vertex (0, 0) of the paraboloid.

Example 2.13 A cylindrical vertical container 50 cm ID is rotated about its

axis. The container has a height of 1 m and was initially filled to 60 cm. Calculate
the speed of rotation at which the water shall begin to spill over the container,
and the pressure at a point 20 cm radial position and 5 cm above the base.

ri
2
R
40cm- 4 g

40cm
60cm

(a)
Fig. 2.28
 FLUID STATICS 57

At the condition of spilling over, z = 2 x Initial free height, i.e.

1 03 r2 2
r-5—.40cm
or
2 04x4x9.81
•
=
= 251.136
Or
=1584 rad/s
The point, whose vertical position is 5 cm above the base, has the value

z = —(AO- 5)=—(20-5)=-15cm
p (r,Z)= p,,,, + Pw;r2 p gz
Or
1000 x 251136 x (02)3
p (r, + 1000 x 9.81 x 015
2
= 6.494 x 103 N/m2 gauge.

Example 2.14 If the cylinder in Ex. 2.13, was closed with a lid and was
rotated so that the point A at the centre of the base was just clear of water, what
would have been the angular speed? Determine the pressure at (20, 5) from the
base.
Since the forces continue to be the same two body forces even when the
container is closed, the equipressure surface shall remain paraboloid. However,
as the water is not allowed to spill out and the same in turn begins to readjust
the volume, there is not true free surface.
The free space of the container was nR2 x 0.4. The same space is occupied
by the paraboloid of revolution having a height h = 1 m. Hence

1= kR2 x 0.4
or
r1 =0.2236m
co2 /.12
z= =h
Or
= 42,77iE
/ri
=1981 rad/s
In order to determine the pressure at a, point we can use the pressure Eq. (2.28)
with reference to an imaginary free surface (dashed curve) in Fig. 2.28(b).
58 FLUID MECHANICS

The height of the imaginary paraboloid would be

w2R2 (19.81)2 x (0.25)2

z 2g — 2 x 9.81
= 1.25 m

The coordinate of the given point measured from the "vertex" 0 shall be r =
20 cm, z = 25 + 5 = 30 cm. Hence,

p(r, — Pawl (19.81)2 2 x (02)2 9.81 x 0.31

1"1

= 4.905 x 103N/m2

2.12 SUMMARY

1. Fluid statics is concerned with the conditions of "absolute rest" and "relative
rest". In either case the equilibrium is a balance of the normal surface force,
i.e. the pressure, and the body force. Whereas the body force is gravitational in
absolute rest, the additional one for relative rest is centrifugal.
2. The hydrostatic pressure at a point is the same in all directions, and acts
normally on a given surface. This is said to be the Pascal's law.
3. The interface between two fluids at rest is horizontal. A "free surface"
is the interface between a liquid and the atmosphere.
4. Manometry is based on the fact that the pressures on the same horizontal
plane in a liquid at rest are equal.
5. The average pressure on a submerged plane surface is equal to the pressure
at the centroid of the surface.
6. The centre of pressure of a submerged surface at rest is always below
its centroid.
7. The "buoyancy force" on a wholly or partially submerged surface is equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced, and it acts vertically upward through the
centre of buoyancy. This is also known as the Archimede's principle.
8. The point of intersection of the line of action of the buoyancy force and
the geometrical centre line through the centroid of a floating body is known as
the "Metacentre". For stability, the metacentie should always be above the centroid.
9. The free surface of a liquid in a container under acceleration inclines
upward in a direction against that of the acceleration. A liquid, in a container
subjected to free fall, experiences no vertical pressure variation.
10. Under the condition of forced vortex, i.e. of rotation of the container
at a constant speed when the body force is centrifugal, the equipressure surfaces
in a liquid are paraboloids of revolution.
 FLUID STATICS 59

EXERCISES

1. In a hydraulic press, the ram has a diameter of 20 cm and the plunger 2 cm.
The fluid is an oil of specific gravity 0.8. Calculate the load that can be raised
by placing a mass of 100 kg on the plunger:
(i) when the plunger and the ram are on the same horizontal plane, and
(ii) when the liquid level in the plunger is 0.5 m above that in the ram.
What would be the difference in mechanical advantage of the press in cases; (i)
and (ii), if the oil is replaced by water ?
(Ans: 98.1 kN; 98.22 kN; 0; 0.031%)
2. The altimeter used in aircrafts for measuring the flight altitude is a kind of
barometer. Estimate the altitude of flight of an aircraft when its altimeter reads
520 mm Hg, given that the sea level conditions were 760 mm Hg and 20°C.
Assume density of air to remain constant
(Ans: 2706.67 m)
3. In construction, a barometer is a graduated inverted tube with its open end
dipped in the measuring liquid contained in a trough opened to atmosphere.
Estimate the height of liquid column in the barometer where the atmospheric
pressure is 100 kN/m2: (a) when the liquid is mercury, and (b) when the liquid
is water.
The measuring temperature is 50°C, when the vapour pressures of mercury
and water are respectively 0.015 x 104 N/m2 and 1.23 x 104 N/m2; and the densities
13,500 and 980 kg/m2. What would be the percentage error if the effect of the
vapour pressure is neglected, for each of the fluids.
(Ans: 755 mm Hg; 10.4 m Wg; 754 mm Hg; 9.122 m Wg; 0.13%, 14%)
4. A vertical U-tube manometer is made up of a 5 mm ID glass tubing. Its left
limb is enlarged to 20 mm ID, Fig. 2.29 and contains oil of sp.gr. 0.8. The oil
free surface is in the enlarged vessel, and the mercury oil-interface is in the

Fig. 2.29
60 FLUID MECHANICS

left limb. On application of an unknown pressure, the free surface of the oil
is found to depress by 5 mm corresponding to both end open condition.
Estimate the absolute value of the applied pressure; given pi. = 1 bar,
pits = 13600 kg/m3.
(Ans: 1.20758 bar)
5. A multitube manometer using water and mercury is used to measure the
pressure of air in a vessel, as shown in Fig. 2.30. For the given values of heights,
calculate the gatige pressure in the vessel.
hi = 60 cm, h2 = 50 cm, h3 = 20 cm,
h4 = 70 cm, hs = (—) 10 cm, and h6 = 50 cm.
(Ans: 2.0266 bar gauge)
6. An inverted U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure difference
between two pipes, one carrying oil of sp. gr. 0.8 and the other water. Considering

h6

tits ,4;;0"--
Fig. 2.30

the configurations in Fig. 2.31, determine the pressure differential.

(Ans: 2157.2 MO
7. A cylindrical vessel of 1 m diameter has water in it to a height of 2 m. Oil
of sp. gr. 0.75 is kept over water column for another 1 m. Above the oil, a dead
weight of 5000 N, base diameter 1 m, is kept. Estimate the total hydrostatic
force and the centre of pressure on a gate 30 cm in diameter placed along the
vertical surface of the vessel. The lowest point of the gate is on the base of the
vessel.
(Ans: 2252.25 N, 0.148 m)
S. In Fig. 2.32, the water level in a dam is 90 m. The dam is vertical for a
depth of 50 m below the water line. Thereafter it slopes at an angle of 50° to
the vertical. Calculate the resultant hydrostatic force per metre length of the dam;
its direction and the point of action.
(Ans: 51478.67 kN; 39.48°, at 30 m from base and 26.11 m from vertical face)
 FLUID STATICS 61

Fig. 2.31

Fig. 2.32

9. A gate of quarter-circular cross-section, radius 2 m and length 6 m, is held

in position against water pressure by a force P, Fig. 2.33. Calculate the value
of P.
(Ans: 117.72 kN)
10. A cylinder has a diameter of 30 cm and a relative density of 0.8. What is
the maximum permissible length in order that it may float in water with its axis
vertical ?
(Ans: 26.51 cm)
62 FLUID MECHANICS

Fig. 2.33

11. A water tank trapezoidal in shape is 1.5 m deep. The top and bottom cross-
sections are 3 m x 3 m and 2 m x 2 m. The sides and base are plane surfaces.
Calculate the resultant pressure force and its point of action on each face, when
the tank is full of water.
12. A ship weighs 3 x 10$ newtons. When a load of 5 x 105 newtons is moved
through a distance of 10 m across the deck, a 5 metre long pendulum swings
through 30 an. Determine the metacentric height of the ship.
13. The gates of a lock are each 5 m wide, and make an angle of 120° when
closed. Each gate is supported by two hinges, one at 60 cm from the bottom
and the other 60 cm from the top. The gates are each 8 m high. In the closed
position the water level on the upstream side is 6 m and that on the downstream
is 2.5 m. Calculate the forces at each of the hinges and the thrust between the
gates.
14. A cubical wooden block of 20 cm sides floats at the interface between water
and an oil of sp. gr. 0.75, Fig. 2.34, in the configuration shown. Determine the
sp. gr. of wood.

=
— 011 — —
--20cm-: Wood =Sp. gr 0.75

— k-72cierri4 -1 _4 cm=
m
Water — _ _ _
- • = = _ _ -
•

Fig. 2.34

15. A hollow sphere of inner radius 10 an and outer radius 12 cm floats 3/4th
submerged in a liquid of sp. gr. 0.8. Derive an expression for the density of the
material of the sphere, and calculate its value.
16. A buoy carrying a beacon has a cylindrical upper portion of 2.5 m dia and
1.4 m depth. The curved lower portion has an external volume of 0.5 m3. The
centre of buoyancy is 1.5 m below the top of the cylinder, and the centre of
gravity of the buoy and the beacon is 1.2 m below the cylinder top. The total
 FLUID STATICS 63

weight is 2.7 tonnes. Taking the sp. gr. of sea water as 1.02, calculate the
metacentric height.
17. A hemispherial bowl of 0.5 kg mass is placed on a cylindrical vessel whose
cross-sectional area equals that of the bowl base. Water is poured into the bowl
through a hole on the curved surface. Find the depth of water in the bowl at
which the bowl shall start lifting from the vessel surface allowing leakage of
water.
18. A ship of mass 2 x 106 kg has a cross-section at the waterline as shown
in Fig. 2.35. The centre of buoyancy is 1.5 m below the free surface, and the
centre of gravity is 0.6 m above the free surface. Calculate the metacentric heights
for rolling about x-axis and pitching about y-axis.

y
Hg. 2.35

19. A homogeneous liquid in the gravitational field is subjected to an additional

body force that is proportional to the distance from a fixed point and is directed
towards the point. Derive an expression for the pressure at a point in the fluid.
Shovi that the equipressure surfaces are concentric spheres with the centre lying
on the vertical through the centre of attraction. Determine the distance between
these two centres.
20. A rectangular tank 1.5 m deep, 3 m x 2 m cross-section, is used for carrying
water along an inclined plane at 30° to the horizontal. The 3 m side is parallel
to the horizontal. Calculate the inclination of the water surface:
(a) during upward motion with an acceleration of 3 m/s2;
(b) during downward motion with an acceleration of 2 m/s2; and
(c) during upward motion with a deceleration of 4 m/s2.
In all cases, the accelerations are measured parallel to the plane. Calculate
also for each case the maximum permissible water level at rest on a horizontal
plane so that water does not spill out of the tank.
 Fluid Kinematics

Lice a solid body, the motion of a fluid element is governed by Newton's laws.
There are, however, a few differences in the method of application of the laws
to the two kinds.
Let us first consider the application of the second law- of motion to a solid
of mass m:
d
w (mV) = E Fa, (3.1)
where E Pa, is the resultant of the external forces in the direction of V , causing
time rate of change in the momentum of the body. In carrying out an experiment
to apply Eq. (3.1), we visualize the need for the following:
(i) identification of the particular solid from its surroundings, and
(ii) monitoring the velocity at different instants. This is more generally done
in terms of its location F(t), as a function of time, from a fixed
coordinate system.
Besides the above two observations, we also realize that a solid body encompasses
a fixed mass.
The convenience of a solid body, i.e., (a) identifiability, (b) fixed mass, and
(c) independent reference to its velocity are not available to majority of the fluid
motion conditions. The motion of smoke or air following a blast wave, or to
some extent the motion' of a smoke .ring ejected out of an engine are the few
exceptions that can be modelled after a solid body.
The kinematic descriptions of fluid motion therefore, need modifications of
the solid body methods.

3.1 VELOCITY FIELD

In order to circumvent the impossibility of maintaining a continuous identification
of a fluid element from its neighbouring ones, a method is devised to correlate
the fluid velocity to space coordinates.
Consider, for example, the motion of air in a room due to a rotating fan.
For simplicity, we select a horizontal plane in the room and identify the
points on this plane by an x-y coordinate system, measured, for example, from
the fan as the origin, Fig. 3.1.
64
 FLUID KINEMATICS 65

.
Lv

Fig. 3.1 Physical Model of a Velocity Field.

A person moving from point to point in the room would experience different
wind speeds depending on the distance of the point from the fan. If this person
carried an instrument for measuring components of the wind velocity, he would
record different u and v values as he changed his coordimates. u and v are the
components of the wind velocity in the spatial directions x and y.
Let the numbers in the brackets in Fig. 3.1 represent the coordinates of a
few arbitrary points where the measured wind velocities have components and
magnitude as shown in the figure. We note from the figure that the velocity
components at a given point follow a pattern:
2
U ec X , V ec — y3

The constant of proportionality between the space coordinates and velocity

components can be eliminated by using non-dimensional values. For convenience,
we assume it to be unity.
We may hence write the velocity vector at any point (x, y) in the room as

V(x, y) = x21 — y31 (3.2)

In other words, the velocity field in the room is

.. ..
Vadd = X2 1 — y3j (3.3)
Note that the V prevails in the room irrespective of whether our person was
there or not, so long as the fan is running.
66 FLUID MECHANICS

If we now imagine a fluid element in place of the person, who moved at

his will, the element also experiences Vie. Unlike the person, however, the
fluid element shall be displaced from place to place due to the prevalent wind
velocity, and in the process its position coordinates shall become time dependent
(x (t), y (0). Hence,
Vary „min, = V(x(t), y(t)) (3.4)

In this particular velocity field in the room:

g,....., = x(02i - y(t)31
The fluid velocity at a given location may change with time, such as that
during switching on or off the fan in the present example. Similarly, the velocity
can well vary in the z-direction, so that the general expressions are:

clam = cf(x, y, z, 0 (3.5)

Vadd , = Cf(x (1), y(t), z(t), t) (3.6)

3.2 ACCELERATION OF A FLUID ELEMENT

The expression for the acceleration of fluid element follows from the functional
dependence of Vikiddmm, , Eq. (3.6). By partial differentiation:

df-i dx dr, dy- dii dz dr,

+ • + • + (3.7)
anal °kg" = —E . dt W WI dz 31 at

In the above expression, dildt represents the rate of displacement of the fluid
element in the x-direction due to the velocity field, and therefore dx/di = a.
Note that in the case of a solid body the expression for acceleration is a
simpler one: il = dif/dt , because it is possible to monitor its motion from a given
reference and independent of the environment.
Acceleration of the fluid element in (3.7) is written through a different symbol
Ft = DVIDt to convey the distinction, and is known as the substantive or the
Eulerian derivative. Thus

DVt=-TtaV A-u-Fx +u-Fy +W az-

Xi a17

Or

-Di— = -- +V • IN (3.8)
4 4. 1
Wel Med come-
week- are
radon
 FLUID KINEMATICS 07

where
V= ui +vj+ wk
In the right-hand side of expression (3.8), the first tom aV/at represents
the change of velocity of a particle at a fixed location, as would be caused in
a time dependent velocity field, and is known as the 'local acceleration'. The
second term (V . VV) represents the acceleration experienced by the particle
because of its drifting from place to place in the field. This component is known
as the 'convective acceleration'. Note that a fluid element shall experience
acceleration due to convection even if the velocity field was steady, i.e. not
changing with time.
Expansions of Eq. (3.8) would indicate that the accelerations in the x, y,
and z directions are:
Du du u "
= Dt = —t + v • v u
—
Dv dv
== + V • V%)
Dw aw
az .-b-r = w +V•Vw
(3.9)

Example 3,1 Given the velocity field

V=10x2yi +15yzi 314 +25d,

find the acceleration of a fluid element at a point (1, 2, —1) at time t = 0.5.
Identify the local and convective components of acceleration in each of the three
directions.
u = 10x2y, = 15yz, w = — 3xy + 25t
az _ Du=du
— -DT + V • (20xyi + 10x2))

= 200x3y2 + 150x2yz
where
du
=0

ax (1, 2, —1, 0.5) = 800 — 300 = 500, convective

a,= + V • (15z) + 154)

= 225yz2 — 451y2 + 375yt

where
dv
=0
68 FLUID MECHANICS

ay (1, 2, —1, 0.5) = 450 —180 + 375 = 645, convective

= +V • (— 3y; +34)

= 25 + (— 30x2y2 — 45xyz)
where
= 25

aZamecthe (1, — 1, 05) = — 120 + 90 = — 30

aZ =— 30+25=— 5
Hence,
= 500i + 645) -

The expression for acceleration derived at (3.8) is applicable to individual

fluid elements encompassing a given mass. Such a fluid element of mass m is
defined as a 'system', and its momentum change expressed by m (DV /Dt).
The concept of a system, due to Lagrange, is identical to a solid body, except
that the acceleration may be referred to the velocity field for convenience.
In writing the motion of a continuum by the system approach, however, we
would need to write an infinite number of equations for the infinite number of
fluid elements constituting the continuum. More importantly, we would have to
continuously identify and monitor each of the fluid elements.
Clearly the system approach is inconvenient, except where only a few
identifiable fluid elements are involved, e.g. a ring or ball of smoke drifting in
air. Euler provided the alternative approach.
The essence of the Eulerian description is to shift the focus from individual
fluid elements to physical space. We first define a 'control volume' usually, but
not necessarily, unchanging with time, and observe the changes of properties of
the fluid stream crossing the boundaries of the defined volume.

3.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS

The foremost accounting is carried out with respect to the mass of the fluid. The
conservation of mass is of no concern in the 'system' concept. In comparing with
the terminologies of Thermodynamics (Chapter 1) we note that a fluid mechanical
'system' corresponds a thermodynamic 'closed system' whereas the 'control
volume' an 'open system'. In Fig. 3.2, an infinitesimal volume about a point
P (x, y, z) is considered in the fluid medium. u, v and w are the components
of fluid velocity at P, relative to the chosen volume.
The mass entering per unit time and area of the left face in the x direction
is pu, and the corresponding mass flux leaving the right x face is

[pu+N(pu)Ar]
 FLUID KINEMATICS 69

a (Pw) Az
pv , a (P Ayi
ay J
tar .1(
PU r a(Pu)ax]
Lu
ax

(x,y,z
Pw
Pv
Fig. 3.2 Mass Efflux.

the increment being written by the use of Taylor's series. The area of either face
in the x-direction is (Ay • Az). Considering all the three directions, we note that
the net mass leaving the volume per unit time is

[1.(pu)4x1dy • Az in the x-direction

[i(pv).dy]dx in the y-direction

[1(pw).d x • e y in the z-direction (3:10)

The effect of mass loss in Eq. (3.10) is to cause the time rate of decrease of
the mass encompassed by the volume: m = p (dvol). Since dvol = (ALA y4z)
and is chosen not to change with time, we obtain the conservation of mass as:
19u) + dr) +
ai _ (3.11)

Given that V = ui + vj -4, Eq. (3.11) is rewritten as

(-a + V • (pV) = 0
-7 (3.12)
at
Equation (3.12) representing the conservation of mass is known as the 'Continuity
Equation'.
When there is no time rate of depletion of the mass of the volume, i.e. when
steady-state conditions prevail,

2
dt
=o, v qpV) = o (3.13)

For an incompressible fluid where the density neither changes with time or space,
the continuity equation reduces to:
v•v=0 (3.14)
70 FLUID MECHANICS

It is essential that a velocity field representing the motion of a fluid satisfies

the continuity equation.

3.4 CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

The process of accounting indicated above for fluid mass, can be extended to
any other intensive property, e.g. enthalpy h, kinetic energy V2/2, or momentum
V of the fluid stream, crossing the control volume.
The momentum entering the left hand x face per unit area, due to mass flow
pu, is (puV). The corresponding out-flow through the right hand x face is:

(puV) + T
(7 p u x
x
The net momentum transport across the control volume is, therefore, the sum
of the following:

[4(pui7)AxiAy • Az through x-face

[4(pyrl)AyiAx • Az through y-face

[1-(pwrOil x • Ay through z-face

Momentum being a vector quantity, each of the above three has components in
the x, y and z directions. For example:

1 -(purl)=4T (puu)i +1(puv)i + l(puw)i.

The three components are then vectorially added to obtain the momentum efflux,
i.e. the net momentum crossing the boundaries of the control volume.
The expression to be so obtained can be arrived at by analogy with mass
efflux, through physical reasonings as below.
The net efflux of mass per unit time and volume, Eq. (3.11) was noted as
V • (pc')
i.e. V • (mass per unit volume times the vector V causing the transport).
The net efflux of enthalpy would have been, by analogy:

V •[(ph)rl]
or of the kinetic energy:

v P v
 FLUID KINEMATICS 71

Similarly, the momentum efflux would be

V • [(pfi)V] ( 3 . 1 S)
The time rate of change of momentum within the control volume is
d
(pVdvol)

The total momentum change per unit time and vlolume is, therefore,

DM a _
Di = (pV) + V • Rprlycl] (3.16)

By expanding the terms, we obtain

• (pV)]+[Vrf • (pc') + pc]

0, by continuity
or
DM
17t P(V • VV) + p ar'
7r t
or
DM DV
(3.17)
Dt = P Dt
Physical interpretations of the left-hand and right-hand sides of Eq. (3.17)
hold the clue for the application of Newton's laws to a control volume.
Newton's laws of motion are basically defined for a given mass whose position
can be monitored from time to time. When a fluid 'system' of mass p is in motion
in a velocity field, its momentum change is:

DV
PDT
and the equation of motion
DV
(3.18)
PDT- = FeRi
where E Fr„, act on the system boundaries.
The objective now is to recognise the correspondence between a system and
a control volume.
The mass p is contained in an unit control volume for which the momentum
changes is DM/Dt.
By Eq. (3.17) we note that the total of the momentum change for a unit
control volume, obtained as the sum of the efflux and the time rate of change
72 FLUID MECHANICS

within the volume, is indeed equal to the mass (p) times acceleration of a
corresponding system.
This enables writing the equation of motion for a control volume as:
DM
(3.19)
Dt = Fai
where X F_, represents the forces acting on the boundaries of the control volume.

Example 3.2 An incompressible fluid flows past a solid plate. The x and y
coordinates are measured respectively from the leading edge and the surface of
the plate. If the x component of the fluid velocity is given by
u = x2y2 + 21y,
obtain the velocity field, and the acceleration at a point (2, 1).
For the incompressible flow, the conservation of mass requires
V•V=0
or
du „
w + w=v
Hence
dv
- 2xy2 - 2y
2 3 2
- — y + f(x)

f(x) is like a constant of integration.

Since the plate is solid, and there can be no component of velocity on its
surface y = 0, we obtain that
vi,„0 = fix)= 0
Therefore,

V
= (x2y2 2xy); Gxy3 + y2)1
—
. ——
Acceleration + V • VV
Dt
0, steady field

.17 .(-fi +c.7).uf+v:

du du),.. dv
uw + + + vTy-
=(
 FLUID KINEMATICS 73

[(x2Y2 + 2xy) (2xY2 + 2y) ( lY2 + y2) (212y + 2x)]1

+[(x 2 y2 + ( xy3 + y2) (2xy2

2xy) -1y3 ) ( . + 2y)].7

Acceleration (2,1) = [(4 + 4) (4 + 2) — (4+48+4)]i

+[(4+4)(_+(i4+,)(4+2)).
.201+_6-,

3.5 STREAM LINES, STREAM TUBES AND STREAM FUNCTIONS

Let us now consider the trajectory of a fluid element in a given velocity field.
For simplicity, we shall assume steady, two dimensional, incompressible flow for
which V=ui+ v j.
A fluid element with V velocity shall trace a path S, Fig. 3.3. The path S
is such that its tangent at a point has the direction of the resultant velocity V .
S2. . . S,, are similar paths traced by other particles. These paths are called
`Stream Lines'.
.Since a stream line has the direction of the resultant velocity, a particle is
continuously constrained to move along it. The particle, in particular, can have
no motion perpendicular to the stream line. To that extent, a stream line represents
a virtual solid surface.
The displacement of a particle during an infinitesimal interval di, from
P1 (x, y) to P2 (x + dx, y + dy) in Fig. 3.3, is noted as

ds = dy2 (3.20a)
where dx =udt and dy=vdt are the distances covered in the x and y directions
due to the component velocities.
Thus along a stream line

Id
(3.20b)

and the direction of a stream line is

0 = tan-I (11 (3.20c)

The fact that no fluid mass crosses a stream line, or in other words the mass
flow rate between two adjacent stream lines remains the same at all locations
in the velocity field, can be utilized to obtain a mathematical equation to represent
the stream line.
74 FLUID MECHANICS

9n.1
.d
tit*".6%
• Sn

S2
SI

Fig. 3.3 Stream Lines and Stream Tubes.

In Fig. 3.3, identify two streamlines S. and S.4.1 whose equations are given
by w and w + dw • w is a function of x and y, and it is our objective to obtain
the functional relationship.
The volume flow rate dQ, synonymous with mass flow in an incompressible
medium, is parallel to w and w+ dw, and is perpendicular to the surface MN.
The surface MN intersects S„ at (r. y) and S„+, at (x —dx, y+dY).
For the curved right angle triangle MON, the inflow takes place through MO
and ON, and the out-flow through MN. The lengths of MO and ON are (—)dx
and dy.
Considering unit thickness in the direction perpendicular to the x-y plane,
conservation of mass indicates that
dQ = u dy — v dx (3.21a)

Since w is chosen to convey physically the mass flow rate, we can write

thy dQ
But
dyr = ldx +1-dy (3.21b)
e
By comparing Eqs. (3.21a) and (3.21b), we obtain

u= a v=—
dw (322)
dx
as the desired relationship.
The function w is know as the 'stream function'.
We may easily verify that the expression for w in (3.22) identically satisfies
v
the continuity equation: V • = 0.
 KINiMATIci 75
'Stream surfaces' can be deemed to be generated by several stream lines
passing through a dosed curve. The shape of. the curve derma the cross-section
of the surface. A stream surface is synonymous with a solid surface in the sense
that no mass can cross the stream lines, and hence the surface. A "stream tube"
is a stream surface when the curve through which the stream lines pass is a circle.
The concept of a stream line is applicable to three dimensional and
compressible flow as well.
In an unsteady flow, even at a given spatial coordinate, a fluid particle moves
in different directions with different velocities from time to time. In such a
situation, the stream line at a point changes from instant to instant. The trace
of the motion of fluid particles can be monitored by injecting a dye to the flow.
Such a trace in an unsteady flow is called a 'streak line'. A stream line in an
unsteady motion is only an instantaneous streak line.

Example 3.3 The velocity field in an incompressible fluid medium is given

by V = 3y2 i — 6x j. Verify whether the field represents the fluid motion. If so,
determine the expression for stream function, and the direction of the stream line
through (1, 2).
u 3y 2 ,
du — 0
dx
dv _ 0
= — 6x,
19)'
So
V • V = 0 is satisfied.

u= a>V_ _3 2

j
or

tV = — y3 + f(x) (i)
dw
v=— — = — ox
dx
Or
w = 3x2 + g(y)
Comparing (i) and (ii), we have
3x2 — y3

n dy v _ 6.x . 2x
tan a = = — 3y2 y2

tan 01(1. 2) = =1 • 0 = 2656°.

The stream line through (1, 2) makes an angle of 26.56° with the x-axis.
76 FLUID MECHANICS

3.6 ROTATION OF A FLUID ELEMENT

Apart from the linear motion discussed thus far, a fluid element may undergo
rotation due to angular momentum in the flow field.
In case of a solid body, its rotation is measured by noting the angular
displacement of a line on the plane of rotation, from a reference. Since a fluid
element is deformable, the average rotation of two lines, mutually perpendicular
at the beginning, are chosen.
In Fig. 3.4, a plane fluid element pf sides Ax and Ay lie on the x-y plane.
The axis of rotation is the z-axis, and OA and OB are the two initially perpendicular
lines on the fluid element.

U B

...- re;
0 x Ai x

v •DI tot
ax
(a) Rotation with shear strain (b1 Rotation without shear
strain (Irrotational)
Fig. 3.4 Rotation of a Fluid Element.

The velocity components at 0 are u and v. These are increased at A and B to

quantities expressible through Taylor's series and as indicated in the figure.
The OA and OB lines shall move on to the positions OA' and OB' owing
to the net velocity differences at A and B over the components at 0. Over a
time dt the displacements are

AA' = Ax dt

du
= .dy dt

The corresponding angles of deformation per unit time are obtained by dividing
the respective arm lengths:

0, = (anti-clockwise)
au
02 = Ty'
(clockwise)

in Fig. 3.4(a).
 FLUID WIRIER 77
Adopting the convention of anti-clockwise rotation as positive, the average
angular velocity of the fluid element about the z-axis is

1
(Oz1 •+ `'21- aV - du ) (3.23a)
2 CFI W)

Similarly, for a three dimensional element, the rotations about the x- and y-axis
are obtained as
= (aw dv
(3.23b)

co, = (au dw
(3.23c)

and the angular velocity vector is written as

= w ji + my; + rozi
2w is known as the Tonicity Vector' and is obtained by combining Eqs. (3.32a)-
(3.32c)
nii= V x ci= s2 (3.24a)
A fluid motion is said to be Irrotationaf when V x V = 0.
Irrotationality of a two-dimensional flow in the x-y plane would mean
1 (dv -w
au „
roz = 7 w )=‘, (3.24b)

Physically, roi = 0 could be satisfied in two ways:

du dv
(i) when = =0
or
du d v
(fi) when H - =0
dY
Condition (ii) is satisfied when (i) is true. In other words, condition (i) is more
stringent, and is satisfied in a rectilinear motion of an ideal fluid. When an ideal
fluid is physically following a curvilinear path, condition (i) is not satisfied, yet
condition (ii) may hold good at times; e.g. in a free vortex. In Fig. 3.4(b), whereas
both the perpendicular lines, OA and OB, rotate, the angle between them continues
to be 90°. This is satisfied in a forced vortex flow.
The shear strain in the x-y plane is the relative angular displacement between
the two axes. Hence, for Fig. 3.4(a),

E =(9I - 2 ) = (a
-ay + ax (3.25)
78 FLUID MECHANICS

Clearly, the shear strain is zero for the solid body-like flow modelled in
Fig. 3.4(b).

Example 3.4 The x-component of velocity in a two-dimensional incom-

pressible flow over a solid surface is given by

3 1 2
u= 2y-2y

y is measured from the solid surface in a direction perpendicular to it.

Verify whether the flow is irrotational; if not, estimate the rotational velocity
at (3, 2).
Using continuity, we get
dv du = A
dy = dx
Or
v = f (x)

Since v = 0 at y = 0, f (x) = 0, i.e. v = 0 everywhere in the flow field.

1 ( du dv)
wz = 7Wy du

= - y)
co, at (3,2)=1R — 2)=

i.e. the rotation about the z-axis is clockwise at y = 2, and is independent of

the value of x.
Upto this point, we have considered the velocity and acceleration of a fluid
element in a continuum. The continuity equation had to be brought in, in order
to emphasize that the conservation of mass is an additional consideration in the
control volume method of writing the equation of motion of a fluid element.
So far as the 'fluid kinematics' is concerned, we could end the chapter at
this stage. We shall, however, derive a simple momentum equation for a fluid
element not subject to shear force, for the sake of completeness.

3.7 EULER'S EQUATION

We noted in Chapter 1, that a fluid element in a continuum is subjected to body
force and surface force. The surface force has normal and tangential components.
The latter gives rise to shear strain. In an ideal fluid, 'the shear modulus, µ, is
treated as zero; consequently an ideal fluid element offers no shear resistance.
Euler derived the equation of motion for an ideal fluid. The free body diagram
for the control volume is illustrated in Fig. 3.5.
 FLUID KINEmAncs 79

P• Az p . Ay

Fig. 3.5 Free Body Diagram for Euler's Equation.

The pressure at a point (z, y, z) is taken as p, and its incremented values
on each of the distant faces of the cube are indicated on the figure. The body
force due to gravity acts in the negative z-direction.
The net external force in the x-direction is

= p • Ay • Az-(p+ (214x),6Y
dx • Az
or
= - -a-dx
E • dvol
Similarly, the other components are obtained, and their sum per unit volume of
the control volume is

E -r dp -
x i - dy - dz k - pgk
or
F,„,= — Vp— pgic
By using Eq. (3.18), we, therefore, write the momentum equation as
Drf
=— Vp — Pgk

This is known as Euler's equation in three dimension. When the flow is one-
dimensional, say in the x-direction, Eq. (3.26) simplifies to

(3.27a)
P( i+u'd
a g)=-1
or, in the z-direction,

(3.27b)
P(-akv +wa
i)=-1-14
Examples of one-dimensional flows in the three different coordinate directions
are given in Hg. 3.6.
80 FLUID MECHANICS

In Fig. 3.6(a), the duct geometry, through which the fluid flows, changes
in the x-direction, and the magnitude of velocity varies to maintain the cross-
sectional flow rate. The same is the situation in Fig. 3.6(c), in the z-direction.
The wall effects on the velocity profile are negected in these two cases.

u(y)

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.6 Examples of One-Dimensional Flow.

In Fig. 3.6(b), the duct cross-sectional area is constant everywhere, and so

is the average flow rate. The velocity profile, however, varies in the y-direction
to satisfy the zero relative velocity condition of a real fluid on a solid wall.
On examining a stream line, we find the effects of the three velocity
components in the x, y, and z direction are converged to one in the direction
of the tangent that represents the resultant velocity. In other words, the kinematics
of a three-dimensional steady velocity field can be summarized through a single
equation along a stream line without any loss of generality. Note that an unsteady
flow is not compatible with the stream line concept.
If we select S as the stream line coordinate, Eq. (3.26) is rewritten as

p • ld) =— g-pg12 (3.28)

By making a dot product with S, the scalar form is obtained:

pv dV _ _
(3.28a)

A reference to the free body diagram along a stream line in Fig. 3.7 affords further
physical interpretations.
The dot product of the two unit vectors

12 • :§ = cos a =As
Az—_ dz in the limit
Ts
The momentum Eq. (3.28a) is, therefore,
itV = dz
pv pg (3.29)
 FLUID KINEMATICS 81
The same equation can be arrived at by writing the momentum change and force
balance for the free body diagram shown in Fig. 3.7.

A1
"1„ y
• x loye _J
Ax
PgALts
Fig. 3.7. Free Body Diagram along a Stream Line.

Example 3.5 The y-component of velocity field in a two-dimensional flow of

water is given by — 2y. Obtain expressions for the velocity field and the stream
function. If the flow is irrotational, estimate the pressure gradient at the point
(1, 2). What is the direction of the stream line through this point. The x-y plane
is horizontal. Since
dv
v=-2y, w=-2
By continuity,
du dv
w=2
Therefore,
u= 2x + f(y)
For irrotafionality:
du dv
ax
Hence
fly) = 0 f(y) = C

By selecting the coordinate system that u = 0 at x = 0, we can set C = 0. Thus,

the velocity field is

= 2x1 -
For stream function,

= u = 2x
or
W = 2xy + f(x)
82 FLUID MECHANICS

Similarly,
?./
= — v = 2y
Iv = 2,xy + g(y)
In order that the two expressions for the stream function represent the same
velocity field, f(x) = g (y) = 0, and
vr = 2xy
tan 0 1(1. 2) = -- 2
tanam i l: =- 4i,
ea 2) = — 63.4°
The pressure gradient is estimated by using Euler's equation. Since the x-y plane
is horizontal, the gravitational body force is absent

p(ut + vt= — I
and

p(uat
i- + v = — t
t
Or

1 dia= 4x,
— -1. = 4y
P
The pressure gradient
VP = — 4P (xl + Yi)
The expression for pressure at a point may also be derived in the following manner.
By integrating the x-component, we get
p = — 2px2 + f(y)
and for the y-component,
p = — 2py2 + g(x)
Since the two expressions must be identical,
p = —2p (x2 + y2 )
3.8 SUMMARY
1. The motion of a fluid element is governed by Newton's laws.
2. In a continuum, observation and identification of individual fluid elements
being impossible, resort is made to monitor the changes across a fixed volume
in space. The selected space is called a control volume.
3. The motion of fluid streams are then described through a velocity field.
A velocity field denotes the correspondence between the components of fluid
velocity at a point and the spatial coordinates.
 FLUID KINEMATICS 83

4. In a velocity field, the acceleration of a fluid element has two components:

local and convective. The local acceleration is zero in a steady motion, whereas
the convective component arises due to the fact that a fluid element experiences
different velocities at different locations.
_ 5. The change of intensive properties such as p, h, V 2/2, or the momentum
V , for a fluid stream across a control volume is estimated by the sum of two
components. These are: (i) the excess of out-flow over in-flow across the
boundaries of the CV, and (ii) the time rate of change of the property associated
with the fluid in the CV.
The sum of these two components per unit volume is equal to the change
of the corresponding property of a 'system' of mass p. Hence, the laws for a
system are applicable to a CV, with due accounting. A 'system' is defined to
have a fixed mass.
6. A stream line represents the trajectory of a fluid particle in steady motion.
Tangent to the stream line represents the direction of the resultant velocity,
denoting thereby that no fluid particle can move transverse to a stream line. A
stream line is, thus, a virtual solid surface.
7. A `stream function' ir represents the equation for a stream line. ir
satisfies the continuity equation identically.
8. The rotation of a fluid element is estimated from the average angular
displacement between two straight lines mutually perpendicular in the beginning.
A flow is `irrotational' if V x V = 0. An irrotational flow cannot resist a shear
force.
9. Euler's equation of motion assumes existence of the body force and the
normal component of the surface force. The fluid is considered ideal, µ = 0, and
incapable of resisting shear force. An irrotational flow would satisfy Euler's
equation.
10. The mathematical operations `divergence' and `curl' of a vector mean
the following.
V • V gm the excess of vector V leaving the boundaries of a closed volume,
over the inflow, estimated on a per volume basis.
V x V ME rotation of an element under the influence of the components of
the vector V.

EXERCISES

1. In a two-dimensional incompressible flow, the velocity Juiponent in the

x-direction is given by u = 2x1(x2 + y2). Evaluate the velocity field, if v = 0
at y = 0. Find the direction of the stream line with respect to the x-axis at (2, 3).

(Ans: v x2 + y2 9 0 = 5631
84 FLUID MECHANICS

2. In a two-dimensional incompressible flow over a solid plate u = 31y2 + 2y3.

x is measured from the leading edge and y from the plate surface. v is zero at
the leading edge. Obtain an expression for the velocity field, and verify whether
the flow is 'notational.
(Ans: v = — y3, rotational)
3. Show whether the following velocity' field describes the motion of an
incompressible fluid.
(x2y y2 )I xy2
If it does, find:
(i) an expression for the stream function,
(ii) pressure gradient in the x- and y-directions, neglecting viscous effects,
(iii) values of the pressure gradient at (2, 1), if the fluid is water.

(Ans: =÷
X 2 2 + c; Vp = pi— x3y2i + (y4 — x2y5h,

VAz = — 1000(81 + 2)) N/m3)

4. The stream function in a two-dimensional flow is w = 6x — 4y + 71y. Verify
whether the flow is irrotational. Estimate the acceleration of a fluid element and
the direction of stream line at (1, — 1).
(Ans: irrotational; a = 211 — 7j, 8 =18.4°)
5. If in a two-dimensional incompressible flow over a solid plate, the velocity
component perpendicular to the plate is, v = 2x2y2 + 3y3x, obtain the following:
(i) equation for the stream line,
(ii) acceleration at a point (2, 3),
(iii) pressure gradient at (2, 3), and the assumption needed to evaluate the
same, and
(iv) verify whether the flow is irrotational.

(Ann w= -..x3 y2 — 3 3x 2; 12973.561 + 19458j; Vp = — pa; rotational)

6. In a 2 — D flow over a solid plate, the x-direction velocity varies linearly
from zero at the plate surface to 2 .m/s at y = 5 an, v = 0 everywhere and
the flow is said to be parallel. Obtain an expression for the stream function, and
sketch the stream line from the plate surface upto y = 10 an. Verify if the flow
is irrotational.

(Ann u = By, B = 40 CI; w = rotational)

7. The velocity field in a fluid medium is given by i7 = 3xy2I + 2xy j +
(2zy + 30k. Find the magnitudes and direction of: (i) translational velocity,
(ii) rotational velocity, (iii) acceleration, and (iv) the vorticity of a fluid element
at (1, 2, 1) at time t = 3.
(Ans: = 121 + 4j + 13i; Fr =1 — dc; = 1921 + 56j + 63.11; 2o7)
 FLUID KINEMATICS 85

The x, y and z components of velocity in a three dimensional flow are!

u = x2 — y2 + z2, v = x2 — 2.xy — 3yz2 and w = x3 + y3 + f (z). Evaluate f (z) and
the vorticity vector.
(Ans: f(z) = z3; 5= (3y2 + xyz)i + (2z — 3x2)j + 2xi)
9. The pressure field in a steady flow of an ideal fluid is given by
p =10 - 6x2 — 3yz2 pascal. If the fluid has a mass density of 1000 kg/m3, evaluate
the acceleration of a fluid element at a location F = 6i + 2 , +10k metres. Assume
the body force to be absent.
(Ann 0.0721 + 033 + 012i)
10. The vorticity vector in a two-dimensional flow field is given as
fl = (6xy — 2y)k, and the y -component of velocity v = 3x2y. Determine the
expression for the velocity field, and find the values of shear strain and angular
velocity at a point (2, 3).
(Ann V = (y2 — x3)1 + 3x2i; ex, = 42, = 15i)
 Analysis of Finite Control
Volumes

In the previous chapter, we noted that the motion of a fluid could be analysed
by considering either a 'system' or a 'control volume'. A system is defined to
encompass an identifiable and fixed mass because of which Newton's laws are
directly applicable. On the other hand, a control volume is defined in space and
is ordinarily of fixed volume, whereas the mass of fluid within it is changeable
with time. In order to apply the laws of conservation for a control volume,
we need to, therefore, account (i) change of properties of the fluid stream
crossing the volume, and (ii) property variations of the mass within the control
volume.
It is useful to recall from Chapter 1 that a fluid mechanical control volume
is identical to a 'thermodynamic open system'. The spirit of open system analysis
can be of much advantage. •

4.1 DEFINITION
Identification of a region of space in the fluid stream as a 'control volume' depends
much on the need of the problem, and often on the choice of the observer. The
closed boundary of a control volume is called the 'control surface'. Matters outside
the control surface are treated as 'surroundings'. For example, the 'external force'
on a control volume can be applied by the surrounding only at the control surface.
It is convenient to choose the control surface to be perpendicular to the fluid
velocity at inlet and outlet. The direction of a surface area is defined by the outward
drawn unit vector perpendicular to the area.
In Fig. 4.1, the relevant terminologies are shown schematically. n, and rt,
are the direction of area at inlet and outlet n is negative for the coordinate system
shown on the top. The velocities of the fluid stream are measured relative to
the control volume. In other words, the coordinate system is deemed to be located
on the CV. For a stationary CV there is no difficulty in visualizing this. When
a CV moves with uniform velocity, u, in a straight line, the volume can be imagined
to be stationary by superposing a negative u on the CV, as well as on the fluid
stream.
The stationary and the non-accelerating control volumes are called 'inertial',
for which Newton's laws are applicable without modification.
86
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 87

0 ,/, Ex t. force
`/:
,ol ( normal )

Ext. force
( tangential )
LControl surface
Fig. 4.1 Model of a Control Volume.

When a control volume itself is accelerating with respect to a fixed observer,

the momentum change of the CV needs to be considered additionally. The external
force] then balance: (i) the momentum change of the fluid with respect to the
CV, and (ii) the momentum change of the CV; both taken vectorially. This situation
is called 'non-inertial'.
We shall consider examples of both the inertial and non-inertial control volumes.

4.2 CONSERVATION EQUATIONS

The equations for conservation of mass and momentum respectively for an
infmitesimal control volume were derived in Chapter 3 as

+ V • ( 1-7) — 0 (4.1a)
P -

d(pV) - - -
+ V • (V pV)= (4.1b)

Both the equations represented conservations on the basis of a unit volume. Extension
to a control volume of finite size is, therefore, mathematically possible by performing
volume integral of each of the terms of the equations. Consider, for example,

Pxu)AxiiyAz [Art]dx,dz
555 V • (pV)dvol = J 5 {r4—
+ Vdz/lx.eiy}

The first term on the r.h.s. represents the excess of mass leaving the control
volume through the x face at the outlet over the mass entering the x-inlet,
Fig. 3.2. According to the sign convention for area shown in Fig. 4.1, the inlet
x face area is —(AyAz)i, and the outlet (Ay Az)i. The y and z face would be
88 FLUID MECHANICS

similarly associated with ±1 and ± k signs, whereas the velocity components are
v and w i.e.
dA = (Aydz)i + (4x4z)1+ (tizely)i
The right hand volumetric integral in the above expression is, thus, physically
equivalent to sum of the area integrals over the entire control surface

555 v • (pv)dva = (pf,• di) (4.2)

a
The above relationship linking the volume and closed surface integrals is known,
in Mathematics, as the Gauss Theorem.
Since by definition a control volume is chosen to remain fixed in size, the
volumetric integral of time dependent terms can be simplified, e.g.

fff ,7 iff p dvol

dvol = 2 (4.3)

In view of expressions (4.2) and (4.3), we can write the conservation of mass
for a finite control volume as

flip dvol + I I (pv • dx). c= o (4.4)

Jcf
The constant of integration C is zero, since mass is neither created nor destroyed
in all but nuclear processes.
In considering the momentum equation, we realize that the external forces
have, in general, two components: the body force and the surface force. The former
depends upon the mass of the fluid element, whereas the latter on the surface.
It is, therefore, necessary to split the integral for external force to two components
to show the distinction between body force and surface force.
The momentum conservation is thus written as

iii(pr)dvol + 5517(pi7 • dei) = 555T„dvol + (4.5)

V a V

where FB is the body force per unit volume and F, is the area weighted surface
force vector
= + Fyj Plc
It would be realized that the momentum Eq. (4.5) has three components in
the x, y and z directions. For example, the x-component is

+ 55 u(pV • di) = 555 Fix dvol + (4.6)

V a V
 ANALV214 OF FiNITE CONTROL VOLUMES 110

4.3 INERTIAL CONTROL VOLUMES

Application of the conservation equations and the choice of a control volume
are illustrated through the following examples.

4.3.1 Internal Flows

An internal flow is one where the fluid stream is bounded at the periphery by
a solid surface. We consider an one-dimensional flow in which the variations
are imagined to be in the direction of motion.

Example 4.1 Water flows through an expander, as shown in Fig. 4.1(a). The
inlet pressure and diameter are 7 bar abs and 30 cm; those at the outlet are
2 bar abs and 45 cm. The velocity at inlet is 20 m/s and is parallel to the
x-direction. The expander is held in a vertical plane and the outlet velocity is
at 45° to the x-axis. The expander has a volume of 0.5 m3 and a mass of 20 kg.
The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar. Assume steady-state condition. Estimate the
force required at the expander support to hold it in position by choosing a control
volume to coincide with the interior of the expander.

450

0 ,/ • ,/
5.1.4

V1-.4 Fx
p
'-04 _ — Fy

Mg
Fig. 4.1(a) Interior Control Volume.

Areas 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1 together constitute the control surface. Water enters
through 1-2 and leaves through 3-4 and the pressures p1 and p2 act on these surfaces.
The external forces on the fluid over areas 2-3 and 1-4 arise due to interaction
with the expander interior surface and their effects are summarized through F. and
F,.
At steady-state, the time dependent terms are zero.
Expanding the closed surface integral in terms of the component areas, we
write the mass-conservation equation as:
p(-- VIA 1-2 + 0•A2_3 + V2443_4 4- 0 • A4_1 ) =0.
Hence

V2 =V1 = 20 4 =28.89 m/s

x (3
90 FLUID MECHANICS

= = x 032 = 0.0707 m2

A3.4 = A2 = X 0.452 = 0159 m2

riu =pA1 V =1000 x0.0707x20=1414kg/s
We write the momentum equation in terms of its x and y components
in the manner indicated in Eq. (4.6).

rit112 cos 0 — = P2A2 cos + F.

and
thV2 sin 9 — = — p2A2 sin 9 + —Mg
or
= th(V2 cos 9 — VI ) + p2A2 cos 9 — (i)
and
Fr = »t112 sin 0 + p2A2 sin + Mg

Before evaluating the values of F, and F, numerically, let us consider the free
body diagram of the expander.
Apart from the reaction of the fluid on its internal surface, the expander shall
experience the effects of atmospheric pressure on its outer surfaces.
The corresponding force shall depend on the projected areas on the x and
y planes.
In Fig. 4.1(b), 1'-4' is the projection of 1-4 and 2'-3' of 2-3 along the
x-axis (or y direction). We note that the atmospheric pressure forces on these
projected areas result into a balance of
Fon, = Fr-4' = PatmA2sine
Similarly, the projections on the y-axis yield
'Fn.= F3*-4.—Fr-2. = PonA2COS9 — Pewit,

17:4"

4.
1 11 38 t
11. 2' f jt t t t
Fig. 4.1(b) Resultant Force due to Atmospheric Pressure.
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 91

In Fig. 4.1(c), representing the free body diagram of the expander, R. = —

and Ry = — Fy are the reactions of water on the expander.

Fig. 4.1(c) Free Body Diagram for the Expander.

The net force on the expander is, therefore,
Ex = + =—+F
and
Ey =Ry +F„,,, =—Fy +Famy
or
= th(V2 cos — V1)—(p2 — 110„) A2 COS
+ PI Pan)
and
Ey = — thV2 sin — (P2 — Pon ) A2 sin 0 — Mg
The important point to note at this stage is that we could have written E. and
E, as simply opposite of F. and E,, provided that we considered gauge pressures
instead of the absolute ones; e.g., P,r = p, — p,„„ and P2s = P2 Pam• In fact, use
of gauge pressure is the commonly adopted practice.
Continuing with the numerical evaluations, we have:

= — riz(V2cos 45 — ) — p28A2 cos 45 +

= — 1414 x (— 13.7) — 01124 x 105 + 0.4242 x 105
= 05055 x 105 N
Ey= — hiV2 sin 45 — p,,A, sin 45 — Mg
= — 1414 x 6.286 — 01124 x 105 — 0.5 x 1000 x 9.8
= — 0.2503 x 105 N.

The support has to oppose E. and 4 as well as the dead weight of the expander
S, = —
Sy = — Ey +
where M4 is the weight of the expander acting downwards.
92 FLUID MECHANICS

Therefore,
Sx = — 0.5055 x 105 N
and
Sy = 02503 x 105 + 20.0 x 9.81 = 02522 x 105 N
and
S= = 56492 N
at an angle of

0 = tan-' (t) = — 26.5° with the x-axis.

Example 4.2 Solve the expander problem of Example 4.1 by using a control
volume that envelops the exterior of the expander.
The control surface 1-2-3-4-1 as chosen in Fig. 4.1(e) is subjected to
atmospheric pressure, fluid pressure and momentum at the two sections intersecting
the expander inlet and outlet, and the force from the support F, and F„.
^3
\
X=45°
2(
20 m/s
CS
MA \
4

0L.
Fig. 4.1(d) Support Force Diagram. Fig. 4.1(e) Exterior Control Volume.

Hence, the conservation of momentum yields

(hil2 cos 9 — *VI) = PIA — P2gA2 cos + Fx

titV2 sin 0 = — p ryt2 sin 0 — (M + Af.)g +
Fx = M012 cos 0 — P gA2 cos 0 — PisAi
Fy = th112 sin 0 + p gA2 sin 0 + (M + Mdg (1)
The forces coming on to the support are
= — F., Ey = — F,
The resistance to be provided by the support is, therefore,
S, = — E, = F„, Sy = — Ey = Fy
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 93

Subititutioil milmatiell vital at (i) yield

= —0.5055 x103 N
Sy =0.2522 x105 N
same as were obtained in Example 4.1.
Examples 4.1 and 4.2 illustrate the choice of two alternative control volumes
for obtaining the support force. For the determination of external force required at
the support, the control volume in Example 4.2 is more convenient. On the other
hand, estimation of the external force on the fluid alone, due to interaction with the
interior of the expander, is possible only by the control volume chosen in Example 4.1.

4.32 Moving Vanes

The situation of a moving, but not accelerating, control volume is examined in
the following example.
Oomph) 4.3 Water issuing out of a stationary nozzle of 5 cm diameter at
10 m/s velocity and atmospheric pressure glides along a curved vane moving at
3 m/s along a straight line. Estimate
(i) the magnitude and direction of resultant force acting on the vane,
(ii) the magnitude and direction of the absolute velocity of water at outlet
from the vane,
(iii) the work that can be done by the vane under the action of the water jet,
(iv) change in kinetic energy of water in moving along the vane.

Nozzle
(a) Moving vane ( b) Control volume at rest
by superimposing a -u
Fig. 4.2 Fluid Flow along a Moving Vane.

Since the vane is moving away at 3 m/s, the water with a nozzle velocity of
10 m/s, approaches the vane at (V — u) = 7 m/s. If the retardation of water jet
due to friction on the vane surface is neglected, the relative velocity of water
is unchanged from inlet to outlet. Consequently, the jet cross-sectional area is
maintained all along its path.
94 mum MECHANICS

The control volume at `rest' is chosen to coincide with the interior of the
vane and exterior of the jet.
Nozzle area = x 52 =19.635 cm2
Mass of water flowing along the vane, i.e. relative to the control volume
at (b):
= pA(V — u)
=1000 x 19.635 x 10" x 7 =13.74 kg/s
F, and F, are the forces from the vane on the water jet. Since the nozzle exit
is at atmospheric pressure, the net pressure effect is zero. Hence,
/kV— u) cos 30 —[— /KV— u)] = F;
th(V — u) sin 30 — 0 = Fy
or
F; =13.74 x 7 x (1 + cos 30) =179.47 N
F;=13.74x7x0.5=481N
The forces acting on the vane are due to the reaction of F„ and F,.
R, = — F; = — 179.47 N
R,,=—F,,= -48.1N
and
R = 185304 N
481
tan a = 1794t.7 = a = 15° with the x-axis.
17
The absolute velocity of water at exit from the vane is obtained by vectorially
combining the relative velocity and the vane velocity as shown in Fig. 4.2(d).
(fr.

Rx
(c) Force diagram for
(d) Velocity triangle
the vane
at outlet
Fig. 4.2

Vo2 = u) sin 30f + [(V— u) cos 30 — u]2

Or
Vo = 43.52 + 3.062 = 4.65 m/s
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 95

.5
tan #= 106 =114
# = 48.83° with the direction of motion of the vane.

The vane can do work under the action of the force on it in the direction of its motion.
Thus
W = Rx •u=179.47 x 3NrnIs
OT
W = 538.4 watts.
The absolute velocities of water at inlet and outlet being 10 m/s and 4.65 m/s,
the change in ICE is
2 2
ICE = — )= x 1334 (4.652 — 102) = 538.4 watts.

We draw the following inferences from the above example of a moving vane.
(i) As the vane is moving away, the distance between the vane and the nozzle
is continuously increasing at the rate of u m/s. A mass of fluid equal to puA
is occupying the increased distance. Consequently, the mass of fluid reaching the
moving vane is reduced by the same amount. Conversely when the vane is moved
towards the nozzle, an apparently higher mass flow rate would be felt relative
to the control volume. The nozzle flow rate and mass flow relative to a fixed
vane are equal.
(ii) The vane imparts forces F„ and F, on water causing it to change momentum.
The reaction of these forces act on the vane. Under the action of the reactive
force, the vane is capable of doing work in the direction of its motion. A fixed
vane, of course, can do no work.
In the absence of losses, the external work so done equals the decrease in
kinetic energy of water.
This is the principle of action—Ofiluid prime-movers called 'turbines'. A turbine,
however, has to have several vanes mounted on a rotor so that when one vane
moves away under the action of the jet, another takes its position. The reactive
forces at the vanes create a continuous torque on the rotor axis and mechanical
work becomes possible.
If we had moved the vane towards the jet, the relative velocity of water would
have increased resulting in excess of kinetic energy at outlet over that at inlet.
The excess kinetic energy would equal the external work done on the vane. This
is the situation in fluid machines classified as 'pumps' or 'compressors'. This
kinetic energy gained at outlet of the vane is converted to pressure by
means of devices generally known as 'diffusers'. A diffuser acts in a manner
reverse to the nozzle. A nozzle is one that converts pressure to kinetic energy.
In Example 4.4 we shall consider the momentum change of a fluid flowing
past a series of rotating vanes, as on the rotor of a turbine.

Example (.4 Water is discharged from a fixed nozzle of 3 cm2area at a velocity

of 25 m/s to a series of rotating vanes mounted on a rotor of 50 cm diameter.
96 FLUID MECHANICS

The rotor rotational speed is 400 rpm. The inlet and outlet angles of each of
the vanes to the peripheral directions are 30° and 45° respectively. The water
enters and leaves the vane tangentially so that the flow is shockless.
Calculate: (i) the exit velocity of water and its direction, (ii) the angle of
discharge from the nozzle, and (iii) the work done by the rotor.
When the water issuing from the nozzle glides along a particular vane, the
vane gets displaced due to the reactive force. Looking from any one vane, the
condition is, therefore, unsteady. Furthermore, since a vane is mounted on the
rotor, the vane is experiencing centrifugal acceleration. Consequently, a control
volume chosen to coincide with a particular vane is non-inertial. However, the
following simplifications are physically possible.
Since there are a large number of vanes on the rotor, the position of a displaced
vane is soon taken up by another. This implies that if a control volume is chosen
in space, but having the geometry of a vane, the mass flow rate and the momentum
change across it are time independent. The fluid velocities at inlet and outlet from
this spatial or stationary control volume are equal to the absolute velocities on
a vane. Since the CV is stationary, the effects of blade accelerations are absent.
In Fig. 4.3(b), the blade shaped stationary control volume, and the velocity
diagrams at inlet and exit from a blade are shown.

Series of van es

Rotor I
\ /

Nozzle

(a) Physical model (b) Control volume

Fig. 4.3 Fluid Flow Past a Series of Moving Vanes.

Assuming the blade height to be small compared to the rotor radius, we

estimate
br.N x 400
:41 = u2 = u -60— r — 30 x 0.25 = 10.47 m/s

Nozzle outlet velocity V1 = 25 m/s

= absolute velocity at blade inlet
 ANALYSIS OF FINRE CONTROL VOLUMES 97

Mass flow rate

th=1000x 3x 10-4 x25
= 7S kg/s
The inlet and outlet velocity triangles are drawn together in Fig. 4.3(c).

u=10.47 m/s

(c) Velocity diagram

Fig. 4.3

For shockless entry to the blade, the angles of relative velocity equal those of
the blade. From the velocity triangles, we get
VI sin a = 11,1 sin 30
and
V cos a — u = V„ cos 30 = 21/1 sin a • cos 30
Of
u _ s. 17
0.4
cos a — - VI 25
= 0.4188
By squaring we get
4 cos2 a — 0.8376 cos a — 2.8246 = 0
Solution of the quadratic equation yields
cos a = 0.95, a =17.9°
as the direction of nozzle velocity w.r.t. the blade peripheral speed.
In the absenceof friction Vt2 = Vri
V1 sin a
• V'' — sin 30 = 1536 m/s
For the exit velocity triangle,
V,2 sin 45= V2 sin fi
Vr2 cos45=u+ V2 cos /3
Of

10.86 = 10.47 + 10.86 cos fi

cos $ = 0.034 $ = 87.9° is the exit velocity angle.
sin 45
V2 = Vr2 =10,868 m/s
 98 FLUID MECHANICS

Considering the conservation of momentum:

rh(V2 cos fi — VI cos a) = F,
or
Fx = 7.5(0.398 — 23.789)= —175.43 N
The force on blade is
R., = — = 175.43 N.
Under the assumption of continuous blading action, the force R. always acts at
the wheel periphery. The corresponding work done is
W = R= x u = 175.43 x 10.47 = 1836.7 watts.
The velocity triangle solutions are more conveniently obtained by drawing the
triangles to scale. The geometrical constmctions are indicated in Fig. 4.3(c).

4.3.3 Jet Propulsion

A jet aircraft works on the principle of momentum thrust. The jet plane sucks
in ambient air through an inlet at the front. The air is then compressed in a compressor
driven by a turbine. The compressed air at outlet from the compressor is used
to burn a liquid fuel in a combustion chamber, and, in the process, the pressure
and temperature of the gas increase. The gas on exit from the combustion chamber
is partially expanded in the turbine to generate work for driving the compressor.
The partially unexpanded gas at outlet from the turbine is then expanded in
a nozzle from where the gas issues out at a high velocity, and sometimes at a
slightly higher pressure than the ambient. The nozzle gas velocity being much
higher than the velocity of air at inlet, the excess of momentum of the fluid creates
a thrust to propel the aircraft.

Diffuser Compressor Turbine

Internal flow
fluid for
thrust
Combustion hamber Nozzle,
External flow
creating drag

Fig. 4.4(a) Features of a Jet Plane.

The foregoing is a description of the path and processes followed by the

air internally through the aircraft, as observed by an observer on the craft.
In addition, there is a relative motion between the exterior of the aircraft
and the atmosphere. This fluid motion on the exterior does not produce any thrust,
on the other hand creates resistance for the motion of aircraft. This resistance
is known as the 'Drag'.
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE comma VOLUMES 99

At a level flight, when the aircraft is not accelerating and the action of gravity
is at right angles to the direction of flight, the thrust is just enough to balance
the drag. The aircraft, of course, remains suspended in the air due to the 'Lift'
generated by its flight. We shall know more about lift and drag in later chapters.
For analysing the internal flow, we choose a control volume coinciding with
the interior of the aircraft. A negative V is superimposed to monitor changes with
respect to the CV. V is the velocity of aircraft in level flight.

yL,-- -----
—__ —
— — — -..
-...•
-..-....,,,
V r N
ACU•r 1 irrIl f u e I 1 Ve
1----..
I.-,
--- i 1'
Fig. 4.4(b)

The atmospheric air, tit*, enters with velocity V. The mass of gas leaving the
nozzle at V, w s.t. the aircraft is (m,, + At.). The exit plane gas pressure is
p, and area A,. F, is the external force acting on the CV due to interaction with
the aircraft interior. Hence,
(m:,+ litf,„,)Ve — 'la, V = — (p, — p.o.) A.
In practice the fuel-air ratio titheihiti, 4( 1, so that F. can be written as
F. = m,, (V, — V) + p,,A„
The thrust in the direction of aircraft motion arises due to the reaction of F. on
the aircraft body, i.e. F = — F„
F= tha, (V. — V) + p,,A, (4.7)
'it *V. is known as the 'jet thrust', p„A, the 'pressure thrust', and Ma. V as
the 'ram drag'. The 'propulsive power' is given by P = F • V.
Whereas the relative velocity of the exhaust jet is V„ its absolute velocity
is (V — V) referred to a stationary observer. Consequently, the lost kinetic energy
of the jet is tit/2 (V, — V)2. We can then define a "propulsion efficiency" as
propulsive power
71P = propulsive power + lost KE
Or
FV
71, - (4.8)
FV+i(V,—V)2

Note that the propulsion efficiency becomes high when the jet velocity is not
far from the flight speed V. But, that would mean reduction of the thrust F, by
Eq. (4.7).
100 FLUID MECHANICS

The exhaust jet is said to be fully expanded when the exhaust pressure equals
the atmospheric. Although the pressure thrust is then zero, because p., = 0, the
increased momentum of the exhaust jet is beneficial for propulsion. In any case,
the value of the pressure thrust is low compared to the momentum thrust and
it is expeditious to view F= tit(V. — V). The total energy input to the jet is then

pv 7(vir _ v)2 th
7(K2 _ v2) (4.9)

and is equal to the increase in kinetic energy of the fluid from inlet to outlet
of the aircraft.
The propulsion efficiency has then a simple form:
2V
(4.10)
ri p = K+V

Example 4.5 A jet plane on a level flight at a speed of 850 km/hr sucks in
45 kg of air per second. The air-fuel ratio is 50 and the exhaust gas leaves the
aircraft at a speed of 750 m/s relative to the craft. The exaust gas is fully expanded
to the ambient pressure. Calculate the thrust, the propulsive power and the propulsion
efficiency.
V = 850 km/hr = 2361 m/s
= 750 m/s
= 45 mg/s

latud 0.9 kg/s

F = (th t + ohm ) V, — that V + pok

Pressure thrust is zero since p,, = 0. Hence F = 45.9 x 750 — 45 x 236.1, or

F = 23800.5 N
P = FV = 23800.5 x 2361 (i)
Or
P = 5.6193 x 106 watts (ii)
Kinetic energy of the exhaust gas

1. 2
KE_ Ymrr+nl)(V, — V)
= x 45.9 x (750 — 236.1)2
= 6.0609 MW
5.6193
= 5.6193 + 6.0609 -
193+6.0609 _ 481
 AP1Allglgof FINIW CONTROL VOLUM 101
The principle of jet propulsion can also be applied to navigating ships, although
the details of equipment differ. Consider the following example.

Example 4.6 A boat moving upstream of a river has a velocity of

25 km/hr with respect to an observer on the bank. The river stream has a velocity
of 2.5 m/s. Water enters the propulsion system of the boat through an area of
0.5 m2 and leaves at the rear with a velocity of 20 m/s. The pumping power
required for the propulsion system is 400 kW. Estimate the thrust developed and
the overall efficiency.
The control volume chosen to coincide with the boat interior is set to rest
by superposing a —V3 velocity.
Assuming ambient pressure all around,
(Vi, — V,„„,e,) = X
= pAy,„, =1000 x 05 x 9.44
= 4720 kg/s
X = 4720 (20 — 9.44) = 498432 N

VR = 2.5 m /s

Boat
g= 6.9 4
m/s , V C. V. ,,i
...._
V Jet % Ai-- x
= 20 m/sN---------/
F tY Vwater=-( VC VR)
x ..—lo =9.44 m/s
( a ) Physical model (b) Control volume

Fig. 4.5

Thrust F = — X = 49843.2 N in the direction of boat motion.

Propulsive power = F • VB = 498432 x 6.94 Nm/s
= 345.9 kW
3459
= = 0.8647 = 86.47%

4.3.4 Propellers
In case of a propeller driven aircraft, the momentum change is produced in the
fluid stream outside the aircraft. A control volume encompassing the exterior is
chosen, in contrast to an 'internal' control volume of the jet plane.
The aircraft engine does work in rotating the propeller. The propeller action
increases the velocity of air relative to the aircraft from VI to V2. The excess
of momentum due to V2 propels the aircraft.
102 FLUID MECHANICS

Reverse is the situation with a wind mill, which essentially is an air screw
coupled to a generator. Whereas an engine produces work, hence a prime mover,
a generator is a work consuming device. The wind mill receives energy from
the air stream and ideally produces work equal to the difference in kinetic energy
at inlet over that at the outlet.

6 WOUt
--_Slip stream I
r--
•••1141,0
Generator •1111111.

_J 2 V1 L_...... 1 V2

L — ' F
V2 > Vi V2 < VI
(a) Air-craft propeller (b) Wind mill
Fig. 4.6 Air-Screw Action.

Consider the control volume for a wind mill. The diverging boundary is called
a slip-stream beyond which the air-screw effect is considered negligible.
The mass flow rate is given by
tit= pA1V, = pA2V2 = pAV

where A is the area and V is the air velocity at the propeller. Since pressure
is everywhere atmospheric,
= *(V2 — V1)
and the thruit on the propeller is F = F„ or
F= V2)
The propeller work
W = FV = ?kV (VI — V2)
= Loss in kinetic energy of air
. V2 — V2L
m

V= VI +V2
2
Thus
W = pAV2 (V1 — V2) = 2L(VI + V2)2 — V2)

W= (1+a)2 (1 — a) (4.11)
where a = V2/V, is the ratio of outlet to inlet air velocity.
 ‘MMLYSIS OF MIRE comma VOLUMES 103

Maximum work is generated when

dW
wEt =
pA11 [(1- a) (2a + 2) — (1+ a)2] =0
4
1
leading to ceopt = 3

= (1+ 1)2
C
l - 4). ;- inv3, (4.12)

On the other hand, the maximum kinetic energy available in the air stream at
V1 velocity for the air-screw area A is pAy (4/2).
A coefficient of power is defined as
Cp = KEW
Its maximum value is, therefore,

Cp.=(8/27)A VI 16
--s— = = 592596
+AV,

4.4 NON-INERTIAL CONTROL VOLUMES

A control volume which is accelerating with respect to a stationary observer is
called non-inertial. The external forces acting on such a CV cause momentum
change of the CV itself and of the fluid with respect to the control volume.
In the following we consider two examples of control volume under gravitational
acceleration.
4.4.1 Fro. Fall
Consider the motion of a container carrying water and falling under gravity. There
is a hole at the bottom of the container through which water could leak out.
paten

Ma

Water

1M
I
L J 4, Ve
Mg reverPa tm
(a) Free fall of a leaking liquid (b) Leaking container under
container a pull
Fig. 4.7
104 Fumb iciwocs

Choose a control volume encompassing the falling container. Assume that at any
instant the leakage rate is tit = pA,V„ where A, is the area of the hole. The container
mass with liquid is M. The external force acting on the CV is Mg due to
gravity. Hence,
Mg + mV, = Mg (4.13)
requiring that =0
In other words, water shall not leak out of the container during the free fall.
Let us now examine the dynamics of an additional external force, such as
an upward pull F, acted on the container. Let the upward acceleration be a. Then
the momentum equation becomes
Ma — F — Mg (4.14a)
If the initial mass of the container and its liquid were Mo, the mass at any
time t is
M = Mo — mt
Equation (4.14a) becomes
(M0 — pAyit) (a + g)— pA,V,2 = F
Or
pA,V,2 + pA,(a+ g)tV, —(Mo (a + g)— FJ= 0 (4.14b)
•The velocity of leakage is obtained as

— pA,(a + g)t ± ll[pA,(a + g)12 + 4A,[Mo(a + g)— Pip

= (4.15)
2pA,
Equation (4.15) yields the result of free fall:
V, = 0, if F = 0 and a = — g.
If the external force F is constant, the acceleration a would vary with time.
The velocity of the container could also be estimated using Eq. (4.14b).
Since a = dV/dt, where V is the container velocity, we can rewrite (4.14b)
as
dV F + pA,V,2
(4.16)
= Mo — pA,V,t g
For convenience we assume V, to be independent of time, and define:

Ci = F + pA,V,2
C2 = pAyi
and
— x = Mo — pA,Vit
SO that
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 105

Equation (4.16) becomes

Or
a-- -g
dr
dV = - C - gdt.

Thus,
V=— In Alto — gt
2
Substituting back, we obtain the container velocity at any time t as
(F + pAY2 )
• 1„,
V= (4.17)
PAA Ala Mo Mo
PAY.t) gt
Again we get the condition of free fall: V. = 0, if we set F = 0 and V= — gt.

4.4.2 Flight of a Rocket

Primarily a rocket motor consists of a combustion chamber, a nozzle at the
tail-end of the rocket body, and a head-end in which are located the control and
guidance mechanisms and the payload. The payload is that due to astronauts in
a space flight, or a war-head in military applications.
A rocket carries its own fuel and oxidizer, unlike a jet engine which draws
the oxygen for combustion from atmospheric air. The rocket is thus capable of
flying through the vacuum condition of the outer space.
The fuel and oxidizer together are called propellants, that may be either solid,
liquid, or a combination of solid and liquid forms known as the hybrid.
The combustion of propellants generates a gas at high pressure and temperature
that are convened to kinetic energy by passage through the nozzle. The processes
of combustion, fuel control etc. are called the `interior ballistics' of the rocket.
The discharge through the nozzle gives rise to a thrust that propels the rocket,
and the details are estimated by a study of the rocket `exterior ballistics'.
For the present purpose, we intend deriving the equation of motion of a
rocket in a vertical flight against gravity. At the beginning of flight, time
t = 0, the mass of rocket and its fuel is Mo. The fuel burning rate tit and the
gas velocity V. are assumed constant. The total mass at any time during flight
is, therefore,
M(t) = Mo — tiu (4.18a)
and the velocity is V.
The nozzle exhaust plane gas pressure is p., whereas the ambient pressure
is pm.. D is the `drag' or resistance to motion of the rocket through the
ambient atmosphere. The gravitational acceleration at an altitude z is given by

(4.18b)
g = h(R÷-Z)2
where go is the value of g on earth's surface and R the radius of the earth.
106 FLUID MECHANICS

Payload

Cornbstion
chamber
Propellants
(solid)

Nozzle

Pe
(a) Configurations (b) Control volume
Fig. 4.8 Schematic of Rocket Propulsion.

The momentum change, of the control volume ws.t. inertial reference is

M (dVIdt) whereas the fluid stream momentum variation w.r.t. the non-inertial
CV is —my,. The momentum conservation is therefore written as
dV
M — . =— Mg — D + pigA, (4.19)
Or
dV
M = (p Ai - IWO— Mg — D (4.19a)

The bracketed terms in Eq. (4.19a) is also known as the thrust F. Note that the
expression for thrust in jet propulsion Eq. (4.7) is lower by the ram drag of magnitude
m V. being the momentum of the incoming air. The ram drag is absent in rocket
propulsion as no fluid is taken in from the ambient.
Substitution of Eqs. (4.18a) and (4.18b) permits writing (4.19a) in terms of
the altitude Z as
2
d 2Z
(Mo — hit) --r = (P.A. + my.) — (mo — hit)110( D (4.20)
di
Knowing the variation of parameters, e.g., pa with altitude or drag D with altitude
and velocity, Eq. (4.20) can be integrated numerically.
Analytical, but approximate, estimations of flight velocity is made by assuming
(p.s Ai +iitV,)—D=F—D= constant, and g invariant.
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 107

In that case, Eq. (4.20) is rewritten as

42Z F — D (421a)
j— M g
Since
M=Mo — rill
dM = — thdt
and
112Z F
_ —m
D (4.21b)
dm2 g
By integration, we get
•2 dZ
m=(F—D)•InM—gM+A
w

The constant of integration A is evaluated by assuming that the rocket velocity

was zero at time r = 0, and
dZ = F D M
m
g(M0 — M)
ri! o M2
The velocity
v, =-T
dZ =—m. -w-
dZ
or
F — D In moM°nit gt
V=m (4.22)

If the actions of gravity and drag were negligible, the rocket velocity would be
p, A ) M
V= (V, „ . (4.23)
m mo — mt
Further integration of (4.22) yields

Z F—D t+ F
In Ai m) (1- In :4) — lgt2
0
(4.24)

as the altitude at a time t from `Lift-off .

Example, 4.7 A rocket before flight was subjected to static test. The force required
to hold the rocket during static test in a horizontal plane was found to be 12000 N,
when the rate of combustion of the propellants was noted as 8 kg per second
and the nozzle exit pressure atmospheric. The nozzle outlet diameter is 10 cm.
During flight, it was observed that the drag force is equal to the pressure thrust
at all altitudes. The empty mass of the rocket motor is 250 kg whereas the propellant
mass at lift-off was half the rocket empty mass.
Estimate the rocket velocity at 10 secs from lift-off, and at the end of the
powered flight, assuming constant value of g = 9.81 m/s2.
108 FLUID MECHANICS

During static test in horizontal plane, for a control volume coinciding with
the rocket exterior,
*V, = +S
Since
Pi= Paung p„ = 0
,_ 12,000
Ve 717 = —g--- = 1500 m/s
During flight
dV .
mV,=— Mg— D+

Since it is given that drag equals the pressure thrust

dV My,
a—= Vf — g = A-Int g
from where

V =Kin m M2 nit gt
Mo = M, + Mr.openoo
= 250 + 125 = 375 kg

10 secs from lift-off, M = 375 — 8 x 10 = 295 kg

375
= 1500 In -155 — 9.8 x 10
= 262.8 m/s
The duration of powered flight is

MP"Peu" 125 — 15625

fir • s
M, = = 250 kg
375
= 1500 In d-9.8x15.625
— 9.8 x 15.625
= 454.9 m/s
In considering the motion of a rocket or a moving vane or a rotor, we discussed
the cases of only linear or centrifugal acceleration of a control volume.
Apart from linear and centrifugal accelerations, a particle moving along a
curved path may also experience tangential and Coriolis accelerations. The tangential
acceleration of a particle at a radius r is r (dw/d1), if w is the angular velocity
about the centre of curvature. Coriolis acceleration arises due to an additional
motion along the radius of curvature with a velocity V,. The magnitude of this
acceleration is (2w V„) and is in the tangential direction.
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 109

A fiafi-ifiktil &MIN titiMB& i8 NMI. MOM ill IA181/1 18 WHIM

identical to the particle discussed above. In writing the Newton's laws of motion
for the fluid stream across such a control volume, the effects of these accelerations
are, indeed, to be accounted for.

4.5 CONSERVATION OF MOMENT OF MOMENTUM

The total change of moment of momentum, or simply the angular momentum, for a
control volume is estimated likewise by the sum of a surface integral for the momenta
crossing the boundary and the volume integral for the matter within the CV.
Consider the example of a blade mounted on a disk. The absolute velocities
at inlet and outlet are VI and V2; their location ri and r2 from an origin mounted
on the disk axis, and the mass flow rate m. The velocities g and V2 make

Fig. 4.9 Moment of a Momentum Action.

angles al and a2, respectively with r, and F2 . We note that the moments caused
by the momentum at inlet and outlet about the drigin 0 are
iitV2 sin a2 • r2 = yit(F2 x v2)
and
*VI sin al • = /KT; x fp
The net torque about an axis perpendicular to the plane of V and F is, therefore,
expressed as
4=6.4; x172 —11xci) (4.25a)
110 FLUID MECHANICS

Recalling that a positive area is associated with outflow whereas a negative with
inflow in the expression chit = prf • TA, we can rewrite (4.25a) in condensed form
by accounting over the control surface as:

TZ = jj p17 • a x 17) (4.25b)

Lace the variation of linear momentum or energy, the moment of momentum of

the fluid within the control volume can change as an unsteady state phenomenon
by the amount
x il)pdvol (4.25c)

Expressions at (4.25b) and (4.25c) together shall balance the moment of external
forces over the control volume. Thus

x V)pdvol + (T. x r)pV • ca = F x (4.26)

represents the conservation of moment of momentum in general. Note that when

0 coincides with 0' in Fig. 4.9, we get the torque about the rotor axis.

Example 4.8 Water flows through a bent pipe as shown in Fig. 4.10. The portion
AB is in a vertical plane whereas BCD is in a horizontal plane. The diameters
at A and D are respectively 5 and 2 centimetres; pressure 3 and 1.5 bar; inlet
velocity at A is 5 m/s. The atmospheric pressure is 1 bar. Estimate the torque
about the vertical axis through B and the direction of rotation of the pipe, if free
to do so.

Fig. 4.10
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 111

The mass flow rate of water is

in = pVI A, =1000 x 5 45)2 x1(14 = 9S17 kg/s

V2 =M l-1-= 5 x(;)2 = 31.25 m/s

Since the inlet momentum is purely in the vertical direction, the momentum in
the horizontal plane is solely due to V2 and is
m112 = 9.817 x 31.25 = 306.78 N

If the anti-clockwise torque acting on the water due to pipe action is T, the
conservation of moment of momentum leads to:
m1/2 sin a•r=r— p2s A2 sin a • r
or
T = (MV2 + P2,A2)r sill a

4- x22 x 101 x 30 x 10-2 x05

=(306.78+05x105 x -7(

= 48.37 Nm anti-clockwise.
The torque acting on the bend as reaction from water is 48.37 Nm, but clockwise.
Hence the bend will tend to rotate in the clockwise direction about the vertical
axis through OB. This is the principle of working of a lawn-sprinkler.

4.6 SUMMARY
1. The choice of a finite control volume for considering the laws of conservation
is guided by the need of the problem.
2. The closed surface bounding the control volume is known as the control
surface. Matters outside the CS are known as the 'surroundings'. External forces,
torque or work can interact only at the control surface.
3. A stationary or non-accelerating control volume is inertial, and Newton's
laws can be applied to fluid stream crossing the CS, without modification.
4. In a non-inertial control volume, the external force. is required to balance
the momentum change of the CV in addition to that of the fluid stream ws.t.
the CV.
5. The reactive force due to the passage of a fluid jet along a moving vane
is capable of producing work. The work is done by the vane when it moves away
from the jet, as in a turbine. Work has to be done on the vane in moving it
towards the fluid jet, as in a pump.
6. In a jet propulsion system, the increase of momentum of the fluid flowing
internally provides the thrust for propulsion. The external fluid produces drag.
7. In a propeller system, the external fluid is accelerated due to propeller
work and a thrust results.
112 awl) MECHANICS

8. A wind-mill works as a reversed air-saew. The wind loses kinetic energy

in doing work, and the slip-stream diverges downstream of the mill. The maximum
work possible is 5925 per cent of the available kinetic energy of the wind, and
takes place when the downstream velocity is 1/3rd of the upstream.
9. A rocket experiences no ram drag as it does not have to draw oxygen
for combustion from the atmosphere.
10. The torque on the axis of a rotor carrying a vane is due to the difference
of moment of momentum of the fluid at the vane outlet over that at the inlet.

EXERCISES

1. A tapering pipe with a 30° bend is laid on a horizontal plane. The inlet and
outlet diameters are 30 and 20 cms, pressures 5 and 2 bar absolute, when the
inlet water velocity is 12 m/s. Considering atmospheric pressure to be 1 bar, estimate
the magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on water, and of those
required to hold the bend stationary.
(Ans: 24960.2 N, 0 = 35.75°; 20552.9 N, 39.29°)
2. A jet of water impinges on a plate at an angle of O. Considering that friction
between the fluid and the plate is negligible, derive an expression for the distribution
of flow in the two directions parallel to the plate.
(Ans Q, = (1 + cos 0))

3. A metal plate, 5 mm thick, 20 an x 20 cm square, density 5000 kg/m3 is

hinged with its edge horizontal. A horizontal jet of water 10 mm diameter impinges
on the plate at a location 5 cm below the hinged edge and keeps the plate steadily
inclined at 30° to the vertical. The distance is measured along the plate. Determine
the velocity of the jet.
(Ans: 12 m/s)
4. A jet of water flows smoothly onto a stationary curved vane which
turns it through 60°. The diameter of the jet at entrance is 5 an and velocity
36 m/s. The outlet velocity is reduced to 30 m/s due to friction. Neglecting gravity
effects, and considering that the jet is exposed fully to atmospheric pressure, estimate
the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on the vane.
(Ans: 2360.7 N, 51.05°)
5. Water flows through a branched pipe laid on a horizontal plane. The schematic
and salient flow conditions are as shown in Fig. 4.11. Determine the magnitude
and direction of the force acting on the branched pipe.
(Ans: 30.08 kN, 9.54° with VI)
6. Water issues out of a stationary nozzle of area 10 cm' at a velocity of 20
m/s and strikes a blade moving linearly towards the jet at a velocity of
5 m/s. The nozzle angle a = 15° and the blade outlet angle $ = 20°. Determine
 ANALYSIS OF FINITE CONTROL VOLUMES 113

the blade inlet angle, change in the kinetic energy of water and the work done
on the blade. Draw the velocity triangles.
(Ans: p, = 120; 239.32 J/kg, 4.7864 kJ/s)

6(\ 2
Q2= 0.2 Q
2 d2 =10 cm
p2g = 0

1
VI =10 m /s
di =30 cm
Pig = 2 bar 3
Q1 = Q
45' / d3 = 20 cm
p =_ 0
39
Fig. 4.11

7. It is intended to move a mass M on wheels by impinging a jet of water on

a vane mounted on the mass, Fig. 4.12. The total mass of M and the wheel is
350 kg, and the coefficient of rolling friction 0.05. The vane angle at the top
is horizontal, while at the bottom it is 30°. The jet velocity is 15 m/s and is
discharged from a stationary nozzle of diameter 4 cm.
Estimate the starting acceleration of the mass in the horizontal direction
when
(i) the water jet enters the vane at the top, and when
(ii) the jet enters through the bottom of the vane.

Fig. 4.12

(Ans: 1.037 m/s2, 1.037 m/s2)

114 moo MECHANCS

8. A jet propelled aircraft has the nozzle exit area 0.25 m2. While flying at a
speed of 800 km/h, the air intake rate is 20 kg/s and the velocity of jet relative
to the aircraft is 475 m/s. Calculate the propulsive force and the thrust power
developed for the given conditions. State any assumption made.
(Ans: 5055.5 N, 1123.5 kW)
9.: A rocket in vertical dragless flight at 300 m/s, discharges exhaust gases
at a rate of 5 kg/s through a nozzle area of 0.5 in2. The gas velocity is 1400 m/s
relative to the rocket. The absolute pressure at exit is 9.81 x 10' N/m2
and the ambient air at 8.34 x 10' N/m2. Estimate the thrust on the rocket.
(Ans: 14.35 kN)
10. A flywheel of diameter 30 cm, mass 20 kg is supported on a vertical hollow
shaft rotating between bearings. Two compressed air lines are laid through the
shaft, and each of them terminate on a nozzle mounted on the flywheel. Each
nozzle is 5 mm in diameter and is located at the ends of a 20 cm diameter.
The nozzles face in opposite directions and discharge tangentially. The arrangement
is shown in Fig. 4.13. The flywheel rotates due to the nozzle action. Estimate:
(i) the frictional torque at flywheel support if the relative, air velocity at
nozzle exit is 45 m/s when the flywheel rotational speed is constant
at 200 rpm.
(ft) the flywheel angular acceleration at the beginning of rotation, for the
air-velocity of 60 m/s. If frictional effects are assumed to remain constant
as in (i).
Consider discharge at atmospheric pressure and the air density p = 12 kg/m3
is constant.

30 cm
20 cm

Flywheel

Fig. 4.13

(Ans: 9.54 x 10 -3 Nm, 0.033 rad/s2)

 Mechanical Energy Equation

In applying the conservation of momentum to a fluid stream across a control

volume, the mass flow rate, the velocity at either inlet or outlet, and the surface
areas were treated as known. Besides, the fluid pressure both at inlet and outlet
were prescribed. Using these as the input information, we estimated the
components of "external force" due to interaction with the control surface.
In practice, however, the effects of external force have to be overcome by
making available the pressure differential for a given flow rate. The pressure
differential is produced by devices such as a pump, .or simply an overhead
reservoir.
It is the objective of the present chapter to discuss the procedure for estimating
pressures at different points in a flow field, under certain assumptions.

5.1 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION ALONG A STREAM LINE

The influence of pressure as a normal surface force was contained in the derivation
of Elder's equation for momentum conservation, in Chapter 3. We recall here
the steady-state form of the equation along a stream line

p(VVI = — ti — pgic (5.1)

3 is the unit vector along the stream line and k the one along the vertical
z-axis.
Equation (5.1) is a vector equation balancing momentum change and
external force. Application of the force through a distance ds along the stream
line would physically imply work interaction. An equation for conservation
of energy is thus obtained by making a dot product of Eq. (5.1) with ds 1,
resulting in
pV dV = — dp — pg (i • I) ds
Since k s = cos a, where a is the angle made by the stream line with the
k• s ds = ds cos a = dz. Therefore,
vertical,

V dV = — — gdz
115
116 FLUID MECHANICS

and we obtain by integration

V2
+-1-+ gz = E, (5.2)
fa/ Wade paisolal mast Wang
wart energy wow a swam Ilse

wherein dependence of fluid density with pressure, e.g., in the case of compressible
fluids, is accounted for.
For incompressible fluids, density being constant Eq. (5.2) is written as
+ V2 + _E
gz (5.3)
P

We noted in Chapter 1 that work done by or on a system is dependent on

the path followed. Since Eq. (5.2) or (5.3) signifies work done along a stream
line, the constant of integration E, can differ from stream line to stream line.
In Eq. (5.2) or (5.3), gz and V2/2 represent respectively the potential and
kinetic energies per unit mass. The term dp/p = v dp, where v is the specific
volume, represents work done due to the motion of a fluid, or simply the "flow
work" (Chapter 1) per unit mass. The three terms together constitute the
"mechanical energy" of a fluid in motion. In other words, Eq. (5.2) or (5.3) state
conservation of mechanical energy along a stream line, and is known as the
"Bernoulli's Equation".

5.2 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION IN AN IRROTATIONAL FLOW

Under some special conditions, the constant E, is invariant from stream line to
stream line. Bernoulli's equation then becomes applicable to the entire flow field.
Consider the condition of irrotationality V x V = 0, physically implying that
angular distance between any two imaginary fluid lines remains unchanged during
the motion (Chapter 3). For a two-dimensional flow,

Vx 2(4= (au — au)

"N. W
and irrotationality means
du dv
=
The steady-state Euler's equation in the x-y plane, where y is considered as
the vertical axis, has the components

du du
p(uw + v- )= - (5.4a)

dv
+ vw). - - pg (5.4b)
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 11 7

In 13qa. (5.4a) and (5.4b), we introduce the condition of isrotationality by

making the substitutions au/ax in place of aday in Eq. (5.4a) and vice-versa
in Eq. (5.4b). This results in

du du 1
ur + v-y- = - -p- (5.5a)
x x

u gh dv (53b)
v = g
The momentum Eq. (5.5a) in the x-direction in multiplied by dr for
work interaction in the x-direction; and similarly Eq. (5.5b) by dy. Summa-
tion of the two then^ yields the conservation of energy during an arbitrary
displacement dF = dxi + dy j, as

u(d
idx + tdy)+ v(a
idx + .21
1-dy)
x y
1
(5.6a)
= (tdx I dyl g dy
The variation of a function f = y) is expressed as

df = + wdy.

In that light, Eq. (5.6a) is reduced to

u du + v dv = — —1 dp — g dy (5.6b)

The resultant velocity V is given by

1/2 = u2 + y2
Or
VdV=udu+vdv
Hence, Eq. (5.6b) implies that
1 — g dy
V dV =- —dp (5.6c)
Integrating, we get
V2 .
ff+ +gy=c

The variable y in the vertical direction is more commonly written as z, so that

we can rewrite the above equation as

5,4__V2 +gz=c
T (5.7)
118 FLUID MECHANICS

and, for the incompressible flow,

v2
+ Z-C (5.8)
p 2 - -
Equation (5.7) or (5.8) is identical to Eq. (5.2) or (5.3) and is also Bernoulli's
equation, but with a difference.
The constant of integration C is the same at any place in the irrotational
field, for we did not restrict the choice of df in evaluating the work. Invariance
of C conveys that the mechanical energy is conserved everywhere in an irrotational
flow field. E, in Eq. (5.2) or (5.3) on the other hand restricts conservation only
along a given stream line, if the flow is rotational but nonviscous. For an
irrotational flow E4 = E,, = C, where i and j represent arbitrary streamlines.
Recognising a flow to be irrotational, or nearly so, is obviously of considerable
advantage.

5.3 BERNOULLI'S EQUATION FROM THERMODYNAMIC

VIEWPOINT
Bernoulli's equation, being an equation of conservation of energy, can be derived
by purely thermodynamic considerations. The reason that we choose to consider
the thermodynamic approach here is to specify further conditions under
which Bernoulli's constant can be reckoned to be invariant in the entire flow

Consider a control volume, i.e. a "Thermodynamic Open System", in

Fig. 5.1. The mass flow rate is constant and the system is at steady-state.
Additionally assume (i) no external work, and (ii) no heat transfer across the
control surface.

6W=0 6Q = 0

r-- --------
VB
vA B— .
P
A
VA

B Horizontal
datum
Fig. 5.1 Thermodynamic Analysis for Bernoulli's Equation.

By the rust law of thermodynamics,

8Q = 8W + d (ICE + PE +
1 1
o o
(i) (i)
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 119

We then get
dKE+dPE+dh=0 (5.9a)
In addition to (i) and (ii), assume that (iii) there is no frictional effects, together
implying no change of entropy. The second law leads to
Tfis = dh - u dp
0
00)

dh=vdp=1 (5.9b)

Substituting Eq. (5.9b) in Eq. (5.9a), we get

dKE + dPE + =0
or, by integration,
f tlE V2
+ +gz=C (5.10)
P

Equation (5.10) is the same as Eq. (5.7). In other words, the fluid mechanimil
irrotationality is synonymous with the thermodynamic isentropic condition. The
condition in turn is satisfied when steady-state prevails in the absence of friction,
external work and heat exchange with the surrounding. The flow work Idplp
or plp, more frequently, although loosely, is called "pressure energy".
Bernoulli's equation is often expressed as a conservation of "total head" when
written in the form
p +
Z=H (5.11)
Pg
1 1 1
mime velocity static total
head lured lead head

Example 5.1 Water flows through a tapering pipe as shown in Fig. 5.1. The
diameter at A and B are 10 and 5 cm, and the heights above a horizontal datum
5 and 3 metres. The pressure at A is 300 kNim2. Water flow rate is 2 m3/min.
If the gravitational acceleration at the location is 9.5 mis2, estimate the pressure
at B stating the assumptions made.
Neglecting viscous effects we obtain by Bernoulli's equation

+z + +
P g A pg 2g

Area at A = z x102 -- 78.54 cm2

Area at B = 4 x 52 = 19.63 cm2

120 FLUID 1AECI4ANICS

2 x 104
V
A = 78.54 x 60 — 424 mis
VB =424x4=1696m/s

110EL
pg
1
- Wit — VA2 ) ZA )

= 16.962 — 4242
+(3-5)=1219m

PA — Pe = 1219 x 103 x 9.5 = 115.8 x 103 N/m2

pB = (300 — 115B) x 103 N/m2

=1842 IcN/m2

5.4 HYDROSTATIC, HYDRODYNAMIC, STATIC AND TOTAL

PRESSURES
If the flow through the pipe in Fig. 5.1 were stopped, the pressures indicated
at A and B would be the respective "hydrostatic pressures" (hs). Since

— Ps,, = Pg(Z Z A). (5.12)

We now propose to write the pressure at a point as the sum of two components:
hydrostatic and hydrodynamic. Substitution of the two components in Bernoulli's
equation along a stream line leads to

PAbt — Ps.+[Pei. — Pe. 112 —11

il d — —1-x--"*
2g —62 . (5.13)
Pg Pg + — Z
However, in view of Eq. (5.12), the hydrostatic pressure differentials and the body
force terms within the square brackets in Eq. (5.13) cancel each other. Hence,
A v2
lm
(5.14)
Pg 2g
Or
pV; „
+ -- = p.m -- = = Po (5.15)

Equations (5.14) and (5.15) convey the following: While pressure at a location
has both hydrostatic and hydrodynamic components, the difference in kinetic
energy or the velocity heads arise due to the hydrodynamic components only.
Alternatively, when a flow is frictionless, the sum of the flow work due to
hydrodynamic pressure and the kinetic energy is conserved along a stream line.
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 121
Of course, such conservation shall apply to the entire flow field if the flow is
hrotationg.
The hydrodynamic component is often called the "static pressure" and the
velocity term pV2/2 the "dynamic pressure". The sum of the two p + pV2/2 = Po
is known as the "total pressure". Po is conserved in an isentropic irrotational
flow.
Note the use of a confusing terminology of calling hydrodynamic pressure
as the static pressure. This is more in practice in the study of compressible flow
where, ordinarily, the contribution of body force, responsible for hydrostatic
pressure variation, is negligible owing to very low value of the density of fluid.

5.5 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN A CURVILINEAR MOTION

In several practical situations a body of fluid is constrained to follow curved paths
wherein the centrifugal body force is called into play. In some cases, the curvilinear
motion follows naturally such as due to gravity, whereas in some others it is
due to the action of external agencies. An example of the former is the draining
of water through a hole at the centre of a water basin. On the other hand, water
in a centrifugal pump is rotated by the action of the impeller and is an example
of the second kind. The former is a free curvilinear flow and the latter a forced

The conservation of mechanical energy in a curvilinear motion of a fluid

can also be expressed by Bernoulli's equation, subject to the flow being frictionless
and steady. We may allow for variation of total energy E, from stream line to
stream line so that both free and forced curvilinear flows can be accounted for.
Consider a control volume identified by the dotted lines between two stream
lines Si and S2, dr apart in Fig. 5.2. The origin of the cylindrical coordinate system
is located at 0. The flow plane is vertical, for generality, and the gravitational
body force is included.
Lengths of the control surface 1-2, 2-3, 3-4 and 4-1 are marked on the
figure. The pressure on surface 1-4 at r is taken as p, and that at other surfaces
are written down by the principle of Taylor's series. On the radial faces 1-2
and 3-4, the force owing to the pressures are resolved into mutually perpendicular
components. The force components in the tangential directions cancel each other.
The dynamic equilibrium of the control volume could be written w.r.t. an
observer on it using centrifugal force as an external force. This approach was
illustrated in Chapter 2 for the rotation of a fluid in a container. As a variation,
we shall write the equation of motion of w.r.t. the origin 0 from where the control
volume is seen to be under centripetal acceleration, and hence non-inertial. The
centripetal acceleration of magnitude V2/ r acts radially inward. Note that the
reactive centrifugal force on the CV acts outward.
Thus, with respect to 0, for unit thiclaiess perpendicular to the plane of
the flow,

mVr = P-)(r
r
+ dr)de — prde
122 FLUID MECHANICS

p.-t dr
8r
(r. dr) dir
Ss 7
/ de
rd
if-4.- -
\ 4 (P•ack) dr-c-gi 'x
/ 8r 2 2 0
S \
(7 mg
i
i
\ / 6
ti,
\ /
\ /
\ /
\ /

VIV
E
\/
v
0
Fig. 5.2 Control Volume Analysis of Curvilinear Flows.

2( + ap
p a
dr) dr + mg cosa (5.16)
dr
where a is the direction of the stream line with the vertical, the mass of the
control volume being m = p (r de • dr).
Equation (5.16) is rewritten as

1 = Ifr dr dO + 1112:2—d0)+ p(r dO dr) g cos a

p(rd0 • dr) -11 (5.17)
r

Dividing though by (r dO dr), we obtain

V2
p-r.=i+pgcosa (5.18a)

neglecting dr/r with respect to 1.

Equation (5.18a) represents a force balance. If we conceive p = pm +
the hydrostatic component shall balance the gravitational body force, for
apt. =
-pg cos a
ar
So the variation of dynamic pressure transverse to a stream line with a radius
of curvature r is expressed as
ap„,, _ pV 2
(5.18b)
ar
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 123
That is to say, the hydrodynamic pressure varies to counterbalance the centrifugal
force.
Bernoulli's equation along a stream line, on the other hand, is written as
E. V2
(5.19a)
p + gz = Es
or, in terms of pm, as
12 _E (5.19b)
p 2—
which upon differentiation yields
9E, _ 1 dpbd vaV
(5.20)
ar — p dr ar
and substitution of Eq. (5.18b) results in
dE, V 2 aV
(5.21)
dr = + ar
For ease of visualization, we considered two stream lines and the energy change
estimated in the radial direction. Since E, is constant along a stream line, the
change of E, normal to a stream line is total, and it is more general to write
Eq. (5.21) in the normal direction as

dE V 2 ,aV
= "
=
,V d kvr)
,„
(5.22)
Tr

5.5.1 Free Vortex

The energy change across a stream line has to be brought about by an external
agency. In the .event no external work is done on the fluid, yet it moves in a
curved path, Eq. (5.22) describes the trajectory of a fluid element in the following
manner
dE V d
= 7 Tr (Vr)= 0
leading to Vr = C(0).
In case the flow is axisymmetric resulting in concentric stream lines the
constant of integration C(0) = C.
Vr = C (5.23)
is said to represent the motion of a free vortex. V is the circumferential
velocity.
Since there is no variation of energy from stream line to stream line, the
flow is irrotational in most of the field. Irrotationality is deviated near the origin
r= 0, as the circumferential velocity approaches infinity, by Eq. (5.23). Bernoulli's
constant has the same value at all locations of a free vortex.
124 FLUID MECHANICS

Example 5.2 The velocity of water at the outer edge of a whirlpool where
the water level is horizontal and in the same plane as the bulk of the liquid is
2 m/s and the diameter 50 cm. Calculate the depth of water free surface at a
diameter of 10 cm from the eye of the whirlpool.
Since no external energy interaction takes place with the water of the
whirlpool, in the absence of viscous action, the motion is that of a free vortex
for which
Vr = C
Hence
2 x 2 = C or C= 0.5 m2/s
At a diameter of 10 cm,
C Cx2
V2 = = i(-177170- — mis

Fig. 5.3 Free Vortex.

The pressure everywhere on the free surface of water is atmospheric.

Applying Bernoulli's equation between 1 and 2, we get
pm, 112 ÷ 4 Aim V 2
pg 2g pg 2g. + Z2
Or

I 2
4 - = (1'2 Vi)= 2A
x 9 1 (100 — = 429 m
In a free vortex motion, the purely circumferential motion of the fluid at
the outer edge becomes a combination of circumferential and radial motion towards
the vortex core. The radial motion arises due to variation of depth in a water
whirlpool, or in general due to decrease of pressure as the circumferential velocity
is increased towards the core.
At a given radius r, the inward flow due to a radial velocity V, is Q =2/trV,
and the flow rate is conserved. The resultant of the radial and circumferential
velocity V makes an angle 0 with the circumferential direction where
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 125

tan0== T7 -1TrE
V xi
The flow path is consequently a spiral one. In practice, therefore, a free vortex
soon becomes a spiral vortex.

Example 5.3 In a flapper valve, air enters at the centre of the lower disk through
a 1 cm pipe with a velocity of 10 m/s. It then moves radially to the outer
circumference. The two disks forming the valve are each of 15 an diameter and
0.5 cm apart. The air pressure at inlet is 1.5 kN/m2 gauge. Assuming the air
density to be constant at 1.2 kg/m3, estimate the net fluid force acting on the
upper plate. The schematic and flow path of the valve is shown in Fig. 5.4.

Po
r0

V0 vo 0.5 c m
2 1 11 2
15cm13
1 cm

Ve

Fig. 5.4 Radial Flow in a Flapper Valve.

The centrally entering fluid at 1 undergoes a 90° bend to the radial direction.
The external force acting on the control surface identified at entry is in the direction
opposite to the entering fluid and equals

Fy = tfiVe

0.14r-xex1ox = 7.85 x 10-4 m3/s

m = pQ = 7.85 x 1.2 x 10-4 = 9.424 x 10-4 kg/s

The reactive force acting on the valve plate is

R = — F; = 9.424 x 10" x 10 = 9424 x 10-3 N (i)

The radial velocity at the inner radius ri is

V — 7.85 x 10-4
— , = 5 m/s
x 0.5 x 10-2 x 0.5 x
126 FLUID MECHANICS

Neglecting the loss due to bending of the stream lines, we write

Or
A — Jp, = (10 2 _ 52) = 373
p
Or

p, = 15 x 103 + 37.5 x 12 = 1545 IcN/m2

During radial flow, the velocity at a radius r is Vr = Q12ffrt and the pressure

pr - - Q )2 1 1 1
p — 2 — x 2 71 TZ

Or

p, — p, —
_ ,,,( 1
L. —
1)
r T

where
Q ll2 x 1_ 7.85 x 10-4 )2 1
X = 312 x 10-4
Trt J 7 2; r x x 10-2
In particular, the pressure at outlet is

— 1 1
PO = 3.12 x 10-4 x 104 ( 052 7.52

=1242
p. = 12.42 x 12 + 1545 x 103 =156 IEN/m2
The pressure increases parabolically to the outer radius.
Conversely, if the pressure at the outer radius was maintained atmospheric,
pressure at all inner radii would be sub-atmospheric. The net force due to the
differential of atmospheric and fluid pressures would bring the plates together.
The flow rate shall subsequently reduce due to narrower passage and higher
resistance. In turn, the pressure differential would tend to cease and plates
separated, with consequent increase of flow rate. Thus, the process shall be
oscillatory and hence the name a "flapper valve". The oscillatory discharge
characteristic of a flapper valve is utilized in several fluid control devices.
The force on any one of the valve plate due to the internal fluid pressure is

F = f r°2ffr dr p

1 1
P = CP(-5- —
T, r
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 127

C
P = q -4
where
Cp
CI = -1- + pi, c2 = Cp
r,
Hence
C dr
F = 24 rb (CI - --I-)r
ri r

= 2 yr [ ci 2
r - C2 ln r
n
or
F = NCI (r20 - 4) - 2NC2 111 °
TrI
Substituting for ci and C2, we get
Cp + pi )x(r02 - r , ) - 2irCp In —
F =H r°
r, re
The total fluid force is the sum of F at (ii) and R due to inlet fluid momentum
change

Fr= 4
C + pi )x(r20 - 4) - 2.1rCp hi l
l +R (iii)
(r ri
whereas the atmospheric pressure exerts a reverse force p,,,2r4, on the upper
plate, and Ado,(r20 - 4) on the lower plate.
Considering the upper plate alone, the net fluid force is

FN =FCp 2 2 ro 2
T + pi)n(r 0 - r , ) - 2IrCp ln — + R - p.„Irr 0
r, ri
(iv)

Reverting to the numerical values for the present problem, we may neglect
the effect of pm and calculate on the basis of gauge pressure, and get

FN - ( 312 x12 +1.545 x 103)x x10-4 (752 - 032) - 2if

0.52

x 3.12 x 1.2 x 10-4 ln .11-5-5- + 9.424 x 10-3

= x• x 1.56 x 10-' x 56 - 20.27yr x 10-4 + 9.424 x 10-3

= 27.44 - 0.006368 + 0.009424 = 27.443 N
128 FLUID MECHANICS

5.5.2 Forced Vortex

In a forced vortex work transfer between the fluid and its surrounding takes place.
Typical is the case of a fluid within the casing of a rotodynamic pump. The work
input to the pump impeller forces the fluid body to move at a particular angular
speed w. In view of the work interaction, a forced vortex motion is rotational.
The fluid velocity at a radius r is V = or, and the energy change between
the stream lines, by Eq. (5.22), is
dE V2 v ay
= r
or

dE — 2a)2r (524)
37 -

The energy change across two finite radii r1 and r2 is obtained by integration
of Eq. (5.24)
E2 — El = 0)2 (r 2 - e) (5.25a)
Or
E2 — =(VZ— V;) (5.25b)
Bernoulli's equation for each of the streamlines at n and r2 yield, on the
other hand,
p, 11
+ 2 = E, (5.26a)

_E (5.26b)
P
p + 2 — 2
In Eqs. (5.26), we may consider that either body force terms is negligible or that
the pressures are hydrodynamic.
The pressure differential between two streamlines is obtained by combining
Eqs. (5.26) and (5.25)
P2 A = (E2 — A )

P2 - PI 11 - V?
p - 2 (527a)
or
P2 — w ..2‘
2 / (5.27b)
P
Obviously, the impeller outlet has to be at a higher radius than the inlet so that
P2 > • This also results in V2 >
The total energy input (E2 — A) causes both rise in pressure and increase
in kinetic energy at the impeller outlet. Increases in the two parameters are equal
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 129

in magnitude being (11 — V7)/2. The excess kinetic energy is further recovered
as pressure "energy" by passing the fluid through a "diffuser". A diffuser is
essentially a diverging passage.

Example 5.4 Water is rotated in a pump impeller at a speed of 1500 rpm.

The inlet and outlet diameters are 15 and 45 cm and the inlet pressure is
atmospheric. Calculate the fluid pressure at outlet from the impeller, and the ideal
work input per kg of water flowing through the impeller.

x 1500
a) = x =157 rad/s
„2
P2 = tu 2 2%
-2-V2 - / I)

1572 x 10-4
2x4 (452 — 152) = 554.6 m2 /s2

P2 = A + 554.6 x 103 N/m2

Taking
= = 1 bar
P2 = + 5546) x 103 N/m2 = 6546 bar

The energy input/kg is

(11 — V;)= 2 x 554.6 k 112 /kg

=11092 Nm/kg
Applications
Bernoulli's equation is valid for steady and frictionless flow. While steady
state is often a reality, frictional effects are never absent in any flow of a real
fluid. Yet Bernoulli's equation has been applied to almost all kinds of flow
situations through a summary approximation. The approximation is in the form
of adding a loss term to the total energy at a downstream location. This is possible
since an energy equation does not require the details regarding the magnitude
and direction of a resisting force; but is satisfied if the scalar term representing
the energy dissipated due to the action of the resisting force is accounted for
quantitatively.
Consider again a fluid flowing through the control volume in Fig. 5.1.
The total head Bernoulli equation in the ideal condition is written for section
A and B as
4+z
g
.2L+11 +zz
A pg g

In order to account for the loss of energy in the flow of a real fluid, a term
hf is added at the downstream location. The Bernoulli's equation then has
130 FLUID MECHANICS

the modified form

pA V,: zA P8V; z
pg 4. 2g g
(5.28)

The loss of head arises due to viscous effects. For convenience, however, we
consider these to be of two kinds:
(i) one is due to the presence of shear stress between a solid surface and
the fluid flowing past it,
(ii) the other arising out of variation in geometric shapes.
Technically, the former is known as the "skin friction loss", and the latter
the "form drag"
Whereas both skin friction and form drag are present simultaneously in a
flow relative to a solid surface, approximations of their relative importance can
often be made. For example, when flow takes place through a smooth, long tube
of uniform cross-section, losses due to geometric variations can be regarded as
absent. Skin friction loss is the one to be considered.
On the other hand, if a fluid stream is required to move over a solid plate
whose main dimensions are perpendicular to the stream, losses will occur primarily
due to the disturbance of the stream lines. The wetted length in the flow direction
being small, skin friction is negligible. Form drag is the major loss.
In the remaining portion of this chapter we shall consider a few situation
of internal flow where losses occur due to variations in cross-sectional geometry;
length of the solid surface in the direction of flow is small by assumption.

5.6 LOSSES DUE TO GEOMETRIC CHANGES

The most common type of cross-sectional changes are in the forms of sudden
expansion or contraction to a different "diameter", and bends. Flow controlling
devices like valves are also sources of energy loss.

5.6.1 Sudden Expansion

The physical model is that of a fluid flowing from a pipe of smaller diameter
dI to a larger one d2, see Fig. 5.5.

Pe
I
Ii r---
DI I P
—Pt
par—

L___,
Ii

12
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5 Flow through a Sudden Expansion.
 liratUJEIL NEE [ERTEN 131
Flow visualization experiments have indicated that the fluid stream follows
the dotted line, and the space up to the larger pipe is filled up by eddies that
are essentially at the upstream pressure, Pe =
A control volume representing the flow process is shown in Fig. 5.5(b).
By momentum balance, we obtain that
th(V2 VI) = (PiAt P2A2) —
Of
PA2 (V1 V1V2) = A2 (PI P2)
since
fit = PAY = PA2112
In other words,

21.123" = (11 VA) (5.29)

According to the modified Bernoulli's equation, the energy balance yields
4.
pg 2g pg 2g hL
Of

A — p2 if; — 11
2g (5.30a)
= Pg
substituting for — P2)Ipg from Eq. (5.29),
17 — 11 + — 2VIV2
nz. 2g
V — 2
hL = (VI 2gV (5.30b)
is the head lost at a sudden expansion.

5.6.2 Sudden Contraction

The fluid stream approaching a sudden contraction is accelerated. The acceleration
results in a stream pressure lower than the surrounding. The effect is a temporary
compression of the fluid stream due to the pressure differential with respect to

__
,
Vi _._,
.... ....._-
A.a.. v , c I
A II --I--- A
,
,-- IC '2
1
Fig. 5.6 Flow through a Sudden Contraction.
132 FLUID MECHANICS

the external. Consequently, the fluid is not in full contact with the smaller
pipe for a short distance downstream of the contraction, see Fig. 5.6. Further
downstream, the fluid fills up the smaller pipe and normal flow continues.
The minimum cross-section occurs at a section c—c known as the
"Vera-contracts". A coefficient of contraction is defined as

C, = (5.31)

which is approximately 0.62 for a circular cross-section.

The sudden contraction loss can then be visualized as an expansion loss from
A, to A2 and is estimated by using Eq. (5.30b), as
(V — V )2
k=
By continuity,
t
v2 v2
Hence

(ra
1 —1)
2
11
or
V2
hL = 0.375-A-a-

Experiments however indicate a higher loss, and we shall use the value as

V2
hL = 0.5 -A-3- (5.32)
2g
for contraction.
Note that contraction loss could be avoided if the entry to the smaller pipe
is profiled according to the dotted streamlines up and downstream of the van-
contracts. Such shaping, or near about so, is indeed practised wherever possible.

5.6.3 Head Loss due to Bends and Valves

Loss of pressure head due to a bend or existence of a valve in a fluid line has
been determined experimentally for different orientation. The available results are
generally tabulated in the form
V2
hL = (5.33)

The values of k for some of the common arrangements are—Bend: 90°, k = 0.9
to 1; gradual taper: 20° or higher, k = 1; 15°, k = 0.75; 10°, k = 0.4; 5°,
k = 0.15.
Fully open: globe valve, k = 10; gate valve, k = 0.19; angle valve, k = 5.
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 133
Example 5.5 Water flows from a reservoir through a stepped pipe shown
schematically in Fig. 5.7. The volume flow rate is 6000 litres/min. Estimate the
head of water required in the tank for such a flow rate, neglecting pipe friction
loss but accounting for losses due to expansion and contraction. Calculate further
the force required to hold the reservoir-pipe system in position on a horizontal
plane.
Control volume

Fig. 5.7
The cross-sectional areas of the delivery pipe are:

At = 1(015)2 = 0.01767 II12

i-(0.2)2 = 0.03141 m2
A2 = r

A3 = 1(01)2 = 0.007854 m2

The velocities
0.1
= 0.01767 = 5.66 m/s
01
= 3'18 m/s
V2 = 0.03141

0.1
V3 0.007854 =12.73 m/s
Head loss at entry

h,,, =0 v2 =0.816m
Expansion loss
(112 )2 0.313 m
2g
Contraction loss
V2
by = = 4129 m
134 FLUID MECHANICS

Total head loss

hL = 5258 m
Applying Bernoulli's equation between the reservoir free surface and the pipe
outlet, we have
p
+ H = -&-.
pg1`1 +V
--t
g + hi,
Pg
Hence

H=+—
2g
Or
H = 5258 + 8259 = 13517 m
is the required water level in the reservoir.
Cbnsidering a control volume surrounding the reservoir and intersecting the
pipe in the outlet section, the momentum balance yields the force exerted by the
support on the reservoir as:

S = ritV3 = 0.1 x 103 x 1233 = 1273 N

in the direction of V3. The force on the support is - S; and the resistance to
be provided at the support is - (- S) = 1273 N in the flow direction.

5.7 FLOW MEASURING DEVICES

We now propose to consider the application of Bernoulli's equation to fluid flow
through a few devices used in measuring the flow parameters. Some of these
devices, of course, are used at times for purposes other than measurement.
Whenever possible, such alternative applications shall be indicated.

5.7.1 Pitot Tube

A pitot tube is essentially a hollow tube with a right angle bend. The opening
of the short end of the tube is aligned in the direction of flow. The fluid elements
entering the tube finally come to rest and exert a pressure equivalent to their
total energy.
In Fig. 5.8(a), the fluid has a velocity V at A and comes to rest at B in
the pitot tube. Applying Bernoulli's equation between A and B,
PV 2 (5.33a)
P8 = PA + --2—

where the pressures are written in terms of their hydrodynamic components.

A narrow tube opening into the pipe but flush with the inner surface at
C, does not affect the fluid motion, but monitors the hydrodynamic pressure
at C.
The hydrodynamic pressures at A or C are simply called the "Static Pressure",
p, (Section 5.4); and it is found that p, at A and C are equal. The pressure pit
 LIMN& ENEMY EQUATION 13§

t Pt

( a) ( b)
Fig. 5.8 Schematic of a Pitot Tube Measurement.

is further known as the "total pressure" or "stagnation pressure", p,. Thus

pV 2
Pt = p, + —2-- (5.33b)
is indicated at B.
A differential manometer between B and C therefore gives the "velocity" or
"dynamic" pressure, pV2 /2 .
The tube shown at Fig. 5.8(a) is known as a simple Pitot tube or an Impact
tube.
A Pitot-Static tube measures both the static and total pressures at a given
location simultaneously, and has the arrangement shown at Fig. 5.8(b). Pitot tubes
are made to standard specifications that vary a little with the design adopted.

5.7.2 Venturimeter
A venturimeter is in the shape of a converging-diverging short pipe. It is installed
in a flow system to estimate the rate of flow in terms of the measured pressure
differentials.
In Fig. 5.9, a venturimeter is shown in a horizontal plane. Points 1, 2, 3
identify the inlet, throat and outlet sections. pl is the pressure at inlet. Let
the superscript dash represent ideal values of the parameters at downstream
locations, and unsuperscripted ones the real values, taking into account the
frictional losses.
Assuming no friction loss, we get, by Bernoulli's equation between 1 and 2,
PI — p; _ Vi — Il; _ h, (534)
Pg 2g — '1
136 FLUID MECHANICS

TT hft
,h hf2
--
1 fi :
112

Fig. 5.9 Schematic of a Venturimeter.

Since by continuity Atli = A2V2,

V2 ( A22 =
v2 v I2 —
2g zg

(5.35a)

Q = A,A245-
Flow rate (5.35b)
7A, -=2
The bracketted terms equal a constant for a given venturimeter at a particular
geographic location, and is called the venturimeter constant C. Thus,

Q= (5.35c)
In order to account for losses, Bernoulli's equation is modified to
v2
V
=_ h (536)
pg 2g
Since (II — V;)/2g = h' is the ideal head, the measured pressure differential for
the converging section is
A P2 h; + 11/4 = Ii (5.37)
Pg
>
The expression for volumetric flow rate is, therefore, modified through a
coefficient of discharge Cd less than unity

Q=CCenik (5.38)
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 137

If measurements were carried out in the diverging portion, then

a.!EEL (5.39a)
P8 28
whereas frictional effects modify Bernoulli's equation to

yj
pg pg "12
or
P3 - P2. _
pg 2g "12
i.e.
h2 = h2 - hh (5.39b)
and
h2 <
Note that frictional effects in the diverging portion cause differential pressure
reading less than the ideal, in contrast to a higher reading for the converging
portion. Cd for the diverging portion is therefore greater than unity.

Example 5.6 Water flows through an inclined venturimeter as shown in

Fig. 5.10. The inlet and throat diameters are 10 and 5 cm, and their heights above
a horizontal datum are 50 cm and 80 cm respectively. A mercury manometer
located across the inlet and the throat indicates 12 an of Hg at a given flow

Fig. 5.10
138 FLUID MECHANICS

rate. Estimate the flow rate (i) neglecting friction loss, and (ii) when friction head
is 20% of the head indicated by the manometer. Calculate the value of Cd . Assume
that the gravitational acceleration at the location is 9.7 m/s2 p, and p2 are the
fluid pressures at the inlet and the throat. The other parameters are self-explanatory
in Fig. 5.10.
In the absence of friction, Bernoulli's equation yields

+ +4 + 17 +
2g z2
Pg Pg
Of

PI — v;
pg = + (Z2 — (i)
Manometric pressure balance about the horizontal line 0-0, on the other hand,
indicate:
Pi+ Pg(2, — ho)=P2+Pg(Z2 — ho — h)+ pH, gh
Or

-P' P2 —(141/4 1)h + (Z2 — Z,)

Pg P
Comparison of (i) and (ii) leads to

!LE..(pHs _ h
2g p (ni)

The important observation here is that a differential pressure reading gives directly
the difference of velocity head, irrespective of the orientation of the flow system.
If friction loss were included in Bernoulli's equation through /if, Eq. (i) would
have been modified to
— P2 = V2 — V1 (iv)
2g + (Z2 — 4) + 11/
Pg
and (111) to
v2 — V 2 = pH,
— 1 h — hI (v)
)
The inlet 'and throat areas are

Ai = x (0.1)2 = 0.00785 m2

A2 = x (0.05)2 = 0.00196 m2
In the ideal case,

1/ — = 2 x 9.7 x (1+6 — 1) x 0.12

= 293328 m2/s2
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 139

15V; = 293328
=13984 m/s
Q= = 0.01096 m3/s
=10.96 litres/s

Frictional loss is accounted for by using Eq. (v):

2 V2
_(Pfig 1)h- 0.2 h
2g p
Or
15V; = 1.488 x 2 x 9.7 = 28.8672
= 1.3872 m/s
Q = 0.01089 m/s = 10.89 litres/s
C 10.89 4
‘.-41 = 10.96 —
0.9936

A high value of Cd in the converging portion is a characteristic of accelerating

flow. Assumption of an ideal Cd = 1 for calculations using the pressure differential
between the inlet and the throat is often acceptable.
In the diverging portion the flow decelerates, and by Bernoulli's equation
presspre increases in the downstream direction. The fluid is then said to experience
an adverse pressure gradient.
An adverse pressure gradient for a fluid flow is similar in kinematics to the
motion of a solid rolling up a crest (hill). The kinetic energy of the solid is
continuously converted to potential energy. Additionally, part of the KE is used
up in overcoming friction. Consequently, if the initial KE of the solid was not
enough to climb up the hill all the way, at some location it will roll back.
This precisely happens with a fluid motion in adverse pressure gradient. The
`rolling back' is known as 'flow separation', and is the cause of considerable
loss. The divergence angle is usually limited to 7° for avoiding flow separation.
Imagine when a venturimeter outlet pressure equals the atmospheric. Pressure
at the throat would then be below atmospheric. A fluid can be drawn in through
a pipe connected between the throat and a sump. This is the principle of action
of a jet pump, without needing moving parts. A jet pump is a convenient device
for handling corrosive fluids and slurries. The carburetor of a petrol engine also
works on the principle of a jet pump.

Example 5.7 The inlet and throat diameters of a jet pump are 10 and 5 cm;
inlet pressure and velocity respectively 2kgf/cm2 and 5 m/s. The pump discharges
to atmosphere at 1 kgf/cm2 . Water is drawn in through a pipe at the throat from
a sump 2 m below the venturimeter. The fluid is water, both in the venturimeter
and in the sump.
140 FLUE) MECHANICS

Calculate the diameters of the venturimeter outlet and the lift pipe, if the
volumetric lift rate is 5 per cent of the main flow. Neglect frictional losses,
g= 9.6 m/s2.
The working of the jet pump in question is shown schematically in
Fig. 5.11.

vi =5 mLl r ----- _.---- •••••

a....

ij
di = 10 cm I Q 3
—11-01,...
pi 2 kgf /CM2 1rd2:5CITI Q•Cl ip.
---412 p3-41— igt/cm2
,.....j L
i I
„-- ------
11 I
I
L-----------"----

f Platm
Al

Fig. 5.11 Jet Pump.

Ai =i- x (0.1)2 = 0.00785 m2

A2 = 1 X (0.05)2 = 0.00196 m2

Q = Ay, = 0.00785 x 5 = 0.03925 m3/s

q = 0.05Q = 0.00196 m3/s
Two control volumes are shown for the sections upstream and downstream of
the throat, since the flow rates are different on the two sides.
Control Volume I:
0.03925
V21 = b6
.0 — 20 m/s
By Bernoulli's equation

Pi — P21-. 221 — V; 202 — 52

_ V—2 — = —2— =1873
P
1873 x 1000 x 10-4
P2I = Pi 9.81
= 2 —1.91= 0.09 kgf/cm2 abs
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 141

g, = 9.81 m kg/kgf s2
Control Volume II: The throat area immediately downstream of the lift pipe
shall be increased to make V2u = V21 and pm = p21. We can now drop the suffixes
for V2 and P2.
For the downstream end,
= 2;1 1.05 x:.03925 _ 0.00205
A2n m2
0
d2n = 5.12 cm (i)
Between 2 and 3
V2 — V2 __ p2p
_LT_L — p2 _ (1 — 0.09) x 9.81 x 104
1000
= 8927
V: = 202 — 2 x 8927 = 222.26
V3 = 14.90 m/s

A= _ 1.05 x 0.03925 — n.An„).76

" m2
”3 V3 14.90
and
ci3 = 5. 9 3 c m
Now apply Bernoulli's equation to the flow through the lift pipe.
2viL V2
=h.+ +Z
Pg Pg
or
V2 _ (1 — 0.09) x 9.81 x 104
2
2g 1000 x 9.6
= 7299
and
V =11838 m/s
Pipe area
a 0.05 x 0.03925
a= — 11.838 = 0.000165' m2
and
d=L4cm (iv)
In order that a jet pump shall work in practice, the pressure differential between
the sump fluid and the venturimeter throat has to be higher than the sum of the
lift pipe velocity head, vertical distance between the venturimeter and sump
(Fig. 5.9) and other. losses. In other words,

12111 21/- k (V2 + Z + losses)

P8 18
142 FLUID MECHANICS

5.7.3 Orifices
Fluid flow through an orifice at the side or bottom of a large tank is analogous
to the flow through a sudden contraction, see Section 5.6.2.

L_ _J
Fig. 5.12 Flow through an Orifice.

The change of cross-section at the orifice causes a curvature in the stream

lines of the fluid. The area A, at vena-contracta, where the stream lines
become parallel, is less than the orifice area A. The coefficient of contraction
is Cc= AC/A = 0.62, for a circular orifice.
Applying Bernoulli's equation at c—c and at the top of the fluid layer, we
have
Pg +H=E=Lm-+I
g
from which
V= 457i (5.40)
is the ideal velocity at the vena-contracta. However, owing to friction, the total
energy at c—c is less, and V„,cc, is less than 12,Ti
A coefficient of velocity C„ = V„,„„/ 2F/ is defined to account for the loss.
C„ has a value in the neighbourhood of 0.97.
The true discharge through an orifice is, therefore, given by
Q= =AC, • • lariFf
Or
Q = ACd 2gN (5.41)
coefficient of discharge, Cd, is nearly 0.6 for a circular orifice. When the orifice
Is large, the variation of head between the upper and lower edge has to be
accounted for.

Example 5.8 Water flows out of a tank through a small orifice on a vertical
wall, under a constant head of 2 meters. The orifice diameter is 2 cm. The water
jet issuing out of the orifice drops downward due to the action of gravity. It
 MUM MP RATION 143
is seen that the vertical fall is 10 cm, for a horizontal displacement of 85 cm
from the vena-contracta. Calculate
(i) coefficient of velocity,
(ii) discharge per unit time, if C,, = 0.62, and
(ill) horizontal thrust on the container due to the issue of water jet.
Take g = 9.8 m/s2.
If the actual velocity of water at vena-contracta is u the distance x travelled
by a water particle in time 4 in the horizontal direction is
x = ut (1)
Due to the action of gravity the distance travelled in the vertical direction is

y = Tgt 2 (2)

Eliminating t between (1) and (2), we have

1 x2 xz
or u = ° (3)
Y=7g 2y
However,
Vide,, =
Therefore,
r, gx2
— yid., 2y • 2gH
or

cv 4yH (4)

0.852 _ r71H =095

(i)
_14 x01x 2 —
Since
= 0.62, Cd = Ce • Cy = 0.62 x 0.95 = 0.589
Area of the orifice

4 x 0.022 = 3.14158 x 10-4 m2

a=—
The discharge
Q=Cda 2gH = 0589x314158x10-` x 2x9.8 x2
=11.585 x 10-4 m2/s
= 1.1585 litre.* (ii)
Define a control volume surrounding the container, as shown in Fig. 5.12. Let
X be the force acting on the fluid in the horizontal direction. So,
:Wm = X (5)
144 FLUID MECHANICS

in the direction of the jet.

X = pQVie, = pQ • C. •
=1000x11585 x10-4 x0.95 x11-
2)77
8x 2
= 11585 x 0.95 x 6.261 N
=689N
The thrust on the container F = —X = 6.89 N in the direction opposite to
the jet

idH
I

Fig. 5.13 Rectangular Orifice.

Exampl• 5.9 A rectangular orifice of width 1 m and height 60 cm is fitted

on to a large water tank. Calculate the discharge when the height of water over
the bottom edge of the orifice is 5 m, Cd = 0.6.
Since the orifice dimensions are significant in comparison to the water level
in the tank, the velocity of water at different sections of the orifice will vary
owing to the variation of head.
Consider a section of thickness dH in the orifice at a depth H from the top layer
of water in the tank. The velocity is liTgT/ , and the discharge through dH is
dQ = Cd1451-1 • dH
Hence the total discharge when the water heads are H1 and H2 above the top
and bottom edges of the orifice is

Q Cdbliiiii• dH
Of

Q = Cd1,42g f
Hue
dH
or
2
Q = 3- Cdb115- (H3212 - H22 ) (5.42)
In the given example,
H2 = 5 m, H1 =H2 —h=5 — 0.6 = 4.4 m,
Cd = 0.6, b=lm
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 145
Hence

Q=-5 x0.6x1 2x9.8 (5312 — 4.4312 )

= 177 x 1.95 = 3.45 m3/s

When the orifices are large, it is sometimes possible that the orifice is drowned
to a certain height in the downstream side. In such cases, the upper portion of
the orifice discharges into atmospheric pressure while the lower portion against
a hydrostatic head.

H1
H2 .L
kll__
ha
H3 = Water level in
i the downstream side
J >,,,z.
Fig. 5.14 Partially Submerged Orifice.
In Fig. 5.14, the free orifice flow according to Eq. (5.42) amounting to say
Qj takes place across a depth h1 . For the remaining depth hohe discharge, caused
by a constant head of H2, is equal to Q2 = Cd2 N2gH2. Thus the total discharge

Q = Q, + Q2 = 1 - ca2 blj2g712 (5.43)

The coefficient of discharge Cd2 in the submerged portion is slightly less than
C,, for the free portion.
Notches and Weirs are also a class of orifice, which may be rectangular,
triangular or trapezoidal in shape. The basic difference with respect to an orifice
is that a notch may not run full. The water is filled up from the bottom upto
a certain level. These are devices used for discharging water from canals and
larger water streams. Normally there should be an approach velocity of the fluid
in the upstream, and in applying Bernoulli's equation this energy has to be taken
into account. Often, however, especially for Weirs, the flow is described by
empirical relations derived purely on experimental basis.

5.7.4 Mouthpieces
It is a common practice to fit an external 'mouthpiece' on to the orifice on the
body of a container. The flow through an external mouthpiece is analysed in the
light of a sudden contraction of Section 5.6.2. The water jet after passing the
vena-contracta at c—c gradually fills up the mouthpiece and finally issues out with
the same area as the mouthpiece, improving the value of the coefficient of
contraction to unity.
146 FLUID MECHANICS

L —I.- V

Mouthpiece

Fig. 5.15 Flow through a Mouthpiece.

If we apply Bernoulli's equation to the jet at the outlet of the mouthpiece

and the top of the water layer in the tank, then
u2
Lm- + H = ++h
pg 28 (5.44)
Pg L

where hL is the loss of head in the mouthpiece. Since the mouthpiece is a pipe
of short-length, frictional loss is negligible, and the only one that matters is due
to expansion from vena-contracta

V 2(—
1 - 1)2
hL —
(V.2g
- 11)2 Cc
2g
Or

hL = 0.375 Vg (5.45)

if we assume that Cc for vena-contracta is 0.62.

Thus from Eq. (5.44),
V2
1.375 =H
Or
1
V- WI
-41375
or
V = 0.853 -girl (5.46)
yielding C. = 0.853 for a mouthpiece.
Since C, = 1, the coefficient of discharge is Cd = 0.853, as against Cd = 0.6
for an orifice; a 40 percent increase in flow rate!
The kinematic reason for the enhancement in discharge through a mouthpiece
can be appreciated by applying Bernoulli's equation to the vena-contracta and
the exit of the mouthpiece
 MERIANIGAL ENEMY EQUATION 147
V2 mV-2 h, (5.47)
pg 2g pg 28 -
Since
V2 V2
-17 + = 1.375
28
and
V2 _ 1 y v2 =2.6Tg,
V2
11 — 0.62
Eq. (5.47) gives
m V2
P „, — Pc = (2.6 —1375)
Pg
or

1225 2g
Pg
In other words, when a mouthpiece discharges to atmospheric pressure, a
partial vacuum equal to 1.225 (V2/28) is created at the vena-contracta. Conse-
quently, the discharge upto the versa-contracts takes place against a higher pressure
differential than would be with an orifice. The opposing factor, however, is the
expansion loss between the vena-contracta and the mouthpiece.
Other shapes, such as re-entrant or Borda's mouthpiece, converging and
converging-diverging mouthpieces me used to increase Ca , by decreasing the
expansion loss with respect to the vena-contracta in varying degrees.

5.8 TIME DEPENDENT FLOW

We reiterate that Bernoulli's equation is not strictly valid for unsteady flow
phenomena. However, the simplicity of the integrated energy equation has
prompted its application for estimation of the time of discharge or filling up of
a tank. Contrary to a reservoir, a tank is considered to be of finite dimensions
and hence its depth changeable with time. With a varying head, the estimations
of velocity or losses in a flow from or to a tank, using the principles of Bernoulli's
equation, are only approximate. Accuracy can, of course, be improved if
experimentally determined loss coefficients under transient conditions are intro-
duced in an analysis based on Bernoulli's equation.
With the above reservations, we discuss below a few examples of simplified
treatment of time dependent flows.

5.8.1 Discharge from a Tank

Consider a tank containing water initially to a height hi , and discharging through
an orifice on one of its vertical sides, or at the bottom, Fig. 5.16. In general
the area of the tank may be considered variable. It is A(h) at a height h above
the level of the orifice. The orifice area is a.
148 FLUID MECHANICS

Fig. 5.16 Discharge from a Tank.

Let the level of water instantaneously at height h, fall through dh in time

dt. Then the flow rate through the orifice during dt is
dq = CdaV eh
= volume loss of water in the tank
= A(— dh), since dh is a fall
or
1 dh
dt — Cdr (5.48)
Vfli
and the time taken for the liquid level to fall from a height k to h2 is
ha
- Ah-1/2 dh
T=
1Z 2g /ft
If A = constant, then
2,44
= ;5:471 (41- 2
11 471 (5.49)

Example 5.10 Water issues out of a conical tank whose radius of cross-section
varies linearly with the height from 10 cm at the bottom of the tank. The slope

1
ro-s1

V(t)
Fig. 5.17
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 149

of the tank wall with the vertical is 300. A short pipe of 2 cm diameter is fitted
at the bottom for discharging the water. Calculate the time taken for the tank
to be emptied from an initial water level of 70 cm. Assume that the pipe entry
loss coefficient is 03, and is constant at all time.
The tank radius at a height h is
r = ro + h tan 30
and

area A = + .4'12
13
Approximating by Bernoulli's equation,
L V2 A , V2
• 2g g
or

V(t) —

Discharge pipe area a = (x/4) r: = 0.785 cm2. For the discharge through the
pipe, Cc = 1, and C, is accounted through the entry loss.
aV dt = — A dh
or
2
r
dt = —(-S1
h q1.5 dh
r, + 113r, rg 7IT
or
2
di =(10 + x 0.0276

Or

dt = — 0.0276(1001"2 + h3' 2 + huldh

r = — 0.0276 (2004 + 5 en h"

bl

= 70 cm and at empty condition h2 =0

Hence
r = + 0.0276 (16733 + 5466.1 + 4508.4)
= 321.48 s = 5 min 21 s.

5.8.2 Flow of a Liquid from One Tank to Another

Consider water flowing from a tank of cross-sectional area A, to another of
area A2 through a short pipe or orifice having flow area a. Let in time dt,
150 FLUID IIIECHAt4ICEI

h-dh h
A, A
-
1, Id h2
A2

I
Q
I

Fig. 5.18 Flow between Two Tanks.

the level of water in A fall through Ai causing a rise in A2 by dh2. Then

dh2 = 4
1 -dhi
The original water levels being ii, and h2, the head causing the flow rate is
h = (hi - h2)
The new water levels are (h, - dhi ) and (h2 + dh2 ), and the differential head is

h - dh = Oh - dhi) - (h2 + dh2)

= (hi - h2) - WA + dh2)
Thus
dh = dill + dh2 .., (p.) dill (5.50)
Equating the outflow from tank A, with the discharge through the orifice, we get
Cd aVdt = - Ai At
Or
dt . A,A2 1 1 1_dh
C +A=JZTa V
since
V = 4TIFi,
We have
dt _ ( AA: 1 h-u2 dh
) Cie727
If the initial difference in levels of the tanks was H, and final H2, the dine
for the change in differential levels is obtained by integration as
. LA_. _ 1
1= Wii — HZ-
At + A2 T447; ' (5.51)
The flow from one tank to the other shall continue till the differential level is
zero, i.e. till H2 = 0 in Eq. (5.51).
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 151

5.9 SUMMARY
1. The sum of flow work, kinetic energy and potential energy in a flow field
is known as the mechanical energy.
2. In a steady, frictionless flow the total mechanical energy is conserved along
a stream line. Such conservation is expressed through the Bernoulli's equation.
Bernoulli's equation affords calculation of pressure variation along a stream line.
3. Bernoulli's constant has the same value throughout the flow field when
the fluid flow is irrotational.
4. Mutational flow is characterised by absence of friction, interaction of
external work and heat transfer with the surrounding. A thermodynamically
isentropic flow is irrotational.
5. Whereas absence of shear stress is a necessary condition for an irrotational
flow, it does not conversely mean that rotational flow is associated only with
viscous actions. Rotationality can be induced by work or heat interaction even
in an ideal flow.
6. The hydrodynamic pressure head is commonly known as the static pressure
head, and the velocity head as the dynamic head. Sum of the two is the total
head, or the corresponding pressure the total pressure. The total pressure is
conserved in an irrotational flow.
7. A free vortex is irrotational except at the origin. A forced vortex is
rotational. The radial variation of energy in a circular forced vortex flow is 2w 2r.
8. In practice, frictional effects are accounted for by adding a loss bead to
the Bernoulli's equation at the downstream location.
9. The angle of a diverging duct is kept low (usually below 7°) to avoid
flow separation. Flow separation is caused by an adverse pressure gradient
and frictional effects. The phenomenon is akin to the rolling back of a solid along
a crest due to insufficient kinetic energy for overcoming friction and gravity.
10. The coefficient of discharge of a mouthpiece is higher than that of an
equal area orifice. Kinematically this is possible because the vena-contracta
pressure in a mouthpiece is below atmospheric.

EXERCISES
1. Water flows through a tapering pipe inclined at an angle of 30° with the
horizontal, see Fig. 5.19.
At sections 1 and 2 the diameters are 30 and 10 cm, heights above ground
level 1.5 and 3.5 meters, and the velocity at 1, VI = 7m/s. The flow losses are
negligible. If the manometer M2 reads 10 an Hg, estimate the reading of Mi .
Give the values of hydrodynamic, hydrostatic, static and stagnation pressures at
each of the two locations. What would be the manometric reading if MI and
M2 were connected differentially?
(Ans: M1 = 14938; put = = 14938, p,1 = 15.121, phd2 = p,2 =
"12 = 14.974 all in mHg; zipk,= 2 m of water)
152 FLUID MECHANICS

Fig. 5.19

2. The velocity of air at the outer edge of a tornado, where the pressure is 750
mm Hg and diameter 30 metres, is 12 m/s. Calculate the velocity of air and
pressure at a radius of 2 metres from its axis. Consider the density of air to be
constant, p = 1.2 kg/m3.
(Ans: 90 m/s, 714.22 mm Hg)
3. A hydrostatic bearing is formed by arranging two circular plates of diameter
30 cm separated by a distance of 5 mm. Oil of specific gravity 0.8 flows inward
froni the periphery of the disks, and drains out through a 2 cm ID pipe at the
centre of the bottom plate. The volumetric oil flow rate is 2 litres/s and the pressure
at inlet is 200- IEN/m2 abs. If the atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, calculate the
load carrying capacity of the hexing neglecting losses and the momentum change
due to exit through the central pipe.
(Ans: 7014.6 N)
4. A tube carrying water has a horizontal portion 1.2 m long. The tube is rotated
in the horizontal plane about an axis at a distance of 50 an from one of the
vertical limbs. Calculate the difference in the level of water in the two limbs,
if the speed of rotation is 50 rpm.
(Ans: 33.46 cm)
5. A pitot-static tube at the centre of a 10 an diameter pipe is aligned in the
direction of flow. When air flows through the pipe, the differential manometer
across the pilot tube reads 6 mm of water gauge. It is known that for the air
flow under consideration, the centre line velocity is 18 per cent higher than the
average. Calculate the flow rate of air considering the coefficient of the pitot
tube as unity, and air density 1.2 kg/m3.
(Ans: 0.0791 kg/s)
 MEDIANIC,Al ENERGY EOUATON 1§3
6. A venturimeter is installed in a vertical pipeline of 20 cm ID. The inlet and
outlet diameters of the venturimeter are equal to the pipe diameter, and the throat
is 10 cm ID. The total height of the meter is 2 metres. Calculate the flow rate
or water through the pipe, when a differential manometer between the throat and
the outlet of the venturimeter reads 8.5 cm Hg. Take Ca = 1.05 and d = 9.5
m/s2.
(Ans: 38.41 litres/s)
7. A sharp edged orifice of 4 an diameter is fitted on the vertical face of a
reservoir. The level of water in the reservoir is 2 metres, and g = 9.7 m/s2. If
the measured values of C, = 0.625 and Cd = 0.61, estimate the area of cross-
section and the velocity of the jet at the vena-contracta. Find also the flow rate
for the given head.
(Ans: 7.854 cm2, 6.08 m/s, 4.774 litres/s)
8. A circular orifice of diameter d/2 is installed in a pipe of internal diameter
d. The fluid streamlines due to the presence of the orifice plate are as shown
in Fig. 5.20.

n • rinwzr LOW OW. m

1111111

111.111
rAir/ AV rm opmAw moirmAnymis

Fig. 5.20
A differential manometer between the upstream and downstream of the orifice
plate, as shown in the figure, reads a head h. Derive an expression for the flow
rate through the pipe in terms of d, h, and the densities of the working and the
manometric fluid.
Given that for an orifice plate Cd = 0.65, pipe diameter 15 cm, orifice opening
diameter 7.5 an, differential manometer reading 17 an Hg, calculate the flow
rate of water through the pipe.

(Ans: Q = 02868 Cdd 2 —1 I gh; 1922 litres/s)

154 FLUID MECHANICS

9. Water is discharged through a cylindrical mouthpiece of 5 cm ID against a

constant head of 4 m. The area of the vena-contracta is 63 percent of the
mouthpiece area. Estimate the rate of discharge, Cd, and the absolute pressure
at the vena-contracta of the mouthpiece.
(Ans: 12.92 litres/s, 0.862, 67.08 k Pa)
10. Two identical orifices are mounted on one side of a vertical tank. The height
of water above the upper orifice is 3 m. If the jets of water from the two orifices
intersect at a horizontal distance of 8 m from the tank, estimate the vertical distance
between the two orifices. Calculate also the vertical distance of the point of
intersection of the jets from the water level in the tank. Assume Cu = 1 for the
orifices.
(Ans: 2.33 m, 8.33 m)
11. A convergent-divergent mouthpiece is fitted on the vertical side of a tank
in which the level of water is 3.5 m above the mouthpiece. The throat diameter
of the mouthpiece is 2 cm, and the loss of head in the convergent and divergent
portions are respectively 1 and 4 percents of the total head. Calculate the maximum
area of the mouthpiece outlet in order that the absolute pressure at the throat
does not fall below 2.5 m. Estimate the flow rate under such condition.
Discuss the physical restrictions for deeming the outlet area further.
12. The sluice gate of a reservoir is 70 cm wide. Water discharges under a head
of 2 m above the top of the sluice gate opening. The height of the opening is
1.2 m. Calculate the discharge when
(i) the downstream water level is below the bottom of the gate opening,
and when
(ii) the downstream water level is 30 cm above the bottom of the opening.
13. A large tank of 12 m x 6 m is divided into two parts along the length. The
larger portion has the length of 8 m and the smaller 4 m. The partition wall
has an orifice 10 cm in diameter. The orifice was initially covered with a
diaphragm, when the level of water in the bigger tank was 5 m and that in the
small 1.25 m.
Calculate the time taken
(i) for the water level in the two tanks to equalize, and the total quantity
of water transferred from one to other portion; and
(ii) for 50 m3 of water to flow from the bigger to the smaller portion of
the tank.
The time is calculated in each case from the instant of rupturing the orifice
diaphragm. The coefficient of discharge for the orifice is 0.64.
14. Considering pseudo-steady state conditions under which Bernoulli's equation
may be assumed to be valid, derive an expression for the time required for the
change of water level in a reservoir from HI to H2. The tank has an inflow
at a constant rate of Q and a leakage through an orifice of area a and with a
Cd.
A tank of 60 cm diameter is being filled up by a pipe discharging 5 litres/s.
 MECHANICAL ENERGY EQUATION 155

Water leaks out at the bottom of the tank through an orifice of 2 cm diameter and
Cd = 0.62. Determine:
(i) the time taken for the water level to reach 20 an from the start of
filling.
(ii) the instantaneous velocity and quantity of leakage, and
(iii) the maximum height upto which water can be stored in the tank.
15. A pitot tube is traversed along a diameter of 18 cm duct through which air
is flowing. The average static pressure is measured over 4 wall tappings connected
in panillel, and is found to be 6 mm of Wg. The total head, h„ read by a manometer
connected to the pitot tube at varying distances, y, from the duct wall is as follows:
y in cm 2 4 8 9 12 16
h1 in mm Wg 9 13 15 16 14 10
(i) Considering that the air velocity at the solid wall must be zero due
to viscous effects, plot the velocity profile along a diameter.
(ii) Divide the duct cross-section to 5 equal areas. Using the air velocity
at the mid radius of each of these small areas, estimate the air flow
rate.
(iii) Calculate the factor to be multiplied with the velocity read by a pitot-
static tube at the duct centre, for estimating the average velocity.
Take pit =12 kg/m3, g = 9.75 m/s2
 One-Dimensional Viscous
Flow

In Chapter 3, we briefly noted two types of one-dimensional flow. For the sake
of clarity, we illustrate these in Fig. 6.1. In Fig. 6.1(a), the velocity is uniform
across the diameter at any axial location. The velocity values vary from section
to section only in inverse proportion to the area of cross-section. The profile is
not affected by the losses, and Bernoulli's equation, without modification, is
applied for estimating the axial pressure variation.

Real
profile

Ideal
profile

1/2 ,d 2
v,d v,d
v3, d3
Non-viscous (b) Viscous
Fig. 4.1 examples of One-Dimensional Flow.

Clearly, the example in Fig. 6.1(a) is an idealized one, for viscous action
will no doubt force the velocity to be zero at the solid surface. The velocity
further into the core will increase, with the maximum higher than the uniform
value, so that the area averages of the ideal and real velocity profiels across a
given section are the same fora chosen volume flow rate. Probable shapes of
the real profile are indicated above the ciftact geometry. Velocity varies 1 oth in
156
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 157
the radial and axial directions, and in reality the divergent duct flow in Fig. 6.1(a)
is a two-dimensional one, provided that there is angular symmetry.
In Fig. 6.1(b), the viscous effect confines the flow at the wall to zero velocity.
The variation is in the radial direction, the axial variation is absent since the duct
chosen is of uniform cross-section. Such conditions are satisfied, in practice, far
downstream of the inlet. The flow in this case is also one-dimensional, but realistic.
Since viscous loss is present, Bernoulli's equation cannot be applied without
modification through the addition of loss energy.
The situations when the real velocity profile does not change in the axial
direction are called 'parallel flow'. In considering the one-dimensional viscous
flow, i.e. with only one non-zero component of velocity, we are necessarily
confined to parallel flows.
Our aim is to estimate the viscous loss by considering transverse variation
of velocity. Once the loss energy is evaluated and introduced in the modified
Bernoulli's equation, the effect of transverse variation can be tacitly disregarded
in the subsequent fluid mechanical calculations.

6.1 COUETTE FLOW

Flow between two parallel flat plates, one of which is at rest and the other
moving with a velocity U_ is generally known as the Couette flow, after its
investigator.
The physical model of a plane Couette flow in which there is no superimposed
pressure gradient is the same as in Fig. 1.2 (Chapter 1), adopted for explaining
Newton's law of shear stress. In fact, the popularity of Couette flow arises from
its adoptability to model several flow conditions in practice through simple
mathematics.
One of these is the hydrodynamic lubrication in a journal bearing. In
Fig. 1.2 or 62, the upper plate may be considered to be the journal moving at
a velocity U.. = or, and the lower surface the bearing, the gap between the two
filled with a lubricant. ai is the angular speed of the journal and r its radius,
the curvature and variation of the lubricant film thickness being considered
negligible. An infinitesimal control volume of size (Ax x Ay) is chosen in the
flow field. The directions of shear stress on the A x sides have been fixed
considering that the control surface at y is tending to move at a higher velocity
than its surrounding (lower layers) and that at (y + Ay) is moving at a slower
speed with respect to the upper layers.
The conservation of momentum for the control volume is then written as

Du
p wdvol =—( 4x)Ay • 1 +( 4y)Ax • 1 (6.1a)

for unit thickness perpendicular to the plane of the flow; dvol = dx • Ay • 1.

At steady state au/at = 0, and duldr = 0 for parallel flow, yielding thereby
Dit/Dt = 0. The momentum conservation then implies simply the balance between
the pressure and the shear force:
158 FLUID MECHANICS

y= h

T. -ay
Ty d Ax
yr_ 14— P. a
P -aT
z

(a) Physical model (b) Velocity profile

Fig. 6.2 Control Volume Analysis of Couette Flow.

dr _ dp
(6.1b)

T= dP
W+
By definition, T = µ( du/dy), see Chapter 1; alternative, by kinematics of
Chapter 3, deformation 0 = du/dy.
du 1 dp
w=ii wy+L.
or
1 dp 2
U= + Cy + D (6.2a)

The constants of integration C and D are evaluated from the conditions

u=0 at y = 0 on the stationary surface (6.2b)
u = U„,, at y = h on the moving surface (6.2c)
yielding thereby
u _y h2 dp)(y y2
— ) h2 (6.3)
)
A pressure gradient parameter
h2 dp)
P = (6.4)
2µ1.1,A )

is defined for writing the velocity equation in a condensed form:

u y y2 )
1 ,. = 7-z +P (6.5)
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 159

0.1.1 Plane Gown, Flow

In the absence of a pressure gradient P = 0, we get the linear velocity profile
u_y
U., — h (6.6a)
due solely to the Newtonian shear resistance. This situation, as stated earlier,
is known as the plane or simple Couette flow. The shear stress
U.,
(6.6b)
T= P-Tt
is constant all along the fluid thickness. The external force required to push
the upper plate at U_, per unit area of the contacting surface, is also equal
to pU_Ih.

6.1.2 Favourable Pressure Gradient

The situation of decreasing pressure in the downstream direction is more
descriptively known as of a favourable pressure gradient since the fluid motion
is assisted by the external pressure.
The term dp/dx is negative and P > 0. Consequently, the fluid velocity at
a given y is higher than the corresponding plane flow value. This is shown in
Fig. 6.2(b).
By differentiating Eq. (6.5), we can write the general expression for shear
stress as
du U. (1 2y)
(6.7a)
T = PW = P -F 1 + PPu-ii - ir)
The shear stress at the two walls are
U., pPU_
TY= ° = P h + h
(6.7b)
and
U. pPU_
Tr
h (6.7c)
"= P h
In other words, the static wall shear stress is increased whereas that at the moving
wall is decreased over the plane flow value. The external force applied at the
moving wall is smaller for the favourable pressure gradient condition.

6.1.3 Adverse Pressure Gradient

The reverse situation of pressure increasing in the upstream direction is adverse
for the flow. P is negative, and the velocity everywhere is decreased compared
to the plane flow.
For some values of P, part of the velocity near the solid wall may be in
the direction opposite to the motion of the upper plate. One such situation is
shown as curve B in Fig. 6.2(b). This is likened to the 'rolling back' of the fluid
particle discussed in connection with the diverging section of the venturimeter
in Chapter 5.
160 FLUID MECHANICS

The curve A in Fig. 62(b), in this context, is the limiting or neutral one.
We note from the shape of this curve that the velocity does not change with
y in the neighbourhood of the solid wall.
Mathematically, this means that
du
Ty = 0 at y = O. (6.8)

From Eq. (6.7b), the zero gradient condition arises when

P=— 1 (6.9)
The static wall shear stress is zero and flow is said to have 'separated' there.
On the other hand, the shear resistance at the upper wall, for P = —1.
2µU.,
Y=h = (6.10)
is double the plane flow value. In other words, the external force required is
considerably increased notwithstanding the zero shear stress value on the solid wall.
In the case of a still higher adverse pressure gradient, such as for curve B,
the force requirement is further increased.

Example 6.1 In a journal-bearing arrangement, the shaft diameter is 120 mm

and the bearing ID 123 mm. The lubricant used has a viscosity of 0.096 kg/ms.
Calculate the power required to overcome friction when the shaft is rotated at
1500 rpm and is concentric with the bearing. The bearing length is 150 mm.
x 1500
w— = 157.07 rad/s
30
= cor =157.07 x 60 x 10-3 = 9.424 m/s
The circumferential pressure variation is neglected for concentric rotation of the
shaft. Physically, the situation is one of plane Couette flow. The film thickness
is h = (123 — 120)/2 =13 mm.

= µU,., = 0.096 x 9.424 = 603.13 N/m2

h 1.5 x10-3
Resisting force
F = IrDLT
= x 120 x 150 x 10-6 x60313
= 34.1 N
Power required to overcome friction
=
= 34.1 x 9.424 J/s = 32135 watts

6.2 FLOW THROUGH A PIPE

Flow of a fluid through a duct or a pipe is perhaps the most common physical
arrangement. Excat analysis is possible for such internal flows when the
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 161

(i) tfy is Mole, glom gad symmetlie, 00 flow Me is 'modem' and

MO the flow section of interest is far downstream of the inlet.
The cross-sectional momentum of a fluid in internal flow changes for some
distance from the inlet; the variation ceases far downstream in a duct of uniform
cross-section. By invoking condition we are considering the flow in such
downstream sections where it is said to be 'fully developed', essentially meaning
parallel.
The physical model for the fully developed flow through a uniform pipe is
shown in Fig. 6.3.

t "( 7---1 3
--
p
IL dp
p•a-i Ax

4t-
Entry region Fully developed region
of changing of unchanging momentum
momentum
Fig. 63 Control Volume Analysis of a Fully Developed Pipe Flow.

The pipe is shown to be horizontal for convenience. However, the result shall
be wally applicable to arbitrary orientation if it is remembered that the hydrostatic
pressure is balanced by the body force, and the hydrodynamic pressure differential
alone is responsible for the velocity head.
A control volume 1-2-3-4 of radius r and length .dx is chosen. T(r) is
the frictional shear stress at radius r. Since momentum change is zero between
1-2 and 3-4, we can write
dp d1A(r) - T(r) • P(r).dx
0 =[p - (p + a (6.11a)
so that
T(r) = -1-9) (6.11b)

The Newtonian shear stress is given by

du du
W = PT:
T /k

since the directions of increasing y and r are opposing, Fig. 6.3. Thus
du _ ( 1 dp) Kr'
dr ) 2,rr
or

u _(--
1
dp) r2
162 FLUID MECHANICS

u=0 atr=Rgives

=( 1 dp) 2
2p, W) 2
leading to

u(r) (- () • t • -1:;) (6.12)

as the fluid velocity at a radius r. The maximum velocity occurs at the pipe centre,
r = 0, and is

Um„ = .61) µ (6.13)

u r2
(6.14)
U. R2
The parabolic velocity obtained, when the shear stress is Newtonian, is known
as the Haggen-Poiseulle profile. A similar solution is obtained for flow between
parallel walled ducts. The volumetric flow rate is obtained by integration of flow
through an infinitesimal width dr at radius r,

R2 R 2
Q = j2Kr dr u(r) = 27rn—(— Ms ( —r dr
4P o R
or
n= dp )
(6.15)
)1. 811. dx

The area averaged velocity is

U'° = z2*= 418 ( Tx (6.16a)

such that
1
U„ = U.,„ (6.16b)
.
The shear stress at the pipe wall is written following Eq. (6.11) as
= :)

A D
For a circular geometry, the ratio T, = T.
The concept of a 'diameter' is used for flow geometries of different shapes,
circular and non-circular, by defining

De =p
w (6.17)
w
where A,, and P; _pre respectively the net flow area and the wetted perimeter.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 163

The generalized characteristic dimension a is 'mown as the thydraullc

diameter' that equals D for a circular pipe.
The expression for shear stress in fully developed flow through arbitrary
geometry is, thus,
+ dp)D
Tw (6.18)
4h
The work done in overcoming the shear force acting over a unit area, through
a wit distance is r,„ • 12 .1 This dissipation is expressed as a fraction of
the kinetic energy of a fluid element of unit volume at the average velocity. The
fraction is called a 'friction factor'.
1 2
= A • -2-pU„ (6.19)

A is known as the Fanning's friction factor.

The pressure loss due to friction is obtained by combination of (6.18)
and (6.19) as
dp) = 4t,, -
(6.20)

A Darcy-Weisbach friction factor f = 4A is often defined, so that the head lost

due to friction over a pipe length L is expressed as

h — p2 f LU,2,
r pg (6.21)

The h1 so estimated is then used in the modified Bernoulli's equation, disregarding

thereafter the cross-sectional variation of velocity.
Note that expressions (6.18) to (6.21) are kinematic descriptions of steady,
fully developed flows and are not restricted by the law of shear stress.
Combination of Eqs. (6.18) and (6.19) give, for a pipe, the equation
A=
pU„
Substituting for U., from Eq. (6.16a), we get

A= R 8µ
pU„ R2
Of

A =16(p )

It will be noted by substitution of the dimensions of the terms involved that

(1.11pU„D) is dimensionless, and is defined as Reynolds number

Re = PU"D (6.22)
164 FLUID MECHANICS

Hence
, 16
=— (6.23a)
Re
Or
64
= Re (6.23b)

are the values of friction factor for fully developed flow at 'moderate' rates through
a circular pipe.

6.3 LAMINAR AND TURBULENT REGIMES

We have been scrupulously specifying the flow rate to be moderate, since
experiments have indicated that when the rate exceeds a limit, Eq. 6.23(a)
or 6.23(b) is violated. These experiments were first performed by Osborne
Reynolds.
The limit of validity of 6.23(a) or 6.23(b) is set in terms of a 'critical value
of Reynolds: number'. For a pipe, the region of validity of 6.23(b) is below an
approximate value of Re = 2000. The flow is then said to be in the 'Laminar
regime' where the flow is orderly, the kinetic energy being moderately higher
than the viscous resistance.
At higher Re, the kinetic energy is much in excess and the flow develops
random fluctuations over and above its directed motion. The regime is called
'Turbulent'; (fRe) does not equal 64 anymore.
Transition to turbulent conditions is accelerated if disturbances are present
in the flow field. For Re < 2000, however, even strong disturbances do not cause
a permanent shift to turbulence. The range of Re = 2000 to 2300 is known as
the transition range. In most cases, the flow is turbulent when Re exceeds the
upper limit of 2300. By careful experimentation, however, the transition can by
delayed.
Friction factor in the turbulent regime is determined by experiments
for different degiees of roughness, LID, of the flow surface. e is the size of
roughness whereas D is the hydraulic diameter. The values are presented
in what is known as the Moody's chart, a sample of which is given in
Fig. 6.4.
So long as DD is used as the characteristic dimension, experiments confirm
that the information for pipe flow apply quantitatively to arbitrary geometries
of internal flow in the turbulent regime. This is, however, not so in the laminar
regime.
The fully developed flow, whether in the laminar or in the turbulent regime,
being characterized by unchanging cross-sectional momentum, has a velocity
profile that is same at all downstream sections. Consequently, the shear stress
remains constant at all downstream locations. In other words the pressure drop
per unit length is also constant. In fact the constancy of pressure gradient is taken
as the experimental confirmation of fully developed condition. The velocity profile
is then said to be 'similar'. •
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 165

0 025
•
0 02 Laminar Jransition
flow region Complete turbulence, rough pipes, X =
0.05
0-018 - • 0.01.
0.016 - •
0.03
_, ca 0.014 -

C/0
3 002
,c
1
-e pa 0012-
,s 0 015

Relative roughness ,
,i 0.01 - 0 01
L -Re=20( 0.008
•
0.008 - Lower • 0 006
-
0.007 -limit 0006
x Iaminai
.a 0.006 - flow 11002
c II
o 0.005 Itl I
7; III.
Laminar flow, III
i 0.004 -
X:16/Re 0.0002
Turbulent flow,
0-003 - smooth pipe 0-0001
f I. 0.079/ Re" 0.00005
0 0025 - (Blasius Low) 000005
0-00001
0.002
10 10 10 10 10.
Reynolds number, Re = P uca,D/µ

Fig. 6.4 Variation of Friction Factor with Reynolds Number (Moody's Chart).

Example 6.2 Air flows through a circular pipe of 1 cm diameter at an average

velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate the pressure drop in mm Wg over a length of 5 metres.
The flow takes place at room temperature.
At room temperature, the viscosity and density of air are:
= 1.983 x 10-5 kg/m
and
p = 1.1774 kg/m3
Hence, the Reynolds number of flow,
D _ 1374x 2x1x10-2 _ 1789
Re= ' "
1.983 x 10-5
Since Reynolds number is less than the critical value of 2000 the flow is laminar,
and the friction factor is obtained using Eq. (6.23), as
_ 64 64
— Re = 1789 — 0.0358
Head lost due to friction over 5 metres is
f LU
hf — 2gDh"2
or
h _ 0.0358 x 5 x22 3.58x 5 x2
— 3.653 mofair
2x9.8x1x10-2 9.8
166 FLUID MECHANICS

Since p = 1000 kg/m3, the head loss in terms of water gauge is

= p 3.653 x 1.1774
"1 p 1000 m Wg
= 43 mmWg

Example 6.3 Laminar fully developed flow of oil takes place through a 25 mm
pipe with a maximum velocity of 2 m/s. The dynamic viscosity of the oil is 0.007
kgf-shn2. Calculate the pressure drop over 50 metres length of the pipe.
Since the density of oil is not given, we cannot estimate the value of Reynolds
number, and therefore cannot estimate f using Eq. (6.23). On the other hand, we
know that for laminar flow through a pipe
r
U. R4
and
du 2/1 71
T„ = - 11(-3-) =
r.R R
2 x 0.007 x 2 x 1000 x 2 kgf-s m
25 m 2M s
= 224 kgf/m2
From a control volume analysis, we obtain
(PI — p2 )A = r • PL for fully developed flow
Hence, for 50 metres length of the pipe, the pressure drop is
P 4L
— P2 =- • 'AL = —51;
Of

4 x 50 x 1000
— p2 = 25 x 2.24 kgf 2

=1.792 kgf/cm2
Example 6.4 Water flows through an eccentric annular duct of cross-section
shown in Fig. 6.5. The inlet pressure is 2 x 105 N/m2 , and the flow is fully
developed. Estimate the pressure at the end of 30 metres length of the duct, if
the flow rate is 0.2 m3/s. The kinematic viscosity of water at the operating
temperature may be assumed as 10-6 m2/ s.
The wetted perimeter of the duct is
P = 2 (15 + 18) + 2 (2 + 3) cm
= 76 cm
The area available for flow is
A = (15 x 18) — (2 x 3) = 264 cm2
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS Row 167

18 cm '1 -r

/ ..1..24-cm
-

-3cm4
15 cm

Fig. 6.5 Cross-section of the Duct.

Hence the hydraulic diameter

Dh _
(4r)=1395 cm
Since the flow rate is 0.2 m3/s, the average velocity

02 4
U„ = 264 X10 = 757 m/s

757 x 13.895 x 10-2

Re = U" Dh
V 10-6

=1.052 x 106
Assuming the internal surface of the duct to be smooth, we note from Moody's
chart that for Re = 106, A = 0.003. Thus

4ALU2 0.012 x 30 x 7372

hf = —
2gDI, 2 x 9.8 x 13.895 x 10-2
= 738 m of water
and pressure loss,
4 p = pghf
= 758 x 9.8 x 103 N/m2
= 74284 N/m2
The pressure at the end of 30 metres is

p2 = pl — 4 p = (2 — 0.74284) x 105 N/m2

= L2571 x 106 N/m2
168 FLUID MECHANICS

6.4 FLOW THROUGH A CONCENTRIC ANNULUS

Fully developed flow through a concentric annulus is one of the common
occurrences in practice. The physical model and plausible control volumes are
shown in Fig. 6.6.

d'C
rr`c7 dr

(a) Physical model (b) Control volume I (b) Control volume II

Fig. 6.6 Axial Flow through a Concentric Annulus.

6.4.1 Control Volume I

In Fig. 6.6(b), we have chosen a control volume to coincide with the interior
of the outer cylinder and the exterior of the inner. We proceed by considering
the force balance on a strip at radius r, width dr.
dr
2xrr + 2x(r + dr)(r + Tdrldic + p • 2xr dr — +1.4x)22rr dr = 0
(6.24)
Of
dr 'I
+7—
=0,
neglecting (dr)2 in comparison to dr. Thus

ilF(r r) =
Of
dp
1.= /W + 7 (6.25)
where C is the constant of integration. Note that Eq. (6.25) is valid for fully
developed flow both in laminar and turbulent regimes.
In order to obtain an analytical solution, we confine to laminar flow of a
Newtonian fluid, for which r = µ (dWdr) in the region of increasing velocity,
see Fig. 6.6(a).
du_ r d C
Tr - 2µ a +
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOM/ 169

Of

+ T lnr+D (6.26)

The constants of integration C and D are evaluated from the fact that u = 0 at
r = ri and r = r2, i.e. on the solid surfaces. Thus

„ (_ d)) [.2 2, 2
. (6.27a)
" `' I ' (r2/0

2 2
=E )[(r22 — r2) + Ir2 r r
n(r2/r1 ) r2 (6.27b)

The velocity profile between the two cylinders forming the annulus is parabolic.
The radius of maximum velocity is obtained by seeking du/dr = 0.
From Eq. (6.27b),

du _( 1 dp) ,r , r22 - r2 1
T-CIT ln (r2/r,) r r2 (6.28a)

At du/dr = 0,
_ ri 1
- 2r + ln2(r2/r,) r =0
Of
2
r.2 - r,2
2 0.2/0 (6.28b)
ro
)1
Since du/dr = 0, ro also defines the circle of zero shear stress. Knowledge
of the zone of zero shear stress affords many conveniences in fluid
mechanical calculations, especially in complex flows. The advantages
stem basically from choosing a control volume to coincide with zero shear
surface.
We shall demonstrate the principle in the case of an annulus through the
control volumes shown in Fig. 6.6(c).

6.4.2 Control Volume II

Consider the control volume A between Y., and From Eq. (6.25),

r dp C
0 = TW
°
or

C= (6.29a)
170 FLUID MECHANICS

Setting u = 0 at r = r1 in Eq. (6.26), we obtain

D , r dp
In r (6.29b)
I
and
1 dp) 2 T2
0 dp r
u= -417 (r, — r ) — w In
Of

u r
IiP )
cx
[(r; - r2) + In -] (6.30)

is the expression for velocity in terms of the radius ro of the zero shear circle.
It would be readily recognised that Eq. (6.27) results by substituting for ro
in Eq. (6.30).
An expression for the velocity profile involving r2 and ro could be similarly
obtained by considering the control volume named B.
When the law of shear stress is known such as in laminar flow, or when
the geometry is a convenient one like the concentric annulus, there is no practical
reason for choosing one control volume in preference to the other.
On the other hand, in turbulent flow where the law of wall shear stress is
determined by experiments, control volume II is preferable since the measured
values at any one wall will suffice.
Similarly when a complex duct is involved, even in laminar flow, the method
of control volume II merits over the other. In Fig. 6.7, the cross-section of an
equilateral triangular duct is shown as an example. The duct is divided into six
identical sections by drawing perpendicular bisectors to the opposite sides. Such
sections are more technically called sub-channels.
Consider the sub-channel BGD. Only one solid surface is involved at BD.
BG and DG can be assumed to be zero shear stress lines due to geometrical symmetry.
The friction factor result for one sector is then suitably combined to generate
the value for the entire duct, treating that the pressure gradient for each sub-
channel is the same as for the whole duct. Since the uniformity of pressure gradient
is deviated in undeveloped flows, the sub-channel method is not recommended
for those situations.

B D C
Fig. 6.7 Sub-channel Analysis of an Equilateral Triangular Duct
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 171

1.4.0 AMP Ysiocity lino Friction Factor

The volumetric flow rate through the annulus is obtained by integrating

Q = jr22grit dr

= 2/r k LF2 [0'22

2
.
r2) La_ILL
2

(r2/0
I
r]

r2
r dr
and by substituting for u from Eq. (6.27b).
Define
2 2
B— lnr2(r2/r1rl )
Then
_
Q— A fr2 (r2r — r 3 + Br ln —
r
r2 ) dr
n
r2 tr. _ 1.4 ) ( r2 r r 2 )12
a--T± + B T ill —
= A [za- (r ;— rl f) — `—, r2 — —
4

= A (r22 — -r2) r2 B r 2 inr--L B

1
I
r
7:;r r2
but,
B rI in r = r2
2
r2 — r 2 2 r2 2
[ r2 r22 r2 2
Q = A (r22 — r 21 ) + r2ii ri y
i7F2
or
_t_2 _2
71kr; ri) 4.1)[01 r2, — (6.31a)
2 II In (r /r2)
The average velocity is

or

ur, kr22+4)+,,(r-iir:)] (6.31b)

By differentiating Eq. (6.27a), the shear stress at ri is

=
du = dp)[_ 2r, + /2 — rj (6.32a)
41 4
in (r i )
172 FWID MECHANICS

On the inside of the outer wall,

Tin P(t)rz
The negative sign indicates decrease of velocity with radius as the outer wall
is approached.

4 p,2 „, (r2-/r)
r2 1
r2 (6.32b)

The total shear force

F; = • x 2n1 + tW2 x 21rr2
1
= tlyt(r - 4)

and

/ 1.1.
=/7(r +1-2)
1)2(r2 -ri )

Or

(6.32c)
The expression (6.32c) is the same as the one obtained for the simple pipe flow,
and can be obtained simply by a control volume balance of the pressure gradients
and the average shear force.
26

24

22

20

Re
18

16

14
ao G2 0.4 0.6 ae 1.0

= r1 /r2
Fig. 6.8 Laminar Friction Factor in Concentric Annulus.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 173
Fanning's friction factor for We annulus is obtained from the definition
1
= ZIA
4

T22 r2 D
1
IOU„ 1
S)[(r22 + 2 ) + in-0.
1/1. ) —
2
Defining the teams within the brackets as [B], we get
A = 8µDh _ 44 (
2p11.181 — [B] pU„Dh
Or
4D2
ARe =
For the annulus,
ph =-2(r2 — ri)
and
16 (r2 — 02
ARe (6.33a)
f(r 2 2 T22 -1
rd + In Wr2)

or

16(1— r21 `)
ARe — (6.33b)
*2 1 - T*2
[0+i-1 )+H
In r*,

where et = Oh is the radius ratio of the annulus.

The laminar friction factor value for the annulus increases from ARe = 16
to 24 in the limits r; varying from zero to unity. The lower limit is for the
simple pipe (Fig. 6.8). Typically, ARe= 23S1 for r! = 05; A,Re can be assumed
to be 24 without much error for > 05.

Example 6.5 A single pass heat exchanger is used as on oil cooler. Cooling
water flows through the inner pipe of 2 an ID and 2.25 an OD. The outer tube
has an ID of 5 an, and oil flows axially in the annular space between the outer
and the inner pipe. The oil flow rate is 150 litres/min and the velocity of water
in the inner pipe is 9.5 cm/s. The density of water and oil are 990 kg/m3 and
880 kg/m3, whereas the kinematic viscosities are 10-6m2/s and 33 x 10-6 m2/s.
Calculate the pressure drop required on the water and the oil side, if the heat
exchanger has an effective length of 3.5 metres.

1 (52
The annular flow area = 4L - 2252) = 15.6588 cm2
174 FLUID MECHANICS

Oi l

5 rnso 1 f
-- Water 2.25 cm- 2 cm'--

Fig. 6.9

150 x 10-3
Via - -13965 m/s
60 x 15.6588 x 10-

Ph = 5 - 2.25 = 2.75 cm

Rem = = 15965 x 2.75 x 10-2

V 33 x 104
= 1330.4

x 2 x 10-2 x 10-2
Rewn= =1900
104
The Reynolds number for both water and oil flow being less that 2000, the flow
is laminar in either case.
16
= Toy - 0.0084
For the annulus,
* 225
-—5 ---0•45

= 16 x (1- 0.45)2
(fie)r = OAS 2 = 23.75
1 - 0.45
+ 0.452) +

23.75
loll = 1330.4 - 0.0178

42,fLU2
dp D

4 x 0.0178 x 880 x 35 x 159652

d - 2 x0.0275
= 10.162 lcN/m2
4 x 0.0084 x 990 x 3.5 x 0.0952
2 x 0.02
= 26.268 N/m2
 ONE-DIMENSION& VISCOUS R.OW 175
6.5 FLOW POTENTIAL AND FLOW RESISTANCE
In the light of the modified Bernoulli's equation, fluid flow through a system
takes place due to the difference of the total bead between an upstream and a
downstream station, against the losses. The flow resistance, in general, is composed
of that due to friction and due to change of geometry such as sudden expansion,
contraction, bends or presence of throttling devices like valves.
Consider flow of water from a reservoir A to a reservoir B at different levels
through a pipe, Fig. 6.10.
Patm

t
hA Oh I Patm

.L i a_

hB

ZB

Datum
,/,..z..
Fig. 6.10 Water Flow between Two Reservoirs.

Application of Bernoulli's equation between points A and B in the two

reservoirs results in

pgL+h
20 A +Z
A = 20L+h
pg +Z +hj (6.34)
The lost head
hf = loss at entry to the pipe at reservoir A
+ friction loss in the pipe
+ lost kinetic energy at entry to reservoir B
i.e.
05V2 fry2 V2
hi = + -2--ti + 1.7
or
= (1.5 f L) V;
D (6.35a)

The velocity V is more generally written in terms of the flow rate Q which is
 176 FLUID MECHANICS

constant, and the cross-sectional area

V= a
Thus

is + 1 Q2
K D) 2a 8J
Or
= RQ2 (6.33b)
defining the square bracketted terms as the flow resistance R.
The difference in water level between A and B is, on the other hand, written
in terms of the heights measured from the datum as
.dh= (hs + Zs) - (hs + Zs) = HA Hs (6.35c)
Combining (6.34), (6.35b) and (6.35c), we can write
alth= RQ2 (6.36)
''Equation (6.36) is comparable to a purely resistive electrical circuit
V = ri (6.37)
where V is 'the voltage or potential difference, r the resistance in ohms, and i
the current.
The difference, however, is that while the voltage drop in an electrical circuit
is linearly proportional to the current, the head differential in a fluid circuit is
proportional to the sqaure of the flow rate. This non-linearity imposes restrictions
for direct use of electrical network analyser for solving fluid-flow problems,
although there are ways to approximate the procedure.
Now that we recognize the nature of Eq. (6.37) in Eq. (6.36), we can represent
the flow between the stations A and B through an equivalent circuit, Fig. 6.11.

Q2 Q2
R R

—711
kHA- H
HAI IHg

Fig. 6.11 Equivalent Fluid Network.

For simplicity, we neglected variation of cross-section, or existence of bends

or valves in the pipe connecting the two reservoirs. Inclusion of these effects
only modify .the vitae of the flow resistances R; the nature of (6.35b) is not
affected. Similarly, the network concept is not restricted for flow between two
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 177
reservoir stations A and B where the fluid is stagnant. What is rcivirri k
account the total head Dar estimating Ali, Eq. (0.35c).

MaIMplit 6.6 If the pipe connecting the two reservoirs in Fig. 6.10 were made
up of two sections: 150 metres of 20 an followed by 100 metres of 15 cm diameter,
calculate the flow rate from the reservoir A to B. When HA = 6 m and He =
2 m. Given that ZA = 100 m and Zs = 4 m. Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
for both sections of the pipe is 0.015, g = 9.8 m/s2
The total loss = entry loss from A + friction loss in 150 m of 20 cm
pipe + contraction loss from 20 cm to 15 cm + friction
loss in 100 m of 15 cm pipe + exit loss in B.
Of

V2 AV; V2 f 1211, V 2
= 0.5 + 6 + 0.5 11 + 1Dg +
1.g
Suffixes 1 and 2 correspond respectively to the 20 an and 15 cm diameter pipes.
By continuity, Q= = a2V2.

1. 2 V, = 1.78V1
= (7
4
)

[03 + 0.015 2 150

hf + 0.5 x (178)2
0
0.015 x 100 x (178)2 0...,m2]
+
0.15 1°1 -21

= 48.095 V2

= 4-g (02)2 = 0.0314 m2

Of

48.095 Q2
hi = • = 2488.76e
a
Therefore,
R = 248876
The wit of R is (s2 ni-3) and is denoted Weisbach after the engineer Weisbach.
.0=HA -14=(100+6) —(4+ 2)=100m
Since
= RQ2

Q= Tigog = 02004 m3/s

Of
Q = 12027 m3/min.
178 n.uo MECHANICS

Example 6.7 Two reservoirs open to atmosphere are connected by a pipe

800 metres long. The pipe goes over a hill whose height is 6 m above the level
of water in the upper reservoir. The pipe diameter is 30 cm and A = 0.008. The
difference in water levels in the two reservoirs is 123 m. If the absolute pressure
of water anywhere in the pipe is not to fall below 12 m of Wg in order to
prevent vapour formation, calculate the length of pipe in the portion between the
upper reservoir and the hill summit, and also the discharge through the pipe.
Neglect bend losses.

Fig. 6.12

The length of pipe upstream of C is 1, and that on the downstream is 12,

1, +12 =800 m.
Considering the entry, friction and exit losses,

(14 V2 4A1V2
•= 27 + DILF

=(03+ .4±211j1.p) V2
6 ) 2g
2
= (0.5+ 010664) 11

112 44112
his + 2Dg a + 0106612) -;;
1
 ONE-01MENSIONAL viscous mow 179

V2 V2
= + h12 = (1.5 + 01066 x 800) Ts- = 8638 -5-

Ah =

V
12.5 = 86.78 -5-

'125 x2x9.8 =1.68m/s

V— 86.78

Applying Bernoulli's equation between A and C,

Eft = •EL +V2 6 + hA

pg PS +
Consider
760 x 13.6
p m =760mmHg=-15m—=10336mWg
Then

10336 =1.2 + 6+ s'uu hri

or
= 2.992
or
t682
(0.5 + 010664) x -27§1- 2992
or
0.5 + 010664 = 20.7989
or
11 = 190.42 m

Q= (03)2 x 1.68 = 01187 m3/s

= 7125 m'/min
The pipe being one of uniform cross-section, calculations on the basis of Q or
RQ2 was hot necessary.
The physical model of a section of a pipe being at a level higher than
the water in the upper reservoir is generally known as the siphon. Avoiding
vapour lock at the highest point C is of primary concern in the design of a
*bon.

6.6 FLOW THROUGH BRANCHED PIPES

In practice, flow of a fluid under a given total bead differential takes place through
several pipes joined in series and parallel. The network analogy is applicable in
all such cases.
180 FLUID LECHANICS

Consider, for example, the flow system indicated in Fig. 6.13. Water enters
a pipe at A that branches into two at B. The two branches again meet at C, and
water is discharged at D through the pipe CD.
The total head at A is HA and that at D is Hp. The total head is the sum
of the height above a common datum, the pressure head and the velocity head.
HA and Hp are shown as batteries with their negative terminals at the common
ground potential. The grounded terminals can be joined together as shown by
the dotted line, in which case (HA — HD) is the potential difference. The flow
rate Q divides into Q1 and Q2 at B which recombine at C. A, B, C and D are
the nodal points.
Conservation of volume or mass flow rate at each of the nodes, and the
pressure head equation in the form of the modified Bernoulli's equation for a
closed loop are the two relationships used for estimating the flow parameters.
These two are equivalent to the two laws of Kirchoff for an electrical network.
Q

13,d3,f3

12 ,d f2 Q2 at 11,d1, ti
}Qt

1444, f4

a
(a) Physical model (b) Equivalent network
Fig. 6.13 Flow through Branched Pipes.
Choosing the flow to a node as positive and that from the node as negative,
we can write the mass conservation as
Ztit=0 (6.38a)
or, for incompressible flow,
IQ= 0 (6.38b)
Thus in Fig. 6.13 at B,
Q - - Q2 = 0
and at C,
+ -Q= 0
Qs are the volumetric flow rates.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 464
The pressure balance for a loop is
— dh+ ERQ2 =0 (6.39a)
In writing RQ2 in (6.39a) it is tacitly assumed that the true flow is in the same
direction as shown in the figure. There is no a priori knowledge to ensure this,
however, in all situations.
In order to account for the direction of flow, and consequently the pressure
gradient, RQ2 is written as RI Q IQ, where f2 without the modulus sign sets the
direction.
Thus it is more appropriate to write
—4h+ERIQIQ=0 (6.39b)
In deriving the resistance R, we had•assumed the friction factor f to be constant.
The laminar • derivations have shown that this indeed is not true:
f = 64/Re. In general, f is dependent on flow rate, and pressure drop should better
be expressed as Ral, it being an experimentally determined index.
The general expression for pressure balance is therefore:
—4h+ERIQI"Q=0 (6.39c)
We shall demonstrate the application of Eqs. (6.38) and (6.39) to the network
in Fig. 6.13 through numerical values of the following example.

Example 6.8 In Fig. 6.13,

between AB: 13 = 100 m, d3 = 30 cm, A = 0.01
between BC0): 1, = 60 m, d, = 15 cm, 11 = 0.015
between BC(2): 12 = 100 m, d2 = 20 cm, 12 = 0.015
between CD: 14 = 150 m, d4 = 40 cm, f4 = 0.01
There are two right angled bends in each section of the loop BC, and the water
flow is caused by a pump developing 10 kgf/cm2 gauge pressure at A. The
discharge at D is at 2.5 kgfkm2 abs and the pipe network isiaid on a horizontal
plane.
Calculate the flow rate through each section of the network, and the reading
of a pressure gauge at B and C, if A= = 1 kgf/cm2 and g = 9.5 m/s2 .

1 kgf/cm2 =104 x N/m2

104 x
— m of Wg
10 x g
10 x 9.81
= — 10326 m Wg

Considering. the loop BCB in Fig. 6.13(b),

— R2Q: = 0
182 FWD MECHANICS

RIQ21 = 2 bend loss + friction loss

= leg'

= +
0.015 x 60) Q21
0.15 ) x 2g
X 2
= MI5) = 0.01767 m2

2
a2 =a (02) = 0.03141 m2

Ra2, =1347.47Q;

R2(222 = + 0.015 x 100) Q22

0.2 ) x 2g
= 506.797Q22

153
r47g =1.63Q,
Q2

Q=a+Q2= 2.63Q1
HA =11D + R3Q2 + R2Q1 +RsQ2 (1)
The total head at the pump discharge is that due to the pressure developed and
the velocity head, besides the datum difference. It would be unambiguous to
specify the pump pressure as a total pressure so that the velocity head at the
pressure measuring point is accounted for. This is, however, rarely so stated, since
total pressure measurement on a regular pipeline is inconvenient compared to the
static pressure measurement.
In the absence of specific statement, we shall take the pump pressure as the
static one. Hence

HA — 14.W + Palm + —L
112
Pg 2g

= 10326 x 11 +
a2 • 2g

HD = 10326 x 2.5 + p2
a, • 2g

a, = 4 (03)2 = 0.07068 m2

a, = 4
2 . (0.4)2 = 01256 m2
HA = 113.586 + 10535 Q2
 ONE-DIMENMONAL viacoue rum 183

HD = 25.815 + 3336Q2

R2Q22 = 506.797Q22 = 506.797 x (2.63

163)2 Q2 =.194.669Q2

R3Q2 0.010x3100
100 = 35.118Q2
a;
R4
(22 = 0.01 150 y2 = 12.511Q2
4 a4 • 2g
Using (i)
HA —HD = R3Q2 R2Q22 +
Or
113386 + 10.535Q2 — 28.815 — 3336Q2 = (194.669 + 35.118 + 12311)Q2
Or
235.099Q2 = 84.771
Q = 0.6004 m3/s
Q, = 02282 ne/s
a = 03722 m3/s
Hp =HA — R3(22
= 113.586 + 10535Q2 — 35118Q2
= 104.724 m Wg
= P• e
Pg a: • 2g
Or

P = 104.724 — 10335Q2 = 100.926 m Wg

pe = 9.774 kgf/cm2 abs.
Pressure gauge reading at B = p = 8.774 kgf/cm2
assuming that B is upstream of the junction.
Hc = HD + R4Q2

PS- — H —H Q2
pg 2g — c
= 25.815 + 3336Q2 + 12311Q2 — 3336Q2
= 30325 m Wg
Pc = 2.936 kgf/cm2 abs
= 1.936 kgf/cm2 is the gauge reading at C downstram of the bend.
184 FWD MECHANICS

Example 6.9 Water flows out of a reservoir at a height of 40 m. The first

200 m length, AB of the pipe has a 120° bend and drops through a vertical height
of 20 m. The pipe then branches into two: BC and BD. BC is 150 m long and
discharges at ground level; BD is 130 m long discharging at a height of 2 m,
both at atmospheric pressure. Calculate the diameters of the pipes AB, BC and
CD so that the discharge at the two points C and D are equal and 1000 litre/s.
Friction factor for all the pipes is f = 0.015; g = 9.8 m/s3 .

(a) Layout
=0
E

(b) Network
Fig. 6.14
Node B:
12=t2+Q2
Path OABDO:
V:
—40+RQ2 +R2(A+2+-27 =0

A potential balance between the reservoir and the branching point B yields:

—40+RQ2 +c
i+20=0
ODBCO:
2
1712
- -2 — Rai + Rai + =0 (iv)
 ONE-DILIENSIONAL viscous FLOW 185

Q =1000 +1000= 2000 litres/s = 2 m3/s

RQ2 = k V2 +05
2dg

For 120° bend, take k 1; 0.5 is the entry loss coefficient.

Re (01115 x 200-r is) Q2 2

a • 2g

4 15 + 3) Q2
12.09d4
(, 3) 03308 (0.4962 0.99241

From
RQ2 Q2 20
=
Or a • 2g
0.4962 0.9924 03308
+ + - 20
d4 (4
Or
20d5 - 0.8270d - 0.9924 = 0
Or
d3 - 0.04135d - 0.04962 = 0 (v)
The value of d is obtained by trial and error. Write
d5 - 0.04135d - 0.04962 = e (vi)
Choose d = (0.04961)16 as the first value, and iterate to obtain a negative and
a positive value of e. The value of d is then estimated by interpolation. Of course,
the solution can be obtained more rigorously by improved numerical schemes
such as Newton-Raphson's when a computer is used.
Trial No.

1 0.5484 - 0.02267
2 0.5 - 0.0390
3 0.6 0.00333
4 0.57 - 0.01302
5 038 - 0.007967
We may now linearly interpolate between d = 038 and 0.6 to make e = 0.
01)07967 x (0.6 - 058)
d=
058 (0.00333 + 0.007967)
= 0.594 m
or
d= 59.4 cm

RQ2 0.4962 4. 0.9924 = 17.4058

d4
186 FLUID MECHANICS

From (ii),
R2(A + g= 38 - RQ2
or
(03 + 0.015 x 130 + 1) 12;
2 = 38 - 17.4058
) a2 • 2g

0.5 (V:I2g) being taken as the loss for change of cross-section at B, or

(L5 195) 1
, = 20.5942
+ 3T ) 12.09d -2
or
1.5d2 + 195 = 248994
Or
d: - 0.006d2 - 0.00783 = 0
Trial No. d2
1 0.379 - 0.0022.
2 0.4 0.00001
3 0.39 - 0.00114

Therefore,
d2 =40 cm (viii)
From (iv),

RIQ21 + = 2 + (R2Q22 + ;17-

!)

Or

+ 0.015 x 150) Qf = 2 + 203942

C 4) at •
Or
225) x 1
= 22.5942
) 12.09d1
Or
154 + 225 = 273.1734
Or
ds - 0.005494 - 0.008236 = 0
Trial No.
1 0.383 - 0.0021
2 0.4 - 0.000192
3 0.41 0.001098
 OW-DIMENSIONAL viscous Flow 187

= 40 cm (ix)
which should suffice.
That 4 and d2 turned out to be equal must be considered as a matter of
coincidence in this problem.
Note further that the values of d, 4 and d2 have been calculated in this
problem to numerical exactness within a limit of accuracy. It is improbable that
pipes of varying dimensions to such calculated extent shall be available
commercially. For example, the available pipe would correspond to a d = 60 cm
and not 59.4 cm. When, and because, such practical choices have to be made,
a flow control arrangement such as a valve is installed in each pipeline for
obtaining the desired flow distribution. The control is essentially through varying
the resistances in a flow path.
Similarly, for example, if d, turned out to be, say, 38 cm whereas d2 = 40 cm,
the practical choice would be to use d, = 40 an also. But then flow would have
to be regulated through a valve.

6.7 FLOW 'THROUGH PERFORATED PIPES

In agricultural practices, perforated pipes are frequently used to irrigate the crop.
Similar situation arises in domestic water supply connections in which a large
number of tappings are provided on a trunk line to distribute water at different
locations.
It would be desirable to have an uniform water tapping rate along the length
of the trunk pipe.
Consider in Fig. 6.15 a trunk pipe with uniform draw-off compared with a
pipe of the same diameter and length but discharging at the end.
hft
h f2
t t tt1

dQ C
dx
( a ) Uniform draw-off (b) End-discharge
Fig. 6.15 Perforated Pipe Flow.
At a given section x of the perforated pipe, let the flow rate be q fora length
dx. Then the frictional loss for dx is
dh. = 112 dx
2Dga
For constant draw-off rate C,
= — Cx
188 FLUID MECHANICS

Hence

- =2Dhga - cx)
The total head loss for pipe length 1 is

hf, = --t-r .1. (Q - cx)2

2Dhga 0
Or

— QC12) (6.40a)
h11 = 2Dh ga2 (Q21 + C2 I;
Since the discharge at the free end is zero,
Q = Cl,
Substituting in (6.40a)
fie
2D gat (6.40b)
hf I 3 — 3 11/.2
where hi, corresponds to the solid pipe in Fig. 6.15(b).
If the pipe diameter varied along the length, or if the drawn off was not
constant, accounting for such situations present no difficulty in principle. The
variable are to be then included within the integral.

6.8 VENTILATION NETWORK

Distribution of air in a ventilation system through ductings is made much the
same manner as water through pipelines. The pressure and temperature variation
in ventilation designs being not significant, the air is considered incompressible.
The seeming difference, however, arises due to the presence of both forced
and induced draft fans, creating respectively positive and negative pressures, as
design requirements. Though suction and delivery pumps could as well be present
in water lines, such arrangements are relatively rare.
Furthermore, leakage of the fluid in a ventilating system is difficult to insulate
completely, and hence is taken as a design parameter. We shall demonstrate the
influence of positive and negative pressure fans, as well as the leakage in a
ventilation network solution in the following problem.

Example 6.10 The flow paths in a tube railway ventilation system are shown
schematically in Fig. 6.16. The path resistances are in SI Weisbach units when
the fan total pressures are in mm Wg. Calculate the values of parameters marked
to be needed , in the sketch, given the other values.
Quantity of air:
station inlet x = 60 m3/ s at p,= 26 mm Wg
tunnel inlet y = 50 m3/s at p, = 21 mm Wg
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 189

0
41 Tunnel
p I inlet
4

0 0 0
Station Under platform Mid-tunnel
inlet exhaust exhaust
Fig. 6.16 A Representative Ventilation Network.

underplatform exhaust w = 25 m3/s at p2 = ?

leakage u = 5 m3/s
mid-tunnel exhaust z=? at p3 = ?
Raw = Rx = 0.0072 Wb
Ry = 0.0084 Wb
leakage resistance
It = ?
R,,, = 0.027 Wb
R= = 0.00073 Wb
Conservation of mass at D:
x+y—w—z—u=0
Or
z=x+y—(w+u)
=60+50—(5+25)=80m3/s (i)
Path OABDEO:
— pi + Rix2 + R„u2 = 0 (ii)
OFDEO:
p2 — Rw2 + R„:42 = 0 (iii)
OHGDEO:
p3 — R,z2 + R,,u2 = 0 (iv)
190 FLUID MECHANICS

It is adequate if all the flow quantities are included in the equations at least once.
From Eq. (ii),

R,,u2 = pi — Rxx2
= 26 — 0.0072 x (60)2
= 0.08
R„ = 0.08/52 = 0.0032 Wb (v)
From Eq. (iv),
p3 = lizz2 — Itu2
= 0.00073 x (80)2 — 0.08
= 4592 mm Wg (vi)
From Eq. (iii),
P2= Rww 2 — R,,u2
= 0.027 x (25)2 — 0.08
= 16.795 mm Wg

6.9 HARDY CROSS METHOD

We have noted that the distribution of flow in a fluid network is estimated on
the basis of
EQ=0 at a node (6.41)
— dh+ I RIQI" -1 Q= 0 in a loop (6.42)
The calculations are begun by assuming a plausible distribution of flow which
satisfies the continuity Eq. (6.41) at each node. The assumed distributions,
however, would not ordinarily satisfy the pressure Eq. (6.42). The distribution
is then altered and iterations are carried out until both the equations are satisfied
simultaneously. The procedure proposed by Hardy Cross for such iterations results
in a quicker convergence.
In each path let the correct flow be Q0, whereas the assumed flow is Q,
and the error 4Q, i.e.
(2=Q0+ 4(2 (6.43)
Hence
Q" = Qao + n Vo- ' 4Q+ higher order teams.
The error in the pressure equation is then

ERQ=— Ah+ i or-1 Q

=(— dh+ X RiQo r i Q0)+ EnRiar i AQ (6.44)
The terms within the parentheses equal to zero, Q0 being the correct solution.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL viscous mow 191
Therefore,
ERQ
AQ — (6.45)
n Qo r
The correction to the assumed flow in a branch is —4Q, by Eq. (6.43). If a flow
path is common to several loops, the correction derived for each of the loops
will have to be added to the concerned path.
The method of Hardy Cross is convenient for solving fluid network problems
using a computer.

6.10 POWER TRANSMISSION BY A PIPELINE

The fluid conveyed by a pipeline is sometimes used for generating mechanical
power. For example, water from a reservoir under high hydrostatic bead is often
conveyed through a large pipeline to operate hydraulic turbines, generally the
impulse type. The difference of water level in the reservoir and the turbine centre
line is the available bead H. Because of friction, however, the head available
at the pipe exit is less, and say Hp at a given flow rate Q. Denoting the frictional
bead hf, we have
Hp = H — hf (6.46)
The fluid power at inlet is pQgH and that at outlet of the pipe is pQgHp. The
efficiency of power transmission is then
pQgH
— pQgHp
or
. h.„
= — (6.47)
Describing the friction head, as RQ2, the available power
P = pg (HQ — RQ3)
The optimum flow rate for maximum power is obtained as
dP
= pg (H — 3RQ2 )= 0

i.e. when the friction bead

h f .RQ2.4 (6.48)
Consequently,
„ 2H
np.p, =
and
= -spQgH
P= 3
71,fin =2 (6.49)
192 FLUB MECHANICS

In general,
RQ2
H—R---
-
Or

RQ2
= 1 --w- (6.50)

The efficiency is unity at the trivial case of Q = 0 and is zero when Q = -4-17/2
1
The transmission efficiency varies quadratically with the flow rate.

Example 6.11 The water level above the nozzle of a Pelton wheel is 500 m.
Water is conveyed to the turbine nozzle through a 300 mm diameter pipe of 4.8 km
length. The pipeline is designed for maximum power transmission, and has a
Fanning's friction coefficient A = 0.009. Calculate the water flow rate and the
available water power.
For maximum power transmission friction loss, hf = H/3 and the head
available at the nozzle is Hp = 2H/3 = 33333 m.

hf =
4ALV2

or
4 x 0.009 x 4.8 x 103 i
V = (5=3)
2 x 9.81x03
or
31.648V2 = 166.66
or
V = 2.294 m/s
The water. flow rate
Q = 4 x (03)2 x 2294 = 0.162 m3 /s
The water power
= pQgHp =103 x 0.162 x 9.81 x 33333
= 529.7 kW

6.11 FLOW THROUGH A POROUS MEDIUM

The flow of fluids in several natural processes occurs through porous media. A
medium is considered porous when it is made up of loosely arranged solid particles
with void space between them. A good example is the natural soil or sand. Flow
of ground water through the soil follows a tortuous path in the void space
obstructed by the soil particles. Such tortuous paths are also followed by the
underground flow of oil, natural gas or seepage of water through civil engineering
constructions.
 auf.15112111181111 Neuf fl8111 193
The porous medium and tortuous flow of fluid are also common to man-
made engineering practices such as in packed-beds of solids for thermal and
chemical processes, heat insulations and thermal storage.
A porous medium is characterized by:
Vs = volume of the solid particles
V0 = volume of the void space
V = total volume = Vs + V0
and poro*ity e = V„ /V.
A specific surface area S is also defined as the total area of the solid surface
per unit volume of the medium.
The flow, even though it follows a tortuous path, has the overall motion in
the direction of the impressed pressure gradient. A superficial velocity a is defined
as a = Q/A, where Q is the flow rate across the cross-sectional area A, see
Fig. 6.17. Based on experiments of seepage of water through sand-beds, Darcy
in 1856 proposed a law for the flow in a direction x as
_ k dp
u =-- (6.51)
P—
where it is the fluid viscosity. Darcy's law is strictly applicable when the fluid
velocity is low and the flow non-accelerating. In recent times, the law has been
applied to porous medium in general, and modifications have been suggested to
accommodate high velocity situations.
The coefficient k is known as the permeability of a given medium and is
a measure of the ease with which a fluid can flow through it. Obviously, a fluid
will find it easy to flow through a medium with high void space, i.e. large value
of porosity e. On the other hand, the resistance to flow will arise from the surface
area of the solid particles. In other words, k will be inversely proportional to
S.
Kozeny reasoned, on the basis of a Poiseulle flow model, that the permeability
of a medium is proportional to E3 and inversely to S.2 A generalized statement
would be to say that
kS2 = aem (6.52)
The value of a and m vary with the arrangements of particles or surfaces in a
medium and are determined experimentally. The point to note is that the
permeability k is controlled by the geometry.
We can define a Fanning's friction factor for the porous medium on the
basis of a characteristic dithension d through
dp 4P114:v
23— (6.53)
In case of a packed bed, the diameter of an average sphere representing the
particles may be used as d On the other hand, when there are axial obstructions
such as a bundle of rods arranged inside a shell, the hydraulic diameter can be
chosen for d.
194 FLUID MECHANICS

VOID

T8
_.2 - Pi - P2
dx

CROSS-SECTIOAL
AREA-A
Fig. 6.17 Porous Medium.
From Eq. (6.53), we get
A. Er d 2
Or 2PUIIV

A= 2 (6.54)
2ku„
when Darcy's expression from Eq. (6.51) is used. u,,, is the flow velocity on
the basis of the void area at a cross-section.
The flow rate is
Q= Ail = Awid u1, ,
from which we get
17 A = E
, (6.55)
U„ A
Defining a Reynolds number
Re =
and combining with Eq. (6.54), we can write
ed 2
ARe = = C (6.56)

Since both the porosity e and permeability k are determined by the size and
arrangement of the solid bodies in a medium, the value of Cis dictated by geometrical
parameters. This observation is consistent with the assumptions of the flow being
laminar and non-accelerating, see for example the results for a circular pipe or an
annulus.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 195

Example 6.12 A bundle of 7 rods, each 12 mm OD, are placed axially inside
a pipe of 54.5 mm ID. Six of the rods are arranged uniformly on a PCD of
31.5 mm and the seventh one is placed concentrically with the pipe. The laminar
friction factor Ain axial flow through the assembly was found to be A.Re = 21,
where A and Re are defined on the average velocity and the hydraulic diameter.
Treating the assembly as a porous unit calculate the values of porosity and
permeability.
Pipe area A = (x/4) x (0.0545)2 = 2.3328 x 10-3 m2
Rod cross-sectional area a = (e4) x (0.012)2 = U309 x 10-4 m2
Pipe perimeter P = x x 0.0545 = 0.1712 m
Rod perimeter p = x x 0.012 = 0.0377 m
Net flow area Al = A — 7a = 134117 x 10-3 m2
Wetted perimeter P., = P + 7p = 0.4351 m
4A,
Hydraulic diameter = p
. = 0.01417 m

A,
Porosity e = = 4= 0.6606

Using Eq. (6.55), we write

ED/2,
RRe = =C
or
eg 0.6606 x (0.01417)2
k= = 2 x 21
Therefore
Permeability k = 3.1584 x 10-6 m2.

6.12 SUMMARY
1. Viscous effects introduce variations in velocity profile in the direction transverse
to the bulk flow. One-dimensional viscous flow is hence possible only in
geometries of uniform cross-section and at sections far downstream of the entry
where momentum variation is absent.
2. In making a control volume analysis, the direction of shear stress opposing
the flow is fixed on the basis of whether the fluid layer immediately outside a
face of the CV is at a higher or lower velocity than the face.
3. Pressure increasing in the direction of flow, dp/dx> 0, is adverse as it causes
retardation of the flow. Fluid velocity near a stationary solid wall is reduced, and
sometimes reversed, under adverse pressure gradient. The condition of zero velocity
gradient, du/dy = 0, at the wall is said to be the situation of flow separation.
4. In a fully developed flow through an internal geometry, the momentum
change being zero, the pressure gradient balances the shear force. Shear stress
196 FLUID MECHANICS

in a fluid obeys Newton's shear law so long as the flow velocity is moderate.
The flow is then said to be in the laminar regime. At higher velocities, the
Newtonian shear law is not valid, in fact far exceeded, and the flow is in the
turbulent regime.
5. In internal flows, transition from laminar to turbulent does not take place
until Re > 2000. The Reynolds number is defined as
pUDh
Re =
IL
where Ph is the hydraulic diameter, = 444./P., unifying ducts of arbitrary
cross-section.
6. Whereas shear stress in laminar flow can be theoretically estimated, the
value of friction factor differs for different geometries. Turbulent shear stress
cannot be theoretically predicted. However, the friction factor values for fully
developed turbulent flow through arbitrary geometries is found to be approximately
constant at a given Reynolds number so long as Dh is used as the characteristic
dimension.
7. In internal flows, it is sometimes convenient to chbose a control volume
coinciding with the fluid surface of zero shear stress. The number of surfaces
at which the shear stress is to be estimated is then reduced. The zero shear stress
surface may either be known experimentally or guessed from geometric symmetry.
8. The internal flow of a fluid can be likened to the flow of electric current.
The pressure differential is synonymous with electric voltage, friction and other
losses with the resistance, and Q2 with current. Note that while Q is the volumetric
flow rate, the correspondence with current is Q2 .
9. It is convenient to represent the flow through a number of pipes in series
and parallel by an equivalent network. The sum of flow rate at a node in the
network is zero, the pressure differential and Z RQ2 balance each other in a closed
loop; i.e. .1 Q= 0 and — dp+ E RQ2 = O. These two are sometimes referred
to as the ICirchoff s law for flow networks.
10. In a ventilation network, both positive and negative pressure fans are
present. The system design often aims at specifying suitable dp — Q character-
istics of the fans, and resistance in the leakage path.

EXERCISES
1. Derive expressions for the velocity profile, flow rate and friction factor for
steady, laminar incompressible flow of a fluid through a parallel plate channel.
Such a flow is known as the plane Poiseulle flow.
A liquid having a dynamic viscosity it= 0.06 gm/cms flows between two fixed
horizontal plates 20 mm apart. If the average velocity of the liquid is 0.2 m/s,
estimate the shearing stress at y = 0, 5 mm and 10 mm, y measured from a wall.
Plot the velocity and shear stress distributions over the channel depth.
(Ans: 0.36, 0.18, 0.0 N/m2)
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS Flow 197

2. A rectangular plate of 1 m x 1.5 m face area is drawn over a horizontal layer

of fluid 5 mm thick and supported by a solid plate at rest. The force required
to draw the upper plate at a steady speed of 0.5 m/s is 20 newton.
Estimate the value of the dynamic viscosity of the fluid, and sketch the
velocity profile in the fluid layer.
(Ans: 0.133 kg/Ms)
3. The Reynolds number for flow of oil through a 5 cm diameter pipe is
1800. If the kinematic viscosity of the oil is v = 0.75 cm2 /s, estimate the velocity
at the pipe centre and at a radius of 1.25 cm.
(Ans: 5.4, 4.05 m/s)
4. In an experiment, air at an average velocity of 0.2 m/s is made to flow
through a concentric annulus of radii 5 and 10 cm. In another experiment water
flow takes place with the same average velocity. The flow in either case is fully
developed. If it is known that the friction factor values for laminar and turbulent
regimes are expressible respectively as A,Re = 23.8 and A. = 0.045Re-0 , calculate
the friction factor values for air and water flows. Calculate also the pressure
differentials necessary for maintaining the flows over a duct length of 100 metres.
=12 kg/m3, Na,., = 1000 kg/m3
= 16 x 10-6 m2 /s, v„„,„ =1 x 10-6 m2 /s
g = 95 m/s2,

(Ans: 0.019, 0.00378; 1.824 N/m2 , 302.4 N/m2 )

5. Water flows out of a reservoir through a horizonal pipe 50 cm diameter and
400 m long. The level of water in the reservoir is 10 m. Due to partial closure
of the pipe at the discharge end by an obstruction, the flow velocity through the
pipe is 3 m/s, and the pressure loss per unit length 135 N/m3.
Calculate the pipe friction factor and the resistance offered by the obstruction.
Estimate the flow velocity when the resistance is withdrawn completely. Neglect
entry loss, but account for exit velocity head.
(Ans: 0.015, 4.0367 m, 3.88 m/s)
6. A 30 an water mains is laid on horizontal level ground for a length of 2000 m.
The mains then branches into two 15 cm pipes each 3500 m long. In one of
the these pipes, the whole of water is drawn off unifonnly through perforations
at the rate of 1 litre/s per 100 m of the pipe. In the other, water flows out of
the pipe at the discharge end. Discharge at all locations is atmospheric. The Darcy-
Weisbach friction factor for the pipe is f = 0.012. Neglect all losses but friction.
Calculate the difference of head between each junctions of the pipe-system
and the total head required. Draw an equivalent network.
(Ans: 2.487 m; 18.66 m, 21.147 m)
7. Two reservoirs 5.2 km apart are connected by a pipeline which consists of
a 225 mm pipe for the first 1.6 km, sloping at 5.7 m per km. For the remaining
distance the pipe diameter is 150 mm laid at a slope of 1.9 m per km. The levels
198 FLUID MECHANICS

of water above pipe openings are 6 in in the upper reservoir and 3.7 m in the
lower. Taking A = 0.006, calculate the discharge through the pipeline, ignoring
losses other than friction.
8. Two points A and B at the ground level were supplied equal quantity of water
through branched pipes each 2 cm diameter and 10 m long. Water supply is made
from an overhead tank whose water level above the ground is 12 m, and the
length and diameter of the pipe upto the junction point 0 are 14 m and 5 cm.
0 also is on the ground level, Fig. 6.18.
A new 2 an 0, 20 m length connection is to be made from 0 to C. A for
all pipes is 0.004. The pipe lines to A and B are provided for controlling flow
rates.

0, A, B, C are
at ground level

Fig. 6.18

Calculate:
(i) Flow rates at A and B when the valves are fully open, before C was
connected.
(ii) Flow rates at A, B and C with the valves fully open.
(iii) Valve resistances on pipe lines to A and B so as to obtain equal flow
rates at A, B, and C. The value of such flow rates.
Neglect all losses other than friction.
9. Two reservoirs are connected through a 30 cm pipeline, 1000 in long as shown
in Fig. 6.19. At a point B, 300 m from the upper reservoir, a valve is inserted
on a short branch line which discharges to atmosphere. The valve may be regarded
as a rounded orifice 7.5 an diameter, Cd = 0.65. If Darcy-Weisbach friction factor
for all sections of the pipe is 0.013, calculate the rate of discharge to the lower
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 199
reservoir whcP 019 Ygn 29 P fully 9pcac Wthauti thu lalgu through Wu
short pipeline at B. Neglect entry and exit losses.
(Ans: 0.2347 m3/s, 0.0525 m3/s)
10. A pipe 1800 m long, 20 cm diameter connects two reservoirs. The pipe is
laid on a ridge at a height 8 m above the water level in the upper reservoir.
The leg of pipe from the upper reservoir to the ridge top is 320 m.

Fig. 6.19

Calculate the minimum difference in the levels of water in the two reservoirs
if the absolute pressure anywhere in the pipeline must not be less than 4 m of
water below atmospheric. Estimate the discharge under such limiting condition.
Neglect all losses other than friction and f = 0.021.
 Dimensional Analysis

In the study of physical sciences the methods of 'Dimensional Analysis' provide

the techniques for summarizing the facts of observations. Dimensional analysis
is quite extensively used in fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
Recall the expressions for friction factor for flow through a pipe or an annulus.
We defined
Tw = A • (IPU!,) (7.1)

and derived for laminar fully developed flow

A=C•Re-I (7.2)
C = 16 fora circular pipe, and it varied between 16 to 24 fora concentric annulus.
The friction factor A and the Reynolds number Re are dimensionless.
In scrutinizing the statements at (7.1) and (7.2), we observe the following:
(i) Whereas the wall shear stress depends upon the velocity and density of
the fluid, the friction factor is independent of the type of fluid so long as the
Reynolds number has the same value.
Reynolds number being defined as Re =(pVIA112), the constancy of its value
can be maintained by suitably varying the velocity V, the characteristic dimension
DI, or the type of fluid. For example, the value of A in laminar flow 'of air at
2 m/s through a 1 cm tube shall be equal to that in air flow at 20 cm/s through
a 10 cm pipe. The air flow result can further be extended to flow of water through
a pipe provided that Re for either case is equal.
(ii) The result of a laminar flow through a pipe cannot, however, be extended
to another cross-section, say an annulus, since the value of C in Eq. (7.2) is
different for different geometry.
In writing Eq. (7.2), we quoted the results of a theoretical analysis. Such
analyses are, however, not possible in all situations for want of understanding
of the phenomena involved. It is in such circumstances that the methods of
dimensional analysis provide working solutions.

7.1 BUCKINGHAM'S it 'THEOREM

The process of identifying the non-dimensional or ir parameters controlling the
physical phenomena is carried out in two steps:
200
 DIMEICIONAL ANALT51 291
First, the number of variables, n, influencing the physical process are listed.
The variables listed must be such that none is derivable by an algebraic
combination of the others. For example, in considering the viscous effects in a
flow, the variables can include µ and p or v and p, but not all the three. Similarly,
in a fully developed flow either pressure gradient or wall shear stress be included.
Secondly, the number of fundamental dimensions, p, required to specify the
units of the variables involved are identified. For mechanical systems, the
dimensions are: mass (M), length (L), time (T) and temperature (8). Then by
Buckingham's theorem the number of non-dimensional or it parameters shall be
m = (n - p).
In applying the Buckingham's theorem, the dimensions of each of the variables
are raised by an arbitrary index, and the dimensions so raised are implied to be
multiplied together. The sum of the indices of each of the fundamental dimensions
is then set equal to zero. Solution of the resulting algebraic equations yields the
values of the indices, and the expression for the non-dimensional parameters.
The procedure is known as the `method of indices'.

7.2 DIMENSIONS OF DERIVED QUANTITIES

For ease of reference, we list below the dimensions of parameters of frequent
use in the study of fluid mechanics:
Velocity: V = m/s = [LT-']
Acceleration: VdV m/s2 = [LT-2]
7s-
Density: p = kg/m3 = [141:31
Force: F = N= kgm/s2 = [WT-2]
p Nim2 = [mul T_2]
Pressure:
du
Viscosity: µ = T./ (-d = kg/ms = [ML' T-1]

Kinematic viscosity: v = pip = m2 /s = [L2 T-']

Surface tension: a :m N/m = [MT-2]
We give below a few examples of applications of the it theorem.

7.3 PRESSURE VARIATION IN FRICTIONLESS FLOW

Consider the motion of an ideal fluid through a duct of varying cross-section.
Since µ = 0, shear stress is absent, and we can eliminate the body force by
considering hydrodynamic pressure.
The variables are: dp, p, V and the duct diameter D at a location. Recalling
their dimensions, the method of indices is applied as below.

[MI-' T-2r w11:31b [LT-'l` [Lid = M°L°T° (7.3)

202 FWC MECHANICS

a, b, c and d are the indices whose values are to be determined by comparing

the left and right hand sides of Eq. (7.3).
M: a+b=0
L : — a —3b+c+d=0 (7.4)
T: — 2a — c = 0
In Eq. (7.4) there are three equations in four unknowns. Solution of the equations
thus depends on assuming a value for one of the unknowns.
We further note that the problem involves four variables and three fundamental.
dimensions. According to the Buckingham's theorem, the number of is parameters
is m = n — p = 4 — 3 = 1.
In other words, the number of indices to be chosen a priori is equal to the
number of it parameters.
The chosen parameter is assigned a value of either unity or zero for
convenience. Assigning any other value would not modify the expression for the
non-dimensional parameters. Clearly, a zero value is assigned to the chosen index
when we wish to ignore the influence of the corresponding parameter.
Returning to Eq. (7.3), we have no ambiguity in choosing a, the index for
4p, as unity.
Substitution of a = 1 in Eq. (7.4) yields:
b = — 1, c = — 2 and d = 0
Hence,
Ap
= (7.5a)
pV2
We may rewrite
p
(7.5b)
= 1/2pV2
stating a correspondence between pressure differential and kinetic energy.
Suppose we chose a = 1/2, we would have got b = — 1/2, c = — 1 and d = 0,
resulting in

—
-FA;
lip V
The expression at (7.5a) could be then obtained by squaring n". In other
words the physical significance is in no way enhanced or diminished by choosing
`a' to be a fraction.
The dimensionless number
p
—
(v2pV2)
is called the Euler number, E. Physically, E can be interpreted as the ratio of
flow work (A p/ p) to kinetic energy (1/2V2) per unit mass; or the ratio of static
to dynamic pressure.
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 203
7.4 FRICTION LOSS IN INTERNAL FLOW
We choose the hydraulic diameter D„ as the characteristic dimension. The other
independent variables are p, µ and V, whereas the dependent variable is either
the shear stress, or the pressure gradient if the flow is fully developed.
In terms of a functional relationship between the dependent and independent
variables, we can state the problem as
rtv = f(V, ph, A P)
Or
g (r„, V, A, p, A)= 0. (7.6)
By indicial notation,
]s
[ML T-2 [LT-']e [Me [MI:3]a [ML' M°L°T° (7.7)
Collection of the index of individual dimension results in
M: a+d+e= 0
L :—a+b+c —3d — e = 0 (7.8)
T: —2a—b—e=0
Since n = 5 and p = 3, two n parameters shall summarize the flow information.
Values of two of the indices are to be chosen.
First, we choose a = 1, as one of the gs must involve the shear stress. Choose
additionally e = 0. The following result: d = —1, b = —2 and c = 0, leading to

By dividing through 1/2, the non-dimensional parameter is written as

r,„
= (7.9a)
1/2pV2
gi is the friction factor A, as defined in Chapter 6.
In order to derive the second ic we can now assume a = 0, since the dependent
variable, shear stress, has already been accounted for. We cannot, of course, be
sure of the role of the independent variables, and sometimes trials and errors are
necessary to arrive at the correct choice of another index. By hunch, or experience,
one could choose b = 1 as the index for velocity. Since p and V have already
been included in n,, we may, instead, take c = 1, to be methodical.
Thus with a = 0 and c = 1, we get d = b = —e and e = —1. Hence
= pVD„,41 (7.9b)
n2 is the Reynolds number signifying the relative magnitude of inertia force over
the viscous.
Since in a fully developed flow pressure gradient and shear stress are equal
in magnitude, no numerical difference would result by a change of definition of
= dp/(1/2pV2).
204 FLUID MECHANICS

Difference would however occur if the flow was developing, to the extent
that the pressure gradient is then higher by the amount required for causing
momentum variation.
On the other hand, the pressure gradient in an external flow balances the
combined loss due to skin friction, zw, and the shape or form drag. It is then
customary to define a total drag coefficient CD = (dtp/ipV2), as one of the
is parameters.

7.5 RESISTANCE TO MOTION ON A FREE SURFACE

The flow of water in a lake or a river with its surface exposed to atmosphere
is clearly a gravitational phenomenon. The formation of waves in an ocean, or
the resistance experienced by a ship are all grouped as 'free surface effects' and
are hydrostatic in nature.
The resistance R experienced by a body of characteristic length L and wetted
projected area A moving through a liquid of density p at velocity V can be
represented indicially through:

pagbV`1,4 (RA)` EM°L°T°

or
[ML-3r [LT-21b [LT-I ]C [L]d [ML-' T-2 ]e = M°L°T°
leading to
M: a+e= 0
L : — 3a +b+c+d—e= 0 (7.10)
T: — 2b — c — 2e = 0
Since one of the dimensionless parameter must represent the resistance, we can
suggest

CD = (7.11)
i-pA V2
in view of the experience gained in the earlier sections.
We next search for the second it by choosing e = 0 and b = 1, for the latter
ensures influence of g.
We obtain: a = 0, c = — 2 and d = 1, from which
gL
Z2 = 2
V
This can be rewritten as
V
ir2 = (7.12)
IrCg
and is known as the Froude Number, Fr. Thus Fr signifies the ratio of inertia
force to gravitational body force.
 DIMPADIAL ANALYglg 20§
7.6 RESISTANCE DUE TO SURFACE TENSION EFFECTS
Any imaginary surface in a fluid medium is acted upon by intermolecular forces
on either side. When the surface is completely submerged in a homogeneous fluid,
the forces on either side cancel each other. In other words, the net effect is felt
at the interface of two fluids or a fluid and a solid. The phenomenon is known
as the 'surface tension' and is defined as the force per unit length of the line
of contact, acting in a direction perpendicular to the line.
Consider a liquid column in a tube. Three surface tension forces are in action
on the free surface; the force between liquid and air, air and the tube surface,
and the tube surface and the liquid. The direction of the resultant force decides
the shape of the miniscus such as a concave one in water and a convex in mercury.
The surface tension force comes into reckoning when the motion is
discontinuous or through very narrow passages at low rates. The 'capillary action'
of a rising water level through a wick is a surface tension phenomenon. So is
the reason that a vapour bubble is spherical in shape, and maintains an internal
pressure higher than the external for counter-balancing the surface tension.
On the basis of the definition, the dimension of surface tension a is [MT-2].
The variable in a fluid motion due to an impressed pressure differential against
surface tension are: Ap, p, V, D and a. Hence,
[mut T-2r 3 b [LT- I lc [Lid [ML— 2 le mOLO TO

M : a+b+e= 0
L —a-3b+c+d= 0 (7.13)
T: — 2a — c — 2e = 0
Choosing first a = 1 and e = 0, we arrive at
Ap
= 2
zpV
Next choose a = 0, e = 1, from which

11.2= pV-D
We rewrite
pV 2D
n2 — cr (7.14)
and name it as the Weber number, Wr, signifying the relative magnitude of the
inertia force over the surface tension.

7.7 MODEL TESTING

In the foregoing, we have noted the procedure of identifying the non-dimensional
parameters controlling the physical phenomena under investigation. In general we
expect that the It parameters are related:
= f (7r2, n3, ...) (7.15)
206 FLUID MECHANICS

where x2, x3, ... contain the independent variables and it, contains the dependent
variable. For example, tr, = r./(1/2pV2 ), whereas x2 = Re in fully developed
flow.
The question now is to ascertain the functional relationship. This is done
in the following manner.

(i) Geometrical Similarity. Experiments are carried out using models that are
geometrically similar. For example, estimation of the drag force in flow of air
over a 2 metre diameter spherical shell could be made by experimenting on a
2 cm sphere in a laboratory wind tunnel.

(ii) Dynamic Similarity. Since the drag coefficient Co depends upon Reynolds
number, the laboratory experiments must cover the range of Reynolds number
that shall be experienced by the spherical shell. When the value of the independent
IC parameter for the model test (geometrically similar) equals that for the prototype,
`dynamic similarity' is said to be established. The fluid velocity for model is
then called the 'corresponding speed' of test.
The results of model test are plotted in terms of xi and 1r2. We could say
that functionally they are related as:
it, = C/C7 (7.16)
the question now being to determine C and m, restricting ourselves to two it
parameter for clarity.
A logarithmic plot is often convenient, since
log it, = log C + m log x2 (7.17)
is a straight line relationship.
The intercept on the it, axis yields the value of C, and the slope m. The
dots on the graph in Fig. 7.1 are supposed points obtained from experiments with
the geometrically similar model.

rn
K

.• . • • C 2, M 2
Iog C2 62
Laminar -6-4-0- Turbulent •
Transition m2 =tan 82
log 7C2 7C 2 = R e
Fig. 7.1 Logarithmic Plot of it Parameters.
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 207

The change of slope from ml to m2 indicates a variation in the physical

phenomena. Typically for the fluid friction, the change is from laminar to turbulent
regime. The intersection of the two straight lines (extended) in Fig. 7.1, is identified
as the 'point of transition'. In practice, the phenomena in the transition regime
are not strictly that of the laminar or the turbulent, and the transition point is
not well marked.
With C and m evaluated, the correlation (7.16) is considered applicable to
geometrically similar bodies for the range of validity of the 7r2 parameter. No
more the nature of fluid need be bothered about. For example, the results of friction
loss in a flow of an oil can be applied to water flow if the Reynolds number
range in both the cases were the same. Extension to flow of air could also be
made, provided that the air motion did not cause its density variation.

(iii) Kinematic Similarity. Consider the correlation (7.16) in conjunction with

Fig. 7.1. If the model and the prototype 7r2 parameters have the same value, the
xi for either case will be the same, irrespective of the flow regime. This would
be the situation when dynamic similarity is established.
The relation (7.16) can, however, be used even if the two it2 were not equal
provided that the flow regime is identical, either laminar or turbulent, so that
the values of C and m are transferable from the model tests to prototype. The
flow regime correspondence for geometrically similar bodies is said to establish
`kinematic similarity'.
Obviously, establishing dynamic similarity is more stringent, and may not
at times be practicable. Kinematic similarity and the empirical relationship between
the it parameters are then resorted to.

(iv) Hydraulic Diameter. The hydraulic diameter Dh = 4A,v/P., was introduced

in Chapter 6 while discussing the viscous flow through a pipe. The definition
D„ is redundant for a circular pipe. Its utility lies in extending the empirical
correlation of the form (7.16) from one internal flow geometry to another.
It is observed that for fully developed turbulent flow through arbitrary cross-
section, the values of C and m in the expression
A = CRem (7.18)
are practically unchanged if the hydraulic diameter Dh , is chosen as the
characteristic dimension.
Such invariance is, however, absent in laminar flow, or when the flow is
developing.

Example 7.1 In an experiment of water flowing through a smooth pipe

30 cm ID, the pressure loss measured was 1000 N/m2 over a length of 10 m
at 2 m/s velocity. The loss increased to 3500 N/m2 when the flow velocity was
4 m/s. Calculate the pressure loss over a 25 m length duct of 15 cm x 10 cm
rectangular cross-section when 0.5 m3/s of air flows through it; v,,, = 16 x 10-6
m 2 /S, Vwat„ =l X 10-6 M2/S.
208 FLUID MECHANICS

The Reynolds number at the two measured conditigns of water flow are:
2 03
Aei = CP X Ill 5
10-6
„, 4 x 0.3 ,,,
Ae2 = - x ,„
10
Both Reynolds number are far above the lower critical value of 2000. The flow
in either case is turbulent. The frictional pressure loss
f1V2
AP =p2D
1000 x 2 x 03
= = 0.015
1000 x 10 x 2
f._ __ 3500x 2 x03 - 0.013
moo TioT-.1-
4
Considering
f = CRem
_( Rei r
12 - kli;
Of
^„, 0013 „„x,
- =v.0pARD
z = 0015
and
m= - 0.206
Thus
0.015 = C • (6 x 105)-ams
Of
C = 0.232
Hence, the law of friction factor is established from the water flow experiment
as
f = 0232Re-°326
in the turbulent regime.
For the air flow,
duct atra A = 15 x 10 x 10-4 =0.015 m2
P=2x(15+10)x10-2 =0.5m
4 x 0.015
A— 0.5 = 0.12 m

0.5
V= Off = 3333 m/s
VDI, = 3333 x 0.12
Re =
v = 249975 x 104
16 x
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 209

Since the air flow is also turbulent, we recall the -law from experiments using
water, applying tacitly the criterion of kinematic similarity.
f = 0.232 x (24.9975 x 10410206
= 0.0179
The pressure loss over 25 m length of the air duct is

1.2 x 0.0179 x 25 x (3333)2

dp = 2 x 012 =2485.6 N/ m2
taking
par =12 kg/m3

Example 7.2 A model test in a towing tank is intended for estimating the wave
resistance to the motion of a ship at 40 m/s in the ocean:the geometrically similar
model ship is made to 1/100th scale of the prototype.
Estimate the testing speed of the model. Assuming the specific gravity of
sea water as 1.025, calculate the resistance experienced by the ship, if the model
experiences 2.5 N resistance at the testing speed.
Since only one result of the model test is available, we can extrapolate the
prototype value only by assuming dynamic similarity. In other words
= Frp,,„,ype
Or
V. = Vp
rg
Or
1/2
L
17, = Vp(77-
: = 40 (11
+ 01/2 = 4 m/s

Further, Co. = Co, for dynamic similarity condition, or

R,„ Rp
Ip„,A„,V,! -2ppApV1,
or
R=R•P
- A -02
= 25 x 1025 x (100)2 x (4
4)2

= 25652 x 106 N.

Example 7.3 As a part of the ventilation system design for the Calcutta tube
railway, tests were carried out at I.I.T., Kharagpur on 1/10 scale geometrically
similar models of the train and, tunnel. A photograph of the model is given in
Fig. 7.2.
21 0 FLUID MECHANICS

Fig. 7.2

In one set of tests, the following measurements were made with a section
of the tunnel occupied by a train (model). The schematic of the measuring section
is given in Fig. 7.3.

Train Fan

C m
Measuring section , 40.14 m long
Fig. 7.3 Train Tunnel Model Experimental Layout.

Model Test Data:

Measuring length AB = 40.14 m
Length of the train CD = 16.28 m
Net area of the free tunnel = 0.3094 m2
Wetted perimeter of the free tunnel = 2.449 m
Cross-sectional area of the train = 0.092 m2
Perimeter of the train = 1.248 m
Air flow rate Q = 4.49 m3 /s
Pressure drop in absence of the train, over
AB for Q flow = 62.4 mm Wg
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 211

Pressure drop over AB in presence of the

train for the same flow rate = 142.5 rum Wg
Density of air at the testing condition = 1.16 kg/m3
Acceleration due to gravity at Kharagpur g = 9.75 ra/s2
Viscosity of air at testing condition µ = 1.98 x 10-5 kg/ms
Estimate the tunnel Reynolds number and the resistance offered by the train-tunnel
system in the occupied portion.

Model Test Calculation:

Tunnel hydraulic diameter
4 x 03094
= 2.449 = 0.505 m (i)
Velocity of air in the free tunnel
4.49
V = 0N94 = 14.51 m/s
The tunnel Reynolds number
pVDh 1.16 x 14.51 x 0.505
Re = — 43 x i0
/1 198 x 10—
Free tunnel pressure loss
f LV2
dpi= 2Dh
where f is the tunnel Darcy-Weisbach friction factor. Thus
dp x2Dh
pairLV2
3 ( pw x 9.75 x 2 x0305
= 62.4 x 10-
V.* ) 40.14 x (14.51)2
or
0.0727
(iv)
f = 116 = 01/626
assuming
p, =1000 kg/m5
The friction factor value for the tube railway tunnel is about three times that
for a smooth tunnel owing to the presence of such obstructions as pillars, rails,
traction lines and the like.
The pressure loss is the occupied portion of the tunnel, CD, can be now
estimated by subtracting the losses, for AC and DB using f = 0.0626.
Length of (AC + DB) = 40.14 — 16.28 = 23.86 m with flow rate maintained
at 4.49 m3/s.
DB = 62.4 x 23.86
— = 37.1 mm Wg
40.14
212 FLUID MECHANICS

Hence
,dpcD = 142.5 — 371 = 105.4 mm Wg (v)
The pressure loss in the occupied portion, .dpa„ is partly due to the form drag
offered by the train projected area and partly for the friction loss in the annular
area between the tunnel and the train.

Example 7.4 Consider the model test data given in Ex. 7.3. Assuming the train-
tunnel annular area friction factor to be equal to that of the free tunnel, estimate
the train drag coefficient.
Evaluate the pressure loss in creating air flow over a prototype train of 120 m
length under dynamically similar condition.
Air velocity in the annular area of the model train-tunnel system is
03094
V = V, x —
111 = 14.51 x — 20.65 m/s
Amin 03094 — 0.092
Making a force balance for the section CD, we note
1 2
PcD x = AuxhaCIArgin Tiv • Pane • LcD

P = wetted perimeter of the annulus

= perimeter of train + perimeter of tunnel
= L248 + 2.449 = 3.697 m
Lex, = 16.28 m
By definition,
= 1/2pV2A,
where
=f/4
A. is the Fanning friction factor and f the Darcy-Weisbach. Hence,
2 • • P.• LcD
c,A,„, • La, = 1-pV„„,

2 0.0626
— 2 x 116 x (20.65) x x 3.697 x 16.28
= 232.96 N
dpcp x A, = 105.4 x 9.75 x 03094 = 317.95 N
Therefore,
1
-2pV2 A „„„CD.i. = 31795 — 232.96 = 84.99
84.99 x 2
= , = 7.56 (i)
D
— 1.16 x 0.092 x (1431)2
Prototype Pressure Loss:
For dynamically similar condition,
Rep = Re.
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 213

CD, = Co, = 7.56

f p = f„, = 0.0626
Since the prototype and model Reynolds number are equal, the model tunnel
velocity is the corresponding speed. The prototype velocity is
1451
V= = 1.451 m/s
V = 2.065 m/s
P = 3.697 x 10 = 36.97 m
La, = 120 m
0.0626
Z,,, • Pg,„LcD = 7 x 1.16 x (2.065)2 x x 36.97 x 120
=17L71 N
2 1
pV Auai,,CD x 1.16 x (1.451)2 x (0.092 x 100) x 7.56
= 84.93 N
Thus
dpi x44, = 171.71 + 84.93 = 256.64
256.6
= 829 N/m2
pa' 03094 x 4 100
Or
dpi = 0.85 nun Wg.

7.8 SUMMARY
1. Dimensional analysis serves the purpose of generalising the information of one
set of observations' to other situations.
2. Dimensional analysis is carried out by writing all the number of independent
parameters influencing the physical phenomena. The number of dimensionless
parameters shall be (n — p) where p is the number of fundamental dimensions
involved.
3. The relationship between the dependent x parameter and the independent
ones is often conveniently derived by making logarithmic plot of the results.
4. The principles of model testing are based on satisfying geometric similarity
and dynamic similarity. The latter ensures equality of the ratio of the effecting
forces for both the model and the prototype.
5. When dynamic similarity is established, i.e. when the independent ir
parameters for both the model and the prototype have the same values, the
dependent parameter for the model is equal to that of the prototype. Under dynamic
similarity condition the velocity of fluid for the model is known as the
corresponding speed of test.
214 FLUID MECHANICS

6. Kinematic similarity does not ensure equal value of the independent x

parameters for the model and the prototype. It only suggests similarity of flow
patterns for both. In the operational sense, the flow regime for both the model
and the prototype is the same under kinematically similar condition.
7. Since kinematic similarity implies similarity of flow pattern and of nature
of forces in action, the empirical correlation between the lc parameters for the
model is applicable to the prototype.
8. Whereas geometric similarity is essential for applying the results of model
testing, an exception seems permissible for fully developed internal flow in the
turbulent regime. Friction factor law for one geometry is applicable to another,
provided that hydraulic diameter is chosen as the characteristic dimension.

EXERCISES
1. Consider incompressible turbulent fully developed flow through a rough pipe
of diameter D. The average height of the surface roughness is e. State the variables
that control the, pipe friction and derive the corresponding non-dimensional
parameters.
2. An orifice plate of opening d is located in a pipe of diameter D. When a
given fluid flows through the pipe at a volumetric rate Q, the pressure differential
measured across the orifice is zip. Derive the expressions for the non-dimensional
parameters influencing the orifice discharge coefficient.
3. When a body moves through a compressible medium at a high speed
V, disturbances are propagated at the speed of sound a. Considering the medium
pressure p, density p, ratio of specific heats k and body characteristic length
L, show that the relevant non-dimensional parameter is the Mach number
M = Vla, where a = •OFT,Ic R being the characteristic gas constant.
4. A thin disk of diameter D is rotated in a fluid medium at an angular speed
co. Write the variables effecting the resistance to disk rotation. Derive two non-
dimensional parameters representing the frictional torque and the influences of
disk speed, dimension and fluid properties.
5. Consider the rotation of a journal within a bearing in presence of a lubricant.
The lubricant viscosity is At, density p, shaft diameter d, rotational speed N rpm
and the load carried per unit surface area w.
Derive the expressions for x parameters that define the dependence of
frictional torque on the independent variables. Show that the corresponding speeds
of two similar bearings are related as
N2 2 x PI
—W
1471 /12
6. It is known from both analysis and experiments that when a sphere moves
at a very slow speed through a viscous liquid, such that the inertia forces are
negligible, the drag experienced by the sphere is proportional to its velocity.
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 215

Derive the non-dimensional parameters that describe the dependence of the

sphere drag on its radius I and velocity, and fluid viscosity and density. Taking
into account the observed linear dependence of the drag D on the velocity V,
show that D = CidtV, C is a constant (C = 6/4 theoretically).
7. An aircraft propeller of diameter d, rotating at a speed N and advancing with
velocity V, in air of density p and viscosity µ, develops a thrust T. Using
dimensional analysis, show that the thrust developed can be related through
=fizz, 1r3)
where
T pdV dN
= pd 2v2 , ff 2 = Re = 7c3 = -v-

If the effect of Reynolds number is relatively small, establish the value of

corresponding speed for testing propellers.
8. An aircraft with propellers, 4 m in diameter rotating at 1500 rpm, flies at
an altitude of 18000 m, where the pressure and temperature are 7.2 kN/m2 and
— 50°C. The viscosity of air varies with temperature as µ/µ0 = (T/To )(125, where
To = 273 K and ito =1.7 x 10-5 kg/ms
The performance characteristics of the aircraft propellers are intended to be
established by carrying out tests on a geometrically similar model 40 cm in
diameter at sea level condition: p = 1.03 bar, T = 27°C. The model propeller
is rotated at 350 rpm by applying a torque of 0.03 Nm. The model develops
a thrust of 0.25 N while advancing at a speed of 2.5 m/s.
Estimate the thrust developed and torque required for the full scale propeller,
and state the speed of advance for which the results are applicable. Evaluate the
work done on the propeller and its efficiency. Estimate the values of Reynolds
number of the model and the prototype and discuss the influence of viscosity
on the validity of the results of model test.
(Ans: 4319.4 N, 5183.36 Nm, 385.7 kmph; 814.2 kW; 56.84%, 65625,
3.305 x 106)
9. The volume flow rate Q and pressure developed p, by a rotatory fan are
dependent on the fan impeller diameter d, speed n, fluid density p and
viscosity p.
By applying dimensional analysis, derive the non-dimensional parameters
governing the fan performance. Hence prove that the flow rate of a given fan
can be increased linearly with speed, and the pressure as the square of the speed,
assuming that effects due to Reynolds number variation are negligible. Suggest
how would the power input to the fan vary with speed, without carrying out a
fresh set of analysis.
10. Consider flow of a liquid over a V-notch of incluoeo angle O. The head of
liquid is H, density p and viscosity if. The liquid flow takes place due to
gravitational effect. Derive the expression for non-dimensional parameters that
relate the flow rate Q to the independent variables.
 Two-Dimensional Flow of
Ideal Fluids

The underlying assumption in solving the problems of fluid flow by the control
volume analysis in Chapter 4, by the application of Bernoulli's equation in
Chapter 5 or its modification in Chapter 6 has been that the flow is
one-dimensional. We, however, know that one-dimensionality is not satisfied
by most flow situations, other than parallel, due to viscous effects (Fig. 6.1).
The momentum change along a fluid stream results from the interactions of
the body force, the pressure gradient and the viscous force. The effects of body
force are counter-balanced by the hydrostatic pressure gradient, and we may focus
on the hydrodynamic component of pressure and the viscous force only.
It is observed that in fluids of low viscosity, such as air or water, and when
the flow velocity is reasonably high, the pressure gradient is little affected by
the viscous force. In other words, the pressure distribution on the surface of a
body under such flow situations can be estimated from a solution of the non-
viscous conservation equations, like the Euler's or the Bernoulli's.
The purpose of the present chapter is to study the methods for estimating
the flow field and the pressure distribution around a body in motion through an
ideal fluid, where viscous actions are not in play. Two dimensional, incompressible
and steady conditions are assumed.
The pressure distribution so obtained could then be used to generate a
corrected solution for the velocity profiles sustaining the viscous actions. The
methods of viscous solution are discussed in later chapters.

8.1 ROTATIONAL AND IRROTATIONAL FLOWS

Physically a fluid flow may follow a rectilinear or an arbitrary curvilinear path.
In either case the flow can be fluid-mechanically 'rotational' or irrotationar.
We recall from Chapter 3 that the fluid-mechanical `rotationality' implies that
the angle between two intersecting lines on a fluid element continues to change.
The time rate of angular displacement, i.e. the angular velocity, synonymous with
shear strain, is a 'result' of tangential stresses A tangential or shear stress, on
the other hand, is brought into play due to the effects of viscosity (Chapter 1).
That is .to say, the motion of a viscous fluid is rotational.
Conversely, the flow of an ideal fluid may be Iffotational'.
We have been deliberately not emphatic in the previous sentence in order
216
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 217

to remind that inalaticakIliti can fYfil NM an kW

fluid, if there are work interaction and heat transfer (Chapter 5). For example,
a forced vortex motion is rotational due to external work input, whereas the free
vortex is irrotational except at the origin.
Thus in an irrotational. flow all the three: friction, external work and heat
transfer are precluded.
In Chapter 3, the angular velocity vector of a fluid element was evaluated
as
= (DJ + wy)+ (8.1a)
and the vorticity vector as
52=261= Vx V (8.1b)
The absence of angular velocity in an irrotational flow implies
Vx V=0 (8.2)
The condition that curl (rotation) of a vector shall be zero is satisfied when the
vector itself is the gradient of a scalar. We therefore use Eq. (8.2) to write
= — V.p (8.3)
where 0 is the scalar and we have added a negative sign to give a physical meaning
to the operation.

8.2 VELOCITY POTENTIAL

Consider the work done in moving a body solely under the action of gravity,
Fig. 1.6. Work done by the body of mass min moving from a height h to (h — dh)
is
SW = mg dh = — d(PE)
where PE = mgh is the potential energy. The force F acting on the body is
given by
•
F (dhk)=SW=— d(PE)

= -dhd- (PE) k
or, in general, the force in a gravitational field is the gradient of the potential energy:
= - V(PE) (8.4)
Compare Eqs. (8.3) and (8.4). The scalar 0 is synonymous with 'potential' energy,
and the velocity vector V with F. The scalar 0 hence, by comparison, is called
the 'Velocity Potential'.

8.3 CIRCULATION
We further recall from the experiment described in Fig. 1.6, (i) that the work
done by moving the body in the gravitational field from position 1 to 2. was
218 FLUID MECHANICS

independent of the path followed, and (ii) that the net work done by moving
from 1 to 2 and back to 1, through closed paths, was zero.
The work done F • a has the correspondence with V • a in a flow field.
We note below that (i7 • d.T) also satisfies the properties of (T' • c/.3), in an
irrotational flow.
Consider a two-dimensional flow in the x—y plane, Fig. 8.1. The components

y
au„
u -- y

t a v ax
v Ay
Ax

.x

Fig. 8.1 Circulation in a 2-D Field.

of velocity parallel to the x and y faces of a .dx — dy plane are shown on the
figure. We define 'Circulation'
T=f cf•d:f (8.5)
and evaluate
av du
dr, = udx +(v +— Ax)Ay —(14+ —, dy)Ax— vAy
dx uY

( dv du) •
ax — ay Ay
Since dx • Ay = dA, is the area of the plane, where z is the suffix indicating
reference to the z-axis, we obtain

_ (dv du)_,
(8.6)
dAz VFx TY - "z
In other words, circulation per unit area is twice the angular velocity or equals
the vorticity.
dv du
Clearly, when co, = (- — Ti) equals zero, the circulation is zero in an
Tx
irrotational flow.
Stated alternatively, an irrotational flow field is identified by the fact that
the circulation around a closed path is zero. Conversely, the (V • 1:0 between
any two points in an irrotational flow can be estimated by following arbitrary
paths. This is reminiscent of the characteristics of a thermodynamic property
(Chapter 1).
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 219

Such observations in the gravitational field or in the irrotational field are

ascribed in general to a 'conservative field' that includes electrostatic and magnetic
fields as well.
Equation (8.6) can be used as an alternative to Eq. (8.5) for evaluating
circulation by integrating the voracity vector ( V x V ) over the area in question:

r. (Vxi7)•ddi (8.7)

In summary, we note that an irrotational flow is characterized by (i) V x V = 0,

(ii) V = - VO, (iii) r=j:• = ff (V x V) • dX = 0, and satisfies the
equations of motion of an i e fluid, µ = 0.

8.4 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STREAM FUNCTION AND

POTENTIAL FUNCTION

8.4.1 Cartesian Coordinates

We have noted in Chapter 3 that a stream line defines the trajectory of a fluid
particle. The tangent to the stream line at a point gives the direction of the resultant
velocity.
Whereas the concept of a potential function Qs is restricted to irrotational flows,
the stream function yr is not restricted and has built into it the criterion of
conservation of mass. Operationally, in a 2-D incompressible flow:
dip dv
u= , v= - (8.8)
ay
whereas the continuity equation is
du dv „
Tx + -cry = u (8.9)

Since V = - VO, we note that

u = - dx, = - ay (8.10)

Aat _- _ ay' ay dx
- 4.t (8.11)
in an irrotational flow.
The conservation of mass Eq. (8.9), together with Eq. (8.10), yields the
following governing equation for 0:

Of

(8.12)
220 FLUID MECHANICS

Differentiation and arrangement of the terms at Eq. (8.11) lead further to

a governing equation for w in an irrotational flow:
d2 p,
a2 w, d20 d20
ar2 dy2 ay ax
Of
V2 w= 0 (8.13)
considering that the orders of derivatives of 0 or w are interchangeable, the
functions themselves being continuous.
The solution for irrotational flow around a body then boils down to solving
the Laplace equation either on 0, Eq. (8.12) or on w, Eq. (8.13); more frequently
the former.
Since viscous effect is considered absent, it is not mandatory that the parallel
component of velocity is zero on a solid surface, i.e. at y = 0, u need not vanish.
On the other hand, transverse velocity cannot exist on a solid surface. The
boundary conditions are, therefore,

y=0, v=u = 0 or -0
0Y

y —> 00, u=U_-1=—//„, or =U (8.14)

aY
treating that x and y are coordinates respectively parallel and transverse to the
solid surface.
Consider the direction of a 0 = G line with respect to that of a w = C2
line. We have
thy
e2t
= ax ay dY
vdx-fudy=Oonw=constant
Hence

(I) V
C2 = — (8.15)

Similarly,

dib = 71.7 dx + dy

=-udx- vdy=0on0=C,
Of

(1)= = (8.16)

If we define Ow and 0, as the slopes of the constant w and 0 lines, Eqs. (8.15)
and (8.16) imply
tan 0, • tan 0. = — (8.17)
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 221

In other words, the O = C, and W = C2 lines intersect each other at right angles.
The curved rectangles formed by the intersection of 0 and yr lines are known
as the flow nets.

8.4.2 Polar Coordinates

The correspondence between the cylindrical polar coordinates (r, 8) and the
Cartesian coordinates are:
x=rcos 0, y=rsin8 and x2 +y2 =r2
From which we have
1 at
7 (7) = — sin 0, T ae = cos 0
For the polar coordinates, we define the velocity components as u in the
0-direction and v in the radial direction. Their dependence on the potential or

v.
Fig. 8.2 Cartesian and Polar Velocity Components.

stream functions, maintaining the compatibility with our Cartesian definitions, can
be derived with the help of Fig. 8.2. For the sake of clarity, we will temporarily
denote V, and V, as the velocity components in the x- and y-direction.
We note from Fig. 8.2 that
Vr =vcos0—usin8, Vy =vsin 0 +ucos0
and, therefore,
V, sin 0 + V, cos 0 = v (8.18a)
Now examine
1 d1 dx (2t1 dy
7 44 de + dy r de

= 7, sin 0 + cos 0
Of

1 = V sin 0 + V, cos 0 (8.18b)

r a0
Comparing Eqs. (8.18a) and (8.18b), we get
1 dyr
= r a0
(8.18c)
222 FLUID MECHANICS

The continuity equaiton in the polar coordinates is

1 du 1 d
(8.19)
7dTi + 77?r (ru)=0
Substituting for v from Eq. (8.18c), we obtain
1 du _ 1 d ay)
7 T PT)
or
dr
u-
-
-
Therefore, the velocity components and stream function are related as
= 1 dw
u=— , (8.20)
dr ' r de
These, in terms of the potential function, are:
_ 1 dgf _ do
(8.21)
u de' - dr
and, therefore,
_ do _ _ do (8.22)
dr 7 de' 7 de - dr

Example 8.1 The two-dimensional stream function for a flow is

w = 9 + 6x — 4y + 7xy. Does this represent an irrotational flow? If so, find the
velocity potential.
= . a211
dx "
7y, dx2 = 0

=-4+ 7x, dy2 -

dY
Therefore, V2 w = 0, satisfying the condition for irrotational flow.

_ _ do

0 4x - 7 -+ f(y) (i)

u dx dy

= 6y + 7 y2 + g(x)
Comparing (i) and (ii), we get
= (4x + 6y) — ; (x2 — y2)
as the potential function.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 223
8.5 BASIC SOLUTIONS
The harmonic equation on 4) or iv is solved by taking advantage of the fact that
the equation is linear. Linearity of a differential equation implies that several
plausible solutions of the equation can be combined to generate a general solution
that only can satisfy the given boundary conditions.
In practice, three to four solutions of V20 = 0 equation are derived for simpler
flow configurations. These simple solutions are then combined to solve relatively
complex problems.
In generating the solutions for simple flows, we may interchangeably assume
the form of either u, 0 or iv and then investigate the nature of the remaining
two.

8.5.1 Uniform Flow

Consider a purely axial flow with a constant velocity u = C, v = 0. Then
d0 _ _ _ d0 _ _ ,
-d7 - - " - ' ay - u-u
Thus
0 = — Cx + D
Furthermore, the equations
dw _ u _ c dw _ _ 0
ay - ' dx - v =
yield
w = Cy + E
The constants of integration D and E can be set equal to zero by choosing the
x-axis as yr = 0 and y-axis as 0= 0 lines.
Thus a uniform flow is characterized by
u = C, 0 = — Cx, yr = Cy (8.23)
The expressions for 0 and iv above are readily observed to satisfy the Laplace
equations and hence represent a solution of the respective governing Eq. (8.12)
or (8.13).
Y

V = C3

C2

Cl

x
Fig. 83 Flow Net for Uniform Flow.
-224 FLUID MECHANICS

8.5.2 Source or Sink

A 'source' flow is one where the fluid moves out radially from a point. The
flow moves radially inward to a point known as the 'sink'. The radial geometry
makes it convenient to analyse a source, or a sink, flow in cylindrical polar
coordinates: r and 0, see Fig. 8.4.
=C2

-0

= C6
Fig. 8.4 Source Flow.

For the source flow we propose

A
0=—Filnr (824)
and verify that V2. = 0 is satisfied as
4+1 a20
9 = dr r -X. r 2d02

_ 1 A 1 A

In other words, the chosen 0 represents an irrotational flow for which

A1
u=— A =Ck 1)= fir—i: (8.25)

The stream function w is obtained by integrating

A1
0 = "/7• 7
Of
A
= y0 (8.26)
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 225

choosing 9 = 0 as the yr = 0 line for evaluating the constant of integration. From

Eq. (8.24), we note that the constant 4 lines are concentric circles, whereas the
w = C lines are its radial spokes.
The flow rate crossing a 0 = C line at a radius r is
2x 2x
A
q= fv•rd0=-
2x f d9
0 0
Or
q= A (8.27)
A is known as the 'strength of the source' and equals the total flow issuing out
of the source per unit time.
The strength of the corresponding sink is -A and signifies the total flow
into the point.
The expression v = Al(2xr) indicates an infinite velocity at the origin of
the source. Physically this is explained by the fact that the source is considered
a point (dimensionless) and yet supplying A flow rate.
Mathematically, the infinite velocity renders the origin a point of singularity.
A function 0 or yr is not continuous at a singular point 'and the circulation along
a path crossing the origin cannot be evaluated. However, for a path surrounding
or circumventing the origin, the circulation is zero since u = 0, and the flow
is irrotational everywhere but the origin.

Example 8.2 Show that yr = A rya sin (rcala) satisfies Laplace equation.
Derive the potential function for the corresponding irrotational flow. Generate and
sketch the flow nets when a = s/2. For what value of a, the given stream function
may represent an uniform flow.
yr = A rva sin (zOla)
ir (*la - I)
dr = A sin (sOla)• — ar
a2,,, (x/a - 2)
dr.r., - A sin (xela)•—
a (sla -Or
aVi x/a X
del = Ar • —a •cos (sOla)

(dot=-
2 Arid" (irla)2 sin OrOla)

z i=
m d 2w + 1 dw d 2vr
7 77 2 r dr + r2a02
dr

2
= A sin (rrOla)KT:Xi ( -1 + -0rr)
7 r(xla- 2) - (—
X)
• r(ski -
226 FLUID MECHANICS

2 x x x2
n.8 ) • '"(x/a - 2) Ti - Ti 4- Tic- a
= A sin (--a-
or

We know that
_ _ dip
t) — — 4dr—rd0
Therefore,

dr -
4 — - Arwa -')• ax •cos (r r01 a)
or
0 = — Ark/a cos (1101 a) + f(0)
f (0) is evaluated by comparing
slt _ 1 A
dr - r dO
dO irA
Te = Cr r"
Sin (1) + r
Of
1 A _ An. (oda - 1) sin KO
7- do -a r — +f'
a r —
and by comparing with ayllar, we note that f' = 0, f =constant, which we choose
to be zero. Thus
0 = — Ar" cos (sOla) (ii)
when a = tr/2,
w = Are sin 20
= 2A (r sin 9) (r cos 0)
or
lir = 2.A xy
and
0 = — Ar2 cos 20
= — A (r2 cos2 0 — r2 sine 0)
Of

0 = — A (x2 — y2) (iv)

For sketching the flow nets, we draw the constant iy and constant 0 lines.
When lir = C,', we have
xy = wl2A = C (v)
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 227

= D' implies

x —y —_A _
2 2
—D (vi)
(v) and (vi) are two rectangular hyperbolas in the x-y plane as shown in
Fig. 8.5.

1- y
Fig. 8.5 Flow Net in a Corner.

The stream line pattern in Fig. 8.5 is typical of flow near a right angled
corner. For uniform flow,
= Uy = Ur sin 9.
The given stream function represents a uniform flow when a = n.

8.5.3 Doublet
Similar to a dipole in electrostatics, the fluid mechanical doublet is a combination
of a source and a sink of very high but equal strength, and spaced a small distance
apart.
In Fig. 8.6, the source and the sink, each of strength A, are located on the
x-axis on either side of the origin. The distance `a' from the y-axis approaches
zero in the limit as the source and the sink constitute a doublet. Physically, the
flow leaving the source terminates on the sink. The arrangement shown in the
figure is known as a `left handed doublet' with anti-clock-wise direction of the
stream lines. The angle is measured positive in the anti-clockwise direction. A
point P (x, y) in the flow field has polar coordinates r and 9, and is at a distance
from the source and r1 from the sink.
The flow potentials at P are:

= In r, (due to the sink)

228 FLUID MECHANICS

Sink Source
Fig. 8.6 Source and Sink Flow.

02 = In r2 (due to the source)

These combine to yield
A r
0 _—
2rr In r2
J- (8.28)
The objective now is to evaluate 0 as 'a' tends to zero.
From geometrical considerations,
r2 = r2
i ▪ a2 + 2ra cos 0
r2 = r2 ▪ a2
2 2ra cos 0
leading to
ri2 - 1+ 2ra cos 0/(r 2 + a2 )
r 2 1- 2ra cos 9/(r 2 + a2 )
2ra cos
Define a - 0 , and it isnoted that a is less than unity. Thus,
r•2 + a2
r2
i 2
= (1 + a) (1-

a
= (1 + a)(1+ a + -2- + ..)

Of
r2 a2
T2 =1 + 2a + a2 + — +
T2 2 "
Of

r2

Hence
ir2
= 1 + 2a, neglecting higher order terms

r2 2
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOM/ OF IDEAL FLUIDS 229

Since the distance between the source and the sink tends to zero, 2a 4, 1, and
r 1( 4a2 8a3
Lt in-1- = 2a - -- +
a,0 r2
or
Lt In =a
4-0 '2
or
2ra cos 0
Lt In -L
r -
2-40 r2 r2 +
The doublet potential
A r,
= IT
therefore becomes
_ A 2ar cos 0
2,r r2 + a 2
Of
Aa cos 9
= r (8.28a)
The value of (Aaht) is maintained finite by increasing A to infinite value in
the limit a is reduced to zero.
The expression for 0 is written in the (x, y) coordinates, noting that
2 2
X +y =T ,
2
x=rcos0

Aa x
= • x 2 + y2 (8.28b)

It can be similarily verified that if the doublet was located on the y-axis, the
corresponding potential function would be
Aa y
= a: x2 + y2

For the x-axis doublet the stream function is evaluated from the condition

A_ „kit
dr rot
Since
Aa cos 0
= — • r, dr
2± = _ Aa cos 0
r r2
we have
diy _ Aa cos 0
-
Of
Aa sin (8.29a)
= r
230 FLUID MECHANICS

and in Cartesian form

Aa
V= 2 2 (8.29b)
it+y X
The diagram of w = C or 0= D lines is made recognizing the following:
Consider
Aa y
V= I
X 2 + y2 =C
from which
Aa
x 2 +y2 — 61.•y=0
or
cr +( Aa )2 _( Aa
y __
2Cir 2Cit• (8.30)

Equation (8.30) describes a circle of radius Aa/(2Cir) with the origin located
on the y-axis at y = Aal(200 . Obviously, the circle passes through the origin
of the co-ordinate system for all values of C.
The origin of the circle is located on the positive y-axis when A and C
are positive.
The constant potential lines are similarly obtained:
Aa x
0= n x + y2

or
Aa
x 2 +y2 —
car
leading to
Aa ( Aa 12
x— (8.31)
2C7( 0)2 = 0

91 = - C

=C

tis=c

Fig. 8.7 Stream Lines and Potential Lines for a Doublet.

 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 231

as the equation of circles of constant potential lines. The origin is located on

the x-axis at x = Aal(2Cg) and the sketches in Fig. 8.7 follow.

8.5.4 Vortex Flow

We now consider a vortex flow where the velocity is purely circumferential

having no component along the radial direction. By comparison with a source
flow, Fig. 8.4, we realise that the w and 0 lines for a source shall be interchanged
for a vortex.
We, therefore, propose, in view of Eq. (8.24),
A
w=- 1Tr inr (8.32)
which yields
_ (it _
u --dr - 21rr
di,/
v=- 1 =u (833)
r dO
Since u = — (11r) (41a0), the potential function for the vortex flow is
obtained by integration as
A
= 2/r " (8.34)
by appropriately merging the constant of integration.
The circumferential velocity u = A 1(2icr) becomes infmity at r = 0, indicating
the existence of a point of singularity at the origin, as was the case with source
flow. Consider the circulation in a vortex flow around a closed path ABCD not
encompassing the origin, Fig. 8.8.

ct) = C2

t
r
4:0= C r
Cl

CO=C tre vi11)=0

VII
/ DI

0= C5 cP=

=C6

Fig. 8.8 Vortex Flow.

232 FLUID MECHANICS

Cam+ + dudr•dr)(r + dr)d0 +0- ur de +0

=
dU al4
/T ) fir de + w (dr)
2 de
Of

dr =[-N- (ur)] dr do, neglecting the higher order terms

or
1 drma, 1 d (8.35)
r dr de r WT-
The expression (8.35), being the circulation per unit area, yields the vorticity.

Free Vortex
When we consider u = A Ibrr, we obtain ur = Al2tr = C, for which the
vorticity is zero by Eq. (8.35). Recall (Chapter 5) that ur = C defines a free vortex
motion. Thus a free vortex flow is irrotational, except at the origin where u tends
to be infinity.
The circulation along a path surrounding the origin in a free vortex flow
is
2s
A
r=§Ufd0=i
brr • r de
0

Of
F=A (836)
corroborating that the flow is rotational when origin is included. A is known
as the strength of the vortex.
We note that while the origin is a singular point in both the source and vortex
flows, it is only in the latter that a net cirulation results.

Forced Vortex
Reverting to Eq. (8.35), we observe that the equation was derived by a contour
integration and is not restricted to irrotational flow. In case of a forced vortex
of angular velocity co, the velocity at a radius r is u = or. The circulation per
unit area is then
1 dr AieD 1 d „
r dr de = r ver2 1= `a) (8.37)
In other words, the vorticity of a forced vortex is 2ox

8.6 SUPERPOSITION
The expressions for efr or w derived for the so-called 'basic' flows of the
foregoing, i.e. the uniform flow, the source or the sink, the doublet and the free
 TWO-DLIENSIONAL FLOW OF IDF_AL FLUIDS 233
vortex, can be put to practical use by 'superposition'. By superposition we mean
the algebraic combination of the 4 or tif functions of two or more basic flows.
The combined expressions then can represent potential flow over complex
geometries.

8.6.1 Rankine Body

We shall illustrate the process by considering an example, say, a source located
in a uniform flow in the negative x-direction, Fog. 8.9.
A 9
V"'"' =2x

V Naomi now = — Clo r sin 9

)'

Fig. 8.9 Combination of a Source and Uniform Flow.

The stream function in the flow field due to the combination of the two basic
flows is
A
= — Uor sin 9 (8.38)
also satisfies the Laplace equation, being a linear combination of two basic flows.
Now recall, from Chapter 3, that no fluid mass crosses a stream line. In other
words, a stream line is a virtual solid surface. Conversely, ty = 0 stream line
represents the outline of a solid body.
The crux of the method of superposition is to evaluate the shape for which
W = 0 condition is satisfied. The stream line generated by superposition then
represents the potential flow past the evaluated body.
The body so evaluated is known as a 'Rankine body'. When the result of
superposition is to generate only the front or the rear of a 'body', the Rankine
body is abbreviated as a 'half body'.
Reverting to Eq. (8.38), we note that the w = 0 stream line corresponds to
the curve
sin 0 A
= 2 xU0 (8.39)
234 FLUID MECHANICS

The typical values of the radial distance from the source are:
A
r = 1-- for 8 =0;
= 0;
Irt o
A
r = -470 - for 0 = ±x/2 and r —)ce for 0 =

The thickness of the half body is,

AO
y = r sin 0 =
2xU0
and its maximum value is
A
2U, at
8= n
YrniX =

The flow field due to Eq. (8.38) and the corresponding Rankine body are sketched
in Fig. 8.9. The Rankine body in this case is really a half body. The body extends
to infinity in the rear end.

8.6.2 Stagnation Point

By definition, the component of velocity perpendicular to the 'solid surface'
= C = 0) is zero. The tangential component is

u=—
dy, = U sin 0
°
which is zero for 8 = 0.
In other words, both the velocity components are each zero at the
point S on the body in Fig. 8.9, and the fluid is at rest. S is then known as
the 'stagnation point'.
Physically it means that the flow issuing out of the source exactly counter-
balances the uniform flow at S. The point S is located at a distance AlbrUo
from the source. At higher angles, the source flow diverts the uniform flow
resulting in the bending of the stream lines. Very far away from the 'body', where
the influence of the source is minimal, the stream line tends to remain parallel
with the x-axis.

8.7 RANKINE OVAL

By examining the Rankine half body of Fig. 8.9, we intutively realise that the
rear-half could be traced if the stream lines were subsequently made to converge
towards the x-axis.
Such a convergence could be possible if a sink was placed in the down-
stream location. If the sink position and strength were chosen randomly the full
Rankine body would be of arbitrary shape. On the other hand, a symmetric rear
half could be expected if the sink was of the same strength as the source, and
was located along the same x-axis.
We examine below the symmetric case, the resulting body being called a
Rankine Oval, Fig. 8.10.
 TWO-D1MENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 235

Fig. 8.10 Rankine Oval.

The source and sink are each of strength A placed on the x-axis on either
side of the origin at a distance 2 m apart. The velocity of the uniform flow is
U0. Our objectives are to evaluate the body shape, lengths of the major and minor
axes and the locations of the stagnation points. In Fig. 8.10, the angles 01 and
02 subtended by a point P (X, y) respectively from the source and the sink are:

= tan- W2711), 02 = tan- (x

÷ n)

The stream functions for the source, sink and uniform flow at P (x, y) is
A 0l
= 2x 02 — oY
Of

A y
/V = — 2x + m) tanym) Uoy (8.40)

The velocity component in the x-direction is

u= diy= — [ x+m
y 2 + (x n)2
x—m
y 2 + (x 102 U0 (8.41a)

and in the y-direction

v = ax
A
_[ y2
— nO + y2 (x + M)2 + y2 ]
(8.41b)

From Eq. (8.40), we realize that y = 0, i.e. the x-axis is a part of the w = 0
stream line. That v = 0 on the x-axis is corroborated by Eq. (8.41b).
The locations of the stagnation points are noted from Eq. (8.41a) by setting
u = 0 on w = 0 line. The result is
A 1 1 i_ r!
2rr[x+m x— nti—
236 FLUID MECHANICS

or
2m _ 2/cUo
x 2— m2 — A
or
(x2 — m2) inA
IcUo
Of

X= lint 2 + MA (8.42a)
sUo

y = 0 axis.
If the flow rate into the sink is q, which also is the rate out of the source,
then A = q, and we can write Eq. (8.42a) with greater physical significance as

x = ±4m2 + mq (8.42b)
icUo
on y = 0. The length of the x-major axis is

2 4m2 + mg (8.43)
7cUo
In order to trace the solid surface, we continue with investigating w = 0 condition
from Eq. (8.40), leading to
y
y
1( _ 2XUOY
tan —) tan — =
x+m x—m A
The points on the y-axis are obtained by setting x = 0, i.e.
(27cUoy)
2 tan- (y/m) = A
or
tan(xUA0Y)= — (y/m) (8.44)

gives the intersection of the body on the y-axis. The length of the y-axis of the
oval is twice the positive value of y obtained from Eq. (8.44). The oval is elliptic.

8.8 A STATIONARY CIRCULAR CYLINDER

The Rankine Oval discussed in the foregoing section is elliptic in shape. The
oval could become a circle if the minor and major axes were of equal length.
The constituent basic flow for the circular cross-section, would have to be the
same: a source, a sink and uniform flow, so that a closed body was simulated.
In order to make the major and minor axes equal, however, the source and the
sink have to be located together, effectively making a doublet.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 237
Hence we proceed to evaluate the flow past a circular cylinder with its axis
perpendicular to the direction of uniform flow by combining the stream function
of a doublet with that of a uniform flow
W= + Wu, (8.45)
If the circular cylinder is treated as a specialization of the oval in Hg. 8.10, the
doublet has to be left banded and the uniform flow in the negative x-direction.
Alternately, we may choose a right handed doublet located in a flow in the positive
x-direction. The two alternatives are shown in Fig. 8.11. Note the variation in
the positive direction of the angle measured in Figs. 8.11(a) and 8.11(b).
Y e

(a) 8 anti-clockwise, lh doublet (b) 6 clockwise, rh doublet and

and uniform flow in negative uniform flow in positive
x- direction. x- direction .
Fig. 8.11 • Pattern of Stream Line about a Cylinder in Cross Flow.

Substituting for wz, and w1/4 , in Eq. (8.45) for the configuration in Fig. 8.11(a),
we have

w — Uor sin 8+ 4
171 sin
Or
Aa
w = — (Uor — ) sin 8 (8.46)

from which w = 0 corresponds to: (i) 0 = 0 and 8 = rc locations, and (ii)

Uor — (Aal irr)= 0 curve.
The angles 8 = 0 and x coincide with the x-axis. On the other hand,
A
vor —a=v
defines a circle whose radius is
)112
R =( Aa
(8.47)
rrI/0
In other words, the stream function at (8.46) defines tl flow past a circular
cylinder of radius R = (Aale4)112 •
238 FLUID MECHANICS

The corresponding potential function is obtained as

Aa cos 0 +
U°r cos 0
= r
or
=[(Aaher)+ Uor] cos 8 (8.48)
The circumferential component of velocity is given by
u=— dr
from which

u . [u0 Aa2 ] sin 9 (8.49)

as the velocity parallel to the cylinder surface. Note that

u= 0 at 9=0, 0=x.
There is no radial component of velocity on the cylinder surface, Fig. 8.11,
since the contour itself is a stream line, namely, w = 0. Additionally, the u
component is zero at Si and 52. In other words, the total velocity vector is zero
at SI and S2, and hence are the two 'stagnation points'.

8.8.1 Pressure Distribution

On substituting the value of cylinder radius R = l,M11
(Aa 0 ) in Eq. (8.49), we
obtain the peripheral velocity on the cylinder surfaces as:
U, (0) = 2U0 sin 0 (8.50)
Let Po be the hydrodynamic pressure far away from the cylinder where the stream
velocity is U0. Since the flow field is irrotational, Bernoulli's equation can be
used to estimate the pressure distribution on the cylinder surface:
p, (0) + U,2 (0) po U 02
2 p 2
or

P' (e) P° = U( 1— sine 0)

22) ( 4
P
Define a pressure coefficient
(6) Po
C = = (1— 4 sine 9) (8.51)
ipU,;
The pressure distribution in the ideal flow past a stationary cylinder is shown
in Fig. 8.12.

8.8.2 Lift and Drag

The force due to pressure on a surface element R dO is p, (0) • R de acting in
the radial direction. The component of this force in the x-direction is parallel
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 239

Up, po

4 1.0
90 180 270
0
Cp
.0
-2.0

-3.0 V V

Fig. 8.12 Pressure Distribution on the Surface of a Stationary Cylinder in Ideal Flow.

to U0, and can cause a resistance to motion if the net effect is opposite to U0.
Similarly, a lift can result due to the y-component of the pressure force in a
direction transverse to the uniform flow.
Thus, the resisting force, normally known as the form or pressure drag, is
2s
D = f [Po — p, (9)] R d0 cos 9
0
or
2a
D=-U:R (1— 4sin2 0)cos0 d0=0
0

The prediction of a zero drag is the most severe limitation of the potential solution.
The zero drag result is physically absurd. In a real flow viscous effects modify
the pressure distribution to be asymmetric and a form drag results.
It will be seen, by taking the transverse component, that the lift also is zero
for a stationary cylinder.

8.9 A CYLINDER WITH CIRCULATION

Consider again the cylindrical contour of Fig. 8.11, generated by a doublet in
uniform flow. If the cylinder was rotated about its axis, and the fluid was viscous,
the angular motion would also be transferred, through frictional resistance, to the
fluid. if the rotation was anti-clockwise in Fig. 8.11(a), or clockwise in Fig. 8.11(b),
the effects of rotation would be to increase the velocity of fluid particles on the
upper side of the cylinder, and to decrease it in the lower side. That is to say
that the stream lines can be made asymmetric by rotating the cylinder.
In an ideal fluid, however, the rotation of the cylinder cannot be transferred
to the fluid because of the slip, i.e. the absence of friction. But, we can model
the effects of rotation, i.e. asymmetry of stream lines, by superimposing a free
vortex of circulation T. We shall note that such asymmetry leads to the generation
of a lift, which was not possible on a cylinder at rest.
 240 FLUID MECHANICS

The stream function for a free vortex is V, = - (1/21r)In r. The resultant

stream function for the flow field with circulation around a cylinder is then
/
_ Aa — U ) sin 0 _ r hi r (8.52)
we — icr "r )
and the potential function
-Aa r 0
7-,7 + Uorlcos 0 — 1Tr (833)
4
=[
The circumferential and radial velocity components are obtained as

u = — -i1-. Te
a0 _ [ Aa + u.I . n . r
— —2 sm u * Tirr (8.54)
irr

V = - 13, =[ i4
1 — Udcos 0 (855)
. r xr
We note from Eq. (8.55) that the transverse component of velocity is zero
for all angles on the curve r2 = AaIU0i r, which indeed is the cylinder of
Fig. 8.11.
From Eq. (8.54), the angular component of velocity on the cylinder surface
is
Aa
u,(0)=H+ r
uo ] sin 9 + l-TR
i -
nit
Or
u,(9) = 2U0 sin 9 + -- (8.56)

The surface velocity is zero at the angle given by

(8.57a)
90 = sin- 1 ( iszi o )
or at
Or — 00) (8.57b)
Since v = 0 on the cylinder surface, further absence of u, = 0 renders the two
angular points given by Eqs. (8.57a) and (8.57b) as the stagnation points. The
stream line corresponding to SI and S2 is iv = (172701n r by Eq. (8.52). From
Eq. (8.54) we note that u = U0 sin 8 as r tends to infinity.
The flow patterns are shown in Fig. 8.13(a) for the anti-clockwise 0, and
in Fig. 8.13(b) for a clockwise 0 reckoning. Note that in both Figs. 8.13(a) and
8.13(b) the stream lines are crowded on the positive y-axis, indicating local
acceleration, compared to the cylinder surface on the negative y-axis.
It is readily recognized that the two stagnation points in Fig 8.13 would
coincide when 00 = — tr/2. That happens when
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 241

Uo Uo
- r2- in r
Vvortex --

Alk
(a) Anti-clockwise 8 .ve (b) Clockwise 8 • v e
Fig. 8.13 Flow Pattern around a Rotating Cylinder.

r =1 (8.58)
47tRU.
When the circulation is higher, i.e. r >41cRuo, no stagnation point occurs on
the cylinder surface, but shifts to a point away from the cylinder where the radius
is
T=
r , 0. = — 7r12 (8.59)
2NU.
The cylinder is then completely surrounded by- a circulatory flow, and no fluid
particle from the uniform flow reaches the surface.

8.9.1 Circulation and Surface Pressure Distribution

The circulation around the cylinder is

icy, = fs u,R dO

2z 2a
.2u0R f sin 0 de + 2rr i de
0 0
=r
which is the circulation of the free vortex.
The hydrodynamic pressure at a point on the cylinder surface is estimated as .

P, (0) — Po _ Uo u, (0)2
P 2 2

2 r(
RU )2]
= 7 u° Li — 2 sin 8 + 2irr
242 FLUID MECHANICS

Or

c= . (1— 4 sin2 0) — TiT---

, zuci)2 (8.60)
W
21- sin
P +1214

8.9.2 Lift and Drag

The lift experienced by the cylinder with circulation is

L= [po — P, (8)] R dO sin 0

0
or
2x 2
F 2F sin 0]
= - [(1 - 4 sine 0)— ( R sin 0 dO
VffOr
2nRUo ) Fr

Or
L 21' f R sin2 0 dO
0

since each of the other integrals is zero. Thus

(1— cos 20)
— 21. d0
-11314 sUo 2

Or
L 21"
2r 0 —
10112 NU0

and
L = pUor (8.61)
The expression (8.61) is significant, for it states that circulation is essential to
create lift on a surface.
Physically, the circulation causes the stream line to be unsymmetric around
the body. The fluid is accelerated on the upper side compared to the lower,
Fig. 8.13. By Bernoulli's equation, the pressure on the accelerated side is lower
than that on the other. A net pressure force, i.e. the lift, results in the upward
direction transverse to the uniform flow. Lift of a rotating cylinder was fast
detected by H.G. Magnus in the 19th century and is known as the 'Magnus Effect'.
Since asymmetry of stream lines is the measure of circulation, lift can be
generated by suitably designing a shape and without necessarily imparting a
rotation. This is the principle behind aerofoils.
That lift L = puor, depends on circulation but not on the body dimensions,
is known as the Kutta-Jukowski law.
The reason that we choose to express the potential function for the free vortex
in terms of the circulation I" rather than on its strength, is now apparent. By
assigning a circulation, we a priori set the value of the lift to be expected.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF IDEAL FLUIDS 243
The drag experienced by a cylinder with circulation can be estimated by
integrating the parallel component of the pressure force,
2;
D= i [po — p, (0)] R dO cos 0
0
The integral shall, however, be found to be zero.
That drag is not estimable from a solution of the potential flow is an assertion
of the fact that ideal fluid connot support shear resistance.
The usefulness of the ideal flow solution lies in estimating the pressure
distribution to reasonable accuracy and the lift to a remarkable degree.

Example 8.3 A cylinder 5 cm in diameter with a circulation r is placed in

a stream of air having an uniform velocity of 2 m/s. Calculate the value of r
when both the stagnation points coincide. Estimate the lift force experienced by
the cylinder under such situation, if pi, =12 kg/m3.
The fluid velocity on the surface of a cylinder with circulation is given by
Eq. (8.56) as
I'
u, (0) = 2110 sin 0 + 2 gR

and the stagnation points by

00 = sin- I ( 4ffRUO ) and Or — 90).

When both the points coincide, the two angles are equal and 80 = — g/2, on the
lower surface. Thus
r =1
4KRII0
Then
r = affRuo
is the condition.
For the given numerical values,
5 x 10- 2 x 2 m2/s
I = its • —
2
= 0.6283 m2/s
The lift force
kg m m
F=pUoL=L2x2x0.6283 17xT. 2
Or
r = 1308 N/m

8.10 SUMMARY

1. Rotation of a fluid element is associated with shear strain and can be caused
by tangential stresses.
244 FLUID MECHANICS

2. Irrotationality can be violated by viscous effects, external work interaction

or heat transfer.
3. Irrotationality implies V x 17 = 0 leading to 7 = - V., where • is known
as the potential function. An irrotational flow is also known as a potential flow.
4. Fora potential flow V20 = 0 as well as V2 yr = O. The concept of a stream
function yi is common to both rotational and irrotational flow, where as 0 is
applicable only for the latter.
5. 0 = C and yr = D lines are orthogonal and form the flow net.
6. Circulation is defined as r= i V • a . The circulation per unit area
equals vorticity. Circulation along anya itrary closed path in an irrotational flow
is zero, except when the path encompasses a point of singularity.
7. Circulation in a flow causes the stream lines to be asymmetric and leads
to the creation of lift.
8. Lift in a flow with circulation I' is L = p1101-.
9. Stream or potential functions for two or more basic flows are combined
to represent potential flow past different body shapes. The contour of the body
is defined by the yr = 0 stream line.
10. At a stagnation point all components of velocity are zero.

EXERCISES

A. Show that the given potential function

0 = 113x3 — x2 xy2 + y2
describes an irrotational flow. Determine the stream function and the velocity
vector at (1, 2).
(Ans: 2xy — x2y2 + 3y3; 5I)
2. The x and y components of velocity in a two-dimensional incompressible flow
are given by
u=3x+y, v=2x-3y
Derive an expression for the stream function, and hence show that the flow is
not irrotational. Calculate the vorticity at a point (-1, 2).
(Ann 1k)
3. The stream function in an incompressible flow is given by
w = x2 — 2y2
Calculate the circulation around a closed path joined by straight lines in sequence
between the points (-1, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (-1, 1).
(Ans: 4 m2/s)
 TWO-DIIAENSIONAL now of IDEAL aims 245

4. Consider a forced vortex rotated at an angular speed w . Evaluate the circulation

around any closed path, not necessarily encompassing the origin, and show that
vorticity of the forced vector is 2w.
Derive expression for hydrodynamic pressure as a function of radius for both
(i) a free vortex, and (ii) a forced vortex.
5. A source of strength q at the origin and a uniform flow of velocity
—U are combined in a two-dimensional flow. If the stagnation point occurs at
(2, 0) when U = 20 m/s, determine the value of q. Derive expressions for the
potential and stream functions.

(Ans: 80x m2/s; 0 = Ur cos 0 — Z lnr)

n
6. A stationary cylinder of radius 80 cm is placed in an irrotational flow of air
with a free stream velocity of 45 m/s. The free stream pressure is 1 bar and
density 1.2 kg/m3. Calculate the hydrodynamic pressure at the stagnation point
and at s/4 and s/2 angles away from it.
(Ans: 101.215, 98.785, 96.355 k Pa)
7. If the cylinder in Problem 6 had a circulation of 126.33 m2/s with the free
stream velocity, pressure and air density maintained as before, estimate the values
of pressure at 0 = 0, ± r/4 and ± g/2, the angles measured positive from the
x-axis with the cylinder centre located at the origin.
Compute the lift experienced by the cylinder per its unit length.
(Ans: 100.8359, 96.4867, 100.3253, 93.2616, 98.6902 k Pa; 6821.88 N/m)
8. A source with flow rate q is superimposed on a vortex of circulation F. Derive
the expressions for velocity potential and stream function. If q = 05 m2/s and
r= 2m2/s, calculate the components of velocity at a point x = 0.5 m and
y = 02 m.
(Ans: 0.5911, 0.05623 m/s)
9. A two-dimensional source of strength 2 m2/s is placed in an ideal fluid with
a free stream velocity of 10 m/s in -the horizontal direction. Determine the
horizontal force acting on the 'half body' for unit length of the body.
10. The velocity potential and stream function of one flow are 0, and yro and
those for another are 02 and V12. Show that O = 402 VI% and W = 1/02 0111,2
are the velocity potential and stream function for a third flow.
 Two-Dimensional Viscous
Flow

A fluid element in motion is subjected to body forces and surface forces.

The surface force is purely due to the fluid pressure, if the fluid is an ideal one
having zero viscosity or if the fluid is at rest. The equations of motion of an
ideal fluid are the Euler equations, which when integrated yield Bernoulli's
equation.
Viscosity introduces two major effects:
(i) Shear stress is brought into play to resist external tangential force, and
a shear strain is developed in the fluid. The components of shear strain
also cause fluid rotation, and vorticity is not conserved.
(ii) Normal stress at a point deviates from (—p) where pis the fluid pressure.
Such deviation further destroys the isotropy of normal stress that was
available in an ideal fluid.
The equations of motion of a viscous fluid are described by what are known
as the Navier-Stokes equations. Derivation of Navier-Stokes equation in its totality
is beyond the scope of this text.
In what follows, we shall derive the equation for the special case of an
incompressible, Newtonian fluid. Two-dimensional flow shall be considered.

9.1 NORMAL STRESS

Consider points A (x, y) and B (x + Ax, y + Ay) in a two-dimensional flow field.
If (u, v) are the components of velocity at A, we can write the values at B as
below:
du du
u + du = u + az
— Ax + — Ay
aY
dv Ax + dv
v + dv = v + — —., Ay
ax o'Y
The excess of velocity at B over A will result in a relative displacement of B
with respect to A. The displacement shall result in (i) a linear extension of the
line joining AB, and (ii) a rotation of AB. The displacement of B w.r.t. A can
be evaluated from a combination of those of C and D w.r.t. A in Fig. 9.1. The
velocity components at C and D are shown in the figure.
246
 TWO-DiMENSIONAL viscous FLOV/ 247
AY
8v
v`r py
(3 •
u•
au /
ay Ay peo '(u•du,v•dv)
/
/
/

--.4
l.
.... e•
4..... ....
....----- aU A
--o I U +a—x taX
C 11' 0X
.
A px av
"a3LIA

Fig. 9.1 Relative Displacement in a Flow Field.

Consider, for example, the movement of C over A. C is tending to move

away along the x-axis resulting in a linear extension of the line AC at the rate
of (du/dx) Ax per unit time. Secondly, AC is tending to rotate to Acv due to
the excess transverse velocity (dv/dx) Ax.
Since the length of AC is Az, the linear strain per unit time is ix = du/dx,
and the rotation 81 = dv/dx. Accounting similarly the displacement of D over
A, we readily recognize the linear strain in the y direction and the valor of 02 .
Thus

(9.1a)
e. = dx
dv
E, = (9.1b)

are the linear strains in the x and y directions, and

_(du dv) (9.2)

—
is the shear strain in the x-y plane.
We now propose that the normal stress in the viscous fluid can be written as
=— P 01% ay = P (9.3)
and the deviations o and a; are proportional to the corresponding normal strains.
In the case of a solid body, the constant of proportionality between normal
stress and normal strain is the Young's modulus E, which is related to the modulus
of rigidity G as
E = 2G (1+ 1/m) (9.4)
where 1/m is the Poisson's ratio.
248 FLUID MECHANICS

The concept of a modulus equivalent to Young's does not, however, exist

in a fluid. It is tacitly assumed that Eq. (9.4) can be used to define the modulus
for normal stress in a Newtonian fluid in terms of the viscosity µ For an
incompressible fluid this turns out to be 2µ. Note that physically such a value
can be visualized by considering that incompressibility is synonymous with zero
value of Poisson's ratio in Eq. (9.4).
Using the expressions for normal strain, viz. Eq. (9.1), we can now write
au
Qj — p + 2µ (9.5a)
Tx
av
a, = — p + 2irw (9.5b)
combining
au av
a, + ay =— 2p + 2,u(w + w)

The equation of conservation of mass for an incompressible flow being

au av
V•v =---+ -=0 (9.6)
Ty
we get the average value of normal stress at a point as
a, + ay
a = —2-- — p (93)
It would be readily seen that the same result follows for three dimensional
flow. Whereas Eq. (9.5) indicate that normal stress at a point in viscous flow
is different in different direction, Eq. (9.7) signifies that its average equals the
value in a static fluid, a=- p. The pressure p is often called 'thermodynamic
pressure' and is used for making thermodynamic calculations irrespective of
whether the fluid is at rest or in motion.
We may also indicate for completeness that the normal stress components
in a compressible flow deviate further from those expressed at (9.5), yet the
average stress equals —p.

9.2 SHEAR STRESS

In Fig. 9.2, ABCD is a fluid element of sides Ax and 4y. The x-axis is perpendicular
to faces AD and BC, because of which these are called the x-faces. Similarly
AB and CD are the y-faces. The first subscript for a shear stress is meant to
represent the face on which it is acting and the second subscript for the direction.
The directions of shear stresses in Fig. 9.2 are suggested from the following
consideration. Imagine that the velocity is increasing in the positive y-direction.
The fluid layer AB is moving at a higher u than the layer below it. The direction
of shear stress on AB is hence fixed opposing u. Directions for other stresses
follow similarly.
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 249

8(Cyx
YX + .17 "Y C

y
Txy
x
•B
tx,
• y) fr yx

0
Fig. 9.2 Symmetry of Shear Stress.

The coordinates of point A are (x, y) and the increment of Sr,, and ry, on
faces BC and CD are written by Taylor's expansion.
Clearly, the action of the system of shear stresses is to cause a rotation of
the element ABCD about the z-axis, perpendicular to the plane x-y.
Consider the rotation of the element about C. Defining I. as the area moment
of inertia of the element and as the angular velocity, we obtain by taking
moments of the forces about C,

=(t,, • Ay • 1) Ax — (r), • Ax • 1) Ay
Unit thickness of the fluid element has been considered in the z-direction,
and the rotation positive in the anti-clockwise direction.
The area moment of inertia
Alc2 = (A x • A y)K 2
where K, the radius of gyration is proportional to one of the sides of the element.
Substituting in the moment equation, we have
2 dO)
K )
= (2.1Y —
Since the relationship is to be valid for infinitesimal dimensions of the element,
we obtain
d0),
• k -+ 0
i.e.
= ryx (9.8)
In other words, the shear stresses are symmetric and
( du dv)
(9.9)
Tx7 T)2 = a7)
recalling the expression for ezy

The symmetry conditions also exist in three-dimensional flows.

250 FLuio MECHANICS

9.3 NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

The dynamic equilibrium of a fluid element in motion is expressed by Newton's
second law. We have already evaluated the rate of momentum change in the
Eulerian reference frame discussed in Chapter 3. In Fig. 9.3 below, we now
consider the action of surface forces. The net external forces in the x-direction
are:
(da dr da
dx)dy•l+H dy)dx•14—' + --1-14x• dy •i
dx dY dx dy

In other words, the force per unit volume is

F da + dr
. H
. (9.10a)
dx dy

YI aa y
" rci A Y
arc yx
rE lf x • ay LIY

ex
eixy

try

0 x
Fig. 9.3 Stress in a 2-D Flow.

Similarly for the y-direction, we obtain

day + drxy )
Fy (9.10b)
Il\ ay dx
We recall that the momentum change per unit volume (Chapter 3) in the x-direction
is p Du/Dt; in the y-direction p Dv/Dt; o, = — p + a', and Cry = — p + dy .
Define further the body forces as BB and By in the two directions. Newton's
law then results in
Du dp (da ail
-t- =
p -b - - +l —
ax (9.11a)
Tx ay
and
'Dv dp (do; aril
P Dt = By Ty +
4. l dx (9.11b)
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 251

Eubititutill 1M f 1 u N nomiliam. litialegited ion& nre noted as

(IT). a2u ( a2u a2v
ad
= 2µ Tx2-
dx ay aye dx aylI)
(12 day2u
=It u2 2)+12
(ax
2-.2 0
du du
2 + 2 )1
= dx dy
since
du dv
Tx + -Ty- = 0, by continuity.
Similarly,

&fir + _ v d 2 v)
dy dx P (3x2 ay 2
Thus Eqs. (9.11a) and (9.11b) are rewritten as
Du ap 2
P = Bx (9.12a)
-a7 PV u
Dv _ dp
P BY Ty P" (9.12b)
Combining vectorially,
-
13 -Dr = B - Vp + µWV (9.13)

Whereas Eq. (9.13) above is derived for a two-dimensional incompressible flow,

the equation also represents a three-dimensional flow when gradients and velocity
components in the z-direction are included.
The gradient of the hydrostatic component of the fluid pressure balances the
body force, so that Eq. (9.13) can be written with brevity as

2V
P TIT = (9.14)
VPd PV
The subscript d in Eq. (9.14) indicates hydrodynamic pressure. For convenience
of writing, however, d is often dropped. The absence of the body force term in
an equation of motion should be the indication that only hydrodynamic pressure
is being considered.
Equation (9.13) or (9.14) is known as the Navier-Stokes equation for the
incompressible flow of a Newtonian fluid. The flow is laminar since only
molecular viscous stress has been considered.
Navier-Stokes equation expressing the momentum change, and the continuity
equation for conservation of mass together constitute the equations of motion of
a fluid element.
252 atm MECHANICS
9.4 SOLUTIONS OF THE NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS
Although the Navier-Stokes equations describe the motion of a fluid completely
within the framework of the assumptions made, exact solutions of these equations
are possible only in 'simple cases. The majority of such solutions relate to 'parallel
flows'. The Couette flow, the fully developed flow through a pipe or a concentric
annulus discussed in Chapter 6 are examples of parallel flow where only one
component of velocity is non-zero.
We shall discuss below one sample case of parallel flow in order to illustrate
the method of solution of the Navier-Stokes equation. We reiterate that the flow
to be discussed below can be formulated and solved by the control volume analysis.
Obviously, the merits of the N-S equations lie in their capability to model complex
flow condition, not simply the parallel ones.

9.4.1 Flow through a Parallel Channel

Consider a channel formed by two parallel plates kept a distance 2h apart.
The flow is assumed parallel meaning thereby v = w = 0. As was discussed in
Chapter 6, physically the parallel flow condition is satisfied far downstream the
entry where it is said to be fully developed.

Continuity:
du
ax + =0 (9.15)
0
since v= 0, parallel flow
2 2
Iviomentum:p ( da;
d-u) (9.16a)
4x+ *1= 4 + ay2

by continuity • by continuity

The v equation is identically zero, since v = 0. Hence pressure depends only

on x. Therefore Eq. (9.16a) is written as
du dp d 2u
P79- = - w+11 ay 2 (9.16b)
If we consider the flow to be steady, du/dt = 0 in Eq. (9.16b) and we get
dp
0 =- Tix-+µ dy2
d 2u
(9.17)

as the equation of parallel flow.

By integrating, we have
du 1 •y+C

u= 2µ (di) 2
F Y +CY+D
(9.18a)
The constants of integration are evaluated from the conditions
du
u=0aty = ±h, or w=0aty=0
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 253
We then get
1 dp 2
C=O, D = — — h
'
from which
1 (
U= -271
-
dP) (h
-a 2 2
—y)

or

(9.18b)

where u = 2t E t) occurring at the centre of the channel. The velocity

.1
profile given by Eq. (9.18b) is parabolic as sketched in Fig. 9.4.

Fig. 9.4 Parallel Flow through a Channel.

It is recognized that a convenient analytical solution for the flow through

the parallel channel could be arrived at because the inertia terms became zero.
This happens in all parallel flows.

9.5 VERY LOW REYNOLDS NUMBER FLOW

Consider the flow of a highly viscous liquid such as a lubricant. The high value
of viscosity renders the viscous terms significantly higher in magnitude compared
to the inertia terms, especially when the velocity is low. The combined effects
of low velocity and high viscosity are reflected through a very low value of flow
Reynolds number Re. Generally for Re « 1, the inertia terms are completely
negligible and the simplified Navier-Stokes equation become similar to those for
a parallel flow. Consequently, a relatively convenient solution becomes possible.
A very low Re flow is sometimes called a "creeping flow".
The low Reynolds number solutions are applicable in lubrication of journal
and bearing, and in some viscometric instruments.

9.5.1 Flow Past a Sphere

The creeping motion of a highly viscous fluid past a sphere was first investigated
by G.G. Stokes neglecting the inertia terms completely. The equation of motion is
254 FLUID MECHANICS

then
0=— 17p + µV2I7 (9.19)

Solving the above equation, Stokes stated that a sphere in creeping motion
experiences a drag
D= (9.20)
where U. is the uniform velocity of the parallel fluid stream far from the sphere
of radius R.
A drag coefficient CD is defined on the basis of the projected area A = irR2
and the velocity head, as
2 1 2
D= CD • IrR • 2pU_
yielding
12p
CD pU_R
or
24
(9.21)
where
Re = 2 p
U_R
Equations (9.20) and (9.21) are valid for Re < 1. Oseen made a moderate account
for the inertia terms and generated results that are valid upto an approximate
Re .= 5, with the expression for CD as:

C° = + 16
3 Re) (9.22)

9.5.2 Terminal Velocity

If a particle is allowed to fall freely in a fluid medium, three forces control the
particle velocity. Whereas the gravitational force mg causes the motion, the rate
of fall is opposed by the fluid drag and the upward buoyancy. Since the drag
force is velocity dependent, its magnitude is small at the beginning of the motion
when the velocity itself is low. The particle, therefore, accelerates in the beginning.
As it acquires speed, however, the increasing drag force will reduce acceleration
and fmally a steady velocity will be reached when all the three forces acting
on the particle are balanced. The velocity of the particle is then called the "terminal
velocity".
At the steady state, or at the terminal velocity condition,
mg = vpg + D (9.23a)
Of
D = (p, — p)vg (9.23b)
where v is the volume of the particle, p, density of its material, and p the fluid
density.
 Two-011AENSIONAL viscous now 255
4 3
If we consider the particle to be spherical in shape, v = 3 irR , and Eq. (9.23)
can be rewritten as

CD KR2 (1pU,2 ). 3yeR3 g (p, — p) (9.24)

We then have the terminal velocity as

_[8 Rg (p, — 112

— 3 cp p (9.25)

The expression becomes simpler when we consider the free fall of a sphere
in a highly viscous liquid for which we may write D = 6nRµU„ following Stokes.
Equation (9.24) then yields
3
6ffRµU, = rR g(p, — p)
3
or
2R2
U, = — (p, — p)g (9.26)
9µ
The terminal velocity can be measured by monitoring the descent of the particle
with time in a graduated vessel containing the viscous fluid. The monitoring should
be done towards the lower end of the descent when the particle has attained a
steady velocity.
The measured value of U, may be used in Eq. (9.26) to determine any one
of the four parameters: the particle radius R, its material density p„ fluid density
p or the fluid viscosity µ, given the other three. Viscometers working on the
Stokes' principle use the terminal velocity to determine the viscosity of a liquid.
The diameter of the vessel should at least be 100 times the diameter of the free
falling sphere, so as to replicate the Stokes results for free flow past a sphere.

9.6 ORDER OF MAGNITUDE ANALYSIS

We have so far discussed two kinds of flow: the fully developed and the creeping,
where the inertia terms are either zero or negligible. The Navier-Stokes equation
is then simplified, and contains only the pressure gradient and the viscous terms.
The fully developed case is not applicable to external flow past a surface, and
the creeping motion cannot model flow involving low viscosity fluids such as
air or water.
In large majority of applications, therefore, the inertia terms have to be
accounted for. The concerned flows will be deemed to be at the other extreme
of high Reynolds number. Some simplifications are then possible through a few
assumptions.
The most celebrated assumption is the one suggested by Prandtl in 1904.
Prandtl proposed that the viscous effects in flow of low viscosity fluid, e.g. air
or water, past a solid surface is confined to a distance bin the transverse direction.
The distance 6(x) is very small compared to the axial distance along the length
of the solid. Prandtl's model of flow of a 13w viscosity fluid past a solid plate
256 FLUID MECHANICS

of length L is shown in Fig. 9.5. The velocity of flow before encountering the
plate is U_ and is uniform in the y-direction. Friction forces the velocity to have
zero value on the plate surface. The velocity then continually increases with y,
until at y = 8 it practically attains its free stream value of U.. That viscous effect
is absent in the zone y > 6, does not imply that µ = 0 since the fluid is real,
but it states that the velocity no more changes in the y-direction.

Um p 4 0 Zero-shear stress
0 zone

y
„ 0
/p 40
a 6(x)
VISCOU se
zone 6(L)
yip it 0

I x xL
Fig. 9.5 Modelling of a Real Flow to Viscous and Non-Viscous Zones.

Apart from a low value of µ (more appropriately v), the condition 6(x)/
x 4( 1 is satisfied at reasonably high velocity. The truly necessary conditions are
arrived at by an 'order of magnitude analysis' of the Navier-Stokes equation. The
basis of an order of magnitude analysis lies in expressing all parameters, x, y,
u, v or p, in their non-dimensional forms. The non-dimensionalization is done
by reference parameters of relevance to the problem under investigation. For
example, the longitudinal distance x can be non-dimensionalized by the plate length
L; or u by U,„.
The expressions in the governing equations now written in their non-
dimensional forms are compared for relative importance.
For example, let us imagine that the forces acting on a body are of the
following magnitude:
= 1N, F2 = 10 N, F3 = 50 N, F, = 200 N, F5 = 700 N
We choose to non-dimensionalize the forces through F„ such that
F1 = 0.005, F = 0.05, F 3 =0.25, F = 1.0, F s = 33
where F* = F/F4 .
I:examining the F*„ we observ$ that F*1 and F2 are very small compared
to F„ whereas those of F 3 and F 5 are comparable. We would then say that
*
F3, F and F 5 are of order unity, expressed as 0 (1), and F;` and F 2 are of
0 (6*), where 6* « 1. Usually it is assumed that 6* is less than 1/10th of unity.
Clearly, F1 and F2 have negligible effect on the body compared to the other
forces.
It is to be emphasized that 0 (1) of a non-dimensional parameter does not
mean that its value is exactly one; the value is comparable to unity.
The objective of the order of magnitude analysis is to then ignore terms of
0 (6*) compared to those of 0 (1).
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 257

It must be noted, however, that such approximation can be adopted where

accuracy is physically dispensable, say in momentum or energy equation. No
inaccuracy on conservation of mass, however small, can be accepted since matter
is not destructible except in nuclear processes.

9.6.1 Approximation of the Navier-Stokes Equations

We proceed now to eliminate terms of lesser magnitude in the momentum
Eq. (9.12), using the Prandtr s hypothesis stated above. Consider two-dimensional,
incompressible steady flow over a body of length L (see Fig. 95). For ease of
reference, we list, in Table 9.1, the pertinent information for non-dimensionalization.
We shall attempt to use such reference values for non-dimensionalization that
the order of the maximum value of a parameter is unity.

TABLE 9.1

Parameter Reference Value Non-dimensional Order of the N-D

Parameter Parameter
x L x* = x/I, 0 (1)
Y 45 Y* = Yis5 0(1)
u U.. u* = WU., 0 (1)
,,
V v,, = V .1 v* = viv,ef 0 (1)
p Prey = pll! P* = PIPier 0 (1)

In order to evaluate v,ef , we examine the continuity equation

du dv
dx + dy =
or

U. du* vref dv*

L dx* + 8 dy*
Or

du*. ( v„f L )d v* (9.27a)

ax* LT.) ay*
The order of a differential can be estimated from its difference form. For example,
we can approximate

du* = Au* um,,, — „ 0 —

„, n — 0 (1)
dx* 4x* x* - .4„`,„ w-
Thus in Eq. (9.27), both the differentials are of 0 (1). Since no term in the
continuity equation can be compromised, veL/(U.,5) must be of 0 (1). Hence
258 FLUID MECHANICS

we should choose ve( = U..(15/L), and write Eq. (9.27a) as

d v* (9.27b)
dx* ay*
The expression for vw is suggestive of the fact that the induced transverse velocity
is indeed very small, but not zero.
Consider the x-component of the momentum equation, at steady condition,
for convenience.

14 di+ vat -*-et v (crc2u sk21:_) (928a)

In non-dimensional form, the equation becomes

au* n2 8 v* du*
" * - L • T a y*

= - 1 + v U H324* + 2̀24* )
P dx e
aX*2 82 dy*2
Or

* du* v* du* — _ p x* v d2u* L2 d2u1 (9 .28b)

ax* ay* fge, U_L 031t2 + if
*2

By examining the orders of magnitude of each of the two terms within brackets
in Eq. (9.28b), we fmd that
a2u* 0 (0
dx*2 [0 Mr
L2 a2U* _ 1 0 _ 0( 1 )
62 ayt2 8*2 [0 (1)]2 — &la )

Since 3* 4( 1, the second term is much higher in magnitude than the first,
and we can neglect a2u/ax2 as compared to a2u/dy2 under the hypothesis that
6IL4(1.
We further note that the order of magnitude of each of the terms on the
1.h.s. of Eq. (9.28b) is unity, and hence each of the remaining terms on the right-
hand side should have unity order of magnitude in order that each has a bearing
on the flow in the x-direction. This implies that pre = pU_2 or 1/(2pU,.,2), the latter
for signifying kinetic energy.
The remaining viscous term on the right-band side is
.3201
[VTL
1 "16)2 21
and has 0 (1). In other wods,
(vIU_L) (L/6)2 = 0 (1)
 TWO-DIMENSIONAL viscous FLOW 259

(8IL)2 (v/U_L)

8IL E1/0
,T, (9.29a)

8 (x)/x = C/ Re= (9.29b)

Equation (9.29) signifies that Prandtl's hypothesis of the viscous effects being
confined to a layer 84 where 8 (x)lx 4(1, is satisfied when the Reynolds number
is large.
It is useful to appreciate that by applying the physical reasonings of order
of magnitude analysis, we ate able to arrive at the nature of dependence of 8(x)
on Re„, without using practically any mathematics. The constant of proportionality
C is to be estimated next for the geometry in question.
The y momentum equation is

U
av
+
av= 1 M
ay +
(a2 v2- + a2v)
2- (9.30a)
ay Tx
in non-dimensional form
2 dv*
u* 21L
* * ?7* aP*
L ax* 8 p8 ay*
vvw (a2 v*+ L2 a2v*1
.4.14,2 e ay*2
The first term within the parentheses is negligible as compared to the second
term. Dividing further, by U_v„f /6, we obtain

dv* + v*—
u* — dv* --(Lis)2 ‘P + (v1U.,L)(L18)2 a
()yip (9.30b)
dx* dy*
In Eq. (9.30b) all terms but the pressure gradient are of order unity. Whereas
delay* = 0(1), the factor (L/6)2 amplifies its magnitude many times higher than
the other terms. The rest are then negligible. Equation (9.30b) can be written
as
o = - (Lib)2 2t (9.30c)
ay*
or

(9.31)

Equation (9.31) has profound significance. It implies that pressure does not
vary in the transverse direction within the viscous layer of thickness 8. In other
words, the pressure at the edge of 8 at a particular axial location is the same
at any y inside the layer. The edge of the viscous layer being common with the
non-viscous region, the non-viscous pressure gradient in the x-direction is
260 auuo MECHANICS
impressed on the viscous layer. On the other hand, the non-viscous pressure
gradient x can be conveniently estimated from a solution of the potential flow,
e.g. the Bernoulli's equation.

9.7 BOUNDARY LAYER EQUATIONS

The viscous layer of thickness S is called the 'boundary layer'. Physically S is
defined where the velocity in the viscous layer attains 99 percent of the free stream
value U... The corresponding governing equations are known as the 'boundary
layer equations', which in dimensional form are recalled as

Continuity: (9.32)

Momentum:
du
uw+vw=—
du 1 w+v
dp 2u
ay2 (9.33a)
.)

—0 (9.33b)
uY —
The boundary layer model is applicable when 8(x)lx is .small, i.e. at locations
Re, is large. Clearly, Re, is small when x is small, and equals zero at the leading
edge (x = 0), irrespective of the flow velocity or the fluid viscosity. In other
words, the boundary layer approximations are not valid near the leading edge,
but a reasonable distance downstream.
Boundary layer form of the momentum equations are the ones frequently
adopted for solving problems of engineering interest involving flow of the most
common fluids: water and air.
Recall that a parallel flow, for which Navier-Stokes equations are solvable
exactly, is characterized by zero inertia effects. In contrast, in a boundary layer
flow the inertia effects are several times higher than the viscous action, yet the
viscous effects are not wholly negligible.

9.8 SUMMARY
1. The normal strain in a fluid in the x-direction is du/dx; similarly in the y
and z directions are dvIdy and dwIdz, where u, v and w are the components
of velocity.
2. The apparent modulus of normal stress in an incompressible, Newtonian
fluid is 2µ.
3. Whereas in a fluid at rest, or in an ideal fluid in motion, the normal stress
is isotropic and a = — p, viscous actions destroy the isotropy of normal stress.
In an incompressible, Newtonian fluid the deviations of normal stress from —p
are 2µ times the corresponding normal strain.
4. The average normal stress at a point in viscous flow is a = — p, irrespective
of whether . the flow is incompressible or compressible; p is known as the
thermodynamic pressure.
 MO-DIMENSIONAL VISCOUS FLOW 261
5. The shear stresses in a viscous flow are symmetric: r),:, 'zi„ =
T,), =
.

Tzi; Ts = To.
6. Navier-Stokes equations, together with the continuity equation, describe
completely the motion of a viscous flow within the constraints of assumptions
made, e.g. the stress-strain relationship.
7. Order of magnitude analyses are carried out by first non-dimensionalizing
the parameters involved. An order unity, 0 (1), does not mean that the value of
the term is exactly one. It simply says that the term has a value comparable to
one, and away from 0.1 or 10.
8. Navier-Stokes equations are approximated to boundary layer equations
when 5 (x)/x 4( 1. The thickness of the boundary layer is given by 8 (x)/x = C/ Rey .
The boundary layer assumptions are valid downstream of the leading edge where
Re, is large.
9. In a boundary layer flow, the axial gradients are orders of magnitude smaller
than the transverse gradients: d 2u/dx 2 0 a2U/dY2 .
10. Pressure at an axial location 'in the boundary layer does not vary in the
transverse direction, dpldy = 0. This implies that dp/dx can be estimated from
outside the boundary layer zone where viscous action is zero due to the non-
existence of a velocity gradient

EXERCISES
1. In a two-dimensional motion of a viscous fluid, the stress at a location is
evaluated to be a, = 8, ay =12 and "Tx, = 20 kN/m2 . Write the value of stresses
when the fluid is at rest What is the value of the thermodynamic pressure?
(Ans: 10, 10, 0, 10 k Pa)
2. The stresses in a three-dimensional flow field are written in matrix (tensor)
form as
az "T., "T,
X = To ay Tx
[ T, To a,
following the convention of subscripts discussed in the text of the chapter. Some
components of the stress tensor were measured and found to be as given in tr,
z Tiy T,
X1 = [a
24 8 ry, and p =11;
18 20 12

all values are in kN/m2. Write the values of the unknown stresses.
3. Starting with the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations, solve the following
parallel flow problems:
(a) Couette flow,
262 FLUID MECHANICS

(b) Flow through a circular pipe,

(c) Flow through a concentric circular annulus
Note that these flow situations were analysed in Chapter 6 using the methods
of a control volume.
4. A fluid of kinematic viscosity v = 20 x lr 6 m2/s and p = 800 kg/m3 is
contained between two parallel plates 15 an apart. The lower plate is fixed and
the upper moveable. A positive pressure gradient of 12.5 N/m3 exists in the
direction of motion of the upper plate.
Estimate the force required to move the upper plate at an uniform speed of
4.5 m/s, if the plate surface cross-section is 60 an x 130 an. Derive any expression
used, and sketch the velocity profile in the fluid.
(Ans: 1.10565 N)
5. Consider two-dimensional, incompressible flow of a viscous fluid. Write the
Navier-Stokes equations and the continuity equation. By differentiating the x
component of momentum equation with respect toy and the y component wx.t.
x and combining, show that the resultant equation is
Da)
Dt = vV2 ,
where w is the angular velocity or the vorticity.
 Laminar Boundary Layers

We recall from Chapter 9 that the boundary layer model basically divides the
flow of a real fluid past a solid body to two zones: a viscous layer surrounding
the solid surface, and a zero shear stress zone beyond it. The model is applicable
to high Reynolds number flows in which the pressure distribution of the free
stream is impressed on the viscous layer. A flow, initially uniform having one
component of velocity say U_, becomes two dimensional on encountering the
solid surface. A transverse velocity component, an order of magnitude smaller
than the axial, is induced due to viscous actions.
Solution of the boundary layer equations provides the methods for estimating
the frictional resistance along the wetted surface of a body.
For the sake of completeness, we write below the boundary layer equations
in a two-dimensional, steady incompressible flow:
du dv
Continuity: + ..ty (10.1)
Tx Ty

du du _ 1 tip d 2u
Momentum: u-g- +p-g- --T w+v ay2 (10.2)
x y
Solutions of these equations in their differential forms are said to be exact in
the context of boundary layers. Differential solutions are, however, not attainable
without considerable mathematical elegance.

10.1 MOMENTUM INTEGRAL EQUATION

A relatively simpler method, slightly less accurate—yet more powerful in the sense
that the process is applicable in varied situations, lies in integrating Eq. (10.2)
over the thickness of the boundary layer. The integrated boundary layer equation
can be derived independently by also considering a control volume. The second
approach is shown in Fig. 10.1 and is the topic of our following discussion. In
Fig. 10.1, a free stream flow at U. approaches a surface whose leading edge
coincides with x = 0. x is measured along the surface and y perpendicular to
it. 8(x) is the thickness of the boundary layer at a location x.
1-2-3-4 define a control volume whose faces 1-2 and 3-4 are parallel to
the solid surface and the other two faces are perpendicular to the surface. The
263
264 FLUID MECHANICS

height of the face 1-4 or 2-3 is /, and / is greater than the thickness of the
boundary layer.
1 r — -- — — —7 2
1

vas c---
. ky1 ......--1--- — — — -÷_.....
‘,...-- .• ------ --- a
p• 4
t3'
dy 1
,Iv 1 4 I— .—....=___/ ax 4 x
/ —
Tv, i
dx —6.1
Fig. 10.1 Control Volume Analysis of the Boundary Layer.

Fluid masses enter through faces 1-4,1-2 and 2-3 carrying with them the
momentum prevailing in the respective neighbourhood. No mass enters through
3-4, the face being coincident with the solid wall. The face 3-4, on the other
hand, experiences the wall shear stress and is dx long. A unit depth perpendicular
to the plane of 1-2-3-4 is being considered.

Conservation of Mass. The axial velocity at a location y on 1-4 face is u,

and the mass entering through a strip dy is pu dy. Thus mass inlet through the
whole of 1-4 is

f pu dy,
0

mass leaving through 2-3 is written by using Taylor's expansion as

f pu dy + f pu dy dx
o to

Since at steady-state no change of properties takes place within the control volume,
the excess of outflow through 2-3 is replenished through 1-2. In other words,
the mass coming from the free stream zone into the control volume is

Tx (0.1 pu dy)dx
Conservation of Momentum. The momentum in-flow through a strip dy is
put dy, and through the face 1-4 is

put dy (i)
0

Outflow through 2-3 is

I put dy+1(f put dy dx

 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 265

Inflow through 1-2 due to the mass coming from the zone of U. is

pu dy)Ax
0
Combining (i), (ii) and we obtain the net efflux of momentum through the
control surface as

11 (GO dy AX - U. 1 ( pu fiy AX
1
(10.3a)

The face 1-2 being in the free stream zone, no shear stress acts on it. The pressure
on face 1-4 is p, and is independent of y by boundary layer theory.
The external forces acting on the control volume are hence

- r,,, dx - dP dx • 1 (10.3b)
Combining Eqs. (10.3a) and (10.3b), we write the momentum balance for the
control volume as
1 1
11_ 1 pu dy)- Td if pu2 -1-1-
aY - "-
us, ' a f, dy
1- dP (10.3c)
.. 0 S'
In order to evaluate the pressure gradient we can move into the free stream zone
and use Bernoulli's equation
11.2.
P + —=C
2
Or
dp dU_
= PU• (10.4)
Equation (10.3c) is now written using Eq. (10.4)

U_ w if pu dy)+ pU_ dy - d J Put dy -- T.

0 0 0

or for incompressible flow

du _ d u2
(.1 u dy)+ ay - a - p (105a)
0 0 0

Consider the differentiation

(U_ J udy) =U_ u dy + 4" u dy

0 0 0
266 FLUID MECHANICS

Or

U., w fudy= w full.„dy Judy

O 0 0

Thus Eq. (10.5a) can be rewritten as

uU.. dy - u2 dy + dU U,„ dy -fudy)= zw

f
0 0 0 .0
Or

w
d -u2 )4+ -
•&- 1 (u - 14)dY= (10.5b)
0 0. P
The limits of integration 0 to 1 can be split up into 0 to 5 and 5 to 1. In the
free stream region of S to 1, however, u = U., and each of the integrand is zero.
Hence, Eq. (10.5b) is, effectively,
o
2
fs (uu. — u )dY+-&
O
• — f g/.
0
dY = 12-
v (10.6)

It will be seen later that the two terms in the 1.h.s. of Eq. (10.6) represent variations
of significant physical parameters.
In its present from at (10.6) the integral equation for momentum can represent
both laminar and turbulent flows, since no assumption has yet been made for
the shear stress,
In case U.. = C, such as it happens when a uniform flow continues past a
flat plate at zero incidence, the second term on the 1.h.s. is zero, since the pressure
gradient or dU„Idx is zero.

10.2 SOLUTION OF THE MOMENTUM INTEGRAL EQUATION FOR

FLOW OVER A FLAT PLATE
The steps involved in solving Eq. (10.6) are:
(i) choosing a velocity profile that satisfies all essential and some additional
boundary conditions,
(ii) evaluating the integrals and reducing the I.h.s. to a differential expression
on 6,
(iii) postulating the law of shear stress for depending on the flow
regime. For laminar flow r = µ (aulay),= 0 by Newton's law of shear
stress,
(iv) solving the differential equation for 8, and
(v) tracing back to r,„ to estimates the skin friction in flow along the body
surface.
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 267
We shall illustrate the method of solution by considering an incompressible,
laminar, steady flow of a Newtonian fluid along a flat plate at zero incidence.

102.1 Velocity Profile

The essential conditions to be satisfied by the boundary layer velocity profile
are:
(i) y = 0, u = 0, v = 0, no slip at the wall
y = 6, u = fire stream velocity at the edge of the boundary
layer
au
(iii)y=8. =a no shear stress at the edge of the boundary
layer.
d2u
(iv) y = 0, + v dy2
01
:Cau 1
by 0) —
Since the most important objective bf the exercise is to estimate the wall shear
stress as correctly as possible, while pursuing the approximate integral solution,
we force the velocity profile to satisfy the differential boundary layer equation
(exact) on the wall. This then becomes the additional boundary condition of first
priority. Thus
(d2u
ay:
y .0
For a fiat plate dp/dx = 0, and the condition reduces to
d2u
(v) --r =0 at y = O.
dy
It is then proposed that the boundary layer velocity profile can be written in terms
of a polynomial in y with the number of terms equalling the number of boundary
conditions to be satisfied. For the four conditions listed by us, we choose
u=A+By+Cy2 +Dy3 (10.7)
The degree of the polynomial in u can be increased by postulating additional
boundary conditions. It is customary to verify the convergence of an approximate
integral solution by comparing the results of the velocity profiles, one a degree
higher than the other.
From Eq. (10.7), we obtain
au
w = B + 2Cy + 3Dy2
and
2„
= 2C + 6Dy
268 FLUID MECHANICS

Substitution of the four boundary conditions results in:

(i) 0 = A
(ii) U,. = B8 + C82 + D83
(iii) 0 = B + 2C8 + 3D82
(iv) 0 = 2C
3 U
Solutions of the four algebraic equations yield A =1:% B. -2- -• C = 0;
6-'
1
D = -T i c% and the velocity profile is, by substitution,

k.. = ; (i)- 2(S)3 (10.8)

10.22 Boundary Layer Thickness

The integral momentum Eq. (10.6) for flow over a flat plate reduces to
a
d f U (1 ..... u ) as,
=
r„,
a0 J ty. e (10.9)
U., r i pU,2.

The integral in Eq. (10.9) is evaluated, by substituting for u/U., from Eq. (10.8),
to be 39/280, or
el (_39 8) = rw
dr 2.80 ) pu2 (10.10)

We now impose the laminar flow condition, for which

du
Tw = 11 (TY) y=o
Or
3 µU.,
T =7 8 (10.11)
Thus the integrated momentum equation for the flat plate results in
39 d8 _ 3 µU_ 1
pu!
280 (Tx - 2 ----- 6
or

, a —_
140 µ
0
W = 13 pU., (10.12a)
which upon integration yields
px
S2=280 +C (10.12b)
13 1,11_,
The hydrodynamic boundary layer starts growing from the leading edge when
the free stream flow first encounters the solid surface. We can therefore choose
8 = 0, at x = 0, resulting in C = 0. We should, however, recall that the boundary
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 269

layer equations are of course not valid in the immediate vicinity of x = 0, for
Res is low.
Thus from Eq. (10.12b), we obtain
8)2 280
= T3- (µ/p11...1)
or
8 4.64
.4 Rex (10.13)

Note that the information of the order of magnitude analysis of Chapter 9, that
(8/x) .= 1/ Rex is corroborated by a formal solution of the viscous layer. The
constant of proportionality C in the expression =
x C
-. varies slightly with
the choice of the velocity profile. Solution of the differential form of the boundary
layer equation for a flat plate geometry results in C = 5.

102.3 Skin Friction Coefficient

The wall skin friction coefficient is defined as
(x)
Cf (x) = (10.14)
Ipu2

Substituting for from (10.11), we get

„ 3 µU,„
Cf`xl -
2 4pu.2 8
Or

1 11 X , 1 I Re=
Cf (X)= a (--) — = 5
pil_x 8 Rex C
where C = 4.64 for the 3rd degree polynomial we chose for the velocity profile.
We thus have
3
Cf(X)=
4.64
Rex- 1/2
or
Cf(x)= 0.646 • Re; 112 (10.15)
The coefficient in Eq. (10.15) becomes 0.664 for the exact solution when C = 5.
The average value of skin friction coefficient over a plate of length L is
obtained by integration:
L

El = 4;
1 2 LT., (x)dx = 1 C (x)dx
u.
I
270 nue MECHANICS

ef =

E =0.646x2 .r/7
4

2 x (0.646 Rei v2 )
or
Cf = 2 x Cf (L) (10.16a)
Or
Cf =1292
Rei. 112
(10.16b)
Expression (10.16a) signifies that the average value of Cf is twice the local value
at the end of the plate. Note that when a plate is wetted on both sides, the friction
will be twice the value obtainable through (10.16).

10.2.4 Transverse Component of Velocity

The viscous action gives rise to the v component of velocity. We can estimate
its value at a position y within the boundary layer by making use of the continuity
relationship:
dv du
W=
Since

du ( 3 y 3 13_)„ dS
dS
-2753- + 454 Li GI

or

or
(23_
8.3
using Eq. (10.12a), or
= 210 _ 3_
AT 3 (10.17)
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 271
But

v(y)= - j dy
dx
0
Of

210 µ ( y2
vw- TT pat (10.18)
- 483 )
is the local transverse velocity.
v is zero at y = 0. At the edge of the boundary layer it equals:
210 µ ( 8 81
v(8)= 13 --e
p 4)
Or
105
v(8)= — -8- (10.19)
26 p8
and is its maximum value.
Recall that while performing the order of magnitude analysis in Chapter 9,
we arrived at the condition

0 ( v = 8* (10.20)

We may verify this by considering Eq. (10.19).

v (x)) 105 ( x
U., - 26 p U.,x)

105
- 26 1 -ife;
Re= 4.64
or
v(8 (x)) 0.87
(10.21)
-
Since
0 (45*)= Re; `12 , Eq. (10.20) is proved.

10.3 DISPLACEMENT THICKNESS

The presence of the v component will cause deviations of the stream lines.
In Fig. 10.2, a uniform stream 11_ was approaching the plate without any
angle of incidence. The plate surface therefore constituted the w = 0 stream
line.
With increasing y,'both u and v components increase and the stream lines
diverge away from the plane of the plate. The consequence is that some mass
moves out of the boundary layer region. If we imagine a plane 0-0 parallel to
272 FLUID MECHANICS

413

IP 2

%Pi

,,,,,,,440:0

x - Ax x
Fig. 10.2 Divergence of Stream Lines within the Boundary Layer.

the plate then the mass flux through a section x shall be less than through an
upstream section at (x — Ax). As the mass flux will decrease in the downstream
direction, other extensive properties such as momentum and kinetic energy will
also decrease between the parallel Wanes.
The downstream decrease in mass flow, between the plate and a parallel
plane, due to viscous effects can be visualized as equivalent to the
"blockage of the flow passage" by a thickness S, (x) whereas the velocity profile
is maintained uniform. The equivalence is shown in Fig. 10.3. S, is known as

0
—070 •
.
•

(a) Real viscous flow (b) Equivalent non-viscous flow

with equal mass flow rate
Fig. 10.3 Physical Model of Displacement Thickness.

the 'displacement thickness' and its value is evaluated using the mass flux
equivalence indicated in Fig. 10.3.
a
tit (x) = p[f u dy + (h — 45)1= (h —
0

Of

U_ (8 - 8,)= J udy
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 273
Of
81
(10.22)
8, = 1(1- ±)dY
1
0
Typically for the 3rd degree profile in Eq. (10.8),

81 =5(1-4i+lfr)dy=8(1
a
_4,4)
Or
3
8, = if 8

10.4 MOMENTUM THICKNESS

The flow passage is considered to be 'blocked' by an additional thickness 52,
such that the momentum crossing [h — (8, + 62 )] in an ideal flow is equal to the
momentum efflux over the whole height h in a real flow (see Fig. 10.4).
0

(a) Real flow (b) Ideal flow for momentum

equivalence
Fig. 10.4 Concept of Momentum Thickness.

The real flow momentum efflux

8
M, = i put dy+ p0112(h- 8)
0
Ideal flow momentum efflux
M2 = PU.2. (h — 81— 82)
Equating A and M2, we have for incompressible flow
5 u2
h - 8, -62 = h - 8 + f jr dy
0 "
or
8 2
62 = 6 - A - 1 7
;4 dY
274 FLUID MECHANICS

or
62 = 15[(1 — ( 1 — C]cly
Or 0 11.2.

a
I
62= f ty: — v.7) dY (10.23)

The value of momentum thickness for the third degree velocity profile is evaluated
to be 62 = (39/280) 6.
In a similar manner, a kinetic energy thickness 83 is sometimes defined and
evaluated.

10.5 MOMENTUM INTEGRAL EQUATION IN TERMS OF 8, AND 52

The momentum integral Eq. (10.6) is written as
5
2iu(
Tr - u 41 + u dU.. _u
dY =
zw
(10.24)
o "

Using the definitions for 61 and 62 Eq. (10.24) is written in abridged form.

Of
do
U. - + (8, + 282)
al_ = T., (10.25)

Equation (10.25) indicates that the conservation of momentum is synonymous with

that of the momentum thickness.
U.,
The term U., ddx— is reminiscent of the pressure gradient, and is zero for
uniform flow over a flat plate. Note a seemingly contrast situation to the general
feeling of loss of pressure in viscous flow. Whereas the pressure does not change
in the downstream direction in a flow over a flat plate, the shear stress is balanced
solely by momentum loss.

Example 10.1 A smooth flat plate 1.5 m long, 30 cm wide is placed in a

stream of air at 8 m/s. Calculate: (i) thickness of boundary layer and displacement
thickness at the edge of the plate; (ii) skin friction drag force and the average
value of Cf. Assume laminar flow and a third degree velocity profile in the
boundary layer. For air, p = 1.2 kg/m3, v =15 x 10- 6 M2 /S.
U 3 y 1 y
For the third degree profile --0: = 7 - 7 ,

8 4.64
x Ipte;
/
 LAIAINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 275

U..L _ 8 x L5 _
Rey_ , 0.8 x 106
V 15 x 10-
8 4.64
— 5.18 x 10- 3
4Q8 x 106

8=5.18x10-3 xL5 m= 7.78 mm

S, = $ r for the profile chosen

= •R- x 7.78 = 2.92 mm

Cf = 2Cf (L); Cf (L) = 0.646 Rein

2 x 0646
—144x10-3
1/0.8 x 106

1 1 -3 1A M2
27, = - pie.C = — x 1.2 x 82 X 1.44 x . , •
s_
2 f 2

zw = 55.46 x 10- 3 N/m2

Skin friction resistance on one side of plate
D= Ti (Lxb)=55.46 x10-3 x15x03

= 24.96 x 10-3 N.
If the plate is wetted on both sides, the drag is 2D = 49.92 x 10-3 N.

Example 10.2 For the data given in Ex. 10.1, evaluate the momentum thickness
at the edge of the plate (i) using definition for 52, and (ii) using Eq. (10.25).
Comment on the two results.
By definition,

82 =j8 171 :
4 v=
u dy
0
which for the third degree profile results in
39
82= 8

Or

82 (L) = (L) = A9i5 x 7.78 = 108 mm (i)

According to Eq. (10.25)

2 d8 dU.. r,,
U + (262 + 8,) =
276 FLUID MECHANICS

For the flat plate,

— 0, and

= p — 7 LI (x)
Integrating we have
1
62(L)= Cf (x)dx

or

6 2(L) = C f • L (ia)
Substituting the values, we have
Irx 1.44X10-3 o
5 2NA, X = I1..,
n0 111111

The values of 62 by both the methods agree, as it should. The expression (ii)
is significant in the sense that if 62(x) is estimated at a ideation, the skin friction
can be calculated. This procedure is adopted in experimental techniques, especially
for turbulent flows.

10.6 SEPARATION
In discussing the flow through the diverging passage of a venturimeter in
Chapter 5, or the Couette flow in Chapter 6, we observed that a positive pressure
gradient, dp/dr > 0, is adverse to a flow. Essentially, dp/dr > 0 acts as an
obstacle to fluid motion as much as the upward motion of a solid body along
a gradient. If the kinetic energy of the particle is not enough to climb the "hill",
the particle will roll back. The 'rolling back' of a fluid particle to the upstream
was stated as separation.
On the other hand, when we studied the ideal flow past a cylinder in
Chapter 8, the flow continued in the downstream direction even though a
pressure-hill existed beyond 0= 90°, measured from the forward stagnation point.
The summary of the above two contrasting statements is that separation shall
exist, if (i) there is an adverse pressure gradient, and (ii) there are mechanisms,
such as friction, to reduce the kinetic energy of the fluid stream.
Since the second effect is present in any flow of a real fluid, chances of
separation exist if the pressure gradient is adverse. Further, according to boundary
layer theory, the pressure gradient being derivable from free stream calculations,
the prediction of the location of the separation point can be made by boundary
layer consideration. In Chapter 6, while studying Couette flow, we observed that
the point of separation is characterized by (au/dy), = 0 = 0.
As soon as the flow separates from a solid surface, the fluid particles tend
to move upstream and interfere with the free stream. The thickness of the viscous
zone becomes comparable to the characteristic dimension of the body, and the
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 277
boundary layer assumptions fail. In other words, the end of the boundary layer
zone in the flow direction is marked by the point of separation. Consequently,
the pressure distribution following the point differs considerably from the potential
flow solution.
The phenomena are described schematically in Fig. 10.5 for viscous flow
past a cylinder. The pressure distribution predicted for potential flow (Chapter 8)
is shown for comparison between the ideal and real. In Fig. 10.5, SI is the leading
edge stagnation point and S2 is the trailing edge point predicted by ideal flow
solution. In practice the viscous flow does not attach to S2. The flow separates
on either side of the diameter at S; vortices are shed by the separating fluid layers.
Viscous
layer

Fig. 103 Flow Separation on a Cylinder.

The angle 0, subtended by the separation point increases with the kinetic
energy, and varies between a little over 90° in laminar flow to about 108° in
high Reynolds number turbulent flow.

10.7 DRAG
Recall that for flow of an ideal fluid past a cylinder, we obtained the drag,
computed as the net pressure force in the flow direction, as zero. This was so,
because the pressure distribution was symmetrical about the diameter perpendicular
to the flow direction.
Separation destroys the symmetry of pressure distribution. Beyond 90°, the
pressure is different from ideal. As a result, a net pressure force acts on the body
in the direction of flow. Its reaction opposes the flow and a drag force results.
This drag force being due to pressure variation arising from the body shape,
is known as the "pressure or the form drag". The skin friction drag, occurring
in the boundary layer, is in addition to the form drag. A total drag coefficient
278 FLUID MECHANICS

is defined as
CD = Cf CF (10.26)
where the latter represents the form drag component. In magnitude CF * Cf . As
separation is delayed due to higher kinetic energy of flow, CF and hence CD,
decrease with flow Reynolds number. In flow past a flat plate at zero incidence,
the form drag is zero since there is no pressure gradient to cause separation.
Body shapes, such as those of cylinder, sphere, or when a plate is held
perpendicular to the direction of flow, offer very high value of form drag. The
skin friction is practically negligible in comparison. Pressure loss due to skin
friction becomes significant only when the wetted surface area is large.
, -11.1, .,
r6 I pi' i
11.---1-
40
' I 1 --Rough cylinder
20 i i I Smooth cylinder
to
8 : '; ' ! 'I i
CD 6 .
, i
2 . I T

3.8
3.6 — — t 'T - f
3.4
2.2
DI I' I i • I i
. .., 2 68__n2 4 68 A 2 4 68_12 4 6 8
' -22 4 68..../.2 4 68 _a2 4 68
6
Re = VD
—
I)
Fig. 10.6 Drag Coefficient for a Circular Cylinder.

10.8 BLUFF BODIES

Body shapes offering high form drag are called "bluff bodies". The variation of
CD with Reynolds number for a long circular cylinder is shown in Fig. 10.6.
At very low Reynolds number, such as in a creeping flow, the drag coefficient
decreases linearly with Re, see Chapter 9. With increasing Re, the coefficient
decreases non-linearly, attaining a value of CD = 1 at about Re = 103. The drag
coefficient then increases to about CD _ 1.2 due to laminar separation, for Re
between 104 to 105 . When the flow velocity is still higher, the laminar separation
is suppressed and the flow transits to turbulent condition at about Re = 4 x 105 .
On transition, the drag coefficient decreases suddenly to a lower value of
approximately CD = 03 on a smooth cylinder. The turbulent drag coefficient for
a rough cylinder is approximately 0.6.
The variation of drag coefficient for a sphere is nearly similar to that of a
cylinder, but lower. For instance, the laminar asymptotic value of CD is 0.44
in the range of Re = 500 to 105 . Transition occurs at about Re = 3 x 105, and
the turbulent flow CD 0.2.
Typical values of drag coefficient for cross-flow over long cylinders of other
shapes are: square (40) 2.0; rhombus (4 p) 1.6; semi-tubular (4 D) 2.3; (4c)
1.12; and ellipse (=o) 0.6, for Reynolds number of the order of 105 , based on
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 279

ph . The coefficients for hemispherical cups are: (4 ) 1.4 and (4 C) 0.4.

It is obvious that the presence of sharp edges and corners accelerates separation
and increases form drag.

Example 10.3 A telegraph pole has a nominal diameter of 10 cm. Calculate

the wind load per unit height of the pole due to a wind speed of 50 km/hr. The
ambient temperature is 30°C and density 1.25 kg/s.

At 30°C, = 15.98 x 10- 6 m2 /s

50 103
u.. 36
13.89 m/s

1329 x 10 x 10-2
Re= U_ D
v 15.98 x 10-6
= 8.69 x 104
From Fig. 10.6, Co 1.2 at Re = 8.7 x 104 . The wind load on the pole is equal
to the drag offered to the wind flow. The project area per unit length of the
pole is (d x 1), where d is the diameter. Hence
1
Drag D = CD = -2- pV 2 A

=12x — x 125 x (13.89)2 x10-2

2
= L447 N/m
The shedding of vortices, Fig 10.5, in • a separating flow past a cylinder
has an acoustical aspect. At Reynolds number between 60 to 5000, the
vortices are shed at a regular frequency, f expressed through the "Strouhal
number"
f
S= (10.27)
TID
An approximate asymptotic value of S = 0.21 applies to flow at moderate
Re.
The Strouhal frequency falls in the acoustic range when the cylinder diameter
is small and the velocity moderate, such as in case of air breezing past telegraph
wires. We thus hear the "aeolian tones" or the "singing" wires. The aeolian effect
on the otherhand is a forced vibration of the wire due to the wind load. The
wire can fail due to resonance when the Strouhal frequency coincides with the
natural frequency of the wire strung between two poles. The resonance effect
is known to have caused collapse of suspension bridges; and is responsible for
the "flutter" of aerofoils.
At very high Reynolds number, the vortices are replaced by steady turbulent
wakes. The drag coefficient is not only reduced, Fig 10.6, there is no periodicity
in the aerodynamic phenomena.
280 FLUID MECHANICS

10.9 AEROFOILS
The aerodynamic converse of a bluff body is a "streamlined body". The profile
of a streamlined body is so designed that the flow pressure gradient, especially
the adverse type, is very mild. This inbibits flow separation, and results in a near
zero form drag at the design condition. The slowly varying shape usually, however,
results in a longer length that marginally increases the skin friction loss.
The aerofoil shape is taken as an ideally streamlined body. The major objective
of an aerofoil shape is, of course, to generate a high lift. Recall that lift L = pUor ,
Chapter 8. A circulation I' and the lift are created by making the underside of
an aerofoil concave while the upper surface is convex. A representative geometry
and nomenclature for an aerofoil are shown in Fig. 10.7a.

UPPER SURFACE

CHORD
c

(a) An Aerofoil (b) Representative Pressure

Distribution at cC=0
Fig. 10.7

The shape of an aerofoil varies depending on the applications. For instance,

the shape in the figure replicates the wing of an airplane or nearly the blades
of an axial flow compressor. The shape for a turbine blade is more curved or
cambered. The angle a between the flow dirbction and the chord line is known
as the angle of incidence.
The leading edge of an aerofoil can be modelled as a cylinder. Accordingly,
the pressure at the stagnation point is the highest and the pressure gradient is
favourable on both the top and bottom surfaces in the immediate vicinity of the nose.
Shortly afterwards, the concave surface pressure rises and remains positive, but
without much of a gradient, till the trailing edge. The pressure on the convex surface
although remains largely negative, the gradient becomes adverse after about 20%
of the chord resulting finally in a positive pressure zone near the trailing tip. This
description of pressure variations and the sketches in Fig. 10.7(b) apply ordinarily
at zero angle of incidence where the flow remains attached. A large lift coefficient
CL = LI(Ip11.2., A) and a very small CD due only to the skin friction result.
The lift and drag coefficients change with the angle of incidence. The ratio
CL /CD increases with moderate increase in a. At higher incidence angles, however,
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 281

the flow on the upper surface opiates. the drag imeases and decreases.
A sharp fall in the CL/CD ratio occurs around a = 10° when the aerofoil is said
to have "stalled".
The direction of L and D are shown in Fig. 10.8 as they act on the body.

10.10 BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL

The clue to reducing total drag, therefore, lies in suppressing separation. This
implies extending the boundary layer zone in the downstream direction. Since
separation is synonymous with thickening viscous layer, the means for controlling
separation is the method of reducing boundary layer thickness. This is achieved
by creating a suction through pores or holes on the solid surface.

(a) Angle of incidence c:4 =0 (b) oc 0 ; Flow separated

No separation. Drag is form drag is predominant
due to skin friction
Fig. 10.8 Flow Past an Aerofoil.

In Figs. 10.9(a) and (b), the effects of suction and blowing are shown on
the boundary layer developing on a flat plate. The flat plate geometry is adopted
for illustration.
6B
UO3 Uco So
So —41
—•I 6s
Yt

-vo
(a) Suction; 65<60 (b) Blowing; 6B > 6 o

Fig. 10.9 Effects of Suction and Blowing on Boundary Layer Thickness.

So corresponds to the boundary layer on plate surface without a transverse

velocity at y = 0. The boundary layer thickness is reduced due to suction in
Fig. 10.9(a), and increased due to blowing in Fig. 10.9(b).
Note that 6, < 80 implies an increase in skin friction (C1), as the wall
shear stress is inversely proportional to the boundary layer thickness. This is
 282 FLUID MECHANICS

tolerated, since it results in a lower value of the form drag and, therefore, a low
total drag.
By increasing the thickness of the boundary layer, 82 > 80 (Fig. 10.9b),
blowing advances separation. The method can be adopted where an increase of
drag is desired. One such case could be the retardation and braking of an aircraft,
say at landing. Blowing is sometimes gainfully used to keep cool a solid surface
from a hot gas in the free stream. Very effective cooling can be achieved by
blowing a high heat capacity secondary fluid into the boundary layer. Such
methods are adopted, for example, in the cooling of gas turbine blades.

10.11 ENTRANCE REGION

So far in this chapter we have considered the boundary layer phenomena in external
flow. Similar situations exist in an internal flow as well.
Imagine a flow of uniform velocity U0 entering, say, a duct without any
entry loss through a well shaped bell mouth (Fig. 10.10). The duct is constructed
by two parallel plates kept 2/1 apart.
When the flow encounters the duct wall surface, viscous effects come into
play and the boundary layer starts growing on both the walls of the duct. The
shape of the velocity profiles modified by the boundary layer on the walls is
shown in Fig. 10.10. The middle potential core is bounded by two viscous zones.
\Entry
bell-mouth

t
h

Soundary
layer
Inlet zone Filled zone
Entrance length ► Fully develop
zone begins
Fig. 10.10 Flow in the Entrance Region.

In order that the mass flow rate is constant through any section of the duct,
the velocity of the potential core U..(x) has to be higher than U0 . This is realized
from the simple fact that constancy of flow rate implies that the area of the velocity
curve is constant. As the boundary layer thickness increases, the potential core
becomes smaller in height, and U..(x) has to increase to compensate for the lower
velocity in the viscous zone.
We can state the above physical fact, mathematically as below. Mass flow
rate through any section x is

= 2 f pu dy + pU.,(x) 2 (h — 8) = pUo2h
0
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 283

5
u dy + U..(h — 8)=U° • h (10.28)

or

1dyi=
U_(x) [h - J(1- )
U_ Uoh

which, on using the definition of displacement thickness, (51 , becomes

U.(h — 80= Uoh
In other words, the variation of velocity in the potential core is given by

U„,(x)= U0 (IA-) (10.29)

The variation of core velocity U_(x) is reflected on the pressure gradient

as
=— dU_
dx (10.30)
by virtue of Bernoulli's equation.
The presence of a (variable) pressure gradient makes it difficult to estimate
the boundary layer parameters.
In order to arrive at a tentative, but simple, estimation of the length of the
boundary layer zone, however, we shall recall the viscous profile for the flat plate,

u 3 ( y ) 1 ( y )3
(10.8)
= Cg) TC(5)

for which 8/x = 4.64/41e: and

3
81= -g 8
The boundary layers growing from the two walls fill the duct spacing at x = L,
when 8 (L,) = h. The distance L, can be evaluated from
h_ 4.64 (10.31)
L+ Rec
where

ReLi = — („ h ) 2h
v u0 h _ 1 v
Or

ReL , =(Uo • 211 )) 2 (hL, 81) (10.32a)

284 FLUID MECHANICS

The displacement thickness A at L is A = 3/8 h. Using the definition of Reynolds

number on the basis of duct spacing, as appropriate for internal flow, we obtain
Li
= Re
2 (h — /i)

Of
4 Li
Re!, = • Ti • Re (10.32b)

Combining Eqs. (10.31) and (10.32), we have

h— 4.64
TLi —
ie • if
r
Of
h _ 350
WRe
Of
Li
= 0 037 (10.33)
hRe .
We observe that the length of the boundary layer region, known technically as
the 'inlet zone', is directly proportional to Reynolds number. This is a characteristic
of laminar incompressible flow, irrespective of the duct geometry.
Equation (10.29) indicates the increase of core velocity in the downstream
direction due to viscous 'blockage' to the extent of displacement thickness. In
other words, the incompressible flow in the inlet region is accelerated. On the
other hand, far downstream in the fully developed region the velocity profile is
invariant, inertia effects are zero and the flow parallel.
An intermediate zone is physically called for, between the end of the inlet
zone and the beginning.of the fully developed zone, in which the fluid acceleration
is gradually destroyed. Since the boundary layers had already met on the duct
axis at x = Li , the velocity profile in the intermediate zone is purely viscous.
This intermediate region is known as the 'filled zone'.
The inlet zone and the filled zone together constitute the entrance region.
It is desirable to be explicit that the pressure gradient in the entrance region
accounts for both the inertia effects and the wall stress, and it varies with x.
In the fully developed zone, the pressure gradient balances the wall shear stress
only and has a constant value. The constancy of pressure gradient is taken as
the evidence of fully developed condition in experimental techniques.
Exact calculations yield the lengths of the inlet zone and the entrance region
for ducts of different cross-section as below.
Parallel plate channel:
Li L U0 • 2h
hRe = 0 029' = 011, Re =
hRe
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 285

Circular pipe:
Li n nu 4 U0 • 2R
= 010, Re =
R • Re = "*"""`" R • Re
where 4 is the entrance length.

10.12 SUMMARY
1. An approximate solution of the boundary layer equation is obtainable by either
integrating the equation from 0 to 8 in the y direction; or by considering the
conservation of mass and momentum over a control volume coinciding with the
wall surface and the edge of the boundary layer.
2. The velocity profile in the boundary layer is chosen by requiring it to
satisfy a certain essential boundary conditions: no slip on the solid surface, free
stream velocity, zero shear stress at the edge of the boundary layer; and a few
additional conditions with due order of priority.
3. In a flow over a flat plate, the boundary layer thickness is

8(x)/x = 5/ Re; and Cf (x) = 0.664 Re; 112

The wall shear stress is inversely proportional to boundary layer thickness.
4. Due to the generation of a v component of velocity in the viscous layer,
the stream lines in the boundary layer diverge. Consequently, mass, momentum
or kinetic energy fluxes between two parallel planes reduce in the downstream
direction. Such reductions are expressed through displacement (81 ), momentum
(82) and energy (83) thicknesses.
5. In a flat plate flow, the pressure gradient is zero. Viscous effects are
balanced by reduction of kinetic energy in the downstream direction.
6. Wall shear stress together with an adverse pressure-gradient cause the
separation of the boundary layer from the solid surface.
7. Separation destroys the symmetry of pressure distribution as estimated by
the theory of potential flow. The pressure unbalance gives rise to the pressure
or form drag CF., which is several times higher than the skin friction drag C1,
for bluff bodies. The total drag is CD = CF + Cf .
8. An aerofoil is characterized by zero form drag when the flow is without
any angle of incidence. An aerofoil shape results in a high lift, and is also called
a streamlined body, since separation is inhibited.
9. Separation is delayed in high kinetic energy flow, and can be controlled
by suction.
10. The entrance region of a duct has two zones: the inlet or boundary
layer zone, and the filled or purely viscous zone. Inertia effects are present
in the entrance region and the pressure gradient is variable. Fully developed
flow is parallel, has no inertia effects and the pressure gradient is of constant
value.
286 FLUID MECHANICS

EXERCISES
1. Compare and contrast the Couette flow and the two-dimensional boundary layer
flow at steady state.
2. Consider an infinitesimal control volume within the boundary layer. Making
the assumption that dp1dy = 0, derive the differential form of the boundary layer
equation from the control volume momentum balance.
3. Derive the integrated form of the momentum equation for the boundary layer
on a flat plate applying the pressure gradient condition right in the beginning.
Choose the control volume to coincide with the plate surface and extending into
the free stream.
4. Consider the differential forms of the continuity and the boundary layer equation
in the x-direction. Integrate the boundary layer equation for 0 to Sin the y-direction
and arrive at the integrated form of the equation.
5. Evaluate the values of boundary layer thickness S and skin friction coefficient
Cf for flow over a flat plate by using the following velocity profiles.
(i) u/U_ = y16;
u/U.. = 2 (y/S) — (y16)2;
u/U.. = 2 (y16)— 2 (y/6)3 + (y/6)4; and
(iv) u/U.. = sin (ny/28).
In each case specify which of the essential and additional conditions are
satisfied by the velocity profile.
6. Estimate the value of the kinetic energy thickness, 63, for flow over a flat
plate by selecting a suitable velocity profile for the boundary layer.
7. A plate is to be drawn submerged in water with the plate surface being parallel
to the free surface. The plate dimensions are 2 m x 30 cm, and the velocity
at which the plate is to be drawn is 6 m/s. Estimate the force required.
(Ans: 7.39 N)
8. It is intended to simulate 'free flow' over a flat plate in a wind tunnel. A
free flow is as it would exist in an infinite medium unaffected by the walls of
a surrounding surface. In order that the free flow can be simulated, the walls
of the wind tunnel have to be flared out proportional to the displacement thickness
on the plate.
Calculate the angle of divergence of the tunnel walls when the plate
being experimented with is 1.5 m long, 10 cm high and air velocity 2 m/s at
30°C.
(Ans: 0.248°)
9. A submarine is climbing to the surface of an ocean at an angle of 30° to
the horizontal with a velocity of 1.5 m/s. The submarine is cylindrical in shape
 LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYERS 287

of equivalent diameter 18 metres and length ig mires. The gulmnarine man is

350 tonnes. Calculate the drag force and the propulsive power needed to raise
the submarine. Given CF= 0.5, and the skin friction drag as on a flat plate. Assume
sea-water properties as those of compressed water at 1 bar and 50°C.
(Ans: 43.7368 kN, 2640.73 kW)
10. By applying the first law of thermodynamics to boundary layer flow over
a flat plate under adiabatic conditions, show that the decrease in kinetic energy
over two sections is equal to the work done by the shear force.
The above statement results into the mathematical expression:
u3 (163 _ (u)2
TP uY (1)
0
where 83 is the K.E. thickness given by

8 U
83 = -u- (1 - U 2 1142.) dy (ii)
0 -
By considering the third degree velocity profile u/1/.. = (f)3, evaluate
83 from expression (i) and prove it to be equal to that given by the definition
at Cu).
 Turbulent Flow

We have had a qualitative introduction to the turbulent regime of viscous flow

through a pipe, in Chapters 6 and 7. It was observed by Osborne Reynolds that the
law of laminar shear resistance failed when the Reynolds number of flow through
a pipe was higher than an approximate value of 2300. This value of Reynolds
number was stated to be critical for pipe flow. In Fig. 7.1, we noted kinematically
different conditions existing below and above the critical Reynolds number.
The flow is said to be turbulent when the value of the critical Reynolds
number is exceeded. Physically, a turbulent flow is visualized to contain random
fluctuations of velocity components, pressure and other properties like enthalpy.
It is postulated that the fluctuations inherently stem from disturbances, for
example the roughness of the flow (solid) surface, or the vibration of the flow
container, or the like. The fluctuations originating near the solid surface, that is
in the viscous layer, may become damped due to viscous actions or grow by
drawing in energy from the free stream. This explains the role of the Reynolds
number and the significance of its critical value.
At Re < Recritial , the flow kinetic energy is not enough to sustain the
disturbances against the viscous damping, and laminar conditions persist. At higher
Reynolds number, the main stream energy supports the sustenance and growth of
the fluctuations that we call turbulence.
These fluctuations can be likened to acoustic oscillations in the sense that
they do not contribute to the bulk motion of the fluid elements. In contrast to
acoustics, however, the turbulent fluctuations are random, both in amplitude and
frequency. The fluctuations cause thorough mixing of the fluid layers, enhancing
the 'diffusion' of momentum and energy manyfold over the laminar rates.

11.1 LAMINAR-TURBULENT TRANSITION

Consider turbulent flow over a plate. Irrespective of the value of the free stream
velocity U.., the flow is of low Reynolds number (U.,,x/v) near the leading edge,
x being small. In other words, a flow along a solid surface always begins as a
laminar flow. At a certain axial location, the laminar boundary layer begins to be
unstable. Instability implies that a disturbance in the flow is tending to amplify.
Transition to turbulent regime begins with the instability of the laminar layer.
Fully turbulent conditions prevail some distance downstream. The distance between
the point of instability and fully turbulent condition is known as the 'transition
length' (Fig. 11.1).
288
 TURBULENT FLOW 289

I
••••••••
••••
••••• 40.

oint of Transition
-10, X
instability point
+Laminar 4—Transition —4,Fully turbulent flow
zone _ length

Fig. 11.1 Laminar to Turbulent Transition in External Flow.

The length of the transition zone decreases with the increase of the flow
(turbulent) kinetic energy. Experiments indicate that the flat plate flow becomes
turbulent at the location given by (U.,x/v) = 3.5 x 105 to 106.

11.2 TIME MEAN AND TIME DEPENDENT DESCRIPTION

Commensurate with the physical mechanism discussed earlier, a parameter in a
turbulent flow is described to consist of a time averaged component and a time
dependent component. The former representing bulk action whereas the latter is
for the fluctuation.
Thus in a 'steady' parallel flow, the axial velocity component is
u(y, t) = 14(y) u'(12, t) (11.1a)
Whether a turbulent flow is steady or not is noted from the time mean
component, which in Eq. (11.1a) is re (y) In Fig. 11.2(a) we have sketched a steady
turbulent flow, and in Fig. 11.2(b) an unsteady one. The time period of the
fluctuating component is t, and that of the unsteady flow is to, where m T.
Although the bulk 'flow is parallel, u (y), the fluctuation u being random,
varies spatially in all directions indicated by 12 in Eq. (11.1a). Now consider the
conservation of mass equation written for turbulent flow using expression at (11.1a).

an aW
By continuity, T; iT; + = 0
i az
or

+ ax., + ( au + w) . 0
0
y x (ay az) (11.1b)

parallel flow
Since du'/dx * 0, Eq. (11.1b) emphasizes that y and z components of velocity exist
due to turbulence effects, even in parallel flow.
290 FLUID MECHANICS

y y

Ti(y,t)
u(y) ....
.
-lommIA•mawAvA46..444••••••••*-0-
-4-1-fr vil''''" L., 14111..
ts• o tAr

-a; To

Time Time
(a) Steady (b) Unsteady
Fig. 112 Physical Model of a Turbulent Velocity Component.

To be compatible with parallel flow condition, these cross components are,

of course, fluctuations, v' and w. Thus the total velocity components in a parallel
turbulent flow are:
u (y, t) = (y) + (12,0
v = 0 + v' (f2, 0 (11.2)
w=0+ 0
It has been already stated that the fluctuating components do not cause bulk
displacement of a fluid element. The instantaneous displacement being (u' dt), the
no bulk displacement criterion implies that the integral over a long time is zero,
i.e.
T
f
u' dt = 0, I' —4 co

On the other hand, the fluctuations interact with each other for transport of mommdurn
and energy. Hence, the long term observation of an interaction effect is non-zero:

u'v'dt* 0
J
-T

We can take time average of these integrals and make two general statements
that

felt
=0 (11.3a)
2T J
-T
and
T
r
1
f i e= f f' g'dt * 0 (11.3b)
2T
- T
 TURBULENT FLOW 291

where f' and g' are fluctuations of any two parameters. The time averages of the
spatial gradients of the fluctuating components are also deemed to obey the same
laws, i.e.

af' —0 492f' —0
ds as 2
but

awn.*
as
0 (11.4)

The 'intensity of turbulence' in a flow is described by the relative magnitude of

the root mean square value of the fluctuating components with respect to the time
mean velocity, and is defined as:

Tu = 41- (u' v.2 + w.2)/u.. (11.5)

3
The turbulence is said to be 'isotropic' when the root mean square values of the
fluctuating components are equal: u'2
The turbulence intensity Tu strongly dictates the transition. The transition
point coincides with the point of instability, Fig. 11.1, when Tu is of the order of
2 or 3 percent. The degree of turbulence in a laboratory wind tunnel can be
controlled by introducing screens of finer mesh in the flow path.

Example 11.1 In a periodic turbulent flow, the axial velocity component is

given by

u(x, y, I) = 10 + 2 cos (j0— t) + 0.5 sin (2000m)

Identify the salient characteristics of the flow.

(i) The steady component of the time mean velocity is 10.
(ii) The flow oscillates with an angular frequency fo, where ab = 2trfo =
tr/300 or fo = 1/600 and To = 600 seconds.
The other fluctuating component has frequency fi = 20001112x = 1000 Hz
or Ts = 1 millisecond.
The fact that To Nt• Ts implies that the second fluctuating component can be
classified as a turbulent fluctuation. The fluctuation, being sinusoidal, is, however,
orderly.
The component 2 cos (,d300t) is also periodic and does not cause net
displacement. But it is not comparable to a turbulent component since both the
amplitude and time period are large. The rtes time mean velocity u is 10 + 2/'/
or it' = 11.414

= liET
5
[sin (2000:L1)12 dt = - - 03 = 03535
2 1/2
-
292 FLUID MECHANICS

The turbulence intensity due to the orderly fluctuation is

Tu = °" 535 = 0.03 or 3%

11.414

11.3 CONSERVATION OF MASS

We shall consider an incompressible turbulent flow. The conservation of mass is
then written as
du av dw
V•V= 0 or
+ a =0
which on using the time mean and time dependent descriptions results into:

(di an ail (du' dv' aw' (11.6)

---- + 0
a x + ay + az) + ax + ay ay
By time averaging the terms in Eq. (11.6), we write

au av (W) iau' dw')

dx ay+ay ) 4. dx+dy + dz )= -
Each of the terms in the second bracket is zero, by definition at Eq. (11.4), and
the over bar for the terms in the first bracket is redundant, for these are all time
mean quantities. Thus
an an aq, _ 0 (11.7a)
dx + dy dz -
is the continuity equation on a long term observation basis.
Since, however, the conservation of mass cannot be sacrificed at any moment,
use of Eq. (11.7a) in Eq. (11.6) suggest that instantaneously
du' + d' + a w' (11.7b)
—u— = 0
az dy az
In other words, both Eqs. (11.7a) and (11.7b) together describe the continuity
relationship.
For simplicity, imagine a two dimensional flow in which the turbulent
components are independent of the z-direction. Equation (11.7b) then leads to
du' dv' (11.8)
dx ay
On the basis of Eq. (11.8), together with a discussion on momentum exchange
between the adjacent layers, it is postulated that if at an instant u' increases in the
x-direction, v' also increases, but in the negative y-direction. In other words, when
u' is positive, v' is negative, i.e. i v,) is a positive quantity. This statement is
 TURBULENT FLOW 293

not rigorous, but forms the basis of a popular analysis of turbulent flow. And we
shall consider it accepted.

11.4 MOMENTUM EQUATIONS AND REYNOLDS STRESSES

In order to examine the influence of the fluctuating components on momentum
transport in a turbulent flow, let us examine the u component of the Navier-Stokes
equation in a two-dimensional steady flow:

c du +v du) . _ dp+µ+ a2u a2u (11.9)

p dx dy j - - dx dy2
Consider first the inertia terms which upon writing in terms of u = u + u', becomes

:i +17 d u; d i , d u- ) + ( , d u' + , au'

+v u v
ay p
p +p
x a ax ax
(1) (2) (3)
d u: d il' )
+p +
a ay
(4)

Let us multiply the continuity Eq. (11.7b) for fluctuating components by pu' for
two-dimensional flow:

, ( du' dv')
pu
Ca; + Ty-) °
(5)
and add (5) to (3) without any-change of value. The result of the summation is

a (4 2)+*(u v )]
x " ' "
(6)

We now replace (3) by (6) and take the time average of the inertia terms. The
average values of (2) and (4) are each equal to zero by Eq. (11.4), and we have
the time mean inertia components as

_ aa _ aaj
_ + p [d oi' 2)
u +v (11.10)
p ( Tr Ty dx ay

The instantaneous pressure gradient is

dp dp + pl
dx dx dx
294 FLUID MECHANICS

and upon time averaging, the second term is zero. Similarly the viscous terms in
Eq. (11.9) on time averaging also reduce to the second derivatives of the respective
time mean components.
Hence the momentum equation is

p al7 r [ a (pal) + .L 014 ,0]

dx ay dx dy
ap + m(a 2 a a 2 u)
(11.11)
dx axe aye

The square bracketted terms in the 1.h.s. of Eq. (11.11) represent the excess inertia
due to fluctuations in turbulent flow. All other terms are similar to those in the
laminar equation. It is customary to bring excess inertia terms to the right hand
and then rename these as additional or 'apparent stresses'.
‘9217
Recall from Laminar analysis that it — a x2 corresponded to the gradient of
d 2 ii
normal stress and µ a y, to the shear stress. The apparent stresses may similarly
be identified, and Eq. (11.11) rewritten as

(_ _ a) .., ( i , ,)
u
dx dy dx dx dx pu• dy dy - Pu
(11.12)
In other words, — pu' 2 represents the nonnal'component and — pu' v' the tangential
component of the apparent stresses. By proceeding similarly for a three-dimensional
flow, we get the whole set (tensor) of the apparent stresses, that are also called
'Reynolds Stresses', as

[pu' 2 pier.? pu' w'

ICIte = - pu'v p v' 2 p v' w'
p le lisf p v ' w' p w12

11.4.1 Boundary Layer Equation

The x-momentum Eq. (11.12) can be reduced to its boundary layer form under the
assumption that the thickness of turbulent boundary layer is much small compared
to the axial length. We can make use of our experience with the order of magnitude
analyses, Chapters 9 and 10, and conclude that for turbulent boundary layer the
following shall hold good.

(i) aP =0 rt e= dP
dy dx dx'
 TURBULENT FLOW 295

(5 eL)
dx P dx) 44 dy P

(iii) d ,2) •:E d - pu

ITT P

under the premise that 0(1'2) = 0(u'v').

The two-dimensional turbulent boundary layer equation is hence,

_ du , dfi a ( du „) (11.13)
" a x +vv
p(u-+
— =--+— µ--puv
dx dy dy
The entire research in turbulent flow is primarily aimed at evaluating the apparents
stress, e.g. — p u', and yet the result till date is not definitive.

11.5 SHEAR STRESS MODELS

The shear stress in a turbulent boundary layer thus has two components:
T= (11.14a)
The laminar component
au (11.14b)

and the turbulent part

r,= - pu'v' (11.14c)

The different hypotheses of turbulent flow relate to stating the form of ;.

11.5.1 Eddy Viscosity

The simplest form was suggested by Boussinesq in which is expressed in a manner
similar to the laminar stress:
au (11.15a)
rt= PE—
dy
such that

r= p(v + e)— (11.15b)

dy
E is known as the eddy viscosity.
The definition at Eq. (11.15a) is convenient, but provides no solution for the
turbulent stress. The value of e is not known. Worse still, experiments indicate
that E differs considerably from one flow to another. Whereas v is a molecular
property of the fluid and is not influenced by flow conditions, e arises solely due
to random flow fluctuations that are not amenable to predictions.
296 FLUID MECHANICS

11.5.2 Prandtl's Mixing Length

Prandtl proposed a physical model for the fluctuations in turbulent flow.
Consider the physical model in Fig. 11.3. A fluid element from y, while having
a mean motion in the x-direction with velocity li, moves up due to a +v' or downward
due to a —0'.
Proportional
to -u'

Fig. 11.3 Physical Model of Mixing Length.

Prandtl proposed that the transverse displacement of the fluid element is, on
the average, a length 'I', which he called the mixing length. The suggestion was,
obviously, influenced by the concept of mean free path for molecular motion.
( ciii
At a height (y + 1), the mean velocity existing is a + I — in line with
dy
Taylor's expansion. The fluid element from y with velocity ü brings with it a
momentum pii, which is lower than the momentum prevailing at (y + 1).
The average momentum at (y + 1) will therefore decrease instantaneously.
( a i7
The decrease is proportional to E pl —) and is assumed to give rise to a fluctuation
dy
— u'. Thus

— pl - — Cpu'
Ty
where C is a constant of proportionality, which can be merged with the still
unknown 1, and u' written as
au)
u'= I (11.16)

Note, most importantly, that a -141 resultl(Y

ied by an upward movement caused by a
+v'. Furthermore the length 1 travelled in the transverse direction is dependent on
the magnitude of v'. Consequently, the resulting u' shall be proportional to the
amplitude of its cause, the v'. We had already stated this in Section 11.3, although
in an ad hoc manner.
 TURBULENT FLOW 297

We shall hence state that

v'= -

u'v' = - C112 ( 3112

dy

The constant of proportionality C1 can again be merged in 1, the unknown, and

the turbulent shear stress written as
an, 2
—13111 V = p12 ( 4)
dy

Note that the suggestion (— u'v') is positive is vindicated by the r.h.s. of

Eq. (11.17).
In order that turbulent shear stress can be written as proportional to gradient
of the mean velocity, commensurate with the molecular as well as eddy viscosity
concepts, Eq. (11.17) is written as

au (11.18a)
tt = P12 dy dy
(25—
so that

e =12 495 (11.18b)

Id 5
The reason for writing one of the velocity gradients in terms of its modulus: — ,
dy
C aul
is to retain the direction of c on that of — dy •
Our query for turbulent stress is still not answered, since the value of the
mixing length / is not known.
Several correlations, using experimental results for ;, have been proposed
for I. The most popular one is that derived from the experiments of Nikuradse,
and is given as
1= 0.4y (11.19)
where y is the perpendicular distance measured from a solid surface. We shall
adopt this value in our subsequent discussions.
Prandtl's mixing length theory has proved well in fully developed internal
flows through simpler geometries, e.g. a circular pipe, a circular annulus, and
reasonably on boundary layer flow in the absence of strong pressure gradients.
The hypothesis, though not fool-proof, is the most widely adopted one.
In subsequent discussions we shall remove the bar for time mean compo-
nents for convenience of writing. The fluctuating components will continue to be
identified by a superscript dash.
298 FLUID MECHANICS

11.5.3 Laminar Sub-Layer

The velocity components, both time mean and fluctuating, are zero on the solid
surface. In the immediate vicinity of the wall, therefore, the turbulent stress is
zero and purely laminar phenomena exist. The fluid layer near the wall within
which the conditions are laminar is known as the 'laminar sub-layer' and its
thickness 4.
The inertia effects within the laminar sub-layer are negligible and the wall
shear stress is estimated as in Couette flow by

U,
tw (11.20)

where U, is the fluid velocity at the edge of the sub-layer. A viscous velocity:
'1/2
Vs = [-L-
v (11.21)

is defined for summarising results of a turbu ent flow. We can rewrite Eq. (11.20)
in terms of v. and the free stream velocity, U„.,:

Us
•2= V —
as
Writing U, = CU.., we have
2 = a-
r•V —
U••
c
Os

or

8s vs — C [—e-
U (11.22)
V v„,

Experiments indicate that laminar effect exists in the neighbourhood of the wall
till Spay = 5.
yu.
In other words, if we defined a non-dimensional coordinate 77= ,

Turbulent
rrx 70 4zone

Buffer zone
U5
Sublayer

Fig. 11.4 Zones of a Turbulent Flow.

 TURBULENT FLOW 299

= 5 represents the thickness of the laminar sub-layer. Turbulence effects begin

to influence the flow for ri > 5, and both laminar and turbulent phenomena are
comparable in the zone 5 < n < 70. Beyond 17= 70, laminar effects are negligible
and the flow is said to be wholly turbulent.

11.6 FULLY DEVELOPED TURBULENT FLOW THROUGH A PIPE

Most of the correlations for turbulent flow have been derived by experimenting
with fully developed flow in circular pipes.
The control volume analysis indicated for fully developed pipe flow is

2NRT,,,=(—k)1cR2
dx
or
r= diR (11.23a)
w dx 2
On the other hand, the friction fractor is defined by

_dp
(11.23b)
dx 2D
from which

Tw = )2 Ei 2 (11.23c)
8 "
Blasius in 1911 summarised the available results for pipe flow and established a
correlation for f, viz.
f = 0.3164Re425 (11.24)

This correlation is valid for Re 5 105, where the Reynolds number is defined as
Re = Ua,„Div.
As a second information, Nikuradse's measurements yielded a power law
for the velocity profile in the pipe:

u = (Y)lin (11.25)
U
where U is the time mean velocity at the pipe centre and y measured from the
wall.
This law is valid in the range 4 x 103 Re 5 3.2 x 106. The value of n is
6 at low Re, increasing gradually ton =10 at the highest Re tested. For the Reynolds
number in the neighbourhood of 105, n = 7.
The relation between U,, and U for a power law profile is derived by
considering the volume flow rate:
300 FWID MECHANICS

Q= xR2U„„,= f 2irrudr

= 21W f (R — y)(y1R)lin (— dy)

noting that r = R — y.
Upon integration, we get

Q = 2zU (R 2 R2)
n +1 2n+1
2n 2
= irR2U
(n +1)(2n +1)
and therefore
Ua~ _ 2n2
(11.26a)
U (n + 1) (2n + 1)

Substituting for n = 7, we obtain

Uav
= 0.816 (11.26b)
U
Use of Eqs. (11.26b) and (11.24) in Eq. (11.23c) yields

0.3164
Tw = Re " 0• 25 PU 2
8
= 0.03955pUa2s, (v/U„ . 2R)"4
or
zw = 0.03325 (U,1U)7i4 • U7'4 (v/R)"4
= 0.03325p (0.816)7m U2 (v/RU)"4
or
Tw = 0.0225pU2 (v/Ru)u4 (11.27a)
and
•r„,Ip=o,2 = 0.0225U 2 (v/RU)I/4 (11.27b)
Equation (11.27) give the shear stress relationship for pipe flow at moderate Re,
Re 5 105, where the laminar effects are still not negligible and the sublayer influences
the outer zone stress pattern.

Example 11.2 Water at 30°C and atmospheric pressure flows through a smooth
pipe of 5 cm ID. The flow is fully developed and is at a rate of 2 litre/s. Calculate
(i) friction factor, (ii) pressure drop over a length of 5 m, and (iii) the thickness
of laminar sublayer.
 TURBULENT FLOW 301

At 30°C,
= 797 x 10-6 kg/ms, p = 1000 kg/m3
SO
v = 0.797 x 10-6 m2/s
Q_ 2 x 10-3 , 1.0186 m/s.
u" XR 2 r x (0.025)2 --
1.0186 x 0.05 6
Re = U„ • Div — 0.797 x 10
Or
Re = 6.39 x 104
Since the Reynolds number is less than 105 and is in its neighbourhood, we expect
the 1/7th power law to hold good, for which
f = 0.3164/Re°25 = 0.3164/(6.39 x 104)0.25
= 0.0199
Or
= 0.02

dP f PUL 0.02 x 1000 x (1.0186)2

( dx) — 2D — 2 x 0.05
= 207.51 N/m3
Pressure drop over a length of 5 m is
( dp
zip =— --)x 5= 10375 N/m 2
dx
The wall shear stress
dp
• = (- -z--) • R/2
dx
Or
Tw = 207.51 x 0.025/2 N/m2
= 2.593 N/m2
From the laminar sub-layer consideration
Us
=

ignoring pipe curvature effect in the small thickness 4.

According to the velocity profile,

Us _( 8417
U )
U = (1/0.816) U„ = 1.248 m/s
302 FLUID MECHANICS

Hence

T = • U(6 IR)117
w os s

or
2 .593 x 106
(6s/R) In • 1/5, = T,,,/µC/ —
797 x 1.246
= 2.606 x 10 3
Or
(65/R)-6a = 2.606 x 103R = 2.606 x 103 x 0.025 = 65.15
Or
(4:55/R)6n = 0.01535
45,/R = 7.6518 x 10-3 (iii)
4= 2.5 x 7.6518 x 10-3 cm = 0.01913 cm (iv)
The sub-layer thickness is less than1/100th of the radius.

11.7 TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER ON A FLAT PLATE

Two turbulent flows are considered similar when the time mean velocity as well
as parameters depending on the fluctuating components are identical. Experimental
findings indicate that the turbulent boundary layer flow over a flat plate is similar
to the fully developed pipe flow in their turbulent characteristics, despite the fact
that dp/dx = 0 for the former whereas the pressure gradient is constant for the pipe
flow.
Such similarities are searched for, basically, to circumvent the unknown
nature of the wall shear stress. Since a particular shear stress correlation, e.g.
Eq. (11.27), is compatible with the corresponding velocity profile, Eq. (11.25),
both "rw and u correlations have to be transferred from one flow to a similar one.
We shall extrapolate the pipe flow correlations of the previous section to the
flat plate boundary layer analysis by substituting (i) S for R and (ii) the free stream
velocity U. for the centre line value U. The boundary layer thickness is conveniently
evaluated from the integral momentum equation of Chapter 10, which on recalling
is:
615 2 „ 1 )dU . _ Tw
( (11.28a)
dx + at+ 4°2)(17. dx

For uniform flow past a flat plate

dU.Idx= 0, and d6 21dx=or.10.2. (11.28b)

is the equation to be solved.

For the power law profile, Eq. (11.25), the momentum thickness is evaluated
as
 TURBULENT FLOW 303

8 2= f t.
0
(1-

6 6
=
J (y/8)"n dy — 5 (y18)21" dy
Or

62— (11.29a)
(n +1)(n + 2)
when
n=7

82 =72 6 (11.29b)

The law of shear stress for the plate flow is obtained by making substitution,
= R, in the pipe flow expression (11.27). Thus
r„,1p1I!.= 0.0225 (v/U„ 6)114 (11.30)
Substituting Eqs. (11.29) and (11.30) in Eq. (11.28), we get
7
12- • dO/dx = 0.0225 (v/1/..,6)1m
or
Sim • dO/dx = 0.2314 (VIU.31M
from which
854= 0.2892x( v/U..,)"4 + C
For convenience, assume the turbulent boundary layer to grow from the plate
leading edge, permitting C = 0. Then we get
81x = 0.37 (v/U„„x)15
Or

61x = 0.37Re; 12 (11.31)

The momentum thickness
821x =.(7/72) • 61x = 0.036Re; 01 2 (11.32a)
Or
52= 0.036 (VIU..)115x415 (11.32b)
d821dx = 0.0288 (v/U,,,,x)16 (11.33a)
By Eq. (11.28), therefore,
= 0.0288 (v/1/..., x)I/5 (11.33b)
Defining C f = 'r,v 14 p11.., we obtain the local value of turbulent skin friction as
C1 (x) = 0.0576Re;115 (11.34)
304 FLUID MECHANICS

The average value over a plate of length L is

L

E f = -1E c f dx
0
L
r
= 0.057601/1W115 1- X-15 dx
0

Or
Ef = 0.072(v/U.L)1/5
Or
Ef = (11.35a)

Experimental values suggest using

Cf = 0.074Rei l15 (11.35b)

Obviously, the above derivation is valid within the limit of Blasius correlation,
i.e. for Re = (U..281v) 5 105. The upper value corresponds to
8 = v/214„, x 105
Or
037x Rey 115 = v1211. x 105
Or
Rex = 2.6 x 106 (11.36)
Since the laminar boundary layer on a flat plate continues till the transition at
Rex = 3.5 x 105 to 106, we can state that the presently derived turbulent relation-
ships are valid in the range 5 x 105 < Re, < 107.

Example 11.3 Air at 40°C flows past a flat plate of length 8 m at a velocity
-Of 10 m/s. The plate width is 1.5 m. Assuming that airflows only on one side of
the plate, calculate the force required to hold the plate stationary (i) considering
that the flow is turbulent from the leading edge, and (ii) accounting for laminar
boundary layer near the leading edge. Given at 40°C, v = 17 x 10-6 m2/s and
p = 1.13 kg/m3 for air.
The Reynolds number on the basis of plate length is
ReL = U.,,Lly = 10 x (8/17) x 106 = 4.7 x 106
(i) Assuming the turbulent boundary layer to grow from the leading edge,
we have
E.f 0.072Re1115
Or
ef= 0.072 x (4.7 x 106)-(12 = 0.0033
 TURBULENT FLOW 305

tw = 4 pl/2 C j = +
U1 31 x 1.13 x 102 = 0.188 N/m2
Drag force D = r,„,. b • I = 0.188 x 1.5 x 8 = 2.256 N
The plate will tend to move away in the direction of flow due to the drag force
experienced by it. Hence the force required to hold the plate stationary is 2.256 N
and applied opposite to the flow direction.
(ii) When laminar boundary layer is accounted for, we may expect transition
to take place say at Re, = 5 x 105. Thus the plate length at transition is

xfr = 5 x 105 — 5 x 105 x 17 x 10-6 — 0.85 m

10
(SI x)t, = 5.0Re.;:2 from laminar flow
5.0
5 x 105
= 7.07 x 10-3
Or
Off = 6 mm.
The average of laminar skin friction from x = 0 to xtr.
Ejam= 2Cht, = 2 x 0.664 x Re .; :12 = 1.878 x 10-3
The flow is turbulent beyond xv, contrary to the assumption made in part (i) of
the problem that the flow is turbulent on the entire length of the plate. A close
approximation to the true average skin friction is then obtained as
D = Dt upto L — Dr upto Xtr + DI upto Xtr

= IP U« b (eftuptoL X L — C
- f t upto xtr Xtr f I go xir Xtr)

= 4pU,2,b (0.00333L — 0.00536x1, + 0.001878x11)

Or

D= ipU,,,,2 b (0.00333 x 8— 0.00536 x 0.85

+ 0.001878 x 0.85)
Or
D= x 0.02368
or
D=IX1.13 x 100 x 1.5 x 0.02368
or
D = 2.007 N
is the magnitude of force required to hold the plate stationary.
306 FLUID MECHANICS

11.8 TURBULENT FLOW AT VERY HIGH REYNOLDS NUMBER

At very high Reynolds number, the inertia effects are so large that the shear stress
can be assumed to be solely due to the Reynolds stress component. The viscous
component and the laminar sublayer are ignored. Using the concept of mixing
length, the shear stress is then expressed as

= (auy (11.37)
dy
The subsequent evaluation of velocity profile can be made by integrating Eq. (11.37),
if (i) the nature of 1, and (ii) variation of r are known or assumed.
For example, r would vary linearly in a channel flow: (see Chaps. 6 and 9).
r = ro(1 — ylh) (11.38a)
or in a pipe flow:
= - yIR) (11.38b)
where h and R are respectively the channel half width and pipe radius.
On the other hand, the shear stress in a plane Couette flow is constant
(Chap. 6) and assumed To. Let the fluid be of thickness h and the top plate moving
at For r= To = constant, we get from Eq. (11.37) the relations
du
(11.39a)
dy = ° 1
We further assume 1= ky and write
du -
eT, = yak • l/y (11.39b)

and upon integration

u = (yak) In y + C (11.40a)
The constant of integration is eliminated by considering the upper plate velocity
U„.„ = (v.1k) In h + C (11.40b)
and
Un„,,, — u
= 1/k • In (hly) (11.41)
v.
Equation (11,41) is known as the 'velocity defect law'.
The friction velocity v. is a reference parameter for non-dimensionalization
of both the velocity and distance. So non-dimensionalized parameters have been
found to well correlate the experimental results in turbulent flow. Hence we take
recourse to
yv. or
=
v y=1—
0.
and write Eq. (11.40a) as
 TURBULENT FLOW 307

v; + C)
u= (v.1k) • (In n + In —
Or
ulo. = llk • In + D (11.42)
where D includes the unknown constant C.
Equation (11.42) by itself does not give the velocity distribution for the
following reasons:
(i) It has been derived for an exclusive case of T = To = constant
(ii) k is not known
(iii) D is not known.
What it gives is the functional dependence of (u/v.) and n. The relationship
is generally known as the universal velocity profile for it can be extrapolated to
arbitrarily large Reynolds number.
The suggestion of Eq. (11.42) has been used to summarize results of pipe
flow. By comparing with the experiments the following laws are established.
Smooth pipe:
Velocity: u/v. = 2.5 In tl + 5.5 (11.43a)
Friction factor: 1/il = 2.0 logio (Re 1,17) — 0.8 (I 1.43b)

which is known as 'Prandtl's universal law of friction for smooth pipes'. The
friction velocity is defined on the basis of the shear stress at the wall.
Note that by comparing Eq. (11.42) with Eq. (11.43a) we find k = 0.4,
suggesting that 1= 0.4y is a good aproximation which has been also found applicable
for rough pipes.
A surface is said to be rough when the portrutions exceed the thickness
equivalent to laminar sublayer. For roughness of varying degrees, Colebook's
formula given below is found to apply well for friction factor in a pipe.

1/il = 1.74 — 2.0 logio (el R + 18.71 Re il) (11.44)

The above formula gives the smooth pipe result Eq. (11.43b) when e= 0. cis the
average height of portrution over the solid surface.

Example 11.4 Find the value of friction factor in a rough pipe of diameter
2 cm. The average height of roughness is 0.5 mm and the flow Reynolds number
Re = 2 x 107.
The value off can be determined by using Colebrook's formula by trial and
error.
e/R = 0.5/10 = 0.05
The first trial is made neglecting the second term within brackets in Eq. (11.44).
Thus
1/il = 1.74 — 2.0 log 10 (0.05)
= 4.342
308 Flue MECHANICS

Or
f = 0.05 (i)
Define an error

E =1147f - [1.74 - 2.0 log 10 (el R + 18.71 Re 1,17)]

Using f = 0.05, we find

E = 4.342 - 1.74 + 2.0 logio (0.05 + 18.7/2 x 1071.1-0)

=1.2646 x 10-5
and could be neglected. For the purpose of illustration, however, we could check
by assuming f = 0.051, then

E = 4.428 - 1.74 + 2.0 log 10 (0.05 + 18.7/2 x 1071,/:0:)

(
= 0.0860
which is higher than the error for f = 0.05. Using f = 0.049, we obtain

E = 4.517 - 1.74 + 2.0 log 10 (0.05 + 18.7/2 x 1074U)49)

= 0.175
Hence
f = 0.05
The fact that f = EIR is a suggestion that at large value of e/R, the friction
factor can be assumed to be equal to FIR.

11.9 SUMMARY
1. As the flow Reynolds number is increased, the laminar layer first becomes
unstable and then transits to the turbulent regime. The length of the transition
zone depends upon the intensity of turbulence Tu. The points of transition and
instability coincide when Tu is 2 to 3 percent or higher.
2. The mathematical description of turbulence is based on imagining each
parameter to be a combination of its time mean and time dependent fluctuation,
e.g.
u = u + u'; (u' I .1
3. Even in a one-dimensional mean flow, u = u (y), fluctuations exist in all
the three directions:
u #0, v' * 0, w #0
4. The time average of a single fluctuating quantity is zero, but not of two
fluctuating quantities: ii' = 0; u'v' * 0.
 TURBULENT FLOW 309

5. The intensity of turbulence is given by

Tu = 1—1(u
02 -02 -02
+ v + w )1U.,
3

The turbulence is isotropic when ai2 =172 =

6. A positive u' is coupled with a negative v' such that — u'v' is positive
and 'rt = — p u'v'.
7. The apparent or Reynolds stress terms are really inertia terms arising
from fluctuating components.
8. Prandtl's mixing length hypothesis is a postulation for turbulent shear
stress ; = p12 (du/dy)2. A good approximation is 1 = 0.4y.
9. Blasius law for wall shear stress and the power law profile are valid for
pipe flow Re S105 and boundary layer flow Re, < 107. The influence of laminar
sublayer exists at such Reynolds number.
10.The law of universal velocity profile is derived neglecting laminar effects
and using the mixing length concept. The profile and friction factor relationships
can be extended to arbitrarily large Reynolds number, and hence the name.

EXERCISES
1. Using Blasius law of wall shear stress and the 1/7th power law for velocity,
derive an expression for the thickness of laminar sublayer for turbulent boundary
layer flow on a flat plate.
2. Consider power law velocity profile la/ = (y1R) 161 in a flow through a circular
pipe. Find the value of radius, as a function of pi, where the local velocity equals
the area average velocity. List such values of the radius for n = 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10.
3. Mineral oil of specific gravity 0.8 and kinematic viscosity 2 x 10-6 m2/s is to
be pumped through a 200 mm ID smooth pipe over a length of 5 km. The flow
rate is 3000 litres/min. Calculate minimum pressure and power ratings of the
pump required.
(Ans: 400.475 kN/m2, 20.023 kW)
4. Water flows through a 300 mm ID pipe at a temperature of 20°C. The pipe is
smooth and the flow Reynolds number Re = 3.5 x 106. Estimate the value of friction
factor using Prandtl's universal laws. Find also the values of the wall shear stress
and friction velocity.
(Ans: 0.01, 169.94 N/m2, 0.4122 m/s)
S. Using the information given in Problem 4, determine the ratio of centre line
velocity to average velocity in the pipe. State why power-law relationship should
not be used for solving Problems 4 and 5.
6. Consider a parallel plate channel formed by two plates 2/1 apart. Assume that
Blasius relationship for friction factor and 1/7th power law profile hold good in
310 FLUID MECHANICS

low Reynolds number fully developed flow through the channel; Re = (2hU„Iv).
Assuming that the concept of mixing length is also applicable to low Re turbulent
flow, derive an expression for local value of 1 in the channel.
7. Water is to be supplied from a tank over a distance of 2 km. The head available
between the tank water level and the discharge point is 4.5 m. The water requirement
at the discharge end is 130 litre's during summer when the average temperature
is 30°C (v = 7.97 x 10-6 m2/s). What must be the minimum ID of a smooth pipe
connecting the tank and the discharge end? Neglect all losses except friction.
State the drop in flow rate during winter when the average temperature is 10°C
(v = 13 x 10-6 m2/s).
(Ans: 42.16 cm, 8 litre's)
8. A plate 20 m long is towed through water at a speed of 7 m/s. The kinematic
viscosity of water is 8 x 10-6 m2/s and density p= 990 kghn3. Transition is expected
to take place at Re, = 106, and the intensity of turbulence is high.
Calculate (i) the maximum thickness of the laminar boundary layer; (ii)
thickness of the boundary layer at the edge of the plate; (iii) average skin friction
coefficient for the length of the laminar region, (iv) average value of the skin
friction for the entire length of the plate; and (v) the force required to tow the
plate if its breadth is 2 m.
(Ans: 5.7 mm, 0.2634 m, 0.001328, 0.002378, 4.6148 kN)
9. In an experiment with fully developed turbulent flow through a smooth pipe,
it was observed that the velocity profile was expressible as u/U = (yIR)II5 and
f = 0.32/Re°•2S for Re 5 2 x 104. Derive an expression for the wall shear stress.
10. In a high Reynolds number flow for which the mixing length concept is
applicable, it was observed that the velocity at the edge of the laminar sublayer
is 50 percent of the free stream. The thickness of the sublayer is 6, = 8 • v/v.,
and the shear stress is invariant in the transverse direction near the wall. Using
k = 0.4y, derive an expression for the velocity profile.
11. Turbulent flow at moderate Reynolds number is taking place in the inlet
region of a parallel plate channel of depth 2h. Considering the boundary layer to
be turbulent from the leading edge of the plates, derive an approximate expression
for the length of the inlet region. State the approximations used. Compare the
value of turbulent inlet length with the value derived in Chap. 10 for laminar inlet
length.
12. Plot to scale the following two velocity ptofiles in fully developed flow
through a circular pipe.
(i) u/U„ vs y/R for laminar flow.
(ii) u/U„ vs y/R for 1/7th power law.
The profiles be superimposed on each other. Calculate the values of displacement
thickness for each of the above profiles.
 Introduction to Compressible
Flows

Whenever a body moves into a region of fluid under consideration, local disturbance
is caused. A quantity of fluid equal to the submerged volume of the solid is
displaced. For example, when we place a solid in a tank of water with a free
surface, the level of water rises in proportion to the volume of water displaced.
In case of a liquid in a pipe, the introduction of a solid body is associated with
almost instantaneous discharge of an equal volume of liquid through the open end
of the pipe.
Essentially, the displaced volume creates a local pressure rise. In the liquid
with a free surface, the pressure rise is hydrostatic. That in a pipe is communicated
by the neighbouring fluid elements to the free end at practically infinite speed,
and the discharge results. The displaced liquid volume cannot be accommodated
within the pipe, without the corresponding discharge, since a liquid is incompressible.
We can, however, introduce a solid body into a gas pipe even with its far
end closed. This is possible, since a gas is compressible and the change in volume
can be accommodated by a rise in density.
The pressure communication in a gaseous medium takes place at a far lower
speed than in a liquid. So long as the pressure rise has not reached a location in
the fluid medium, the particles there are 'unaware' of the disturbances upstream,
say by introducing a solid body.
The pressure rise, or the pressure front, in moving through the fluid medium
causes a local compression. Since compression implies coglomerating fluid particles
larger in number than the undisturbed state, the excess fluid particles are drawn
in from the immediate neighbourhood. In other words, the compression is associated
with a rarefaction or depression in pressure and together they form a pressure wave.
Note that the speed of communication of the disturbance in the fluid medium
is different from the speed of the cause of the disturbance, here the solid body.
We shall call the former the 'wave velocity', since the disturbance is propagated
as a pressure wave. And the latter, of course, is the relative velocity of the body
with respect to the fluid medium.
The study of a compressible flow is based on the relative magnitude of body
velocity with respect to the wave velocity. Above a certain minimum value of this
ratio, known as the Mach number, the density change caused by the fluid motion
is appreciable and needs accounting for. At flow velocities lower than such threshold,
the density variation of a compressible fluid is negligible and information of the
incompressible fluid flow are applicable.
311
312 FLUID MECHANICS

12.1 SPEED OF PROPAGATION OF A PRESSURE FRONT

Imagine an undisturbed compressible fluid medium at pressure p. As a pressure
front moves through the medium at speed 'a', the pressure changes to p + dp and
the density to p + dp. The rise in pressure will tend to move the fluid in the
downstream direction with an infinitesimal velocity, say dV. The physical model
is shown in Fig. 12.1(a). We have shown the region of consideration to be confined,
for convenience. In reality, the disturbance will propagate in all directions of an
unbounded region.
To a stationary observer, the phenomena at a given spatial location will
change as the pressure front moves past it, and the situation would be an unsteady
one. On the other hand, an observer located on the pressure front shall experience
steady parameters: the disturbed ones in the "upstream" and the undisturbed ones
in the "downstream". The latter reference is indicated in Fig. 12.1(b) where the
front speed 'a' is subtracted to create an apparent steady situation.

Disturbed fluid Pressure front ( a -dv) a

at d v at speed 'a' Le—
p • dp and Undisturbed c> (p• dp) I
__Log
I p
P • dP fluid at
p and P (P•c1P) P
-J
/f///////////////////////,

(a) As reckoned by a stationary (b) Observer located on

observor the pressure front
Fig. 12.1 Propagation of a Disturbance.

The mass balance about a control volume, enveloping the pressure front
yield:
= pAa = (p + dp)A(a - dV)
where A is the area of the pressure front, or
a dp - p dV - dp • dV = 0
Or
dplp = dV/a (12.1)
neglecting the higher order term (dp • dV).
Further, from momentum balance,
th (a - dV - a)= pA - (p + dp)A
Or
pa dV = dp (12.2)
Combining (12.1) and (12.2), we get
dp _ dp
pat p
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 313

Or
a 2 = apiap (12.3a)
The bulk modulus is defined by
dp = _ 0 (1:)
7
where v is the specific volume, v = 1/p and dp/dp =13/p.
Thus the speed of propagation can also be written as

a= (12.3b)

Typically, for water 13= 20 000 bar, resulting in an approximate value of

a = 1500 m/s that is far in excess of a physical motion in water. The propagation
of disturbance thus seems instantaneous in a liquid. The bulk modulus, or the
change of density with pressure, in a gas is dependent on the process of compression.
For example, the bulk modulus in an ideal gas is equal to the pressure p during
an isothermal process (Chap. 1).
A compression (or a rarefaction) process can be isothermal only if the
time available is sufficient enough to dissipate the heat of compression and
thereby maintain constant temperature. Essentially the process has to be a slow
one.
It is observed, however, that the motion of a pressure front in a gaseous
medium is quite fast, though at a finite speed. Time available is not sufficient for
heat transfer interactions, and hence the process is adiabatic. Furthermore, the
amplitude of the disturbance is small and momentum diffusion due to viscous
effects is negligible. In other words, the pressure wave due to the disturbance
moves under isentropic condition.
An isentropic process is characterized by
k
p
=C (12.4)
where k = clic. is the ratio of specific heats.
By taking logarithm of Eq. (12.4), we have
In p — k In p = In C
and by differentiation
dp
dpl p = k—
P
Or

= (12.5a)
C d'L kP
If we confine ourselves to a medium of ideal gas, say dry air, then
p = pRT
314 FLUID MECHANICS

and
a = Pp7cW, =.k1
kI FT (12.5b)

is the speed of propagation of the disturbance.

The expression (12.5b) is the speed of propagation of sound in a gaseous
medium. In other words, the disturbances are acoustic in nature.
R is the characteristic gas constant,
R = RuThinica (12.6a)
where Ru = 8.3143 kJ/kg mol K is the Universal Gas Constant, and M.1 is the
molecular weight.
Taking M.1 = 29 for air,
R = 286.7 Nm/kg K (12.6b)
and
a = .41.4 x 286.7 —VT'
or
a = 20.03 VT m/s (12.7)

under normal conditions when k = 1.4.

12.2 MACH NUMBER

The foregoing discussions emphasize the significance of acoustic speed in a
compressible flow. The one most significant non-dimensional p'.rameter is,
therefore, the Mach number
M = V/a (12.8)
where V is the relative motion of the fluid with respect to a solid surface. The
Mach number is to be evaluated by using the local speed of sound.
The flow is said to be subsonic when M < 1, sonic for M = 1 and supersonic
for M > 1. A compressible flow in the neighbourhood of the sonic speed, say
0.8 < M < 1.2, is called transonic.
It is apparent that in a subsonic flow the disturbance precedes the object
moving at velocity V through the fluid, whereas in a supersonic motion the object
is ahead of the disturbance.

12.3 LIMITS OF INCOMPRESSIBILITY

We have already stated in a qualitative manner that below a certain value of
Mach number, the flow of a compressible fluid can be considered incompressible.
We now proceed to evaluate the limit of incompressibility in a quantitative
sense.
Consider a frictionless adiabatic flow from a reservoir where the pressure
and density are respectively po and p0. For such a flow Bernoulli's equation is
applicable and the hydrodynamic pressure and velocity are related by
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 315

1 2
p + —pV = constant
2
The pressure change with respect to reservoir condition (V0 = 0) is

= (Po — P) = PV2 (12.9a)

Since
(ap/ap), = a2
we can write Eq. (12.9a) as
a 24p = pV 2
or
_ 1 V 2 _ I m2 (12.9b)
P a2
as the relative change of density due to fluid motion. If we set the limit that a flow
is incompressible so long as the density variation does not exceed 2 percent,

1 M2 5 0.02
2
or
M 5 0.2 (12.9c)
is the range of incompressibility.

12.4. PRESSURE FIELD DUE TO A MOVING SOURCE OF

DISTURBANCE
Consider an unbounded medium, for example the atmosphere, through which a
body is moving. As discussed at the outset, motion of the body gives rise to
disturbances that are acoustic in nature. Pressure at a location in space shall
change with time as the successive waves of disturbance reach it at acoustic
speed.
A moving body, such as an aircraft, is ordinarily of such dimensions that an
acoustic wave will travel across it within an infinitesimal time. We shall, therefore,
ignore the dimensions of the source of disturbance and treat it what is generally
called a 'point source'. It is our intention now to examine the cumulative effects
of disturbances reaching a point, as the source moves at different speeds.
If the source is stationary, the acoustic waves generated there shall move out
as concentric spheres with the source as the centre. In Fig. 12.2, 0 indicates the
present instance; —1 a time interval t before the present; —2 a time interval 22
earlier and so on.
Thus from a stationary source, the disturbance emitted at —1 would have spread
out over a radius of 'at', and that at —2t over a radius of lat"a' being the speed
of sound in the medium, Fig. 12.2(a).
In Fig. 12.2(b), the range of propagation of disturbances due to a source
moving at a subsonic speed is indicated. The scale chosen is for V = 1/2a, or
316 FLUID MECHANICS

-3
(a) Source stationary (b) Source moving at M=0.5
subsonic motion

Mach
cone

Mach
angle
cc

Zone of
Zone of silence
silence
Mach
cone
(c) Source moving at M = 2.0 (d) Source moving at M=1.0
supersonic motion sonic motion
Fig. 12.2 Pressure Field due to a Point Source of Disturbance.

M = 0.5. The source is moving from left to right with its positions at different
time marked on the line of motion. The origin of circles representing the spread
of the pressure disturbance due to the moving source is now displaced at/2 during
the time interval. As a result, the pressure is felt more intensely in the downstream
direction than the upstream. The pressure front nevertheless precedes the source
in Fig. 12.2(b) at subsonic speed.
When the source speed is supersonic, as in Fig. 12.2(c) for a representative
M = 2.0, the point source is ahead of the disturbance and an observer in the
downstream location is caught unaware of the approaching source. The disturbances
emanated at different times are enveloped by an imaginary conical surface known
as the 'Mach Cone'. The half angle of the cone, a, is known as the 'Mach Angle'
and is given by

sin a = at — I
Vt M
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 317

or
1
a = sin -1 (12.10)

Since the disturbances are confined to the cone, the area within the cone is known
as the 'Zone of Action' and that outside the cone as the 'Zone of Silence'. An
observer does not feel the effects of the moving source till the Mach cone covers
his position. At Mach one, i.e. when the point source moves at the sonic speed,
the disturbances remain attached to the source, Fig. 12.2(d). The Mach angle is
90° and the Mach cone is a plane perpendicular to the direction of motion. A
point in the downstream is unaware of the disturbance, also in this case.

Example 12.1 A supersonic aircraft is flying at an altitude of 1000 m where

the temperature is 10°C. The speed of the aircraft corresponds to M = 2.5. Estimate
the time elapsed, in each of the following three situations between the instant the
aircraft was directly overhead an observer on the ground, and the instant the
observer feels the disturbance due to the aircraft.
(a) when the observer is stationary,
(b) when the observer is moving in the direction of the aircraft at M = 0.5,
(c) when the observer is moving in the opposite direction with M = 0.5.
Neglect the variation in the speed of sound between the flight altitude and the
ground level.
The ground observer will feel the motion of the aircraft only when the Mach
cone covers his position, as indicated in Fig. 12.3. If r is the time elapsed, the
distance travelled by the aircraft between the referred instances is Vr, and
tan a = h/Vr
where h is the altitude of flight and V is the relative velocity between the observer
and the aircraft.

VT

Fig. 12.3
The Mach angle is a= sic1(112.5) = 23.5° and is independent of the motion
of the observer.
tan a = 0.4348
318 FLUID MECHANICS

The speed of sound is a = 20.03 42E = 337 m/s

(a) when the observer is stationary,

V = 2.5a = 842.4 m/s
= 1000/(842.4 x 0.4348) = 2.73 s
(b) when the observer moves at M = 0.5 in the direction of the aircraft
V = 2a = 674 m/s
= 1000/(674 x 0.4348) = 3.41 s
(c) when moving in the opposite direction,
V = 3a = 1011 m/s
= 1000/(1011 x 0.4348) = 2.27 s

12.5 SUMMARY
1. Disturbances of small pressure amplitude are propagated in a fluid medium at
the speed of sound, a = 44cTp),
(4 . The acoustic propagation is an isentropic
process.
2. The one single most important non-dimensional parameter of a compressible
flow is the Mach number, M = V/a, where a is the 'local speed of sound'.
a = 20.031ff m/s for normal air, k = 1.4.
3. The effects of compressibility are to be considered when the Mach number
is higher than M = 0.2. At lower speeds, the variation of density of a compressible
fluid is negligible and the results of incompressible flow are applicable for
M < 0.2.
4. A 'Mach cone' is an imaginary surface that envelops the disturbances
emanating from a moving source. The cone semi-angle, known as the 'Mach
angle', is given by a= sin (1/M). The space within the Mach cone is known as
the 'zone of action' and that outside as the 'zone of silence'.
5. An observer is unaware of the motion of an object past him at supersonic
speed until the Mach cone covers the position of the observer.

EXERCISES
1. The ratio of specific heats for monatomic gases is k = 1.66. Estimate the acoustic
velocity in argon and helium at a temperature of 300 K. Compare the value with
that of air at that temperature.
(Ans: 321.92 m/s, 1017.42 m/s; 0.9277, 2.932)
2. An aircraft is flying at a speed of 850 km per hour. Using a table for temperature
of the upper atmosphere, estimate the flight Mach number of the aircraft at altitudes
of 10 m, 1000 m, 4000 m, and 10000 m, assuming the absolute speed of the
aircraft to remain constant.
(Ans: 0.675, 0.681, 0.706, 0.761)
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 319

3. In a laboratory test of rifle ammunitions, the Mach angle measured at the nose
of a bullet was 20°. The test house temperature was 30°C. What is the velocity
of the bullet? If the same rifle-ammunition combination is used in an arid zone
at 45°C and in a cold climate of — 5°C, estimate the corresponding Mach numbers
and Mach angles for the bullet motion. Superimpose the Mach cones at these two
temperatures on that at the test house temperature in one figure.
(Ans: 1019.4 m/s; 2.85, 20.51°; 3.11, 18.76°)
 One-Dimensional
Compressible Flows

Having had an introduction to Mach number as the most significant parameter in

a compressible flow, we now intend to investigate the behaviour of one-dimensional
flows through internal geometries.
The variation of density, that renders a flow compressible, can be caused by
change of pressure and temperature. The laws of thermodynamics are inevitably
brought into consideration in a compressible flow. On the other hand, the frictional
effects may or may not be negligible. The character of one compressible flow can
be quite different from another, even if the fluid and the geometry were identical.

13.1 ISENTROPIC FLOW

Isentropic condition implies absence of heat transfer and frictional effects. Whereas
insulation from heat transfer to a fluid in internal flow through a duct is often in
practice, the frictional losses are always present. The frictional loss can, however,
be neglected when the length of the duct or pipe is small, such as in the case of
a nozzle or a connecting piece. The flow then can be idealized to be isentropic.
A compressible flow is one associated with high Reynolds number for which
boundary layer model of viscous loss is applicable. We had noted in Chap. 10,
that so far as mass flow rate is concerned, the viscous effects can be ignored if
the flow cross-section is reduced by the value of displacement thickness on the
solid walls. That is to say that the results of isentropic flow can be useful in
practice if the influence of viscosity is accounted through such thicknesses as
displacement, momentum or energy.

13.1.1 Laws of Conservation

Consider isentropic flow of a fluid from a reservoir through a duct of variable
cross-section. The physical model is shown in Fig. 13.1(a), and the thermodynamic
process on an enthalpy-entropy diagram in Fig. 13.1(b). The fluid is considered
an ideal gas. In the reservoir, the gas velocity is zero and the fluid properties are
represented by a suffix 0. At a section 1-1 in the duct the area of cross-section
is A and the properties are as stated in Fig. 13.1(a), without any suffix.
Application of the laws of conservation yield the following.
(a) Equation of state: p = pRT (13.1)
(b) Enthalpy: h = CPT (13.2)
(c) Continuity: m = p AV = constant (13.3a)
320
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 321

SQ =
SW = 0
Reservoir 1
A
V =0
P = po IT
T = To
h
h
th
p = Po
h = ho 1 kit 0

S
(a) Physical model ( b) Thermodynamic process
Fig. 13.1 Model of an Isentropic Flow.

which by logarithmic differentiation yields

dp dA dV
(13.3b)
p A V
(d) The First Law of Thermodynamics:
4cY= ay+ dh + d KE + d PE (negligible for a gas)
0 0
Or
dh + V dV = 0 (13.4a)
or
h + V2I2 = C (13.4b)
At reservoir condition V = 0, and h = ho. Therefore
h + V2I2 = ho (13.4c)
where the kinetic energy is in heat units.
(e) The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
T ds = dh — v dp
Since the flow is isentropic,
ds = 0, dh = v dp = dplp (13.5)
Combining Eqs. (13.4a) and (13.5), we obtain
VdV+dplp = 0 (13.6a)
or

V2 + —
d; = constant (13.6b)

as the Bernoulli's equation for compressible flow, neglecting variation of potential

energy.
322 FLUID MECHANICS

(f) Momentum:
Imagine an upstream section 1-1 and a downstream section 2-2, the local
flow parameters being represented by suffixes 1 and 2, respectively.

p
1"-- 2 V2
1 41.
A2
— —J 2
F on fluid I
1 Li F on duct
(thrust)
Fig. 13.2 Thrust in an Isentropic Flow.

Since no frictional effects are involved, the force from the duct boundaries
on the fluid stream is normal to the cross-sectional area, and let us call it F. The
momentum balance for the control volume then yields
niV2 - = p - p2A2 + F
Or

F = (p2A2 + P2A2V22) — (pyti + pytivi) (13.7a)

Or
F= - 7i (13.7b)
where A and h are called the impulse functions at sections 1 and 2.
The reaction of F acts on the duct as the thrust arising due to the fluid
motion.

13.1.2 Static and Stagnation Values

Equation (13.4c) represents the conservation of energy and gives the relationship
between the enthalpy and the kinetic energy. In the reservoir, the gas is at rest and
the energy is wholly thermal.
Hence ho is called the 'stagnation' or 'total' enthalpy and the corresponding
To the stagnation temperature. The enthalpy at any other section where V # 0, is
called, by contrast the 'static' enthalpy h. The temperature, density, entropy or
pressure are similarly differentiated as 'stagnation' and 'static' values.
Note that the adjective 'static' here is related to hydrodynamic condition
and is not to be confused with hydrostatic values.
The definition of stagnation values is applied also to non-isentropic processes.
The stagnation value of a thermodynamic property of the fluid in motion is obtained
by imagining the fluid to be brought to rest isentropically, irrespective of the real
processes followed by the flow. For an ideal gas, Eq. (13.4c) can be rewritten as
Cp To = CPT + V2/2
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 323

To/T = 1 + V2/2CpT (13.8)

Froth thermodynamic relationships, we know that
C/C„ = k
CI, — = R in heat units.
Combining the two, we have

Cp = kkR

Hence
To V 2(k — 1)
1 4. 1 +k — 1 —V2
T 2(kRT) — 2 • a2
Or
To = + Ic =.1 m2) (13.9)
T 2
is the relationship between the stagnation temperature and the static temperature.
An isentropic process is governed by pvk = C, and hence
Po = (v/vo)k = (po p)k

For an ideal gas,

p = pRT
PolP = (PolP) • (TITO
Thus
Pap = (po/p)k • (T/To)k
( Po/P) = (To/ T)
k!(")
or
kl(k - 1)
_ 1 k —1
Ai2) (13.10)
P 2

Combining the relationships for pressure and temperature, we get

1/(k -1)
PO = r + k —1 m 2) (13.11)
2
as the ratio of stagnation to static densities.
Although values of the flow parameters can be calculated using the expressions
given here, it is convenient to use the 'Gas Tables', samples of which are given
for k = 1.4 at the end of this book.
By the first law of thermodynamics, Eq. (13.4c), we note that the total
enthalpy, hence To, are conserved so long as the process is adiabatic, irrespective
324 FLUID MECHANICS

of frictional effects. The total pressure or density, however, can vary along the
flow due to frictional effects even if heat transfer is prevented.
From Eq. (13.7) we note that
V2 = 2C1, (T0 - 7)
Or
1/2
2kR
V =[— o - (13.12a)
k-1

is the relationship between the fluid velocity and static temperature in an adiabatic
flow. The flow can attain a maximum velocity of
)1/2
2k RTo
Vma, = (- (13.12b)
k-1

when the static temperature approaches the value of absolute zero.

The unity Mach number condition, M = 1, is of special significance in
compressible flow, and we shall denote the parameters at sonic condition by an
asterik. Thus,
1+ (13.13a)
To/T* =
2k
poip,._ (1 + /c)ki(k -1) (13.13b)
2

polp* . ( 1 + k)il(k-1) (13.13c)

2)
For k = 1.4, the numerical values are:
To/To = 0.8333, p*/po = 0.5282, p*/po = 0.6339
The fluid velocity and acoustic speed are equal at sonic condition and is
V* = a* = [k RT1112 (13.14a)
Or

r 2k RT ]1/2
(13.14b)
Lk + 1 °
A Characteristic Mach number M* is defined on the basis of a* as a fixed reference
value for a given To:

M* = V (13.14c)

13.1.3 Isentroplc Flow through a Duct of Varying Cross-sectIon

The relationship developed in the foregoing section can now be used to predict
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 325

the variations of the parameters in an isentropic flow. For example, Eq. (13.6a)
indicates that
dp = — pV dV (13.15)
i.e. a flow is accelerated only if the static pressure decreases in the downstream
direction. The continuity Eq. (13.3b) leads to

dA
=dV
_dP= dp dp
A V p pV 2 p
or
dp (1 dp)_ dp 1)
A p V 2 dp p 0/ 2 a 2 )
since the process is isentropic. Therefore
dp 0 m2) (13.16)
A p V2
Since dp is negative in an accelerating flow, the conclusion of incompressible
flow: that area has to decrease for the fluid to be accelerated, is corroborated in
a subsonic flow (M < 1), Eq. (13.16). However, a seemingly astounding conclusion
is obtained for a supersonic flow (M > 1), that area must increase to achieve
acceleration of the flow.
The area change dA is zero for the sonic condition M = I, indicating a minimum
cross-section there. The M = 1 cross-section is therefore called a 'throat'.
The summary of the three conditions: M < 1, M = 1 and M > 1 is stated by
the fact that a flow cannot be continuously accelerated from subsonic to supersonic
condition withoue passing through a throat. And a subsonic to supersonic duct
must be coverging-diverging. A device through which a flow is accelerated is
called a 'nozzle'. The converse arrangement for deceleration, associated with a
rise in static pressure in the downstream direction, is known as a 'diffuser'. The
device in Fig. 13.3 is a nozzle with the flow proceeding from left to right. The
same device shall act as a diffuser when the flow is directed from right to left.
Whereas the static pressure varies along the length of the nozzle, the total
pressure remains constant for isentropic flow.
It is. important to point out that the flow through a converging-diverging
duct does not always end up being supersonic at the exit. The area ratio and the
back pressure pa must have the appropriate values necessary for attaining supersonic
condition.
If, for example, the back pressure Pat is higher than the value necessary for
supersonic exit, i.e. Pal , curve I, Fig. 13.3, the flow will accelerate in the converging
portion, the throat Mach number will be less than one, and the flow will decelerate
in the diverging portion. The flow will remain subsonic all along the nozzle
length. The pressure variation is shown by the dashed curve II in Fig. 13.3.
Even when the throat Mach number is unity, the flow in the diverging
portion can become subsonic, if the exit area is not suitable for supersonic discharge.
The back pressure will then be //By as shown by curve III.
326 FLUID MECHANICS

Po PB
M <1 M:1 M>1

jr7__77:= PO
M<1 pB2
ryi< 1 __ - ... Pg3
M<1 '* IV
P
-- - PB
M>1
ri-T-M71-- 4
1 Shock Psi
M<1 M:1
I
Fig. 13.3 isentropic Flow through a Converging-Diverging Duct.

In practice, a strongly irreversible process known as 'shock' may take place

in the supersonic portion of the nozzle flow resulting in severe losses and finally
subsonic discharge from the converging-diverging nozzle. This is indicated by
P84' and shall be discussed further in later chapters.

Example 13.1 In a supersonic flow of air through a converging-diverging duct,

measurements at a station indicated M = 1.5, A = 7.5 cm2, p = 1.6 bar and T =
10°C. Calculate the values of pressure and temperature at the reservoir and the
throat conditions, assuming k = 1.4. Also estimate the throat area, area and Mach
number at the exit plane if the back pressure is atmospheric at 1.013 bar. Assume
isentropic conditions. Use gas tables.
From isentropic tables: for
M = 1.5, A/A* = 1.176;
p/po = 0.2724, T/To = 0.6896
Hence the reservoir pressure and temperature are:
= 1.0
= 5.8737 bar
Po 0.2724
To = (273 + 10)/0.6896 = 410.38 K
Throat conditions:
A* = 7.5/1.176 = 6.377 cm2
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 327

1,11 .• 8.1!§5p, = 1.1811 bar

T* = 0.8333T0 = 341.98 K
For pa = 1.013 bar,
Palpo= 1.013/5.8737 = 0.1724
for which MB is estimated from the tables. For M = 1.80,
P/Po = 0.1740
For M = 1.82,
P/Po = 0.1688
Therefore, for plpo = 0.1724,

MB = 1.80 + 0.1740 - 0.1724 x 0.02 = 1.806

0.1740 - 0.1688

1.461 - 1 . 439
AB/A* = 1.439 + x 0.006 = 1.4456
0.02

AB = 1.4456 x 6.377 = 9.218 cm2

13.1.4 Mass Flow Rate

Consider isentropic flow through a duct from a reservoir at po and To. The mass
flow rate is rim = p AV, in terms of the local values of density, area and velocity
in the duct.
The flow rate per unit area is
rit/A = pV = pl RT • V

= -P- x
Po li To
x TT°Tx k x 1-1
IFIFT R
-

or

m/A = 17-
k
Po (1 k - 1 Ap 1/2- k/(k -1)
11 2
Or

i
/W A= —
Po ai (1 k 1 m2)-(k (13.17)
R • 11
R 2

Thus for a given reservoir condition, the mass flow per unit area is a function of
the local Mach number. The unit area flow rate is maximum when

d (ml A) -
0
dM
328 FLUID MECHANICS

Define
1+ k -1 m2 = f (m)
2
The maximum condition then corresponds to

d [ Ai f (m)-(k+012 (k - = 0
dM
Or

f m - ( k + I )/ 2 ( k - I ) - k +1 m f 0
(M)- (k - 1)M
2(k — 1)
Or
k +1 2
f (m) - M =0
2
Or

1 + k — 1M2• — k +1 M 2 = 0
2 2
leading to
1 _ ite = 0 (13.8)
That means the flow rate per unit area is maximum when the sonic condition,
M = 1 is reached.
)-(k+lo(k-I)
(±) = Po (k + 1
kA /max 7? lrfo 2

or
(ph) pa ( 2 yk +1)12(k -1)
(13.19)
= lfl.;
A max 7X + 1

is obtained by setting M = 1.
Using R = 286.7 J/kg K and k = 1.4 for air,

= 0.04044 11
r._. kg? (13.20)
To m2
where Po is in N/m2, To in kelvin and A in m2.
It is useful to note from Eq. (13.20) that the maximum flow rate per unit
area increases directly with the stagnation pressure and decreases as square root
of the stagnation temperature.

13.1.5 Choking in a Converging Passage

Imagine the discharge from a reservoir at Po and To through a converging nozzle
to a region where the pressure pa is variable, Fig. 13.4. The nozzle exit plane
pressure is PE. At the condition pa = PE = Po, there shall be no flow through the
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 329

Fig. 13.4 Discharge through a Converging Nozzle.

nozzle. As pa is gradually reduced, the flow rate shall increase. The exit plane
pressure PE shall remain equal to pa so long as the maximum discharge condition
is not reached. When (rid A) has attained its maximum value, given by Eq. (13.19),
the exit plane Mach number shall be unity and pE = p*. Since the nozzle does not
have a diverging portion, further reduction of the back pressure pa will not accelerate
the flow to supersonic condition. As a result the exit pressure pE shall continue
to remain at p* even through pa is lower.
The converging nozzle discharge against the back pressure variation is shown
in Fig. 13.5. The maximum value of (rh/ A) at M = 1 is stated as the choked flow
through a converging 'passage. With a given nozzle, the flow rate cannot be
increased further unless the reservoir conditions are altered.

0.04044

A NI

00 O. 52 8 2 1.0
Po
Fig. 13.5 Choked Flow through a Converging Nozzle.

This behaviour of a convergent passage is sometimes taken advantage of for

instrumentation and metering purposes in compressible flow. So long as the back
pressure is maintained below the critical value for a given stagnation pressure Po,
the flow rate remains fixed.
The choking condition is physically explained in the following manner.
The reduction of back pressure is communicated upstream to the reservoir
through the fluid medium at sonic speed. The fluid particles while transmitting the
330 FLUID MECHANICS

signal upstream are themselves moving downstream at velocity V. A net upward

communication results so long as V< a, and the reservoir responds to the decrease
in ps resulting in the increase of the flow rate. When the fluid physical motion
increases to sonic speed, the net speed of the signal is a — V = 0, and the reservoir
remains unaware of the back pressure variation. No further increase in flow rate,
therefore, continues.

Example 13.2 In an isentropic flow of air through a duct, the static pressure
is 1.3 x 105 N/m2, Mach number 0.7, and the area of cross-section 6.5 cm2. If the
mass flow rate is 0.15 kg/s, calculate the reservoir temperature and pressure.
Estimate to what extent the duct area can be reduced without affecting the
mass flow rate. What would be the value of the static pressure and temperature
at the maximum reduced duct area condition. Use gas tables. For
M = 0.7, plpo = 0.7209;
T/To = 0.9107, A/A* = 1.094
Since
A = 6.5 cm2
A* = 5.94 cm2 = 5.94 x 10-4 m2

rit/A*=
a is x 104 = 0.02525 x 104 kg/s/m2
5.94
But by Eq. (13.19),

th/A*= 0.04044po/A
Hence
potx. 0.02525
x 10 . = 0.6244 x 104
0.04044
Po = p10.7209 = 1.3/0.7209 x 105 = 1.8033 x 105 N/m2

To = po/0.6244 x 104 = 1.8033 x 105/0.6244 x 104 = 28.878

Or
To = 834 K
The duct area can be reduced without affecting the mass flow rate till the sonic
condition is reached. The percentage reduction is
A — A*
x 100 = (1 — A*/A) x 100 = (1 — 1/1.094) x 100 = 839%
A
The pressure and temperature at the section then would be:
p* = 0.5282 po = 0.9525 x 105 N/m2
T* = 0.8333 To = 695 K
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 331

Example 13.3 A rigid insulated vessel of capacity 0.2 m3 is initially fully

evacuated. The vessel is then connected to a line of pressurized air through a
converging nozzle of cross-sectional area 1.5 cm2. The pressure and temperature
of air in the line are 10 bar and 300 K. Calculate the time required for the pressure
in the vessel to become 4 bar.
The initial pressure in the vessel was zero and the initial mass phi = 0. As
the air from the pressure line enters the vessel and accumulates with time, the
vessel pressure shall rise. Application of the first law of thermodynamics to pressure
line and vessel system, all being considered insulated, lead to

ii+ nth = Sjil+ dEldt

gi

where m is the mass flow rate from the pressure line to the vessel at an instant
and dEldt is the time rate of change of energy in the vessel. We are ignoring the
kinetic energy of air in the pressure line.
For the vessel,
E=U
and

mhdt = 1/4 - = Mf Mi
j
where the subscripts i and f refer to initial and final conditions in the vessel.
The line condition is constant and therefore

h fmdt=m f u f —0, since nit = 0

or
hmf = mfup mf = total mass of air coming from the line
Thus
Cprf = CPT
or
Tf = kT = 1.4 x 300 = 420 K
Note that as the enthalpy. of the line air gets converted to internal energy in the
closed vessel, the temperature in the vessel is higher than that in the line.
Final pressure in the vessel is pi = 4 bar.
Therefore
pivARTf) = 105 x 4 x 0.2/(286.7 x 420) = 0.66 kg
During the time T, the back pressure of the nozzle varies from 0 to 4 bar.
The corresponding throat pressure is p* = 0.5282p0 = 5.282 bar. Since the back
pressure, all through the period r is less than p*, the nozzle shall discharge choked
and the mass flow rate is constant.
332 FLUID MECHANICS

►n = 0.04044p 0 /1/70 • A*
= 0.04044 x 10.0 x 105/,560 x 1.5 x 10-4
= 0.350 kg/s
T=m fl th = 0.66/0.35 = 1.898 s

13.2 FRICTIONAL EFFECTS ON NOZZLE FLOW

In flow of a real fluid there always exist the effects of viscosity. The entropy at
a downstream section is higher than an upstream one even without heat transfer.
Such irreversibility causes reduction in the kinetic energy at outlet from what
would be ideally achieved in an isentropic flow. The ideal and real processes in
flow through a nozzle are shown in Fig. 13.6. A is the inlet stagnation condition
at pressure po, and the throat and exit pressures are respectively p, and pe.

S
Fig. 13.6 Nozzle Flow with Friction.

Whereas AB is the ideal isentropic process to exit pressure pe, AC is the

adiabatic expansion accounting for friction in both the converging and diverging
portion of a nozzle.
At the design condition, a convergent-divergent nozzle with sonic condition
at the throat works all through its length under favourable pressure gradient,
Fig. 13.3. At off design, the throat condition may be subsonic with the result that
the pressure gradient in the diverging portion is adverse. Alternatively, a shock
may exist somewhere along the diverging portion, with the throat at M = 1. The
flow in the rest of the diverging portion would then be subsonic resulting in
increasing pressure in the downstream direction.
In other words, an unfavourable pressure gradient may quite often exist in
the diverging portion of a nozzle at off design condition.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 333

Recall the flow through a venturi-meter from Chap. 6. where it was reasoned
how the unfavourable pressure gradient could lead to flow separation if the divergence
angle was not kept small.
Flow separation could as well take place in the diverging portion of a
converging-diverging nozzle.
In order to avoid separation, therefore, the diverging portion of a nozzle is
made with very small divergence and is considerably longer than the converging
portion. The penalty is that the skin friction in the diverging portion is significantly
higher. The loss in the converging portion can be neglected in comparison. In
such a situation, the expansion can be shown as AED in Fig. 13.6. A nozzle efficiency
is defined as a ratio of the actual kinetic energy in presence of friction, e.g. for
expansion AC to the ideal one,

V2 hehA — (13.21)
r1=
2(hA — h8 ) hA — he
and the nozzle velocity coefficient

= VT/ (13.22)
The nozzle discharge coefficient is similarly defined on the basis of actual to
isentropic mass flow rate.
CD = th actual/ m isentropic (13.23)

Example 13.4 Compressed air at reservoir condition p0 = 10 bar, 100°C is to

be discharge at the rate of 15 kg/s, through a converging-diverging nozzle, to a
back pressure of 1 bar. Calculate the nozzle cross-sectional areas at the throat
and at the exit plane when: (a) the nozzle flow is isentropic all along its length,
(b) flow is isentropic upto throat and with friction in the diverging portion with
an efficiency of 0.95.
The isentropic flow for (a) is as shown by AB on the h-s diagram of
Fig. 13.6, and for part (b) the process is AED.
The throat pressure is
p* = 0.5282p0 = 5.282 bar
T* = 0.8333(273 + 100) = 310.82 K
p* = p*IRT* = 5.282 x 105/(286.7 x 310.82) = 5.927 kg/m3
V* = a* = 20.03 4510.82 = 353.13 m/s
nil A* = p*V* = 5.927 x 353.13 = 2093.0 kg/m2s
Since
= 15 kg/s,
A* = 15/2093 = 0.007166 m2 = 71.66 cm2 (i)
Assuming complete expansion to 1 bar at the exit plane, we have pdPo = 0.1 for
which Mg = 2.15, TB/T0 = 0.519, plpo = 0.1946.
334 FLUID MECHANICS

Hence,
TB = 373 x 0.519 = 193.58 K
a9 = 20.03 193.58 = 278.73 m/s
VB = 2.15 x 278.73 = 599.27 m/s
pa =1 x1051(286.7 x 193.58) = 1.80 kg/m3
AB = IhOB VB) = 15 = 0.0139 m2
1.80 x 599.27
AB = 139 cm2
for isentropic flow. When friction in the diverging portion is accounted for:

= hE - hB -TE.-
ILZ TB
7°- for ideal gas

TE - TB = T* - TB = 310.82 - 193.58 = 117.24K

TE - TD = 0.95 x 117.24 = 111.378
TD = 310.82 - 111.378 = 199.44 K
—L-
k ? = (1.4 x 286.7)/0.4 = 1.003 la/kg K
CP k1
hE - hr, = C, x 111.378 = 111.712 Id/kg
V*2 Vn2
hE 2
= hD
2
Or
VD — V*2 = 2(hE — hp) = 2 x 111.712 x 103
or
VZ = 22342 x 103 + (353.13)2 = 348120.8
Or
VD = 590.01 m/s
PD = PEARTD) = 1 x l05/(286.7 x 199.44) = 1.7488 kg/m3
AD = rill pDVD = 15/(1.7488 x 590.01) =145.37 cm 2
for flow with friction in the diverging portion.

13.3 CONSTANT AREA ADIABATIC FLOW

In the present section we intend investigating the behaviour of the compressible
flow of a perfect gas through a constant area duct in the absence of heat transfer,
but accounting for frictional effects.
A uniform velocity profile at inlet to the duct is modified due to viscous
actidn on the solid surface. In the light of the boundary layer theory, the effective
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 335

cross-section of the passage is reduced in proportion to the displacement thickness.

The physical model and the displacement thickness equivalence are shown
respectively in Figs. 13.7(a) and 13.7(b). We may now visualize and interpret the
phenomena of constant area adiabatic flow as an equivalent isentropic flow through
a duct with effectively decreasing area in the downstream direction.

wAlrIttOdlIWMAFA /41,./A,

(h-
1•11
III A. 'ff/MMIF/MAI Fir

(a) Viscous modification of ( b) Displacement thickness

velocity profile equivalence
Fig. 13.7 Flow through a Constant Area Duct with Friction.

Consequently, a subsonic flow shall be accelerated and a supersonic flow

decelerated due to friction. The static pressure will decrease for M < 1, and increase
for M > 1. The total pressure shall, however, decrease continuously for both
subsonic and supersonic conditions in order to overcome the frictional resistance.
In essence, the constant area duct behaves as a converging nozzle for subsonic
flow and as a diffuser for supersonic conditions, due to frictional effects.
Consideration of the conservation laws yield the following additional
information.
(a) Conservation of Mass:
th=pAV= constant
Hence
dplp + dVIV = 0
or
dplp = — dVIV (13.24)
Recalling the nature of dV, we note that the density decreases in the downstream
direction in a subsonic flow and increases in a supersonic flow.
(b) The First Law of Thermodynamics:

Etd= 51411+ dh + d KE
0 0
Or

dh = — V dV (13.25)
Since a subsonic flow is accelerated, the enthalpy decreases for M < 1. Conversely,
the enthalpy increases in the downstream direction of a supersonic flow.
 336 FLUID MECHANICS

(c) The Second Law of Thermodynamics:

ds > 0 (13.26)
according to the inequality of Clausius for an adiabatic flow.
A summary of the above information is given in Table 1, for ease of reference.

Table 1 Effects of Friction on a Constant Area Duct Flow

Flow Parameters Subsonic M < 1 Supersonic M > 1

Velocity, V increases decreases
Mach number, M increases decreases
Static pressure, p decreases increases
Total pressure, Po decreases decreases
Static enthalpy h, temperature T decrease increase
Density, p decreases increases
Entropy, s increases increases

13.3.1 Fanno Line

The foregoing discussions and summary of the behaviour of flow parameters can
now be used to plot the thermodynamic state of a fluid in compressible flow
though an adiabatic duct.
Consider representation on an enthalpy-entropy plane.
Since negative temperature does not exist, and since entropy must always
increase in the adiabatic flow, the state points are confined to the first quadrant
of the h-s plane. Because of the fact that enthalpy increases for M > 1 and decreases
for M < 1, the locus of the state points shall be either of the four diagrams in
Fig. 13.8.

h h h1 h
M<1

0 )0
M >1

S S S
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Fig. 13.8 Postulated h-s Diagrams for the Constant Area Adiabatic Flow.

The two curves in all the four figures meet at point 0 when extrapolated.
For the figures a, b and c in Fig. 13.8, the gradient of entropy with enthalpy
(ds/dh) has two values at 0; in other words the thermodynamic properties are
discontinuous there. This cannot happen to a pure substance in single phase.
Therefore, the curves in the first three figures are not plausible representations of
the thermodynamic state.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 337

In Fig. 13.8(d), a single value of the slope is possible when the two curves
join smoothly. The slope is then, ds/dh = 0, indicating a maximum value of
entropy.
The curve in Fig. 13.8(d) is known as the Fanno line and is reproduced in
Fig. 13.9 for different mass flow rates. Examine now the conditions at the inflection
point:
ds/dh = 0. Recall the T ds relationship:

T ds = dh — dp
or
dp
Tds=—VdV--
p
or

T ds = — V 2 — ti
p (13.27)

using Eq. (13.25) for an adiabatic flow.

M.c 1

M>1

S
Fig. 13.9 Fanno Line Representation of Constant Area Adiabatic Flow.

Further, on substitution from the continuity relationship, Eq. (13.24), we

get

p
Tds = V 2 dP —ti (13.28)
P P
as the variation of entropy in a constant area adiabatic flow.
At the maximum entropy condition alone ds= 0, and Eq. (13.28) is rearranged
to yield

a 12 ) =
V2 (13.29)
l P ds = 0
338 FLUID MECHANICS

Locally at this point,

(a p = a2
a P)ds=0
It must be emphasized that (ap/ap) anywhere else along the Fanno line is not
equal to a2, since entropy is not conserved at other locations. Thus the inflection
point corresponds to
v2 = a2

Or
M=1 (13.30)
In other words, both the subsonic and supersonic flows move towards the sonic
condition. Friction in a constant area duct flow consequently leads to choking,
irrespective of the flow Mach number at inlet.
We next note that a subsonic flow accelerated to the choked (M = 1) condition
cannot proceed further along the supersonic branch, for it would mean decrease
of entropy in an adiabatic flow. This is prohibited by the second law of
thermodynamics. Similarly, a supersonic flow can nor be decelerated beyond
M = 1 condition.
This implies that there is a maximum limit on the length of a pipe through
which a given mass flow rate can take place under adiabatic condition.

13.3.2 Momentum Equation

Imagine a control volume of length Ax coinciding with the interior of a duct of
cross-section A and wetted perimeter P. The pressure gradient is dp/dx, wall shear
stress T„ and mass flow rate m. Application of the conservation of momentum
equation leads to:

m dV Ax= —A d—p Ax— T,,,P•Ax (13.31)

dx dx
Define
rw = A• f pV 2

and the hydraulic diameter D = 4A/P.

Equation (13.31) is then rewritten as
,
v
dV dP — 1pv
—
,2 •
dx dx 2 D
or
pV 2 2 dv
d p + 4,1 dx + pV — =0
2D V
For a perfect gas,

pV2 = p V2 = -L urrm2 = kpM 2

RT RT
 morrow rum 110
Hence the momentum equation is

dx
4A = — dpl(pV 2)— dV/V
2D
or
„ dx 2 — dP dV
44— = — — (13.32a)
D kM 2 p V
The right hand side of Eq. (13.32a) is a function of Mach number and we write
it as g (M) dM, without trying to evaluate g (M). Thus
dx
= g(M) dM (13.32b)

The maximum length of pipe for a given flow rate is obtained by integrating
the 1.h.s. from 0 to 4„,,, and the r.h.s. for M to 1.

emu 1
dx
4. = g(M)dM (13.33)
0

The integration on the r.h.s. of Eq. (13.33) has been performed numerically and
the results are available in Fanno Tables for different values of the ratio of specific
heats.
Suppose that in a pipe flow the Mach number at a station 1 is M1 and that
at station 2 is M2. For both these sections, the choked condition shall take place
at the same location, Fig. 13.10.

1 21

1 Mt 21M2 IM=1
Choked
condition
Lm aX1
L L MCIXE-1
Fig. 13.10 Length between Two given Sections in Adiabatic Constant Area Flow.
The length between the two sections 1 and 2 are then computed from the
physical model as

4A L = (4A L„„„,) (4,14.) (13.34)

D D ) awl D m2
340 FLUID MECHANICS

Note that we have adopted the symbol. for friction factor to be consistent with
our definition for incompressible flows. In Gas Tables, often the symbol f is used
to mean our A.

Example 13.5 In an experiment of air flowing adiabatically through a constant

area duct, the experimenter said to have measured at section 1: pi = 1.5 bar and
Tt = 30°C and at section 2: p2 = 1.3 bar and 7'2 = 17°C. Verify whether the
measurements can be considered accurate.
For the adiabatic process ds > 0. So we check for the entropy change to
establish the prima-facie accuracy.
T ds = dh - v dp
or
dT
ds=CP — - — dp
T T
Treating air as perfect gas and pv = RT, we have

dT
ds= Cp 7- - dp

s2 - si = Cp In T2 - R1n -12
1-
11 pi
C,, = 1.003 kJ/kg K, R = 286.7 Nm/kg K
Hence

0- - 286.7 In
s2 - si = 1.003 x 103 1n -2-9-
303 1.5
= - 43.983 + 41.027 = - 2.956 J/kg K

The measurements are definitely erroneous since the entropy cannot decrease
in an adiabatic flow.

Example 13.6 Air is to be delivered from a reservoir at 20 bar and 40°C

through an adiabatic pipe to a space where the pressure is maintained at 2 bar abs.
The pipe is connected to the reservoir through a converging-diverging nozzle
whose exit diameter is twice the throat diameter. The nozzle exit area matches
smoothly with the pipe ID = 5 cm. If the pipe friction factor is A = 0.005, calculate
the maximum permissible length of the pipe, and the corresponding flow rate and
pipe exit plane pressure. Treat the nozzle flow isentropic.
The maximum length of the pipe corresponds to choking condition at the
discharge end. A choked discharge can exist only if the pipe exit plane pressure
is higher than the pressure maintained (2 bar) in the discharge space. In case the
pressure condition for a choked discharge is satisfied, the flow through the pipe
shall be supersonic following the converging-diverging nozzle.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 341

We shall apriori assume a supersonic flow condition and calculate the flow
parameters. At the end only, we shall know whether the assumption was correct.
Considering nozzle flow to be isentropic, we obtain the throat conditions

= 03282 x 20 = 10.564 bar

T: = 0.8333 x 313 = 260.82 K
= 0.04044 21— = (0.04044 x 20 x 105)/()

or
rill At = 4571.6 kg/s m2
At = (2.5)2 x 10-4 = 4.908 x 10-4 m2
Therefore
= 2.244 kg/s

ASIA* = 4 for which Me = 2.94 (i)

Thus the Mach number at inlet to the duct is 2.94. From Fanno tables, we note
the corresponding

4A, = 0.5065 + 0.5144 — 0.5065 x 0.4 = 0.51282

D 0.5
—
p/ p* = 0.2306 0.2306 50.2243 x 0.4 = 0.22556
0
The nozzle exit pressure for M = 2.94 is recalled using Isentropic tables:
P/Po = 0.0298
Or
p = 0.0298 x 20 = 0.596 bar at inlet to the pipe
If the flow were decelerated to M = 1, p* at the pipe discharge end would
be:
p* = 0.596/0.22556 = 2.6423 bar (ii)
which is higher than the pressure of 2 bar in the discharge space. In other words,
the M = 1 condition has not been reached and the assumed supersonic flow shall
take place.
maximum pipe length can be:

L.= 0.51282 x D/(4A)

= 0.51282 x (5 x 10-2)/(4 x 0.005)
= 1.282 m
342 FLUID MECHANICS

If the pipe is shorter than the above length, the discharge end pressure will be less
than the back pressure and the pipe flow shall remain supersonic. The exit plane
pressure shall rise to the back pressure through a discontinuity, named the shock.
In the event a pipe longer than the above length is used, the shock may be
located within the duct with a part •of the discharge end of the pipe running
subsonic.

13.4 CONSTANT AREA FRICTIONLESS FLOW WITH HEAT TRANSFER

Imagine a flow through a combustion tube. At one end of the tube unheated air
enters, fuel is injected and ignited, and hot gas exhausts at the other.end. The tube
length is too small for frictional effects to be significant. But a large quantity of
thermal energy is released due to the combustion of the fuel. The air-fuel ratio is
always high, the stoicheiometric one is of the order of 15, and therefore the
thermodynamic properties of the combustion product can be assumed to be equal
to those of air.
The above is an example for application of the study of the present section.
Ordinarily, however, friction and heat transfer are intimately related, through
Reynolds analogy, such as in a flow through a duct. In such cases the present
model is an over simplification.

13.4.1 Governing Laws

The frictionless flow with heat transfer is considered to be taking place in a duct
of constant area. The gas is ideal.
(a) Continuity:
pV = constant
or
dpip = — dVIV (13.35)
(b) The First Law of Thermodynamics:
SQ= spi+ dh + d KE
0
= dho (13.36)
(c) The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
T ds = dh — v dp = (80revenible (13.37)
Since friction is neglected and heat transfer is imagined without needing a temperature
gradient, such as in a combustion tube, the process of heat addition is considered
reversible.
Equations (13.36) and (13.37) are combined to yield
dho = dh — v dp = dh + V dV
or
V dV = — dplp (13.38a)
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 343

ei
dVIV = — dp l(pV 2 )
But
pV 2 = kpM 2
Therefore
dV = 1 dp
(13.38b)
V kM 2 p
A control volume representing the variation of flow and thermodynamic parameters
is shown in Fig. 13.11.

T
p —1.1
r i T. AT
p•dp
1 1
I I
y —.I L--a- V • d V
1
S
M
I 1S.dS
L_____A _ __ _ __ ....1 m d M
k• d 6
.
Fig. 13.11 Control Volume for a Constant Area Frictionless Flow with Heat Transfer.

(d) Momentum:
d(pV 2A) = pA — (p + dp) A = — A dp
Hence
pV 2 = — p
or
p + pV 2 = C (13.39)
We had defined f= A(p + pV 2 ) as the impulse function, and that is conserved
in this flow.
(e) The equation of state:
p = p RT
or
dplp = dplp + dTIT (13.40)

13.4.2 Rayleigh Line

The foregoing relationships are rearranged to describe the state of the fluid on an
enthalpy-entropy diagram. The locus of the state points traces a curve known as
the 'Rayleigh Line'. The constant area frictionless flow with heat transfer is,
therefore commonly referred to as the Rayleigh flow.
Substituting Eq. (13.35) in Eq. (13.40), we get
dTIT = dplp + dV1V
Or

(13.41)
344 FLUID MECHANICS

Using Eq. (13.38b). The entropy change

dT „ dp
ds = — — -,
T p
and using Eq. (13.41), we have

ds = [Cp — km
i 2 ) — (Cp — cd]
or

ds =CP I 1 — 1
k kM 2 J p
Or
C„ Ai 1 p
ds = —=
k • 2— p (13.42)

If we consider heat addition, ds > 0. Equation (13.42), therefore, indicates that

pressure has to decrease for subsonic flow, and shall increase in supersonic flow
due to heat addition.
Now consider Eq. (13.41) temperature change. dT/T follows the sign of
dpip so long as M2 < 1/k. For higher values of M, both subsonic and supersonic,
the temperature change is reverse to that of pressure.
The nature of variation of the Mach number with heat addition is obtained
by reference to the constancy of impulse function, (13.39),
p + pV 2 = C
or
p(1 + kM 2) = C
By logarithmic differentiation, we obtain
2kM
d pl p = ( i— )dM
147 m2
Or

dM I M = — 1 + kM 2 • dP (13.43)
2kM 2 P
Since the pressure decreases in subsonic flow the Mach number must increase.
and in supersonic flow the Mach number shall decrease with heat addition.
In other words, reversible heat addition causes changes in the static pressure
and Mach number in the same manner as does friction in a constant area adiabatic
flow.
The acceleration of a subsonic flow or deceleration of a supersonic flow
shall continue so long as the second law of thermodynamics is not violated, i.e.
till a maximum in the value of entropy is reached. This corresponds to ds = 0.
From Eq. (13.42), we note that the inflexion condition occurs at M = 1. Thus, both
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 345

the subsonic and supersonic flow proceed towards the M = 1 choking condition
when heat is added to a constant area frictionless flow.
Using the definition of total pressure

Po I P(1 + k 2- 1 M2)"")
we obtain

In po = In p + k ln + M 2)
k ——1 2
and by differentiation

d Po dp k (k — 1)M 2 dM
Po P k-1 1+ k-1m2
M
2
Substituting for dM/M from Eq. (13.43), we get

dpo dp [ 1 1+ km2
Po p 2 + (k — 1)M 2
or
dpo = (1 — M 2) dp
(13.44)
Po 2 + (k — 1)M 2 P
For M < 1, the total pressure decreases as does the static pressure. In a supersonic
flow the total pressure also decreases, although the static pressure increases.
The information derived in the foregoing are summarised in Table 2 below.
Variation of the parameters takes place in the reverse direction to what have been
indicated in Table 2, if the gas is cooled. The locus of state points, known as the
Rayleigh line can now be sketched, as in Fig. 13.12. As for the Fanno flow,
numerical calculations for Rayleigh line flow are carried out with reference to the
choking condition. The Rayleigh Tables are convenient for such calculations.

Table 2 Effects of Heat Addition to Constant Area Frictionless Duct Flow (Rayleigh
Line) for (5Q > 0, ds > 0, dr > 0

Flow Parameters M<1 M>1

Velocity, V increases decreases
Mach number, M increases decreases
Static pressure, p decreases increases
Static temperature, T increase for M < 1/4Tc increases
decreases for M > 1/41
Total pressure, A) decreases decreases

Example 13.7 Air at 1.5 bar and 30°C enters a constant area pipe of 5 cm
diameter with a velocity of 35 m/s. During the flow through the pipe, heat is
346 FWD MECH•fiNICS

Ii
Rayleigh line
Ln- Constant
-
A-
I
re IM =1

S Smax
Fig. 13.12 Rayleigh Line Representation of Constant Area Frictionless Flow with Heat
Transfer.

added to the air stream by a chemical reaction. Frictional effects are negligible,
and the values of Cp and C. are that of pure air.
Calculate: (i) the maximum heat that can be added with the given inlet conditions
(ii) exit Mach number, if 50 percent of the maximum permissible heat
was added
Inlet conditions:
a = 20.03 .065 =348.66 m/s
M1 = 35/348.66 = 0.100
From Isentropic table,

PI/Poi = 0.993, 71/To1 = 0.998 for* = 0.1

Therefore,
Toy = 303/0.998 = 303.6 K
The maximum heat addition corresponds to choking condition at outlet.
From Rayleigh Tables, for M1 = 0.1,

To/ To = 0.0467
Or

= ro = 6501.2 K
Qmax = Cp (To — Tod= 6197.6 kJ/kg
taking C,, = 1 kJ/kg K. The inlet density
= = 1.5 x l05/(286.7 x 303)
Or

= 1.7267 kg/m3
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 347

The duct area

A = zi4 x 52 x 10-4 = 19.635 x 10-4 m2
m = p1A VI = 1.7267 x 19.635 x 10-4 x 35 = 0.11866 kg/s
Therefore the maximum heat that can be added to the stream is
6197.6 x 0.11866 = 755.41 kW
If 50% of the maximum permissible heat is added, then the exit total temperature
shall be
Toe = T01 + (0.5 x 6Qmax)/Cp
or
T02 = 303.6 + 0.5 x 6197.6 = 3402.4 K

To, 3402.4
0.5233
= 6501.2 =
for which
0.5233 — 0.4389 =
M2 = 0.35 + 0.05 x 0.3968
0.5290 — 0.4389
is the exit Mach number.

Example 13.8 In a diabatic constant area flow of dry air the Mach number at
a section is 3 and stagnation temperature 400 K, static pressure 50 kN/m2. Calculate
the amount of heat to be transferred between this section and a downstream one,
if the Mach number is to be increased to 4.5. Evaluate the stagnation and static
values of pressure and temperature at the downstream section, and the thrust or
drag on the duct.
For M = 3, from Isentropic tables

P/Po = 0.0272, T/T0 = 0.3571

Hence
pi = 50 x 103 -M2,
N/ P01 = 18.382 x 105 N/m 2
T01 = 400 K, 71= 142.84 K

From Rayleigh Tables, for M = 3.0,

To/To* = 0.6539, TIT* = 0.2802, plp* = 0.1764

To =, 400/0.6539 = 611.7 K, p* = (50/0.1764) x 103
= 2.834 x 105 N/m2
At the downstream section M = 4.5, for which the Rayleigh Table information
are:
348 FLUID MECHANICS

Ton; = 0.5698, pi p* = 0.0817

Therefore
T02 = 0.5698 x 611.7 = 348.54 K
P2 = 0.0817 x 2.834 x 105 = 23.15 kN/m2
Heat transferred Q = C,, (T0 2 — T01) = 1.0 x (348.54 — 400.0)
= — 51.46 kJ/kg
In other words, the stream has to be cooled to increase the Mach. number. From
Isentropic Tables, for M = 4.5,
P/Po = 0.00345, T/T0 = 0.19815
pot = 23.15 x 103/0.00345 = 67.10 x 105 N/m 2
T2 = 0.19815 x 348.54 = 69.06 K
Thrust/drag = — FI)A
However, since the impulse function is conserved in Rayleigh line flow, there is
neither a thrust nor a drag experienced by the duct.

13.5 CONSTANT AREA ISOTHERMAL FLOW WITH FRICTION

The Fanno flow of an ideal gas through a constant area duct under adiabatic
condition is achievable in practice when the duct is not very long. Avoiding heat
transfer to the environment is not convenient when a gas line is taken over long
lengths.
Consider for example, the supply of natural or by-product gases over long
pipe lines from an industrial area to a consuming city. The pipe is exposed to the
atmosphere and heat transfer through the pipe wall is a reality. The pipe gas
attains the environment temperature by heat exchange. The study of isothermal
flow of an ideal gas through a constant area pipe is thus applicable to long pipe
lines. Friction is accounted for.

13.5.1 Govemlng Relationships

The relationships between the flow parameters are derived, as in the three
previous cases of one-dimensional compressible flow, bytonsidering the laws of
thermodynamics and fluid flow.
(a) Continuity:
dplp = — dVIV (13.45)
(b) The First Law of Thermodynamics:
45Q = 454 Se+ da4 d KE (13.46)
0 0
isothermal
= dho
 ONE7DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 349

(c) Equation of State:

= RT

dplp = dplp (13.47)

(d) Momentum:
By a control volume analysis, we obtain the same expression for momentum
change as was for Fanno flow which we recall from Eq. (13.32a):
dV 1 dp 1 4A A
( (13.48)
- V kM 2 p 2 D
Or

(1_ )4Adx
pp kM2 2 D
Using Eqs. (13.54) and 13.47), we get

dp
p V
Thus
dp w2 4A dx (13.49)
p 2(1 — kM 2) D
Since A is positive and dx chosen increasing in the downstream direction, the sign
of dp/p depends on whether (1 — kM2) is negative or positive.
In other words, pressure shall decrease so long as M < 1/1ifc and shall increase
for higher value of the Mach number. Note that the reference for an isothermal
flow is not whether it is subsonic or supersonic, but whether

M < 1/41 or M > 1/4i

The velocity change being opposite of the pressure variation, the flow shall
accelerate for lower Mach numbers, and shall decelerate when

M> 1/11i
The acoustic speed a = (k RT)1t2 is constant all along the flow as the static
temperature is invariant.
V = Ma
Or
dVIV = dM/M
and the Mach number variation is
dM _ km2 4A dx (13.50)
M 2(1 — kM 2) D
350 FLUID MECHANICS

Mach number increases till a limiting condition of m= ihri is attained.

The higher values continually decrease to the same limit.

To T (1+ k 1 m2)
2
Or

ln To = ln T+ 141 + k 2 1 hi2)
)
Or

dTo (k —1)M 2 dM
To (1 k — 1 m2) M
2
Substituting for the variation of Mach number, we get

dTo k(k-1)M4 dx
'SA • - (13.51)
To k—1 D
2(1 — kM 2)(1 + M'
2
From the factor (1— kM2), we note that the total temperature increases for M <, 1/41
and decreases for higher values. That means heat is added to the gas at lower
value of M and rejected by the gas when M > 1/
k kl(k - I)
PO= 41 4. 2
)
In po= lnp + + k 2 1 M2)
k 1 In 2)

Or

dPo = dp k (k-1)M 2 dM
Po p k —1 ( k —1 „,2) M
1+
2 `" )

kM 2 41 dx 1 km2
dpo —
Po 2(1 — kM 2) D 1+ M2
2
Or

(1 k +1 Af2)
km2 2 ) dx
= 4A — (13.52)
Po
do 2(1 — kM)2 • (i k — 1 Af2)
+
2 )
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 351

It is apparent from Eq. (13.52) that the total pressure variation depends on the
composite sign of

1 (k + 1) 4121
2
1 — kM 2

For M < 1/11r, the sign of this expression is positive and the total pressure
decreases. On the other hand, for 1/4r • < M < (2/(k + 1))1/2, the sign is negative
indicating increase in total pressure. The total pressure shall fall again when the
Mach number exceeds the value M = [2/(k + 1)]1/2.
(e) The Second Law of Thermodynamics:
Tds=ih—vdp
0
Or
ds = — R • dplp
Or

RIM 2 A , dX
ds = • 411. -"-* (13.53)
2(1 — kM 2) D
Entropy increases for M < 1-a and decreases thereafter, obvious due to heat
transfer as was indicated by the variation of the stagnation temperature.
The above behaviour of an isothermal flow are listed in Table 3 for ease of
reference.

Table 3 Constant Area Isothermal Flow with Friction dt = 0

Flow Parameters M < 1/41c M > 1/41c

(subsonic) (subsonic or supersonic)
Velocity, V increases decreases
Mach number, M increases decreases
Static pressure, p decreases increases
Stagnation temperature, To increases decreases
Stagnation pressure, Po decreases increases for
M< [ 2 ]112
k+1
decreases for
> [ 2 T/2
Al
k +1

13.5.2 Maximum Duct Length

Since the Mach number in an isothermal flow approaches the limit M = lksii
from either side, the maximum length of a duct can be L., where
352 FLUID MECHANICS

Linn I/ 4r
4A 2(1 — kM 2) dM
— ax = km2 (13.54)
M

The r.h.s. of Eq. (13.54) is

INT 'Ark-
f Jr M — ( 1 2 In M)1:141
kM 3 kM 2 1
= — 1 — 2 In + 2 In M
,ffc + kM2
= 1— khf22 + In km2
km

Hence
4A L = [1 — kM 2 (13.55)
+ ln kM 2
kM 2
The r.h.s. of Eq. (1335) is plotted in Fig. 13.13 for computational purposes.
The length L between two sections at M1 and M2 computed in a manner
similar to the Fanno Line calculations is

4A r4AL.A1
= (13.56)
D D JA,1 L D _1m2
If we define the property values at the limiting M = lisrfc with a subscript 1, then
for the isothermal constant area flow,
Pr = Pt = V aM (13.57)
p p ahfi z— "

1+ k —1 1)
Toi .( 2 k) _ 3k — 1 1 (13.58)
To (1 4. k — 1 hf2) 2k ( k— i m2
• 1+
2 ) 2
k/(k-1)
poi p [ 1 +
k—
1/k
i
1

i
=

Po P 1+ ki1;m2

kl(k -I)
[3k — 1 1
= M 4T. 2k ' ( k —1 2) (13.59)
1+ 2—m
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 353

O
E

0.01 I I 11.111
0.01 0.1 1.0 10.0
M
Fig. 13.13 Maximum duct Length for Isothermal Flow, k = 1.4.

These relationships can then be used for evaluating the parameters at different
sections.

Example 13.9 In an isothermal flow of air through a pipe, the inlet conditions
are: velocity 140 m/s, pressure 3.5 bar and temperature 40°C. The pipe diameter
is 30 cm and A = 0.005.
Calculate: (a) the maximum permissible pipe length, (b) the choking velocity
(c) the choking pressure, and (d) the length of the pipe, where M = 0.75, k = 1.4

a = 2003155 = 354.36 m/s

MI= 140/354.36 = 0.395; kM2 = 0.2184
= (1 — kAl2)1(kM 2) + In kM2
= (1 — 0.2184)/0.2184 + In (0.2184)
= 3.5786 — 1.5212 = 2.0574
354 FLUID MECHANICS

L. = (2.0574 x 0.3)/(4 x 0.005) = 30.861 m (a)

Choking velocity: VI = 11-a • a = 299.488 m/s

= 300 m/s (b)

Choking pressure: pi = p • A flark = 3.5 x 0.395 x 1/174

or
= 1.6358 bar (c)
For M = 0.75,
kM2 = 0.7875

4). L. 1 — 0.7875 + In (0.7875)

D 0.7875
= 0.26984 — 0.23889
= 0.030948

42, = 2.0574 — 0.030948 = 2.02645

2.02645 x 0.3
L= = 30.396 m (d)
4 x 0.005

13.6 SUMMARY
1. The stagnation or total value of a property means the value assumed when the
fluid stream is brought to rest isentropically. A local stagnation value for T, p, p
or h is defined to mean isentropically decelerated value, even if the flow was non-
isentropic.
2. The stagnation enthalpy and hence To are conserved in both isentropic
and adiabatic flows. The stagnation pressure is constant only in isentropic flow.
3. A choked isentropic flow implies attaining M = 1 at the minimum cross-
section. For a given Po and To, the flow rate cannot be increased even by decreasing
the back pressure once the flow is choked. The isentropic flow rate increases
directly with po and inversely with 4. Under choked condition the isentropic
throat pressure is always p*, p* = 0.5282p0 for k =
4. The flow rate of air, R = 286.7 Nm/kg K and k = 1.4, through a choked
passage is

(thi A)max = 0.04044 kg SM 2

To
5. A nozzle is a converging, or converging-diverging passage where kinetic
energy is gained at the cost of static pressure. A diffuser is a reversed nozzle for
recovering pressure with the decrease of kinetic energy.
 ONE-DIMENSIONAL COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS 355

6. Adiabatic flow through a constant area pipe can be visualized as an

isentropic flow through a converging passage. The virtual convergence is due to
displacement thickness. A subsonic flow is accelerated and a supersonic flow
decelerated, both to M = 1 condition, due to friction. The locus of the state points
of this flow on a h-s plane is known as the Fanno Line.
7. Heat transfer to a compressible flow through a frictionless constant area
duct produces similar effects as does friction in an adiabatic flow. Subsonic flow
is accelerated and supersonic flow decelerated to M = 1 choking condition. The
maximum temperature occurs at M = 1/41. The state points art represented by
Rayleigh line on a h-s plane.
8. The impulse function 5"= (pA + p AV2) is conserved in a Rayleigh line
flow. The duct carrying the fluid experiences no drag or thrust.
9. The chocking condition in an isothermal flow through a constant area
duct with friction occurs at M = 1/41.
10. In all types of flow, the acceleration of a fluid stream is achieved when
the static pressure is decreased. Conversely, an increase of static pressure is
brought about by retardation of the flow. Except in isentropic flow, the stagnation
pressure always decreases barring a small zone between 1/41 < M < + 1)
in isothermal flow when Po increases.

EXERCISES
1. A converging nozzle having an exit area of 6 cm2 is connected to a large tank
in which the pressure of air is 1.4 bar abs and temperature 30°C. Estimate the exit
velocity and mass flow rate if the nozzle discharges to an ambient at 1 bar
pressure.
What largest ambient pressure is permissible if the nozzle were to discharge
the maximum mass of air per unit time?
(Ans: 235.8 m/s, 0.18 kg/s, 0.74 bar)
2. Show that for an adiabatic flow

k Pi + V? k P2 4. V22
k — 1 p1 2 k — 1 p2 2
where the suffixes 1 and 2 indicate two different sections.
3. A venturimeter with throat diameter 20 mm is installed in a pipe line of 60 mm
to measure air flow rate. The inlet end pressure and temperature are 4 bar abs and
25°C, and the throat pressure is 3 bar abs. The flow in the venturimeter is considered
frictionless and without heat transfer. Estimate the mass flow rate of air.
4. A steam nozzle is to be designed for discharging 10 kg/s from the boiler
condition at 15 bar abs and 400°C. The nozzle flow is isentropic upto the throat
and the adiabatic flow between the throat and the exit is expected to be at an
efficiency of 90 percent. The nozzle discharges to a back pressure of 2 bar. For
superheated steam p*/po = 0.5457.
356 FLUID MECHANICS

(a) Estimate the throat and exit areas of the nozzle for the desired flow rate.
(b) The thrust experienced by the nozzle.
Use Moiller chart for steam for solving the problem.
5. An insulated pipe, for which A = 0.005, is used for supplying compressed air
to a building located 390 metres away. The air temperature and pressure at the
inlet are 27°C and 8 bar gauge, and the inlet Mach number 0.10. If the pipe
internal diameter is 15 cm, calculate the air flow rate in m3/min, the velocity, Mach
number, static pressure and temperature at the delivery end of the pipe. Consider
the environment pressure as 1 bar.
(Ans: 73.35 m3/min., 69.18 m/s, 0.2, 3.487 bar gauge, 298.2 K)
6. A sampling tube, 0.25 mm ID and 15 mm long, is inserted into a section of
a fluid stream where the static pressure and static temperature are 2 bar and
700°C, and the fluid stream velocity is 300 m/s. The sampling tube exit is connected
to a very large space connected to a vacuum pump. Determine the maximum rate
of sampling of the stream mass, and the pressure the vacuum pump must maintain
to achieve the rate. Assume that the properties of air apply to the stream.
(Ans: 14.569 x 10-6 kg/s, 1.2368 bar abs)
7. Show that in a constant area frictionless flow with heat transfer, the fluid
velocity at any section is given by V = 11-0/ 40. Hence prove that the choking
condition occurs at M = 1.
8. Consider Fanno Line flow and show that the entropy change is given by
A = IcRM 4 dx
—2 • 44 —
2
Hence argue that a negative value of friction factor is against the second law of
thermodynamics.
9. The mass flow rate of air through a short heat exchanger is 150 kg/m2 s. The
inlet static pressure and temperature are 1.5 x 105 N/m2 and 30°C. If the temperature
at the exchanger exit is 200°C, estimate the inlet and exit Mach numbers and the
pressure drop in flow through the exchanger, although friction is negligible.
(Ans: 0.25, 0.354, 11.22 kN/m2)
10. Air is to be made available at the end of a 10 cm ID, long pipe line at 1.5
bar abs static pressure, 30°C. The pipe line is 500 m long and the friction factor
is A = 0.004. Heat transfer to the surrounding maintains the flow isothermal. If
the inlet end static pressure is 8 bar abs, what is the volumetric discharge rate
computed at 1.013 bar and 20°C.
(Ans: 114.16 m3/min)
 Normal and Oblique Shocks

During our discussions in Chapter 13, we had tacitly mentioned the term 'shock'
which is associated with the off-design conditions of a supersonic flow. For example,
consider the flow through a converging-diverging nozzle of Fig. 13.3. When the
back pressure is either pB2 or pa3 , the isentropic flow in the diverging portion is
subsonic. The true design condition is for back pressure NI, for which the flow
in the whole length of the diverging portion shall be supersonic.
However, when the back pressure is pB4 , higher than NI but lower than
pB3, the flow supersonic for only a portion of the diverging portion. The flow
properties undergo sudden changes at a location and the Mach number adjusts to
a value which will result in the exit pressure being equal to pB4 . Such sudden changes
are said to occur across a flow discontinuity termed 'shock'. The discontinuity is
called a 'normal shock' when it is perpendicular to the flow direction. The Mach
number downstream of it is invariably subsonic. A shock inclined to the flow
direction is called an 'oblique shock' downstream of which the Mach number may
still be higher than unity.
In the event the nozzle back pressure is lower than the design value NI, the
flow continues its expansion outside the nozzle, and the flow is said to be over
expanded.

14.1 GOVERNING RELATIONS FOR A NORMAL SHOCK

The thickness of a normal shock is of the order of a thousandth of a milimeter.
The conditions upstream and downstream of a shock, for example in Fig. 13.3,
can still be considered isentropic.
The shock thickness being infinitesimal, heat transfer can be neglected and
the total enthalpy is treated as conserved:

h01 = hO2 (14.1a)

or
Toi = T02 (14.1b)
for an ideal gas.
The suffixes 1 and 2 refer to conditions before and after the shock. The area
on either side of a shock is the same, resulting in the continuity expression as

Pi Vi= p2 V2 = th/A (14.2)

357
358 FLUID MECHANICS

and the momentum change as

(V2 — V1) = (P1 — P2) A

or
+ A Vi2 = P2 4. P2 V22 (14.3)
In other words, the impulse function 9 is conserved.
Out of the three relationships, Eqs. (14.1) and (14.2) correspond to an adiabatic
Fanno Line flow, whereas Eqs. (14.2) and (14.3) refer to a Rayleigh Line flow.
It is therefore presumed that the conditions before and after a shock correspond
to the points of intersection of Fanno and Rayleigh Lines for a given mass flow
rate.
Since a shock occurs as a discontinuity in the flow, the phenomenon is
irreversible for which
ds > 0 (14.4)
The ratio of static temperatures is obtained from the definition of stagnation
temperature and the relationship (14.1b):
k — 1 Li 2
T1 2 1r12
1-r --- (14.5)
T2 k - 1 La
1 -r 2 m I

The conservation of impulse function implies

p + pV 2 = C
which for a perfect gas is
p(1 + kM 2) = C
Hence
pilp2 = (1 + kM1)1(1+ klifb (14.6)
From the ideal gas relationship, we have

P1/P2 = PI/P2 • T1/T2

Using the continuity Eqs. (14.2), we get

PI/P2 = V2/V1 • T1 /T2 = Al 2/M1 • r2T

7 • Ti/T2
Or

PI/P2 = M2/M1 •1,172

7 (14.7a)
By squaring both the sides of (14.7a) and using Eqs. (14.5) and (14.6), we get

k —1
1+ Al;
(1 +khil) 21(1 + klif?) 2 = MZI Af? (14.7b)
1 k-1
M -2
2 I
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 359

Define M? = x and MI = y for convenience of writing and we obtain from

Eq. (14.7b), the expression
(x — y) [2 + (k — 1) (x + y) — 2kxyl =0 (14.8)
as the relationship between the upstream and downstream Mach numbers.
The non-trivial solution of Eq. (14.8) is

2 2kx
+x+y —
k
k —1 —u
Or

x + 2/(k — 1)
Y— 2kx
k—1 1
i.e.

— M? h 2 1 (14.9)
2kM?
k—1
Equation (14.9) is used to evaluate the Mach number downstream of a normal
shock for a given Mi. The ratio of other flow parameters are then calculated
readily for a perfect gas. Such results are available in tables.

14.2 'THERMODYNAMIC DIRECTION OF A NORMAL SHOCK

The fact that a shock can occur only in a supersonic flow becomes obvious from
a consideration of the thermodynamic process. The phenomena being irreversible,
the entropy change during a shock must be greater than zero. In Fig. 14.1, points 1
and 2 represent the thermodynamic states of the fluid before and after a shock, on
a h-s plane. Let p1 and p2 be the static pressures before and after a normal shock.
Poi and pot are the respective stagnation values. We imagine the entropy change

S
Fig. 14.1 Entropy Change during a Normal Shock.
360 FLUID 1 CI4ANICS

to take place in the direction 1 to 2. Since 1' and 2' correspond to the respective
stagnation conditions of 1 and 2.
s2 - SI =- sr
With the above recognition, we proceed to evaluate the entropy change in terms
of To and po for convenience:
Toils = dho - vodpo
Or

ds = - R dPosukce
. dho = 0
Po
Hence

s2 - s1 = Rin Poi
n (14.10)
P02
But
( k - 1 21k"k-"
Cl + 411
Po1lPo2 PtIP2 •
( 1 .,2)kl(k-1)
k-
"r 2 in2 )
k 1 ya(k-1)
+
1 +ky (1 2 x
1 + kx k jiick-I)
1+
2

Using Eq. (14.6) and substituting x = Af? and y = MI, or

Poi k 2x + kx + k + .1 f 11(k-1)
gkl(k -1)

P02 (1 + kx) rx
(k + 1)2]ki(k-1)
2
defining
g=l+( k -
Mx f = 2Jcx - (k - 1).
Thus
kl(k-I) i ll(k-1)
Poi 2g r 2k k
Poe = [(k "I' 1) x +xl k+- 1,
Or

k/(k-1)
k — 1) hi?
11(k-1)
POi w il 2 UM? k -1
P02 k + 1 M2 k+1 k + 11
2 I
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 381

]1,0_1)
poi r 2 m2 4. k — ikl(") [2kM? _k — 1
(14.11)
pot Lk+ 1 I k + 1 .1 k+1 k+1

Hence, the entropy change during a shock is

R I. ( 2 , k— 1) (2kM? k— 1)]
s2 — SI = k - 1 kin
in k „C ITT) + In k+1 k+1
(14.12)
In the limiting case of Aft = 1, each of the terms within the parentheses become
unity, and the entropy change is zero. The entropy change is positive only if M1
is greater than unity, and is negative for MI < 1. In other words, shocks can occur
only in supersonic flow.
We can now show the thermodynamic path of a normal shock on a h-s
diagram in Fig. 14.2 where the Fanno and Rayleigh lines are superimposed.
Equations (14.9) yield further that (i) the flow is always subsonic after a normal
shock, and (ii) M2 decreases as M1 increases.

Fanno line

Rayleigh line

S
Fig. 14.2 A Normal Shock on a h-s Diagram.
The minimum value of Mach number downstream of a normal shock is
obtained from Eq. (14.9) by setting the limit of M1 to infinity.

2
= Lt ,L
Mi —0 es 2k
1/M2
k 1
Or
2 _k—1
M221=2
1=. — 2k
362 FLUID MECHANICS

For k= 1.4,

Mew = = 0.3779 (14.13)

14.3 RANKINE-HUGONIOT RELATION

The ratio of static pressures is given by

p2/ pi = (1 + kM?)/(1 + kM1)

On substituting for MI from Eq. (14.9), we get

(k +1)(1+ kM?)
1 + kM? -
2kM? - (k -1)
from which
= 2kM? k -1
(14.14)
k+1 k+1
The pressure ratio tends to infinity with the rising value of the upstream Mach
number.
The temperature ratio is
+k- M
T2 1 — 2 I
T1 1 k -1 Aw 2
2 2
Substituting for MI, the denominator becomes

k_1 2_ (k +1)2 M?
1+ M,
2 2 [2kM? - (k - 1)]
Hence
[2 + - 1) M?] • [2kM? - (k - 1)]
T2/T, = (14.15)
(k + 1)2 M?
The limiting value of T2/TI as M1 -4 00 is

+ (k - 1)1 [2kM? - (k - 1)]

T2171= Lt [(21M?)
(k +1)2
or
Lt (T2/7)= oo

The ratio of densities after and before the shock is obtained by combining
Eqs. (14.14) and (14.15):
P2 /PI = P2/PI X T1 /7.2
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 363

or
p2I A = (k + 1) M?I[2 + (k — 1) M?] (14.16)
As M1 00, the limiting value of the ratio is

Lt (p2/ p1) = Lt (k + 1)1[.

2
+ ( k — 1)]
Ail " MI -4 ••

= (k + l)/(k — 1) = 6 for k = 1.4

In other words, although the pressure and temperature ratios tend to infinity, the
density ratio remains finite for increasing value of the upstream Mach number.
The ratios of pressures and densities on the down and upstreams of a normal
shock are plotted in Fig. 14.3 and the graph is known as the Rankine-Hugoniot
curve.

14.4 STRENGTH OF A SHOCK

The strength of a shock wave is defined as the ratio of rise in pressure to upstream
pressure:
P = (P2 — 111)1P1 = (P2lP1) — 1 (14.17a)
Recalling the pressure ratio from Eq. (14.14), we get

P = (2kM? — (k — 1) — (k + 1)]1(k + 1)
or

2k qv
k + 1 I — 1) (14.17b)
P

Equation (14.17b) implies that a shock wave has vanishing strength as the upstream
Mach number is reduced to the neighbourhood of unity. The phenomenon is then
nearly isentropic as is observed in Fig. 14.3. The pressure-density ratios of a
shock wave for M1 near unity coincides with those of an isentropic flow. That is
to say, very weak shocks are acoustic waves.

Example 14.1 Air flows through a converging-diverging nozzle whose exit

area is three times the throat area. The stagnation pressure and temperature at
inlet to the nozzle are 5 bar and 50°C. A normal shock takes place at the section
where the Mach number is 2. Calculate the static and stagnation values of pressure
and temperature at the exit of the nozzle. Estimate also the exit plane Mach
number.
The flow is isentropic both upto and following the position of the normal
shock. The nozzle area at the location of the shock is obtained from the isentropic
table:
For M1 = 2.0,
A1/A* = 1.687 Alpo = 0.1278
364 FLUID MECHANC8

100
co
imm

50

Rankine -Hugoniot
relation

5
Isen tropic

2 3 4 5 6
P2

Fig. 14.3 Rankine-.Hugoniot Curve for Normal Shock. k = 1.4.

For a normal shock at
= 2.0 M2 = 0.5773
Po2/Pol = 0.7208, P2/P, = 4.500 Poe /Pi = 5.640
Al = A2 = 1.6874 at the location of the shock.
In the downstream of the shock the flow is subsonic and isentropic with M2 = 0.5773
at A2.
The exit plane area A. = 3.QA,
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 365

For M2 = 0.5773, A2/A* = 1.215, where A* is a pseudo-throat area representing

choking condition for the isentropic flow in the downstream of the shock.

A* = (1.687/1.215) A, = 1.3814 A,
Ae/A* = (3.0A,)/(1.3884 Ai) = 2.1606
for which Me = 0.28, from isentropic tables, as the exit plane Mach number.

Po, = P0 2 = 0.7208 poi = 3.604 bar

To = To2 = To = 323 K
For
M1 = 0.28, plpo = 0.9470, T/To = 0.9845
Hence the exit plane static pressure and temperature are:
pc = 0.9470 x 3.604 = 3.413 bar
= 0.9845 x 323 = 318 K

Example 14.2 A pitot-static tube is used to monitor the velocity of an air

stream. At the location of insertion of the probe, the static pressure is 1.5 bar and
temperature 35°C. Calculate the reading of a mercury manometer connected
differentially across the static and total pressure openings of the probe, if the air
stream velocity is (i) 60 m/s, (ii) 200 m/s, and (iii) 500 m/s taking into consideration
the compressibility characteristics of the flow.
The local density
p = p/RT = (1.5 x 105)/(286.7 x 308) = 1.698 kg/m3
velocity of sound a = 20.03 liN0171 = 351.7 m/s
(i) When V = 60 m/s,
M = 60/351.7 = 0.17
Since M < 0.2, we can treat the flow incompressible and write
Po — p = 1/2pV2 = 1/2 x 1.698 x 602
= 3056.4 N/m 2 = pHs gh
where h is the height of the column of a mercury manometer. Taking the specific
gravity of mercury as 13.6
pHs = 13.6 x 103 kg/m3
Hence,
h= 3056.4/(13.6x 03 X 9.81) = 22.9 mm of Hg
(ii) When V = 200 m/s,
M = 200/351.7 = 0.5686
The flow is compressible but subsonic.
366 FLUID MECHANICS

From isentropic tables:

pap = 0.803 for M = 0.5686
or
Po = 1 .245P
Hence
Po — P = 0.245p = 0.245 x 1.5 x 105
= 0.3675 x 105 N/m2
The reading of the mercury manometer will be
0.3675 x 105
h—
13.6 x 103 x 9.81
= 275.45 mm of Hg
(iii) When V = 500 m/s
M = 500/351.7 = 1.4216
and the flow is supersonic.
Insertion of the picot-tube causes a disturbance of the supersonic flow resulting
in a shock in front of the probe. The picot-static probe then reads the condition
downstream of the normal shock.
From shock tables, for
MI = 1.4216, M2 = 0.73
We have
P2/PI = 2.189, P2/PI = 1.725,
and for
M2 = 0.73
P2/P02 = 0.70 from isentropic tables
Thus
P2 = 1.5 x 2.189 bar = 3.2835 bar
Poe = P2/ 03 = 1.4285 P2
Hence the picot-static differential value is

Poe — P2 = 0.4285 P2
= 0.4285 x 3.2835 x 105 N/m2
corresponding to a mercury column of

0.4285 x 3.2835 x 105

h—
13.6 x 103 x 9.81
= 1054.5 mm of Hg
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 367

14.5 MOVING SHOCK WAVES

Stationary shocks discussed thus far in this chapter occur in steady flows such as
through a converging-diverging nozzle, through a pipe or the like. Shock waves
created due to an explosion, or due to an aircraft at supersonic speed, move past
a stationary observer. To the-observer, these are moving shock waves and the
disturbances in the environment surrounding the observer are transient.
The effects of a moving shock wave can be estimated by the method of
relative velocity.
In Fig. 14.4(a) a shock wave is assumed to move into an undisturbed
atmosphere from the left to right at a velocity VI. The fluid in the wake of the
shock assumes a velocity V2 with respect to a stationary observer. The other
parameters are noted on the figure.
The moving shock condition is simulated by superimposing an opposite VI,
thus making the shock stationary with respect to the observer now located on the
shock. We can then apply the results of stationary shock for the simulated condition
in Fig. 14.4(b).

A moving shock
F

Shock wave region Undisturbed atmosphere

Air velocity V2 DY-I Air velocity = 0

1.
12 02 02 = poi
Tot = Ti
12 I 102

P21 P02
k Observer
/ ///// /ern/ //////////////////P//////////////,

Fig,. 14.4(a) Shock Wave moving at V1 to an Undisturbed Atmosphere.

Shock made stdtionary

by superimposing VI
Ti = T2 V2 = VI -V2 ) Tt = Ti
Vt
MI = 7
c
a2 1
= a2 =ia1
l T2 bserver at =ra7
I

TP2 •T T; C •12:1 toq 2) = T; Toi = .y M12)

Fig. 14.4(b) Observer Located on the Shock.

388 FLUID LecliAtecs

The air on the right of the shock now "moves" to the left with velocity V1
corresponding to M1 = , where T1 is the temperature of the undisturbed

air. The apparent stagnation temperature is 7.41 . T1 (1 ivf, which is

conserved during the shock simulated in Fig. 14.4(b). That is, T42 = T41 .
Mi is the Mach number downstream of a normal shock occurring at Mi. We
can then estimate Ti , from the value of T4 and M2, as the static temperature
following the shock. In reality Ti = T2 is the temperature of the fluid in the wake
of the shock in Fig. 14.4(a).
Evaluation of Ti and hence ai, together with MI lead to estimating Vi as
the apparent velocity from right to left following the shock. The real velocity in
Fig. 14.4(a) is then V2 = V1 — Vi from left to right. Having obtained the true V2,
the static and stagnation values of the fluid properties in the Wake of the shock,
Fig. 14.4(a), are evaluated without difficulty.
The procedure is illustrated in the following example.

Example 14.3 A normal shock is created due to the explosion of a bomb. The
shock wave is moving at 1725 m/s into undisturbed atmosphere at 25°C and 1.013
bar. Calculate:
(i) the Mach number of the air moving in the wake of the shock, relative
to an observer stationary on the ground,
(ii) the static and total pressure behind the shock,
(iii) the static temperature behind the shock,
(iv) change in the total temperature of the air due to the passage of the
shock.
= 1.013 x 105 N/m2,
= 298 K, al = 345.42 m/s
M1 = 1725/345.42 = 5
From isentropic tables, Ti/Toi = 0.1666 for M1 = 5.0
From shock tables, M2 = 0.4152 for Mi = 5.0
T4 = = T1/0.1666 = 298/0.1666 = 1788.7 K
When
= 0.4152, Ti ITA= 0.9675
Therefore
= T2 = 0.9675 x 1788.7 = 1730.5 K
a2 = ai = 20.01 41730.5 = 832.42 m/s
= 0.4152 x 832.42 = 345.62 m/s
V2 = — = 1379.38 m/s
M2 = 1379.38/832.42 = 1.65'7 (i)
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 369

Note that the ambient air is dragged in the wake of the shock at a supersonic
velocity. Again from the shock tables, for
M1 = 5.0, PiPi = 29.00
Hence
P2 = 1.013 x 105 x 29 = 29.377 x 105 N/m2 (ha)
for
M2 = 1.657, p2Ipo2 = 0.217
Therefore
Po2 = 29.377/0.217 x 105 = 135.377 x 105 N/m2 (iib)

relative to the stationary observer.

The static temperature behind the shock is
T2 = 1730.5 K (iii)
For
M2 = 1.657, T2/T02 = 0.65
Or
T02 = 1730.5/0.65 = 2662.3 K
To, = T1 = 298 K
Hence the change in total temperature of the air with respect to a stationary
observer is
4 To =T02 — T01 = 2662.3 — 298
or
47'0 = 2364.3 K (iv)

14.6 OBLIQUE SHOCKS

The discontinuities in supersonic flows do not always exist as normal to the flow
direction. More often, the discontinuity is at an inclination to the stream, and then
it is called an 'oblique shock'. For example, in a supersonic flow through a duct,
viscous effects cause the shock to be oblique near the walls, the shock is normal
only in the core region. The shock is also oblique when a supersonic flow is made
to change direction near a corner.
On the other hand, a design may conspicuously be adopted to create an
oblique shock instead of a normal one, for the losses in case of the former is
relatively small. An example is the installation of a spear like structure in front
of a supersonic aircraft, or the sharp nose of a high powered bullet.
In Fig. 14.5, a supersonic flow at Mach M1 is made to flow along a corner
0 with a not too large deflection angle 6. V1 and V2 are the fluid velocities before
and after the shock. V, makes an angle e and V2 an angle p with the shock. e is
known as the wave angle.
The components of velocities normal and parallel to the shock are:
V,„ = V, sin E, V,, = V, cos e
370 FLUID MECHMSCS

Oblique shock

Fig. 14.5 Flow Past an Oblique Shock.

and
V2„ = V2 sin 13, V2, = V2 COS
where
/I = (e — 6)
The conservation equations across the oblique shock can then be written as: Mass
flow rate across the shock yields,

A = Pi lin = P2 V2n (14.18a)

or
p2/pl = (V1lV2) • (sin e/sin /3) (14.18b)
Momentum change parallel to the shock is zero, and hence
AV', = titV2,
Or
Vu = V21 (14.19a)
or
V1/V2 = cos pkos e (14.19b)
Combining Eqs. (14.18b) and (14.19b), we get
p2/Pi = tan than /3 (14.20)
The momentum change perpendicular to the shock is written in terms of the
pressure difference:
rit (V2„ — lin ) = Pt — P2
Or
2
P1 — P2 = p2 V22n — pi vin
Or
P2 = Pi 4- Pi Vi2,, (1 — V2„/ VI.)
= pi + pi V12 sin 2 £(1— NA)
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 371

Since A Vi2 = kpi M? for a perfect gas,

p2 = Pt [1 + kM? sin2 E — p2)]

Or
p2/ p, =1 + kM? sin2 E — p2) (14.21)

The total enthalpy is conserved across a shock:

Cp + 1/12/2 = Cp T2 4- v22/2 (14.22a)

But
V2 —V2 = vi2n — v220 +(Vi— v22, )
1
— v2 _ v 2
in 2n
Therefore, the normal component of the velocities also satisfy the relationship:

Cp + 1/4/2 = C p T2 + V22n I2 (14.22b)

It is noted from the foregoing that the oblique shock reduces to a normal
shock when calculations are made on the basis of the normal component of the
velocity. The normal shock tables can be used to estimate the variations of flow
parameters, if M1 is replaced by Min = M1 sin E. It is important, therefore, that
the normal component alone of the upstream velocity is supersonic. In other
words, oblique shock shall take place provided M, sin E > 1.
Using, M1,,, we can determine M2,, from normal shock tables, and then evaluate
M2 = M2„/sin $. It is thus implied that only V2„ shall be subsonic. The value of
V2 = V2 + V22„ can, of course, exceed sonic velocity, due to the vectorial addition
of the tangential component with V2„.
The question, therefore, now remains to know the value of E for a given M1
and deflection angle 8.
Derivation for a relationship of E with M, and 8 is involved, and we quote
here the expression that is available in several advanced texts.

1 k+1 M2
1) tan E (14.23)
tan t5 2 M? sin 2 E— 1

The above relationship is normally available as a chart given, for example, in

Fig. 14.6. A chart for the downstream Mach number after an oblique shock is also
given in Fig. 14.7.
There is a maximum value of the deflection angle 6 for which the oblique
shock shall remain attached to the corner, say 0 in Fig. 14.5. For k = 1.4, the value
is 45,„ = 45°22'. When the corner, or wedge, angle is higher than 3,„, the shock gets
detached from 0, moves upstream and acts more like a normal shock. For every
deflection angle 8 there also is a minimum Mach number at which the shock shall
remain attached, Figs. 14.6 and 14.7.
372 FLUID MECHANICS

6 = 06 ( Normal shock )
90

80'`\

a, 70
cn
17 60

50

40

30
6 = Deflection angle
8=0
20 (Mach wave)
III I I I
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 35
M1
Fig. 14.6 Wave Angle vs. M, with 3 as Parameter, k = 1.4.

When a supersonic flow is made to negotiate a convex corner, the down-

stream flow is accelerated and the static pressure decreases in comparison to the
upstream value. The flow process, sketched in Fig. 14.8 is known as Prandtl-
Mayer expansion, and the phenomenon is considered isentropic.

Example 14.4 A stream of air at M, = 3.0 moves along a corner whose

deflection angle is 10°. The static temperature and pressure of the stream are
30°C and 1.5 bar. Calculate the static and stagnation values of pressure and
temperature downstream of the oblique shock that takes place on the corner.
Estimate the drop in total pressure and the rise in entropy due to the shock.
Use Fig. 14.6 for estimating the wave angle, and verify the same by Eq. (14.23).
Take k = 1.4.
For M1 = 3.0 and 8 = 10°, e = 27.5° from Fig. 14.6.
In order to check with the value obtained from Eq. (14.23), we define an
error.

k+1 M?
E„ = 1/tan „ 1Jtan €
2 MI E -1
= 1/tan 10 — (1.2 x 9/(9 sin 2 27.5 — 1) — 1) tan 27.5
= 5.67128 — (10.7531) x 0.52056 = 0.07357
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 373

3.5

3.0

2.5

M2
2.0

1.5

1.0

05
10 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Fig. 14.7 Mach Number after an Oblique-Shock, k = 1.4.
M1

M
-------s "
2
Pe p t
i
Fig. 14.8 Prandtl-Mayer Expansion.
If we took e = 28°,
E„ = 5.67128 — (1.2 x 9/(9 sine 28 — 1) — 1) tan 28
= 5.67128 — 5.3063 = 0.3649
374 FLUID MECHANICS

Trying e = 27°, we get

E„ = 5.67128 - (1.2 x 9/(9 sin 2 27 - 1) - 1) tan 27

= 5.67128 - 5.9268 = - 0.2555
That means the best estimate is e = 27.5°, and p = e - S = 17.5°

Min = M 1 sin e = 1.3852

al = 20.03 .43113 = 348.32 m/s
Vt = 348.32 x 3 = 1044.93 m/s
= V1 sin e = 482.49 m/s
VIA = V1 cos E = 926.87 m/s

For M1 = 3.0, pip° = 0.0272 and T/To = 0.3571 from isentropic tables. Therefore

Poi = 1.5/0.0272 = 55.147 bar

T01 = Toe = 303/0.3571 = 848.50 K

For M1„ = 1.3852, we get, using the table for normal shock, the relation
M2„ = 0.746, p2/pi = 2.06
Then by calculation, M2 = M2„/sin $ = 2.48.
And from Fig. 14.8,
M2 = 2.5 for MI = 3.0 and 6 = 10°
From isentropic tables, for M2 = 2.5, T/T0 = 0.4444. Hence
T2 = 848.50 x 0.4444 = 377.07 K
a2 = 20.03 1/1f1T7 = 388.56 m/s
V2 = 388. 56 x 2.5 = 971.40 m/s
V2„ = V2 sin /3= 292.10 m/s

from which M7, = 0.75 which agrees well with the shock table value.
P2 = 2.06p1 = 2.06 x 1.5 = 3.09 bar
For M2 = 2.5, p2/p02 = 0.0585 from isentropic tables. Therefore

Po2 = 3.09/0.0585 = 52.820 bar.

Drop in total pressure = Poi - Po2 = 55.147 - 52.820

= 2.327 bar
 NORMAL AND MOUE SHOCKS 375

The increase in entropy

s2 — s1 = R In Poi
P02

= 286.71n — = 12.36 J/kg K

55.147
52.820

14.7 SUMMARY
1. A shock wave takes place in a supersonic flow when the conditions are off-
design or when a disturbance is introduced into the flow.
2. No shock can occur in a subsonic flow.
3. Mach number following a normal shock is always subsonic. The value of
downstream Mach number decreases as the upstream Mach number is increased.
The asymptotic value of M2 is 0.3779 for k = 1.4 as M1 —> co.
4. The conditions before and after a normal shock are defined by the points
of inter-section of Fanno and Rayleigh lines on a h-s plot.
5. The shock process is adiabatic and irreversible. Total enthalpy is conserved,
total pressure is decreased and entropy is increased.
6. Whereas the ratios of the static temperature and pressure down and upstream
may approach infinity with rising value of MI , the maximum value of the density
ratio is finite, (p2I pl ),„„ = 6 for k = 1.4.
7. Variations of fluid thermodynamic properties due to a moving shock can
be estimated by the method of relative velocity wherein the observer is imagined
to be stationed on the shock.
8. An oblique shock occurs when a supersonic flow is made to change
direction such as in moving past a wedge or along a corner. Normal shock results
are obtainable as special case of the oblique shock.
9. An oblique shock makes a wave angle E with the upstream velocity due
to deflection through an angle S. 3.= 45°22' for k = 1.4 in order that an oblique
shock may remain attached to the wedge.
10.The tangential component of velocities before and after an oblique shock
are equal‘ Results for an oblique shock can be obtained by using the normal shock
tables provided that calculations are made on the basis of M1 , = M1 sin E. The
normal component of velocity after an oblique shock is always subsonic. However,
the absolute value of V2 can be higher than sonic due to the unchanged value of
the tangential component. In other words the flow can be supersonic downstream
of an oblique shock.

EXERCISES
1. An air stream at static temperature and pressure 50°C and 125 kN/m2 with a
velocity of 650 m/s undergoes a normal shock. Calculate the static and stagnation
376 FLUID MECHANICS

values of pressure and temperature behind the shock, and the change in entropy
due to the shock.
(Ans: 453.8 kPa, 583.7 kPa; 494.5 K, 532.3 K; 59.5 J/kg K)
2. Consider supersonic flow of air through a converging-diverging nozzle from a
stagnation condition of 500 kN/m2 and 400 K. The throat area is 1/3rd of the exit
area. Air enters the nozzle at a Mach number of 0.2. The exit plane pressure is
maintained at the value corresponding to an isentropic operation of the nozzle.
Assuming the throat condition to be choked, calculate the throat diameter for a
mass flow rate of 10 kg/s. Estimate also the nozzle diameter at inlet and exit, the
exit Mach number, temperature and pressure, and hence evaluate the force required
to hold the nozzle stationary for the given mass flow rate.
(Ans: 11.23 cm, 19.32 cm, 19.45 cm; 2.64, 167 K; 23.55 kPa, 7520 N)
3. Imagine that for the nozzle flow stated in problem 2, a normal shock takes
place half-way in the diverging section. The flow is otherwise isentropic and the
mass flow maintained. Calculate the Mach number where the shock takes place,
and evaluate the static and total values of pressure and temperature on the exit
plane. Estimate the force required to hold the nozzle stationary.
(Ans: 1.86, 363.1 kPa, 395 K; 3267.3 N)
4. A 2 cm ID pipe is fed air by a converging-diverging nozzle whose throat
diameter is 1 cm. The stagnation conditions at entry to the nozzle are 3 bar and
350 K. The pipe has a friction factor of A = 0.0025, and is insulated against heat
transfer. Calculate the mass flow rate, Mach number and fluid conditions at inlet
to the pipe and the maximum possible length when: (a) flow in the nozzle is fully
isentropic and (b) flow in the nozzle is isentropic, but a normal shock takes place
at entry to the pipe.
(Ans: 0.0509 kg/s, 2.94, 8.94 kPa, 128.24 K, 1.025 m; 0.4788, 88.65 kPa,
334.5 K, 2.56 m)
5. An aircraft flying at an altitude of 15000 metres has its inside pressurized to
100 kN/m2. Calculate the force experienced by the window at the nose end of the
aircraft, if the projected normal area of the window is 0.15 m2 when the aircraft
flight Mach number is (i) 0.2, (ii) 0.8, and (iii) 2.0 and a normal shock remains
attached to the aircraft nose. Use tabulated properties of standard atmosphere.
(Ans: 13.161, 12.4, 4.916 kN)
6. A pitot-static tube is introduced into a supersonic stream. A normal shock
stands in front of the tube, and the static and total pressure recorded by the tube
are 1.2 bar and 1.66 bar absolute. Calculate the'Mach number of the supersonic
flow. A thermometer held stationary in the stream reads a temperature of 80°C.
Calculate the velocity of the supersonic flow.
(Ans: 1.5, 468.7 m/s)
7. A normal shock moves into still air at the standard conditions of 760 mm Hg
and 25°C. If the velocity of the shock is 1360 m/s, calculate the static and stagnation
values of pressure and temperature of the fluid in the wake of the shock as
referred to from an observer sitting on the ground.
(Ans: 18.12 bar, 71.56 bar, 1162 K, 1720 K)
 NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCKS 377

1. Ina Supersonic wind tunnel of test section Mach number 3.0, a symmetrical
wedge of total included angle 40° is used to instrument the flow. The stagnation
pressure and temperature for the undisturbed tunnel flow are 35 bar and 50°C.
Calculate the wave angle of the oblique shock, Mach number behind the shock,
the static and total pressure and temperature behind the oblique shock. State also
the value of the minimum Mach number for which the shock shall remain attached
to the wedge.
(Ans: 37°, 2.10, 3.44 bar, 31.47 bar, 171.6 K)
9. In a supersonic flow of air, the Mach number is 3.0 and the static pressure and
temperature are 100 k/4/m2 and 30°C. The stream can be decelerated through (a)
a normal shock, or (b) through an oblique shock over a wedge of semiangle 15°
and followed by a. normal shock. Calculate the flow properties behind the oblique
and normal shock in both cases (a) and (b). Estimate the entropy change in each
case and show the thermodynamic processes on T-s diagrams. State whether the
process in (a) or in (b) is to be preferred in a design where irreversibilities and
loss of total pressure are to be kept to a minimum.
(Aus: 10.33 bar, 811.7 K, 319.5 J/kg K; 32°, 2.78 bar, 412.3 K, 15.5 J/kg K)
10. Diffusers are installed in the air intake of jet planes to convert the kinetic
energy of incoming air as rise in static pressure.
A jet plane designed to fly at 15000 metres at Mach 2.5 has its diffuser
designed for choking condition at the throat. The exit area is such that the air
leaves the diffuser at M = 0.2 under design condition. While flying at M = 2 at
the same altitude, it was observed that a normal shock took place mid way in the
supersonic section of the diffuser. Calculate the Mach number, static and total
pressure at the exit of the diffuser for M = 2 flight condition. Flow through the
diffuser is isentropic except for the shock.
Draw a sketch of the diffuser and mark the values of Mach number at
salient locations for the designed and off-design operating conditions stated here.
(Ans: 0.35, 80.2 kPa, 87.3 kPa)
 Fluid Machines

Fluid machines are energy conversion devices in which mechanical work is either
produced (turbine) or absorbed (pump) due to the momentum change of a stream
of fluid.
Recall the action of a jet of water gliding along a moving vane in Chapter 4.
When the vane was moving away from the water stream, the velocity of water at
the exit from the vane was less than at the inlet, and the reduction in kinetic
energy of water was equal to the work that could be performed by the vane. If
a series of such vanes were mounted on a rotor, continuous mechanical work
could have been generated at the rotor shaft.
The system just described is a turbine. Its essential components are: a nozzle
that can convert pressure head to kinetic energy of a fluid jet, and a set of blades
mounted on a rotor.
The pressure head for a hydraulic or water turbine is provided by a dam; by
a boiler for a steam turbine, and a gasifier in the case of a gas turbine.
The opposite case of vane action, when a vane is moved towards the fluid
jet, results in a higher kinetic energy at the exit than at its inlet. The increase is
equivalent to work done on the vane in moving it against the jet. The kinetic
energy at vane exit is recovered as pressure by the action of a diffuser. This is the
principle of action of a pump whose principal components are: a set of vanes on
a rotor, and a diffuser.
The fluid prime movers (turbines) and pumps just outlined are grouped
together as `rotodynamic' machines. Apart from the primarily rotary motions,
they are distinguished by the fact that there is no mechanical barrier between the
inlet and outlet ports for the fluid. Rotodynamic machines have the advantage that
the fluid flow is continuous and the machine capacity can be large. On the other
hand, the absence of a physical barrier can cause leakage flow from the high to
low pressure side; for example, from the discharge to inlet in a pump. Consequently,
the operating pressure range is limited.
The other category of fluid machines is of the 'positive displacement type',
in which a given quantity of fluid is bounded by physical surfaces. Usually one
surface is moving and the other is stationary, or moving in the opposite directions
such as a piston and cylinder in a reciprocating pump. The inlet and outlet ports
are not open simultaneously, and hence the pressure differential can be made very
large without creating leakage flow. Obviously, the necessity to bound the fluid
on all sides limits the volumetric capacity of the positive displacement machines.
Further, the flow rate is not continuous.
378
 FLUID MACHINES 379

Reciprocating pumps and compressors, the vane pump, the gear pump, the
hydraulic ram, and the compressed air motors are examples of positive displacement
machines. On the other hand, turbines, centrifugal and axial flow pumps, fans,
blowers and rotary compressors belong to the category of rotodynamic machines.

15.1 CLASSIFICATIONS
The blade and rotor assembly for a turbine is known as its 'runner', and the
assembly for a pump is called its 'impeller'.
The variation in nomenclature and design of a rotodynamic machine depend
on: (i) the stages of pressure-momentum conversion, (ii) the path followed by the
fluid, and (iii) the direction of curvature of the moving vanes.
(i) Impulse and Reaction Turbines
The turbines are classified as 'impulse' or 'reaction turbine', depending on whether
the pressure head available is fully or partially converted into kinetic energy in
the nozzle.
The pressure at exit of the nozzle of an impulse turbine is atmospheric and,
except for losses, the pressure does not vary along the moving vanes. The wheel
can therefore be operated freely in air. The thrust experienced by a moving vane
of an impulse turbine is solely due to the change in direction of the momentum.
The most common hydraulic impulse turbine is a 'Pelton wheel' which works
satisfactorily under high water heads of the order of 150 to 1500 metres.
'Reaction turbines' are, in fact, impulse-reaction prime movers. A stator of
guide vanes is used to surround the rotor of moving vanes. The guide vanes act
as nozzles, allowing only partial expansion of the pressure to kinetic energy.
Further expansion of the pressure head takes place during the motion of the fluid
over the moving vanes. Consequently, the thrust exerted on the blade is partly due
to momentum change (impulse) and partly due to pressure action (reaction). As
water is admitted all over the wheel periphery through the stator vanes and since
the pressure varies across the moving vanes, a reaction turbine is operated, completely
sealed from the atmosphere.
A commonly used reaction turbine for medium heads of the order of 20 to
200 metres is a 'Francis turbine'. The one best suited for very low heads down
to 2 or 3 metres of water is a 'Kaplan turbine'.
(ii) Axial, Radial and Mixed Flow Machines
Both turbines and pumps can be classified depending on the direction of flow
with respect to the rotor axis. In 'axial flow' machines, the flow is parallel to rotor
axis, see Fig. 15.1(a). Figures 15.1(b) and 15.1(c) represent 'radial' and 'mixed'
flow impellers/runners. Depending on whether fluid flows from the periphery to
the centre of the rotor or the reverse, the machine is called 'radially inward' or
'radially outward'.
A Francis turbine is radially inward, whereas a centrifugal pump is a radially
outward rotodynamic machine. The Kaplan turbine is an axial flow machine.
(iii) Backward, Radial and Forward Bladed Impellers
The vanes of a radial outward flow machine, e.g. a centrifugal pump, fan or
380 FLUID MECHANICS

Stator

(a) Axial flow

(b) Radial flow (c) Mixed flow

Fig. 15.1 Flow Path in Different Types of Rotor.

compressor can be set at different outlet angles to the direction of the local
peripheral velocity. The impeller is then classified according to the direction of
the blade angle as shown in Fig. 15.2.

15.2 NON-DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS

The principles of dimensional analysis form the basis for designing a rotodynamic
machine using the operating information of a geometrically similar model.
The independent parameters for a rotodynamic machine are: the rotor •or
impeller diameter D; the rotational speed N; the type of fluid, i.e. its density p and
viscosity it.
The performance parameters are the flow rate Q, pressure differential
tip, and the power P consumed by a pump or developed by a turbine. We shall
treat each of the dependent parameters separately and evaluate the ir terms as
follows.
 FLUID MACHINES 381

Fig. 15.2 Variations of Impeller Blading.

Flow rate
(2°DblicpdNe = M°L°7° (15.1)

(L3/D° Ovum (mILY = leer

from which
M:c+d=0
L:3a+b—c-3d=0
T:—a—c—e=0
Assuming a = 1 and c = 0, we get b = — 3, d = 0, e = — 1, and evaluate

RI = (15.2a)
D3 N
For the second s-tenn, we set a = 0 and choose d = 1, leading to b = 2, c = — 1
and e = 1. Therefore,

pND2 (pND)D
7f2

Of

A2 = pUD = Re (15.2b)
382 FLUID MECHANICS

where the peripheral speed U of the rotor is taken proportional to the product of
D and N. Thus the flow rate can be represented as

=KO
' • Rem (15.3)
ND3 -
If we proceed in the same fashion for pressure and power; we obtain the relations

pNAP K'P • Re
2 D2• (15.4)

PD5 - K' • Res (15.5)

pN 3
The primary actions in a rotodynamic machine are the conversion of fluid
power, in the form of pressure and kinetic energy, to shaft work, or vice versa.
The flow path is not long, and the skin frictional losses are small. Therefore, it
is generally observed that the variation of Reynolds number affects the performance
of a rotodynamic machine to a very limited extent. Usually, a higher Re results
in a marginal improvement in performance. Hence, for rotodynamic machines, in
the incompressible flow range, the Reynolds number term can be merged with the
unknown coefficients KO, K; and K; and express the laws as
Q = KQND3 (15.6a)
Ap = KppN2D2 (15.6b)
P = KppN3D5 (15.6c)
Equations (15.6) signify that the discharge of a given machine shall vary as
its speed N: the pressure as N2 and the power as N3 for a particular fluid. The
variations in pressure and power with density change can also be observed from
Eqs. (15.6b and 15.6c).
The fact that KQ, K,, and Kp are not significantly influenced by Reynolds
number has a very important implication for rotodynamic machines. It simply
means that geometrically similar machines can be treated as dynamically similar.
A group of geometrically similar machines are said to belong to a 'homologous
series'. By implication, all machines of such a series have the same value of KQ,
KP or or their combinations. This is nearly true for the design point of the
machines. The 'design point' usually refers to the condition of maximum efficiency.
The behaviour of homologous machines is summarized through one 'performance
parameter' which is also called the 'Type Number' or the 'Specific Speed' of the
series.
The performance parameter is arrived at by eliminating the geometric diameter
D through suitable combinations of the three equations at (15.6). For example,
Eqs. (15.6a) and (15.6b) can be combined to obtain

Q (re p -3/2
017)3/2 = N..121 A p312) N
 FLUID MACHINES 383

pra
N= •74 )(4p1p)314 • 1/1,1Q (15.7a)
( AP
Defining Llp = pgH, where H is the fluid column across the machine, we get

N m )(gH)314 • 1/1d (15.7b)

Kp
=H
or
N Ira 1.1C0
(15.8)
(gH)3I4 — K p3I4
Similarly, by combining Eqs. (15.6b) and (15.6c), we can arrive at

(4 P)512 = IC://2 • n 3/2 N2

P Kp
or
N 41-365 p
(glow— (15.9)

Since for all machines in a series the values of KQ, Kp and K p are constants, the
right-hand sides of Eqs. (15.8) and (15.9) are constant having the same value for
all machines in a homologous series. Either of these two is stated as the 'Type
Number' or the 'Specific Speed' Ns of the series:
Ns =.P7
I 21Kp314 (15.10a)
or
Nt = liT/Kp5/4 (15.10b)

•
15.3 SPECIFIC SPEED
Equations (15.8) and (15.9) gave us two definitions of specific speed. It is customary
to ascribe the former to pumps where the output parameters of importance are the
flow rate Q and the head H. On the other hand, the power developed P, is important
for a turbine, and the latter is, therefore, said to represent a group of turbines. Thus
N 11-6
N (0)34 (15.10)

is the specific speed of a pump, and

N
s — (00514
is that of a turbine.
384 FLUID MECHANICS

A consistent set of units should be used to estimate the specific speed of a

rotodynamic machine. In the SI system, the units to be chosen are: Q in m3/s; H
in meters; g in m/s2; P in watts; p in kg/m3. The value of N should be in rad/s.
In practice, however, N may be chosen as rev/s without introducing any inconsistency.
It may be noted from Eq. (15.10) that the dimensionless specific speed for
a pump shall be numerically equal to its operating speed, if Q and (gH) are each
unity in appropriate units. Similarly for a turbine, unity values of (Pip) and (gH)
lead to Ns being numerically equal to N. These observations are sometimes used
as definitions for specific speeds.
While we have so far maintained two different definitions of Ns, Eqs. (15.10)
and (15.11), respectively for a pump and a turbine, it will be seen in the following
that numerically the two statements are almost identical.
Consider a turbine working under a head H with a flow rate Q through the
machine. The ideal power developed shall be (pQgH), and the power output of the
machine shall be P = n (pQgH), where n is the efficiency of the prime mover.
The use of the expression for P in Eq. (15.11) leads to

1611,1 • Qg H
=
N3 (On 5/4

Or

N .4Q
Ns = (01) 3/4 (15.12)

Comparing Eq. (15.12) with (15.10), we deduce

N stunine = nubia • Nspump (15.13)

Usually, is close to unity, signifying that not much discrepancy results

by adopting a single expression for specific speed, either Eq. (15.10) or (15.11),
for both pumps and turbines.
Using co, to correspond to the rotational speed of the machine expressed in
rad/s, the representative ranges of specific speed are: Centrifugal pumps, co, = 0.3
to 1.5; Pelton wheels 0.05 to 0.4, Francis turbines 0.4 to 2.5, and Kaplan turbines
1.8 to 4.6.
The expressions for specific speeds, whether for a pump or a turbine, indicate
that a high flow rate Q and low head H result in a high Ns. A high Q is accommodated
by increasing the width of the flow passage in an impeller. This is reflected in the
impeller shapes for increasing values of o.), in Fig. 15.3. A mixed flow impeller
is smaller in diameter, but wider than a pure centrifugal design. Expanding on the
dimensions further, an axial flow geometry is reached for the largest flow passage
area at the highest value of the specific speed.

Example 15.1 Calculate the specific speed of a centrifugal pump operating at

a speed of 900 rpm against a head of 11 m and delivering 15 litre/s at a location
where g = 9.8 m/s2. Estimate the delivery quantity and pressure of a geometrically
similar pump of twice the diameter operating at 500 rpm.
 FLUID MACHINES 385

CENTRIFUGAL MIXED AXIAL

I I I it I It

02 0.3 0.1. 0.5 2 3

Fig. 15.3 Impeller Shape and Specific Speed, tor

N 1,rd 900 Iltail3

Ns = — — x = 0.055
(gH)"4 60 (9.8 x 11)34
cos = 2mV, = 0.345 (i)
KO = 01(N1Db= Q21(N2D1)
Hence
3 500 3
Q2 = — • (D2/DI) = 90 x 2 x 0.015
N2I -
900
0
= 0.066 m3/s
or
Q2 = 66 litres
From constancy of specific speed, we get

NI Q1 _ N24-0;
41-103/4 (012)314
(H2 )314 =N
Hi Hi ""

500x (0.066/0.015)1/2 = 0.165

=—
900
or
H2 = 1.226H1 = 13.488 m of water

Example 15.2 A Francis turbine is designed to operate under a head of 30 m

at 300 rpm. The specific speed is w, =1 and the expected efficiency is 90 percent.
Calculate the desired flow rate and the possible power output.

w 2 xN lerd
— 60 (gH)3I4
2x x 300 .4T2
=
0.9 =0.419
60 (9.8 x 30)3/4
386 FLUID MECHANICS

Thus, 0.419 = 1, or
Q = 5.675 m3/s
Power output P = ti(pQgH) = 0.9 x 1000 x 5.675 x 9.8 x 30
= 1.5016 x 106 W
The possible power output is 1.5016 MW.
An examination of the input and output information given in Example 15.2
would be highly satisfying. The available head is site-dependent, dictated by, say,
the height of the dam. The machine speed, a designer's choice, is related to the
synchronous speed of the alternator for power generation driven directly by the
turbine. Once we choose a turbine, and its runner design through the specific
speed, the possible power output is decided.
Conversely, if we wish to generate some power at a given site, i.e. given H,
we can make our choices by rewriting the expression for the specific speed as

11-fiji = -N-A# (gH)94

Or
)2
( Ns
(15.14)
P/13 = (gH)5/2
Equation (15.14) indicates that a lower running speed N, and/or a machine
with higher Ns can generate more power. For instance, more power could be
generated by installing a Kaplan turbine in place of a Francis Turbine.

Example 15.3 In the Hirakud hydroelectric power station there are four Kaplan
and two Francis turbines, as in 1985, operating under an average head of 26.5 m.
The overall efficiency of the Kaplan type is 90 percent and of the Francis type
is 88 percent. Both types have a mechanical efficiency of 94.4 percent between
the turbine and the alternator.
(a) The design flow rate for the Kaplan turbine is 170 m3/s and the operating
speed 150 rpm. Calculate the shaft power, the electrical power output, and the
specific speed.
(b) For Francis turbines, co, = 2.25, and an electrical power rating of Pe =
24 MWe. Determine the flow rate and the rotational speed. Take g = 9.8 ni/s2.
(a) Kaplan Turbine
Water Power P,, = pQgH
Shaft Power PM = rk,P,,
Pm = 0.9 x 103 x 170 x 9.8 x 26.5
= 39.734 MW
Electric Power Pe = ti,„Pm
= 0.944 x 39.734
= 37.5 MWe
 FLUID MACHINES 387

x 150 lc Ai
= 30 = 30 = laRs's

Ws
wlficr
lp
(gH)514

15.7 x l,r3i.TT003
=3
(9.8 x 26.5)94
(b) Francis Turbine

Pm = 4— IT§7
24 - = 25.42 MW
7 4
Piw = noNgH

Pm 25.42 x 106
Q— nopgH — 0.88 x 103 x 9.8 x 26.5
Or
Q = 111.2 m3/s

r-- Ira
(03 = 11 no (003/4
Or

s (gH)314
—
471c2

2.25 x (9.8 x 26.5)3/4

= 14.71 rad/s
40.88 x 111.2
30 w
N= — 140.5 rpm

We note that under the same operating water head, the output of a Kaplan
turbine is significantly higher than that of a Francis turbine.

15.4 BLADING ACTION

Whereas an impression of the overall performance of a rotodynamic machine can
be had from its specific speed, the design details require an understanding of the
energy interactions in the machine components. The most important elements are
the blades on the rotor.
The fluid flow through an impeller or a turbine runner is, in practice, three-
dimensional and quite complex. A simplified analysis of work interaction between
the fluid and the blades is, however, possible by considering the flow to be one
388 FLUID MECHANICS

dimensional. For example, in a radial flow machine (Fig. 15.4), the fluid velocity
is assumed to depend only on the radius. It is further assumed that the thickness
of the blade is negligible and the rotor carries an infinite number of blades.

Fig. 15.4 Blade Velocity Triangles.

In Fig. 15.4, the rotor radius is r1 and the radius to the tip of the blades is
r2. The rotor rotates at w rad/s so that the peripheral speeds at the base and tip
of a blade are
Ul = wri 142 = wr2
In order that the fluid enters and leaves the blade passage without shock, the
relative velocities V,.1 and K2 at inlet and outlet are in the directions of the respective
tangents to the blade. The relative velocities make angles and /32 respectively
with u1 and u2. The absolute velocities of fluid at inlet and outlet to the blade are
obtained by a vectorial combination of V, and u, and make angles al and a2 with
u1 and u2.
The components of absolute velocities parallel to the tangential directions
are V,,1 and V,4,2 and those to the radial directions are Vfl and V12.
Clearly, Vf1 and Vf2 are associated with the flow rate through the impeller.
For example, if bi and b2 are the width of the cylindrical flow passages at the inlet
and outlet radii, then

6.27cri bl v,,= 2xr2b2 Vf2 (15.14)

The angular momentum of a unit mass of fluid, on the other hand, is (V„,iri)
at blade inlet and (V,v2r2) at blade outlet. The rate of change of angular momentum
for a mass flow rate of in through the impeller is
(V„2 r2 — V„,1 ri)
and is equal to the torque experienced by the rotor. The work interaction is,
therefore,
 FLUID MACHINES 389

W= 11m(Vw2r2 — Vwlrl) w

W=Fit(V.,2 u2 — 17.041) (15.15)

The expression, known as Euler's equation for rotodynamic machines, is valid

both for a turbine and a pump, except that in the former work is developed, and
in the latter it is absorbed.
The equivalent head given by W = ritgHE is known as 'Euler Head':

HE = - (vw2142 Vw1 14 1) (15.16)

The parallel component V„, is more frequently called the 'whirl component' of
velocity.
Each of the velocity triangles in Fig. 15.4 is a combination of two right-
angled triangles. For example, the outlet triangle yields

f2 = V 2 Vwl
V12 2

V2 r2 — (U2 - Vw2) 2
f2 = V2

Combining the two expressions, we get

1,122 .1,;22 + 2U2 Vw2 - U?
or
? + - VA )
U2 Vw2 = (V (15.17a)
2
Similarly, from the inlet triangle, we have

(V? + — VA)
ui Vwi — (15.17b)
2
and substituting in Eq. (15.16), we obtain

=
V22 — V? u?- — u? a
— Vr22
HE 4.
(15.18)
2g 2g 2g
We recognize that the first term represents the change in the kinetic energy
of the fluid; the second, the pressure head developed in a forced vortex, Chap. 5
(Eq. 5.27); and the third, the head generated due to the reduction of the fluid
relative velocity from the inlet to the outlet of the blade. In other words, the head
developed in a rotating bladed impeller is a combination of three distinct effects.
If we applied the first law of thermodynamics to the stream of fluid acted
upon in the impeller, we will notice that the work done is given by
— 6W = dE = dh + dKE (15.19)
in the absence of heat transfer and change in potential energy.
390 FLUID MECHANICS

We know from the second law that Tds = dh — dplp. When entropy change
is neglected, we get the enthalpy change as a measure of the static pressure
variation: dh = dplp. Since the first term in Eq. (15.18) is dKE, the other two terms
together represent the change in static pressure. The energy change dE is the Euler
head in Eq. (15.18).
It is illustrative to recall the conclusions of the work interaction on a single
blade in rectilinear motion (see Example 4.3). In that example, there was no
centrifugal action, nor was any change in the value of the relative velocity from
the inlet to the outlet. The second and third terms in Eq. (15.18) were identically
zero, and hence, no change in static pressure. The work was done solely due to
the change in kinetic energy.
Thus Eq. (15.18) or (15.19) could be viewed as the changes in the static,
dynamic and total pressure:

AP: = Zwe + (15.20a)

where
V2
APP=P( 2 (15.20b)
V?)
2 2 vr2 vr
A = p H
u2ui 1 2
(15.20c)
2

In a pump, the fluid kinetic energy at exit from the impeller, v22/2, is partially
converted to pressure in the stator. But this conversion is quite outside the impeller
action, and is not a work transfer. The converse action of pressure to kinetic
energy in a turbine-stator is also not a work interaction.

15.5 DEGREE OF REACTION

We recognized in the foregoing section that the effect of work interaction in the
rotor is a combination in the changes of static and dynamic pressures. A degree
of reaction R is defined as a measure of the relative importance of the static
components.

R — A P: (15.21)
A Pr
A rotor for which R = 0 is called the "Impulse" type, and can be operated
open to the atmosphere since the fluid static pressure does not vary due to blade
action. The single blade in Example 4.4 was under pure impulse. Besides, there
the blade was not subjected to centrifugal action. A rotor, however, experiences
centrifugal effects during operation. Yet the degree of reaction can be zero in an
impulse type when ui = u2 and V,.1 = Vr2, by Eq. (15.20c).
The degree of reaction can be negative, if there is a decrease in static
pressure even though the total fluid pressure increases due to blading action.
In common machines of the reaction type, the degree of reaction is less than
 FLUID MACHINES 391

unity, R = 0.5 being a favourite steam turbine design. Since the fluid static pressure
continuously changes in a rotor of the reaction type, such machines are operated
with pressure sealings.

Example 15.4 A centrifugal impeller has inner and outer diameters of 250 and
500 mm. When rotated at a speed of 550 rpm, the inlet and outlet absolute
velocities of water are 1.77 and 12.4 m/s. The corresponding relative velocitiei
are 7.42 and 2.75 m/s. Calculate the degree of reaction of the impeller.

xls1 x x550
co= 30 = = 57.59 rad/s
30

u1 = 5739 x 0.25 = 7.2 m/s

u2 = 57.59 x0.50 = 14.4 m/s

u2 u2
-2 - -I =
77.76 m2/s2
2
Vr? — Vr? _ 7.422 — 2.752 = 23.75 m2/52
2 2
V22 — V12 12.42 — 1.772
= 75.31 m2/s2
2 = 2

4 Ps = (77.76 + 23.75) = 101.51 m2/s2

P
APd =
75.31 m2/s2

P t
= 101.51 + 75.31 = 176.82 m2/s2

ps 191.51 _ 0
Degree of reaction R = 2p7 — .574
176.82 —

15.6 SUP, LOSSES AND EFFICIENCIES

The theoretical or Euler head derived at Eq. (15.16) or (15.18) is not available at
the discharge of a rotodynamic machine due to frictional and volumetric losses,
and due to the fact that a real impeller has a finite number of blades.
Consider two adjacent blades on a centrifugal impeller in Fig. 15.5. The
concave and convex sides of a blade are the surfaces of positive and negative
pressure respectively. A fluid particle, besides having a primarily radial outward
motion due to centrifugal action, has the tendency to move in a circumferential
392 FLUID MECHANICS

Fig. 15.5 Secondary Flow in an Interblade Passage.

direction from the concave side of one blade to the convex side of another due
to the pressure differential. Such a cross-motion is Called a 'secondary flow' since
the circumferential velocity is much smaller than the main radial velocity.
Nevertheless, the effect is to cause a reduction in momentum change at the blade
outlet by modifying the velocity diagram. (Fig. 153).
The effect of the secondary flow is deemed to cause a reduction of the whirl
component of the outlet velocity, equal to
4V 2 = aa)
where a is a representative radius. The value of a is generally taken as half the
perpendicular distance between the two adjacent blades at the outlet:
xd2 sin 02
a=
2 z
and
X142 o
Vw2 = — Stu p 2 (15.22)

where z is the number of blades on the impeller. The loss of head due to secondary
flow is known as the 'slip' and is equal to u24V,,21g. Consequently, the net theoretical
head developed by an impeller is
Hth = HE — Hap
Or

H= [ U 2 (V 2 ZU2 Sin P Ul (15.23a)

 FLUID MACHINES 393

For a purely radial inlet machine, where V,,1 = 0,

„ U2
nth = rw2 —1(142
— sin P2 (15.23b)

The effect of slip can also be stated through a slip factor

SF < 1

Hd, = HE X SF (15.23c)
Since the head loss due to slip depends on w, it is generally negligible in
slow speed machines such as a hydraulic turbine.
The theoretical head Hd, is further reduced due to frictional losses in the
impeller and in the casing. Let hi and k represent the respective lost heads.
Due to the forced vortex action the head at the impeller outlet is higher than
that at the impeller inlet. This head differential would cause a leakage flow from
the outlet. Besides, flow leakage can occur in the inlet and outlet pipes as well
as through the casing. Let the total leakage be q.
The losses can then be schematically shown as in Fig. 15.6, typically for a
pump. Imagine that we need a discharge Q at head H at the outlet of the pump.
In order to accommodate the losses, the head at the inlet to the casing has to be
,(H + he), that at the inlet to the impeller should be. (H + k + hi) and the flow rate
(Q + q), so as to account for the leakage. The theoreticil head has to provide for
H as. well as the losses. That is to say,
Hd, = H + + hi (15.24)

Discharge
Q, H

pin Pout Flow Q

Prime mover Impeller Casing
.Head Head
Hth= H.hi•hc H•hc
Flow= Q•q

Mechanical Head loss Leakage Head loss

losses h q he
Fig. 15.6 Schematic Representation of Losses in a Pump.
•
There are mechanical losses for the prime mover-impeller assembly, and the
input power must be higher than the fluid power.
Based on the foregoing discussion, we can now define the following
efficiencies:
The mechanical efficiency of the prime mover-impeller system is
fluid power at the impeller
394 FLUID MECHANICS

or
pg + q) X Hth
(15.25a)

The efficiency of the impeller is

(Q + q)(H + k)
— (Q + q) Hth
or
H+k
= (15.25b)
Hth

The volumetric efficiency

71v= Q+q (15.25c)

The efficiency of the casing

QH
— (15.25d)
Q(11 + hc)
or
(15.25e)
11c = H + h,

Combining Eqs. (15.25a)—(15.25e), we obtain an overall efficiency as

110 = 11m X X 71t, X ik (15.26a)

or
pgQH
no= p (15.26b)

The head loss in the impeller and casing. assembly is represented through a hydraulic
efficiency

(15.27)
711 X = Hth

The losses for a turbine would affect in a converse manner. For example,
if Q is the flow rate at inlet to the turbine, the actual quantity available in the
runner will be (Q — q) due to leakage of q. The number of blades on the runner
of a hydraulic turbine is small and the inter-blade passage is wide. The secondary
flow effects are weak. Head loss due to slip is ordinarily neglected, and the Euler
head is treated as the theoretical head.
If H is the head available for a turbine, the hydraulic efficiency

Nth
71/1 H (15.28a)
 FLUID MACHINES 395

The overall efficiency is

P (15.28b)
no — pQgH

where P is the power output.

Although flow leakage is a fact, the quantity involved is very small as
compared to the total fluid handled in a rotodynamic machine. It is a common
practice, therefore, to treat the volumetric efficiency to be unity. The expression
for the overall efficiency then becomes
no= monh (15.29)
In other words, the hydraulic efficiency of a machine is a measure of its ideal
work output. Its role is demonstrated in the following example.

Example 15.5 A reaction type hydraulic turbine works at the foot of a dam. The
effective water head is 18 metres, and the velocity of water at the exit from the
turbine is 4.5 m/s. The machine develops a shaft power of 2 MW when the water
flow rate is 13.2 m3/s. Calculate the hydraulic, mechanical and overall efficiencies.
The exit velocity head

V2 432
= 1.032 m
2g 21 2 x 9.81

Hth m H —v2
— = 18 — 1.032=16.968m
2g
16.968
=18 =94.2%
11h
The water power W = pQgH
or
W= 103 x 13.2 x 9.81 x 18
= 2.33 MW

o = P = 2 = 85.896
w 2 33
110 0.858
„, = = = y170
h 0.942
As has been implied, the terminologies and information given in this Chapter are
applicable both to turbines and pumps. Details, specific to each of these two
classes of machines, are discussed in the two Chapters 16 and 17:

15.7 SUMMARY
1. Fluid prime movers are called the turbines, and the fluid handling machines are
the pumps, fans, blowers or compressors. The basic components in a prime mover
are the nozzles and the moving blades. Those in a rotodynamic pump are the
moving blades and the diffuser.
396 FLUID MECHANICS

2. Fluid machines are either rotodynamic or of the positive displacement

type. The former are for high flow rate and low pressure differentials, whereas the
latter are for low Q and high Ap.
3. For a given rotodynamic machine, say a pump, the flow rate depends
upon the speed N, pressure on N2, and power as N3. The variations are summarized
through a type number or the specific speed

=
(gH)3/4
4. Geometrically similar rotodynamic machines are said to belong to a
homologous series. Any given series has one value of specific speed or type
number, essentially implying conditions of dynamic similarity.
5. With a given head, the work output of a turbine of higher specific speed
is larger than in a turbine with a lower specific speed.
6. The Euler Head HE is the ideal work interaction in a machine. The
theoretical head Mil = HE x SF. The slip factor SF is unity in slow speed machines.
7. The Euler Head is equal to the change in the total pressure head due to
rotor action, Ap, = Apd + Aps. The ratio /? = 42,14pi is known as the 'degree of
reaction'.
8. An impulse machine, for which R = 0, can be operated open to the
atmosphere since the fluid static pressure does not change in the rotor.
9. The hydraulic efficiency, rik, is a measure of the ideal work output, say
in a turbine, due to an impressed head.
10. The overall efficiency 1 , = q,„rb,, where ti„, is the mechanical efficiency,
for both pumps and turbines.

EXERCISES
1. Write the independent parameters affecting the performance of a rotodynamic
machine. By dimensional analysis, show that the power consumed by a pump is
related as •

p gH pND2
.
pN3
D5 —f( ND3'
f N 2 Dr IL )
where the parameters have their usual significance.
2. Illustrate how the roughness of the pump passages can be accounted for ip
deriving the non-dimensional parameters for a rotodynamic machine. Show that
the pressure developed by a pump is a function of parameters, i.e.
p
=f (QIND3, pN D2I El D)
pN 2 D2
where E is the absolute roughness of the passages.
 FLUID MACHINES 397

3. A centrifugal pump is to be designed to pump a viscous oil: p = 950 kg/m3,

= 0.015 kg/ms at a speed of 500 rpm. It is intended to evaluate the design
information by conducting tests on a water pump made to 1/5th scale. The
dynamic viscosity of water at the operating temperature is 797 x 10-6 kg/ms, and
p = 1000 kg/m3.
Calculate the speed of the test pump, if the viscous effects are to be reproduced
identically. Determine the ratio of power absorbed by model and prototype pumps.
(Ans: 630 rpm, P,„/Pp = 6.738 x 10-4)
4. A reaction turbine working under a head of 27 m at 120 rpm develops a shaft
power of 7.5 MW. Calculate its specific speed and flow rate if the overall efficiency
is 88 percent. What output and operating speed would result if this prime mover
was made to work under a head of 23 m, but with the flow rate maintained.
(Ans: 1.018, 32.177 m3/s, 6.39 MW, 106.3 rpm)
5. In a radial flow impeller of 150 mm ID and 300 mm OD, the whirl component
of velocity at the inlet is zero while working at 1450 rpm. Calculate the Euler
head, if the velocity of whirl at the outlet is 23.5 m/s. The number of blades on
the impeller is 12 and the blade outlet angle is 40°. Estimate the value of the slip
factor and the theoretical head developed.
(Ans: 54.56 m, 0.837, 45.66 m)
 Hydraulic Turbines

Impulse turbines are exclusively meant for high water-heads, say above 100 m.
The topography of a country permits installation of impulse wheels only at a few
hilly locations. A large majority of installations are of the reaction type. The basis
of selection of a suitable prime mover for a location is guided by several
considerations which we now discuss.

16.1 SELECTION OF A PRIME MOVER

Let us imagine a reservoir on a river basin formed by the construction of a dam.
Water from the reservoir is led through conduits to a turbine which discharges
into a channel, or the downstream course of the river. Discharge to a channel is
adopted when it is intended to use the stream for second-stage power generation
or other purposes like irrigation. The discharge channel is often called a power
channel and its water level is known as the tail water level (TWL). The gross head
that acts on a prime mover is the difference H between the level in the reservoir
and the TWL. Although the level in a reservoir varies with the seasons or deposition
of silt over the years, it is insensitive to the flow rate Q through the turbines because
of its very large capacity. On the other hand, the power channel cross-section
being of finite area, the tail water level could rise modestly with the turbine flow
rate and a slightly drooping H-Q line may then result. Assuming the line to be
horizontal as in Fig. 16.1 is, of course, very reasonable.
The ideal power (water-power). developed by a turbine is P = pQgH. We
can, therefore, state the turbine flow demand as

Q= — — 101.94 P m3/s (16.1)

pgH
where P is expressed in megawatts.
The theoretical H-Q curve based on the above expression is plotted in
Fig. 16.1. The intersection of the reservoir line and the turbine curve for a chosen
P marks the required flow rate.
A hydraulic turbine is directly coupled to an alternator for power generation.
The rotational speed of the unit is the synchronous speed corresponding to the
electric power frequency f and the number of poles P in the alternator: N =
120f/P. For instance, N = 150 rpm for a turbine driving a 40-pole alternator
generating at 50 Hz frequency. The type of prime mover is then decided by a
calculation of the specific speed.
398
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 399
50.0

40.0

E 30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0
0.0 100 200 300 400
Q m 3 /s
Fig. 16.1 Theoretical H-Q Curves for Turbines.

As an example, consider an available head of H = 20 m, and a P = 30 MW,

co = 15.7 rad/s for N = 150 rpm. The chosen turbine should have a specific speed
of
co 4T317.0
Ws — ( 5/4
g10
OT

15.71, 30x103
W, — —3
(9.81 x 20)94
The best choice is, therefore, a Kaplan tutine. If a Francis turbine of 0), =
2.25 is installed, the water-power would be 11.07 MW. The generation would
drop drastically to 0.087 MW if a Felton wheel of a), = 0.2 was chosen for the
same H and Al values.
The selection of a prime mover may also be constrained by the permissible
flow rate through the power channel. Another constraint may be the quantity of
water that can be spared or diverted for power generation in a multipurpose hydel
project.
A high specific speed is associated with high flow rate and low head for
which the Kaplan turbine is the best. Francis turbines are suitable for medium
400 FLUID MECIANICS

0.94

— 0.90

0.86
z

0.78
0 I 2 3 4
SPECIFIC SPEED I id s I
Fig. 16.2 Efficiency vs. Specific Speed of Hydraulic Turbines.

head installations. Due to its very low specific speed, a Pelton wheel is suitable
only when the head available is very high. Representative efficiency values for
different types of turbines presented in Fig. 16.2 can be included in the H-Q
calculations for an appropriate choice.

16.2 PELTON WHEEL

The Pelton wheel is an impulse turbine where the hydrostatic head is expanded
down to atmospheric pressure in one or two nozzles. The flow rate through the
nozzle is controlled by varying the position of a spear in the nozzle passage (see
Fig. 16.3).

Spear rod for Nozzle

flow control

from reservoir

Fig. 163 A Pelton Wheel.

The vanes, generally called buckets, receive the jet at the centre. The jet
then spreads out equally in opposite axial directions as shown in Fig. 16.4.
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 401

Vt
U
Nozzle

Vt = Vw1

Vri fiz u Vw2

Inlet velocities Outlet velocities
Fig. 16.4 Flow through an Impulse Bucket.

Since the flow along the bucket is axial, the inlet and outlet jets are at the
same radial distance for which the peripheral speed is u1 = u2 = u. The inlet relative
velocity is V,I = VI — u and the outlet Vr2 = kV,I , where k <1 accounts for frictional
effects.
Considering the outlet velocity triangle, we write
V,„2 = Ve2 COS 132 — U = k (Vi — u) cos — u
V,,2 is in a direction opposite to V„1
Work done per unit mass of fluid flow, from Eq. (15.15) is
W = u(V,„2 —
= u[k(VI — u) cos 132 — u — (— VI )]
= u[V1 (1 + k cos 132) — u(1 + k cos 132)]
= u(111 — u)(1 + k cos P2) (16.2)
Blading efficiency is defined as
Work done
Tib — Energy at inlet
or
u(Vi — u)(1 + k cos P2)
= (16.3a)
Vi2/2
OT

r/b = 200 — 0(1 + k cos 132) (16.3b)

where * = u/VI is the bucket to jet speed ratio.
The maximum blading efficiency or work output is obtained for an optimum
bucket speed given by Add, = 0.
402 FLUID MECHANICS

Differentiating Eq. (16.3b), we get

drib = 2(1 — 20)(1 + k cos /32) = 0

dO
Or

"'opt = 1 (16.4)

Note that friction does not influence the optimum speed ratio. The maximum
blading efficiency is then given by Eq. (16.3b) as

rib =2 xi-xix(1 +kcos/32)

or
1+ k COS P2
nbmaz — (16.5)
2

It is noted from Eq. (16.5) that the maximum efficiency is unity when the
discharge is axial, i.e., ii2 = 0 and friction is negligible; but, when /32 = 0° it would
result in interference between the inlet and outlet jets.
In practice, /32 = 15°, the optimum speed ratio is about 0 = 0.46, and maximum
blading efficiency of the order of 93 percent. The overall efficiency of a Pelton
wheel is about 85%; higher values being possible in very large units. The wheel
pitch diameter is ordinarily higher than 12d, where d is the nozzle diameter.
The variation of blading efficiency with speed ratio is plotted in Fig. 16.5.
The 0 = 0 value means a stationary blade which can produce no work. The 0 =
1.0 is called the "run-away" condition, because the bucket and jet speed being
equal, no water strikes the buckets and no work is produced.

1.00

0.75 RACTICAL

11b 0.50 THEORETICAL

k•1

12 "
0.25

0.0 ,
00 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00
eP
Fig. 16.5 Blading Efficiency of a Pelton Wheel.
Since hydraulic turbines are used for driving electric alternators, prime movers
are required to maintain rotational speeds even under part-load condition, so that
- the frequency of the electric supply does not change. In other words, the peripheral
speed u has to be maintained at all loads.
The requirement of constant u and the need to maintain optimum for best
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 403

efficiency controls the jet speed to be constant at all loads. Since the jet speed is
given by V1 = cvlerigli, the implication is that the head cannot be reduced say
by throttling the flow, when the load decreases.
The control has to be brought about through Q by varying the flow area.
This is achieved by moving the spear in the nozzle (Fig. 16.2)". When sudden
control is required, the flbw to the buckets is deflected by placing a plate in front
of the nozzle.

Example 16.1 A Pelton wheel is to work at the foot of a dam whose reservoir
level is 220 m. The full opening of the turbine nozzle is 200 mm, and the coefficient
of velocity is Cn = 0.98. The turbine is to operate at 250 rpm and develop a power
of 3.75 MW. Assuming the blade to jet speed ratio as 0.46, estimate the desirable
wheel diameter at the pitch circle of the blades. The blade outlet angle is 16°.
Calculate the blading efficiency, and the turbine efficiency, neglecting frictional
effects.

Nozzle outlet velocity VI = Cv 42 irf = 0.98 42 x 9.81 x 220

= 64.38 m/s
Nozzle area = 'x 2002 x 10-6 = 3.1416 x 104 m2
Water flow rate A = 64.38 x 3.1416 x 10-2 x 103
= 2022.5 kg/s
Given
u/Vi = 0.46
from which
u = 0.46 x 64.38 = 29.61 m/s —,rDN
60
Hence
60 x 29.
25061
D= — 2.2624 m
xx
at the blade mean height. The blading efficiency in the absence of friction is
obtained from Eq. (16.3b) by setting k = 1.
nb = 2 x 0.46 x (1- — 0.46) x (1 + cos 16)
= 0.9743 = 97.43%
Turbine output 3.75 x 106
Turbine n =
nigH 2.0225 x 103 x 9.81 x 220
= 0.8591 = 85.91%

16.3 FRANCIS TURBINE

The Francis turbine is an inward mixed-flow reaction turbine. Water flows inward
from the runner periphery to its centre, against the direction of the centrifugal
force. When the wheel speed tends to increase due to a reduction in load, the
404 FLUID MECHANICS

consequent increase in centrifugal force retards the fluid motion. The chance of
overspeeding due to sudden reduction in load is, therefore, low. The reaction
turbine installation consists of a 'penstock' at the inlet end and a 'draft tube' at
the discharge end. Water from the reservoir is led through the penstock which is
essentially a circular duct of gradually narrowing cross-section. The water then
enters the turbine 'scroll case' which is a spiral casing surrounding the turbine
proper. The inner periphery of the scroll case is slit open by stationary gates set
at an inclination (see Fig. 16.6).

Water from
penstock

Stator

Stationary Adjustable
gates guide vanes
Turbine
haft

Scroll
case

Tail-race
Fig. 16.6 Francis Turbine.
The scroll case opening is followed by the ring of guide vanes of the turbine
stator. The angle of the guide vanes can be adjusted by rotating the stator ring.
In a Francis turbine, the sole control of flow rate is attained by changing the guide
vane angles. After crossing the guide vanes, water enters the turbine rotor all
along its periphery and proceeds radially inward along the moving vanes.
Partial conversion of static head to kinetic energy continues right from the
inlet to the penstock, and pressure decreases in the radial inward direction along
the moving vanes with consequent increase of the kinetic energy. Water exits
from the turbine through the draft tube to the 'tail-race'. The draft tube is a
diverging duct which acts as a diffuser to partially recover static pressure and
reduce the fluid kinetic energy at the exit.
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 405

The Draft tuhe also provides a mechanical structure for the installation of the
turbine and allows the turbine to be located above the tail-race without the loss
of an effective head. The hydrostatic head impressed across the turbine is that
between the levels of the reservoir and the tail-race. The draft tube can be given
a 90° bend to install the turbine with its axis horizontal. The schematic of a
Francis turbine installation is shown in Fig. 16.6.
Unlike an impulse turbine, there is no theoretically optimum value of the
ratio of the blade speed to fluid velocity in a Francis turbine. Usually, the ratio
ultgeri varies between 0.6 to 0.9, where H is the head impressed. The hydro-
dynamic analysis for a Francis turbine is illustrated through the following example.

(a) Blade configuration (b) Side view of

the Rotor
Fig. 16.7 Schematic of a Francis Turbine.

Example 16.2 An inward flow reaction turbine is working under a head of 15 m

with a speed of 300 rpm. The inner and outer diameters of the runner are 500 and
750 mm respectively. The runner internal width at inlet is 70 mm and the blades
occupy 10 percent of the runner passage. The radial component of the fluid
velocity is constant from inlet to outlet and is equal to 0.2 1/2gH. Water leaves
the wheel radially. The blading efficiency is 95 percent and the overall efficiency
of the turbine is 85 percent. Calculate: (a) the angle of the guide vanes, (b) angles
of the moving vanes at inlet and outlet, (c) water flow rate, (d) power developed,
and (e) the width of the runner at outlet
= 270//60 = A x 300/30 = 31.4 rad/s
Peripheral velocity:
at inlet, ul = art = 31.4 x 0.375 = 11.775 m/s,
at outlet, u2 = ar2 = 31.4 x 0.25 = 7.85 m/s
406 FLUID MECHANICS

The radial velocity

V = V f2 = 0.2 42 x 9.81 x 15 = 3.43 m/s
Since water leaves the wheel radially, V2 = V12 and Vw2 = 0.
Blade work done per unit mass of fluid is V„,1 u1 and the kinetic energy at
exit from the blade is v22/2. The total energy available at the blade inlet is, therefore,
u1 + v22/2). Note that the work interaction in a reaction turbine occurs due to
changes in both the inlet kinetic energy and static pressure (see Chapter 15). It
would, therefore, be erroneous to calculate blading efficiency only in terms of
V2/2 , as was done for an impulse wheel (Felton).

fiblading = (V„1141)/(Vvv1 I41 + v22/2) = 0.95

Or
0.05 = 0.95 x 11/2
Or
V„,1 = 19/2 x q/ui. = 9.5 x (3.432)/11.775
or
= 9.49 m/s
Sketching the velocity triangles for inlet and outlet (see Fig. 16.8) we arrive
at the other information.

Fig. 16.8 Velocity Triangles for Inlet and Outlet.

tan al = Vf11V,,,, = 3.43/9.49 = 0.36

= 19.86° (i)
tan /31 = Vfl/(ul — Vw1) = 3.43/(11.775 — 9.49) = 1.50
/31 = 56.33° (ii)
tan /32 = Vf2/u 2 = 3.43/7.85 = 0.437
/32 = 23.6° (iii)
The runner inlet area Al = irdibi
= x 0.75 x 0.07 = 0.1649 m2
Inlet flow area A w = 0.9A1, allowing for 10% blockage due to the blades.
Flow rate Q = Aw ,Vf , = 0.9 x 0.1649 x 3.43
= 0.509 m3/s (iv)
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 407

Outlet area = lia2b2

Q = 0.9 rvd2b2Vf2
Hence,
b2/1/1 = Vf i/d2Vf2 = 750/500 x 1 = 1.5
Therefore,
b2 = 1.5 x 70 = 105 mm (v)
Power developed P = nover.(pQgH)
= 0.85 x 1000 x 0.509 x 9.81 x 15
= 63.683 kW (vi)

16.4 KAPLAN TURBINE

The Kaplan turbine is an axial flow reaction turbine. The rotor blades vary from
four to six in number and their angles are adjustable. The adjustability of the
angles of both the guide and runner blades makes it possible to maintain high
efficiency over widely varying heads and flow rates (see Fig. 16.2). An axial flow
turbine, similar in construction to the Kaplan, but with fixed runner blades is
known as the Propeller turbine. It does not have the merit of a flat efficiency
curve due to reduced flexibility of flow adjustment.
The installation of a Kaplan turbine is complete with its penstock and draft
tube. Water from the penstock is led to the turbine casing as in the case of a
Francis turbine. The plane of the runner blades is below the level of the casing.
An installation in the Hirakud dam project is shown to scale in Fig. 16.9. Water
frOm the turbine casing moves down to the runner space through adjustable guide
vanes, undergoes a right-angled bend and flows past the runner blades in a direction
parallel to the turbine axis.
In an axial flow machine (see Fig. 15.1a), the fluid meets the whole length
of the leading edge of a runner blade simultaneously from its root to tip. A given
stream leaves a blade at the corresponding trailing tip. In other words, for each
stream of water the radius and consequently the blade velocity, are the same from
inlet to outlet. The blade velocity shall, of course, be different for streams at
different sections of a blade because of the variation in the radial distance.
This implies that the velocity triangles for each section of the blade would
be different. Consequently-, the inlet and outlet angles of a blade must vary from
the root to tip in order that the conditions of shockless flow are satisfied at each
section. As a result, the moving blade of an axial flow machine is twisted along
its height. Representative analyses are generally carried out using the geometry of
the mid-section of a blade.
In order to handle the very large flow rate, the inter-blade passage in an
axial flow machine has to be wide. Consequently, only a small number of blades
are arranged on the rotor. The flow is more like an external one past a blade, for
which the control volume analysis of momentum exchange is unsatisfactory. Accurate
analysis of axial flow blading actions needs the application of the 'theory of
• 408 FLUID MECHANICS

G.L.160.63W-""6-
TWL
157.02

..tof
PEN ;

EL. 141.13 H

1. VOLUTE
2. SPIRAL CASING WITH
FIXED GUIDE VANES
b. ADJUSTABLE INLET
GUIDE VANES
I.. TRANSITION PASSAGE
S. RUNNER
6. DRAFT TUBE
7. ALTERNATOR

SCALE 1: 200

Fig. 16.9 A Kaplan Turbine Installation in Hirakud Dam Project.

aerofoils'. The examples given here are, however, based on the momentum theory
for the sake of simplicity.

Example 16.3 The mean diameter of the runner of a propeller turbine is 1.5 m.
The turbine works under a head of 15 m and the rotational speed is 150 rpm. The
kinetic energy coefficient for the moving blades is 0.95 and the losses in the
penstock and the guide vanes account for 8 percent of the head available. Water
leaves the guide vanes at an angle of 20° with the peripheral speed, and the
moving blade outlet angle is 30°. Estimate the values of (a) the inlet angle of
the moving vane, (b) the axial and whirl components of the velocities at inlet
and outlet, (c) the magnitude and direction of the absolute velocity at outlet, and
(d) the hydraulic efficiency.
Since for an axial flow turbine u1 = u2 = u, we shall draw the inlet and outlet
velocity triangles on a common base of u in accordance with a popular geometric
practice.
a) = R x 150/30 = 15.70 rad/s
The mid-section blade velocity is
u = cor = 15.70 x 0.75 = 11.78 m/s.
 MIDRAULIC 1114111NO IOU

Fig. 16.10 Velocity Triangles for an Axial Flow Turbine at a Given Section of the Blade.

Since 8 percent of the head is lost in friction, the velocity at exit of the guide
vanes is
= 2 X 9.81 x 0.92 x 15 = 16.45 m/s
V11 = V1 sin at = 16.45 sin 20 = 5.62 m/s (i)
= Vi cos at = 16.45 cos 20 = 15.45 m/s (ii)
tan 131 = Vfl/( 1 — u) = 5.62/(15.45 — 11.78) = 1.53
Or
A = 56.85° (iii)
V,1 = Vii/sin p, = 5.62/sin 56.85 = 6.71 m/s
The relative velocity at the outlet of the moving blade shall be lower than
-11,1 by the amount of kinetic energy lost in overcoming friction. Hence,

Vr2 = 4-4-
0
where is the kinetic energy coefficient.

V,2 = 0.95 X 6.71 = 6.54 m/s

Given the blade outlet angle /32 = 30°,
Vf 2 = V" sin /32 = 6.54 sin 30 = 3.27 m/s

Vw 2 = 14 — V,2 cos 132 = 11.78 — 6.54 cos 30 = 6.11 m/s

6.11 •
tan y= 11,,,2/Vf2 = = 1S7
Or
y = 61.89°
and
cc2 =90—y=28.11° (iv)
is the direction of the absolute velocity at outlet.
Vf
= 3.70 m/s (v)
V2 = sin y
410 FLUID MECHANICS

Neglecting slip and friction

Hdi = HE = 1 — VW 2 112)

= g1 U(VwI —Vw 2 )

or
„ 11.78(15.45 — 6.71) =
HE — 10.495 m
9.81
E 10.4 95 = 70%
Hydraulic rih =-17 —
15

16.5 CAVITATION
The total pressure of fluid downstream of the rotor of a reaction turbine is low
because of the work done on the blades. In regions of high velocity such as the
exit plane of the blades or at inlet to the draft tube, therefore, the static pressure
could be so low as to be substantially below the atmospheric; the limit of fluid
vapour pressure could be reached and sporadic vapour bubbles formed. Apart
from vapour locking the flow passage, when the bubbles collapse they can cause
severe structural damage to the turbine blades and runner. The phenomenon of
formation and collapse of bubbles is called 'cavitation', and is explained in the
following manner.
It is believed that the formation of bubbles begins on nucleation sites, such
as cavities due to roughness of the surfaces of the solid components, or due to
impurities and dissolved gases in the liquid. Due to buoyancy, the bubbles formed
in the low fluid-pressure region move towards high pressure locations. The difference
of pressure between the fluid and the interior of the bubble consequently increases.
At some locations, the force of differential pressure exceeds the force of vapour-
liquid surface tension and the bubble collapses. The space earlier occupied by the
bubble now acts like a sink and water rushes in from all directions to fill the
space. Such formation and collapse of bubbles takes place in large numbers at
very short time intervals, i.e., at high frequency. The rushing fluid causes strong
forces to be experienced by the neighbouring machine and structural elements and
the components become fatigued over a period of time and get damaged.
Imagine a section of the fluid machine, such as the exit plane of the blades
of a reaction turbine, where the absolute pressure is at its minimum per. The fluid
velocity there is V, and the section is at a height Z, above the tail water level
which is exposed to the atmosphere. Applying Bernoulli's equation between this
section and the TWL, we write

Pmin Vs2 z —Palm

(16.6)
pg 2g s pg
Cavitation will occur if /h.'. reduces to the fluid vapour pressure pv. We note
from Eq. (16.6) that a higher pmh, is possible if Z, was low, apart from a low V,.
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 411

Indeed, a negative Z, would go further towards preventing cavitation. This is

sometimes adopted in practice as may be noted from Fig. 16.9 for the Hirakud
installation where the blade exit plane is below the TWL.
A quantitative assessment of the chance of cavitation is made through Thoma's
cavitation parameter a defined when hi. has gone down to p„, and Vs is at its
maximum value. From Eq. (16.6), we get

Vrtax _ Patin — Pv _Zs

2 gH pgH H
= a, by definition (16.7)
H is the head impressed across the machine. The parameters under working condition
are grouped through

ac
V2 //atm Plain Zs (16.8)
2 gH pgH H

Since pv < pviv, the working condition is characterized by a < a.

Values of (Tv for different classes of machines, based on specific speed, are
summarized empirically. For a new installation, to guard against cavitation, the
practice is to ensure a > a,. The cavitation conditions are also specified through
a net positive suction head (NPSH) as
v2
NPSH = 2g= crH (16.9)

Example 16.4 A turbine with as = 0.1 is to be installed at a location where the

barometric pressure is 1 bar, the summer temperature 40°C, and the net head
available is 50 m. Calculate the maximum permissible height of the turbine rotor
above the tail water level.
At 40°C, p, = 0.07375 bar, 1 bar = 10.197 m Wg

a = Patm Pv Zs
pgH H

a must at least be equal to a, so that cavitation is avoided. Hence,

off = a cif = Pampg Pv — Zs.

or

Zsm.x = Pam — Pu crcH

Pg
Or
Zs. = (1 — 0.07375) x 10.197 — 0.1 x 50
= 4.44 m
412 FLUID MECHANICS

16.6 SUMMARY
1. The selection of a turbine for an installation with available head H, a chosen
operating speed and, the desired power output or permissible flow rate, is made
by estimating the specific speed.
2. Pelton wheels are suitable for very high heads; Francis turbines for medium,
and the Kaplan turbines for low head installations.
3. Since hydraulic turbines are used for driving electric alternators, the
turbine peripheral speed is maintained constant even at part-load conditions so
that the frequency of electric power does not change.
4. Governing is achieved through control of the flow area, not flow velocity.
5. Wider flexibility to control flow rate by both, guide and rotor vane
adjustments makes possible a flat efficiency curve over large variations of loading
for a Kaplan turbine.
6. A Francis turbine cannot overspeed at reduced load since the inward
motion of fluid in the rotor takes place against centrifugal force.
7. The draft tube in a Francis or Kaplan turbine is a diffusing passage to
recover exit kinetic energy and provides structural support for installation.
8. The reaction turbines work pressure-tight against atmosphere.
9. Cavitation in a reaction turbine may occur at high velocity zones where
the absolute pressure approaches the fluid vapour pressure.
10. The runner of a reaction turbine may sometimes be placed below the tail
water level to prevent cavitation.

EXERCISES
1. A turbine is intended to be installed at a location where the available head
is 30 m. The maximum flow handling capacity of the downstream channel is
25 m3/s. Select a suitable turbine if its speed is to be 150 rpm. Calculate the water
horsepower.
(Ans: a), = 1.1, Francis, 7.3575 MW)
2. Justify why a Pelton wheel should be used for an installation where the reservoir
head is 150 m, flow rate 1 m3/s and the rotor speed has to be 375 rpm. Estimate
a nominal diameter of the wheel. Calculate the shaft power, if the overall efficiency
is expected to be 90%.
(Ans: 0.165, 1.27 m, 1.324 MW)
3. A Pelton wheel works at the foot of a dam because of which the head available
at the nozzle is 400 m. The nozzle diameter is 160 mm and the coefficient of
velocity 0.98. The diameter of the wheel bucket circle is 1.75 m and the buckets
deflect the jet by 150°. The wheel to jet speed ratio is 0.46. Neglecting friction,
calculate the power developed by the turbine, its speed and hydraulic efficiency.
(Ans: 6.065 MW, 435.8 rpm, 89%)
 HYDRAULIC TURBINES 413

4. Water is supplied to a Felton wheel from a high altitude reservoir over a

5 km-long pipeline of 300 mm diameter. The reservoir water level is 450 m above
the wheel-nozzle. The Darcy-Weishbach friction factor for the pipeline is 0.035
and the nozzle-pipeline system is designed for maximum power transmission.
Calculate the water flow rate, nozzle diameter, and the water horse power. If
the wheel mean bucket diameter is 1.25 m, calculate its optimum rotational
speed.
(Ans: 0.1588 m3/s, 51.33 mm, 467.2 kW, 539.2 rpm)
5. The inner and outer diameters of the rotor of an inward flow Francis turbine
are 300 and 600 mm respectively. The height of the inlet passage is 150 mm.
The radial component of velocity at inlet is 2.5 m/s and is constant along the
flow passage. The discharge velocity is radial. The inlet guide vanes make
an angle of 12° with the local peripheral velocity. The turbine rotational speed is
400 rpm.
Draw the velocity triangles at inlet and outlet, and calculate: (a) water flow
rate, (b) inlet and outlet angles of the runner blade, (c) absolute velocities of water
at inlet and outlet of the runner, (d) Euler's head (e) the power developed, and
(f) the blading efficiency.
(Ans: 0.7068 m3/s, 72.13°, 21.7°, 12.024 m/s, 15.064 m, 104.45 kW, 98%)
6. An inward flow reaction turbine has a peripheral velocity of 24 m/s at inlet.
The axial and whirl velocity components at inlet are 2 and 18 m/s.. The passage
width and flow area at inlet are 0.15 m and 0.4 m2, and the discharge is radial.
The hydraulic efficiency is 80%. Calculate the wheel diameter, power developed,
impressed head, rotational speed and the blade angle at the inlet.
(Ans: 0.8488 m, 345.6 kW, 55.04 m, 540 rpm, 18.43°)
7. A Kaplan turbine working under a head of 25 m develops a power of 23 MW.
The external diameter of the runner is 5 m and the hub 3 m. The rotational speed
is 60 rpm, hydraulic efficiency 95% and the overall efficiency 88%. Calculate the
inlet and outlet angles of the runner blades at the mean radius. Assume the flow
to be axial at outlet from the blade and the axial velocity as constant from inlet
to outlet as well as from the root to tip of the blade.
(Ans: 54.8°, 34°)
8. An axial flow Kaplan turbine runs at 30 rpm. The mean diameter of the
runner blades is 6 m and the water flow rate 150 m3/s. The flow area is 35 m2,
and the axial velocity component is constant from the inlet to outlet and the root
to tip of the blade. The mid-section blade angles are 150° at the inlet and 20° at
the outlet. Determine the power developed and the blading efficiency. Neglect
losses.
(Ans: 27.143 MW, 95.17%)
9. An axial flow turbine with a mean rotor diameter of 2 m rotates at 137 rpm
under a gross head of 32 m. The inlet guide vane angle is 30° and the rotor outlet
blade angle at the mean radius is 27°. Friction in the casing and guide vane causes
an 8% loss of the gross head, and friction along the blade reduces the outlet
414 FLUID MECHANICS

relative velocity to 91% of the inlet. Estimate the inlet blade angle and the turbine
hydraulic efficiency.
(Ans: 61.7°, 80.1%)
10. The critical cavitation parameter ac for a turbine of co, = 3.5 was found to be
0.9. The runner is located at a depth of 1.5 m with respect to the TWL. Calculate
the maximum permissible velocity in the draft tube where the working temperature
is 45°C and the atmospheric pressure 10.3 m of water.
(Ans: 14.572 m/s)
 Pumps and Fans

Pumps and fans, especially of the centrifugal type, are the most common fluid
handling machines. Basically, a pump differs from a turbine in that the former is
used to lift a fluid against a pressure head, whereas the latter works because of
a pressure differential. A fan, a blower, or a compressor all belong to the same
class except that the term pump is used when the device handles a liquid.

17.1 CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

A pump is first filled (primed) with water or the liquid to be lifted. Its impeller
is then rotated by an external device, say an electric motor. The rotation of the
impeller causes a forced vortex action on the fluid which results in (i) increase of
velocity and pressure of the fluid with radius, and (ii) a partial vacuum near the
impeller centre, called its 'eye'.
Water or liquid from a sump is then sucked into the pump through a suction
pipe connected to the pump casing at the inlet to the impeller eye and discharged
with higher velocity and pressure at the impeller circumference. Note that a valve
at the end of the suction pipe, called the foot-valve, is necessary so that the water
poured in for priming is retained within the pump casing.
The high velocity of fluid at impeller outlet is further reduced and static
pressure increased by a diffusing passage. In the simplest design, the diffusing
passage is the pump casing whose area of cross-section is gradually increased
upto the discharge pipe. The passage is called the 'volute casing'; Fig. 17.1(a). An
improvement over the simple volute casing is the addition of a circular chamber
of vaneless space between the impeller and the spiral (volute) chamber.
More improved versions have guide vanes on the pump stator, which provide
diffusing passages of gradually increasing area before entering the volute chamber
(Fig. 17.1(b)). When guide vanes are installed in a centrifugal pump, it is commonly
called a turbine pump.
Whereas the liquid at inlet to the impeller eye is practically axial, it enters
the bladed passage in a radial direction without whirl component of the velocity,
Fig. 17.2(a).
A centrifugal pump may have a double-inlet impeller for handling a large
volume flow rate as shown in Fig. 17.2(b). This arrangement has the added advantage
of balancing the axial thrust. When several impellers are arranged in series on a
common shaft, the pump becomes a multistaged one. The discharge from one
impeller is connected to the suction of the following impeller causing development
415
416 FLUID MECHANICS

(a) Volute casing (b) Guide vanes in a Turbine pump

Fig. 17.1 Variations in Centrifugal Pump Design.
of high pressure head in a multistage configuration indicated in Fig. 17.2(c). The
multistage units have a lower hydraulic efficiency because of the loss associated
with the tortuous motion of the fluid between the stages.
The blades of a centrifugal pump impeller are usually curved backward.
Straight radial blades are used when the liquid to be handled is dusty such as in
the case of slurries. Eight to sixteen blades are used in backward curved impelleis.
The specific speed is in the range of co, = 0.8 to 1.6 and the efficiency is of the
order of 80 percent.

17.2 SUCTION LIMITS

A pump, as an energy conversion device, lifts a quantity of fluid Q per unit time,
through a head H. If the pump centre line is at a height hz above the water level
in the sump and delivers to a height hd at atmospheric pressure, then
V,,2
H = hs + hd + (17.1a)
2g
Or

H = Hs + vj (17.1b)
g
 PUMPS AND FANS 417

(a) Single inlet (b) Double inlet

STAGE STAGE SAGE STAGE

1 11 m
(c) Multistage
Fig. 17.2 Centrifugal Impellers.

where Vd = velocity of discharge. Ordinarily for a pump, the discharge velocity

head is low compared to the static head H, = h, + hd, and is frequently neglected.
The water power is W = pQgH.
The liquid from the sump, open to atmosphere, rises up to the impeller eye
due to the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the pressure at the
pump inlet. Application of Bernoulli's equation between the water line and the
pump centre line yields
2
= A 4.
Palm L h fs
hs _2g
(17.2)
Pg Pg
where hf, is the head lost due to friction in the suction pipe.
The minimum value of inlet pressure is the liquid vapour pressure p„p at the
operating temperature. We note that as h„ V, or hf, are increased, P. may approach
418 FLUID MECHANICS

p„,p and cavitation (Chapter 16) conditions may prevail. It is, therefore, desirable
to keep the suction pipe short and usually of a diameter larger than that of the
delivery pipe.
The pump manufacturers prescribe a net positive suction head NPSH as a
measure of the permissible value of the inlet pressure p, with respect to the liquid
vapour pressure.
Ps — Pvap
NPSH = (17.3a)
Pg
Or

Ps
= NPSH + Pvap (17.3b)
Pg Pg
Substituting Eq. (17.3b) in Eq. (17.2), we get the limiting conditions on the
suction as

V2 ) Patm PvaP
(its + hfs + t NPSH (17.4)
pg

The NPSH may be prescribed in head of liquid or in terms of Thoma's parameter

Q which by Eq. (16.9) of Chapter 16 is NPSH = crH.

Example 17.1 A centrifugal pump handling water is prescribed to have an

NPSH of 2.3 m when the rated head is 26 m. Calculate the Thoma cavitation
parameter and maximum suction lift permissible at a working temperature of
45°C.
At 45°C, Pvap = 0.09582 bar = 0.977 m of water

=
NPSH = 23 = 0.0885
H 26
Patin P vap
Maximum suction lift = NPSH

= 10334 — 0.977 — 2.3 = 7.057 m

As a general practice, the suction lift is restricted to around 6 to 7 m. When water
has to be lifted from greater depths, submersible centrifugal pumps are used in
which the impeller can be located deep in the water.
Methods of hydrodynamic analysis for the centrifugal pump are illustrated
through the following examples.

Example 17.2 The inner and outer diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal
pump are 25 and 50 cm respectively. The pump discharges 8 m3 of water per minute
while operating at 550 rpm against a head of 12 m. The diameter of the discharge
outlet is 15 cm. The outlet angle of the backward curved impeller vane is 40°.
The flow area from the impeller inner to outer radius is constant and is equal
to 750 cm2. Draw the velocity triangles and calculate:
 PUMPS AND FANS 419

Vw2

Fig. 17.3 Velocity Triangles for a Centrifugal Pump.

(i) Inlet angle of the vane

(ii) Hydraulic efficiencies based on static head and on total head, assuming
SF = 1
(iii) Minimum speed for starting the pump.
w = Or x 550)/30 = 57.59 rad/s

ui = cori = 57.59 x0.25 = 7.2 m/s

u2 = 2141 = 14.4 m/s

V11 = Q/A1 = 8/(60 x 0.075) = 1.77 m/s
Since the flow at inlet is radial, V1 = Vf •
Further, since the impeller flow area is constant, 1/12 = Vf1. Inlet blade angle,
/31 is obtained from
tan pi = vfliu, = 1.77/7.2 = 0.245
A = 13.8° (i)
From the outlet triangle,
Vw2 = U2 V12 cot 40° = 14.4 — 2.11 = 12.29 m/s

Euler's head
HE = (1/ g)(Vw2u2 — Vw1 t4 1)
Of
HE = (12.29 x 14.4)/9.81 = 18.04
Area of discharge outlet Ad = ir14 x (0.15)2 = 0.0176 m2
Discharge velocity Vd = 8/(60 x 0.0176) = 7.545 m/s
420 FLUID MECHANICS

Discharge velocity head Hd = Vj/(2g)= 2.9 m

Total head of the pump HT = + Hd = 12 + 2.9 = 14.9m
Hydraulic efficiency based on static head = Hi/HE
= 12/18.04 = 66.5%
The static head hydraulic efficiency of a pump is also known as its 'manometric
efficiency'.
Hydraulic ri based on total head = HT/HE = 14.9/18.04
= 82.6%
Recall that a centrifugal pump has to be started only with its casing full of
water. At the starting condition, forced vortex motion is imparted to the water in
the casing, resulting in a centrifugal head of

Ha = — u1)/2g
Since at starting there is no inflow or outflow from the pump, the head due
to change of ICE or relative velocity is not available (Chapter 15), nor are there
friction losses in the suction or discharge pipe. Hence, the starting speed should
be such that in the limiting condition H = H. Thus
— ub/(2g)= H,
Or

(02(ri — ri2)= 2gH,

For the given example,

2 2 x 9.81 x 12
co = = 235.44/0.0468 = 5022.72
(0.252 — 0.1252)
w = 70.87 rad/s
Hence the starting speed
N = 30co/x = 676.7 rpm (iv)
Observe that the starting speed can be higher than the running speed if the
pump has to start against the full impressed head. Alternatively, when the prime
mover speed is limited, the pump can be started against a lower head and the
discharge head can then be increased slowly.

Example 17.3 The test results for a model pump are Q = 4 m3/min of water,
H = 10 m, speed N = 1400 rpm, and the power consumed 8.5 kW. The model
pump could be started against the impressed head at the rated speed of 1400 rpm.
Estimate for a geometrically similar pump, the speed, power input, and the
impeller diameter required if the pump is to be used for delivering water against
a head of 40 m. The scale of the prototype it 4 times that of the model pump.
Calculate the values of specific speed and efficiency of the pump.
 PUMPS AND FANS 421

Consider the model pump first

pQgH 1000 x 4 x 9.81 x 10
— 76.9%
— Pinput — 60 x 8.5 x 1000
= xN/30 = x 1400)/30 = 146.6 rad/s

The pump starting condition is governed by

U22 - Ul2 =
H
2g
Of
w 2 (4
- n2 ) = 2 gH
Or
x 10
2 x 9.81 2
7,
- 146.
46.
146.6'
= 0.009128
Taking
r2 = 2r1
we have
3r12 = 0.009128
Or
rl= 0.055 m
In other words, the impeller inlet diameter is 11 cm and outlet 22 cm for the
model pump.
The pump specific speed

= 0)11Q _ 146.6 4W31 1214

(0)3/4 (9.81 x 10)3/4 —
For the prototype, a and 17 are the same as those of the model. Since the scale
factor is 1:4, the prototype impeller has 44 cm ID and 88 cm OD.
The heads developed by two geometrically similar pumps are related by
Eq. (15.6b) as
H1/H2 = (N? D?)/(N1
10/40 = (1400/N2)2 x (1/4)2
1400/N2 = I (IK/T = 2
N2 = 700 rpm
is the speed of the prototype pump. Similarly,
P2/P1 = (N2/N1)3 x (D2/D1)5 = 1/8 x 45 = 128
P2 83 X 128 = 1088 kW
The discharge rate is
Q2/Qt = (N2/Ni) x (D21D1)3 = 1/2 x 43 = 32
422 FLUID MECHANICS

Or
Q2 = 4 x 32 = 128 m3/min = 2.133 m3/s (iv)

17.3 CENTRIFUGAL FANS

The principles and methods of design of a centrifugal fan are practically the same
as those of a centrifugal pump. In fact, much of the design information in fan
technology is based on the experience of the pump industry.
The fan is a rotodynamic machine handling gases, typically air; yet the
term 'fan' is reserved for the case where the fluid density does not vary from the
inlet to the outlet. The limitation on pressure rise is of the order of 250 mm of
water gauge. For higher pressure differentials, the device is called a blower or a
compressor. A blower may be constructed in multistages for still higher discharge
pressure.

17.4 BLADE OUTLET ANGLE

Three different kinds of blading were indicated in Fig. 15.2. Whereas a pump
impeller is ordinarily backward curved, all the three varieties are common in the
fan industry. The one most important parameter affecting the performance of a
centrifugal impeller is the blade outlet angle, /32.
We therefore examine the effect of blade angle on the velocity triangles in
Fig. 17.4. We note from the velocity triangles in the figure that:
Vw2 < U2 if /32 < 90°, backward curved
Vw2 = u2 if = 90°, radial
V.,2 > u2 if 132 > 90°, forward curved
Following a sign convention that 132 is measured clockwise from the positive
u2 direction to V,2 , we can generalize the expression for V.,2 for all the three cases
in the figure by
V,,,2 = U2 — 11,2 cot P2 (17.5)
Using the expression for the Euler head in Eq. (15.16) and noting that
Vw2 = 0 for a centrifugal impeller, we get
up/p = u2V,,, 2
or
Aplp= u2 - u2 V12 cot P 2
The volume flow rate
Q= gdiVflbi = sd 2Vf2b 2
where b1 and b2 are the height of the flow passage at the inlet and outlet. Thus,
Vf 2 = Q/(rd2b2)
and by substitution,
alp/p= ul - ( Qu2)1Ord2b2) cot P2 (17.6)
 PUMPS AND FANS 423

tv

1
ol
',k .--Thi
+w +w
(a) Backward curved, P2<90° (b) Radial , p2 = 90°

cmkw
+
(c) Forward curved, 82> 90°
Fig. 17.4 Effect of /32 on Velocity Triangles.
Define:

Pressure coefficient w= 4/(1 PU 22) (17.7a)

Volume coefficient 0 = 4Q/(7r4k2) (17.7b)

and
Power coefficient A= WO (17.7c)
424 FLUID MECHANICS

Substitution of the definitions in Eq. (17.6) yields

, AP — 2 (1 L cot p)
I 2 - M42 1,2142 2
I PU 2

Or

yr = 2 1 — 462 cot 132) (17.8)

(
and

A= (17.9)

Equations (17.8) and (17.9) are plotted in Fig. 17.5 for different values of
the volume coefficient with P2 as a parameter. The characteristics in Fig. 17.5
lead to the following conclusions:
(i) Forward curved fans (/32 > 90°) will develop the highest pressure for a
given impeller diameter and speed.
(ii) The power requirement of a forward curved fan increases steeply for
small variations in flow rates.
(iii) The pressure developed decreases fast with increasing flow rate in a
backward curved impeller.
Further, from Fig. 17.4(c), we note that the radial length of a forward curved
vane is small. This allows the impeller inner diameter (for 112 > 90°) to be large

A2>90

2.0 /32 = 906

or
7'
P2< 90°

Fig. 17.5 Theoretical Performance Curves as Dependent on 132.

 PUMPS AND FANS 425

for a given outer diameter, and hence, a larger flow area. In other words, a higher
flow rate is possible for this type of fan with a given V11 .
In summary, forward curved fans have large volume and pressure ratings
but suffer from higher power requirement. Losses in a fluid machine being
proportional to Q2, the forward curved fans are also the least efficient and are
unsuitable for off-design operating conditions. These fans are used mostly for
fixed duty, such as in a ventilating system.
Backward curved fans are the most efficient centrifugal machines, and the
drooping power characteristic makes them suitable for varying operating conditions.
Radial-bladed fans are less efficient compared to the backward curved and are
preferred for handling dust-laden fluids so that the solid particles do not get stuck
to the blade curvings.
Typically, the number of blades in a centrifugal fan is Z = P/3, where 132
is expressed in degrees. The number of blades in a backward curved fan may vary
from 12 to 16, the median values are: /32 = 40°, w = 0.80 and = 0.18. Those for
the forward curved fan are: Z az 60, /32 = 145°, w = 2.15 and = 0.5.
Hydraulic efficiency values of 80% for P2 < 90° and 70% for 132 > 90°
are good approximations. The specific speeds of centrifugal fans vary between
0.5 to 1.8; efficiency is low at the lower range of ak. A centrifugal machine
exhibits best efficiency for 132 of the order 25°. About 1 percent fall in efficiency
occurs for every 5° increase in /32 till a purely radial discharge condition is
reached.

Example 17.4 A centrifugal fan delivers 350 m3/min of air at a static pressure
of 30 mm Wg when operating at 400 rpm. The power input is 4 kW. The diameter
of the outlet duct is 60 cm. Pressure losses due to friction of the inlet and outlet
ducts and constriction of the inlet passage are negligible.
Calculate the static and total efficiencies of the fan. The pressure and
temperature of room air are 1.013 bar and 20°C respectively, for which p =
1.2 kg/m3.

Area of the outlet duct Ad = 4 (0.6)2 = 02827 m2

Discharge velocity Vd = 350 20.63 m/s

60 x 02827 —
Discharge velocity head Hd = (V11210 x (Paid pw) in Wg
or
(20.63)2 12
Hd =T7 9.81 x - 26.03 mm Wg
Total head = 30 + 26.03 = 56.03 mm Wg
350x 1000 x 9.81 x 30 x 10-3
Static air power = Q • Aps = —
60
=1.716 kW
426 FLUID IIECHMICS

Total air power = Q • 4p, = 1.716 x 11,111,

56.03
= L716 x - 71- = 3206 kW

1.716
42.9%
n sugic = 4.0 -
3.206
timed = . :1 = 80.15%

Example 17.5 If the fan in Example 17.4 was required to handle air at 70°C,
what would be the static pressure developed if the speed was kept unchanged?
What would be the speed, volume handled and power required if the fan was
required to develop static pressure of 30 mm Wg?
Assuming room pressure to remain constant as in Example 17.4,
L . T1 _ 273 + 20 _ n 2cA
PI T2 - 273 + 70 - "--
By Eq. (15.6b),
.ip = KppN2D2
Hence
4042 =1,14:02
or
412= 0.854 API
= 0.854 x 30 = 25.62 mm Wg
If the fan was required to develop the same static pressure of 30 mm Wg, the
speed would have to be
4 p 2 /4 PI = < P2NDI(PIN?) for the same fan
or
N2/N1 =IFF
( I/P) . for developing the same pressure
Hence
= 400 400 = 432.8
N2 40.14 0.924
Q2 _ N2
Qi NI
The volumetric flow rate would be
350 = 378.7 m3/min
Q2 = 0924

Power requirement would be

P2 _ Q2'402 Q2
PI - Qi' API - Qi
 PUMPS AND FANS 427

Therefore,
P2 = 0.924 = 4.328 kW

17.5 PERFORMANCE CURVES OF A CENTRIFUGAL FAN

In practice, the theoretical performance curves of Fig. 17.5 get modified due
primarily to three reasons: (a) the mechanism of head generation, (b) friction, and
(c) the off-design performance of the blades.
Consider when the impeller is first rotated but the discharge has not
commenced, Q = 0. According to Eq. (15.18) the Euler head at this condition is
only due to the forced vortex motion, point A in Fig. 17.6. As the discharge valve
is gradually opened, the effective head increases due to the contributions of the
other two terms of Eq. (15.18) arising from the changes in absolute and relative
velocity heads. The rise in head will, however, be partially offset due to friction
in the impeller and casing, since now there is a net flow across the machine. The
competing effects of head rise and friction will result in a maximum H being attained
at about point S in Fig. 17.6. The maximum efficiency of the machine occurs at
a flow rate marginally beyond S. The maximum efficiency point is referred to as
the operating or the design point. The specifications of a machine state the conditions
at the operating point.

180 -18

- 16

- 14
POWER
- 12
O
▪ 100
TOTAL
rs 80 RESSURE -8
TATIC
z
▪ 60 EFFICIENCY - 6
a.
a 40 - 4

20 -2

II till I I 0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
VOLUME FLOW RATE , 0 ag10 3 m3/ hr
Fig. 17.6 Characteristics of a Centrifugal Fan (Arco Ltd., Size 36'/2 SISW-1000 rpm).
428 FLUID IAECHANICS

We may notice that the behaviour of the machine to the left of point S is
opposite to that on the right. The behaviour to the right is normal, since a decrease
in Ap is expected with an increase in Q at a given input power (see also Fig. 17.5).
The decrease of Ap with Q to the left of B is, however, unsuspecting, but real. The
point B is referred to as the 'surging limit' of a machine and operation to its left
is guarded against. The flow rate in the region becomes intermittent and unstable.
When the flow rate is' significantly higher than the design point, the fluid relative
velocities at inlet and outlet of the blade no longer remain tangential to the blade
profile. Significant shock losses take place and the machine performance drops
sharply.
The performance curve shown in Fig. 17.6 is reproduced from a bulletin of
M/s ARCO Ltd, Calcutta for a single inlet 1000 mm diameter impeller with
aerofoil blades operated at 1000 rpm. The flow path and the impeller shape may
be observed in the insets to the figure.

17.6 SPECIFIC SPEED IN TERMS OF PRESSURE AND VOLUME

COEFFICIENTS
Pressure coefficient w and volume coefficient 0, although common only in the
literature of fans, can be used to present the performance characteristic of any
rotodynamic machine in non-dimensional form.
The specific speed of a machine can be conveniently estimated knowing the
value of and w.
Recall that
w.
(1) s = (gH)
3i4

= cilu20
and
dp = pgH = poly,
Hence on substitution, we have

d2 VT2 v4T)
W, = co4-7—
—r • 2 3/4 „M2 v3/4
s
Or

cos = 2.981 3/4 (17.10)

w
The expression at Eq. (17.10) is particularly convenient for carrying out design
calculations.
Note that a high w or low 0 value results in a lower specific speed. Since
a low specific-speed machine has low hydraulic efficiency, a high-pressure fan or
pump is less efficient than one of high volume capacity.
 PUMPS AND FANS 429

Example 17.6 A centrifugal fan is to be designed for handling 300 m3/min of

air at a static pressure of 100 mm Wg. It is desired to choose backward curved
vanes of /32 = 25°, for which the hydraulic efficiency can be assumed to be 80%.
Take a volumetric efficiency of 95% and assume that the velocity of air through
the fan outlet is limited to 30% of the impeller tip speed. The inlet diameter of
the impeller is 50 percent of the outlet and the volumetric coefficient can be
chosen as = 0.16. The number of blades on the impeller is to be 12. Calculate:
(i) inlet and outlet diameters of the impeller
(ii) heights of the blade passage at inlet and outlet if V12 = 0.2u2 and
V11 = V12
(iii) inlet blade angle
(iv) operating speed
(v) specific speed
Take
pair = 1.2 kg/m3 and p.m, = 1000 kg/m3
So,
hs =100 mm Wg = 100 x — 11 = 83.33 m of air
2
If u2 is the peripheral speed of the impeller, the discharge velocity is 0.3u2 and
the discharge head
(0.3 u2)2
ha = = 4387 x 10-3 u2 m of air
2g
The fan total head H = hr + hd
Of
H = 8333 + 4387 x 10-3 4
The Euler head for a purely radial entry is

HE = - (,U2
2 — U2V f 2 cot 1
3 2)

Ku? sin $2
Hap =
gz
Hence
,,2
2 K .
Hd, = HE - = I cot $2 - sin P2
g u2
Of

Ild, = 8 (1 — 0.2 cot 25 - 2

7: sin 25)
12
Of
0.461422
Hs, =
430 FLUID MECHANICS

u2
H= =0.0375u2
Therefore,
83.33 + 4857 x 10-34 = 0.0375141
or
ui = 2548.86, u2 = 50.48 m/s
and
H = 95.71 m of air
The pressure coefficient

w Lip
= pgH 2 gH
— 1 2 1
pu t2 — u 22
PU2

Or

2 x 9.81 x 95.71
= 0.7368
2548.86
The volumetric coefficient 0 is given by

Q = 0idiu2
300
Qd = 1
77
0 = 5 m 3/s
and the quantity handled by the impeller is
Qd 5
Q= = 5.263 m3/s
th, 0.95
Hence
4 x 5263
d2 = 0.8297
2 n X 0.16 x 50.48

Of
d2 = 0.91 m = 91 cm
Take
d2 = 92 cm
d1 = 0.5d2 = 46 cm
ird2 N
U2 - 60

Of

60 x 50.48
N= =1047.9 rpm
x 0.92
N = 1050 rpm would be a good choice
with
N = 1050 rpm
 PUMPS AND FANS 431

Ir x 1050 i An n i
CO = = . 0 Law s
30

u1 = con = 109.95 x 4
11 6 — 25.29 m/s

u2 = cor2 = 25.29 x 2 = 50.58 m/s

v11 = v12 = 0.2u2 = 10.116 m/s
Q = ;a Kiwi i = ith2d2V/ 2
Hence
5263
b1 = — 036 m
x x 0.46 x 10.116
or
b1 = 36 cm
and
b2 = 18 cm
If 131 is the angle of the blade at inlet

10.116
tan /31 = ofilui i•-• = 0.4, 131 = 21.8°
2529

cos= 2981 w 3/4

Or
2.981 x 11 15.176
co, — =15
(0.7368)"5
Hence the salient information is:
di = 46 cm, d2 = 92 cm, b1 = 36 cm, b2 = 18 cm
/31 = 21.8°, N = 1050 rpm; cos = 1.5.

17.7 AXIAL FLOW FANS

Rotodynamic fans, blowers and compressors are also made with axial flow rotors.
The flow path is as shown in Fig. 15.2(a), i.e., substantially parallel to the axis
of the rotor. The blades are usually of aerofoil cross-section and allow very
negligible clearance between the blade tip and the fan stator.
The pressure rise per stage of an axial flow fan is quite small compared to
a single stage centrifugal fan. These are, therefore, of multistage construction with
a ring of guide vanes spaced between two rings of moving blades. While the
moving vanes are mounted on the rotor, the guide vanes are attached to the stator,
i.e., the casing. The role of the guide vanes is to redirect the fluid from the exit
of one row of the moving vanes to the next.
Guide vanes are also put at the inlet to a machine in order to give a
432 FLUID MECHANICS

pre-rotation to the fluid reaching the moving vanes. Similarly, guide vanes may
be located at the exit section in order to align the outlet flow with the axial
direction, and also to recover some static pressure by diffuser action. A rotor
rotating in the opposite direction is sometimes placed at the exit plane for higher
pressure recovery. The fan is then said to be contra-rotating.

17.8 AXIAL FLOW BLADING

Both, the guide vanes as well as the moving vanes of an axial flow machine are
of aerofoil design. In Chapter 10, we noted the aerofoil nomenclature, where the
angle between the direction of velocity and the camber line was called the angle
of incidence. The incidence angle is optimum when the lift to drag ratio for a
blade is the highest. The aerodynamic design aims to set the absolute velocity of
fluid at optimum incidence to a guide vane and the relative velocity to a moving
vane.
The axial component of velocity Vf is maintained constant from the inlet to
the outlet. Furthermore, a common practice in the design of blades for an axial
flow machine is to maintain uV,,, as constant at all radii. This means that the work
done, i.e. the Euler head is constant along the blade height. At a given rotational
speed, the condition means rV,,, = constant. We recognize that this is a criterion
for free-vortex design. The blade design is hence said to belong to the free-vortex
or radial equilibrium category. In high speed axial flow compressors, a design
may sometimes be made on the basis of constant reaction, say R = 0.5 (see
Chapter 15).
We may also recall our observations in connection with the axial flow
Kaplan turbine (Chapter 16). Since the peripheral speed kchanges with r, a moving
blade along its height has to be twisted in order to satisfy shockless flow conditions.
Furthermore, the hydrodynamics is that of an external flow over a blade which is
better analysed through the theory of aerofoils.
The lift L and drag D acting on a moving aerofoil are shown in Fig. 17.7.

Fig. 17.7 Forces on a Moving Blade.

 PUMPS AND FANS 433

The force F on the blade in the direction of the peripheral velocity u is

F=Lsin$+Dcos$ (17.11)
Defining L and D on the basis of respective coefficients, we rewrite Eq. (17.11)
as

F = pV 2A (CL sin 13 + CD cos /3) (17.12)

2 '
Or

F = L sin + cot p) (17.13)

CL
The projected area A is the product of the blade height and its chord; $ is
the mean blade angle between the inlet and outlet. The theoretical work done in
a row of moving vanes with n number of blades is. then given by
W = Fnu (17.14)
As an equivalence with the Euler head, we can then write
Fnu = tilgH E (17.15)

Example 17.7 The diameter of the rotor of an axial flow fan is 300 mm
on which 20 blades of height 100 mm and chord 49 mm are mounted. The
blades are designed for uniform work output at all radii, and the rotational
speed is 1500 rpm. If the nominal relative velocity is 35 m/s at an angle of 25°
with peripheral speed at mid radius, calculate the work done, given CL = 0.45,
CD = 0.21 and p = 1.2 kg/m3. Estimate the Euler head if the mass flow rate of
air is 4.5 kg/s.
A = 49 x 100x 10-6 = 49 x 10-4 m2

— pV 2 A = —
1 x 1.2 x 352 x 49 x 10-4 = 3.6015 N
2 ' 2
F = 3.6015(CL sin fi + CD COS P)
Of

F = 3.6015(0.45 sin 25 + 0.21 cos 25)

Or
F = 1.37038 N
The mean diameter D„,=D+h= 400 mm

KD„,N x 400 x 1500 x 10-3 = 31.416 m/s

U=
60 60
Work done = Fnu = 1.37038 x 20 x 31.416 = 861.0 W

Fnu 861.0
HE 19.5 m of air
mg 4.5 x 9.81 —
434 FLUID MECHANICS

17.9 PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF AXIAL FLOW FANS

Axial flow fans are of large volume ratings, low pressure, high efficiency, and
have high specific speeds. Since the fluid enters and leaves the blade of an axial
fan at the same radial position, the Euler head for an axial flow fan has no
centrifugal component, see Eq. (15.17). The expression for pressure coefficient w
can be quoted from Eq. (17.8). An ideal w = 2 is noted at the zero flow rate
condition, 0 = 0. According to Eq. (17.8), the pressure decreases as the volume
flow rate increases. At some flow rates, shortly before rising to a maximum
pressure condition, however, the flow experiences separation losses around the
blade geometry, the lift coefficient of the blade decreases sharply and stalling
condition is experienced. When the flow rate is further increased, the increased
fluid kinetic energy sweeps away the stall. The stable operating condition of the
fan is, hence, beyond the stalling condition of maximum pressure at non-zero flow
rate, point S in Fig. 17.8.
90

80

▪ 70
z
LU
C.' 60 STATIC
EFFICIENCY
a▪ SO
z
D, 40

E 30
E

o. 20
10

1 11 1 I i 1 1 1 II 1111 1 1 1 1 I
0 2 4 6 8
10 12 14 16 18 20 22
VOLUME FLOW RATE Q 10-3 m3 / hr
Fig. 17.8 Characteristics of an axial Flow Fan (ARCO Ltd., Size 28 AFT—I460 rpm).

The performance characteristics of an industrial axial flow fan, manufactured

by ARCO Ltd, wheel diameter 710 mm, run at 1460 rpm are presented in Fig. 17.8.
Note that the no-flow power requirement of an axial flow fan, point A in the figure
in practice, is substantially higher than that for the operating condition. This is so
because of the poor aerodynamic performance of the blades at very low flow rates.

17.10 FAN AND SYSTEM

Any flow system consisting of say, ductwork, heaters, air washers, filters etc. has
 PUMPS AND FANS 435

a characteristic which is unique to that system and is independent of the fan or

pump installed for handling the fluid. The resistance to fluid flow in the system
is usually proportional to Q2. So, if the resistance is plotted against Q, the system
characteristic is a parabolic one.
In Fig. 17.9, the curve B is the normal characteristic of a given system.
When the resistance is increased say, by a damper or the like, the characteristic
may change to curve A. Similarly, C may represent the system characteristic when
the resistance is decreased. In other words, curves A and C mark the limiting
conditions of curve B.

A
/
//
System
characteristics
Op

1
2
Fan
characteristics

a
Fig. 17.9 Fan and System Matching.

The objective may be to select a fan that would serve the need of the
system. The procedure then is to choose a fan out of the several available.
Ap vs. Q characteristics of the available fans i.e., curves 1, 2 or 3 are superimposed
on the system curve, and the best one is selected. Points 1', 2' and 3' represent
the intersections of the characteristics of fans 1, 2 and 3 respectively on curve B.
Two observations can be made now. Fffst, points 1', 2' and 3' do not represent
the same volume or pressure points. If any particular fan is chosen, the speed of
the fan may be decreased or increased to attain the desired flow rate. If the
pressure in the process is higher, a throttling arrangement has to be provided.
The second observation relates to the difference in the characteristics of the
fans. For example, if Fan 1 is chosen, in preference to Fan 2, the flow fluctuation
shall be wider between the system limits A and C. On the other hand, if Fan 3 is
chosen, the pressure fluctuation shall be wider. The choice is then to be made as
to which, Q or 4p, fluctuation can be tolerated while satisfying a given need.
Another consideration in choosing a fan is the reference to the stalling/surge
condition. It is recalled that the pressure developed by a fan decreases when the
volumetric flow is less than that corresponding to the point S of maximum pressure
in Fig. 17.6 or Fig. 17.8. The flow becomes unsteady and intermittent to the left
of S. Hence, the fan chosen should be such that the limiting characteristics of the
system are always to the right of the maximum pressure point.
Two fans of equal volumetric capacity may be connected in series to obtain
436 FLUID MECHANICS

a higher pressure rating. Similarly, two fans of, preferably, identical characteristic
may be connected in parallel to handle a higher volume flow rate. Mismatching
of the fan characteristics in parallel connection sometimes results in "hunting".
One convenient solution in such cases is to connect the two fans to a large
chamber (surge chamber), the outlet of which is coupled to the system. These
discussions apply equally to matching of pumps and liquid flow systems.

17.11 RECIPROCATING PUMPS

Let us now discuss a positive displacement machine, the most common example
of which is a reciprocating pump. The basic components of such a machine are
a plunger reciprocating inside a cylinder, and the suction and discharge pipes
connected to the cylinder through valves (see Fig. 17.10). The weight or spring-
stiffness of the discharge valve can be selected to achieve wide variations in
pressure rating of a reciprocating pump. The applications range from lifting subsoil
water through a hand-pump to pumping feed water into a high pressure boiler by
coupling the pump to a steam prime mover. In all cases, however, the discharge
is low and often intermittent.
Imagine a pump driven by a crank of radius R at angular speed w radians/s.

Patm.

y7,77i/,77/7//7/Geo u ha- liver/////,e

pe

Water level

Fig. 17.10 Schematic of a Reciprocating Pump.

 PUMPS AND FANS 437

The connecting rod is very long compared to the crank so that the plunger motion
can be considered simple harmonic. As the crank rotates from the inner-dead-
centre position, the plunger displacement causes a partial vacuum inside the cylinder,
leading to opening of the suction valve and lifting of water through the suction
pipe of length Ls, Fig. 17.10.
At a time t, the crank makes an angle 0 = wt with the line of traverse of
the plunger whose
displacement x = R(1 — cos ax)
velocity V = wR sin ax
and acceleration f = aiR cos ax
The instantaneous volume flow rate of water due to V is AwR sin an, where
A is the cross-sectional area of the cylinder. The corresponding velocity of water
in the pipe is

v, = A
— toR sin tot (17.16)
a
and acceleration
f,= A co 2R cos an (17.17)
a
where a is the area of cross-section of the suction pipe.
The mass of water in the suction pipe is m = paL, and the inertia force due
to the acceleration f, is
= mf, = pAL,02R cos ax (17.18)
The equivalent pressure in the suction pipe is

Pr = Fr, A L co 2R cos an (17.19a)

—a =—
a 5
or
Head H1, 1 •A
— — L, 2R cos an (17.19b)
=g a
Similarly, an inertia head in the discharge pipe can be expressed as

H = • Ld (0 2R cos wt (17.20)
g a
In Fig. 17.10, we have indicated a ground level e-e over which the atmospheric
pressure acts. The water level is at a depth h on which the pressure acting is p,.
This configuration is as would be experienced with a pump lifting subsoil water.
Po = Pam + Psgh (17.21)
In the event the water surface is exposed to atmosphere,
Po = Pum, h=0
If we apply Bernoulli's equation between the water surface and the water at S at
the end of the suction pipe, we can write
438 FLUID MECHANICS

v2
Po = Ps + Ps g(H, + h)+ pgh f + pt+ Pi (17.22)

where hf is the head lost due to pipe friction

f Lsv
h f = 2g (17.23)

and ps is the absolute pressure at point S. When h = 0,

2
V
Pon = Ps + PgHs + p, + —Fs)
p -1- (1+ iL (17.24)

Substituting for pi from Eq. (17.19a), we get

PgHs Vs
pT Ls) — p oTi
1+ —fer A Ld w 2R cos cot (17.25a)
Ps = Plum

Or

hs = (Ham — Hs) — —°2g

L (1 + IL)
d H (17.25b)

expressing the pressures in terms of heads of water.

The absolute pressure head at the end of the suction pipe h, is not allowed
to fall below the vapour pressure value of approximately 2.5 m. This restriction
is satisfied by adjusting the value of the pump speed ai or pipe length L, for a
given suction lift Hs. The maximum suction effect, i.e., the lowest value of hs
occurs at the beginning of the suction stroke; 8 = 0.
The theoretical discharge of a reciprocating pump is

= 2AR
A volumetric efficiency, to account for the leakages, is expressed as

Qactual
?No] — 2 AR (17.26)

If the discharge head is given by Hd, the total lift for a pump with water level
exposed to atmosphere is (11, + Hd) when the frictional losses are neglected. The
theoretical power requirement then is,
P = pgQd,(H, + Hd ) (17.27)
It would be noted from Eq. (17.25) that inertia of water in the suction pipe
causes a fluctuation of pressure at the end of the suction pipe. A similar fluctuation
is also noted at the discharge end due to inertia of the liquid in the delivery pipe,
especially when the pipe lengths are large. Such fluctuations are reflected in the
volumetric discharge and power requirement for the pump during a cycle of
operation.
 PUMPS AND FANS 439

These fluctuations can be minimised t7 atugs Nita on the auction

and delivery pipes close to the pump cylinder, which, in effect, reduces the mass
of liquid in oscillation through reduced value of L3 in Eq. (17.19).

Example 17.8 A single-acting reciprocating pump has a plunger diameter of

16 cm and a crank of 18 cm rotating at 15 rpm. The suction head is 5 m and the
delivery head, 40 m. The suction and delivery pipes are both 8 cm in diameter and
10 and 45 m long respectively. Neglecting velocity head and friction losses in the
pipes, estimate the absolute pressure of water at the beginning and end of the
suction and delivery strokes. Sketch the pressure vs. plunger displacement diagram.

_ — — 15 = 1.57 rad/s
w = 30 — 30

Plunger area A (1612

Pipe area = a 8 =4

Inertia pressure head in the suction pipe at the beginning of the stroke is

His = g cd (0 2R cos 0
a

= 9.81 x 4 x 10 x 1.57 2 x 18 x 10-2

=1.81m at0=0
hs = Hum — H, — His
or
h,= 10.334 — 5 — 1.81 = 3.524 m
At the end of the suction stroke 0 = x, and the inertia head is
= — 1.81 m
h,= 10.334 — 5 — (— 1.81) = 7.144 m.
For the delivery pipe, the inertia head is

Hid Ld co 2R cos cot

=ga
= 4 x 45 x 1.572 x 18 x 10-2 cos an
9.81
or
Hid = 8.141 cos on
Pressure at the beginning of the delivery stroke is
hd = Hat„, + Hd + Hid

= 10.334 + 40 + 8.141 = 58.475 m,

440 FLUID MECHANICS

to 59.475

50.334

E 42.193
c
0
w 40 m = Hd

w
a_ 10.334 atm.
7.144 5m = Hs
3.524 -----

DISPLACEMENT
Fig. 17.11
and at the end of the stroke is
hd = 10.334 + 40 — 8.141 = 42.193 m of water
Note that the inertia heads affect the shape of the pressure-displacement
curve but the area of the curve remains unchanged. In other words, whereas
power requirement during a cycle varies from time to time, due to inertia effects,
the average cyclic power remains the same as would be estimated simply on the
basis of (Ha + H,).

17.12 SUMMARY
1. It is essential to prime a centrifugal pump before it is started.
2. The maximum suction depth of a centrifugal pump is around 6 to 8 m so
that the water at inlet to the impeller is above its vapour pressure.
3. The most important parameter affecting the performance of a rotodynamic
machine is the outlet angle fh.
4. The operating or design point of a rotodynamic machine is the point of
its maximum efficiency.
5. Centrifugal fans with forward curved blades have higher volume and
pressure ratings, but are unsuitable for varying load conditions due to their steeply
rising power requirement. Backward-curved fans are more efficient and are stable
under off-design operating conditions.
 PUMPS AND FANS 441

6. The stable operating point of a rotodynamic machine is to the right of its

maximum pressure in a H-Q curve so as to be away from surge or stalling conditions.
7. Whereas the outlet velocity head of liquid for a centrifugal pump is
negligible compared to the static lift, the same is not true for fans.
8. Fans and pumps may be connected in series for meeting higher pressure
requirement or in parallel for increased flow requirement.
9. The starting power requirement of an axial flow fan can be significantly
higher than that at the rated operating condition.
10. Air vessels installed on the suction and delivery pipes of a reciprocating
pump help reduce intennittancy of discharge and oscillations of the water column.

EXERCISES
1. A centrifugal pump is designed to start against a static head of 15 m. The
impeller inner and outer diameters are 225 and 450 mm respectively. Accounting
for a manometric efficiency of 75%, calculate the minimum speed at which the
pump will start operating. 4
(Ans: 970.8 rpm)
2. Show that for a centrifugal impeller, the optimum value of the flow component
of velocity V12 for maximum efficiency is given by

!2
—u2
- 2 tan p2
For a given centrifugal pump, 132 = 25°, impeller diameter is 20 cm at outlet and
width of outlet passage is 2 cm. Calculate the flow rate and power requirement
while operating at 300 rpm under the condition of maximum efficiency.
(Ans: 0.55 m3/min, 45.4 W)
3. A centrifugal pump operating at 600 rpm delivers .4 m3 of water per minute
against a head of 8 m with a power input of 7 kW. Determine the size of its
impeller if the pump has to start operating at the rated speed. The diameter ratio
of the impeller is 2, and the hydraulic efficiency 85%.
A geometrically similar pump, four times in linear dimension, is to be
designed to work against a head of 40 m. Calculate the speed, flow rate, power
requirement, efficiency and specific speed of the larger pump.
(Ana: 112.76 mm, 335.4 rpm, 2.385 m3/s, 1.2523 MW, 74.74%, 0.615)
4. A centrifugal pump delivers 120 litres of fuel oil of sp. gr. 0.85 per second
against a pressure of 200 kPa while running at 1000 rpm. The impeller inner and
outer diameters are 200 and 400 mm and the blade passage widths 50 and 25 mm
respectively. Ten percent of the passage area is blocked due to blade thickness.
Determine the inlet and outlet angles of the impeller blade and the power
required to drive the pump, if the manometric and overall efficiencies are 85 and
70 percent respectively. What would be the inlet angle if the pump had a vaned
diffuser?
,(Ans: 22°, 28.74°, 34.285 kW, 17.8°)
442 FLUID c►wacs

5. Draw the theoretical H-Q curve for a backward-curved centrifugal pump with
a 300 mm impeller running at 1200 rpm. The outlet blade angle and passage
width are 27° and 40 mm. Express the Euler head as HE = A — BQ and determine
the values of A and B.
The pump has a slip factor of 0.89 and the hydraulic losses can be accounted
for as KQ2. At the best operating point, the pump delivers 0.18 m3/s of water against
a head of 14 m. Calculate the value of the loss coefficient K.
(Ans: 36.22, 100.033, 68.21)
6. A centrifugal fan runs at 900 rpm and delivers 1.8 m3/s air at 20°C and sea
level barometric pressure. The impeller outlet and inlet diameters are 75 and
50 cm. The inlet and outlet angles of the impeller blade are 22.5° and 45°. The
impeller width at inlet is 15 cm and is designed for constant radial flow velocity.
Draw the inlet and outlet velocity triangles, and calculate the theoretical head and
the air power. Neglect slip.
(Ans: 105.5 mm Wg, 1.863 kW)
7. Consider a fan with equal cross-sectional area at inlet and outlet working
in ambient atmosphere. Show that. the total gauge pressure at the outlet is
equal to the static pressure differential measured between the outlet and the
inlet.
The static pressures measured across the inlet and outlet of an axial flow
fan are respectively —13 and 35 mm Wg. The diameter of the stator of the fan is
600 mm. Calculate the volume flow rate, fan total pressure at the outlet and its
total efficiency, if the power consumed is 2.5 kW.
(Ans: 4.1224 m3/s, 48 mm Wg, 77.64%)
8. An axial flow fan has a tip diameter of 0.9 m and a hub diameter of 0.5 m. The
air flow rate through the fan is 5 m3/s at a rotational speed of 720 rpm. There is
no whirl component of velocity at the inlet to the blade, and the blades are
designed for uniform specific work output along its height. Calculate the inlet and
outlet blade angles at the hub, mid-height and tip, if the Euler head has to be
22 mm Wg.
(Ans: $ = 31.09, 23.3, 18.52°; 132 = 50.68, 30.15, 21.65°)
9. A single acting reciprocating pump has a stroke of 30 cm and plunger diameter
of 15 cm. The pump is driven at 45 rpm and is used to lift water through a height
of 75 m. If the volumetric efficiency of the pump is 82%, calculate the discharge,
and the minimum power required to drive the pump.
(Ans: 3.26 x 10-3 m3/s, 2.398 kW)
10.The radius of the driving crank of a single-acting reciprocating pump is 10 cm
and the plunger diameter is half the stroke length. The pump is driven at 20 rpm.
The suction and delivery heads are 4 and 15 m. The length of the delivery pipe
is 18 m and its diameter 6 cm. If the pipe friction coefficient f = 0.02, calculate
the pressure at the beginning, middle and end of the delivery stroke. Neglect
inertia and friction loss in the suction pipe.
(Ans: 332.59 kPa, 311.80 kPa, 289.91 kPa)
 Open Channel Flow

The flow of water in a river or in a man-made channel belongs to the category

of "open channel floe:The parameters identifying such a flow are: the fluid is
a liquid, it does not fill the available cross-section completely, it has a free surface
exposed to the atmosphere. Most often, water is the liquid of interest.
The flow of water in a large pipe, when its cross-section is not completely
filled, would be governed by open channel conditions. Examples of such a situation
arise in irrigation conduits, sewerage pipes and large water mains not running full.
An open channel flow exists, or is created, because of a gradient of the
channel surface. The component of the gravitational force along the channel bed
maintains the flow against losses. Frictional losses occur between the liquid and
the channel surface, and between the liquid and the atmosphere at the free surface.
Although the latter resistance is very small compared to the shear at the solid
surface, the atmospheric resistance forces the maximum velocity in a channel to
a depth below the free surface.

18.1 SPECIFIC ENERGY

Consider open channel flow of water in a rectangular channel. The flow will be
assumed "uniform" in the sense that it is not accelerating; synonymous with fully
developed pipe flow. We may further assume that the frictional losses have been
accounted for by the slope of the channel. The free surface at any section will
remain paiallel to the channel bed, see Fig. 18.1.
The channel width is b, height of water at a section x is h, and the flow rate
Q = Vbh (18.1)
where V is the average cross-sectional velocity.

h v

/.,,,1,,,,,,,,,ri,,,,,/,,,,

Fig. 18.1 Uniform Channel Flow.

443
444 FLUID MECHANICS

Since the pressure is atmospheriC at all sections, it suffices to account for

only the hydrostatic and velocity heads through a specific energy E, as

E = V2
— + gh (18.2a)
2
or
Specific head H = h + V2 (18.2b)
gg
In terms of the flow rate Q,

H=h+ Q2 (18.3)
2 gb2 h2
Equation (18.3) indicates a non-linear dependence of H in terms of the hydrostatic
head (or depth) h. The condition for the minimum value of specific head is obtained
as
Q2
dH =1—
=
dh gb2h3
or
Q2
gb2h3 — 1
Defining the corresponding static head to be critical, we have
Q 2 )1/3
k= 2 (18.4)
gb
The minimum specific head is then

h3
11„ii, = k +
2h2
or
Hmin = 3 k (18.5)

The significance of Eq. (18.5) is that if a flow is to take place at a depth h, it must
have a minimum kinetic energy equivalent to 1/2h so that 1/.6, = 3/2 h. The specific
head variations with depth may be calculated for a chosen flow rate per unit width
Qlb, and plotted as shown in Fig. 18.2. The kinetic energy and static head variations
are also indicated.
The critical head condition can be conveniently stated through a non-
dimensional parameter. Expressing the flow rate Q in terms of velocity V, we get
from Eq. (18.4) the relation

h3 - Q2 - V2b2q
C gb2 gb2
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 445
3.00

2.00
E

0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00
H . m of water —.
Fig. 18.2 Specific Head Variations at a Constant Q/b.

V2 = shc
or
V =1 (18.6)
F,
Since by definition, the Froude number Fr = VI Irg-h , the critical condition marked
C in the curve in Fig. 18.2 is characterized by
Fr, = 1 (18.7)

18.2 PROGRESS OF AN OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

The minimum specific head 11,„th in Fig. 18.2 signifies that the desired flow
rate Q through a channel cannot take place if the specific energy is below the
minimum.
On the other hand, the specific energy curve in Fig. 18.3 indicates that a
given flow rate and head H can be satisfied by two alternative combinations of
static head and kinetic energy: 1 and 2. The portion of the curve above C, e.g.,
point 1, corresponds to a higher static head and lower kinetic energy, and the
lower portion for the converse. The low kinetic energy flow is called "subcritical"
and the other "supercritical".
446 auto MECHANICS

3.00

SUB CRITICAL,
Fr < 1

2.00
E

.c

e—
a.
o 1.00

SUPER CRITICAL
Fr >1

0 00
0 00 1.00 2.00 3.00
H , m of water
Fig. 18.3 Open Channel Flow Directions.
A subcritical flow is referred to as a "tranquil" or "streaming" flow and a
supercritical one as a "rapid" or "shooting" flow. A subcritical flow is associated
with Fr < 1 and the supercritical with Fr > 1.
Note the similarity with the subsonic and supersonic compressible flows
which are identified by M <1 and M > 1, the critical condition occurring at M = 1.
In the absence of any work input, an open channel flow can proceed only
in the direction of decreasing specific energy. The flow direction in the h — H
curve of Fig. 18.3 will therefore, be as shown from 1 to 1' when subcritical, or
from 2 to 2' when supercritical. It is thus seen that the depth in a subcritical flow
will decrease and that in a supercritical flow will increase in the downstream
direction. The flow rate shall be maintained by corresponding changes in the
velocity. Both subcritical and supercritical flows will proceed towards the critical
condition; but cannot continue to the other portion of the curve, because that
would mean increase of specific energy.

18.3 MAXIMUM FLOW RATE FOR A GIVEN SPECIFIC ENERGY

The specific head recalled from Eq. (18.5) is
n2
H=h+
2gb2h 2
Or
Q2 = 2gb2h2 (H - h)
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 447

and
Q = bh 2g (H — h) (18.8)

is the flow rate through a uniform rectangular channel of width b and depth h. The
flow rate becomes maximum at a depth given by

dQ 0
dh = 42g b P71-71 2 7-
4
or
h-
H — hopt 2

Or

hope = 3 H (18.9)

The expression for optimum h is seen to be the same as that for he of Eq. (18.5).
Hence, the critical depth he = 2/3 H and•Fr =1 are also the conditions for maximum
flow rate for a given specific energy.
Substitution of h in Eq. (18.8) yields the maximum flow rate as

= 2bH gH (18.10)

Example 18.1 Water at inlet to a rectangular channel of uniform cross-

section has a velocity of 6.5 m/s. The depth at inlet is 60 cm. Identify if the
flow is subcritical or supercritical and calculate the critical depth and the
corresponding velocity. Calculate the specific head at inlet and at the critical
•condition.
= 6.5 m/s, hi = 0.6 m
6.5
Fr = = 2 679
31( 0.6
The flow is supercritical.
V2 6.52
H= +—L= 0.6 +2 x 9.81 = 2.7534 m
2g
Since the channel is uniform in the cross-section,
= = 6.5 x 0.6 = 3.9 m3/s per meter width. At critical depth,
v
Fr, =1 = `
ghc
Or

V2 = etc
448 FLUID mezeimacs

Or
= = 3.9 g = 38.259
= 3.3696 m/s
h, = 1.1574 m
H, = = 1.7361 m

18.4 HYDRAUUC JUMP

A rapid or supercritical flow is naturally unstable in the sense that the flow tends
to move towards lower kinetic energy in an abrupt manner. Consider the discharge
from a reservoir through a sluice-gate to the downstream channel. The discharge
is at a high velocity and has a low head. On the other hand, the water velocity
in the channel is low and the free surface is above the discharge level of the
sluice. In such a situation, the gate discharge has to "jump" to meet the channel
water level (see Fig. 18.4a). The jump may be triggered by a suitable design of
the sluice outlet passage called the apron, or may even occur naturally. Such a
phenomenon, called "hydraulic jump", results in considerable loss of energy. The
structure near a hydraulic jump has to be designed for sufficient strength and
rigidity to absorb the loss of fluid energy.
In Fig. 18.4a, the high velocity water from section 1-1 is jumping to a
higher depth of water at section 2-2. A control volume is considered around the
jump in Fig. 18.4b. The channel width is deemed not to change over the length of
the jump.

( a) PHYSICAL MODEL

rT_,
P1 JUMP P2
--gib •
I
L— ----J

(b) CONTROL VOLUME

Ng. 18.4 Hydraulic Jump.
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 449

The upstream and downstream pressures are P1 = pg (h1/2) and P2 =

pg (h2/2). The corresponding areas are Al = bh1 and A2 = bh2. The flow rate
Q = bh1 V1 = bh2112. Applying the momentum equation, we have

1;(112 - ) P I Al- P 2 A2

pb(h2V22 -
blV12) = Pbg T- 2

Substituting for V1 and V2 in terms of the flow rate Q, we get

1
Q- = 02? - hi)
hi ) 2
Or

6 •102- -g-2 (h - h2'

Or

h2 (hl + h2) = -2-

ghi 622
or

hi +hih 2 - 2 21 =0
ghi 2
The solution of this quadratic equation yields the height h2 after the jump as

8 Q2
ghib2
h2 = (18.12)
2
The term
Q2 VI2
= Fr?h?
gh1b2 gh1
Hence
-hi +hi 17
. 1-1 8FTI2
h2 - 2
or
h1
AM3F'52 -1)
h 2 = — (14
2
or
h2 _1
(18.13)
/71 -
450 FLUID MECHAMCS

The loss of specific energy due to a jump is

4111. = — H2
or
&floss = — h2) + 2-
v2 %
1 2
or

Mika = (hi — h2) Q2 hi h?

2gb 2
Substituting for
Q2 h + h2
gb2 hih 2 2
we get

[(h2 — h1)2]
LtHioss = (hi — h2) 1 + A h2h2
-•••1".2
or
(h2 — hi)3
— (18.14)
4h 1
2 h22

The loss Mi.> 0, only if h2 > h1. In other words, the hydraulic jump shall take
place only if Fri > 1, i.e., in a flow initially supercritical and from a lower head
to a higher head. That is; if
Fri < 1, h2 < hi, the flow will continue as tranquil. If
Fri > 1, h2 > hi, the jump may occur, and
Fri = 1, h2 = hi, is the limiting condition without a jump.
Since the channel width is assumed constant across the jump length,
V2 — hi
VI — h2

Fr2 — V2 11717 (h1)312

Fri Vi h2 h2
or

Fr2 _ 2
Fi 4-7
1 4 87V —1)312
or
)3/2
2
Fr2 = Fri (18.15)
—1
is the Froude number after the jump.
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 451

The downstream Froude numbers Fr2 for selected Fri are given in
Table 18.1 and the variations are plotted in Fig. 18.5.

Table 18.1 Froude numbers across a Hydraulic Jump

Fri Fr2

1.0 1.0
1.5 0.6892
2.0 0.5474
2.5 0.4646
3.5 0.4095
4.0 0.3697
4.5 0.3153
5.0 0.2956

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

00
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
F ri
Fig. 18.5 Froude Numbers across a Hydraulic Jump.

We note from the table as well as from Fig. 18.5, that the Froude number
after the jump is always less than unity. The higher the upstream Fri , the higher
452 FLUID MECHANICS

is the head loss and the lower the Fr2. The jump is an irreversible and discontinuous
process as sketched in Fig. 18.6, and its "strength" is a measure of the loss in
specific head.
3.00

E 2.00-
-
.c

a.
O
1.00-

0.00
0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00
H, m of water
Fig. 18.6 The Process of a Hydraulic Jump.

Observe the similarity of the conditions of a hydraulic jump with those of

a normal shock in a compressible flow. A normal shock will occur only if M1 > 1
and the flow is supersonic. The flow downstream of the shock is subsonic with
the static pressure P2 > pi.

Example 18.2 The depth and velocity of a stream of water are 80 cm and
4 m/s respectively. State whether a hydraulic jump is possible. If so, determine
the conditions after the jump, and the loss of specific head.

Fri = — = 4 14278
.47:1 .9.8l x 0.8

Since Fri > 1, a hydraulic jump can occur.

From Eq. (18.13),

h2 = -D
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 453

0.8
h2 = (4.1605 — 1) = 1.2642m

•Q bVih i =bV2h 2
hi 0.8
V2 = h2 = 4 x 1.2642 — 2.53 m/s

V2
Fr2 = = 0.7187
02

V2 42
= hi + = 0.8 +2 x 9.81 — 1.6155 m
2g
V2 2.53 2
H2 = h2 + —2— = L2642 + — 1.5904 m
2g 2 x 9.81
dH = 1.6155 — 1.5904 = 0.0251 m of water.
We note that the downstream depth or the lost head is not much, because Fri was
only moderately higher than unity. The strength of the jump, i.e., the loss will
increase if the upstream Froude number Fri is considerably higher than unity.

18.5 VENTURI FLUME

The measurement of flow rate through a channel is done by installing weirs of
different cross-sections (see Chapter 5) or by constricting the channel width at a
desired section which then acts like a venturimeter. The arrangement is called a
venturi flume. Its plan view and the water level are illustrated in Fig. 18.7.

Patm
I FREE
SURFACE
hi
-•••••110. V2
h2
4, ,f 4, ff,74 mf, '4/ fir/eff,f,
(a) ELEVATION

h2

10 PLAN

Fig. 18.7 A Venturi Flume.

 •
454 FLUID MECI1ANICS

The channel width a short distance upstream of the flume is bi and water
level is h1. The flume width is b2 and the level h2. For a subcritical flow
h2 < h1 . Neglect losses and assume that the specific head is conserved between
the two sections.
Flow rate Q = V1b1h1 = V2h2h2 (18.16a)

H = h1+ g2 = h2 + 2V22 (18.16b)

2
Hence

V2 -
_ V12
v 2 -Q2
i
02 1 1
hi — h2 = 2g
2g bihi
Or

2g(h 1 — h2)
02 (18.17a)
1 .1
bihi bih?

or
112

— 2g(hi — h2)
(18.17b)
1 1
bihi b?h?

Equation (18.17b) indicates that the volume flow rate through the channel
can be estimated by making measurements of water-level h1 and h2: upstream and
on the venturi flume. The water-level is ordinarily measured by depth-gauges
operated from platforms above the water surface.

18.6 UNIFORM CHANNEL FLOW

A uniform or fully developed channel flow implies that the velocity profile is
similar in the downstream direction. Such a flow occurs in a channel laid on a
gentle slope and about 20 to 30 widths from the inlet.
Considering a control volume interior to the free surface, as shown in
Fig. 18.8, we can write the force balance as

dV = 7? dy dx + pg(sin a) dy dx (18.18)
ric ay

For fully developed flow, dV = 0, and we have

d
a= — pg sin a (18.19)
y
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 455

FREE SURFACE
X.AK
ay
dy
d71 V dv
v cht

1/////44,,, 77
,...(0r=vf-pd-rrim9.7,

Flg. 18.8 A Channel Control Volume.

Or
= - (pg sin d)y + C
Taking the air-water free surface shear stress as .9 at y = h, we get
T.= pg sin a (h — y) (18.20)
For practical purposes, we can choose = 0, and write
Z= pg sin a (h — y) (18.21)

18.6.1 Laminar Flow

The channel flow can be assumed to be laminar if the Reynolds number based on
hydraulic radius (depth) is less than about 3000.
Then T = p w, and
, from Eq. (18.21), we get
may
au pg
= — sin a (h — y)
Or
pg sin a (2hy — y2)
u = 2p

Or
pgh 2
u= sin a (271 — 2) (18.22)
where t1= y/h. The velocity profile in Eq. (18.22) has its maximum on the free
surface, 11 = 1. In practice, however, the maximum occurs at some depth below
the free surface because of which has been neglected after Eq. (18.20).
The volume flow rate is obtained as

Q=b udy

Or
,
pgbh2
Q= h sin a j (2 ri —17 2)dr7
2µ
0
456 FLUID 1C-CHANICS

or
pgbh3 sin a
= 3/2
Or
gbh3 sin a
Q— (18.23a)
3v
and the average velocity in laminar flow as
gh2
U =Q- sin (18.23b)
" bh 3v a
where v is the kinematic viscosity of the liquid.

18.6.2 Turbulent Flow

We shall assume the turbulent velocity profile in the channel to be practically
uniform. Choosing a control volume coinciding with the channel wall, we can
rewrite Eq. (18.18) as
0 .= 7 z„,P dx + pg (sin a)A dx (18.24)
where A and P are channel cross-section and wetted perimeter, respectively. Thus,

r„. = pg sin aft, (18.25)

Defining
r, = A pV 2 = fpV 2
we get

V2 = sin a
f P
or

v=c P sin a (18.26a)

Considering the channel slope to be small in value, we have sin a = a, where a

is in radians. Hence,

V=C pa (18.26b)

Define m = —
A = hydraulic mean depth, and then

V = C ma (18.26c)

Equation (18.26c) is known as Chezy's formula and C = Ira as Chezy's constant.

 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 457

The Chezy's constant C comprising the channel friction factorfis calculated

from empirical formulae, such as the one due to Manning:

c.r g_ 1 M116
f n
(18.27)

where n is the roughness coefficient. Typical values of n are: 0.01 for concrete;
0.012 for brick; 0.025 for earth; 0.013 for cast-iron lined and 0.04 for natural
bed channels.

Example 18.3 A rectangular channel of width 1.4 m is laid on a slope of 1 m

in 1.5 km length. The channel bed is brick-lined with cement for which Manning's
n has a value of 0.013. The water-level in the channel is 85 cm. Calculate the
volume flow rate.
A = 1.4 x 0.85 = 1.9 m2
P = 1.4 + x 0.85 = 3.1 m
Hydraulic mean depth m = A/P = 0.38387 m
1
a= = 1
1.5 x 1000 1500

1 m 116
C =—
Or

C = 0.013 x (0.38387)1/6 = 65.57

4TIjW7
V=Cr
-ta=65.57 x
1500
or
V = 1.049 m/s
Q = AV = 1.2484 m3/s

18.7 OPTIMUM CHANNEL SHAPES

Man-made open channels can be optimally designed for maximum discharge or
minimum excavation. We may derive the conditions for different shapes as discussed
in the following.

18.7.1 Rectangular Channel

A rectangular channel is considered to be of width b and depth of liquid h.
Area A = biz, perimeter P = b + 2h

Hydraulic mean depth m = A = bh

P b+2h
458 FLUID MECHNICS

Flow rate Q = AV = AC ma
or

Q=C p3 (18.28)
The flow rate for a given cross-sectional area will be maximum when P is minimum.
A
P=b+2h= T +2h
Or
dP A 4. 2 0
d(h) h2 =
Or
2h2 = A = bh

(18.29)

18.7.2 Trapezoidal Channel

A trapezoidal channel is assumed to have a base b, depth of liquid h, and the sides
inclined at an angle 8 (see Fig. 18.9). We observe that

tan 0 = 1— (18.30)
where s is the slope.
Each of the inclined sides has a length

I= s2
The cross-sectional area A = (b + sh)h
Wetted perimeter P = b + 2h4—
1-t- s2
As in case of the rectangular channel, the flow rate will be maximum when
P is minimum. Expressing

Fig. 18.9 A Trapezoidal Channel.

 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 459

We get
P= - sh + 2irstiTTII
dP _
dh - A s+2 4-7-s2
1- =0

Hence the optimum depth is given by

A
—„ + s = 2 4F1
+s (18.31a)
h,
Substituting for A, we get

b + 2(s -1,1-s2h)=
1-
Of

hop = b (18.31b)
2(. 1+s2 - s)

Example 18.4 Calculate the flow rate of water through a trapezoidal channel
of base 1.3 m, side slope 60° and the liquid depth at its optimum value. The
channel is laid at 1 in 1300, and has a Manning's n = 0.011,

tan e= 1
s
Of
s = cot 60° = 0.57735
414
77= 1.1547

h ciPt 2= (1.1547 -1.30.57735) =1.1258 m

Flow area A = (b + sh)h = (1.3 + 0.57735 x 1.1258) x 1.1258

Of

A = 2.19531 m2

P=b+ 2h11—
1-t-s2 =1.3 + 2 x1.125 x1.1547
Of

P = 3.8999 m
A
m=— = 0.563

Chezy's constant C = -M
1 116 , or

C - 0.011 x (0.563)116 = 82.6

460 FLUID MECHANICS

,
V=C ma=C -=1/1YM/S
1300 •
Q = AV = 2.19531 x 1.719 = 3.774 m3/s

18.7.3 Circular Chann&

A circular channel filled to a depth h is sketched in Fig. 18.10. 8 is the half-angle
subtended by the water surface with the channel-centre.

B
Fig. 18.10 A Circular Channel.
The flow area A = area of the sector OABCO
— area of the triangle OAC
or
A = r20 — r2 sin 0 cos 0
or
A = 1.2 (8 sin 2 0)
(18.32a)
2 )
The wetted perimeter P = 2r8 (18.32b)

The flow velocity V= C m a and m= A

Because of the circular geometry, both V and the flow rate Q = AV are non-linear
functions of 0 and hence, of h. Therefore, the depth can be optimized separately
for maximum velocity or for maximum flow rate.

Maximum Velocity The velocity is maximum when m is maximized.

A
m=

dm _ 1 p dA A dill
dB — p2 dO dO 1 =
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 461

or
dA =nA —
dP (18.33)
de de
From Eqs. (18.32),
i = r 2(1 - cos20)
-th
dA
and
SI L. - 2r
de -
Substituting in Eq. (18.33), we get
sin 20)
2r3 0(1 -cos 20)= 2r3(0
2 )
or
20 cos 20 = sin 20
Or
20 = tan 20 (18.34a)
whose solution is
Boa = 128.75° (18.34b)
hope = r(1 - cos 0)
Of
hope = 1.626r (18.35)
In other words,
kit = 0.813 diameter of the channel.

Maximum Discharge

17
4 3—
The discharge Q = AV = C 1

Hence for maximum discharge,

3A2P—
dA = A3 dP
de dO
Or

3P1 -A 7if
dP (18.36)

Substituting for dA/d0 and dP/d0 we get from Eq. (18.36) the relation
sin:0)
6 r30 (1 -cos 20) = 2r3(8 -

Or
68 - 6 cos 20 = 20 - sin 20
462 FLUID 1C-CHANIC8

Of
6 cos 20 — sin 20 = 48 (18.37a)
The solution of Eq. (18.37a) is
Oope = 154° (18.37b)
hope = r(1 — cos 154)
Of
hops = 1.9r (18.38a)
Of
hope = 0.95 diameter (18.38b)
for maximum discharge.
Example 18.5 Calculate the hydraulic mean depths for a circular channel of
1 m diameter for maximum velocity ancrmaximum discharge.
Maximum Velocity
hope = 1.626 r = 0.813 m
Bops = 128.75° = 2.247 rad
A= (.._ sin 20
r2 u = (2.247 + 0.488) r2
Of
A = 2.735r2 = 0.68375 m2
P = 2r0 = 2 X 0.5 x 2.247 = 2.247 m

m= A = 0.3043 m
Maximum Discharge
Bops = 154° = 2.6878 rad
A = r2(8 sin 20)
— 3.0818r2
2
Of
A = 0.77045 m2
P = 2r0 = 2 x 0.5 x 2.6878 = 2.6878 m
A
m= T, = 0.2866 m

18.8 SUMMARY
1. In an open channel flow, the liquid has a free surface exposed to the ambient
pressure.
2. The specific head H of a liquid in an open channel flow is the sum of the
velocity head V2/28 and the hydrostatic head h : H = V2I2g + h.
 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW 463

3. The behaviour of an open channel flow is dictated b1 Froude number!

Fr = The Froude number Fr plays the same role for an open channel
flow as the Mach number M does for a compressible flow.
4. The minimum specific head for flow in an open channel occurs at
the critical condition of Fr = 1. The supercritical and subcritical conditions are
identified by Fr > 1 and Fr < 1 respectively. A subcritical flow is also called
tranquil or streaming flow, whereas a supercritical one is termed shooting or rapid
flow.
5. The depth in a subcritical flow decreases and that in a supercritical flow
increases in the downstream direction. Both the flows move towards the critical
condition of Fr = 1.
6. In a given rectangular channel and specific head H, the maximum discharge
occurs at the critical depth of he = 2/3 H, where Fr = 1.
7. A hydraulic jump can occur only in a supercritical flow, Fr > 1. The
condition after the jump is subcritical, Fr < 1. A hydraulic jump causes loss of
specific head.
8. The strength of a hydraulic jump, measured in terms of loss in specific
head, increases with the upstream Froude number, Fri. The higher the value of
Fri, the lower would be the Froude number, Fr2 after the jump.
9. The velocity of turbulent flow in an open channel is given by Chezy's
formula V = C m a , where m is the hydraulic mean depth and a is the channel
slope. The Chezy's constant is expressed in terms of Manning's n: C =(1/n)m1/6.
10. The optimum depth for maximum velocity for an open channel flow
through a circular cross-section is h( = 0.813 diameter and 0 = 128.75°. The
optimum values for maximum discharge are ham, = 0.95 diameter and 8 = 154°.

EXERCISES
1. Derive an expression for the loss of specific energy due to a hydraulic jump
and show that a hydraulic jump cannot occur if Fr < 1.
2. A hydraulic jump occurs on a level bed. The upstream depth and velocity are
1 m and 12 m/s. Calculate the height of water after the jump and the values of
Froude number before and after the jump.
(Ans: 4.9413 m, 3.8313, 0.3488)
3. A venturi flume is installed in a channel to measure the volume flow rate
of water. The channel width is 1.5 m and the flume width 0.6 m; both are of
rectangular cross-section. Measurements by a depth-gauge indicate water depth
upstream of the flume as 0.8 m and in the flume as 0.5 m. Calculate the volume
flow rate.
(Ans: 0.7517 m3/s)
4. The Chezy's constant for a given rectangular channel is 65.5. The width of the
channel is 3 m and the depth of water 1.7 m. The flow rate was measured as
8 m3/s. Estimate the slope of the channel.
(Ans: 7.1972 x irk)
464 FLUID MECHANICS

5. Measurements were carried out in a trapezoidal channel of base width 3 m, and

the sides sloped at 70° with the horizontal. The channel is laid in a slope of 1 in
900. The flow rate measured was 7 m3/s when the depth of water in the channel
was 800 mm. Calculate the Chezy's constant and Manning's n for the channel.
(Ans: 106.6, 0.0085)
6. A concrete-lined circular channel of diameter 3 m has a bed slope of 1 in 700.
Calculate the depth and discharge under conditions of (i) maximum velocity and
(ii) maximum discharge. The value of Chezy's constant is C = 55.
(Ans: 2.439 m, 12.224 m3/s; 2.85 m, 13.367 m3/s)
7. A rectangular channel of 3 m width is laid to a slope of 9 in 10,000. Uniform
flow takes place at a depth of 1.5 m and the bed has a Manning's n = 0.015. Calculate:
(i) the maximum height of a hump to produce a critical depth, and (ii) the width
a of constriction that will result in a critical condition without increasing the
upstream depth of flow.
(Ans: 0.356 m, 2.077 m)
8. Derive an expression for the laminar velocity profile in the flow through a
channel accounting for the shear stress on the free surface between the water layer
and ambient air.
9. Determine the slope of a V-shaped channel of 60° included angle, given the
flow rate of 120 litres/s when the depth of water at the centre of the Vee is 30 cm.
Chezy's coefficient is 47 in SI units.
(Ans: 0.04828)
10. Water is discharged into a channel through a sluice-gate under streaming flow
condition. A short distance downstream, a hydraulic jump occurs and the conditions
after the jump are 1.7 m deep and 2 m/s velocity. Calculate the depth of water
before the jump and the loss of specific energy due to the jump.
(Ans: 0.6012 m, 0.3245 m of water)
 Hydraulic Transients

Transient conditions in a fluid flow system arise, more often than not, under off-
design conditions rather than by design. Imagine a pipeline connected to a pump
for handling liquids. The liquid flow parameters are time dependent when the
pump is just started or is stopped. A different kind of transient may arise when
the flow through a pipe or duct is obstructed by sudden or gradual closure of a
valve on the line.
A rupture at a location in a pipeline would result in excessive loss of fluid,
and give rise to sudden flow-starvation at other locations in the system. Such a
transient is visualized in case of a loss of coolant accident (LOCA) in a nuclear
reactor. Consider yet another example of hydraulic turbines. When the electric
power demand fluctuates, the shaft power of the turbine has to be altered by
varying the water flow rate through the machine and transient conditions ensue.
Transients in the long water supply pipes of Pelton turbines can cause severe
structural damage.
In this chapter, we shall study some cases of transient flow of water through
a pipeline. The flow would be considered normally under a steady state, the
transients having been brought about by sudden or gradual interruptions. An important
feature of the transients is that the pressure and velocity fluctuations in the conduit
can become several times higher than their steady state values.

19.1 WATERHAMMER
Consider a long water pipeline with a valve at the exit. When the valve is suddenly
closed, the water flow is retarded and an inertia force results. The inertia force
gives rise to a pressure over and above the steady pressure value. Due to inertia,
the pressure changes with time and varies spatially along the length of the pipe.
In other words, the resulting pressure is a fluctuating one which in turn causes
velocity fluctuations.
A common observation, the "knocking" of a domestic water pipeline on
sudden closure of a tap is due to these pressure fluctuations. The knocking heard
as a hammering sound has given rise to the nomenclature of `waterhammee to a
transient liquid flow in a pipe-line.
The pressure rise resulting from such inertia effects may be so high as to
cause a severe hoop strain in the pipe diameter and even to effect a variation in
the density of water. Similarly, the sudden opening of a valve in a waterline, can
introduce a pressure reduction that may lead to the evaporation of the liquid.
465
466 FLUID MECHANICS

19.2 RIGID WATER COLUMN THEORY

As a first step, we shall neglect the compressibility of the liquid, assume the
conditions to be far from the limits of vapour pressure and also, the pipeline to
be rigid. These assumptions are implied in what is called a "Rigid Water Column
Theory" that affords a simple estimation of the pressure changes due to the transient.
Additionally, we shall neglect frictional losses. The no-friction analysis is
conservative in the sense that the amplitudes of the fluctuations are higher than
what these would be if friction was accounted for.
Let the long pipeline be of length L, area A and the steady flow velocity V
under a head Ho. When the valve at the end of the pipeline is partly closed, the
liquid in the pipe is decelerated at the rate of — dV/dt.
The inertia force of the water in the pipeline is then

F = — m (— "
dr
or
dV
F = pAL-1-ii- (19.1)

This force acts on the valve with an equivalent liquid head

u F L dV
(19.2)
"i = pAg = g dt
The total liquid head at the valve is then
H„ = Ho + (19.3)
Ordinarily, the velocity through a valve follows the relationship

V, = k 74 (19.4)
Since, Hi, is higher than Ho, the flow velocity through the valve under partially
closed condition will be higher than the steady value. If at a time t from the start
of the transient, the velocity of water in the pipe is V(t), the valve open area A,(t)
is obtained from continuity considerations
AV(t) = MOM° (19.5a)
or
A„(t) V(t) V(t) (19.5b)
A Mt) k 4T17,
Alternatively, the velocity of water in the pipe is dictated by the valve characteristics
as
„(t)
V(t) = A 4- k4r 1„ (19.6)

Example 19.1 Water flows through a 3 km-long pipeline at a velocity of 2 m/s

 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 467

when the valve at the end of. the pipe is fully open and the head acting there is
30 m. The valve is desired to be closed fully in 15 seconds in such a manner that
the velocity of water in the pipe is decelerated uniformly. Calculate the required
area of the valve opening at 5 and 10 seconds from start, if the initial opening area
is equal to the pipe cross-sectional area.
The deceleration of water at uniform rate is
Av 2
f=—— = -m/s2
At 15

Vv = k 1FHT,
Initially,
= 30 m, V„ = 2 m/s
Hence k = 0.365. The inertia head
L dV 3 x 1000 2
x 15— 40.77 m
= dr = 9.81
and is constant at all time for uniform deceleration. The velocity of water in the
pipe at different times would be
V(0) = 2 m/s, V(15) = 0.0 m/s
2
V(5) = 2 — x 5 = 1.333 m/s
15
2
V(10) = 2 — T3- x 10 = 0.666 m/s

FL, = Ho + = 30 + 40.77 = 70.77 m

Vv = k = 0.365 = 3.0718 m/s

is constant for the given problem.
A„kI) = A, A„(15) = 0

Av(5) V (5) 1.333

A — Vv = 3.0718 = 0A34 (i)

Av (10) Voo) 0.666

0.217 (ii)
A — Vv —3.0718-
are the required opening areas of the valve at 5 and 10 seconds.

19.2.1 Stepped Pipe

The waterhammer analysis for a rigid stepped pipe may be carried out conveniently
by considering an equivalent pipe of uniform cross-section.
Let the total pipe length be made up of n sections, a section of Lk length and
Ak cross-sectional area. The mass of water column in a section is mk = pAkLk and
468 FLUID MECHANICS

the velocity Vk = Q/Ak, where Q is the volume flow rate. The inertia force in the
length Lk is
dVk
Fk = n k dt

and the head -

Fk Lk dVk
hk = pAkg = — g dt

or

h — Lk dQ (19.7)
k gAk dt
The total inertia head in the stepped pipe is

Hi = E hk = 1- Lk dQ (19.8a)
2 (E
k=1 -
dl

or in terms of an equivalent pipe of length L and area A as

1 L dQ
(19.8b)
H' = Tit
Comparing Eqs. (19.8a) and (19.8b), we get

L_ Lk (19.9a)
A — k=I Ak
or
L Li L2 L„
= (19.9b)
7t- AI + A2 + • • • + AR
L and A are the length and area of the equivalent pipe of uniform cross-section
for which the analysis of the previous section can be applied.

19.3 SURGE TANK

The sudden closure or opening of a valve in a pipeline was observed to cause a

high pressure fluctuation in the pipe as well as on the valve. As stated earlier,
transients could also be experienced during the operations of hydraulic machines.
For instance, the fluctuations of load on a hydraulic turbine would require its
governor to adjust flow rate depending on the load. The resulting inertia forcds
would effect the penstock conveying the water, and, more importantly, the hydraulic
machine. Surge tanks are installed close to hydraulic machines to protect the
machine from pressure fluctuations. The location of surge tank towards the end
of the duct does not materially protect the penstock from transients.
In Fig. 19.1, a pipeline of area a is imagined to convey water at velocity V
to a hydraulic machine. The surge tank is located at a distance L from the reservoir.
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 469

SURGE TANK
RESERVOIR ..--AREA- A --•

t
HTO
tARE A- a -+V Q HYDRAULIC
MACHINE

Fig. 19.1 Surge tank on a pipeline.

The tank cross-sectional area is A, A/a > 1. At steady operating condition, the
water level in the tank would be equal to that of the reservoir if frictional losses
are neglected.
The flow rate Qt into the surge tank due to a transient would cause a change
in its water level, such that Qt = A (dzldt). z is measured from the steady state
water level. With the instantaneous water velocity at V, we get by continuity:
aV = Qi + Q
Differentiation with respect to time yields

dV dQi dQ
(19.10)
a dt dt + dt

The purpose of the surge tank is to reduce downstream fluctuations. Therefore,

dQ/dt is negligible compared to the other two terms in Eq. (19.10). Hence,

dV dQi A d2Z
(19.11)
a dt dt dt 2
Let . us imagine that the effect of the transient is to cause an acceleration
dV/dt of the mass of water, m = paL, in the pipe. The resulting inertia is opposed
by a rise z in the liquid level of the surge tank. The rise z imposes an extra
pressure pgz on the surge tank end of the liquid column. The corresponding
opposing force is pgaz. We can then write the dynamic condition as

m--V = — pgaz
dE- (19.12a)
e
Or
dV
paL — = — pagz
dt
470 FLUID MECHANICS

or
dV g
(19.12b)
dt = T,'
Substituting for dVIdt from the continuity consideration of Eq. (19.11), we get

z ag A
(19.13)
eh 2 + z="
as the differential equation controlling the water level in the tank.
Solution of Eq. (19.13) yields

z = C1 sin 127—
it t 4. C2 cos F
AL
ag t
AL
(19.14)

Since z is measured from the steady water level in the tank, z = 0 at t = 0, yielding
C2 = 0. Hence

z = CI sin A
a t (19.15)

The constant C1 is evaluated by considering the situation immediately after a

complete shut down (rejection) of flow to the machine, i.e., at t = 0
with Q = 0. The entire pipe flow then enters the surge tank,

A 1) t=o
= Qo (say) (19.16a)

From Eq. (19.15) we get

dz
d = C1 "T.
cos AL t
or

d)
dt 0
= cTH.
AL
Therefore,
Qo = c 4718- (19.16b)
A AL
and then
1 t Q0
z = 7 — sin— t (19.17)
ag A AL

The water level in the surge tank is highest when t = 2 ' yielding
AL

Z =
Qo (19.18a)
"'" ag A
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 471

The time period of oscillation is

AL
r = 2yr — (19.18b)
ag
Since the water level can fluctuate between —Z,„„„ and +4„,„ measured from
the steady water level, the height of the surge tank should be greater than 2Z„,,„.
Similarly, the minimum water level should be better than Z1 so that the water
under oscillation does not drop to the opening of the pipe which would then cause
an airlock.

Example 19.2 Water to a Pelton wheel is supplied through a 1.5 km-long pipe
line 1 min diameter; at the rate of 3 m3/s. A 2.5 m diameter surge tank is installed-
close to the turbine for protection against transients caused by nozzle movement.
Consider a condition of complete rejection, i.e., when the pipe discharge-end is
fully closed suddenly. Estimate the consequent time period of oscillation of water
column in the surge tank, and the time required to reach the maximum fluctuation
from the instant the discharge is stopped.

Pipe area a= 4 x 12 = 0.7854 m2

Surge tank area A= 4 x 2.52 = 4.9087 m2

Qo 3
A — 4.9087 = 0.6111 m/s

14.9087 x 1.5 x 103

ag 1 0.7854 x 9.81 = 30.91

Qo = 30.91 x 0.611 = 18.89 m

Z„. = ag —
A

fir
Time period T = 2 n
g = 194.2 s
The maximum amplitude occurs at r/4 = 48.55 s from the onset of rejection.

19.4 ELASTIC WATER COLUMN THEORY

The rigid water column theory was based on the assumptions that the liquid is
incompressible and the pipeline is rigid. The speed of communication in a wholly
incompressible medium is infinite. In other words, a transient action is communicated
instantaneously in a rigid water column. The pressure fluctuations due to a
waterhammer are, in practice, however, of such magnitudes that both these conditions
may be violated. In order to derive the corresponding governing equations, we
consider a control volume in Fig. 19.2 with a one-dimensional bulk flow in the
x-direction.
 7

IMPP
I.UID MECHANICS

B 1p p,V)WA
p *VA

Fig. 19.2 A Control Volume for the Transient Condition.

19.4.1 Continuity Equation

The conservation of mass is satisfied by equating the efflux with the time rate of
decrease in the control volume.

73. (pAV)4x = - (pA)Ax (19.19a)

at
Or
d(pA) d(pAV)
(19.19b)
dt dx
We allow for the changes in the cross-sectional area and density due to the
waterhammer and expand Eq. (19.19b) to the following

A ( dp v (3p) + dA v d A) dV A
(19.20)
dt dx ) v dt dx )+ 11.1 dx = ‘'
The terms within parentheses represent the respective substantive or total
derivatives which, for convenience, we shall write in terms of ordinary total
derivatives of density p, and area A. Thus, we have
dp dA dV
A—
dt + p— + pA—= 0
dt dx
or

1 dp 1 dA dV n
(19.21)
p dt -A- dt dx =
as the continuity equation for the control volume.
The density and area changes can be related to the fluctuating pressure in
the following manner.
By definition of the bulk modulus,
dp 1 d
. (19.22a)
P /3 P
Or
1 dp _ 1 dp
(19.22b)
p dt B dt
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 473

Expressing the area A = D2, we get

1 dA 2 dD
(19.23)
Virt =
The radial or hoop strain dD/D can be expressed through the hoop stress a = E
dD/D, where E is the elastic modulus of the pipe material.
Considering the pipe wall to be thin, ti 4cD, where ti is the pipe wall thickness,
we can write hoop stress due to the pressure fluctuation as

Q= do
211 '
Hence, the strain
dD a _ d (19.24a)
D_ 2ti E P
or
1 dD D dp
(19.24b)
D dt = 2tI E dt
The area change in Eq. (19.23) then becomes

1 dA _ D dp
(19.2.5)
A dt ti E dt
The fast two terms of Eq. (19.21) can now be combined as

1 dp 1 dA 1 D dp 1 dp
(19.26)
p dt 71. dt =( ti E) dt — k dt
where k is an equivalent bulk modulus for the pipe and liquid system, given by
1 (1 D
- 4" u (19.27)

The compressibility of the pipe-liquid system is also expressible through an acoustic

speed a of the medium
k = pa2 (19.28)
Substituting Eqs. (19.26) and (19.28) in relation (19.21), the continuity equation
can be recast as
dp 2 dV
(19.29a)
dt + pa =
The total derivative of pressure comprises 'le local a id convective components,
and Eq. (19.29a) is written explicitly as
dp dp dV
2
+V T; + p a 71r. =
0 (19.29b)
474 FLUID mEctimacs

19.4.2 Momentum Equation

The momentum equation for the control volume in Fig. 19.2, is obtained as

DV dp dz P
(19.30)
P Dt dx Pg dx iT

where .r is the wall shear stress and P the wetted perimeter. Expressing .r in terms
of the Darcy-Weishbach friction factor f, we get

P = f pV2 x
Or

T A= 15
f .oV 2 (19.31a)

In order to maintain the direction of we may prudently express Eq. (19.31a) as

P IVI V (19.31b)
A 2D
On substitution, the
the momentum equation is written as
/ dV) dp dz
ti fP IV! V = 0 (19.32)
P t v dx ) 4. dx "dx 2D

19.5 THE WAVE EQUATIONS

The velocity and pressure fluctuations due to a waterhammer in a• pipe can
be evaluated by simultaneous solutions of the continuity and momentum
Eqs. (19.29) and (19.32), respectively. The nature of the fluctuations can be better
appreciated, if we rewrite the two equations neglecting the effects of friction and
gravitational body force. Equation (19.32) then simplifies to
( dV „ dV ) dp _
(19.33)
P(W . v dx u
Now, we make an assumption that local fluctuations with time are much higher
than the convective components, i.e.,
aV dV
»V
dt dx
and

These simplify the continuity and momentum Eqs. (19.29b) and (19.33) to
dp 2 dV
- + pa w = 0 (19.34)
7t
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 475

di/ lap
+ = (19.35)
dt p ax —0
Differentiate Eq. (19.34) w.r.t t to get

a2P Da 2 a 2V 0
(19.36a)
ate u - dx dt -
and Eq. (19.35) w.r.t. x for

d 2V d 2p
(19.36b)
P axe= °
Combination of Eqs. (19.36a) and (19.36b) yields
d2p
alp 2
a axe u (19.37)
ate
We can get the following equation for V by changing the order of the differentiation
and combining.
a2v a2 v
2 (19.38)
at2 a ax2

Each of the Eqs. (19.37) and (19.38) represents a wave motion. The former describes
the pressure and the latter the velocity variations of the wave with space and time.
The general solutions of Eqs. (19.37) and (19.38) are given by

Ap=F(t+ + f — L) (19.39)
a

AV = — [F + —f— (19.40)
pa a a

Ap and AV represent the changes over the respective steady state values of p and
V in the pipeline. The distance xis measured downstream of the source of disturbance,
say the valve, in Fig. 19.3. The wave with amplitude F(t + x/a) moves upstream
and that with At — x/a) moves downstream.

VALVE
Fig. 19.3 Directions of Waves in a Hydraulic Transient.
476 FLUID MECHANICS

In magnitude, the pressure and velocity fluctuations are related through a

"characteristic impedance" Z of the medium,

IA pl
IZI =
1 ,01
= pa (19.41a)

The maximum pressure rise occurs in an instantaneous closure, i.e., within a time
less than Tp during which fit - x/a) = 0 at the valve. Correspondingly,

APiniut = Pa4Vmax = PaVo (19.41b)

Example 19.3 Water flows from a reservoir through a 60 cm diameter cast-

iron pipe. A valve located on the pipe 3 km from the reservoir end is suddenly
closed. Calculate the time elapsed before the action of valve-closing is felt at the
reservoir-end. The pipe thickness is 50 mm, Young's modulus for CI is 100 x 109
pascals, and the bulk modulus of water is 22 x 108 pascals.
The equivalent bulk modulus of the pipe-water system is

1_1 D
kr1+ 7
Or
1 10-9 0.6 x 10-9
2.2 + 50 x 10-3 x 100
Or

= 10-9(0.4545 + 0.12)
or
k = 1.74 x 109 N/m2
k = pa2
Therefore,

a= — = 111:774 x 103 = 1319.3 m/s

The action of closing the valve is propagated along the pipe at the acoustic speed
a = 1319.3 m/s.
Since the valve is at a distance of 3 km from the reservoir, the action will
3000
be felt there after a time lapse of = - 2.274 s.
19.
1319.3

19.6 WAVE REFLECTIONS

The effects of the hydraulic transients are propagated upstream and downstream
at the acoustic speed. At every change of geometry of the pipe, the incident wave
is partly reflected and partly transmitted. We shall now examine the conditions for
a few typical cases of practical interest.
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 477

19.6.1 Reservoir End

Consider the information of Example 19.3. The transient action of the valve or
gate closure on the pipeline was communicated upstream in the form of a F(t +.x/a)
wave. When the left running F(t + x/a) wave reaches the reservoir, a right running
fit — x/a) wave originates by reflection. Time r is elapsed for the F(t + .x/a) wave
to reach the reservoir, and a furtherT is needed forf(t — x/a) to be felt at the valve.
In other words, the time period of the wave motion is T, = 2T = 21/a.
A reservoir, by definition, is a constant head i.e., of constant pressure,
Ap = 0. At any time t 2 2; the reservoir end receives a F( ) wave and reflects a
f( ) wave. Recalling Eq. (19.39), we write

Ap.Ff t _a )
=0 for t r (19.42)
or
F( )=—f( 4
Define a coefficient of reflection CR, and get

CR = = - 1 (19.43)

During time less than r, 0 5 t 5 r the only wave in the pipe is F(t + x/a)
and moving upstream towards the reservoir (see Fig. 19.4). The velocity change
in the pipe under its influence is AV = — 1/pa. F(t + x/a), by Eq. (19.40). When
F() reaches the reservoir and f() is born by reflection, the velocity change there
becomes

AV = — pa
2F + (19.44)
a

RESERVOIR
x
1

t 0 VALVE

F
0 >t< 1C t= 1./a

f F
t>
Fig. 19.4 Incident and Reflected Waves in a Reservoir-Pipe System.
478 FLUID f.leCHANICS

since

F(t + —) = —f (t —
a

The valve experiences the reflected wave only at the elapse of t = 2r, i.e.,
after the first time period. The discharge through the valve shall be governed by
the undisturbed pressure po for t 5 Tr For time Tp 5 t 5 2T,,, the discharge would
be controlled by the pressure at the valve at the end of the first time period, and
so on.
The reflection condition at the reservoir end (Eq. (19.43)), also applies to
the open end of a pipe.

19.6.2 Closed End

At a closed or dead end of a pipe, the fluid velocity will be zero. Hence by
Eq. (19.40),
1
= — p—[F
a +a f —
a
1.0
Or
f=F
and
CR = 1 (19.45)
The pressure rise at the closed end flows from Eq. (19.39) as
Ap = 2F (19.46)
i.e., twice the value of the pressure anywhere in the pipe before t = T.

19.6.3 A Partially Open Valve or Orifice

Consider a pipeline connected to a reservoir at the upstream and a valve or an
orifice at the exit end. The discharge velocity through the orifice or the valve may
be expressed as V = k 11417, where H is the head acting on the device.
If a valve is being closed or opened, the coefficient k will be a function of
time, k(t). We may, thus, write

1
H = —(V/k(t))2
2g
or the exit end pressure as

p = pgH = (V / k(0)2 (19.47)

2
For time t Tr the discharge end experiences both the left and reflected right
waves, given by
AP=P—p0=F+ f (19.48a)
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 479

and

ev= v- vo = --
pa (F - f) (19.48b)

Equations (19.47), (19.48a) and (19.48b) may be combined to obtain expression

for the velocity V through the exit device under the influence of the hydraulic
transients.
From Eq. (19.48b),
F = f — pa (V— V0)
Substituting the above relation in Eq. (19.48a), we get
P = Po + — Pa(V — Vo) (19.49)
and on using Eq. (19.47), we have

P V2
T 0)2 ' P° 21 — Pa — V0 )
Or
2 k (t)2
V 2 + 2ak(t)2 V — p (P0 1. f+ pa Vo ) = 0 (19.50)

The solution of Eq. (19.50) is

8 k(t)2
— 2ak(t)2 + 114a2k(0 4 + (Po +2f+ paVo )
V= 2
or
2
— 2ak(t)2 + 2ak(t)2 111 + (Po + 2f + patio)
pa 2k(t)2
V—
2
or

V = ak (02 Ni + (p 0 + 2 f + pa Vo) — 1] (19.51)

(t)
pa kk (02
as the velocity of water at the valve, or orifice, at a time t.
Po and V0 are the steady state values before the onset of the transients,
At — x/a) is the pressure pulse at the valve reflected from the reservoir or the open
end and fit — x/a) = 0 for t <
The values of F(t + x/a) and fit — x/a) are determined by the solution of the
wave equations i.e., Eqs. (19.37) and (19.38) by graphical or numerical methods.
The conditions at the reservoir and at the valve, such as Eq. (19.51), are used as
boundary conditions. The coefficient k(t) is a measure of the opening area of the
valve. The variation of k(t) is dictated by the manner of closing the valve and is
often assumed to be linear.
480 FLUID MECHANICS

Example 19.4 Water flows through a 300 m-long pipe under a reservoir pressure
of 200 kPa, and is discharged at the free end through a valve. The undisturbed
velocity at discharge is 0.8 m/s. The valve is then closed in 5 seconds. Calculate
the velocity and the pressure at the valve at 0.1 second into the closing of the
valve. Given a = 1200 m/s, estimate the pressure at the valve, if the gate was
closed completely in 0.1 second.
The time taken for the acoustic wave to travel the length of the pipe is

=L = 300
yro - 0 . 2 5 s
The time period of the waves is Tp = 2T = 0.5 s. For the valve

( V) 2p
= 2 gH =
k() 2 p
At the undisturbed condition

, 2Po L 1 2 x 200 x 103 - 20 ko

Vo = = ft()
103
Hence
k V00.8 = 0.04
— 20 — 20
Since the valve is closed linearly in 5 seconds

5 — t)
k(t)= koH
5
At 0.1 s,
4.9
k(t) = 0.04 x = 0.0392

Since at t = 0.1 s, t < T, the reservoir is unaware of the closing operation, nor is
there a reflected wave: f = 0. By Eq. (19.51), the velocity

2
V= ak(r)2 11 + pa 2k (02 (Po + paVo) —
[
Or
1/2
2 x 103
V = ak(T)2 1[1 + (200 + 1200 x 0.8)] — 1
103 x (1200 x 0.0392)2
Or

V = ak(t)2 x 0.43124
Or

V = 1200 x (0.0392)2 x 0.43124 = 0.7952 m/s (i)

 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 481

The Dreamt it the vilve is esiimai...-

*A using rq. (113.40)
P = Po + 2f - Pa(V - Vo)
or
p = [200 + 0 - 1200 (0.7952 - 0.8)] kPa
or
p = 205.756 kPa
If the valve was closed completely in 0.1 second, which is less than one time
period, Ap = - pa AV since f = 0. Further,
AV = 0 - Vo = - Vo
Hence
P = Po + PaVo = (200 + 1200 x 0.8) kPa
or
p = 1160 kPa (iii)
This would be the highest pressure reached during closure whether it was
instantaneous or over a time less than one time period.
Now assume that we are required to estimate the pressure rise in a reservoir-
pipe-valve system at a time longer than one time period. For ease of visualization,
we treat the following example using the numerical data of Example 19.4.

Example 19.5 Tabulate the values of valve coefficient k(t), velocity through
the opening, F, f and p at the valve for 2 time periods at intervals of half time
periods into the valve closing operation.
As discussed earlier, f = 0 for t <
For the given problem, Ti„ = 0.5 s

Parameters at the valve

Time V F f F+f p
(s) k(t) (m/s) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) Remarks
0 0.04 0.8 0 0 0 200 Undisturbed
0.25 0.038 0.7876 14.82 0 14.82 214.82 F reaches reservoir
0.50 0.036 0.7740 31.15 0 31.15 231.15 End of the first
time period
0.75 0.034 0.7429 53.59 - 14.82 38.77 238.77 f(t) = - F(t - T,,)
1.00 0.032 0.7097 77.13 - 31.15 45.98 245.98 fit) = - F(t - To)

The calculations indicated in Example 19.5 have been carried out step by step
using Eqs. (19.49) and (19.51). See the remarks column for sequential estimation
of F and 1.
The procedures outlined in this section can as well be applied to the transient
conditions following the opening of a valve. The initial velocity 1/0 = 0 and the
left running F(t + xla) is a rarefaction wave at that time.
The calculation can be carried out by graphical methods, a popular one
being the Bergeron construction. Both the step by step, and graphical methods are
482 FLUID MECHANICS

tedious and become very involved when frictional effects are to be accounted for.
The method of characteristics using a digital computer affords a convenient alternative
and we consider the basics in the' following.

19.7 THE METHOD OF CHARACTERISTICS

Recall the continuity Eq. (19.29b) and momentum Eq. (19.32) including gravitational
and frictional effects. Make a linear combination of the two equations using a
Lagrange multiplier A with the continuity to get

aV ()V)
+ pg sin a+ 21VI V
P (Tt- +117; j +
dp p 2 dV
+A(—+V—+pa —)=0
at ax ax (19.52)
Upon rearrangement, we obtain

l [d V 2 aV
Al + + + (Aa + V)
at ) ax P at ax ]
pf iviv=o
+pgsina+—
2D (19.53)
Since p and V are functions of time and space x, we can write the derivatives as

dp ap dp dx
dt dt ax dt

dV aV aV dx
(19.54)
dt = at + ax dt
In view of Eq. (19.54), Eq. (19.53) can be written in terms of the total derivatives,
if

dx
T + r m-d7

Aa2 + V = dt
dt
i.e., if

from which
1
A=±— (19.55)
a
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 483

Thus when A = ± 1/a, Eq. (19.53) reduces to an ordinary differential, equation,

dV dp
p- IVIV=0
+pgsina+ T (19.56)
1). Ti + A CF
When A = 1/a ,
dr
—
dt = V + a = a, since V (K a in a liquid,

and when A = - 1/a ,

dr
T =V-a= -a (19.57)
Now dx/dt = a and dx/dt = - a represent two straight lines in the x-t plane (see
Fig. 19.5).

x
Fig. 19.5 Characteristic Lines.

The line PQ is known as a right running or a c+ characteristic, and RQ as

the left running or C - characteristic. Equation (19.54) along C+ characteristic is
then obtained by substituting 1/a for A, as
dV 1 dp
+ g sin a + rb- IVIV= 0 (19.58)
dt 4. pa dt
where dx/dt = - a. Similarly, along C- characteristic, we write Eq. (19.56) as
dV 1 dp
+ gsina+ TET IVIV=0 (19.59)
dt pa dt
where dx/dt = - a.
The solution of the two sets of equations viz. Eqs. (19.58) and (19.59)
yields the information of a transient in the x-t plane. The crux of the method of
characteristics lies in proceeding from P and R respectively along C+ and C-
characteristics to the intersection Q.

19.8 A FINITE DIFFERENCE FORMULATION

The terms of Eqs. (19.58) and (19.59) can be written in finite difference forms
with the nomenclature as indicated in Fig. 19.6.
484 FLUID MECHANICS

R
1 ir X
(i-1)
Fig. 19.6 A Finite Difference Scheme.

Choose suffix i in the x-direction and j in the t-direction and write

At = ti -ti_1

- xi_1 = a At
- = - a At

The difference forms of the terms in Eqs. (19.58) and (19.59) are:

dV Vi..i Vi- 14-1 , dp Pi.i -

along C+
dt At dt At

dV V,.i - V,+ dp
dt At
, dt
Pi+14-1 along C-
At
It is deemed that values of p and V are known at P(i - 1, j - 1) and R(i + 1,
j - 1), and we now aim to determine their values at Q(i, j).
Substituting the difference forms in the two equations, we have, along C+,
the equation

1
Vi-14-1)

+[g sin + I I Vi_ Lj_ i =0 (19.60)

2fl

and along C;

1
(Vi.j - pa (Pa.i
-—

+ [8 sin ai+ + pc;-• I Ili+ I Vi+i.j-d At = 0 (19.61)

 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 485

For ease of visualization, we can write Eq. (19.60) as

p, j PaVi = P4 (19.62)

where p+ contains the remaining terms of the equations evaluated at (i — 1, j — 1).

Similarly, Eq. (19.61) can be written as

Pi, — PaV, = (19.63)

Terms of 13- are evaluated at (i + 1, j — 1). Then the unknown pressure pi,
obtained by the intersection of Eqs. (19.62) and (19.63) as

P++ P -
(19.64)
1)4 =

Similarly, the unknown velocity V1, is obtained as

13+
(19.65)
= 2pa

The solutions of the difference equations are carried out marching in time
and space. The initial condition is set at the location of the change, such as a
valve. The values of p and V at all locations are evaluated at increasing time
t = t + At. The end conditions, such as a reservoir, open end or a valve discussed
in Section 19.6, are introduced as boundary conditions. Other situations like the
step or joints in a pipe or starting or stopping of a pump can also be introduced
without difficulty.
A convenient way is to introduce different kinds of boundary conditions
through a generalized form such as

p = A + BQ + CQ2 (19.66)

The values of A, B, C.
C . . would be dictated by the type of the end conditions.
For instance, a reservoir would be prescribed by A = po, B=C=...= O.
The solutions po and are the values of pressure and velocity respectively
at a location x and time t.

19.9 SUMMARY
1. Hydraulic transients are caused by a sudden disruption in a flow system, such
as rapid closing or opening of a valve in a water pipeline. The phenomenon is
often referred to as a waterhammer associated with a knocking noise.
2. The waterhammer analysis for a stepped pipe can be conveniently carried
Lk
out by adopting an equivalent pipe of length L and area A, where Ti = Ak
-.
3. Surge chambers help reduce pressure fluctuations in the downstream
locations and are, therefore, provided for protection of hydraulic machines.
486 FLUID MECHANICS

4. The combined elasticity of a pipe-water system is expressible by a modulus

1 D
k, where 1 = + . The corresponding acoustic speed is a =VW / ,.
(
5. The effects of a hydraulic transient propagate both in up and downstream
directions at the acoustic speed. The ratio of the pressure and velocity fluctuations
I .etp I
is the characteristic impedance of the medium: I Z I = 7df i = pa .
6. The time period for the fluctuations in a pipeline of length L is Tp = 2Ua.
The far end becomes aware of the transient caused at the near end only on the
elapse of half a time period, t = Lla.
7. The fluctuations are composed of left- and right-running waves respectively,
F(t +x/a) and f(t —x/a). In a pipe-valve-reservoir system, for instance, the reflected
waveftt —x/a) originates from the far end only when F(t +x/a) reaches there at the
end of half a time period.
8. The magnitude of pressure changes depends upon the speed at which say,
a valve is closed. A closing time less than one time period of the pressure wave
is equivalent to instantaneous closing. The maximum pressure rise for an
instantaneous closing is Apo,,, =
9. The characteristics of a device in a pipeline under hydraulic transient,
such as a valve, a reservoir, open, closed or stepped ends, machines and the like
are introduced as boundary conditions for the solution of the wave equations.
10. The left and right running characteristics in an x-t plane have slopes
dx/dt = — a and dx/dt = a, respectively. The wave equations governing the transients
are solved conveniently as ordinary differential equations along the characteristics.

EXERCISES
1. Water flows through a steel pipe, 10 cm in diameter, and 6 mm thick, with a
velocity of 4 m/s. Calculate the maximum stress induced in the pipe if the flow
of water were suddenly stopped. For steel E = 200 x 109 pascals and for water
= 2200 x 106 pascals.
(Ans: 45.46 MPa)
2. State the limitations of the Rigid Water-column Theory. Under what circumstances
can this theory give satisfactory results?
A stepped water pipeline has a length of 150 m at 60 cm diameter, followed
by a length of 200 m at 40 cm. Water flows through the pipe at the rate of
1.2 m3/s. Calculate the pressure rise at the control valve if the flow is brought to
rest uniformly in 5 seconds. Assume the rigid water column theory to be applicable.
(Ans: 509.3 kPa)
3. A small hydraulic turbine is supplied water through a 1.5 m diameter pipe of
200.m length. A surge tank of 3.5 m diameter is placed a short distance upstream
of the turbine. If the not mal flow rate to the turbine is 2.5 m3/s, calculate the
 HYDRAULIC TRANSIENTS 487

maximum rise of the water level in the surge tank in the event of a rejection.
Neglect friction. Derive the formula used.
(Ans: 2.74 m)
4. Derive a differential equation for the change in the water level of a surge tank
accounting for the friction in the upstream length of the pipe. The head lost due
f LI V I V
to friction is expressed as hi =
2dg .
Write a computer program for the solution of the differential equation and
obtain results for the data given in Problem 3, if the Darcy-Weishbach friction
factor f = 0.02.
S. Consider a pipeline of length L, diameter D with a valve at one end. The valve
characteristic is given as V, = k NITI„. Assume the valve to be initially closed, the
pipe filled with water and the head acting as H. Derive an expression for the
value of the discharge as a function of time following a sudden opening of the
valve.
A pipe 1000 m long is fed from a reservoir with a head H = 150 m. The
pipe diameter is 3 m and the acoustic speed is 1200 m/s. If a valve at the end of
the pipe is opened suddenly, calculate the head at the valve at 1.5 second from
the time of opening. The steady velocity through the valve is 3.5 m/s.
(Ans: 149 m)
6. Oil of specific gravity 0.9 is conveyed through a 700 m-long pipeline with a
valve at the end. The acoustic speed in the medium is 850 m/s. The steady state
velocity at the discharge end is 1.5 m/s and the tank pressure 300 kPa. The valve
has a parabolic characteristic. If the valve is closed linearly in 3 seconds, calculate
the maximum pressure experienced by the valve at the end of the first time period.
(Ans: 672.6 kPa)
7. Consider the wave motion at the junction of a stepped pipe from area Al to A2.
Derive expressions for the coefficient of transmission CT and for reflection CR and
show that CT — CR = 1.
8. A pipe of cross-sectional area Ao branches into pipes of areas AI , A2 . . . A, at
a junction. Show that for a wave propagating along the pipe of area Ao, the
coefficients of reflection and transmission are:

Ao/ao — E (Ada) 2 Ada°

CR = and CT =
Ao/ao + E (A;/a;) Aolao + E
al is the speed of sound in the pipe.
9. A water pipeline 3 m in diameter, 1000 m-long, has a steady discharge of
22 m3/s under a head of 160 m. If the gate at the end of the pipe is closed in
6 seconds, plot the water head at the valve for a period of 15 seconds from the
start of the closure, estimated at 1 s intervals. The velocity through the gate obeys
V = k4 , and the acoustic speed is 1000 m/s. Tabulate the amplitudes of F and
f waves.
488 FLUID MECHANICS

10. A 1.6 km-long pipeline is fed from a reservoir with a head of 130 m. The
acoustic speed a is = 1000 m/s. The discharge end of the pipe is initially closed.
The time-history for gate opening is tabulated as follows:
t (s) 0 1.6 3.2 4.8 6.4
A/A, 0 0.5 0.75 0.90 1.0
where A, is the full open area of the gate. If the velocity through the gate at the
full open condition is V, = 1.5 m/s, calculate the maximum and minimum head
at the gate.
 Flow Measurements

Parameters of interest in a fluid flow measurement can be grouped into two

categories: those defining the fluid properties and those describing the flow
conditions. In this chapter, we shall consider a few methods of measurements
pertaining to flow conditions. The fluid properties Such as density and viscosity
will be assumed to be known otherwise.
In measuring flow parameters, we require essentially two components: a
sensing device and a read-out device. For instance, when we wish to determine
the velocity of a stream, we use a Pitot-static tube as the sensing device and a
manometer or some other pressure measuring device as a read-out unit. Our
discussions will focus primarily on the sensing devices, especially for the
measurement of velocity and mass flow rate.
The design and dimensions of different sensing devices are internationally
standardized. Reference should be made to the publications of the Indian Bureau
of Standards, British Standard Specifications, ASME Performance Test Codes and
the like. These standards also give the details -for calibrating a measuring device.

20.1 PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

The hydrodynamic or static pressure and total pressure are the most frequently
measured parameters in a flow system.

20.1.1 Static Pressure

The static pressure of a fluid stream is the pressure measured by a device aligned
parallel to the stream and in no way affecting it. Consider, for instance, a fluid
flowing through a duct. The static pressure can be measured by connecting a
manometer to an opening on the duct wall. The opening, called a piezometer
opening, should be small and normal to the duct wall. It should have a length
equal to twice the diameter before enlarging to a cross-section to accommodate
the connection for the manometer. The piezometer opening on the duct inner waif
must be smooth and have no chamfering to avoid any effect of velocity.
In situations where the static pressure is likely to vary along the circumference
of a duct, such as the downstream of a fluid handling machine or when buoyancy
effects exist, it is desirable to have a number of static pressure tappings, and their
readings averaged, at a given cross-section. Four static tappings may be used at
90° intervals and averaging done by parallel connections.
489
490 FLUID MECHANICS

For small ducts, the average static pressure determined at a cross-section in

the foregoing manner can be assumed to act equally at all depths in the cross-
section. When the duct diameter is large, this approximation may not be satisfactory.
A static pressure probe may be used for local measurements. The probe is aligned
parallel to the stream and 4 to 8 static pressure holes are drilled on the tube
periphery at a section 6 to 7 diameters from the nose of the probe.

20.1.2 Total Pressure

A very convenient way of measuring the total or stagnation pressure in a flow is
to use a Pitot tube whose schematic was given in Chapter 5. In an incompressible
flow, the total pressure read using a Pitot tube is

1 zz 2 (20.1)
Po P + Pv

In a subsonic compressible flow, the reading would correspond to

k-1 rot -I)

Po = P(1 + M2 (20.2)

where p is the static pressure, V the stream velocity and M the Mach number. k
is the ratio of specific heats of the gas.
It would be noted from Eq. (20.2) that the static and total pressure
measurements in a compressible flow yield only the Mach number. A thermometer
can be inserted into the flow to read the stagnation temperature. The static temperature
is then calculated for the estimated Mach number. The local stream velocity is
computed as V = aM, where a = i is the acoustic speed. When a Pitot tube
is used in a supersonic flow, a normal shock stands before the tube. The value
read by it corresponds to conditions after the shock. The supersonic flow parameters
are evaluated using the relationships for a normal shock.
Whereas it is common to call a simple bent tube for measuring stagnation
pressure a Pitot or impact tube, local measurements of both the static and total
pressures are made in a combination arrangement: the Pitot-static tube.
The general design of a Pitot-static tube is sketched in Fig. 20.1. Both
hemispherical and tapered nose shapes are used without any noticeable change in
accuracy. As the fluid flows past the nose, a static pressure variation occurs along
the parallel limb of the Pitot tube. The effect of the stem causes a pressure
variation of the opposite nature. The combined pressure variations nullify each
other at a location about 6D from the nose. In other words, if a measurement of
static pressure is made along the parallel limb of the Pitot tube, the true pressure
of the stream will be measured at 6D from the nose. This is where the static holes
are drilled on the exterior tube periphery. In some designs, such as the one suggested
by Prandtl, the static holes take the shape of a slit.
A Pitot-static tube, made according to specifications serves as a laboratory
standard for calibration. Independent calibration of a Pitot-static tube is seldom
carried out.
 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 491

14 0
_10/2

HEMISPHERICAL

B-HOLES 0.120.
EQUALLY SPACED
FREE FROM BURRS
SECTION A-A

(a) Standard design

GD t

Prandtl's design
Fig. 20.1 Pitot-static Tube.

Example 20.1 A Pitot-static tube was used to measure the velocity of air in a
duct. The static and total pressure readings were 1.02 and 1.08 bar. A thermometer
inserted into the stream read 45°C. Calculate the velocity of the stream.

Po 1.08 • ,
= = 1.U3b
p 1.02

( k —1 hi21 k4k-I) =
1+ 1.0588
2 )

Or

1 + 0.2M2 = (1.0588)"1.4 = 1.01646 for k = 1.4

OT

M = 0.287
492 FLUID MECHANICS

k 1
—2 = 1 + M 2 = 1.01646
2
273 + 45
T= = 312.8k
.01646

a= •knFT
k = 20.01 1/51Ei = 353.9 m/s
V = Ma = 0.287 x 353.9 = 101.57 m/s
Pitot tubes are sensitive to yaw. The yaw angle is measured between the
probe axis and the flow-stream line. In a fairly parallel flow, the probe may be
slightly rotated in either direction about the geometrical axis of the duct till it
reads the maximum value. The maximum reading is then taken as the flow static
pressure.
The sensitivity of a Pitot probe to yaw can be reduced by locating it inside
a small venturi as shown in Fig. 20.2a. The arrangement is called a Kiel probe.
The measurement of flow direction is carried out by a 3-hole probe (see
Fig. 20.2b). The arrangement is a combination of 3 impact tubes: two side probes,
Si and 52 spaced at equal angles about the central probe C. The angular separation
is of the order of 5°. The 3-hole or yaw probe is first aligned along the geometric
axis of the flow system, a protractor is mounted on the probe axis to monitor the
angular position of the sensing head introduced into the duct. The probe is then
rotated slowly in either direction fill the two side holes Si and S2 read equal pressure.
At this condition, the central hole C will read the highest pressure and its angular
position marks the flow direction.

(a) KIEL PROBE (b) 3-HOLE YAW PROBE

Fig. 20.2 Design for Yaw Suppression.

20.2 METERS FOR VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

Although the Pitot-static tube is an accurate measuring probe for the static and
total pressures and hence the velocity of stream of gas or liquid, it is unsuitable
for low velocities. For example, only a 1 mm Wg reading can be caused by air
at a speed of about 4 m/s. We shall now discuss a few instruments which can
measure low velocities and give a direct reading without a separate read-out
instrument.

20.2.1 Vane Anemometer

Measurement of low velocity of air such as a natural breeze or in a ventilating
 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 493

duct, is done by vane anemometers. In principle, a vane anemometer is a windmill.

Ordinarily, eight vanes made of thin aluminium alloy are connected to a spindle
mounted on jewelled bearings, offering negligible friction. The assembly is mounted
concentrically on a short cylindrical housing (see Fig. 20.3). Air flowing past the
vanes causes rotation of the spindle at rates proportional to the air speed.

Fig. 20.3 Vane Anemometer.

The rotation of the spindle is registered on a clockwork device included in

the assembly. The indicator on the clockwork runs for a fixed period, usually a
minute, and the average velocity over the measuring period can be estimated from
the meter reading. Some versions of the vane anemometer are available with a
tachogenerator coupled to the spindle. A DC voltage proportional to the air speed
is read off the generator. The electrical signal can also be connected to a recorder.
Although this may appear to be an added advantage, the tachogenerator offers a
resistive torque which impairs the sensitivity and accuracy of the vane anemometer.
An improved method of measuring the anemometer rotation would be to use a
contactless tachometer or a stroboscope.
A calibration curve is usually provided by the manufacturer of a vane
anemometer. It is very important to guard against any mechanical damage to the
instrument. Recalibration can be carried out in the laboratory against Pitot tubes
for which a duct of varying cross-section may be used. The Pitot tube-can be
located at the smallest cross-section for highest velocity and the vane anemometer
at a larger section. Vane anemometers are made for different velocity ranges
varying from a few centimeters to about 5 meters per second.

20.2.2 Current Meter

The measurement of water flow rate in an open channel or a river is made by a
device similar in principle to the vane anemometer. A wheel of cups or vanes
connected to the hub by spokes is mounted on a vertical shaft. The lower end of
494 FLUID MECHANICS

the shaft has a rigid attachment with tail fins for self-alignment of the meter with
the flow direction when the instrument is lowered into a water stream. The flowing
water causes the wheel to rotate because of its action on the vanes. The vanes
are so designed 'that the speed of rotation is proportional to the velocity of the
stream. Electric connections from a battery above the water level are provided
to the meter. The circuit is broken every time the wheel completes a revolution.
The breaking of the circuit is detected above the water level by an, electric
bell or a headphone. Thus, the number of clicks on the headphone over a given
time becomes a measure of the speed of rotation and in turn, the velocity of the
stream.
Current meters are calibrated by towing them at a known speed in a long
water tank. When the tank length is not long, a meter can be calibrated by fixing
it at the end to an arm and revolving the arm about an axis.

20.2.3 Turbine-type Flow Meter

The turbine-type flow meter is an adaptation of the vane-anemometer or current
meter for measurements in an internal flow. The rotor of the meter is mounted
with axial flow vanes. When the meter is aligned along the flow path say, by
connecting in series with the internal flow conduit, the flow of fluid over
the vanes results in rotation of the rotor. The number of rotation in a given
time is monitored by a reluctance type transducer mounted on the casing of
the meter. The transducer output may be connected to a counter. In recent types,
the counts can be connected to a DC output using an appropriate electronic
chip (IC).

20.3 FLOW RATE MEASUREMENTS

The volumetric flow rate through a cross-section can be computed from the area-
averaged velocity measured at different points by means of the Pitot-static tube,
vane-anemometer or the current meter.
Devices like the venturimeter, the orifice plate or the rotameter are, on the
other hand, suitable for a direct estimation of the average velocity and, hence the
volumetric flow rate.

20.3.1 Obstruction Meters

These devices constrict the flow passage, either by reducing the cross-section
such as in a venturimeter, or by placing an obstruction. The effect of the constriction
is to locally accelerate the flow which reflects in a measurable pressure difference
between the up and downstream locations.

(a) Venturimeter The principle and theory of a venturimeter were discussed in

Chapter 5. Denoting the upstream section by suffix 1 and the throat by 2, we write
by Eq. (5.38)
Q = CCd 281 (20.3)
 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 495

where C is a geometric factor

A2
C= (20.4)
— A 2)2

Cd is the coefficient of discharge, and his the measured pressure differential between
sections 1 and 2.
The relationships (20.3) and (20.4) are applicable for all types of obstruction
meters. Whereas section 2 for a venturimeter is the throat, for the orifice meter
and nozzle it is at a point immediately downstream, as shown in Fig. 20.4.

RI METER

bI FLOW NOZZLE

2L2Fili.jri7.=7:1722.427127arzz:vr_Wr.-z.r.rxzfca1

l cl AN OPIFICE METER
Fig. 20.4 Obstruction Meters.

The standard dimensions for a venturimeter are indicated in Fig. 20.5. The
coefficient of discharge for a venturimeter, made to standard dimensions, is practically
constant at Cd = 0.984 for Red, > 105 , where the Reynolds number is defined on
the upstream diameter. The constant Cd characteristic makes a venturimeter a
convenient device for calibration of other flow meters.

(b) Orifice Meter A sharp-edged orifice plate held between flanges in a pipeline
is a convenient inexpensive device for measuring flow of gases and liquids
through the pipe. A straight length of atleast 10 diameters of the pipe should
precede the location of the orifice plate. The differential pressure across the orifice
plate can be measured over differing up- and downstream distances, but the discharge
coefficient would then vary correspondingly. A frequently adopted arrangement is
496 FLUID MECHANICS

RADIUS
0-1.11d1
0.1 d 0.1 d2

,,,,,
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, N\W•NN
\N\NNNS,,,,

"..3„77
,4er
I 0-5.5d2 Z

0.5 d1 0.5d1 j 0.5d2

di --

Fig. 20.S A Standard Venturimeter.

to measure upstream pressure at a d1 before the plate and the downstream at

d1/2 after the plate; the latter corresponding approximately to the vena contracta.
The orifice opening to pipe diameter ratio /3= d2/di can be a designer's choice,
although fi = 0.5 is a frequent practice. The coefficient of discharge Cd for Eq. (20.3)
is read from Fig. 20.6b for an orifice of given fi. The standard dimensions of an
orifice are indicated in Fig. 20.6a. Note that Cd is practically constant for Red, > 105.

0.66

0.67
.. d2
0 = di
0.6
0
0.6
•er
I 0.6
12 0.6 3
•
0.6 V,47/114
0.61 61.,.._
0.6 (1 ... 11\e...--
0 5 ?.__iLui__LLL=._.a__c=E
2 46 2 4 6 2 4 6 2 4 6
103 104 106 105 107
PIPE REYNOLDS NUMBER, Red1
(a) Dimensions ( b) Discharge coefficient

Fig. 20.6 An Orifice Plate.

Example 20.2 An orifice plate of 50.7 mm opening is used on a 103 mm ID

pipe line for measuring volume flow rate of water. A mercury manometer placed
across the orifice plate reads a differential head of 77 mm Hg. Calculate the flow
rate. The kinematic viscosity of water is v = 0.797 x le m2/s.

Pipe area Al = — x (103.0)2 x 10-6 = 8332.29 x 10-6 m 2

4

Orifice area A2 = 4 x (50.7)2 x 10-6 = 2018.86 x 10-6 m2

 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 497

A2
The area ratio = = 0.2423

A2 A2 A2
C
1 — (0.2423)2 — 0.9702
1
1 CA S )

Q = CCd112gh
or
Q = CCd 112g x (13.6 — 1) hi%

Note that the specific gravity of water is subtracted from that of mercury for
computing the head, because of the differential arrangement of the manometer.
Thus,
2018.86 x 10-6
Q= 0.9702 Cd 12 x 9.81 x 12.6 x 10-3 hi%

where h is measured in mm, or

Q= 2080.86 x 0.4972 x 10-6 Cd 11T1

Or
Q= 1034.61 x 10-6 Cd VT1 (i)
Although the measured value of h is given, the volumetric flow rate cannot
be obtained for want of the value of Cd. The Cd values are available against Reds
from Fig. 20.6b. However, since Q is not estimated yet, Reds is not known. We
have to guess a value for Cd and iterate in the following manner.
Choose Cd = 0.61; then

Q = 1034.614 x.10-6 417 Cd

Or
Q = 9.0787 x le Cd = 5.538 x 10-3 m3/s (ii)
The corresponding Reds is

odi = 4Q
Reds - v xdiv

Or

4 x 5.538
Red , 6 = 8.5895 x 104
x 103 x 0.797 x 10
We read from Fig. 20.6b, for p = 0.49,
Cd = 0.607 for Reds = 8.6 x 104.
498 FLUID MECHANICS

Since the Cd from the curve is different from the assumed Cd = 0.61, we recheck
the flow rate
Q = 9.0787 x le x 0.607 = 5.5108 x 10-3 m3/s (iii)
The percentage difference in the Cd, and hence the flow rate, values is

0.61 — 0.607
= 0.494%
0.607
Since the difference is low, we may accept Cd = 0.607 in the range of Red, =
8.6 x 104
Ordinarily a first assumption of Cd = 0.6 to 0.62 at Red, = 105 and p = 0.5
would result in a convergence in one or two iterations.

(C) Nozzle Meter The dimensions of a standard nozzle for measuring

incompressible flow are shown in Fig. 20.7. For a nozzle of p= 0.5, the discharge
coefficient is Cd = 1.002 for Red, = 5 x 104 and Cd = 1.012 for Red, > 105 . For
the same flow rate, the pressure drop across a nozzle is less than across an orifice
plate. A nozzle requires more careful fabrication and is adopted where the pressure
drop across the measuring device has to be kept low.

I I_ 0.304 d2
—1"
R=
0.2 c12. Not less than 0.3 02
.
r
i — Not greater than 0.03d2
0.333d2 v
"

Not greater than 0.161

greater than 0.03 d1

Fig. 20.7 A Standard Nozzle.

A simple converging nozzle can be a convenient measuring device in a

compressible flow. If the nozzle area ratio from the inlet to outlet is large, the
upstream static pressure pi can be taken as the flow total pressure po. The pressure
at the discharge end being p2, the ratio polp2 gives an estimate of the Mach number
of the exit flow. The measured temperature value further leads to estimation of
the flow velocity as indicated in the following example.

Example 20.3 In an air-jet experiment, compressed air is made to flow through

a 25 mm ID pipe and is discharged at the end by a nozzle. The nozzle inlet
 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 499

diameter matches with the ID of the pipe, and the exit diameter is 3 mm. At a
given setting, the pressure at the nozzle inlet is measured across a static tapping
to be 30 mm Hg gauge. The nozzle discharges to atmospheric pressure at 760 mm
Hg. A thermometer inserted into the air stream at the nozzle discharge reads
40°C. Calculate the velocity of air at the exit of the nozzle.
The nozzle inlet to exit area ratio is

1 (25)2 40 A A
A2 = 3 ) =

The corresponding velocity head ratio is 4822.5, if density was assumed

constant. Even with the variation in density, it is obvious that the velocity head
at the nozzle inlet is negligible compared to that at the exit. In other words, the
total pressure for nozzle flow is

Po = PI static = (760 + 30) = 790 nun Hg

The exit pressure p2 = 760 mm Hg. Hence

Po 790
—= = 1.03947
p2
Since
klag-q
Po ( k -1 2\
k = 1.4
'
T2 = M2 )

1 + 0.2 bq = (1.03947)0.4/1.4 1:011122

Or
M22 = 0.0556 and M2 = 0.2358
A thermometer placed in the flow reads the stagnation temperature given by

(i k 1 m2))
T k 2

Hence, the static temperature

313
T= - 309.56 K
1.011122

Local acoustic velocity a = 20.01 = 352.06 m/s

Since the exit Mach number is M2, the jet velocity
V2 = aM2 = 352.06 x 0.2358 = 83.01 m/s
Yet another arrangement is the sonic nozzle. If the pressure po at the exit
of a converging nozzle is maintained below the critical value for the given stagnation
pressure, e.g., p, = 0.5282 po for air at room temperature, the flow rate through
500 FLUID MECHANICS

the nozzle will remain constant. Recalling Chapter 13, we know this as

= 0.04044 P ° kgis (20.5)

) max To km 2

A sonic nozzle is often used as a metering device for permitting a fixed flow rate
even when the back pressure is varied: 0 5 pc 5 pc.

20.3.2 Variable Area Meter

A meter for directly denoting the mass flow rate is the rotameter. A rotameter is
a variable area meter, placed vertically in a flow path. The meter has a glass tube
of increasing cross-sectional area, and a float. The float is heavier than the fluid
whose flow rate is to be measured. When the fluid flows through the meter, the
float is lifted upwards due to the fluid drag and gets balanced at a height owing
to the combined actions of buoyancy, gravity and drag. Since the drag force
increases with velocity, the float rises to a higher level in the tube for the increasing
flow rate. The meter cross-section increases upwards to accommodate higher flow
rates (see Fig. 20:8). Similarly, floats of different specific weight can be used in
the same meter for different fluids or flow ranges. The tapering glass tube is
graduated to indicate the flow rate. Note that the graduations will correspond to
different flow rate values for variations in the weight of the float used.

FLOW

Fig. 20.8 A Rotameter.

20.4 HOT WIRE ANEMOMETER

The hot wire anemometer measures the velocity of fluid by the cooling it produces
on a preheated sensor. Consider a thin wire heated to a temperature Tw, sufficiently
higher than the fluid temperature T... If the wire has a temperature coefficient of
 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 501

resistance a, and a reference resistance R0 at temperature T0, the resistance R at

T,,, is Ro [1 + a(T,, — To)].
This resistance is first balanced by standard resistances in a Wheatstone
bridge (see Fig. 20.9). In practice, the wire temperature is raised to T„, by current
supplied from the source in the bridge itself. This is done in the 'standby' mode
of the bridge.
RUN
0 STAND BY STABILITY ADJ

TRIM

OUTPUT
CONTROL REF SET
RES 11,

.0- FLOW
PROBE

( a) A CIRCUIT

SENSOR
STAINLESS STEEL
BODY
GOLD PLATED
PLUG IN
CONTACT PINS

GOLD PLATED
STAINLESS STEEL
SUPPORTS

b) ANEMOMETER PROBE WITH SENSOR

Fig. 20.9 Hot-wire Anemometer, Probe and Circuit.

The hot wire sensor is nominally of 2 to 10 p.m diameter and I to 2 mm in

length and is usually made of platinum or tungsten because of their high temperature
coefficient of resistance. At these dimensions, the sensor resistance is typically
below 10 i2. When the sensor is exposed to the fluid streams and the Wheatstone
bridge meter set to 'run' mode, the bridge indicates .an unbalance. This happens
because the wire is cooled by the fluid stream and the cooling causes a change
in the resistance of the sensor.
In other words, the unbalanced voltage on the bridge meter is a measure of
the fluid velocity. Usually, the unbalanced voltage approximates as
(Volt)2 = a + bV"(T,, — (20.6)
the exact form being derived by calibration.
When the bridge gets unbalanced due to the cooling of the wire, feedback
502 FLUID MECHANICS

circuits of the meter can maintain the sensor in either (i) constant temperature
condition (CTA) by increasing the current flow rate or in (ii) constant current
mode (CCA) by changing the impressed potential differential across the sensor.
Modern anemometers are usually of the CTA type.
The hot-wire sensor can measure both the steady and the fluctuating
components of velocities. The lower the wire diameter, the smaller is the wire
response time and the more sensitive the sensor becomes to velocity fluctuations
of higher frequencies. Turbulence fluctuations in kilohertz range can be monitored
by a hot-wire sensor. Recent trends have been to replace the wire sensor by thin
film sensors which extend the frequency response to about 50 kHz.

20.5 LASER-DOPPLER ANEMOMETER

The measuring devices discussed so far introduce disturbances in the flow field.
Optical methods of flow measurements eliminate the possibilities of disturbances.
Several flow visualization techniques, such as the smoke and Schlieren or
interferometry are optical in nature. A recent device is based on the use of a laser
beam and is called a Laser-Doppler Anemometer or LDA.
In an LDA, a low-power laser beam is focussed on a fluid in motion through
a transparent duct. A portion of the beam is transmitted through the stream, and
some part of the beam is scattered by solid particles in the fluid. These solid
particles such as impurities in water or dust particles in gases may arise naturally.
In case the fluid is ultra-pure, some low-density particles can be added to cause
scattering of the laser beam.
The component of beam passing straight through the medium is collimated
by a lens outside the duct and is reflected by a mirror to a beam splitter. The
scattered beam is condensed through another lens and is also focused on to the
beam splitter. In other words, the two components of the original laser beam now
combine at the beam splitter. The reflecting mirror position is so adjusted that the
two components travel identical path lengths (see Fig. 20.10). Whereas the directly

FLOW DUCT

FILTER
MIRROR

SEAM
SPLITTER
L : LENS
PHOTO-
MULTIPLIER

READOUT SPECTRUM
ANALYZER

Fig. 20.10 LDA Layout.

 FLOW MEASUREMENTS 503

transmitted component of the beam maintains the frequency of the laser beam
emanating from the source, the frequency of the scattered beam is slightly different.
The difference arises due to the well-known Doppler effect and is proportional to
the velocity of the scattering particle.
In other words, the difference in the frequency of two beams combining at
the splitter is a measure of the velocity of the scattering particle. Since the particle
moves with the same velocity as the fluid, the Doppler Frequency shift is also a
measure of the fluid velocity. The combined beams are sensed by a photomultiplier,
the output of which is connected to a frequency (spectrum) analyser for measuring
the Doppler frequency. Usually, He-Ne gas lasers are used for LDA measurements.
The source frequency is of the order of 5 x 10" Hz.

20.6 SUMMARY

1. An impact or Pitot tube is a convenient device for measuring the total pressure
in a moving fluid. Alignment of an impact tube with the flow direction is reckoned
at maximum reading.
2. Flow measurements using meters working on the windmill principle, e.g.,
the vane anemometer, current meter or turbine flow meter are carried out by
monitoring the number of rotations over a given time.
3. The volume flow rate through all types of constriction meters can be
summarized as Q=CCd1,11F.
4. In a hot-wire anemometer, the velocity is measured by measuring the
change in the resistance of a heated wire due to the cooling caused by the flow.
5. The measurement of fluid velocity by an LDA is based on measuring the
Doppler shift i.e., the difference in frequencies of the incident and scattered beams
of laser radiation.

EXERCISES
1. The average velocity of flow through a pipe is estimated by arithmetically
averaging the flow rate through equal-area strips. Consider a circular pipe of
radius R. If it is necessary to divide the cross-section into n equal areas, derive
an expression for the corresponding radii.

(Ans r, =

2. In an experiment of air flow through a circular duct of 30 cm diameter, the

velocity head measured by traversing a Pitot-static tube is as listed below. Calculate
the area averaged flow rate dividing the cross-section into (i) 5 equal areas and
(ii) 10 equal areas. Plot the velocity Profile.
Distance from top
wall in cm 0 2 4 8 15 18 24 26 28 30
Velocity head in
mm Wg 0 2.5 4.0 45 4.7 4.6 4.2 4.1 3.0 0
504 FLUID MECHANICS

3. Air flow through a duct is monitored by a venturimeter whose inlet and throat
diameters are 30 and 10 cm respectively. In the given flow condition, the pressure
differential across the inlet and throat is 15 mm Wg. The meter Cd = 0.97. The
gauge pressure of air in the pipe is 200 mm Wg, temperature 35°C and the
barometer at 755 mm Hg. Calculate: (i) the volumetric flow rate at the measured
pressure and temperature, (ii) the volumetric rate at STP of 27°C and 760 mm Hg,
(iii) the mass flow rate and (iv) the Reynolds number of flow.
4. A venturimeter and an orifice meter are placed in series in a 100 mm ID air
flow pipeline. The pipe ID and the outer diameters of the meters match smoothly.
The coefficient of discharge for the venturimeter is constant at Cd = 0.98. Each
of the meters has a diameter ratio of p= 0.5. At different flow rates, the readings
of the two meters are as listed below. The experiments were performed at an air
temperature of 35°C. Plot the Cd of the orifice plate against the Reynolds number.

Venturimeter: 32 37 40 44 47 51
mm Wg
Orifice plate: 77.4 92.5 101.6 113.2 121.3 131.6
mm Wg

5. A hot-wire sensor was calibrated in air at an ambient temperature of 30°C. The

wire preheat was set at 300°C. The bridge output was measured in volts and the
flow velocity in the calibrator in m/s. Given the following readings for a
sensor, determine by a least square fit the values of a and b in the expression:
(Volts)2 = a + b (Tv — To.) 4-1 .

Volt2 0.025 0.065 0.109 0.134 0.169

Velocity 0.45 0.71 1.0 1.15 1.36
Appendix

Table A.1 Conversion Factors

Length
1 cm = 0.3937 in 1 in =2.54 cm
lm = 3.28 ft 1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 km = 0.621 mile 1 mile = 1.609 km
Area
1 sq. cm = 0.155 sq. in 1 sq. in = 6.452 sq. cm
1 sq. m = 10.764 sq. ft 1 sq. ft = 0.0929 sq. m
Volume
1 cc = 0.063 cu. in 1 cu. in = 16.39 cc
1 cu. m = 35.31 cu. ft 1 cu. ft = 0.0283 cu. m
1 litre = 0.22 Imperial gallon 1 Imperial gallon = 4.546 litres
1 litre = 0.2642 US gallon 1 US gallon = 3.785 litres
Mass
1 kg = 2.204 lbm 1 lbm = 0.4536 kg
1 tonne = 0.984 ton 1 ton = 1.01605 tonne
Force
1 newton = 103 dynes 1 dyne = 10-3 newton
1 newton = 0.1019 kgf kgf = 9.8066 newton
1 newton = 0.2248 lbf 1 lbf = 4.4482 newton
Pressure
1 bar = 105 N/m2 1 Pa = 1 N/m2
1 bar = 0.1 M Pa 1 dyne/cm2 = 0.1 N/m2
1 bar = 1.0197 kgf/cm2 1 kgf/cm2 = 0.98066 bar
1 bar = 0.9869 atm 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
1 bar = 14.504 Ibllin2 1 lbf/m2 = 6894.6 N/m2
1 bar = 750.06 mm Hg 1 mm Hg = 133.32 N/m2
1 bar = 10.197 m H2O 1 mm H20 = 9.8066 N/m2
Energy
1 joule = I watt-second = 1 Nm = 107 dyne-cm = 107 ergs
1 kJ = 0.2388 kcal 1 kcal = 4.1868 kJ
I kJ = 0.2777 Wh 1 kWh = 3600 Id
1 kJ = 101.97 m kgf 1 m kgf = 9.8066 joules
1 kJ = 0.9478 Btu 1 Btu = 1.055 Id
1 kJ = 0.527 chu 1 chu = 1.899 Id
Specific Energy
1 kJ/kg = 0.2388 kcal/kg 1 kcal/kg = 4.1868 kJ/kg
1 kJ/kg = 0.4299 Btu/lbm 1 Btu/lbm = 2.326 kJ/kg
1 kJ/kg = 101.97 m kgf/kg 1 m kgf/kg = 9.8066 kl/u
Power
1 kW =1 = 860 kcaUh = 0.2388 kcal/s = 101.97 m kgf/s
505
506 FLUID MECHANICS

1 kW = 1.36 metric hp 1 metric hp = 75 m kgf/s

1 kW = 1.34 British hp 1 British hp = 550 ft lbf/s
1 metric hp= 736 watts 1 British hp = 746 watts
1 watt = 0.8598 kcal/h 1 watt = 3.4121 Btu/h
Specific Volume
1 m3/kg = 1000 litres/kg 1 litre/kg = 1 cc/gm
1 m3/kg = 16.018 ft3/lbm 1 ft3/lbm = 0.0624 m3/kg
Specific Heat
kl/kg K = 0.2388 kcal/kg K = 0.2388 Btu/Ibm R
1 Btu/Ibm R = 1 kcal/kg K = 4.1868 kl/kg K
Dynamic Viscosity
1 kg/ms = 10 gm/cm s 1 poise = 1 gm/cm s
1 kg/ms = 10 poise 1 Ns/m2 = 1 Pa s
1 kg/ms = 1 Ns/m2 1 kgf s/m2 = 9.8066 kg/ms
1 kg/ms = 0.10197 kgf s/m2 1 Ibm/ft s = 1.4881 kg/ms
1 kg/ms = 0.6719 Ibf/ft s 1 Ibm s/ft2 = 47.8812 kg/ms
Kinematic Viscosity
I m2is = 104 stokes 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
TWA = 10.7639 ft2/s 1 ft2/s = 0.0929 m2/s
Thermal Conductivity
W/m K = 0.8598 kcal/hr mK 1 kcal/hr mK = 1.1629 W/mK
W/m K = 0.5778 Btu/hr ft R 1 Btu/hr ft R = 1.4881 kcal/mK
Heat Flux per Unit Area
W/m2 = 0.8598 kcal/m2 hr 1 kcal/m2 hr = 1.1631 W/m2
W/m2 = 0.3170 Btu/ft2 hr 1 Btu/ft2 hr = 3.1546 W/m2
Heat Transfer Coefficient
W/m2 K = 0.8598 kcal/m2 hrK 1 Iccall/m2 hrK = 1.1631 W/m2K
W/m2 K = 0.1761 Btu/ft2 hrR 1 Btu/ft2 hrR = 5.67'86 W/m2K
Refrigerating Effect
ton of refrigeration = 200 Btu/min
tonne of refrigeration = 50 kcal/min = 3.489 kJ/s
 Table A.2 Transport Properties of Saturated Water and Saturated Steam

Temp. Saturation Density Dynamic viscosity Kinematic viscosity Surface ten- Bulk modulus
pressure bar (kg/m3) (kg/ms) (m2/s) sion of water of water
(Wm) (MPa)
Water Steam Water Steam Water Steam
Pf pa pi x 106 pg x 106 of x 106 vg x 106 a x 106 P
000.01* 000.006113 1000.0 000.00485 1775.0 08.8 1.755 1814.4 75.64 2050
10 0.012272 999.7 0.00940 1301 9.1 1.308 968.1 74.22 2110
20 0.02336 998.0 0.01729 1002 9.4 1.004 543.7 72.74 2200
30 0.04243 996.0 0.03037 797 9.7 0.800 319.4 71.20 2230
40 0.07375 992.1 0.05116 651 10.1 0.656 197.4 69.60 2270
50 0.12335 988.1 0.08303 544 10.4 0.550 152.2 67.95 2300
60 0.1992 983.3 0.13023 462 10.7 0.469 82.16 66.24 2280
70 0.3116 978.5 0.19818 400 11.1 0.409 56.01 64.49 2250
80 0.4736 971.8 0.29334 350 11.4 0.360 38.86 62.68 2210
90 0.7013 965.2 0.42351 311 11.7 0.322 27.63 60.82 2160
100 1.0135 957.8 0.59777 278 12.1 0.290 20.24 58.92 2070
125 2.322 939.0 1.2982 219 13.3 0.233 10.240 53.96
150 4.761 917.4 2.5482 180 14.4 0.196 5.651 48.75
175 8.928 892.9 4.6179 153 15.6 0.171 3.378 43.31
200 15.55 864.3 7.8641 133 16.7 0.154 2.124 37.68
225 25.50 833.3 12.763 118.2 17.9 0.142 1.402 31.91
250 39.79 800.0 19.988 106.5 19.1 0.133 0.956 26.05
275 59.51 757.6 30.553 97.2 20.2 1.128 0.661 20.17
300 85.95 714.3 46.211 89.7 21.4 0.126 0.463 14.37

XION3ddV
325 120.5 653.6 70.472 79.0 23.0 0.121 0.326 8.79
350 165.4 574.7 113.64 64.8 25.8 0.113 0.227 3.68
360 186.8 529.1 144.09 58.2 27.5 0.110 0.191 1.89
374.15.. 221.27 315.5 315.5 45.0 45.0 0.143 0.143 0.00

Log
*Tripple point; "critical point
508 FLUID MECHANICS

Table A.3 Transport Properties of Dry Air at Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Temp Density Specific Thermal Dynamic Kinematic Thermal Prandtl

t p heat conduc- viscosity viscosity diffusivity number
CI, tivity µ x 105 v x 106 a x 106 Pr
k x 103
(°C) (kg/m3) (kJ/kg K) (W/m K) (kg/ms) (m2/s) (m2/s)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
- 100 2.092 1.0081 15.73 1.166 5.79 7.778 0.744
- 50 1.604 1.0057 20.01 1.402 8.41 11.54 0.728
- 30 1.462 1.0054 21.68 1.465 9.21 12.74 0.722
- 20 1.396 1.0053 22.50 1.517 9.86 13.70 0.719
- 10 1.351 1.0054 23.30 1.616 11.09 15.50 0.715
0 1.304 1.0054 24.09 1.715 12.33 17.30 0.712
10 1.257 1.0055 24.89 1.814 13.57 19.10 0.710
20 1.210 1.0056 25.68 1.913 14.81 20.90 0.708
30 1.166 1.0058 26.46 1.988 15.98 22.62 0.706
40 1.130 1.0065 27.22 2.006 17.00 24.15 0.703
50 1.094 1.0072 27.98 2.025 18.01 25.68 0.701
60 1.059 1.0078 28.74 2.043 19.03 27.22 0.699
70 1.023 1.0085 29.49 2.062 20.04 28.75 0.697
80 0.991 1.0093 30.24 2.087 21.06 30.29 0.695
90 0.968 1.0103 30.97 2.136 22.09 31.85 0.693
100 0.945 1.0113 31.69 2.172 23.12 33.40 0.692
120 0.898 1.0133 33.14 2.256 25.18 36.51 0.689
140 0.856 1.0157 34.54 2.337 26.68 38.80 0.687
160 0.820 1.0184 35.90 2.416 27.85 40.65 0.685
180 0.778 1.0212 37.26 2.495 29.40 43.02 0.683
200 0.747 1.0247 38.59 2370 33.01 48.39 0.682
250 0.676 1.0339 41.86 2.752 40.86 60.09 0.679
300 0.617 1.0465 44.97 2.926 47.56 69.82 0.681
350 0.567 1.0589 47.94 3.091 54.63 80.02 0.682
400 0.524 1.0688 50.80 3.248 62.07 90.81 0.683
500 0.457 1.0912 56.33 3.547 77.76 113.1 0.687
600 0.404 1.1148 61.43 3.826 94.68 136.3 0.694
700 0.362 1.1365 66.29 4.082 112.6 160.9 0.699
800 0.329 1.1550 71.66 4.362 132.9 189.0 0.703
900 0.301 1.1730 76.85 4.622 153.5 217.4 0.705
1000 0.277 1.192 82.2 4.86 175.9 149.3 0.705
1100 0.256 1.209 87.6 5.10 199.1 282.9 0.703
1200 0.239 1.225 93.1 5.33 222.7 316.9 0.702
1300 0.225 1.243 98.5 5.56 247.7 3513 0.704
1400 0.211 1.261 103.6 5.79 273.4 387.7 0.705
1500 0.200 1.281 109.3 6.10 300.6 427.0 0.704
1600 0.188 1.303 115.3 6.23 330.3 469.4 0.703
1800 0.170 1.362 129.1 6.66 391.3 559.2 0.699
2000 0.155 1.4§5 146.3 7.08 455.5 642.6 0.708
2200 0.141 1.663 171.7 7.51 533.5 732.2 0.728
 APPENDIX 509

Table A.4 Properties of the Upper Atmosphere for Tentative Standard Temperatures
(Based on NACA Rept. 218 and NACA TN 1200)

Altitude Temperature Pressure Density Dynamic Kinematic Speed of Mean free

Z T p x 102 p viscosity viscosity sound path
(m) (K) (bar) (kghn3) µ x 105 v x 105 a A x 104
(kg/ms) (m2/s) (m/s) (m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

0 305.6 100.0 1.225 1.785 1.457 340.2

300 303.6 96.43 1.190 1.775 1.491 339.0
600 301.7 93.04 1.156 1.765 1.526 338.1
1000 300.1 88.66 1.112 1.753 1.576 336.5
1500 295.8 83.40 1.058 1.736 1.640 334.5
2000 292.5 78.41 1.007 1.720 1.708 332.5
2500 289.3 73.66 0.957 1.703 1.779 330.5
3000 286.0 69.13 0.909 1.687 1.855 328.5
3500 282.8 64.88 0.863 1.670 1.935 326.5
4000 279.5 60.76 0.819 1.654 2.019 324.5
5000 273.0 53.29 0.736 1.620 2.201 320.5
6000 266.5 46.54 0.660 1.586 2.403 316.5
7000 260.0 40.49 0.589 1.552 2.635 312.2
8000 253.6 35.10 0.525 1.517 2.889 307.9
9000 247.0 30.32 0.466 1.482 3.180 303.8
10000 240.6 26.05 0.413 1.446 3.501 299.4
11000 235.6 22.31 0.361 1.418 3.928 296.0
12000 235.6 19.08 0.309 1.418 4.589 296.0
13000 235.6 16.32 0.264 1.418 5.371 296.0
14000 235.6 13.95 0.226 1.418 6.274 296.0
15000 235.6 11.92 0.193 1.418 7.347 296.0
16000 235.6 10.19 0.165 1.418 8.594 296.0
17000 235.6 8.719 0.141 1.418 10.056 296.0
18000 235.6 7.451 0.120 1.418 11.865 296.0
19000 235.6 6.372 0.103 1.418 13.767 296.0
20000 235.6 5.503 0.0891 1.418 15.932 296.0 1.008
22000 235.6 4.029 0.0652 1.418 21.748 296.0 1.376
24000 235.6 2.952 0.0478 1.418 29.665 296.0 1.874
26000 235.6 2.223 0.0360 1.418 39.388 296.0 2.631
28000 235.6 1.608 0.0260 1.418 54.538 296.0 3.554
30000 235.6 1.181 0.0191 1.418 78.240 296.0 4.814
35000 260.4 0.605 0.00910 1.552 170.55 312.2 12.04
40000 294.2 0.309 0.00409 1.725 421.76 333.1 26.51
45000 330.8 0.169 0.00195 1.903 975.89 354.7 52.31
50000 360.3 0.099 0.00102 2.042 2001.9 371.4 92.31
55000 367.4 0.0598 0.000604 2.074 3433.7 375.2 147.9
60000 362.6 0.0379 0.000387 2.052 5302.3 372.4 238.9
65000 337.1 0.0233 0.000254 1.948 7669.3 358.2 368.9
70000 306.6 0.0136 0.000163 1.787 10963.2 340.6 587.8
75000 278.3 0.0073 0.000098 1.645 16683.5 323.6 989.0
510 FLUID MEcw►wcs

GAS TABLES

Table A.5 Isentropic Flow

(Perfect gas, k = 1.4)

A
M M*
Po Po To A*

0 0.000 1.0000 1.0000 1.0000

0.02 0.0219 0.9997 0.9998 0.9999 28.94
0.04 0.0438 0.9988 0.9992 0.9996 14.48
0.06 0.0657 0.9974 0.9982 0.9992 9.665
0.08 0.0875 0.9955 0.9968 0.9987 7.261
0.10 0.1094 0.9930 0.9950 0.9980 5.821
0.12 0.1312 0.9899 0.9928 0.9971 4.864
0.14 0.1530 0.9864 0.9902 0.9961 4.182
0.16 0.1748 0.9822 0.9873 0.9949 3.672
0.18 0.1965 0.9770 0.9839 0.9935 3.277
0.20 0.2182 0.9725 0.9802 0.9920 2.963
0.22 0.2398 0.9668 0.9762 0.9904 2.707
0.24 0.2614 0.9607 0.9717 0.9886 2.495
0.26 0.2829 0.9540 0.9669 0.9866 2.317
0.28 0.3043 0.9470 0.9618 0.9845 2.165
0.30 0.3257 0.9394 0.9563 0.9823 2.035
0.32 0.3470 0.9315 0.9505 0.9799 1.921
0.34 0.3682 0.9231 0.9444 0.9774 1.822
0.36 0.3893 0.9143 0.9380 0.9747 1.735
0.38 0.4103 0.9051 0.9312 0.9719 1.658
0.40 0.4313 0.8956 0.9242 0.9689 1.590
0.42 0.4521 0.8857 0.9169 0.9659 1.528
0.44 0.4729 0.8755 0.9094 0.9627 1.474
0.46 0.4935 0.8649 0.9015 0.9594 1.424
0.48 0.5141 0.8541 0.8934 0.9559 1.380
0.50 0.5345 0.8430 0.8851 0.9523 1.339
0.52 0.5548 0.8316 0.8766 0.9486 1.303
0.54 0.6750 0.8200 0.8678 0.9448 1.270
0.56 0.5950 0.8082 0.8589 0.9409 1.240
0.58 0.6150 0.7962 0.8497 0.9369 1.213
0.60 0.6348 0.7840 0.8404 0.9328 1.188
0.62 0.6544 0.7716 0.8309 0.9286 1.165
0.64 0.6740 0.7591 0.8213 0.9242 1.145
0.66 0.6934 0.7465 0.8115 0.9198 1.126
0.68 0.7126 0.7337 0.8016 0.9153 1.109
0.70 0.7317 0.7209 0.7915 0.9107 1.094
0.72 0.7507 0.7080 0.7814 0.9060 1.080
0.74 0.7695 0.6950 0.7711 0.9012 1.068
0.76 0.7882 0.6820 0.7608 0.8964 1.057
0.78 0.8067 0.6690 0.7504 0.8915 1.047
 APPENDIX 511

Table A.5 (cont.)

P P T A
M M*
Po Po To A*

0.80 0.8251 0.6560 0.7400 0.8865 1.038

0.81 0.8342 0.6495 0.7347 0.8840 1.034
0.82 0.8433 0.6430 0.7294 0.8814 1.030
0.83 0.8523 0.6365 0.7241 0.8789 1.026
0.84 0.8614 0.6300 0.7189 0.8763 1.023
0.85 0.4703 0.6235 0.7136 0.8737 1.020
0.86 0.8792 0.6170 0.7083 0.8711 1.017
0.87 0.8881 0.6105 0.7030 0.8685 1.015
0.88 0.8970 0.6041 0.6976 0.8658 1.012
0.89 0.9058 0.5976 0.6923 0.8632 1.010
0.90 0.9146 0.5912 0.6870 0.8605 1.008
0.91 0.9233 0.5848 0.6817 0.8579 1.007
0.92 0.9320 0.5784 0.6763 0.8652 1.005
0.93 0.9406 0.5721 0.6710 0.8525 1.004
0.94 0.9492 0.5657 0.6657 0.8498 1.003
0.95 0.9578 0.5594 0.6604 0.8471 1.002
0.96 0.9663 0.5531 0.6551 0.8443 1.001
0.97 0.9748 0.5469 0.6498 0.8416 1.000
0.98 0.9832 0.5406 0.6445 0.8388 1.000
0.99 0.9916 0.5344 0.6392 0.8361 1.000
1.00 1.000 0.5282 0.6339 0.8333 1.000
1.01 1.008 0.5521 0.6286 0.8305 1.000
1.02 1.016 0.5160 0.6233 0.8277 1.000
1.03 1.024 0.5099 0.6181 0.8249 1.000
1.04 1.033 0.5038 0.6128 0.8221 1.001
1.05 1.041 0.4978 0.6076 0.8193 1.002
1.06 1.049 0.4918 0.6024 0.8165 1.003
1.07 1.057 0.4859 0.5972 0.8136 1.004
1.08 1.065 0.4800 0.5920 0.8108 1.005
1.09 1.073 0.4741 0.5868 0.8080 1.006
1.10 1.081 0.4683 0.5816 0.8051 1.008
1.11 1.089 0.4625 0.5765 0.8023 1.009
1.12 1.097 0.4568 0.5714 0.7994 1.011
1.13 1.104 0.4511 0.5663 0.7965 1.013
1.14 1.112 0.4454 0.5612 0.7937 1.015
1.15 1.120 0.4398 0.5561 0.7908 1.017
1.16 1.128 0.4342 0.5511 0.7879 1.019
1.17 1.135 0.4287 0.5461 0.7850 1.022
1.18 1.143 0.4232 0.5410 0.7821 1.024
1.19 1.150 0.4177 0.5361 0.7792 1.027
512 FLUID MECHANICS

Table A.5 (cons)

A
M Af*
A•
Po Po To

1.20 1.158 0.4123 0.5311 0.7764 1.030

1.22 1.173 0.4017 0.5213 0.7706 1.036
1.24 1.188 0.3912 0.5115 0.7648 1.043
1.26 1.202 0.3809 0.5019 0.7590 1.050
1.28 1.217 0.3708 0.4923 0.7532 1.058
1.30 1.231 0.3609 0.4829 0.7473 1.066
1.32 1.245 0.3511 0.4735 0.7415 1.075
1.34 1.259 0.3416 0.4643 0.7357 1.084
1.36 1.273 0.3323 0.4552 0.7299 1.094
1.38 1.286 0.3231 0.4462 0.7241 1.104
1.40 1.299 0.3142 0.4374 0.7184 1.115
1.42 1.313 0.3054 0.4287 0.7126 1.126
1.44 1.326 0.2969 0.4201 0.7068 1.138
1.46 1.339 0.2885 0.4115 0.7011 1.150
1.48 1.352 0.2803 0.4032 0.6953 1.163
1.50 1.364 0.2724 0.3949 0.6896 1.176
1.52 1.377 0.2646 0.3868 0.6839 1.189
1.54 1.389 0.2570 0.3789 0.6782 1.204
1.56 1.401 0.2495 0.3710 0.6726 1.219
1.58 1.413 0.2423 0.3633 0.6669 1.234
1.60 1.425 0.2352 0.3557 0.6613 1.250
1.62 1.437 0.2284 0.3482 0.6558 1.266
1.64 1.448 0.2216 0.3409 0.6502 1.283
1.66 1.460 0.2151 0.3337 0.6447 1.301
1.68 1.471 0.2088 0.3266 0.6392 1.319
1.70 1.482 0.2026 0.3197 0.6337 1.337
1.72 1.493 0.1965 0.3128 0.6282 1.356
1.74 1.504 0.1907 0.3061 0.6228 1.376
1.76 1.515 0.1849 0.2996 0.6174 1.396
1.78 1325 0.1794 0.2931 0.6121 1.417
1.80 1336 0.1740 0.2868 0.6068 1.439
1.82 1.546 0.1688 0.2806 0.6015 1.461
1.84 1.556 0.1637 0.2745 03962 1.483
1.86 1366 0.1587 0.2685 0.5910 1.507
1.88 1.576 0.1539 0.2627 0.5858 1.530
1.90 1386 0.1492 0.2569 0.5807 1.555
1.92 1395 0.1447 0.2513 0.5756 1380
1.94 1.605 0.1402 0.2458 03705 1.606
1.96 1.614 0.1360 0.2405 03655 1.632
1.98 1.624 0.1318 0.2352 0.5605 1.659
2.00 1.633 0.1278 0.2300 03555 1.687
2.02 1.642 0.1239 0.2249 0.5506 1.716
2.04 1.651 0.1201 0.2200 0.5457 1.745
2.06 1.659 0.1164 0.2152 0.5409 1.775
2.08 1.668 0.1128 0.2104 03361 1.805
 APPENDIX 513

TabkAi (con)
A
M M*
A*
Po Po To
2.10 1.676 0.1093 0.2058 0.5313 1.836
2.12 1.685 0.1059 0.2012 0.5266 1.869
2.14 1.693 0.1027 0.1968 0.5219 1.901
2.16 1.701 0.0995 0.1924 0.5173 1.935
2.18 1.709 0.0965 0.1882 0.5127 1.969
2.20 1.718 0.0935 0.1840 0.5081 2.005
2.22 1.725 0.0906 0.1799 0.5036 2.041
2.24 1.733 0.0878 0.1760 0.4991 2.077
2.26 1.741 0.0851 0.1721 0.4946 2.115
2.28 1.758 0.0825 0.1683 0.4902 2.153
2.30 1.756 0.0799 0.1645 0.4859 2.193
2.32 1.763 0.0775 0.1609 0.4815 2.233
2.34 1.771 0.0751 0.1574 0.4773 2.274
2.36 1.778 0.0728 0.1539 0.4730 2.316
2.38 1.785 0.0705 0.1505 0.4688 2.359
2.40 1.792 0.0684 0.1472 0.4646 2.403
2.42 1.799 0.0663 0.1439 0.4605 2.448
2.44 1.806 0.0642 0.1407 0.4564 2.493
2.46 1.812 0.0623 0.1376 0.4524 2.540
2.48 1.819 0.0603 0.1346 0.4484 2.588
2.50 1.825 0.0585 0.1317 0.4444 2.636
2.52 1.832 0.0567 0.1288 0.4405 2.686
2.54 1.844 0.0550 0.1259 0.4366 2.737
2.56 1.844 0.0533 0.1232 0.4327 2.789
2.58 1.851 0.0517 0.1205 0.4289 2.842
2.60 1.857 0.0501 0.1178 0.4251 2.896
2.62 1.863 0.0486 0.1153 0.4214 2.951
2.64 1.869 0.0471 0.1127 0.4177 3.007
2.66 1.875 0.0456 0.1103 0.4140 3.064
2.68 1.880 0.0443 0.1079 0.4104 3.123
2.70 1.886 0.0429 0.1055 0.4068 3.183
2.72 1.892 0.0416 0.1032 0.4032 3.244
2.74 1.897 0.0404 0.1010 0.3997 3.306
2.76 1.903 0.0391 0.0988 0.3962 3.369
2.78 1.908 0.0380 0.0967 0.3928 3.434
2.80 1.914 0.0368 0.0946 0.3894 3.500
2.82 1.919 0.0357 0.0926 0.3860 3.567
2.84 1.924 0.0346 0.0906 0.3826 3.636
2.86 1.929 0.0336 0.0886 0.3793 3.705
2.88 1.934 0.0326 0.0867 0.3761 3.777
2.90 1.939 0.0316 0.0849 0.3728 3.849
2.92 1.944 0.0307 0.0830 0.3696 3.923
2.94 1.949 0.0298 0.0813 0.3664 3.999
2.96 1.954 0.0289 0.0795 0.3633 4.076
2.98 1.959 0.0280 0.0778 0.3602 4.154
514 FLUID MECHANICS

Table A.5 (cont.)

A
Al M*
Po Po To A*

3.00 1.964 0.0272 0.0762 0.3571 4.234

3.20 2.007 0.0202 0.0616 0.3280 5.121
3.40 2.046 0.0151 0.0501 0.3019 6.183
3.60 2.080 0.0113 0.0409 0.2784 7.450
3.80 2.111 0.0086 0.0335 0.2572 8.950
4.00 2.138 0.0065 0.0276 0.2381 10.71
4.20 2.162 0.0050 0.0229 0.2208 12.79
4.40 2.183 0.0039 0.0190 0.2052 15.21
4.60 2.203 0.0030 0.0159 0.1911 18.01
4.80 2.220 0.0024 0.0134 0.1783 21.86
5.00 2.236 0.0019 0.0113 0.1666 25.00
6.00 2.295 0.0006 0.0052 0.1219 53.18
7.00 2.333 0.0002 0.0026 0.0926 104.1
8.00 2.359 0.0001 0.0014 0.0724 190.1
9.00 2.377 0.00004 0.0008 0.0581 327.1
10.00 2.390 0.00002 0.0005 0.0476 535.9
00 2.4495 0 0 0 00
 APPENDIX 515

Table A.6 Normal Shock

(Perfect gas k = 1.4)

Mx My P" ViVy; Ty1T., ; PoiPx

PiPx PoyiPox
1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.892
1.02 0.9805 1.047 1.033 1.013 0.9999 1.937
1.04 0.9620 1.095 1.067 1.026 0.9999 1.984
1.06 0.9444 1.144 1.101 1.039 0.9997 2.032
1.08 0.9277 1.194 1.135 1.052 0.9994 2.082

1.10 0.9117 1.245 1.169 1.065 0.9989 2.132

1.12 0.8965 1.296 1.203 1.077 0.9982 2.185
1.14 0.8820 1.349 1.237 1.090 0.9972 2.238
1.16 0.8681 1.403 1.272 1.102 0.9960 2.293
1.18 0.8548 1.457 1.307 1.115 0.9945 2.349

1.20 0.8421 1.513 1.341 1.128 0.9928 2.407

1.22 0.8299 1.569 1.376 1.140 0.9907 2.466
1.24 0.8183 1.627 1.411 1.153 0.9883 2.526
1.26 0.8071 1.685 1.446 1.165 0.9856 2.587
1.28 0.7963 1.744 1.480 1.178 0.9826 2.650
1.30 0.7859 1.805 1.515 1.191 0.9793 2.713
1.32 0.7760 1.866 1.550 1.203 0.9757 2.778
1.34 0.7664 1.928 1.585 1.216 0.9718 2.844
1.36 0.7571 1.991 1.620 1.229 0.9675 2.911
1.38 0.7482 2.055 1.655 1.241 0.9630 2.979
1.40 0.7397 2.120 1.689 1.254 0.9581 3.049
1.42 0.7314 2.185 1.724 1.267 0.9530 3.119
1.44 0.7234 2.252 1.759 1.280 0.9476 3.191
1.46 0.7157 2.320 1.793 1.293 0.9419 3.264
1.48 0.7082 2.388 1.827 1.307 0.9360 3.338
1.50 0.7010 2.458 1.862 1.320 0.9297 3.413
1.52 0.6941 2.528 1.896 1.333 0.9233 3.489
1.54 0.6873 2.600 1.930 1.347 0.9166 3.566
1.56 0.6808 2.672 1.964 1.360 0.9097 3.645
1.58 0.6745 2.745 1.998 1.374 0.9025 3.724
1.60 0.6684 2.820 2.031 1.388 0.8952 3.805
1.62 0.6625 2.895 2.065 1.401 0.8876 3.886
1.64 0.6567 2.971 2.098 1.415 0.8799 3.969
1.66 0.6512 3.048 2.131 1.429 0.8720 4.053
1.68 0.6458 3.126 2.165 1.444 0.8639 4.138
1.70 0.6405 3.205 2.197 1.458 0.8557 4.223
1.72 0.6354 3.284 2.230 1.472 0.8473 4.310
1.74 0.6305 3.365 2.263 1.487 0.8388 4.399
1.76 0.6257 3.447 2.295 1.502 0.8302 4.488
1.78 0.6210 3.529 2.327 1.516 0.8215 4.578
516 FLUID MECHANICS

Table A.6 (cont.)

My PIPx VilVy; T,/TX A.:14; Po/Px
PiPx PoyiPox
1.80 0.6165 3.613 2.359 1.531 0.8126 4.669
1.82 0.6121 3.697 2.391 1.54.6 0.8037 4.761
1.84 0.6078 3.783 2.422 1.561 0.7947 4.855
1.86 0.6036 3.869 2.453 1.577 0.7576 4.949
1.88 0.5995 3.956 2.484 1.592 0.7765 5.045
1.90 0.5956 4.045 2.515 1.608 0.7673 5.141
1.92 0.5917 4.134 2.546 1.623 0.7581 5.239
1.94 0.5880 4.224 2376 1.639 0.7488 5.338
1.96 03843 4.315 2.607 1.655 0.7395 5.437
1.98 0.5808 4.407 2.637 1.671 0.7302 5.538
2.00 03773 4.500 2.666 1.687 0.7208 5.640
2.02 0.5739 4.593 2.696 1.703 0.7115 5.743
2.04 0.5706 4.688 2.725 1.720 0.7021 5.847
2.06 03674 4.784 2.754 1.737 0.6928 5.952
2.08 0.5643 4.880 2.783 1.753 0.6835 6.058
2.10 0.5612 4.978 2.812 1.770 0.6742 6.165
2.12 03583 5.076 2.840 1.787 0.6649 6.273
2.14 03553 5.176 2.868 1.804 0.6556 6.382
2.16 03525 5.276 2.896 1.822 0.6464 6.493
2.18 0.5497 5.377 2.923 1.839 0.6372 6.604
2.20 0.5470 5.480 2.951 1.857 0.6281 6.719
2.22 0.5444 5383 2.978 1.874 0.6190 6.829
2.24 0.5418 5.687 3.005 1.892 0.6100 6.944
2.26 03393 5.792 3.032 1.910 0.6010 7.059
2.28 0.5368 5.898 3.058 1.928 0.5921 7.176
2.30 03344 6.005 3.084 1.947 0.5833 7.293
2.32 0.5320 6.112 3.110 1.965 0.5745 7.412
2.34 03297 6.221 3.136 1.983 0.5658 7.532
2.36 03275 6.331 3.161 2.002 0.5571 7.652
2.38 0.5252 6.441 3.187 2.021 0.5486 7.774
2.40 0.5231 6.533 3.212 2.040 0.5401 7.897
2.42 03210 6.665 3.236 2.059 0.5317 8.020
2.44 03189 6.779 3.261 2.078 0.5234 8.145
2.46 0.5169 6.893 3.285 2.098 0.5152 8.271
2.48 0.5149 6.008 3.309 2.117 0.5070 8.398
230 0.5129 7.125 3.333 2.137 0.4990 8.526
2.52 03111 7.242 3.357 1.157 0.4910 8.655
2.54 03092 7.360 3.380 2.177 0.4831 8.785
236 0.5074 7.479 3.403 2.197 0.4754 8.916
238 0.5056 7399 3.426 2.218 0.4677 9.048
2.60 0.5038 7.720 3.449 2.338 0.4601 9.181
2.62 0.5021 7.841 3.471 2.259 0.4526 9.315
2.64 0.5004 7.964 3.493 2.279 0.4452 9.450
2.66 0.4988 8.088 3.515 2.300 0.4379 9.587
2.68 0.4972 8.212 3.537 3.321 0.4307 9.724
 APPENDIX 517

Table A.6 (cont.)

Mx Aly PylPx TyIT, PoylPx

NPR PolPax

2.70 0.4956 8.338 3.559 2.343 0.4236 8.862

2.72 0.4940 8.464 3.580 2.364 0.4165 10.00
2.74 0.4925 8.592 3.601 2.385 0.4096 10.14
2.76 0.4910 8.720 3.622 2.407 0.4028 10.28
2.78 0.4896 8.849 3.643 2.429 0.3961 10.42
2.80 0.4881 8.980 3.663 2.451 0.3894 10.57
2.82 0.4867 9.111 3.683 2.473 0.3829 10.71
2.84 0.4853 9.243 3.704 2.495 0.3765 10.86
2.86 0.4840 9.376 3.723 2.518 0.3701 11.00
2.88 0.4826 9.510 3.743 2.540 0.3639 11.15
2.90 0.4813 9.645 3.763 2.563 0.3577 11.30
2.92 0.4801 9.780 3.782 2.586 0.3516 11.45
2.94 0.4788 9.917 3.801 .2.609 0.3457 11.60
2.96 0.4776 10.05 3.820 2.632 0.3398 11.75
2.98 0.4763 10.19 3.838 2.655 0.3340 11.90
3.00 0.4752 10.33 3.857 2.679 0.3283 12.06
3.50 0.4511 14.12 4.260 3.315 0.2129 16.24
4.00 0.4349 18.50 4.571 4.047 0.1387 21.06
4.50 0.4235 23.45 4.812 4.875 0.0917 26.54
5.00 0.4152 29.00 5.000 5.800 0.0617 32.65
6.00 0.4041 41.83 5.268 7.94 0.0296 46.81
7.00 0.3973 57.00 5.444 10.47 0.0153 63.55
8.00 0.3939 74.50 5.565 13.38 0.0085 82.86
9.00 0.3898 94.3 5.651 16.69 0.3049 104.7
10.00 0.3875 116.53 5.714 20.38 0.0030 129.2
co 0.3779 00 6.000 co 0 co
518 FLUID MECHANICS

Table A.7 Fanno Line

(Perfect gas, k = 1.4)

M TIP PAP* Poi P: WV*; 42,

p*/p

0.00 1.200 co cc 0.000

0.05 1.199 21.90 11.59 0.547 28.00
0.10 1.197 10.94 5.821 0.1094 66.92
0.15 1.194 7.286 3.910 0.1639 27.93
0.20 1.190 5.455 2.963 0.2182 1433
0.25 1.185 4.354 2.402 0.2721 8.483
0.30 1.178 3.619 2.035 0.3257 5.299
0.35 1.171 3.092 1.778 0.3788 3.452
0.40 1.162 2.695 1.590 0.4313 2.308
0.45 1.153 2.386 1.448 0.4832 1.566
0.50 1.142 2.138 1.339 0.5345 1.069
0.55 1.131 1.934 1.254 0.5850 0.7280
0.60 1.119 1.763 1.188 0.6348 0.4908
0.65 1.106 1.618 1.135 0.6837 0.3246
0.70 1.092 1.493 1.094 0.7317 0.2081
0.75 1.078 1.384 1.062 0.7789 0.1272
0.80 1.063 1.289 1.038 0.8251 0.0722
0.85 1.048 1.204 1.020 0.8703 0.0363
0.90 1.032 1.129 1.008 0.9145 0.0145
0.95 1.016 1.061 1.002 0.9578 0.0032
1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 0
1.05 0.9832 0.9443 1.002 1.041 0.0027
1.10 0.9661 0.8935 1.007 1.081 0.0099
1.15 0.9489 0.8471 1.017 1.120 0.0205
1.20 0.9316 0.8043 1.030 1.158 0.0336
1.25 0.9142 0.7649 1.046 1.195 0.0485
1.30 0.8968 0.7284 L066 1.231 0.0648
1.35 0.8794 0.6946 1.089 1.266 0.0819
1.40 0.8620 0.6632 1.114 1.299 0.0997
1.45 0.8447 0.6338 1.144 1.332 0.1178
1.50 0.8275 0.6064 1.176 1.364 0.1360
135 0.8105 0.5808 1.211 1.395 0.1542
1.60 0.7936 0.5567 1.250 1.425 0.1723
1.65 0.7769 0.5342 1.292 1.454 0.1902
1.70 0.7604 0.5129 1.337 1.482 0.2078
1.75 0.7441 0.4929 1.386 1.509 0.2250
1.80 0.7281 0.4740 1.439 1.536 0.2418
1.85 0.7123 0.4562 1.495 1.561 0.2583
1.90 0.6968 0.4393 1.555 1.586 0.2743
1.95 0.6816 0.4233 1.619 1.609 0.2898
 APPENDIX 519

Table A.7 (cont.)

M TIT* p/p* pap: V/V*;

p*/p LmulD
2.00 0.666 0.4082 1.687 1.633 0.3049
2.05 0.6520 0.3938 1.760 1.655 0.3196
2.10 0.6376 0.3802 1.836 1.676 0.3338
2.15 0.6235 0.3672 1.918 1.697 0.3476
2.20 0.6097 0.3549 2.005 1,717 0.3609
2.25 0.5962 0.3431 2.096 1.737 0.3737
2.30 0.5830 0.3320 2.163 1.756 0.3862
2.35 0.5702 0.3213 2.295 1.774 0.3982
2.40 0.5576 0.3111 2.403 1.792 0.4098
2.45 0.5453 0.3014 2.516 1.809 0.4211
2.50 0.5333 0.2921 2.636 1.825 0.4319
2.55 0.5216 0.2832 2.763 1.841 0.4424
2.60 0.5102 0.2747 2.896 1.857 0.4525
2.65 0.4990 2.2665 3.035 1.872 0.4623
2.70 0.4882 0.2587 3.183 1.886 0.4718
2.75 0.4776 0.2513 3.337 1.900 0.4809
2.80 0.4672 0.2441 3.500 1.914 0.4897
2.85 0.4572 0.2372 3.670 1.927 0.4982
2.90 0.4474 0.2306 3.849 1.939 0.5065
2.95 0.4378 0.2243 4.037 1.952 0.5144
3.00 0.4285 0.2182 4.234 1.964 0.5221
3.50 0.3478 0.1685 6.780 2.064 0.5864
4.00 0.2857 0.1336 10.71 2.138 0.6330
4.50 0.2357 0.1083 16.50 2.193 0.6676
5.00 0.2000 0.0894 25.00 2.236 0.6938
6.00 0.1463 0.0637 53.18 2.295 0.7298
7.00 0.1111 0.0470 104.1 2.333 0.7528
8.00 0.0869 0.0368 190.11 2.359 0.7682
9.00 0.0697 0.0293 327.19 2.377 0.7789
10.00 0.0571 0.0239 535.94 2.390 0.7868
0 0 2.449 0.8215
520 FLUID MECHANICS

Table A.8 Rayleigh Line

(Perfect gas, k = 1.4)

M To/T0 TIT* p/p* Po112: 1:00;

VIV*
0.00 0.000 0.000 2.400 1.267 0.000
0.05 0.0119 0.0143 2.391 1.265 0.0059
0.10 0.0467 0.0560 2.366 1.259 0.0236
0.15 0.1019 0.1218 2.326 1.248 0.0523
0.20 0.1735 0.2066 2.272 1.234 0.0909
0.25 0.2568 0.3344 2.206 1.217 0.1379
0.30 0.3468 0.4088 2.131 1.198 0.1918
0.35 0.4389 0.5141 2.048 1.177 0.2509
0.40 0.5290 0.6151 1.960 1.156 0.3137
0.45 0.6139 0.7080 1.869 1.135 0.3786
0.50 0.6913 0.7901 1.777 1.114 0.4444
0.55 0.7599 0.8598 1.680 1.093 0.5100
0.60 0.8189 0.9167 1.595 1.075 0.5744
0.65 0.8683 0.9608 1.508 1.058 0.6371
0.70 0.9085 0.9928 1.423 1.043 0.6975
0.75 0.9400 1.014 1.342 1.030 0.7555
0.80 0.9639 1.025 1.265 1.019 0.8101
0.85 0.9809 1.028 1.193 1.010 0.8620
0.90 0.9920 1.024 1.124 1.004 0.9109
0.95 0.9981 1.014 1.060 1.001 0.9569
1.00 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000
1.05 0.9983 0.9816 0.9435 1.001 1.040
1.10 0.9939 0.9603 0.8908 1.004 1.077
1.15 0.9872 0.9368 0.8416 1.010 1.133
1.20 0.9787 0.9118 0.7957 1.019 1.145
1.25 0.9688 0.8858 0.7529 1.030 1.176
1.30 0.9579 0.8591 0.7310 1.043 1.205
1.35 0.9463 0.8322 0.6757 1.059 1.231
1.40 0.9342 0.8054 0.6410 1.077 1.256
1.45 0.9218 0.7787 0.6086 1.098 1.279
1.50 0.9092 0.7525 0.5783 1.121 1.301
1.55 0.8966 0.7268 03500 1.147 1.321
1.60 0.8841 0.7017 0.5235 1.175 1.340
1.65 0.8718 0.6773 0.4988 1.206 1.358
1.70 0.9597 0.6537 0.4756 1.240 1.374
1.75 0.8478 0.6399 0.4539 1.276 1.390
1.80 0.8362 0.6089 0.4335 1.315 1.404
1.85 0.8250 0.5877 0.4144 1.358 1.418
1.90 0.8141 03673 0.3964 1.403 1.431
1.95 0.8035 03477 0.3795 1.451 1.443
 ANNE 21
Table A.8 (cont.)

M TolTo* TIP p'p PolPo* P*IP;

2.00 0.7933 0.5289 0.3636 1.503 1.454

2.05 0.7835 0.5108 0.3486 1.557 1.465
2.10 0.7740 0.4935 0.3345 1.616 1.475
2.15 0.7649 0.4769 0.3212 1.679 1.484
2.20 0.7561 0.4610 0.3086 1.743 1.493
2.25 0.7476 0.4458 0.2967 1.812 1.502
2.30 0.7395 0.4312 0.2855 1.880 1.510
2.35 0.7317 0.4172 0.2748 1.963 1.518
2.40 0.7242 0.4038 0.2647 2.045 1325
2.45 0.7170 0.3910 0.2552 2.131 1332
2.50 0.7100 0.3787 0.2461 2.221 1.538
2.55 0.7034 0.3669 0.2375 2.317 1.544
2.60 0.6969 0.3556 0.2293 2.417 1.550
2.65 0.6908 0.3447 0.2215 3.523 1.556
2.70 0.6849 0.3343 0.2141 2.634 1.561
2.75 0.6792 0.3244 0.2071 2.750 1.566
2.80 0.6738 0.3148 0.2004 2.873 1371
2.85 0.6685 0.3050 0.1939 3.001 1.575
2.90 0.6635 0.2968 0.1878 3.135 1.580
2.95 0.6586 0.2884 0.1820 3.276 1.584
3.00 0.6539 0.2802 0.1764 3.424 1388
3.50 0.6158 0.2141 0.1322 5.328 1.619
4.00 0.5890 0.1683 0.1025 8.226 1.641
4.50 03698 0.1354 0.0817 1230 1.655
5.00 03555 0.1111 0.0666 18.63 1.666
6.00 0.5363 0.0784 0.0466 38.94 1.680
7.00 0.5243 0.0582 0.0344 75.41 1.689
8.00 0.5164 0.0449 0.0264 136.6 1.695
9.00 0.5109 0.0356 0.0209 233.8 1.699
10.00 0.5070 0.0289 0.0170 381.62 1.702
0.4898 0 0 1.714
Suggested Further Reading

DOUGLAS, J.F., GASIOREK, J.M. AND SwAFFIRD, J.A. Fluid Mechanics, Pitman, London,
1979.
Lawn-r, E.H. Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, ELBS and Pitman, London, 1963.
OSBORNE, W.C. Fans, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1966.
RAMSEY, A.S. Hydrostatics, Cambridge University Press, London, 1947.
SCHLICHTING, H. Boundary Layer Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1979.
SHAMES, I.H. Mechanics of Fluids, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1962.
&UMW, A.H. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow,
Vol. I, Ronald Press, New York, 1953.
Index

Acceleration Body force, 2

convective, 67 centrifugal, 56
fluid element, 66 gravitational, 23, 56
gravitational, 9 Boundary layer
local, 67 blowing, 281
total, 67 control, 281
Acoustic equation, 260
speed, 7, 314, 473 flat plate, 266
wave, 311 laminar, 260
Aeolian tones, 279 pressure gradient, 256
Aerofoil, 280 separation, 276
angle of attack, 280 suction, 281
shape, 280 thickness, 256, 268
theory, 407 turbulent, 295
Air screw, 103 Buckingham ic theorem, 200
Anemometer Bulk modulus, 6, 11, 313
Hot-wire, 500 ideal gas, 6
Laser Doppler, 502 water, 10, 313, 472
Vane, 492 Buoyancy, 45
Angular centre of pressure, 46
momentum, 110 force, 45
velocity, 78
Atmospheric
effect on control-volume, 90
pressure, 27 Camber, 280
temperature lapse, 27 Cavitation, 7, 388, 410, 418
Thoma's parameter, 411, 418
Centre of pressure, 36
Characteristic
Bernoulli's equation fan, 427, 434
along a stream line, 115 impedance, 476
irrotational flow, 116 Mach number, 324
modified, 130 method, 482
thermodynamic view point, 118 Chezy's formula, 456
Blade Choking
action, 94, 387 Fanno flow, 338
angle, 422 isentropic flow, 328
camber, 280 isothermal flow, 350
chord, 280 nozzles, 328, 499
efficiency, 401 Rayleigh flow, 345
shape, 280 Chord line, 280
speed ratio, 401 Circulation, 217, 239, 242
twist, 407 Coefficient of
Blasius contraction, 142
friction factor, 299 discharge, 142
Bluff bodies, 278 kinetic energy, 409
525
526 INDEX

reflection, 477, 487 Entrance

transmission, 487 length, 284
velocity, 142 region, 282
Colebrook formula, 307 Entropy, 16
Compressible Entry losses, 132
flow, 7 Equilibrium
fluid, 6 floating bodies, 48
Compressibility, 473 Equipotential lines, 56
limit, 7, 315 Euler
Conservative field, 219 derivative, 66
Continuum, 1 energy equation, 389
Control-volume, 87 equation of motion, 78
inertial, 86, 90 head, 389
non-inertial, 87, 96, 103 number, 202
Corresponding speed, 206
Couette flow, 157
Creeping flow, 253, 278
Fan
Critical Reynolds number, 288
coefficients, 423, 428
Curl of a vector, 78
efficiency, 425
laws, 380
Darcy's law, 193 operating point, 427
Diffuser, 95 specific speed, 428
Dimensions, 8, 201 Fanno line, 336, 361
Dimensionless numbers, 200 Field
Displacement thickness, 271 acceleration, 67
Divergence of a vector, 70 velocity, 65
Doublet, 227 Filled zone, 284
Draft tube, 404 Flow
Drag, 98, 239 compressible, 6, 311
form, 130, 239, 277 creeping, 253
pressure, 239, 277 fully developed, 160
skin friction, 132, 269 ideal, 216
total, 278 incompressible, 6
Dynamic similarity, 206 irrotational, 77
laminar, 164
net, 221
Eddies, 277 one-dimensional, 81, 156, 320
Eddy viscosity, 295 parallel, 157, 252, 264, 289
Boussinesq, 295 potential, 175
Efficiency rapid, 446
blading, 401 rotational, 77, 216
hydraulic, 394, 408, 420 separation, 139, 160
manometric, 420 shooting, 446
mechanical, 393 streaming, 446
overall, 394 tranquil, 446
pump, 384 turbulent, 164
static, 426 two-dimensional, 216, 246
total, 426 work, 16
turbine, 384 Flow network, 176
volumetric, 394, 438 node, 180
Energy equation, 116 potential, 176
Enthalpy resistance, 176
stagnation, 321 Fluid
static, 321 continuum, 1
total, 321 definition, 3
 INDEX 527

element, 2 Impeller, 379, 385

ideal, 4 Impulse function, 322
newtonian, 4 Incidence angle, 280
non-newtonian, 4 Inlet zone, 284
real, 4 Instability, 289
Flutter, 279 lrrotational flow, 77, 216
Force Isentropic
body, 2 flow, 320
surface, 2 process, 18, 313
Forced vortex, 56 Isothermal
Free surface, 24 flow, 348
Free vortex, 77 process, 6
Friction factor
annulus, 172
circular pipe, 164 Jet
Darcy-Weisbach, 163, 474 propulsion, 98
Fanning's, 163 thrust, 98
laminar, 163
Moody's chart, 165
turbulent, 164
Froude number, 204, 445 Kinematic similarity, 207
Knocking, 465
Kutta-Jukowski law, 242
Gas constant
characteristic, 17
universal, 17 Lagrangian description. 69
Geometric similarity, 206 Laminar
Gradient of a scalar, 217 boundary layer, 260
flow, 164
friction factor, 163
sub-layer, 298
Haggen-Poiseuelle flow, 162 Laplace equation, 220
Half-body, 233 Laser Doppler anemometer, 502
Hardy Cross method, 190 Lift, 99, 239, 277, 280
Head Logarithmic velocity profile, 306
Euler, 389 Losses
pressure, 119 bends, 132
total, 119 entrance, 132
velocity, 119 sudden contraction, 131
Homologous series, 382 sudden expansion, 130
Hot-wire anemometer, 500
Hunting, 436
Hydraulic
diameter, 163, 207 Mach
efficiency, 394, 408, 420 angle, 316
characteristic, 324
jump, 448
mean depth, 458 cone, 316
Hydrostatic force on number, 6, 214, 314, 490, 499
curved surface, 43 Manning's coefficient, 457
plane surface, 35 Manometer, 27
differential, 29
inclined, 31
inverted, 29
Ideal U-tube, 29
fluid, 4 Meta centre, 48, 60
gas, 15 Meta centric height, 48
528 INDEX

Meter Prandtl
current, 493 boundary layer, 255
nozzle, 498 mixing length, 296
orifice, 495 Prandtl-Mayer expansion, 373
rota, 500 Pressure
turbine, 494 absolute, 24
vane, 492 at a point, 5, 22
venturi, 494 atmospheric, 26
Mixing length, 297 choking, 329, 499
Model testing, 205 coefficient, 238
Modulus drag, 277
bulk, 6, 11, 313, 472 gauge, 25
elastic, 247, 473 gradient, 158, 276
rigidity, 247 head, 25
Momentum thickness, 273, 303 hydrodynamic, 120, 251
Moody's chart, 165 hydrostatic, 24, 120
Mouth piece, 145 stagnation, 318
static, 121, 318, 489
thermodynamic, 23, 248
total, 121, 137, 318, 490
Navier-Stokes equation, 251 vapour, 7, 28, 410, 416, 438
Newtonian fluid, 4 Priming, 415
Newton's law of shear stress, 4 Propeller, 101
Nikuradse, 295 turbine, 407
Normal stress, 247 Propulsion
Notches, 145 efficiency, 99
Nozzle, 93 power, 99
choking, 328 Pump, 93
converging, 329 centrifugal, 391, 415
converging-diverging, 326 impeller, 385
efficiency, 333 multistage, 416
impulse turbine, 400 reciprocating, 436
maximum discharge, 328, 500 specific speed, 383
meter, 498 volute casing, 415
NPSH, 411, 418

Rankine body, 233

Rankine-Hugoniot relation, 362
Order of magnitude, 255 Rayleigh line, 343, 361
Orifice, 142 Reaction
meter, 495 degree, 390, 432
Reaction degree, 390
Relative roughness, 164
Reynolds number, 163
Pascal's law, 23 critical, 288
Penstock, 404 Rocket propulsion, 106
Permeability, 193 Rotation, 77
Piezometer, 29, 489 Rotational flow, 77, 216
Pitot tube, 134, 490 Rotodynamic machines, 378
Porosity, 193 classifications, 379
Porous medium, 192 efficiencies, 394
Potential flow, 223 Euler head, 389
Potential function, 217 specific speed, 383
Power law type number, 383
fluid, 20 Run-away speed, 402
velocity profile, 299 Runner, 379
 INDEX 529

Scroll eiv. 404 Neon IN. 4

Secondary flow, 392 normal, 4, 246
Separation, 139, 160, 276 Reynolds, 294
Shear shear, 4, 248
modulus, 4 Strouhal number, 279
stress, 4 Sublayer, 298
velocity, 298 Substantive derivative, 66
Shock Suction
angle, 369 boundary layer, 281
moving, 367 limits, 416
normal, 357 Superposition, 232
oblique, 369 Surface tension, 6, 28, 205
strength, 363 Surge, 428, 435
waves, 312 tank, 439, 468
Similarity Synchronous speed, 398
dynamic, 206
geometric, 206
kinematic, 207
Sink, 224
Siphon, 179 Tail
Skin friction, 130, 269, 303 race, 404
Slip, 392 water level, 398
Slip-stream, 102 Temperature
Sonic velocity, 308 lapse rate, 26
Source, 224 saturation, 6
Specific STP, 9
energy, 443 Terminal velocity, 254
heads, 444 Thermodynamic
speed, 383, 428 first law, 14, 320, 389
Specific heat pressure, 23, 248
constant pressure, 18 properties, 13
constant volume, 18 second law, 16, 320
ratio, 18 system, 12
Speed ratio Thickness
Francis turbine, 405 boundary layer, 256, 269
Pelton wheel, 401 displacement, 272
Stagnation momentum, 273
point, 234, 280 Thrust, 98
pressure, 322 Time period, 471
temperature, 322 Transient, 465
Stall, 281, 434 Transition, 207, 288
Streak line, 75 Turbines, 93
Stream Francis, 379
function, 74, 219 impulse, 379
line, 73 Kaplan, 379
lined body, 280 Pelton wheel, 379
surface, 76 reaction, 379
tube, 73 specific speed, 383, 428
Strength of type number, 383
hydraulic jump, 451 Turbulent flow, 164
shock, 363 fluctuating components, 289, 502
sink, 225 intensity, 291
source, 225 isotropy, 291
vortex, 232 Reynolds stress, 294
Stress transition, 288
hoop, 473 type number, 382
530 INDEX

Universal eddy, 295

gas constant, 17 kinematic, 4
law of friction, 307 Volute casing, 415
velocity profile, 307 Vortex, 79
U-tube manometer, 29 forced, 128, 217, 232, 415
free, 123, 217, 232
strength, 232
Valve, 132, 466 Vorticity, 77, 218
Vanes, 93
Velocity
defect, 306 Water hammer, 465
field, 65 Wave
friction, 298 equations, 474
potential, 217 front velocity, 311
power law, 299 reflections, 476
terminal, 254 Wind mill, 103
universal law, 307
whirl component, 388
Vena contracta, 132, 496 Yaw, 492
Ventilation network, 188
Venturi
flumes, 453 Zone
meter, 135, 494 action, 317
Viscosity silence, 317
dynamic, 4 transition, 288
.
 FLUID MECHANICS
Second Edition

by
A.K. MOHANTY

In this new edition of Fluid Mechanics, which is a revised and substantially expanded
version of the first edition, several new topics like open channel flow, hydraulic turbines,
hydraulic transients, flow measurements and pumps and fans have been added. The
chapter on one-dimensional viscous flow has been expanded. With the addition of five
new chapters, the treatment is now more indepth and comprehensive.
The book begins with an introduction and goes on to give a thorough analysis of such
topics as fluid statics, fluid kinematics, analysis of finite control volumes and the
mechanical energy equation. It also provides a comprehensive description of, among
others, one-dimensional viscous flow, dimensional analysis, two-dimensional flow of
ideal fluids, and normal and oblique shocks. Each chapter ends with a Summary and
Exercises, which enable the student to recapture the topics discussed and drill him in
the theory. Finally, the worked-out examples—with solutions to most of
them should be of considerable assistance to the reader in comprehending the
problems discussed.
The book is a happy fusion of theory and applications and should prove to be an
ideal text for the undergraduate student and as a ready reference for the first-level
postgraduate student.

Dr. A.K. Mohanty (MSME, Ph.D., Purdue University) is Professor, Department of

Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur. A Fellow of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, Professor Mohanty is a recipient of several awards
and recognitions for his research in Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer. He is also a
consultant to several industries and government agencies.

ISBN 81 - 203 - 0894 - 8

Rs. 250.00

Prentice-Hall of India
New Delhi
www.phindia.com 9 788120 308947